THE 
 
 HISTORIC NOTE-BOOK:. 
 
 WITH AN 
 
 APPENDIX OF BATTLES 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. E. COBHAM BREWER, LL.D.. 
 
 V, 
 AUTHOR OP " THE DICTIONARY OF PHRASE AND FABLE," " THE READER'S 
 HANDBOOK," "DICTIONARY OF MIRACLES/' ETC. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 
 ]891. 
 

 
u ys- 
 
 </ o 
 
 TO THE 
 
 RIGHT HON. THE COUNTESS MANVERS 
 
 WHOM TO KNOW 
 
 (to use the words of sir RICHARD STEELE) 
 
 ' IS A LIBERAL EDUCATION ' 
 
 C!)fii« *?^i)Staric ^atcii' arc iutti) pcrmtiSiSion ©rtriratclr 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR 
 
PEEFAOE 
 
 This volume, entitled ' The Historic Note-Book,' is the third and last of 
 a series. The first was the ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,' the object 
 of which was to explain the meaning of words and expressions in which 
 an allusion is made to some fable, custom, or character, more or less 
 familiarly known. 
 
 The • Eeader's Handbook,' the second of the series, undertook to 
 unfold in a few lines the tale of the best known epic poems of ancient and 
 modem times, the plots of novels and plays, ballads and romances, and 
 to give short biographical sketches of their respective authors. 
 
 The present book does for history what the first of the series did 
 for phraseology, and the latter did for poetry and romance. It is purely 
 historical, and explains with the utmost possible brevity allusions to 
 historical events, acts of parliament, treaties, and customs, terms and 
 phrases, made in books, speeches, and familiar conversation. 
 
 Probably no one could turn over a couple of pages of this book and 
 not find some item which he would be at a loss to explain or to find in 
 any book near at hand. It may be hidden in some comer of history, 
 some modem or ancient encyclopaedia, some law dictionary, periodical, or 
 book of antiquities ; but, being neither tabulated nor inserted in the index, 
 would be as hard to light upon as the traditional grain of wheat in a 
 bushel of chaff. It might require hours, perhaps days, of research to hunt 
 out, and the handling of many books. This is the sort of lore here set 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 do\\Ti. Some items have been kept bj the author in the form of queries 
 for many yeiirs waiting for sohition, and those solutions have been ulti- 
 mately found in most unexpected pla-ces. 
 
 I have been an author for sixty years, have WTitt^n many books, 
 and of course have been a very miscellaneous reader. In my long expe- 
 rience I have remarked how little the range of * literary ' reading has 
 varied, and how doubt still centres on matters which were cruces in my 
 eArly years. So that a work of this kind is of as much usefulness in 
 1891 as it would have been in 1830. I always read with a slip of paper 
 and a pencil at my side, to jot down whatever I think may be usefiil 
 to me, and these jottings I keep sorted in different lockers. This has 
 been a life -habit with me, and tbe compiling of them into a subjec- 
 tive volume consists chiefly in selecting, sorting, explaming, correcting, 
 and bringing down to date. What I myself have wanted to know, I 
 presume others younger than I am may wish to know also ; and what I 
 have found difficult to discover, I presume others with fewer books may 
 find difficult also. I know that many a time and oft I should have been 
 most thankful if I could have laid my hand on a book, and found, without 
 much tedious research, the explanation of some item in this book at the 
 time unknown to me ; and I judge others by myself. This very unromantic 
 way of looking at a big book has been the secret of my success as an 
 author. It was begun at the age of eighteen, and my first book of note 
 was the * Guide to Science,' the sale of which has been almost fabulous. 
 The ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable ' was more than twenty years in 
 hand, and has had a very wide circulation ; the present book cannot foil 
 to be equally useful, and I hope will not be less acceptable to the 
 general. 
 
 In these 'Historic Notes' I have had the advantage of two press- 
 rea,ders of unusual learning, judgment, and wide reading — one in London 
 and one in Philadelphia. With a diligence and discrimination beyond all 
 praise, they have called attention to every doubtful statement, date, or 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 proper name, and much of the accuracy of the book is undoubtedly due 
 to their painstaking co-operation. For myself I am under unbounded 
 obligation to them, and hope they will accept my thanks thus publicly 
 acknowledged and without stint. 
 
 Little more need be said. The arrangement is somewhat different to 
 that usually followed in Historical Dictionaries. The items are not set 
 under the ruling word, but generally under the first noun or adjective of the 
 phrase. Thus under ' Massacre ' will be found all articles of that category, 
 massed together, and not distributed under the name of the place where 
 the deed of blood was committed. This has been done to bring the 
 subject together in a compact form. Similarly with Church Councils, 
 Literary Forgeries, and so on. When this allocation has been found 
 impracticable, as in ' Irish Associations,' ' Monastic Orders,' ' Sunday 
 Fete Days,' and so on, then under the general heading will be found an 
 alphabetical list of all the articles in the book on the subject, which may 
 be turned to if required. 
 
 Some antiquated customs have been pointed out, and a suggestion has 
 been occasionally made which may possibly direct attention to what 
 appears to the author of these ' Notes ' a national want or national defect. 
 See p. 697, article Poets' Corner, and p. 115, article Borromeo. 
 
 In one instance, that of 'Abigail,' in which a word has an ancient 
 and modern history, the recent revival of the word in the reign of 
 Queen Anne has been thought more consistent with the scope of this 
 book than the well-known tale in the life of David. Those, however, who 
 prefer the older story may, if they think proper, consult the ' Dictionary 
 of Phrase and Fable.* 
 
 Finally the book here offered to the public is not a ' Book of Dates,' 
 though dates have been added whenever required. Inventions and 
 Discoveries, the great staple of a book of dates, find no place here ; and 
 hundreds of the articles here inserted are wholly independent of dates. 
 
PEEFACB 
 
 Similarly, the book is not an ' Historic Dictionary,' but a dictionary of 
 historic terms and phrases, jottings of odds and ends of history, which 
 historians leave in the cold or only incidentally mention in the course 
 of their narratives. If I might borrow the motto of ' Notes and Queries,' 
 'When found make a note of,' it would most aptly describe the end and 
 object of these ' Historic Notes.* 
 
 THE AUTHOR 
 
 If I might make the suggestion without being impertinent, I think the book would 
 be admirably adapted to the upper forms of Ladies' Schools, and to those in private 
 life who seek to extend their general knowledge, after having laid aside their ele- 
 mentary books. Of course, these Historic Notes are mainly designed and were 
 specially written for the general public, and this, their educational use, is a mere 
 aft ?rthought. 
 
HISTOEIC NOTE-BOOK 
 
 ABBOTT 
 
 A ]]!tre marqtis d I 'A, of first-class 
 quality. A is the distinctive mark of 
 money minted in Paris, which is purer 
 and more free from alloy than any other 
 money in the French dominions. For 
 A 1 see Diet, of Fhrase and Fable, p. 1. 
 
 Aarau {Peace of), 3, 9, 11 Aug., 1712. 
 This treaty concluded the war of Toggen- 
 burg. 
 
 Aaron's Breastplate, 4 rows. 
 
 1. Reuben, snjrffus; Simeon, topaz ; Ijevi, carbuvcle. 
 
 2. Judah, ("TJi.ia^rf; Daun, jacinth; Naphtali, rt<;'ffe. 
 
 3. Gad, amethyst ; Asher, hcryl ; Issachar, sapphire. 
 
 4. Zcbulon, diamond; Joseph, onyx; Benjamin, 
 
 jaspar. 
 
 Abbasides (3 syl.). Califs of Bagdad, 
 so called from Abul Abbas (Abdallah ben 
 Mohammed), who defeated Mervan II., and 
 became calif, 18 Feb., a.d. 750 ; ceased 
 1258, by the overthrow of Mostasem,put to 
 death by Hulakou or Hulagu, a Mogul 
 prince. The Abbasides succeeded the 
 Ommai'ades. 
 
 The Abbaside califs were, Aboul-Abbas (750); 
 Abou Giafar Almanzor (754) ; Mohammed Mahdi 
 (77-5); Hadi (785) ; Haroun al Raschid (7H6) ; Amyn 
 (80"J) ; Al Mamoun (813), and 30 more. 
 
 Abbate (2 syl.). A young Italian 
 clergyman who has received the tonsure, 
 but has not taken full orders. 
 
 Abbates Milites, or Abba-comites. 
 10th cent. Lay abbots, who deputed deans 
 or priors to the spiritual oversight of 
 their abbeys. 
 
 Pronounce Ab'-a-teez Mil'-i-teez. 
 
 Abbaye de Monte h Regret. 
 
 The guillotine. What is now the Bue des 
 
 Bourses, in Paris, was formerly the Monte 
 
 d, Eegret, the place for public executions. 
 
 Pronounce Ab-bay-d' Mont ah Ra-gra'. 
 
 Abbds Commendataires. The 
 
 *225 abbots appointed by the king of 
 France, The office was a perfect sinecure, 
 but the abbe commendateire drew one- 
 third of the revenues of his convent. 
 Many of these abbots were laymen, but 
 generally they were literary men, often 
 noblemen's sons included under laymen. 
 Pronounce Ab-bay Com-men-da-tareB. 
 Abbey. In Scotland, a sanctuary for 
 debtors against legal process afforded by 
 the abbey of Holyrood. 
 
 Abbots in commendam. Abbots 
 commended to hold an abbey and its dig- 
 nity in charge till a regular abbot has been 
 appointed. In the Eeformation several 
 abbots and other ecclesiastics were allow- 
 ed to enjoy their livings for life, or for a 
 time. By 6, 7 Will. IV. c. 77, s. 18, no 
 ecclesiastical dignity, office, or benefice, 
 after the living possessors, was allowed to 
 be held in cot7imenda?7i. 
 
 Abbeys and other Catholic livings held in com- 
 mendam were mere sinecures for life. 
 
 Abbot sford Club (The). A literary 
 club founded in Edinburgh (1835) for the 
 publication of works belonging to Scotch 
 history, literature, and antiquities. Above 
 30 quarto volumes were published. The 
 club no longer exists. 
 
 Abbott Scholarships. I. In the 
 
 University of Cambridge: two for classics 
 and mathematics, for undergraduates in 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 ABDICATED 
 
 ABIGAIL 
 
 their first year. Value about 60 Z. a year, 
 tenable for three years ; founded by John 
 Abbott of Halifax, Yorkshire, 1871. 
 
 II. In the University of Oxford : three 
 for the sons of poor clergymen ; founded 
 the same year by the same founder. 
 
 Abdicated Monarehs. The follow- 
 ing monarchs of Europe have abdicated : 
 
 Amadeus I. (duke of Aosta) Spain 1873 
 
 Charles IV. of Spain aorcedl ... „. ... 1808 
 
 Charles V. of Spain and Germany .„ ... 155G 
 
 Charles X. of France (forced) ... 1830 
 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced) ... ... 1849 
 
 Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia ... m. ... 1802 
 
 Christina of Sweden 1654 
 
 Diocletian and Maximian 80S, .308 
 
 Felipe V. of Spain 1724 
 
 Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced) ... 1860 
 
 James II. of England (forced) 1(389 
 
 Louis Bonaparte of Holland 1810 
 
 Louis Philippe of France (forced) 1848 
 
 Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) 1848 
 
 Matilda (Lady of England) „. 1154 
 
 Milan of Servia ; ... ... 1889 
 
 Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 
 
 Napoleon III. of France (forced) 1870 
 
 Otho of Greece (forced) 18(;3 
 
 Pedro II. of Brazil (forced) 1889 
 
 Poniatowski of Poland (forced) 1795 
 
 Richard II. of England (forced) 1399 
 
 Stanislaus Leszczinski (forced; 1735 
 
 Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 
 
 Victor Emmanuel 1819 
 
 Several dethroned without even the mocking 
 Bhow of abdication, like Edward II. of England 
 '1827) ; Henry VI. of England (1471) ; &c. 
 
 Abeceda'rians. Anabaptists who 
 set their faces against all human learning, 
 lest it should impede the progress of the 
 soul in its apprehension of Divine truth. 
 The Catholics at one time opposed all 
 learning except what they called sacred 
 literature, such as the lives of the saints, 
 and other religious books. 
 
 Abel'ians or Abelo'nians. A sect 
 of the ancient Christian Church which 
 married, but lived in continence, as they 
 assumed Abel did (4th cent.). 
 
 Abenzerraghes. A wealthy and 
 powerful family of Spanish Moors, de- 
 scended from Yusef ben-Zerragh. The 
 word divided is A-ben-Zerragh[es], and 
 is pronounced Ah'-ven-zerark'-ey. Their 
 struggles with the family of Zegris, and 
 destruction in the palace of the Alhambra, 
 in Granada (fifteenth century), have fur- 
 nished the subject of a charming Spanish 
 romance, ' The History of the Civil Wars 
 of Granada.' Chateaubriand made it the 
 subject of his 'Adventures of the Last 
 Abenzerraghe,' and it furnishes the text 
 of one of Cherubini's operas. The feud 
 began 1474. 
 
 Often written Abcncerragcs. 
 
 Ab'erdeen' {University of), 1500; 
 founded by James IV. It was originally 
 founded in 1494, by W. Elphinstone, 
 bishop of Aberdeen, and called King's 
 College. In 1858 Marischal College 
 {q.v.) was united to the University of 
 Aberdeen. (21, 22 Vict. c. 83). 
 
 Aberdeen man's privilege {An). 
 To alter or change one's mind on second 
 thoughts. 
 
 These good folks, Alan, make no allowance for 
 what your good father calls the Aberdeen man s 
 privilege, of ' taking his word again,' or what the 
 wise call ' second thoughts.'— Sir W. ScOTT, Red- 
 gauntlet, Letter 7. 
 
 Ab'garus, king of Edessa (a.d. 13- 
 50). Is said by Eusebius to have written 
 a letter to Christ asking Him to cure his 
 disease, pronounced by his physicians to 
 be incurable. Christ replied, after His 
 ascension, that one of His disciples should 
 be sent to effect the cure. Thaddeus was 
 the apostle selected, and Abgiirus was 
 restored to perfect health. Of course this 
 is only tradition. (Euseb. i. 13.) 
 
 Abhorrers. A political party in 
 England, in the winter 1G79-1680. 
 They looked with ' abhorrence ' on Lord 
 Shaftesbury's proposal to set aside not 
 only James, who was a Roman Catholic, 
 but also his daughter Mary, who was a 
 Protestant, married to the Prince of 
 Orange. See ' Petitioners,' &c. 
 
 Macaulay says, they were a church 
 and state party which declared their ab- 
 horrence of those who sought to dictate 
 to the king (Charles II.) as to the routine 
 of the new parliament in 1680. 
 
 Abigail {An). A woman of low de- 
 gree and intriguing character, so called 
 from Abigail Hill, a niece of Sarah, 
 Duchess of Marlborough, introduced into 
 the court of Queen Anne as a bed- 
 chamber woman. Abigail took the fancy 
 of the queen, became prime favourite, 
 and ousted the duchess from her high 
 position in 1707. Harley was Abigail's 
 uncle, as the duchess was her aunt, and 
 Abigail had been privately married to 
 Mr. Masham, groom of the bedchamber 
 of George, prince of Denmark, the 
 queen's consort. {See 1 Sam. xxv. 3). 
 
 Her (the Duchess of Marlborough) indignant 
 mind instantly attributed this omission to the 
 contrary advice of the queen's Abigail, and . . . 
 she broke loose on Anne without regard to tha 
 presence of the public— UowiTT, Hut. oj Eng, 
 (Amie, 251). 
 
ABIGAIL 
 
 ABSOLUTION 
 
 8 
 
 Ab'igail Earwig (Mrs.). Mrs. 
 Masham, the favourite of Queen Anne, 
 on the downfall of the Duchess of Marl- 
 borough. 
 
 Abingdon Hospital, 1689; founded 
 by John Mason of Abingdon, for the in- 
 firm, aged, and indigent. 
 
 Abingdon Law. First hang the 
 offender, then try him. So called from 
 Major Brown of Abingdon, an officer in 
 the parliamentary army. 
 
 Abjuration Bill {The), 1690. A bill 
 which required of everyone who took any 
 public office or trust to swear by oath to 
 recognise the right of the reigning sove- 
 reign to the crown under the Act of Settle- 
 ment, promising to disclose any traitorous 
 conspiracy, and abjuring the right of the 
 Pretender. Enforced 1701, altered in the 
 reigns of Anne, George I., and George 
 III. ; and repealed in 1858. 
 
 Abjuration Oath (The). Formerly 
 there were three oaths required of all 
 persons before admission to any public 
 office, viz. The Oath of Allegiance, The 
 Oath of Supremacy, and The Abjuration 
 Oath. The Abjuration Oath is that no 
 foreign prince, state, or potentate, hath 
 or ought to have any jurisdiction, power, 
 superiority, or authority, ecclesiastical or 
 civil, within the British realm. Enforced 
 by Act 13 Will. III. c. 6 (1701). The 
 three oaths amalgamated into a declara- 
 tion by Act 21, 22 Vict. c. 48 (July 13, 
 1858). 
 
 Abjuration of Henri IV., 1593. 
 The renunciation of Protestantism by 
 Henri IV., for the purpose of securing 
 the crown of France, and putting an end 
 to civil war. 
 
 Abo. I. (Peace of), 17, 18 Aug., 1743, 
 between Sweden and Russia, effected by 
 the mediation of England. 
 
 n. {The Treaty of), 28 Aug., 1812, be- 
 tween Bernadotte, king of Sweden, and 
 Alexander, the czar of Russia; effected 
 by a personal conference of the two 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Abraham's Call. His first call 
 was out of Haran, which, according to 
 Clinton, was in the autumn B.C. 2093. 
 His second co.!! was 4 May, B.C. 2055 
 (Gen. xii. 1). The reason why Abraham 
 was called by God to leave Chaldea was 
 
 because that country was greatly pol- 
 luted with idolatry, which was less pre- 
 valent at the time in Egypt. See ' Era of 
 Abraham.* 
 
 Abrahamites (4 syl.). I. A sect 
 which, in the 9th cent., sprang up in the 
 East, and revived at Ajitioch the tenets 
 of the Paulicians. The founder was 
 Ibraim or Abraham of Antioch. Cyriacus 
 opposed the heretics while Charlemagno 
 was in power. 
 
 Pronounce A'-bram-mites. 
 II. Bohemian deists (1782), who pro- 
 fessed to be followers of John Huss, but 
 reduced their religion to what they sup- 
 posed was that of Abraham before his 
 circumcision. The only part of the Bible 
 which they retained was the Lord's 
 Prayer. They were banished from Bo- 
 hemia in 1783, and were scattered abroad 
 in various parts of Hungary, Transyl- 
 vania, and Slavonia. See above. 
 
 Abraham-men. A class of sturdy 
 
 beggars who simulated lunacy, and wan- 
 dered about the country extorting money 
 by working on the compassion or fears of 
 those who passed by, A ' Tom o' Bed- 
 lam ' was an Abraham-man or * Abram 
 Cove.' So called from the Abraham ward 
 in the Bethlehem Hospital. 
 
 Pronounce A'-brum-men. 
 
 Abrantes {Treaty of), 6 June, 1801, 
 between Spain and Portugal. Signed at 
 Abrantes, Estremadura, in Portugal. 
 
 Absolute Loyalists. In the middle 
 of the 17th cent, meant the friends and 
 followers of the Duke of Montrose. The 
 Engagers {q.v.) and the Whiggamors {q.v) 
 were also in a measure supporters of the 
 king ; but there was no possibility of 
 united action between them, and they 
 only weakened the royal cause. 
 
 Absolute Wisdom, 1821. Alder- 
 man Wood was so called. He was a 
 staunch supporter of Queen Carolme, and 
 being charged with having ill-advised the 
 queen, he admitted that his advice might 
 not be * absolute wisdom,' and he was 
 jocularly called 'Absolute Wisdom Wood.' 
 
 Absolution Thursday. In 
 
 French ' Jeudi Absolu,' the day before 
 Good Friday, when the priest recites the ' 
 seven penitential psalms, gives a sermon, 
 and then pronounces the ' Misereatur ' 
 and the ' Indulgentiam.' 
 
 b2 
 
ABSOLUTISTS 
 
 ACH^AN 
 
 Absolutists {The), 1819. The mon- 
 archical party of Spain, opposed to the 
 radical ' Exaltados ' (g.u.). They wished 
 to restore the absolute power of the king, 
 and consisted of the nobility in general, 
 the clergy, and, what seems somewhat 
 inconsistent, the lower orders. Of course 
 the Absolutists wanted to abrogate the 
 Constitution of 1812. 
 
 Abstainers. Teetotalers, or those 
 who abstain from alcoholic drinks. 
 Abstinence societies are now generally 
 called temperance societies. Established 
 in America, at Boston, in 1826 ; in 
 London (The British and Foreign Tem- 
 perance Society) 1831; the National, 
 in London, 1842. 
 
 Abyssinian War (T^e). Between 
 the British and Theodore, king of Abys- 
 sinia. This expedition (for the release of 
 missionaries, Capt. Crawford and others) 
 was under Sir R. Napier, who jomed the 
 army at Senafe', Jan. 1868. Col. Phayi-e 
 defeated Theodore at Magdala 10 April, 
 which was bombarded and talien on 
 13 AprQ. The return of the British 
 army commenced 18 April, 1868. 
 
 Academic School of Philoso- 
 phers {The). Founded by Plato the 
 Athenian (b.c. 429-347), who tau<;ht in 
 the Academy, a garden about a quarter of 
 a mile from the city, in the north-west- 
 ern suburb. It belonged origmally to 
 Academos, and was adorned by Cunon, 
 son of Miltiades, the great general. 
 Plato's disciples were called the Academ'- 
 ics, or Garden sect. Plato was the dis- 
 ciple of Socrates. 
 
 Academics {The). One of the 
 Grecian sects in the early ages of Chris- 
 tianity. They maintained the total un- 
 certainty of all sensuous impressions, 
 and, therefore, the impossibility of man's 
 knowing anything for certain. They 
 doubted the existence of a God, they 
 doubted the immortality of the soul, and 
 doubted whether virtue was better than 
 vice, or vice better than virtue. 
 
 Academy {The). A London weekly 
 journal, chiefly of reviews, commenced 
 9 Oct., 1869. 
 
 Ae'amoth Plero'ma. With the 
 ancient Gnostics, plerotna meant the ful- 
 ness of knowledge, and acamoth, inferior 
 wisdom. 
 
 Accord' {The). So the Treaty of 
 Edinburgh is called. This treaty was 
 between Queen Elizabeth and the Scots 
 for the evacuation of Scotland by the 
 French; concluded 6 July, 1560. 
 
 Accusative {The). John Calvin 
 was so called by his companions (1509- 
 1564). Also ' The pope of Geneva.' 
 
 _ Acem.etes {The), or ' Acoemeti ' 
 (i.e. Watchers), 5th cent. A religious 
 order founded by St. Alexander, an 
 Asiatic (died 480). So called because 
 one of them was always to be on the 
 ' watch.' That is, one of the three classes 
 was to be in rotation performing service 
 all day and all night (Greek, a-koimetos, 
 sleepless). 
 
 Pronounce As-se -me'-teez. 
 
 Aceph'ali {The), 482. A faction 
 among the Eutychians — heretics who 
 denied the true manhood of Christ. 
 Their founder was Peter Mongus, bishop 
 of Alexandria, who renounced his error, 
 and then his followers were 'without a 
 head ' (Greek, a-TcejphaU, headless). They 
 were reconciled by Mark I. in 799. 
 
 Subsequently those Christians who 
 belonged to no special chin-ch, and ac- 
 knowledged no ordained chief, lilie the 
 Vaudois, were called Acephali (men with- 
 out a head to their church). 
 
 Pronounce A-sef'-fa-le {see below). 
 
 Acephalites {The). Certain level- 
 lers in the reign of Henry I., who ac- 
 knowledged no leader {see above). 
 Pronounce A-sef'-f a-lites. 
 
 Achss'an League {The). A con- 
 federacy of the twelve towns of Achtea. 
 It was dissolved by Alexander the Great, 
 but reorganised B.C. 280, and again dis- 
 solved B.C. 147. The second of these 
 leagues, founded at Megalopolis, con- 
 tained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. 
 It contended with the Macedonians and 
 the Romans for the liberty of Greece; 
 but, being beaten at Scarphea by Metellus, 
 and at Leucopetra by Mmnmius, it caved 
 in soon after the taking of Corinth. 
 
 The twelve cities of Achsea, in Ionia, wer 
 
 founded by the Heraclldte. 
 
 AchaB'an 'War {The). Roman am- 
 bassadors at Corinth enjoin the dismem- 
 berment of the Achaean League and 
 are insulted (b.c. 147). Kritolaos, general 
 of the league, at once besieged Heracleia 
 (B.C. 146), but was defeated at Scarphea 
 
ACH^MENIDES 
 
 ACT 
 
 by Metellus, and slew himself. Diteos, 
 successor of Kritolaos, was- defeated at 
 Leucopetra by Munimius (b.c. 14G) ; 
 Corinth was then destroyed ; and all 
 Greece was erected into a Roman province, 
 Sept. 146. 
 
 Aelisemenides {Tlie\ also called 
 Kai-anians, the sixth dynasty of Persia. 
 The first four were fabulous, the fifth or 
 Pishdadian dynasty was mythic, the sixth 
 is semi-historic. It gave fourteen sove- 
 reigns, and lasted 329 years (b.c. G60-331), 
 when Persia fell tinder the Greeks. Seat 
 of government IsjDahan. 
 
 Kai-anians. Kai (mighty) cpJlcd by the Greeks 
 Kur[os], and by the Latins Cyrus, grandson of 
 Achaemenes. The founder was Kai-Kobad or 
 Cyrus I. 
 
 Pronounce Ak-ke-men'-e-deez. 
 
 Acllilles [The English). John 
 Talbot, first Earl of Shrewsbury, 1373- 
 1453. 
 
 The Duke of Wellington is represented by a 
 statue of Achilles of gigantic size once in Hjde 
 Park, London, close to Apsley House il7G9-18J-2j. 
 
 Achilles {The Second). Dentatus, 
 the Roman tribune. It is said that he 
 slew at different times 300 of the enemy ; 
 and when treacherously set upon by 
 twenty-five of his countrymen, although, 
 at the time, he was more than sixty years 
 of age, he killed fourteen of them before 
 he was slain. 
 
 Achilles of Germany {The). 
 Albrecht, elector of Brandenburg (1470- 
 1487), was called the Achilles and also 
 the Ulysses of Germany. He was the 
 third son of Friedrich I., elector of 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 Achilles of^ome{The). Sicinius 
 Dentatus (put to death B.C. 450). 
 
 Achiropoetos. A picture of Christ 
 and the Virgin made without human 
 hands, i.e. miraculously (Greek, a-cheiro- 
 poictos). One of the best known is the 
 picture of Christ preserved in the church 
 of St. Jolm of Lateran, at Rome. This 
 picture is said to have been begun by St. 
 Luke, and finished by angels ; a Catholic 
 tradition. 
 
 Pronounce A-ki'-ro-poe'-to3. 
 
 Acil'ian Law (The). I. b.c. 197, by 
 C. Acilius, tribune of the people, about 
 planting colonies on the coast. 
 
 II. B.C. 101, by the tribune M. Acilius 
 Glabrio, respecting extortioix. 
 
 Acolsrtes. Their original duties were 
 to help the deacons or sub-deacons at 
 the altar service, to prepare the wine 
 and water for the communion, to light 
 the lamps, to hold the candles, and to 
 carry from place to place the consecrated 
 elements. The word meant followers or 
 attendants. These duties are now for 
 the most part assigned to the sacristans. 
 
 Pronounce Ak'-ko-lites. 
 
 Acre-fight (An). A sort of duel by 
 single combatants (English and Scotch) 
 between the frontiers of the two king- 
 doms. (Cowell, ' Institutiones &c.') 
 
 Act for Uniformity {The), 1549 
 (2, 3 Edw. VI. c. 1), meaning ' uniformity 
 of public worship.' It commanded the 
 adoption of the new Liturgy throughout 
 the kingdom, in place of the Latin Mass 
 Book. Those who neglected to comply 
 were liable to imprisonment for six 
 months for the first offence, loss of their 
 benefices for the second offence, and 
 imprisonment for life for the third offence. 
 
 other Acts of Uniformity are 5, 6 Edw. VI. c. 1; 
 1 Elxz. c. 2 ; 13, 14 Car. II. c. 4. 
 
 Act in pais. A thing done out of 
 court, and not a matter of record. {Pais 
 is the French word ' pays,' meaning in 
 old law oH Von suit le droit.) 
 
 Act of Cura'tory (in Scotch law). 
 Extracted by the clerk upon anyone's 
 acceptance of being curator. 
 
 Act of Explanation {The), 16G4. 
 For the removal or modification of some 
 of the most obnoxious clauses of the Act 
 of Settlement in Ireland {q.v.). See 
 'Magna Charta of the Protestants of 
 Ireland.' 
 
 Act of Grace {The), 1696. Provides 
 maintenance for debtors imprisoned by 
 their creditors (Scotch law). 
 
 In England it is usually applied to insolvent 
 acts and general pardons at the beginning of a new 
 reign, or on some very special occasion. 
 
 Act of Oblivion {The). 1. In 1653 
 procured by Cromwell himself, abolishing 
 the memory of all offences committed 
 before the battle of Worcester. This 
 act relieved the minds of royalists from 
 the fear of further forfeitures. After the 
 conspiracies of 1654 all who had ever 
 borne arms for the king were decimated 
 — that is, were fined one-tenth of all the 
 estates then in their possossion th.e fins 
 
ACT 
 
 ACT 
 
 to be spent in recouping the state the 
 expenses it had been put to by the royalist 
 rebellions. 
 
 II. In 1660 (12 Car. II. c. 11). In- 
 demnity for treason and state offences 
 committed between 1 January, 1637, and 
 24 June, 1660. 
 
 Act of Safety {The), 1789, in Swedish 
 history. When Gustavus HI. was aban- 
 doned by his nobles and chief military 
 officers, he threw in his lot with the other 
 three orders. These orders passed the 
 Act of Safety, which conferred on the 
 King of Sweden the same powers which 
 are enjoyed by the English crown, viz. 
 that of making peace and war. At the 
 same time they granted him liberal sup- 
 plies, and raised the army to 50,000 men. 
 
 Act of Security (T/ie), 1704. Passed 
 by the Scotch parliament in the reign of 
 Queen Anne, to the effect that 'unless 
 a satisfactory settlement of the rights, 
 liberties, and independence of Scotland 
 should be obtained in the course of the 
 present reign, the Scotch parliament 
 would, on the queen's decease, meet and 
 name a successor different from the 
 person who succeeded to the English 
 throne.' This led to the Act of National 
 Union, which was ultimately carried 
 16 Jan., 1707. The first united parliament 
 23 Oct., 1707. 
 
 Act of Seppvration {The), 1848. 
 A voluntary resignation of livings and 
 professorships signed by 470 of the Scotch 
 presbyters, who protested against any 
 interference with the free choice of 
 ministers by their respective congrega- 
 tions. See ' Free Church of Scotland.' 
 
 Act of Settlement {The). I. In 
 1053 an Act for the settlement of Irish 
 confiscated estates. All Irish landowners 
 charged with participation in the massacre 
 of 1641 {q.v.) were absolutely deprived of 
 all their lands. Those who had taken 
 part with Charles in the civil war were 
 deprived of two-thirds of their estates. 
 The rest was partitioned among three 
 classes of claimants, viz. the soldiers 
 who had been in service before Cromwell 
 arrived — the adventurers who had ad- 
 vanced money on the understanding that 
 they were to be repaid in Irish land — 
 and Cromwell's own army. A portion of 
 Wiclclow and its vicinity was assigned 
 to the first of these, nine counties were 
 
 divided between the other two classes of 
 claimants. Connaught was reserved for 
 the Irish. The counties of Dublin, Kildare, 
 Carlow, and Cork, with the lands of 
 bishops, deans, and chapters, were kept at 
 the disposal of parliament. One county 
 was set aside for Cromwell himself. 
 
 II. In 1G62 passed by the Irish parlia- 
 ment. First, all the confiscated lands of 
 Ireland were vested in the hands of King 
 Charles II., and were then confirmed to 
 the adventurers and soldiers to whom 
 they had been granted. All officers in 
 the king's service before 1649 were to re- 
 ceive their arrears in land at the rate of 
 12.S. 6^. in [he pound. Protestants and 
 innocent Papists, whose estates had been 
 given to adventurers, were to have those 
 estates restored, and the present holders 
 were to be granted lands elsewhere of 
 equal value. Those who had joined the 
 king in exile were in like manner to be 
 restored to their estates, and the'present 
 holders were to be ' reprised ' by other 
 holdings. See ' Settlement, Act of.' 
 
 When James II. landed in Ireland, one of his 
 first acts was to abolish this Act of Settlement so 
 as to displace the Protestant holders in favour of 
 the Catholic claimants, 1689. 
 
 Act of Succession {The). I. a.d. 
 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 22), ordaining that 
 the succession should descend with the 
 issue of Anne Boleyn ; thus setting 
 aside Mary, the daughter of Katharine. 
 
 II. In 1537 (28 Hen. VIII. c. 7), by 
 which both the preceding marriages of 
 the king were declared void, and both 
 Mary and Elizabeth were illegitimatised, 
 the succession being fixed on the issue 
 of Jane Seymour. 
 
 III. In 1701, whereby it was enacted 
 that no Catholic should reign in England ; 
 and the succession was settled in the 
 House of Hanover. 
 
 Act of Uniformity {The), 1661. 
 An Act passed in the reign of Charles II. 
 obliging all clergymen to subscribe to 
 the Thirty-nine Articles, in order to 
 secure uniformity of doctrine and disci- 
 pline in the national religion. Upwards 
 of 2,000 persons who had been ministers 
 during the Commonwealth refused to 
 subscribe, and either threw up their 
 ' livings ' or were ejected from them. 
 
 Act of Union {The), 1648. French 
 history. An agreement of all the parle- 
 ments of France to stand fast by each 
 
ACT 
 
 ACTA 
 
 other, and not suffer one parlement to 
 be favoured more than the others. This 
 Act was made by the lawyers because 
 Mazariu had proposed to keep back, for 
 four years, the salaries of all the parle- 
 ments except that of Paris. The object 
 of Mazarin was to sow discord among 
 the lawyers and then strip them of their 
 prerogatives. This Act and the * Arret ' 
 (q.v.) led to the Fronde war. 
 
 Act of 1870 (The). On the education 
 of the children of the labouring classes. 
 This was the first legislative provision for 
 public elementary education in England 
 and Wales. The Act of 1876 made it com- 
 pulsory for every child to receive elemen- 
 tary education. 
 
 Acts of 1848 {The). In Hungarian 
 history. The Acts passed into law the 
 Hungarian ideas of liberty, fraternity, 
 and equality. They passed the Diet 
 without opposition, and were proclaimed 
 at Presburg, April 11, amidst the wildest 
 enthusiasm, in the presence of Kaiser 
 Ferdinand V. 
 
 By these laws the privileges of the nobility were 
 abolished, the soil was declared free, the right of 
 free worship was accorded to all, liberty of tho 
 press was granted, and Transylvauia was declared 
 a part of tho mother-couutry. 
 
 Acts and Opponencies abo- 
 lished in the University of Cambridge, 
 1839. They used to be held in Latin, 
 and in syllogistic form. A proposition 
 was stated, as a major premise ; a minor 
 was added; and an inference drawn. 
 The respondent denied one of the three. 
 The opponent supported his proposition, 
 which was again denied. This went on, say 
 five times, and then the respondent stated 
 the reasons of his denial. If satisfactory, 
 the moderator complimented him with 
 ' bene disputasti,' or ' optime disputasti,' 
 or * optime quidem disputasti.' If he 
 argued badly or failed altogether, the 
 moderator said * descendas,' and no 
 degree was conferred on him. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles. A book 
 
 of the New Testament containing a re- 
 cord of what was done by the apostles 
 between the ascension of Christ and the 
 first imprisonment at Rome of the apostle 
 Paul. A part of it is supposed to have 
 been written by Luke, the evangelist, 
 and all of it to have been edited by him. 
 Ilosenmiiller says it was written about 
 L.T). 65. 
 
 Acts of the Lords of the 
 
 Council. Acts of committees of the 
 Privy Council. If the sovereign is pre- 
 sent the acts are called ' Orders in 
 Council.' 
 
 Acta, in ancient Rome, were public 
 registers kept by actuaries. In these 
 registers were officially entered the acts 
 of the public assemblies ; the acts of the 
 senate ; the judgments of the law courts ; 
 the births, deaths, marriages, and di- 
 vorces. Each register had its distinctive 
 name, as Acta Populi, Acta Senatus, 
 Acta Urbdna, and so on. 
 
 Acta Diur'na. A gazette published 
 daily in ancient Rome, both under the 
 republic and the empire, containing an 
 abstract of the proceedings of public 
 assemblies and law courts, the punish- 
 ment of offenders, public works, births, 
 deaths, and marriages, and so on. Julius 
 Cassar, B.C. 59, had the proceedings of 
 the senate published in the Acta Diuma, 
 but Augustus repealed this rule. It was 
 not finally discontinued till A.D. 328. 
 The ' Blue Book ' of old Rome has been 
 appealed to by historians as of the highest 
 authority (Suetonius, In CcBsarem, xx.). 
 
 Acta Pilati. An apocrj^hal report 
 of the crucifixion, said to have been sent 
 by Pilate to Tiberius. See * Forgeries.' 
 
 Acta Sancto'rum. Many folio vols., 
 containing, in Latin, the lives of Christian 
 saints, and based on the Acta Sincera 
 of He'ribert Rosweyde, on which he had 
 laboured for twenty years. He died 
 1629, before it was printed. Father 
 John Bolland (159G-1665) was entrusted 
 with Rosweyde's collection, and associated 
 with himself ten others, who brought 
 down the work to 1753, in 32 folio vols. 
 This ended series 1. 
 
 In 1789 John Limpen and six others 
 carried the work down to 1782, closing 
 series 2. 
 
 A 3rd series was begun after the dis- 
 persion of the Jesuits, and five new vols. 
 were added by Jolin Baptist Fonson with 
 four assistants, bringing down the hagio- 
 graphy to the year 1826, and completing 
 the 53rd vol. 
 
 In 1837 a new society of Bolland ists 
 was organised under the sanction of the 
 Belgian government, who brought tho 
 «rork down to 1855. In 1875 the 61st 
 rol. was published and others have beea 
 added since. 
 
ACTE 
 
 ADDITIONAL 
 
 There is a French hagiography, called Les Pciits 
 F.ollandhtes, in 17 large octavos, edited by Blgr. 
 Paul Guerin, chamberlain to Leo XIII. Tlie 7th 
 edition was published in 1880. This compilation 
 contains hundreds ol lives not in the Latin books. 
 
 Acte Additionnel. See 'Addi- 
 tional Act,' 1815. 
 
 Pronounce Act Ad-dis'-se-o-nel. 
 
 Acte Constitutionnel {L'\ June 
 24, 1793. Presented to the French nation 
 by the Convention, and based on the 
 ' Rovereignty of the people and indivisi- 
 bility of the Kej)ublic.' 
 
 Pronounce Act Con-sti-tu'-se-o-nel. 
 
 Ac'tiac "War (T/ie). This arose out 
 of the rupture between Ootavian and 
 Antony, two of the Triumvirs (b.c. S3). 
 Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, 
 queen of Egypt, and defeated Antony at 
 Actium, 2 Sej)t., B.C. 31. Both Cleopatra 
 and Antony killed themselves. Alex- 
 andria was taken by Octavian Aug. 30 
 (B.C. 33), and Egypt was made a Eoman 
 province B.C. 80. 
 
 Ae'tian Years. Years in which 
 the games at Actium were celebrated. 
 These games were held by the Romans 
 once in five years, and were instituted 
 B.C. 30 by Augustus. 
 
 Aetiat'ic Era [The). This era be- 
 gins from the battle of Actium, between 
 Antony and Octavianus. The defeat of 
 Antony made Octavian master of the 
 Roman empire, 2 Sej)t., B.C. 31. 
 
 The era of Augustus was later by four years 
 than the Actiatic era. It began B.C. 27. 
 
 Acton Burnel {The Sfattde of), 
 12 Oct., 1283. So called from the place 
 of its enactment. It gave creditors their 
 remedy by what is called ' Statute-mer- 
 chant,' i.e. a bond of record under the 
 hand and seal of the debtor, authenti- 
 cated by the king's seal. If the debtor 
 failed to pay on the date assigned, execu- 
 tion was summarily awarded. This was 
 called Pocket Judgment (2 Edw. I.). 
 
 The Statute of Acton Burnel is sometimes called 
 the Statute of Merchants (Statutum Mervatorum). 
 
 Adaman'tius. So Origen was called 
 on account of his great perseverance and 
 persistency (185-253). 
 
 Ad'amites (3 syl.), or Adam'ians. 
 A fanatical sect of the second century, 
 which wanted to revert to the life of 
 Adam and Eve before the Fall. They 
 rejected marriage and went about naked. 
 
 Ad'amites {The), or 'Brethren of 
 the Free Spirit,' 15th and 16th cent. A 
 religious sect that imitated Adam's 
 nakedness before the fall, asserting that 
 their redemption by Christ had restored 
 their innocence. They met together quite 
 naked to pray and preach, both men and 
 women. This sect was propagated at 
 Antwerp by one Tandemi, who drew after 
 him 3000 followers ; and in Bohemia by 
 one Picard (St. Augustine, De Hceres. et 
 Isidor. book viii. c. 5). 
 
 In Nolf.i and Querii's, Jan. 10, 1885, Is given an 
 extract of a Camisard prophetess, who, on Nov. 16 
 (no year stated, but about 1707), did strip quite 
 nalred, and after the ceremony of the mass, ran 
 to the High Altar of Lincoln's Inn Fields, and in 
 ' several strange and indecent postures . . . did 
 hold forth in a powerful manner,' for about a 
 quarter of an hour. 
 
 Adams Prize {TJie). For pure 
 mathematics, astronomy, &c. Value 80Z.; 
 for any graduate of the University of 
 Cambridge ; awarded every two years. 
 Founded from a fund raised by members 
 of St. John's College in honour of Mr. 
 Adams, who first discovered the planet 
 Neptune, in 1848. See ' Regius Proressor 
 of Divinity.' 
 
 Ad'amus Ma^is'ter, Adam of Bre- 
 men, died 1076. He wrote a ' History of 
 the Churches of Hamburg and Bremen ' 
 (from 788 to 1072). 
 
 Addenbrooke's Hospital. 120 
 
 beds and a children's ward. Founded, 
 in Cambridge, by John Addenbrooke, 
 M.D., fellow of Catharine Hall, 1706, and 
 further endowed in 1813. 
 
 Pronounce Ad'-den-brook's. 
 
 Addison {The American), Joseph 
 Dennie (17G8-1812). 
 
 Addison {The Spanish), Benedict 
 Jerome Feyjoo (1701-1764). 
 
 Addison of the ITorth., Henry 
 Mackenzie, author of the ' Man of Feeling * 
 (1745-1831). 
 
 Addison's Disease. A bronzing of 
 
 the skin which goes on till the patient 
 assumes the appearance of a mulatto. 
 It was first described by Dr. Thomas 
 Addison of Guy's Hospital. 
 
 Additional Act {An), 1815. So 
 Napoleon called his new constitution, 
 granting freedom of election for the re- 
 presentatives, who were to be elected 
 every five years, and to be paid stipends ; 
 it also provided for juries, lor the right of 
 
ADDLE 
 
 ADMIRAL 
 
 petition, for freedom of worship, and for 
 the inviolability of property. 
 
 Published April 25, 1815, and accepted at the 
 Champ de Mai, May 31, 1813. 
 
 Addle Parliament {The). 5 April 
 to 7 June, 1614. So called because it 
 displayed a great spirit, pregnant with 
 most momentous consequences, but did 
 not pass one single bill. Its eggs were 
 addled and produced no living creature. 
 See ' Parliament.' 
 
 It remonstrated, for example, Tvith the king 
 (James I.) on his levying ' benevolences,' but 
 passed no act to restrain or prevent the imposition 
 in future. 
 
 Addressers, 1759. A knot of Irish 
 commercial men who addressed the 
 British Govermnent for Catholic relief. 
 The ' Address ' was drawn up 1 -y Charles 
 O'Conor, signed by 400 citizens of 
 Dublin, and presented to the Speaker. 
 The Speaker took the Address ill silence, 
 and the deputation retired. TJie Viceroy 
 published it in the Dublin Gazette, the 
 deputation was sent for again, and the 
 Speaker thanked them for theil Address. 
 This being the first recognitic-ii of the 
 Catholics, forms a political epoch in the 
 history of Ireland. 
 
 In 17G0 the Catholics drew up an 
 'Address' to King George III on his 
 accession to the crown, praying for 
 Catholic relief ; and in 1793 the Catholic 
 Relief Bill received the royal assent. 
 
 Adelantados Mayores, 1230. A 
 new order of noLility created by Fer- 
 nando III. of Castile and Leon, for the 
 provinces of Spain, instead of counts and 
 governors. 
 
 Pronounce Ad'-e-lan-tah'-doze Mayor'-reez. 
 
 Adel'phi {The). A secret society of 
 Piedmont, sprung out of the Carbonari, 
 after the unsuccessful outbreak of 
 24 June, 1817. 
 
 Adiaphoristic Controversy 
 
 {Tlie), 1548. By what is called the 'In- 
 terim ' {q.v.), Karl Y. allowed the cuj? to 
 the laity, and the clergy to marry. The 
 Protestant party called a conference at 
 Leipsic to consider this concession, and 
 voted that it might serve its purpose in 
 things indifferent, but did not touch 
 upon points which were really essential. 
 This decision caused a si^lit in the 
 Lutheran party, and the disputation 
 which ensued between them was called 
 the Adiaphoriatic Controversy, or the 
 
 controversy upon what the Leipsic con- 
 ference called matters of indifference or 
 of no moment. Vestments formed part 
 of the controversy, and the famous 
 Hooper ' lifted up his voice against 
 ' Aaronical habits.' 
 
 Greek, adiaphoros, indifferent. 
 
 Ad'jutant-G-eneral. A military 
 officer on the staff of the commander-in- 
 chief, charged with all matters relating 
 to the discipline and drill of the army. 
 
 Adju'tators, or * Council of Adju- 
 tators,' 28 April, 1647. Two delegates 
 from each of the eleven parliamentary 
 re;_;iments, summoned to a meeting at 
 Triploe Heath, in lieu of the Council of 
 Oflicers. This Council of Adjutatora 
 settled all questions of pay, disbanding, 
 officers, and so on. It was also called the 
 ' Council of Assistors ; ' and after their 
 petition to Pai-liament (soon after the 
 battle of Naseby), that Cromwell and his 
 army should not be sent to Ireland, the 
 Presbyterians called them the ' Council 
 of Agitators,' which name they readily 
 adopted. Charles I. addressed Cornet 
 Joyce as ' Mr. Agitator Joyce,' when he 
 came to remove him (the king) fi*om 
 Holmby House. 
 
 Ad'mirable {The), James Crichton, 
 a Scotchman (1561-1582). 
 
 Admirable Doctor {The), or ' The 
 Wonderful Doctor,' Roger Bacon, fre- 
 quently called 'Friar Bacon,' born near 
 Ilchester, in Somersetshire. He was a 
 Franciscan, and one of the most learned 
 men that ever lived. So great his know- 
 ledge, so numerous his discoveries, so 
 wonderful his philosophical experiments, 
 that he was condemned for necromancy 
 by the Franciscan Council of Paris during 
 his sojourn in France, and Poj^e Nicholas 
 IV. commanded that he should be im- 
 prisoned. He was accordingly incarce- 
 rated at Paris from 1278 to 12S9. Being 
 released he returned to Oxford, where he 
 died. (1214-1294.) 
 
 He has left several works behind him, which 
 show a considerable acquaintance with the laws of 
 mechanics, statics, optics, and the chemical pro- 
 perties of bodies. He wa,s a good mathematician, 
 and knew both Greek and Hebrew. 
 
 Admiral. The title of the highest 
 class of British naval officer. Called a 
 ' flag officer ' from being entitled to fly a 
 flag when in command of a squadron. 
 Admiiala formerly were distinguished by 
 
10 
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 ADRIANOPLE 
 
 tl-e colour of their flag, whetlier red, 
 white, or blue, but these distinctions were 
 abolished in 1864, and the ensign of all 
 admirals is now white. There are, how- 
 ever, three grades, called admiral, vice- 
 admiral, and rear-admiral. Admirals and 
 vice-admirals must retire at the age of 
 65, and rear-admirals at 60. 
 
 The retiring pay of an admiral is 8501. per annum 
 (30 years' service) ; half pay, 'Zl. 2s. a day. 
 
 The retiring pay of a vice-admiral is 725Z. per 
 annum (29 years' service); half pay, II. lis. 6(1. a day. 
 
 The retiring pay of a rear-admiral is 600^ per 
 annum (27 years' service) ; half pay II. 5s. a day. 
 
 N.B.— Admirals of the fleet retire at the age of 
 70, and their half pay is 31. 7«. a day. 
 
 Admiralty Court (The), or 'High 
 Court of Admiralty.' Erected by Edward 
 III. about 1350. Held before the Lord 
 High Admiral or his deputy. There used 
 to be two courts, viz., the Instance Court, 
 and the Prize Court. The former was a 
 municipal tribunal for the determination 
 of private injuries or private rights 
 arising at sea, or intimately connected 
 with maritime subjects. The latter de- 
 cided all matters of capture, prizes, re- 
 prisals, and so on, which were all sub- 
 mitted to the Admiralty laws and the law 
 of nations. The prize court was virtually 
 abolished by 3, 4 Vict. c. 65, s. 22 (1840), 
 and great changes were made in 1861 
 and 1875. 
 
 Admiralty Droits. Derelict ships 
 and other property picked up at sea by 
 British vessels, if not claimed. These 
 perquisites were formerly claimed by the 
 Lord High Admiral ; but by the Merchant 
 Shipping Act (1854) are now placed under 
 the control of the Board of Trade, by 
 which all the proceeds are now paid into 
 the public exchequer. 
 
 Seizures of property belonging to an enemy in 
 time of war are deemed droits of Admiralty. 
 
 Admiralty Office {The), 1512. 
 Instituted by Henry VIII.; business 
 regulated by 2 "Will. IV. c. 40 (1832). 
 
 Admonition of Parliament 
 
 (The), or ' The Admonition to the Parlia- 
 ment,' 1571, by certain puritans in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, condemning 
 everything in the Church of England 
 not in accordance with Calvinism. This 
 admonition condemned every rite and 
 ceremony not expressly commanded in 
 Scripture, and set at naught all general 
 rules and church canons. 
 
 The two fundamental principles of the Admoni- 
 tion were these : (1) We ought to have the same 
 
 kind of church government as that of the Apostolio 
 times, to be g Uhered from Scripture, and Scrip- 
 ture only. (2i Nothing used in the Church of Romo 
 may in any wise be continued. Wilcox and Field, 
 the supposed authors, were imprisoned. A second 
 Admonition by Carter called forth a reply by 
 Archbishop VVhitgift. 
 
 Admonitionists [The), 1571. Cer- 
 tain puritans in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, authors of the 'Admonition 
 of Parliament ' {q.v.). 
 
 Pronounce Ad-mo-nish'-shun-ists. 
 
 Adop'tian Controversy (T^e). A 
 
 controversy which arose in Spain in the 
 8th cent., whether Jesus Christ was the 
 Son of God by generation, or by adoption 
 only. Elipand archbishop of Toledo, and 
 Felix bishop of Urgel, maintained that 
 Jesus Christ had two distinct natures, one 
 divine and the other human. In his di- 
 vine nature he is the Son of God by gen- 
 eration, the ' only begotten of the Father ; ' 
 but in his human nature he is the Son of 
 God by adoption only (Rom. viii. 29). 
 Alcuin took the orthodox side. Two syn- 
 ods were convened on the subject : one 
 at Ratisbon in 792, and the other at 
 Frankfort m 794, m which Adoptianism 
 was pronounced heretical. Duns Scotus 
 and Durandus were Adoptianists. 
 
 Adop'tianists {The). 'Adoptians,* 
 or ' Adoptiani,' 8th cent. Spanish heretics 
 who maintained that Christ was the Son 
 of God only by adoption. This heresy was 
 condemned at the Synod held at Frank- 
 fort in A.D. 794. 
 
 Ador'ni and Frego'si Contests 
 
 {The), In Genoa, 1360-1527, contests 
 between the two powerful families of 
 Gabriele Adorno and Domenico da Fre- 
 goso, who contended for the chief magis- 
 tracy. Adorno was appointed doge and 
 deposed, then Fregoso was appointed doge 
 and deposed, and so it went on till 12 Sept. 
 1527, when Andrea Doria gave Genoa a 
 new constitution. 
 
 Adrianites (4 syl.). Followers of 
 Adrian Hamstedius (16th cent.). They 
 held that the body of Christ was formed 
 entirely of the substance of the Virgin 
 mother. 
 
 The followers of Simon Magus are also called 
 Adrianites. 
 
 Pronounce A'-dre-an-ites. 
 
 Adrianople, Peace of {The), Sept. 
 14, 1829. A treaty between Russia and Tur- 
 key. The war preceding this treaty was 
 the most disastrous in which Turkey had 
 
ADVENT 
 
 -aSMILIAN 
 
 n 
 
 ever been engaged, and the treaty added 
 large territories to Russia. It acquired 
 Aniipa and Poti, with a considerable ex- 
 tent of coast on the Black Sea, a portion 
 of the pashalik of Akhilska, with the two 
 fortresses of Akhilska and Akhilkillak, 
 and in many other ways greatly weaken- 
 ed Turkey. As Lord Aberdeen said in 
 his despatch, it gave Russia the control of 
 Asia Minor, and the keys to the Persian 
 and Turkish provinces whenever she may 
 choose to extend her conquests to Tehe- 
 ran (Ta-rain) or to Constantinople. 
 
 Advent Sundays. Instituted 5G7, 
 by the Council of Tours, to coiximemorate 
 the four Advents of Christ — 
 
 1. His advent to Bethlehem, where He 
 was born. 
 
 2. His advent to Jerusalem, where He 
 was crucified. 
 
 3. His advent into man's heart when 
 he believes and receives Him as a Saviour. 
 
 4. His advent in the clouds when He 
 comes to judge the world. See ' Sun- 
 days.' 
 
 Adventure Bay (S.E. of Tas- 
 mania). So called by Captain Furneaux, 
 from the ship Adventure in which he 
 Bailed, 1773. 
 
 Adventurers. 1. 1641-1650, persons 
 who had adventured money for the re- 
 duction of Ireland during the rebellion. 
 Those who adventured 200Z. were to have 
 1,000 acres in Ulster. Those who adven- 
 tured 'SOOZ. were to have 1,000 acres in 
 Connaught. Those who subscribed 450Z. 
 were to have 1,000 acres in Munster, and 
 those who subscribed 600Z. were to have 
 1,000 acres in Leinster. 
 
 II. 1652, those soldiers who had served 
 in Ireland since the landing of Cromwell 
 in 1G49, and were entitled to a share of 
 the lands in lieu of their arrears of pay. 
 
 Adversity Hume. Joseph Hume, 
 M.P. (1777-1855). So called because he 
 was for ever presagin t the ruin of Great 
 Britain. ' Prosperity Robinson, M.P., just 
 before the commercial crisis of l!-i25, 
 boasted that the country was never in a 
 moi'e prosperous condition. Cobbett gave 
 Robinson his sobriquet, and that of Hume 
 followed naturally. 
 
 Advocate {Lord). About 1500, the 
 principal public prosecutor in Scotland. 
 lie is assisted by a solicitor-general and 
 
 four junior counsel (termed 'advocates 
 depute '). Virtually he is secretary of 
 state for Scotland. 
 
 Pronounce Ad'-vo-kate. 
 
 Advocates' Library (The), Edin- 
 burgh, 1682. By the copyright law of 1709 
 it obtained the privilege of receiving gra- 
 tuitously a copy of every new book. This 
 magnificent library belongs to the Faculty 
 of Advocates {q.v.), and was established 
 by Sir George Mackenzie. 
 
 It contains about 170,000 books, and of course the 
 number increases every year. 
 
 Advoca'tus Diab'oll. One ap- 
 
 pointed to advance every conceivable 
 reason why a person whose name is sub- 
 mitted for canonisation should not be ad- 
 mitted into the calendar of the saints. 
 
 Advo wson (' Advocatio '). The right 
 of presentation to a living. Advowsons 
 were originally vested in those laymen 
 who were founders or benefactors of liv- 
 ings ; but at the dissolution of the mon- 
 asteries in the reign of Henry VIII. liv- 
 ings were given to laymen who took the 
 tithes and appointed vicars to represent 
 the patrons. These vicars were paid 
 stipends, generally ' the small tithes.' By 
 sales the right of presentation to livings 
 has passed into private hands. 
 
 ^gine'tan Standard (T/ie). That 
 is, the standard of weights and measures 
 used in the island of iEgina, and intro- 
 duced into Greece by Periander of Corinth 
 (B.C. 665, 625-585). 
 
 A, E, I, O, IT. The five vowels, 
 adopted by Fricdrich III., second of the 
 Habsburg dynasty,f or the imperial device: 
 Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universe (or 
 Imperatura). In German : Alles Erdreich 
 1st Oesterreich Unterthan. 
 
 In isr.fi, after the seven-weeks' war with Prussia, 
 Austria was denuded of Germany, and in 1870 the 
 king of Prussia became the emperor of Germany. 
 Then the famous anagram might have been in- 
 scribed on the conqueror's banners, Austria's 
 Empire Is Overthrown Utterly. 
 
 iS'lian and Fuf ian La-w (The), 
 B.C. 156, in ancient Rome, empowering 
 magistrates to preventer dissolve comitia 
 when the auspices were unpropitious. 
 
 -Elian Sen'tian Law (The), b.c. S, 
 regulating the manumission of slaves. 
 
 ^mil'ian Laws(T7ie). These were 
 (1) the law by Mamevcus .^i^miliuSj dicta- 
 
12 
 
 CHILIAN 
 
 ^TOLIAN 
 
 tor of Rome, to shorten the censors' term 
 of office, B.C. 434. 
 
 And (2) the sumptuary laws of Marcus 
 ^miHus (Scaurus), relative co the kind 
 and quantity of food to be set on table at 
 entertainments, B.C. 115. 
 
 ^mil'lan Road (T^e), between 
 Bononia (Bologna) and Placeutia; made 
 by Marcus ^milius Lepidus, the consul, 
 B.C. 187. It was a continuation of the 
 Flaminian Way. 
 
 .Slolian Poets. See ' Lesbian Poets.' 
 
 .ffio'lians {The) had for their posses- 
 sion the plain land of Thessaly, with 
 Phocis, Boeotia, part of Peloponnesus [i.e. 
 Arcadia and the parts near), and their 
 colony in Asia Minor. 
 
 In Asia Minor they founded Lesbos, Smyrna, and 
 iElis. 
 
 -Sol'ic Migration [The). In the 
 mythic period of Greek history. Accord- 
 ing to mythic history, ^olos was the 
 eldest son of Hellen and grandson of 
 Deucalion. He spread his ancestral name 
 through the greater part of northern 
 Greece and along the western coast of the 
 peninsula. In the 11th cent. B.C. some of 
 them migrated to Asia Minor, where they 
 founded, on the north-west coast, above 
 thirty cities. They were ultimately ab- 
 sorbed in the Eoman Empire. 
 
 .ZEIra or A.E.-R.A, Annus Erat (or 
 Est) Regni Augusti. The Spaniards began 
 their dates from the advent of the reign 
 of Augustus, the Roman Emperor. See 
 'Era.' 
 
 Ae'rians or 'Aeria'ni.' A religious 
 sect, founded by Aerius, a priest, in the 4th 
 cent. In doctrine they corresponded with 
 the Arians, but they also maintained that 
 all priests are bishops. Their great ' he- 
 resy,' however, was forbidding masses for 
 the dead. 
 
 Pronounce A-e-ri-ah'-ne. 
 
 Aeroliths or Aerolites. 
 
 Pronounce Air'-ro-lites, 
 
 B.C. 654, a shower of stones fell on the Alban 
 Mount (Lwy). 
 
 B.C. 467, a great stone fell at JEgospotami, on the 
 Hellespont (Parian Chronicle). Pliny says it was 
 about the size of a waggon. 
 
 A.D. 1402, Nov. 7, a ponderous stone, weighing 
 250 lbs., fell from the sky near the town of Ensis- 
 heim, in Upper Alsace. A part of it is still preser- 
 ved in the parish church. The Emperor jNIaximi- 
 lian witnessed the fall of this meteor, and had the 
 Btono placed in tlie church to prove that ' God in- 
 sit>ted on a crusade against the Turks.' 
 
 A.D. 1510 there was a great fall of meteors ia 
 Lombardy, some fiO lbs. in weight, and some aa 
 much as 120 lbs. They were of a rusty colour. 
 
 A.D. Iii27, Nov. 27, a stone weighing 59 Iba. fell on 
 Mount Vassier, in Provence. This is attested by 
 Gassendi. 
 
 AD. 17)1, May 26. Two masses fell at Agram, in 
 Sclavonia, one weighing K! lbs. and the other 71 lbs. 
 The analysis of these stones by Klaproth is pre- 
 served in the Vienna museum (95 parts are iron, 3 
 nickel). 
 
 A.D. 1803, April 26. A shower of stones fell near 
 L'Aigle. M. Biot was deputed by the French Go- 
 vernment to repair to the spot and report on the 
 phenomenon. Between 2,000 and 3,000 stones had 
 fallen, the largest being 17 lbs. in weight. 
 
 A.D. 1807, March 18. A stone fell at Smolensk, in 
 Russia, weighing 100 lbs. It was black and shiny. 
 
 A.D. 1813, Sept. 10. A stone, weighing 17 lbs., fell in 
 the county of Limerick, at 10 o'clock in the morn- 
 ing. 
 
 A.D. 1815, Feb. 15. A stone weighing 25 lbs. fell 
 in the town of Dooralla, in British India. The 
 Indians consecrated it in a temple, and approach 
 it with reverence and clasped hands. 
 
 A.D. 1822, June 2, Sunday, 3 o'clock p.m. I mysr! t 
 saw an aerolith fall at Gislingliam, Suffolk, lb 
 made a deep hole in the earth about 3 yards from 
 a wheat stack. It then bounded off in an opposite 
 direction to the stack and burst. It fell with a 
 tremendous noise, like crashing thunder. I was 
 too young at the lime to search tor pieces, and not 
 a little terrified. The window I was sitting at was 
 some 20 yards oil. 
 
 In the Imperial Museum of St. Petersburg is an 
 immense mass. The fall was witnessed by Pallas 
 in Siberia. 
 
 The largest aerolith known is one which fell in 
 Brazil. It is estimated to weigh 14,000 lbs. 
 
 A.D. 1887. An aeroUth fell near St. Joseph, in the 
 West Indies. It weighs 2 tons (i.e. 2,280 lbs.), and 
 buried itself in the earth between 15 and 18 feet. 
 
 J. Norman Lockyer says, the number of meteors 
 which fall daily to the earth ' exceeds twenty-one 
 minions.'— A'ivieteeni/i Century (Nov. 1889, p. 787). 
 
 ^schylos [The French). Prosper de 
 Cre'billon (1G74-1762), noted for his power 
 in dej)icting rage and terror. His plays 
 are ' Xerxes,' ' Semiramis,' ' Electra,* 
 ' Pyrrhus,' and ' Catiline.' 
 
 Pronounce Eas'-ki-lua. 
 
 .ffito'lian Confederacy {The), b.c. 
 323, called into existence by the Lamian 
 war {q.v.). The states used to assemble 
 annually in the autumn at Thermum, and 
 the assembly was called the Panaetolicon. 
 B.C. 189 the Jiltolian States were subjected 
 to the Romans. 
 
 The object of the Lamian war was (on the death 
 of Alexander the Great) to liberate Greece from 
 Macedonia. The Athenians were the principal 
 insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at Cranon, by 
 Antipater. 
 
 .Sto'lian League {The). iEtolia 
 joined the Greek confederates in the 
 Lamian War B.C. 313, but the .^tolian 
 League rose into no great prominence till 
 the Macedonian War (e.g. 214), when 
 SjDarta joined it, and it became the anta- 
 gonist of the Achtean League, which sided 
 with Philip V. of Macedon. It was the 
 ui) wise policy of the -lEtolian League which 
 made Rome master of Greece. 
 
AFFSHARS 
 
 AGAMEMNON 
 
 13 
 
 The .5:tolian Confederacy included JEtolia, 
 Acarnania, part of Xhebsaly.Locris, and the island 
 of Cephalonia. 
 
 Affsliars {The). An eastern tribe 
 known by the celebrated Nadir-shah, who 
 received the crown of Persia on condition 
 that he would compel the people to aban- 
 don the doctrines of the Sophi, and re- 
 ceive those of the Sonnee. After a reign 
 of 11 years he was assassinated. 
 
 Afghan {Treaty of), 1881. A secret 
 treaty between Rvissia and the amir of 
 Afghanistan. Russia on her side engaged 
 to be the perpetual friend of the amir, to 
 recognise the successor appointed by the 
 amir, and to assist the amir against any 
 of his foes, if such assistance was required 
 (the English were meant). The amir, on 
 his part, engaged not to wage any war 
 without permission from Russia, and to 
 keep Russia well informed of whatever 
 took place within the kingdom of Afghan- 
 istan. 
 
 Afghan "War {The). A diplomatic 
 contest between France and Russia in- 
 duced Dost Mohammed of Cabul to invite 
 the friendship of Great Britain in 1836. 
 This led to a diplomatic contest between 
 Great Britain and Russia respecting 
 Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed joined 
 Persia, and war was proclaimed against 
 him at Simla by Lord Auckland, gover- 
 nor-general of India, 1 Oct., 1838. Dost 
 Mohammed gave himself up at Cabul to 
 SirW. MacNaghten, 3 Nov., 1840; but 
 his son Akbar Khan completely outwitted 
 General Elphinstone and the envoy. Sir 
 William MacNaghten, both of whom were 
 treacherously put to death. Negotiations 
 for quitting Cabul were purposely de- 
 layed till winter had set in ; and then the 
 whole British force, which, with women 
 and children, amounted to 20,000 souls, 
 were as treacherously destroyed in the 
 Khyber Pass, 1842. 
 
 No event in British history is more deplorable 
 than this. The total Incompetency of such men as 
 General Elphinstone and Sir Willi? m MacNagliten 
 so demoralised the soldiers under them, that 
 every Englishman is ashamed of the miserable 
 fiasco in which was not one single redeeming 
 ■ trait. Dost Mohammed and Alcbar Khan, no doubt, 
 were villains, but our 'leaders' actuallj invited 
 treasonable dealings. 
 
 African Methodist Episcopal 
 Church {The), 1816, seceded in Phila- 
 delphia under Richard Allen. They are 
 coloured Methodists. 
 
 African Paris {The). Algiers. 
 
 African "War {The). The first 
 African war was undertaken by the 
 Romans for the restoration of Hiempsal 
 to the throne of Numantia. Alieno- 
 boj-bus, the leader of the Marian party 
 in Africa, had dethroned him, but Cneiua 
 Pompey slew Ahenobarbus, and restored 
 Hiempsal B.C. 81. 
 
 The second African war was between 
 Ctesar and Scipio, B.C. 46. Csesar defeated 
 the party of Pompey at Thapsus, in Africa, 
 and thus put an end to the civil war. 
 
 The third African war was undertaken 
 by the Romans against Tacfarinas, a 
 Numidian, in the reign of Tiberius. 
 Tacfarinas, having collected a large gang 
 of freebooters, defied for some years the 
 Roman arms in Numidia, but was ulti- 
 mately overthrown and slain by Dola- 
 bella, A.D. 17-24. 
 
 The fourth African war was between 
 the Romans and Vandals in A.frica. The 
 Vandals under Genseric took possession 
 of the Roman dominions in Africa, and 
 continued masters for 105 years (a.d. 
 429-534). Belisarius was sent into Africa 
 by the emperor Justinian to win back 
 the African dominions, and he utterly 
 overthrew the Vandals, took Carthage in 
 533, and I'eturned to Rome in triumph in 
 the autumn of the year following, a.d. 534. 
 
 Africa'nus. Three of the Scipios 
 were so called from their African con- 
 quests: (1) Publius Cornelius Scipio 
 Africanus Major, B.C. 234-183 ; (2) Pub- 
 lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, his elder 
 son; and (3) Lucius Cornelius Scipio 
 Africanus, younger brother of No. 2. 
 
 Africa'nus {The Arabian). Akbar 
 Khan (7th cent.). 
 
 Africa'nus cf New Eome {The). 
 Belisarius, Roman general in the reign 
 of Justinian (505-565). He is called 
 ' The Third Africanus.' 
 
 If the three Scipios were all called Africanus, 
 Belisarius v.as the fourth, not the third. 
 
 Aftas'ides (3 syl.). A dj-nasty 
 founded by Abdallah ben al Aftas about 
 1030 ; overthrown 26 Feb., 1094. 
 
 Agamemnon, Menela'os. Atreus 
 had two sons — Plisthenes and Thyestes. 
 
 (Thyestes usurped the throne of Argos). 
 
 PlisthenOs had two sons — Agameirmon 
 and Menelaos. 
 
 Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, daughter of 
 Tyndiiros. 
 
 JUeiiulaos married Helen, sister of Clytemnestra^ 
 
14 
 
 AGAP^ 
 
 AGITATOE 
 
 The two brothers married two sisters. 
 Both the wives were false. Clytemnestra 
 became the mistress of the regent 
 .^gisthos, and Helen eloped with Paris, 
 son of Priam king of Troy. 
 
 Ag'apse. Originally love feasts, in 
 which contributions for the poor brethren 
 were made. These feasts were held after 
 the communion service. Afterwards, 
 they were degraded into wakes, toi)k the 
 place of the heathen Parentalin, and 
 were held at the tombs of relatives or 
 'saints.' Great efforts were mude to 
 abolish these unseemly gatherinj,s, but 
 they continued even into the 13th cent. 
 
 Enjoined by the council of Gangra, A.D. 340 ; 
 forbidden by the council of Laodicca in 366; by 
 the council of Carthago in .S97 ; by the council of 
 Orleans in 533 ; and by the council of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in 816. The last mention of them is in 
 1250. 
 
 Agapein'one (The abode of love), in 
 Somersetshire, 1848. Founded by Henry 
 James Prince and a Mr. Starkey, and 
 hence the members are called Princeites, 
 Starkeyites, and Agapemonians. The 
 object of this abode is perpetual joy. 
 Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness 
 should be banished from the abode. 
 The Princeites are taught perfect resig- 
 nation, and Prince himself tells us, ' He 
 has no wish, no desire, no will of his own 
 at all.' See * Princeites.' 
 
 Agapemo'nians {The)', Agape- 
 mo'llianism.. The Agapemonians are 
 those who dwell in Agapemone, and 
 Agapemonianism is their special views, 
 social, moral, and religious. 
 
 Agape'taa, 3rd cent. Certain ascetics 
 who lived together as man and wife, but 
 preserved a life of celibacy. St. Cyprian 
 (200-258) condemned the practice, and 
 the church generally did the same, 
 though several of these Agapetse are en- 
 rolled among the saints, as Cecilia and 
 Valerian, Gombert and Bertha, Injurieux 
 and Scholastica, Jeanne Marie de Maille 
 and Robert de Sillery, Julian and 
 Basilissa, Thierry and his wife, &c. 
 
 Du Cange says (vol. i. p. 129, col. 1): So called, 
 'quod cum mulieribus ac virginibus, quas donii 
 Bub niiapctarxtm seu dilectarum appellatione deti- 
 nebant, prava commercia habere dicerentur.' 
 
 Age of Leo X. {The), 1513-1521. A 
 proverbial phrase for magnificence and 
 high art. Leo X. was a great patron of 
 learning and art, and his court was mag- 
 nificent in the highest degree. 
 
 Agents of Captain Right. See 
 
 under ' Whiteboys.' 
 
 Ages. The Golden Age, a mythical 
 period when the earth brought forth 
 spontaneously, and the gods held con- 
 verse with men. 
 
 The Silver Age, the second period, 
 when the gods taught men the useful arts. 
 
 The Age of Bronze, the third or transi- 
 tion period, semi-historical. The age of 
 heroes. It followed the ' Stone Age ' {q-v.). 
 
 The Iron Age, the historic period, when 
 wars abound, and man earns his food by 
 labour. 
 
 The Wire Age, the present age of tele- 
 graphs and telephones. 
 
 Aggregate Bodies, 1785. Irish 
 
 volunteers in favour of free trade, and 
 the extension of the franchise to the 
 people at large. Some of them adopted 
 the American fashion of tarring and 
 feathering their victims ; and some, call- 
 ing themselves 'houghers,' deliberately 
 maimed their victims, especially the 
 soldiers. The introduction of the ques- 
 tion of Catholic disabilities broke up the 
 associations. As Plow den says, ' at night 
 they existed with all their attributes of 
 power . . . but on the following day the 
 room of their assembly was shut, their 
 colours waved no more, their uniform 
 was no longer seen in the streets, and the 
 body was disbanded.' See 'Irish Asso- 
 ciations.' 
 
 Ag'idae {Dynasty of the), b.c. 1058- 
 219. One of the dynasties of Sparta; the 
 other was the dynasty of the Proclidae. 
 They were contemporaneous. The former 
 was founded by Agis, son of Eurysthen>s ; 
 and the latter by Procles, son of 
 Aristodemos. These dynastic kings were 
 followed in B.C. 219 by the 'Tyrants,' 
 viz. — Lycurgos, 219; Machanidas, 210; 
 and Nabis, 216. 
 
 Agiosemandrum. A wooden 
 instrument used in Christian churches 
 in Turkey instead of a bell ; because the 
 use of bells in Turkey is forbidden. 
 
 Greek atjios senmino, meaning the holy (service) 
 caller. Incorrectly, but generally spelt sy. 
 Pronounce Ag'gi-os'sy-man'-drum. 
 
 Agitator {The). Daniel O'Connell 
 (1775-1847). He began agitating for the 
 Repeal of the Union in 1842, and the 
 'Monster Meeting' was held in 1843. 
 He was arrested for sedition and con- 
 
AGITATOES 
 
 AGEICULTUEE 
 
 victed, but the judgment was reversed 
 by the House of Lords (1844), 
 
 Agitators {The). The committee 
 appomted in 1647 to mcanage the 
 affairs of the army when it formed a 
 separate body in the state. The com- 
 mittee consisted of two of the superior 
 officers of each of the eleven parha- 
 mentary regiments. The secret object 
 of the council was to get possession of 
 the person of the king (Charles I.), and 
 withdraw him from the power of the 
 Parliament. Cornet Joyce was one of 
 these agitators, and, at the head of fifty 
 horse, actually took possession of the 
 king at Holmby House. The real appel- 
 lation of this committee was the Council 
 of Adjutators or Assistors, but the Pres- 
 byterians nicknamed them the Council 
 of Agitators, which they readily adopted. 
 
 Ag'labites (3 syl.). Califs of Kair- 
 wan, so called from Ibrahim ibn el 
 Aglab, who was invested with the 
 government by Harun al Easchid, a.d. 
 800. He made himself independent in 
 802, a,nd founded the dynasty of the 
 Aglabites. 
 
 Succeeded by Abu I'Abbas (811) ; Ziadet Allah 
 (81»: Abu Akkal (827); Abdul Abbas (837); Abu 
 Ishak Ibrahim (874) ; Abd ul Abhas II., murdered 
 by his son and successor, Ziadet Allah (90C) ; 
 dynasty overthrown a.d. 909. 
 
 Ag'noites or ' Agnoitse ' (3 syl.). I. 
 A.D. 370, followers of Theophronius the 
 Cappadocian, who denied the omniscience 
 of God. 
 
 II. A.D. 535, followers of Themistius, 
 deacon of Alexandria, who denied that 
 Christ knew the time of the day of judg- 
 ment. 'Of that day and that hour 
 knoweth no man, no, not the angels 
 which are in heaven, neither the Son, 
 but the Father [only].' (Mark xiii. 32.) 
 They die out before 700. 
 _Du Cange says (vol. i. p. 137, col. 1) 'quod novis- 
 Biinam horam Christo, etiam quoad divinam ejus 
 naturam, ignotam esse arbitrarentur." 
 
 Agnos'tic {An), 1885. One who 
 maintains that there are subjects wholly 
 beyond the scope of human thought ; not 
 subjects now unknown, but subjects 
 actually unknowable. On the other 
 hand, an agnostic repudiates the belief 
 that there are propositions which men 
 ought to believe without such logical 
 evidence. 
 
 Agnosticism. The faith of an 
 agno.'itic. The refusal to say that we 
 
 know or believe what we have no scien- 
 tific or experimental grounds for profess- 
 ing to believe or know. 
 
 Agnostics are not atheists, because they believe 
 the question of Gods existence unfathomable, 
 ana the question of his non-existence equally so 
 Man, they say, has no means of knowing either 
 the one or the other. Human knowledge cannot 
 go beyond human observation and experience 
 I he term 'agnostic' was introduced by Professor 
 Maxley in 1809 at a private meeting preliminarv to 
 the formation of the IMetaphysical Society. Plato 
 said, ' Speculations about the gods are speculations 
 of man respecting the gods.' 
 
 Agonalia. A Eoman festival held 
 several times a year in honour of the 
 guardian deities of the state. So called 
 from Agonius, the god who presided 
 over business. (Ovid, Fasti i. 331.) 
 
 Agrarian Agitation, b.c. 480. 
 The great Eoman agrarian agitation 
 was set on foot by Spurius Cassius, who 
 had been three times consul. To win 
 popular favour, he told the people that 
 the senate ought to give an account of 
 the land taken from the Volsci, which 
 ought to have been equally divided 
 amongst the whole people irrespective of 
 rank. The senate, to allay the popular 
 clamour, promised to give the matter 
 their best consideration, but arrested 
 Cassius and hurled him from the Tar- 
 peian rock. Things went on till B.C. 
 464, when Herdonius the Sabine got pos- 
 session of the Capitol. Then the senate 
 promised to pass an agrarian law, if the 
 people would eject the invaders. The 
 invaders were expelled, but it was not 
 till B.C. 365 that Licinius Stole, the 
 plebeian tribune, got a law passed mak- 
 ing it penal for anyone to hold more than 
 500 acres of the public lands. 
 
 Agreement of the People {The), 
 1G47. A paper drawn up by the Levellers 
 and presented to the Council of Agitators 
 or Adjutators, for the abolition of kings 
 and lords ; biennial parliaments with six- 
 monthly sessions ; a widely-extended 
 franchise, and a more equal distribution 
 of representation. See ' Lilburue.' 
 
 'Biennial parliaments with six-monthly ses- 
 sions means the parliament was to meet for six 
 montlis every two years, the other eighteen 
 montiis were to be wholly under the control of 
 the Executive Council. In 1649 Colonel John 
 Lilburne objected to this clause, and said it was 
 not agreed to by the people at all. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 The Board of Agriculture was incorporated in 
 17' 13, and dissolved in 1816. 
 
 The Report of Children's Employment Commis- 
 sion on Agricultural Gangs was puWished in lsi;7, 
 and their employment was regulated by Act oJ 
 Parliament tho same year. 
 
16 
 
 AGEICULTUEAL 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester was 
 chartered in 1845, and opened in 1841). 
 
 Tihe Ttoyal AoriruUural Socieij was incorporated 
 by charter in 1840. 
 
 The Scotch Society, called ' Improvers of Agri- 
 culture in Scotland,' was established in 1723. 
 
 Minister of Agriculture appointed 1889. 
 
 Agricultural Protection So- 
 ciety of Great Britain [The)^ 
 17 Feb., 1844. Founded in opposition 
 to the Anti-Corn-Law League to advocate 
 protection in opposition to free trade. 
 
 Agrippa. Son of Aristobulus, who 
 was the son of Herod the Great and his 
 second wife Mariamne the Asmonean. 
 It was this gi-andson of Herod the Great 
 who was made king by Caligula. He 
 slew James the apostle. His son, also 
 named Agrippa, went with his sister 
 Berenice to hear Paul's defence. 
 
 Ahab of the 3^3"ation {The). 
 Charles I. was so called by the Levellers. 
 
 Aids. Sums to be paid by the tenant 
 to ransom his lord if taken prisoner, or 
 to make his lord's eldest son a knight, or 
 to dower at marriage the lord's eldest 
 daughter. Subsequently aids were ex- 
 acted to pay a lord's debts, or to enable 
 a lord to pay aids to his own superior 
 lord. Of course, those who held imme- 
 diately of the king could never be called 
 upon for this last-named contribution. 
 Introduced by William the Conqueror, 
 and abolished by 12 Car. 11, c. 24. 
 
 Ainaly-Cavak {Treaty of), Jan. 
 8, 1784, between Turkey and Russia, 
 whereby the Ottoman Porte abandoned 
 the Crimea and Kuban to Russia. 
 
 Ainslie's Supper, 1566. A supper 
 given at Ainslie's tavern in Edinburgh 
 by the Earl of Bothwell, at the rising of 
 parliament, to its leading members. 
 After the banquet Bothwell informed his 
 guests that he was about to marry the 
 widowed Queen Mary ; and drawing forth 
 a bond, he induced them to sign their 
 full and entire approval of the alliance, 
 although at the time he was married to 
 Jane Gordon. 
 
 The tavern itself was afterwards called ' Ains- 
 lie's Supper.' 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle {Congress of), 
 from 14 Feb. to 24 Nov., 1818. To settle 
 the affairs of Europe after the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle {Convention of), 
 30 Nov., 1818. For the evacuation of 
 France by the Allies. It was signed by 
 
 the plenipotentiaries Oct. 9, and ratified 
 by France Oct. 13. 
 
 Aix-la-Cha,pelle (Peace o/), 2 May, 
 16G8. Between Louis XIV. and Carlos II. 
 respecting the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle {Treaty of), 1748. 
 Between George II., Louis XV., Maria 
 Theresa of Austria, Ferdinand VI., 
 Charles Emmanuel III., the Republic of 
 Genoa, and the United Provinces. 
 Signed by England, France, and the 
 United Provinces, 18 Oct. ; by Spain, 
 20 Oct. ; by Austria, 23 Oct. ; by Modena, 
 25 Oct. ; by Genoa, 28 Oct. ; by Sardinia 
 7 Nov. (1748). It was a mere truce 
 forced on the signatories by sheer ex- 
 haustion. France still contemplated the 
 humiliation of England ; the ' Family 
 Compact' was still maintained; Maria 
 Theresa had still designs on Silesia. 
 In 1755 a league was secretly formed 
 between Russia, Spain, Austria, and 
 France for the renewal of war on the 
 first favourable occasion ; and, in 1750, 
 the ' Seven Years War ' began. 
 
 Ajax of the East {The). Leo, 
 appointed by the eunuch Eutropius to 
 the command of the Asiatic army ; called 
 the Ajax of the East from the bulk of his 
 body and the dulness of his mind. He 
 was originally a wool-comber. 
 
 Akerman, in Bessarabia {Treaty 
 of), 26 Oct. (4 Sept.), 1826. Between 
 Russia and Turkey, placing Moldavia, 
 Valachia, and Servia under the protec- 
 tion of Russia. This was to secure the 
 fulfilment of the treaty of Bucharest. 
 
 Akh'shidites (3 syl.). An Egyptian 
 dynasty, generally called ' The dynasty of 
 the Ikhshidites,' founded by Abu Bekr 
 Mohammed Akhshid, or Ikhshid, a.d. 936. 
 The dynasty was overthrown in 970 by 
 the Fatimite general Goher. 
 
 Alabama. An American state, so 
 named, in 1817, from its principal river. 
 The river was so called by the Indians 
 in allusion to the well-stocked hunting- 
 grounds. The name is properly that 
 of an Indian band, or tribe, of the 
 Muscogee stock. 
 
 Pronounce Al'-a-bah'-mah. 
 
 Alaba'ma {The). A vessel built by 
 Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, and known 
 as ' No. 290.' On 31 July, 1862, it sailed 
 surreptitiously from the Mersey and pro- 
 
ALABAMA 
 
 ALBERT 
 
 17 
 
 ceeded to Terceira, one of the Western 
 islands, where she was supplied with 
 guns, coals, and stores by a vessel sent 
 from London for the puri^ose. Captain 
 Semmes then took charge of her, named 
 her the ' Alabama,' and hoisted the Con- 
 federate flag. She committed great 
 damage to the American shipping, cap- 
 turing 65 vessels, and destroying property 
 to the amount of four million dollars; 
 but in JiTne 1864 she was sunk near 
 Cherbourg by the United States steamer 
 'Kearsage.' In 1871 it was agreed to 
 refer the question to five arbitrators, 
 who were to decide if the English Govern- 
 ment were responsible, and if so, what 
 fine was to be paid by England for the 
 damage done to the United States of 
 North America. 
 
 Alaba'ma Claims {The), 1868. A 
 money demand made by the United 
 States of America on Great Britain for 
 damage done by a corvette named the 
 ' Alabama,' and built at Birkenhead for 
 the Confederates, who were at war with 
 the United States. The British Govern- 
 ment, which had declared itself a neutral 
 power, had forbidden the corvette to leave 
 the docks ; but, notwithstanding this pro- 
 hibition, it put to sea, displaying a British 
 flag, and succeeded in destroying 65 of the 
 United States vessels ; but in 1864 it en- 
 countered the ' Kearsage ' off Cherbourg, 
 and was sunk. After the war, the United 
 States demanded compensation, and five 
 arbitrators met at Geneva to consider the 
 question in 1872. The sentence of these 
 arbitrators was to award damages to the 
 amount of 3,250,000?., with interest in 
 settlement of the American claims. The 
 money was duly paid, and a large surplus 
 remained in the hands of the American 
 Government after all recognised claims 
 had been paid in full. See ' Alexandra.' 
 The arbitrators were the king of Italy, the 
 President of the Swiss Contederation, the Emperor 
 of Brazil, a representative of Great Britain, and 
 another of the United States. 
 
 Alba Comiti'va. A free company 
 of English, also called ' Les Tards Venus,' 
 q.v. 
 
 Alban Hall (St.), Oxford, 1549; 
 founded by Robert de St. Alban. The 
 head of the Hall is called the principal. 
 
 Al'bany or Albyn. The ancient 
 name of Scotland ; a corrupt spelling of 
 Albanigh, connected with the word J-Zj^s, 
 
 and meaning hilly or mountainous. The 
 Romans called the south part Caledonia. 
 The west, now called Argyllshire, was 
 colonised by the Scoti of Ulster, and these 
 Irish Scots, in the time of their chief, 
 Kenneth Macalpine, having conquered 
 the Picts who occupied the eastern parts^ 
 added that portion to his dominion, and 
 called the two Scot-land (q.v.). 
 
 Allbany, New York, North America. 
 So called in honour of James, duke of 
 York and Albany (afterwards James IT.), 
 to whom Charles II. gave the proprietor- 
 ship of the colony. 
 
 Alba'ti (The), 1399. A class of her- 
 mits who dressed in white linen. Pope 
 Boniface IX. fancied their leader aimed 
 at his deposition, and put him to death. 
 
 Albe or Albane'ser. Lord Byron 
 was so called. A correspondent in ' Notes 
 and Queries' (March 28, 1887, p. 425) 
 says : ' Madame Cottin wrote a romance 
 entitled " Claire d'Albe." This romance 
 was well known to Shelley, who induced 
 his first wife to translate it. into English.' 
 May not the intimacy between Claire and 
 Byron have suggested the application of 
 Aibe to Lord Byron ? 
 
 Mr. Forman suggests L-B CLord Byron). Others 
 fancy it is a contraction of Albemarle (Street), 
 the place of business of Murray, his lordship's 
 publisher. 
 
 Albert I. (Albrecht I.). One of the 
 
 promiscuous kings of Germany (124.S, 
 1298-1308), son of Rudolf I. of Habsburg. 
 In this reign is placed the tale of William 
 Tell. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) II. Founder of 
 the present line of Austrian emperors, 
 and first of the House of Habsburg (1394, 
 1438-1439), son. of Albert IV., duke of 
 Austria, and son-in-law of Siegmund, 
 the preceding kaiser-king. He was sur- 
 named 'the Illustrious,' 'the Magna- 
 nimous,' and ' the Grave,' but reigned 
 Q-nlj about a year and a half. Like his 
 next two successors, Frederick III. and 
 i\. aximilian, he died of dysentery brought 
 on by eating too freely of melon. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) the Bear, so called 
 bet^ause his cognisance was a bear. He 
 was a fine tall fellow with a quick eye, 
 and so well featured that he was familiarly 
 called 'the handsome.' He was the 
 first margrifoi Brandenburg (1106-1 170). 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 ALBERTUS 
 
 a.lexa:^der 
 
 Albert the Bear died the same year as 
 Thomas Becket did. 
 
 Albertus Magnus (11PS-1'2S0\ 
 bishop of Ratisbou. A marvellous man, 
 whose literary works cover '21 folio vo- 
 lumes. Thomas Aquinas was his pupil. 
 He made a speiiking h:'ad of brass, and 
 his knowledge of chemistry was ascribed 
 to the black art. He was the founder of 
 the Second Age of Scholastic Philosophy, 
 or the Aristotelian school. 
 
 Albigen'ses (Th^), llth and 12th 
 cent. Reformers or ' heretics ' of mid- 
 France, so called from Albi or Albigia, 
 where their tenets were first condemned, 
 in 1176. They were defended by Count 
 Ravmond of Toulouse. Roger viscount 
 of Beziers, and the Counts of Fois and 
 of Be'arn. Alexander III. exoommuui- 
 Ciited them iu 1179, and Innocent III. 
 organised a crusade against tliem in 
 1204. It is said that eO.LX'>0 were mas- 
 si\cred in 1209. Another crusade against 
 them was set on foot in 1219. 
 
 The Waldenses shouki not be confounded -with 
 the Albigenses, although ni;uiy of their rel\S"ous 
 views were the same ; but the WaHciises ro^e in 
 the i^th cent, under the teaching of Claudius of 
 Turin. The peculiar faith of tlie Albigejises was 
 that God the Father created the first matter : but 
 the Evil Principle arranged it and stamped evory 
 created thing with all their present forms and 
 attributes. 
 
 Albieen'ses {Wars with the). The 
 first. 12iil>-1229. set on foot by Philippe 
 Auguste of France. The second, 1226, 
 prompted by Pope Honorius HI. and set 
 on foot by Louis VIH., called the Lion. 
 The third, 1545-1547, set on foot by 
 Francois I. of France. In the last war 
 John, baron of Oppido, cut them off root 
 and branch. 
 
 Alcacebas {Treaty of). Between 
 Isabella of Castile and" Alfonso V. of 
 Portugal ; signed at Alcacebas, in Estre- 
 madura, Sept. 24, 1479. 
 
 Alcan'tara {Knights of), 1212. A 
 Spanish order, so called by Alfonso IX., 
 king of Castile, ftom the city of Alcan- 
 tara. It was founded in 1156 by Don 
 Suarez and Don Gomez, but called by 
 them ' Knights of the Peai--tree ' ; which 
 was changed in 1176 by San Julian del 
 Pereyro into ' Knights of San Julian.' 
 
 Alcibi'ades of Germany {The). 
 Albrecht, margraf of Bairouth (1522- 
 1555). 
 
 Aldermen. Since tlie Municipal 
 Corporations Act (<7.r.) in 1S35, one 
 third of the councillors are elected alder- 
 men, but they are not eligible for the 
 offices of coroner or recorder, and aro 
 exempted from serving on juries. They 
 hold office for six yeiurs, one-half going 
 out every three years. 
 
 Since 1S89 aldermen are chosen by the 
 new organisation called the County 
 Council ((7-v.), and hold office for six 
 years in the Council. The councillors 
 are in oftice for tliree years only, and are 
 elected like members of parliament. 
 
 Aldine Editions. A series of 
 books published by Aldo ^laniazio (Aldus 
 Manutius^ between 1490 and 1597. 
 During this j>eriod 90S books, chiefly 
 Greek and Latin classics, with carefully 
 corrected texts of Boccaccio, Dante, 
 Petrarch, and other Italian authors, were 
 issued. Aldo was the first to use tlie 
 Italian type. His mark is an anchor 
 entwined by a dolphin. Pickering, a 
 London publisher, published an edition 
 of the British poets, which he called the 
 Aldine (2 syl.). 
 
 Aldrich'ian Professorships 
 
 {Tht'). One for anatomy, one for the 
 practice of medicine, and one for chemis- 
 trv, in the Universitv of Oxford, founded 
 by George Aldrich, M.D., in 1798. 
 
 That for anatomy is now annexed to the Linacre 
 professorship of physiology ; that for the pr;\ctice- 
 of medicine is attiiched to the Kegius professor- 
 ship of medicine ; and that of chemistry is in- 
 corporated with the Wayuliete professorship of 
 chemistry. 
 
 Ale-conner. A judge of ale, an an- 
 nual office of great antiquity, appointed 
 in the court leet of each manor. His 
 duty was to taste the ale and beer, and 
 decide if they were wholesome, sound, 
 and sold at a proper price. Ale-conners 
 were called Gu^tatores cervim<B. 
 
 Alexander {The EngJish). Henry 
 V. (,1388. 1413-1422). He resembled 
 Alexander in the shortness and glory of 
 his reign, his princely liberality, his en- 
 joyment of life, his great military talents, 
 and his wonderful hold on the hearts 
 of the people over whom he reigned 
 or whom as a general he commanded. 
 Captain Fluellen would j-iut it thus : 
 Alexander was born at Macedon and 
 Henry V. was born at Monmouth, and 
 both begin with M. 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 ALEXANDRINE 
 
 ID 
 
 Alexander {The Second). Sandjar 
 or Mog-Efldyn-Sandjar, third son of 
 Malek Shah, king of Persia (1118-1175). 
 He was called Sandjar from the place of 
 his birth, but his proper name was Abou'l 
 Hareth Moez Eddyn. 
 
 Alexander-Newski {Knights of), 
 1725. A Russian military order. Cor- 
 don, a flame or poppy colour. 
 
 Alexander's Wine. A celebrated 
 poison, so called from Rodriguez Borgia, 
 historically known as Pope Alexander 
 VL, traditionally said to have been killed 
 by drinking one of the Borgia poisons, in 
 a bowl of wine intended for another 
 person. 
 
 Alexandra {The). A screw-steamej" 
 seized, 1863, by the government at Liver- 
 pool, during the civil war of America, 
 under suspicion of its being a Confede- 
 rate vessel (England had declared itself 
 neutral in the war). The case was tried 
 in the Court of Exchequer, and judgment 
 given against the government. An ap- 
 peal was made to the House of Lords, 
 and the previous judgment being con- 
 firmed, the vessel was restored to the 
 owners in April 1864. See ' Alabama.' 
 
 Alexan'drian Codex. A manu- 
 script in Greek of the entire Bible written 
 on parchment, and now in the British 
 Museum. It is in uncial letters, without 
 accents, and without spaces between the 
 words. The probable date is about a.d. 
 500, or a little before. It belonged (in 
 101)8) to the patriarch of Alexandria, and 
 in 1621 was taken to Constantinople by 
 Cyrillus Lucaris, the patriarch. The 
 patriarch gave it to Charles I., king of 
 England, in 1628, and it was placed in 
 the Royal Library'. It was transferred 
 to the British Museum in 1753. See 
 • Bibles.' 
 
 There are two other Greek MSS., one the Codex 
 Vaticanus, in Rome, and the other an imperfect 
 copy called the Sinaitic Codex, in St. Petersburg. 
 The Alexandrian Codex contains the epistles of 
 Clemens Romanus, a third and fourth book of the 
 Maccabees, the epistle of Athanasius to Marcel- 
 Uqus, a hymn to the Virgin, &c. 
 
 Alexan'drian Era {The). Dates 
 creation Aug. 29, B.C. 5502. 
 
 This must not be confounded with the Era of 
 Alexander, Nov. 12, 824. See under ' Era." 
 
 Alexan'drian Library {The). 
 This magnificent museum and library 
 was begun, B.C. 204, by Ptolemy Soter, 
 
 and completed by his son, Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus. It was in the quarter of Alex- 
 andria called Bruchion, and contained 
 700,000 volumes. It was burnt in the 
 siege of Alexandria by Julius Csesar, but 
 partially restored and again destroyed by 
 Theophilus, a fanatical Christian bishop, 
 by order of the Emperor Theodosius. We 
 are told that the library contained a copy 
 of every known literary work in the 
 civilised world, whether Egyptian, Jewish, 
 Greek, Latin, Phcenician, Punic, Chaldee, 
 Syriac, or Persian. 
 
 According to Abdallatif a230), Amrou, A.D. 640, 
 burnt the library, saying: 'If the books contain 
 truth, they are needless, being mere repetitions 
 of the blessed Koran ; if not, they are mischievouB, 
 and better destroyed.' 
 
 Alexan'drian Massacre {The), 
 
 A.D. 215. When Caracalla, the Roman 
 emperor, visited Alexandria, the people 
 made some allusion to his flagitious 
 crimes and to those of his mother ; upon 
 which he ordered a general massacre of 
 all the inhabitants. Many, especially of 
 the Christians, escaped by flight, but 
 the slaughter was immense, especially 
 of young men of military age. See 
 ' Massacres.' 
 
 Alexan'drian School {The). It 
 may be divided into two periods : Th.e 
 first, or Ptolemoean period (from B.C. 32o- 
 30), was given to mathematics and poetry; 
 the former unrivalled, the latter little 
 better than mathematical verse, perfect 
 in anatomy, but without a living soul. 
 The second period (from B.C. 30 to a.d. 
 640, the fall of the Ptolemsean dynasty 
 to the irruption of the Arabs) was the 
 philosophic period. The introduction of 
 Christianity produced the systems of 
 Neo-Platouism and Gnosticism. The 
 former was a fusion of Christian doctrines 
 and dogmas with the ideas of Plato, the 
 chief exponent of which was Philo the 
 Jew ; the Gnostic school dipped into the 
 religious tenets of Origen and other 
 fathers of the Church. The dogmas of 
 the Logos and the Trinity are ascribed 
 by many to Alexandrian influence. 
 
 Alexan'drine MS. {The) of the 
 Bible. See ' Codex Alexandrlnus.' 
 
 Alexan'drine Platonism. The 
 
 philosophic system of Plato applied to 
 the Christian system. Platonism led to 
 mysticism, the Aristotelian philosophy 
 led to sophistry and disputation. In the 
 middle ages the Alexandrine Platonism, 
 C2 
 
20 
 
 ALEXANDKINB 
 
 ALL SCULS 
 
 matured in Asia, adopted in the Greek 
 Church, and afterwards introduced into 
 the Western Church, produced much 
 mischief. Joannes Scotus, surnamed 
 'Erigena,' was the reviver of mystic 
 theology. 
 
 Erigena divides nature into four classes: (1) 
 tliat which creates and is not created ; (2) that 
 •which is created and creates ; (3) tliat wh.ch is 
 created and does not create ; and (4) that which 
 neither creates nor is created. 
 
 Alexan'drine T^ar [TJie). The 
 war between Cfesar and Pompey, from 
 August, B.C. 48 to Januar f , B.C. 47. After 
 the d(^feat of Pompey at Pharsalia, Cesar 
 pursued him into Egypt, where Pompey 
 was assassinated. Cesar tlien ph\ced 
 Cleopatra and her younger brother on the 
 throne of Egypt, and the war was over. 
 
 Alexan'drists. Disciples of Alexan- 
 der of Aphrodisia, a peripatetic philo- 
 sopher (2nd cent. B.C.). He was an expo- 
 nent of Aristotle, and has left comments 
 on nearly all Aristotle's works. The 
 Alexandrists in the 12th Christian century 
 were combated by the Averroists (q.v.), 
 and for a time there were two antago- 
 nistic and concurrent sects called the 
 Alexandrists and the Averroists. 
 
 Alex'ians, or ' Brethren and Sisters 
 of Alexius.' Lollards, who rose at 
 Antwerp, about 1300, and were admitted 
 by Sixtus IV. among the religious orders 
 in 1472. Also called CeUites {q.v^, and 
 Matemans. Kecognised by Pius IX. in 
 1870. See ' Monastic . . . Orders.' 
 
 Alfonsi'nas. The Alfon'sine tables 
 of astronomy (1252), in which Alfonso X., 
 ' the Astronomer,' corrected some of the 
 errors of the Ptolemaic system. The 
 king was assisted in this work by Isaac 
 Hazan, a Jewish rabbi. It would be more 
 correct to say that these tables were con- 
 structed by the order and under the 
 patronage of Alfonso by Isaac Hazan, 
 assisted by Christian and Arabian savants 
 united at Toledo. See ' Ilkanian and Eu- 
 dolfine Tables.' 
 
 These tables recognise what was called the 
 Trepidation,' of Ptolemy's system. This was a 
 mere cabalistic mystery, and has not the smallest 
 foundation in any scientific observation. Milton 
 makes Satan, in his way to earth, 
 Pass the planets seven ; and pass the fixed [stars] ; 
 And that crystallin sphere, whose balance weighs 
 The Trepidation talked [of] ; and that first moved 
 [primum mobile]. — Paiddisc Lost, iii. 481, &c. 
 
 It was Alfonso X. who (puzzled over the intri- 
 cacies of cycles and epicycles), exclaimed, ' What 
 fb muddle ! 1 could have done creation better.' 
 
 Alfonsine Tables (T/ie). (See above. 
 
 Alfonso the MagnanimoTis. 
 
 Alfonso V. of Aragon (1385, 1410-1458), 
 by far the most accomplished sovereign 
 of the 15th cent. 
 
 Algerine Act {The), 1881. So 
 Daniel O'Connell called the prohibition 
 of holding political meetings in Ireland. 
 
 The time at which he (O'Connell) should have 
 been called up for judgment did not arrive till 
 within a month or two of the expiration of tho 
 statute under which he was convicted, and which 
 he called the ' Algerine Act.'— Personal Recollection 
 of Lord Cloncurry, pp. 418-421. 
 
 Pronounce Al'-je-reen'. 
 
 Algon'quin Tongue {The). The 
 language of the native north-east 
 Americans, dialects of which are spoken 
 over the greater portions of eastern 
 North America. 
 
 Mr. A.. Gatschet, after a careful study of what 
 remains of the Beothuk language, has cometotha 
 conclusion that it belongs to ' a separate linguistic 
 family to the Innuit, Tinne, Iroquois, and Algon- 
 kin.'— Lady Blake, Nineteenth Century (Dec. 18S3, 
 p. 905). 
 
 AlhamTDra of the Crimea {The). 
 
 Aloupka, built of rich greenstone, in 
 various colours ; the Gothic and Saracenic 
 being the prevailing orders of the archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Alien Acts {The). 33 Geo. III. c. 4, 
 Jan. 4, 1793, and 34 Geo. III. c. 43, 67, 
 &c., A.D. 1794, were passed on account of 
 the great number of foreigners who cama 
 to England in the years 1792, 1798. The 
 object of these acts was to confer on the 
 crown the power of banishing aliens from 
 the realm. These acts were superseded 
 by the Peace Alien Act, 6 Will. IV. c. 11, 
 A.D. 1836, which required the masters of 
 ships arriving from a foreign port to 
 declare the number of foreign passengers 
 on their bills, and also required each pas- 
 senger on landing to show his passport. 
 As no penalty is attached to non-com- 
 pliance, the provisions soon fell into 
 neglect. 
 
 By the Junian Law, B.C. 126, all aliens were 
 banished from Rome. In 122 the law was extended 
 to Latins and Italiots. 
 
 All Saints' Day, Nov. 1. In com- 
 memoration of all the dead who have 
 ' died in the Lord,' especially those for 
 whom no special day has been appointed. 
 Called also ' All Hallows,' and, in French, 
 'La Toussaint.' These terms were, in 
 830, substituted by Gregory IV. for the 
 previous one of A.1 Martyrs.' 
 
 All Souls College, Oxford, 1437. 
 Founded by Henry Chichele, archbishop 
 
ALL SOULS 
 
 ALMOHADES 
 
 21 
 
 of Canterbury. The head-master is 
 called the Warden. 
 
 All Souls Day. ' Festa Animarum,' 
 Nov. 2, in commemoration of all the dead. 
 It was instituted by Odilon, abbot of 
 Clugny, in 998. Till. 1582 it was ob- 
 served in Milan on the third Monday cf 
 October. 
 
 ■ilso called 'Animarum Commemoratlo,' or 
 ' Omnium Fidelium Commemoratlo ' ; in French, 
 ' Trepasses ' (or Jour des Trcpasses). 
 
 All the Hacks, 1807-1809. An 
 
 imbecile ministry which succeeded the 
 bungling parliament called, in ridicule, 
 'All the Talents.' The Duke of Port- 
 land was premier, and his chief supporters 
 were Perceval, Castlereagh, Canning, 
 and Hawkesbury (Lord Liverpool). The 
 duke died Oct. 30, 1809. 
 
 All the Talents {Administration 
 of), 5 Feb., 1806, to 23 March, 1807 
 Formed by Lord Grenville after the death 
 of Pitt (Jan. 23, 1806). It consisted of 
 Lord Auckland (President of the Board 
 of Trade), Lane Barham, duke of Bed- 
 ford (Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland), Erskine 
 (Lord Chancellor), Sir Gilbert Elliot 
 [Lord Minto] (President of the Board of 
 Trade), Lord Ellenborough (Chief Justice 
 of the King's Bench), General Fitzgerald 
 (Secretary of War), Earl Fitzwilliam 
 (Secretary of War), Charles James Fox 
 (Foreign Secretary), Lord Grenville 
 (First Lord of the Treasury), Earl Grey 
 (Lord of the Admiralty), Earl of Moira 
 (Master-General of Ordnance), Lord 
 Henry Petty (Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer), Pigott (Attorney - General), 
 Eomilly (Solicitor-General), Lord Sid- 
 mouth (Privy Seal), Lord Spencer (Secre- 
 tary for the Home Department), Lord 
 Temple (Vice-President of the Board of 
 Trade), Windham (Secretary for the 
 Colonies). N.B. — Canning was not a 
 member of this ministry. 
 
 Alleluiat'ica (Victoria), 30 March, 
 A.D. 430. A legendary victory won by 
 St. Germanus over the Picts and Saxons 
 at Mold. 
 
 Alliteration. 
 
 C. — Hamconius wrote a poem in which 
 every word begins with C. It opens 
 thus : — 
 
 Certamen Catholicntn cum Calvinistis 
 
 Hucbald wrote a poem of 100 lines, 
 
 every word of which begins also with C. 
 The last two lines are : — 
 
 Conveniet claras claustris componere cannas, 
 Completur Claris carmen cantabile calvis. 
 
 M. — In the * Materia More Magistralis ' 
 every word begins with M. 
 
 P. — Placentius, the Dominican (16th 
 cent.) wrote a poem containing 253 Latin 
 hexameters, and entitled ' Pugna Por- 
 corum,' every word of which begins with 
 P. It opens thus : — 
 
 Plaudite, porcelli ; porcorum pigra propago 
 Progreditur . . . 
 
 T. — Tusser has a poem of 12 lines in 
 rhJ^ne, on Thrift, every word of which 
 begins with T. 
 
 The alliterative poem beginning * An 
 Austrian army awfully arrayed ' contains 
 26 lines. Each line in succession begins 
 with one letter in alphabetical order. See 
 ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 719. 
 
 The distich on Cardinal Wolsey is not 
 so well known : — 
 
 Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred, 
 
 How high his Honour holds his haughty head. 
 
 Allo'dia, or ' allodial lands.' Free- 
 holds, that is lands held without the re- 
 quirement of military service. In times 
 of trouble it was by no means unusual 
 for such a tenant to place his lands under 
 a lord, and pay him military service for 
 protection. See ' Mesne lord.' 
 
 Almack's. A suite of assembly 
 rooms, built in 1765, in King Street, 
 St. James's, London, by a tavern-keeper 
 named M'Call, who inverted the two 
 syllables of his name, Mac-call, into All- 
 mack or Almack. The rooms became 
 famous for fashionable balls under the 
 management of a committee of ladies of 
 the highest rank. The rooms are now 
 called Willis's Rooms, from a proprietor 
 named Willis. 
 
 Al'magest. The Arabic translation 
 of Ptolemy's ' Magna Constructio,' by 
 command of Al Mamiin, a.d. 827. It 
 was retranslated by Gerard of Cremona, 
 about 1230. Ptolemy's ' Sjoitaxis of As- 
 tronomy ' was written about a.d. 150. 
 
 Almiran'te (-EZ), without the adjunct 
 of a proper name, means Columbus. 
 
 So El Marchese, among Mexicans, means Cortes ; 
 and II Segretario, among the Florentines, means 
 Machiavel. 
 
 Al'mohades (3 syl.). A dynasty 
 that ruled in Africa and Spain in the 
 
22 
 
 ALMORAH 
 
 AMBOISE 
 
 12th and ISth cent. TLe word means 
 ' The Unitarians,' and they assumed that 
 they alone of all the earth worshipped 
 God properly. The founder of the sect 
 was Mahommed Ibn Toumert, of the 
 Atlas region. The power of the Mohades 
 was destroyed in Spain in 1257 and in 
 Africa in 1269. (Mohades, 2 syh) 
 
 Almo'rah, in Hindustan (Co»ue7i:'207i 
 of), 27 April, 1815, for the cession of 
 Kumaon to the British. 
 
 Almo'ravides (4 syl.). A dynasty 
 in Africa and Spain founded by Yahia 
 Ibn Ibrahim about 1050 ; driven out of 
 Spain in 1155; suppressed in Africa 1208. 
 The word Almoravides is a corruption 
 of *A1 Morabeth' (the frontier people). 
 Called in English the Marabuts. 
 
 The founder is sometimes called Abdallah Ibn 
 Ya&im, •who undertook to instruct the tribes on 
 the slopes of the Atlas range in the Mahometan 
 taith. 
 
 Alog'ians {The), or ' Al'ogi.' 2nd 
 cent. Those who denied the divinity of 
 the Logos, and rejected the Gospel of 
 St. John with the Apocalypse. (Greek, 
 d, negative, Aoyos, the word.) 
 
 Alom.l)rados [The). Religious sect- 
 aries of Spain first mentioned in 1575, 
 suppressed by the Inquisition in l(i23. 
 They were an early school of the lUumi- 
 nati. 
 
 Alphonsine Tables. See ' Alfon- 
 Bine ' lire. 
 
 Altenberg, in Hungary (Congress 
 of), 12-28 Sept., 1809. For the negotiation 
 of peace between France and Austria. 
 
 Alter ego. Is an official title origin- 
 ally in use in the Two Sicilies, meaning 
 the vicar-general of the king, to whom was 
 deputed sovereign power. The French 
 lieutenant-general of the kingdom was 
 a similar officer. 
 
 It is now used to signify a vary dear friend, a 
 ' second self.' 
 
 Altmark, in Prussia {Truce of), 26 
 Sept., 1628. Between Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden and Sigismund of Poland, for 
 six years. 
 
 Extended to 26 years Sept. 12, 1635. 
 
 Altona, in Holstein {Convention of), 
 20 June, 1689. Between Christian V. of 
 Denmark and Christian Albert of Hol- 
 stein-Gottorp. by the mediation of the 
 kaiser. (Al'-to-nah.) 
 
 Amal ( The). The chief or king of the 
 Goths. The Amals, or ' sons of Odin,' 
 were a race of heroes who reigned over 
 the Goths in the 5th and 6th Christian 
 centuries. The word means celestials — 
 Amal'aric, or rather Amalric, one of this 
 race, means ' the celestial king.' Theo- 
 dorick the Great was an Amal. Kingsley 
 in his ' Hypatia ' frequently uses the word. 
 
 Amalflan Code {The), or ' Tabula 
 Amalphitilua.* A code of maritime laws 
 compiled by the Amalfians in the 11th 
 cent., and observed by all Italy. 
 
 Amazo'nian Brigade {The), 1792. 
 The dames de la Halle and the women of 
 the Faubourg St.-Antoine enrolled them- 
 selves into this brigade in the French 
 Revolution. Their head-dress was a hoii- 
 net-rouge, or red night-cap, with a tri- 
 colour cockade, and their arms were pikes. 
 
 Amazons. Runjeet Singh of La- 
 hore formed a regiment of 150 of the 
 prettiest girls in Cashmere, Persia, and 
 the Punjab. They were magnificently 
 dressed, armed with bows and arrows, and 
 appeared on horseback as cavalry. This 
 regiment was more for the amusement of 
 the maharajah than for war service. 
 
 Anibarva'lia, a festival in which the 
 Romans, in solenm procession, prayed for 
 their fields and increase of corn. {Ain^ 
 round about, a7*ra = the fields.) 
 
 It was the day of the ' little ' or private Ambar- 
 vaha, celebrated by a single family for the -welfare 
 of all belonging to it ; as the great college of the 
 Arval brothers at Rome officiated in the interest 
 of the whole city. — Patee, Marius the Epicurean, 
 chap. i. 
 
 Arnb er Witch ( The) . A literary for- 
 gery, professing to be a * story of the 
 olden time.' "VSTien it first ajipeared the 
 great scholars of Germany applied severe 
 tests of historical and philological criti- 
 cism to the work, and declared it to be 
 an undoubted relic of antiquity. Even 
 those acute neologists, the Tiibingen Re- 
 viewers, found it ' hoary with the lapse of 
 centuries.' When the wise ones had fully 
 committed themselves, Dr. Reinhold came 
 forward and proved beyond a doubt that 
 he was himself the author. See ' Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 Amboise {Conspiracy of), 1560. 
 Formed by the partisans of the Prince of 
 Conde, to carry off Francois 11., and to 
 massacre the Guises, who had removed 
 from Paris to Amboise when they gained 
 
AMBOISB 
 
 AMEKICAN 
 
 23 
 
 secret information of the conspiracy. 
 Called the Conspiracy of Amboise because 
 the conspirators assembled there to carry 
 out their purposes. It was betrayed to 
 the Duke de Guise, and 27 barons, 11 
 counts, and 7 marquises were executed 
 in one day. 
 
 Pronounce Ahm-bwoiz. 
 
 Amboise {Edict of), 19 March, 1563. 
 It gave to the Huguenots free exercise of 
 religion in those towns which were in the 
 power of the Calvinists at the date of 
 7 March, 15G3 ; permission to the lords 
 hauts justiciers to hold assemblies 
 throughout the whole extent of their do- 
 mains ; permission to the nobles of the 
 second rank to celebrate their worship in 
 their own houses, but only for their house- 
 hold ; finally, permission in each baili- 
 wick pertaining directly to the parle- 
 ments for a single place of worship. To 
 all other persons it accorded only the 
 right of private worship. See ' Edict of 
 January.' 
 
 Amboise, in France {Treaty of), 
 12 March, 1503. Concluding the ' Eelieious 
 War ' (15G2-G3) ; signed by Charles IX. of 
 France. 
 
 Am.boy'na {The Massacre of), 1624. 
 The Dutch laid claim to all the Spice 
 Islands in the Indian Archipelago. In 
 one of these (Amboyna) the English East 
 India Company had established, in 1612, 
 a small settlement at Cambello. In the 
 whole island there were some 20 English, 
 80 Japanese, and 200 Dutch. The Dutch 
 pretended that the English and Japanese 
 had combined to expel them from the 
 island, so they seized Captain Tower son, 
 with 9 other Englishmen, 9 Japanese, and 
 1 Portuguese, and, after torturing them, 
 cut off their heads. See ' Massacres.' 
 
 Ambro'sian Chant, or 'Hymn,' 
 called ' Ambrosianum,' mentioned by 
 Isidore in his ' De Eccl. Offic' Book I. c. G. 
 It was a chant or hymn introduced into 
 the church at Milan in the 4th cent., 
 now known as the ' Te Deum laudamus,' 
 said, as we now have it, to have been the 
 joint work of St. Ambrose and St. Augus- 
 tine. 
 
 Ambro'sian Library {The), at 
 
 Milan, founded by Cardinal FAderigo 
 Borromeo in 1G02, and plundered by 
 Napoleon in 1796. The plunder was re- 
 stored in 1816. So named in honour of 
 St. Ambrosias, patron saint of Milan. 
 
 N.B. St. Ambrose was Bishop of Milan, 
 A.D. 374-397. 
 
 Ambro'sian Liturgy, ' Missal,' 
 ' Office.' So called from being edited and 
 supplemented by St. Ambrose, bishop of 
 Milan (340, 374-397). This liturgy is one 
 of the most ancient ; and must, of course, 
 have been in use before the time of St. 
 Ambrose. This is called the Liturgy of 
 Milan, and is one of the chief liturgies of 
 the Roman Church, the other three being 
 the Roman, the Gallican, and the Spanish 
 Liturgies. 
 
 Ambro'sian Mass, * Missa Ani- 
 brosiana.' Used at Milan, according to 
 the service employed by St. Ambrose. 
 
 Am'brosin. A coin of the middle 
 ages, struck by the dukes of Milan, on 
 which St. Ambrose was represented on 
 horseback, with a whip in his right hand. 
 
 Amedieu (2 syl.), or 'Friends of 
 God,' 1400. A religious congregation who 
 wore no breeches, but a grej"^ cloak girded 
 at the loins with a rope. Pius V. united 
 them to the Cistercians and Soccolanti. 
 
 Amen Corner, London. Before the 
 Reformation the clergy used to walk in 
 procession every year on Corpus Christi 
 day to St. Paul's Cathedral. They mus- 
 tered at the upper end of Cheapside, and 
 there commenced chanting the Pater- 
 noster, which continued through ' Pater- 
 noster Row ' ; at the end of the Row they 
 said Avien, and the spot was called 
 * Amen Corner.' They then began the 
 Ave Maria, turning down ' Ave-Maria 
 Lane.' After crossing Ludgate, they 
 chanted the Credo in' Creed Lane ' (which 
 no longer exists). 
 
 Corpus Christi Day, called in French the ' Fete 
 Dieu,' is tlie Tliursday after Trinity Sunday ; it waa 
 the greatest Church festival in the year. 
 
 American — 
 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, incorporated by the 
 legislature of Massachusetts, 1780. 
 
 Academy of Fine Arts, founded at New York, 1808. 
 
 Antiquarian Society, incorporated by the legisla- 
 ture of Massachusetts, lsl2. 
 
 Anti-Slavery Society, formed 1833. 
 
 Association for Uie Advancevient of Science, projeo* 
 ted at Boston, 1847. 
 
 Bible Society, founded in New York, 1816. 
 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, insti- 
 tuted 1810. 
 
 Colonisation Society, founded at Washington, 1816. 
 
 Company (of Russia) for carrying on the fur trade 
 with the north-west coast of America, incorpor- 
 ated 179!). 
 
 Philosophical Society, originated by Franklin, 1713li 
 
 Temperance Society, t ^niied at Boston 1826. 
 
 Tract Society, institubba at Boston 1811. 
 
24 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 AMIENS 
 
 American Cato (Tl^\ Old S>jumiel 
 
 psiriotic part hi tbe Air.; .lion. 
 
 aiid xras g^oT^mor of M,s-> ^ 
 
 Anierican Pabius il'nf\ O^ot^ 
 
 American Land League {Th^\ 
 
 l<-<^2 A branch of the Iris^h • Lsxid 
 
 I , - rresssed the ssnieyeAT. The 
 
 1 . ■w-a* reorcanised into the 
 
 ".-■eAgne' i.^.r.). S^' 'Irish 
 
 American Post&gre Stamps 
 (T/i.t'1. Each denciiiiiiation of «ainp 
 co.iitAins & diSeTexit head. There are 
 twelve denoniinationsv and twelve beads 
 of American worthier 
 
 J p.- -- - •=^.-^ - •-.- - — 
 
 a. Ar -tV 
 
 &. C. .«ntV 
 
 6. A 
 
 of Lcxin^om w*s fc«cyS»t 1? April. ITvT^ atnd tJia 
 cv.'tss.-i ;:,--■ ,-■ v.-sv":': :,> ^>-"■.^. c^Tvst r;ritJ».in ■«-«*. l»y 
 cr,\ .-rocJA-iuisya in th« 
 
 A: 
 y i-v>i^T»^?«>n<* of tl»« 
 
 rv. ~ - .-. in :rr^ ; Hoii*»d 
 
 or. 
 
 i » proTisjca&l oonip*ct ^rith 
 
 At. ". 'jsi : ».TiTsou7><.>«i to rskjlj*a»«n*, 
 
 5 v. , >. .utilities ceart-si 30 Jan., 17SS. 
 
 Tbe iriLiiii '..r-jcp* ex^acti-^* New York, 3? Kov.: 
 
 Kztox took possos&ioa of the town. 
 
 American \^aT {Th^ SW'ow^ 
 lSl*2-lSli. The American War of Inde- 
 j>?.ndence t<^nniuated in 17SS, The 
 ssecond war between America and Great 
 Britain was declared by the Unitt^i 
 States. Jitne IS, 1S1:2. and c<\nclnded 
 Dec, 24. 1S14, by the Pe^ct? of Ghent. 
 The chieX battles were : (Ccij:>iMU, Eni?- 
 lish victories ; «><37tV, AmericAn victorie^ 
 
 St v> rvvvv \ --. -. ...-V, .. ... losi. 
 
 -^ r.fcVt. 
 
 r - ■. -Vet. lii^ 
 
 American War of Indepen- 
 dence Ih/.. 17T.>-17SS. Tlie first skir- 
 mish w.^s at Lt^\:-:ictor.. IP April. 1775 ; 
 issv;e doT.btfnl. but tir.iniwrtAnt.. Ter- 
 r.v>.-.,^t<?d by the PeAoe of Versailles. 
 &:c-;k d at Paris S Sept., 17SS. The olv 
 
 ject of the ^ * - -lalte the United 
 
 StAte.s of A -.■en dent of Eng- 
 
 land. The ._ > of the war are 
 
 sill ;\"hied- iiioSi u:. .:, 7ww<t»j tyj^e were 
 acul :ful. Those in i:i:'i7-cf were won by 
 V •,--,— -^.--c Those in Ciij:''-^*!-^''* ^ere 
 
 --e OTex Washrr>£!t«a>, 
 Tv-on t'TT lord Ko^ei. 
 
 i i. ■.> r^rw IKE, U Sep., 1777 vHc-ws over Wasiiis^. 
 
 Sr.V.xt-at^r. IP Sfp^. 1777 : *2sd 6 Oct., 1777. 
 
 > ■.■.^',-1 :~~7 <>*t.i=« over Ba .-goyneX 
 
 "«', 2? Jaa., 17> 0«-an by 
 
 .•r..,17SQ. 
 - Morpajj over Tark-tonV 
 
 C-. .r.y.r, Ic I>.;i:rch, IJSl iComT«iallis over 
 
 H.': IntK Hn.T., SB Apiil, 17S1 ilU-wdoa over 
 
 i-...Atr' -Spriag. ? Sept.. 17=1 (rf».iT»«»d by .^mold-i 
 :i , . iikit, l;* Oct. 17S1 iW «»sliiii^<oa over Coir»- 
 
 liie wax lasted eifbt rears to a day. Tbe b&ttle 
 
 . ,-: :-. crar.d 
 
 r,$Ton by sarprjs*, : - n«a 
 
 . .. s baa^cet. tivosf .' - -;4.) 
 
 Aia.erican Civil Wax ,r,.< . iScSl- 
 ISt^?, Between the Federals of tlie 
 Northern States and the Confederates of 
 tiie Sonthem and slave-holding StAJeiS. 
 The total loss of life was ScWOOO, The 
 Federals were the victors, and American 
 slaveholdiiig ttas abolished. Cost of the 
 war, to the' Federals, iHO.OL>0.0007> ster- 
 lin^; to the Confederates, 460,000,0001. 
 Total, l.iOO.OOO.OOO;. sterling. 
 
 Ami du Peuple [L\ A scandalous 
 democratic journal conducted by lMa.ra4 
 in the French Ke volution. Its articles 
 were most ferocious, and no one was 
 spared except the very scum of the 
 people. The original name of this in- 
 famous joumid was the 'Publiciste 
 Parisien,' and its last title was *Iie 
 Joomal de la Kepublique,' 
 
 ProBoarsoe LrfJi'-n}« dxi Pea'pL 
 
 Amiens (Peac^e oA 1 Oct., ISOl. 
 
 One of the most fatuous ever made 
 by England. As Lord Grenville said : 
 'Elngiand gave up everything, and 
 France notliiug. France tept Savov, 
 Belgium, the Crermanic StAtes on the 
 left bank of tlie FJiine, Upper ItAly, and 
 Holland. In Asia she wa^ to have 
 
AMIS 
 
 ANABAPTISTS 
 
 25 
 
 Pondichcrry, Cochin, Nepjapatam, and 
 the Si)ice IsiandH ; in Africa she was to 
 have the Cape of Gof)d Hope and 
 Senef^al ; in the West Indies she was to 
 hold Martinique, St. Lucia, Guadaloupe, 
 Tobiif^o, Curasao, and most of St. 
 Domingo; in America s' e was to be 
 repossessed of St. Pierre and Miquelon; 
 and in South America she was to keep 
 Surinam, Demerara, Berbice, and Esse- 
 quil)0.' We had spent in the nine years 
 4(;i,H00,000/., and retained nothing but 
 Ceylon and Trinidad. Addington's 
 Ministry. On 22 May, 1802, a fresh 
 rupture put an end to the * Peace.' 
 
 Amis des Noirs {SocieiS des). The 
 first anti-slavery society instituted at 
 Paris by Brissot de Warville, Feb. 1788. 
 
 PronouncG Ah'-mo da Nwar'. 
 
 Amnesty Association ( Tlifi),imo. 
 
 The members were nearly all Fenians, 
 and one of them was Mr. Parnell. 
 Other members were Egan, Biggar, 
 J. Nolan, John Levy, James Carey, 
 John Sullivan, and Daniel Curley. 
 
 Amor'ian Dynasty [The), of the 
 Byzantine Empire. It includes Michael 
 II., the Stammerer, who was born at 
 Amoria, in Phrygia, from 820-829 ; 
 Theophilus, 829-842, and Michael III., 
 the Sot, 842-8G7. This dynasty was 
 then succeeded by the Macedonian under 
 Basil I. 
 
 Michael II. conspired afjninst Leo the Armenian, 
 and was mado emiicror in H20. 
 
 Amor'ian "War (TM, a.d. 838. 
 
 Between the Emperor Theophilus (son of 
 Michael the Stammerer), and the Calif 
 Motassem (son of Harun al Rashid). 
 So called from Amorium, in Phrygia, 
 the birthjilace of Theophilus. The 
 Saracens had the word Amorium in- 
 erribed on their saddles, in revenge of 
 Theophilus's siege of Sozopetra, the 
 birthplace of MotasscA. The Saracens 
 •were the victors, but the slaughter on 
 both sides was great. Gibbon gives it 
 as 70,000 Moslems and 30,000 Christians. 
 Theopliilus waa defeated at Dasymon, and 
 Amoi'ium was lost. 
 
 AmpMctyon'ic Council {The). 
 Established B.C. 1124 to the 2nd cent. 
 A.D. A politico-religious court of twelve 
 Grecian tribes held twice a year. In 
 spring, the members met in the Temple 
 of Apollo, at Delphi ; and in the autumn 
 they met in the Temple of Ceres, at 
 2 
 
 Anthela, near Thermopyloe. Their pur- 
 pose was (1) to determine questioris of 
 international law; and (2) to preserve 
 the religious institutions of Greece. 
 
 ^'"schin<!8 gives the ffillowing names : the 
 TheBsalians, B<*otianH, DorianH. lonjans, Perrhte- 
 bians, Maf,'n<!to8, Locrians, (i'",)it;ans, Phthiots, 
 Malians, I'hocians, and one omitted, probably 
 the Oolopians. In the time of Demosthenes the 
 glory had departed from the council. 
 
 Amphis'san "War {The). The 
 third sacred war of Greece, from Feb. 
 to Aug. B.C. 338. Tlie Locrians oi 
 Amphissa rebuilt Cirrha on the ' Sacred 
 Land,' and the matter, B.C. 33'J, was laid 
 before the Amphictyonic Council, which 
 declares war against these Locrians. 
 Philip II. of Macedon undertakes the 
 war for the Council, and is joined by the 
 Peloponnesians ; but Athens and Thebes 
 take the side of the Locrians. Amphissa 
 is taken and destroyed in the summer 
 of 338, and in August of the same year 
 the Thebans and Athenians being over- 
 thrown at Cheronea, the war is brought 
 to an end. 
 
 Am'pian Law {The), b.c. 64. A 
 law by T. Am'pius, one of the tribunes, 
 to allow Ponipey to wear the sjnnbols of 
 triumph at the Circensian games. 
 
 Amyclse'an Silence, perilous 
 
 silence. It is said that the Amyclfeans 
 were forbidden to disturb the peace by 
 raising a cry of danger from invasion. 
 This law was passed, because the people 
 were always crying ' wolf,' out of fear of 
 the Spartans. It so happened that the 
 Spartans came at last, and none durst 
 sound a note of warning, and so the city 
 was taken. Hence the Greek proverbs, 
 ' AmycljB perished through silence,' and 
 ' more silent than the Amyclaeans ' 
 {Anujclis ipsis taciturnior). 
 
 Anabaptists, 1521. The nickname 
 of a religious party who maintained that, 
 as baptism should not be administered 
 without a personal confession of faith, 
 the baptism of infanta was worthless, 
 and those who had so been bai)tizecl 
 must be baptized aga,in as adults, at 
 their own express desire, and after a 
 confession of faith. 
 
 In Germany, John of Leyden, Munzer, 
 Knipi)erdoling, and others were called 
 Anabaptists, and maintained that Christ 
 was not God, that righteousness is of 
 works, that there is no such thing as 
 original sin, that infants ought not to ba 
 
23 
 
 ANACEEON 
 
 ANDELOT 
 
 baptized, that all men are of one rank, 
 and that civil magistrates are anti- 
 scriptural. See ' Mennonites.' 
 
 The Anabaptists of Moravia called 
 themselves apostolical. They went 
 barefoot ; had a community of goods ; 
 dressed in black ; and had very gloomy 
 views of future judgment, the malice of 
 Satan, and the enduring pains of hell. 
 
 Anac'reon {The French). I. Pontus 
 de Thiard, one of the ' Pleiad poets ' 
 (1521-1605). 
 
 n. p. Laiyon, perpetual president of 
 the * Caveau Moderne,' a Paris club 
 noted for its good dinners. No one not a 
 poet could be a member of it (1727-1811). 
 
 Anaereon {The Persian), Mo- 
 hammed Hafiz. His collected poems are 
 called ' The Divan ' (1310-1389). 
 
 Anaereon '{The Scotch). Alex- 
 ander Scot (nourished 1550). 
 
 Anaereon {The Sicilian), Gio- 
 vanni Meli (1740-1815). 
 
 Anaereon Moore. Thomas Moore 
 
 of Dublin, who translated Anacreon's 
 odes from Greek into English in the 
 spirit of the original, and wrote numerous 
 odes and other poems of unusual merit 
 (1779-1852). 
 
 Anacreon_ of Painters {The). 
 
 Francesco Albano (or Albani), 1578-lCCO. 
 Anaereon of the Guillotine. 
 
 Bertrand Barere de Vieuzac, president 
 of the National Convention in 1792. So 
 called from the flowery language he 
 employed in speaking on the measures 
 of the Keign of Terror. 
 
 Anaereon of the Temple {The). 
 
 Guillaume Amfrye, abbe de Chaulieu 
 (1C39-1720), the Tom Moore of France. 
 Called 'of the Temple' from the place 
 of his abode. Sometimes called the 
 Horace of France. 
 
 Anaereon of the Twelfth Cen- 
 tury. Walter Mapes or Map (1150-1196). 
 His song ' Meum est propositum ' has 
 been translated by Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Anagni, in Italy {Council of), 
 24 March, 1160, in which Pope Alexander 
 III. exconamunicated Frederick Bar- 
 barossa. 
 
 Anally, in Ireland. The modern 
 Longford. 
 
 Anatomy {Professorship of), in the 
 University of Cambridge, 1707 ; founded 
 by the University. Stipend 800Z. a year. 
 See ' Lowndean Professor.' 
 
 Anatomy Act {The), 2, 3, Will. IV. 
 C. 75, 1832. It provides that a person 
 must have a licence to practise anatomy ; 
 it enjoins that inspectors be appointed 
 to visit chambers where anatomy is 
 carried on ; that any one may leave his 
 body to be dissected, if he chooses. The 
 law is not applicable to post-mortem 
 examinations. 
 
 The cause of this Act of Parliament was that 
 pei'sons previously used to murder people and 
 sell their dead bodies for dissection. Burke and 
 Hare murdered sixteen persons and sold their 
 bodies. They used to inveigle men, women, and 
 children into a house, make them drunk, and then 
 smother them by placing a pitch plaster over the 
 mouth and nose. 
 
 Anatomy of Melancholy {The), 
 
 1621. ' A carnival of quotations, Greek, 
 Latin, German, French, and Italian ; 
 philosophical, geometrical, medical, 
 poetical, astrological, musicai pedagogic' 
 The subject is melancholy, its nature, 
 seat, varieties, causes, symjitoms, pro- 
 gnosis; its cure, by legitimate and for- 
 bidden means, by dietetics and by phar- 
 macy. Author, the Kev. Robert Burton 
 (1576-1640). 
 
 Ancenis, in France {Treaty of), 
 10 Sept., 1468. A treaty of pe^ice be- 
 tween Louis XL and Francois XL, due 
 de Bretagne. 
 
 Ancient of the Mountains {The). 
 
 Chief of the Assassins. 
 
 The Assassins settled in Persia in 1090. Mur" 
 dared the iUarquis of Montferrat in ll'./'2 ; Louis 
 (Ludwig) of Bavaria in 1213 ; the Khan of Xartary 
 in 12o4, &c. In 1257 the mischievous sect was 
 extirpated. 
 
 Ancients. The Moravian elders 
 who are the civil and ecclesiastical heads 
 of the community. They preside over 
 the education of the children, enjoin 
 penances, pronounce excommunications, 
 and determine the rank of each member 
 of the community. 
 
 Between the French ' National Council ' and 
 'Corps Legislatif were 'two councils,' one of 
 which was cslled the Conseildes A iscifns (consisting 
 Of '250 members), the other being the Coiiseil de 
 Cinq-cents. The Florentine Coujicil in the 13th 
 cent, were called the Anziani. Se)iator means 
 ' senior,' or elder. 
 
 Andelot {Treaty of), 28 Nov., a.d. 
 587. Between Gontran of Orleans and 
 Childebert II. of Austrasia. By this 
 
ANDREW 
 
 ANGELUS 
 
 27 
 
 treaty Burgundy was assigned to 
 Gontran. 
 
 Andrew {Knights of St.), 10 Sept., 
 1698. A Russian military order (founded 
 by Peter the Great). The cordon is sky- 
 blue. The motto is 'For Religion and 
 Loyalty.' 
 
 The Scotch order is generally called the Order 
 Of the Thistle. 
 
 Andrews {University of St.). Lec- 
 tures commenced here in 1410. Charter 
 granted by Henry Wardlaw, bishop of 
 St. Andrews, 27 Feb., 1411. Chartered 
 3 March, 1432, by James I. of Scotland. 
 St. Salviltor College founded, 1455, by 
 James Kennedy, bishoi? of St. Andrews. 
 St. Leonard's College founded, 1512, by 
 prior John Hepburn. St. Salvator's and 
 St. Leonard's Colleges united 1747, and 
 called the ' United College.' 
 
 The PoBdagogy of Wardlaw was enlarged in 15.88 
 by Archbishop Beaton, and called St. Mary's or 
 New College. 
 
 Andrussow, in Russia {Truce of), 
 80 Jan., 1667. Between Alexis Michailo- 
 witz, czar of Russia, and John II., king 
 of Poland, for fifteen years. It stipulated 
 for the re-annexation to Russia of 
 Smolensko, Polotsk, Mohilef, and Kief, 
 with the abandonment of part of the 
 Ukraine and Severia. 
 
 Ane'da or Agne'da. The modern 
 Latin name of Edinburgh (Scotland). 
 
 Angel of the Church of Smyrna 
 
 (The). Polycarp, the fourth of the 
 Apostolic Fathers {q.v.). He is so ad- 
 dressed in the Book of the Revelation. 
 It is said that he was a disciple of John, 
 the apostle, who appointed him bishop. 
 
 Angel of the Schools {The). 
 
 Thomas d'Aquinas, the fifth doctor (1224- 
 1274). See ' Angelic Doctor.' 
 
 Angelic Doctor {The). 'Doctor 
 Angelicus,' ' Angel of the Schools,' ' the 
 Eagle of Divines," the Universal Doctor,' 
 &c. Thomas Aquinas, or St. Thomas of 
 Aquino, in Italy, of the Dominican order 
 (born 1227, died 1274, canonised by 
 John XXII. in 1369, and declared by 
 Pius v., in 1567, to be the ' Fifth Doctor 
 of the Church ' ). He was a schoolman 
 of the Aristotelian class, and a Nominalist 
 {q.v.). His great oi^ponent was Duns 
 Scotus, a Realist {q.v.), of the Franciscan 
 order j and from these two leaders 
 
 Nominalists were called ' Thomists,' and 
 Realitits ' Scotists.' 
 
 The five doctors ■were Ambrose (340 307) ; 
 Augustine (354 4:50) ; Jerome (315-420) ; Gregory, 
 and Aquinas. See Addis and Arnold's Diet., 
 ' Doctors of the Church.' 
 
 It is said that Thomas Aquinas was called the 
 "Angel of the Schools,' or the 'Angelic Doctor,' 
 from his controversy ' Utrum Angolus possit 
 moveri do extremo ad extremum non transeunda 
 per medium.' Aquinas took the negative. 
 
 Angel'ici, 1st cent. Certain Chris- 
 tians who worshipped angels. They 
 were most numerous in a.d. 180. Men- 
 tioned by St. Augustine in his ' Liber de 
 Haeresibus,' ' qui angelos cultu divino 
 prosequebantur.' Angelolatry was for- 
 bidden by the Council of Laodicea in 366, 
 but enjoined by the Second Council of 
 Nice in 787. See ' Angelites.' 
 
 Angel'ici. An order of knighthood 
 instituted 1191 by the Emperor Isaac II. 
 
 Angel'icus, meaning ' Hymnus An- 
 gelicus,' is the hymn sung in the Mass, 
 ' Glory to God in the highest, &c.,' sung 
 by the angels at the Nativity. The 
 Trisagion is also called 'Hymnus An- 
 gelicus.' 
 
 The monk's dress is called ' Angelicus,' 
 or ' Angelica Vestis,' ' quod et ipsi di- 
 cantur angeli a patribus,' as in the 
 Revelation the ministers of the churches 
 of Asia are addressed as ' Angels.' 
 
 An'gelites (3 syl.), a.d. 494. Mono- 
 ph'ysites (4 syl.), or heretics who main- 
 tained that Christ had but one nature. 
 They I'eceived their name from Angelius, 
 in Alexandria, where they used to meet. 
 See 'Angelici.' 
 
 AngeVium (T/ie). The annunciation. 
 First mentioned by Gelasius in 492. 
 
 An'gelus, 1095 (Council of Clermont). 
 A prayer and a bell which calls to the 
 prayer. The Angelus is a prayer to the 
 Virgin Mary, instituted by Urban II. It 
 begins with the words ' Angelus Domini 
 nuntiavit Marias ' (Luke i. 28), then follows 
 the salutation of the angel Gabriel, ' Ave 
 Maria,' &c. The prayer contains three 
 verses, and each verse ends with the 
 salutation, ' Ave Maria.' The bell, which is 
 rung three times a day, morning, noon, 
 and evening, was instituted in 1316, by 
 John XXII. It was Louis XI. who (1472) 
 commanded it to be rung daily at noon. 
 
 Louis IX., in 1472, commanded all his subjects 
 to repeat the ' Salutatio Angelica ' every noon, at 
 the suuud of a bell. The Complino is about three 
 
29 
 
 ANGLE SEA 
 
 ANNALS 
 
 hoiirs aft^T the Vespers, •which are said at sxmset, 
 say 6 o clock p.m. 
 
 Anglesaa Leg {The). Aii artificial 
 leg like tliat made for the Marquis of 
 Anglesea, 
 
 r>r. Biy's ^^ is an improvement oa the Anglesea 
 leg. 
 
 Pronounce An'-gle-see. 
 
 Anglo-Israel Identity Society 
 
 {The^. A religious sect wliicli holds that 
 the inhabit:viits of Great Britain are none 
 other than the lost teu tribes of the House 
 of Israel. Some of the reasons assigned 
 are these : (1) The children of Israel \rere 
 to inhabit islands north-west of Palestine ; 
 (2| they were to speak a language not 
 Semitic ; (8) they were to j)ossess colonies 
 in all parts of the earth (Isa. liv. 3) ; (4) 
 Israel was to have a nation from her, 
 but independent of her (Ameriea) ; (5) 
 Israel was to be under a monarchy ; ((5) 
 Israel was to be unconquerable, but to 
 be a great conqueror ; (7) Israel was to 
 be a sabbath-keeping people; (8) Israel 
 was to be a prolific race ; (9) Israel was to 
 send missionaries to the end of the earth 
 (Isa. xliii. 21). 
 
 Anglo-Israelism (19th cent., last 
 quarter!. The hy^iothesis that the English 
 are the descendants of the lost tribes. 
 See above. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon {Profesfiorship of), 
 in the University of Cambridge, 1878. 
 Founded by the Rev. Joseph Bosworth, 
 D.D., of Trinity College, and called the 
 Ebrington and Bosworth Professorship 
 of Anglo-Saxon. Stipend not less than 
 500Z. a year. 
 
 Anne Mar.ciret Elliot, married twice, first 
 Colonel Ebrington, tind then Dr. Bosworth. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (TJi^). 
 Said to have been begun at the instance 
 of Kitig Alfred. It begins with Ca?sar's 
 invasion, and ends with the accession of 
 Henry U. (115-k). 
 
 An'grias {The). The Mahratta pirates. 
 Conaji Angria and his brothers began 
 their piratical exploits in 1670. Angria 
 was taken prisoner by the English in 1756, 
 when his piratical state was overthrown. 
 
 An'inia Mundi, called by Plato, 
 ' Psuche tou kosmou.' Plato compared 
 tlie great world to a human being (or the 
 little world). As man is vitalised by the 
 livmg soul within hi -i, so the world itself 
 is vitalised by its living soul, without 
 which it would be a mere corjjus ttwr- 
 
 tiium. The sun would give neither light 
 nor heat, the vegetable world would yield 
 neither leaves nor seed, the animal world 
 would consist of dead bodies only. The 
 sun would not glow, the trees would not 
 blossom, the air would not circulate, the 
 rivers would not run into the sea, the sea 
 would not evaporate, and the seasons 
 would have no succession. 
 
 Stidil (1660-17O-1) called this * Psuchg ' 
 ' Anima Mundi,' by which he meaiit that 
 it is not God who vivifies and preserves 
 aU things in being, but a vital principle 
 which dwells in the universe, as the soul 
 dwells in man. This anitnn mundi is 
 not material, but co-exists with all objects 
 and quickens them : 
 
 Warms in the sun. refreshes in the breeie, 
 Glo-ws in the stArs. and blossoms in the trees. 
 Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 
 Spreads undivided, operates unspent.— Poiw. 
 
 An'iniism, Animists. The system 
 which explains the phenomena of life 
 and disease by the action of so\x\{anim<i), 
 and rejects the solution of these pheno- 
 mena as purely physical. Van Helmont 
 may be called the chief advocate of 
 animism, and the system was taken up 
 by George Ernest Stahl in the 18th cent. 
 Those who believe in animism are called 
 ' Animists.' See Rom. i. 20. 
 
 The difference between Stahl's doctrine 
 and Spinoza's is this. Stahl taught the 
 existence of an independent and all- 
 pervading ' anima ' ; but Spinoza taught 
 the identity of phenomena and deity. 
 Pope expresses Stahl's idea in the weU- 
 known lines — 
 Great in the earth, as in the ethereal Irame, &c 
 
 St-e above. 
 
 Annals. Registers kept in Rome 
 from the commencement of the state 
 down to the time of Publius Mucins ; 
 they were made by the Pontifex IMaxi- 
 mus, and were called ' Annales Maximi.' 
 Livy freely used them in his history. 
 
 Annals are bare records of events. History is 
 tracing out the motives and consequences of theso 
 events. 
 
 Annals of Tacitus (The). Said 
 to be a forgery by Poggio Bracciolini, 
 a leiU'ned scholar of Tuscany (1381-1459), 
 author of ' Historia Florentina ' (printed 
 1715), and ' De Varietate Fortunse ' 
 (printed 1723). The tale is that he was 
 paid 500 gold sequins (about 250/.) by 
 Cosmo de' Medici for his MS. ; the 
 original is still shown in the library of 
 Florence. It was published in 1463, 
 
ANNAPOLIS 
 
 ANNUAL 
 
 29 
 
 when Johannes de Spire produced ' the 
 last six books, which he affirmed he had 
 copied carefully from the original in 
 St. Mark's, Venice ; ' but this original 
 was only Bracciolini's forgery. The first 
 six books did not appear till 1514 (i.e. 46 
 years after the last six). See ' Literary 
 Forgeries,' &c. 
 
 The reply to this is that Poggio Brac- 
 ciolini was a professional dealer in MSS. 
 and purchased them if possible, or ob- 
 tained permission to make transcripts. 
 The sixteen books of Annals in MS. are 
 not Poggio's original work, but merely a 
 transcri])t of the original lent him to 
 copy. The manifest reply is, first, that 
 Poggio was not a mere tradesman, but 
 apostolic secretary to Boniface IX. and 
 seven succeeding popes (1412-1452). He 
 attended the Council of Constance (1414- 
 1415), most certainly not as a tradesman. 
 He resided with Cardinal Beaufort in 
 1417 ; was chancellor of the republic of 
 Florence in 1452, and was the author of 
 two important works at least. "Where is 
 the original from which Poggio made his 
 copy ? And can any reference to the 
 'Annals ' be shown before the 16th cent. ? 
 
 The Annals consist of Books I., II., 
 III., IV., half of v., VI., . . . XI., XII., 
 XIII., XIV., XV., and part of XVI. 
 
 No -writer has mentioned the name of the 'Annals 
 of Tacitus ' before 1J38. vhen Beatus Rhenanus so 
 speaks of the book, and may be said to have given 
 jt its name. See 'Tacitus and Bracciolini,' pub- 
 lished by Diprose & Bateman, Lincoln's Inn Fields. 
 
 Annap'olis, in Maryland (U.S. 
 America). So named in compliment to 
 Anne (16G9), afterwards Queen of Eng- 
 land, when it was constituted the seat of 
 local government. 
 
 An'nates (2 syl.), or 'first fruits.' 
 In ecclesiastical law means the value of 
 a spiritual living for a whole year. From 
 12G0 to the time of the Reformation, the 
 pope claimed the first fruits ; but by the 
 20 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1534) they were, in 
 England, annexed to the crown, and hy 
 2 Anne c. 11 the revenue thus arising 
 was vested in trustees for a perpetual 
 fund to augment poor livings. This fund 
 is called ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' An- 
 nates were first calculated according to a 
 rate made under Innocent IV. in 1253. 
 This rate was augmented by Nicholas III. 
 in 1292. The Council of Pisa pronounced 
 them simoniacal in 1435, but Alexander 
 VT., in 1500, doubled the rate. 
 
 It appe.ars that these 'Annates' -were not 
 actually the whole produce of a living for a year, 
 but a sort of property tax paid by the new incum- 
 bent on presenfcation. 
 
 Anne (1 syl.), Queen of England 
 (1C64, 1702-1714), sister of Mary (wife of 
 William III.), and younger daughter of 
 James II. Married Prince George of 
 Denmark. She had thirteen children, 
 only one of whom lived to the age of 11. 
 The rest died in infancy. 
 
 Her style : Anne, D.G. of Great 
 Britain, France, and Ireland, Queen, 
 Defender of the Faith, &c. 
 
 Anne of Bohemia was the wife of Richard fl. ; 
 Anne of Cloves was one of the wives of Henry VIII.; 
 Anne of Denmark was the wife of James I. of 
 England. 
 
 Anne, ' the Word.* Arme Lee 
 (1736-1784), the apostle of the Shakers, 
 by whom she was called ' Mother,' that 
 is, ' the true Mother of all living in the 
 new creation,' and ' the Morning Star of 
 the second coming of Christ.' She was 
 born in Toad Lane, Manchester, and her 
 father was John Lee, a blacksmith. She 
 married Abraham Standley, also a black- 
 smith, joined the Shakers, and migrated 
 to New York in 1774. 
 
 Annde Terrible (i'), 1870. When 
 Paris was besieged by the Prussians from 
 19 Sept. to 28 Jan., 1871. 
 
 Annius of Viterbo. Nannius, or 
 ' Giovanni Nanni,' a Dominican (1432- 
 1502), a literary impostor. His work, 
 entitled ' Antiquitates Varige,' professes 
 to contain selections from Berosus, 
 Manetho, Megasthenes, Archilocus, Myr- 
 siles, Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, 
 &c., but are, for the most part, mere 
 fabrications. See * Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Anno'nae Praefectus. An officer 
 api^ointed by Augustus to superintend 
 the corn-market (ancient Rome). 
 
 Annual Indemnity Act {The), 
 1689. A clumsy makeshift for the repeal 
 of the Corporation and Test Acts, where- 
 by Dissenters were admitted into office 
 in defiance of these acts, and were legally 
 indemnified for violating them. An Act 
 passed in every session of Parliament to 
 indemnify those who neglected to take 
 the sacrament before entering parliament 
 or accepting some civil oftice. 
 
 By 22 Vict. c. 15, an Act of Indemnity 
 secures from punishment or damage all 
 those who have neglected to take the 
 necessary oaths of office, &c. 
 
80 
 
 ANNUAL 
 
 ANTHKOPOMORPHITES 
 
 Annual Mass, ' Missa AnnuilHs,' 
 The mass which is said daily throughout 
 the year. 
 
 Annual Register {The). Com- 
 menced by Kobert Dodsley for the year 
 1758-9, appeared in June 1759. The 
 * Kegister ' is pubHshed once a year, and 
 contains a brief abstract of every event 
 of historical interest, during the preced- 
 ing twelve months. Also notices of new 
 books and other miscellaneous matter. 
 The work still goes on. 
 
 Edmund Burke assisted Dodsley in preparing 
 his Ecgisters. 
 
 The New Annual Register, edited by Dr. Blorgan, 
 was started 1781 and came to a close in 18-2o. 
 
 The Edinbuigh AiiinuU Iteiiistrr, written by Sir 
 W. Scott and afterwards by Southey, commenced 
 1808 and closed 1827. 
 
 Annuneia'da, 1460. A society 
 founded at Rome by Cardinal John 
 Turrecremata for the marriage of poor 
 young women. It now provides, every 
 Lady-day, 60 Rom. crowns, a dress of 
 white serge, and a florin for slippers to 
 above 400 persons for marriage portions. 
 
 Annun'ciades (4 syl.). The name 
 of several religious orders instituted in 
 honour of the Annunciation. 
 
 I. 1362, called 'The Annunciades of 
 Savoy,' created by Amadeus VI., count 
 of Savoy. This was a military order. 
 
 II. 1500, an order instituted at Bourges 
 by Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis 
 XI., in honour of the ten virtues of the 
 Virgin Mary. 
 
 III. 1604, ' The Celestial Annunciades,' 
 instituted by Maria Vittoria Fornari. 
 They dress in a blue mantle and are 
 therefore called ' The Blue Sisters.' 
 
 The Annunciades of Jeanne de Valois wear a 
 grey gown, a scarlet scapular, a blue simar, and a 
 white mantle, to prefigure penitence, the passion 
 of Christ, heaven, and virginity. 
 
 Annunciation {The), 25 March, 
 our Ladyday. Commemorates the an- 
 nouncement of the angel to Mary that 
 she was to be the mother of the Messiah 
 (Luke i. 26-38). 
 
 In the Roman Catholic Church the 
 Annunciation, or ' Festum Campanarum, 
 is the Monday next after Easter Monday. 
 
 The ' Annunciatio Dominica ' (or) 'Beatee Virginis 
 Marias ' was instituted (Viil. By the Tv/elfth Council 
 of Toulouse it. was transferred to Dec. 18; but in 691 
 it was restored to March 25. See ' Order of the An- 
 nunciation.' 
 
 Annus Deliberandi, in Scotch 
 law, is the interval allowed to the heir 
 from the death of a proprietor of here- 
 
 ditary property to make up his mind 
 whether he will accept the succession 
 with its incumbrances or not. The time 
 is now reduced to six months. 
 
 Annus Mirab'ilis, a.d. 1666. The 
 year of the gi-sat fire of London, and of 
 the successes of our arms over the Dutch. 
 So called by Dryden, who has a poem on 
 the subject. 
 
 Anomalis'tic Year. The inter- 
 val between two successive times of the 
 earth being at the least distance from 
 the sun. It consists of 865 days, 6 hours, 
 13 minutes, 45 seconds, and is 25 minutes 
 less than a mean tropical year. 
 
 Anomoeans, 357. A branch of the 
 
 Arian heretics, who maintained that the 
 essence of the Son is not like tke essence 
 of God the Father (Greek anomoios, un- 
 like). 
 
 They rejected the dogma called ' Homoiousian, 
 i.e. that the nature of Christ was like that of God 
 the Father. The ' heresy ' was condemned by the 
 Council of Ancyra in 358, and some subsequent 
 councils. 
 
 Antal'cidas {Peace of), e.g. 887. A 
 peace betvreen Persia and the different 
 states of Greece, arranged by Antalcidas 
 (or Antalkidas), the Lacedtemonian, after 
 the suicidal contest called the Corinthean 
 war {q.v). 
 
 It ran thus : ' King Artaxerxes thinks it just that 
 the cities in Asia and the islands of Clazomenae and 
 Cyprus should belong to him. He also thinks it 
 just that all the other Grecian cities should be left 
 independent, except Lcmiios, Imbros, and Scyros, 
 which are to belong to Athens, as of old. If any 
 state refuses to accept these terms, I, King Art-i- 
 xerxes will make war thereon, both by sea and land. 
 
 Antelu'can. The ' before daylight ' 
 service held by early Christians to avoid 
 observation (Latin, ante lucem, before 
 daylight). 
 
 Anthropol'atrge, or * Worshippers 
 of Man,' so the Apollina'rians called the 
 ' orthodox ' Christians, because they wor- 
 shipped Christ, who, they maintained, was 
 ' a perfect man of a reasonable soul, and 
 human flesh subsisting ' (Greek, aiithro- 
 pos, latreia, man-worship). 
 
 Antliropom.or'pliisni,in theology, 
 means that God is formed like man, or 
 rather that God is man's ideal, as every 
 man forms his own god. One man forms 
 him revengeful, another all merciful, a 
 third love, and so on, according to each 
 man's notion what a god ought to be. 
 
 Anthropomor'phites (5 syl.), 4th 
 cent. Egyptian monks who maintained 
 
ANTI-ADDBESSERS 
 
 ANTI-POPES 
 
 83 
 
 that God has the human form, and is of 
 the same substance as man, because he 
 made man m his own Hkeness. 
 
 Anti-Addressers, 1759. Those 
 Irish Catholics who disapproved of the 
 • address,' and therefore seceded from the 
 Catholic Association. See ' Addressers. ' 
 
 Anti-Birminghams, 1680, Oppo- 
 nents of the Birminohams (q.v.), or Exclu- 
 sionists. They were the friends of James, 
 duke of York, and favourers of ' the right 
 divine ' and succession of James. 
 
 Anti-Burghers, 1747. Those Scotch 
 Presbyterians who refused to take the 
 required oath ' that they heartily and en- 
 tirely concurred in the religion as by law 
 established.' Those who accepted the 
 oath were called Burghers. 
 
 Anti-Corn-Law League (The), 
 20 March, 1839. An association against 
 the corn-laws was formed in London in 
 1836 ; the Manchester Anti-Corn-law As- 
 sociation was formed 24 Sept., 1838 ; the 
 League with Cobden at the head was 
 formed in 1839 ; dissolved 2 July, 1846. 
 The corn-laws existing prior to the repeal 
 consisted of a sliding-scale. When, for 
 example, corn was selling at C2s. a quarter, 
 a duty of 24s. 8i^. a quarter was imposed on 
 imported com ; for every shilling less than 
 62.S'. a quarter an extra shilling was added 
 to imported corn ; but when corn exceed- 
 ed that price the duty rapidly increased, 
 till it reached 73s., when a minimum tax 
 of Is. was imposed. This minimum tax 
 of Is. a quarter is still paid to defray the 
 expenses of registration. 
 
 Anti-Corn-law "Wafers. Sheets 
 of mottoes (40 for Is.) advocating free- 
 trade in corn. These mottoes are either 
 original or mere extracts ; some aimed at 
 wit, some at smartness, some were politi- 
 cal truisms, and some were satirical. 
 During the Anti-Corn-law agitation these 
 * wafers ' had a large sale. 
 
 Anti-Gallican Society {The), 
 1757. 'To i^romote British manufactures 
 extend the commerce of England, and 
 discourage the introduction of French 
 modes and the importation of French 
 commodities.' The headquarters of the 
 society were at Lebeck's Head, Strand. 
 St. George's Day (23 April) was the day 
 of their anniversary feast. 
 
 It was at its best in 1771. 
 
 Anti-League League (T/ie), 1844. 
 
 A league formed to counteract the Anti- 
 Corn-law League, on the supposition that 
 the higher the price of corn, the higher 
 the rate of wages. Chartists were anti- 
 leaguers. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel said experience proved that 
 the high price of corn was not accompanied by a 
 high rate of wagis. and that wages did not vary 
 with the price oi corn (1845). 
 
 Anti-Pasdo-baptists, 1607, now 
 called Baptists. Certain dissenters who 
 object to infant or pcedo baptism, and 
 maintain that no one should be baptized 
 without expressing a personal wish to 
 undergo the ceremony, and without a 
 personal confession of faith. They per- 
 form the rite by total immersion. (Greek 
 anti pais baptisma, against child bap- 
 tism.) 
 
 Anti-Popes. Popes elected in'oppo- 
 sition to the pope of Rome. 
 
 1. NoVATiANUS, elected in opposition to Corne- 
 lius, A.D. 2iil. 
 
 2. Felix II., elected on the banisliment of Liber- 
 ius, A.D. 355. 
 
 8. TJRSiANUS or Ursinus, elected in opposition to 
 Damasus, A.D. 3C6. 
 
 4. E ULALIUS, elected in opposition to Boniface I., 
 A.D. 418. 
 
 6. Laurentids, appointed by Festus in opposi- 
 tion to Symmachus, A.D. 408. 
 
 6. DioscoRUS, consecrated in opposition to Boni- 
 face II., A.D. 530. 
 
 7. ViGiLius, appointed by Belisarius on the exile 
 of Silverius, A.D. r>m. 
 
 8. 9. Peter and Xheodorus, in the pontificateol 
 John v., A.D. 086. 
 
 10. 11. PASCHALandTHEODORUS, elected in oppo- 
 sition to Sergius, A.D. G87. 
 
 12. l.S. 14. TIIEOPUYLACTUS, CONSTANTINUS, and 
 
 Philip, elected at the death of Paul I., a.d. 767- 
 768. 
 
 Constantinus was deposed by Pope Stephen III., 
 shut up in a monastery, and his eyes put out, 
 Aug. 6, 7C8. 
 
 15. ZiziMUS.elected in opposition to Eugenius U., 
 A.D. 824 
 
 10. ANASTASius, who Contested the election of 
 Benedict III., A.D. 855. 
 
 17. Sergius, elected in opposition to Formosus, 
 
 A.D. 891. 
 
 18. Boniface VI., chosen to succeed Formosus, 
 A.D. 8!iG. died a fortnight afterwards. 
 
 19. Chkistophorus, who deposed and imprison- 
 ed Leo v., A.D. 905. 
 
 20. Leo VIII.. elected to succeed John XII., 
 A.D. 964, deposed 965. 
 
 21. Boniface VII., elected on the death of Bene- 
 dict VI., A.D. 974, deposed 975. 
 
 22. Gregory, who unseated Benedict VIII., A.D. 
 101'2, deposed by Kaiser Henry II., A.D. 1014. 
 
 23. Silvester III., elected to succeed Benedict 
 IX. on liis banishment. A.D. 1044. Benedict sold the 
 pontificate to Jolm, 1044. 
 
 24. Benedict X., who opposed Stephen IX., a.d 
 1058. 
 
 25. Honorius, appointed by the diet of Basel in 
 opposition to Alexander II., A.D. 1061, deposed by 
 the council of Osbor, 1002. 
 
 20. Clement III., elected at Brlxen in opposition 
 to Gregory VII., A.D. 1080. Clement was set up by 
 Kaiser Henry IV. 
 
 27. ALBERT, appointed to succeed Clement 
 taken prisoner by the partisans of Paschal I L, 
 A.l>. UOO. 
 
82 
 
 ANTI-EEMONSTEANTS 
 
 ANTINOMIANS 
 
 2f». Theodoeic, appointed to Bucceed Albert, 
 A.D. 1100. 
 
 2vt. Maginufe, appointed to succeed Theodoric, 
 A.l>. 1106. 
 
 SO. Gregory VIII., elected in opposition to 
 Oelasius II., A.D. 1118. Gregory was set up by 
 Kaiser Hfinry V. 
 
 31. Calixtus, elected during the pontificate of 
 Honorius II., A.D. 1124-1180. 
 
 32. Anacletus, elected by a majority of the con- 
 clave i-n opposition to Innocent II., A.D. ll:!0. 
 
 3.S. Victor IV., chosen to succeed Anacletus, A.D. 
 ll;«, abdicated. 
 
 34. Victor (also cnlled Victor IV.), elected in 
 opposition to Alexander III., A.D. 1159. 
 
 3o. Paschal III., elected to succeed Victor, A.D. 
 11G4. 
 
 3G. Callistds III., elected to succeed Paschal. 
 A.D. 1168. Abjures his schism, 1178. 
 
 37. INNOCENT III., choGcn in the place of Callis- 
 tus, A.D. 1178. Taken prisoner by Pope Alexander, 
 1180, and died soon afterwards. 
 
 38. Nicholas v., chosen by Louis of Bavaria in 
 opposition to John XXII., A.D. 1328. Renounced 
 his schism, 1330. 
 
 The Great Schism of the West, 1378-1429. "U'hen 
 there was a pope at Eome, and anotlier at Avignon, 
 and sometimes three or four popes. 
 
 Presuming the French popes to be anti-popes in 
 this schism, we have — 
 
 39. Clement VII., the French pope in opposition 
 to Urban VI., A.D. 1378. 
 
 40. Benedict XIII., -who succeeded Clement, 
 A.D. 1394. 
 
 41. Alexander v., elected by the Council of Pisa, 
 •which took upon itself to depose the two existing 
 popes, and to elect a third, A.D. 1254. 
 
 There were now three popes, viz. Gregory XII. 
 at Home, Benedict XIU. at Avignon, and Alexan- 
 der V. 
 
 42. John XXII., who succeeded Alexander, A.D. 
 1410. Was deposed by tlie Council of Constance lil7, 
 and Martin V. elected. 
 
 There were now four popes : Gregory XII., Bene- 
 dict XIII., John XXllI., and Martin V. 
 
 43. Clement VIII., succeeded Benedict XIII., 
 A.D. 1424. Abdicates 1429, and thus the schism 
 ends. 
 
 Gregory XTI. died 1417, John XXIII. died 1419, 
 Benedict XIII. died 1424, Clement VIII. abdicated 
 1429. Martin V. was left sole pope. 
 
 44. Felix v., elected in opposition to Eugenius TV. 
 by the Council of Basel, A.D. 1439 ; abdicated 1449. 
 Undoubtedly an excellent choice, accepted by 
 England. France, Germany, Spain and Lorabardy. 
 Only Italy (bar Lombardy) and Venice refused to 
 acknowledge him. 
 
 Anti-Remonstrants, or 'Gomar- 
 ists,' 1611. Ultra-Calvinists and follow- 
 ers of Frans Gomar, of Bruges (1563- 
 1641), who arbitrarily laid down the 
 dogmas of absolute predestination and 
 reprobation in answer to the ' Remon- 
 strance ' of the Arniinians presented to 
 the states of Holland in 1610. 
 
 The word is also applied to the Jansenists (q.v.) ; 
 end tlieir opponents (the Jesuits) were termed Re- 
 monstrants. 
 
 Anti-Tobacconists iThe),18i8. In 
 Italy. The Austrians had the monopoly 
 of tobacco in Italy, and the Liberals re- 
 solved to leave off smoking, so that a 
 cigar became the sign of loyalty, and non- 
 smoking of disaffection. The Austrians 
 resented the anti-tobacco movement ; and 
 in order to put a stop to it, supplied their 
 
 Italian troops with cigars, and ordered 
 them to smoke them ostentatiously in the 
 streets. This insult was resented by the 
 Italians. On 17 Blarch the Milanese 
 rose in revolt and expelled the Austrians. 
 Venice next rose and did the same. 
 Sicily expelled King Ferdinand II., and 
 elected in his stead Charles Albert 
 (Albert Amadeus I.). At last Garibaldi 
 appeared and liberated Italy, making it 
 a united and independent kingdom. 
 
 Anti-Tory Association (The), 
 IFoi. Established in Ireland by Daniel 
 O'Connell to opx^ose the new Tory ad- 
 ministration under the leadership of Sir 
 Eobert Peel. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Anti-Trinita'rians. Tliose who 
 reject the doctrine of the Trinity on 
 p]i ilosophical grounds. 
 
 Those who reject it on theoJogical 
 grounds are called Arians, Socinians, or 
 Unitarians ; Mohammedans are Anti- 
 Trinitarians. 
 
 Anti-Union Society [The), 1830. 
 A new name for the Repeal Association 
 [q.v.], when that association was pro- 
 claimed. Both had the same object 
 viz. the repeal of the Union effected in 
 1801, or the amalgamation of the Irish 
 and British Parliaments. See 'Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Antid'ico-Mariani'tae (4th cent.), 
 i.e. 'Detractors of Mary,' as the Apolii- 
 narians and Eunomians were called, who 
 denied the perpetual virginity of Mary ; 
 in other words, believed that Mary had 
 other children besides Jesus, who was 
 her 'firstborn' (Matt. i. 25). The 
 brethren of Jesus mentioned in the 
 gospels they considered to be the other 
 children of Mary (see Matt. xiii. 55, 56; 
 Mark vi. 3 ; Matt. xii. 46 ; Gal. i. 10). 
 
 In English ' Antidicomarianites,' pronounce 
 Antid'-i-co Ma'-ri-an-ites (Greek, avrCdLKoq, Uafita,^ 
 (adversary [of] Mary). 
 
 Antino'mians, 1585. A sect 
 founded by John Agricola, who main- 
 tained that Christ abolished the entire law 
 for believers. They furthermore affirmed 
 that good works do not further salvation, 
 which is wholly of grace. ' Not of works, 
 lest any man should boast.' ' If (salva- 
 tion) is by grace, then it is no more of 
 works, otherwise grace is no more grace. 
 But if it be of works, then is it no more 
 grace, otherwise work is no more work ' 
 
ANTIPHONAEIUM 
 
 ANTONINE'S 
 
 83 
 
 (Rom. xi. 6) ; (Greek, anti, nomos, opposed 
 to the law, i.e. of works.) 
 
 The system is called ' Antinomianism.'. 
 
 The Antinomians taught that the 
 chosen were at liberty to help them- 
 selves to such a share of this world's 
 goods as their necessities required ; and 
 that however they might sin in their 
 outward man, in the inner man they 
 sinned not. (Strj'-pe, Cranmer, p. 178.) 
 This is a gross perversion of Antino- 
 mianism. 
 
 N.B. In New England, Antinomians, 
 in the 17th cent., denied the ' moral law 
 to be the rule of Christ ' (John Harvard, 
 1628). 
 
 The Antinomians contended that all things were 
 free and allowable to the saints without sin. — 
 HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. vol. ii. p. 262. 
 
 Antiphona'rium. An Antiph't>- 
 nary, or book containing the Antiph'onies 
 throughout the year. Such as the 
 ' Greater Antiphonies of O ' ; the ' Roga- 
 tional Antiphonies ' ; the ' Alleluyatic 
 Antiphonies ' ; the ' Antiphona ad in- 
 troitum ' ; the ' Antiphon® Invitatorise ' ; 
 the ' Antiphona de Podio ' ; the ' Proces- 
 sional Antiphonies ' &c. By the Con- 
 stitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, at 
 Merton (1305), every parish church was 
 ordered to have ono. 
 
 The ' Antiphonies ' are the fifteen prayers be- 
 ginning with the letter O (' Horee Beatissimae Vir- 
 ginis Mari£B '). The ' Antiphona de Podio' is the 
 ' Salve Regina ' made by Ademarus, bishop of Po- 
 dium, i.e. Pay. The ' Antiphona ad introitum ' was 
 Bung in introitu Mi.is<e. The ' InvitatorisB ' were 
 sung on Sunday nights. 
 
 Antiplion'eti. An image of Christ 
 crucified set up near the pulpit. Du 
 Cange quotes (vol. i. p. 27G, col. 2) the 
 follov/ing words : 
 
 Visus est sibi in occiduo graduum,qui ad sacram 
 sedem ducunt, ascensu stare, ubi prajter divinam 
 Domini imaginem quam Antiphoneti appellant, 
 ipsius etiam Niconis effigies expressa est.— 
 Marten, 10, 6, Avipliss. Collect, col. 830. 
 
 Antiquaries ( The Society of). For 
 the cultivation and understanding of 
 the antiquities of the chief countries of 
 Europe and America. It was started in 
 1572 by Archbishop Parker and Sir 
 Robert Cotton ; but James I. dissolved 
 this society in 1601 ; and it was recon- 
 structed in 1717. 
 
 The London Society was chartered in 1572. 
 
 The Scotch Society was founded in 1780. 
 
 The Royal Irish Society was chartered in 17ft(>. 
 
 The French Society was founded, as the Aca- 
 demic Celtique in 1805; but in 1814 it changed its 
 name into the Sociele des Antiquaires de France. 
 
 The American Antiquarian Society was incor- 
 porated in 1812 by the legislature of Massachusetts. 
 
 Antiquitates Varise, 1498. A 
 literary forgery by Annius of Viterbo 
 (Nannius, Giovanni Nanni), a Domi- 
 nican. His 17 volumes profess to be 
 selections from Berosius, Manetho, 
 JMegasthenes, Archilocus, Myrsiles, 
 Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, &c., 
 but the selections are not genuine. 
 
 Anto'nian Laws (The). The laws 
 of Mark Antony, the Roman consul. 
 
 1. To change the name of the month 
 Qiiint'ilis into Julius (July). 
 
 2. To abolish the perpetual dictator- 
 ship. 
 
 3. To repeal the Judiciary Julian 
 Law, commanding that the judices 
 should be chosen from the senators a.nd 
 equites only, and not from the trihuni 
 cerarii. 
 
 The vanity of Augustus in making Sextllis 
 (August) the same length as Qitintilis (July), de- 
 ranged the useful system that the even months, 2, 
 4, U, 8, 10, 12, had thirty days each, and the odd 
 numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, had thirty-one days each. 
 
 Antonine Column (The). A 
 column, like* that in the Place Vendome 
 (2 syl.), Paris. It was erected by the 
 Roman senate in honour of Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus, to commemorate 
 his victories over the Marcomanni and 
 other Germanic tribes. On the shaft is 
 represented spirally the victories of the 
 emperor, and an inscription was cut on 
 the pedestal. Sixtus V. had the bad 
 taste to substitute a gilt statue of Paul, 
 holding a Latin cross, for that of Marcus 
 Aurelius; and to substitute a new in- 
 scription. So that now the Apostle Paul 
 surmounts a huge column commemorat- 
 ing victories over Germanic tribes ; and 
 the new inscription is absolutely ludi- 
 crous. It stands on the Piazza Colonna 
 in Rome. 
 
 Antonine's Itinerary. Extending 
 over the whole Roman empire, embrac- 
 ing all the main roads in Italy and the 
 provinces, with the respective distances. 
 Attached is a maritime itinerary of the 
 distances from port to port. The 
 distances of this itinerary were surveyed 
 by command of Julius Caesar. Augustus 
 and Antony, B.C. 44, 30, 24 ; and a.d. 
 19 ; and the entire book was corrected 
 and extended between 285-305. 
 
 The Peutingerian Table (a.v.) and the Jerusalem 
 Itinerary are also valuable for ancient geography. 
 
 D 
 
84 
 
 ANTONY'S 
 
 APOLOGISTS 
 
 Antony's Fire (St.). A pestilence 
 also called feu sacre and mal des 
 ardents, especially destructive in France 
 and Germany between 994 and 1089. 
 It appeared in England in the years 1011 
 and 1012. Hugues Capet, founder of 
 the Capetian dynasty, died of this terrible 
 plague. See ' Feu Sacre,' ' Plague,' &c. 
 
 Called St. Antony's Fire, because Urban IV. in 
 1089 founded an order of St. Antony to take ch&rge 
 of those afflicted with this disorder. Never in 
 the history of man was such a disastrous centi-J-y 
 as that which began at the close of the tenWi. 
 All Europe looked for the end of the world, which 
 contributed not a little to the calamities which 
 followed in battalions. 
 
 Antwerp. Fabulously derived from 
 hand-werpen (hand-throwing) ; hence 
 the arms of the city are two hands 
 thrown into the Scheldt by the hero 
 Brabo. Much more likely it is an V 
 werf (the city) on the wharf. 
 
 Anzia'ni [The), or seniors in 
 Florentine history before 1282. They 
 were twelve in number, two for each 
 scstiere of the city. These seniors acted 
 in concert with a foreign Podesta, and a 
 captain of the people charged with mili- 
 tary authority. See ' Ancients.' 
 
 Ape (1 syl.;. The assumed signature 
 of the famous caricaturist, who drew 
 so many of our living notabilities. He 
 was Signor Carlo Pellegrini, who died 
 1889. 
 
 Apega. "Wife of Nabis, tyrant of 
 Sparta. He invented an infernal machine 
 which he called after his wife, ' Apega.' 
 It was a box exactly resembling his wife 
 in her royal apparel, but inside it was 
 full of spikes whi(;h wounded the victim 
 enclosed in almost every part of the 
 body. The ' Iron Virgin ' was a similar 
 instrument of torture employed by the 
 Inquisition. It represented a woman of 
 Bavaria, and the spikes were so arranged 
 as to i^ierce the least vital parts in order 
 to prolong the sufferings of the victim 
 inclosed. (Apega, 3 syl.) 
 
 Apelles of Europe (T/ie). Antonio 
 Allegri da Correggio (1494-1534). 
 
 Apelles of his age {The). Sam. 
 Cooper is so called in his epitaph in 
 Old St. Pancras Church (1609-1672). 
 
 Apex. In the Fenian organisation 
 is the president of the head centres. 
 See ' Bees.' 
 
 Apocryphal Scriptures, of the 
 
 New Testament. From Eusebius : — 
 The Acts of Paul. 
 Pastor of Hermas. 
 The Revelation of Peter. 
 The Epistle of Barnabas. 
 The Institutions of the Apostles. 
 The Gospel according to the Hebrews. 
 The Gospel of Peter. 
 The Gospel of Thomas ; Acts of ditto. 
 A Gospel of Matthew. 
 Acts of the Apostles by Andrew. 
 Acts of the Apostles by Jolin. 
 
 Doubtful. 
 
 The Revelation of John. 
 
 The Epistle of James. 
 
 The Epistle of Jude. 
 
 The Second Epistle of Peter. 
 . The Second and Third Epistle of John- 
 Eusebius, Book III. chap. 25. See ' Old 
 Testament.' 
 
 Other books not mentioned by Ease- 
 bius. The Gnostic Scriptures were : 
 
 The Prophecies of Cain. 
 
 The "Writings of Pachur. 
 
 The Psalms by Valentmus and Bar- 
 desanes. 
 
 The Gnostic Hymns by Marcus. 
 
 The Books of Adam, of Enoch, of 
 Moseh, of Elijah, of Isajah, and many 
 others. 
 
 Sundry writings by Barkor, Armagil, 
 Barbelon, Balsamum, Lensiboras, &c.— 
 Hier, Ad Theod. iii. 6, &c. 
 
 ApoUina'rians, 4th cent. Fol- 
 lowers of Apollinilris or Apollinarius, 
 bishop of Laodicea, who denied that 
 Christ had a human soul, and affirmed 
 that the Logos or divine nature supplied 
 the place of the reasonable soul. Con- 
 demned in the Council of Alexandria, 
 A.D. 362, and again by the council at 
 Rome in 375. In 378 ApoUinaris was 
 deposed. 
 
 Apologists. Those ' Fathers ' who 
 wrote ' Apologies,' or treatises in defence 
 of the rites, doctrines, and moral conduct 
 of Christians in the first three centuries. 
 
 Apollinaris (Claudius), 2nd cent., 
 bishop of Hierapolis, was a Christian 
 apologist. 
 
 Justin Martyr, 103-167. "Wrote two 
 * Apologies,' both in Latin ; one he ad- 
 dressed to Antoninus Pius, in 150 ; and 
 the other to the Senate, in 164. He says 
 that the Christian religion tends to good 
 
APOLOGY 
 
 I — ^j:^ — a — '*f?,()t ^ 
 
 85 
 
 morals and submission to rulers ; shows 
 that Christ fulfilled prophecy; and ex- 
 plains Christian rites and doctrines. 
 
 Mel'ito, bishop of Sardis. Addressed 
 his ' Apology for Christians ' to Marcus 
 Aurelius in 170. 
 
 Obigen, 185-254. "Wrote 'An Apology 
 for Christianity,' against Celsus. He 
 became a Gnostic. 
 
 Quadra'tus, bishop of Athens. Pre- 
 sented his 'Apology ' to Hadrian in 12G. 
 
 Tatian, born in Syria (flo. 170). Wrote 
 his 'Apology ' about 160. Afterwards he 
 was accused of heresy, for forbidding the 
 use of wine even in the sacrament of the 
 Eucharist. He was a Gnostic. 
 
 Theoph'ilus of Antioch, 120-190. 
 Wrote 'An Apology for the Christian 
 Religion,' in three laooks. 
 
 Tertullian, lGO-240. Shows in his 
 ' Apology ' that faith and patience were 
 manifested by Christians in persecu- 
 tion. 
 
 Many others wrote in defence of Christianity, 
 but not ' Apologies.' For example : 
 
 Arnobius (flo. 296). Wrote a ' Disputation against 
 the Gentiles,' in seven books, 
 
 Athenag'oras (flo. 117). Wrote a defence of 
 Christians against the charges of atheism, incest, 
 infanticide, and other abominations. 
 
 Cyprian, 200-250. "Wrote on the ' Absurdity of 
 Idolatry.' 
 
 Jerome, 345-420. Refuted the objection that no 
 distinguished person had embraced Christianity. 
 
 MiNUCIUS Felix (flo. 250). Wrote a dialogue en- 
 . titled 'Octavius,' in which the speakers represent 
 several objections against Christianity, but are 
 compelled to acknowledge their errors. 
 
 Oro'sius (flo. 415). In his ' History of the Word ' 
 he refutes the accusation that plagues, famine, 
 earthquakes, &c., were judgments of God to 
 show his displeasure against Christians. 
 
 Besides these, Cyril of Alexander wrote a reply 
 to Julian the apostate; and Theodoret, in 
 twelve sermons shows the superiority of the 
 prophets and apostles to the Greek philosophers. 
 
 liACTANTIDS (250-325), wrote' Divine Institutions,' 
 in seven books; Augustine (354-430; wrote ' On the 
 City of God.' 
 
 Eusebius (270-aSfii, though no Apologist, wrote 
 an ' Ecclesiastical History,' in ten books, which 
 served the same end. 
 
 In modern times. 
 
 GROTIUS (1583-1645) defended Christianity In his 
 •De Veritate Religionis Christianas,' 1(;86. 
 
 Lardner (Nathaniel), 16H4-17G8, did the same in 
 his ' Credibility of the Gospel History,' 1727-1755. 
 
 Butler, bishop of Durham, (1692-1752), in his 
 'Analogy of Religion,' 17:10. 
 
 Paley (1743-1805), in his 'Evidences of Christi- 
 anity,' 1794. 
 
 Watson, bishop of Llandafl (1737-1816), in his 
 'Apology for Christianity,' 1776. 
 
 •.• Still more recently we have Neander, Tho- 
 luck, and Beinhard (among Protestantsi ; with 
 Pascal, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateaubriand among 
 Catholics. 
 
 The branch of theology which deals with the 
 defence of Cliristianity is called ' Apologetics.' 
 
 Apology ofMelanehthon (The). 
 That is, his Apology or defence of the 
 Augsburg Confession (q.v.), one of the I 
 
 tiibri SymhoUci Ecclesice EvangeliccB 
 of the Lutherans, 
 
 Apostle of Beaiivais {The). St. 
 Lucian, who died 290. His day is January 
 8. Also patron saint. 
 
 Apostle of Brazil {The). Jose de 
 Anchieta, 1533-1597. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood there is a great 
 dilference between a patron saint and an apostle. 
 The former protects and is generally chosen by 
 the people. The latter converts. Occasion-j.lly 
 an apostle is subsequently chosen by a people as 
 their patron saint. 
 
 Apostle of England {The). Hugh 
 Latimer, bishop of Worcester, 1472-1555. 
 Burnt at the stake in Mary's reign. See 
 ' Apostle of the English.' 
 
 It was Hugh Latimer who said to Ridley wliile 
 being chained to the stake : ' Be of good comfort, 
 Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this 
 day light such a candle in England, as I trust by 
 God's grace shall never be put out.' 
 
 St. George is patron saint of England, and St. 
 Paul of London. 
 
 Apostle of France {The). St. 
 Denys, i.e. Dionysius the Areopagite, 
 burnt to death a.d, 95, Also patron saint 
 of France. 
 
 Apostle of Hungary {The). St. 
 Stephen (I.), King of Hungary (979, 997- 
 1088). 
 
 Apostle of Infidelity {The). 
 
 Voltaire (1694-1778). 
 
 Apostle of Liberty (TAe). Thomas 
 Jefferson, third president of the U.S. 
 America (1743-1820). 
 
 Apostle of Massacre (T^e). Jean 
 
 P. Marat called himself so (1744-1793). 
 
 Apostle of Presbytery {The). 
 John Knox (1505-1572). 
 
 Apostle of Temperance {The). 
 
 Father (Theobald) Blath'ew, a friar of 
 Cork, who began his temperance move- 
 ment in Ireland m 1837, and met with 
 wonderful success. The movement was 
 in full force during O'Connell's repeal 
 agitation and even during the potato 
 famine (1790-1856). 
 
 Apostle of Virginia {The). Rev. 
 A. Whittaker, 17th cent. 
 
 Apostle of the Abyssinians 
 
 {The). St. Frumentius, who died 300. 
 His day is 27 Oct. Also patron saint of 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Apostle of the Allemanian 
 Nations {The). St. Gall or Gallus, an 
 Irishman. 
 
 ©2 
 
38 
 
 APOSTLE 
 
 APOSTLES 
 
 Apostle of the Alps (T7ie). Felix 
 
 Neff (1798-1829). 
 
 Apostle of the Ardennes {The). 
 St. Hubert (656-730). His days are 
 80 May and 3 Nov. 
 
 Apostle of the Armenians [The). 
 
 Gregory of Armenia (256-331). Also the 
 patron saint of Armenia. His day is 
 80 Sept. 
 
 Apostle of the English {The). 
 St. Gregory the Great is so called by 
 the Venerable Bede (514-604). 
 
 Apostle of the English People 
 
 {The). St. Augustiae, who died 007. See 
 ' Apostle of England.' 
 
 St. George is the patron saint of England. 
 
 Apostle of the French {The 
 Great). St. Eemi (439-535). His day 
 is 1 Oct. The patron saint of France is 
 St. Denys. 
 
 The patron saint of Paris is Ste. Genevieve. 
 
 Apostle of the Frisians {The?j. 
 
 St. Wildrod or Willibrod (657-738). His 
 day is 7 Nov. Also the patron saint of 
 Friesland. 
 
 Apostle of the G-anls {The). St. 
 
 Denys martjored in 272. His day is 9 Oct. 
 St. Irenseus is sometimes so called (130- 
 200). His day is 11 Nov. See 'Apostle 
 of France.' 
 
 The patron saint of laul is St. Martin. 
 
 Apostle of the G-entiles {The). 
 St. Paul, who died a.d. 66. His days are 
 29 June and 25 Jan. 
 
 Apostle of the Germans {The). 
 
 St. Boniface, an English Benedictine 
 monk, whose name was Winfrith or 
 Winfrid, born at Kirton or Crediton, in 
 Devonshire, then part of Wessex, in 680. 
 He was archbishop of Germany in 731, 
 metropolitan at Metz in 742, and was 
 slain 5 June, 755, aged 75. St. Martin 
 is the patron saint of Germany. 
 
 Gregory II. consecrated him bishop of the New 
 German claurches, in 725, and changed his name 
 to Boniface (or Well-doer). 
 
 Apostle of the G-oths {The). 
 Ulfilas, their first bishop (348-388). He 
 translated the Bible into the Gothic 
 tongue, and one copy of the four gospels 
 (if not more) is still extant. 
 
 Apostle of the Highlanders 
 
 [The). St. Colomb (521-597). His day 
 
 is 9 June. Also the patron saint of the 
 Highlands. 
 
 Apostle of the Hungarians 
 
 {The). St. Anastasius (954-1044). 
 
 St. Louis is the patron saint of Hungary ; and 
 also St. Mary of Aquisgranum (Aix-la-Chapelle). 
 
 Apostle of the Indians {The). 
 
 Bartolome de Las Casas (1474-1560), 
 Also the Eev. John Eliot (1603-1690). 
 
 Apostle of the Indies {The). St. 
 Francis Xavier (1500-1552). His day is 
 3 Dec. 
 
 Apostle of the Irich {The). St. 
 Patrick (372-493). His day is 17 IMarch. 
 
 Apostle of the Lowlands {The). 
 
 Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 (741-758.) 
 
 Apostle of the TQ'etherlands 
 
 {The). St. Amandus (594-667). He was 
 bishop of Maestricht. Also the patron 
 saint. 
 
 Apostle of the 'Nqmv Jerusalem 
 
 {The). Emanuel Swedenborg (1688- 
 1772). 
 
 Apostle of the K'orth {The). St. 
 Ansgar (801-864). Also Bernard Gilpin 
 (1517-1583). 
 
 Apostle of the Peak {The). Wil- 
 liam Bagshawe, of Ford Hall, a noncon- 
 formist in the reign of Charles II. (17 Jan., 
 1627-8—2 April, 1702). 
 
 Apostle of the Scottish Ke- 
 formers {The). John Knox (1505- 
 
 1572). 
 
 St. Andrew Is the patron saint of Scotland. His 
 day is 80 Nov. It is said that his remains were 
 brought by Regulus to Fifeshire, A.D. 8G8. 
 
 Apostle of the Slavi, or Slaves 
 {The). St. Cyril, who died 868. His day 
 is 14 Feb. 
 
 Apostles {The 14). According to 
 Gospel history or Church tradition — 
 
 1. Andrew of Bethsaida, a fisherman, 
 brother of Simon Peter, and son of Jona 
 (bar-Jona). Bound to a cross like the 
 letter X, called a St. Andrew's cross, by 
 order of .^Eggeus, proconsul of Achaia 
 (1st cent.). His day is 30 Nov. His 
 symbol in paintings is a St. Andrew's 
 cross. His scene of labour was Scythia, 
 according to tradition. 
 
 2. Bartholomew of Galilee, a fisher- 
 man ; supposed to be Nathaniel Bar- 
 Tholemy. Flayed alive in Armenia, 
 
APOSTLES 
 
 APOSTLES 
 
 37 
 
 A."D. 71. His day is 24 Aug. His symbol 
 is a knife. His scene of labour was 
 India, according to tradition. 
 
 3. James I. (the Greater), of Betlisaida, 
 a fisherman, brother of John, and son of 
 Zebedee and Salome. Beheaded at 
 Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa, a.d. 43. 
 His day is 24 July. Kis symbol is a 
 pilgrim's staff and a gourd bottle. 
 
 4. James II. (the Less), surnamed 
 • The Just,' supposed to have been a 
 Jewish ecclesiastic. Brother of Simeon 
 and Jude, called ' brothers of the Lord.* 
 Son of Cleoiias (or Alphajus) and Mary. 
 Thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, 
 and then beaten or stoned to death, a.d. 
 65. His day is 1 May. (See ' Philip.') 
 His sjinbol is a fuller's club. 
 
 Said to be the first bishop of Jerusalem, and 
 Bucceeded in 67 by his brotlier, Simoon or Simon. 
 
 5. John (the beloved disciple, an 
 Evangelist) of Betlisaida, a fisherman, 
 brother of James I., and son of Zebedee 
 and Salome. The two brothers were 
 called Boanerges. John was the youngest 
 of the apostles, and died at an extreme 
 old age at Ej^jhesus between a.d. 91 and 
 100. His day is 27 Dec. His symbol is 
 a bowl with a winged serpent flying out 
 of it. He wore a priest's petalon. 
 
 6. Judas Iscabiot, i.e. of the tribe of 
 Issachar. Place of birth, parentage, and 
 vocation unknown. Hanged himself 
 A.D. 64. 
 
 7. Jude, Judas not Iscariot, surnamed 
 Thaddteus, of Nazareth. Brother of 
 James II., and son of Clsopas (or Alphteus 
 and Mary), a 'brother of the Lord.' 
 Occupation unknown. Shot to death by 
 arrows in Armenia or Persia, a.d. 80. 
 His day is 28 Oct. His symbol is a club. 
 
 8. Matthew, or Levi, of Galilee, a 
 Roman revenue officer at Gennesareth. 
 One of the four Evangelists. Slain by a 
 Bword in Ethiopia (1st cent.). His day 
 is 27 Sept. His symbol is a hatchet. 
 
 9. Matthias, elected by lot to the 
 college, in place of Judas Iscariot. 
 Nothing known of him. Said to have 
 been first stoned and then beheaded in 
 Colchis (1st cent.). His day is 24 Feb, 
 His symbol is a battle-axe. 
 
 10. Paul, or Saul, of Tarsus. Probably 
 designed to be a Jewish scribe. Brother 
 of Rufus (Rom. xvi. 13), and son of Simon 
 of Gyrene, who helped to carry the cross 
 (Mark xv. 21). Beheaded at Rome, 
 A..D. 66. His days are 29 June (death), 
 
 and 25 Jan. (conversion). His symbol is 
 a sword. 
 
 11. Peter [Simon), or Cephas, of 
 Betlisaida, a fisherman, brother of An- 
 drew, and son of Jona (Bar-Jona). 
 Crucified at Rome with his head down- 
 wards, a.d, 66. His day is 29 June. His 
 symbol is two keys. 
 
 Called by Catholics ' the Prince of the Apostles.' 
 
 12. Philip, of Bethsaida, probably a 
 fisherman. Parentage unknown. Hanged 
 against a pillar at Hierapolis, a citv of 
 Phrygia, a.d. 80, His day is 1 May, 
 (See ' James II.') His symbol is a long 
 staff with a cross at the end. 
 
 13. Simon or Simeon (Zealotes), pro- 
 bably a fisherman of Nazareth. Brother 
 of James II. and Jude, and son of Cleo- 
 pas (or Alphajus) and Mary. Crucified 
 in Persia, a.d. 107, at the age of 120. The 
 oldest and last of the Apostles. His day 
 is 18 Feb, His symbol is a saw. 
 
 Said to have succeeded his brother James in 67, 
 as bishop of Jerusalem. 
 
 14. Thomas (surnamed Didymus), of 
 Galilee, Probably a fisherman. Paren- 
 tage unknown. He was run through 
 the body with a spear at Coromandel 
 (1st cent.). His day is 21 Dec. His 
 symbol is a spear. His scene of labour 
 was Parthia, according to tradition. 
 
 The Apostolic daj-s are : Jan. 25, Feb. 18 and 24, 
 May 1 (two apostles), June 29 itwo apostles), July 
 2-1. Aug. 24, Sept. 27, Oct. 28, Nov. 30, Dec. 21 and 27. 
 None in either March or April, the busy season 
 of Lent and Easter, but two are placed in the 
 following months of May and June. 
 
 Of the two non-apostolic Evangelists 
 nothing is known. Probably Luke 
 (Lucius) was a Roman by birth, and it is 
 supposed he was a physician and an 
 artist. Tradition says he was hanged in 
 Greece on an olive-tree, in the 1st cent. 
 
 Mark is supposed to be John Mark, 
 the companion of Paul. Tradition says 
 that, being dragged tliro»gh the streets 
 of Alexandria, he was hurled from a high 
 rock into the sea. 
 
 Apostles' Creed [The), or ' Symbol 
 of the Apostles.' This creed is so called 
 because each of the twelve clauses is 
 attributed to one of the apostles. Thus : 
 
 1. Peter : I believe in God the Father Almighty, 
 Maker of heaven and earth. 
 
 2. John : [And] in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our 
 Lord. 
 
 3. .Tames fSon.) : WTio was conceived of the Holy 
 Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 4. Andrew : Suffered under Pontius Pilate ; wag 
 crucified, dead, and buried. (' Dead ' not in the 
 Oriental Creed.)^ ' Was. dead :=was deaded. 
 
APOSTOLIC 
 
 APOSTOLIC 
 
 5. Philip: He descended into hell. (From the 
 Creed of Aquil<»iaJ 
 
 6. THOMAS; Thi^ third day He rose again from 
 the dead. iSt. Augustine.) 
 
 7. James i Jun.) ; He ascended into heaven, and 
 Bitteth on the right hand of God the Father Al- 
 mighty. 
 
 8. Matthew; From thence He shall come to 
 judge the quick and the dead. 
 
 9. Nathaniel : I believe in the Holy Ghost. 
 
 10. Simon : The Holy Catholic Church, the Com- 
 munion of Saints. (Added 6th cent.) 
 
 11. Matthias : The forgiveness of sins. 
 
 12. JUDE : The resurrection of the body, and the 
 life everlasting. (Last part belongs to the 3rd 
 cent, the first part to the 4th cent.) 
 
 These twelve articles, we are told, were 
 suggested b^ the Apostles in a grotto 
 of Mount Olivet, before their final separa- 
 tion, and the Apostles were anciently 
 delineated each holding a banderole, on 
 which was inscribed the words of the 
 symbol attributed to him. 
 
 Apostolic Bishops [The). The 
 bishops of the Apostolic Churches {q.v.). 
 In 1046 the Council of Reime declared 
 that the bishop of Rome is the sole apos- 
 tolic primate of the Universal Church, 
 and hence such terms as apostolic see, 
 apostolic nuncio, apostolic notary, apos- 
 tolic brief, apostolic vicar, &c. meaning 
 papal nuncio, notary, &c. 
 
 Apostolic Blessing {The). The 
 blessing of the pope of Rome, as successor 
 of St. Peter. 
 
 Apostolic Brethren, or ' Aposto- 
 lici '(1260-1368). A Christian sect founded 
 by Girolamc Segarelli, a weaver of 
 Parma, who went about in the dress of 
 an apostle, preached repentance, free 
 society, and a return to apostolic man- 
 ners. From 1290 his adherents began to 
 denounce infant baptism, the dogma of 
 purgatory, invocation of saints, praj'ers 
 for the dead, and the corrupt lives of the 
 clergy. In iSOO G-irolamo Segarelli, the 
 founder, and many of his followers were 
 brought to the#take. 
 
 Dolcino then became the head of the 
 society and drew together many thou- 
 sands of followers, but in 1305 a crusade 
 was preached against him, and being 
 captured, he was burnt alive. The 
 brotherhood lingered on till 1368. and 
 gi-adually died out. Dante refers to 
 Dolcino in the ' Inferno,' xxviii. 55. 
 
 Volumus quod nullus clericuS: nulla secularis 
 persona, intuitu religionie eorum^ ac incolito 
 habitu, eos de cffitero recipiat, aut eis alimcaita 
 ministret.— Cou7icU of Jerusalem, 1287. 
 
 Apostolic Chamber (The). A 
 council entrusted with the care oi the 
 
 revenues of the see of Rome. Equal to 
 papal chamber or board. 
 
 Apostolic Churches (The). 
 Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and 
 Rome ; sometimes Corinth and Ephesus 
 are also included. These churches are 
 supposed to have been founded by the 
 Apostles themselves. 
 
 Apostolic Constitutions (The), 
 or ' Apostolic Canons.' A collection of 
 ecclesiastical laws attributed to St. 
 Clement, a disciple of St. Peter, but 
 proved to be not earlier than the 8rd 
 cent. Indeed the Quini-Sext {q.v.) 
 council, held at Constantinople in 690, 
 pronounced the collection to be apo- 
 cryphal. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Apostolic Fathers {The). The im- 
 mediate fellow-labourers of the apostles, 
 born in the first century. They were: 
 (1) Barnabas, who died a.d. 61 ; (2) Clement 
 of Rome, 30-100 ; (3) Ignatius, who died 
 115; (4) Polycarp, 80-169. They were 
 succeeded by the Primitive Fathers 
 {q.v.) 
 
 Papias of HierapSlis, and Hermas, author of the 
 ' Shepherd, are sometimes ranked amongst the 
 apostolic fathers. Papias died 109, Polycarp in 1(57, 
 and Hermas in the 1st cent. It is doubtful 
 ■whether Hermas is a proper name at all. 
 
 Apostolic Kings {The). Pope 
 Sylvester II., in 1000, granted to Stejihen 
 of Hungary and his successors the right 
 of so styling themselves. The reigning 
 king is ad(lressed as Your Apostolic 
 Majesty, and referred to as H.A.M. In 1758 
 Clement XIII. conferred the title of 
 H.A.M. on Maria Theresa, as queen of 
 Hungary, and the emperor of Austria, as 
 king of Hungary, continues the same style. 
 
 Apostolic Letter or Brief {An). 
 A papal letter or brief. 
 
 Apostolic Months {The). The six 
 following months : January, March, May, 
 July, September, and November. That 
 is, every alternate month beginning with 
 January. It was on these months that 
 the pope (according to the Vienna Con- 
 cordat of 1448) took possession of the va- 
 cant benefices in Germany, &c. 
 
 Apostolic Party {The), 1819-1830. 
 In Spanish history. Fanatical Catholics 
 who were also absolutists. Their leaders 
 were priests and their troops were smug- 
 glers and robbers. They ultimately 
 merged into the Catholic party. 
 
APOSTOLIC 
 
 APPAETEMENTS 
 
 89 
 
 Apostolic See {The). The see of 
 Rome, said to have been founded by the 
 apostle Peter. 
 
 Apostolic Succession {The). The 
 supx^osed succession of the priesthood in 
 an unbroken Hne from the Apostles, by 
 means of ordination and laying on of hands. 
 
 Apostolic Vicar {The), or 'Vicar 
 Apostolic' The cardinal who represents 
 the pojje in extraordinary missions. 
 
 Apostolical Canons, 'Canones 
 AiJostolici.' Two" collections of ecclesiasti- 
 cal rules and formularies attributed to Cle- 
 ment of Rome (1st cent.). This, however, 
 has been entirely disproved, and probably 
 they were first drafted in the 2nd and 3rd 
 cents., and the main portion is assigned 
 to a period close upon the great council 
 at Nice (a.d. 325). The first allusion 
 to these canons is in the Council of Con- 
 stantinople, A.D. 394. The whole number 
 is 85, of which 50 are regarded with re- 
 spect by the Western Church, but all are 
 accepted by the Greek Church. See 
 'Apostolic Constitutions.' 
 
 The first fifty were translated from the Greek 
 Into Latin, in the 5th cent., by Dionysius the 
 Younger. References being made in these canons 
 to Eusebius Ciiij-SSS), Athanasius (296-373), and 
 Epiplianius i310-403;, suffice to prove that parts at 
 least of these canons cannot have been earlier than 
 the 4th cent. (See ' Literary Forgeries.') 
 
 Apostolical Constitutions 
 
 {The). In eight books, in which the Apo- 
 stles are introduced as sjpeakers. They are 
 supposed to date from the -ith cent., but 
 certainly much is of later date. They 
 enjoin the duty of assembling twice a day 
 for public praye 3 and psalmody ; the ob- 
 servance of fasts and festivals ; the obli- 
 gation of the Jewish Sabbath and the 
 Christian Sunday ; the duty of reverenc- 
 ing bishops as God's anointed ones and 
 of inferior clergy as Christian magistrates. 
 Epiphanius (367-403) speaks of these 
 books, and, though not genuine, they are 
 useful in showing the religious tone and 
 feeling of the period. See ' Apostolical 
 Canons.' 
 
 The hrst six books ccnto-in rules for a Christian 
 life ; Book VII. is an abridgment of the preceding 
 six books, and Book VIII. relates to priests and 
 their duties. 
 
 Apostolical Junta {The), 26 Sep., 
 1825. Formed by Ferdinand VII. of Spain 
 for the purpose of assisting the ministry. 
 
 Apostolicals {The). Members of 
 the Apostolical Junta {q.v.). 
 
 Apostol'iei, or * Apostolic'ians,' or 
 ' Apotac'tici.' Heretics mentioned by 
 Papias, who died a.d. 169. They pro- 
 fessed to follow the Apostles in having all 
 things in common, and renounced riches 
 and marriage. See ' Apostolic Brethren.' 
 
 Epiphanius' (810-403) says these vagabonds made 
 use of the Apocryphal Acts of St. Andiew and 
 St. Thomas. 
 
 Apostolicians. The Waldenses, or 
 Vaudois, were so called in the 12th cent.; 
 so were the Apostolic Brethren {q.v.) of 
 the loth and 14th cents. See also ' Apo- 
 stolici.' 
 
 Apostollcum {The), 7 Jan., 1765. 
 A bull granted by Pope Clement XIII. 
 at the solicitation of the Jesuits, confirm- 
 ing their institution. It was suppressed 
 11 Feb., 1765, by a Parlement of Paris. 
 
 The publication was forbidden in Portugal in 
 1765. 
 
 Apostoo'lians, or * Apostoo'lists,' 
 
 1664. A branch of Baptists in Holland, 
 founded by Samuel Apostool (1638-1700). 
 They split from the Mennonites, and 
 were Calvinistic in their views of absolute 
 predestination. 
 
 Apotac'tici, or Apotac'titae. The 
 same as the Apostol'iei {q.v.). 
 
 Apothe'ker {The). The Fourteen 
 Saintly Helpers {q.v.). 
 
 Similar to the 'rfwoi A Ifxikakai of the Greeks, and 
 the l)ii Averrunci of the Komans. 
 
 Apparel. To give apparel was, in 
 Ireland, a symbol of lordship. Thus 
 our John, as lord of Ireland, being ap- 
 plied to by Crovderg for help against the 
 O'Conors, gave the required aid, and sent 
 a quantity of scarlet cloth to be presented 
 to the king of Ireland and the provincial 
 chiefs, who acknowledged the English 
 supremacy. It was, in fact, a livery. 
 
 O Donnell applied for apparel (1541), a request 
 which the Deputy, not understanding the political 
 meaning, thought very strange, seeing that when 
 he made it he wore a coat of crimson velvet with 
 twenty or thirty pair of aglets, under a double 
 cloak of rich crimson satin corded with black vel- 
 vet, and a bonnet of equal splendour.— OCuNOB, 
 History of tlie Irish People, p. 1:^3. 
 
 Appartements. Receptions held 
 thrice a week by Louis XIV. at Versailles. 
 An ' Appartement ' was an assembly of 
 all the court in the grand saloon from seven 
 till ten, when the king sat down to table. 
 There was first music, then billiards, 
 cards, dominoes, chess, and dancing, 
 A guest was at liberty to order of thid 
 attendants anything he wished for. 
 
40 
 
 APPEAL 
 
 APPLE-STALL 
 
 Appeal (An). An accusation by a I 
 
 private subject against another for some | 
 heinous crime, demanding punishment on | 
 account of some specified injury suffered, | 
 rather than for the offence against the j 
 public. In 1886 the members of the 
 commission appointed to regulate the 
 affairs of the nation and the king's house- 
 hold (Rich. II.) appealed of high treason 
 the Archbishop of York, the Duke of Ire- 
 land, the Earl of Suffolk, Sir Robert 
 Tresilian, and Sir Nicholas Brembre, for 
 disputing their authority. The appeal 
 was sent to the king, who was obliged to 
 give way, and the accused fled, but only 
 Sir Nicholas Brembre and Tresilian were 
 captured and executed. The object of 
 the appellants was really to depose the 
 king, and take the crown into their own 
 custody. 
 
 Appeal [Court of). The Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council was con- 
 stituted a Court of Appeal by 3, 4 Will. 
 IV. c. 41 (1833), and by 14, 15 Vict. c. 83 
 (1851). 
 
 Appeal (Bight of). ' Provocatio ad 
 populum ' in Roman law. This right 
 was secured to all Roman citizens by the 
 Valerian Law B.C. 509, but was abohshed 
 by the ' Twelve Tables ' (q.v.), B.C. 451. 
 It was restored by the Valerian- Horatian 
 Law B.C. 449, and confirmed by several 
 subsequent laws. 
 
 Appeal to Caesar (J). 'Appello 
 Coesarem.' Eiy the law of Porclus Tjneca, 
 de ccvpite et tergo cioiiini, no Roman 
 citizen could be jjut to death or scourged. 
 His appeal was to a trial before the 
 Centuries (B.C. 256); but in the empire, 
 Ceesar represented the Centuries. It 
 was somewhat like our habeas corpus, 
 which ensures a fair trial. 
 
 Appeals (The Statute of). 24 & 
 25 Hen. VIIL, 1532, 1533, forbidding all 
 appeal to Rome ; all x^rocesses of the 
 Court of Rome in England ; and abolish- 
 ing entirely the judicial jurisdiction of 
 the papacy in any affair connected with 
 an English subject. 
 
 Appel eomine d'abus (L'). This 
 right was recognised in 1329. It was an 
 appeal to the civil powers against the 
 abuses of ecclesiastical superiors, whether 
 in contravention of the constitutions or 
 the corcordats ol the couxatry. 
 
 Appellants, 1717. Those who ap- 
 pealed, or rather wished to appeal, to. a 
 general council against the bull called 
 U)iige)utus, issued by Pope Clement XL 
 in 1718, against the ' Moral Reflexions ' 
 of Quesnel. This book favoured tho 
 Jansenists and condemned the Jesuits. 
 The bull condemns it in globo — that is, 
 as a whole — without particularising any 
 stated parts, doctrines, or dogmas, as 
 objectionable. The archbishop of Paris, 
 and the bishops of Mirepoix, Se'nez, 
 Montpellier, and Boulogne wished to 
 refer the matter to a general council, 
 but Louis XIV., in his usual over- 
 bearing manner, insisted that the bull 
 should be accepted unconditionally. 
 The controversy was kept alive till 1730, 
 when the bull was registered by the 
 Paris parlement, and the heat of the 
 opponents cooled down ; but even to this 
 hour there are some appellants who dis- 
 approve of the bull. 
 
 Ap'pian Way (The), b.c. 302. A 
 road between Rome and Capua begun 
 by Api^ius Claudius Cascus, during his 
 consulship. The oldest and most famous 
 of all the Roman roads. 
 
 Called the Queen of lloarts (Regina Viarum). 
 
 Apple-pie Causes. Causes in 
 which judgment is beyond the possibility 
 of dispute. Lord Eldon used to say, 'I 
 have often wished that all my causes 
 were apple-pic causes.' He referred to 
 a complaint made to him when he was 
 resident fellow of University College. 
 Some of the undergraduates complained 
 to him that the cook had sent to table 
 an apple-pie that could not be eaten. 
 Lord Eldon ordered the cook to bring 
 the- pie before him, but the cook re- 
 turning informed him that the pie was 
 eaten ; whereupon Lord Eldon gave 
 judgment for the defendant. ' You com- 
 plain,' said he to the undergraduates, 
 ' that the pie could not be eaten, but the 
 pie has been eaten, and therefore could 
 be eaten.' 
 
 Apple-stall Legislation, 1851. 
 The eviction of Ann Hicks from Hyde 
 Park by the First Commissioner of 
 Woods and Forests. In 1843 Ann Hicks 
 had a little apple-stall in the Park. She 
 obtained permission to erect a wooden 
 stand in which to lock up her commo- 
 dities. The wood was repaired by brick, 
 then raised live feet high with a roof and 
 
APPOSITION 
 
 AEABIAN 
 
 41 
 
 chimney, then surrounded with hurdles 
 which every few weeks encroached more 
 and more upon the Park, and grew into 
 a little garden. The Duke of Wellington, 
 as Ranger of the Park, had to employ 
 the Crown solicitors ; and the commis- 
 sioners had to pay Ann Hicks a sum of 
 money by way of compensation before 
 she could be got rid of. 
 
 Apposition Day. Midsummer- 
 day is so called at St. Paul's School, 
 founded by Dean Colet in 1509. It was 
 designed for 153 boys, being the number 
 of fishes caught by the disciples, as re- 
 lated in the fourth gospel, and dedicated 
 to the boy Jesus, who at twelve years of 
 age ' apposed ' the doctors in the Temple. 
 
 Apprenticeship {Statute of), 
 15G2-3 (5 Eliz. c. 4). Provided that no 
 person should exercise any trade in 
 England who had not served a seven 
 years' apprenticeship. Abolished in 1814, 
 except in the legal profession, in which 
 clerks must be ' articled ' before they 
 can practise for themselves. See ' Arti.' 
 
 Appropriation ClaTise [The], 
 1838. A part of the ' Act for altering 
 and amending the laws relating to the 
 Temporalities of the Church in Ireland.* 
 The temporalities of the Irish bishoprics 
 were, by this clause, vested in ecclesi- 
 tical commissioners for the provision of 
 divine service, the payment of church 
 rates, the rejoairs of churches, and other 
 similar purposes. 
 
 The statute abolished ten bishoprics, and united 
 thorn to the ten remaining ones. It abolished 
 those of Dromore, Kaphoe, Ciogher, Elphin, Killala 
 and Achonry. Clonfert and Kilmacduagh, Kildare, 
 Ossory, Waterford, and Lismore, Cork and Ross. 
 
 Aprfes nous le deluge. 'Let the 
 flood come, for aught I care, when we are 
 gone ' was the scandalous exclamation 
 of Madame de Pompadour, the Court 
 favourite of Louis XV. Louis himself 
 said to the Due de Choiseul, when urged 
 to attend to business, ' Bah, duke ! the 
 crazy old machine will hold out my time ; 
 and my successors must look after them- 
 selves.' 
 
 Aqua Tofa'na, * Acqua Tofan'ica,' 
 1709. A liquid poison concocted by 
 Tofana of Palermo, and called by her 
 ' Manna of St. Nicholas of Bari,' and 
 said to be a liquid which oozed from the 
 tomb of that saint. Four or five drops 
 were fatal. Tofana confessed to tlae 
 
 murder of 600 victims. Thought to have 
 been a solution of arsenic. 
 
 In the IGth and 17th cents. Spa.ra and her assis 
 tant. Gratiana, used a similar poison to kill young 
 husbands when their wives wished to be widows. 
 In 1()59 the number of young widows in Italy ex- 
 cited the attention of Pope Alexander VII., and 
 suspicion was excited against a society of young 
 wives presided over by Spara, an old woman. 
 Five were executed. 
 
 Aquse et Ignis Interdictio, i.e. 
 
 banishment. 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that the Eoman 
 symbol of marriage was 'Fire and Water,' not, 
 perhaps, because man and wife in old Rome led 
 a cat and dog life, but simply because fire and 
 water are two essentials of ' married life,' or 
 'home.' Bachelors could partake of the Ignis et 
 Aqua of other men. 
 
 Aquarians. A very early section 
 of Christians who celebrated communion 
 with water instead of wine. St. Cyj)rian 
 speaks of them with condemnation ; but 
 it is said that they drank water to prevent 
 detection by their breath. 
 
 Aquitaine, Aquita'nia. One of 
 
 the four great regions of ancient Gaul, 
 including all the south-west part lying 
 between the PjTenees, the Gulf of Gas- 
 cony, and the river Garonne. 
 
 Henry II. called himself ' dux Normannorum et 
 Aquitandrum.' 
 
 Richard I.. John, and Henry III. called them- 
 selves ' dux Normannice et AquitanioB.' 
 
 Edward I., II., III., dropped the former and 
 called themselves ' dux AquitanioB.' 
 
 Between Edward III. and George III. Frnncicf 
 was substituted for ' Aquitaniae ' and rex for dux. 
 
 Arabella {The Lady)— that is, 
 Arabella Stuart, 1575-1G15. Cousin of 
 James I. 
 
 She wag the daughter of Charles 
 Stuart, earl of Lennox ; and Charles 
 was younger brother 'of Henry Darnley, 
 who married Mary Queen of Scots. 
 Hence, James I. and the Lady Arabella 
 were the children of two brothers. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots claimed the 
 throne of England as the grand-niece of 
 Henry VIII. and Queen Margaret. But 
 Charles Lennox married the niece of 
 Queen Margaret, and consequently was 
 one degree nearer to that queen than 
 Mary was. Besides, the Countess of 
 Lennox was a native Englishwoman. 
 The name of the countess was Margaret, 
 and, as Sir Walter Scott observes, if 
 brought to a court of law, English 
 lawyers would probably have decided 
 against Mary Queen of Scots and her 
 son James. 
 
 Arabian Literature in Spain 
 (The Golden age of), 9C1-97G. When 
 
42 
 
 ARABIAN 
 
 ARCHIBALD 
 
 Al Hakem II. was king of Cordova. Al 
 Hakem II. founded schools, endowed 
 colleges, invited over learned men of all 
 countries, and formed at Cordova an 
 immense public library. 
 
 Arabian Odyssey {T7ie). Mr. 
 Hole, in his remarks on the ' Contes 
 Arabes ' (' Arabian Nights '), considers 
 ' Sinbad the Sailor ' as the Arabian 
 Odyssey. 
 
 The ' Arabian Nights Entertainments ' are the 
 ' Contes Arabes ' of Antoine Galland, a French 
 orientalist, who travelled under the patronage ol 
 Colbert. They were published in Paris in 12 vols. 
 (1704-1717). 
 
 Arabic {Professorship of). In the 
 University of Cambridge, 1G32 ; founded 
 by Sir Thomas Adams, Bart., and en- 
 dowed with a stipend of 40Z. a year. 
 The present stipend is 540Z. 
 
 Arabic versions of the Bible. 
 
 I. The Old Testament, a.d. 925, trans- 
 lated by Rabbi Saadia Gaon Haphitomi. 
 II. The Pentateuch, translated in 1486, 
 by Harites ibn Sina. 
 
 Ar'biter Elegantia'rum. Petro- 
 nius was the director-in-chief of the 
 pleasures and amusements of Nero. 
 Beau Nash was the ' arbiter elegantia- 
 rum ' of Bath (1704, &c.). 
 
 Arbitrary Appropriation (TTz-e), 
 
 12th cent. The permission to pay tithes 
 wherever a person thought proper. 
 Innocent III., by a decretal epistle, 
 abolished this liberty, and enjoined that 
 every man must pay his tithe to his own 
 parish church. 
 
 Arbor Day. A day set apart in 
 Canada and the United States for plant- 
 ing trees. Thus — 
 
 The 2nd Wednesday in April 1874 
 was Arbor Day in Nebraska, when 
 twelve million trees were planted in that 
 state alone. 
 
 The 15th of April, 1876, was Arbor Day 
 in Michigan. 
 
 The 3rd Tuesday in May 1876 was 
 Arbor Day in Minnesota, when 1,342,886 
 trees were planted in that State. 
 
 The 27th of April, 1882, was Arbor Day 
 in Ohio. 
 
 The first Friday in May 1887 was Arbor 
 Day in Canada. 
 
 The first Friday in May should be set apart by 
 the trustees of every rural school and incorpo- 
 rated village (in Canada) for the purpose of plant- 
 ing shady trees, making flower-beds, and other- 
 wise improving and beautifying the school- 
 grounds.— £ci«cctWort DcpariviciU of Untario. 
 
 Area'na. The secret operations of 
 alchemists, the chief of which was the 
 'Philosopher's Stone.' 
 
 The Double Arcane, or Arcanum, the 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 The Coral Arcane, or Arcanum, the 
 deutoxide of red mercury, prepared by 
 nitric acid. 
 
 The Jovial Arcane, or Arcanum of 
 Jupiter, a mixture- of the deutoxide of 
 tin and nitrate of mercury. 
 
 Archangels [The Seven). 
 
 Chamuel, represented as bearing a cap and 
 staff. 
 
 GabrieIi, the messenger of God ; represented as 
 floating through the air, with his hands crossed 
 over his breast. Also with royal robes, bearing a 
 lily in his hand. 
 
 Michael, represented in complete armour, 
 bearing a sword. Sometimes he is represented 
 with eyes bandaged, and bearing a sword and pair 
 of scales, in allusion to his being the angel of the 
 Judgment. 
 
 Raphael is represented as a pilgrim with staff 
 and gourd ; or a traveller carrj'ing Vifish {Tohit). 
 
 Uriel is represented carrying a parchment 
 scroll, to signify his being the interpreter of pro- 
 phecies. 
 
 Zadkiel bears the sacrificial knife which he 
 took from Abraham, when the patriarch was 
 about to slay his son. 
 
 ZOPHIEL bears a flaming sword. 
 
 Archdeacon's Court [The). To 
 hear ecclesiastical causes, subject to an 
 appeal to the bishop, 24 Hen. VIII, c. 12. 
 
 Archd and Duum'virat. The 
 
 vital principle and the soul. Terms 
 used by Van Helmont of Brussels (1577- 
 1644) to express the dual nature of man. 
 By arche he meant the vital principle 
 penetrating the entire body, which prin- 
 ciple performs all the functions of nutri- 
 tion and digestion. ' Duumvirat ' with 
 him meant the intellectual principle or 
 soul. He called it duum-vi-rat because 
 it resides in the ' two organs ' called 
 t7i[scera] and ratfa], that is the bowela 
 and the spleen. See ' Natura Naturans,' 
 ' Anima Mundi,' and ' Pre-established 
 Harmony.' 
 
 He did not place the soul in the brain, because 
 he said the brain has no blood ; but as the diges- 
 tive organs are so intimately wrapped up with 
 the intellectuality of man, he placed the soul 
 there. 
 
 Archestratid.es, b.c. 577. The 
 Archons of Athens. 
 
 Pronounce Ar-kes-trat'-i deez. 
 
 Archibald Bell-the-cat. Archi- 
 bald Douglas, earl of Angus (died 1514). 
 
 An armed conclave was held in Lauder church 
 (on the subject of ridding the kingdom of the up- 
 start Cochrane, who had risen from the station of 
 a mason to become the earl of Mar). Lord Gray 
 
A.ECHIMANDEITE 
 
 ABISTIDES 
 
 43 
 
 reminded them of the fable of the mice which 
 laid a project for preventing the ravages of the 
 cat by tying a bell round her neck. ' An excellent 
 project indeed,' said one of tlie conclave, ' but 
 who would undertake to bell the cat ? ' ' That 
 will I,' exclaimed Douglas, carl of Angus; and 
 ever after he was called Archibald Bell-the-cat. — 
 Sir \V. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xx. 
 
 Archimandrite. A father pro- 
 vincial of the Greek Church. The su- 
 periors of convents are Mandrites (2 syl.) 
 or Hegumeui. 
 
 Pronounce Ar'-ki-man'-drite. 
 
 Arehon'tics. ' Archon'tici ' or Val- 
 entinians, a section of the Gnostic 
 school founded by Valentlnus in the 
 2nd cent. So called because they 
 taught that ' munduni universum a Deo 
 conditum opus esse apxoi'TOiv.' They 
 denied the resurrection of the body, the 
 divine institution of the sacraments, and 
 maintained that the incorporeal could 
 not communicate with the corporeal, or 
 that a spirit god could reveal anything 
 to a material substance like man. 
 
 Arctic Highlands (The). That 
 part of the American continent which 
 lies between Hudson's Bay and the 
 mouth of the Mackenzie. The general 
 route of the explorers of a north-west 
 passage, such as Franklin, Eichardson, 
 Back, Dease, Simpson, Eae, &c. 
 
 Areop'agites {The), (5 syl.). An 
 Athenian covirt of judicature, which was 
 held on the Mars Hill (in Greek, Ares 
 Pagos), All wilful murders came under 
 the cognisance of this court. The num- 
 ber of members varied ; but on a column 
 in the citadel of Athens, erected to 
 Eufus Festus, the number is stated to 
 have then been 300. 
 
 Argen'teus Codex {The), or 
 •Silver Book,' The MS. of Ulphilas's 
 Moeso-gothic translation of the gospels, 
 discovered in the abbey of Werden, and 
 taken to Prague in 1597. It was cap- 
 tured at Prague in 1648, and presented 
 to Christina of Sweden ; subsequently, 
 it was presented to the University of 
 Upsala in 1(562. It contains a large part 
 of the four gospels and is written on 
 vellum, the letters being silver, and the 
 mitials gold. (Ar-gen'-te-us, 4 syl.) 
 
 Ar'gentine Republic {The), 1816. 
 Thirteen confederated provinces of Eio 
 de la Plata, South America. 
 
 Argyll. God bless the Duke of 
 Argijll ! The Duke of Argyll set up 
 rubbing-posts for cattle in the Highlands 
 of Scotland. When the tenders of cattle 
 used these posts for their own delecta- 
 tion, suffering from what they call yuke, 
 they gratefully ejaculated, ' God bless 
 the Duke of Argyll ! ' 
 
 Pronounce Ar-glle. 
 
 A'ria Cat'tiva Mala'ria. So the 
 
 Italians call the emanations of the 
 Pontine marshes, which produce fevers. 
 The aria cattiva reaches even to the lower 
 parts of Eome. 
 
 A'rian Controversy {The), 4th 
 cent. In the time of Constantino the 
 Arians were very numerous. They 
 withdrew from the Trinitarians, built 
 their own churches, and ordained their 
 own bishops. The General Council of 
 Nice, A.D. 325, condemned the Arians as 
 heretics. 
 
 A'rianism, a.d, 812. The religious 
 tenets of Arius of Alexandria (270-336), 
 who disavowed the dogma of the Trinity, 
 and denied that Christ, the Word, is co- 
 equal and consubstantial with God the 
 Father. In fact, he maintained that 
 Christ is not God at all, but was a 
 human being, born of human parents. 
 
 The religious views of Arius were condemned in 
 the First General Council held at Nice in 3-25. 
 Arius said : If God is one, all wise, all powerful, 
 and everywhere present, it is a contradiction of 
 terms to suppose a second possessed of the same 
 attributes. The party-word of the Arians was 
 homoiousios not hovioousios. That of the Athana- 
 sians was homoousins not ho7)wiousios (honio-oii:'ios 
 ■=■ idontical in nature ; hovwi-ousioa = similar [but 
 not identical] in substance). 
 
 Arios'to of the l^Torth {The). Sir 
 Walter Scott (1771-1832). 
 
 Aristar'chos and Zoilos. Critics. 
 Aristarchos (b.c. 160-88) of Samothrace 
 revised Homer with such severity that 
 his name is proverbial for a caustic 
 critic. Zoilos of Amphipolis also criti- 
 cised Homer with equal severity and was 
 called ' Homeromastix.' 
 
 Aristides {The British). Andrew 
 Marvell (1620-1678), poet, satirist, and 
 politician. He was the last paid M.P. 
 for Kingston-upon-Hull. 
 
 Pronounce Ar'-risti'-deea. 
 In 1673 the Lord Treasurer Danby paid a visit to 
 Andrew Marvell in his humble lodging ; and, at 
 parting, slipped into his hand a cheque for lOOOt. 
 MarveU bade the Treasurer wait a moment, and 
 said to the serving boy, 'Jack, child, what had I 
 for dinner yesterday 1 ' ' L»on t you remember. 
 
u 
 
 ARISTIDES 
 
 ARMAGNAC3 
 
 Sir ? It was a shoulder of mutton ? ' ' Aye, true ! I 
 remember. And what am 1 to have today ? ' ' The 
 blade-bone broilod.' 'So, my lord, you see my 
 dinner is provided. I thanli you, but there is the 
 piece' of paper you gave me. My services belong 
 to my constituents.'— C. Thomson, Autobiography, 
 p. 87. 
 
 Aristi'des {The English). John 
 Pym, the republican (1584-16i3). See 
 above. 
 
 He sought no advantage to himself, he derived 
 
 nothing from his exertions or his prominent posi- 
 tion, but the satisfaction of seeing his country 
 saved by his labours. He derived no influence 
 from wealth or rank, for he liad none of either ; 
 his whole prestige was intellectual and moral 
 worth. He wore himself out for the public good, 
 and died as poor as he commenced, the only grant 
 which he received from the state being an honour- 
 able burial in Westminster Abbey.— HowiTT, Hist. 
 0/ Engl., ' Charles I.,' chap. iv. p. 242. 
 
 Aristides {The French). _ M. Gr^vy, 
 the third president of the third republic 
 of France, from 1879 to 1884. 
 
 Aristopli'anes (5 syl.). Samuel 
 Foote (1722-1777) is called the Enghsh 
 or Modern Aristophanes. 
 
 Aristophanes of his age {The). 
 
 J. Baptiste Poquelin de Moliere, the 
 French dramatist (1622-1673). 
 
 Aristophanes of the devolu- 
 tion {The). Camille Desmoulins (1762- 
 1794). See above. 
 
 Aristotelian Categories {The). 
 
 The ten Aristotelian categories are : (1) 
 substance; (2) quantity; (3) quality; 
 (4) relation; (5) action ; (6) passivity; 
 (7) position in space ; (8) position in 
 time ; (9) situation ; (10) possession. 
 
 Aristote'lianism. The system of 
 Aristotle's logic and metaphysics applied 
 to the Christian system in the middle 
 ages. This substitution of reason for 
 faith, and logical inferences for what are 
 . called ' inspired truths,' gave birth to the 
 Scholastics. The tendency of Platonism 
 was to enthusiasm and mysticism, that 
 of tlie Aristotelians to subtlety and 
 logical minuteness. Platonists tended 
 to fanaticism, Aristotelians affected dis- 
 putation. Thomas Aquinas was an Aris- 
 totelian, Duns Scotus a Platonist. 
 
 Aristotle of China. Tehuhe (3 
 Bvl.)) who died a.d. 1200, also called ' the 
 Prince of Science.' 
 
 Aristotle of Christianity. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, who tried to reduce 
 the doctrines and dogmas of Christianity 
 to syllogistic formulee (1224-1274). 
 
 Aristotle of the nineteenth 
 
 century (T7ie). George Cuvier (1769- 
 1832), the great French naturalist. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant {The). 
 Exod. XXV. A chest of shittim wood, 
 the lid of which was of pure gold. It 
 contained at one time the two stone 
 tables of the law, a pot of manna, Aaron's 
 rod, and the book of the law. The lid 
 was the ' Mercy Seat.' It was taken to 
 Babylon and lost sight of. 
 
 ' Shittim wood,' probably cedar. 
 
 Arkan'sas (U.S. of America). So 
 called in 1819 from its chief river. The 
 inhabitants of this state are nicknamed 
 ' Toothpicks.' 
 
 The rivers are the Mississippi, the Arkansas, the 
 Red Biver, the White River, and the St. FranQois. 
 The Arkansas is a magnificent river, navigable 
 for 1,980 miles, area reckoned 178,000 square miles. 
 
 Arm of Iron {The). Baldwin, who 
 married Judith, widow of Ethelbald. 
 Judith, when she married Ethelbald, 
 was a widow, having been previously 
 married to his father, Ethelwulf. 
 
 Baldwin I., Bras de Fer, count of Flanders, 
 
 died 877. 
 
 Arma'da {The), or * The Invincible 
 Armada,' as the Spaniards vaimtinf(ly 
 named it, 29 July to 7 Aug., 1588. The 
 Armada consisted of 130 vessels, four oi 
 which were gigantic galleys, and the whole 
 carried 2,500 cannons. Against this was 
 opiDosed 50 English vessels no bigger 
 than yachts, and 30 queen's ships, the 
 biggest of which was smaller than the 
 least of the Spanish ships. The Armada 
 was so roughly handled that it tried to 
 retreat round the Orkneys, but a storm 
 scattered the ships and dashed them to 
 pieces against the Irish cliffs. What 
 escaped were 50 of the 130 ships, and 
 10,000 of the 30,000 men— a miserable 
 wreck. The medal struck to com- 
 memorate this mighty overthrow had for 
 its legend, ' He sent out his arrows and 
 He scattered them ' (Ps. xviii. 14). 
 
 Armagnacs {Les), 1407-1497. In 
 French history. The faction headed by 
 Bernard VII., comte d'Armagnac, during 
 the insanity of Charles VI. The other 
 faction was that of the Burgundians led 
 by Jean Sans-peur, duke of Burgundy. 
 The object of each was to get possession 
 of the king, and thus obtain mastery of 
 France under the title of regent. The 
 original Armagnac faction was called 
 
ARMATOLES 
 
 ARMS 
 
 4ij 
 
 the Orleanists, from Charles, duke of 
 OrleaPiS, who married the daughter of the 
 Count of Arinagnac and was assassmated 
 in 1407 by the Duke of Burgundy. On 
 the death of the Duke of Orleans the 
 Count of Armagnac put himself at the 
 head of the Orleanist party, entered 
 Paris at the head of an army in 1413, 
 and was named Constable by the Queen 
 Isabella. He made himself odious by 
 his exactions, and broke with the queen, 
 who fled to the court of Burgundy in 
 1418. The Burgundians now entered 
 Paris and drove out the Armagnacs. 
 The count fled, was discovered, and 
 assassinated with many of his adherents. 
 The race died out with Charles I., 
 brother of Jean IV., in 1497. 
 
 Pronounce Ar-ma'-nyak. 
 
 Armatoles (3 syl.), or ' Armatoli.' 
 A Thessalian militia instituted at the 
 beginning of the 16th cent, by Selim I. 
 to oppose the incursions of the Klephtes. 
 In the insurrection of 1821 the Armatoles 
 and Klephtes united against Turkey. 
 Botzaris was the most illustrious leader of 
 the Armatoles. 
 
 Armed K"8utrality {The), 1780. 
 Against Great Britain, which insisted on 
 the right of search during the American 
 war, to be assured that neutral vessels 
 were not carrying to America articles 
 reckoned contraband of war. Catharine 
 of Russia resisted this claim, and was 
 joined by other European states on the 
 principle that ' free bottoms make free 
 goods.' Denmark and Sweden joined 
 Russia in August ; the States-General on 
 24 Dec; Prussia on 8 May, 1781; the 
 Kaiser, 9 Oct. 
 
 The treaty between Russia, Denmark, and 
 Sweden was ratified IG Dec., 1600. 
 
 Armde de Condd (-L'). 1789. An 
 army collected on the banks of the Rhine 
 by Louis Joseph, prince de Conde, to 
 resist the Revolution. It was distin- 
 guished for its valour at Wissemburg, 
 Haguenau, and Bentheim ; but in 1800 
 the prince took refuge in England. He 
 returned to Paris at the restoration, and 
 died at Chantilly in 1818. 
 
 Arine'nianEra(T^e). Commenced 
 7 July, 552. Superseded by the Julian 
 era in 1330. 
 
 Arme'nian Liturgy (T7ie). Dates 
 from the time of Gregory the Illuminator 
 (257-331), who introduced Christianity 
 
 into Armenia. It is based on the Liturgy 
 of St. Chrysostom. 
 
 Arme'nians {The), Christians of 
 Armenia, and the purest of the disciples 
 of Eutyches (3 syl.). They still maintain 
 that the manhood of Christ is of a divine 
 and incorruptible substance. The Jaco- 
 bites say the Armenian Christ is a mere 
 phantom ; and the Armenians retort by 
 saying the Christ of the Jacobites is a 
 God with all the infirmities of the flesh, 
 and even with the infirmities of nutrition 
 and digestion. They are pretty numerous 
 in Russia, Austria, and Turkey. See 
 'Arminians.' 
 
 The Armenians believe that the Holy Ghost 
 proceeds from the Father only. See ' Filioque.' 
 
 Armin'ianisni, 1603. The religious 
 tenets of Dr. James Ai'minius, a Latinised 
 form of Harmennsen or Hermannsen, a 
 native of Holland (1560-1609). The 
 following five points are the most salient : 
 (1) God wills that all should be saved, 
 and His predestination is only the effect 
 of His foreknowledge; (2) Christ died 
 for all, and God will bestow eternal life 
 on all who repent and believe on Christ ; 
 (3) Man is of himself incapable of true 
 faith, and hence the necessity of being 
 born again by the Holy Ghost; (4) All 
 good works are to be attributed to the 
 Holy Ghost, but that Holy Ghost forces 
 no one against his own inclination; (5) 
 God gives to the true believer the means 
 of continuing in grace. Condemned by 
 the Synod of Dort in 1618. 
 
 At the present day, Arminians reject all 'creeds ;' 
 advocate the right of private judgment in tlie 
 interpretation of Scripture ; virtually reject the 
 dogma of original sin ; look on the sacranaents as 
 religious ceremonies ; dwell on preaching more 
 than on churchism ; and are anti-Calvinists. 
 
 Armin'ians. Anti-Calvinists in 
 the five points. See above. 
 
 Arms of Bourges {The). An 
 ass on an arm-chair. The tradition is 
 this : Asinius, a Roman governor of 
 Bourges in the time of Ceesar, being too 
 ill to stand, was carried in an arm-chair 
 to animate his troops ; and gained a signal 
 victory. Be this as it may, the arms are 
 a never-failing source of jests; and to 
 honour one with the arms of Bourges ia 
 like giving Dr. Pangloss the degree of 
 A double S. 
 
 Pronounce Bourjh. 
 
 Arms of the English sove- 
 reigns {The). 
 
4G 
 
 ARMY 
 
 ARMY 
 
 William I. and II. Gules, 2 liors (Iros pardh) 
 passant garda,nt Or. And for Matilda of Flanders, 
 gyronny of 8 ; in the nombril point a plain shield 
 gules. 
 
 Heney I. and Matilda of Scotland. England as 
 before, and Scotland. 
 
 Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne. Gules, 8 
 Bagittaries Or, 3 torteaux. 
 
 Henry II. England as before ; and for Eleanor 
 of Aquitaine, gules, 1 lion passant gardant. His 
 cognisances were a crescent beneath a star, an 
 escarbuncle of 8 rays, and the broom-plani or 
 genista for his name Planta-genet. 
 
 RiCHAKD I. 3 lions passant gp.rdant for England ; 
 and for Berengaria of Navarre, a cross botonne 
 Ai'g. Motto : Dicu et man droit. 
 
 Henry III. England ; and for Eleanor of Pro- 
 vence, paly of 8, Or and Gules. 
 
 Edward I. England ; and for Eleanor of Castile, 
 a label of 3 or 5 q. With Margaret of France, 
 England and semee de lys. 
 
 Edward II. The same with his father, but with 
 2 small castles on the side of his throne to show 
 his descent through his mother, from Castile. 
 
 Edward III. England, within a border of France 
 (i.e. Az. semee-le-lys, placed on his throne, between 
 2 fleurs-de-lys, to show his descent from France). 
 He first quartered the arms of France in 1368. His 
 cognisances were the sun issuing from the clouds, 
 the stump of a tree sprouting. 
 
 Richard II. France and England quarterly, 
 •with a label of 3 points, the middle point charged 
 with the cross of St. George. He was the first to 
 bear supporters, which were 2 angels. 
 
 Henry IV. France and England quarterly, 6 
 fleurs-de-lys, and the supporters of Richard II. 
 
 Henry V. and VI. France and England quar- 
 terly, the 5 fleur-de-lys reduced to 3, in imitation 
 of Charles VI. of France. Supporters, the black 
 bull of Clare and white lion of Mortimer. Crest, 
 the fleur-de-lys of France, and the lion of England 
 conjoined. Likewise with 2 lions' supporters, and 
 arms within the garter. 
 
 Edward IV. V. France and England. Suppor- 
 ters, a lion and a white hart. 
 
 Richard III., France and England, between 2 
 boars, or a bvill on the right and a boar on the 
 left. 
 
 Henry VII. France and England, surrounded 
 ■with a garter, and ensigned with a large crown. 
 Crest, the portcullis, from the mother of the 
 family of Beaufort. Supporters, a red dragon, 
 from CadwallPder; and on the left a greyhound 
 Arg. collared Gules, from the Somersets. Badges, 
 the white and red rose per pale. 
 
 Henry VIII. France and England. Supporters, 
 a red dragon and greyhound (in the early part of 
 his reign), afterwards a lion of England and a red 
 dragon sinister. For Katharine of Aragon, im- 
 paling Castile and Leon, and Aragon and Sicily. 
 
 EDWARD VI. France and England. Supporters, 
 a lion and a griffin. 
 
 Mary. A lozenge, 1 and 4 France, 2 England, 3 
 Spain. Supporters, an eagle dexter, and a lion 
 rampant gardant sinister. 
 
 Elizabeth. France and England, ensigned 
 •with imperial crowns. Supporters, a lion dexter 
 crowned, and a red dragon sinister. 
 
 James I. France, England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, differently blazoned. Supporters, lion and 
 unicorn. 
 
 •.• George III. omitted France, and it has been 
 omitted ever since. 
 
 Army Book 48. The orderly 
 corporars ledger, a monthly account- 
 book, each i)age of which is headed 
 Covii^any Daily Messing Account. It 
 contains an exact account of the articles 
 and price of every eatable served to the 
 company, in four columns. (1) The 
 article (as tea, sugar, oatmeal, &c.) ; (2) 
 
 the quantity ; (3) the rate charged ; and 
 (4) the sum totalised. 
 
 Army Plea {The). See under 
 ' Plea.' 
 
 Army of England {The), 1797. A 
 French army raised by the Directory 
 and placed under the command of 
 Bonaparte (Napoleon), for the subjuga- 
 tion and plunder of England. After 
 visiting Etaples, Ambleteuse, Boulogne, 
 Calais, Dunkirk, Fumes, Newport, 
 Ostend, and Walcheren, Bonaparte satis- 
 fied himself that the attempt must be 
 abandoned. 
 
 Again, 1803, when Bonaparte was first 
 consul, he assembled a fine army on the 
 heights above Boulogne, called the ' army 
 of England,' and there continually ex- 
 ercised it, under the inspection of Soult, 
 Ney, Davoust, and Victor ; but hearing 
 that England was one vast camp, he 
 abandoned his projected invasion in 
 despair. 
 
 Army of God and the Church 
 
 {The), 1215. The barons and their re- 
 tainers who took up arms against King 
 John when he refused, at Oxford, to sign 
 Magna Charta. 
 
 Pandulph told the king that the primate of the 
 kingdom ought to excommunicate the barons for 
 daring to present the charter; but Stephen Langton 
 replied, he ought rather to excommunicate the 
 foreign mercenaries who overran the kingdom, 
 and indeed would do so, unless the king ordered 
 their instant dismissal. 
 
 Army of Reserve (T/ie), 1804. A 
 
 contingent to the regular army enforced 
 on every parish by William Pitt. The 
 men were called out for five years' service, 
 but were not compelled to quit the United 
 Kingdom. The reserve were attached 
 to the regulars as second battalions. 
 
 Army of Viscounts {The), 1568. 
 An army of Huguenots which overran 
 Gascony, Quercy, and Languedoc. So 
 called because it had for leaders Viscount 
 Montelar, Viscount Bruniquel, Viscomifc 
 Caumont, and Viscount Rapin. 
 
 Viscounts pronounce Vi'counts. 
 
 Army of the Cross {The), and 
 * Soldiers of the Cross,' the crusaders. 
 Every man wore a cross cut in red cloth 
 either on his shoulder or on his breast. 
 First crusade was 1096 (Eufus reigned 
 in England at the time). 
 
 Army of the Indus {The), 1839. 
 An army under the command of Sir 
 
AKNALDISTS 
 
 AEREST 
 
 47 
 
 John Keane, raised to restore Shah 
 Shuja to the throne of Afghanistan, from 
 which he had been driven by Dost 
 Mohammed, chief of Cabul. The army 
 consisted of a British force amounting to 
 2S,000 men, G,000 Sikhs of the Punjab, 
 and 5,000 troops raised by the Shah 
 Shuja. The shah was restored and 
 crowned 8 May ; Ghazni was taken 2 
 July; JeUalabad 30 July; Dost Mo- 
 hammed fled to Bokhara, and Sir John 
 Keane entered Cabul 7 Aug., 1839. 
 
 Arnaldists. A branch of the Wal- 
 denses ; so called from Arnaldo of 
 Brescia (1100-1155). This Arnaldo was 
 a disciple of Abelard, but on his return 
 to Italy became a monk, and introduced 
 numerous reforms, to bring back his 
 followers to primitive times. He was 
 condemned by Innocent II, and the 
 Lateran Council in 1139, after which he 
 withdrew to Switzerland. Wishing to 
 increase his following, he went to Rome 
 in 1144, but was driven out by Lucius II. 
 and Eugenius III. He was seized by 
 Barbarossa and put to death. See 
 ' V/aldenses.' 
 
 Pronounce Ar-nol'dists. 
 
 Ar'naoot. An Albanian Mohamme- 
 dan. A pasha's bodyguard should be 
 composed of Arnaoots. 
 
 Arnold's Historical Essay. Ox- 
 ford University. Value 421. annually. 
 Founded, by subscription, in honour of 
 Dr. Arnold, Regius Professor of Modern 
 History (Head-Master of Rugby), 1850. 
 
 Arpad {House of). The Hungarian 
 dynasty which succeeded on the death of 
 St. Stephen. The crown remained in the 
 dynasty for three centuries. It began with 
 Andrew, duke of Arpad, who reigned 
 104f)-1061. The last of the Arpads was 
 Andrew III. (1290-1301). This was a 
 most hei'oic dynasty, still fondly remem- 
 bered by the Hungarians. Andrew II,, a 
 very worthless king, like our King John, 
 reluctantly granted the Bulla Aurea, or 
 Magna Charta of Hungary. 
 
 Ladislaus I. (1077-1095) was the greatest of the 
 Arpad kings. He was canonised. Bela III, (1173- 
 1196) was an excellent king. 
 
 Arquebuses of Saneerre [The), 
 1573. Slings. When Saneerre was be- 
 sieged by the French Catholics, the in- 
 habitants, who had no firearms, defended 
 themselves with simple slings. The town 
 
 endured a long famine, and the siege is 
 compared to tliat of Jerusalem by Titus 
 and Vespasian. 
 
 Arrabbia'ti (T/ip), i.e. ' the Enraged.' 
 The party of the Medici opposed to that 
 of Savonarola, called the Piagnoni (or 
 the Weepers). The Arrabbiati wanted 
 to see an oligarchy, not a tyranny in 
 Florence. 
 
 Arraigns (r^<? Clerk of). The official 
 who reads the indictment, and calls on the 
 prisoner to plead. 
 
 The calling of a prisoner by his name to the bar 
 of a law court to answer to the charge laid against 
 him in the indictment is called ' .\rraigument.' 
 Pronounce Ar -rains'. 
 
 Arrest of Judgment. A plea made 
 by an unsuccessful defendant, after ver- 
 dict, to arrest judgment in consequence 
 of some error which vitiates the proceed 
 ing. By 15, 16 Vict, c. 76 (1852), omitted 
 facts and other ' faults ' may now be cor- 
 rected. 
 
 Arrest of the Five Members. 
 
 I. By Charles I. 4 Jan., 1642. Charles I., 
 supposing he had evidence of treason 
 against five members of parliament, im- 
 parted to him by James Graham, earl of 
 Montrose, i)roceeded to the House with a 
 band of armed attendants to arrest the 
 members and strike terror into the rest 
 of the House, A measure like this de- 
 pends wholly on its success. Cromwell 
 succeeded when he turned out the mem- 
 bers and locked the doors upon them ; but 
 the five members that Charles sought, 
 having an inkling of what was about to 
 happen, kept away, and Charles cut a 
 most ridiculous figure, a blusterer utterly 
 foiled and made a fool of. 
 
 The five members were Hampden, Haslerlg, 
 Hollis, Pym, and Strode. 
 
 II. By Louis XVI., May 1789. Louis 
 was urged by the Parlement de Paris to 
 convene a States-Geneial in order to solve 
 the national deadlock in the ministry of 
 Brienne. He agreed to do so, but a few 
 days afterwards refused to do anything of 
 the sort; and, entering the Assembly, 
 insisted on its registering two royal edicts, 
 one of which was for a succession of 
 Government loans. Epremenil, Sebas- 
 tian de Cabre, Fre'teau and Monsabert 
 demanded the calling of the States-Gen- 
 eral ; and Louis, rising, left the assembly 
 commanding the edicts to be registered 
 without another word. Freteau and 
 
43 
 
 ARRESTMENT 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 Cabrewere arrested by lettres de cachet, 
 and tlie parlement was dissolved, but it 
 would not submit to be stamped out thus. 
 When the parlement met, an officer was 
 sent to arrest Epremenil and Monsabert, 
 and the king called a lit de justice ; but 
 the parlement denounced the conduct of 
 the king and the arrest of its members as 
 unconstitutional, and refused to recog- 
 nise the royal edicts ; no one subscribed 
 to the loans. 
 
 The 5th member was the Due d" Orleans. He was 
 not actually arrested, but banished from Paris, 
 and commanded to confine himself to his chateau 
 of Villars Cotterets. 
 
 Arrestment for founding 
 jurisdiction, in Scotch law. By this 
 law a foreigner (or one out of the juris- 
 diction of the Scotch courts) may, if he 
 has any sort of property in Scotland, be 
 sued in the Scotch tribunals on a warrant 
 called ' Ad fundandam jurisdictionem.' 
 
 Arrdt d'Union {L% 13 May, 1648. 
 Henri IV. ,of France created an impost 
 called paillette, whereby members of the 
 parlement, by paying an annual cess, could 
 transmit their offices to their heirs. 
 Mazarin, acting for Louis XIV. in his 
 minority, ratified this privilege to the 
 four chief courts, viz. the Parlement, 
 the Chambre des Comptes, the Cour des 
 aides, and the Grand Conseil, but with 
 this proviso, that the last three compa- 
 nies ' perdraient quatre annees de leura 
 gages.' The parlement refused to re- 
 cognise this distinction, and insisted that 
 all the four bodies should be treated alike. 
 This ' stand,' called Varret d'tmion, 
 insisted that no one should be admitted 
 to any office in the state without the 
 consent of the widow and heirs of the 
 previous deceased officer. It furthermore 
 enacted that all the four companies should 
 stick together ' malgre la defense qui leur 
 en fut faite, et au mepris d'un arret du 
 conseil du roi qui cassait I'edit d'union.' 
 Mazarin arrested the president Blanc- 
 menil and a councillor named Broussel. 
 This led to a riot, and Mazarin was obliged 
 to release his prisoners. This was the 
 beginning of the Fronde War (q.v.). 
 
 Arrondissement (4 syl.). A division 
 of a French department presided over 
 by a sub-prefect, 
 
 Ars Sacra. Chemistry was so called 
 in Alexandria, because only priests could 
 study it or practise it. 
 
 Ar'saeides, or ArsacTdae (The), ■ 
 B.C. 250-A.D. 226. The Parthian dynasty 
 of Persia, founded by Arsaces, the Greek 
 spelling of Ashk, a tributary chief who 
 induced the Parthians to revolt from the 
 Seleucidse, B.C. 250. The first stock 
 gave 20 kings, who ruled over Persia for 
 476 years ; the second line, called the 
 Ashk-anians, gave 11 kings, and ruled 
 221 years. Capital Ctesiphon. See ' Sas- 
 sanides.' 
 
 Pronounce Ar'-sas-sides, Ar-sas'-idee. 
 
 Art Unions. Institutions to 
 promote a patronage and sale of fine art 
 productions. The Art Union of Munich 
 v/as established in 1823 ; that of Diissel- 
 dorf in 1829; in Edinburgh in 1834; in 
 London 1837. 
 
 Arti, or Arts. Every burgher of 
 Florence must belong to one of the twenty- 
 one arts, just as, before the reform, every 
 freeman or voter of England was obliged 
 to rank as a tradesman. It was not neces- 
 sary to follow the trade, but it was indis- 
 pensable to ' matriculate ' as a tradesman 
 in order to take up your freedom. 
 
 The 7 higher arts were : (1) judges' and 
 notaries, (2) calimala or manufacturers, 
 (3) exchangers, (4) wool-staplers, (5) silk 
 mercers, (6) physicians and apothecaries, 
 and (7) furriers. 
 
 The 14 loiver arts were : (8) butchers, 
 (9) shoemakers, (10) blacksmiths, (11) 
 drapers and clothcsmen, (12) masons and 
 stonecutters, (13) vintners, (14) inn- 
 keepers, (15) oilmen, pork-butchers and 
 rope-makers, (16) hosiers, (17) armourers, 
 (18) locksmiths, (19) saddlers, (20) carpen- 
 penters, and (21) bakers. 
 
 Each art had its guild. All other 
 trades must unite with some one of these 
 arts, or were not ranked as burghers or 
 freemen. 
 
 Articles in Theology. See under. 
 
 Three articles; three test articles; foicr articles; 
 five articles; six articles; srven articles; nine 
 articles (under 'Lambeth Articles'); ten articles; 
 eteeert articles ; ((oetee articles ; thirty-nine Articles; 
 forty-two articles. Also nine articles of the Evange- 
 lical Alliance. 
 
 Articles of Confederation and 
 perpetual Union {The Thirteen), 
 
 1777. 
 
 1. The States to be called the United 
 States, instead of the United Colonies, as 
 heretofore. 
 
 2. Each state to retain its sovereignty 
 and independence. 
 
AETICLES 
 
 ARTIST 
 
 49 
 
 8. All the states to league together for 
 mxitual defence. 
 
 4. The free inhabitants of any one 
 Btate to enjoy the immunities and privi- 
 leges of free citizens in every other state. 
 
 5. Traitors or great delinquents fleeing 
 from a state to be delivered up to the 
 state wl'.ere the ofience was committed. 
 
 6. Laws and judicial proceedings of 
 each state to be respected by all. 
 
 7. Delegates from each state elected to 
 meet in congress the first Monday in 
 November. 
 
 8. No state to have less than two or 
 more than seven delegates. 
 
 9. Each state to maintain its own dele- 
 gates. 
 
 10. Each state to have only one vote 
 in congress. 
 
 11. Freedom of speech to be allowed to 
 all delegates, and freedom from arrest, 
 except for treason and felony. 
 
 12. No state to enter into war or make 
 peace without consent of Congress. 
 
 13. In times of peace no ships of war 
 or military force to be kept in any state 
 without consent of Congress. 
 
 Articles of Henry {The), or Pacta 
 Conventa, 1573. Articles agreed to by 
 Henry de Valois on his election to the 
 throne of Poland. 
 
 1. That the king should not elect his successor ; 
 2. should not declare war -without the sanction of 
 the Diet ; 3. should not appoint ambassadors to 
 foreign courts ; 4. should not impose any tax ; 
 6. should be governed by a privy council of 16 (4 
 bishops, 4 palatines, and 8 castellans); 6. should 
 confer no dignity or office on any foreigner ; 7. 
 should neither marry nor divorce a wife without 
 consent of the Diet, &c. 
 
 Articles of Reform. (T/^e). Ireland, 
 1340. By these articles Edward III. 
 threatened to take the lands and posses- 
 sions of the Anglo-Irish into his own 
 hands, if the great landholders. were not 
 more attentive to their duties. In two 
 centuries the English lords in Ireland 
 had grown enormously rich, and showed 
 symptoms of a very rebellious spirit. It 
 had become the fashion among them to 
 assume the dress, cut of the hair, and man- 
 ners, as well as the names of the Irish. 
 
 Articles of Schmalkarden or 
 
 Smalkald [The], 1537. The articles of 
 defence adopted in the city of Schmal- 
 kalden by the Protestants under the 
 direction of Martin Luther. 
 
 Articles of Torgau {The), 1530. 
 3 
 
 The 17 articles drawn up by Luther at the 
 request of the Elector of Saxony, show- 
 ing the points of difference between the 
 Beformer and tlie Church of Rome. The 
 document was presented to the Elector 
 at Torgau, whence the name. 
 
 Torgau, pronounce Tor'-gow. 
 
 Articles of "War. Government 
 
 regulations relating (1) to the army, (2) to 
 the na\'y, and (3) to the marine forces. 
 
 Articles of the Peace. The 
 
 terms required from a defendant, when a 
 person swears iu court that he is in fear 
 of damage or personal injury from the 
 defendant. The terms set forth what 
 security the defendant shall give that he 
 will keep the peace, and to what length 
 of time the terms extend. 
 
 Articlemen, 1648. Those restorable 
 Irishmen who were promised pardon and 
 restoration by the articles of the peace 
 made between the Duke of Ormonde on 
 behalf of the king (Charles 11.), and con- 
 federate Catholics. The Act of Explana- 
 tion shut the door of hope on more than 
 6,000 of the restorable Irish. 
 
 There were four classes of restorable Irish, viz. 
 Innocents, Articlemen, Ensignmen, and the King's 
 Nominees (q.v.). 
 
 Artic'uli Cle'ri, 1313. An Act for 
 
 the purpose of maintaining in England 
 certain prerogatives of the Church against 
 the temporal power. 
 
 Artillery Company (TAeBb?io%r- 
 ahle), 1537. The oldest Volunteer corps 
 in Great Britain, being established in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. In the Gordon 
 riots (1780) it successfully defended the 
 Bank of England against the rioters. 
 The members are elected by ballot on a 
 recommendation of five members, and 
 pay an annual subscription of two 
 guineas, but the uniforms are expensive : 
 of the cavalry, 29 Z. 9s. ; of the artillery, 
 18Z. 14s. &d. ; of the infantry, 14Z. 17s. 6cZ. 
 
 It consists of one squadron of light cavalry, an 
 artillery division, six companies of infantry, and 
 a veteran company. The Prince of Wales is 
 captain-general and colonel of the company. 
 
 Artist of the Revolution {The). 
 J. L. David (1748-1825), founder of the 
 Statuesque School. His best piece is 
 the ' Oath of the Horatii,' and his most 
 popular piece is ' Nax^oleon crossing the 
 Alps.' Napoleon is represented as 
 prancing on a fiery white charger, with 
 fluttering shawl, and in a very theatrical 
 
50 
 
 AETISTS 
 
 ASCETICS 
 
 attitude. Historically, he rode a patient 
 mule, was buttoned to the chin in a large 
 grey coat, and toiled through the deep 
 Bnow doggedly. 
 
 Artists and Smiths {Patron 
 saint of). St. Eloi (5S8-659), master of 
 the mint in the reign of Clotaire II. 
 
 Artizo'e. The Fatale Marmor of 
 the Persians, mentioned by Pliny. Ela- 
 gabalus was a similar black conical stone 
 representing the sun, and worshipped at 
 
 Emesa. 
 
 Similar palladia were the Black Stone of the 
 Seids : it is a huge mass of very rich grey silver 
 ore of one of the Indic^n tribes of South Ainerica, 
 which was removed from place to place, as the 
 tribe fled from before the Spanish invaders. The 
 Caaba of the Mussulmans, which Mahomet re- 
 moved to Mecca, was another 7'''/'i^' Mtirmor; so 
 probably was the idol of Diana at Ephesus, which 
 "fell from heaven.' We have also the Lia Fail of 
 Ireland; the Tanist Stone; the pillar of Shechem 
 (2 Kings xi. 14j ; and so on. 
 
 Artoty'rita9 or Bread and Cheese 
 Christians. So called from their using 
 bread and cheese in the Eucharist. 
 (Greek, artos, bread ; turos, cheese.) 
 
 Ar'undel Marbles (The). *Mar'- 
 
 mora Arundellia'na ' or ' Marmora Ox- 
 onien'sia,' preserved in the University of 
 Oxford, and often called the Oxford 
 marbles, the most valuable of which 
 is the ' Parian Chronicle ' {q.v.). These 
 gems of Grecian art were collected 
 by Mr. (Sir William) Petty, who was 
 commissioned by the Earl of Arundel to 
 collect antiquities in Greece. Brought 
 to England a.d. 1610 ; presented to the 
 University of Oxford by his son Henry 
 Howard, in 1667. 
 
 The entire collection originally contained 37 
 Btatues, 128 busts, and 250 inscribed marbles, 
 besides altars, sarcophagi, fragments and 
 gems ; but part was sold in 1678. The Pomfreb 
 marbles were given to Oxford in 1755. 
 
 Arval Brothers (College of the). 
 ' Fratres Arvales,' priests of Rome who 
 went in procession through the fields, 
 and prayed for the increase of corn. 
 {Var?-o.) 
 
 The little or private Arribarvalia were celebrated 
 by a single family for the welfare of all belonging 
 to it, as the great college of the Arval brothers 
 . . . cfflciated in the interest of the whole state. — 
 Pater, Mariiis the Epicurean, chap. i. 
 
 A'ryan Languages (The). The 
 different languages of the Aryan Na- 
 tions iq.v.), which have all one common 
 source, and bear a strong family like- 
 ness. ' They count with the same 
 numerals, call individual speakers by 
 
 the same pronouns, address parents and 
 relatives by the same titles, call the 
 different parts of the body by the same 
 names, decline their nouns on the same 
 system, compare their adjectives in the 
 same way, conjugate their verbs alike, 
 and form derivatives by the same 
 suffixes.' 
 
 A'ryan Nations (The). The Per- 
 sians, Hindus, and all Europeans ex- 
 cept the Basques, Turks, Hungarians, 
 and Finns. See ' Semitic ' and ' Tu- 
 ranian.' 
 
 Eastern branch : the Persians and Hindiis, 
 which include Zend, Armenia.n, Kurdish, and 
 Afghan ; Sanskrit, Hindi, Hindustani ; Gipsy ; 
 Pali, and the dialects of Ceylon. 
 
 Western branch (First Swarm), the Celtic. It 
 settled in Greece; and spread into Italy, Spain, 
 France, and the British Isles; (Second Swarm), 
 the Teutonic, colonised Germany, and spread 
 into Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and England ; 
 (Third Swarm), the Slavonic, settled in Bohemia, 
 Poland, and Russia. 
 
 Pali is the sacred language of the Buddhists ; 
 Sanskrit is the sacred language of the Hindus ; 
 Zend is the sacred language of the Persians. All 
 now dead languages. 
 
 As = a God. The twelve Asse or ^sir 
 of Scandinavian mythology are Odin, 
 Thor, Baldur, Niord, Freyr, Tyr, Bragi, 
 Heimdal, Wedar, Wali, Uller, and 
 Forseti. 
 
 The chief goddesses are Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, 
 Eira, and Saga. 
 
 The twelve divine Asse.— Ehic G. Geijer, Hist. 
 of SiCtxU'.n, p. 5. 
 
 Asca'nian House {The). One of 
 
 the most ancient families of Germany, 
 so called from the castle of Ascania in 
 Aschersleben. It reigned over the prin- 
 cipality of Anhalt in the 11th cent., and 
 gave the sovereigns of Brandenburg (1143— 
 1320) and of Saxony. The dukes of the 
 Ascanians of Saxony formed two 
 branches, viz. Saxe-Wittenberg, extinct 
 in 1422, and Saxe-Lauenburg, extinct in 
 1689. 
 
 Ascension Day, or' Holy Thursday.* 
 A religious festival held on the 40th 
 day after Easter to commemorate the 
 Ascension of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Beating the bounds (of parishes^, called ?,)1 
 Scotland 'riding the marches,' used to be, and 
 still is in some places, observed on this day. 
 
 Ascetics {The), 3rd cent. Persons 
 who devoted themselves to a solitary 
 and contemplative life, following the 
 system of the Essenes and Therapeutse 
 {q.v.) among the Jews. They practised 
 great austerities for the mortifying of 
 the flesh, withdrew the mind frora 
 
ASCITES 
 
 ASIA 
 
 51 
 
 worldly objects, and tried to lose them- 
 selves in God. They haunted the deserts 
 of EgjT^t and Syria, and gave rise to 
 monachism. 
 
 Asci'tes (3 syl.). From the Greek 
 aa-Ko?^ a bladder, meaning ' inflated like a 
 bladder.' Christian heretics who ' utrem 
 inflatum et oj)ertum solebant circumferre, 
 tanquam ipsi essentevangeliciutresnovi, 
 vino novo repleti ' (Acts ii. 13). Augustine 
 mentions them in his book of ' Heresies ' 
 (62). 
 
 Ascodrog'itae, or * Ascodrog'ili.' 
 Christian heretics of Galatia, 'qui 
 utrem inflatum ponunt et cooperiunt in 
 sua ecclesia, et circumeunt eum insani- 
 entes potibus, non intelligentes quod ait 
 Salvator ' — ' New wine must be jaut into 
 new bladders.' — Du Cange, i. p. 408. 
 
 Ash Wednesday. First day of 
 Lent, when at one time penitents ap- 
 peared before their bishop or priest with 
 naked feet and clad in sackcloth ready 
 to submit to penance. The pessimi 
 were first sprinkled with ashes of the 
 palms burnt on the Palm Sunday of the 
 preceding year, and were then driven 
 out of the church door by the clergy, 
 who cried after them ' In the sweat of 
 thy brow shalt thou eat bread ! ' The 
 less offensive were signed on the forehead 
 with the sign of the cross, and the 
 priest or bishop said, ' Memento, homo, 
 quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverte- 
 ris ' ! Said to have been introduced by 
 Gregory the Great (590-60i), sanctioned 
 by the Council of Benevento in 1091. 
 
 Ashari [The). An Arabian sect 
 which held that God, being the cause of 
 everything, is the author of all human 
 actions ; but men, being free, acquire 
 merit or incur guilt according as they 
 obey or disobey the precepts of religion, 
 Averroes, the Arabian philosopher of 
 Cordova, (1149-1198), adopted the creed 
 of the Ashari sect. 
 
 Ashbourne's Act {Lord), 1885. A 
 government loan of five millions sterling 
 set apart to be lent to Irish farmers, at 
 the rate of 3^ per cent., to enable them 
 to buy their farms of their landlords. 
 In 1888 a second five millions was voted 
 by parliament for the same purpose. 
 
 No landlord would, of course, join the Land 
 Tieague, and therefore the best plan of quie.ting 
 
 Ireland is to multiply the freeholders, all of 
 whom have a stake in the peace and prosperity 
 of the island. Napoleon introduced government 
 loans of very small value per share to induce the 
 poorer classes of France to become holders, with 
 the same view. Applicants for a small number of 
 shares were first awarded their shares, and those 
 who applied for the largest number were de- 
 ferred to the last. Thousands of persons slept all 
 night in the Piazza of the Rue Eivoli that they 
 might be early applicants. I myself saw the 
 thick crowd there long after midnight. 
 
 Ashbur'ton Treaty {The), 9 Aug. 
 1842. In 1842, Lord Ashburton was 
 appointed special ambassador to the 
 United States of North America, to settle 
 the north-west boundary question, and 
 other dis])utes which then threatened to 
 involve tlie two countries in war. In 
 August he concluded the famous Treaty 
 of Washington, commonly called the Ash- 
 burton Treaty, by which the Oregon 
 question was settled, and the frontier 
 line between the state of Maine and 
 Canada was definitely agreed to. By 
 the 8th and 9th articles, provisions 
 were made for putting an end to the 
 African slave trade ; and the 10th 
 article provides for the mutual extradi- 
 tion of suspected criminals. 
 
 Ashmo'lean Museum {The). In 
 the University of Oxford (1683) ; be- 
 queathed to the university by Elias 
 Ashmole (2 syl.). It is used to hold the 
 collection of natural and artificial 
 curiosities, and to aid in the study of 
 chemistry and natural science. 
 
 This collection properly belonged to certain 
 persons of the namo of Tradescant, and is mora 
 correctly called the ' Tradescant Collection.' 
 
 Asia. From the Greek dcri?, mud. The 
 first part known to the Greeks was that 
 watered by the river Cayster, where some 
 Ionian colonists settled. Hence, Asia, 
 .means ' the land of mud,' and it is some- 
 what noteworthy that Paris used to be 
 called Lutetia, which means the same 
 thing. The mythological derivation of 
 the word from Asia, daughter of Oceanus 
 and Tithys, is only a poetical way of 
 stating the fact that the river Cayster, 
 like any other river, is a daughter of 
 the sea. 
 
 Asia. (Acts of the Apostles xvi. 6 ; 
 compare xix. 22, 26, 27, &c.) Here Paul, 
 who was in Phrygia or Galatia, speaks of 
 going into Asia. To understand this 
 it must be known that, after the battle 
 of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, Eumenes, 
 king of Pergamus, was rewarded by the 
 £2 
 
52 
 
 ASKIIANIANS 
 
 ASSEMBLES 
 
 addition of Lydia and some other dis- 
 tricts ; and when the kingdom of Per- 
 gamus became a Roman province, it 
 was dignified by the title of Asia, but 
 Galatia was still ruled by native chiefs, 
 and formed no part of ' Asia,' in the sense 
 alluded to. Hence Paul might leave 
 Galatia and go to the Roman province of 
 Asia, still travelling in Asia Minor. 
 
 Askha'nians {The). So the Per- 
 sians call the ArsacidfB (5. v.), but there 
 are no points of agreement. The 
 Arsacidse give thirty kings, the Askha- 
 nians only seven. The Arsacidas con- 
 tinued 476 years, the Askhanians only 
 132. The Askhanians derived their 
 name from Ask or Ashk, the father of 
 Arduan, the founder ; the Arsacidas de- 
 rived their name from Arsaces, their 
 founder. 
 
 Some tell us that the Askhanian was the second 
 house of the Arsacidians, and that it gave eleven 
 kings, who ruled 221 years. 
 
 Asmonae'ans (T7ie). So the Macca- 
 bees, rulers of the Jews, were called, 
 because Mattathias. who first headed the 
 revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes, was 
 great-grandson of Asmonseos, a wealthy 
 Jewish priest (Josephus, 'Antiquities,' 
 book xii. chap, viii.) See ' Maccabees.' 
 
 Aspasiaof France (r;^e). Ninon 
 de I'Enclos (1615-1705). 
 
 Ass {The Procession of the), 14 Jan. 
 A mediseval religious procession, in com- 
 memoration of the Flight into Egypt. 
 
 Thus described by Ducange: 'A beautiful girl 
 being selected, was mounted on an ass, richly 
 decorated. An infant child was nursed on her 
 lap, and the procession was formed by the clergy 
 and laity, from the highest to the lowest, who 
 walked from the cathedral to the parish church 
 of St. Stephen. On reaching the west door, the 
 ass, bearing the girl and infant, was led to the 
 gospel side of the altar, and high mass was begun ; 
 but, instead of " Amen, ' both clergy and congrega- 
 tion cried " Hehaw," imitating the braying of an 
 ass. The Introit, Kyrie Eleison, the Gloria in 
 Excelsis, the Credo. &c., were all concluded with 
 " He-haw." At the close of the mass, the officiating 
 priest, turning to the people, said, " Ite missa est," 
 ''He-haw, he-haw, he-haw," three times." 
 
 Probably this was the festival of Vesta adapted 
 to Christian history. An ass, by its braying, 
 Baved Vesta from brutal violence, and ' the corona- 
 tion of the ass ' formed a ceremony in the festival 
 of that goddess. 
 
 Ass of Mesopota'mia {The). 
 Merwan II., the 14th and last of the 
 Ommiade califs (688, 744-756). The 
 surname (' Al Himar ') was a compli- 
 ment, due to his temperance and strength. 
 
 Mesopotamia was noted for a breed of asses 
 which never fled from an enemy. See Homer, 
 X C57, where Ajax is compared to an ass. The 
 
 poet says the Trojans beat Ajax with darts and 
 arrows as boys beat an ass feeding in a meadow. 
 Doubtless a compliment is intended, for, like the 
 Mesopotamian ass, Ajax would not show his back 
 to the foe. 
 
 Assassination Plot {The), 1696. 
 
 A conspiracy to assassinate William III., 
 near Richmond, on his return from the 
 chase. The chief conspirator was the Earl 
 of Aylesbury. It was discovered 15 Feb., 
 the day before that fixed for its execution. 
 On 27 Feb., 1696, an association was 
 formed for his defence. 
 
 In May 1G95 a plot was formed against him, 
 which also proved abortive. 
 
 Assassins. A military and religious 
 order of Persia formed in the 11th cent. 
 They belonged to the Shiite sect of 
 Mohammedans. Abdallah formed a party 
 of these assassins into a secret society, 
 ostensibly to maintain the claims of the 
 Fatimide califs to universal dominion, 
 and to extirpate the Sunnites (2 syl.) ; 
 but it was Hassan ben Sabah, called the 
 ' Sheik of the Mountain,' who made the 
 name a na.me of terror. He died in 1124, 
 after a ' reign ' of 35 years ; and in 1256 
 the sect was stamped out by Hulagu. 
 
 The Syrian branch continued some 
 fourteen years longer. It was this 
 branch which murdered the Marquis of 
 Montferrat in 1192 ; Louis of Bavaria in 
 1213 ; the Khan of Tartary in 1254 ; and 
 frequently put the life of Saladin in 
 danger. They were ultimately conquered 
 by Bibars, sultan of Egypt. 
 
 It is supposed that the word Assassin is a cor- 
 ruption of Hashialihn (eaters of Hashish, the hemp 
 plant), a powerful intoxicant. 
 
 Assemblde des trois 6tats {L'). 
 
 The legislative assembly of Louis le Gros 
 (1108-1137), in which the commons were 
 allowed to take part with the noblesse 
 and the clergy. They were not again 
 convened till 1302, in the reign of Philippe 
 IV"., when the assembly was called ' Les 
 Etats Gene'raux.' 
 
 Pronounce As-sahm'-blay day trwors'-a-tah'. 
 
 Assemblde Legislative, 1 Oct., 
 1791-21 Sept., 1792. The National Legis- 
 lative Assembly of France consisting of 
 745 members, not one of the previous 
 house, called the Constituent Assembly, 
 being eligible ; hence such men as Robes- 
 pierre, Petion, and Danton were ex- 
 cluded. It consisted wholly of men 
 unknown, but of red republican principles 
 — low attorneys, club orators, newspaper 
 writers, and mere adventurers. The 
 
ASSEMBLEE 
 
 ASSESSORS 
 
 53 
 
 special function of this assembly was to 
 conform the laws to the new constitution. 
 On 21 Sept., 1792, the Legislative 
 Assembly gave place to the National 
 Convention. Burke said there were 
 *400 lawyers and 300 of no condition 
 whatever.' 
 
 Pronounce As-sahmTblay Led'-jis-lah'tif. 
 
 Assemblee Rationale {L'). 1, 17 
 June, 178l)-30 Sept., 1791. The National 
 Assembly of France. The clergy and 
 nobles having refused to sit in the same 
 chamber with the commonalty, the 
 deputies of the tiers etat withdrew, con- 
 stituted themselves into a deliberative 
 body, and assumed the name of the 
 National Assembly. On the jeu de 
 pauine (20 June), they swore not to 
 separate till they had given France a 
 new constitution, and from that day the 
 house was called ' L'Assemblde Consti- 
 tuante.' Having prepared the constitu- 
 tion, they dissolved themselves, and gave 
 place to the 'Assemblee Legislative,' 
 whose function was to conform the laws 
 to the new constitution. On 21 Sept., 
 1792, the Legislative Assembly gave 
 place to the National Convention. 
 
 II. 4 May, 1848, of 900 members. 
 The most democratic form of government 
 ever devised. Every Frenchman who 
 was of age was an elector, and every 
 Frenchman after the age of 25 was 
 eligible to become a deputy. There was 
 only one assembly. See above. 
 
 Pronounce As-sahm'-blay Nas-ce-o-nahl. 
 
 Assemblies of the Wilderness 
 
 {The), 18th cent. French history. The 
 assemblies of the restored Protestants 
 of France. Held in open day when 
 possible; but when dangerous, in some 
 wild retreat or rocky nook. Summonses 
 were issued only a few hours beforehand, 
 and unarmed sentinels were placed on 
 the heights to give notice of the approach 
 of soldiers. 
 
 Assembly [The Act of). Enacts 
 that no persons, professing to believe in 
 Jesus Christ, shall be molested in respect 
 to their religion, or in the free exercise 
 thereof, or be comj)elled to the belief 
 and exercise of any other religion against 
 their consent. 
 
 Assembly of Divines [The), or 
 'Westminster Assembly,' 1043. Con- 
 voked by the Long Parliament in Hen. 
 Vll.'schapel, Westminster, to reconstruct 
 
 the Church of England. Episcopacy 
 was abolished, and Presbyterianism sub- 
 stituted in its place. Above 3,000 of the 
 clergy refused to submit, were ejected 
 from their benefices, and pensioned off 
 with a fifth part of their clerical incomes. 
 In 1G44, ten of the assembly and thir- 
 teen presbyters were told off to ordain 
 ministers to these vacancies. The As- 
 sembly was dissolved in 1049. It was 
 this assembly which put forth the 
 * Assembly's Larger and Shorter Cate- 
 chisms ' for the use of the people. This 
 assembly was a spiritual court, with 
 jurisdiction over all affairs pertaining 
 to religion or morals. 
 
 Assembly of Notables [The), 
 An assembly of the princes of the blood, 
 and the chief nobility, magistrates, and 
 clergy, convened occasionally in times of 
 trouble to consult with the king on 
 matters of state. Every member of the 
 assembly was named and invited by 
 the king. It jDossessed no legislative or 
 executive functions. Assembled for the 
 first time in 13G9, under the summons of 
 Charles V. of France. 
 
 They were again convoked" in 1470, and met at 
 Tours. Again in 1526, and met at Cognac Again 
 in 15G0, and met at Fontainebleau. Again in 16G1, 
 and met at St. Germain. Again in 1566, and mot 
 at Moulins. Again in 1596, and met at Rouen. 
 Again in 1626, and met at Paris ; but the two best 
 Ivnown were those convened at Versailles 22 Feb., 
 1787, and 12 Dec. 1788. 
 
 Assent {Royal) to bills which have 
 passed the House of Commons and 
 House of Lords is given, either personally 
 in the House of Lords or by letters 
 patent. After the title of the bill has 
 been read by the clerk of the crown, the 
 clerk of the parliament says (if it is a 
 bill of supply) ' Le roi ' (or ' La reyne ' ) 
 ' remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur 
 bienveillence, et ainsi le vault.' If a 
 public bill, not of supply, he says ' Le 
 roi (la reyne) le veult.' If &,private^\\\ 
 he says ' Soit fait comme il est desire.' 
 
 If the royal assent is withheld, the 
 announcement is made by the words 
 ' Le roi s'avisera,' but the last instance 
 of such a refusal was by William III. in 
 1693. 
 
 One would think it is time for the monarchs of 
 England to speak English, and not old French. 
 
 Assessors [The). Since the Muni- 
 cipal Corporations Act of ' 1835, two 
 officers chosen by the burgesses to assist 
 the mayor in revising the burgess lists. 
 
51 
 
 ASSIDIANS 
 
 ASSIZE 
 
 Assid'ians, or 'Cliasidim.' A set 
 of zealous defenders of the unity of 
 God, against the attempts of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes and his successors to force 
 the Jews into idolatry. Mattathias 
 headed the Chasidim for four years, 
 afterwards Judas Maccabaeus assumed 
 the chief command. 
 
 ' Chasidim ' means pietists. 
 
 Assien'to. A Spanish treaty con- 
 ferring on some foreign nation a monopoly 
 in the negro slave-trade. In 1713 the 
 exclusive right of importing negroes to 
 Spanish America was transferred from 
 France to England, and was made over 
 by government to the South Sea Com- 
 pany for thirty years. In 1748 the 
 English company relinquished its right 
 (which had still four years to run) on the 
 payment of 100,000Z., and the concession 
 of certain commercial advantages. 
 
 The Spanish name of this treaty is ' El Asiento 
 de los Negros.' 
 
 Assien'to Company [of England], 
 1713. I. Under the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 This English company had the monopoly 
 or exclusive privilege of supplying the 
 Spanish West Indies and the South 
 American colonies with slaves. The 
 queen (Anne) had one-fourth of the pro- 
 fits of this traffic in human blood. 
 Abolished (1807) by 47 Geo. III. c, 36. 
 The word means *a treaty,' and is 
 applied to a compact between Spain and 
 some foreign nation. 
 
 II. [of France], 1702. The French 
 Guinea Company took the name of the 
 * Assiento Company,' when Philip V. of 
 Spain granted them the exclusive right 
 of importing 4,800 negroes of both sexes 
 annually for ten years to the continent 
 and islands of Spanish America. 
 
 Assignats, 9 Sept., 1790, recalled 18 
 July, 1796. French government notes. 
 The .National Assembly confiscated all 
 the church lands, but being unable to 
 sell them, kept them as national property, 
 and issued paper money to the amount 
 of 400,000,000 livres, making the church 
 lands security for the repayment. These 
 assignats were negotiable like our bank 
 notes, and were generally for 100 francs 
 (4Z.) each, though some were as low as 
 5 francs. In June 1798, this paper money 
 was worth only one-third of its nominal 
 value; and in March 1796, an English 
 sovereign would have bought 7,200 francs 
 
 worth of assignats. They were then 
 bought in by the French government at 
 the rate of one franc in specie for 30 
 francs in paper. 
 
 It is said that the entire amount of assignats 
 issued represented 45,578,000,000 francs, t.c. 
 
 1,823,000,000(. sterling. 
 
 Pronounce As'-sin-yahs'. 
 
 Assistors {The Coimcil of). The 
 same as the ' Council of Adjutators' {q.v.). 
 
 Assize of Arms, 1181. The substi- 
 tution of the old military obligation of 
 every freeman to serve in defence of the 
 realm in lieu of feudal retainers. By this 
 law, everyknight was forced to arm himself 
 with coat of mail, shield, and lance ; every 
 freeJiolder with lance and hauberk ; every 
 hurgess and poorer freeman with lance 
 and iron helmet. This universal military 
 levy was wholly at the disposal of the king 
 for purposes of military defence. 
 
 Assize of Battle. Trial by combat. 
 
 Assize of Bread {The), 1214. A 
 
 public price set upon bread according to 
 its weight, from the reign of John to that 
 of George IV., 1S24. 
 
 Assize of Clarendon {The), 11G6. 
 A law in the reign of Henry II. which 
 revived the old English system of mutual 
 security or frank pledge to provide for the 
 good order of the realm. By this law no 
 stranger could remain in any place more 
 than one night, without giving sureties 
 for his good conduct ; and twelve men in 
 every hundred, with four from each town- 
 ship, were sworn to report known crimi- 
 nals or evildoers within their district, that 
 they might be brought to trial by ordeal. 
 This is the foundation of our ' grand 
 jury ' system. 
 
 Assize of Jerusalem ( The). ' Les 
 Assises de Jerusalem,' 1099: A body of 
 laws promulgated by Godfrey, the ' De- 
 fender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre.' 
 Gibbon calls it ' a precious monument of 
 feudatory jurisprudence.' 
 
 Assize of TTorthampton {The), 
 1176. An expansion of the Assize of 
 Clarendon, By this assize Henry II. 
 divided the kingdom into six districts or 
 circuits, to each of which he assigned 
 three itinerant judges. Appeals from the 
 judges might be made to the king him- 
 self in council. This is the basis of our 
 
ASSOCIATE 
 
 ASTROLOGERS 
 
 65 
 
 Privy Council, and the equitable juris- 
 diction of our lord cliancellor. 
 
 Associate Presbytery (The), 
 1733. Those who separated from the 
 establishment in Scotland under Eben- 
 ezer Erskine assumed this name, but they 
 were generally called Seceders. 
 
 Associated Patriots {The), 1821. 
 The Car])oriari of France. After the July 
 Revolution, 1830, the society assumed 
 the name of the ' Charbonnerie De'mo- 
 cratique.' 
 
 Associated Synod {The), or 'Asso- 
 ciate Synod,' 1740. Separatists from the 
 General Assembly of Scotland, led by the 
 Rev. Ebenezer Erskine and his brother 
 Ralph. They objected to the law of the 
 assembly made in 1732, ' that if a patron 
 neglected to fill up a vacancy within six 
 months, the elders should select a candi- 
 date, subject to the veto of the presby- 
 tery. Erskine insisted that the appoint- 
 ment of ministers belonged to the people, 
 and that heritors and elders had no right 
 to interfere. Now merged in the United 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Association Bill {The), 1829. A 
 bill to suppress the Catholic Association 
 of Ireland preparatory to the introduc- 
 tion of a bill for Catholic emancipa- 
 tion.' 
 
 Association for Discounte- 
 nancing Vice {The), 1800. In Ireland. 
 The masters and mistresses were to be 
 Protestants, and the reading of Scriptures 
 was part of the daily curriculum. Tlie 
 chui'ch catechism was taught, and no 
 other religious catechism was allowed. 
 
 Association of Russian 
 
 Knights {The). A secret Russian 
 society formed in the reign of Czar Alex- 
 ander I. Its object was to put an end to 
 the abuses of the interior administration 
 of the empire. Being informed that the 
 Czar intended to restore Poland, the so- 
 ciety resolved to assassinate him. On 
 mature reflection the scheme was aban- 
 doned, and the society was reorganised as 
 ' the Union of Public Good.' 
 
 Association of the 'North {The), 
 otherwise called the ' Association of 
 St. Petersburg.' A secret society organ- 
 ised in 1823. It consisted of believers 
 and adherents, the former being the 
 founders from whom three presidents 
 
 were elected, and the latter members ad- 
 mitted by the believers. The object was 
 Ultimately to convert Russia into a re- 
 public, but this was to be done gradually, 
 and for the nonce the czar was to be re- 
 duced to a monarch with similar powers 
 to the American president. The Emperor 
 Alexander I. was to be assassinated, and 
 all the rest of the royal family deported 
 or exiled. The assassination was fixed 
 for the beginning of 1826, but the czar 
 died 30 Nov., 1825. 
 
 Assumption Day, 15 Aug. Insti- 
 tuted in the 7 th cent. 
 
 Assumption of the Virgin 
 Mary {The), 7th cent. The dogma that 
 the soul and body of the Virgin Mary was 
 carried up to heaven by Christ and his 
 angels. 
 
 Titian's picture of the Assumption, in Venice, is 
 one of the finest pictures ever painted by man. 
 
 Assyrian Canon {The), b.c. 909- 
 640. Discovered and published by Raw- 
 linson in 1862. 
 
 Asto'ria (Oregon, U.S. America). So 
 called, in 1811, from Mr. Astor, merchant 
 of New York, who founded here a fur- 
 trading station. The adventure of this 
 merchant forms the subject of Washing- 
 ton Irving's ' Astoria.' 
 
 Astral Body {The),or linga sharira, 
 the third principle. A semblance of the 
 human form, fully inhabited by its higher 
 principles. It can migrate to any dis- 
 tance from the physical body. The 
 Scotch ' double ' is a sort of linga 
 sharira. 
 
 Astral Spirits. The supposed 
 spirits which pervade the stars, each star 
 having its own spirit, (or soul). Paracel- 
 sus taught that every human being had 
 an astral spirit ; hence the influence of a 
 person's particular star on his life. 
 
 Astrologers. The most noted are : 
 Tommaso Pisano, father of the cele- 
 brated Christina Pisano (*-1380) ; 
 Johann Miiller Regiomontanus, German 
 (1436-1476); Johann Stoffler, German 
 (1452-1531); Cardan (1501-1576); Nos- 
 tradamus (1503-1566) ; Count Cosmo 
 Ruggieri, astronomer to Catharine di 
 Meclici (16th cent.) ; Philip and Matthieu 
 Laensberg (17th cent.). The chief astro- 
 nomers between Ptolemy and Kepler 
 believed in astrology. 
 
66 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ATTABEGS 
 
 The rule of the triplicities, as recommended by 
 Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Diodes and Avicenna. 
 Or I will begin ab hora. qiKcstiimis, as Haly, Blassa- 
 hala, Ganwehis, and Guido Bonatus have recom- 
 mended. 
 
 "Will you place . . . the vernacular name of Isaac 
 Newton in opposition to . . . Dariot, Bonatus, 
 Ptolemy, Hnly, Eztler, Dicterlck, Naibob, Harturt, 
 Zael, Taustettor, Agrippa, Duretus, Maginus, 
 Origen, and Argol V— Sir W. SCOTT, Guy Mannering, 
 chap. iii. 
 
 Astronomy and Experimental 
 Philosophy {Professorship of). In 
 the University of Cambridge, 1704 ; 
 founded by Dr. Plume, archdeacon of 
 Eochester. Stipend 800^. a year, ex- 
 clusive of fees. The professor is called 
 the Plumian Professor. See ' Sheep- 
 shanks Exhibition.' 
 
 At'abeks {The), i.e. 'Father of the 
 Princes,' 11th and 12th cent. A title 
 assumed by certain emirs, governors of 
 provinces, who, under the Seljuks, 
 usurped supreme power. The chief 
 were : (1) The Atabeks of Irak, founded 
 by Omad Eddin Zenghi. This dynasty 
 lasted from 1127 to 1218. (2) The Ata- 
 beks or Attabegs of Farsistan, who ruled 
 over Persia (1148-1264), and were driven 
 out by Hulagou ; (3) the Atabeks of Ader- 
 bai'djan (1169-1225) ; (4) the Atabeks of 
 Laristan, the last of whom, named Eok- 
 neddin, died 1339. See ' Attabegs.' 
 
 Ateliers ISTationaux, 1848. Na- 
 tional workshops for unemployed opera- 
 tives. The works were generally useless, 
 badly done, and dearly paid for. In 
 Paris they proved an utter failure ; and 
 similar attempts in England and Ireland 
 have always been fruitful sources of dis- 
 content and rebellion. 
 
 Pronounce At-tel'-e-a Nas'-se-o-no'. 
 
 Atella'nas, 'Fab'ulse Atella'nfe,' or 
 ' Ludi Osci.' First introduced into Rome 
 from Atella in Campania. Called ' Ludi 
 Osci ' because the two chief characters 
 (Macchus and Bucco) spoke Oscan and 
 represented Oscan characters. They 
 were, like our after-pieces, extravagant 
 and droU. 
 
 Athana'sian Creed (r7?-e), between 
 426 and 430. Probably composed in 
 France by Hilary, bishop of Aries. It 
 was originally composed in Latin, but 
 our version is from a Greek trar_slation. 
 
 It was originally called 'the Catholic Faith,' 
 but in C40 it was called 'the Athanasian Creed,' 
 not meaning the creed composed by Athanasiiis, 
 but the creed which sets forth the views of Atha- 
 nasius, the great opponent of Arius. It was 
 received in Italy, 700; in the churches of France 
 
 In G70 ; in Germany about 7^7 ; in England about 
 800, and in Home not before 930 or 1014. 
 
 Athana'sians. Those who, like 
 Athanasius (296-373), believe there are 
 three persons (the Father, Son, and Holy 
 Ghost) in the one undivided Godhead ; 
 that all the three are co-equal and 
 eternal, ' none afore or after other,' and 
 that the Holy Ghost proceeded from ilie 
 Father and the Son. 
 
 The Athanasian Creed was not composed by 
 Athanasius, but expresses his opinions respecting 
 the Trin.*»y. It wa8_not received in the Latin 
 Church till 9:^0 or lOliJ and was never sanctioned 
 by any council. 
 
 Athenasum. I. Founded in Rome 
 by Hadrian A.r). 103. 
 
 II. The London weekly jouraial esta- 
 blished in January 1828. 
 
 III. The club so called in Pall Mali, 
 founded in 1824. 
 
 Athenian Confederacy {The)^ 
 
 B.C. 431. It contained Thessaly and 
 Acarnania (in northern Greece), Corcvra, 
 Zacynthus, and Naupactus. Their allies 
 were Chios and Lesbos, with all the 
 other islands of the ^gean Sea, except 
 Melos and Thera, together with the Greek 
 cities on the coast of Asia and Thrace. 
 
 Athenian Moses {The). Plato 
 (B.C. 428-347), the Greek philosopher, is 
 so called by Numenius. 
 
 Athens of India {The). Benares 
 (2 syl.), 460 miles from Calcutta, the seat 
 of Brahminical learning. 
 
 Atlantic Cable {The). A cable 
 between Valentia in Ireland and Heart's 
 Content in Newfoundland, successfully 
 laid in 1866. Many laid since. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraphs. Tolegraphio 
 cables used for sending telegraphic 
 messages across the Atlantic. In com- 
 munication with all the telegraphs of the 
 two worlds. 
 
 At'omic Theory (T7i^). The 'laws 
 of combining proportion,' discovered by 
 Dalton and expressed in four laws : 
 (1) that of constant proportions ; (2) that 
 of reciprocal proportions; (3) that of 
 multiple proportions ; and (4) that of 
 compound proportions. 
 
 At'tabegs {The). /See ' Attabeks.' 
 
 Attabcg is from ' Atta,' a master or tutor, and 
 'Beg,' or 'Boy,' a lord, a kind of 'mayor of tlia 
 palace.' 
 
ATTACOTTI 
 
 ATUA 
 
 57 
 
 Attacot'ti, or ' Attecots.' The Irish 
 of prehistoric times who paid tribute to 
 the Seoti. The word is a Latinised form 
 of an Irish word meaning tribute-paj'ers. 
 The insurgent peasantry who assas- 
 sinated Frederick the Just of Ireland 
 were Attacots, and the word is applied • 
 to disturbers of the peace even in North 
 Britain. 
 
 Attaeot 'tic Rebellion (T/ie). A 
 
 prehistoric rebellion of the Attacotti or 
 tributaries of Ireland against the Scoti, 
 who were * massacred,' and a native prince 
 set over the island ; succeeded by his 
 son, Moran. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Attacot'tic ^Wars {The). The two 
 plebeian rebellions {q-V.). 
 
 The chief movers of those two rebellions known 
 by the name of the Attacottic Wars.— T. MooKK, 
 History of Ireland, vii. 151. 
 
 At'talie "Wealth. Unexpected or 
 unlooked for wealth. B.C. 133, Attains, 
 the rich king of Pergamos, made the 
 Romans his heirs. Queen Victoria has 
 been enriched by ' Attalic wealth.' 
 
 Atterbury's Pad. Lord Coningsby 
 was so called. In the debate on the 
 Occasional Conformity and Schism Bill 
 in 1718, Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, 
 opposed the bill, and said, * I prophesied 
 last winter the bill would be brought 
 forward, and I am sorry to find my words 
 have come true.' Lord Coningsby inso- 
 lently retorted : ' The right reverend 
 speaker has set himself forth as a pro- 
 phet ; but, for my part, I know no prophet 
 to liken him to, unless to that famous 
 proj)het Balaam, who was rej^roved by 
 his own ass.' To this the bishop replied : 
 ' I am well content to be compared to 
 the prophet Balaam, but I am sure I 
 have been reproved by nobody but his 
 lordship.' 
 
 Attic Moses {The). Plato (b.c. 
 428-347). 
 
 Attic Orators {The Ten), i. ^s- 
 chines (b.c. 398-31-1) ; ii. Andocides 
 (467-391); iii. Antiphon (died 411); 
 iv. Demosthenes (385-322) ; v. Dinarchos 
 (361-293); vi. Hj^erides (396-322); vii. 
 Isffios (flo. 420-348) ; viii. Isocrates (436- 
 338) ; ix. Lycurgos, not the lawgiver 
 (396-323) ; x. Lysias (458-378). 
 
 AtticLlS {The Christian). Reginald 
 Heber bishop of Calcuua (1783-1826). 
 
 Attieus {The English). Joseph 
 Addison (1672-1719). 
 
 Who but must laugh, if such a man there be f 
 Who would not smile if Attieus were he ? 
 
 Pope, Frokvjue to the Satires. 
 
 Attieus {The Irish). George 
 Faulkner, printer and author (1700-1 775). 
 So called by Lord Chesterfield. 
 
 Attieus of Midlothian {The). 
 The Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone 
 (1809- ), so called for his ' Midlothian 
 speeches,' which obtained for him the 
 premiership in 1880. 
 
 At'tila le petit. Thiers, the French 
 
 historian (1797-1877). 
 
 He was also nicknamed ' Tamerlan k lunettes ' ; 
 ' Came'li on ; ' General Bonne ' ; and ' Le Hoi des 
 Versailleux." 
 
 Attorney-General {The). A 
 ministerial officer of the crown at an 
 annual stipend of 7000Z. He is appointed 
 by letters-patent, and stands in relation 
 to the sovereign as any other attorney 
 does to his employer. His duties are to 
 conduct prosecutions for such grave 
 offences as tend to disturb the state ; to 
 advise the heads of other ministerial 
 departments on legal points ; to conduct 
 all suits relating to the public revenue 
 or charitable endowments in which the 
 crown has a right to interfere; and, in 
 short, to act in all things as the legal 
 adviser of the sovereign. 
 
 The stipend of the Solicitor-General is6,0C0f.; 
 but both these law'j-ers are paid extra fees for 
 'contentious business,' according to the usual 
 professional scale. 
 
 Attorney-G-eneral of the Lan- 
 tern {Procureur general de la Lan- 
 terne). Camille Desmoulins (1762-1794), 
 one of the chief instigators of the French 
 Revolution, when those obnoxious to the 
 mob were hanged on the street lamp-ropes. 
 Pronounce At- ur'-ney. f 
 
 Attroupement (3 syl.). A political 
 or party meeting in the public streets or 
 squares, like those in Trafalgar Square, 
 London, in 1887-1888. By the French 
 law, till April 1831, they were declared 
 unlawful, and if persisted in, after due 
 notice, the military dispersed them. 
 Those apprehended might be imprisoned 
 for two years, at the discretion of the 
 magistrates. 
 
 At'ua (plu. Ahias). The Elohim of 
 the Tongans, including (1) the original 
 gods ; (2j the souls of nobles ; (3j the 
 souls of metabooles or vassals, which 
 
58 
 
 AUBAINE 
 
 AUGSBUEG 
 
 appear as ghosts to relatives; (4) the 
 souls of attendants and serfs ; (5) the 
 Atua-pow, the mischievous gods ; and 
 (6) the Mooi, or god which supports the 
 earth. (Mariner, vol. ii. p. 127.) 
 
 Aubaine (2 syl.). The right of 
 French kings to the property of every 
 foreigner who died in France without 
 being naturalised. Abolished by the 
 National Assembly in 1790; re-estab- 
 lished by Napoleon in 1804 ; and finally 
 annulled on 14 July, 1819. 
 
 Auehterar'der Case {The), 1834- 
 1843. The great test case of the cele- 
 brated ' Voluntary Controversy ' {q.v.) 
 of Scotland. The question was this : 
 Is the congregation to give a ' Call ' or 
 invitation to its pastor, or has the Kirk a 
 right to appoint any minister it thinks 
 proper? A vacancy occurred in the 
 parish of Auchterarder, containing 3,000 
 souls. In a congregation of 300, only 
 two persons signed ' the Call,' and the 
 kirk pronounced it insufficient. The 
 House of Lords was appealed to, and 
 confirmed the decision of the kirk, but 
 when the kirk selected a minister, the 
 court of sessions interfered. The kirk 
 commanded the presbytery to proceed 
 with the presentation, and it did so, but 
 was summoned at the bar of the civil 
 courts, and the candidate was prohibited 
 from preaching in the church. This 
 controversy went on till 18 May, 1843, 
 when 470 clergymen withdrew from the 
 General Assembly, and constituted 
 themselves into 'The Free Church of 
 Scotland.' 
 
 During the controversy various other eases 
 occurred, as those of Dunkeld, Lethendy, Strath- 
 bogie, &c. 
 
 Audaeism, 838. The heresy of 
 Audseus or Udo of Mesopotamia, who 
 insisted that God had a human form. 
 At that early period he accused the 
 clergy of worldliness and impurity of 
 morals. Udo died a.d. 370. 
 
 Audi'ans, or ' Audseans.' Same as 
 Quartodecimans {q.v.). 
 
 The same capital punishment ■was inflicted on 
 the Audians or Quartodecimans who should dare 
 to perpetrate the atrocious crime of celebrating 
 on an improper day the febtival of Easter.— 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall, &c., chap, xxvii. 
 
 Audit Ale. Extra strong ale, sup- 
 posed to be provided for an audit feast, 
 when the college accounts are audited. 
 
 It is, however, sold at the butteries of 
 Cambridge University at any time. 
 
 Audley Street, London. So 
 named from Mr. Hugh Audley, a barrister 
 of the Inner Temple, who bought the 
 ground thereabouts for building pur- 
 poses. He began with 200Z., and at 
 death, in 1662, left a property worth 
 400,000Z. 
 
 Aughton Pudding Feast. Held 
 
 every twenty-one years at Aughton, near 
 Ormskirk, in Lancashire. About a 
 century ago a firm of wand weavers con- 
 structed for their trade an immense 
 oblong boiler, which was inaugurated by 
 cooking therein a large plum-pudding of 
 a ton weight (20 feet long and 6 feet 
 thick). In 1886 (16 June) the pudding 
 weighed 1,000 lbs., and was provided by 
 public subscription. 
 
 Augsburg {Diet of). See under 
 ' Diet.' 
 
 Augsburg (Trmi;?/ of), 22 Sept., 1555. 
 Also called the ' Religious Peace of Augs- 
 burg, in which full liberty of worship 
 was confirmed. Lutherans and Catholics 
 were declared alike eligible to all offices 
 of state, and to seats in the imperial diets. 
 Every ruler was allowed to sanction what 
 form of religion he chose in his own pro- 
 vince, but all were to tolerate those who 
 held different views. 
 
 Augsburg Confession (r/je). The 
 
 statement of the doctrines of Luther and 
 his disciples, handed in to Charles V.,who 
 had convoked a diet at Augsburg to re- 
 ceive it, 8 April, 1530. The first part 
 contained 21 articles of faith and doctrine ; 
 and the second part contained 7 articles 
 on disputed points: as (1) on the two 
 kinds of the eucharistic sacrament ; (2) 
 on the marriage of priests ; (3) on the 
 mass ; (4) on confession ; (5) on distinc- 
 tions of meat ; (6) on conventual vows ; 
 and (7) on the authority of bishops. 
 
 The ' confession ' is no longer an exponent ol the 
 theological views of German Protestants. 
 
 Augsburg Interim (T/te). The 
 provisionary settlement of the points in 
 dispute between the Lutherans and 
 Roman Catholics, till they could be finally 
 settled by a general council. The Augs- 
 burg Interim was held at Augsburg in 
 1548, by order of Charles V. A compro- 
 mise was agreed to, but in 1552 it was 
 declared to be unsatisfactory, and another 
 
AUGUST 
 
 AUGUSTAN 
 
 69 
 
 compromise was made at Leipsic, called 
 the ' Leipsic Interim.' 
 
 August, 31 days. This month oxii^ht 
 to be 30 days. Thus: Ma.Ych 31, A2)ril '60, 
 May 31, Ju?ie 30, July 31, Avgust 30, &c. ; 
 but when the Latin month Sextllis was 
 named August, in honour of Augustus 
 (as the month QuintTlishad been changed 
 to July in honour of Julius), court flattery 
 could not allow the Augustan month to 
 be shorter than the Julian month, so the 
 short month was shifted to Sept., and the 
 symmetry of tlie Calendar was destroj'ed. 
 September was the birth-month of Augus- 
 tus, but August (Sextilis) was his lucky 
 month. Tlius he held his triumph for his 
 Illyrian, Actium, and Alexandrian vic- 
 tories in Aug. B.C. 29, and was made 
 emperor the same month. He died 
 19 Aug., 14 B.C. 
 
 Au<5USt 1. The anniversary of the 
 accession of the house of Hanover. 
 
 August 4 (1789). When the Na- 
 tional Assembly of France, in one sitting, 
 abolished all privileges formulated in 19 
 articles, and presented their measure to 
 the king. It included : — 
 
 The abolition of all serfdom, seignorial 
 dues, and seignorial jurisdictions. 
 
 The suppression of exclusive rights of 
 hunting, shooting, keeping warrens, dove- 
 cotes, &c. 
 
 The abolition of tithes, sales of offices, 
 and monopolies. 
 
 The equalisation of taxes. 
 
 The eligibility of every citizen to any 
 civil or military office. 
 
 The suppression of all privileges granted 
 to towns or provinces. 
 
 Such an amount of legislation in one night is 
 wholly unparalleled. 
 
 August 10 (1792). 'La sanglante 
 journe'e du 10 aout,' called by Legendre 
 •the glorious 10th of August.' The 
 Tuileries were stormed by the Paris mob. 
 Mandat, commander of the National 
 Guard, was assassinated by the mob. 
 Danton, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and 
 Collet d'Herbois usurped the municipal 
 functions, dubbing themselves ' Les Com- 
 missaires de la Commune.' The Swiss 
 guard was assassinated by the Paris mob. 
 The king (Louis XVI.), the queen (Marie 
 Antoinette), and her three children, were 
 saved alive, for a time, by the National 
 Assembly. They were sent to the Temple. 
 The National Convention was formed, 
 
 consisting of Servan, (minister of war; 
 Roland (of the interior) ; Claviere, (of 
 finance) ; Monge (of marine) ; Lebrun (of 
 foreign affairs) ; and Danton (of justice). 
 Santerre was made commander of the 
 National Guard, in place of Mandat, and 
 an ' E xtraord inary Tribune' was appointed 
 to examine into the offences of the Bloody 
 Tenth of August. 
 
 August 15. French history. The 
 birthday of Napoleon I., and while the 
 empire lasted considered a national holi- 
 day. It was on 15 Aug., 1806, that he 
 was surnamed ' The Great ' ; that he re- 
 pealed the republican calendar ; that he 
 appointed the cathedral of St. Denis the 
 place of sepulchre for the emperors of the 
 French ; that he converted the Pantheon 
 into the church of Ste.-Genevieve ; that he 
 created his brother Joseph king of the 
 Two Sicilies ; his brother Louis king of 
 Holland ; his brother-in-law Murat grand 
 duke of Cleves and Berg; gave his step- 
 son Beauharnais in marriage to a Bava- 
 rian princess ; and bestowed imperial fiefs 
 on his great ministers and generals ; that 
 he united fourteen princes of the south 
 and west of Germany into the ' Confed- 
 eration of the Rhine ' ; and appointed the 
 day a national festival for ever. Napo- 
 leon III. used to keep it magnificently. 
 
 Neither of the two emperors was buried in the 
 cathedral of St. Denis. Both died in exile. 
 
 Augusta. The 2nd Roman Legion, 
 A.D. 50. The Romans made the ' civitas 
 Trinobantum ' a station for this legion, 
 and called the station Augusta. Tacitus 
 in his Annals calls it Londinum. Now 
 din is Keltic for town, and LoJt, if the o 
 is also corrupt for y or i, would be lyn or 
 lljm, which means in Keltic a pool or 
 body of water, so that Llyn-din means 
 the water-town, or town on the pool. 
 
 Liver-pool seoms to give colour to this etymo- 
 los<v (another plausible suggestion is Lion, cheer- 
 ful or gay). 
 
 August ales Sodales, about a.d. 17. 
 An order of priests instituted by Tiber- 
 ius. 
 
 Pronounce Aug-us-tay'-leez So-day'-leez. 
 
 Augustan Age of China (TJte). 
 The reign of Tae-tsong, son of Kao-tsou, 
 founder of the 13th Imperial dynasty. 
 Tae-tsong is called the Solomon of China 
 (62G-650). 
 
 Augustan Age of England (T/ie). 
 The reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714) 
 also called the Silver Age, the Golden 
 
60 
 
 AUGUSTAN 
 
 AULIC 
 
 Age being the reign of Elizabeth. By far 
 the foremost name is that of Sirlsaac New- 
 ton, and of commanders, John Churchill 
 (duke of Marlborough). The poets were 
 Congreve, Garth, Gay, Parnell, Philips, 
 Pope, Prior, Eowe, and Swift. The other 
 authors were Addison, Barnes, George 
 Bull, Anthony Collins, Jeremy Collier, 
 Roger Cotes, Defoe, Dodwell, Flamsteed, 
 George Hickes, Dr. John Jeffery, John 
 Norris, Ray, South, Steele, &c. Wren, 
 Archibald Pitcairn, and Sir Cloudesley 
 Shovel also lived in this reign. Except 
 Pope and Gay, the poets have no high 
 standing, and of the miscellaneous class, 
 Addison and Defoe are the best known. 
 
 Augustan Age of France {The). 
 
 The middle period of the reign of 
 Louis XIV., while Colbert was his chief 
 minister (1619-1G83). 
 
 Augustan Age of Germany 
 
 (The). The 19th century. 
 
 Augustan Age of Hindiistan 
 
 (The). The reign of Vikramaditya, sur- 
 named Sv^kari (or foe of the Sakas), B.C. 56. 
 
 It is an anachronism to speak of an Augustan 
 ago before the reign of Augustus. 
 
 Augustan Age of Persia (The). 
 That of Artaxerxes (b.c. 4G4-425), about 
 which time historians, philosophers, poets, 
 painters and sculptors of peculiar merit 
 flourished. 
 
 Augustan Age of Portugal 
 
 {The). The reign of Dom Affonso Henri- 
 quez (1094, 1137-1185). In this reign 
 Brazil was occui:)ied ; the African coast 
 was explored; the sea-route to India was 
 traversed ; Camoens flourished, &c. 
 
 Augustan Era {The). Began 14 
 Feb., B.C. 27. 
 
 Augustine {The Bule of St.) — in- 
 cluded : absolute obedience ; personal 
 poverty ; universal charity, and perfect 
 chastity, both of mind and body. 
 
 The order first appeared in England about 1105. 
 
 Augustine . {The second St.). 
 Hugues de St. Victor, who died 1140. 
 
 Marcus Aurollus (121-180) is called the ' Augustine 
 of philosophy.' 
 
 Augus'tiies (3 syl.), or 'Augus- 
 iinians,' 1257. I. Some thirty monastic 
 fraternities were so called, not because 
 they were founded by St. Augustine, but 
 because Pope Alexander IV. imposed 
 
 on them the rule of St. Augustine (13th 
 cent.). 
 
 II. An order of nuns w^hich claimed 
 descent from a convent founded by St. 
 Augustine at Hippo, of which his sister 
 was abbess. Till 1G32 they wore a black 
 habit, but it was then changed to a 
 violet. Their special office was the 
 charge of hospitals and the sick. 
 
 Augustin'ian Canons. Those 
 who lived under the rule {kanu/i) of St. 
 Augustine. Their dress was a long 
 black cassock, having a white rochet 
 over it, covered with a black cloak and 
 hood. See ' Austin Friars.' 
 
 Augusti'nus, 1640. A work by 
 
 Cornelius Jansen (1586-163S), just com- 
 pleted before he died, and which proved 
 the occasion of a religious controversy 
 the most important in its doctrinal, 
 social, and political aspects since the 
 Reformation. Its object was to show 
 that the teaching of St. Augustine waa 
 in direct opposition to that of the Jesuits 
 on the subjects of grace, frey will, pre- 
 destination, and pelagianism. It was 
 inhibited by the Jesuits in 1641. In 
 1642 Pope Urban VIII. condemned it, 
 in his bull ' De Eminenti ' ; Alexander 
 VII. condemned it 1656 ; but the scholars 
 and divines of Port Royal defended it. 
 
 In France, the members of Port Iloyal (q.v.) were 
 Janscnists ; those of the Sorbonne (q.v.) were 
 bitterly opposed to the 'Augustinus,' and issued 
 seven allegations to prove it to be heretical. These 
 seven allegations were reduced to five. 
 
 Augustus and Csesar. For above 
 1,000 years, from Vespasian to Alexius 
 Comnenus, ' Augustus ' was the title 
 given to the sons and brothers of the 
 reigning monarch, and ' Ctesar ' was the 
 next in rank. The imperial wife, mother, 
 sisters, and daughters were ' Augusta.' 
 Only the emperor could assume the 
 purple or red buskin. The buskins of a 
 ' Ctesar ' were green. 
 
 In the reign of Diocletian the two viceroys of 
 lUyricum and Gaul were entitled ' Cajsar,' and 
 the two emperors of Rome and Constantinople 
 were each 'Augustus,' A.D. 29-2; but this arrange- 
 ment soon lapsed aiter the death of that emperor. 
 The Roman senate gave Octavius the title of 
 ' Augustus.' 
 
 Auletes. Ptolemy X. of Egypt waa 
 so called for his skill in playing on the 
 flute (B.C. 65-51.) 
 
 Pronounce Au-le'-tec-z. 
 
 Au'lic Council. The supreme 
 tribunal of the German empire. . It con- 
 sisted of a president, a vice-chancellor) 
 
AUEEA 
 
 AUSTRO 
 
 Gl 
 
 and eighteen councillors. This council 
 always followed the court, and was hence 
 the aulic or court tribunal (Latin, aula., 
 the court or palace). It was instituted 
 in 1501 by Kaiser Maximilian, and was 
 suppressed in 1806, when the empire was 
 reconstructed ; but there are still ' aulic 
 councillors ' in Austria. 
 
 Au'rea Bulla, or Golden Bull of 
 Hungary. The Magna Charta of that 
 kingdom, granted in 1222 by Andrew II., 
 just seven years after King John signed 
 the Magna Charta of England. By 
 article 31 it was xjrovided that, if a king 
 violated any of the principles of the 
 Golden Bull, his subjects might depose 
 him, or take up arms against him with- 
 out being guilty of treason. This article 
 was cancelled in 1705 by Josej)h I. Like 
 John, Andrew was a bad king ; and, like 
 Jolui, he neither observed lids Aurea 
 Bulla nor intended so to do. 
 
 Auro'ra {Missa de). The second 
 mass on Christmas Day, the first being 
 the Missa de node, or midnight mass, 
 and the third high mass. See ' Mass.' 
 
 Sir Walter Scott says, ' On Christmas Eve the 
 mass was sung.' and he has been accused of an 
 oversight, inasmuch as no mass is ever said or 
 Bung al nighttime. But Cassianus ('Instit.' book 
 ii. c. 13) says, ' Quare post missam nocturnam 
 dormire non oporteat.' Again, 'Missa de E.x- 
 ceptato ' is defined by Du Cange as the mass ' qviiB 
 die vigiliam Natalis Domini prtecedente cantatur, 
 ande eadem Prtrparatio ad Vfspcram Natalis Domini 
 vocatur in Missali Gothico.' Cassianus says 
 again (c. 7) : ' Missa Canonica celebrata usque ad 
 lucem post vigilias extondunt.' However, the 
 'Missa de nocte.' we are told, was only tci/MH be- 
 fore midnight ; the ' sacrifice ' must be in the 
 morning after the clock has struck 12. 
 
 Austin Friars, or 'Begging Her- 
 mits,' or ' Hermits of St. Augustine.' 
 Were not founded by St. Augustine, but 
 had the rule of St. Augustine imposed 
 on them by Innocent IV. in the middle 
 of the 13th cent. In 1250 Pope Alex- 
 ander IV. placed them under a superior 
 called a ' general.' In 1570 Friar Thomas, 
 a Jesuit, introduced a still more austere 
 rule, forbidding his disciples to wear 
 shoes, whence they were called ' The Bare- 
 footed Friars.' 
 
 Austria {House o/,, 1438-1745. 
 Has given Germany fourteen kaisers, 
 from Albert II. to Karl VII. 
 
 Sc-netimes the house of Hohenstaufen is called 
 the house of Austria, and sometimes the prejseut 
 reigning emperors are also called the house of 
 Austria, but ought to be called the nouse of 
 Austria-Lorraine. 
 
 Austria-Lorraine (House of). 
 The present reigning family of Austria. 
 This house began in 1745 with Franz or 
 Francis I., who married Maria Theresa. 
 
 Austrian Hye'na [The). Julius 
 Jakob von Haynau, an Austrian general 
 (1786-1853), noted for his ruthless 
 cruelty towards the Hungarians, and his 
 alleged flogging of women. In 1850 he 
 visited the brewery of Messrs. Barclay 
 & Perkins, when he was assaulted by 
 the draymen, and barely escaped with 
 his life. Subsequently, he received 
 similar discourtesy in Belgium and 
 France. Called also ' the Austrian 
 butcher.' 
 
 Austrian Lip (The). A protruding 
 under- jaw, with a heavy lip disinclined 
 to shut close. It came from Cimburgis, 
 a Polish princess, who married Kaiser 
 Friedrich III., and displayed itself in 
 their son, Maximilian (I.) Hence also 
 called the ' Cimburgis Under-lip.' 
 
 A somewhat similar peculiarity occurs in the 
 family of Sir Gideon Murray, of Elibank. He 
 had taken prisoner a young gentleman named 
 Scott, whom he was about to hang, but his wife 
 induced him to commute the sentence into mar- 
 riage with their daughter Meg, of ' muckle mouCh." 
 Bleg made a good wife, but the muckle mouth 
 descended to their posterity for many generations. 
 
 Austrian War (The), 1859. To 
 rescue Italy from the hands of Austria. 
 The belligerents were France and Sar- 
 dinia against Austria. France won the 
 battles of Magenta and Solferino, and 
 then made peace with Austria. Garibaldi 
 continued the contest to a successful 
 issue. 
 
 Rome was not added to the new kingdom of 
 Italy till the autumn of 1^70. Venetia was ceded 
 to Italy in 1866, as the fruits of the Austro-Prussiaa 
 war. 
 
 Austro-German Treat/ of 
 Alliance (The), 7 Oct., 1879. Between 
 the Emperor of Austria and the Emperor 
 of Germany. They agree, if either state 
 IS attacked by Russia, both shall unite 
 their full strength to repel it. If 
 either state is attacked by any nation 
 except Russia, the other shall observe 
 a friendly neutrality. If Russia assists 
 any other state in an attack upon either 
 Austria or Germany, the two allies shall 
 consider the attack as made by Russia. 
 Signed at Vienna. 
 
 In 1887 Italy joined the alliance. 
 
 Austro-Kungarian Empire 
 
 (The), 14 Nov., 18G8. The kaiser-king 
 of Germany had to abandon hia title of 
 
62 
 
 AUSTRO 
 
 AVERROISTS 
 
 Emperor of the "West, or of th© Holy 
 Roman Emipire, in 1806, and was entitled 
 ' Emperor of Austria,' till 18G8, when 
 he styled himself 'Emperor of Austria 
 and King of Hungary and Bohemia,' 
 his dominion being styled the 'Austro- 
 Hungarian Empire.' 
 
 Austro-Prussian "War (The), 
 1866. Called the Seven Weeks' war. 
 Won by Prussia. The chief victories 
 were the battles of Custozza, Langen- 
 salza, Sadowa, and Olmutz. By this vic- 
 tory Prussia became the chief power of 
 Germany, and Austria was entirely ex- 
 cluded therefrom. Total cost of the war 
 66,000,000^. sterling. Total loss of hfe 
 50,000. 
 
 Authentic "Doctor {The). Gregory 
 
 of Rimini (' Gregorius Ariminensis '), 
 general of the Augustine order at Mont- 
 pellier, died 1358. He wrote two books 
 of ' Sentences.' 
 
 Pierre de Lombard, who died 1160, was the great 
 • Magister Sententiarum." 
 
 Authorised Version (The), 1611. 
 Means the English translation of the 
 Bible, authorised to be read in churches 
 by James I. Fifty-four men were ap- 
 pointed by the king to bring out this 
 version, but seven died or retired from 
 the task. This version is often called 
 ' King James's Bible,' or the ' King's 
 Bible.' See ' Bible.' 
 
 The Psalms in the Common Prayer Book are 
 those in the Bishops Bible, and bo were the. 
 epistles and gospels till IGUI. 
 
 The Authoxised Version was based on Tyndale's 
 translation (q.v.), which passed tlirough three 
 stages: (1) the publication of the Great Bible 
 (1539-1541), in the reign of Henry VIII. ; (-2) the 
 publication of the Bishops' Bible (15(58-1572), in the 
 reign of Elizabeth ; (3) the publication of the 
 King's Bible, in lull, in the reign of James 1. Re- 
 Tised 1870-1684, in the reign of Victoria (published 
 1885). 
 
 Auto da Fd (plu. 'Autos da Fe'). 
 An act of faith. In the Catholic Church 
 a day was held by the Spanish Inquisition 
 to examine into the faith of a supposed 
 heretic. If innocent, the accused was 
 absolved ; if guilty, he was handed over to 
 the secular power to be put to death, 
 generally by burning at the stake. The 
 sentence of the court and the session 
 also are both called ' Autos da f e.' 
 
 Burning of heretics symbolised hell fire, to which 
 heretics were consigned by the Church. 
 
 In Portugal it was customary to erect 
 a vast theatre capable of holding 3,000 
 spectators, and the accused were brought 
 
 forward one by one to hear judgment. 
 Those who were brought in their own 
 clothes paid a fine and were discharged ; 
 those who wore a ' Sambenito ' — that 
 is, a straight yellow coat without sleeves, 
 charged with a St. Andrew's cross — had 
 to forfeit all their effects, but their lives 
 were spared ; those who had their ' Sam- 
 benito ' decorated with red serge patches 
 resembling flames, without a cross, were 
 discharged, but warned, if ever they re- 
 lapsed, they would be delivered to the 
 flames ; those, lastly, who had the ' Sam- 
 benito ' decorated with flames and devils 
 were condemned to die. The place of 
 execution in Portugal is called ' Roussi.' 
 
 Pronounce Awe'-to-dah-fay'. 
 
 Auxiliary "War {The), b.c. 214-200. 
 
 Between the Romans and the last Philip 
 of Macedon. The Romans were the 
 victors. 
 
 Avaricious Tyrant. Mauritius, 
 
 emperor of the East (582-602). This was 
 a mere pun. Mauritius refused to pay 
 Chagan, king of the Avfiri, four oboli a 
 head for the prisoners taken by him in 
 war, in 587. This refusal not only fixed 
 on him the ill name, but also lost him 
 his crown and empire. 
 
 Avengers {The). A Fenian society 
 organised by Burton, of which he was 
 himself the ' supreme head.' It consists 
 of the most desperate of the Irish faction, 
 bound by oath to murder any one the 
 society wishes to be removed. Burton 
 was condemned to penal servitude for 
 life in May 1885. See ' Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 Aver'roism. The doctrines of 
 Averroes, the Arabian philosopher, that 
 the soul is not an individual possession, 
 but i)art of a Universal Intellect diffused 
 through the whole world. A sort of pan- 
 theism. See ' Averroists.' 
 
 Aver'roistS. Of Seville, Cordova, 
 and Fez. Disciples of Averroes, the 
 Arabian philosopher and expositor of 
 Aristotle (1119-1225). He taught the 
 doctrine of evolution, or that every 
 existing form has been developed from 
 some previous one ; that each individual 
 is a part or limb of the great mundane 
 whole, and that this mundane whole is 
 animated by a General Intelligence or 
 ' Auima Muudi,' and ultimately all 
 existences will be reabsorbed in deity. 
 
AVIGNON 
 
 BABINGTON 
 
 G3 
 
 Of course he denied what we call * the 
 human soul,' for the ' Anima Mundi ' was 
 general and not particular, Thomas 
 Aquinas combated this doctrine, which 
 was condemned by the University of 
 Paris in 1240, and by the Lateran Council 
 in 1512. The Averroists were opposed 
 to the Alexandrists (q-v.). 
 
 Avignon Captivity (The), 1309- 
 1376. When the popes resided at Avignon 
 in France, instead of at Home. 
 
 Avignon, pronounce Av'-vin-y6ng'. 
 
 Avignon Obedience, in the great 
 Western schism, means obedience to 
 the Avignon pope. As obedience to 
 the pope of Kome is called ' Koman Obe- 
 dience.' See above. 
 
 Avocat-gdn^ral (!»')• A magistrate 
 attached to the ministry of France, and 
 charged to defend the law and public 
 order. 
 
 Pronounce AV-vo-kah' djen'-e-rahl 
 
 Avocats au Conseil d'Etat et 
 
 a la Cour de Cassation. Ministerial 
 officers charged to follow the procedure 
 and plead for clients before the Conseil 
 d'Etat and la Cour de Cassation {q.v.). 
 These two courts since 10 Sept., 1817, 
 have been united. Such an ' avocat ' 
 must be 25 years of age, and must have 
 been in the profession at least two years. 
 The number is limited to sixty. 
 
 Pronounce Av'-vo-kah' o con-say'-e da-tah'. 
 
 Avvogado'ri (The), 1178. Three 
 Venetian magistrates whose duty it was to 
 watch over the public interests. In the 
 courts of justice they acted as checks 
 upon the administration of the law, 
 and were also public accusers. In the 
 councils they superintended the debates, 
 and without the presence of one of the 
 Avvogadori no act of any session was 
 valid. The police was under their care ; 
 the public disbursements passed through 
 their hands ; they were the guardians of 
 the public registers. (Singular, ' Avvoga- 
 dore,' 5 syl.) 
 
 Ayerst Hall, in Cambridge Uni- 
 versity. Named after the Eev. W. 
 Ayerst, the first principal, 1884. 
 
 The chief object of this foundation ie to reduce 
 the expense of a college education. 
 
 Aylesbury Men {The), 1704. Mr. 
 Ashby, a burgess of Aylesbury, and five 
 
 other Aylesbury men who insisted that 
 they had a right to vote for their own 
 member, because they were freeholders. 
 The House of Commons gave it against 
 the claimants, and the House of Lords 
 reversed the judgment. When the Ayles- 
 bury men commenced actions against 
 the constables of their town, they were 
 committed to Newgate for contempt of 
 the House. The queen (Anne), to cut the 
 knot, dissolved the parliament, the men 
 were then set at liberty, and the matter 
 dropped. 
 
 Ayoubites (3 syl.). Descendants of 
 Ayoub, a Turkish dynasty which reigned 
 in Egypt and Syria from 1171 to 1254. 
 It was founded by Saladin, son of Ayoub, 
 and was overthrown by the Mamelukes. 
 
 Azores (2 syl.). Martin Behem, in 
 1448, gave this name to these western 
 islands, because he found them full of 
 hawks {azor, Spanish, a goshawk). 
 
 Aztecs. The dominant tribe of 
 ancient Mexico. Their kingdom was 
 founded in 1325. Allied with the Toltecs, 
 they extended their kingdom of Tenoch- 
 titlan (Mexico) to the Gulf of Mexico and 
 the Atlantic. They were at their best in 
 the 15th and 16th cents., when the Spa- 
 niards arrived. The supreme god of the 
 Aztecs was TaotI, and the protector of 
 their nation was Huitzilopochtli. 
 
 Az'ymites (3 syl.). Those who cele- 
 brated the communion with unleavened 
 bread. 
 
 There was a tribe or province under the Saracens 
 so called. Thus Robert the monk, in his ' History 
 of .Jerusalem,' book vi., speaks of ' Persoe et Medi, 
 Arabes et Turci, AzymitlB eC Saraceni, Curti et 
 Publicani, et diversarum natiouum alii multi.' 
 
 Babel {Tablet of the Tower of), 
 1876. Discovered by Mr. George Smith. 
 A tile of burnt clay impressed while 
 soft with an inscription. It is much 
 broken, and only four columns of writing 
 out of six remain. The translation runs 
 thus : — 
 
 ... of Babylon He hastens to the submission, 
 Small and great He confounded the mound. 
 Their walls all the day thoy founded. 
 For their destruction in the night 
 He did not leave a remainder. 
 In His anger, secret counsel He poured out 
 ... to confound their speech He set His face. 
 He gave the command— He made strange their 
 
 counsel. 
 They weep hot tears for Babil. . . . 
 Bitterly they weep. . . 
 
 Babington's Conspiracy, 1585. 
 To murder Elizabeth, and having libe- 
 
64 
 
 BABISM 
 
 BACHAKDIANS 
 
 rated IMary to place her on the throne 
 instead. Pius V. excommunicated 
 Elizabeth, and authorised all true Catho- 
 lics to compass her death. Three 
 priests — GiSord, Gilbert Gifford, and 
 Hodgson — associated with Savage, under- 
 took the assassination of the queen. 
 Another priest, Ballard, afterwards 
 joined the conspiracy; then Anthony 
 Babington, a young man of fortune, with 
 ten others (Windsor, Salisbury, Tilney, 
 Tichbourne, Gage, Travers, Barnwell, 
 Charnock, Dun, and Jones) ; last of all a 
 man named Polly, who was, in fact, one 
 of Walsingham's spies, who made his 
 employer acquainted with all the pro- 
 ceedings. At the fulness of time all 
 were ajiprehended and executed, except 
 Salisbury, who escaped abroad (20 Sept., 
 158G). 
 
 Ba'bism, 1843. A new religion 
 founded in Persia by Mirza Ali Mo- 
 ha,mmed, a young man who professed 
 to be the real successor of Ali, the 
 prophet of Iran. He told the people 
 that he was the bdb (the door) through 
 which all must go who enter into para- 
 dise. His followers are called Bdhis. 
 He condemned polygamy ; disaxDproved 
 of the seclusion and veiling of women ; 
 allowed believers to mix with un- 
 believers ; and advocated a republican 
 form of government. The royal troops 
 were sent against the Babis, thousands 
 were put to death, and Mirza Ali, with 
 his ' apostles,' were publicly executed. 
 However, Mirza Yahya, a youth of sixteen, 
 was chosen successor, and the religion of 
 the Bab still continues. 
 
 It is not a little remarkable that Jesus Christ 
 says of himself, 'I am the bab or door. By me if 
 any man enter in, he shall be saved ' (John x.). 
 
 Babouvism. Socialism, or the 
 spoliation of land from landowners to 
 distribute to those who had none ; agra- 
 rian equalisation. So called from its 
 author, Edouard Fleury Bcxbeuf, who 
 perished on the scaffold in 1797. The 
 socialistic system of this Frenchman 
 bears an extraordinary likeness to the 
 platform of the Irish Land League 
 (1881, &c.). 
 
 Baby Jumper {The). Bob Munton, 
 who was entrusted by the Cambridge 
 undergraduates with their business at 
 Newmarket races (18th and 19th cent.). 
 
 Babylon. Old Cairo was so called, as 
 well as the city on the Euphrates. Thus 
 we read of the fourth crusade, ' Babylon 
 was proclaiined to be the destmation of 
 the armament ' (Villehardouin). 
 
 Babylonian Captivity {The). 
 
 Lasted seventy years, from B.C. 588, 
 when Jerusalem was taken by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, and the people of the king- 
 dom of Judah were deported to Babylon. 
 On the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, 
 B.C. 5o8, the captives had permission to 
 return. Only a few of them returned 
 with Zerubbabel in 5.36, but a second 
 migration was made B.C. 458, under the 
 command of Ezra ; and a third, B.C. 445, 
 under Nehemiah. 
 
 The ten tribes never returned, and they have 
 been identified with the Kurds, the Afghans, the 
 Nestorians, the North American Indians, the 
 Angles, and many others. 
 
 Babylonica doetrina. Astrology 
 in which the Chaldoeans were especially 
 skilled. 
 
 Ne Bahylonios tentaris nutneros 
 means, do not pry into futurity by astro- 
 logical calculations — do not consult 
 fortune-tellers. 
 
 Bae'chiadae. The kings of Corinth, 
 so called from Bacchis, who, B.C. 931, 
 succeeded his father Prumnides, and 
 ruled with firmness and equity. His 
 descendants continued to reign in 
 Corinth till B.C. 779, when the govern- 
 ment of the Prytanes was established. 
 
 Bachardians. Pantheists, so called 
 from one Bachardus, of whom Hermann 
 says, ' Hujus Brunonis tempore, quidam 
 fuit (Deo et hominibus detestabilis) 
 Bachardus nomine, speciem gerens 
 magnae sanctitatis, sed plenus malitia 
 homo ' (' Chron. Comit. Schawenburg,' 
 p. 20). This must be taken for what it 
 is worth, but most likely the word ia 
 simply a corruption of Beghardians, 
 Pantheists on the borders of the Rhine 
 in the 12th cent., condemned by the 
 Council of Vienne in 1311, and so called 
 from the German hegehren (to beg), 
 their fundamental law being that 
 ' necessaria mendicarent, quo facilius 
 possint sua deliria divulgare.' These 
 begging friars were also called * Fratres 
 Conversi, hoc est, fratres non habentes 
 domicilia ' (' Annales Colmarienses,' year 
 1302). The Turlupins and German 
 
BACK-STAFF 
 
 BAHARITES 
 
 65 
 
 Mystics of the 14th cent, were offshoots 
 of the Bachards. 
 
 Back-staiT {A). An instrument 
 invented, in 1590, by Captain John 
 Davis, and used for taking the sun's 
 altitude at sea, before the invention of 
 the quadrant and sextant. In using it, 
 the observer turned his back to the sun. 
 
 Bacon of the Hhyming Crew 
 
 [The). John Dryden (1631-1701); so 
 called by Landor. 
 
 Badge. 
 
 Of England, a white and red rose en- 
 signed with the royal crown. (The 
 crown ensigned with the initial of the 
 sovereign.) 
 
 Of Scotland, a thistle ensigned with a 
 royal crown. 
 
 Of Ireland, either a golden harp or a 
 sprig of trefoil, ensigned with the royal 
 crown. 
 
 Of Wales, a dragon passant, wings 
 elevated, gules, on a mount vert. 
 
 Of Ulster, the ' bloody hand.' 
 
 Of France, the fleur de lis. 
 
 The white hart was the badge of Richard 11. ; the 
 silver swan of the house of Lancaster ; the bear 
 and ragged staff ot the earl of Warwick, and so on. 
 
 Badger State (The). The State of 
 Wisconsin, in North America. The 
 natives are [^Visconsin] badgers, 
 
 Badingueux. The party of the 
 French emperor Napoleon III. The 
 empress's party was called ' Monti- 
 joyeux ' and ' Montijocrisses.' 
 
 Badinguet was the name of the mason in whose 
 clothes Louis Napoleon made his escape from 
 Ham ; and the empress was the second daughter 
 of the count of Montijo of Spain. One of the 
 nicknames of the emperor was 'Badinguet.' 
 See ' Napoleon III.' 
 
 Bagarre {Day of the), 13-16 June, 
 1790. A scuffle at Nismes, which lasted 
 four days, between the Protestants and 
 Catholics. It was political under the 
 guise of religion. As many as 13i 
 persons lost their lives in this senseless 
 squabble. 
 
 Bagaudae [The), a.d, 287. Rebels in 
 Gaul, consisting chiefly of Roman citi- 
 zens. They rose in insurrection in 287, 
 but were suppressed by Maximian. 
 From tlie reign of Gallienus to that of 
 Diocletian the peasant class of Gaul was 
 especially wretched, and, like the peasant 
 class of France, tliey turned on their 
 
 oppressors. Their numbers were sn 
 formidable that town after town opened 
 its gates to the rebels; but, as in the 
 Jacquerie, their hostility was mainly 
 directed against the upper classes. For 
 a time the bagaudas tyrannised without 
 control, but their power was soon 
 crushed when the Roman legions were 
 brought against them. 
 
 BagaudsB.a^u/eiJetv, quodesti-rtz/ari apud Suidam. 
 Boxhornius ab Hebrajo no./tiedim (rebelles\ Alta- 
 serra sic dictos cnnset Bagiudas (quasi silvicolas) 
 a voce iiau, qute G illis silcrni sonat. A baiiad. queb 
 vox Armoricis furmam sonat, et hominum collec- 
 tionem.— IJU Ca.nue. 
 
 Bagdad' {Peace of), Oct, 1727, Be- 
 tween the sultan, Ahmed III., and the 
 shah, Meer Aschraf. War was renewed 
 in 1730. 
 
 Bagford Ballads {The). Sixty-four 
 folio vols, deposited among the Harleian 
 MSS., in the British Museum, collected 
 by John Bagford, a shoemaker, book- 
 seller, and i^rinter, of Great Turnstile, 
 Holborn (1650-1716). 
 
 Bagimont's Roll, 1512. See 
 
 ' Bajimont's Roll.' 
 
 Bagnes (l syl.). French convict 
 prisons. In 1748 the galleys as a punish- 
 ment were abolished, and convicts were 
 employed in hard labour on public worlvs, 
 and lodged in bagnes. The Constituent 
 Assembly of 1791 called this public labour 
 travaux publics, but in the Code Napo- 
 leon it is called travaux forces. 
 
 Bagnigge "Wells. The bagnios or 
 baths established in 1708, in opposition 
 to the cold baths of Mr. Baiues. See 
 ' Cold Bath Fields.' 
 
 Bagnolenses, or Bagnolen- 
 sians. A branch of the Waldeuses, so 
 named from Bagnols, a town in France, 
 where they sprang up. 
 
 Baliar'ites (3 syl,). The first of the 
 Mameluke dynasty in Egypt. These 
 Mamelukes were Egj^ptian slaves, Malel' 
 Saleli bought 1,000, trained them to the 
 use of arms, and placed them in a fortress 
 on the seacoast (called in Arabic bahar'). 
 They succeeded in usurping" the sovereign 
 power, and Noureddin-Ali in 1254 called 
 himself Sultan of Egypt. In 13(82 the 
 Baharite Mamelukes were succeeded by 
 the Borgites or Bordjites. 
 
 BaharitcB in 3 syl. Borgites in i syl. 
 
 F 
 
06 
 
 BAILIES 
 
 BALIA 
 
 Bailies in Scotland correspond to 
 aldermen in English corporations, and 
 provost corresponds to our mayor. The 
 Scotch Municipal Eeform Bill was passed 
 18 Aug., 1840, and rendered this office 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Bailiwick (A). A district within 
 which the sheriff's bailiffs may execute 
 their office. A sheriff is the king's or 
 queen's bailiff. The corresponding 
 French word is hailliage. 
 
 Bairak-tar {i.e. standard bearer). 
 The title of the Grand Vizier Mustapha 
 (1755-1808). 
 
 Bairam (2 syl.). A Moslem festival 
 in the month Shawall or Chaval, and 
 following the Ramadan [q.v.) or great 
 fast of four weeks' duration. The Grreat 
 Bairam is the time when all true Mus- 
 sulmiins are supposed to make a pil- 
 grimage to Mecca at least once in their 
 life. The feast of Bairam lasts four days, 
 but it is preceded by a lesser Bairam of 
 three days' duration, which begins on the 
 first of Chaval, and puts an end to the 
 fast. As the Turkish calendar consists 
 of 12 lunar months, it follows that the 
 months Ramadan and Chaval, in the 
 course of 83 years, have run through all 
 the seasons of the yea"i*. 
 
 The Great Bai'ram, or ' festival of the sacrifices,' 
 commemorates the ofiering of Abraham on Mount 
 Woiiah. 
 
 Bajimont's Roll, 1512. The Valor 
 Beneficiorum,' drawn up by the clergy 
 in council at Edinburgh, and giving the 
 valuation on which the ecclesiastical 
 benefices of Scotland were taxed from the 
 close of the 13th cent, to the Reformation, 
 Bo-called from an Italian, Baiamund or 
 Bajimont de Vinci, sent in 1276 from 
 Rome to make the valuation, and collect 
 the tithes for an expedition to the Holy 
 Land. 
 
 Balaam's Ass Sunday. The 
 
 second Sunday after Easter, when the 
 story of Balaam is read in the lesson for 
 the day See ' Sundays.' 
 
 Balafre {Le), that is, the scarred one. 
 So Henri, due de Guise was called, after 
 receiving at Dornians (1575) a frightful 
 swoi'd-cut on the face (1550-1588). 
 
 Ludovic Lesly, an old archer in the Scotch Guard 
 lit Plessis les Tours, one of the castle palaces of 
 Louis IX., is called Lc lialafic in ' Quentin Dur- 
 ward.' Probably Sir Walter Scott had some 
 authority for the appellation. 
 
 Balance of Power {The). That 
 
 limitation of the European states which 
 forbids any one of the nations having such 
 a preponderance as to endanger the in- 
 dependence of the others. In the 18th 
 and first half of the lyth cent, it was a 
 European principle, but is now utterly 
 exploded. 
 
 Balance of Trade {The). The dif 
 ference between the aggregate amf)unt of 
 the exports and imports of a nation ; or 
 the difference of purchase and sale be- 
 tAveen any two nations. This calculation 
 no longer exists, as it leads to false con- 
 clusions. 
 
 B alb lis (the stammerer). The most 
 renowned was Lucius Cornelius Balbus 
 of Gades, in Spain, who served under 
 Pompey the Great against Scrtorius. 
 Pompey took him to Rome, B.C. 71, and 
 he gained the esteem of Julius Csesar. 
 Cicero defended him in an oration still 
 extant. In the civil war Balbus accepted 
 the management of Cassar's affairs during 
 the frequent absences of the great dicta- 
 tor, and to this Balbus the 8th book of 
 the ' Commentaries ' is dedicated. After 
 the death of Cassar Balbus served the 
 consulship, B.C. 40. 
 
 Balfour Studentship. For original 
 research in biology and animal morpho- 
 logy, in the University of Cambridge. 
 Value 200Z. a year, tenable for three years. 
 Candidates need not be members of the 
 university. Founded from the memorial 
 fund of Francis Maitland Balfour, fellow 
 of Trinity, 1883. 
 
 Balia. A temporary delegation of 
 sovereignty to a number of dictators. 
 They named the magistrates and banished 
 suspected individuals, in the republics of 
 Italy. Italian, balia, power. 
 
 A balia was appointed (in Florence), for ten years 
 to exclude all theAlbizi from magistracy . . . and 
 this was repeated six times in twenty-one years. 
 — IIallam, Miiidle Ages, vol. i. p. 540. 
 
 When the signory has talien its place to address 
 the assembly the piazza is guarded by armed men, 
 and then the people are aslied if they wish to give 
 balia (dictatorial power) to the citizen named. — 
 SifMONDS, lienaissance in Italy. 
 
 Balia {The Council of). The council 
 which discussed and carried into effect 
 every important measure of Florence 
 during the Medici administration. They 
 f ppointed eight men for criminal business, 
 t lid this committee was called the ' Otto 
 di guardia e balia.' 
 
BALIOL 
 
 BAN 
 
 67 
 
 In Venice was a similar council con- 
 vened originally only on great emergen- 
 cies, but in the time of Lorenzo di Medici, 
 the Balia was made permanent, and be- 
 came the legislative, administrative, and 
 judicial power of the republic. 
 
 ' Magistratus novem civium apud 
 Senenses, qui rebus bellicis praefecti 
 Bunt.' — Du Cange. 
 
 Baliol. See ' Balliol.' 
 
 Ball Money. Blackmail levied on 
 the newly married to prevent their being 
 mobbed on leaving church. Called ' ball- 
 money,' because it was given ostensibly to 
 buy a foot-ball for the village green, but 
 probably it rarely got further than the 
 nearest public-house. 
 
 Ball put off {A). Andrew Marvell 
 says, in his Satires, ' A silly fellow's death 
 puts oft" the ball.' The allusion is to the 
 death of the beadle of the ward, attacked, 
 1672, by the Duke of Monmouth, young 
 Monk (Duke of Albemarle), and eight 
 others, in a drunken brawl. Charles II. 
 pardoned the ruffians, but deferred the 
 ball which was to have taken place at 
 Whitehall the same night. 
 
 Balliol [John). Joint claimant with 
 Kobert Bruce of the throne of Scotland, 
 at the death of Alexander III. He was 
 great-grandson of David, but in the 
 elder line. Robert Bruce was grandson, 
 but in the younger line. Edward I. 
 decided the claim in favour of Balliol. 
 
 Malcolm IV. had two sons, William I. and 
 David. 
 
 From William I. descended Alexander II. (his 
 Bon>, and Ale.xandeb III. (liis son), when issue 
 failed. 
 
 Then comes David, who had three daughters, 
 viz. Margaret, Isa.bella, and Adama. 
 
 ]M:irgarot s daughter, Devergilda, married John 
 Balliol, and had a son called John Balliol tthe 
 claimuntl. 
 
 Isabella married Eobert Bruce, and had a son 
 called Icobert Linice (the claimant). 
 
 Balliol College, 12G3. Founded 
 by John Balliol of Barnard Castle, 
 Durham, father of John Balliol, king of 
 Scotland. The head of the college is 
 called the Master. 
 
 Ballot {Voting by). "Was first publicly 
 adopted in England in the election of 
 the school boards in 1870. In 1872 an 
 act was passed by which ballot was 
 applied to parliamentary and municipal 
 elections in the United Kingdom. 
 
 In France the ballot is used in the election of 
 members of the Chamber of Deputies, and not 
 
 unfrequently in the deliberations of the legisla- 
 tive chambers. 
 
 In the United States of America and in the 
 Australian colonics almost all public elections are 
 conducted by ballot. 
 
 Baltadji. The 400 halberdiers who 
 attend on the royal princes and princesses 
 of Constantinople. Their colonel is 
 called the ' Kizlar-agasi.' The name 
 means hatchet-bearers. 
 
 Baltimore, in Maryland, U.S. 
 America. So called, in 1634, from Lord 
 Baltimore, who led a colony to settle 
 there. 
 
 Bambi'no. A representation of the 
 infant Christ in swaddling clothes, sur- 
 rounded by a halo and watched over by 
 angels. The 'Santissimo Bambino ' in 
 the church of the Ara CcbH, at Rome, is 
 carved in wood from Mount Olivet, and 
 the likeness is attributed to Luke the 
 evangelist. The festival of the Bambino 
 occurs in the Epiphany. 
 
 Bampton Lectures (Oxford Uni- 
 
 versity), 1779. The highest distinction 
 the university can bestow. The lecturer 
 must be an M.A. of Oxford or Cambridge, 
 and is chosen annually on the fourth 
 Tuesday in Easter term by the heads of 
 colleges, but no one can hold the appoint- 
 ment tvv'ice. Founded by the Rev. John 
 Bampton, of Trinity College, Oxford, 
 who left 120Z. a year for eight lectures, 
 preached in Great St. Mary's on eight 
 consecutive Sunday mornings between 
 Lent term and Trinity term, on the fol- 
 lowing subjects : (1) Confutation of 
 heresies ; (2) The divine authority of the 
 Holy Scriptures ; (3) The authority of the 
 Fathers; (4) The divinity of the Holy 
 Ghost, and (6) The Articles of the 
 Established Church as explained by the 
 Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. Thirty 
 copies of the sermons are printed within 
 two months of their delivery. The en- 
 dowment is 200Z. for the eight printed 
 sermons. 
 
 The Cambridge Hnlsean Lectures are 
 of a similar character to the Oxford 
 Bampton Lectures. 
 
 Ban. An Illyrican word, hojan^lovd, 
 about equal to the German margraf. 
 Croatia is still a banat. There were at 
 one time several others, as Dalmatia, 
 Slavonia, Bosnia, Wallacliia, Bulgaria, 
 Servia, &c. In tho reign of Maria 
 Theresa, a ban was the third dignitary of 
 F 2 
 
C3 
 
 BAN 
 
 BANDE 
 
 the Hungarian kingdom, but on the 
 erection of the vassal lands into crown 
 lands in 1849, the banat of Hungary- 
 ceased. Some say Slavonic Pan ^ lord. 
 
 Jellachich, the Ban of Croatia, resolved to hold 
 a Sclavonic diet at Agram on 5 June (1848;.— 
 HowiTT, Hist of Engl, (year 164;), p. 56). 
 
 Ban (A), in French history, is a call 
 to arms, and the ' banlieu ' was the 
 district encompassed by the call or pro- 
 clamation. 
 
 Ban and Arriere-ban. Eegulated 
 in France by Louis le Gros, 1124, and 
 last levied in 1672. The ' ban ' was a sum- 
 mons of the king to his immediate 
 vassals, calling them to his banner ; the 
 ' arriere-ban ' was the summons of the 
 suzerain to his tenants. Sometimes the 
 levy itself was called the ' ban ' or 
 ' arriere-ban.' See ' Bouillet ' sub voce. 
 
 'Ban of the Empire. ' To be put 
 under the ban of the empire,' in German 
 history, means to be cut oft' from society, 
 and deprived of rank, title, privileges, 
 and property. 
 
 Banat (A). The district under a 
 ban. The ban of Croatia is the third of 
 the Hungarian barons. See ' Ban.' 
 
 Banbury Saint(^4). An overstrained 
 puritan. Mr. S. R. Gardiner calls Ban- 
 bury the ' most puritan of all puritan 
 towns.' It is a tradition that cats who 
 caught mice on Sunday in Banbury were 
 hanged on Monday. 
 
 To Banbury came I, O profane one I 
 
 Where I saw a puritane one 
 Hanging of his cat on Monday 
 For killing of a mouse en Sunday. 
 
 Vrunkeri, liarnaby. 
 
 Banbury Story (A). An idle silly 
 story. A correspondent in ' Notes and 
 Queries ' (21 May, 1887, p. 404), derives 
 the phrase from one William Morrell, 
 , who lived at Banbury, noted for the 
 wonderful tales which he told of his 
 travels. He was a professor of chirur- 
 gery, and was looked on by the country 
 people as a prodigy. {See G ardner, ' His- 
 tory and Gazetteer of Oxfordshire,' 
 p. 432.) 
 
 Banco [Sittings «'n). Now means the 
 sittings of judges during term-time, when 
 the several judges sit in their respective 
 courts; but formerly it meant those 
 judges who held their court at West- 
 minster, in contradistinction to judges of 
 
 the curia or aula regis, who followed 
 the king. See ' Days in banc' 
 
 Banco. The standard money in 
 which a bank keeps its accounts, as dis- 
 tinguished from the current coin of the 
 locality. Thus the Hamburg bank keeps 
 its account in an hypothetical' coin having 
 no representative in the current coinage. 
 
 Band of Hope, 1855. Children 
 under working age — that is, about 14 — 
 who have agreed to abstain from all 
 intoxicating drinks. Started by the Rev. 
 Jabez Tunnicliffe, of Leeds. First pre- 
 sident of the union was Canon Morse, 
 who was succeeded by Lord Ebury, and 
 then by Samuel Morley, M.P. Stephen 
 Shirley was one of the most active 
 leaders, but Mr. Tmmicliife suggested 
 the name. 
 
 Band of the Heroine [The), a.d. 
 618. A band raised by Lee-chee, daughter 
 of Lee-chee-min, who sold all her jewels 
 to jDay for a band of soldiers to assist 
 her father in deposing Yang-tee, the 
 emperor of China. The emperor was 
 deposed, and the conqueror, after a short 
 interval of a few months, founded the 
 thirteenth imperial dynasty, called that 
 of Tang, the Augustan age of China. 
 
 Band-room Methodists, or ' The 
 
 United Free Gospel Churches,' 180G. 
 So called because they met originally in 
 the Band-room at Manchester. They 
 do not pay their ministers. They admit 
 persons who are not members into their 
 society, and ignore class-meetings. 
 
 Bandage [The), with which Christ 
 was blindfolded by the soldiers, accord- 
 ing to Mark xiv. 65, was given (we are 
 told) by Charlemagne to St. Namphasus, 
 who built the abbey of Marsillac (in 
 France), where he deposited it. It is 
 now kept in a little country church called 
 St. Julian of Lunegarde. It is a linen 
 bandage stained in places with blood. 
 See ' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' 
 
 Asservatur in ecclesia S. Julian! de Lunegarde 
 (cujus prsesentatio ad abbatem Marciliacensem 
 pertinst) tenue velum ex lino ^Egyptio; idemqua 
 illud esse dicunt quo Christi faciem milites ob- 
 duxere, dum per ludibrium colaphis csederetur. 
 Est et in eadem ecclesia frustum arundinis ei 
 in signum regni affectati pro scoptro traditse.— 
 DOMINICY, De Sudario Capitis Christi, p. 47. 
 
 Bande iN'oire. A society of specit- 
 lators which, after the French Revolution, 
 bought up the chateaux, the abbeys, 
 
BANDIT 
 
 BANTINGISM 
 
 CO 
 
 the monuments of art, not to preserve 
 them, but to sell them as ' raw material.' 
 These Vandals would pull down a fine 
 building merely to sell the material, or 
 a work of art as so much gold, silver, or 
 marble. Hence ' Bande Noire ' means 
 Vandals who would sell a Colossus of 
 Rhodes merely as so much bronze, or 
 Doomsday Book as so much parchment. 
 See ' Black Band.' 
 
 Bandit. In Italian bandito, plural 
 handiti, means an outlaw or banished 
 man ; what we call banditti the Italians 
 call briganti (brigands). 
 
 Bandoleer {A). A leather belt 
 formerly slung by musketeers over the 
 left shoulder, and to which were sus- 
 pended twelve little cases, each contain- 
 ing sufiEicient powder for a charge. 
 
 Bangorian controversy {The). 
 
 Whether or not the reigning monarch 
 can consistently be called the ' head of 
 the Church.' The question was raised 
 by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, who 
 preached (31 March, 1717) before the 
 king (George I.) on the text ' My kingdom 
 is not of this world,' meaning to prove 
 that the kingdom of Christ is spiritual, 
 not temporal. This brought on a long 
 pajier war, but had the happy result of 
 severing convocation from the govern- 
 ment, for it has never since been called 
 together by the sovereign, and has now 
 no legal authority whatever. Hoadly's 
 chief opponents were Dr. Sharpe and 
 William Law. 
 
 Dr. Hoadly denied that episcopacy is a divine 
 institution, and also denied the existence of a 
 visible Church. He greatly objected to Articles 
 XVIII. and XIX. : and denied wholly the divine 
 right of liings. His opinions tended to republican- 
 ism, disestablislunent, and the equality of all 
 Christian creeds. 
 
 Bank Holidays. In 1871 an Act 
 of Parliament (34, 35 Vict. c. 17) was 
 passed providing that Easter Monday, 
 Whit Monday, the first Monday in 
 August, and the day after Christmas 
 Day, shall be bank holidays, and that 
 bills due on such days shall be payable 
 the day following. 
 
 The sovereign has power to appoint any other 
 day as a banls holiday. 
 
 Bank Restriction Act {The)^ 7 
 Geo. IV. c. 6 (1827). The prohibition of 
 banknotes under 5Z. The issue of 
 small notes was restricted 5 April, 182(5, 
 but the Act of prohibition was deferred 
 tUl the following year. 
 
 Bannatyne Club {The), 1823. 
 Instituted by Sir W. Scott in Edinburgh 
 for printing rare works illustrative of 
 Scotch history, topography, poetry, and 
 miscellaneous literature in a uniform 
 size and style. Only 100 copies of each 
 work were published, one for each 
 member who j^aid 5Z. a year. The club 
 was dissolved in 1859. 
 
 The club was called after George Bannatyne. 
 by whose industry much of the Scotch poetry 0/ 
 the 15th and IGth cents, had been preserved. 
 
 Banner {A). In feudal times was 
 the square flag of a knight banneret, 
 made by cutting off the point of the 
 pennon of a simple knight. 
 
 Now any flag carried on a pole may be called a 
 banner ; but the royal national flag is more 
 strictly called the Royal Standard; a bishop's 
 banner is called a gonfalon (one is called an ori. 
 flamme) ; a ship's flag is a union-jack, an ensign, 
 and the long strip of bunting is a pennon. For 
 telegraphic uses three flags are used, viz. s, square 
 flag ; a pennant or triangular flag ; and a flag 
 with two points like a <, called a burgee. 
 
 A KhiU> flag indicates a truce or a desire to come 
 to terms for a truce ; a red flag means defiance ; a 
 hlai-k flag indicates a pirate's vessel ; and a yellow 
 flag a ship in quarantine. See ' Labarum.' 
 
 Banner-bearer of the Church 
 
 {The). Louis the Great of Hungary 
 was so styled by the pope (13-42-1382). 
 
 Banner of St. Ambrose {The). 
 The sacred oriflanmie of Milan. When 
 taken to a battle-field, it was drawn 
 thither in a red car, by red bullocks 
 harnessed with red trappings. 
 
 Banneret. A higher grade of 
 knighthood conferred by the king for 
 some heroic deed performed in the field. 
 So called because the knight's pennon 
 was then exchanged for a banneret, by 
 rending off the ]3oints and making it 
 square. The first banneret was made 
 by Edward I. and the last by Charles I., 
 in 16i2. 
 
 George III., at the naval review, Portsmouth, 
 in 1773, conferred the title on Admiral Pye and 
 some other officers. 
 
 Banns. A proclamation or public 
 notification, as ' banns of rnarriage,' first 
 enjoined by the fourth Council of the 
 Lateran, 1215. 
 
 Bantingism, 1862. The system 
 adopted by Mr. William Banting to 
 reduce obesity. His system was to 
 abstain from fat-producing foods, such 
 as bread, sugar, fat, oil, and butter. 
 
 Breahfaxt : tea or coffee without milk or sugar ; 
 beef, mutton, kidneys, boiled fish, eggs, biscuit, 
 dry toast, brown bread. 
 
 Dinmr (at 1 o'clock) : fish, any meat but pork. 
 
70 
 
 baphobiEt 
 
 BARBAKOSSA 
 
 greens, dry toast, game, poultry, sherry, claret, 
 but no port or champagne. 
 
 rf/7( at 5 o'clock): fruit, rusk, tea without milk 
 or sugar. 
 
 Supper (8.30) : fish, meat (not pork), claret. 
 
 Bap'homet. A small image used by 
 tlie Knights Templars in their religious 
 services. It had two heads, one of a 
 man, and the other of a woman. It held 
 the key of life, and was surrounded with 
 the sun, moon, and stars. The Gnostics 
 and Manichfeans made use of a similar 
 image. It is compounded of two Greek 
 words, haplie rtietes (wisdom from bap- 
 tism), meaning the wisdom which those 
 initiated by baptism possess. 
 
 Baptiste [Jean). A generic name 
 of French Canadians, like John Bull for 
 an Englishman, Sawney (Alexander) for a 
 Scotchma,n, TaiTy (David) a Welshman, 
 Michael a German, brother Jonathan a 
 native of the United States of North 
 America, &c. 
 
 Baptists, Protestant dissenters 
 who baptize by immersion, and only 
 those of an adult age, who have made a 
 satisfactory personal confession of faith. 
 They are independent in church disci- 
 pline, like the Congregationalists. Bap- 
 tists are divided into General Baptists 
 and Particular Baptists [q.v.). 
 
 There are Baptists, Baptized Believers, Cal- 
 vinistic Baptists, General Baptists, General 
 Baptist New Connection, Old Baptists, Open 
 Baptists, Particular Baptists, Presbyterian Bap- 
 tists, the Scotch Baptists, the Seventh-day Bap- 
 tists, the Strict Baptists, the Union Baptists, the 
 Unitarian Baptists, &c. See ' Apostoolians.' 
 
 Bar {The Confederation of), 29 
 Feb., 17G8. A confederation of Polish 
 •patriots,' organised by Pulawski, Krasin- 
 ski, and others, who protested in this 
 city against the intermixture of the 
 Muscovites in the government of Poland. 
 In 1767 the dissidents of Poland had 
 organised themselves into the Con- 
 federation of Radom (q.v.), which called 
 on Russia for aid. Russia gladly re- 
 sponded, and this led to the partition of 
 Poland in 1772. See ' Dissidents.' 
 
 France took the side of the Confederates of Bar, 
 and Turl<ey joined them when the War of Inde- 
 pendence began. As a rule, the Confederates of Bar 
 •were Catholics and tlie Confederates of Eadom 
 were of the Greek Church, Calvinists, Arians, and 
 other anti-Catholics. 
 
 Bar of Dower (A). Forfeiture of 
 the dower which a widow would other- 
 wise be entitled to receive out of the 
 lands and tenements of her deceased 
 
 husband. Elopement would be such a 
 bar, so would treason in the husband, by 
 which his property is confiscated to the 
 crown. 
 
 Bar of Michael Angelo {The). 
 The ridge of bone which forms the base 
 of the forehead, and along which the 
 eyebrows are traced, is called the bar, 
 which in Michael Angelo was well 
 developed. This is said to indicate 
 great mental power. 
 
 Barattiero (plural ' barattieri '). 
 See under ' Bianchi.' Dante, the poet, 
 who sided with the Bianchi, was con- 
 demned by the Neri {q.v.) to be burnt 
 alive as a ' barattiero ' in 1302. 
 
 Dante made his escape and quitted his Guelf 
 connections after this, and composed his immortal 
 ' Commedia ' (' Hell,' 'Purgatory,' and ' Paradise'). 
 
 Barbadoes Leg {A). A disease in 
 the leg indigenous to Barbadoes ; the 
 limb becomes tumid, hard, and mis- 
 shapen. It is similar to the elephanti- 
 asis of the Arabs. 
 
 Barbarians. All the world except 
 the Greeks themselves were so called in 
 the time of Homer. The human race 
 was by the early Greeks divided into 
 Hellenes and Barbaroi; the ancient 
 Jews divided mankind into Jews and 
 Gentiles. 
 
 I am a debtor both to the Greeks and to the 
 Barbarians.— Rom. i. 14. See also 1 Cor. xiv. 11. 
 
 II. The Romans ranked as Barbarians 
 all people except themselves and the 
 Greeks ; but after the fall of the Roman 
 empire, the Teutonic races which over- 
 ran Europe were called Barbarians. 
 
 In modern speech, the word means persons of 
 a low civilisation. 
 
 Barbarossa = Rufus or Red Beard. 
 So Friedrich I., kaiser of Germany, 
 was called by the Italians (1121, 1152- 
 1190). 
 
 Aroodje (2 syl.), or Harudj, and Khair 
 Eddin, two brothers, natives of Mity- 
 lene, who turned Turkish corsairs, and 
 were the terror of the Mediterranean in 
 the first half of the 16th cent., were so 
 called. These two brothers made them- 
 selves masters of Algeria and Tunis. 
 Karl V. defeated them, restored Tunis 
 to the dey, and set free 20,000 Christian 
 captives in 1535. 
 
BARBER 
 
 BARDESANISTS 
 
 71 
 
 Barber Poet {The). Jacques 
 Jasmin (1798-18G-1) of Gascony, a barber 
 by trade. 
 
 Barber-surgeons. The Company 
 of Barber-surgeons was incorporated in 
 England by charter of Edward IV. in 
 1461. It was united with the Company 
 of Surgeons by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 
 (1540) ; but in 1745, by 18 Geo. II. c. 15, 
 the two were made separate corpora- 
 tions. 
 
 For 'Barber's Pole,' see 'Diet, of Phrase and 
 Fable,' p. 65. 
 
 Barbers. Pierre la Brosse, the 
 barber of St. Louis, was made chief 
 minister of Philippe le Hardi ; Olivier le 
 Dain, barber of Louis XI., was the 
 confidant of that king. Figaro, the bar- 
 ber of Seville, in Beaumarchais' comedy 
 (' Le Barbier de Seville '), is the type of 
 barber-surgeons. 
 
 Barberini Vase {The). So the 
 Poiiiland vase was called before it re- 
 ceived its present name in honour of the 
 Duchess of Portland. It was for two 
 centuries the principal ornament of the 
 Barberini palace. 
 
 Barbes. Vaudois ministers. The 
 word is sjaionymous with ' uncle,' and is 
 now no longer used except as a term of 
 endearment to old men. A minister 
 since 1630 has been addressed as mon- 
 sieur le pasteur. 
 
 Barclay's Janissaries, 1696. Sir 
 George Barclay was at the head of a 
 conspiracy for the assassination of 
 William III., and was aided by twenty 
 picked men from the court of St. 
 Germain. Others were subsequently 
 added one by one. These were called 
 his Janissaries. The idea being that 
 they would help Sir George to the 
 ' George and Garter,' by subverting the 
 throne. (Macaulay, ' Hist, of Eng.,' chap, 
 xxi.) 
 
 Janissaries were the infantry of the Turkish 
 empire, 25,000 of which were massacred hi 1825 
 by Sultan Mahmood. The word means 'new 
 troops.' 
 
 Barclayans {The). A religious 
 sect founded by the Rev. John Barclay 
 of Perthshire (1734-1798). Also called 
 Bere'ans {q.v). 
 
 Bar Cochba (Son of the Star). 
 The title given to Slmneon, who gave 
 himself out to be the star spoken of by 
 
 Balaam. 'There shall come a star out 
 of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of 
 Israel,' &c. He opposed Hadrian, and 
 A.D. 132 made himself master of Jeru- 
 salem. The Romans were driven back 
 in all directions, and Bar Cochba occu- 
 pied fifty fortified places and 985 villages 
 At length Julius Severus was sent to 
 Pcilcstine, and, a.d. 135, we are told that 
 580,000 Jews perished, and Bar Cochba 
 was among the slain. 
 
 No dependence can be placed on nnmbers, 
 especially in Jewish history. Tens are made 
 hundreds, either from the spirit of exaggeration 
 or from carelessness. 
 
 Bard of all time. Shakespeare 
 (1564-1616). 
 
 Bard of Avon {The). Shakespeare, 
 born and buried at Stratford-upon-Avon 
 (1564-1616). 
 
 Bard of Ayrshire {The). Robert 
 Burns, a native of Ayrshire (1759-1796). 
 
 Bard of Hope {The). Thomas 
 Campbell, author of 'The Pleasures of 
 Hope ' (1777-1844). 
 
 Bard of Memory (T/je). Samuel 
 Rogers, author of 'The Pleasures of 
 Memory ' (1762-1855). 
 
 Bard of Olney {The). William 
 Cowper, who lived for many years at 
 Olney, in Buckinghamshire (1731-1800). 
 
 Bard of Prose {The). Boccaccio, 
 author of the ' Decameron ' (1313-1375). 
 
 Bard of Rydal Mount {The). 
 William Wordsworth, who lived at 
 Rydal Mount. Also called the ' Poet of 
 the Excursion,' from his principal poem 
 (1770-1850). 
 
 Bard of Twickenham i^The). 
 Alexander Pope, who lived at Twicken- 
 ham (1088-1744). 
 
 Bard of Woodstock {The). 
 Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400). 
 
 Bard of the Imagination. 
 
 Mark Akenside, author of ' The Pleasures 
 of the Imagination ' (1721-1770). 
 
 Bardesa'nists {The), 2nd cent. 
 Followers of Bardesanes (3 syl.), a Syrian 
 heresiarch of the Valentinian or Platonic 
 school. He also denied the doctrine of 
 the resurrection 
 
 BardesanistEB, inter alia exsecranda mysteria, 
 Christum cceleste corpus babuisse oonflrm&ut, ueo 
 
72 
 
 BAEEBONE 
 
 BAENABITES 
 
 adsumpsisse camera de Virt^ne, sed per earn, 
 qtiasi aquam per fistulam iransiisse deliberant. 
 Gloss, ' Sangerm." 
 
 Earebone Parliament {The). 
 From 14 July to 22 Dec, 1G53, convened 
 by Cromwell after the dismissal of the 
 Rump {q.v.) ; so called from one Barbon, 
 a leather-seller of Fleet Street, a name 
 corrupted into Barebone, and seized on 
 as a nickname for this parliament, 
 Cromwell named eight officers and four 
 civilians as his council of state, and this 
 council chose 156, or (some say) 140 men 
 for the parliament ; six being for Wales, 
 six for Ireland, and five for Scotland. 
 Their first act was to elect eight of their 
 number ' to seek the Lord in prayer,' and 
 their wish was to substitute the law of 
 Moses for the law of the land. This 
 parliament or convention, however, was 
 called together chiefly to pave the way to 
 a parliament on a really national basis. 
 It named a new council of state, and 
 then the Speaker placed the abdication 
 of the convention in Cromwell's hands. 
 See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 The Barebone Parliament projected the aboli- 
 tion of the Court of Chancery ; the introduction of 
 civil marriages ; the abolition of tithes, and lay 
 patronage; and parliamentary reform. Cromwell 
 was afraid of these measures, and the dissolution 
 of the convention was determined on. 
 
 Bare-feet {Fieds-nus), 1563. French 
 Catholics incited by monks and priests to 
 put down the Huguenots. These bands 
 consisted of persons of no calling, vaga- 
 bonds and beggars, armed with reaping 
 hooka, laiives and pikes. In their attacks 
 they respected neither law, modesty, nor 
 pity. 
 
 The Pieds-nus fell upon the Gal vinists bysurprise, 
 massacred men, outraged women, demolished 
 houses, tore down the vines, rooted up the trees, 
 and desolated whole districts.— FELICE, History of 
 the Protestants of France, viii. 
 
 Barefooted Carmelites (TJie), 
 1540. Reformed Carmelites, founded by 
 St. Theresa, and approved by Gregory 
 XIII. in 1580. 
 
 Barefooted Friars (The), 1570. A 
 branch of the Austin Friars or Begging 
 Hermits, ' reformed ' by Friar Thomas, a 
 Jesuit, who forbade his disciples to wear 
 shoes. 
 
 Barefooted Monks, or Feuillants. 
 
 Reformed Cistercians during the 16th 
 cent., contemporary with the Reforma- 
 tion. The author of this reform was 
 Jean de la Barriere. 
 
 Barlaam, died 1348. Censured by 
 the Council of Constantinople 1341. He 
 drew uponhimself the odium theologicum 
 of the monks of Mount Athos by denyiiig 
 that the light seen on Llount Tabor was 
 the ' light of Godj'i.e. the uncreated essence 
 of the Deity, or, as Milton calls it, the 
 ' bright effluence of bright essence in- 
 create.' The monks of Mount Athos 
 were the strenuous supporters of the 
 divine essence of that light. 
 
 Barlaamites. Those who entertain 
 the same views as Barlaam resi;)ecting the 
 light seen on the mount of transfigura- 
 tion. See * Palamites.' 
 
 Barlettare. Qtii nescit harlettare 
 nescit prcedicare. Fra Gabriele de Bar- 
 letta, a preacher of the Dominican order in 
 the 15th cent. (flo. 1450), enjoyedat Naples 
 an immense popularity. His sermons 
 were a mixture of pathos and burlesque, 
 and have passed tlirough thirty editions. 
 No one can lay claim to be a pulpit 
 orator who cannot preach like Barletta. 
 
 Barn-burners {The). Ultra-Radi- 
 cals or Nihilists. As the Dutchman burnt 
 down his barn to rid himself of the rats, 
 so these Nihilists would pull down the 
 state about their ears in order to get rid 
 of abuses. 
 
 Barnabas {The Gospel of). An apo- 
 cryphal book containing 222 chapters. 
 It is held in honour by Mohammedans 
 because it is supposed to refer to Moham- 
 med when it speaks of a ' messenger of 
 God who will perfect the dispensation of 
 Jesus.' There is an Arabic version, a 
 Spanish version, and an Italian one. 
 The last is supposed to have been written 
 in 1450. 
 
 There is also an epistle ascribed to Barnabas, 
 partly doctrinal and partly practical. It is a pious 
 work, but there is no sufficient reason to sui^pose 
 it was composed by the companion of Paul the 
 Apostle. Dr. Lardner supposes it to date from 71 
 or 72, whereas the Gospel of St. Barnabas is not 
 earlier than 1211. (See p. 85, col. 2.) 
 
 Barnabites (3 syl.), 1530. An order 
 of monks which sprang up in Milan. So 
 called because .the church of St. Barnabas 
 in that city was granted them to preach 
 in. Their special duties were to attend 
 the sick and instruct the young. In 
 France and Austria their speciaf duty 
 was to convert Protestants. 
 
BAENES 
 
 BAERICaDES 
 
 73 
 
 Barnes Scholarship (Thomas). 
 For classics and mathematics. Value 601. 
 a year, tenable for four years. Founded in 
 the University of Cambridge for under- 
 graduates in their first year by Thomas 
 Barnes of Pembroke College, 1844. See 
 * Bell scholarship.' 
 
 Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, in Belgium, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the first crusade (1096- 
 1099), when the city of Jerusalem was 
 taken. The victorious army would have 
 created him 'king of Jerusalem,' but 
 Godfrey refused ' to wear a crown of gold 
 where his Master wore only a crown of 
 thorns.' 
 
 Baron Slumber. John Wodehouse, 
 earl of Kimberley (born 1826- ). 
 
 When secretary of state for the colonies 
 he greatly objected to the delivery of 
 official telegrams at night-time, for fear 
 they should disturb his night's rest. 
 
 Barones majores we now call 
 
 peers. In the time of John they were 
 summoned to parliament by the king. 
 The Barones Tninores were summoned 
 by the county sheriffs, and called ' knights 
 of the shires ; ' they sat in a different house. 
 All Barones majores were called to the 
 king's council, but only a few of the Ba- 
 rones minores, who were very numerous. 
 
 Barones, 3 syl. ; majores, 3 syl. ; minores, 3 syl. 
 
 Barons [The 24), 1258, &c. By this 
 is meant the 24 barons who, in the reign 
 of Henry III. of England, endeavoured 
 to convert the kingdom into an oligarchy. 
 They virtually set aside the king and 
 placed the supreme power in the hands of 
 twelve advisers. It was these barons that 
 first called knights of the shires to assist 
 in reforming abuses, and the parliament 
 called by them at Oxford is called the 
 Mad Parliament (q-V.), because their 
 measures were so anti-aristocratical and 
 anti-despotic. 
 
 Barons. Barons are either greater 
 or lesser. Barones majores being peers, 
 the Barones minores being gentry pos- 
 sessed of lands erected into a barony, 
 sometimes called Free Barons. See Sir 
 Robert Douglas, ' The Baronage of Scot- 
 land.' 
 
 Barons (War of the). An insurrec- 
 tion of the barons against Henry III. It 
 broke out in 12G2 and terminated in 1265, 
 4 
 
 when Simon de Montfort was killed in 
 the battle of Evesham. 
 
 Sometimes the uprising of the barons, ^215-1210, 
 to compel King John to sign Magna Ciiarta, is 
 spoken of as the Barons' War, or War of the 
 Barons, likewise. 
 
 Barons of the Exchequer (T^e). 
 
 Anciently the three puisne judges of the 
 exchequer. There were besides a lord- 
 treasurer and a chancellor. The court 
 now consists of five judges, viz. the chief 
 baron and four barons of the exchequer. 
 
 Puisne pronounce pu-ne. ^^rench puis-ni. 
 
 Baronet. Primus Baronetorum 
 Anglice. Sir Nicholas Bacon, of Red- 
 grave, in Suffolk, whose successors are 
 styled so still. 
 
 Baronet. See under ' Knight Baro- 
 net.' 
 
 Baronial Days. Days when the 
 barons sat to hear the complaints of their 
 vassals. 
 
 Barracoon [A). A depot on the 
 coast of Africa for newly-captured slaves, 
 where they were stowed till they were 
 carried off in the slave- vessels. 
 
 Barrel-Mirabeau. Boniface Ei- 
 quetti, viscount de Mirabeau (1754-1792), 
 was so called from his huge bulk and 
 the quantity of liquor he consumed. 
 
 Barren Periods. Plato says there 
 are periods when inferior things are 
 made partakers of extraordinary virtues, 
 and celestial virtues show themselves in 
 earthly things; and there are periods 
 when no such virtues shine forth in 
 them. The former he calls Fertile 
 periods, the latter Barren periods. 
 Miracles belong to the fertile periods, 
 but when magical operations ceased, 
 came a barren period. 
 
 Barricades {Day of the), * Joum^e 
 des barricades,' 12 May, 1588, when the 
 Parisians barricaded the city against the 
 Swiss Guards sent by Henri III. to put 
 down the populace, who were clamour- 
 ous to place Henri of Guise on the 
 throne. 
 
 (ii.) 5 Aug., 1648, when the populace 
 barricaded the streets of Paris, because 
 their favourites Blancmesnil, Charton, 
 and Broussel, * conseillers au parlement,' 
 had been arrested. 
 
 (iii.) July 1830. July 27, 28, 29, called 
 La Grande Semaine, when Charles ^ 
 was driven from the throne. 
 
74 
 
 BAERIEE 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S 
 
 (iv.) Feb. 1848. Feb. 22, 23, 24, -when 
 Louis Philippe was driven from the 
 throne. 
 
 (v.) June 1848. June 23, 24, 25, when 
 the national workshops were closed. 
 
 (vi.) 2 Dec, 1851. The coup d'etat, 
 when Louis Napoleon became emperor. 
 
 A barricade is a barrique filled with sand, &c. 
 
 Barrier [Treaty of the), 15 Nov., 
 1715. Between the Kaiser, the King of 
 Great Britian (George I.), and the States- 
 General of the United Provinces. It 
 was signed at Antwerp. 
 
 Barrier Act {The), 8 Jan., 1697. 
 An Act of the General Assembly of the 
 Church of Scotland, intended as a barrier 
 against innovations, and a hindrance to 
 hasty legislation. It provides that no 
 change shall be made in the laws of the 
 Scotch Church without being first 
 approved by a majority of the pres- 
 byteries. After having obtained this 
 approval, even then the General Assembly 
 had the power of veto. 
 
 Barrier Treaty [The), 1709. (i.) 
 Propounded by Lord Townshend to 
 De Torcy, the French plenipotentiary 
 on behalf of the Dutch. The Dutch 
 were to receive from France as a bai-rier 
 to their states Furnes, Fort Kenock, 
 Menin, Saverage, Ypres, Warneton, 
 Comines, "Wervick, Lille, Conde, Tournay, 
 and Maubeuge. The French were also 
 to deliver back all the towns, cities, and 
 fortresses which they had taken in the 
 Netherlands. In 1712 the Tory govern- 
 ment disallowed this treaty as injurious 
 to British trade. 
 
 (ii.) 5 Nov., 1713. Between the Dutch 
 and the king of France, shortly before 
 the peace of Utrecht ; by which treaty, 
 the Dutch reserved the right of holding 
 garrisons in certain fortresses of the 
 Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Barriers {Battle of the), 80 March, 
 1814. Between Napoleon and the 
 armies of the allied sovereigns, fought 
 under the walls or barriers of Paris. 
 The French army was defeated, and 
 Napoleon abdicated. 
 
 Barristers first acted as advocates 
 about 1600. The rules for admission to 
 the bar were adopted by all the Inns of 
 Court in 17G2 ; the new rules were agreed 
 to in 1B52. 
 
 By the new rules a student Is compelled to attend 
 two of the five courses of lectures delivered at the 
 halls of the Inns of Court, during one whole year, 
 which is divided into three educational terms. 
 He may, however, avoid attendance on these 
 lectures by passing an examination in law, 
 
 Bartenstein, in Wurtemberg {Con- 
 vention of), 26 April, 1807. Between 
 Alexander I., czar of Russia, and the 
 King of Prussia. 
 
 Barth^lerai {The). The slaughter 
 of the Huguenots on the eve of St. 
 Bartholomew, and some days after. 
 
 [Sully] escaped the Barthiilemi, and had a com- 
 mand in the battles of Coutras, Arques, and Ivri. 
 — Peince, Parallel Hist., vol. ii., p. 164. 
 
 Barth^lemite order {The), 1640. 
 An order of clerical students living in 
 common, and founded by Barthelemy 
 Holzanter. 
 
 Bartholomew's Day {St.), 24 
 Aug., 1572. When the massacre of the 
 French Huguenots began, at the instiga- 
 tion of Charles IX. and his mother. It 
 is said that as many as 80,000 Protestants 
 were murdered in France in this terrible 
 persecution. 
 
 Some estimate the entire massacre as high as 
 70,000 persons. Felipe II. of Spain warmly ap- 
 proved of it, and Pope Gregory XIII. went in 
 solemn state to the church of St. Louis to hear a 
 grand Tf Deum as a public thanksgiving: he also 
 had a medal struck to commemorate the event, 
 and proclaimed the year a year of jubilee. 
 
 Bartholomew Fair, 24 Aug. (old 
 style). Henry I., in 1133, gi'anted the 
 charter of this fair to Rayer or Rahere, 
 a monk. Like all other fairs, it was con- 
 nected with the church, and miracle- 
 plays, mysteries, and moralities were 
 performed. In 1445 four persons were 
 appointed by the Court of Aldermen as 
 keepers of the fair. In 16G1 the fair 
 lasted fourteen days. In 1691 the fair 
 was limited to three days. In 1840 the 
 fair was removed to Islington ; and in 
 1855 it was discontinued. 
 
 Bartholomew's Hospital {St.). 
 
 Smithfield, London, originally part of 
 the Priory of St. Bartholomew. It was 
 founded in 1123 by Rahere, the first 
 prior (originally minstrel to Henry I.), 
 who had, in 1102, founded the priory. 
 After the dissolution of the monasteries 
 the hospital was, in 1544, refounded for 
 100 beds. 
 
 A medical school was added In 16G2, and the 
 hospital was rebuilt by subscription in 1729, It 
 novv contains o )0 beds, and souie 7iJ,00i> patients 
 are relieved there every year. 
 
BAKTHOLOMEW 
 
 BASILICA 
 
 75 
 
 Bartholomew Slaughter of 
 Ottoman History (The), 1513. The 
 Sultan Selim began his reign by a general 
 massacre of all the Schiites in Europe 
 and Asia. 40,000 were slain, and 30,000 
 sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. 
 
 Bartholoraists or ' Bartholomites,' 
 1640. Partisans of Pope Urban VI., 
 whose name was BartholomcBUS Prig- 
 nani, or Bartholomew of Prignano, in 
 Naples. Many of the cardinals pro- 
 tested against his election (in 1378), out 
 of dislike to his severity ; and these dis- 
 sentients elected Robert of Geneva, who 
 went to Avignon, under the name and 
 title of Clement VI. This was the com- 
 mencement of the ' Grand Schism of the 
 West.' Urban was recognised by Eng- 
 land, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, and 
 Sicily; but Clement was acknowledged 
 by France, Spain, and Naples. Urljan 
 contracted the intervals of the jubilees 
 to 33 years, and established the fete of 
 the Visitation of the Virgin. He died 
 1389. The religious order so called was 
 instituted in 1640. 
 
 Bartole, or Bartolus. See under 
 * Coryphaeus,' &c. 
 
 Bas-Chevaliers. Knights bache- 
 lors, or knights holding military fees by 
 a base tenure. Superior knights were 
 termed bannerets. 
 
 Base Court {The). The outer court 
 of a feudal mansion, containing the 
 stable-yard and accommodations for 
 servants. 
 
 Base-!Sm.pire {The). The Roman 
 empire in its decadence, from Constan- 
 tine ; and the Eastern empire after 
 Theodosius. 
 
 Basel {Council of). See under 
 ' Council.' 
 
 Basel {Treaty of), 1795. Between 
 the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain. 
 By this treaty Prussia Avithdrew from 
 the coalition against France, and gave 
 up to the republic her possessions 
 beyond the Rhine. Spain gave up to 
 the republic St. Domingo. 
 
 Basel. Basle, or Bale. In the vicinity Is a marble 
 monviment to commemorate the battle of St. 
 Jacob s, in 1444, when l.GOO Swiss kept a French 
 army (twenty times their number) in check for 
 ten hours. All the Swiss except tea were killed. 
 
 Basel Compact, 1431. Between 
 Siegmund and the Hussites. Siegmund 
 
 consented to allow the laity the use of 
 the cup in the Eucharist. Procop, 
 leader after Zisca, insisted also that the 
 ' Bible and nothing but the Bible should 
 have any authority in religious doctrines, 
 rites, and sacraments.' The insurgent 
 Bohemians then split into two parties; 
 the Calixtines or Chalice-men {q.v.\ 
 accepted the treaty, but the Taborites 
 (3 syl.) stood out till both the Procops 
 were dead, when peace was made. See 
 * Taborites,' and ' Hussite War.' 
 
 Basil {Monks of), 358. Founded by 
 St. Basil, bishop of Caesarea, who retired 
 into Pontus, where he founded a monas- 
 tery, and gave written rules for its re- 
 gulation, the first ever enacted in the 
 Christian Church. These rules were 
 afterwards adopted by St. Benedict. 
 The monks call themselves of the ' Order 
 of St. Basil.' See ' Basilians.' 
 
 The monks of St. Basil in Spain (suppressed In 
 1835 ) followed the Greek ritual; those of Italy follow 
 the Litin ritual. Numerous in Russia, but never 
 Introduced into England. 
 
 Basil83on or Basilica. A Greek 
 adaptation of the Pandects, Code, and 
 Institutes of Justinian, in 60 books. It 
 was begun 877 by Basilius I., called the 
 Macedonian, continued by his son Leo VI., 
 called the Philosopher, to 900, and revised 
 by Leo's son, Constantiuus Porphyro- 
 genitus, in 945. 
 
 Basilian Race {The). That is the 
 race of Basil, emperor of the East. He 
 was born of poor parents, but on the 
 murder of Michael III. in 867 seized the 
 throne, and his reign was both wise and 
 equitable. He enforced the strict ad- 
 ministration of justice; corrected abuses, 
 and began the famous compilation of 
 laws called after him ' Basilics ' or Basil- 
 ica. He was killed by a stag when hunt- 
 ing, A.D. 886, and was succeeded by his 
 son Basil II. 
 
 The Byzantine empire, since the accession of the 
 Basilian race, had reposed in peace and dignity— 
 Gibbon, chap. lii. 
 
 Basilians (^7^e). Of Pljnnouthand 
 Beaconsfield, England, of France and 
 Canada, are a congregation of priests 
 founded at St. Basil (Vivarrais), France, 
 in 1800. They are not connected with 
 the old order of St. Basil. 
 
 Basil'ica or ' Basil'ika.' A Greek code, 
 commenced a.d. 876, by the Emperor 
 Basilios I., and completed by his son Leo 
 VI., the philosopher. It was revised by 
 
76 
 
 BASILICA 
 
 BASTILLE 
 
 order of Constaiitine VII. in 945. This 
 code contains tlie Institutes, the Code, 
 the Digest or Pandect, the Novellae, and 
 the Imperial Constitutions, in 60 books, 
 subdivided under titles. 
 
 The Basilica does not contain all that the Corpus 
 Juris contains, but at the same time it contains 
 Bome things which are not included in the Justin- 
 ian body of laws. 
 
 Basilica. Originally the court (stoa) 
 in which the basTleus (3 syl.) of Athens 
 administered justice. In Rome the 
 Basilica was not only a court of justice, 
 it was also a market place and an ex- 
 change. In B.C. 182, Marcus Fortius 
 Cato erected a basilica at Rome, and 
 later on the basilica was a synonym of 
 forum. Many of the churches in Italy 
 are called basilicas, and so are large 
 structures erected over tombs, as the 
 basilica of Edward the Confessor in 
 Westminster Abbey. See ' Basilason.' 
 
 Basilica Aurea. 'The Golden 
 Basilica,' that of the Lateran, in Rome, 
 called Constantiana from its builder, 
 and ' Golden ' from its superb structure 
 and ornaments. 
 
 • Basilicon Doron.' A work com- 
 posed by James I. of Great Britain, for 
 the edification of his son, on the principles 
 of government, describing the duties of 
 a young prince, and the principles by 
 which he should rule. 
 
 Basili'des (4 syl.). A famous Gnostic 
 of Egyjjt in the 2nd cent. He taught 
 the existence of two prmciples, one good 
 or light, and the other evil or darkness. 
 The good principle has seven teons, called 
 mind, the word, the understanding, power, 
 excellencies, princes, and angels, forming 
 the ' blessed Ugdoad,' or combination of 
 eight. From these asons sprang other 
 aeons, making the total of 365, the mystic 
 number of the Gnostics (or Basileides). 
 
 It is thought that the Gospel of St. John bears a 
 resemblance to ' Basil'idism,' ch. i. In the begin- 
 ning was the Word . . . and the Light shineth in 
 darkness . . . and the Word was made flesh, &c. 
 
 Basilid'ians, the followers of Basil- 
 ides, an Alexandrian Gnostic, numerous 
 in Egypt, Syria, Italy, and Gaul (2nd 
 8rd and 4th cents.). They denied the 
 doctrine of the atonement; believed iu 
 the transmigration of souls; looked on 
 Jesus as a mere human being, on whom 
 at baptism the aeon Nous (intelligence) 
 descended. They affirm that it was not 
 Jesus who was crucified, but Simon of 
 Cyrene, who bore his cross. 
 
 Basket Processions. The pro- 
 cession of the basket was the chief -cere- 
 mony of the 4th day of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries. The basket was placed on an 
 open chariot and followed by a long train 
 of Athenian women, each one of whora 
 also carried a basket. The procession 
 commemorated the rape of Proserpine, 
 and the baskets represented the basket 
 which the maiden was filling with flowers 
 when Pluto carried her off to the infernal 
 regions to be his wife. 
 
 Basoche {Les clercs de la), that is, 
 Clerks of the Palace. When the kings 
 of France lived in the Palais de Justice, 
 the judges, the barristers, the proctors, 
 and all persons connected with these 
 officials, were called Clercs de la Basoche. 
 The president was called Le Boi de la 
 Basoche. Basoche (2 syl.) is a French 
 corruption of the Latin word basilica (a 
 royal palace). 
 
 Basocians [The). The lawyers con- 
 nected with the Palais de Justice, who 
 formed themselves, in the 15th cent., into 
 a theatrical company, to act satires on 
 living characters and passing events. 
 Francois I. was obliged to withdraw their 
 licence in 1540. 
 
 This interdict only applied to Paris, for we read 
 of the Basochian farces of Bordeaux for several 
 years after. 
 
 Bastard eign^. An eldest son, bom 
 before wedlock, whose parents subse- 
 quently married each other and had other 
 children. 
 
 Bastard of Orleans {The). Jean, 
 comte de Longueville and of Dunois 
 (1392-1470), natural son of Louis, due 
 d'Orleans and Marie d'Enghien. 
 
 Bastards. * La guerre des Batards,' 
 1324, between certain seigneurs of 
 Gascony and Charles IV. (Le Bel) of 
 France. So called ' parce que les Gas- 
 cons avaient pour chefs des batards de la 
 noblesse.' 
 
 Bastille. The French prison ; was 
 founded in 1369 by Hugues d'Aubriot ; 
 four tours were added in 1383 ; the fosse 
 and outer wall La 1634. It was destroyed 
 by the Paris mob 14 July, 1789. 
 
 The 14th of July and the 20th of June (the Jeu de 
 paurru', q.v.), were the two great holidays in the 
 Revolution. 
 
 The Bastille was besieged and taken three times : 
 viz. in 1418 by the Burgundians ; in 1594 by Henri 
 IV. ; and on 14 July, 1789, liy the Parisians, from 
 which day the great Kevolutiou is generally dated. 
 
BATAVIA 
 
 BATTERSEA 
 
 77 
 
 Only seven prisoners were found -within it. Tiie 
 site of tlie prison is marked by a column in tlie 
 Place de la Bastille. One soldier and eigiity-three 
 Insurgents fell on this memorable day. 
 
 The priso7ier confined in the Bastille 
 for 35 years at the instigation of Madame 
 de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV., 
 was H. Mazers de Latude, He was 24 
 years old at his incarceration, and his 
 offence was giving Madame de Pompadour 
 a false report of a plot against her life. 
 He was liberated in 1784 and died in 
 1805. His ' Memoirs ' are very interesting. 
 The only prisoner who escaped from the 
 Bastille was D'AligTe. 
 
 The governor, when the Bastille was 
 destroyed by the mob in 1789, was Jpurdan 
 Delaunay, who fell into the hands of the 
 mob and was hanged on a lamp-rope. 
 
 There were only seven prisoners found in the 
 Bastille when it was stormed ; one was Tavernier, 
 who had been confined ten years in the Isle St. 
 Marguerite, and thirty in tlie Bastille. He was 
 more than ninety years of age and an idiot. One 
 of the governors named St. Florentin used to boast 
 that he had received more than 50,000 lettres de 
 cachet. 
 
 Batavia, the modern Holland. The 
 country of the Batavi, who settled in the 
 island formed by the river Rhine and 
 the Waal, called by the Romans Insula 
 Batavorum. 
 
 Batavi or Batavi. 
 
 Batavian Republic [The). Pro- 
 claimed 16 May, 1795 ; raised to the 'king- 
 dom of Holland ' under Louis, brother of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1806 ; Belgium 
 and Holland united to form the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands under William I. in 
 March 1815 ; Belgium separated from 
 Holland 183.0, and Prince Leopold of 
 Saxe-Coburg was elected king of Belgium 
 by the National Congress 4 June, 1831. 
 
 Bath, in Somersetshire. The Hu'ddta 
 Tlierma (hot waters) of Ptolemy; the 
 AqucB Soils of Antoninus ; the Caer- 
 Baden of King Bladud and Geoffrey of 
 Monmouth ; the Caer-Ennant (city of 
 ointment and of healing) of a subsequent 
 period ; the Ack-nian-chester (the sick- 
 man's city) of the Saxon. 
 
 Ensample of his wondrous faculty, 
 Behold the boiling baths at Cairbadon, 
 Which seethe with secret fire eternally. 
 Spensee, Faery Queen, bk. ii., cant x. stanza 26. 
 
 Batll {Knights of the). An English 
 order instituted by Richard II., but i*e- 
 instituted in 1399 by Henry IV., and again 
 in 1725 by George I. There are 26 
 knights. The ribbon is red, to which is 
 attached a medal having tliree crowns, 
 
 with the legend 'Tria juncta in tmo.' 
 So called because the knights were re- 
 quired to bathe before inauguration. 
 G.C.B. = Gra»(Z Cross of the Bath; 
 K.C.'B. = Knight Commander of the 
 Bath ; and C.B. = Companion of the 
 Bath. 
 
 Bath Shillings. Silver tokens 
 coined at Bath in 1811-1812, and issued 
 for 4s. 2s. and Is. by C. Culverhouse, 
 J. Orchard, and J, Phipps. 
 
 Baths and Spa«. Good for 
 
 Amcmia. «chwalbach, St. Moritz, Harrogate. 
 
 A rticular rheumatism and gout. Aix-les-Bains. 
 
 Asthma. Mont Dore. 
 
 A tonic gout. Boyat. 
 
 Biliar!/ obstructions. Carlsbad. 
 
 Calculous disorders. Vichy, ContrexevlUe. 
 
 Diabetes. Neuenahr, Carlsbad. 
 
 Gouty -catarrhal dyspepsia. Homburg, Kissingen. 
 
 Obesity. Marienbad. 
 
 Plethoric gout. Carlsbad. 
 
 Scrofulous glandular affections. Kreuznach. 
 
 Skin diseases. Aix-la-chapelle, Cannstadt, Bour- 
 bonne-les-bains, Uriage. 
 
 Throat affections. Cauterets, Eaux Bonnes. 
 
 Bath and Buxton. To soften the skin, and give 
 it tone. 
 
 Harrogate and Droitwich, brine baths for 
 anaemia. 
 
 Baths and "Washhouses {Public), 
 1846, were established by Act 9, 10 Vict., 
 c. 74. 
 
 Baton blane {Le). A marshal's baton, 
 in France, is covered with violet-coloured 
 velvet spangled with gold, so that a white 
 baton means no honour at all, or nothing 
 whatever. Hence the phrase : ' La gar- 
 nison est sortie de la place, le baton blane 
 a la main,' means the garrison went 
 forth without either arms or baggage. 
 And ' II est sorti de son emploi, le baton 
 blane a la main,' means he left his place 
 without a penny in his pocket or bundle 
 of clothes at his back; with only his 
 walking-stick in his hand. 
 
 Bats {Parliament of), 1426. During 
 the regency of Henry VI., in conse- 
 quence of the brawls between the Duke 
 of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort, the 
 citizens were forbidden to carry arms ; so 
 when parliament assembled the members 
 of the House of Commons came armed 
 with bats and clubs. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Battersea Training College, 
 
 1840. Instituted by (Sir) J. P. Kay 
 Shuttleworth in conjunction with Mr. 
 Tuffnell, for training teachers, especially 
 those intended for our ' national ' or 
 parish schools. 
 
78 
 
 BATTIAD 
 
 BATTLE 
 
 Battiad {The), 1750. A lampoon on 
 Dr. Battie, said to be the composition of 
 Dr. Schomberg, Moses Mendez, and Paul 
 Whitehead. Dr. Battie took a very 
 active part in the College of Physicians 
 against Dr. Schomberg. It is somewhat 
 remarkable that Dr. Battie's father-in-law 
 is pilloried by Pope in the ' Dunciad.' 
 
 Battle Scholarship, for Classics. 
 Value between 30Z. and 35Z. a year, ten- 
 able for seven years. Founded in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge by William Battie, 
 M.D., of King's College, 1747. See 
 ' Kegius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Battle. The last battle in which a 
 king of England has been allowed to 
 appear in person on the field was the 
 battle of Dettingen (1743), against the 
 French on behalf of Maria Theresa of 
 Austria. The English were led by 
 George II. and Lord Stair. The latter 
 was most incompetent, but George II., by 
 courage and dash, rescued the army from 
 most imminent peril, and repelled the 
 French at the hazard of his life. 
 
 For battles named from the localities in which 
 they are fought, see Appendix, ' Battles.' 
 
 Battle [Trial by), or 'Wager of 
 Battel.' The last waged in the Court of 
 Common Pleas, Westminster, was in 1571; 
 the last waged in the Court of Chivalry 
 was in 1631 ; and the last waged in the 
 Court of Durham was in 1638. Abolished 
 by 59 Geo. III. c. 46. 
 
 So late as 1818 this procedtire was decided by the 
 Court of King's Bench to be a legal mode of trial. 
 
 Battle Abbey, Sussex. Founded by 
 William I. in 1067 in commemoration of 
 his victory, 14 Oct., 1066. The high altar 
 marks the spot where the standard of 
 Harold was fixed. The town is called 
 Battle, but was previously known as 
 St. Mary-in-the-Wood. The ruin which 
 now remains was the front entrance of 
 the abbey. The abbey is now the pro- 
 perty of the Duke of Cleveland. 
 
 It was consecrated 11 Feb., 1094, and its first 
 Inmates were Benedictine monks from Normandy. 
 
 Telham Hill is where the Norman standard was 
 raised. Locally called Teliman Hill. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon camp stood on the rising 
 ground (called Senlac) occupied by the abbey. 
 
 Battle Field, in Shropshire. So 
 called in commemoration of the decisive 
 victory of Henry IV. over Henry Percy, 
 sumamed Hotspur, in 1403, 
 
 Battle of Belahoe {The), 1538. 
 This was no battle, but simply a spoiling 
 
 of the spoiler. The two chieftains 
 O'Neill and O'Donnel, having made a 
 predatory inroad into Meath, were return- 
 ing with their spoil when Lord Leonard 
 overtook them at the Ford of Belahoe. 
 After a feeble resistance the two Irish- 
 men fled, leaving their spoil in the hands 
 of the Englishman (Lord Leonard). 
 
 Battle of Bonny muir {The), 2 
 April, 1820. A jocose phrase to express 
 a brush which some men of Glasgow 
 had with the military. The fact was 
 this : the Radicals of Glasgow called a 
 monster meeting for Sunday, 2 April, 
 1820, in the interest of parliamentary 
 reform, but hearing that great prepara- 
 tions had been made to prevent a dis- 
 turbance, the meeting was abandoned. 
 Some fifty or sixty men, however, started 
 on the projected expedition of destroying 
 the Carron Ironworks, but were dispersed 
 at Bonnymuir by the military. Nineteen 
 were arrested and three imprisoned for a 
 few days, but the whole affair was con- 
 sidered to be a storm in a teacup. 
 
 Battle of ITations {The). The 
 terrible three days' conflict at Leipzig in 
 Oct. 1813 between Napoleon and the 
 allies. Its issue was the defeat of the 
 French, and the deliverance of Germany. 
 It is called ' the Battle of Nations,' not 
 only from the number engaged, but also 
 because it was the champion battle of 
 the nations of Europe. See below ' Battle 
 of the Nations.' 
 
 The nations engaged were the French, Austrians, 
 Prussians, and llusaians. 
 
 Battle of ^Wartberg {The). The 
 annual contest of the Minnesingers for 
 the prize offered by Hermann, margraf 
 of Wartberg, near Gotha, in Germany, 
 in the 12th cent. 
 
 Battle of the Barriers. See 
 
 ' Barriers,' &c. 
 
 Battle of the Bastards. See 
 
 * Bastards,' &c. 
 
 Battle of the Blues {The). The 
 annual University boat-race on the 
 Thames, from Putney to Mortlake, the 
 Saturday before Holy Week. Called 
 the Blues because both crews wear blue, 
 the Cambridge crew light blue, and the 
 Oxford crew dark blue. 
 
 In 1840, 1841, 1842, the race was from Westmlnbtei 
 Bridge to Putney. In 18i6 and 18.' C, it was from 
 Mortlake to Putney. 
 
BATTLE 
 
 BATTLE 
 
 79 
 
 Battle of the British Soldiers 
 
 {The). The battle of Inkerman, 5 Nov., 
 1854. 
 
 Battle of the Butchers and 
 
 Carpenters (T/ie), 1413. Paris. The 
 Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of 
 Orleans led two factions during the 
 idiocy of Charles VI. The Duke of 
 Burgundy armed the butchers and the 
 faction adopted as their badge a white 
 hood. The Orleanists or Armagnacs 
 armed the carpenters, and this faction 
 adopted for badge a white scarf. In 1413 
 a regular conflict took place between 
 fchem, on the Place de Greve, Paris, and 
 the carpenters succeeded in driving the 
 butchers out of Paris. The Duke of 
 Burgundy tied to Flanders, and the 
 Duke of Orleans entered Paris in triumph. 
 
 Battle of the Diamond. The 
 
 engagement between the Roman Catholics 
 and Orangemen of Ireland in Sept. 1795. 
 So called from Diamond, County Antrim, 
 where it was fought. 
 
 Battle of the 5th of November 
 
 (The), 1854. The famous battle of 
 Inkerman, in which the Russians in far 
 greater force were defeated by the allied 
 English and French armies. This battle 
 is often compared with that of Agincourt 
 by Henry V. 
 
 The Russians had failed to raise the siege by 
 the battle of the 5t,h of November.— HoWiTT, 
 History of England (year 185-1, p. 2(33j. 
 
 Battle of the Forty (The). A 
 battle between twenty Frenchmen and 
 twenty Italian cavaliers. A painting of 
 this battle is in Hampton Court. It 
 belonged to William III., and was painted 
 by Peter Snayers or Esaias Vandervelde 
 (1593-1670). 
 
 Battle of the Giants (The), 18 
 Sept., 1515. The battle of Marignano, 
 in which the allied French and Venetian 
 armies under Francois I. and D'Alviano 
 defeated the allied Italian and Swiss 
 army. The carnage was very gi'eat, 
 12,000 of the conquered and 4,000 of the 
 conquering army were left on the field. 
 Trivulzio, who had been present in 
 eighteen pitched battles, called them all 
 child's play compared with this ' combat 
 of the giants.' (Guicciardini, book xii. 
 %'ol, iii. p. 167.) 
 
 Battle of the Herrings (The), 12 
 Ft b., 1429. In which Sir John Fastolfe 
 
 defeated the French general Dunois, 
 near Rouvray. Called in French 'La 
 journe'e des harengs.' Sir John con- 
 ducted the convoy of herrings in triumph 
 to the English camp before Orleans. Sir 
 John had 1,600 men-at-arms and archers, 
 with some hundred carts of provisions 
 (bread, wine, and salt herrings, for it 
 was Lent), for the besieging force. Dunois 
 came against him with 6,000 Scots and 
 French. Sir John placed the carts be- 
 tween the attacking force and the 
 attacked, and placed his archers between 
 the carts. Six hundred Scots lay dead 
 on the field, and the French fled. So 
 the English besieging force was both 
 strengthened and victualled. 
 
 Battle of the Kings and Na- 
 tions (T/^e). Leipzig, 1813. See 'Battle 
 of Nations,' and ' Battle of the Nations.' 
 
 Battle of the Moat (The). A 
 skirmish before Medina, between Ma- 
 homet and Abu Sofian, chief of the 
 Koreishites. So called because Mahomet 
 had a moat dug before the city to keep 
 off the invaders ; and in this moat much 
 of the fighting took place. 
 
 Battle of the Nations (The), a.d. 
 625 ; also called ' the Battle of the Moat ' 
 or Ditch, The third great battle of 
 Mahomet, in which he defeated Abu 
 Sofian and the Koreishites. See above, 
 'Battle of Nations,' 
 
 The other two great battles were those of Bedr 
 and Ohud, both in G23. 
 
 Battle of the Peoples {The 
 grand). The battle of Leipzig, 16 and 
 18 Oct., 1813. The ' peoples ' were the 
 Austrians, Russians, Prussians, and 
 Swedes, allied against the French under 
 Napoleon. The allies numbered 240,000 
 men, the French 160,000. In the heat of 
 the battle seventeen German battalions 
 ^10,000 men), in alliance with the French, 
 deserted, and the French were utterly 
 defeated. They lost above 40,000 men, 
 and the allies about the same number. 
 
 Battle of the Bocks {The), 1814. 
 The battle of Falkenstein, when the 
 French mountaineers hurled rocks on 
 the Germans and Cossacks who sought 
 to dislodge them. Rows of fifteen or 
 twenty men were overthrown by a single 
 rock, and the besiegers fled in disorder 
 to escape certain death. 
 
80 
 
 BATTLE 
 
 BATTLES 
 
 This was a repetition of the battle of Morgarten 
 (15 Nov., 1315), won by the Swiss mountaineers 
 over the Austrians. 
 
 Battle of the Spurs {The). I. 
 A battle fought at Courtray in 1302, 
 between the French and the Flemish. 
 The Flemish were led by John, count of 
 Namur and William de Juliers. The 
 French were defeated. It is called the 
 battle of the spurs because as many as 
 4,000 gilt spurs, worn by French knights, 
 were picked up on the field after the fight 
 was done. 
 
 II. 'Journee des esperons,' 16 Aug., 
 1513. Also called the battle of Guine- 
 gate. Between the French and English. 
 The French pretended to give way to 
 decoy the English cavah'y; but by so 
 doing they spread a p: ni 3, and the whole 
 French army fled in a stampede without 
 striking a blow. When the French 
 officers, taken captive, were brought 
 before Henry VIII., he jocosely compli- 
 mented them on the speed of their men, 
 and the Frenchmen entering into the jest, 
 declared with a laugh that the only 
 weapon they used was the spur. ' Well,' 
 said the bluff Henry, ' then we will call 
 it the Battle of Spurs,' and so it has 
 ever been designated. /See' Guinegate.' 
 
 Battle of tlie Standard (The), 
 
 22 Aug., 1138, or battle of Northallerton, 
 in Yorkshire. David I., king of Scotland, 
 was defeated by Stephen. The standard 
 consisted of the consecrated banners of 
 St. Cuthbert of Durham, St. Peter of 
 York, St. Jolin of Beverley, and St. 
 Wilfrid of Bipon, fixed to a mast, and 
 mounted on a four-wheeled carriage, 
 wheeled into the centre of the field ; and 
 on the top of the mast was a pyx con- 
 taining a consecrated host. It was lent 
 to Stephen by Thurstan, archbishop of 
 York. The field of the battle was Cuton 
 or Cutton Moor, near Northallerton, and 
 the Scotch, being defeated, fled in con- 
 fusion to Carlisle. 
 
 David I. came in defence of Maud, the ' lady of 
 England' (q.v.), and was joined by Archbishop 
 Thurstan. 
 
 Battle of the Thirty (The), 27 
 
 March, 1351. The French general 
 Beaumanoir, and the English general 
 Bemborough, agreed to settle a dispute 
 of territory by the combat of thirty 
 knights on each side. At first the 
 English were successful, but Bemborough 
 being slain, the struggle was renewed, 
 
 and the French won the fight. It is 
 still said in France, when speaking of a 
 hard contest, it was as desperate as le 
 combat des Trente. The battle was 
 fought at the Midway Oak, between the 
 castles of Josselin and Ploermel, in 
 France. 
 
 Battle of the Three Emperors 
 
 [The), or the battle of Austerlitz, 2 Dec, 
 1805, when Napoleon defeated the 
 united armies of Austria and Russia, 
 commanded by their respective emperors. 
 The three emperors were Napoleon 
 emperor of the French, Francis emperor 
 of Austria, and Alexander emperor of 
 Russia. The result of the victory was 
 the Peace of Presburg. 
 
 Battle of the Three Hundred, 
 
 B.C. 547. The Lacedaemonians and 
 Argives each laid claim to Cynuria, and 
 agreed to submit the decision to 300 
 champions chosen from each side. So 
 fierce was the contest that only one Spar- 
 tan and two Argives survived. The two 
 Argives, supposing all the Spartans to 
 have been slain, hastened home with the 
 news of victory ; but it was shown that 
 one Spartan survived, and a general 
 battle ensued, in which the Spartans 
 proved the conquerors. 
 
 Battle of the West {The great). 
 The battle between King Arthur and 
 Mordred. It was in this battle that the 
 king received his death wound. (How 
 far this is historic cannot be decided. 
 And doubt rests both on the time and 
 place of the battle.) 
 
 Battle which lasted a week 
 
 {The), A.D. 732. The battle of Tours 
 between Charles Martel, leader of the 
 Franks, and Abdalrahman, the Moslem, 
 general of Spain. The Saracen army 
 was 400,000 strong, but Abdalrahman 
 was slain, and his army was overthrown 
 with great slaughter after a whole week's 
 fighting. No other battle in all history- 
 lasted so long. 
 
 Battles {The fifteen decisive), 
 according to Professor Creasy : 
 
 1. Mamthoii (B.C. 490), in which the 
 Greeks, under MiltiadOs, defeated Darius, 
 the Persian, and turned the tide of 
 Asiatic invasion. 
 
 2. Syraciise (b.c. 413), in which the 
 Atlienian power was broken, and the 
 
BAUEEN 
 
 BAYAOT)OTniIANS 
 
 81 
 
 extension of Greek domination was 
 prevented. 
 
 3. Arbela (b.C. 331), by which Alex- 
 ander overthrew Darius, and introduced 
 European habits into Asia. 
 
 4. Metaurus (b.c. 207), in which the 
 Eomans defeated Hannibal, and Car- 
 thage was brought to ruin. 
 
 5. Armin'uis (a.d. 9), in which the 
 Gauls overthrew the Eomans under 
 Varus, and established their indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 6. Chalons (a.d. 451), in which Attila, 
 'the Scourge of God,' was defeated by 
 Abtius, and Europe saved from utter 
 devastation. 
 
 7. Tours (a.d. 732), in which Charles 
 Martel overthrew the Saracens, and 
 broke from Europe the Mohammedan 
 yoke. 
 
 8. Hastings (a.d. 1066), by which 
 William of Normandy beccime possessed 
 of the English crown. 
 
 9. Orleans (a.d. 1429), by which 
 Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the 
 city, and secured the independence of 
 France. 
 
 10. Armada {The), A.D. 1588, which 
 crushed the hopes of Spain and of the 
 papacy in England. 
 
 11. Blenheim (a.d. 1704), in which 
 Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, 
 broke the ambitious schemes of Louis 
 XIV. 
 
 12. Pultotva (a.d. 1709), in which 
 Charles XII. of Swc^den was defeated by 
 Peter the Great of Eussia, and the 
 stability of the Muscovite empire was 
 established. 
 
 13. Saratoga (a.d. 1777), in which 
 General Gates defeated Burgoyne, and 
 virtually decided the fate of the American 
 Eevolution. 
 
 14. Valmy (a.d. 1792), in which the 
 allied armies under the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick were defeated by the French 
 revolutionists, and the . Eevolution was 
 suffered to go on. 
 
 15. Wate7-loo (a.d. 1815), in which 
 Wellington defeated Napoleon, and 
 rescued Europe from French domina- 
 tion. 
 
 Several of these might be changed for far more 
 Important battles, as, for example, that which 
 giiijied the independence of Switzerland, that 
 wliicli destroyed the independence of Poland, 
 &c., &.C. 
 
 Bauern Krieg. The peasants' war 
 ol Germany at the time of the Reforma- 
 
 tion, similar to the Jacquerie of France 
 and Wat Tyler's rebellion in the reign 
 of Eichard II. 
 
 Bavaria {House of). Furnished 
 Germany with two kaisers, Ludwig V. 
 (1314-3347), and Eobert (1400-1410). 
 
 Baxter's Maxim. 'In necessary 
 things unity, in doubtful things liherty, 
 in all things charity.' Tliough attributed 
 to Baxter, he was not the original author 
 of the maxim. 
 
 Baxterians. Those who adopt the 
 religious svstem of Eichard Baxter (1615- 
 1691). With the Calvinists they believe 
 in election, but with Arminians they 
 reject the doctrine of reprobation. 
 
 Their religious system is (1) that, 
 although Christ died in a special sense 
 for the elect, yet He atoned for all, and, 
 therefore, if a man is not saved, it is his 
 own fault. 
 
 (2) They reject the dogma of repro- 
 bation. 
 
 (3) They maintain that it is possible 
 for saints to fall away from saving grace. 
 
 Dr. Watts and Dr. Doddridge were Baxterians. 
 Baxter was the author of the ' Saints' Everlasting 
 Rest,' and of the ' Call to the Unconverted.' 
 
 Bay State {The), Massachusetts, 
 which before the Federal constitution 
 was called the colony of Massachusetts 
 Bay. 
 When first the pilgrims landed on the Bay State's 
 
 iron shore.— Lowell. 
 
 Bayaderes. The trained dancing 
 girls of India, which are divided into 
 Devddassi (devoted to the service of the 
 temples), and the Nautchis. The former 
 dwell within the inclosure of the temple, 
 and never leave it without a permit from 
 the high priest ; tlie latter are not 
 attached to the temples, but take part 
 in grand processions. The Deva'dassi 
 prepare garlands for the idols, dance 
 before them, sing sacred songs, and take 
 part in all processions; the Nautch girls 
 go about the country and perform for 
 pay. 
 
 Pronoiince bahy-a-dairs' (3 syl.). 
 
 B^yandourians {The), or 'the 
 Bayandouree.' The Turkoman dynasty 
 generally called the White Sheep. 
 Bayandour was the founder of the line, 
 but Ussum Kassan (the Tall) founded 
 the dynasty, which was driven out by 
 Ismail I. in 1499. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 BAYARD 
 
 BEATIFICATION 
 
 Bayard {The British). Sir Philip 
 Sidney (1554-1584). 
 
 The Chevalier de Bayard (1475-15S4) was called 
 Le Bon Chevalier, sans peur et sans reproche. He 
 took part in the 'Battle of the Spurs,' 16 Aug., 
 1513, where he was taken prisoner, but was re- 
 stored to liberty by Henry VIII. without ransom. 
 
 Bayard of India (The). General 
 Sir James Outram (1802-18G3). In the 
 Indian Mutiny he was sent to supersede 
 General Havelock, but by rare chivalry 
 he allowed Sir Henry Havelock to retain 
 command. 
 
 Bayard of Poland (The). Prince 
 Joseph Poniatowski (1763-1814). 
 
 Bayard of the Netherlands 
 
 {The). Louis of Nassau, brother of 
 William of Orange (founder of the Dutch 
 republic). 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry {The). Dis- 
 covered in the cathedral of Bayeux in 
 1728; removed to Paris by order of 
 Napoleon I. in 1803; restored to the 
 town hall of Bayeux in 1804 ; and 
 copied by C. A. Stothard in 1816. Sup- 
 posed to be the work of Matilda (wife 
 of "William the Conqueror) and her 
 maidens. It is a picture in worsted 
 needle-work of the history of England 
 from the mission of Harold to William, 
 duke of Normandy, to the conquest of 
 England by William, whereby he became 
 king of England. It is now preserved 
 in a glass case in the library of the town 
 of Bayeux. It was originally one piece 
 of cloth 227 feet long and 20 feet wide ; 
 containing 623 figures of men, 137 of 
 birds, 49 of trees, 37 of buildings, and 
 41 of ships. 
 
 The Bayeux tapestry and Domesday Book are 
 invaluable documents of the period. 
 
 Bayonne {The Secret League of), 
 1567. A Catholic league between France 
 and Spain, to compel France, Spain, 
 and Flanders to abandon Protestantism. 
 Here, in 1572, Catherine de' Medici and 
 the Duke of Alva planned together the 
 massacre of the French Huguenots. Mary, 
 queen of Scots, joined the league in the 
 year of her marriage with Henry Darnley. 
 
 Bayonne {The Treaty of), 5 May, 
 1808. When Carlos IV. of Spain resigned 
 his crown to Napoleon I. 
 
 Bayou State {The). Bayou means 
 a creek. The State of Mississippi, which 
 abounds in creeks, is so called. 
 
 Bear Flag War {The), 1847. In 
 California, between General Fremont 
 and the Mexicans, who tried to prevent 
 the Americans from settling in California. 
 The Mexicans were soon driven back, 
 and the independence of California was 
 secured. 
 
 Bear State {The). The State of 
 Arkansas, the forests of which are in- 
 fested by bears. 
 
 Beards. 
 
 The Arabians dyed their beards red, because 
 Mahomet hated black hair. 
 
 Assyrians &nd Africans appear in sculpture and 
 paintings with long beards. 
 
 Britons, according to Caesar, shaved all but the 
 upper lip. The Anglo Saxons and Danes wore 
 forlied beards. The Normans wore clean shaved. 
 Edward III. is represented on his tomb at West- 
 minster with a long beard. In the reign of Eliza- 
 beth beards were cut into fantastic shapes. In 
 the reign of James I. each profession wore a 
 differently shaped beard. In the reign of Charles 
 I. a small pointed beard was the mode. In the 
 reign of Charles II. only whiskers and moustaches 
 were worn. The modern fashion of wearing 
 beards was introduced in the Crimean War, 1854, 
 but the habit had been creeping in ten years 
 before. Even the clergy no longer considered it 
 needful to follow the fashion of Catholic priests. 
 
 In the reign of Elizabeth it was ordered that 
 'no fellow of Lincoln's Inn shall wear a beard 
 above a fortnight's growth.' 
 
 Egyptians apparently wore beards only in 
 mourning ; in some statues we find that they had 
 beards enclosed in a beard-case. 
 
 France. Beards were worn till the reign of 
 Louis XIII., who was beardless, and the custom 
 changed. In the reign of Napoleon III. the French 
 shaved off their whiskers, and shaved the chin, 
 only leaving a knot of hair, called an imperial. 
 The moustache was worn long, pointed, andwaxed. 
 
 Grecian Iterocs are represented with short curled 
 beards. The philosophers are for the most part 
 represented with long beards. Alexander made his 
 soldiers shave that the enemy might not lay hold 
 of their beards. 
 
 Jeirs. In Leviticus xix. 27 the lawgiver says, 
 ' Thou shalt not mar the corners of thy beard.' 
 Beards were always worn by the Jews. 
 
 Lombards, or Longobards, wore long beards. 
 
 Parthians. The kings had bushy beards. 
 
 Persians entwined their beards with gold thread. 
 
 Romans, according to Pliny, began to shave 
 A.D.C. 454. Seipio Africanus introduced daily 
 shaving. The first fourteen emperors shaved, but 
 Hadrian retained his beard. 
 
 Spain. Beards were worn till the accession ol 
 Felipe V., who, being beardless, like Louis XIII., 
 set the fashion of clean chins. 
 
 Bearnaise(ie). Henri IV. of France, 
 so called from ' Le Be'arn,' his native pro- 
 vince (1553, 1589-1610). 
 
 Beatification,— Canonisation. 
 
 In imitation of heathen apotheosis. 
 When persons are heatified, their picture 
 or image is allowed to be placed in some 
 particular church, where spiritual com- 
 munion may be held with them in prayer. 
 When persons are canonised iYieiv image 
 or picture may be placed in all churches, 
 that the whole body of Christians may 
 hold conununion with them. Instead of 
 
BEAUCLERK 
 
 BEES 
 
 image or picture, the names of the beati 
 or canonised saints are inscribed in 
 missals or service books. 
 
 Beauclerk, ' Good Scholar.' Henry I. 
 of England (10(38, 1100-1135). 
 
 Beau Sabreur {Le). General 
 Murat, marshal of France, and after- 
 wards king of Naples (1771-1815). 
 
 Beauts (La dame de). Agnes Sorel 
 (1409-I450)was so called from the C/w^eat* 
 de Beaut e, on the banks of the Marne. 
 This chateau was given to her by 
 Charles VII. 
 
 Beauty of Holiness [The). Jeremy 
 Taylor was so called from the extra- 
 ordinary beauty of his person and his 
 great piety. He died 1667, aged 54. 
 
 Becket, in his flight from North- 
 ampton, Nov. 1164, assumed the garb of 
 a monk, and called himself ' Dereman.' 
 
 His murderers were four Imights, viz. 
 Richard Brito,Hugh de Morville, William 
 de Tracy, and Reginald Fitzurse who 
 struck the first blow. He was assassi- 
 nated in Canterbury Cathedral, 29 Dec, 
 1170. In 1538, Henry VIII. put forth a 
 proclamation that Becket was killed in a 
 riot of his own provoking ; and as he was 
 a rebel and traitor, his name should be 
 erased from all religious books and 
 calendars. 
 
 Becket's Day was Tuesday. He 
 was born on Tuesday, baptized on Tues- 
 day, took flight from Northampton on 
 Tuesday, withdrpw from the realm to 
 take refuge in France on Tuesday, had 
 his vision of martyrdom at Pontigny on 
 Tuesday, returned to England on Tues- 
 day, was assassinated on Tuesday, and his 
 body was removed from the crypt of the 
 cathedral to the shrine on Tuesday, The 
 new church was consecrated to him by 
 Cardinal Manning on Tuesday (13 April, 
 1875). 
 
 Beckmanites {The), 1875. A reli- 
 gious sect, the followers of BIrs. Dora 
 Beckman of Alpena, Michigan, who died 
 1883. Mrs. Beckman claimed to be a 
 ' second Christ,' and gave out that Christ, 
 in her person incarnate, ' is the bride of 
 the Church.' In 1888 a Beckmanite of 
 Chicago claimed to be the wife of Christ. 
 Their midnight meetings were so dis- 
 orderly, that an appeal was made to the 
 legislature to forbid them. 
 
 Bed of Justice, 'Lit de justice.' 
 The seat occupied by the king of France 
 in a parlement when he enforced an edict 
 not acceptable to the house. As the 
 parlement derived its authority from the 
 crown, when the king was present the 
 power of the parlement was in abeyance. 
 The last ' lit de justice ' was held by 
 Louis XVI. at Versailles, in Sept. 1787. 
 
 Bede {The Venerable). An English 
 monk and historian of the 8th cent. 
 There is a tradition that a monk, writing 
 his epitaph, fell asleep without com- 
 pleting the verse, and when he woke 
 discovered the word ' venerabilis ' sup- 
 plied by some unknown hand. The whole 
 line then ran thus : — - 
 
 Hac sunt in fossa Bsedse [venerabilis] ossa. 
 
 Bedells' {Esquire). In the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. Two officers elected 
 by the senate to carry silver maces on 
 all public solemnities. They precede the 
 chancellor or his deputy in processions ; 
 receive from him all graces, and deliver 
 them officially to the proctors; they 
 summon members of the senate to the 
 chancellor's court ; arrange all public 
 processions, and on all such occasions 
 carry their maces or staffs of office. 
 
 Bedlam. A corruption of Bethlehem, 
 formerly a hospital founded by Simon 
 Fitz-Mary in Bishopsgate Street Without, 
 in 1246, as ' a privy of canons, with 
 brethren and sisters.' When the religious 
 houses were suppressed by Henry VIII. 
 the corporation converted it into a lunatic 
 asylum for six lunatics, but in 1641, the 
 funds being insufficient, partially conva- 
 lescent patients were turned out to beg, 
 and wore a badge. These were the ' Bed- 
 lam Beggars,' generally called ' Tom-o'- 
 Bedlams.' In 1675 the old building was 
 taken down and a new one was erected 
 in Moorfields. In 1814 this building was 
 also pulled down, and a new hospital 
 built in St. George's Fields. 
 
 Bedouins of Paris {The). The 
 Red Republicans and roughs who 
 thronged the streets in every insurrection 
 and revolution. 
 
 Bees (The). Candidates for 'danger- 
 ous work ' in the Fenian lodges. Every 
 seven bees is responsible to a ' centre ' ; 
 each set of seven centres is responsible 
 to the district centre ; each set of seven 
 district centres is responsible to the ' head 
 g2 
 
84 
 
 BEES 
 
 BEGIN 
 
 centre,' with whom alone these district 
 centres are allowed to communicate ; 
 and, lastly, the head centres communicate 
 with the ' Apex ' {q.v.). 
 
 A circle, centre, and bee are Fenian officers, not 
 boards. They correspond to captain, lieutenant, 
 and sergeant. Each bee has ten members under 
 his jurisdiction. 
 
 Bees' College (St.), Cumberland, 
 1816. Founded by Bishop Law. 
 
 Befa'na. A kind of Santa Klaus, 
 who visits children on Twelfth Night to 
 put presents in a stocking hung at their 
 bed. Befana, it is said, was an old 
 woman busy cleaning her house when 
 the Magi passed by, but she said she 
 would look out for them on their return. 
 As they went home another way, she is 
 looking out for them still, but entertains 
 a great fondness for young children. 
 The word is a corruption of ' Epiphania ' 
 (Epiphany). 
 Begards. See ' Beghards.' 
 Begeaux (Les). In the reign of 
 Charles VI. of France. Bands of free- 
 booters, consisting of Burgundians and 
 their butchers, predatory forces from 
 Artois, discharged German, Lombard, and 
 Savoyard mercenaries, with other disor- 
 derly persons, who laid waste the country 
 round Paris and ravaged France at will. 
 These brigands were still more demoral- 
 ised than the Free Companies in the time 
 of the Black Prince. 
 
 The two most noted ot their leaders were Jean 
 de Poix and De Sobre. 
 
 Beggars {The), 1566. Those Cal- 
 vinists of Holland who leagued together 
 to resist the Inquisition in their country. 
 The term arose thus : Three hundred of 
 the chief men of the Netherlands, all 
 Calvinists, were deputed to demand of 
 Margaret of Austria, the governor, the 
 removal of the Inquisition. When Mar- 
 garet inquired of the Comte de Barley- 
 mont, her counsellor, about the deputa- 
 tion he told her they were only a ' set of 
 beggars ' (' Ce ne sont que des gueux '). 
 This reply got wind, and the party as- 
 sumed the title of 'Beggars' as their 
 distinctive badge, and from that time 
 dressed as beggars, substituting a fox's 
 tail for a feather, and a wooden platter 
 instead of a brooch. Their place of 
 rendezvous was a house called the Cock, 
 out of whose mouth proceeded the words 
 ' Vivent les gueux par tout le nionde 1 ' 
 
 It is said that the count ' spat upon them, called 
 them beg.?ars, and dismissed them contemptu- 
 ously.' ' GeuB ' is stiir a Dutch by-word for ' Pro- 
 testant.' 
 
 Beggars of the Sea (The), or 'Les 
 gueux de mer,' 1566. Those Hollanders 
 who placed themselves under Count 
 Horn, in the Zuyder Zee, to resist the Spa- 
 nish invaders. See below. 
 
 Beggars of the Wood (The), or 
 ' Les gueux des bois,' 1566. Those Hol- 
 landers who lurked in the woods, and 
 resisted on land the Spanish invaders. 
 See ' Beggars.' 
 
 Begging Friars. The second Coun- 
 cil of Lyons reduced them to these four 
 orders : Franciscans or Grey Friars, 
 Dominicans or Black Friars, Augustines 
 (Black Friars), and Carmelites or White 
 Friars. 
 
 Begging Licences. Licences 
 granted to the poor Venetian nobles to 
 beg. These beggars • were called ' I 
 Vergognosi ' {q.v.). 
 
 Beghards {The). ^ 'Beghardi,' or 
 * Begehardi,' 1065 ; ' qui vulgariter Bege- 
 hardi quoad vivos, et Beginse quoad 
 feminas nominantur ' (Conradus de 
 Monte, ' de Erroribus Begehardorum '). 
 Also called ' Tertiaries ' (the third 
 order). See ' Beguins.' 
 
 Secta quaedam pestifera illorum qui Beguinl 
 vulgariter appellantur, qui se Fratres x^aupcres de 
 tertio Ordine S. Francisci communiter nomina- 
 bant, ex quibus plures fuerunt tanquam hseretici 
 condemnati et combusti.— Beknakd GuiDO, Life 
 of John XXII. 
 
 Beghinae, or ' Belgian Beguins.' Very 
 numerous in Belgium in the 12th and 
 13th cent. John XXII. (7 Kal. 
 Martii, anno 3) calls them ' Sorores de 
 Pcenitentia.' It is said that their 
 founder was Begha (Papini Landensia 
 filia, S. Gertrudis Nivellensis sorore) ; but 
 this cannot be relied on. 
 
 In Alemannia mulierum continentium, qussee 
 Beguinas volunt appellari, multitudo surroxit 
 innumerabilis, adeo ut solam Coloniam mille vel 
 plures inhabitarent.— Matthew Paris (year 1251). 
 
 Begihards {The). ' Begihardi,' 
 
 preaching friars, 1302. 
 
 Fuerunt conversi seu Begihardi, hoc est, f ratrca 
 non habentes domlcilia. — Annates Colmarienses 
 (year 1302). 
 
 Begin "with Vesta. Before the 
 guests of a Greek banquet began to eat, 
 an oblation was always offered to Vesta, 
 the tutelary goddess of hospitality. 
 
BEGTASHI 
 
 BELL-EOCK 
 
 85 
 
 Begtashi. A religious order in the 
 Ottoman Empire, instituted in the 14th 
 cent., by Hadji Begtash. The members 
 have secret signs and passwords, like 
 freemasons, to which they bear many 
 resemblances. 
 
 B^guins, of Flanders, 1207. Followers 
 of Lambert le Begue, of Liege. They 
 believed men capable of perfection, and 
 of obtaining so clear a view of God as 
 to become freed from the obedience of 
 any human laws, civil or ecclesiastical, 
 Tliey are now orthodox. 
 
 They were called Bizochi in Italy ; Begums in 
 France ; and Beghards in Germany. 
 
 Begums. Women of high rank in 
 the East Indies. The charge of Warren 
 Hastings, brought by Sheridan in his 
 famous speech of five hours' length, 
 referred to his treatment of the mother 
 and grandmother of Asoff-ul-Dowlah, 
 nabob of Oude. These ladies were very 
 rich and kept a splendid court. Asoff- 
 ul-Dowlah forced large sums of money 
 from them, and the begums appealed for 
 protection to Warren Hastings, governor- 
 general of Lidia (1778). Hastings com- 
 manded the nabob to abstain from 
 further extortions, but Hastings resolved 
 to get the begums' money for conducting 
 the war in Madras. His plan was this : 
 He supplied the nabob with a brigade of 
 British soldiers to keep down his own 
 people, and ran up so heavy a claim that 
 the nabob could not pay it. Hastings 
 told him to extort the money from the 
 begums. The nabob trumped up a 
 charge against the begums that they 
 were concerned in stirring up the insur- 
 rection at Benares, 115 miles from their 
 residence, and marched against them. 
 The ladies resisted, and were taken 
 prisoners, but had concealed their 
 treasures (3,000,000Z. sterHng). The two 
 chief ministers were seized and put in 
 irons, and the two ladies were placed in 
 rigorous confinement. As the money 
 was not produced, torture was applied, 
 and 500,000/,. was produced. More 
 severe torture forced from the ladies, 
 another 50O,000Z. The begums and their 
 two ministers were released, and were 
 told that they ' owed this favour to the 
 governor-general.' See ' Sheridan's 
 Begums Speech.' 
 
 Begu?n is the fern, of Beg, or Bey. 
 
 Belimenists. Disciples of the 
 German mystic Jacob Bolim or Boehm 
 
 (1575-1G24). He taught that all things 
 consist in Yes and No. The Yes is pure 
 power, life, deity ; the No is the reply to 
 the Yes, and indispensable to the revela- 
 tion of the truth. The present controversy 
 respecting the absolute and relative is 
 an offshoot of Behmenism (1890). 
 
 Behring. A strait, sea, bay, and 
 island named after Captain Vitus Bering, 
 a Dane in the service of Peter the Great. 
 He discovered the strait ha 1728. Cap- 
 tain Bering died in 1741 in the island 
 which bears his name. 
 
 Belgian Lion {Order of the), 29 
 Sep., 1815. Instituted by William I., king 
 of the Netherlands, The decoration is a 
 white enamelled cross surmounted with 
 the royal crown, in a blue 'ring' with 
 the letter W and a circle of laurels ; on 
 the reverse, the royal arms with the 
 legend ' Virtus Nobilitas.' The ribbon 
 is blue, edged with orange. 
 
 Belgic Confession {The), 1559. 
 One of the chief confessions of faith of 
 the continental Calvinistic or Reformed 
 churches. See ' Confessions.' 
 
 Belgica. That part of ancient Gaul 
 which lay between the Seine and the Rhine. 
 
 Believers. So those were called 
 who believed in the divine visitation of 
 Joanna Southcott, prophetess of Exeter 
 (1750-1814). 
 
 Believers in Christ {The). A sect, 
 whose special doctrine is that their 
 prayers alone can influence the decrees 
 of divine providence. 
 
 Bell, Book, and Candle. In the 
 ceremony of the gi'eater excommunica- 
 tion by the Catholic Church, since the 
 8th cent., after reading the sentence a 
 bell is rung, the book closed, and a 
 candle extinguished; and from that 
 moment the person excommunicated is 
 excluded from the communion of saints, 
 divine worship, and the sacraments. 
 
 Bell-rock. A reef of old red sand- 
 stone, 2,000 feet long, once a fruitful 
 source of shipwreck. The abbot of Ar- 
 broath (John Gedy, 14th cent.) placed on 
 the reef a bell fixed on a beam of wood, 
 and the beam being agitated by the 
 sea, kept the bell incessantly ringing. 
 Southey, in a ballad on the subject, says 
 that Sir Ralph the Rover wantonly cut 
 the bell from the buoy, and on his home- 
 ward voyage was wrecked on the reef. 
 
BELL 
 
 BELZUNCE 
 
 Bell Scholarships. For classics 
 and mathematics. Two annually for un- 
 dergraduates, worth about 5l. a year each. 
 tenable for four years. Founded in the 
 University of Cambridge by the Rev. 
 William Bell, D.D., fellow of Magdalene 
 College, 1810. See ' Barnes Scholar- 
 ship.' 
 
 Bell the Cat. See p. 42. 
 
 Belle Alliance {La). The name 
 of a farm some thirteen miles from 
 Brussels ; ever memorable for being the 
 position occupied by the centre of the 
 French infantry in the battle of Water- 
 loo (18 June, 1815). Napoleon himself 
 was in the vicinity of this farm, but 
 Wellington was at Mont St. Jean, two 
 miles further north. Between these two 
 spots was La Haye Sainte, where were 
 posted the French tirailleurs. 
 
 The Prussians call the battle of Waterloo the 
 'Battle of la Belle Alliance,' and the French call 
 it the ' Battle of Mont Saint-Jean.' 
 
 Belle Bretonne (La). The Prin- 
 cess Eleanor, also called the Pearl of 
 Brittany, daughter of Geoffrey, duke of 
 Brittany, grand-daughter of Henry II., 
 and niece of King John. She woiild 
 have been heir-presumptive if her 
 brother Arthur had succeeded Richard 
 Coeur de Lion, but from the time of 
 Arthur's death she had to endure a life- 
 long imprisonment at the hands of Jolm. 
 
 Belle Cord 'ere (La). Louise Labe 
 (1526-1506), a French poetess, who 
 married Eddemond Perrin, a wealthy 
 ropemaker. 
 
 Belle Corisande (La). Diane, 
 comtesse de Guiche et de Grammont 
 (1554-1620). 
 
 Belle G-abrielle {La). Daughter 
 of Antoine d'Estrees, grandmasj^er of 
 artillery, and governor of the Ile-de- 
 France. She was the mistress of Henri 
 IV. of France, and died from eating 
 an orange (1505-1599). Also called ' La 
 Belle Jardiniere.* 
 
 Belle Parricide (La). Beatrice 
 Cenci, executed 1599. 
 
 Belle et vertueuse Huguenotte 
 
 {La). Rachel de Rouvigny, the mother 
 of Rachel, who first married Francis, 
 lord Vaughan, and afterwards Lord 
 William Russell. She received the 
 name of Wriothesley from Thomas 
 
 Wriothesley, the mother of her first 
 husband (an heiress). 
 
 Ballot Straits. In the Arctic 
 ocean ; so named from Mons. Joseph 
 Rene Bellot, who perished in the Arctic 
 regions, while searching for Sir John 
 Franklin (1826-1853). 
 
 Bellum Episcopale, 1640. The 
 convocation which met this year made 
 canons, and gave subsidies to carry on 
 the war against the Scots. 
 
 Beloved Merchant (The). 
 Michael de la Pole was so called by 
 Edward III. This De la Pole in the 
 next reign was created earl of Suffolk. 
 
 Belted Will. Lord William 
 Howard, who died in 1640. His belt 
 used to be shown at Naworth. He was 
 second son of Thomas Howard, fourth 
 duke of Norfolk (beheaded in 1572). 
 In right of his wife he succeeded to 
 Naworth Castle, in Cumberland, and 
 was the ancestor of the present earls of 
 Carlisle. In 1603 'Belted Will' was 
 restored in blood, by Act of Parliament ; 
 he died and was buried at Greystock. 
 
 Beltein, or 'Beltane.' A festival 
 observed in Ireland and in some parts 
 of Scotland. Sometimes fires are kindled 
 on hills ; and sometimes the young 
 muster on some green spot, feast on a 
 dish of eggs and milk, and go through 
 various ceremonies. The Irish Beltein 
 is held on 21 June, the Scotch hold 
 theirs on May-day (old style). The 
 Romans held the festival of Cybele on 
 May-day ; and Gregory ch mged the day 
 in order to change ' Cybele and all the 
 gods ' into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' 
 
 Beltane means Baal's fire, and probably the 
 festival is a relic of heathen times. See ' Hallow 
 Eve Fires.' 
 
 Belvedere (3 syl.) means a corridor 
 or look-out which commands a fine view 
 (Italian ' bel vedere,' beautiful view). 
 The most famous is that of the Vatican, 
 built by Bramante, but the word is 
 associated with a statue called the Apollo 
 Belvedere, i.e. the Apollo of the (Vatican) 
 belvedere or corridor, discovered at Cape 
 d'Anzo (Antium), in the 16th cent. It 
 was taken from Rome to France in 1797 
 by Napoleon, but restored after the battle 
 of Waterloo, in 1815. 
 
 Belzunce, bishop of Marseilles. 
 Immortalised by his attention to the sick 
 
BENCH 
 
 BENEFIT 
 
 87 
 
 and dying in the plague of Marseilles in 
 1720. It was introduced by Captain 
 Cliataud, who brought over a Turk in- 
 fected, and entered Marseilles 25 May. 
 Above 40,000 persons within the walls of 
 the city, and 10,000 in the suburbs, died 
 between 25 May, 1720, and 20 Aug., 1721, 
 when the plague ceased. See ' Plagues &c.' 
 
 So when Contagion, with mephitic breath, 
 And withered Famine, urged the work of death, 
 Marseilles good bishop, London's generous mayor, 
 With food and faith, with medicine and with 
 
 prayer, 
 Raised the weak head, and stayed the parting 
 
 sigh, 
 
 Or with new life relumed the swimming eye. 
 
 Darwin, Locrs of the Plants, ii. 43;^, &c. 
 
 N.B. The mayor was Sir John Lawrence, and 
 
 the plague referred to was the Great Plague of 
 
 London. There s many a statue to a lesser man. 
 
 Bench. A seat of justice. There are 
 two benches : the Crown Bench, called 
 the Queen's or King's Bench; and the 
 Common Bench, called the Court of 
 Common Pleas. The former takes cog- 
 nisance of crown or crmiinal offences ; 
 while the Common Bench or Court of 
 Common Pleas has jurisdiction in civil 
 matters only. 
 
 There Is a plea side even in the Queen's Bench, 
 but there is no criminal side in the Common 
 Pleas. 
 
 Bench. Warrant {A). A warrant 
 signed by a superior judge or two jus- 
 tices of the peace, during the assizes, to 
 apprehend a defendant against whom a 
 bill of indictment has been found. 
 
 Benedictines {The), a.d. 528. 
 Founded by St. Benedict, who drew up 
 the ' rule ' of his order in 529. They 
 wear loose black gowns with large wide 
 sleeves, and cowl ending in a point as 
 a head covering. They perform their 
 devotions seven times a day. Every 
 monk of the order has two gowns, a 
 table-book, a knife, a needle, and a 
 handkerchief. The Benedictines are 
 great agriculturists, and at one time 
 supplied Europe with corn. The order 
 was introduced into England by St. 
 Augustine, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 about GOO. 
 
 The rule implied obedience to the superior, 
 avoiding laughter, holding no private property, 
 living sparingly, exercising hospitality, and above 
 all great industry. They were the most gentle- 
 manly and most literary of the monkish orders. 
 
 Benedictines [Father of the 
 English). St. Dunstan, archbishop of 
 Canterbury (925, 959-988), who enforced 
 the Benedictine rule, and became the 
 first abbot of that order ua England. 
 
 Benefice {A). A church living. 
 Estates distributed in fief by sovereigns 
 of France and Germany among their 
 favourite nobles were termed heneficia. 
 Similarl)', the temporalities of bishops 
 are held by the bounty of the sovereign, 
 and the temporalities of rectors and 
 vicars are (or at one time were) held of 
 the bishops. 
 
 Benefices. In England and Wales, 
 11,728. Of these, 9,669 are in the 
 province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in the 
 province of York. The number of 
 parishes is 14,610. The entire number 
 of incumbents in England and Wales is 
 11,029. 
 
 The number of churches and episcopal 
 chapels is 11,825, but of officiating 
 ministers, 12,382. 
 
 The income of the archbishop of 
 Canterbury is 15,0C0Z. a year; of the 
 archbishop of York, 10,000L ; of the 
 bishop of London, 10,000Z. ; of Durham, 
 8,000Z. ; of Winchester, 7,000/.; of Ely, 
 5,500Z. ; of St. Asaph and Bangor, 5,200Z. ; 
 of Worcester, 5,000/.; of all the other- 
 bishops between 5,000/. and 4,000/. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy, or ' Privilegium 
 clericale.' The origin of this privilege 
 is not clear, but it was based on the 
 text, ' Touch not mine anointed, and do 
 my prophets no harm ' (Ps. cv. 15). The 
 privilege related to ecclesiastical places 
 and persons. Places consecrated to 
 religious offices were exempted from 
 arrests, and hence became sanctuaries ; 
 and the . clergy themselves were e.x:empt 
 from criminal processes in the civil 
 courts. By 3 Edw. I. a.d. 1274, we find 
 the privilege had extended to all laymen 
 who could read, and such a criminal could 
 not be put to death, but was branded on 
 the brawn of the left hand. In 1691 
 the privilege was extended to women. 
 By 4 Hen. VII. c. 13, a.d. 1489, it was 
 enacted that no person should be allowed 
 to avail himself of the benefit more than 
 once. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 s. 6, a.d. 
 1827, the benefit was abolished. 
 It never at any time extended to high treason. 
 
 Benefit of Inventory {The). In 
 Scotch law. A legal privilege whereby 
 an heir secures himself against unlimited 
 liability for his predecessor, by giving up 
 within the year an inventory of hi.s 
 heritage. The heir is then liable only to 
 the extent of this inventory. The law 
 
88 
 
 BENEFIZIATI 
 
 BERKELEYISM 
 
 was virtually abolished by 10, 11 Vict. 
 c. 47, ss. 23, 25. 
 
 Benefiziati [The). See ' Eighty.' 
 
 Benevolences. In English history. 
 Were ' gratuities ' or forced gifts exacted 
 by a king, the loyalty of the giver 
 being measured by the amount of the 
 gift. These exactions, in violation of 
 Magna Charta, had been made by Henry 
 III. and Richard II.— Edward IV., in 
 1473, after the death of Henry VI., called 
 on his subjects to replenish his purse by 
 their benevolences. They were declared 
 illegal by 1 Rich. III. c. 2 (1484); but 
 were again exacted by Henry VII., 
 Henry VIII., and James I. By the Bill 
 of Rights (1 Will. & Mary st. 2, c. 2, 
 1689) they were again declared to be 
 illegal. In the Petition of Rights (3 
 Car. I.) one of the articles is this, that 
 * No man shall be compelled to yield any 
 gift, loan, benevolence, or tax, without 
 conamon consent of the Act of Parlia- 
 ment.' 
 
 Bengalee' Era {The). Began a.d. 
 593. 
 
 Bennet College, Cambridge, 1352. 
 Founded by the benevolence of two 
 guilds, that of Corpus Christi and that 
 of the Blessed Virgin Mary ; Henry, 
 duke of Lancaster, also assisted the 
 endowment. It is now almost always 
 called Corpus Christi College or C.C.C.C. 
 
 Eentham {Jeremy), 1748-1832. It 
 
 was Bentham who said the principle of 
 
 government should be ' the greatest 
 
 happiness to the greatest nmnber.' 
 
 It was Priestley who taught Bentham this 
 political axiom. 
 
 Benthamist Doctrine {The). 
 ' The greatest happiness of the greatest 
 number.' 
 
 Beothuks {The). Aborigines of 
 Newfoundland, now numbered with the 
 great awk and dodo. They were Red 
 Indians, who daubed their skin, canoes, 
 garments, weapons, and almost every- 
 thing they possessed with red ochre and 
 grease. The word is said to mean ' men.' 
 
 So the Apaches, Dakotahs, and many other 
 Indian tribal names signify 'the peoi)le.'— Lady 
 Blake, Nini'tentth Ccvlurii, Dec. 1868, p. 905. 
 
 Dakotah signifies 'allied.' 
 
 Bephania. See ' Befana.' 
 
 Hodiernasolemnitas . . . tribus vocabulis deco- 
 ratur : (1) Epiphania, (2) Theophania, (8) Beth- 
 phania ... a beth quod est ' domus,' et phanos 
 
 'apparitio,' quia revolutis XXX et uno anno ad 
 nuptias fuit invitatus (Jesus).— Barelbta, Sermon 
 on the Epiphany. 
 
 Berbers. A general name for the 
 tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions 
 of Barbary and the northern portions of 
 the Great Desert. 
 
 In Algeria they are termed 'Kabyles' (2 syl.); 
 in Morocco they are called ' Shellooh ' ; in the Atlas 
 range, ' Amazirgh ' or ' Timzirght.' 
 
 Bere'ans {The). A Christian sect 
 founded by the Rev. John Barclay of 
 Perthshire (1734-1798). They derive 
 their name from the Bereans who ' re- 
 ceived the Word of Truth with all readi- 
 ness of mind, and searched the Scriptures 
 daily ' (Acts xvii. 1). They are for the 
 most part Calvinistic in doctrine, but 
 believe that the knowledge of God, even 
 of his existence, is a pure matter of revela- 
 tion ; that the Psalms refer wholly to 
 Christ, and not to David at all ; and that 
 assurance is the outcome of faith. 
 
 They are called Barclayans from their foundei. 
 
 Berengarians, 11th cent. Fol- 
 lowers of Berenger, or Berengarius, of 
 Tours (1000-1088), who emphatically 
 denied the corporal presence in the 
 Eucharist. Leo IX. procured the con- 
 demnation of Berenger's doctrine by the 
 Council of Rome in 1049 and the Council 
 of Vercelli in 1050. In 1079 Berenger 
 declared his belief in transubstantiation, 
 and was much honoured by Gregory VII. 
 
 Bergen, in Norway {Treahj of com- 
 vierce), 1217. Between England and 
 Norway, noteworthy as being the first 
 treaty made by England with any foreign 
 power. The English-Scotch traders 
 were, however, soon displaced by the 
 merchants of the Hanse towns, who 
 continued to maintain their monopoly 
 till 1560, when it was broken up by 
 Frederick II. of Demnark. 
 
 Berkeleyism. Idealism as taught 
 by Bishop George Berkeley. To under- 
 stand this it must be borne in mind that 
 an abstract idea is the idea of an abstract 
 noun, as goodness, solidity, &c. apart 
 from any object. Berkeley, abandoning 
 this theory, maintained . that all that 
 is known is the idea ; thus, all that we 
 know of a tree is our idea of a tree. He 
 does not say there is no such thing as a 
 tree, but only that our knoivledge of such 
 an object is our idea or conception of a 
 tree. 
 
BERLIN 
 
 BESIEGER 
 
 89 
 
 Dr. Johnson kicked a stone and asked if that 
 Btone were only an ideal one. It is a sorry thing 
 that a man like Johnson should have been so 
 foolish. What did Johnson know of a stone beyond 
 his idea of it ? The kick may have given him a 
 more accurate idea of its hardness, but still, all 
 he knew of it was limited to his conception or idea 
 of a stone. 
 
 Berlin {Peace of), 28 June, 1742, 
 which closed the first Silesian war, 
 between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
 Friedrich II., the Great, of Prussia. By 
 this treaty Silesia was given up to 
 Prussia. 
 
 Berlin Decree (The), 21 Nov., 1806. 
 Issued by Napoleon for the ruin of Great 
 Britain : — 
 
 1. The British Isles were declared in a 
 state of blockade. 
 
 2. All commerce and correspondence 
 with Great Britain were forbidden. 
 
 3. Every Englisliman found on the 
 Continent was declared a prisoner of war. 
 
 4. All British goods and merchandise 
 were to be considered lawful prize. 
 
 5. All vessels coming from England or 
 an English colony were to be refused 
 admission into any continental harbour. 
 
 Bermudas (The). So named from 
 Bermudez, a Spaniard, who first sighted 
 these islands in 1527. They are also 
 called ' Sommers Isles,' from Sir George 
 Sommers, an Englishman, who was ship- 
 wrecked here in 1609. Sir George's ship- 
 wreck was the mimediate reason why 
 these islands were colonised from Vir- 
 ginia, which, at the time (1611), was 
 itself only four years old. 
 
 Probably the 'Bermoothes' ol Shakespeare 
 (' Tempest," i. 2) is Bermudas. 
 
 Bernadotte (The House of). The 
 present reigning family in Sweden and 
 Norway. Carl XIII. died childless, and 
 concurred with the states in choosing 
 Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, 
 as his successor. Bernadotte proved 
 true to his adopted country by refusing 
 to enforce Napoleon's ' Continental Sys- 
 tem ' on Sweden. 
 
 The Continental System was to ' boycott ' Great 
 BritMin, and ruin its foreign trade. Bernadotte 
 rei;|ned as Cirl XIV., but his name was JeanBap- 
 tisteJules Bernadotte. He died in lft44, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Oscar I., who died in 1872, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Oscar II. 
 
 Bernard {The Great St.).^ The 
 hospice on this famous mountain pass 
 was founded in 962, by Bernard de 
 IMenthon, a Savoysien nobleman, for 
 the benefit of pilgrims. 
 
 Bernardiani. Franciscans of the 
 Strict Observance, so called from St. 
 Bernardin of Sienne, of the same order 
 (1380-1444). 
 
 Bernardines, 1115. Cistercians 
 reformed by St. Bernard of Clairvaux 
 (1091-1153). Called White Monks from 
 the colour of their habit. 
 
 Also a congregation of women of the same order, 
 who consecrated themselves to the education of 
 girls. The chief establishments were those of the 
 Port-Royal, and another in the faubourg St.- 
 Antoine. 
 
 Bernese {The). Henri IV. of 
 France. Before he was king of France 
 he was called the Bernese or Bearnese 
 king. He was king of Navarre, sovereign 
 prince of Beam, and first peer and prince 
 of France. 
 
 Bernesqiie Poetry, 'Poesia Ber- 
 nesca.' Burlesque poetry, so called from 
 Francesco Berni of Tuscany (1490-1536). 
 
 Bersaerker {The). The bodyguards 
 of Danish jarls and kings, noted for their 
 dauntless daring. These military 
 fanatics were probably so called from 
 ' ber ' (bare), ' scerker ' (garment), because 
 they wore no armour in battle. Ogier 
 the Dane, one of Charlemagne's paladins, 
 was a Bersseiker. 
 
 Berserkir rage means a frenzy of passion wholly 
 beyond control. The rage of the French in the 
 first devolution was Berserkir rage. 
 
 Bertram {Dr. Charles JuUvs). A 
 literary impostor. He was professor of 
 English at Copenhagen, and professed to 
 have discovered, in 1747, the 'De Situ 
 Britannios ' of Richardus Corinensis 
 (Richard of Cirencester), in the library 
 of Copenhagen. In 1758 he published it 
 with two other treatises, calling the whole 
 ' The Three Writers on the Ancient 
 History of the British Nations ' (' Scrip- 
 tores Tres '). His forgery was exposed 
 by J. E. Mayor, in his preface to ' Richardi 
 de Cirencestria Speculum Historiale.' 
 See ' Literary Forgeries,' A •. 
 
 The 'Scriptores Tres' were Bichardus Corinenslg 
 (of Cirencester), 'Gildas Badnious (of Bath), and 
 Nennius Bancliorensis (of Bangor). 
 
 Besllters. A Jewish sect, a branch 
 of the ancient Chasidim, which take their 
 stand on the Kabbala, but remain 
 (ostensibly at least) within the province 
 of rabbinical Judaism (Baal Shem Tob). 
 
 Besieger {The). Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, king of idacedonia. 
 
90 
 
 BESS 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 Bess of Hardwick. Elizabeth, 
 countess of Shrewsbury, to whose charge, 
 in 1572, Mary Queen of Scots was com- 
 mitted. She built a former mansion of 
 Chatsworth, the present Hardwick Hall, 
 and founded, by her three marriages, the 
 wealth and dignity of the Cavendish 
 family. The countess treated Mary with 
 great harshness and rigour, being exces- 
 sively jealous of the earl, her husband. 
 
 Bethlehem Hospital. Granted 
 to London for lunatics in 1547. The word 
 is generally called Bedlam (q.v.), and its 
 lunatic inmates Bedlamites. In 1814 a 
 new building was erected south of the 
 Thames. 
 
 Bethlehem Massacre (A). A 
 
 murder or massacre of young children. 
 Of course, the allusion is to the massacre 
 of the Innocents by Herod. 
 
 These ruthless scoundrels would not scruple 
 committing a second Bethlehem massacre. — Sir W. 
 Scott, Guy Mannering, chap, xxxix. 
 
 Bethlemites (3 syl.), 1257. A sect 
 of monks, of whom Matthew of Paris 
 writes : ' Concessa est mansio Fratribus 
 B thleemitis in Cantabrigia . . . quorum 
 habitus similis est habitui Prasdicatorum. 
 Signatur autem capa eorum in pectore 
 quadam stella rubra 5 radiis crinita, in 
 cujus medio qusedam rotunditas est aerei 
 coioris propter stellam, quae apparuit in 
 Bethleem nato Domino.' 
 
 Beza's Codex. A Greek MS. of 
 the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, 
 with a corresponding Latin text on every 
 opposite page. It was presented by 
 Theodore Beza to the University of Cam- 
 bridge in 1581, and is sometimes called 
 the ' Codex Cantabrigiensis.' It is a thick 
 quarto, written on vellum in uncial letters. 
 Supposed to be of the 5th or 6th cent. 
 
 Blanchi (TAe). L 1294. Apolitical 
 faction in Pistoia, similar to the Cenchi 
 of Florence; favourers of the Ghibellines. 
 The Bianchi were opposed to the Neri or 
 faction of the Guelfs. The names Bianchi 
 and Neri belonged to two powerful 
 families. Bianchi = * white ' ; Neri,' black.' 
 
 Dante, the poet, though of the house of Donati, 
 joined the Bianchi faction, had his house pulled 
 down over his ears, and was actually condemned, 
 'col falso pretesto d'aver egli commes=o barat- 
 terie, cioe estorsioni di denaro e vendite di offici 
 pubblicl.' Dante says of baraiteria (Inferno, xxi. 
 41):— 
 
 ' Ogni uom v'e barattier, fuor che Bonturo ; 
 Del no, per li denar, vi si fa ita.' 
 
 11. or ' White Penitents,' 1399. Fana- 
 tics who dressed in white, and wandered 
 
 about Italy crying out * Misericord ia,' 
 with their faces covered and bent towards 
 the ground. A great crucifix was borne 
 before them. Their constant song was 
 ' Stabat Mater dolorosa.' The march 
 continued for three months at a time, and 
 those who refused to join the procession 
 were accounted heretics. 
 
 They appeared in France, but Henri IV. forbade 
 any one, ' uzider pain of forfeiting all his goods, to 
 receive the new sect In white clothes, pretending 
 to great sanctity ' (Rot. Pari. vol. iii. p. 428). This 
 was because their hiding up their faces gave great 
 opportunity to the commission of all sorts of 
 crimes. 
 
 Biandrate (3 syl.). Commander of 
 the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 Biaronne {L'ambassade de). The 
 three tailors of Tooley Street, see ' Diet, 
 of Phrase and Fable,' p. 875. Biaronne 
 is a small town in Spain, the chief trade 
 of which is in honey. The embassy re- 
 ferred to consisted of ' trois cents chevaux 
 et une mule,' i.e. trois sans chevaux et une 
 femme. Oudin, ' Curiosites FranQaises.* 
 
 Bible. See. 
 
 Authorised Version Manx Bible 
 
 ]>iblia Pauperum Matthew Parl^er's Biblo 
 
 Bililia Sacra llatthew's Bible 
 
 Bishops' Bible Mazarinian Bible 
 
 Breeclies Bible Peace-maker's Bible 
 
 Bug Bible Printers' Biblo 
 
 Codex Polyglot Bible 
 
 Coverdale's Bible Psalmorum Codex 
 
 Cranmer's Bilile Rhemish Bible 
 
 Cromwell Bible Revised Version 
 
 Devil's Bible Sacy's Bible 
 
 Dotted Bible Silver Bible 
 
 Douay Bible Smallest Bible 
 
 Genevan Bible Tyndale's Bible 
 
 Golden Bible Treacle Bible 
 
 Great Bible Vinegar Bible 
 
 Idle Bible Whig Bible 
 King James's version Wicked Bible 
 
 Leda Bible Wychf's Bible 
 
 Bible. The name given by Chryso- 
 stom to the scriptures in the 4th cent. 
 Divided into chapters in the 13th cent, 
 either by Cardinal Hugo or by Stephen 
 Langton (archbishop of Canterbury). 
 The first English bible divided into 
 verses was published at Geneva in 3500. 
 The oldest MSS. of the New Testament 
 are in uncial characters, and are sup- 
 posed to belong to the 6th cent. The 
 oldest modern MSS. (in cursive characters) 
 date from the 10th cent. The most 
 valuable MSS. are : 
 
 1. The Codex Alexandrinus in the 
 British Museum. See ' Alexandrian 
 Codex.' 
 
 2. The Codex Vaticanus in the Vati- 
 can at Rome. Considered the oldest. 
 
 3. The Codex E;phrcBVii, in the Imperial 
 Library at Paris. 
 
BIBLE 
 
 bic£:tke 
 
 91 
 
 4. The Codex Cantabrigiensis, or 
 * Codex Bezse,' given by Beza to the 
 University. 
 
 Bible Christians, 1815. Fol- 
 lowers of Mr, Bryan, a local preacher, 
 who separated from the Methodist con- 
 nection, and introduced a more popular 
 element in his scheme of church govern- 
 ment. These Methodists are great ad- 
 vocates of open-air preaching, and receive 
 the Lord's Supper sitting. 
 
 Bible Clerks in Oxford University. 
 Students on the foundation received at 
 reduced fees. These foundations belong 
 to five of the colleges : All Souls, Exeter, 
 Lincoln, St. John's, and Worcester ; and 
 to one Hall, viz. that of St. Mary. See 
 ' Clerks,' ' Sizars,' ' Servitors.' 
 
 At Oriel College, Oxford, there are five 
 bible clerks not on the foundation. At 
 one time they had to read the bible lessons 
 at chapel. 
 
 Bible Moths. A nickname given 
 to revivalists, subsequently called Metho- 
 dists. 
 
 Bible Orchard. A piece of ground 
 bought for 50/., the legacy of Dr. Kobert 
 Wilde, who died in Aug. 1G78, and desired 
 that the interest accruing therefrom 
 should be expended in the purchase of six 
 bibles not exceeding the price of 7s. Q>d. 
 each. The bibles were to be raffled for on 
 the communion table of the parish church 
 of St. Ives, Hunts, every year by six boys 
 and six girls of the town. The practice 
 of throwing dice on the communion-table 
 has been discontinued, and now the raffle 
 takes place on a table placed on the 
 chancel steps. 
 
 Bible Prohibited. Innocent III. 
 in 1199 prohibited the private possession 
 and reading of the bible. Similar pro- 
 hibitions were repeated at Toulouse in 
 1229 ; at Beziers in 1233 ; at the sjTiod 
 of Oxford in 1383. 
 
 The synod of Tarragona, in 1234, de- 
 nounced as a heretic anyone who, having 
 a translation of the bible, refused to sur- 
 render it to be burned within the space 
 of eight days. 
 
 The bible is placed among the books 
 forbidden in the ' Index Librorum Pro- 
 hibitorum.' 
 
 Bible Society {The), founded in 
 1780. All bible societies v>rere condemned 
 
 by the bull of Pius VII., 29 June, 1817 
 and again by Leo XII. in 1824. TIia 
 society of Biblical Archasology was insti- 
 tuted in London, in 1871. The object of the 
 Bible Society is the diffusion of the bible 
 without note, comment, expurgation, or 
 addition to the text. 
 
 The A merican Bible Society, founded at New York 
 in 1817. 
 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society, founded 
 in London in 1802, issues annually 1^ million copies 
 of the bible. 
 
 The Edinburgh Bible Society, 1860. Also a Bible 
 Society at Glasgow. 
 
 The French Bible Society, founded in London, 
 179:2. 
 
 The Hibernian Bible Society, 1806. 
 
 The Naval and Military Bible Society. 1781. The 
 first ship in which bibles were distributed by this 
 society was the ill-fated' Royal George," which 
 went down at Spithead, 29 Aug., 1782. 
 
 The Prussian Bible Society, founded at Berlin in 
 1814. 
 
 The Russian Bible Society, founded at St. Peters- 
 burg by Dr. Paterson, in 1813. 
 
 Biblia Pauperum. The leading 
 events of ' human salvation through 
 Christ ' in pictures with text in Latin, 
 This picture-book bible and the ' Mirror 
 of Salvation ' were immensely popular in 
 the 13th cent. The pictures were copied 
 by artists and sculptors, and were text- 
 books wntli the Franciscans, Carthusians, 
 and others. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Biblia Sacra Latina (about 1455). 
 A folio bible, printed in double columns, 
 the initial letter of each chapter being 
 ' illuminated ' by hand with a pen in 
 colours and gold. Unhai)]Dily the book 
 bears no date. The first book printed 
 with moveable metal types by John 
 Giitenberg and Fust. See ' Psalmorum 
 Codex.' 
 
 Not to be confounded with Biblia Latina, which 
 bears the date 1462. 
 
 Bicetre. The grand hospice in the 
 department of the Seine on the road to 
 Fontainebleau. This hospice derives its 
 name from John, bishop of Winchester, 
 who built and fortified a castle on the 
 spot in 1204. There is no w in French, 
 so the letter is supplied by ou, v or b, and 
 cetre (the French form of ' cester '). 
 Hence Winchester becomes Vincetre or 
 Bincetre, softened into Bicetre. In 1632 
 the castle was converted by Louis XIII. 
 into a liospital for military invalids, and 
 was so used till the Hotel defe Invalidea 
 superseded it. It is now used for incur- 
 able lunatics, strangers, and a poor-house, 
 a prison for vagrants and for criminala 
 condemned to the galleys, or men con. 
 demned to death awaiting execution. 
 
92 
 
 BIELA 
 
 BILLETS 
 
 Biela Comet. Discoveredml826by 
 William, baron von Biela, astronomer ; 
 discovered at Josephstadt, in Bohemia. 
 It separated into two in Dec. 1845. 
 
 Bien fortund {Le), i.e. the Lucky, so 
 Philippe VI. was called. The reason is 
 this : when Charles died in 1328, his 
 cousin Philippe de Valois was chosen 
 regent, because the royal widow was ex- 
 pected to give birth to a posthumous 
 child. The child proved to be a girl, 
 which by the Salic law was disqualified, 
 and so the regent by ' good luck ' became 
 the king (1293, 1328-1350). 
 
 Bi gi {The). The friends of the Medici 
 in Florence opposed to Savonarola. 
 
 Bill. * The bill, the whole bill, and 
 nothing but the bill,' 1831. The cry 
 arose on the motion of General Gascoyne, 
 who moved, as an amendment, that the 
 number of representatives lor lilngland 
 and Wales should not be dimniished. 
 The amendment was carried by a majority 
 of eight, the bill was abandoned, and the 
 parliament dissolved. 
 
 Bill Chamber. A department of 
 the Court of Session in Scotland in which 
 one of the judges officiates at all times, 
 during session and vacation. The 
 youngest judge is lord ordinary on the 
 bills during session ; and the duty is 
 performed during vacation by the other 
 judges, with the exception of the two 
 presidents. 
 
 Bill of Adventure [A). A writing 
 to sig-nify that the goods shipped by a 
 merchant in his name are the property 
 of another, whose adventure it is; but 
 the shipping merchant undertakes to 
 account to the adventurer for what the 
 goods produce. 
 
 Bill of Attainder [A). A bill in 
 Parliament, introduced for penally en- 
 acting the attaint and punislunent of a 
 person or of persons who have criminally 
 offended against the state and public 
 peace. 
 
 Bill of Complaint [A), or ' bill in 
 Chancery.' The formal statement in 
 writing by which a plaintiff in the Court 
 of Chancery seeks equitable redress or 
 relief. 
 
 Bill of Costs {A). An account 
 stating articulately and m detail the 
 
 charges and disbursements of an attorney 
 in the conduct of his client's business. 
 
 Bill of Exceptions [A). A state- 
 ment of objections against the ruling of 
 a judge in a civil cause. This is done by 
 way of appeal against the judgment. 
 
 Bill of Indemnity {The), 1660. 
 All the injuries and offences against the 
 crown or against individuals, arising out 
 of quarrels between political parties since 
 1 June, 1637, shall be and are forgiven. 
 Except (1) the 51 individuals actually 
 concerned in the death of the king's 
 father ; (2) Vane and Lambert ; (3) Lord 
 Monson, Hazlerig, and five others, as far 
 as regards liberty and property ; (4) all 
 judges in any high court of justice, 
 together with Hutchinson, Lenthall, 
 St. John, and 16 others (named), who 
 shall not be eligible to hold any office, 
 civil, military, or ecclesiastical. The 19 
 regicides who have voluntarily sur- 
 rendered, shall not be put to death 
 without a special Act of Parliament, 
 passed expressly for that purpose. 
 
 Bill of Rights {The), 2 Nov., 1G89. 
 By which William and Mary, being called 
 to the throne, bound themselves to rule 
 on the constitutional principles set forth 
 m the bill, it stated that it is contrary 
 to law for the king to suspend the laws, 
 or interfere with them without consent 
 of parliament ; tlaat it is contrary to law 
 lor the king to erect commission boards, 
 levy money, or impose fines without con- 
 sent of parliament ; that it is contrary 
 to law for the king to keep a standing 
 army in times of peace without consent 
 of parliament. It provided for freedom 
 of speed! in parliament, disallowed ex- 
 cessive bail and fines, enjoined the due 
 impanelling of juries, forbade grants and 
 promises of fines before conviction, and 
 insisted that parliament only shall be 
 empowered to amend the laws and redress 
 grievances. 
 
 Bill of Sales {The), 1660. Passed 
 by the Convention Parliament {q.v.). 
 This was for the restoration of all crown 
 lands. Church lands were not included, 
 so that many church livings remained to 
 the Presbyterians, 
 
 This must not be confounded with a 'bill of 
 sale," or assignment of chattels-personal. 
 
 Billets, 1796. Royal missives granted 
 to the Vaudois to repair and enlarge 
 
BILLY 
 
 BISHOPS 
 
 9'd 
 
 their temples, or even to remove their 
 sites, provided notice was given to the 
 lutendant of the province. 
 
 Billy Blue. Lord Admiral St. Vin- 
 cent (John Jervis), 1734-1S23. Admiral 
 of the Blue, 1795. Called Lord St. Vin- 
 cent from his victory over the combined 
 French and Spanish fleets off Cape St. 
 Vincent in 1795. 
 
 Bi-metallism. The employment 
 of two metals, like gold and silver, of 
 fixed legal relative value. Till 1873 this 
 had been the custom for nearly 200 years. 
 One ounce of gold was then equal to 15^ 
 ounces of silver. Up to 1873 silver was 
 the standard of Germany, as it is still of 
 India, China, and Japan ; but in 1873 
 gold was made the sole standard of Ger- 
 many, and silver became a mere article 
 of commerce and circulating counter, 
 which varied in value according to cir- 
 cumstances. The relative value might 
 be one ounce of gold worth twenty 
 ounces of silver, or any other difference ; 
 and those countries which pay in silver 
 pay more as the relative value of silver 
 declines. Bi-metallists want to restore 
 the fixed relative value of these metals. 
 
 Birdcage Walk (St. James's 
 Park, London). Here Charles II. made 
 an aviary. 
 
 Birmese "War. See ' Burmese.' 
 
 Birmingham Political Union 
 
 {The), 1 Feb., 1830. Members paid from 
 4s. to 2 guineas a year. There were 
 several affiliated unions for the dissemi- 
 nation of Radical principles, such as 
 free trade, manhood suffrage, shorter 
 parliaments, the ballot, and so on. 
 
 Birminghamers, 1680. Opponents 
 of the Court, or adherents of the Exclu- 
 sion Bill — that is, a bill to exclude James 
 from succeeding Charles II. The Court 
 party were called Anti-Birminghamers. 
 The Birmingham manufacturers had 
 become notorious as coiners of base 
 money, so the Tories and ' Catholics ' 
 nicknamed the Exclusionists 'Birming- 
 hamers,' i.e. men who preferred a base 
 or usurping king to one of the real 
 etamp of right divine. 
 
 The Whigs were Birminghamers, Petitionists, 
 and Exclusionists (.si-e these words). 
 
 The Tories were Anti-Birniinghamers, Abhorrers, 
 and Tantivies (see these words;. 
 
 Biron's Conspiracy, 1602. The 
 conspiracy of Charles de Gontaut, due 
 de Biron, to dethrone Henri IV. This 
 was a conspiracy with Spain and Savoy. 
 Biron was to receive in marriage the 
 daughter of the Duke of Savoy and the 
 full sovereignty of Burgundy. Biron 
 was betrayed and beheaded. 
 
 Birthday. The following, among 
 many others, died on the anniversary of 
 their birthday. 
 
 Alexander the Great, 24 July (B.C. 356-324). 
 Antipater, died B.C. 44. 
 
 Browne (Sir Tlwmus), 19 Nov. (1605-1682) : his 
 77th birthday. 
 Caracalla, 8 April (188-217). 
 DIGBY (Sir Kenrlvi), 11 June (lfi03-16()5). 
 Elizabeth, wife of Henry VII., 11 Feb. (1466- 
 
 GREGORY the Great, 12 March r540-604). 
 HiLARUS (M. oniius), the comedian. 
 Holland (Sir Henry), born 1788. 
 Plato, 21 May (B.C. 4.S0-347). 
 Raphael, 6 April (1483-1.520). 
 Sandford (John), died 1850. 
 Shakespeare, 23 April (l.'5fi4-1616). 
 Williams (John), archbishop of York, 25'March 
 (1582-1650). See Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 53. 
 
 Bishop in partibus, 1623. A vicar 
 apostolic, vested with episcopal authority 
 by the pope over a church in want of a 
 bishop, but which, for some reason, 
 cannot have one of its own. In such a 
 case a bishop is consecrated to some see, 
 in partibus infdelium, which had 
 formeily a bishop, but has now no church. 
 These bishops in partibus were created 
 only during the pope's pleasure, and 
 might be removed at any hour. They 
 are now called titular bishops. 
 
 Bishop of the English {The). 
 Augustine (597-604). Sent over by Gre- 
 gory the Great. He is called 'The 
 Apostle of the English.' 
 
 Bishops {Commitment of Twelve), 
 1641. Williams, archbishop of York, 
 prevailed on eleven other prelates to join 
 him in a declaration stating that they 
 could no longer, without danger to their 
 lives, attend their duty in parliament, 
 and that therefore they protested against 
 the validity of any votes or resolutions 
 during their absence. The Lower House 
 imi)eached the twelve prelates of high 
 treason for this declaration, and ten were 
 committed to the Tower. The bishop of 
 Lichfield and the bishop of Durham, on 
 account of their great age and infirmity, 
 were given in charge to the usher of tlie 
 Black Rod. 
 
94 
 
 BISHOPS 
 
 BLACK 
 
 Bishops' Bible (The), 1568-1572. 
 The corrected edition of the G eat Bible 
 {q.v.) in the reign of Elizabeth. Arch- 
 bishop Parker engaged the bishops and 
 other learned men to take each a portion 
 for revision ; the different portions were 
 printed with short annotations, and the 
 whole called ' Parker's Bible ' or the 
 ' Bishops' Bible.' It was based on 
 Tyndale's translation. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Bishops' Book (The) 1537. Or 
 'The godly and pious. Institution of a 
 Christian Man, &c.,' compiled by the 
 bishops and dedicated to the king. 
 Quoted in brief as the 'Institution.' 
 See ' King's Book.' It was founded on 
 the ' Ten Articles ' (q.v.), and explained 
 Buch matters as the Apostles' Creed, the 
 Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, 
 Ave Maria, the seven sacraments, infant 
 baptism, baptismal regeneration, con- 
 fession, absolution, the apostolic succes- 
 sion, and the real presence. Two arti- 
 cles, published in 1536, were appended, 
 one on Justification and the other on 
 Purgatory. 
 
 Bishop's Eye (The). So the arch- 
 deacon is called in canon law. 
 
 Bishops' War (The) 1640. The 
 contest of the Scotch against the appoint- 
 ment of bishoj)8 in their country, which 
 Charles I. tried to force upon them. It 
 terminated in the conference held at 
 Repton, October 1640. 
 
 Charles I. was urged to stand to his ground by 
 Laud and the Earl of Strafiord. The Scotch had 
 petitioned for triennial parliaments and freedom 
 of election and debate. Strafford said the rascals 
 ought to be ' whipped ' into their senses. When 
 the parliament refused to vote supplies without 
 redress of grievances, StrafEord told the king he 
 was entitled to help himself, and he advanced to 
 the North with an army. The Scots crossed the 
 Tyne, occupied Newcastle, and despatched pro- 
 posals of peace. Charles, to evade calling a 
 parliament, summoned at York a ' Great Council 
 of Peers,' but the council was obstinate, and the 
 king after all was forced to call a parliament. 
 Laud called these Scots 'the rascal riotous 
 multitude.' 
 
 Bissextile Year. Leap year was 
 so called, because Julius Ceesar ordained 
 that the 23rd Feb. should be counted 
 twice on leap years ; and by the Roman 
 calendar the 23rd Feb. was the sextile or 
 vi. Kal. Martii, i.e. the sixth day before 
 the Kalends, or 1st of March. 
 
 Bizochii, or Fratricelli, 1189. A sect 
 of Minorites condemned by Boniface 
 VIII. (1294-1303), by John XXIL, and 
 by Martin V. in 1418. 
 
 Nonnulli virl pestiferi, qui vulgariter Fratri- 
 celli, seuFratrea de paupere vita, aut Bizochi, 
 sive Bichini, vel aUis fucatis nominibus nuncu- 
 pantur.— John XXII. (year 6), Epist, Commuidum. 
 
 Black. The colour consecrated to 
 the Abbassides (3 syl.). Their turbans 
 and garments were black ; and two 
 black standards (called Night and 
 Shadow) were borne aloft on pike-staves 
 nine cubits long in the van of their army. 
 The ' Black and White Factions ' were 
 the factions of Abu Moslem the Abas- 
 side, and Merwan 11. the Ommiade 
 calif. 
 
 The Fatimites (3 syl.) colour was green; the 
 Ommiades (3 syl.) white ; the Abbasides,' black. 
 
 Black and "White Cockade 
 
 {The). The allied American and French 
 badge in 1780. 
 
 Washington directed all his continental troops 
 to adopt the black and white cockade, as a sign of 
 amity (between America and France).— HowiTT, 
 Hist. ofEtigl. (Geo. III. p. 264). 
 
 Black and White Faces. See 
 under ' Wliite, &c.' 
 
 Black and White Factions 
 (The). I. Of Florence, called the Neri 
 and Bianchi. Rival factions towards 
 the close of the 13th cent., and for the 
 first five years of the 14th. The Blacks 
 were the noblesse, and the Whites the 
 rich merchants. The Whites joined the 
 Ghibellines. Dante was a W^hite, and 
 was banished in 1302. 
 
 II. That of the Abbassides and Om- 
 miades. The colour of the Abbassides 
 (3 syl.) was black, and of the Ommiades 
 (3 syl.) was white. 
 
 The colour of the Fatimites (3 syl.) was green. 
 
 Black Act (The), 1722 (9 George L 
 c. 22). Is so cfllled because it was directed 
 against the Waltham deer-stealers, who 
 blackened their faces for disguise, and 
 under the name of ' Blacks ' appeared in 
 Epping Forest. This act was repealed 
 in 1827. 
 
 It made It felony to appear with the face 
 blackened or otherwise disguised in any park, 
 warren, &c., for the purpose of hunting or stealing 
 deer, &c. 
 
 Black Acts. Acts of the Scottish 
 parliament from the reign of the first 
 James to 1587 (James VI.) were so 
 called because they were printed in 
 black letter. 
 
 Black Agnes. Wife of the Earl of 
 Dunbar, famous for her defence of 
 
BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 95 
 
 Dunbar Castle, when in 1337 it was 
 besieged by Lord Salisbury. See ' Sow.' 
 
 Came I early, came I late, 
 
 I found Black Agnes at the gate. 
 
 Sir W. SCOTT. 
 
 Black Arro^AT {The Band of the). 
 A fraternity of freebooters at the time 
 of the war of the Two Roses. The 
 arrows used by the band left a black 
 mark on those wounded by them. 
 
 Black Assize {The). The assize 
 held at Oxford, 6 July, 1577. So called 
 from the fatal pestilence which broke 
 out at the time. It is said that it broke 
 out in the court-house just as the judge 
 was passing sentence on Richard Jencks, 
 a bookbinder, who was condemned to 
 lose his ears for sedition; and it was 
 popularly called a divine judgment for 
 the cruelty or injustice of the sentence. 
 
 Another ' Black Assize ' was that held 
 at Cambridge in the Lent term of 1521, 
 when a similar putrid fever broke out. 
 
 Black Band {The). I. A body of 
 German foot-soldiers employed by Louis 
 XII. in the Italian wars. So called be- 
 cause they carried black ensigns after 
 the death of their favourite commander. 
 
 II. A body of Italian troops in 1526 
 was also called the Black Band because 
 they also carried black ensigns on the 
 death of their leader, Giovanni de' 
 Medici. 
 
 III. A French regiment of Piedmont, 
 who had served for a long while in Italy 
 for the same reason, was called the 
 Black Band in 1596, on the death of 
 Comte de Brissac. See ' Black Bruns- 
 wickers ' and ' Bande Noire.' 
 
 rV. Saxo7i mercenaries in the employ 
 of Denmark. The Black Band employed 
 by John I., king of Denmark, to enforce 
 on Sweden the 'Union of Calmar,' in 
 1497, had served under the kaiser Maxi- 
 milian in the wars of Flanders. 
 
 Black Bartholome^Tv^'s Day. 
 
 I. French history, 24 Aug., 1572. Noted 
 for the great Huguenot slaughter in 
 France. 
 
 II. English history, 24 Aug., 1662. 
 Wlien, by the Act of Uniformity, some 
 2,000 ministers in England and Wales 
 resigned their benefices, or were ejected 
 from them for conscience sake. 
 
 Who so active as he to execute the fatal edict 
 <A Black St. Bartholomew's day, when so many 
 huiidicdsof gospel preachers were expelled from 
 buube and home, from hearth and altar, from 
 
 church and parish.— Sir W. SCOTT, Peveril of the 
 P<Mk, chap xiii. 
 
 Black Belt {The). A part of 
 Alabama where the negro population has 
 always been very dense. 
 
 Black Book {The), 1536. A book 
 containing the reports of two royal 
 commissioners, named Legh and Leyton; 
 appointed by Thomas Cromwell, chief 
 minister of Henry VIII., to visit the 
 religious houses of England. About a 
 third of them are charged in these 
 reports with drunkenness, simony, and 
 crimes perfectly revolting. In conse- 
 quence of the charges all houses were 
 suppressed whose income fell below 200Z. 
 a year, and their revenues were con- 
 fiscated to the crown. The great abbeys 
 were still suffered to remain. 
 
 Called ' Black Books ' because they hlathened the 
 practices of the religious houses in England when 
 Henry VIII. designed their dissolution. 
 
 Black Book of the Exchequer 
 
 {The). 'Liber Niger Scaccarii,' 1175 
 (Henry II.). Said to have been the work 
 of Gervase of Tilbury ; contains an account 
 of the exchequer and its officers. It 
 describes the ranks and privileges of 
 those officers, their wages, perquisites, 
 and jurisdiction ; with the revenues of 
 the crown in money, grain, and cattle. 
 Called black from their black leather 
 covers. See ' White, Red, Yellow Books.' 
 
 There are two Black Books of the Exchequer pre- 
 served in the Public Record Office. The smaller 
 one was bound by William Caxton the printer, and 
 had at one time two stamps for the decoration of the 
 leather cover. These stamps, being Caxton's, prove 
 the book to have been bound by the great printer. 
 —James Wheale, Book-binders and Book-binding 
 (1889). 
 
 Black Breeches. See ' Procession 
 of the Black Breeches.' 
 
 Black Broth (M^as ^a»uo?). The 
 chief food of the Spartans, who dined in 
 public. 
 
 A citizen of Syb&ris said : ' He no longer -won- 
 dered why the Lacedoemonians were the most 
 valiant soldiers of the world ; seeing that any 
 man of sound mind would rather die a thousand 
 times than devour such nastiness." And Glaucos, 
 the Loerensian, declared that it is unfit food for 
 the meanest of the free-born. 
 
 Black Brunswickers {The), 1806 
 The 700 hussars under the command of 
 Frederick William, duke of Brunswick, 
 son of Charles William Frederick, duke 
 of Brunswick, who made the foolish 
 manifesto against the French republic, 
 was driven by the republican army from 
 Valmy, and mortally wounded at Auer- 
 
96 
 
 BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 stadt. His son Frederick William took 
 part in the campaign of Waterloo, and was 
 slain at Quatre-Bras (1815). The Duke 
 Frederick William, at the death of his 
 father, clothed his hussars in black, with 
 lace disposed like the ribs of a skeleton. 
 Their caps and helmets, moreover, bore 
 in front the device of a skull and cross- 
 bones, and instead of feather, long flow- 
 ing black horse-hair was adopted. It 
 was Charles, son of Frederick William, 
 who two days after the battle of Quatre- 
 Bras joined in the battle of Waterloo. 
 
 Black Bull's Head {The). The 
 sign of death. It is repeatedly men- 
 tioned in Highland tradition, and seems 
 to have been a Celtic custom. When 
 William, son of the fifth earl of Douglas, 
 and his younger brother David, were 
 inveigled, in 1440, to Edinburgh Castle, 
 as they sat at meat, the black bull's 
 head was placed before them. The two 
 boys were forthwith dragged from table 
 and cruelly beheaded. 
 
 Black Cabinet {The). • Le Cabinet 
 Noir.' The secret apartment where (in 
 continental countries) letters of political 
 importance, or such as are supposed to 
 be so, are opened by government agents. 
 Some are cojpied, and the copy sent to 
 the address given ; others are impounded 
 and find their way to the head of the 
 police. 
 
 Black Califs {The). The Abbas- 
 eides (3 syl.), whose uniform and standards 
 were black. 
 
 As subjects of the Whit/^ party, i.e. the Ommi- 
 ades (3 syl.), they might lawfully invade the 
 dominions of the Black Califs. — GIBBON, chap. lit. 
 
 The standard of the Fatimites (3 syl.) is green. 
 
 Black Camisards {The), 1703. 
 Huguenots. So called in contrast to the 
 White Camisards {q-v.)., who were 
 Catholic auxiliaries in Montrevel's army. 
 
 Camisard is used in two senses ; sometimes the 
 Protestant insurgents of the Cevennes are so 
 called. 
 
 •.• Camisard should not be confounded with 
 Camisade (an attack by night). 
 
 Black Canons {The). The Canons 
 Regular of St. Augustine were so called 
 from their black cloaks. The ' Black 
 Friars ' were Dominicans. See ' White 
 Canons.' 
 
 Black Captain {The). Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Davidoff, an officer in the Kussian 
 army m the time of the French invasion, 
 
 was called by the invaders ' Le Capitaina 
 Noir,' from the terror of his name, like 
 our ' Black Prince.' 
 
 Black Charlie. Sir Charles Napier 
 (1786-1860). 
 
 Black Clergy {The). Monks in 
 Russia are so called in contradistinction 
 to the white clergy, or parish priests. 
 
 Black Code {The), of Louis XIV., 
 1685. Colbert's code relating to the 
 African slave-trade. 
 
 Black Colin Campbell. General 
 in the army of George III. 
 
 Introduced by Sir W. Scott in ' Redgauntlet." 
 
 Black Country {The). South 
 Staffordshire, famous for its hardware 
 manufactures and its mines of coal and 
 iron. The volumes of smoke thrown off 
 all day and night cover everything with 
 smut and destroy vegetation, so that a 
 patch of grass or green tree can scarcely 
 be seen. Gardens are well nigh un- 
 known, and cleanliness is almost impos- 
 sible. In this vast district, Wolver- 
 hampton (to the soiith-east) produces 
 locks, tin, and japan wares ; Walsall (to 
 the north-west) saddlers' ironmongery, 
 brass, and iron wares, &c. ; West Brom- 
 wich (to the south), coal and iron ; 
 Bilston, Sedgley, Wednesbury, Dudley 
 (chains and nails), Darlaston, &c., are 
 all busy towns in the same district. 
 
 Black Crosses, Cruces Nigrse oi 
 Croix noires. The Greater Litany on St. 
 Mark's Day, when the altars, crosses, 
 and relics are covered as in mourning. 
 
 Thys letanye is sayd [called] the blacke crosse ; 
 for thcnne in sygne of pestylence, wepying, and 
 of penaunce, they clad them [the croses, &c.] wyth 
 blacke clothes.— r/ie Golden Legende (Wynkyn de 
 WOEDE, 1512) 
 
 Black Days. Varro (Book v.) says : 
 * Dies postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Eidus, 
 appellati atri, quod per eos dies novi 
 inciperent.' 
 
 Black Death {The), 1848-1382. 
 The oriental plague which desolated Asia 
 and Europe in the 14th cent. So called 
 from the black spots which appeared at 
 the time of death on the skin, from 
 putrid decomposition. It broke out in 
 China in 1333, and carried off 13,000,000 
 of the inhabitants, and in the rest of 
 Asia about 24,000,000. In 1349 it reached 
 Norway and Sweden ; in 1351 it desolated 
 Russia. It reappeared in 1360, 1373, 
 
 I 
 
BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 07 
 
 1382; carrying off 30,000,000 Euro- 
 peans. Of the 4,000,000 which formed 
 tlie population of England, more than 
 half were swept away. Labour was at a 
 high premium, the price of food rose 
 greatly, and a strike between capital and 
 labour followed. 
 
 Dr. Hecker puts down the mortality of London 
 from the Black Death at 100,000; of Norwich about 
 62,000 (the entire population of London at the 
 time being 120.000, and of Norwich 60,000). The 
 deaths at Liibcck were 90.000; at Basle 14,000; at 
 Erfurt 20,000; and 200 villages were quite de- 
 populated. 
 
 Black Dick. Richard, earl Howe 
 (1725-1799). The English admiral sent 
 to operate against D'Estaing, in com- 
 mand of the French forces on the coast 
 of America, during the war of inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Black Dog of Arden {The). 
 So Piers Gaveston nicknamed Guy, earl 
 of Warwick, and the earl vowed he would 
 show the Gascon his teeth. He combined 
 with other great barons and murdered 
 the royal favourite. 
 
 Black Douglas (The), i.e. the for- 
 midable or terrible Douglas (died 1390). 
 
 It is said that the name of this indefatigable 
 chici had become so formidable that women used 
 In the northern counties to still their froward 
 children by threatening them with the Black 
 Douglas.— Sir \V. Scott, Hist of Scotland, xi. 
 
 Black Eagle {Knights of the), 
 17 Jan., 1701. A Prussian order instituted 
 by Frederick, elector of Brandenburg, 
 when he was crowned king of Prussia. 
 Ribbon, oraii' -e ; a Maltese cross, and 
 the legend ' Cuique suum.' There are 
 thirty knights besides those of the royal 
 family. They are sworn to be just and 
 chaste, and to protect widows and 
 orphans. 
 
 Black Flag {The). I. Betokens, a 
 pirate ; a white flag, peace ; a red iiag, 
 defiance ; a yellow flag that the vessel is 
 in quarantine. The pirate's black flag is 
 called the ' Jolly Rover.' 
 
 A black flag is hoisted on club-houses, 
 &c. to indicate vexation or annoyance at 
 some political measure thought to be 
 destructive or injurious to their well- 
 being ; thus was it hoisted over the club- 
 house of Liberty in Brussels, in Sept. 
 1884. It is set up at the corner of in- 
 fected streets down which the public are 
 forbidden to go. Thus was it set up in 
 Naples in Sept. 1884, when the cholera 
 prevailed in that city. It was hoisted on 
 
 the Hotel de Ville of Paris in 1793, as a 
 symbol of distress and a ca'lto arms, when 
 the city was threatened with invasion. 
 It was carried in the insurrection of 
 Lyons, Nov. 1831, when the silk-weavers 
 rose en masse. 
 
 II. The * national party ' in Ireland, 
 during the visit of the Prince of Wales 
 in 1885, displayed black flags. Black was 
 the colour of the royal banners of Ireland, 
 and Cassanoeus states that ' the royal 
 arms of Ireland was a king enthroned in 
 majesty in a field sable.' See ' Antho- 
 logia Hibernica,' i. 172. 
 
 III. A black flag was displayed by 
 Tamerlane, when a besieged city refused 
 to surrender, meaning that he gave over 
 the city to utter destruction and spolia 
 tion. 
 
 Black Flags {The). Mussulman 
 soldiers, the black banner being that of 
 the prophet of Mecca and of the faith 
 of Islam. In the Annamite war, 1883, 
 between the Annamese and the French, 
 the Black Flags were political refugees 
 from border provinces, and were by far 
 the bravest of the Chinese (Annamite) 
 army. Their headquarters was Laokai, 
 on the left bank of the river, in the angle 
 formed by the confluence of Nan-si-ho 
 with Songkoi. See ' Yellow Flags,' and 
 ' Flag of the Prophet.' 
 
 Black is the colour of the Abbasides (3 eyl.), 
 green of the Fatimites {3 syl.), and white of the 
 Ommiides (3 syl.). Hence the banner of the 
 kalif of Bagdad was a crescent on a black flag ; 
 that of the sultan of Damascus a crescent on a 
 green flag.— Gibbon, ch. lii. 
 
 Black Flagellants {The). So called 
 from their black masks. See 'Flagel- 
 lants ' and ' Blancs Battus.' 
 
 Black Friars {The). The Domini- 
 cans or Preaching Friars were so called 
 in England from the colour of their 
 dress. They were founded in 1216, and 
 first ai)i)eared in England in 1221, 
 
 Called ' Jacobins ' in France from their establish- 
 ment in the Rue de Jacques, Paris. The ' Clack 
 Canons ' were the Augustines or Canons Kcgular 
 of St. Augustine. There was also an order of 
 Black Nuns. 
 
 Black Friday, 6 Dec, 1745. The 
 day on which the news arrived in London 
 that the army of Charles Edward (the 
 Young Pretender) had reached Derby 
 (reign of George II.). 
 
 il. 11 May, I8t;(3. It was announced 
 the day before that the great discounting 
 house of Overend, Gurney, & Co. had 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 suspended payment. Only twelve months 
 before the bank had been converted into 
 a limited liability company, and half a 
 million had been given for the goodwill. 
 On the day of suspension the Bank of 
 England raised its rate of discount to 
 9%. The English Joint-Stock Bank and 
 its thirty branches closed their doors. 
 The next announcement was that Messrs. 
 Peto and Betts, the great contractors, 
 had failed, their liabilities being 
 4,000,OOOZ. Then the Imperial Mercan- 
 tile Credit Association, with a capital of 
 5,000,000Z., and the Consolidated Dis- 
 count Company, with a capital of 
 1,D00,000Z., gave way. The panic was 
 terrible, but it rapidly subsided, and the 
 mischief was very much less than was 
 apprehended. 
 
 Black G-eorge, of Servia. Kara 
 George Petrovitsch, a Servian peasant 
 who, in 1804, revolted against the Porte. 
 Having defeated several armies sent 
 against him, in 1807 he took Belgrade, 
 and formed a military government in 
 Servia. In 1811, Turkey acknowledged 
 him ' hospodar of Servia,' but, in 18l4, 
 the Turks recovered the country, Black 
 George fled to Austria, was imprisoned, 
 and died. 
 
 Black-haired Kace {The). The 
 Chinese. 
 
 He (C( mmissioner Keshen) humbly hopes that 
 the Holy Uue will look down v.ith pity and com- 
 passion on the black-haired race ... so that the 
 people of the land nioy not be turned to ashes. — 
 Kcshcn's Dispatches, 1841, to the Emperor of China. 
 
 Black Hand [The Band of the). 
 A socialist society discovered in Anda- 
 lusia in 1883, and consisting of about 
 50,000 members of all ranks. The con- 
 federacy was divided into 190 district 
 federations and 800 local sections. 
 
 Black Hole of Calcutta {The), 
 1756, A cell, 18 feet square, in which 
 the Nabob Suraja Dowlah confined 146 
 Englishmen cajitured by him at Calcutta. 
 After a night of agony from heat, thirst, 
 and want of air, only 23 survived till 
 morning, and these ' were the ghastliest 
 forms that ever the eye of man had seen.' 
 
 The governor Drake had imprisoned several 
 native merchants unjustly. When the subahdar 
 marched against the factory with 400 or 500 men, 
 Drake fled and Howell took the command of the 
 English. The Indians, with muskets presented, 
 drove Howell and his 145 Englishmen into the 
 ' Black-hole prison, situated at the end of the bar- 
 racks.' Mr. Howell was one of the 23 who escaped, 
 and it is from his pen that we obtain a narrative 
 Ot this disastrous event. 
 
 Black Hood House {The). The 
 Non-Regent or Lower House in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. So-called because 
 its members wore black hoods. This 
 house consisted of masters of arts of 
 more than five years' standing and 
 doctors of more than two. Graduates 
 on the boards of shorter standing formed 
 the Regents' or Upper House. See 
 ' White Hood House.' Abolished in 
 1858. See ' Senate.' 
 
 Regents mean tutors, professors, and lecturers. 
 Non regents, those who had served their time and 
 were exempt from these duties. Such masters of 
 arts stripped oil the white linmg of their hoods. 
 
 Black Horse {The), or ' The Blacks.' 
 The 7th Dragoon Guards ; facetiously 
 called, in the reign of George II., ' The 
 Virgin Mary's Guard.' They are called 
 the ' Blacks ' from their black facings, 
 and ' horse ' because they are a cavalry 
 regiment. 
 
 Black Indulgence. A licence to 
 preach without interruption, granted 
 by Charles II. to those Presbyterian 
 ministers who complied with certain 
 specified regulations made by parlia- 
 ment. This indulgence made a great 
 schism, and those who availed themselves 
 of it were hated with ocliuin theologi- 
 cum. 
 
 Of all the baits with which the devil has fished 
 for souls in these days of blood and darkness, 
 that Black Indulgence has been the most de- 
 structive.— Sir W. Scott, Old ISIoitnliUj, chap. v. 
 
 'Presbyterian!' answered Gilfillan contemptu- 
 ously ; ' a wretched Erastian, or rather an 
 obscure prelatist— a favourer of the Black In- 
 dulgence; one of the dumb dogs that canna bite." 
 —Sir W. Scott, Wavcrley, chap, xxxvi. 
 
 Black Jagers {The). See 'Black 
 Brunswickers.' 
 
 Black John. Scottish history. 
 John Home, the man who revealed the 
 plot of Sir James Edmonstone to take 
 James VI. prisoner and keep him so 
 till he recalled the lords banished or 
 disgraced for the jiart taken by them in 
 the raid of Ruthven {q.v.), 1584. 
 
 Black Knight of Lorn {The). 
 Sir James Stewart, who married Joanna, 
 the widow of James I. of Scotland. 
 
 Black Legion {The), 1806. That 
 of the Duke of Brunswick. After the 
 death of his father at Jena, Frederick 
 William put all his soldiers into mourn- 
 ing. Their military caps had in front 
 for device, a skull and cross-bones, and 
 for gay feathers were substituted flowing 
 
BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 SO 
 
 black horse-hair. This was because 
 Nai)oleon refused to allow the dying 
 duke to be removed to Brunswick; so 
 the son commanded that his legion 
 should wear mourning till the death of 
 Napoleon. However, soon after the 
 battle of "Waterloo, the Brunswickers 
 resumed their proper costume. 
 
 Black Legions {The). So the Hun- 
 garian troops were called in the 15th 
 cent. See ' Black Troop.' 
 
 We generally read of the Black Legion, in the 
 singular number, and the Black Hussars : but 
 Godkin, in his ' History of Hungary,' says, 'the 
 Hussites were everywhere compelled to give way 
 before the terrible attacks of the Black Legions, 
 as the Hungarian troops were called ' (p. 127). 
 
 Black List. L 1832. A list of all 
 those members of the House of Commons 
 who voted in favour of reform till the bill 
 was thrown out by the Lords ; but it was 
 known that the king (William IV.) hated 
 the bill and wanted to shelve it. Several 
 members shuffled and held themselves 
 at bay. These 72 members constituted 
 the black list, to be blackballed at the 
 next election. 
 
 II. A printed list of bankruptcies, 
 liquidations by arrangement, registers 
 of protested bills, decrees of absence, 
 offers of composition, and other matters 
 pertaining to the credit of firms and in- 
 dividuals, circulated from London to 
 subscribers for the information and 
 guidance of men of business. 
 
 Black Lord Clifford. John, 
 ninth Lord Clifford, son of Thomas, 
 Lord Clifford. Also called ' the 
 Butcher ' (died 1461). 
 
 Black Lord Herbert. Edward, 
 Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1618). 
 
 Black Mail. A payment made by 
 the Highlanders in the first half of the 
 l8th cent, as a compromise to bandits, 
 who promised that neither the property 
 nor person of -anyone who paid the 
 impost should suffer injury. In 1601 
 (by 43 Eliz. c. 13) the levy of black mail 
 was made felony. 
 
 Mail (Ango-Saxon mal, rent-tax), used In 
 Scotland to designate every sort of periodical 
 payment, and is still the term employed techni- 
 cally for rent paid by a tenant to his landlord. 
 
 Black Militia {The). The officials 
 of the Jesuits. 
 
 Black Monday. I. Easter Mon- 
 day, 14 April, 1360. So called because it 
 
 was so dark with mist and hail, so cold 
 and windy, that many of the men and 
 horses in the army of Edward III. 
 lying before Paris perished. 
 See Shakespeare, ' Merchant of Venice,' 11. 5. 
 
 IL 27 Feb., 1865. So called in Victoria 
 (Australia), from a terrible sirocco from the 
 N.N.W. which produced frightful havoc 
 between Sandhurst and Castlemaine. 
 
 Black Money. Base money intro- 
 duced from foreign countries. By the 
 statute of York (12 Edw. II. a.d. 1318), 
 it was ordered that all manner of black 
 money {noir vionnoie) lately ctirrent in 
 the realm shall be excluded. In 1339, a 
 certain black money called turneys was 
 made in Ireland, and circulated to the 
 injury of the king's sterling money ; and 
 in 1341 the mayor and bailiffs of Dover 
 made proclamation for the better obser- 
 vance of the statute of York respecting 
 black money. 
 
 Camden speaks of the prohibition of black 
 money by Edward 111. (9 Edvy. III. st. 2). 
 
 Black Parliament {The). I. In 
 English history, 1529. The parliament 
 held by Henry VIII. at his palace in 
 Bridewell, the year of the king's 
 divorce from Katharine. See ' Parlia- 
 ment.' 
 
 II. In ScofcJi history, 1320. The 
 parliament which condemned to death 
 Sir David de Brechin, Sir William* 
 Malherbe, Sir John Logie, and Richard 
 Brown, and imprisoned for life the 
 Countess of Stratliearn and Sir William 
 de Soulis, for a- conspiracy against 
 Robert Bruce. The plan was to put 
 Bruce to death and make Sir William de 
 Soulis king. The Countess of Stratliearn 
 betrayed the conspiracy. See 'Parlia- 
 ment.' 
 
 Black Prince {The). I. 1355. 
 Edward, prince of Wales, son of Edward 
 III., was first so called by the French 
 just before the battle of Poitiers. He 
 had won the marvellous battle of Cressy, 
 had invaded Gascony, had carried terror 
 through the length and breadth of 
 France, and was called the very devil 
 or prince of darkness. Froissart says 
 ' he was called black by the terror of his 
 arms'; and Strutt, in his 'Antiquities,' 
 gives the same reason. 
 
 See this word in the ' Dictionary of Phrase and 
 Fable,' p. 90. All the armour known of the priuco 
 was gilt armour. 
 
 b2 
 
100 
 
 BLACK 
 
 BLACK 
 
 Black Prmee (The). I. Nicknamed 
 by the French ' Pie-de-Plomb '(Waurm's 
 * Recueil,' &c. vol. i. p. 236, Rolls Series), 
 not a leaden pica or magpie, but a 
 draught of lead, referring to cannons first 
 used at the battle of Cressy, by which 
 draughts of lead were poured into the 
 French. Croqueter la pie in archaic 
 French means to drink hugely. The 
 verb pier means to drink — as 
 
 Je vous prie que j'aye a pyer (to drink) 
 Ung coup de quelque bon vin vieulx. 
 
 Le Testamcvi di' Pathelin, p. 120. 
 Sil vouloit croqueter la pie, 
 J'en euse volontiers coppe, 
 Poui rendre la soif destouree. 
 
 Actes lies Apostres (1541). 
 
 n. Fulc the Black, or ' Fulc Nerra,' 
 the greatest of the Angevins. He burnt 
 his wife at the stake ; waged the bitterest 
 war against his son ; despatched twelve 
 assassins to the murder of the minister of 
 the French king ; and shocked even the 
 rude barbarians of the times with his 
 treason, rapine, and blood. It was the 
 blackness of his deeds which procured 
 him the sobriquet of ' Nerra ' (the Black). 
 
 Black Regiment (The), 1863. A 
 regiment of negroes in the Federal army, 
 under the command of General Banks ; 
 their prowess and courage in the storm- 
 ing of Port Hudson are celebrated by 
 G. H. Boker, the war poet. 
 
 Black Rent, 1409. The tribute paid 
 to Irish chieftains by the residents living 
 in border counties of the Pale for peace 
 and protection. It began in the reign of 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Kents paid in cattle (neat-gild), or in any other 
 
 way except i n lawful cash are termed redditus nigri. 
 Eeiits paid in lawful silver are called leddilus albi 
 (white rents). 
 
 Black Republicans. The North 
 American rej)ublicans were so called by 
 the pro-slavery party. These republicans 
 resisted the introduction of negro slavery 
 into territory where it was not already 
 recognised. They morally hoisted the 
 black flag of no surrender against slavery. 
 
 Black River {The). The river Til 
 or Tula, so called from the deep black 
 shade of the forests thrown on the water. 
 
 Black Rod, or, in full, * Gentleman 
 Usher of the Black Rod.' An officer of 
 the crown in the House of Lords, whose 
 duty it is to attend on the peers during 
 the session of parliament To the care 
 
 of this officer all peers impeached for 
 any crime or for contempt are first 
 committed. His staff of office is a 
 black rod with a golden lion in repose 
 on the top. See ' Yeoman Usher.' 
 
 Black Rood of Scotland {The). 
 A piece of the ' true cross ' set in an 
 ebony figure of Christ, inclosed in a 
 cross of ' gold ' elaborately wrought, 
 about a span long. This relic was taken 
 by Margaret, the Anglo-Saxon princess, 
 to Scotland, when in 1070 she married 
 King Malcolm Ceanmohr. In 1291 it 
 was delivered to Edward I., when it was 
 found that the casket cross was only sil- 
 ver gilt. Of the ' true cross ' nothing is 
 known. In 1328 it was restored to 
 Scotland. In 1346 King David II. in- 
 vaded England and took with him the 
 black rood as an amulet ; but he was 
 captured by Sir Ralph de Neville (lord 
 of Raby), and the relic became part of 
 his prize. It was then , deposited in the 
 shrine of St. Cuthbert, in Durham 
 Cathedral, where it remained till the 
 Reformation, when all trace of it dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 Black Saturday. 1. 10 Sept., 1547. 
 When Lord Protector Somerset defeated 
 the Scotch in the battle of Pinkie, near 
 Musselburgh, with terrible slaughter. 
 
 II. 4 Aug., 1621, is so called in Scot- 
 land from a violent storm which occurred 
 at the very time the parliament was 
 sitting to enforce episcopacy on the 
 people. 
 
 Black Sheep (The), 1407-1468. 
 Certain Turkomans who, under the 
 leadership of Kara Yussuff, made them- 
 selves masters^ of Azerbijan', Irak, Fars, 
 and Kerman, but were subsequently 
 driven out by the Turkomans of the 
 White Sheep. Called the' Black Sheep' 
 from the effigy displayed on their stan- 
 dard. 
 
 At the decay of Timur's dynasty his empire fell 
 into three separate parts. Hussein Mirza, a de- 
 scendant of Timur, governed Khorasan and held 
 his court at Herat ; the Turkomans of the White 
 Sheep held Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of 
 Asia Minor ; the Black Sheep held the third part. 
 
 Black Soldiers {The), or Sidier 
 Dhu. The independent companies raised 
 to keep peace and law in the Highlands. 
 So called from their dark tartans ; English 
 soldiers are Sidier Roy, or red soldiers, 
 See ' Waverley,' chap, xviii. 
 
 J 
 
BLACK 
 
 BLACKFOOT 
 
 101 
 
 Black Somerset {The). Somerset 
 was a negro slave brought to England 
 and turned adrift because of ill-health. 
 Mr. Granville Sharpe took pity on him, and 
 by care I'estored him to perfect health, 
 whereupon his master claimed him again. 
 Mr. Sharpe resisted the claim, and it was 
 brought into the law-courts, when it was 
 decided that slavery could not exist in 
 Great Britain, 22 June, 1772. 
 
 Black Spring {The). That of 1771 is 
 so called in Scotland. It was followed 
 by a famine. 
 
 Black Stone {The). Of the Kaaba, in 
 Mecca. Said to have ' dropped from para- 
 dise,' and set in the silver door. A pilgrim 
 walks round the Kaaba or mosque seven 
 times, and each time kisses the stone or 
 lays his hand on it. We are told that the 
 stone was originally white, but has been 
 turned black by the sins of man. 
 
 Black Stone !Sxamination(r7ie). 
 In Glasgow University is the commence- 
 ment of the ceremony of gi'aduation ; the 
 conclusion being the ' act of Laureation ' 
 in the college hall, or one of the city 
 churches. 
 
 Black Strangers, or ' Black Gen- 
 tiles.' Danes were so called by the 
 ancient Irish. They first made their 
 api^earance in Ireland in the 8th cent. 
 From Dublin southwards was the terri- 
 tory of the Black Strangers. Dublin 
 and northwards was the territory of the 
 "White Strangers. 
 
 The country south of Dublin was called Dubh- 
 
 Gal, or territory of the Black Strangers. Called 
 by the Four Masters Dubligentie (Black Gen- 
 tiles). 
 
 Black Sunday, 20 Jan., 1837. See 
 ' Russian Influenza.' 
 
 Black Thursday, 6 Feb., 1851. Is 
 so called in the colony of Victoria from a 
 terrific bush-fire which occurred on that 
 day. 
 
 Black Troop {The), 1470. Of King 
 Matthias of Hungary ; a royal bodyguard, 
 and, next to the French, the earliest 
 standing army in Europe. See ' Black 
 Legions.' 
 
 Black Vomit {The). So the plague 
 (13-18) of Florence was called. Some 
 think it is the same as the cholera mor- 
 bus, or Indian cholera. Its principal 
 ravages were in 173(5, 1737, 17(51, and 1782 ; 
 in this last year Mexico lost 25,000 of its 
 
 inhabitants from it. Yellow fever is so 
 called in Mexico and tropical America. 
 
 In 1348 the plague began in China, and 
 spread into Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Italy, 
 France, Germany, England, and Russia. 
 In Russia it carried off the whole royal 
 family ; in France a fourth of the inhab- 
 itants ; and in Europe a third of the 
 entire population. See ' Black Death.' 
 
 Black ^Watch {The). The 42nd 
 Foot, so called from their ' black ' tartan, 
 i.e. a tartan of black, dark blue, and dark- 
 green, called ' the Black "Watch tartan.' 
 It was originally a Scotch militia, dressed 
 in tartans of very dark colours. In 1725 
 General Wade was their commander-in- 
 chief. In 1730 they were formed into six 
 companies of 100 men each, and stationed 
 in different parts of the Highlands to 
 enforce the ' Disarming Act,' to prevent 
 political meetings, and to check depreda- 
 tions. In 1739 they were formed under 
 the Earl of Crawford into the famous 42nd 
 regiment, and became one of the most 
 distinguished of the British army. Linked 
 with the old 73rd. 
 
 Black ^Wind(T7ie). The Sherki. An 
 easterly wind much dreaded in Armenia, 
 and so called by the Kurds because it is 
 a terrible scourge. 
 
 Black Year {The), 1742. The driest 
 year known in England, when all green 
 things were dried up. 
 
 The years 1744, 1749, 1758 were very nearly as 
 dry. 
 
 Blacks {The). The "Waltham deer- 
 stealers in the reign of George I. were so 
 called because they blackened their faces 
 for disguise. See ' Black Acts,' ' Black 
 Horse.' 
 
 Blacks and Reds, or * I Neri * and 
 ' I Rossi.' The Council of Ten, in Venice, 
 were called ' I Neri ' from their black 
 official robes. The signory or privy 
 council of the doge was called * I Rossi ' 
 from their red robes of office. 
 
 Blacks and Whites ( The), 13th cent, 
 and first four years of the 14th. Rival 
 factions in Italy. The Blacks were the 
 aristocratic Guelfs, the Whites were the 
 bourgeois and Ghibelins. Dante in 1302 
 was exiled for being a White, and during 
 his exile wrote his ' Divina Commedia.' 
 
 Blackfoot. One of the disturbing 
 factions of Ireland in the early part of the 
 
102 
 
 BLACKSMITH 
 
 BLEU-THONGE 
 
 present century. The faction seems to 
 have resembled the Terry Alts. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 And the Blackfoot who courted each foeman's 
 
 approach, 
 Faith, 'tis hot-foot he'd fly from the stout Father 
 
 lioach.— Lover. 
 
 N.B. ' Hot-foot he'd fly,' i.e. quickly. 
 
 Blacksmith of Ant^Tverp (The). 
 Quentin Matsys, first a blacksmith and 
 then a great painter (1450-1529). 
 
 Blacksmith's Apron (The). The 
 standard of Kawah or G-awo, a blacksmith 
 of • Ispahan, who headed a rebellion 
 against Biver-asp Zohac, a merciless 
 fcyTiint ; and raised Feridoun, son of Djem- 
 chid, to the throne. The blacksmith's 
 apron was adopted by Feridoun as the 
 royal standard of Persia. Every king of 
 the Djemchid dynasty (called the Pichda- 
 dians or Paisdadians) added jewels to en- 
 rich the apron-standard, called Deruf sh-e- 
 Kawanee (standard of Kawah). (Sir Jolin 
 Malcolm, ' Hist, of Persia,' vol. i. p. 13.) 
 
 It need hardly be added that the Pishdadian 
 dynasty belongs to the mythical period of Persian 
 history. The apron remained the royal standard 
 till A.D. 636, when in the battle of Cadesia it fell 
 into the hands of the Saracens.— Gibbon, chap. 11. 
 
 Blaekwork. That of mutes at a 
 funeral. Waiters hired for this purpose 
 call the employ 'blaekwork,' from the 
 black clothes and cloaks worn on the 
 occasion. 
 
 Blanch Holding (A), or 'Blench 
 holding.' A tenement held of a superior 
 for a peppercorn or mere nominal rent. 
 
 Blaneh-Lyon. At one time one of 
 the English pursuivants-at-arms v/as so 
 called. See ' Pursuivants.' 
 
 Blanco "White of the 18th cent. 
 
 (The). Pierre Fran^-ois le Courayer 
 (1681-1776), a French divine who died in 
 England, and is one of the ten foreigners 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. He is so 
 called by Dean Stanley. 
 
 Blancs Battus (Les). The White 
 Flagellants ; there were also the Black 
 and Blue orders. Henri III. joined the 
 White order, his mother Catharine de 
 Medicis the Black order, and Cardinal 
 d'Armagnac the Blue. They went in 
 piocession bare-footed and bare-headed, 
 with chaplets of death-bones at their 
 girdles, and making blood spirt from 
 their naked shoulders by lashing them 
 with cords. The White Flagellants 
 wore a whit mantle, the Black Flagel- 
 
 lants wore a black mantle, and the Blue 
 Flagellants a blue mantle. The mantle 
 was thrown off when the scourging 
 began. 
 
 Blancs et Bleus (Les). The 
 Blancs (Whites) were partisans of the 
 Bourbons, whose emblem was a drapeau 
 hlanc. The Bleus were republican 
 soldiers whose uniform was blue. 
 
 Blank Bond [A). In Scotland. A 
 security in which the creditor's name is 
 left blank, the bearer being at liberty to 
 insert his name in the blank space and 
 sue for payment. Abolished in 1696. 
 
 Blanket Meeting {TJie), 10 
 
 March, 1817. The muster of the 
 Blanketeers [q.v.) in St. Peter's Field, 
 Manchester. According to government 
 estimate the number was 10,000 ; but 
 this seems to be a gross exaggeration, 
 and about 5,000 is thought to be the 
 correct estimate. The meeting was 
 broken up by the military. 
 
 Blanketeering Expedition 
 
 {The\, 10 March, 1817. The march of 
 certain Lancashire weavers to lay their 
 grievances before the Prince Regent. 
 As the way was long, each man took a 
 blanket to wrap round him at night, and 
 a stock of provisions. At least 5,000 
 met in St. Peter's Field, Manchester, but 
 the military dispersed them ; soine tak- 
 ing the road to Stockport. Not above 
 180 reached Macclesfield, in Cheshire, 
 ' a most deplorable lot, without food and 
 without organisation.' A score struggled 
 as far as Staffordshire, and only six 
 reached Ashbourne Bridge, when the 
 expedition collapsed. See ' Peterloo.' 
 
 Blanketeers (T/ie). The radical re- 
 "formers of Lancashire, who mustered on 
 St. Peter's Field, Manchester, with the 
 intention of marching to London to lay a 
 petition of grievances before the Prince 
 Regent. Only six got as far as Ashbourne 
 Bridge. The deviser of this expedition 
 was Joseph Blitchell, draper of Liverpool. 
 See above. 
 
 Bleu-thonge, 1189. A military 
 order instituted by Richard I., when 
 about to lay siege to Acre. It was in 
 honour of St. George, and consisted of 
 twenty-six knights, the decoration being 
 a blue leather garter round the left leg. 
 See ' Knights of the Garter.' 
 
BLIND 
 
 BLOOD 
 
 103 
 
 Blind Archbishop (The). Robert 
 "Wauchope (pronounce Vaucop), titular 
 archbishop of Armagh, was blind from 
 birth. He introduced Jesuits into 
 Ireland in 1541 ; was appointed arch- 
 bishop by Paul III. in 1543 ; and attended 
 the Council of Trent in 1547. 
 
 Blind Qeiieral {The). Zisca, the 
 Hannibal of Bohemia. He was totally 
 blind (1318-1424). 
 
 Blind Harper {The). John Parry, 
 
 who died 1739. 
 
 Blind Harry. A Scotch minstrel 
 of the 15th cent, blind from infancy, 
 minstrel in the court of James IV. His 
 epic of 'Sir William Wallace' runs to 
 11,801 Imes. 
 
 Blind Inventor. Dr. James Gale, 
 F.G.S. of Plymouth, inventor of non-ex- 
 plosive gunpowder, &c. See ' Men of the 
 Time ' (1833- ). 
 
 Blind Jack of Knaresborough. 
 
 Lived by laying out roads. 
 
 Blind Mechanician {The). John 
 Strong, blind from his birth (1732- 
 
 1798). 
 
 Blind Musician {The). John 
 Stanley, musician and composer, was 
 blind from birth (1713-178(3). 
 
 Blind !N"aturalist(r7i6'). Francois 
 Huber of Geneva (1750-1831). His 
 ' Observations on Bees ' was published in 
 1790. 
 
 Blind old Bard of Ohio's rocky- 
 isle {The). Homer (lio. about b.c. 950). 
 
 Blind Physician {The). Dr. Hugh 
 James (17th cent.). 
 
 Blind Poet {The). Luigi Grotto, an 
 Italian poet, called II Cieco tVAdria 
 (1541-1585). John Milton (1008-1G74). 
 
 Blind Postmaster-general 
 
 {The). Henry Fawcett (1833-18S4). 
 An exceedingly active and efficient post- 
 master-general. 
 
 Blind Prebendary (of West- 
 minster). Richard Lucas, D.D. (1048- 
 1715), author of 'Practical Christianity,' 
 * Inquiry into Happiness,' ' Christian 
 Thoughts for every Day of the Month,' 
 ' Sermons,' &c. 
 
 Blind Scholar {The). Ambrose 
 Fisher (17th cent.). 
 
 Blind Sculptor {The). Giovanni 
 Gonelli, a Tuscan (1610-1004). He also 
 made admirable likenesses; amongst 
 others, that of Pope Urban VIII. is very 
 celebrated. 
 
 Blind Traveller {The). Lieutenant 
 James Holman (1787-1857), who walked 
 through Russia almost to the Chinese 
 frontier. He would have continued his 
 tour, but the Russian government grew 
 suspicious and sent him back. 
 
 Blockam Feast. Lynch law. 
 Holinshed, in his Chronicles, referring to 
 the rebellion of 1381, has this marginalia: 
 'Lawyers, justices, and jurors, brought 
 to blockam-feast by the rebels under 
 Jack Straw and Wat Tyler.' 
 
 Sir Robert Bealknap, the chief justice of the 
 common pleas, being sent to Essex to try the 
 insurgents, they denounced him as a traitor to 
 the country, cut off the heads of the jurors and 
 clerks of the commission, and carried them on 
 poles through the neighbouring towns. 
 
 (A block-house is a prison, a block-stick is a 
 cudgel, and a blocker is a broad axe. Blockam 
 seems allied to these words.) 
 
 Blocking a Bill. Putting down 
 notice of opposition to a bill before the 
 House. The effect of this notice is that, 
 unless the stage objected to can be 
 reached before 12.30 a.m., the bill is 
 blocked, as no bill objected to can be 
 taken after that time. 
 
 Blois {Treaty of),^ 1513. A treaty of 
 alliance between Venice and Louis XII., 
 renewed by Francois I. in 1515. 
 
 Blood {The). It is said that when 
 Longinus pierced the side of Jesus with 
 a spear, about a spoonful of the blood 
 was caught, and this blood was pre- 
 served at Billom, in France, till the 
 Revolution, when it was thrown away. 
 We are told that it was brought from 
 Syi'ia, in the first crusade, by two canons, 
 named Durand Albanelli and Peter 
 Barbasta. Several vouchers accompanied 
 the vessel containing the blood, one 
 dated in the reign of Tiberius, and 
 another in that of Valens. A bull of 
 Eugenius IV., in 1444, established a con- 
 fraternity in honour of the blood. 
 {Discours historique sur le sang precieux 
 que Von revere dans Veglise collcgiale 
 et royale de Saint-Cerneuf de la vilie de 
 Billvm, en Auvcrgne, 1757.) 
 
 *^* Some of the blood of Jesus we are 
 
 assured is preserved at Mantua, said to 
 
 have been preserv^ed by Longinus, the 
 
 Roman soldier who pierced the side ; 
 
 , but it is most improbable that he would 
 
104 
 
 BLOOD 
 
 BLOODY 
 
 catch and preserve the blood of a despised 
 Galilean. See ' Crucifixion, Relics of 
 the.' 
 
 Blood {The Court of). ' The twelve 
 judges of the Tumults,' established in the 
 Netherlands by the Duke of Alva, in 
 1567 (Motley, 'Dutch Repubhc'). 
 
 Blood Bath of Stockholm {The). 
 Christian II. of Denmark, wishing to 
 restore the Union of Calmar, was em- 
 powered by the pope to treat the Swedes 
 as heretics. Armed with this authority, 
 Christian invaded Sweden, was victorious, 
 and solemnly crowned at Stockholm. 
 Under pretence of obedience to the 
 pope's bull, he put to death his political 
 enemies, and executed ninety-four 
 bishops, senators, knights, and burgo- 
 masters, amongst whom was Eric, father 
 of Gustavus Vasa. This massacre, which 
 occurred in Nov. 1520, is called in history 
 ' The blood bath of Stockholm.' 
 
 Blood Book {The). The register of 
 the Vehmgerichte {q-v.), in which was 
 entered the judgments of the court, with 
 the name of the crime which had called 
 dov/n the sentence. 
 
 Blood Council, Sept. 15G7, or 
 ' Council of Troubles ' {q.v.). 
 
 Blood Feud. The duty of the next 
 akin of a murdered man to slay the 
 person who has killed him. This tit-for- 
 tat law is well nigh universal in all 
 nations not brought into legal civilisation. 
 It is called Vendetta {q.v.) in Corsica 
 and many other places. Tar by the 
 Bedouins, Talio by the Twelve Tables of 
 old Rome. The lex talionis is a similar 
 barbarity, only the retaliation was not left 
 in the hands of the next akin, but was 
 administered by officers appointed by 
 law. 
 
 Blood-money. Money paid by 
 press-gangs to anyone who informed 
 them of a man who had deserted from 
 the naval service, or who was instru- 
 mental in giving up a deserter to the 
 i:>ress-gang. The deserter ought to have 
 been a sailor, but in a ' hot-press ' lands- 
 men were often kidnapped. 'Blood- 
 inoney ' now means money paid to a 
 person for infoi'ming against a felon. 
 
 Blood-wedding {The). So the 
 Germans called the massacre of the 
 
 Protestants in Paris on the night of St. 
 Bartholomew's Day (German, Blat- 
 hochzeit). 
 
 Blood of Christ {The). At Hales, 
 Gloucestershire ; said to have been 
 brought from Jerusalem ; invisible except 
 to absolved penitents; was shown in 
 1538 to be the blood of a duck ntroduced 
 every week into a bottle transparent on 
 one side and opaque on the other. See 
 ' Rood of Grace,' ' Darvel Gatheren,' &c. 
 
 Bloodless year of '82 (T/ie). That 
 
 is 1782, when Holland acknowledged the 
 independence of the United States of 
 America, peace was negotiated, and the 
 provisional articles were signed by Great 
 Britain and America. It was not, how- 
 ever, a ' bloodless year,' for in May the 
 British were repulsed near Savannah, 
 and in July the last action in the war 
 took place near Combahee Ferry. 
 
 And when at last he had fought us thro' 
 To the bloodless year of 82. 
 
 WiLii Cakleton, How we Kept the Bay. 
 
 Bloody Assize {The), 1685. The 
 infamous assize held by Judge Jeffreys, 
 when some oOO persons were condemned 
 to death, more were whipped or im- 
 prisoned, and nearly 1000 were sent to 
 the plantations as slaves, because they 
 had joined the Monmouth rebellion. 
 
 Bloody Bill {The). The 31 Henry 
 VIII. c. 14, which denounces death by 
 hanging or burning on all who denied 
 the dogma of transubstantiation. The 
 first of the six articles, or ' Bloody 
 Statute.' 
 
 Bloody Bonner. Edmund Bonner, 
 bishop of London (1500-1569), a main 
 instrument of the religious persecutions 
 in the reign of Mary. 
 
 Bloody Feast {The\ a.d. 981. The 
 Romans, anxious to free themselves from 
 the German yoke, formed a conspiracy 
 to establish a rei^ublic. This conspiracy 
 was secretly revealed to Otto II. of Ger- 
 many, who went to Italy, invited the chief 
 conspirators to a banquet at the Vatican, 
 and when the guests were seated at 
 table, Otto, rising from his chair, stamped 
 his foot, and the room was instantly filled 
 with armed men. The kaiser then 
 deliberately unrolled a paper from which 
 he read aloud the names of those con- 
 cerned in the plot ; and, as each name 
 
BLOODY 
 
 BLOODY 
 
 105 
 
 was read, the victim was dragged from 
 the table and strangled. This ' bloody 
 feast ' is described in Leonine verse in 
 the ' Pantheon ' of Godfrey of Viterbo. 
 
 Bloody Feast of Rouen {The), 
 1356. The young dauphin, Chai'les, son 
 of Jean le Bon, gave a banquet at Rouen 
 to his private friends and leading nobles 
 of France, to which Charles the Bad, his 
 brother-in-law, was invited. While the 
 guests were seated at table King Jean 
 entered the banquet room with a numer- 
 ous escort, and, seizing Charles, shook 
 him violently, exclaiming, ' Traitor, thou 
 art not worthy to sit at table with my 
 son ! Guards, seize your prisoner. By 
 holy Paul ! I will not eat or drink till 
 his head be brought mo ! ' The dauphin 
 threw himself at his father's feet, im- 
 ploring him to desist, but the king, seizing 
 a mace, struck one of the guests with it, 
 and four others were cut down by the 
 guards. Charles the Bad was shut up in 
 the Tower of the Louvre, but was released 
 after the battle of Poitiers, 1356. 
 
 Bloody Ledger (The). An account 
 of the burnings and spoliations of 
 Henry VIII. on the coasts of Kintyre, 
 Kyle, and Carrick, in 1544. We find that 
 192 towns, villages, farms, towers, and 
 churches were destroyed ; 10,386 head 
 of cattle were driven off, 12,492 sheep, 
 and l,49fi horses ; and an untold amount 
 of niiscu.laneous plunder was taken. 
 
 Bloody Statute {The). The statute 
 passed in 1541, commanding all British 
 subjects, under pain of death or imprison- 
 ment at the king's pleasure, to subscribe- 
 to the following church dogmas : (1) The 
 Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist ; 
 (2) The all-sufficiency of communion in 
 one kind only ; (3) The unlawfulness of 
 the marriage of priests ; (4) The mdis- 
 soluble obligation of vows of chastity ; 
 (5) The propriety of retaining private 
 masses ; and (6) The obligation of auri- 
 cular confession. This statute was re- 
 pealed in 1549. More authentically called 
 ' The Statute of Six Articles.' 
 
 Bloody Sunday, 13 Nov., 1887. 
 Noted for a Socialist riot in Trafalgar 
 Square, London. The Socialists resolved 
 to hold a public meeting in the square, 
 but Sir Charles Warren commanded the 
 police to disperse the crowd. Many 
 Beveie in urics were received on each 
 
 side, and one or two fatalities occurred ; 
 but it is a mere party exaggeration to 
 call the day ' Bloody Sunday.' 
 
 Bloody Sword {The). In Hungary 
 a bloody sword used to be carried through 
 the laud to rouse the people to arms in 
 cases of great national danger. Thus 
 Bela IV., in 1240, caused ' the bloody 
 sword to be carried through the land 
 according to ancient custom,' when 
 threatened by inroads of the Mongols. 
 The Scotch sent round a 'fiery cross' 
 {q.v.). The Parisians ring the tocsin. 
 
 Bloody Theatre of Eperjes 
 
 {The), 1084-1687. A permanent scaffold 
 erected in the middle of the town of 
 Eperjes, in Hungary, for the torture and 
 execution of Hungarians suspected of 
 being hostile to the government of 
 Kaiser Leopold of Germany. Thirty 
 executioners, dressed in green uniform, 
 were employed night and day in torturing, 
 mutilating, and beheading the victims. 
 Count Caraffa, a foreign general of san- 
 guinary disposition, was president of the 
 tribunal established at Eperjes for the 
 mockery trial of the accused. It sat 
 from March to the end of the year, and 
 only poverty and obscurity escaped its 
 persecution (Godkin, * Hist, of Hun- 
 gary,' p. 234). 
 
 Bloody Thumb. This was the 
 brand of the Irish ' National League ' 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Bloody Tower {The). So called in 
 the reign of Elizabeth from the tradition 
 that the two young princes were mur- 
 dered there. In the reign of Henry VII. 
 it was called the ' Garden Tower.' 
 
 Bloody Tribunal of Eperjes 
 
 {The), 1634-1687. When Hungary was 
 rescued from the Turks after their 
 disaster before Vienna, Caraffa, a military 
 commander, was appointed to reinstate 
 the Hungarian owners. The first ques- 
 tion Caraffa asked was whether the 
 applicant was of the new faith (Luther- 
 anism) ; if so, he was instantly put to 
 death. This bloody tribunal was abo- 
 lished by the diet which met at the 
 opening of the year 1687. 
 
 Bloody Wedding {The). The 
 wedding of Henri (afterwards Henri IV. 
 of France) with Marguerite (daughter of 
 Catharine de' Medici). So called because 
 
ic: 
 
 BLUE 
 
 BLUE 
 
 it was made the occasion of the wholesale 
 massacre of the French Hviguenots, 
 generally called ' The massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew's Eve.' 
 
 Blue. The Sikhs wear blue, even 
 blue turbans ; but all other Hindus 
 reckon blue unlucky. 
 
 Blue (True). True Blue principles, 
 i.e. Toryism ; but in ' Hudibras ' we read 
 of * Presbyterian true blue.' 
 
 Sir Stafford O'Brien one night, exclaimed in the 
 House of Commons, 'There is no " Trua Blue" 
 now. There are many Tories, but no "True 
 Blues." '—Sir W. HaRcourt, 24 Oct., 1885. 
 
 Blue and Hed Hoods {The). 
 ' Mi-partie bleus et rouges,' 1356, during 
 the captivity of Jean le Bon, was the 
 faction livery of the dauphin (afterwards 
 Charles v.). In 1358, on the death of 
 the provost Marcel, this faction fell 
 away. See ' Blue Hoods.' 
 
 Blue and White. The Whig 
 cockade, in some counties. Hence the 
 well-known song and tune ' Come wave 
 your blue and white.' 
 
 Blue and Yellow (TJie). The 
 * Edinburgh Keview ' is so called from 
 its cover, which is blue with a yellow 
 back. 
 
 The Blue and Yellow speaks or.t with its old 
 directness.— Newpaper paragraph, Jan. 1886. 
 
 Blue and Yellow Robes. In 
 
 China. All the twelve sects wear blue 
 robes in China; but the followers of 
 Lamaism wear yellow robes, the imperial 
 colour, because Lamaism was promul- 
 gated by a son-in-law of the emperor. 
 
 Yellow is also worn by Buddhist monks of the 
 Bouthern countries. 
 
 Bluebeard. So Giles, marquis of 
 Laval, the French general, was called. 
 It is said that he put to death seven of 
 his mistresses ' to aid his incantations 
 with their blood.' This debauched and 
 licentious villain was at last burnt alive at 
 Nantes by order of the Due de Bretagne, 
 1440. (Nantes, pronounce Nahnt.) 
 
 Blue Bellies. The Federals were 
 so called by the Confederates in the 
 civil war of America, from the light 
 blue cloaks worn by the northern soldiers. 
 See ' Greybacks.' 
 
 Blue Blanket {The). The blue 
 standard or banner of the incorporated 
 trades of Ediubur^di. Vv'hen the trades- 
 
 men thought themselves aggrieved, they 
 unrolled their standard, and the peoi)le 
 used to say, ' Up goes the Blue Blanket ; ' 
 in other words, the tradesmen are rallying 
 their forces to resist the powers which 
 they think have aggrieved them. It was 
 originally called ' The Banner of the 
 Holy Ghost ; ' but James III. changed 
 its name into ' The Standard of the 
 Crafts within Burgh.' 
 
 Blue Blood and Pigeon's 
 Blood. ' Sangue bib ' and ' Sangue 
 colombin.' The blue blood in Venice 
 were the wealthiest of the nobility, 
 termed I Signori\ the pigeon's blood 
 were the poorest of the nobility, termed 
 I Barnaboti, from the quarter San 
 Barnabo where they resided. 
 
 There was an intervening class sometimes called 
 Morrl di Mezzo. 
 
 *,* The Spaniards are especially proud of their 
 blue blood when they can trace their pedigree to 
 the Goths. 
 
 Blue Bonnets over the Border, 
 
 The reference is to the Covenanters in 
 the year 1640, passing into England 
 against Charles I. The whole of the 
 infantry wore the Lowland blue bonnet. 
 
 Blue Book {The), of America, is 
 similar to the English Eed Book. It 
 contains lists of all persons under 
 government in the civil, military, and 
 naval departments, including the law 
 offices. Called blue from the blue 
 wrapper. 
 
 Blue Books. I. Parliamentary 
 reports, but not statutes. All command- 
 papers, all returns such as import duties, 
 export duties, returns of the names of 
 members of parliament, all official state- 
 ments, statements of accounts, &c. in 
 Great Britain, whether in a blue wrapper 
 or without a wrapper, are so called. 
 Thin documents have no cover, thick 
 ones have a blue wrapper. Blue is the 
 only colour recognised by the British 
 parliament. 
 
 The ofBcial colour in Spain is red, in Italy 
 
 groen, in France yellow (limes jaunes),ixL Germany 
 and Portugal whii e. 
 
 N.B.— The reports sent annually to the colonial 
 secretary by the governors of our colonies ara 
 officially called ' blue books." 
 
 II. The blue books quoted by Butler 
 are three books, stitched in dark blue, 
 wrappers, which appeared in 17b9, 1791, 
 and 1792. Charles Butler wrote the 
 v»-hole of the first and third, and most of 
 
BLUE 
 
 BLUB 
 
 107 
 
 the second. They contain scandalous 
 doctrines, which no Catholic woiild 
 allow. Copies may be seen in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 Blue "Boy {GainsborougJi''s). Master 
 Jonathan Buttall (1779) (Gainsborough 
 died 1788). Buttall's father was an iron- 
 monger, 31 Greek Street, Soho, and died 
 1768. The 'Blue Boy' succeeded to 
 the business, and ca].-ried it on till 1796, 
 when he sold it to Sharpe and Coxe. 
 The famous picture of the Blue Boy is 
 in the Devonshire collection. 
 
 Blue Cap (The). In England a blue 
 cap with a white border m the civil wars 
 was the ' cap of liberty,' or anti-royalism. 
 Britannia on some coins is represented 
 holding such a cap on the pomt of her 
 spear. 
 
 Blue-coat School (T/^e). A familiar 
 designation of Christ's Hospital ; so 
 called from the long blue coat worn by 
 the boys. Founded 28 June, 1553, by 
 Edward VI. (the year of his death). 
 
 Blue Cockades, 1780. The badge 
 of the Protestant association. In the 
 Gordon riots everyone who wished to go 
 abroad unmolested wore blue in some 
 part of their dress. 
 
 Lord George Gordon appeared in the House 
 Wo:irLng a blue cockade. Colonel Herbert, on 
 seeing this, declared that he would not sit and 
 vote in the House while he saw a noble lord with 
 the ensign of riot in his hat ; and that if his lord- 
 ship would not take it out, he himself would step 
 across the House and do it for him. Lord Georj-'e 
 quietly took the cockade from his hat and put it 
 in his pocket.— HowiTT, Hist oj EngLa)td, George 
 ni., p. 249. 
 
 Blue Flag (A). A warning of danger 
 in the Roman Empire. Livy speaks of 
 it in his ' Annals.' 
 
 Blue Flagellants (T/te). So called 
 from their blue mantles. See 'Flagel- 
 lants,' and ' Blancs Battus.' 
 
 Blue Friars {The), 1829-1840. A 
 convivial and intellectual society of Ply- 
 mouth, numbering many men of note. 
 Charles Mathews, the elder, was member 
 and was called ' Brother Prism.' 
 
 Blue-gowns. King's bedesmen, or 
 licensed beggars who wore blue gowns. 
 Called in Scotland gaberlunzies. See 
 * Thiggers and Sorners.' 
 
 Blue Hats {The), 1356-1358. The 
 Navarrese party organised by Marcel, 
 provost of Paris, during the captivity 
 
 of Jean le Bon in England. The object 
 of the provost was to place Charles le 
 Mauvais on the throne. See ' Blue Hoods.' 
 
 Marcel, entering the palace without any regard 
 to the dauphin, seized the two marshals and put 
 them to death so close to the prince, that his 
 dress was sprinkled with their blood. ' How 
 now,' cried the dauphin, ' will you shed the blood 
 royal of France?' 'No!' cried Marcel, and so 
 saying he rudely snatched from the dauphin's 
 head the embroidered hat of a pale rose colour, 
 put it on his own head, and clapped his own blue 
 hat on the dauphin's head. Through all the day 
 the provost went about Pnris with the dauphin's 
 hat.— HOWITT, History of England, vol. i., p. 395. 
 
 Blue Hens. The natives of Delaware, 
 one of the United States of North 
 America. Captain Caldwell, an officer iu 
 the 1st Delaware regiment in the American 
 War of Independence, was very fond of 
 game cocks, but maintained that no cock 
 was truly game, unless its mother was a 
 blue hen. As the Delaware regiment 
 was truly game, they were the sons of 
 blue hens. 
 
 Blue Hoods. The party badge of 
 Navarre ; red hoods, the party badge of 
 Paris ; blue and red, the party badge of 
 Charles [V.], when dauphin ; white hoods, 
 the party badge of the Burgundians. 
 
 Blue Laws. The code of IGOO, a 
 compilation of the earliest laws and 
 customs of Connecticut. It is almost 
 verbally copied from the Mosaic Law. 
 After the restoration of Charles II. 
 ' Presbyterian true blue ' became a term 
 of derision applied to anything which 
 smattered of Puritanism, and ' blue laws ' 
 simply meant puritanical laws, or laws 
 with a blue tinge. These laws inflicted 
 the penalty of death for worshipping any 
 god but the God of the Bible ; for speak- 
 ing disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, 
 or the Holy Ghost ; for witchcraft, 
 adultery, theft, false-swearing, and dis- 
 obedience to parents. Said to have been 
 drawn up by the Rev. Samuel Peters, but 
 generally supposed to be apocryphal. 
 
 Blue-light Federalists. Those 
 Americans who befriended the English 
 in 1812, by giving them blue-light signals. 
 
 Bluemantle. One of the four pur- 
 suivants of England. See ' Pursuivants.' 
 
 Blue Monday. St. Crispin's Day. 
 This is the German ' der blaue Montag.' 
 Not 25 Oct., but holiday Monday, the 
 day of ' blue looks.' 
 
103 
 
 BLUE 
 
 BLUES 
 
 Elue Xloon. Once in a blue moon, 
 occasionally, but very seldom. In tlie 
 second week of Dec. 1883 we had green, 
 purple, and blue moons : on the 7th 
 green, on the 10th blue. The sunset 
 clouds were also unusually brilliant and 
 deep-coloured. 2 Sept., 1883, the sun at 
 Trinidad was blue, and at Panama it was 
 green. 
 
 In England the winter 1883-4 was unusually mild 
 and the wind south-west. 
 
 Blue Woses. The Nova Scotians 
 are so called from a potato which they 
 rear in great perfection, and term ' Blue 
 Noses.' 
 
 Blue Pedigrees. Pedigrees con- 
 cocted for rich nobodies by professional 
 genealogists. Mr. Wray of Philadelphia 
 tells us (' Notes and Queries,' 23 Jan., 1886, 
 p. 74), that ' genealogical publications are 
 searched for the names of families desir- 
 ing information, and suitable pedigrees 
 are constructed for them out of the visit- 
 ations and county histories, and are 
 duplicated by . . . the " blue print " pro- 
 
 Blue Ribbon Army, or 'Blue 
 Kibbonites,' or ' Blue Ribboners.' Teeto- 
 tallers who bear as a badge a small piece 
 of blue ribbon, to remind all who 
 see it that they drink no alcoholic 
 liquor. 
 
 Blue Ribbon of the Tuvf (The). 
 So Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield, called the 
 Derby. To win the great Derby horse- 
 race is the greatest achievement of the 
 year in the estimation of the turf. 
 
 The ' cordon bleu ' was the ribbon worn by the 
 knights of the 'St. Esprit,' the highest order in 
 France, as the blue garter is the highest distinc- 
 tion in British knighthood. 
 
 Blue Ring (The). This was a 
 sapphire ring which Lady Scrope let 
 down from the window of the queen's 
 chamber to announce to her brother, 
 Robert Carey (afterwards earl of Mon- 
 mouth) the death of Queen Elizabeth. 
 The moment he caught it he galloped off 
 to Scotland as fast as possible, to be the 
 first to announce the welcome news to the 
 expecting James. 
 
 Blue Sisters (The) 1604. The 
 Celestial Annunciades, a religious order 
 instituted by Maria Vittoria Fornari. 
 So called from their blue mantles. The 
 
 Annunciades of Jeanne de Valois wear a 
 blue simar, but white mantle. 
 
 Blue Skins. The Presbyterians 
 were so called after the restoration of 
 Charles II., blue meaning puritanical. 
 Anything smattering of roundheadism, 
 whether laws, institutions, sects, persons, 
 or what not, was called in derision blue, 
 that is, tinged with ' Presbyterian blue.' 
 
 Joseph Blake, an English burglar, was called 
 ' Blue-si-in ' from his complexion. He was execu- 
 ted in 1723. 
 
 Blue Stocking Club {The). Esta- 
 blished in London in 1780. It was a 
 society of literary ladies which lasted up 
 to 1840. The members were supposed to 
 wear blue stockings, and two ladies 
 (Montagu and Stillingfleet) are said to 
 have given name to the society. Pro- 
 bably it was in imitation of the ' Societa, 
 della Calza ' of Venice (1400-1590). 
 
 Similar clubs have been adopted both in Ger- 
 many and France. Indeed the French ' bas-bleu ' 
 is as often heard as the phrase ' bluestocking ' to 
 designate a female literary pedant. 
 
 Blue "Waiters. At one time waiters 
 were dressed in blue, the badge of servi- 
 tude, but the badge was discontinued in 
 the reign of James I. Frequent refer- 
 ence to the blue coats of servant men will 
 be found in old plays. 
 
 Blues {The). 1. 'Les Bleus,' in the 
 Vendean war, were the republican 
 soldiers, so called by the royalists on ac- 
 count of the colour of their uniforms. 
 See ' Whites.' 
 
 11. the police, so called from being 
 dressed in blue. Also called the ' Blue 
 Foot-guard.' Of course the ' wit ' lies in 
 the allusion to the ' Blue Guards.' 
 
 Blues and G-reens {The). In Latin 
 ' Veneti et Praslni.' Charioteer factions 
 at Byzantium. The Veneta factio wore 
 a light blue livery; the Prasina factio 
 wore a leek-green livery (Greek j>?'aso/i, a 
 leek). The Emperor Justinian was a 
 Blue, and the two factions became politi- 
 cal. In 532 the Greens revolted, pro- 
 claimed Prince Hypatius emperor in the 
 circus, and waylaid Justinian in hig 
 palace. Belisarius and Mundus repelled 
 the rebels, but more than 30,000 persona 
 fell in the sedition. Hypatius, being 
 taken, was beheaded and his body 
 thrown into the Bosphorus. This sedi- 
 tion was called the Nika, the rallying 
 word of the insurgents. 
 
BLUES 
 
 BOARD 
 
 109 
 
 Venetus means Venice blue, the colour of the I 
 coiTunon soldiers and seamen of Rome. There 
 were two subordinate factions, the white and the 
 red. but the white merged into the blue and the i 
 red into the green. j 
 
 Blues and the Lilacs (T^e). Two 
 rival court parties in the reign of I 
 Francois I. The Blues were the parti- j 
 sans of Diane de Poitiers, mistress of ; 
 Henri the dauphin, afterwards Henri II. ! 
 The Lilacs were the partisans of Madame 
 d'Etampes, mistress of the king. Both 
 king and dauphin had a wife Hving at 
 the time. Madame d'Etampes was nine 1 
 years the younger. She died at the age ! 
 of 67, her rival died at the age of 68. j 
 
 Blues, Reds, and "Whites {The), \ 
 in the first French Revolution. Balzac | 
 tells us in ' Le dernier Chouan : ' ' Dans I 
 ces temps de discordes, les habitans de j 
 I'ouest avaient appele' tons les soldats de | 
 la republique des bleus,' because their ! 
 'premiers uniformes etaient bleus at 
 rouges.' A Bleu, therefore, in 1793, was 
 a republican, in opposition to a royalist 
 or Vendean, who wore the White royal 
 uniform. Dumas tells us, in his ' Vingt 
 Ans apres,' that 'blue and red is the 
 livery of Paris.' The French tricolour 
 is the combination of republican blue, 
 the city of Paris, and the Bourbon white. 
 
 Bluff City. The city Hannibal, in , 
 Missouri (North America). [ 
 
 Bluff Harry. Henry VIII., who 
 affected a bluntess of speech and manner, 
 and delighted in being so called. 
 
 Blunden. The thrice-buried Mrs. 
 Blunden. Mrs. Blunden was buried at 
 Basingstoke ; but some of the boys of 
 the neighbouring grammar-school, hear- 
 ing a noise underground, ran to tell their 
 master. The coffin was disinterred, the 
 body was found to be alive. Proper 
 means being applied, life was fully re- 
 stored, and Mrs. Blunden continued to 
 live for several years. A second time 
 she fell into a trance and was buried, and 
 Bounds underground again attracted 
 attention ; the coffin was again disinter- 
 red, and it was found that the flesh had 
 been gnawed from one of the hands by 
 the teeth of th6 buried lady. Means 
 were tried to restore life, but without 
 success, and Mrs. Blunden was buried for 
 the third ti ne. 
 
 Lazarus and iiiauy otherii were Iv^ico bmied. 
 
 Boabdil. A corruption of Bu-abdad, 
 which is a contraction of Abu-Abdallah. 
 This Moorish prince of Granada was 
 called 'Assaghir' (small, insignificant). 
 His mother Ayesha said of him, when he 
 was driven out of Spain in 1492 : ' My 
 son, you have cause to weep like a 
 woman, who defended not your throne 
 either as a monarch or a man.' It was 
 probably this littleness, and not diminu- 
 tive stature, which procured him the so- 
 briquet of Assaghir. 
 
 Board Schools, 1870. National or 
 parish schools under a school board or a 
 board of directors, and supported by 
 rates. Religious instruction forms no 
 part of the curriculum. These schools 
 are under government inspectors and 
 receive government grants per cajnta, 
 according to a scale of merit given in the 
 inspector's report. Every pa^^sh or 
 group of parishes must have either a 
 voluntary school or a board school. 
 
 A voluntary school is not supported by a rate, 
 but by voluntary contributions, children's pence, 
 and a government grant. It is inspected by a 
 government inspector, and those connected with 
 the Church of Kngland are also under diocesan 
 inspection. 
 
 Board of Admiralty (The). A 
 government department which has the 
 management of all matters concerning 
 the British navy. 
 
 Board of Control (The), 1784. A 
 committee of commissioners for managing 
 the affairs of India. Abolished 1858 
 (21, 22 Vict. c. 106). 
 
 Board of Green Cloth (The). 
 Consisting of the lord steward and several 
 inferior officers. Their duty was to 
 punish offenders within the verge of the 
 palace and within 200 yards beyond the 
 gates. So called because the board or 
 table at which they sat was covered with 
 a green cloth. It existed in the reign of 
 Henry I., i^robably even earlier. Abo- 
 hshed 1849 (12, 13 Vict. c. 101). 
 
 Board of Ordnance (The). A 
 government department to which is 
 committed the management of all 
 matters relating to the artillery and engi- 
 neering corps of the British army. 
 
 Board of Trade [The), 1786. Has 
 the control of all matters pertaining to 
 our colonial trade and all matters per- 
 taining to our mercantile marine, all 
 railways in the United Kingdom, the 
 
110 
 
 BOARD 
 
 BOECE 
 
 fisheries, harbours, weights and measures, 
 statistics, electric lighting, &c. All 
 charters for incorporation are referred 
 to this board ; the Privy Council on 
 education is under its control, &c. The 
 board consists of a president and vice- 
 president, the lord chancellor, the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, the first lord of 
 the treasury, the chief secretaries of 
 state, the speaker, and several others. 
 
 It originated in 1660, when Charles I. created 
 a council for trade and a council for foreign plan- 
 tations ; but the present constitution dates from 
 the reign of George III. 
 
 Board of Triers (The), March 
 1G53. A committee, one-fourth being lay- 
 men, appointed by Cromwell to try or 
 examine the fitness of candidates to 
 hold livings or take part in the church 
 services, 
 
 Cromwell also appointed a church board in 
 every county to spe that the clergy did their 
 duty, and to remove those who were inellicient or 
 evil examples. 
 
 Board of Works (The), 1851. 
 Constituted by the Metropolitan Man- 
 agement Act. It had control over the 
 streets of London, the line of buildings, 
 the fire brigade, the gas, drainage, 
 bridges, parks, and commons ; the tram- 
 ways, artisans' dwellings, slaughter- 
 houses, theatres, and music-halls, &c. 
 The fifty-nine members of the board were 
 elected by the respective vestries ; the 
 corporation and city of London used to 
 elect three of them. Abolished 1889. 
 
 Boarian, or Borome'an Tribute. 
 
 A heavy mulct imposed hj Tuathal, over- 
 king of Ireland, on the province of 
 Leinster for the infamous conduct of 
 ■ their ruler Achy. This continued from 
 the 2nd to the 7th cent., but was 
 dropped in G93, though the intercession 
 of St. Moling. So called from bo, a cow, 
 because beeves formed the medium of 
 tribute. See ' Fine of Leinster. 
 
 The offence was this. Achy married a daughter 
 of Tuathal ; but tiring of his wife, he went to 
 Tara and brought home his wife s younger sister 
 as a bride. When the bride discovered that her 
 Bister was living, she died of the shock, and the 
 Bister pined to death a few weeks after. 
 
 'This brutal sacrilege the monarch punished 
 by putting twelve of the Lagcnian chieftains 
 to death, and exacting rigorously the Boarian 
 tribute from the province to which they belonged." 
 T. MOOEE, History of Ireland, vii., p. 133. 
 
 Boatswain Smith. G. C. Smith, 
 pressed into the British navy in 1796, 
 quitted the service in l8G3 ; became pastor 
 of a Baptist church at Penzance in 1807 
 (1782-1803). 
 
 Bobeche (2 syl.). A famous clown 
 (1815-1825) who drew crowds to a small 
 theatre on the Boulevard du Temple 
 of Paris ; his rival was Galimafre. 
 Bobeche takes rank with the Tabarin 
 and the Bruscambille (IStli cent.). A 
 comedian or farce-actor is complimen- 
 tarily called ' un vrai Bobeche ' in 
 France. See ' Tabarin.' 
 
 Bocasoti. The same as ' Bizocii ' 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Bode's Law, of the relative dis- 
 tances of the planets from the sun. 
 
 Write 4 nine times. 
 
 Under the second write 8, and multi- 
 ply by 2 throughout. Then add. 
 
 Thus : 
 
 4444 4 44 4 4 
 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 
 
 7 10 16 
 
 2 ^ S 
 
 52 
 
 100 196 388 
 
 a to 2 
 
 Between IMars and Jupiter is no 
 planet, but Bode said there must be one 
 in the gap, and the asteroids being 
 discovered proved the correctness of the 
 series. 
 
 Taking earth to be 10, the relative distances 
 are (roughly) 3-9, T2, 10, 15-2, 27"4, 52, 95-4, 192, 300 
 (millions of miles). 
 
 Boden Scholarships. Four for 
 Sanskrit. Value 501. a year, and tenable 
 for four years in the University of 
 Oxford. Founded by Colonel Boden in 
 1830 and 18G0. 
 
 Bodleian Library (TJie), 1597. 
 The public library of Oxford restored by 
 Sir Thomas Bodley on the site of the 
 old University library, which had 
 been despoiled of its contents in the 
 reign of Edward VI. It has been added 
 to by many magnificent gifts, and now 
 contains above 256,000 volumes and 
 22,000 MSS. The Bodleian Library is 
 one of the five depositories of copy- 
 right books. The corresponding institu- 
 tion in Cambridge is called the Univer- 
 sity Library. 
 
 Eefounded by Sir Thomas Bodley (1507-1599). 
 The new building commenced 17 July, IGIO, and 
 finished 1613. Augmented by the libraries of 
 Richard Gough and Edmund Malone In 1812 • and 
 by that of Francis Douce in 1834. 
 
 Boece {Hector), or 'Boethius.' A 
 literary romancer born at Dundee (1470- 
 
BCEUF GRAS 
 
 BOMBA 
 
 111 
 
 1550). In Ill's ' Scotorum Historia,' pub- 
 lished in 1526, he has forged the names 
 of forty-five Scotch kings with which he 
 interpolated the Irish list of the Dalria- 
 dic rulers {i.e. kings of Argyllshire). ISee 
 ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Bceuf Gras {La marche du). The 
 procession of the prize ox on Shrove 
 Tuesday through the chief streets of 
 Paris, introduced in the reign of Charles 
 VIIl. (1483-1408). The ox, with gilt 
 horns and hoofs, a fillet on its head and 
 decorated with ribbons, is led through 
 the chief streets, accompanied by a host 
 of followers dressed in ridiculous cos- 
 tumes, and bands of music plajdng on 
 ridiculous instruments. The whole is a 
 farcical imitation of Roman priests going 
 to offer sacrifice. The butcher's ex- 
 penses are paid by donations from 
 ambassadors, noblemen, ministers, and 
 wealthy citizens, on whom he calls to 
 show his ox. 
 
 I have seen the procession six or eight times, 
 but probably it is now d.s.-Oi shorn of its glory, it 
 not abolished. Shrove Tuesday is called Mardi 
 gras in French. 
 
 Bceuf Gras pronounce Buh-grah'. 
 
 Boeotian Confederacy (The). 
 The confederacy of the fourteen indepen- 
 dent states of Boeotia, with Thebes at 
 the head. The chief magistrates of the 
 league, called Boeotarchs, were elected 
 annually, two for Thebes and one for 
 each of the other states. 
 
 The number of Boeotarchs varied as the inde- 
 pendent states were not constant ; but fifteen 
 may be roughly called the college of Boeotarchs. 
 
 Bogomiles or Bogarmitae, 12th 
 cent. Heretics of Bulgaria, who denied 
 the Trinity, the resurrection, the institu- 
 tion of the sacraments, and holy orders. 
 They were deists. The Emperor Alexis 
 Comnenus in 1118 burnt to death their 
 leader. (Sing. Bogomil.) 
 
 Bog is the Sclavonic for ' God,' and mil is a 
 corruption of milotii, ' have pity on us.' 
 
 Bohemian Brethren {The). The 
 followers of Huss of Bohemia, 1457. 
 Their great offence was allowing the cup 
 to the laity, whence they were called 
 ' chalice men.' They subsequently 
 merged into the Moravians or ' United 
 Brethren.' Their platform was : (1) the 
 free preaching of the gospel ; (2) the 
 administration of the eucharist in both 
 kinds ; (3) the separation of the clei'gy 
 from all secular pursuits ; and (4) the 
 
 punishment of the clergy by the civil 
 courts. 
 
 Bohmenists. See ' Behmenists.' 
 
 Boiling to death. By 22 Henry III., 
 c. 9, it was enacted that poisoners 
 should be boiled to death. The law was 
 repealed by 1 Edward VI. c. 12. 
 
 Bolden Book ( The). The book con- 
 taining the survey of the see of Durham, 
 made in 1183 by order of the Bishop de 
 Pusay. So called because the parish of 
 Bolden is the first mentioned in the sur- 
 vey. It begins thus : 
 
 Incipit liber qui vocatur Bolden Book, Anno 
 Dominice Incarnationis, 1183. 
 
 It is a small folio, and is kept in the auditor's 
 office at Durham. 
 
 Bolivia (in South America). So 
 called after Simon Bolivar, who liberated 
 several of the South American provinces 
 from Spain in 1824. 
 
 Bollandists. The compilers of 
 the numerous folio volumes of the 
 * Acta Sanctorum ' {q.v.). So called from 
 Father John Bolland, who with ten coad- 
 jutors brought out the first 82 volumes 
 folio, and completed the first series. Re- 
 organised at Brussels in 1837, and the 
 54th volume was published in 1845. The 
 57th volume brings down the hagiography 
 to 1855 ; the 61st to 1875. 
 
 The first five vols, contained Jan. in two vols. 
 (1G43:, and Feb. in three vols. (1658). The 53rd vol. 
 appeared in 1794. 
 
 ' Les Petits Bollandistes ' is a French hagiogra- 
 phy by Mgr. Paul Gucriu in 17 large octavo vols., 
 the 7th edition of which was published in ISSO. 
 The last vol. is all index. 
 
 Bolleghe, pi. Bolleghes. The 
 herdsman and his herd in Ireland living 
 on the mountains. The usage is called 
 Bollinge. 
 
 Bologna {Treaty of), 1 Jan., 1530. 
 
 A treaty of peace between Venice and 
 Charles V. Charles abandoned to Venice 
 all his conquests in Lombardy, and Venice 
 gave up to Charles the Neapolitan ports. 
 
 Bolton Quarter. Instant death 
 
 without mercy. 
 
 2 May, 1644 Bolton was taken. Colonel R.'a 
 forces routed, and many a sweet saint slain. No 
 quarter would be given, so that Bolton Qutirter 
 grew into a proverb.— ISAAC AMBEOSE, Media or 
 Middle Tilings, 1G50, p. 72. 
 
 Bomba. A sobriquet of Ferdinand II. 
 of Naples and Sicily, so called from his 
 savage bombardment of Messina in Sept. 
 
 lb: J. 
 
X12 
 
 BOMBALINO 
 
 BONNET 
 
 Bombalino, or ' Bomba II.' Fran- 
 cis II. of Naples, who bombarded Palermo 
 in 1860. He was the son of Ferdinand 11., 
 nicknamed ' King Bomba ' {q.v.). 
 
 Bombay (in Hindustan). A corrup- 
 tion of the native name into the Portu- 
 guese Bovi-baJiia, the good bay (1509). 
 
 Bona De a. Called by the Eomans 
 Fauna, who revealed her oracles to 
 women only, and no man was permitted 
 to be present at her mysteries. There 
 was a similar deity, named Faunus, 
 exclusively confined to the other sex, 
 Pnblius Clodius, in the house of Caesar, 
 violated the sanctuary of Bona Dea, and 
 was brought to trial, but he was acquitted 
 by bribery (Cicero, ' Att.' i. 12). 
 
 Eonaght (Ireland). An exaction 
 imposed at the pleasure of the lord for 
 the maintenance of his soldiers. There 
 were two sorts, viz. Bonaght-bur and 
 Bonaght-beg. The first was free quarters 
 at discretion, the latter was a money 
 commutation. See * Coygne and Livery.' 
 
 Bonaparte's Egyptian cam- 
 paign, 1799. Alexandria fell into his 
 hands"; he won the great battle of the 
 Pyramids; completed the subjugation of 
 Egypt ; passed into Syria, made himself 
 master of Gaza and Jaffa ; won the battle 
 of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, 
 attacked the Turks at Abovikir, and 
 utterly destroyed tbeir whole army, 25 
 June, 1799. 
 
 Bonaparte's Italian cam- 
 paign, 1796-7. He was 27 years of 
 age. 
 
 11 April, he defeated Beaulieu, the 
 Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 14 April, he won the battle of Mille- 
 simo. 
 
 15 April, he won the battle of Dego. 
 22 April he won a victory over the 
 
 Piedmontese at Mondovi. 
 
 10 May, he defeated the Austrian gen- 
 eral Beaulieu at the Bridge of Lodi, and 
 entered Milan. 
 
 19 June, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, 
 and Ancona. 
 
 3 Aug., he defeated the Austrian gen- 
 eral "Wiirmser at Lonato. 
 
 5 Aug., he defeated the same general 
 at Castiglione. 
 
 8 Sept., he defeated him again at Bas- 
 Bano. 
 
 17 Nov., he won the great battle of 
 Areola over Alvinzi, the Austrian gen- 
 eral. 
 
 14 Jan., 1797, he won the battle of Ei- 
 voli over Alvinzi and Wiirmser. 
 
 15 Jan., he won a battle at the 
 faubourg of St. George, near Mantua. 
 
 16 Jan., he won a battle near the 
 palace called The Favourite. 
 
 16 March, he defeated the Austrians led 
 by the Archduke Karl at Tagliamento. 
 
 17 Oct., the treaty of Campo Formio, 
 and in December he returned to France. 
 
 He had won 15 battles ; added Savoy and Nice to 
 France, the Netlierlands,and Italy ; had obtained 
 vast money compensations, and returned to 
 France laden with treasures of art. 
 
 Bonaparte's Forty Days' Cam- 
 paign. He left Paris 6 May, 1800; 
 marched over the Alps, and reached 
 Aosta 23 May ; he entered Milan 2 June; 
 won the battle of Montebello over the 
 Austrians 9 June, and the great battle of 
 Marengo, 14 June ; returned to Paris 
 2 July. 
 
 The 40 days count from his arrival at Aosta, 
 23 May, to his return to Paris, 2 July. 
 
 Bones, or St. Hugh's bones. Dice. 'To 
 rattle the bones,' to play dice. The St. 
 Hugh referred to is St. Hugh of Lincoln, 
 whose teeth were knocked out by Jews 
 when he was crucified in mockery of the 
 crucified Saviour. Of course this state- 
 ment is given only as a tradition, and not 
 as an historic fact. 
 
 Bonfire of Vanities (The). In 
 Florence, 1493. Savonarola had such 
 effect by his ]3reaching on the people of 
 Florence, that women, gay gallants, and 
 gi'ave scholars, went in throngs, and 
 threw into a vast bonfire before the gates 
 of the cathedral whole hecatombs of 
 poems, works of fiction, and other works 
 of art, and burnt them, after the example 
 of the men and woiuen of Ephesus (Acts 
 xix. 19). 
 
 Bonnet-piece {A gold). A gold 
 coin of James V. of Scotland, and the 
 most beautiful of all Scottish coins. 
 So called because the head of the king 
 is represented wearing a bonnet instead 
 of a crown. 
 
 Bonnet Rouge ( Un). A red repub- 
 lican was so called from the red cap of 
 liberty worn by him. 
 
 Bonnet Vert. Prendre le bonnet 
 vert, to become a bankrupt. Alluding to 
 
BONONCINTSTS 
 
 BOOK 
 
 113 
 
 an old law which compelled bankrupts 
 to wear a green cap. This custom con- 
 tinued down to the 17th cent. 
 
 Bononcinists, 1720-1730. A 
 musical faction in London opposed to 
 the Handelists. The Prince of Wales 
 led the Handel party, supported by Pope 
 and Dr. Arbuthnot ; the Duke of Marl- 
 borough led the Bononcinists, supjported 
 by many others of the nobility. For 
 about twelve years the Italian school 
 was so strongly supported that Handel 
 c^uld not resist the tide ; but in 174:2 his 
 popularity returned. 
 
 Bonzes. Priests of Fo, founder of 
 a reformed Buddhism in China. Born 
 about B.C. 1027. He taught the equality 
 of man ; the love of others ; the love of 
 truth ; honest dealing ; the sin of 
 murder ; abstention from all intoxicating 
 drinks ; the love of purity ; recompense 
 or punislunent after life according to 
 one's deeds. Bonzes live in monasteries. 
 
 Book. I. The first booTc printed in 
 German (1461) was the ' Edelstein ' (or 
 ' precious stone ') by Ulrich Boner. A 
 collection of fables, tales, and maxims in 
 reproof of evil ways and for the en- 
 couragement of piety and virtue. 
 
 The first printed book was the Psalter of Mainz, 
 1457 ; the next was William Dunxnd's ' Holy Office ' 
 (' Rationale divinoram otliciorum libris viii dis- 
 tinctum'), printed 145'); the third was Balbis s 
 ' Catholieon, a sort of dictionary, 1460 ; then comes 
 the 'Edelstein,' in German. 
 
 II. The highest price ever offered for 
 a book was 20,000Z. It was a Hebrew 
 Bible in the possession of the Vatican. 
 In 1512, the Jev/s of Venice wished to 
 buy this book, but though Julius II. was 
 greatly pressed for money in order to 
 keep up the Holy League against Louis 
 XII. ol France, he declined to part with 
 the volume. 
 
 The German Government paid 10,000i. 
 for the missal given by Leo X. to Henry 
 VIII., along with the parchment con- 
 ferring on him the right to assume the 
 title of ' Defender of the Faith.' Charles 
 II. gave these relics to the ancestor of 
 the famous Duke of Hamilton, whose 
 library was sold by Messrs Sotheby, 
 Wilkinson, and Hodge of London. 
 
 III. The largest book on one subject 
 is the ' Acta Sanctorum ' of the Bol- 
 landists, not yet completed (1890). The 
 61st vol. was published in 1875. 
 
 IV. The oldest book in the world is a 
 
 papyrus containing the proverbs of 
 Ptaii-hotep, an Egyptian king, who 
 reigned some 3000 B.C., which was 
 before the birth of Abraham. It has 
 been in part translated by Chabas and 
 others ; and may be seen m English 
 dress in J. D. Heath's ' Record of the 
 Patriarchal Age.' 
 
 Book of Advertisement (The), 
 1505. The book containing the canons 
 and articles drawn up by the Court of 
 Ecclesiastical Commission appointed by 
 Queen Elizabeth. The object of the 
 book was to secure uniformity of doc- 
 trine and discipline throughout the 
 realm. 
 
 Sampson, dean of Christchurch, and Humphrey, 
 retjius professor of divinity at OxfoiM, with 
 many others, refused to conform, and were called 
 N ou-coniormists. 
 
 Book of Common Order (The), 
 15(32. A liturgy drawn up by John Knox 
 for the use of the Scotch church. It 
 was in general use for nearly a century, 
 and contained forms for the Sunday 
 services, for week days, for the sacra- 
 ments, and for some other occasions. 
 The people took no part in the liturgy. 
 
 All saints days were ignored. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer (The). 
 
 Based on the ' King's Primer ' (q-v.), was 
 published by Henry VIII. in 1546. In 
 the reign of Edward VI. it underwent 
 two revisions, and ' The Second Prayer 
 Book of Edward VI.' approaches very 
 near to the one now used in the Church 
 of England. In the reign of James I. 
 was introduced a collect in the daily 
 morning and evening service, the prayer 
 for the Royal Family in the Litany, and 
 that part of the catechism about the 
 sacraments. It was revised in 1662, 
 and from time to time special prayers 
 have been introduced which are not now 
 included in the Common Prayer Book. 
 
 Cranmer appointed in 1548 twelve commis- 
 sioners to assist him in compiling the Boob of 
 Common Prayer in the reign of Edward VI. 
 'J'hey were Goodrich (bishop of Ely), Holbeach 
 (bishop of Lincoln), Day (bishop of Chichester), 
 S ap (bishop of Hereford), Thurlby (bishop of 
 Westminster), Ridley (bishop of Rochester i, May 
 (deiLn of St. Pauls), Taylor (dean of Lincoln), 
 H ivnes (dean of Exeter i, Redmayn (master of 
 Triaify, Cambridge^), Coxe(dean of Christ Church, 
 Oxford), and Robertson (archdeacon of Leicester). 
 
 The service books consulted by them were these 
 eleven : the Antiphonariam, the Finale, the 
 Graduale or Grayle, the Legenda, the Manuale, 
 the Jlissal, the Ordinalo, the Pica or Pie, tho 
 Pontificilo, the Portiforium or Breviary, and tho 
 Processionale. Cranmer presided. 
 
114 
 
 BOOK 
 
 BORDER 
 
 Book of Discipline (The), 1560. 
 
 A digest of the forms by which the 
 reformed church in Scotland was to be 
 goyerned. Both in doctrine and disci- 
 pline the church was modelled on the 
 Geneva or Calvinistic plan. 
 
 Book of Leinster (The). An 
 fxish MS. compiled 1000-1100. 
 
 Book of Mormon {The), 1830. 
 The ' revealed ' history of America from 
 its first settlement by a colony dispersed 
 at the confusion of tongues to the oth 
 cent, of the Christian era. Joseph 
 Smith professed that this information 
 was obtained by hinr in September 1827 
 in a volume of metal plates engraved in 
 reformed Egyptian, and discovered by 
 revelation ' on the west side of a hill, 
 not far from the top, about four miles 
 from Palmyra, in the county of Ontario.' 
 As Smith could not decipher the writing, 
 a pair of magic spectacles, which he 
 called his Urim and Thummim, were 
 given to him, and one Oliver Cowdery 
 wrote down on paj^er what Smith pro- 
 fessed to translate. It is said that the 
 ' Book ' is a mere plagiary of a MS. 
 romiance by the Rev. Solomon Spalding 
 in 1816. Certainly the plates and specta- 
 cles have disappeared. See 'Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 Book of Sentences (The). By 
 Pierre Lombard (1100-1164). A compila- 
 tion of the leading arguments of the 
 fathers upon moot points of divinity, 
 arranged and digested under heads. 
 Above 244 commentators have written 
 annotations on this book ; among others, 
 Thomas AquTnas, Guillaume Durand, 
 St. Bonaventure, &c. 
 
 Book of Sports (The), 1618. A 
 declaration issued by James L of 
 England, signifying his pleasure that on 
 Sundays, after divine service, ' no lawful 
 recreation should be barred to his good 
 people.' The sports more especially 
 mentioned were dancing, archery, leap- 
 ing, vaulting. May-games, Whitsun-ales, 
 morrice-dances, and setting up of May- 
 poles. The declaration was appointed 
 to be read in the parish churches; In 
 1633 the declaration was again published. 
 In 1644 the Long Parliament ordered all 
 copies of the declaration to be burned. 
 It was again reprinted in Arber's ' Eng- 
 lish Garner.' 
 
 The following sports were forbidden on Sundays : 
 bear and bull baiting, bowling, and interludes. 
 Those, who had not attended church were for- 
 bidden to join in the sports, and no one could go 
 out of his parish to join the sports of another 
 parish. 
 
 Book of Torgau {The\157Q. A 
 famous confession of faith by the 
 Reformers, the object of which was to 
 produce unity and uniformity among the 
 divergent sects. From this was develc ped 
 ' The formula of concord ' (1580). 
 
 Booted M'ssion {The). *La 
 Mission bottc'e,' the dragonnade of Louis 
 XIV. Trench, speaking of the Ephesian 
 Church, refers to ' the French Protestant 
 refugees, who had found shelter from 
 the dragonnades, the " Mission botte'e," 
 as it is so facetiously called by some 
 Roman Catholic writers, of Louis XIV.* 
 (' Commentary on the Ej)istles to the 
 Seven Churches of Asia,' p. 73.) 
 
 None of the infinite abuses which might arise 
 from this ' Mission bottee ' (as the rude and fierce 
 body of instructors were called, either in bitter 
 sportiveness or contempt) was likely to be dimin- 
 ished by the temper of the officer to whom ita 
 direction was entrusted.— SMEDLEY, History of 
 Vw Reformed Religion in France, vol. ill. p. 250, 
 chap, xxiv., of a.d. 1681. 
 
 Boot-jack. John, earl of Bute 
 (1713-1792) ; a pun on John-Bute, whence 
 Jack-Bute, and by metathesis Boot-jack. 
 
 Booth's Expedition {Felix), 1829. 
 He equipped the ' Victory ' steamer at 
 his own cost and sent it under the com- 
 mand of Captain Ross to discover 
 whether there is a north-west passage 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Mr. 
 Booth has his name perpetuated in the 
 words Boothia, Boothiana, and Point 
 Felix ; and William IV. made him a 
 baronet ; but no passage could be dis- 
 covered. Captain Ross returned in 
 1832, 
 
 Border {The). The frontier of Eng- 
 land and Scotland. The Tweed for 
 about sixteen miles, the Cheviot hills for 
 about twenty-five miles, then the Kers- 
 hope Water (a tributary of the Esk), 
 then the ' Debatable Land ' and the river 
 Sark, to the Solway Firth. 
 
 Border-thief School (TAe). Tliose 
 novelists who took for their heroes border 
 thieves, or for their subjects the adven- 
 tures of border chiefs. Sir W. Scott and 
 his poetical imitators are meant. 
 
 With your Lake Schools, and Border-thief 
 Schools, and Cockney and Satanic Scliools, there 
 has been enough to do.— Carlyi.K. 
 
BOEDER 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 115 
 
 The 'Lake School,' such as Wordsworth, 
 Southey, and Coleridge, -who 'hiunted the lakes 
 of Cumberland ' and Westmoreland. 
 
 The 'Cockney School,' such as Leigh Hunt, 
 Hazlitt. Shelley, Keats, Ac. 
 
 The 'Satanic School,' such as Byron, Moore, 
 Bul-.vnr, Eousseau, Victor Hugo, Paul de Kock, 
 andl eorge Sand. So called because they show 
 no deference to the conventionalities of religion 
 and morals. 
 
 Border "Warrant (A). A warrant 
 
 issued by a Scotch sheriff or county-court 
 judge to arrest a debtor on the English 
 side, and detain him till he produces bail 
 for his appearance when called on withia 
 six months. 
 
 Borgites (2 syl.), or ' Bordjites.' A 
 dynasty of Mamelukes in Egypt (1382- 
 1517), which succeeded the Baharites 
 (3 syl.). Every one of these rulers, 
 except Barkuk the founder, was either 
 deposed or met with a violent death, 
 Touman-Bey (the last of them) was 
 hanged by Selim, sultan of the 
 Ottomans. 
 
 Borom^ (The), or Leinster tribute. 
 An annual tribute paid by the King of 
 Leinster to Tuathal, overlord of Ireland, 
 for causing the death of Tuathal's two 
 daughters, whom he had inveigled into 
 his power under the promise of marriage. 
 
 Boromean Tribute {The). See 
 ' Boarian.' 
 
 His (Leogaire's) -war upon the Lagenians, or 
 people of Leinster, to enforce the payment of the 
 Loroiiiean tribute, seems worthy of notice. — 
 T. Moore, Hist, oj Ireland, xi. 232. 
 
 Borough English. The law by 
 which the youngest son is the heir, from 
 the supposition that he is less al'le 
 to maintain himself than his elder 
 brothers. 
 
 Borough-mongers. A term ap- 
 plied by Cobbett to those who were 
 ' iQongers ' of boroughs ; that is, had 
 property in parliamentary scats, which 
 seats they could sell or bestow on whom 
 they thought proper. 
 
 Borrome'o {Charles), archbishop of 
 Milan, and Augustin Valerio, bishop of 
 Verona, have won to themselves immortal 
 fame by their intrepidity in visiting the 
 plague-stricken in 157G. This terrible 
 pest depopulated Venice, Verona, Milan, 
 and Trent. The great Titian fell a victim 
 to it. It was attributed to the miasma 
 rising from stagnant water and bad 
 drainage. See ' Plagues,' &c. 
 
 We have an Englishman fully worthy of being 
 placed with these philanthropists. During the 
 great plague of London in lG(i-5, Sir John Law- 
 rence, then Lord Mayor, continued the whole 
 time in the city ; heard complaints and redressed 
 grievances. The day after the disease was knowTX 
 to be the plague, 40,000 servants were dismissed 
 and turned into tlie streets, for no one would take 
 them in. Sir John supported them all at first from 
 his own private fortune, till subscriptions came 
 in to help him in his benevolent work. — Journal of 
 the Plague, printed by E. Nutt, 17-2-2. 
 
 Query. — Is there a statue to this great man in 
 the City 1 If not, for the honour of our Lord 
 Mayors, there ought to be. The John Lawrence 
 in Westminster cloisters was a ' short-hand 
 writer.' I can call to mind no public monument 
 to one of the greatest of England's worthies. 
 
 Boseobel. So celebrated for the 
 concealment of Charles II., was originally 
 the property of a Mr. Giffard, who built 
 there a small mansion, which he called 
 ' Bosco-bello,' fair wood. YvHien Charles 
 took refuge there the farmer's name was 
 Peuderell. 
 
 Bosphorus {The). Means the ox 
 or cow ford. So called because lo, trans- 
 ported into a cow, forded or swam across 
 it. So, at least, we are told in Grecian 
 fable. 
 
 Bosporic Era {The). Commenced 
 B.C. 297. 
 
 Boston Bard {The). Eobert S. 
 Cofiin, born in Boston, Massachusetts 
 (1797-1857). 
 
 Boston Massacre {The), 5 March, 
 1770. A ridiculously grand phrase for 
 a petty squabble between the British 
 soldiers quartered in Boston and the 
 men employed in Gray's roj)e-walk. Some 
 of the soldiers mockingly asked to be 
 employed in the rope-walk ; a row ensued, 
 which was renewed for two or three days, 
 and at last some of the officers drew up 
 a company of soldiers to overawe the men. 
 The workmen began to taunt the ' lob- 
 sters,' and struck one of them. The 
 soldiers fired. Three of Gray's men fell, 
 and eight were wounded. The funeral of 
 the three men was made a public protest, 
 and its anniversary was kept for 14 years. 
 
 Boston ]Mew3 Letter {The). 
 Appeared 24 April, 1704. It was the first 
 American newspaper. 
 
 Boston Port Bill {The), March 
 1774. A bill by Lord North to take 
 away from Boston (Massachusetts) the 
 customs, the courts of justice, and the 
 government offices, and transfer them to 
 New Salem, iu consequence of the re- 
 12 
 
116 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 BO WIDE S 
 
 bellion of the Bostonians, especially their 
 wanton destruction of tea to the value of 
 18,000^., to show their hatred of England. 
 
 Boston Tea-party {The), 16 Dec, 
 1773. Those citizens of Boston who, 
 disguised as Indians, boarded the three 
 English ships, which had just come into 
 the harbour, and threw into the sea 
 several hundred chests of tea, by way of 
 protest against English taxation of 
 America without a representation in 
 parliament. 
 
 Botany {Father of). Tournefort 
 (1656-1708). 
 
 Botany {Professorship of). In the 
 University of Cambridge, 1724, founded 
 by the university. Stipend 300Z. a year. 
 
 Botany Bay, 1770. So called by 
 
 Captain Cook, who discovered, on enter- 
 
 - ing the bay, the ei^acris (a sort of heath), 
 
 which, though very brilliant, will grow 
 
 in the poorest soil. 
 
 Bottle Iliot {The), 1822. In Dublin 
 theatre. Someone (12 June, 1822) 
 daubed the equestrian statue of William 
 III., on College Green, with lampblack. 
 The Orangemen had been accustomed 
 for many years to whitewash it and 
 decorate it with yellow ribbons on the 
 anniversary of the battle of the Boyne 
 (1 July, 16'J0). As these pranks caused 
 great riots, the Marquis of Wellesley, 
 the lord-lieutenant, forbade any un- 
 authorised person to interfere with the 
 statue at all. This offended the Orange- 
 men, who clubbed together to mob him 
 in the theatre. During the National 
 Anthem, someone threw a bottle at the 
 marquis ; a riot ensued, and some of the 
 offenders were prosecuted ; but the bills 
 were thrown out, and when government 
 took the matter u]d, the jury would not 
 agree, and the prosecution was dropped. 
 
 Bottomless Pitt {The). William 
 Pitt (1759-1806), the statesman, a very 
 thin man, with no ' fall ' in his back. 
 
 Boulden Book {The). A book 
 recording the inquisition made by Hugh 
 Pudsey, bishop of Durham, in 1183, still 
 extant. It shows that the ville-ns of 
 Bolden held each thirty acres of land, 
 which they paid for partly in service, 
 partly in land, and partly in money. It 
 is vahiable for throwing light on the 
 subject of villeinage in England in the 
 
 12th cent., and for other incidental in- 
 formation on the social state of the 
 people. 
 
 Bourbon Dynasty, of France. 
 Began with Henri IV. the Great, and 
 continued in a direct line to the Revolu- 
 tion. Louis XVIII. and his brother 
 Charles X. were also in the direct line. 
 Louis Philippe was of the Orleans 
 branch. 
 
 The Bourbons were descended from the sixth 
 son of St. Louis, brother of Philippe III. Tlio 
 dynasty (with the interruption of the Revolution 
 and Empire) continued from 1589 to 1848. 
 
 Bourbon Orleans branch, of 
 
 the Bourbon dynasty. Gave to Prance 
 one king, Louis Philippe, called Le Hoi 
 Citoyen (1773, 1830-1848, died 1850). 
 
 Bourguignons {The), 1407. The 
 faction of the Duke of Burgundy (Jean- 
 sans-Peur), opposed to the Armagnacs 
 or Orleanist party, during the imbecility 
 of Charles VI. of France. The cogni- 
 sance of the Bourguignons was a St. 
 Andrew cross on a red scarf. 
 
 The cognisance of the Armagnacs was a St. 
 George's cross on a white scarf. 
 
 Bourguignons (pronounce Boor-gicin'-yohn). 
 Armagnacs (pronounce Ak-maii'-yaks). 
 
 Bow-street Kunners (established 
 1749). Nicknamed Piobin Redbreasts from 
 their scarlet waistcoats. The Bow-street 
 officers were a brave resolute set of men, 
 nimble of foot like a proctor's ' bull-dog,' 
 skilled to run down offenders and ' bring 
 them to book.' 
 
 Bowdlerise. To expurgate a book 
 in editing it. Dispatches are bowdlerised 
 by government, or ' edited,' that ob- 
 jectionable statements may be omitted, 
 before the dispatches are given to the 
 public. Bov/dler gave to the world an 
 expurgated edition of Shakespeare's 
 works, in which, as he tells us, ' nothing 
 is added to the original text, but all 
 words and expressions are omitted 
 which cannot with propriety be read 
 aloud in a family.' See ' Grangerise.' 
 
 Boxvdlerite {A). An abridger, so 
 called from Thomas Bowdler (1754- 
 1825). The opposite of a Grangerite 
 {q.v.). 
 
 We have also Bowdlerise, Bowdleriser, Bowd- 
 lerism, Bowdlerisation, &c. 
 
 Bowides (2 syl.) or * Bouides,' 10th 
 and 11th cents. A Mussulman dynasty, 
 under the califs, in Irak Adjemi, in 
 Persia, offspring of Bouyah of Dileu\. 
 
BOX-DAYS 
 
 BOYCOTT 
 
 117 
 
 This Bouyah had three sons, viz. Imad- 
 Eddaula, Rockn-Eddaula, and Moez- 
 Eddaula, who rose to sovereign power, 
 reigning at Bagdad and over Persia 
 (932-1055). These three brothers were 
 called the pillars of the state, and under 
 their vigorous reign the language and 
 genius of Persia revived. The Seljuks 
 succeeded them. 
 The Bouides (2 syl.) were not shahs, but emirs. 
 Box-days, 1690. Two daj^s (one in 
 the spring and one in the autumn vaca- 
 tion) appointed by the Scotch judges of 
 the Court of Session, when law papers 
 may be filed. 
 
 For preventing [private solicitation], and for 
 easeing the leidgos themselves, and the lawyers, 
 they . . . have appointed boxes for every one of 
 the lords, to stand on a bank in the Session-house 
 from 3 o'clk till 7 o'clk at night, each box having a 
 slitt in which the informations or bills may be 
 lett in, and cannot be drawn out untill the box be 
 opened ; the key whereof is to be kept by every 
 judge himself, and to be committed to no other. 
 
 Boxers. There were two schools of 
 boxing during the regency, the Bristol 
 school and the Hebrew school, the chief 
 exponents being Tom Cribb of Bristol and 
 Mendoza the Jew. See 'Broughtonian.' 
 
 The chief boxers have been : 
 
 Jim Belcher (Bristolian), who had but one eye 
 (champion), and Tom Belcher, his brother ; Ben- 
 digo ; Cohen ; Thomas Cribb, the champion ; Figg ; 
 Gardolio, of the Hebrew school ; Bob Gregson (the 
 Pot of Pork) ; Gully ; John C. Heenan, the Benicia 
 Boy ; Humphries ; Gentleman Jackson (Lord 
 Byron was his pupil) ; Jim ?ilace ; Daniel Mendoza, 
 the Jew ; Molineux, the Negro ; Oliver ; Painter ; 
 Randal (the Nonpareil), noted for his pink cheeks ; 
 Caleb Rann (Mendoza's favourite pupil, and called 
 the Pink [of Bow] ; Richmond : Scroggins, a sailor ; 
 Tom Savers (who fought the Benicia Boy in 1S'30) ; 
 Cyrus Smalley (the Sprig of Myrtle), Cribb's 
 favourite pupil ; Spring, so called by Cribb, but 
 his real name was Thomas Winter ; Sutton ; 
 Tomkins ; Jem Ward, the Nestor of the ring, &c. 
 
 Daniel Mendoza published in 1799 the ' Art of 
 Boxing,' in which he gives particulars of his 
 match with Humphries. The era of boxing was 
 1719-18(50. 
 
 Boy Bachelor (The). Thomas 
 [cardinal] Wolsey (1471-1530), of Msig- 
 dalen College, Oxford. He took his 
 degree before he was fifteen years of 
 age. He told Sir William Cavendish 
 that he was usually so called at Oxford. 
 
 Hugo Grotius, 1600, pleaded his first cause when 
 only seventeen years of age ; Francis Bacon, born 
 1561, entered Trin. Coll. Cajnb. at the ag? of twelve, 
 and was called to the Bar before he was twenty- 
 one. Edward Herbert matriculated at University 
 College, Oxford, at the age of twelve. 
 
 Boy Bishop (The). Mentioned as 
 early as 1290. Prohibited by the council 
 of Sens in 1485. The election of a boy- 
 bishop prohibited in England by pro- 
 clamation in 1542 (reign of Henry VIII.). 
 
 The election revived by an edict of the 
 bishop of London, 13 Nov., 1554. Custom 
 abolished by Queen Elizabeth in 1558. 
 
 The boy-bishop was elected on St. Nicholas's 
 Day (Dec. 6), and the oUice lasted till Holy 
 Innocents Day (Dec. 28). He was chosen from 
 the cathedral choir or grammar-school, and when 
 elected was arrayed like a bishop, and, attended 
 by his chapter, went about the streets blessing 
 the people in ridicule. He took possession of the 
 church and performed all services except mass. 
 
 Boy Bishops. A child of only five 
 years old was made archbishop of Pieims. 
 The see of Narbonne was purchased for 
 a boy of ten. See ' Boy Popes.' (Hallani, 
 ' Middle Ages,' vol. ii. p. 248.) 
 
 See 
 
 Child 
 
 Boy Crusades. 
 
 Pilgrimages.' 
 
 Boy Martyr (The). St. Pancras, 
 w^ho suffered martyrdom under Diocletian 
 (293-303). 
 
 Boy Patriots (The), 1742. So 
 Walpole, after his fall, called Pitt, 
 Lyttelton, Grenville, and their party of 
 ambitious young men opposed to him 
 and his measures (temp. Geo. II.). 
 
 Boy Popes. John XII. was made 
 pope at the age of eighteen (956-903). 
 Benedict IX. was made pope at the age 
 of ten (1033-1054). Both these lads 
 were licentious, extravagant, and profli- 
 gate. One died at the age of twenty- 
 five, having been pope for seven years, 
 and the other died at the age of thirty- 
 one, having been pope for twenty-one 
 years. See ' Boy Bishops.' 
 
 Boys (The). I. So Walpole called the 
 young ' Patriot * faction (1733), at the 
 head of which was the young cornet of 
 horse, William Pitt, the future earl of 
 Chatham. In 1739 Walpole was obliged 
 to bow to the faction, and consent against 
 his better judgment to a war policy, and 
 in 1742 he was compelled to resign. 
 
 II. The Irish Land-leaguers {q.v.) are 
 generally called ' The Boys.' 
 
 IIL See 'Wonderful Boys.' 
 
 Boycott (To). To ostracise. A word 
 adopted from a Mr. Boycott, who was 
 ostracised in 1881 by the Irish Land 
 League. The principle is old enough, 
 as tiie proverbs Damner une boutique, 
 and Damner une ville, will show. 
 
 One word as to the way in which a man should 
 be boycotted. When any man has taken a farm 
 from which a tenant has been evicted, or is a 
 gr-AOber, lot every one in the parish turn his back 
 
118 
 
 BOYLE 
 
 BE AVE ST 
 
 on him ; have no communication with him ; have 
 no dealings with liim. You need never say an 
 unkind word to him ; but never say anytliing at 
 all to him. If you must meet him in the fair, 
 ■walk away from him silently. Do him no violence, 
 but have no dealings with him. Let every raan's 
 door be closed against him ; and make him feel 
 himself a stranger and a castaway in his own 
 neighbourhood.— J. Dillon, M.P., Speech to tlie Land 
 League, 26 Feb., 1881. 
 
 Boyle's La'W. The volume of a 
 portion of gas varies inversely as the 
 pressure (1G62). Thus if we double the 
 pressure, the gas will be reduced one- 
 half ; if we treble the pressure, the 
 volume of gas will be reduced to one- 
 third, and so on. 
 
 Called by Continental writers Mariotte's Law 
 (1676). 
 
 Boyle Lectures. Eight lectures 
 in one year in defence of Christianity 
 againstheterodoxy, infidelity, or objectors. 
 Bentley preached the first series. Esta- 
 blished by Kobert Boyle, son of the Earl 
 of Cork (1627-1691). 
 
 Brabaii^ons. Bands of mercena- 
 ries or brigands, chiefly from Brabant, 
 who overran France, in the middle ages, 
 and committed frightful disorders. John 
 king of England and Philippe (II.) 
 Auguste draughted them off into their 
 armies, and trained tliera. 
 
 Brabant Screen {The), 1720, A 
 caricature in which the Duchess of 
 Kendal, from behind a screen, is supply- 
 ing Knight, treasurer of the South Sea 
 Company, with money to effect his 
 escape, when the bubble bursts. 
 
 Knight, with all the documents, books, and 
 secrets of the directors, effected his escape to 
 Calais. He was apprehended near Liege, and 
 lodged in the citadel of Antwerp ; but the States 
 of Brabant refused to give him up, and he was 
 allowed to make his escape. The Duchess of 
 Kendal was the mistress of George I., the reigning 
 king, and the carica.ture implies that the royal 
 family was involved in the iniquity of the scheme. 
 The I^rince of Wales was certainly one of the 
 governors of the Company. 
 
 Braccesclii {The), 1409. The party 
 of Braccio, formed into a company on 
 the death of Barbiano. See ' Sforzeschi.' 
 
 Braceiolini {Poggio), of Tuscany 
 (1381-1459), secretary to seven popes. 
 Said to be the author of the ' Annals of 
 Tacitus ' {q.v.), for which ' forgery ' he 
 received from Cosmo de' Medici 500 gold 
 sequins. We are told that the original 
 MS. of Bracciolini's forgery is still pre- 
 served in the library of Florence. See 
 ' Literary Impostors, &c.' 
 
 If this is true, then the quotations given by 
 Paley and others from Tacitus in testimony of 
 
 Christ are utterly worthless for they are extracts 
 from the ' Annals ' : thus ' Christians took th< ir 
 name from their founder, one Christ, put to death 
 in the reign of Tiberius by his procurator Pontius 
 Pilate ' is from the ' Aunals ' xv. 44. 
 
 Bradford Law. Hang first and 
 try afterwards. A summary way of 
 dealing with marauders, especially in 
 border laws and iji times of general 
 turbulence. 
 
 There are many similar expressions : as Lydford 
 Law, Halifax Law, Cupar Justice, Jedburgh 
 Justice, Burslem Club Law, Abmgdon Law (q.v.). 
 Mob Law, &c. 
 
 Braliininisni. It includes a belief 
 in a Supreme Being, the doctrine of 
 immortality, that of a Trinity, and also 
 of an Incarnation. It teaches a belief in 
 a heaven and hell, and of a divine 
 revelation. The Brahmins have their 
 sacred scriptures (viz. the Vedas, the 
 Vedentas, the Upani shads, and the Pura- 
 nas), and two sacred j)oems of inunense 
 length. The present number of Brali- 
 mins is 139,000,000. 
 
 Brandanes (2 syl.). The name 
 given to the 1,000 Scotch archers, ex- 
 ceptionally tall and handsome men, who, 
 in 1298, followed Sir John Stewart to 
 the battle of Falkirk. In that fatal 
 engagement. Sir John was slain and the 
 
 * Brandanes ' were annihilated. 
 
 Brandons and ' St. Brandon's day.' 
 Valentine's day is called ' Dominica de 
 braudonibus.' A brandon is a lighted 
 torch, like Cupid's torch of love ; and 
 boys used at one time to carry about 
 brandons on Valentine's eve and Valen- 
 tine's day, collecting largesses. 
 
 BraS-de-Fer. Francois de Lanoue, 
 a Calvinist of the 16th cent., and most 
 distinguished chief after the death of 
 Coligny. 
 
 Brasenose College, Oxford, 1509. 
 
 Founded by William Smith, bishop of 
 Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton of 
 il'restbury, Chester. The head-master is 
 called the principal. 
 
 The origin of the word is doubtful. There is a 
 brazen nose over the great gateway, 'a sign,' as 
 Anthony Wood calls it ; but there is a legend that 
 the site of the college was an old brew-house or 
 brasserie. 
 
 Bravest of the brave {The), 'Le 
 brave des braves.' Michael Ney, marshal 
 of France, so called for his services at 
 the terrible battle of Moskowa in Russia, 
 in 1812, which procured him the title of 
 
 • due de la Moskowa' (1769-1815), 
 
 I 
 
BSAZEN 
 
 BREHON 
 
 119 
 
 Brazen Horses of St. Mark 
 (The). Four horses of gilt bronze re- 
 moved by the Venetians fi'om the 
 Hippodrome at Constantinople, and 
 placed over the western porch of the 
 Basilica of St. Mark. No one knows the 
 artist or date of these horses. Augvistus 
 brought them from Alexandria, after the 
 conquest of Antony, and set them on a 
 triumphal arch in Rome; they were 
 removed by Nero, Domitian, Trajan, and 
 Constantine to other arches. Constantine 
 removed them to Constantinople. When 
 Bonaparte took Venice in 1797 he 
 removed the four horses to Paris, but in 
 1815 they were restored to Venice, which 
 was allotted to the Austrian Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Brazen Wall {The). A horse 
 regiment of Cromwell's republican party, 
 so called because it was never broken. 
 See ' Stonewall Jackson.' 
 
 Bread and Cheese. The shibbo- 
 leth of Tyler's rebels, 1381, whereby he 
 detected Flemish merchants. 
 
 Bread-and-clieeseland. Twenty 
 acres of land left by Mary and Elizabeth 
 Chukhurst of Biddenden (in the 12th 
 cent.) for the benefit of the poor of their 
 parish. The rent of this land was to be 
 laid out in bread and cheese, to be 
 distributed on Easter Sunday. The 
 parish poor were to have 270 three-and- 
 a-half pound loaves, with cheese in pro- 
 portion ; and 600 rolls were to be given 
 to non-parishioners. 
 
 Breaking Money. To break a 
 piece of money at parting, each keeping 
 a part, was a bond of fidelity at one time 
 among lovers. This came from very 
 remote times, before inns and houses of 
 public accommodation were known. 
 Travellers had then to trust to the 
 hospitality of strangers living on the 
 road, and it was customary at parting to 
 divide some article, such as a white 
 stone or small coin, and for the host and 
 guest each to take a part, that if the 
 host required similar hospitality from 
 his guest, he might claim it by showing 
 the token. In the Revelation of St. 
 John this custom is referred to (ii. 17), 
 where Christ says, 'To him that over- 
 cometh will I give a white stone,' so tha.t 
 at the day of judgment he may demand 
 admission into heaven. 
 
 It stares, beckons, points to the piece of gold 
 We brake between us. — The low Breaker, iii. 1 
 (163G). 
 
 Breast-laws. The common law of 
 the Isle of Man. The code being (iju.s 
 non scriptum is deposited in the heart 
 or breast of the deemsters and keys {q.v.). 
 
 Breda [Compromise of), 1566. 
 {Peace of), 31 June, 1667, between 
 England, France, and Denmark. 
 
 Breeches. See 'Procession of the 
 Black Breeches.' 
 
 Breeches Bible {The), 15''>7- 
 Printed by Whittingham, Gilby, and 
 Sampson. So called because Gen. iii. 7 
 runs thus : ' The eyes of them bothe were 
 opened. . . . and they sewed figge-tree 
 leaves together and made themselves 
 breeches.' Also called the ' Geneva Bible.' 
 
 Breeches Martyrs. O'Brien, M.P. 
 and several other Irishmen imprisoned 
 in 1889 for exciting the Irish to rebellion 
 during the turbulent times of the Land 
 League, refused to put on the prison 
 dress, and went without their breeches, 
 shivering with cold. Ridiculed by the 
 general j)ublic as the ' breechless martyrs.' 
 
 Breeches Review {The). The 
 
 'Westminster Review,' so called from 
 Francis Place, a West-end breeches- 
 maker who had a considerable share 
 both in the proj)erty and also in its con- 
 duct. 
 
 BrefFni. Comprised the present 
 Irish counties of Cavan and Leitrim. 
 Cavan was called Breffni O'Reilly ; and 
 Leitrim was Breffni O'Ruark. 
 
 Dermot JlacMurrogh, king of Leinster, eloped 
 •with the wife of O liuark of Breffni, who appealed 
 to the monarch. — O'Connor, Hist, of the IrishPeople, 
 p. 43. 
 
 Brehon Laws. In Ireland. Un- 
 written or traditional laws. These laws 
 were reduced to writing about 440. As, 
 not unfrequently, the Brehon laws were 
 rei^ugnant to the laws of God and man, 
 they were abolished in Anglo-Ireland by 
 the Statute of Kilkenny 40 Edw. III., 1366 ; 
 and the abolition was extended to the 
 whole island by James I. 
 
 Brehon in Ireland meant a 'judge,' and Brehon 
 law was justice adininistered by the chief of a clan 
 to those of his owTi tribe. The Erehon sat in the 
 open air on a stone or mound. Spenser calls the 
 Brehon laws ' a rule of right unwritten.' That is, 
 not deriving its authority by written statutea. 
 The writing was simply a record of existing laws. 
 So -with tlie • common law' of England. 
 
120 
 
 BRENNUS 
 
 BEETON 
 
 Brenims. No proper name, but a 
 corrupt Cymric "word, bretihin meaning 
 ' king.' It was a Brennus who sacked 
 Rome in the days of Camillus, B.C. 390. 
 Another Brennus invaded Greece, and 
 was defeated B.C. 280. 
 
 Brethren, Brethren! sm, 1832. 
 The Plymouth Brethren call themselves 
 only ' Brethren,' and their religious 
 system they call * Brethrenism.' They 
 practise no rites and have no ministers. 
 According to the teaching of these 
 Christians, to preach the Gospel is to 
 deny that the Saviour's work is finished. 
 
 However, they baptize one another, which is a 
 rite. See ' Brothers.' 
 
 Brethren of Good Will {The). 
 See ' Brethren of Social Life.' 
 
 Brethren of Our Lady of 
 Mount Olivet, or Olivetans, 1272. 
 
 An offset of the Benedictines, founded by 
 John Tolomei. The brethren devoted 
 themselves chiefly to teaching and the 
 cultivation of sacred science. 
 
 Brethren of St. Alexius. See 
 * Alexians.' 
 
 Brethren of St. George (The), 
 1472. See ' Brotherhood of St. George.' 
 
 Brethren of Social Life {The), 
 1376. Founded in Holland by Geert 
 Groote and Florentius Radewin, not 
 unlike the subsequent society known as 
 the ' United Brethren ' or Moravians. 
 They enjoined a community of goods, 
 ascetic habits, the use of the vernacular 
 tongue in all religious services, and ac- 
 knowledged no conventual distinctions 
 ('all ye are brethren'). In 1430 they 
 umnbered 130 societies. 
 
 Brethren of the Christian 
 Schools. 'Freres des ecoles clire'tiennes,' 
 1681, instituted at Reims by Canon J. B. 
 de la Salle, for the gratuitous education 
 of children in the elements of religion. 
 The brethren wore a large black robe 
 and square cap. This order survived 
 the Revolution, and was legalised in 1808. 
 
 Brethren of the Common Lot 
 {The). See ' Bretlrren of Social Life.' 
 
 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 
 1065, or ' Fratricelli.' Censured by the 
 Council of Vienna in 1311, and persecuted 
 by Karl IV. in 1369. They took their 
 name from Rom. viii. 2. ' The law of the 
 spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath made 
 us free from the law of sin and death.' 
 
 Their doctrine was a sort of pantheistic 
 mysticism. They said that all things 
 emanate from God, and will revert to 
 Him again ; that rational souls are part 
 of God, that the whole universe is God, 
 that by divine contemplation the soul is 
 converted into the divine essence and 
 becomes free from sin. 
 
 Brethren of the Holy Cross 
 {The), 17th cent. The Rosicrucians, said 
 to have been founded by Christian 
 Rosencreutz, who died 1484, and bound 
 his disciples not to make public any of 
 his doctrines till 120 years after his death, 
 The Rosicrucians were credited with pos- 
 sessing the secret of gold-making, keep- 
 ing lights burning for centuries, and other 
 alchemic secrets. 
 
 Brethren of the Passion {The). 
 
 A company of pilgrims authorised to re- 
 present dramatically in cathedrals and 
 other churches religious ')nysteries, such 
 as the Licarnation, the Crucifixion, the 
 Holy Trinity, the Real Presence, the 
 Resurrection, &c. (13th to 15th cent.). 
 
 Brethren of the White Caps, 
 
 13th cent. The followers of one 
 Durand, a carpenter, so called because 
 their headgear was of white linen. They 
 bound themselves not to play dice, not 
 to frequent taverns, to wear no affected 
 clothing, to avoid perjury and all vain 
 swearing. They also forbade the lords 
 from taking ' dues ' from their vassals. 
 
 Bretigny {Treaty of), 8 May, 1360. 
 Between France and England, in which 
 Edward III. renounced all pretensions 
 to the crown of France ; abandoned his 
 claim to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine ; 
 but, on the other hand, his duchy of 
 Aquitaine (including Gascony, Guienne, 
 Poitou and Saintonge) remained to him, 
 not as a fief, but in full sovereignty ; while 
 his new conquest of Calais continued till 
 the reign of Queen Mary a possession of 
 the English crown. 
 
 King Jean was taken captive and brought to 
 London, when his ransom was fixed at 8,000,000 
 gold crowns (about 1,500,000L sterling). When he 
 went to France to collect the money, he left his 
 son, the Due d'Anjou, as a hostage ; but the duke 
 ran away, and Jean returned to Loudon, where 
 he died in 1364. 
 
 Breton Club {The), 1789. Founded 
 at Versailles at the instigation of Lafay- 
 ette by the deputies of Brittany. It was 
 subsequently transferred to Paris, and 
 became the famous ' Club des Jacobins.' 
 
BUETTS 
 
 BRIDGEWATER 
 
 121 
 
 The Breton club was formed because the 
 king (Louis XYI.) over and over again 
 refused to see their deputations, sent to 
 remonstrate against his arbitrary con- 
 duct. 
 
 Bretts and Scots. Bretts were the 
 remains of the British or "Welsh people in 
 Scotland. At one time the ' British ' 
 were the chief inhabitants of Dumbarton, 
 Renfrew, Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, 
 Roxburgh, Dumfries, and Cumberland ; 
 and this province was called ' Cambria,' 
 ' Cumbria,' and ' Strathclyde.' In the 
 middle of the 10th cent, it was a tributary 
 to England, and continued so into the 
 12th cent., when Cumberland became a 
 part of England. 
 
 The Scots were a Keltic people dwell- 
 ing in the western and northern parts, 
 and were called the 'wild Scots,' the 
 * Irishry of Scotland,' and ' Scotch High- 
 landers.' 
 
 The * Laws of the Bretts and Scots ' 
 were abolished by Edward I. 
 
 Bretwalda. An Anglo-Saxon chief 
 chosen to command the army {Bi'etwald, 
 British ruler). 
 
 I. Ella of Sussex, 491-514. 
 
 II. Ceawlin of Wessex. 5.-^4-592. 
 
 III. Ethelbert of Kent, 507 to Feb. 616. 
 
 IV. Kedwald of East Anglia, 616. 
 
 V. Edwiii of Northumbria, king of all England 
 except Kent. 620 to Oct. 633. 
 
 VI. Oswald of Northumbria, 635 to 5 Aug., 642. 
 
 VII. Oswy (his brother) of Northumbria, 651 to 
 15 Feb., 670. 
 
 VIII. Egbert of Wessex, 827-8P.7. Also king. 
 
 IX. Alfred the Great, 871. Also king. 
 
 X. Edgar the Pacific, 958. Also king. 
 
 Breviarium Alaricianum, a.d- 
 
 506. An abridgment of the Theodosian 
 Code by Alaric II., king of the Visigoths. 
 
 Breviary {The), 494. A book con- 
 taining the canonical hours of the Latin 
 church, viz. Matins, Lauds, Prime, Tierce, 
 Sexte, None, Vespers, and Compline. It 
 is called a breviary because it contains in 
 a brief or abridged form the several offices. 
 An ecclesiastic ought to go through his 
 breviary daily. The original breviary 
 was the work of Pope Gelasius, a.d. 484, 
 but it has been often modified. The 
 Greek breviary is called ' Eueology,' and 
 is more ancient than the Latin, going 
 back to the time of Chrysostom, who died 
 409. 
 
 Originally it consisted of the Lord's Prayer and 
 extracts from the Psalms. Subsequently short 
 readings (lessons! from the Scriptures were added. 
 
 •.• The Breviary is quite a distinct book from the 
 Missal (.q.v.). 
 
 a 
 
 Brian (Born) king of Munster, in the 
 10th cent. He was slain in the battle of 
 Clontarf on Good Friday 1014. 
 
 Bridewell, 1522. Was built by 
 Henry VIII. for a royal palace, for the 
 reception of Karl V. and his retinue, but 
 sometimes the king himself lived there ; 
 in 1553 the palace was given by Edward VI. 
 to the city of London for a workhouse and 
 house of correction. In 1666 it was burnt 
 down in the fire of London. Bridewell is 
 the name of the parish, so called from a 
 well dedicated to St. Bride. 
 
 Bridge of Sighs (The), or Ponte 
 dei Sospiri, Venice. Connecting the 
 Prigioni Sotterraneo with the judgment 
 hall of the doge's palace. Those who 
 passed over it after their trial were prison- 
 ers on their way to execution. 
 
 Ruskln says it is renaissance of the IGth cent. 
 After the great fire of 1674 the prisons previously 
 connected -uith the palace were moved to the other 
 side. Whether Niccolo da Ponte, the doge, who 
 died in 1578, had any connection with the word 
 ' Ponte ' in the phrase I cannot determine. The 
 bridge was the work of Jacopo Tatti Sansovino, the 
 architect (1479-1570). 
 
 Bridge of Straw, Venice, (The). 
 ' Ponte della Paglia.' One of the bridges 
 which connected the prisons with the 
 doge's palace. So calted because when the 
 nobles rode to the council they left their 
 horses at the foot of this bridge in charge 
 of grooms, and they were either stabled 
 or baited, or both. 
 
 Bridge water Canal {The), 1760. 
 From Worsley to Manchester, cut by 
 Brmdley under the direction of the Duke 
 of Bridgewater. 
 
 Bridge water Collection (The), 
 1829. In the MS. department of the 
 British Museum. Collected by the last 
 earl of Bridgewater. Chiefly MSS. relat- 
 ing to French history. 
 
 Bridgewater Treatises {The), 
 1829. Francis Henry Egerton, 8th and 
 last Earl of Bridgewater, placed 8,000Z. at 
 the disposal of the president of the Royal 
 Society to be paid to eight persons ap- 
 pointed by him to publish 1,000 copies of 
 a work on the goodness of God mani- 
 fested in his works, from eight stand- 
 points. Whewell was appointed to take 
 general physics considered in connection 
 with natural theology. Buckland, geo- 
 logy and mineralogy. Bell, the human 
 hand. Roget, animal and vegetable 
 physiology. Prout, chemistiy and the 
 functions of digestion. Chalmers, ex- 
 
122 
 
 BRIGANDAGE 
 
 BRITAIN 
 
 temal nature adapted to man's moral and 
 intellectual constitution. Kidd, on the 
 adaptation of nature to man's physical 
 condition. And Kibby, the history, 
 habits, and instincts of animals. 
 
 Brigandage of Ephesus (The), 
 A.D. 449. A council of Ephesus, which 
 condemned Theodoret, one of the Chris- 
 tian fathers, and defended Eutyches the 
 heresiarch, who maintained that the 
 humanity of Christ was absorbed in his 
 divine nature. The Council was called 
 ' Latrocinium,' the assembly of thieves 
 and robbers. 
 
 Brig^s's Logarithms. Construc- 
 ted by Henry Briggs, a contemporary of 
 Baron Napier (1556-1630). 
 
 Bright's Disease. A fatty de- 
 generation of the tissues of the kidneys. 
 So called from Dr. R. Bright, who was the 
 first to investigate the character of the 
 disease in 1837. 
 
 Brighton of the Riviera {The) 
 or 'Brighton of the South,' Nice. 
 
 Brilliant Madman (T/ie). Charles 
 XII. of Sweden (1697-1710). He com- 
 pelled the Danes to make peace, dethron- 
 ed the king of Poland, and waged war 
 with Russia for a time with success ; but, 
 being defeated by Czar Peter the Great 
 at Pultowa, Sweden fell from her high 
 estate as a first-class power. 
 
 Brinvilliers, the poisoner, was Marie 
 Madeleine d'Aubray, marquise de Brinvil- 
 liers (1630-1676). She poisoned her 
 father, her two brothers, and a sister. She 
 was tortured, beheaded, and then burnt 
 to ashes in Paris, 16 July, 1676. 
 
 Brissot (Jean-Pierre). The French 
 revolutionist (1754-1793) ; was the first to 
 abandon the use of hair-powder, and was 
 the first victim of Robespierre. He as- 
 sumed the dress of a quaker, and the 
 name of De Warville. 
 
 Brissotins. The followers of Jean- 
 Pierre Brissot in the first French revolu- 
 tion. Brissot was editor of the journal 
 called ' Le Patriote Fran(jais,' and was 
 one of the moving spirits of the times. 
 He was a member of the Convention, but 
 was opposed to the Montagnards, which 
 drew upon him the wrath of Robespierre, 
 who caused him to be proscribed 31 May, 
 and he was put to death 31 Oct., 1793. 
 
 Bristol Fashion (In). Blethodical, 
 in apple-pie order. In the great mass 
 meeting, 18 Oct., 1884, a route of above 
 three miles was observed in one un- 
 broken line. No cheering disturbed the 
 stately solemnity; no one ran to give 
 any direction ; no noise of any kind was 
 heard ; but on, in one unbroken line, 
 steady and stately, marched the throng 
 in ' Bristol fashion ' (' Daily News,' 20 
 Oct., 1884). 
 
 Bristol Riots (The), Sunday, 29 
 Oct., 1831, on the visit of Sir Charles 
 Wetherell. It was during the excitement 
 of the Reform Bill, which had been 
 thrown out by the House of Lords. Sir 
 Charles, a tory, entered with a cavalcade 
 in a kind of triumph, and the mob rose 
 in rebellion. The bridewell, the new 
 gaol, the Gloucester county prison, several 
 of the toll-houses, the bishop's palace, 
 the mansion-house, the custom-house, 
 the excise-office, and several private 
 houses were set on fire. About 110 
 persons were killed, and three of the 
 ringleaders were executed. The loss of 
 property sustained was over half a million 
 sterling. 
 
 Bristolians or Bristolites (3 syl.). 
 Prize-fighters in the regency, of the 
 Bristol school. Bristol was famous for 
 the three pugilists, Jem Belcher (who 
 had lost one eye), Thomas Cribb (once a 
 coal-porter), and Molineux. The other 
 school of boxers was called the ' Hebrews,' 
 of which Mendoza was the chief ex- 
 ponent. The Prince Regent was a 
 Bristolian, and his brother Frederick, 
 duke of York, was a partisan of the 
 Hebrew rivals. Much to the annoyance 
 of the general public, the Prince Regent 
 actually attached Tlaomas Cribb to his 
 household. See * Boxers.' 
 
 Britain [Bulers of), before Egbert. 
 
 (Those in Italics were praetors, propraetors, or 
 prsefects of Rome.) 
 
 Segonax B.C. 38-20 
 
 Temantius 20 to A.D. 2 
 
 CunobelinJ (Cymbeline) (at Camelodti- 
 
 num) 2-31 
 
 Adminius 81-40 
 
 Caractacus and Togodumnos (sons of 
 
 Cunobelin) 40-51 
 
 Pub. Ostorius Scapula, prietor 50-53 
 
 Didius, proprietor 53-57 
 
 Veraniiis , 57-58 
 
 Paiilums Suetonius 58-fi2 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the IcSni 60-62 
 
 Petroniiis Turpilianus 62-70 
 
 Petilius Cerealis 7C-7B 
 
 Cnxtis Julius A pricola 7ti-8:> 
 
 Gladus, king oiE the Icenl „. ... ^ 7J 
 
 J 
 
BRITAIN 
 
 BRITISH 
 
 123 
 
 TrebelUus „. ... A.D. 86-120 
 
 Hadrian, emperar 120 
 
 Severus,pr,etor 120-1:38 
 
 LoUiui Urbiciii 138-161 
 
 Calpumius Aqncola ... 161-183 
 
 Vlpius Marcellus 183-186 
 
 Pertinax 186-192 
 
 Clodius AlUnut 192-196 
 
 r. Lupus 196-206 
 
 (Sfverus, the emperor, died at York 211) 
 
 INo narrws given till 257) 
 
 Pofthumui.proprcetor 257-276 
 
 Boiiosus 276 
 
 Marcus Aurellua Carausius 287-2y3 
 
 (Iievolts,and assumes the title of Augustus, 
 
 in Britain) 
 
 Alectus, emperor of Britain 293-296 
 
 (He murdered Carausius) 
 
 Asclepiodotus, captain of the guard 296-804 
 
 (Slew Alect}is ; and acted as prtetor) 
 
 Britain joined to tlie pnrfeclure of Gaul ... 804 
 
 Constantius Chlorus, with imperial power 804-806 
 
 (IHed at York) 
 
 Constantino the Great S06-aT5 
 
 Constantino II 835-340 
 
 Constans 840-850 
 
 Constantius 850-H60 
 
 Julian and Lupicus.prators 860-361 
 
 Lupicus alone „, H62 
 
 Nectaridius „ 862-.%7 
 
 Theodocitis the Ancient, proprietor ... ^. 867-;^78 
 
 Gratian (emperor) ... ... 878-395 
 
 (.Kevolt of Maximus 881) 
 
 VIctorlnus „. 895-403 
 
 Stilicho, prator ... ... ... 4'j;h-408 
 
 Constantine, picefeci 4^/8-421 
 
 (Romans recalled 421) 
 
 Vortigern, king ol the Brltona 445 
 
 (Dethroned 454) 
 
 Ambrosius and Vortimer 454-457 
 
 ( Vortigern restored 454 ; deposed by 
 
 Hengist 4.55) 
 
 Ambrosius sole nominalking 508 
 
 Hengist ... 457-483 
 
 Ella, bret-walda of Britain 491-519 
 
 Cerdic 619-584 
 
 (A rthur is said to have reigned 518-C42) 
 
 Kenri<5 684-560 
 
 Coeline 560 
 
 Chevline „ ... 560-589 
 
 Ethelbert, king of Kpnt 689-616 
 
 (St. AugiLitine arrives) 
 
 Redwald of East Anglia ... 616-624 
 
 Edwin the Great of Mercia 624 635 
 
 Oswald of Northumhria 635-642 
 
 Oswv of Northumbria 642-G70 
 
 Wolfhere of Btfrcia 670-075 
 
 Ethelred of Mci-cia ... 675-704 
 
 Cenred of Mercia 7C4-716 
 
 Ethelbald of Mercia 716-757 
 
 Offa of Mercia 757-7^14 
 
 Egfryd of Mercia 794-795 
 
 Cenolf of Mercia ... 795-629 
 
 Egbert sole king 
 
 (He was bretwalda in 827) 
 
 Britain. The Romans divided it 
 into five parts : 
 
 1. Britannia Prima : all the southern 
 counties from Kent to Cornwall. 
 
 2. Britannia Secunda : Wales, Here- 
 ford, Monmouthshire, with parts of Shrop- 
 shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucester- 
 shire. 
 
 3. Flavia Ccesariensis : all between 
 the north of the Thames and the wall of 
 Severus, and between the Blersey and 
 the Humber, i.e. Lincoln, Nottingham, 
 Leicester, Cheshire, and part of Shrop- 
 tihire. 
 
 4. Valentima : Northumberland, part 
 of Cumberland, and the south of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 5. Maxima Ccesariensis: Lancashire 
 and Yorkshire. 
 
 Britain {Little), Aldersgate Street, 
 London. So called from the Earl of 
 Breton, whose mansion stood on the 
 site. Brittany is so-called by Waller. 
 
 Britain of the South. New 
 
 Zealand. 
 
 Britannia on the copper coins was 
 first adopted by Charles II. The academy 
 figure of Britannia was Louise de Querou- 
 aille, created by the king duchess of 
 Portsmouth. The general design was 
 copied from the coins of Antoninus Pius, 
 in which is a female figure holding a 
 sceptre, and sitting on a rock, the whole 
 encompassed by the word Bbitannia. 
 
 Some say that Britannia Is meant for Francea 
 Theresa Stuart, duchess of Richmond ; others say- 
 it is meant for Barbara Villiers, duchess of Cleve- 
 land. Ihe probability in favour of Lomso de 
 Querouaille is this : tho coinage dates from 1672, 
 and a son by Louise was born t)ie same year, and 
 she was created duchess of Portsmouth in 1673; 
 BO that at the time she was the reigning favourite. 
 Querouaille, pronounce Ker-wail. 
 
 Britannia Prima. One of the 
 
 five provinces into which Britain was 
 divided in the reign of the Emperor 
 Severus. It included all the country 
 south of the Thames and the estuary of 
 the Severn, It had its own ruler (called 
 presses), who was subject to the prsefect 
 or governor-general of the island. 
 
 Britannia Rediviva. A birthday 
 ode by Dryden. His Pollio, who was 
 to usher in the Golden Age, was the son 
 of James II. and Mary of Modena, known 
 in history as that very poor creature 
 called ' The Old Pretender.' Dryden 
 might be a good poet, but certainly he 
 was no prophet. 
 
 Britannia Secunda. One of the 
 five provinces into which Britain was 
 divided in the reign of the Emperor 
 Severus. It included that part of the 
 island lying between the Severn and the 
 sea, now called Wales. It had its own 
 ruler (called prceses), who was subject to 
 the prasfect or governor-general of the 
 island. 
 
 British Association (The). L 
 In 1831. To give a stronger impulse 
 and more sj'stematic direction to scientific 
 inquiry; to promote the mtercourse of 
 
121 
 
 BRITISH 
 
 BROMSBEna 
 
 scientific men generally ; to obtain more 
 general attention to objects of science, 
 and a removal of whatever impedes its 
 progress. First meeting was held at 
 York. 
 
 II. In 1846-1847, for the relief of the 
 starving Irish and Scotch during the 
 potato famine. It was under the direc- 
 tion of Mr. Jones Lloyd (Lord Overstone) 
 and Mr. Thomas Baring, and the collec- 
 tion was 269,302?., to which was added 
 collections made in churches of 209,738Z., 
 total 470,041 Z., of which one-sixth was 
 sent to the highlands of Scotland and 
 the rest to Ireland. 
 
 British Columbia, 1859. A terri- 
 tory about 420 miles in length (extending 
 from the Rocky Mountains on the east to 
 the Pacific), with an average breadth of 
 800 miles from the American frontier 
 northwards. It includes Vancouver's 
 Island. 
 
 British Kings. According to the 
 ' Chronicles of the Celtic Kings,' Japhet 
 was the first British king. T.us is not 
 given as history, but it is worth knowing 
 as a tradition. 
 
 British Ijegion in Spain (The), 
 1838, The 1,200 men under the command 
 of Colonel Evans which Lord Palmerston 
 permitted to serve the Queen of Spain in 
 the Carlist civil war, by doing which he 
 suspended the Foreign Enlistment Act. 
 
 British Lion ( The). Richard Cosur 
 de Lion (1157, 11S9-1199). 
 
 So early were his heroic energies displayed, that 
 he -was called ' The British Lion ' before he beg • u 
 his reign.— Sharon Tuenek, Hist, of England, vol. 
 1. p. 301. 
 
 British Mnsenm (The), 1753. 
 Began with the library and curiosities of 
 Sir Hans Sloane, purchased for 20,000Z., 
 and deposited in Old Montague House, 
 Bloomsbury (the house was built by the 
 first Duke of Montague for his residence). 
 Townley's collection of marbles was 
 purchase d by the nation in 1805 ; " his 
 gems, coins, and bronzes in 1814. The 
 Elgin Marbles were purchased for the 
 nation in 1816; and Blacas's collection 
 of antiquities in 1867. See * Townley 
 Marbles,' ' Elgin Marbles.' 
 
 British Museum Library (The), 
 1753. The library of Sir Hans Sloane, 
 and the MSS. collected by Harley (earl of 
 Oxford) and his son, were purchased by 
 the British Museum. In 1757 George II. 
 
 presented to the Museum the 'Royal 
 library,' and the Cottonian library was 
 then transferred thither (the Cottonian 
 library was collected by Sir R. B. Cotton, 
 who died in 1031). In 1823 the splendid 
 library of George III. was presented to 
 the Museum by George IV. In 1847 
 the Grenville library was bequeathed to 
 the Museum. In 1857 the new reading- 
 room was opened, and the miUtary guard 
 was discontinued in 1863. 
 
 British ITorth America Aet 
 
 (The), 1807. The instrument of Federa- 
 tion, constituted as the 'Dominion of 
 Canada.' 
 
 British Solomon (The). James I. 
 (1566, 1603-1625). Sully called him 
 ' the most learned (not the wisest) fool in 
 Christendom.' The poet Hawes calls 
 Henry VII. the ' British Solomon.' 
 
 British Thaumaturgus (The). 
 St. Cuthbert, who died 688. 
 
 Broad Bottom Administration 
 
 (The). From Aug. 1743 to March 1754, 
 formed by Pelham and dissolved at his 
 death. It succeeded the Grenville ad- 
 ministration. It was called ' Broad Bot- 
 tomed ' because it included both "Whigs 
 and Tories. Lord Hardwicke (chan- 
 cellor) ; Pelham (first lord, &c.) ; Duke 
 of Newcastle and Earl Harrington (secre- 
 taries of state) ; Duke of Devonshire 
 (steward of the household) ; Bedford 
 and Sandwich (admiralty); Earl Gower 
 (privy seal) ; Lyttelton, Marquis of 
 Tweeddale, Earl Harrington, Mr. Gren- 
 ville, Sir John Hynde Cotton, Bubb 
 Dodington, Cobham Hobart, and the 
 Duke of Dorset were the other members. 
 It contained nine dukes, seven of whont 
 were in the cabinet, viz. — Argyll, Bed- 
 ford, Dorset, Grafton, Montagu, New- 
 castle, and Richmond. See ' Unionists.' 
 
 Broad Church School (The). Of 
 
 German theology, headed by Neander, a 
 convevted German Jew. His ' Universal 
 History of the Christian Religion and 
 Church' has superseded Mosheim's 
 * Ecclesiastical History.' 
 
 Brom.sberg (Treaty of), 23 Aug., 
 1645. Between Sweden and Denmark. 
 In 1643 Oxenstiern, chancellor of Sweden, 
 invaded the duchies of Holstein and 
 Sleswig, because Christian IV., jealous 
 of Sweden, had secretly tried to ruin its 
 
BRONZE 
 
 BROTHERHOOD 
 
 122 
 
 trade. After a war of two years, a con- 
 ference for peace was opened at Broms- 
 berg, through the mediation of France, 
 and in Aug. 1645 a treaty was duly 
 signed. This treaty secured to Sweden 
 exemption from the payment of the 
 Sound duties ; and the isles of Gothland 
 and Oesel were ceded in perpetuity to 
 Sweden. 
 
 Bronze Age. That period when a 
 people or race use chiefly bronze for 
 tools and weapons. Byron calls the era 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte 'the Age of 
 Bronze.' 
 
 Brook Farm. A socialistic society 
 which had its locale in the vicinity of 
 Boston, U.S. Every member contributed 
 to the general fund or paid his quota in 
 manual or other work. The idea was 
 suggested by Margaret Fuller, but the 
 society was organised by the Rev. W. H. 
 Channing. The members boarded in 
 common, dressed most economically, 
 bought at their own stores, and reduced 
 the price of living to the lowest point. 
 The evenings were spent in intellectual 
 amusements or social gatherings. The 
 speculation was an utter failure, and 
 after six years the ' Farm ' was broken 
 up. Emerson often visited the Farm, 
 and Hawthorne lived there for twelve 
 months. 
 
 Broom {Van Tromp's). Dr. Lin- 
 gard, in his ' Hist, of Engl.,' viii. 5, tells us 
 that in 1652, while Admiral Blake (sup- 
 posing the naval operations for the year 
 to be over) had detached a large part of 
 his fleet. Van Tromp came into the 
 Downs with a fleet double the size of 
 that commanded at the time by Blake. 
 A battle ensued, but at night Admiral 
 Blake ran up the river as far as Leigh. 
 Van Tromp insulted the coast as he 
 sought to renew the fight, cruising back- 
 wards and forwards from the North 
 Foreland to the Isle of Wight. Intoxi- 
 cated with his success, he now fastened 
 a broom to the head of his mast to 
 indicate that he had swejit the English 
 from the sea ; but next year, 18 Feb., 
 Blake met Van Tromp on an equal 
 footing, when the victory rested with the 
 English, the loss of the Dutch being 11 
 men-of-war and 30 merchant-men. 
 
 He gives as his authorities : Heath, p. 335 ; 
 \Yhitelook, p. 551; Leicester s 'Journal,' 138; Le 
 Clorc, i. 32o, and Basnago, i. 2<J8-301. 
 
 Brother Protectors {The). A 
 secret republican society of France and 
 Lombardy, sprung from the Carbonari, 
 after the unsuccessful outbreak of 24 
 June, 1817. 
 
 Brothers and Sisters of the Free 
 Spirit, 13th cent. Sprang up in the 
 Rhine country and spread into France 
 and Italy. As the ' Spirit had made 
 them free,' they claimed perfect civil, 
 moral, and religious freedom. They set 
 aside the marriage tie and acknowledged 
 no church. Their religion was a mixture 
 of pantheism and antinomianism. They 
 were condemned by the synod of Cologne 
 in 130G, and by that of Treves in 1310. 
 
 Brothers of Charity, 1520. 
 Established for visiting and administer- 
 ing to the sick. Approved by Paul V. 
 in 1621, and subjected to the rule of St. 
 Augustine. In Europe they dress in black, 
 in America in brown. See ' Brethren.' 
 
 Brothers of the Cross. I. A name 
 adopted by the Jesuits after the society 
 was suppressed by Clement XIV. in 1773. 
 See ' Paccanarists.' 
 
 II. The Flagellants. See 'Brother- 
 hood of the Cross.' 
 
 Brothers of the Pen {The). A 
 trade-guild at Brussels, in the middle of 
 the 15tli cent., for the coj)ying of manu- 
 scripts, and their illuminations, hitherto 
 confined to the scriptoria of religious 
 houses. Some twenty years later the 
 introduction of j)rinting revolutionised 
 the literary world of Europe. 
 
 Brothers of the Teutonic 
 House of our Lady of Jerusalem 
 
 {The). The ' Teutonic knights ' {q_.v.). 
 
 Brotherhood of St. George 
 
 {The), 1472-1494. A short-hved fraternity 
 of arms constituted by Act of Parliament 
 in the reign of Edward IV., and consisting 
 of 13 gentlemen chosen from the four 
 counties of the Pale : for Kildare 4 ; for 
 Dublin 8, one of which was the lord 
 mayor of the time being ; for Meath 4, 
 one of which was the senescLi 1 , and for 
 Louth 2, one of which was tlie mayor of 
 Drogheda. They met annually to elect 
 a captain on St. George's Day and main- 
 tained 120 mounted archers, 40 horse- 
 men, and 40 pages, for the protection of 
 the English border. 
 
126 
 
 BEOTHERHOOD 
 
 •BRYANITES 
 
 Brotherhood of St. Patrick 
 
 (The), about 18G3. An Irish secret 
 society, a branch of the Ribbon associa- 
 tion {q.v.), their platform being simiUxr 
 to that of the Fenians. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Brotherhood of Thomas h 
 
 Becket {The), 1300. A merchants' 
 company chartered in 1406 by Henry IV. 
 
 Brotherhood of the Cross (The). 
 The Flagellants (q.v.) so called them- 
 selves. They wore a cross on their 
 breast, another on their back, and a third 
 on their hat ; and took upon themselves 
 to do penance for the sins of the people. 
 AH who joined the brotherhood had full 
 forgiveness of sins for 33 days, a day for 
 a year of Christ's sojourn upon earth. 
 
 Broughtonian {A). A boxer, so 
 called from Broughton the beefeater, 
 who was the best boxer of his day. 
 
 Brown Monarch of Ireland 
 
 (TJie). Rotherick O'Conor, called don, 
 dun, or dliu, king of Connaught (1116- 
 1198). 
 
 Browne Scholarship, for classics. 
 
 Value 211., tenable for seven years. 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge, 
 by Sir William Browne, M.D., 1774. 
 See ' Regius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Urowne's Medals {Sir William). 
 (1) For a Greek ode in imitation of 
 Sappho ; (2) for a Latin ode in imitation 
 of Horace ; (3) for a Greek and Latin 
 epigram. Each medal to be gold, 
 worth 51. For undergraduates in the 
 University of Cambridge. Founded by 
 Sir Wilham Browne, M^D., in 1774. See 
 'Regius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Brownists, 1580. The followers of 
 Robert Brown, educated at Corpus 
 Christi College, Cambridge. He main- 
 tained that the Scriptures ought to be 
 followed in all matters of discipline, as 
 well as in matters of doctrine. That 
 every congregation is a church, indepen- 
 dent, and with power to settle its own 
 discipline and government. Whence 
 they were called 'Independents' and 
 ' Congi'egationalists.' 
 
 The Brownists were rigid Separatists, the Robin- 
 Bonians only semi-separatists. The Brownists, as 
 ultra-puritans, looked on the Established Church 
 as unchristian, and refused communion with it. 
 Thaeker and Copping, two Brownists, BUtfered 
 doatb. 
 
 Bruno {Giordano), 1530-1600. Ha 
 was burnt to death for what was called 
 ' heresy,' but his heresy consisted in his 
 belief that this earth of ours is not the 
 only pai't of the universe inhabited by 
 intelligent beings; that the temporal 
 power of the pope is an anomaly ; and 
 that thought should be free. In 1889 
 the Italians, Germans, Swiss, and some 
 others, erected a bronze statue to the 
 'martyr,' executed by Signor Ettori Fer- 
 rari. It stands on a granite pedestal, 
 adorned with bas-reliefs. The ceremony 
 of unveiling took place on Whitsun Bay, 
 9 June ; a procession of above 3,000 took 
 part in it, and 200 flags were carried. 
 The statue stands in the Campo dei 
 Fiori, on the spot where Bruno was 
 burnt to death. 
 
 Brunswick {Line of). See 'Hanover 
 &c.' 
 Brunswick Clubs and 'Bruns- 
 
 wickers,' 1828. Clubs organised to coun- 
 teract the Catholic Association {q.v.). 
 Called Brunswick because George III. 
 was most resolute against any conces- 
 sions to the Roman Catholics. Frederick, 
 duke of York, shared his father's hos- 
 tility, and so did George IV. Members 
 of these clubs were called ' Brunswickers.' 
 The Duke of Newcastle, Lord Winchelsea, 
 and Lord Kenyon led the way to the 
 formation of Brunswick clubs in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The Catholic Association led to a counter-organ- 
 isation of the Protestants, in the form of Brunswick 
 clubs. This organisation embraced the whole of 
 tiie Protestant peasantry (of Ireland), north and 
 south, the Protestant farmers, and many of the 
 gi5ntry. They held their regular meetings . . .and 
 had their ' rent ' to bear the expense of the agita- 
 tion.— HowiTT, Hist, of England (year 1828, p. l'2o). 
 
 Brunswick Manifesto {The), 25 
 July, 1792. A manifesto of the Duke of 
 Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the 
 united armies of Prussia and Austria, 
 sent to put down the French revolution. 
 Tlie duke stated in this foolish and in- 
 sulting document that he had been sent 
 by the sovereigns of Europe 'to lay 
 Paris in the dust, and to crush the 
 republican vipers under his heel.' 
 Brunswick was thoroughly beaten by the 
 revolutionists. 
 
 Bryanites (3 syl.), 1815. The fol- 
 lowers of William Bryan, a local 
 preacher, who separated from the 
 Methodist connection, and introduced a 
 more popular element in his scheme of 
 
BEYCE 
 
 BUFFON 
 
 127 
 
 church government. Like the Methodists 
 they are great open-air preachers, and 
 receive the Lord's Supper sitting. 
 
 Bryce, or Brice (St.). Bishop of 
 Tours ; he succeeded St. Martin about 
 400, but was driven from his see by the 
 mob, and took refuge in Rome. Subse- 
 quently he returned to Tours, where he 
 died in 444. His day is 13 Nov. 
 
 Bryce's Day {St.), 13 Nov., 1002. 
 Memorable for the massacre of the 
 Danes in England. They had accepted 
 heavy bribes time after time from Ethel- 
 red II. the Unready to quit the kingdom, 
 but always returned again to commit 
 further devastation. At length, by un- 
 wise policy (un-ready policy), it was re- 
 solved to massacre all the Danes in the 
 kingdom. As might have been expected, 
 this roused the vengeance of the Danes, 
 and next year Sweyn appeared with a 
 more formidable army to avenge his 
 countrymen. 
 
 Bubble Act (The), 1719. 6 George L 
 c. 18 ; to punish the promoters of bubble 
 schemes. Repealed 5 July, 1825. 
 
 Buccaneers, 1528-1G97. In French 
 ' Flibustiers.' An association of seamen 
 whose object was to effect landings 
 forcibly on the shores of the New World, 
 locked against them by Spanish guarcla- 
 costas. Originally the English and the 
 French united for the purpose, and were 
 afterwards joined by the Portuguese and 
 the Dutch. Thomas Tyson was the first 
 to fit out a fleet which ravaged several of 
 the West India Islands (1526); but the 
 most renowned buccaneer was Henry 
 Morgan, a Welshman. In the reign of 
 William III. the French flibustiers were 
 the sworn enemies of the British bucca- 
 neers ; and at the treaty of Ryswick, in 
 1097, all these piratic expeditions were 
 suppressed. 
 
 Bueentaur (The). The state barge 
 of the Venetians. A flashy cumbersome 
 'Lord Mayor's Coach,' some 100 feet 
 long and 21 broad, with 32 banks of oars, 
 manned by 168 rowers. All the fittings 
 were gorgeous in the extreme. It was 
 employed every year when the doge 
 * married the Atlantic,' and also to con- 
 duct guests whom the republic de- 
 lighted to honour, to the doge's palace. 
 See ' Espousal of the Adriatic' 
 
 The barge was broken up by the French 'when 
 Venice in 1797 fell into the hands of Bonaparte. 
 
 Buchanists, 1783. A Scotch sect, 
 extinct in 1846. See ' Buchanites.' 
 
 Buchanites (3 syl.), 1776, &c. 
 Followers of Mrs Buchan {nee Elspeth 
 Simpson, 1738-1791), a native of 
 Banff. She was called by her disciples 
 * Our Lady,' and had rather a numerous 
 following, who lived in common, were in- 
 dustrious, and paid their way. They 
 neither married nor were given in 
 marriage, and believed that they would be 
 taken to heaven without dying. On her 
 deathbed she told her disciples she 
 would rise again within six days, ten years, 
 or fifty years, according to the strength 
 of their faith. Andrew Innes was her 
 first disciple, and died at the age of 
 ninety, a few days after the expiry of the 
 50th anniversary of Mrs. Buchan's death. 
 
 Bucharest {TreaUj of), 28 May, 1812. 
 Between Russia and Turkey, signed 
 while Napoleon with his grand army was 
 in Russia, and meditating a descent on 
 Moscow. 
 
 Buckeye State {The). The State 
 of Ohio is so called because the buckeye 
 tree {cbscuIus flava) abounds there. 
 
 Buckingham House, London, So 
 called from John Sheffield, duke of 
 Buckingham, who built it in 1703. 
 Bought by government for Queen 
 Charlotte, in 1761. It was taken down 
 in 1825, and the present palace raised on 
 the site in the same year, but enlarged 
 by Queen Victoria in 1853. 
 
 Buckingham's Flood, Oct. 1483. 
 
 The Duke of Buckingliam, having ratted 
 from Richard III. to the Duke of Rich- 
 mond's party, set out to join his forces 
 with the other leaders ; but there fell 
 such heavy and continuous rains during 
 his whole march from Brecon through 
 the Forest of Dean to the Severn, that 
 the bridges were carried away, and all 
 the fords were rendered impassable. 
 Such rains and floods had not been 
 known in the memory of man ; and the 
 inundation of the Severn was called 
 ' Buckingham's Flood.' 
 
 Buddhist St. Augustine {The) 
 of Japan. Shodo Shonin, who, in 7b7, 
 erected the Buddhist temple of Nikko. 
 
 Buflfon. The supplemental works ol 
 Buffon's * Natural History ' are — • 
 
128 
 
 BUG 
 
 BUNDESRATH 
 
 Daubenton (1710-1800), the anatomy of animals. 
 
 Laceptde (1757-1625;, oviparous animals, serpents, 
 %vhales and fishes. Published 17^9. 
 
 Gueneau de .Uontbeillard (1720-1785), birds. 
 
 Sonnini (1751-1811), foreign birds. He published 
 an edition of Butfon in 127 vols. 
 
 Daudin (1774-1^04), reptiles. 
 
 Latreille (17iJ2-1833), insects. 
 
 Bug Bible (The), 1551. Matthew's 
 bible is so called because verse 5 Psalm 
 xci., 'Thou shalt not be afraid of the 
 terror by night,' is there translated 
 ' Thou shalt not be afraid of the bugges 
 by night.' See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Building Act Committee {TJie 
 Metropolitan). Responsible for the carry- 
 ing out of the different acts regulating 
 the height of buildings in the metropolis, 
 the materials used in their construction, 
 the thickness of the party walls, and 
 (in cases of theatres and other places 
 of public entertainment) the facilities 
 afforded for ingress and egress. 
 
 For these purposes London is divided into 74 
 districts, each under the charge of a district sur- 
 veyor appointed by the board, but paid by fees. 
 
 Building Bess of Hardwick. She 
 was thrice married. She built a former 
 Chatsworth, the existing Hardwick Hall, 
 and added ' a great parlour,' and the 
 chapel of Sutton Court, in Somersetshire. 
 
 Bulgarians {The). The Cathari 
 {q.v.) were so called sometimes from their 
 connection with the Bulgarian Paulicians. 
 
 Bull Run. See Appendix. 
 
 Bull against Luther {The). By 
 Leo X., 1521. ' In the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost, the Blessed Virgin, St. Peter and 
 St. Paul, we do curse him and those who 
 are led astray by him; and we cut oif 
 both him and them from all communion 
 of the saints. Cursed be they in i)rayer, 
 cursed in speech and in silence, in eating 
 and in sleep, in taste, in hearing, and in 
 all the other senses. Cursed in the eyes, 
 the head, and the whole body, from the 
 crown of the head to the sole of the foot. 
 I conjure Satan and his imps to torture 
 them both day and night, till they 
 perish by water, by fire, or the cord.' As 
 this bull was read in the churches, the 
 officiating priest, after the lights had been 
 extinguished, said aloud, ' As I blow out 
 these lights, may the light of life be for 
 ever hidden from their eyes. So be it. 
 Amen and amen.' 
 
 See a similar bull in ' Notes and Queries,' 21 Jan. 
 16^2, p. ii. 
 
 Bull of Pius V. {The), 27 April, 1570 
 Commanding all the faithful to break 
 with the Anglican Church, to ab.andon 
 and dethrone Elizabeth, and to subject 
 England to a foreign invader. See ' Ccena 
 Domini.' 
 
 The words ran thus : ' Declaramus Elizabethara 
 hosreticara . . . eique adhrerentes . . . anathema- 
 tis sentontiam incurrisse esseque a Christi cor- 
 poris unitate prsecisos . . . prout nos illos prjBsen- 
 tium autoritate absolvimus, et privamus eamdem 
 Elizabetham praetenso jureregni aliisque omnibus 
 Bupradictis. Proecipimusque et interdicimua 
 universis et singulis proceribus, subditis, populia, 
 et aliis preedictis, ne illi, ejusve monitis, mandatia, 
 et legibus, audeant obedire. Qui secus egerint, eoa 
 simili anathematis sententia innodamus. 
 
 •.• In 1576 Gregory XIII. supplemented the bull 
 of his predecessor by declaring that Elizabeth had 
 forfeited the crown of Ireland. 
 
 BullaAureaof Hungary, 1222. The 
 
 Magna Charta of that kingdom, exacted 
 from Andrew II., a feeble, self-willed, 
 worthless king, not unlike our King John. 
 
 Bulla Ccsnse Domini. A bull of 
 
 excommunication and anathema against 
 heretics, read before the j)eoj)le on Holy 
 Thursday. Those offences which are 
 condemned by this bull can be absolved 
 only by the pope. 
 
 Buller of Brasenose. John 
 
 Hughes is so called in Wilson's ' Noctes 
 AmbrosiaiiEB.' Hughes, however, was 
 not of Brasenose, but Oriel College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Bullies. F. J. Gall noticed that 
 all bull-eyed boys are overbearing and 
 quarrelsome. By bull-eyes he meant full 
 prominent eyes. As an historical pun 
 this connects bull-eyes with our word 
 ' bullies,' but whether the connection is 
 of any philological worth is quite another 
 matter. See ' Nab.' 
 
 Bulwer Clayton Treaty {The), 
 1850. Between Great Britain and the 
 United States of North America, respect- 
 ing the ship-canal between the Atlantic 
 and Pacific Oceans. Signed at Washing- 
 ton. This treaty bears upon the canal 
 through Lake Nicaragua. 
 
 Bund {The) of Germany. A confede 
 ration of the tliirty-five sovereign states, 
 which had every variety of government, 
 from absolutism to democracy, all inde- 
 pendent. It was represented by a Diet, 
 q.v. 
 
 Eundesrath {The), 1871. The dele- 
 gates of the confederated governments of 
 the German empire. 
 
BUNGTOWN 
 
 BURGESS 
 
 129 
 
 The twenty-five states confederated with Prussia 
 are Alsace-Lorraine (taken from France), Anhalt, 
 liadeu, Bavaria, Bremen, Brunswicii, Hamburg, 
 Hesse, Lippe, Liibeck, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 Wecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, lleuss (elder 
 branch), Reuss (younger branch), Saxe-Altenburg, 
 S ixe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxony, 
 Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, 
 Schwartzburg-Kudolstadt, Waldeck, Wiirtemburg. 
 
 Bills which have passed the Reichstag and 
 Bundesrath, after being signed by the emperor, 
 are binding on all the empire. 
 
 Bungtown Coppers (American). 
 Counterfeit English ha'pennies manu- 
 factured at Bungtown (now Barneysville), 
 Mass. (Bartlett, ' Dictionary of American- 
 isms,' 1877). 
 
 Buoy {The Mystery of the), 14 Sept., 
 185-1. When the combined French and 
 Enghsh army resolved to land on the 
 Crimea, the spot selected was the ' Old 
 Fort Bay,' i.e. the southern bay ; and to 
 prevent confusion a buoy was to be 
 placed in the centre of the bay. The 
 French were to debark on the left of this 
 buoy, and the English on the right. 
 During the night, three French officers 
 placed coloured buoys as the limits for 
 the French landing, taking up the whole 
 south bay, and leaving Admiral Lyons 
 to improvise a new arrangement as a 
 landing place for the English. This was 
 a dodge that the French might be the 
 first to land. 
 
 Burchardicum, Burcliardic. 
 
 Beyond dispute. Burchard, who died 
 1026, bishop of Worms, coi^.piled a huge 
 volume which long enjoyed unbounded 
 repute. It was a ' compte rendu ' of edicts 
 and decretals, so admirably set forth that 
 an appeal to his book was considered 
 final. Hence ' Burchardicum ' came to 
 mean a dictum beyond dispute. 
 
 Burchardicum has not an English timbre, but 
 Eurchardism, Burchardic, Burchardise, might 
 be admitted and prove useful. 
 
 Burehell [Old). The pen-name 
 of Elihu Burritt, the * learned black- 
 smith,' an American linguist and author 
 (1810-1879). 
 
 Burdett Riot {The\ 1810. This 
 arose out of the arrest of Gale Jones, 
 president of a debating society called the 
 * British Forum.' The question of debate 
 was, ' Which was the greater outrage 
 npon public feeling : Mr. Yorke's enforce- 
 ment of the standing order, or Mr. Wind- 
 ham's attack on the liberty of the press 
 on the same occasicm ? ' Sir Francis 
 Burdett moved in the house that Gale 
 Jones should be discharged, as the * Brit- 
 
 ish Forum ' was a'private debating society » 
 and Cobbett, in his ' Weekly Register, 
 took Burdett's side of the question. Sir 
 Francis, in a letter published by Cobbett, 
 spoke contemptuously of the House of 
 Commons, and Mr. Lethbridge moved 
 that he should be committed to the Tower. 
 This led to a riot, in which the soldiers 
 were called out, and two men were shot 
 dead. The question now was whether 
 the soldier who killed one of the men 
 should not be tried for murder. Ulti- 
 mately the contention drifted into this 
 question ; Is not the House of Commons 
 so one-sided that it needs a radical re- 
 form ? 
 
 Burdett-Coutts Seholarsliips. 
 
 Two for geology in the University of 
 Oxford, each tenable for two years- 
 Founded by the Baroness Burdett-Coutts> 
 18G0. 
 
 Bureau. Not unlike our board of 
 Green Cloth in the history of the name'. 
 A bureau meant originally a coarse wool- 
 len cloth. Hence Boileau says of Damon, 
 the author, ' n'etant vetu que de simplo 
 bureau, passe I'ete sans linge, et I'hiver 
 sans manteau.' It then came to mean 
 the cloth on the board table, then the 
 officials who sit at the board. 
 
 Bureau d'Esprit. Literary re- 
 unions, such as those held in the Hotel 
 Rambouillet, in the hotel of the Duchesse 
 du Maine, of Madame de Tencin, of Mes- 
 dames du Chatelet and du Boccage, of 
 Deffand and Geoffrin, of Madame Doublet, 
 &c. 
 
 In the reign of Louis XV. the three 'bureaux 
 d'esprit ' were presided orer by Madame de Detf. 
 and. Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, and Madame 
 Geolfrin. The first embraced the elite of the 
 literati ; the second, the leading political reform- 
 ers ; and the last, professed sceptics. Madame 
 Delfand was noted for her caustic v/it ; Mademoi- 
 selle de Lespinasse for the charms of her conversa- 
 tional power ; and Madame Geoffrin for her prac- 
 tical benevolence. 
 
 Burgess Oath [The), administered 
 in royal boroughs of Scotland, ran thus : 
 ' I protest before God and your lordships 
 that I profess and allow with my heart 
 the true religion now at this present pro- 
 fessed within this realm, and authorised 
 by the laws thereof. I will abide in the 
 same and defend it to my life's end, re- 
 nouncing the Roman religion called 
 popery.' Those who saw no inconsistency 
 in taking this oath were called burghers, 
 those who refused to take it were called 
 anti-burghers. 
 
ISO 
 
 BURGESS 
 
 BURNETT 
 
 Burgess Roll (The), 1832. An 
 alphabetical list of the burgesses entitled 
 to vote for municipal officers or borovigh 
 members, made out by the respective 
 town clerks. There was also for a time 
 another list called the Freeman's Roll 
 Iq.v.), but this list is no longer required 
 (5, 6 Will. IV. c. 76, amended by 20, 21 
 Vict. c. 50). 
 
 Burgesses of the Palisades 
 Aliens who sought the sanctuary of forti- 
 fied towns in the middle ages, especially in 
 Germany, where they were called ' Pal- 
 burgers.' These aliens were allowed to 
 dwell in the suburbs between the ci*y 
 walls and the palisades which bounded 
 the territory of the corporation. Hence 
 the name. See ' Outburgere.' 
 
 It must be remembered that there was a con- 
 stant collision bet-ween the feudal barons and the 
 corporate towns; and therefore offenders of the 
 one sought refuge with the other, and it was a 
 point of honour or policy not to give up the 
 refugee. 
 
 Burgh Schools, 1696. Fou- ded by 
 the General Education Act in Scotland. 
 They were of the same character as 
 English grammar schools ; of a higher 
 grade than the parochial schools, founded 
 by the same Act, and existing in burghs 
 or towns, managed by the town councils, 
 and supported by grants from the 
 ' Common Good,' i.e. the public funds of 
 the burgh. 
 
 Burghers and Anti-Burghers, 
 
 1745. Seceders from the Kirk of Scot- 
 land. The burghers are those who saw 
 no inconsistency in taking the ' Burgess 
 Oath ' iq-v.). Those who refused to take 
 it were anti-burghers. 
 
 The two parties were united in 1820, and called 
 the ' United Presbyterians.' 
 
 Burgundian Code (The), or'Loi 
 Gombette,' published in 502 by Gundi- 
 bald, at Lyons. See ' Gombette.' 
 
 Burgundians The). The followers 
 of the Duke of Burgundy, in the early 
 part of the 15th century, opposed to the 
 faction of the united Orleanists and 
 Armagnacs (q.v.). Headed by Jean 
 Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. He got 
 the Duke of Orleans assassinated at 
 Paris 23 Nov., 1407, and became reconciled 
 with the Orleans family in 1409 ; but after 
 the marriage of the young Duke of 
 Orleans with the daughter of the Count 
 of Armagnac in 1411, the feud broke out 
 again: tiie Orleanista and Armagnacs 
 
 against the Burgundians. The Duke of 
 Burgundy in 1417 led an army to Paris, 
 liberated the queen at Tours, and was by 
 her named governor of the kingdom 10 
 Jan., 1418; but in 1419 he was assassinated 
 at the bridge of Montereau. 
 
 Burkers* Hole. Formerly called 
 ' Nova Scotia Gardens,' a part of Bethnal 
 Green now occupied by St. Thomas's 
 Church and Baroness Burdett Coutts's 
 model lodging-houses. It was the resi- 
 dence of May, Bishop, and Williams, the 
 infamous 'burkers,' who procured sub- 
 jects for dissection by secret assassina- 
 tion. They were convicted of the 
 murder of a poor friendless Italian boy 
 in 1826. Burke (who gave his name to 
 the words to hurke, burker, &c.) used to 
 place a pitch plaster over the mouth of 
 his victim to smother his cries. He was 
 an Irishman, and was hanged in 1829. 
 
 Burmese "Wars {The). I. 1826. 
 Arakan and Tenasserim were acquired 
 by the treaty of Yandabo, and annexed to 
 our province of Lower Bengal. 
 
 II. 1851-1853. Martaban stormed 5 
 April, 1852 ; Rangoon stormed 14 April, 
 1852 ; Pegu taken 4 June, 1852, and 
 annexed to our province ; Prome taken 
 9 July, 1852. 
 
 III. Upper Burmah was annexed to 
 our Indian empire 26 Feb., 1886. The 
 population of this province is about 
 3,500,000, and the territory (including the 
 Shan States) about 200,000 square miles. 
 
 Burnbill. Henry de Londres, arch- 
 bisliop of Dublin, in the reign of Henry 
 III. He fraudulently procured the 
 archiepiscopal estates, and burnt all the 
 deeds by which the lands were held. 
 
 Burlington Fine Arts Club 
 (The). London, established 1867. 
 
 Burnett Prizes (The). Allotted 
 every forty years to the authors of the 
 two best essays on the ' Evidence that 
 there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and 
 good, by whom everything exists, &c.' 
 First award, 1815, to Dr. William Law- 
 rence Brown 1200Z., and the Rev. J. B. 
 Sumner (archbishop of Canterbury) 
 400Z. ; the next award, 1855, was to the 
 Rev. R. A. Thompson, 1800Z., and Dr. J. 
 Tulloch COOL The third award should 
 be in 1895. Founded by Mr. Burnett of 
 Dens, Aberdeenshire. The judges are 
 three. 
 
BUKNEY 
 
 BUTCHERS 
 
 181 
 
 Burney Collection (The), 1818. 
 In the Mb), department of the British 
 Museum. Collected by the Rev. Dr.Charles 
 Burney, and consisting of 520 volumes, 
 chiefly Greek and Roman classics. 
 Amongst these is the Townley * Homer,' 
 a MS. of the 'Iliad' similar to the 
 * Odyssey ' in the Harleian collection ; a 
 Greek MS. of Ptolemy's ' Geography,' 
 adorned with maps of the 15th cent., &c. 
 
 Burney "Prize {The). For an essay 
 on some moral or metaphysical subject 
 on the existence, nature, and attributes of 
 God. For graduates of the University 
 of Cambridge of not more than three 
 years standing, value 1051. annually. 
 Founded by Richard Burney of Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, 1845. See ' Mathe- 
 matics,' &c. 
 
 Burning and Starving Act 
 
 (The), The Commutation Act passed by 
 VVilliam Pitt, greatly reducing the duties 
 on excisable articles, enabling the lawful 
 dealer to compete with smugglers. 
 These smugglers in Galloway and 
 Dumfriesshire, being ruined by the Act, 
 called it the Burning and Starving Act. 
 
 Burnt Candlemas (Day), 2 Feb., 
 1356. The day when Edward III. 
 marched through the Lothians with fire 
 and sword. He burnt to the ground 
 Edinburgh and Haddington, and then 
 retreated for want of provisions. The 
 Scots call the day ' Burnt Candlemas.' 
 
 Burnt Pillar {The), or 'Tchern- 
 berle Tash.' A column in the centre of 
 the forum of Constantinople. It was 
 raised by Constantine on a pedestal of 
 white marble twenty feet high. The 
 pillar was composed of ten pieces of 
 porphyry, each eleven feet in height and 
 thirty-three in circumference. It was 
 Burmounted with a colossal statue of 
 Apollo in bronze, said to have been the 
 work of Phidias. This statue was thrown 
 down in the reign of Alexis Comnenus. 
 
 Burschenschaft, 1813. A secret 
 society of Germany, established by the stu- 
 dents for the defence of the country The 
 Grand Burschenschaft of Jena, in Saxe- 
 Weimar, was established 12 June, 1815, 
 and soon absorbed all the others. In 1818 
 the government declared the association 
 to be illegal, and it gradually dropped off. 
 
 r.urschen. pi. of.' Bursch,' a student, and ' Bchaft, 
 an association. 
 
 Burton Arch {T7ie). The marble 
 arch formerly at Hyde Park Corner, in 
 imitation of the arch of Titus at Rome, 
 on the top of which was placed, in 1846, 
 a huge equestrian statue of the Duke of 
 Wellington, the work of Mr. C. Wyatt. 
 This hideous deformity was removed in 
 1883. 
 
 ' Hail to the statue ! ' people cry — 
 
 In justice there they fail ; 
 But let it have the Burton arch, 
 
 If we've the Burton ale. 
 
 Newspaper Epigram, 1846. 
 
 Butcher {The). I. Dante, in his 
 ' Purgatory ' (canto xx.), makes Hugh 
 Capet say, ' I was the son of a butcher of 
 Paris.' Pasquier told Francois I. that 
 Dante meant by ' butcher ' a formidable 
 warrior. 
 
 II. Olivier de Clisson, constable of 
 France (1320-1407), who never spared 
 the life of any Englishman who fell into 
 his hands. 
 
 III. John de Clifford, called the ' Black 
 Clifford,' the ninth baron, died 1461. 
 
 IV. Ahmed Jezzar, pacha of Acre, 
 which he defended against Napoleon. 
 He struck off the heads of his nine wives at 
 one and the same time (1735, 1775-1804). 
 
 Butcher {The Bloody). William 
 Augustus, duke of Cumberland (1721- 
 1765), son of George II., so called for his 
 cruel treatment of the Jacobites, whom 
 he defeated at Culloden, 16 April, 1746. 
 Also called the ' Butcher of Culloden.' 
 
 He (Cumberland) seemed to revel in blood, and 
 to be ambitious of earning the name he tliere (at 
 Culloden) won of the butcher. . . . When the 
 wounded had writhed In their agonies all night 
 they were despatched by the bayonets of the 
 Butchers. They were hunted out of their hiding- 
 places in the woods and moors, and massacred in 
 cold blood. Twenty wounded men, who had crept 
 into a farmhouse, were shut up and deliberately 
 burnt in it. The prisoners in Inverness were treated 
 with equal cruelty. — HowiTT, Hist, of England^ 
 (George II. ch. xi. p. 525). 
 
 Butcher of England (T/te). John 
 Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, lord deputy, 
 who died 1470. On one occasion, in the 
 reign of Edward IV., he ordered Clapham 
 (one of Lord Warwick's squires) and 
 nineteen other gentlemen to be impaled. 
 This bloodstained leader of the Wars of 
 the Roses was a great patron of Caxton, 
 and one of the earliest scholars of the 
 revival of letters. 
 
 Butcher of Vassy(r7ie). Franc^ois, 
 due de Guise (1519-1563), was so called by 
 the Huguenots. See ' Massacre of Vassy. 
 
 Butchers and Carpenters' In- 
 surrection, 1413. This was the great 
 K2 
 
132 
 
 BUTCHEES 
 
 BYNO 
 
 nsurrection of the Wliite Hoods and 
 White Scarfs. The Butchers or White 
 Hoods were the Burgundian faction ; the 
 Carpenters or White Scarfs were the 
 Orleans or Armagnac faction. The Car- 
 penters or White Scarfs prevailed, and 
 after the bloody fray in the Place de 
 Greve, the White Hoods were driven out 
 of Paris, and disappeared. 
 
 Butcher's Dog {The). Cardinal 
 Thomas Wolsey, son of a butiher of 
 Ipswich (1471-1530). After ho brought 
 Edward Stafford, duke of Luck ngham, to 
 the block in 1521, it was Wxttiiy said of 
 him, ' The butcher's dog has pulled 
 down the fairest buck in Cliristendom.' 
 
 Many efforts have been made to give Wolsey a 
 more aristocratic birth. One is this : that he was 
 a bourgeois sou, and that bourgeois was corrupted 
 into btilcher; but tliere would be no point then in 
 the witticism above referred to. Another is this : 
 that the limperor Charles V. called Hejiry VIII. the 
 butcher and Wolsey was the 'butcher's dog'; but 
 Henry was by no means a butcher when a young 
 man, and at the death of Buckingham he was 
 under thirty, and called ' a gentle, merciful, and 
 pleasure-loving iprince.' Buckingham was exe- 
 cuted in the l^th year of Henry's reign ; and 
 Wolsey must have been known before then as a 
 butcher's son, or there would have been no wit in 
 the remark. Skelton, a contemporary, speaking of 
 Wolsey, says he ' was cast out of a butchers stall,' 
 and William Roy, another contemporary, calls 
 him ' the vile butcher's sonne.* 
 
 Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred ; 
 
 How high his honour holds his haughty head ! 
 
 Butcher's Sharables (The). An 
 old oak tree in Birkland, a part of 
 Sherwood Forest. It is now a mere shell, 
 but in this tree a butcher named 
 Hooton used to conceal the carcases of 
 sheep or deer till he could dispose of 
 them. There used to be a beam across 
 the tree with hooks, on which three sheep 
 could be suspended. Old men can still 
 (1890) remember this arrangement. In tlie 
 hollow of this tree fourteen or fifteen 
 persons could stand, and its girth at the 
 height of a man was certainly thirty feet 
 or more ; but now half even of the rind is 
 gone, and the other half is a mere shell. 
 
 Butter mere {Mary of). Daughter 
 of an innkeeper, called the ' Beauty of 
 Buttermere,' married a man who came 
 to the vicinity for fishing, and passed 
 himself off as the Hon. Augustus Hope. 
 It turned out he was a married man, 
 whose name was Hadfield, a notorious 
 swindler, who was ultimately executed 
 for forgery. At the beginning of the 
 19th cent, this romantic tale caused a 
 very great sensation. It is said that 
 
 Mary afterwards married a substantial 
 farmer. 
 
 Buttoners {The). A branch of the 
 
 Strict Mennonites (3 syl.), which split 
 from the general body in 1554, and were 
 so called because they used buttons in 
 their dress instead of hooks-and-eyes. 
 See ' Mennonites.' 
 
 Buttons. In China there are nine 
 official buttons v/orn in the cap, each one 
 denoting a special rank. 1. the plain 
 red ; 2. the red figured with the char- 
 acter Siiou (longevity); 3. the clear 
 blue ; 4. the opaque blue ; 5. the crystal ; 
 6. the opaque white; 7, 8, 9. buttons of 
 brass. 
 
 By this conquer, a.d. 312. The 
 
 inscription said to have been annexed to 
 the cross seen in the sky by Constantine 
 when about to encounter Maxentius. 
 According to tradition it was the cause of 
 his conversion to Christianity. 
 Of course the words were Greek, 'Ew -roirui vUa. 
 
 Bye Conspiracy {The), 1G03. A 
 conspiracy of Koraan Catholics, Puritans, 
 and Presbyterians, who thought that 
 James I. would favour their own special 
 religious party, but found that he threw 
 himself entirely into the hands of the 
 High Church of England party. Clarke 
 and Watson, two Catholic priests, were 
 the heads of the conspiracy. Their plan 
 was to seize the king, proclaim Arabella 
 Stuart queen, and to place the govern- 
 ment in the hands of the chief con- 
 spirators. Lord Cecil was to be put to 
 death, and Watson to be made lord 
 chancellor. The plot was revealed to 
 Cecil, the leading conspirators were 
 tried for treason, and Watson, Clarke, 
 and Brooke were executed. The con- 
 spiracy was called the ' Bye ' because it 
 was simultaneous with another con- 
 spiracy called the ' Main ' {q.v.). 
 
 Byng (To), or 'make the Byng of the 
 day,' to sacrifice one as a scapegoat. 
 The reference is to Admiral John Byng, 
 who was shot at Portsmouth by sentence 
 of court martial, 14 March, 1757. He was 
 sent to relieve Minorca, besieged by the 
 French, and after a partial action sheered 
 off, declaring that the ministry had not 
 supplied him with a sufficient fleet. 
 The ministry and the public were furious, 
 and Byng was brought before a court 
 martial. 
 
rA'ZANTINB 
 
 CACCIxVTORI 
 
 13a 
 
 Precisely the same thing occurred in 
 the Crimean war. The ministry and 
 ofticers were blamed for not taking 
 Sebastopol sooner, and the Duke of 
 Newcastle, minister of war, was made 
 the ' Byng ' or scapegoat of the day. 
 
 Byzantine Historians {The). 
 
 Greek historians who lived under the 
 Eastern empire between the Gth and 15th 
 cents. They consist, 1. of historians 
 who continue the history of the Byzan- 
 tine empire ; 2. of general chroniclers ; 
 and 3. of authors who wrote on the 
 antiquities, jDolitics, manners and cus- 
 toms x»f the Romans. The whole of the 
 works were compiled and published by 
 order of Louis XIV., and rail to thirty-six 
 •volumes folio (1844-1711). 
 
 The most noted are Zonaras, Nieetas Acomi- 
 natus Chon-'a,tes, and Niccphorvjs Grej,'oras, who 
 form a complete corpHS ,'ii.s/. ■)('«•■ to tho close of the 
 15th cent. Then comes Laonicus Chalcondylas, 
 and then follow a host who wrote detached parts 
 of history. 
 
 Ca<'aba, or ' Kaaba.' A stone which 
 Mahomet removed to Mecca, where it 
 was inserted in the walls of the saci'ed 
 shrine built by Abraham and Ishmael. 
 The angel Gabriel presented Mahomet 
 with this stone, which was originally a 
 petrified angel, and quite white. It is 
 now black from the kisses of sinners. 
 
 The site of this shrine is where repentant Adam 
 stood, after wandering for 200 years, when he 
 received pardon for his disobedience in Paradise. 
 
 Cabal' Ministry {The\ 1GG7-1G74. 
 A ministry under Charles II., so called 
 because the initial letters of the cabinet 
 happened to form the word cabal : they 
 were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
 Arlington, and Lauderdale. 
 
 The French ' cabale' means a party who seek to 
 gain their object by underhand or unscrupulous 
 means, and the Spanish ' cabala ' means intrisjue. 
 The word was not therefore first coined from 
 Clifford s ministry, although it was not used in 
 the English language before. Dryden uses the 
 •word. 
 
 Thomas Clifford (first commissioner of the 
 treasury, afterwards Lord Clifford). 
 
 Lord Ashley (chancellor of the exchequer, after- 
 wards Earl of Shaftesbury). 
 
 Duke of Buckingham (master of the horse), 
 Earl of Arlington (secretary of state). Duke of 
 Lauderdale. 
 
 Caballarii. Feudal tenants bound 
 to serve on horseback, equipped with 
 coat of mail. This service implied no 
 personal merit and gave no civil privi- 
 leges. It was a mere duty or kiiight's fee. 
 
 Cabbala. Jewish tradition said to 
 have been handed down from Moses. 
 
 The first book, on cosmogony, is attribu- 
 ted to the 7th cent. ; but from the 12th 
 to the 15th cent, numerous cabbalistic 
 writings were added, teaching the esoteric 
 meaning of 'the Law,' the method of 
 performing miracles, incantations, &c. 
 
 The 'Sohar' (i:U,h cent. ) in .Aramaic may be 
 called the bible of the Cabbalists. 
 
 Cabinet Council. Lord Clarendon 
 
 says the term originated thus : In the 
 reign of Charles I. the affairs of state 
 were controlled by the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, the Earl of Strafford, and the 
 Lord Cottington; to these were added 
 ' for ornament ' the Earl of Northumber- 
 land, the Bishop of London as lord 
 treasurer, and Vane and Windebank 
 (two secretaries) for service and intelli- 
 gence. The Marquis of Hamilton 
 ' meddled just so far and no further than 
 he had a mind.' These persons made up 
 the committee of state, reproachfully 
 called the junto, but ' enviously ' called 
 afterwards the 'cabinet council.' In 
 cabinet councils the royal presence is not 
 necessary, as it is in 'privy councils.' 
 When George I. was king, as he was 
 ignorant of the English language, he 
 took no part in state councils ; and ever 
 since cabinet councils have dispensed 
 with the sovereign's presence. 
 
 Cabinet ia"oir {The). The secret 
 offices where all the correspondence of 
 the French nation used to be handled 
 during the monarchy. 
 
 Cabi'ri. Ancient Pelasgian deities. 
 
 Cabocllienne {La), 1413. An ordi- 
 nance for the reform of the state forced 
 from the Dauphin of France by the White 
 Hoods or Cabochians {q.v.). 
 
 Cabocliiens {Les), 1413-1422. A 
 gang organised by Jean Sans Peur, duke 
 of Burgundy, and placed under the 
 command of Simonet Caboche, a 
 butcher. It numbered 500 vagabonds, 
 and kept Paris in terror by its massacres 
 and plunder. In 1422 the Parisians rose 
 en masse, fell upon the gang, Jean Sans 
 Peur fled from the city, and the Arma- 
 gnacs or Orleans faction remained in the 
 ascendent. See ' French Brigands.' 
 
 Cacciatori. The Chasseurs of the 
 Alps, or ' Cacciatori delle Alpi.' (Italian, 
 cacciare to hunt, cacciatore a hunter). 
 
 We have already referred to Garibaldi as 
 general of the Cacciatori.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng- 
 land, year 1859, p. 652. 
 
134 
 
 CADDEE 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 Caddie or Cad^e {The), or ' League 
 of God's House,' 1400-1419. See ' Cade- 
 ian, &c.' 
 
 Cade (Jack). Ringleader of the in- 
 surrection which broke out in Kent, 1450. 
 He was an Irishman, and called himself 
 Mortimer, because he was a natural son 
 of the Duke of York. He marched to 
 London at the head of 20,000 armed men, 
 who encamped at Blackheath, 1 June, 
 1450. Being slain by Alexander Iden, 
 11 July, his head was stuck on London 
 Bridge. 
 
 Cade's Insurrection. See above. 
 
 Cadeian League (T7ie), 1400-1419, 
 i.e. the league of Casa-dei, or God's 
 house; in German, Gotteshausbiind. 
 One of the three unions of the canton of 
 the Grisous. 
 
 The other two leagues were the ' Ligue Grise,' 
 formed in 1424 ; and the ' League of the Ten 
 Jurisdictions,' formed in 1436. All three were 
 admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798i 
 
 Cadets of the Cross, 1703. Catho- 
 lic auxiliaries in the army of Marshal 
 Montrevel, sent to extirpate the Cami- 
 sards of the Cevennes. Also called 
 * White Camisards.' 
 
 Cadjahs. See 'Dynasty of the 
 Kadjahs,' or Kujurs. 
 
 Cadmean Letters. Sixteen Greek 
 letters said to have been introduced into 
 Thebes (in Boeotia) by Cadmus, son of 
 Agenor, king of Phoenicia. The letters 
 are a, b, g, d, e, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. 
 These letters were subsequently increased 
 by 8 Ionic letters, z, e, th, x, ph, ch, ps, 
 and 6. Simonides of Cos is credited with 
 the 4 letters th, z, ph, ch, and Epicharmos 
 the Sicilian with the 4 letters x, e, ps, 6. 
 The lonians were the first to emjiloy all 
 the 24 letters, whence the 8 added were 
 called Ionic letters. 
 
 Cadmean Victory (A). A victory 
 purchased with great loss. The refer- 
 ence is to the armed men who sprang 
 out of the ground from the teeth of the 
 dragon sown by Cadmus. These men 
 fell foul of each other, and only five 
 escaped with their lives. Hence the 
 Greek ' Kadmeia nike,' and Latin ' Cad- 
 mea Victoria.' The victories of Boadicea 
 sowed her kingdom with dragon's teeth, 
 and the Romans were roused by them to 
 most vindictive fury 
 
 CsDrite Franchisp (The). The 
 franchise of a Roman subject in a pre- 
 
 fecture. These subjects had the right 
 of self-government, were registered by 
 the Roman censor as taxpayers, but 
 enjoyed none of the privileges of a Roman 
 citizen. Cs9re was the first community 
 placed in this dependent position, whence 
 the term ccerite franchise. 
 
 CsBSar, as a title, varied in its force. 
 I. The first twelve emperors were all 
 entitled Caesar in compliment to Julius 
 Cffisar. Thus Octavius or Octavianus 
 Ccesar (better known as Augustus) ; 
 Tiberius Caesar ; Caligula Caesar ; 
 Claudius Caesar; Nero Caesar; Galba, 
 Otho, Vitellius, whose united reigns 
 lasted only one year ; Vespasian Caesar ; 
 Titus Caesar ; and Domitian Ctesar. 
 
 II. After the death of Domitian, a.d. 96, 
 the word as a title dropped out of use 
 till the reign of Hadrian (14th emp. 
 117-138), who called the heir presumptive 
 CcBsar. 
 
 III. In the reign of Diocletian, a.d. 
 292, the two emperors of Constantinople 
 and Rome were each styled Augustus, 
 and the two viceroys of Illyricum and 
 Gaul were each styled Ccesar. This 
 arrangement, however, soon dropped 
 after the death of that emperor. 
 
 The wife of a Roman emperor was entitled 
 Ca'sara, and probably all imperial princes were by 
 courtesy addressed as Ca-sar, Czar and Kaiser are 
 modified forms of Ctesar. 
 
 Caesarean Era of Antioch {The). 
 This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 48, to com- 
 memorate the victory of Julius Caesar 
 over Pompey. 
 
 Cage {The). The little hut built of 
 sticks, heather, and moss, in a thicket of 
 trees on the rocky face of a high moun- 
 tain, called Letternilinchk, in Benalder, 
 to which Charles Edward was taken for 
 concealment by Lochiel and Macpher- 
 son, after the fatal battle of Culloden 
 (174G). 
 
 Cameron had been one of those who assisted 
 Charles Edward to escape, and had lived with 
 him in the ' Cage.'— HowiTT, Hist, of Eiujkind, 
 (George II. ch. xii. p. 549). 
 
 Cagliari. Generally called Paul 
 Veronese (1530-1588). 
 
 Cagliostro of Literature (The), 
 1835. Comte de Courchamps, the most 
 unblushing literary thief on record. He 
 stole the two novels of John Potocki, a 
 Polish count, and published them as his 
 own. The ' National ' exposed the theft, 
 and ferreted out all the falsehoods of De 
 Courchamps, establishing his infamous 
 
CAGOTS 
 
 CALEDONIA 
 
 185 
 
 piracy beyond a shadow of doubt. 
 Comte de Courchamps called his book 
 
 * The Inedited Memoirs of Cagliostro,' 
 and hence the quack of literary quacks 
 was stigmatised with the name of the 
 quack of quacks. jSee ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Joseph Balsamo, the prince of quacks, assumed 
 the title-name of Comte de Cagliostro (ms-lTjo). 
 
 Cagots. A tribe of men in France 
 akin to the gipsies. Some think the word 
 is compounded of Caas-goths (dogs of 
 Goths), and that they are remnants of the 
 Teutons who overran the south of Europe 
 at the fall of the Roman Empire. Others 
 quote the synonyms Caqueux, Cacous, 
 Capos, and Gaffos, meaning ' lepers,' to 
 prove that they were Jewish lepers. They 
 are often called ' Canards,' because they 
 were obliged to carry as a badge 'une 
 patte de canard.' 
 
 It is in Brittany that they are called Caaucux. 
 In Poitou, Maine, and Anjou they are called ' Colli- 
 berts.' In Au%-ergne, ' Marrons.' 
 
 Cainites {The), 2nd cent. A Chris- 
 tian sect which held that the books of the 
 Old Testament were inspired by the 
 Demiurge, or son of darkness and chaos ; 
 and that the real worthies were Cain, 
 Esau, the men of Sodom, Korah, and so 
 on ; and the only spiritual apostle was 
 Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Clirist lest he 
 should lead men into darkness. These 
 
 * heretics ' say Judas Iscariot left a gospel, 
 which is the only true one. 
 
 9^ Ira (It will succeed). The 
 
 * Carillon National ' of the French Revo- 
 lution. The refrain is : 
 
 Ah ! <;a ira, qa ira, <;a Ira ! 
 
 Les aristocrates a la lanterne I 
 
 Cairns' Act (Lord), 1882. Called 
 ' Cairns' Settled Lauds Act,' to allow the 
 sale of entailed estates, but not the ' family 
 mansion.' 
 
 Caius College (generally called 
 Keys), in Cambridge University. Origin- 
 ally called Gonville Hall {q.v.) ; changed 
 in 1353 by William Bateman, bishop of 
 Norwich, into ' The Hall of the Annuncia- 
 tion, &c.'; and in 1558 by the tliird 
 founder, John Caius, M.D., into ' GonviUe 
 and Caius College.' 
 
 Calaslrians and Hermotybians. 
 
 The Egyptian military, an hereditary 
 caste spoken of by Herodotos (ii. IGG). 
 He numbers the former at 250,000 men, 
 and the latter at 160,000. Their settle- 
 ments were in Lower Egypt, the Calasi- 
 
 rians in elefen nomes and the Hermo- 
 tybians in five. Herodotos speaks of linen 
 tunics fringed about the legs, ov<; /caAtouo-t 
 KaAttcrtpis (Coptic kali, a leg). The deriva- . 
 tion of the other word is extremely 
 doubtful. 
 
 Cala'thumpian (A). A nothing- 
 arian, or anythingarian, or what' you 
 please in regard to the question ' What 
 religion are you of ? ' From calathus. a 
 waste basket for all sorts of odds and ends. 
 
 Calatrava {Knights of), 1158. A 
 Spanish mihtary order founded by 
 Sancho III. of Castile, when he took from 
 the Moors the strong fort of Calatrava. 
 The mantle is white, decorated with a red 
 cross cut out in the form of lilies. 
 
 Calcuith, in Lancashire {The 
 Council of), 785-787. I. By this council a 
 third archbishopric of England was made, 
 viz. Lichfield, and Higbert was appointed 
 primate. The authority and decisions of 
 the first six general councils were also 
 adopted. In 803 Lichfield was again 
 reduced to its original rank of bishopric. 
 
 II. A.D. 816, decided that the saint, in 
 honour of whom a church was dedicated, 
 might be pictured on the walls ; that no 
 Scotch clergyman shall officiate in an 
 English church, because they refused to 
 admit the primacy of the bisliop of Rome ; 
 that no private monastic institution shall 
 be allowed ; and that baptism shall be by 
 immersion, and not by sprinkling. 
 
 Caleb d' An vers. The pen-name of 
 Nicholas Amhurst, a noted political 
 writer who conducted a paper called the 
 ' Craftsman,' and died in 1712 in most 
 miserable circumstances. 
 
 Caledonia. A name given by the 
 Romans to that part of Scotland lying 
 between the Forth and the Clyde ; so- 
 called from the tribe of the Caledonii. 
 Tiie name disappears in the 4th cent., and 
 the people of Scotland began to be called 
 Picts (to the east) and Scots (to the west). 
 In more modern times Caledonia is a 
 poetical name for Scotland. 
 
 MTiat the Romans called Caledonii were tha 
 Celyddones, i.e. dwellers iu the woods. 
 
 Caledonia. The Irish race of kings 
 in Caledonia are said to have been — 
 
 Eder u.c. 55-71 
 
 Evenus... B.C. 71 to A.D. 1 
 
 Metellan ^ l-:« 
 
 Caractacus S'-'^V 
 
 Colbrede 1 57-i4 
 
 Pardanes 74-78 
 
 Colbrede II., with G.Ugacua ^ 16-64 
 
136 
 
 CALEDONIAN 
 
 CALIXTINS 
 
 [Agricolawas praetor and defeated Galgacus A. D. 84) 
 
 Coibrode alone 113 
 
 Lut;tace 113-118 
 
 Wot^al ^ lls-K^D 
 
 Conar 100-162 
 
 Argade lG-2-l'o6 
 
 Ethodel 166-199 
 
 Satrahal 19y-203 
 
 (JIarcellus \vp.s prostor) 
 
 Donald I ■ 203-2-24 
 
 Erode II 2-24-240 
 
 Aiirgo ~. 240-252 
 
 Natholio 2.5-2-203 
 
 Findoc 263-273 
 
 Donald II 273-274 
 
 r>onald III 274-284 
 
 Cratlii'.i „ a<4 ;t08 
 
 Eincormao ... „ 3 s ;^5 
 
 Kom-iC ~. ... 3.-,f.-R58 
 
 Augusian ... 35o-;;60 
 
 Fetolmac oii;-HC3 
 
 Kugene I. .. ^ 303-3;;5 
 
 Forgas (the restorer) 440 
 
 Eugene II. ... 440-4G1 
 
 Dongard 461-465 
 
 Constantine I. king of Scotland. 
 
 Caledonian "War {The), a.d, 208- 
 V/hen the Koman emperor Severus was 
 sixty years old, he went with his two sons, 
 Cara^lla and Geta, into Scotland to repel 
 ai^*!*^ion. He marched to the northern 
 extremity without meeting an enemy, but 
 it cost him the loss of 50,000 men. At 
 length the Caledonians sued for peace, 
 but the moment the Koman legions were 
 withdrawn they were up in arms again. 
 While Severus was preparing to extirpate 
 the Caledonians, he died. 
 
 If Osslan is historic, it was Fingal -who opposed 
 Severus, and Caracalla is called by Ossian 'Caracul, 
 son of the king of the -world ' (Poems, i. p. 175). 
 Strange that Ossian should call Antoninus by a 
 nicUnanie not used even in Rome till four years 
 after the -war ! 
 
 Calendar. The French Republican 
 calendar was the work of Pabre d'Eglan- 
 tine and M. Eomme. 
 Autumn months: Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frl. 
 
 maire. 
 VHnter months : Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose. 
 Spring months : Germinal, Floreal, Prairial. 
 Summer months : Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor. 
 
 1. Wheezy, Unc.ezy, Freczy. 
 
 2. Slippy, Drippy, Nippy. 
 
 3. Shoicery, Floitrry. HoiDCi-y. 
 
 4. Wheaty, He.aty, Sweety. 
 
 Calenders, 13th cent. The 'Purists,' 
 a species of Moslem hermits, founded by 
 Youssouf, an Arab of Andalusia. They 
 have no fixed abode, but lead a vagrant 
 life under the vow of poverty. They 
 have proved themselves dangerous 
 sectaries, who have always taken an 
 active part in all Oriental revolutions. 
 See ' Santons.' 
 
 Calends. See 'Diet of Phrase and 
 Fable,' p. 132. 
 
 Attsonian Calends (Ausoniae Calendae), 
 the Eoman Calends. 
 
 Greek Calends (Greecae Calendas), never; 
 there were no Greek Calends. 
 
 Intercalary Calends (Intercalares 
 Calendte), February. 
 
 Calends of Janus (Jani Calendse), New 
 Year's day (Statius). 
 
 The Women's Calends (Foeminese Ca- 
 lendae), the 1st of March (Juvenal, ix. 53) 
 
 Tristes Calendce, pay-day. The 
 Romans paid on the 1st of every month. 
 
 Calif. The successor of Mohammed 
 the prophet, both in temporal and spirit- 
 ual power. At first there was but one 
 calif, whose empire was called the califate, 
 which for three centuries exceeded tlie 
 Eoman empire in extent ; but in 970 
 there were three califates, viz. one at 
 Bagdad, one at Cairo, and one at Cor- 
 dova. 
 
 In 1031 the califate of Cordova ceased. 
 
 In 1158 the calif of Bagdad fled to 
 Egj^t before the sword of the Monguls. 
 
 In 1517 the -Turks conquered Egypt, 
 and the sultan thus became the one and 
 only calif. 
 
 In 800 Tunis and Fez made themselves indepen- 
 dent for a time, and in 821 Taher established for a 
 time an independent califate at Khorassan. 
 
 Calif of the West [The), a.d. 756. 
 So Abd-el-Ramah, founder of the Cordova 
 califate, styled himself (781-787). This 
 califate lasted till 1031. 
 
 The calif of Bagdad was then called Calif of the 
 East. Since 1517 the sultan has been the only 
 calif. 
 
 California (U.S. America). The 
 inhabitants are called * gold-hunters.' 
 
 Caligula. Caius, son of Germanicus, 
 and successor of his uncle Tiberius, in the 
 empire of Rome. So called because he 
 wore the caliga or clouted shoe of the 
 common Roman soldier. The caliga was 
 a close shoe, studded with nails, and 
 bound on the foot and ankle by straps. 
 It was not worn by the superior officers, 
 but Caius was an insane fool. 
 
 Caligatus meant 'a common soldier,' one of the 
 rank and file. It was this monster who said ' Oh, 
 that sdl the Koman people had but one neck, that 
 I might decapitate Eome at a blow ! ' 
 
 Calixtins (The), or ' Calixtines ' (3 
 syl.), 1424. Bohemians in the Hussite 
 war. These were for the most part the 
 gentry and better classes. So called 
 because they insisted on retaining the 
 calix or cuj? in the Eucharist. The priests 
 had only very recently withheld the cup 
 from the laity. The more violent party 
 were called Ta'borites (3 syl.). 
 
 i 
 
CALIXTIXES 
 
 CALVIN 
 
 137 
 
 Calixtines' Confession of 
 Faith {The). 
 
 1. The Word of God ought to be freely 
 and regularly preached thoughout all 
 Bohemia. 
 
 2. The Eucharist ought to be adminis- 
 tered to all communicants. 
 
 3. The clergy ousht to follow no secular 
 occupation. 
 
 4. All crimes ought to be punished by 
 those in lawful authority, whether com- 
 mitted by clerks or laymen. 
 
 Call of Abraham {The), b.c. 1921. 
 The command from God to Abraliam to 
 leave the land of his birth and sever 
 himself from his relations, friends, and 
 neighbours, who were idolaters, and to 
 go afar off to live among strangers, that 
 he might be the founder of a people 
 which would serve God and abjure 
 idolatry. He was 75 years old at the 
 time ; the land he left was Ur of the 
 Chaldees; the land he went to was 
 Canaan, ' the land of promise ; ' and the 
 son of promise was Isaac, father of the 
 twelve patriarchs. 
 
 Call of the Abbasides (3 syl.). 
 Abu Moslem, a.d. 750, the founder of the 
 Abbaside califs, who removed the seat 
 of empire from Damascus to Bagdad. 
 
 Call of the House {A). An im- 
 perative summons to every member of 
 parliament to be present in his place, 
 when the sense of the whole house is 
 deemed necessary. 
 
 In 1820 Buch a call was made to pass an opinion 
 respecting the trial of Queen Caroline. On the 
 day appointed the Speaker (in the House of Com- 
 mons) calls over the names of the county mem- 
 bers first, and then of the borough members, both 
 in alphabetical order. Absentees are committed 
 to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms. 
 
 Callias (Peace o/), B.C. 371. Between 
 Sparta, Athens, and their allies. Tiiobes 
 was excluded. Calliaa was the Athenian 
 representative. 
 
 Callippie Cycle {The). Meton's 
 cycle corrected by Callippus, B.C. 330. 
 In B.C. 432 Meton set up a column in 
 Athens which recorded that 235 lunar 
 months corresponded to 19 solar years. 
 This was too long, and made an error 
 of nearly a day and a half in a cen-' 
 tury. Callippus discovered that a year 
 consists of 305 7 daj's, and proposed a 
 cycle of 76, or 4 Metonic cycles' (19 x 4 = 
 76). A further correction was made in 
 1512, whereliy the error of a day requires 
 the lapse of 3,000 years. 
 
 Callippie Period {The). Began 
 with the new moon of the summer sol- 
 stice, B.C. 330. 
 
 Calojoannes. John II. (Com- 
 nenus), emperor of the East, so called 
 from his extremely handsome person. 
 Eeigned 1118-1143. 
 
 Calottistes (3 syl.), or 'Le regiment 
 de la Calotte,' in the time of Louis XIV. 
 A society of satirists, headed by Torsac 
 and Aimon, who sent a ' calotte ' (or small 
 cap) to any public character who had 
 exposed himself to ridicule. The ' calotte ' 
 was worn by monks over their tonsure, 
 and was to cover the ' weak part of the 
 head ' of the receiver. The armorial 
 bearings of the Calottistes consisted of 
 various symbols of folly, and their motto 
 was ' C'est re'gner que de savoir rire.' 
 
 Calvary {A). A chapel with a cross, 
 generally placed, in Catholic countries, 
 on an eminence, or at the meeting of two 
 or more roads. The calvary of Mont- 
 martre and of Mont Vale'rien, near Paris, 
 are well-known examples. The latter 
 still attracts many persons during Holy 
 Week. The approach to a calvary is 
 called the ' Via Dolorosa,' and at each 
 stone which marks a station a prayer 
 should be said. 
 
 A little farther on . . . Is a colossal wood-carved 
 calvary, and beside it a smtsll but ■<-ery rich 
 chapel.— OuiDA, BimU, The Nurnberg Stove. 
 
 Calvinism, 1561. The religious 
 tenets of John Calvin of Picardy. They 
 are generally called the five points : 
 
 (1) Predestination and reprobation ; 
 
 (2) original sin; (3) particular redemp- 
 tion ; (4) irresistible grace ; (5) the per- 
 severance of the saints. 
 
 Calvinist. A Christian whose tenets 
 are Calvinistic. See ' Calvinism.' 
 
 There are Calvinistic Baptists, Calvinistic 
 ITethodists, Welsh Calvinists, and even in tlia 
 Kpiscop.ll Cliurch there are some tew of a Cal- 
 vinistic tendency. 
 
 Calvinistic Methodists, 1741. 
 
 A body which seceded from Wesley, 
 especially on the doctrine of election. 
 Wliitefield was the leader of the Calvin- 
 istic Methodists. After Whitefield's 
 death they divided into two ; (1) Lady 
 Huntingdon's Connexion, and (2) the 
 Tabernacle Connexion. 
 
 Calvin's Daily Offices. For 
 family prayer, as well as for mo):iiit.g 
 
138 
 
 CAMALDOLITES 
 
 CAME 
 
 and evening services, in the reformed 
 churches. It was used in the reformed 
 chtirches of France after their organisa- 
 tion in 1555. Various modificAtious have 
 been introduced from time to time. It 
 was at one time much used in Scotland, 
 and John Knox died repeating words of 
 Calvin's ' Diulv Ofiices.' 
 
 Camal'dolites (4 syl.). See below. 
 
 Camaldulensian Order {The). 
 
 ' Camaldules,' or' Camal'dolites ' (4 syl.), 
 1010. A very austere religious order 
 first established in the vale of Camaldoli 
 by Eomuald, a Benedictine monk; and 
 approved by Alexander II. in 1072. The 
 order is almost extmct. 
 
 Camarilla (A). A royal clique, 
 junto, or secret coimcil, composed of the 
 sovereigfii, the priests, and the intriguing 
 ladies of the court. It was for a long 
 time part, of the Austrian government. 
 Some of the sovereigns of France and 
 England too had their camarillas. 
 
 Cambray {League of), 1508. Be- 
 tween the pope, Louis XII. of France, 
 and the Duke of Ferrara, * to blot out the 
 Republic of Venice from the map of 
 Europe.' The Venetians, however, 
 bribed off the pope, who promised to 
 break up the league. To this end he 
 made a compact with the Swiss to chase 
 the French out of Lombardy ; and then 
 Venetia, Spain and England joined the 
 league, which was caUed ' The Holy 
 Alhance ' (1513). 
 
 Cambray {Peace of), or ' Paix des 
 Dames,' 5 Aug., 1529. Between France 
 and the Kaiser. So called because its 
 terms were settled by two ladies, viz. 
 the mother of Francois I. on behalf of 
 France, and Margaret of Austria, the 
 aunt of Karl V., on behalf of G-ermany. 
 By the terms of this scandalous treaty, 
 Franijois stipulated to renounce the lord- 
 ship of Flanders and Artois ; to pay 
 400,000/. for the ransom of his two sons ; 
 to abandon Venice and all his other allies 
 to the vengeance of Karl V. ; and to 
 marry Eleouore, sister of the emperor. 
 
 Cam.bria, "Wales. The Welsh call 
 their coinitry 'C;<mra,' 'Cymro' is a 
 Welslunan, ' Cymraes ' a Welsh woman, 
 ' Cyroraeg ' the Welsh language, and 
 ' Cymruain ' the adjective Welsh. 
 
 Cambria, or Cumbria, vras also the country of the 
 Brotts or Welsh in Pwmbartou. Honfrew. .Vyr, 
 Lannrk, Peobios. Selkirk, l\o\burgh, Pamfrios, 
 and Cumberlaud, \shich formed a sei>arate kiug- 
 doni. 
 
 Cambridge Colleges. N.B.— The 
 head of King's is a provost, of Queen's a 
 president, and of all others a master. 
 
 Called 
 
 Citherine Hall or College .„ Cat's 1475 
 
 Cuiisis 1505 
 
 Clare Hall or College ... V^i6 
 
 Corpus Christ! .., ... C.C.C.C. l.'Wl 
 
 l>o\vnin!: - ~. ... iJ^^W 
 
 Emmanuel ... LV-^i 
 
 Gonville or Caics ... ... Keys l:^4!» 
 
 .Tesus „. ... ... ... 14i>«5 
 
 .Tohns(St.) .^ 1511 
 
 KinsTs _. „ 1441 
 
 Macdalene ... „, „. ... Maudlin 1519 
 
 Ponibroke ... ... ... 1343 
 
 Peter siSt.) ... ... Ii57 
 
 Queen s ... ... ... 144o, refounded 14<55 
 
 Sidney Sussex «. ... 15.18 
 
 Triniiv ... _. ... 1546 
 
 Trinity Hall _ 1S50 
 
 AH these 17 are corporate bodies. 
 Hostels 
 
 AycrstHall „ „ 1SS4 
 
 Cavendish College .. ... „. 1876 
 
 Sol-svvn CoUece and Ridley Hall ... ... lSS-2 
 
 In 1.^7:1 Giriou, and in ISS) Newnham, collegea 
 for ladies. 
 
 Cambridge Platonists {The). 
 The Whig pjtrty opposed to the Oxford 
 Anglicanism of which Laud was the 
 exponent. The leaders were Whichcote, 
 Cudworth, Henry More, Culverwell, 
 Rust, Glanvil, and Xorris. They suc- 
 ceeded the puritan divines, and were 
 succeeded by the school of Sherlock, 
 Law, and Paley, who in turn gave way 
 to the evangelical school of Berridge, 
 Milner, and Simoon; and still later came 
 the school of Trench and Hail am. 
 
 Camden and Powis Medals. 
 
 For a poem in Latin hexameters. 
 Founded hy the Marquis of Camden, 
 chancellor of the University of Cam- 
 bridge, and called, from 1841 to 1866, the 
 Camden Medal. On the death of the 
 marquis, the Earl of Powis, high steward 
 of the University, continued the medal, 
 since called the Powis Medal. For 
 undergraduates of not more than two 
 years' stiuiding; 
 
 Camden Professorship of 
 Ancient History {The\ in Oxford 
 University. Stipend 6001. a year. 
 Founded by William Camden, Clareu- 
 cieux King of Arms, in 1622. 
 
 Came witli a lass and -will go 
 ■with a lass [It). Tiie words uttered 
 by James V. of Scotland on his dying bed, 
 when informed of the birth of a daughter. 
 
CAMEL 
 
 CAMPUS 
 
 139 
 
 ' God's will be done. It came with a lass 
 and will go with a lass.' Marjory Bruce, 
 daughter of Robert Bruce, married 
 Walter, the tJth steward of Scotland, and 
 this alliance eventually brought the crown 
 into the Steward family (called Stuart in 
 French). The daughter born to James V. 
 on his death-bed was Mary (Queen of 
 Scots), whose son James removed to 
 England, and called himself James I. of 
 England and VI. of Scotland. 
 
 Camel-driver of Mecca (The). 
 MaJaomet the prophet of Arabia (570-632). 
 
 Camel People (The). So the Arabs 
 call the inhabitants of the Sahara. The 
 inhabitants of the towns of Barbary they 
 call the Gold people, and those of the 
 Tell, or cultivated lands, they call the 
 Silver people. 
 
 Cam^l^on. A nickname given in 
 France to Thiers the historian (1797- 
 1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 
 
 Cameron Highlanders (The). 
 The 79th regiment in the British service, 
 raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 
 1793. 
 
 No-w called the Queen's Own Cameron High- 
 landers. 
 
 Cameronians (The). I. Scotch 
 Covenanters, 1680. So called from 
 Richard Cameron, who was slain at Airds- 
 moss, Ayrshire, 20 July, 1680. Richard 
 Cameron disowned Charles Stuavt (11.) 
 for having violated the Engagement {q.v.), 
 and hisbrother James as apapist. He col- 
 lected some six-and-twenty horse and forty 
 foot, which he called ' the host of Israel,' 
 was attacked and fell. His followers hold 
 the perpetual obligation of the Solemn 
 League and Covenant {(l-v.) ; they stoutly 
 resisted the introduction of the English 
 Church into Scotland, and continued to 
 preach in the open air in violation of the 
 Act against * Field Conventicles ' (q-v.). 
 The party still exists in Ireland and North 
 America, but is very small. 
 
 Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, has 
 obtained dishonourable notoriety for his slaughter 
 Of tlie Cameronians. 
 
 II. The Scottish Rifles. Originally 
 formed from the Glasgow Cameronian 
 guard, raised in 1786 from the followers 
 of Richard Cameron, the puritan preacher. 
 The first battalion is the 26th foot, and 
 the second battaHon the 19th. 
 
 Camisards {The), 1688. Calvinists 
 of the Cevennes, who, after the Revoca- 
 tion Edict, took up arms under their 
 leaders Cavalier and Roland, and defeated 
 the French troops sent against them by 
 Louis XIV. again and agam. At last the 
 Duke of Berwick extirpated them and 
 desolated the whole province of the 
 Cevennes in 1705. Called Camisards 
 from the camise or smock which they 
 wore. Clement VI. said they were ' a 
 cursed brood from the execrable race of 
 the Albigenses.' 
 
 Dr. Emms died 22 Dec, 1707, and the Camisards 
 of Kngland staked their reputation that he would 
 return to life on 25 May. Guards were set o%-er 
 his grave ; but it is needless to add that Dr. Emms 
 slept on the sleep which knows no waliing. 
 
 2s'.B. Any military surprise by night is a Camis- 
 ade. Thus the taking of Pontoise in 1419 was 
 a camisade, and the battle of Pavia in 1524 com* 
 menced with a camisade. 
 
 Camp of Boulogne (The), 1802. 
 Preparations made by the Consul Bona- 
 parte, at Boulogne, for the invasion of 
 England. It contained a vast number of 
 gunboats and flat transports, military 
 stores and munitions of war ; but it camo 
 to nothing. 
 
 Campbell's Acts. Two Acts of 
 Parliament introduced by Lord Campbell 
 (9, 10 Vict. c. 93) 1846, and (20, 21 Vict. 
 c. 83) 1857, against the sale of obscene 
 publications, prints, &c. 
 
 Campbellites (3 syl.). Reformers 
 of New America, 1823, so called from 
 Alexander Campbell of Bethany, U.S. 
 He was a Baptist ; protested against all 
 creeds, and professed subjection to the 
 Bible only. The Campbellites reject all 
 school theological terms and doctrines 
 attached to names such as Regeneration, 
 Trinity and Trinitarian, Unitarian, Calvi- 
 nism, Arianism, Arminianism, using only 
 the words and phrases of Scripture. They 
 baptize by unmersion, and employ the 
 word Immerse instead of baptize. 
 
 Campo-Formio {Peace of), 17 Oct., 
 1797. In which Austria recognised the 
 Rliine as the boundary of France ; and 
 ceded to that nation Milan, Mantua, and 
 the Nethei-lands. France, on the other 
 hand, restored to Austria the city of Venice, 
 Istria, Dalmatia, and the left bank of the 
 Adige. 
 
 Campus Martins. A vast plain 
 to the west of Rome where was a temple 
 of Mars. Here the assemblies of the 
 people were held, here magistrates were 
 
1-10 
 
 CANADIAN 
 
 CANONICAL 
 
 elected, and here tlie young Romans lield 
 their athletic sports. In the latter times 
 of the republic porticoes, triumphal arches, 
 and magnificent public monuments were 
 erected round the Campus Martius. At 
 Paris a vast plain was laid out in 1770, 
 which was called the Champ de Mars ; it 
 is south-west, of the city, between the 
 Ecole Militaire and the river Seine. And 
 here in 1815 was held the federation of 
 the Champ de Mai. 
 
 Champ de Mars (pronounce sharnd Marz), Che^mp 
 de Mai (ijronounce snainu, May), 
 
 Canadian O'Oonnell _ (The). 
 Papineau, leader of the democratic party 
 of Lower Canada, in the rebellion of 1836. 
 He was made attorney-general when the 
 two Canadas were united in 1840. 
 
 Canal Navigation {Parent of). 
 Francis Egerton, Gth earl and 3rd duke 
 of Bridgewater (1729-1803). 
 
 Candiotes (3 syl.). Natives of Candia 
 or Crete. 
 
 Candle Hymn {The). The hymn 
 sung at the kindling or lighting of the 
 lamp at sunset. 
 
 Just then the voices of the singers . . . concen- 
 trated themselves . . . into an evening or 'candle 
 hymu.'— Patee, Marius the Epicurean, chap. xxi. 
 
 Candlemas Day, 2 Feb. The feast 
 of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, 
 observed by Catholics with a procession of 
 lighted candles. On this day the candles 
 required for the services of the ensuing 
 year are consecrated. 
 
 In Scotland Candlemas-day is one of the four 
 term days, for the payment of rents, interest, 
 taxes, &c. Tlie other three term-days are Whit- 
 sunday, Lammas-day, and Martinmas-day. 
 
 Candle Kent. A rent given for an 
 out-let or out-drift before the passing of 
 the Enclosure Act in 1811. Those who 
 liked met at a given time and place, and 
 perfect silence was exacted. An inch of 
 candle being liglited, one of the party 
 named what he would give for the plot, 
 and laid a shilling near the candle. If 
 another would give more he stated it, and 
 laid a shilling near the candle, returning 
 the deposit to the first bidder. This went 
 on till the candle had burnt out, and the 
 last depositor rented the land at his own 
 price for the year. 
 
 Canicular Period {A). 1,4G1 
 Egyptian years, which began with the 
 heliacal rising of the dog-star. Also 
 called a Sothic Period. 
 
 The first Canicular period was B.C. 2783. In 1461 
 Egyptian years, the sum ot the deficit 3 of the Canl- 
 cular years equals one entire year, bie ' Dog Days. 
 
 Cannonade of Valmy {The), 20 
 Sept., 1792. The attack of General 
 Kellermann on the Duke of Brunswick at 
 Valmy was so called, because as many as 
 20,000 cannon shots were exchanged be- 
 tween the French and Prussians. 
 
 Not above 400 men on either side were slain in 
 this battle, notwithstanding these 20,000 cannon 
 shots. In Kellermann's army were the young Duke 
 de Chartres (Louis Philippe), and his brother the 
 Duke of Montpensier, then only 17 years of age. 
 
 Kellermann was afterwards created by Napoleon 
 ' due de Valmy ' ; and on his deathbed he requested 
 to be buried in the field of Valmy. 
 
 Canon (.4), A cathedral dignity 
 (Greek ' kanon,' a rule), originally a 
 Cenobite living under a certain rule, as 
 the rule of St. Augustine, the rule of 
 St. Francis, the canonical rule, &:c. By 
 the rule of Chrodegang (763) canons were 
 bound to manual labour, silence, and 
 confession twice a year. Later on the 
 canons formed the bishop's council, and 
 were paid by the bishops. The dean and 
 canons of a cathedral form what is called 
 ' the dean and chapter.' See ' Canons.' 
 
 Canon La-w (T/^e). 'Corpus Juris 
 Canonioi ' (1151), a body of rules for 
 ecclesiastical government compiled by 
 Gratian, an Italian monk, from Scripture, 
 the Latin Fathers, the decrees of general 
 councils, decretals, and bulls ; together 
 with the decrees of Gratian, the decre- 
 ta,ls of Gregory IX. &c., the Clementine 
 constitutions, and the Extravagants of 
 John XXII. (20 in number), drawn up by 
 John Lancelot in the time of Pope Paul 
 IV. (155.5-1559). See ' Civil Law.' 
 
 In 1003 Convocation was ordered to draw up a 
 new body of canons, and 141 canons were decided 
 on, wliieh make the present code of ecclesiastical 
 law in England. They were compiled by Bancroft 
 from the articles, injunctions, and synodical de- 
 crees published in the reigns of Edward VI. and 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Canonical Hours {The Eight). 
 Four great (in capitals), and four little 
 (in ita,lics). 
 
 Matins or Nocturns before break of 
 day. On festivals and Sundays they 
 consist of 3 psalms, 3 anthems, and 3 
 lessons. 
 
 Lauds, at dawn. They consist of 5 
 psalms, 2 or more capitules {i.e. Scrip- 
 ture extracts), prayers, and canticles. 
 
 Prime, at 6 o'clock in the morning, 
 called the first hour of the day. 
 
 Tierce, at 9 o'clock in the morning, 
 called the third hour of the day. 
 
CANONICAL 
 
 CANTER 
 
 HI 
 
 Sext, at mid-day or noon, called the 
 sixth hour of the day. , 
 
 Nones, at 8 o'clock in the afternoon, 
 called the niyiilt hour of the day. 
 
 Vespebs, at sunset, or after 3 o'clock. 
 They consist of 5 psalms, a capitule or 
 extract from Scrix)ture, a hymn, the 
 Magnificat, one or more anthems, and 
 prayers. 
 
 Compline, at bed-time. Consisting 
 of confession, one lesson, 3 psalms, one 
 anthem, one capitule, one short 're- 
 sponse,' the Nunc Dimittis, and prayers. 
 
 Canonical Obedience. The 
 
 obedience which the inferior clergy owe 
 to the diocesan bishop, which bishops 
 owe to the metropolitan, and the metro- 
 politans to the pope in the Eoman 
 Catliolic Church. 
 
 Canons. Means rules (Greek Jcanon). 
 The ' Canons of the Church ' are the 
 laws and regulations of ecclesiastical 
 discipline, the decrees and decisions of 
 the councils, and the creeds to which 
 Christians should conform. /See' Canon.' 
 
 Canons {The Book of). In Scotch 
 history. A code of the rules for the 
 guidance of the Scotch Church, prepared 
 by the Scotch bishops, in obedience to 
 the command of Charles I. ; revised by 
 Laud, and confirmed by letters patent 
 23 May, 1G35. The influence has been to 
 widen the breach between the Scotch 
 and Anglican Churches. 
 
 Canons Apostolic. A collection 
 of ecclesiastical laws attributed to St. 
 Clement, a disciple of Peter the apostle. 
 This tradition requires proof ; the proba- 
 bility is that these canons are of Eastern 
 origin, and of the 3rd or 4th cent. 
 
 Canons Penitentiary. Rules en- 
 joined on iDenitents for different sins, drawn 
 from different councils, papal rescripts, 
 and the writings of the Fathers. 
 
 Canons Regular of St. Gene- 
 vieve, 1615. Confirmed 1G22 by 
 Gregory XV. 
 
 Canons Regular of St. Victor, 
 1113. Established in Paris by G uillaume 
 de Champeaux, abbot of St. Victor. 
 
 Canons of Scripture. Those books 
 of the Old and New Testament contained 
 in our ordinary Bible, regarded by the 
 church as authentic in contradistinction 
 to the Apocryphal Books. 
 
 The books accepted by the church are called 
 
 the canonical books. 
 
 Canons of the Churcli of 
 England (The). Agreed upon in the 
 synod held m London 1G03-4. They are 
 141 in number. 
 
 Canonical obedience means obedience to these 
 canons ol the Anglican Church. 
 
 Canons of the Mass (The). 
 Secret or inaudible words, and certain 
 ceremonies employed by the priest be- 
 tween the Sa)icius and the Pater, in 
 which interval the elements are conse- 
 crated. Attributed to St. Jerome and 
 Pope Severus. 
 
 In the Protestant Common Prayer Book this 
 part of the communion service begins with ' Wo 
 do not presume to come to this Thy table. . . .' 
 
 Canons of the Saints. A cata- 
 logue of the saints recognised by the 
 Catholic Church. Hence canonisation, 
 i.e. insertion of a name in the canon of 
 saints ; and to canonise is to insert the 
 name in the list or canon. 
 
 Canossa. 'Has the Czar gone to 
 Canossa ? ' This was part of a leader in 
 the ' Standard ' newspaper in Nov. 1887, 
 referring to the visit of tlie czar to Berlin 
 to visit the Emperor of Germany, with 
 whom relationships had not been friendly. 
 The meaning is, ' has he gone to eat 
 humble pie ? ' Canossa, in tlie duchy of 
 Modena, is the place to which Kaiser 
 Heinrich IV. went in the winter of 
 1076-7 to humble himself before Pope 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). 
 
 Canosa, or Cannse, in the south of Italy, is quite 
 another place. 
 
 Canteen (A). A licensed store 
 within a barrack, under the superinten- 
 dence of a committee of officers and the 
 charge of a sergeant. Here the best ale, 
 beer, porter, tea and coffee, tobacco, 
 with ginger-beer, soda-water, flour, bacon, 
 bread, butter, and sw^eets, together with 
 tapes, needles, buttons, marbles, tops, 
 and a hundred other things are sold, at 
 less than half the price they would cost 
 in any shop, and all of the very best 
 quality. These canteens are very pro- 
 fitable, and the surplus is applied to the 
 reduction of the cost of other charges 
 to the men. 
 
 Canter of Coltbridge {The)> 
 1745. The retreat of the dragoon 
 picquets, immediately the Highlanders 
 under Charles Edward fired their pistols. 
 These rascal dragoons, not waiting to 
 
142 
 
 CANTERBURY 
 
 aAJ?S 
 
 return the fire, rode off towards Colt- 
 bridge, nearer to Edinburgh. Fowkes 
 and Gardiner now ordered a retreat, and 
 the men went belter skelter through 
 New Town towards Leith. Still dread- 
 ing an attack, they made off to Preston, 
 six miles further, and stopped not till 
 they reached Dunbar. This is certainly 
 one of the most dastardly actions on 
 record. 
 
 Canterbury Riots (The), 1838. 
 Caused by a Cornishman, named John 
 Nicholl Thorn, who went to Kent, and 
 passed himself off as Sir William 
 Courtenay. He said he was the Messiah, 
 invulnerable, and immortal. Strange as 
 it may appear, hundreds of respectable 
 persons followed him. At length the 
 military being called out the 'lunatic' 
 was shot. No such absurd delusion and 
 infatuation had been known for cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Cantred (A), of land contained 100 
 towns; so that an Irish cantred (says 
 "Ware) corresponded to the Saxon 
 hundred. In the registry of Duisk 
 Abbey, Connaught is said to contain only 
 twenty-six cantreds {i.e. 2,600 towns). 
 
 Canuleian Law {The), b.c. 445. 
 A law projected by Caius Canuleius, a 
 Roman tribune, to allow patricians and 
 plebeians to intermarry, and legitimise 
 their offspring. This wise law utterly 
 broke down the absurd caste of old 
 Rome. 
 
 Canute the Great (995, 1016- 
 
 1035). 
 
 Canute was called ' the Great ' from the extent 
 of his dominions (six kingdoms); he was called 
 ' the Brave ' for his military prowess ; he was 
 called ' the Rich ' from his wealth and liberality, 
 and 'the Fious ' for his devotion. 
 
 Canute's Law, or 'Cnut's Law.' 
 The laws enforced by King Canute, and 
 the mode of government which then pre- 
 vailed. 
 
 When the people clamoured for Canute's law, 
 they meant that they wished to be governed in 
 the same way as Canute governed the nation 
 (1014-1036). 
 
 Cap. See also : — 
 
 Blue cap (repnhlicea) Phrygian cap 
 
 Cardinal's red hat Pope s cap 
 
 City flat cap Purple caps (religious 
 
 Episcopal cap virgins) 
 
 Greek cap Square caps 
 
 Green cap (bankrupt's) Statute caps 
 
 Mortar board Yellow cap (J ews' badge) 
 
 Cap of Liberty {The). In the 
 French Revolution was not like the cap 
 
 worn by manumitted slaves in Roman 
 liistory, but a red cloth 
 Plirygian cap, properly with 
 two pointed ends behind. 
 The annexed engraving ia 
 taken from a 25 centime-piece 
 in the year 3 {i.e. 1794-1795). 
 See * Phrygian Cap.' 
 
 It was and still is called ' Le bonnet rouge." 
 ' Bonnet ' means a woollen cap, ' mortier ' a velvet 
 one. 
 
 Cap of Liberty {The). Worn in 
 the Roman states by manumitted slaves ; 
 was made thus, according to a coin of 
 Brutus, after the death of 
 Caesar. It was made of red 
 cloth, and those who wore it 
 were called ' pileati,' i.e. wearers 
 of the ' pileus.' In revolutionary 
 emeutes at Rome the pileus was 
 sometimes hoisted on a spear. 
 After the murder of Ceesar, Brutus and 
 his rebels adopted the red cap as a 
 token of their republican sentiments. 
 
 The pileus was commonly worn at games and 
 festivals. The sick also wore it as more convenient 
 than the 'gelarus' or the broad-brimmed 'pe- 
 tasus.' 
 
 Cap of Maintenance {The). One 
 of the regalia of state belonging to the 
 British sovereigns, and carried before 
 them at the coronation and other national 
 solemnities. Caps of 
 maintenance are also 
 carried before the 
 mayors of several cities 
 in England. It is made 
 of crimson velvet lined with ermine, and 
 has two points behind. Most of the 
 reigning dukes of Germany and various 
 families of the British peerage bear their 
 crests on a cap of maintenance. 
 
 ' Mantenementum ' (says Ducange) means ' ad- 
 ministratio ' ; and the cap of maintenance, with- 
 out doubt, is the symbol of administrative power. 
 
 Caps {The), 1738-1771. The popular 
 faction of Sweden under Frederick and 
 Adolphus Frederick. They upheld the 
 treaty with Russia, and wore the Russian 
 cap as a badge of their proclivities ; they 
 were also friendly to England. The 
 opposite faction were called the Cha- 
 peaux or Hats, and wore the French 
 ' chapeau ' as their badge, to show their 
 French proclivities. They wanted to 
 roll back the government into an oli- 
 garchy. The leader of the Caps was 
 Count Horn; the leader of the Hats 
 was Count Syllenborg. Gustavus IIL 
 
CAPABILITY 
 
 CAPTAIN 
 
 143 
 
 prohibited the names and broke up the 
 factions, 1771. 
 
 Gustavus courted the Caps, that la, the citizens 
 and the people, and thus received the services of 
 the burgher guard of the capital. The Caps were 
 only too ready to assist In pulling down the 
 haughty and oppressive aristocracy.— HoWiTT, 
 Hilt, of Encil., ' George III.,' chap. Iv. p. 95. 
 
 Carlyle says : ' Faction of Caps, that is night- 
 caps, asbeingsomnolent and disinclined to France 
 and war. Seldom has a valiant nation sunk to 
 Buch depths.' 
 
 Capability Brown. Lancelot 
 Brown, the landscape gardener, was so 
 called from his constant use of the word 
 in regard to the sites submitted to his 
 skill (1715-1783). 
 
 Bute . . . emnloyed Capability Brown (1771) . . . 
 to sound Chatham as to a coalition. — HowiTT, 
 Hist, of Engl., ' George III.,' chap. iv. p. 87. 
 
 Capetian Dynasty [The). The 
 
 third race of French kings (987-1848). 
 In 1270 the Philippine or elder branch 
 succeeded, and in 1328 the younger 
 branch, called the Valois. In 1848 Louis 
 Philippe abdicated, and the line ended. 
 
 Huguet Capet appeared in public in an abbot's 
 cope, for he was abl)ot of St. Martin de Tours, but 
 never crowned. He was called Capetus, which 
 means one who wears a capot, or abbot s cope. 
 In 17!>2 the monarchy was interrupted by the First 
 Eepublic. In 1804 Napoleon I. became Emperor 
 of the French. The monarchy was restored in 
 Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In 
 1848 the Second Republic was introduced. From 
 18o'2 to 1873 the Empire was restored in Napoleon 
 III., after whose captivity the liepublio was again 
 restored. 
 
 Capitoline Games [The), a.d. 86. 
 Instituted by the Emperor Domitian to 
 commemorate the saving of the Capitol 
 by the sacred geese when Rome, B.C. 390, 
 was invaded by the Gauls. 
 
 Capitularies. The laws of the 
 Frankish kings are so called because 
 they are subdivided into ' capitula ' or 
 chapters. Ducange says any laws re- 
 duced into a code may be so called ; but 
 the most famous are the Capitularies 
 of Charlemagne (827) compiled by the 
 Abbot Angesius of Fontenelles (3 syl.), 
 and those of his son Louis le De'bonnaire. 
 
 Capitulation Resolution [The), 
 
 1612. Granting absolute religious liberty 
 and equality, because the estates of 
 Austria, leagued in tlie Union of Horn, 
 refused otherwise to do homage to 
 Mathias, the new kaiser. Ferdinand II., 
 who succeeded Mathias in 1619, wholly 
 disregarded the capitulation, and acted 
 on the motto, ' Better a desert than a 
 country full of heretics.' 
 
 Capitulation of Dajitzig {The), 
 26 May, 1807. 
 
 Capon Tree {The). An oak on 
 which six followers of Charles Edward 
 were hanged on Tuesday, 21 Oct., 1746, 
 viz. Colonel James Innes, Peter Lindsey, 
 Ronald Macdonald, Thomas Park, Peter 
 Taylor, and Michael Delard. Called the 
 Capon Tree because under it the judges 
 and their retinue regaled themselves with 
 capons on their way from Newcastle to 
 Carhsle. The tree no longer exists. 
 
 Cappel {Wars of), 1529, 1531. These 
 were religious wars between the adhe- 
 rents of Zwingli the Swiss reformer and 
 the Catholics. The Ziirichers sided with 
 Zwingli, but the Catholics of Lucerne, 
 Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Zug 
 opposed them. On 11 Oct., 1531, in a 
 conflict at Cappel, in Switzerland, Zwingli 
 the reformer was slain. 
 The war of 1529 was patched up by a peace. 
 
 Capriana {Peace of), 1441, between 
 Venice and Milan. Celebrated by the 
 marriage of Sforza with Bianca, only 
 child of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of 
 Milan. 
 
 Captain Cobbler. An insurgent 
 leader in 1536, who with Dr. Mackrel 
 headed a rising in Lincolnshire. Some 
 20,000 followers presented a petition to 
 Henry VIII. complaining of extortion and 
 misgovernment. The King replied : ' Ye 
 are presumptuous — the rude conmions of 
 one shire, and that the most brute and 
 beastly of the whole realm — ye would 
 rule your prince whom ye are bound to 
 obey and serve with your lives, your 
 lands, and your goods. Mind your own 
 business and leave government to your 
 betters.' Captain Cobbler (Melton) and 
 Dr. Mackrel, with thirteen others, were 
 executed. 
 
 * Captain ' Grant, sometimes called 
 * Cooney.' A famous Irish burglar, 
 executed 29 Aug., 1816. He was pro- 
 fusely liberal, most polite, and an incom- 
 parable dancer. He never injured any- 
 one except in self-defence, and on no 
 account allowed those who paid him 
 blackmail to be robbed of anything. He 
 was a great favourite with Irish farmers, 
 and a welcome guest at every fair. His 
 first operations were in Queen's County, 
 Lis last in the county of Wexford. 
 
144 
 
 CAPTAIN 
 
 CARACALLA 
 
 * Captain Grant ' being surprised by the 
 military, was committed as ' Cooney.' 
 
 Captain Moonlight, 1878. The 
 name assumed by some unknown leader 
 of Irish Fenians, who wrote threatening 
 letters to those who resisted or refused 
 to join their league. The following was 
 received in May 1889 by a tenant on the 
 Kenmare estate for being on friendly 
 terms with the bailiS. 
 
 Feniun Lodge, Castle ipland. 
 
 ... I give you till Tuesday evening to let the 
 people know you repent mending a cooler, re- 
 ceiving the milk and butter, and taking tea wibh 
 •Gloster." If you don't ask pardon , - I -will 
 take your life within a week. . . . 
 
 (signed) Capt. Moonlight. 
 
 A diagram below of a cofBn, a rifle, and a skull 
 With cross-bones. (See ' Irish Associations.') 
 
 Captain Rag. Edmund Neale 
 Smith, the poet (16G8-1710), so dubbed 
 at Oxford. 
 
 Captain Swing (1830-1833). An 
 assumed name adopted by the writer of 
 threatening letters to those who used 
 threshing instruments instead of flails. 
 As the letter was generally followed by 
 the burning of ricks, the 'captain' was 
 called ' Swing the Rick-burner.' There 
 was a life published by Carlile, Fleet 
 Street, of 'Francis Swing, the Kent 
 burner,' in 1830, pp. 24. Another, pub- 
 blished by Eooke & Varty, Strand 
 (? 1831), called ' The Life and Death of 
 Swing the Rick-burner.' 
 
 Captains of Liberty, 1270-1291. 
 Oberto Spinola and Oberto Dona of 
 Genoa, who seized the supreme power 
 from the podesta, and ruled the state for 
 21 years. Under them was a magistrate 
 called the Abbate del Popolo. 
 
 Captivity of the Popes (The), 
 1309-1877. The time that the popes 
 held their court and resided at Avignon, 
 instead of Rome. It was followed by 
 ' the Great Schism of the West,' when 
 there were two or more popes, one at 
 Rome and one at Avignon or Basel 
 (Bale). 
 
 Boniface VIII. anathematised Philippe IV., le 
 Bel, of France ; whereupon the king seized him, 
 and the pope, angry and vexed, fretted himself 
 into a fever and died. Philippe then secured the 
 papal chair for Bertrand de Goth (Clement V.), on 
 condition that he stigmatised the memory of 
 Boniface, assisted in suppressing the Knights 
 Templars, and consigned to the king for five 
 years the tithes of all the church proper hy in 
 France. In order to carry out these conditions 
 Clement V. took up his residence in Avignon. 
 The time that the prpes resided in France is 
 called 'the seventy jeiirs* captivity." 
 
 Captivity (Popes of the). (1) Cle- 
 ment V. (1305-1314), who removed his 
 court from Rome to Avignon. 
 
 (2) John XXII. (1316-1334). Louis of 
 Bavaria set up Nicholas V. in opx)Osition 
 to John, but John called him antii^ope, 
 and succeeded in imprisoning his rival. 
 
 (3) Benedict XII. (1334-1342). 
 
 (4) Clement VI. (1342-1352), 
 
 (5) Innocent VI. (1352-1362). 
 
 (6) Urban V. (1362-1370). 
 
 (7) Gregory XI. (1370-1378), who re- 
 moved his court back to Rome in 1376. 
 
 These are not anti-popes. The anti-popes 
 followed the popes of the captivity. See 'Anti- 
 popes,' p. 31. 
 
 Capucins, or 'Capuchin Friars,' 
 1528. Reformed Franciscans established 
 in Italy by Matteo Baschi ; established in 
 France at Meudon in 1585 ; in Spain 1006. 
 So called from the ca^^p^icio, cayuche, 
 their head-dress. See ' Franciscans.' 
 
 CapuletS and Montagues (3 syl.), 
 or Capuletti and Montecchi. Two noble 
 families of Verona, whose feuds have 
 been rendered familiar by Shakespeare's 
 tragedy of ' Romeo and Juliet,' 1303. 
 Da.nte in his ' Purgatorio ' (VI.) alludes to 
 the same. The story of Romeo and 
 Juliet forms one of Bandello's famous 
 tales (1554). 
 
 Caput {The). The council of the 
 
 Senate in Cambridge University, consist- 
 ing of the vice-chancellor, one doctor in 
 each of the three faculties, and two 
 masters of arts. This caput represents 
 the senate. A muster, called a ' congre- 
 gation,' is held once a fortnight. A 
 measure passed or licence granted by the 
 Caput is called a Grace, and a Grace for 
 a degree, duly signed by the praslector of 
 the college to which the candidate belongs, 
 is called a Supplicat. 
 
 Caqueux. So the Cagots {q.v.) are 
 called in Brittany. 
 
 Caracalla. A Roman emperor (211- 
 217), so called because on his visit to Gaul 
 he brought home a number of Gaulic gar- 
 ments, called caracalla, which he both 
 adopted himself and compelled all about 
 his person to adopt also. Caracalla's 
 name was Bassianus, and he was usually 
 called Antoninus. 
 
 The caracalla was like what we now call a frock 
 coat, much more convenieut than the llomaai 
 toga,. 
 
CAR AC CI 
 
 CAKDINALISTk 
 
 145 
 
 Caracci of France [Le). Jouvenet 
 (1647-1707), being paralysed on the right 
 Bide, he paiuted with the left hand. 
 
 Caracci Scliool of painting. See 
 ' Incamminati.' 
 
 Caraites (Kara-ites), 8th cent. Those 
 Israelites who reject the authority of the 
 Talmud. Those who admit it are called 
 Talmudists. They were textualists, con- 
 fining their faith to the text of scripture, 
 and rejecting tradition. 
 
 Caravats. The Ribbonmen of 
 Tipperary, Kilkenny, Cork, and Limerick. 
 Organised in 1808. See 'Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 The Cnravats had been called ' Pauddeen Gar's- 
 men,' till one of their number, prosecuted (in 1610) 
 by the Shanavests for burning the house of a man 
 ■who had taken land over his neighbours head . was 
 hanged, and Pauddeen Gar declared he voi'ld not 
 leave tlie place of execution till ho saw caiavai 
 about the fellow's neck.— Browne, Nayratii-c of 
 Stall' Trials in the KineU'cnth Cent. (1882), vol. i. p. 40J. 
 ((Quoted ia 'Notes and Queries,' 18S2, p. 44(5.) 
 
 Carbonari {The). 'The charcoal 
 burners,' 19th cent. A secret political 
 and ' religious ' society of Italy, having for 
 its object the expulsion of Austria and the 
 establishment in Italy of a democracy. 
 It spread into France in 1818, where it 
 aimed at the downfall of the restored 
 Bourbons. The society was organised 
 into companies of twenty called vendita, 
 and the central assembly was called the 
 alia vendita ; and the united lodges, the 
 republic. The name originated with the 
 Guelfs, who, in order to elude the Ghibel- 
 lines (masters of Italy), met in the woods 
 in the cabins of the charcoal-burners. 
 
 • It is said that the Carbonari established them- 
 Belves in the Forest of Ardennes as far back as 
 A.D. 445, but in the reign of Charlemagne became 
 incorporated with the French nation. They were 
 noticed at Naples in 13-27 as a dangerous political 
 association, and Pope John XXII. tried to put down 
 their gladiatorial contests. 
 
 Carbonarism, or * The Rule of the 
 Carbonari,' 1808. Scarcely known till 
 1815, when Maghella, the Genoese, esta- 
 blished affiliated lodges in Naples and 
 the Roman States. The ostensible object 
 of the society was the suppression of vice, 
 the real object the establishment of re- 
 publicanism. The initiated, called Good 
 Cousins, were divided into apprentices 
 and masters. In 1821 Paris was made 
 the head-quarters, but the society was 
 called ' The Associated Patriots.' After 
 the July revolution (1830), a split was 
 made in the society ; the French portion 
 7 
 
 called itself the * Charbonnerie Democra- 
 tique,' and the Italian portion called itself 
 * Young Italy.' See ' Santa Fedists.' 
 
 The lodge of the Carbonari was called 'a hut.' 
 Inside was ' the place for selling ch;ucoal ; ' outside 
 was ' the forest.' The political opponents were 
 called 'Wolves.' Carbonari meant 'charcoal- 
 burners.' All the insurrections between l«li) and 
 1822 were instigated by the Carbonari. The 
 ' Secret Association of the Holy Faith ' (g.o.) de- 
 clared war to the knife with the Carbonari. 
 
 Carders, 1808. The Ribbonmen of 
 East and West Meath, Roscommon, and 
 part of Mayo. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Cardinal Canons. Canons at- 
 tached, in cardinali, to a church, as a 
 priest is to a parish. 
 
 Cardinal Carstairs, 1649-1715. 
 Born at Cathcart near Glasgow ; was no 
 cardinal, but a gi-eat friend and adviser of 
 the Prince of Orange. It was by the 
 advice of "William Carstairs that WiUiam 
 planned his invasion in 1688. He was 
 made chaplain to "William III., and it was 
 from his enormous influence in church 
 and state that he was popularly called 
 Cardinal Carstairs. 
 
 Cardinal de I'lgnominie (Le). 
 
 Cardinal de Lom(3nie, finance minister of 
 Louis XVI. He was so hated by the 
 people that they burnt him in effigy. He 
 took the oath to the civil constitution of 
 the clergy, and being proscribed by 
 Robespierre and sent to prison, died in 
 1794, as it is supposed, by his own hand. 
 
 Cardinal Mass, ' Missa Cardinalis.* 
 A mass ' qufe in ara cardinali celebratur.' 
 
 See ' Mass.' 
 
 Cardinal's Red Hat, 1244. 
 
 Directed to be worn, instead of mitre, by 
 Innocent T"V., in the Council of Lyons. 
 Twelve cardinals were then created in 
 honour of Christmas day. As 25 Dec. 
 was called the ' Sun's annual birthday,' 
 and red was the symbolic colour of the 
 sun, the reason and connection are obvious. 
 The notion of martyrdom is wholly 
 erroneous. 
 
 Galerus cardinallum rnbeus, lis ab Innocentio IV. 
 prinium concessus in Concil. Lugd. ann. 1244, in 
 previgilio Natalis I>omini, creatis 12 cardinalibus. 
 —DC Cange, vol. iii. p. 730. 
 
 •.• Before the Council of Lyons cardinals wore 
 mitres. 
 
 Cardinalists, 1643. Adherents of 
 Cardinal Richelieu when Cinq Mars 
 headed the royalist faction to assassinate 
 him.. 
 
IIG 
 
 CARDS 
 
 CARLO 
 
 Cards. P. A. Prince, in his * Parallel 
 History ' (vol. i. p. 673) says : Cards were 
 the invention of the Spanish Moors, and 
 represented the seasons. Two colours re- 
 present the two equinoxes, and the four 
 cjuits the four seasons. Spring was 
 designated by a rose (now a diamond) ; 
 summer by a trefoil (a club) ; autumn by 
 an acorn (a spade) ; and winter by a cup 
 (now a heart). There are twelve court 
 cards to represent the twelve months and 
 52 cards to represent the 52 weeks in a year. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Moors, the 
 Spaniards changed the original symbols, 
 and made the four suits represent the 
 four castes or grades of society — Chori, 
 the ecclesiastics (called by the French 
 ccBwrs, hearts); Spada, swords, the mili- 
 tary rank (corrupted into spades) ; 
 Dineros, coins to represent the merchant 
 class (our diamonds) ; and Basta, clubs to 
 represent the agricultural class. There 
 are traces both in India and Egypt of this 
 quadripartite division of society. 
 
 The French caU spades jnque, i.e. pike- 
 jnen ; clubs they call trefle, i.e. clover ; 
 diamonds they call carreaux, i.e. square 
 pavements. 
 
 In French cards the four kings are representa- 
 tives of the four kingdoms : France, Judsea, Mace- 
 donia, and Rome. Thus Charlemagne (hearts) 
 stands for France; David (spacUs) for Judrea ; 
 Alexander (chibs) for Macedonia; and Csesar 
 (diamonds) for Rome. In English packs hearts 
 Btand for England ; spade's for France ; clubs for the 
 pope ; and diamonds for Spain. 
 
 In the reign of Charles VI. of France the four 
 queens represented Isabeau (clubs), the queen- 
 mother ; Jeanne d'Arc (spadt's) ; the queen herself 
 was hiiarts ; and Agnes Sorel was diamonds. 
 
 The four knaves were Hogier the Dane, La Hire, 
 Lancelot, and Hector de Galard. 
 
 Careme. A perversion of Quaresme, 
 which is a French contraction of Qua- 
 dragesima (Qua'r'es'm'), the season of Lent 
 which begins with Ash Wednesday, forty 
 days before Easter. 
 
 Caricaturists (English). It is said 
 that Hogarth and Cruikshank are our 
 best; that Gillray exaggerated, and 
 animal Rovvlandson was a humourist ; it 
 was elegant Leech; Bunbury ('H.B.') 
 was gaseous ; ' genteel ' Sayer was vulgar ; 
 Collet stupid ; and that Seymour excelled 
 in cockney foolery. John Doyle was the 
 reputed author of the ' H.B.' sketches in 
 ' Punch.' 
 
 Carizmians {TJie), or ' Chorasmims,' 
 or * Kharizms,' or ' Khovaresmians,' in- 
 habitants of Kharizm or Chovaresm in 
 Turkestan, south of the Aral. From 094 
 
 to 1231 this province was independent, 
 and in 1193 the Carizmians ruled over 
 Persia. Genges-Khan overturned the 
 dynasty. A dynasty of Carizmians 
 reigned in Delhi from 1213 to 1398, when 
 it was succeeded by the Patans. 
 
 Carl X. of Sweden, 1G22, 1655-lGGO. 
 First of the 7th dynasty, called Deux- 
 Ponts, succeeded his cousin Christina, who 
 had abdicated. 
 
 Father, John Casimir ; mother, Cath- 
 arine (daughter of Carl IX., and sister of 
 Gustavus Adolphus) ; w»/e,Hedwig; son, 
 Carl XL 
 Contemporary with Cromwell and Louis XIV. 
 
 Carle Sund ay. The Sunday before 
 Palm Sunday, from an ancient practice of 
 eating carliiigs (gray peas) fried in butter, 
 with pejiper and salt, on that day. Per- 
 haps the more orthodox food would be 
 hallowed beans fried. See ' Sunday.' 
 
 It will be remembered that Twelfth Day was the 
 beanfeast, and the person who drew the bean was 
 bean king for the nonce. 
 
 Carlists [The), 1833, of Spain, adher- 
 ents of Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand 
 VII. Up to 1830 the Salic law prevailed 
 in Spain ; but Ferdinand VII., having no 
 child except a daughter, announced that 
 the succession would in future pass to 
 both male and female. He thus set aside 
 the succession of his brother Carlos for 
 Isabel, an infant girl not three years old. 
 Carlos resisted, and a civil war ensued 
 from 1833 to 1839. In 1845 Don Carlos 
 abandoned his claim, and died at Trieste 
 in 1855 at the age of 67. 
 
 Don Carlos the younger (Count of Montemolin). 
 after an unsuccessful struggle, was arrested in 
 France, IHOO, and renounced his claim. He also 
 died the following year. 
 
 In 1871 the nephew of young Carlos renewed the 
 struggle, but after five years' desultory fighting, 
 he fled to France, and the contest ended. 
 
 *„* The ' Pragmatic Sanction ' of Austria made 
 Maria Tlieresa the heir of Karl VI. and set aside 
 the Duke of Bavaria, who raised a civil war. 
 
 Carlo Klian, 1784. A name given 
 to Charles James Fox from a popular 
 caricature during the progress of his first 
 India Bill. Fox is represented as the 
 Great Mogul riding into Delhi on an 
 elej)hant ; Lord North and Burke are re- 
 presented as leading the elephant. Burke 
 has a trumpet, to indicate that he is Carlo 
 Khan's trumpeter. It is supposed that 
 Fox aimed at being khan or dictator of 
 the East Indies, and this supposition is 
 supported by a bill which, in .''783, he 
 brought before parliament. 
 
 i 
 
CARLOVINGIANS 
 
 CAROLIN 
 
 117 
 
 Carlovingians [The), 715-987. The 
 2ncl French dynasty. So called from 
 Charles (Carolus) Martel, maire-du-palais, 
 and son of Pepin d'Heristal. 
 
 *^* Charles Martel, king 715-741; his 
 son Pej)in le Bref , 752-768 ; Charlemagne, 
 768-814, who was king of France and 
 emperor of the West. He was succeeded 
 by Louis le De'bonnaire, 814-840. 
 
 In 840 a separation took place; the 
 Frencli kings were Chables le Chauve, 
 Louis le Begue, Louis til., and Carloman, 
 Cn.UiLES LE Gkos, Charles le Simple, 
 Louis d'Outremer, Lothaire, Louis V. 
 called Le Faineant, 986-987. 
 
 The emperors were Lothaire, Louis his 
 son, Chables le Chauve, Chaeles le 
 Gkos, Guy of Sopeto, Lambert, Arnoidd 
 of Carinthia, Louis son of Boson, and 
 Berenger, 906-924. 
 
 The kings of Germany were Louis the 
 Germanic, Louis the Young, Chables le 
 Gbos, Arnoulcl of Carinthia, and Louis 
 the Infant, 899-911. 
 
 The kings of Italy were for the most 
 part the same as the emperors up to Louis 
 son of Boson ; but then follow Hugh of 
 Provence, Lothaire, Berenger II., and 
 Adelbert, 950-961. 
 
 Carlo-W^itz [Peace of), 26 Jan., 1699. 
 Between Venice, Kaiser Leopold, and the 
 Turks. By this treaty the Turks ceded 
 to Germany Hungary, Transj'lvania, and 
 Sclavonia ; and Turkey ceded to Venice 
 the Morea, in honour of Morosini, sur- 
 named Peloponnesiacus. This peace was 
 effected by the mediation of England. 
 
 The Turks reconquered the Morea in 1715, and it 
 was made part of the kingdom ot Greece in 1830. 
 
 Carmagnole. I. A revolutionary 
 
 dress worn in France, especiallj'^ during 
 
 the reign of terror. It consisted of a 
 
 blouse, a red cap, and a tricoloured girdle. 
 
 Blouse, pronounce blilze. 
 
 U. A street dance, in which men, 
 women, and children promiscuously took 
 hold of hands, danced in a ring, ran 
 butting down the street, broke into small 
 parties, and danced vehemently like Bed- 
 lamites, till ready to drop. 
 
 III. A song, ' Madame Veto ' {q-v.), the 
 refrain of which was ' Dansons la Carma- 
 gnole ! Vive le son, vive le son du canon ! ' 
 
 IV. Sometimes red rei)ublicans were 
 called Carmagnoles, and M. Bai'ere 
 designated the speeches made against 
 Marie- Antoinette as * Dos Carmagnoles.' 
 
 V. Bombastic and fanatical reports of 
 the successes and glory of the French 
 arms. These were tried in the Franco- 
 Prussian War (g.u.), but were found to be 
 wind-bladders. 
 
 Carmagnole, pronounce knr-man-yole. 
 
 The word is from Carmagnola, in Piedmont, the 
 great nest of the Savoyards, noted for their street 
 music and dancing. 
 
 Carmathians {The), or 'Carma- 
 thites ' (3 syl.), a.d. 890-951. The foUow- 
 ers of Carmath, the Mussulman reformer, 
 who called himself ' the guide, the director, 
 the demonstration, the Y/ord, the Holy 
 Ghost, the camel, the herald of the Messiah, 
 and the representative of Mahomet, John 
 the Baptist, and Gabriel. He relaxed the 
 duties of ablution, fasting, and pilgrimage, 
 allowed the indiscriminate use of wine and 
 food, and enjoined the daily x*epetition 
 of fifty prayers. His twelve apostles by 
 the success of their preaching seemed to 
 threaten Arabia with a revolution. The 
 Carmathians were a secret society united 
 and concealed by an oath of secrecy. 
 
 Carmelites (3 syl.), 1171. One of the 
 four orders of begging friars and nuns 
 founded by a Calabrian monk on Mount 
 Carmel in Syria, and established in Eng- 
 land in 1240. They dress in white and 
 are called 'White Friars ' from the colour 
 of their dress, as the Dominicans are 
 called ' Black Friars,' and the Franciscans 
 are caUed ' Grey Friars.' The CarmeUtes 
 abstain from animal food. 
 
 St. Theresa in 1540 established a reformed order 
 called the Carmes-dechaussOs, or Barefooted 
 Carmelites. See ' Monastic . . . Orders." 
 
 Carraental Gate {The), or Carmen- 
 talis Porta. One of the eight gates of Rome, 
 very celebrated because it was the gate 
 through which the Fabian clan (consisting 
 of 306 men) passed, when the patricians 
 rejected their agrarian law. They were 
 aU cut off by Veientines, and the gate waa 
 nicknamed Scelerata or cursed. 
 
 Carmenti Portse dextro via proxima .Jano est ; 
 Ire per hanc noli, quisquis es : omen habet. 
 Ovid, Fasti, u. 201. 
 
 Carm.es. See ' Carmelites.' 
 
 Carolin Books {The). Containing 
 the judgments of the general council of 
 thebishoi^s of the West on certain religious 
 questions which were mooted in the time 
 of Charlemagne, especially the desirability 
 of having pictures and images in churciiea 
 as aids to devotion. Alcuin induced 
 Charlemagne to submit tlie question to a 
 
148 
 
 CAROLINA 
 
 CARROLL 
 
 general council, and the practice was con- 
 demned. See ' Iconoclasts.' 
 
 Carolina. So called in 1562 by Jean 
 de Ribault in honour of Charles IX. of 
 France, whose envoy he was. He settled 
 in the south, but in 1565 the colony was 
 massacred by the Spaniards. In 1663 
 some English settled there, and renewed 
 the name in compliment to Charles II. of 
 England, who granted the whole country 
 to eight English adventurers. The nick- 
 names of the North Carolinians are tar- 
 boilers, tar-heels, buffaloes, axidituckoes', 
 of the Southerners weasels^ 
 
 Caroline of Brunswick. The 
 
 divorced wife of George IV., and mother 
 of the Princess Charlotte. It was Bergami, 
 her chamberlain, with whom the queen's 
 name was so slanderously connected. 
 
 Carolus. A silver coin worth ten 
 deniers, struck in the reign of Charles VIII. 
 of France (1483-1498). It bore the letter 
 K, the initial of Karl. Hence the 
 phrase ' II a des Carolus ' — he has lots of 
 money. This word is quite common in 
 French comedy, and is called sometimes 
 a carle, charle, or carlo. 
 
 The English Carolus was -what -we now call a 
 Bovercign. It was a gold coin struck in the reign 
 of Charles I. 
 
 Carosse a cinq sons, 1662. A 
 French omnibus introduced by Colbert. 
 Seven were started, each containing eight 
 seats, and they were compelled to start 
 at fixed times whether full or not. Three 
 started in Paris from the Porte St.-An- 
 toine, and four from the Luxembourg. 
 
 The modern omnib-as, ' Entreprise Generale dea 
 Omnibus,' was established in 1827; and Shillibeer 
 Introduced the omnibus into London three years 
 Jater, in 1830 ; the fare was Gd. 
 
 Carpenters' and Butchers' In- 
 surrection {The), 1413. This was the 
 great insurrection in Paris of the White 
 Scarfs and White Hoods. The Carpenters 
 or White Scarfs were the Orleans or 
 Armag-nac (Ar-man'-yak) faction ; the 
 Butchers or White Hoods were the Bur- 
 gundians. The Carpenters prevailed, and 
 after the bloody fray in the Place de 
 Greve, the White Hoods were driven out 
 of Paris and soon wholly disapjpeared. 
 
 Carpet-bag Regime (The), 1866- 
 1876. When the Southern States of 
 America were practically disfranchised 
 after the rebellion, there grew up swarms 
 of adventurers who went down to the 
 Southern States and organised the negro 
 
 voters, who got elected to all the chief 
 ofiices, plundered the state treasures, 
 contracted huge state debts, and stole 
 the proceeds. Government in the South 
 Carolina and Mississippi states was a 
 mere caricature. When, in 1876, Presi- 
 dent Hayes refused the ' carpet-baggers ' 
 the protection of Federal trooj)s, the 
 regime fell to pieces, and the rule fell 
 again into the hands of the whites. 
 
 Carpocratians (The). Disciples of 
 Carpocrates, who flourished under 
 Hadrian (a.d. 130) at Alexandria. Carpo- 
 crates taught that the world was made by 
 angels ; that Jesus was the son of Joseph 
 and Mary, and that his body after his 
 burial remained in the grave ; he denied 
 the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
 body, but seems to have believed in the 
 transmigration of souls. 
 
 Carrickshoek AfPray {The), 1832. 
 An anti-tithe affray. A number of writs 
 against defaulters having been issued by 
 the court of exchequer, tlie process-servers, 
 with a strong body of police, proceeded 
 on their mission with secrecy and dis- 
 patch ; but the Irish were in waiting, and 
 suddenly a vast number armed with ' pitch- 
 forks and scythes attacked the yeomen.' 
 A terrible hand-to-hand fight ensued, 
 and in a few minutes eighteen of the 
 police, with their conmianding officer, were 
 slaughtered; the remainder fled. The 
 coroner's verdict was ' wilful murder,' but 
 not one single conviction was obtained. 
 
 Carrier of Europe {The). Den- 
 mark, which lets out for hire her mer- 
 chant ships and men to foreign states. 
 
 Carrier's Battues, 1794. A device 
 by Carrier for clearing Nantes of persons 
 suspected of being disaffected towards 
 the republic. Some 500 persons were 
 placed on a bridge near Nantes (1 sjd.), 
 and shot down by cannons. 
 
 Carrier's Vertical Deporta- 
 tion, 1794. A scheme devised by 
 Carrier to clear Nantes of persons sus- 
 pected of not being red republicans. He 
 confined 150 persons at a time in the hold 
 of a ship, and drowned them in the Loire 
 by scuttling the vessel. We are told that 
 the number of persons thus 'deported' 
 amounted to 32,000. 
 
 Carroll {Leivis). The pen-name of 
 C. Lutwidge Dodgson, autlior of ' Alice 
 in Wonderland/ ' Through the Looking* 
 
 i 
 
CARROUSEL 
 
 CASTE 
 
 149 
 
 glass,' ' Phantasma,goria,' ' Hunting the 
 Snark,' &c. 
 
 Carrousel. A species of tournament 
 at one time very common and very popu- 
 lar in all the courts of Europe. It was 
 not known in France till the reign of 
 Henri IV. (1589-1610); but there were 
 such sports in Italy before that time. 
 The most famous carrousels in history 
 were that of Louis XIII., and the two 
 given by Louis XIV. in honour of Made- 
 moiselle de la Vallil're (one in Paris, 1662, 
 and the other at Versailles in 1664). The 
 ' Place de Carrousel ' in Paris is the place 
 where these fetes were usually held. In 
 1750 a revival of the carrousel was 
 attempted at Berlin, and in 1828 the 
 cavalry school at Saumur held one in 
 honour of the Duchesse de Berry. The 
 Eglinton tournament was the last car- 
 rousel held. 
 
 Running with a lance at the pasteboard head of 
 a Turk, or cutting it down with a sword, or firing 
 at it with a pistol, were favourite tests of horse- 
 manship in France. 
 
 Cartesians. Partisans of Ren^ 
 Descartes, the French philosopher (1596- 
 1650). Gisbert Voet charged him with 
 atheism, and some of his books were 
 placed in the Roman ' Index,' especially 
 his ' Meditations.' Descartes said he could 
 find only one tiling that was not doubt- 
 ful, and that was that he existed because 
 he thought {cogiio, ergo sum). From 
 this he inferred that whatever ' thought ' 
 must also exist, hence God must exist. 
 Now spirit cannot act on matter without 
 a concursus on the part of God, the true 
 cause of the action of mind on matter. 
 
 It is absurd to call Descartes an atheist. He was 
 not orthodox, but a God was absolutely essential 
 to his system. Of course, his axiom is a petitio 
 J^Kl^(■' j'ii. Why not ' anibulo, ergo sum ' 2 
 
 Carthu'sians {The), 1084. A mon- 
 astic order founded by Bruno of Cologne. 
 So called because their chief institution 
 was at Chartreuse (in Latin Cartusia), 
 near Grenoble, in France. Their esta- 
 blishments, wherever situated, were called 
 ' Chartreuse Houses,' corrupted into 
 Charter Houses. They were introduced 
 into England in the reign of Henry II., 
 A.D. 1180. They adopted, in a great 
 measure, the Benedictine rule, with addi- 
 tional austerities. 
 
 The Carthusian Rule was as follows: 
 
 To fast all Lent till six at night ; never to eat 
 meat at .-xiiy time ; and three days a weeli to fast 
 on bread, salt, and water. 
 
 Each monk to have a separate cell, where he 
 was to sleep and take in silence his solitary meals. 
 
 Every monk to wear a hair-shirt at all times. 
 
 All to work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and 
 given to works of charity. 
 
 Cartoon of Pisa {The), by Michel 
 Angelo. It represented some soldiers 
 bathing, and suddenly disturbed by the 
 appearance of the enemy. It was torn to 
 pieces by Baccio Bardinelli out of envy 
 of the young artist. An old cojpy of this 
 cartoon is in the possession of the Earl of 
 Leicester. 
 
 Cams Greek Testament Prizes. 
 
 In the University of Cambridge, 1853. 
 Two prizes of books, raised by subscrip- 
 tion in honour of the Rev. Wilham Carus, 
 Fellow of Trinity. 
 
 CasadePila'tos. In Seville. It is a 
 Moorish house said by tradition to have 
 been rem.oved from Jerusalem by angels. 
 Murray's ' Handbook for Spain ' tells us 
 ' it was built (1533) in imitation of Pilate's 
 house at Jerusalem by Fredrique Enriquez 
 de Ribera, in commemoration of his having 
 performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem 
 in 1519.' Others say it was built by 
 Moorish captives for a duke of Medina 
 Coeli. See ' Santa Casa.' 
 
 Cassation {Court of). France. For 
 qiiashing the decision of other courts 
 {casser, to annul). The only question this 
 court has to decide is whether the tenor 
 of the law and its administration have been 
 correctly observed by the court from which 
 the appeal is made. 
 
 Cassin'ians. In Latin Cassiani. A 
 law school which took its name from 
 Cassius Longlnus, governor of Syria, 
 A.D. 50. He wrote ten books on the civil 
 law, and was a follower of the Sabinians 
 {q.v.), or imperial party. 
 
 Caste. In India, a social class, to 
 each of which certain pursuits are limited 
 by the Laws of Manu, B.C. 900. 
 
 1. The Brahmans or sacerdotal class, 
 which ' issued from the mouth of Brah- 
 ma.' 
 
 2. The Chuttree or military class, which 
 ' sprang from the a?-??i of Brahma.' 
 
 3. The Ba'is or mercantile class, which 
 ' sprang from the thigh of Brahma.' 
 
 4. The Siuiras or servile class, which 
 ' sprang from the foot of Brahma.' 
 
 The Pailihs and Chandnlas are nobodies, or 
 worse, for is is pollution to be touched by such 
 ' scum of the earth.' 
 
150 
 
 CASTLE 
 
 CATHARINE'S 
 
 Castle {The), Dublin. The town 
 residence of the lord-lieutenant. It is the 
 headquarters of the principal public de- 
 partments, and contains an armoury, 
 an arsenal, and a chapel. Here are the 
 offices of the chief secretary, who is prac- 
 tically the prime minister of the lord- 
 lieutenant or viceroy, but he has nothing 
 whatever to do with the police. His 
 office is divided into two departments, 
 each presided over by one of the two per- 
 manent under-secretaries. The lord- 
 chancellor of Ireland and the law officers 
 of the crown have offices in a wing of the 
 castle. Prosecutions are initiated in the 
 law-rooms of the Castle, and both the 
 attorney-general and the solicitor-general 
 of Ireland have their offices here. 
 
 Cat {The). So James I. used to call 
 Chief-Justice Sir Edward Coke (1549- 
 1634), noted for his ' Commentary on 
 Littleton's Treatise on Tenures.' James 
 called him * the Cat,' because he always 
 fell on his legs when he got into trouble. 
 Thus, in 1616 he was removed both from 
 his office of chief-justice and the council, 
 because he refused to favour certain 
 views of Villiers(the king's new favourite) 
 on money matters ; but in 1616 he married 
 his youngest daughter to Villiers' brother, 
 and was restored. Again in 1621 (27 
 Dec.) he was imprisoned in the Tower 
 for supporting the privileges of the 
 Commons, but was liberated 6 Aug., 1622. 
 
 Cat Hoax {The), 1815. When 
 Napoleon was about to depart for St. 
 Helena, some wag in Chester had a 
 number of handbills distributed, stating 
 that the island was so overrun with rats 
 that 16s. would be given for every full 
 grown tom-cat, 10s. for every full-grown 
 tabby, and 2s. Gd. for every kitten able to 
 feed itself. The city on the day fixed 
 was crowded with men, women, and 
 children carrying cats. A riot ensued, 
 the cats broke away and infested the 
 private houses ; 500 were killed, others 
 were drowned, and many infested the 
 neighbouring sheds and barns for many 
 weeks afterwards. See ' Cats,' p. 152. 
 
 Catamaran' Admiralty {The), 
 1804. The English Admiralty which 
 employed a catamaran to destroy the 
 French flotilla at Boulogne. 
 
 The catamaran referred to was a machine in- 
 vented by Fulton to be sent against an enemy s ship 
 with a view of blowing it into the air. The machine 
 employed on this occasion blew itself up with the 
 
 commp.nder and thireeen sailors, amidst the jeers 
 of the French and tlic sarcasms of our own people. 
 This was the first and last time that such a 
 niacliine was employed by our navy. 
 
 Cateau Cam.bre'sis {Peace of), 
 2 April, 1559. Between France, England, 
 and Spain, called in French history 
 La Paix Malheureuse, because, after 
 65 years of war in Italy, the French had 
 to renounce all their conquests in that 
 peninsula and also Corsica. 
 
 Catechumens' Mass, ' Missa 
 
 Catechumenorum.' The part of the liturgy 
 which precedes the ' MIssa Fidclium,' i.e. 
 the consecration of the elements and the 
 communion. That is the epistle and 
 gospel, after which the catechumens were 
 dismissed, the deacon saying ' Si quis non 
 communicat, det locum.' See ' Mass.* 
 
 Caterans (Scottish history), outlaws, 
 freebooters. Thus Sir Robert Graham, 
 the outlaw who murdered James I. at 
 Perth, was the leader of a band of 
 caterans. (G-aelic, ceatharnach, a soldier.) 
 
 Iron stanchions on the lower windows ... to 
 repel any roving band of gipsies, or resist a preda- 
 tory visit from the Caterans of the neighbourmg 
 Highlands. — Sir W. Scott, Waverley, chap. viii. 
 
 Cath'ari, ' Cathares,' or * Cathar- 
 ists ' (about a.d. 255), similar to the 
 Waldenses (12th cent., latter part). A 
 plain, unassuming, harmless, and industri- 
 ous race of Christians, who placed their 
 religion in faith, and entertained supreme 
 reverence for the Bible. They rejected 
 the dogmas of apostolic succession, pur- 
 gatory, and papal supremacy; accepted 
 only two sacraments ; believed in only 
 one Mediator, and therefore disavowed 
 the advocacy of the Virgin Mary and of 
 saints, and disbelieved in masses for the 
 dead, the adoration of images and relics, 
 and, of course, in indulgences also ; and 
 set their faces against second marriages. 
 Sometimes c-alled Bulgarians, sometimes 
 Patarenes or Patarines, sometimes 
 Popelitans or Pojjlicans, and in the Low 
 Countries Pij)hles. 
 
 The word Cathari is the Greek kathnroi, puritans. 
 Their religious tenets were very similar to those 
 of the ' Poor Men of Lyons,' and the Waldenses. 
 Probably they rejected infant baptism, but it is a 
 gross slander to call tliem Manichceans. Of course 
 they were persecuted as Luther was in later 
 
 Catharine's College {St.). In 
 Cambridge University, founded by 
 Robert Wodelarke, D.D., chancellor of 
 the University, 1473. 
 
 Familiarly called Cat's. 
 
CATHARINE 
 
 CATO 
 
 151 
 
 Ccitliarine de' Medici of Africa 
 {The). Sophouisba, queen of Numidia 
 (died B.C. 203). 
 
 Catharine de» Medici of China 
 
 {The). Voo-cliee, who married Kao- 
 tsong. As Francois I., the father-in-law 
 of Catharine de' Medici, was called Le 
 Pere des Lettres, so Tae-tsong, the 
 father-in-law of Voo-chee, was called the 
 ' Solomon of China,' and the greatest 
 patron of letters of all the emi)erors of 
 the celestial kingdom. As Catharine, on 
 the death of her husband, ruled her sons 
 like puppets, so Voo-chee ruled her son, 
 and usurped the whole power. As the 
 conduct of Catharine demoralised society 
 and impoverished France, so Voo-chee 
 demoralised and impoverished China. 
 As Catharine alienated from her all 
 France, so Voo-chee exhausted the 
 patience of her subjects, who at last 
 deposed her. See also ' Catherine.' 
 
 Cathedra Petri means Roman 
 supremacy, or the supremacy of the 
 Church of Rome, ' founded ' by St. 
 Peter. Hence the Church of Rome is 
 styled ' Ecclesia Apostolica.' 
 
 Cathedral Beard {The). A long 
 square-cut beard j)eculiar to ecclesiastics. 
 
 The fashion of his beard was just, for all the 
 world, like those upon Flemish jugs, bearing in 
 gross the form of a broom, narrow above and 
 hroa.dh&nea.lh.—Bvi^WER, The ArtiJicialChaiKjeUng, 
 1053. 
 
 Cathedral Builders of Flo- 
 rence. Arnolfo, Giotto, Ghiberti, 
 Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Agnolo. 
 
 Cathedrals of the Kew^ Foun- 
 dation. Those to which Henry VIII., 
 after the dissolution of the monasteries, 
 gave a new dean and chapter. 
 
 Catherine of Aragon. Wife of 
 Prince Arthur and afterwards of Henry 
 VIII. of England, was lineal descendant 
 of John of Gaunt, whose fourth child 
 and second daughter married Alfonso 
 V. of Castile. See also ' Catharine.' 
 
 John of Gaunt; his daughter Joanna married 
 Alfonso v. of Aragon, and their son was Juan II. 
 of Aragon. 
 
 The son of Juan II. was Ferdinand V., who 
 married Isabella of Castile, and the daughter 
 Df Ferdinand and Isabella was Katharine or 
 Catherine, who first married Arthur (eldest son 
 of Henry VJI.), and then his younger brother, 
 Henry VIII., by whom she was divorced. 
 
 Catholic Association {The), 1824. 
 In Ireland. Abolished by Act of Parlia- 
 ment in 1825. It still existed in 1828. 
 
 when the Brunswick clubs were formed ; 
 but after the passing of Catholic eman- 
 cipation the association dissolved itself, 
 1829. 
 
 Catholic Emancipation, 1829 
 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7). The repeal of all 
 laws which disqualified Roman Catholics 
 from the enjoyment of civil rights and 
 the free disposal of their property. 
 The Corporation and Test Acts had been 
 repealed in 1828. In 1832 Jews were 
 adjnitted to their elective franchise, in 
 1845 were admitted to municipal offices, 
 and in 1858 were made eligible for seats 
 in Parliament. 
 
 Catholic Epistles {The). Those 
 seven epistles of the New Testament, 
 not addressed to particular churches or 
 persons. They are the Epistle of James, 
 the three Epistles of John, the Epistle 
 of Jude, and the two Epistles of Peter. 
 Originally only 1 John and 1 Peter were 
 accepted as apostolical, but in the 4th 
 cent, the other five epistles were read 
 as ' lessons,' and therefore received as 
 canonical epistles. 
 The 2 and 3 John are anything but ' catholic.' 
 Catholicos. The primate of the 
 Armenian Church, and of the Christians 
 of Georgia and Mingrelia. 
 
 Catilines and Cethegi {The). 
 Conspirators who hope to mend their 
 fortunes by rebellion. Cethegus was one 
 of Catiline's crew, a kind of O'Donovan 
 Rossa of ancient Rome. 
 
 The intrigues of a few impoverished Catilines 
 and Ccthegi.— Motley, Dutch IlcpuUic. 
 
 Catnach Press {The). The press 
 which published * last dying speeches 
 and confessions,' with accounts of ex- 
 ecutions of notorious criminals, such as 
 Thurtell and Greenacre, Bishop and 
 Williams, Fauntleroy and Corder. So 
 called from ' Jemmy ' Catnach, the printer 
 of ' patter songs ' and ' last dying speeches 
 and confessions,' &c. One of his chief 
 assistants was John Morgan, the ' last of 
 the Catnach bards.' 
 
 Cato {The Polish). Thaddeus 
 Reyten, deputy of Novogrodek, who in 
 1773 resisted the partition of Poland. 
 
 Cato the Younger. Sir John 
 Barnard (1685-17G4), the firm and 
 upright patriot. A statue was erected 
 to him in tlie Royal Exchange, after • 
 
152 
 
 CATO-STREET 
 
 CAVALIERS 
 
 which he never transacted business 
 within the edifice, but always in the 
 front of it. 
 
 Cato-street Conspiracy [The), 
 22 Feb., 1820. A conspiracy devised by 
 Arthur Thistlewood to assassinate Lord 
 Sidmouth, Lord Eldon, Lord Castle- 
 reagh, and all the other cabinet ministers 
 at the great ministerial dinner to be 
 given at the house of Lord Harrowby. 
 One of the conspirators was to call with 
 a note, and then the rest were to rush in 
 and put the ministers to death. This 
 done the conspirators were to fire the 
 cavalry barracks by throwing fireballs 
 into the straw-sheds. Then they were 
 to take the Bank and the Tower. Two 
 spies, Edwards and Hidon, kept the 
 ministers well posted in all the plans. 
 Thistlewood and four others were ex- 
 ecuted on May day (1820). 
 
 The conspirators met in a stable in Cato Street, 
 near Edgware Road, London. 
 
 Catochiens, 1413. French rebels 
 so called from their leader Catoche, a 
 butcher. Like the Jacquerie (1357), 
 they insisted, amidst blood and rapine, 
 on stamping out the privileged classes 
 and abolishing royalty in France. 
 
 Catskin Earls. Earls who wore 
 catskin trimmings instead of ermine — 
 that is earls prior to 1520, as Shrewsbury, 
 Derby, and Huntingdon. 
 
 Some period subsequent to 1520, the catslrin 
 trimmings of earls was changed to ermine. The 
 earls, however, created before that period -were 
 allowed to wear their catskin trimmings. The 
 only ones existing are those of Shrewsbury, 
 I>erby, and Huntingdon.— A'ote« and Queries, 
 6 Sept., ix. 214. 
 
 Cats' Raffael [The). Gottfried 
 Mind of Berne, in Switzerland (1708- 
 1814). See ' Cat,' p. 150. 
 
 Caucasians [The). An ethnological 
 division adopted by Blumenbach, in- 
 cluding all the inhabitants of Europe 
 (except the Fins); with the Hindus, 
 Persians, Assyrians, Arabians, Jews, 
 and Phoenicians, of Asia ; and in Africa, 
 the Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Moors. 
 
 Dr. Prichard says this division includes two 
 separate groups ; language, not the form of the 
 skull, being now consia. red the pliilosophical 
 basis of ethnological groups. 
 
 Caucus, 1774. A meeting got to- 
 gether at Boston (Massachusetts) by 
 Samuel Adams to resist the British 
 Government and especially the Boston 
 ' Port Act (2 •'«.). He induced thirty persons 
 
 to join him, and appointed a committee 
 of five to meet the provincial committees 
 of Philadeli^hia 1 Sept. The scheme 
 was kept a profound secret from the 
 government, and 500L was voted for the 
 expenses of the delegates. The com- 
 mittee met in a calker's shed in Boston, 
 called a calk-house, hence calk-hus, 
 Caucus. See ' Patres Patriae.' 
 
 Caudine Forks (The). ' Furculee 
 Caudinas,' two mountain gorges near the 
 town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium, 
 where the Roman army was entrapped 
 by Pontius in the second Samnite war 
 (B.C. 321). Four legions under Titus 
 Veturius and Spurius Posthumius, locked 
 in these gorges by the Samnites, were 
 obliged to surrender. They passed, as 
 was customary, under the yoke. Terms 
 were made by the Roman consuls, but 
 the senate basely repudiated them. The 
 consuls were sent back prisoners to 
 Caius Pontius, the Samnite general, but 
 he refused to accept them. 
 
 The phrase has become proverbial for a strategic 
 trap. 
 
 Cauldron of Slaughter (The). 
 In the Teutoberger Wald, where the 
 Roman legions under Varus were cut to 
 pieces by the Germans under Hermann 
 in the reign of Augustus. 
 
 Cautionary To^p^ns. Briel, 
 Flushing, Rammekens, and Walcheren, 
 which were placed in the possession of 
 Queen Elizabeth (1585), as security for 
 the payment of troops furnished by her 
 to the Netherlands. Only one-third of 
 the sum was ever refunded; but the 
 ' Cautionary ' towns were delivered back 
 14 July, 1616. 
 
 Cavaliere. In Venice was a title 
 given to a noble who had been an 
 ambassador. He wore a gold star em- 
 broidered on his robe. Tlius Antonio 
 Foscarini, ambassador to the court of 
 France, was on his return to Venice in 
 1GG2 styled a 'cavaliere.' 
 
 Cavaliers and Koundheads, 
 
 1641. The royalists and puritans in 
 the reign of Charles I. The royalists 
 wore their hair long, flowing over their 
 shoulders ; the puritans cropped their 
 hair short, and were called crop-haired 
 or ' Roundheads.' The terms sprang up 
 25 Nov., 1641, on the return of Charles I. 
 to London, when the parliament greeted 
 
 I 
 
CAVALRY 
 
 CELESTINES 
 
 153 
 
 him with a ' remonstrance ' on his evil 
 doings. The royal party had long hair 
 falling in ringlets^ over their shoulders, 
 the remonstrants wore their hair cropped 
 short, studiously avoided all ornaments, 
 and affected a very sober style of dress. 
 
 Cavalry {The British) is divided 
 into mediums, heavies, and light cavalry. 
 
 The viediums consist of 13 regiments ; 
 the heavies of 2 regiments; and the 
 light of 13. 
 
 (1) The mediums contain the 7 regi- 
 ments of Dragoon Guards (numbered 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) ; 5 regiments of Lancers 
 (numbered 5, 9, 12, 16, 17) ; and the 6th 
 Lmiskilling Dragoons. 
 
 (2) The heavies consist of the 12th 
 Royal Dragoons and 2nd Royal Scots 
 Greys. 
 
 (3) The light contains the 3, 4, 7, 8, 
 10, 11, 13, 14", 15, 18, 19, 20, 21 Hussars. 
 
 There are no Light Dragoons now. 
 
 Cavendish College. In Cambridge 
 University. Founded by the County 
 College Association, and named from 
 William Cavendish, duke of Devonshire, 
 chancellor of the University at the time, 
 1882. 
 
 The chief objects are (1) economy; (2) to train 
 for schoolmasters ; (3) to enter at a somewhat 
 younger age. 
 
 Cavendish's Creed (Mr.), 1769. 
 
 * I do, from my soul, detest and abjure, 
 as unconstitutional and illegal, that damn- 
 able doctrine and position, tliat a resolu- 
 tion of the House of Commons can make, 
 alter, suspend, abrogate, and annihilate 
 the law of the land.' This was spoken 
 in reference to Mr. Wilkes, who was 
 returned to parliament time after time 
 by the freeholders of Middlesex, but not 
 allowed to take his seat. 
 
 A little more than a century later a similar 
 contest arose between the Commons and Mr. 
 Bradlaugh, junior member for Northampton. 
 Ostensibly the cause of objection to Mr. Bradlaugh 
 •was his slighting the obligation of the required 
 oath ; but the real objection was his unorthodox 
 opinions disseminated, like those of Wilkes, in a 
 journal. 
 
 Cavendish Experiment {The). 
 To discover the weight of our earth. 
 Cavendish makes it 5"480 times the weight 
 of water, and the total weight to be 
 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons {i.e. 
 6,000 trilhons). 
 
 Cavendish Laboratory {The). 
 For physical researches. Founded in 
 Cambridge by William Cavendish, duke 
 
 of Devonshire, Chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity from 1861 to 
 
 Cavour Federation {The). 'La 
 Federazione Camillo Cavour,' July, 1888. 
 A ]political association in Italy for carry- 
 ing out the great programme of Camillo 
 Cavour: viz. monarchy, liberty, progress, 
 and a parliamentary government. It 
 may be called a progressive Tory policy, 
 similar to the Primrose League in 
 England. 
 
 Caxton Society {The), 1845-1854. 
 For tlie publication of the literature of 
 the middle ages. It published 16 vols. 
 Named in honour of William Caxton 
 (1412-1491), the first English printer. 
 
 Caymes Castles or ' Cayms Castles 
 (Ca}Tn = Cain). Monasteries were so 
 called by Wyclif. 
 
 Wyclif called monks ' devil's kitchens.' 
 
 Ceada. The deep pit into which 
 the Spartans threw criminals condemned 
 to death. 
 
 Cecilite Order. Founded by Lord 
 Adeibert Cecil. The tenets resemble 
 those of the Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 Celestial Empire {The), China. 
 The emperor is called 'the Son of 
 Heaven.' The first hypothetical 
 sovereign was Puon-ku, i.e. Highest 
 Eternity, and the second was Tien-hoang 
 = emperor of Heaven. Then followed 
 Ti-hoang = emperor of the earth ; and 
 then Gine-hoang = emperor of the race 
 of man. 
 
 Celestial Indexes. So the Irish 
 round towers were called by some Irish 
 annalists. Whence it is supposed their 
 object was astronomical observations 
 connected with sun-worship. 
 
 Celestial Judgments ('Breathe 
 Neimidh'). The code of Forchern, a.d. 
 40, was so called by the Irish. It was 
 a digest of the ancient laws greatly 
 venerated. 
 
 Celestians. Pelagians {q.y.), so 
 called from Celestius, a disciple of 
 Pelagius (5th cent.). Condemned by 
 the Council of Carthage in 412, and 
 again in 430 by the Council of Ephesus. 
 
 Celestines ( The), 1254. A religious 
 order, a branch of the Benedictma 
 founded by Pietro da Morone (Celestino 
 
154 
 
 CELLAMARE'S 
 
 CERINTIIUS 
 
 v.). Suppressed in 1778. The ' Quai 
 des Ce'lestines ' of Paris was so named 
 because the chief house of the Celestines 
 was behind the arsenal on the Quai 
 called after the order. They adopted the 
 Rule of St. Benedict. 
 
 Cellamare's Conspiracy, 1718. 
 
 This was a conspiracy to outwit the 
 Quadruple Alliance, by ousting Philippe, 
 due d'Orle'ans, from the regency of 
 France, and giving it to Felipe V. of 
 Spain. Cellamare was the Spanish 
 ambassador at Paris, and acted on the 
 instructions of Alberoni. The con- 
 spiracy being discovered, Cellamare was 
 conducted to the frontiers, and others 
 concerned in the plot were sent to the 
 Bastille. 
 
 Cellites (2 syl.) or ' Celli.' Lollards, 
 Matemans, Alexians or Brethren and 
 Sisters of Alexius, who rose in Antwerp 
 about 1300, and were admitted by Sixtus 
 rV. amongst the religious orders in 1472. 
 Kullus Christianus ad fana, vel ad petras, vel ad 
 fontes, vel ad arbores, aut ad cellos [i.e. lucellos, 
 groves], vel per trivia luminaria faciat, aut vota 
 reddere pitOBSumat. — St. Audoenus, Li/e of St. 
 Eligius, bk. ii. chap. 15. 
 
 Celts or Kelts (The). A race which 
 at one time peopled almost all Western 
 Europe. They possessed France, much 
 of Germany, most of Spain and Portugal, 
 Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. 
 The Celts of France were called Gaels 
 (Gauls), those of Britain and Belgica Cym- 
 ri. Druidism was properly Cymric. After 
 the Saxon and Danish invasions Eng- 
 land largely became Teutonic, and after 
 the Norman Conquest still more so. 
 
 In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland we 
 Btill find Gaels ; but in Wales and Low Brittany 
 we find Cymri. Kelt and Gael are mere varieties 
 of the same word Kelt-ai, Galat-ai, Gall-i, Gaul, 
 Gael. 
 
 Cenchi (The), 1293. A faction in 
 Florence opj)osed to the Donati. So 
 named froni two powerful houses. At 
 first both these factions were Guelfs, but 
 later on the Cenchi were Ghibellines, 
 and the Donati Guelfs. 
 
 In Pistoia, an ally of Florence, there were two 
 similar factions called the Bianchi (= Cenchi, 
 Ghibellines), and the Neri (=Donati, Guelfs), 
 Dante the poet, though of the house of Donati, 
 joined the Bianchi, and had his house pulled down 
 over his ears. 
 
 Cenchi, pronounce Chen'-ke. 
 
 Central Committee of Insur- 
 rection {The), 1792. A committee of 
 five (afterwards nineteen) federates which 
 eat daily in one of the Jacobin club- 
 
 rooms. The object of these five villains 
 was to assassinate the king (Louis XVI.). 
 Their names were Vaugeois (grand vic\r), 
 Debesse of La Drome, Guiflaume of Caen, Simon 
 (editor of newspapers, a native of Strasburg), 
 and Galissot of Langres. These five were soon 
 joined by fourteen others, such as Santerre, 
 Camille Desmoulins, and Danton, &c. 
 
 Central Committee of the 
 Communists (The), 1871. The in- 
 surgents' government, in opposition to 
 the Republic with M. Thiers at the 
 head, appointed after the Franco- 
 Prussian war. It had nine sub-com- 
 mittees to superintend the several 
 departments of finance, public instruc- 
 tion, foreign affairs, home matters, the 
 army, the municipa,lities, and so on. 
 The Hotel de Ville was the seat of 
 government. It lasted nine weeks, when 
 it was stamped out by Marshal Mac- 
 Mahon, with much bloodshed. 
 
 Centuria'ni. So the primitive 
 Christians were called from their ceintures 
 or broad belts by which they were dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 In ista autem Babylonia habitant . . . multitude 
 christianorum, qui dicuntur Ccnturiani . . . quia 
 cingulum portant latum, vestimantum per quod 
 recognoscuntur ab aliis.— Ordericus. 
 
 Cercle de Bourgogne (Le). The 
 duchies of Brabant, Limbourg, and 
 Luxembourg ; the Franclie Comte' ; the 
 Comte Palatin ; the counties of Flanders, 
 Hainaut, Namur, Artois, HoUand, and 
 Zealand; the marquisate of Antwerp; 
 and the seignory of Mechlin. 
 
 Ceremonial (The). The service 
 book for the pope, embracing all that 
 pertains to the various functions of his 
 office. See ' Pontifical.' 
 
 Cerinthians {The). Followers of 
 Cerinthus contemporary with the apostles. 
 He maintained that Jesus was a proper 
 man, the son of Joseph and Mary, but 
 that, at baptism, God sent the first of the 
 ^ons named Christ, in the shape of a dove, 
 upon him. He further taught that this 
 ^on left the body of Jesus before death 
 on the cross, for the Christ could not die, 
 though the man Jesus, like other men, 
 was mortal. Cerinthus considered the 
 Mosaic law binding on all Christians. 
 
 According to Cerinthus the Saviour referred to 
 this /Eon when on the cross He cried, ' Mj' God 
 (or ^on), my God, why hast Thou left or forsaken 
 Me?' 
 
 CerintllUS, the heresiarch, wrote 
 a book on the millennium. Dionysius of 
 Alexandria says (' On Promises,' book ii.) 
 
CEETIOEAKI 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN 
 
 155 
 
 that ' Cerintlius affixed the name of John 
 to his forgery.' 
 
 Irenaeus (' Against Heresies," book i.), says that 
 ' John the apostle once entered the public baths, 
 but ascertaining that Cerinthus was within tlie 
 Bfeme building, he (John) rushed out of the door, 
 not enduring to be under the same roof wibh Cer- 
 inthus ; and, as he fled, he cried to his companions, 
 " Flee ! Flee ! Let us flee, lest the bath fall in, for 
 Cerinthus is within." '— Eusebius, book iii. 28. 
 
 Certiora'ri. A writ issued from a 
 superior court to an inferior one to remove 
 a cause depending in it. The writ com- 
 mands the judges &c. of the inferior court 
 
 * to certify,' i.e. return, the records of the 
 depending cause, that the party may be 
 
 * more fully assured,' or may have more 
 speedy justice. 
 
 Cessation {The), 1645. In the Irish 
 rebellion (q.v.), Charles I. being at war 
 with the Parliamentarians, was greatly 
 in want of money, and under hope of 
 obtaining a subsidy from Ireland, com- 
 manded t!ie Marquis of Ormond to treat 
 with his Majesty's subjects in arras, and 
 agree with them for a cessation of hostilities 
 for one year. This was called the khig's 
 new and favourite expedient. The Irish 
 insurgents granted the king 30,000/., one 
 half in cash and the other moiety in 
 beeves. Never did any project encounter 
 such a storm of opposition, indignation 
 and rage, as broke out in Great Britain 
 and Ireland at the proclamation of the 
 cessation, especially from the English and 
 the Scotch. 
 
 Cestui que trust {A). A person for 
 whose benefit a trust is created. For 
 example : if A founds and endows a pro- 
 fessorship at Cambridge University, the 
 professor who receives the endowment is 
 the cestui que trust. Or, if A founds a 
 church, the vicar is the cestui que trust, 
 or, in old French, the fidei commissaire. 
 
 Chain of Silence {To shake the). 
 In the tribal assemblies of the Scots in 
 Ireland. It is mentioned in the celebra- 
 ted Eric Fine case of the children of 
 Turenn, cited in an article on the ' Ancient 
 Irish Eric Fine ' by E. E. Cherry, in the 
 *Law Magazine and Eeview,' No. 255 
 (Feb. 1885). 
 
 A celebrated contention between Goll and Finn 
 MaoCumhail had risen to such a pitch, that it could 
 only be appeased by the intervention of the bards, 
 who, shaking the Chain of Silence between the 
 chiefs, succeeded In calming their strife. — T. 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland, viii. p. 135. 
 
 Chaldaic Tar.^ums. Paraplirastic 
 versions of the Old Testament in Chaldee 
 for the use of the Jews, who, after the 
 
 cai)tivity, did not undr^rstand Hebrew 
 (Neh. viii. 3). The oldest and best is 
 that of Onkelos on the pentateuch, in the 
 3rd Christian cent. Next in value and 
 age is that by Jonathan Ben Uzziel on 
 the prophets. 
 
 Chaldee MS. {Translation from an 
 ancient). A skit published in ' Black- 
 wood's Magazine ' in 1817. The authors 
 were Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Pro- 
 fessor Wilson, and Mr. Lockliart. It 
 really is a chronicle of the strife of 
 Whiggism and Toryism in Edinburgh. 
 The following persons are introduced : 
 John Ballantine, Blackwood and Con- 
 stable (publishers). Sir David Brewster, 
 Professor Jameson, Lord Jeffrey, Profes- 
 sor Leslie, J. G. Lockhart, Henry Mac- 
 kenzie (novelist), Macvey Napier, Profes- 
 sor Playfair, Sir Walter Scott, Charles 
 Kirkpatrick Sharpe, Fraser Tytler, and 
 Professor Wilson. 
 
 Cha,lk Sunday. The first Sunday 
 in Lent is so called in Ireland from the 
 common practice indulged in by young 
 women on that day, of chalking the backs 
 of young men who have not plighted troth 
 to any one. See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Chamanism, or ' Shamanism.' A 
 religious cult which spread among the 
 Samovedes (3 syl.), Bouriates (3 syl.), 
 and in the islands of the Pacific. The 
 chief doctrines are that God is one whose 
 habitation is the sun, and under whom 
 are a host of ministering angels and 
 genii, benevolent and malignant. The 
 great evil spirit they call Chaitan, and 
 their priests they call chamayis. The 
 priests carry a horse's tail as a talisman. 
 Their women, they say, have no souls; 
 certahily they have no modesty. 
 
 Chamber of Liquidation {The), 
 IfiSu. Erected by Carl XI. of Sweden 
 for the purpose of liquidating the public 
 debt by raising the nominal value of 
 money, without increasing its real worth. 
 Thousands were reduced to poverty by 
 this arbitrary act. 
 
 Chamberlain {The Lord). A mem- 
 ber of the privy council with a salary of 
 2,000?. a year. He has control over all 
 the officers and servants of the royal 
 chambers, excei)t those of the bedcham- 
 ber ; over the physicians, surgeons, and 
 apothecaries of the royal household ; over 
 the musicians, comedians, trumpeters, 
 and messengers ; over all tradesmen and 
 
i:g 
 
 CHAMBEELAIN 
 
 CHAMBEES 
 
 officers employed, and over the state 
 robes. All theatres in towns in which 
 there is a royal palace must be licensed 
 by him, and no new play can be acted 
 without his licence. He issues also all 
 royal invitations. 
 
 N.B. The lord great chamberlain is 
 quite another officer. See below. 
 
 There is a vice-chamberlain, whose salary is 924Z. 
 a year. 
 
 Chamberlain {The Lord Great). 
 An hereditary officer who has the govern- 
 ment of the palace of Westminster. At 
 coronations and state trials or banquets 
 the fitting-up of the hall devolves on him ; 
 and when the sovereign goes to parlia- 
 ment he delivers the sword of state to 
 any member of the administration he 
 thinks ]Droper, to be borne before the 
 sovereign, he himself walking on the 
 right-hand side. During the sitting of 
 Parliament he has charge of the House of 
 Lords, and issues tickets of admission on 
 the opening or prorogation of parliament. 
 The lord chamberlain is quite another 
 officer, not hereditary, but dependent on 
 the choice of the chief minister or premier 
 of the time being. 
 
 Chamberlainars in Scotch his- 
 tory were courts of justice held by the 
 chamberlain in the royal boroughs. 
 There lay appeal from this court to the 
 * Court of the Four Boroughs ' {q.v.). 
 
 Chamberlaine's Riot, 1288. 
 Thomas Chamberlaine, a gentleman of 
 fortune, under pretence of holding a 
 tournament, assembled a number of 
 associates at Boston, in Lincolnshire ; 
 their secret understanding being a raid 
 on the town during a fair. In order to 
 create confusion the conspirators set the 
 town on fire, broke into the booths, and 
 carried off the goods. Chamberlaine was 
 arrested and hanged, but refused to 
 implicate any of his companions (Edw. I.). 
 
 Chambre a crucer, the torture 
 chamber. It was a chest lined with sharp 
 stones or nails, in which the victim was 
 fastened up. 
 
 Chambre Ardente {La). 'The 
 lighted chamber.' A court for the inves- 
 tigation of ' heretics ' established in 1525 
 by Fran(;ois I. Also an extraordinary 
 commission nominated in 1680 by Louis 
 XIV., to judge Brinvilliers, La Voisin, 
 and La Vigoureux (Italian exiles). Also 
 the chamber under the regency, in 171(3, 
 
 to verify the accounts of the fermiers 
 generaux. So called because they were 
 quite dark and lighted only by torches. 
 
 The ' Chambre Ardente 'of 1G80 is also called ' La 
 cour dcs poisons ' (the court for the poisoners) ; and 
 the 'Chambre Ardente' of 171(3 is also called 'La 
 chambre du visa ' (the court of the endorsements). 
 
 Chambre Introuvable {La), 7 
 Oct., 1815. The French ' Mad Parhament ' 
 {q.v.), only the reverse of our house so 
 called. It was ultra-royalist, and in its 
 zeal for the aristocracy and clergy it tried 
 to roll back the government into the 
 ancient regime or the state before the re- 
 volution. It pronounced the banishment 
 of all the conventionnels who voted for 
 the death of Louis XVI., and went to su'^h 
 outrageous extremes that Louis XVIII. 
 was obliged to dissolve it 5 Sept., 1816. 
 
 Chambre des Deputes {Le), 4 
 June, 1814. The French House of Com- 
 mons. It took the place of the Corps 
 Le'gislatif of the French empire, and at 
 the accession of Napoleon III. the term 
 Corps Le'gislatif was restored (1852). It 
 consisted at first of 430 members ; was 
 increased ' in the monarchy of July ' to 
 459 deputies, but reduced to 2C0 deputies, 
 5 Sept. (1814). At first the office was for 
 five years, and one-fifth retired annually ; 
 each deputy must be at least forty years 
 of age, and pay a direct contribution of 
 1000 francs (40Z.). But after 1830 the age 
 required was reduced to thirty years, and 
 the contribution to 500 francs (20^.). The 
 king called the assembly every year, and 
 if he dissolved it he must reassemble 
 another within three months. 
 
 The uppe» house was called the 'Palrlo' or 
 Chambre des Pairs ' (q.v.), which in 185'2 was re- 
 placed by the Senate. 
 
 Chambre des Pairs {Le), 4 June, 
 1814. TheFrenchHouse of Lords. The 
 peerage abolished in 1789 was restored by 
 Louis XVIIL, and the Chambre des Pairs, 
 formed, with the Chambre des De'putes, 
 the French legislature. In 1831 heredi- 
 tary peerages were abolished and peers 
 were named by the king. The Chamber 
 of Peers was abolished in 1848 and in 
 1852 was replaced by a Senate. 
 
 Chambre du Visa, 1716. To 
 verify and endorse the accounts of the 
 fermiers generaux of France. 
 
 Chambres de Reunion {Les), 1679. 
 Commissions formed by Louis XIV. to 
 search into the ancient dependencies of 
 the countries ceded to France by the trea- 
 ties of Westphalia, Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
 
CHAMP 
 
 CHANCELLOR 
 
 157 
 
 Nimeguen (2 syl.) : viz. Vaudemont, Saar- 
 bourg, Saarbruck, Salm, part of Luxem- 
 bourg, Honiburg, Deux-Ponts, Mont- 
 beliard, Wissemburg, Strasbourg, and 
 part of Alsace Infe'rieure. The Peace of 
 Eyswyk (1G97) compelled liim to restore 
 a large part of these acquisitions ; but he 
 retained Strasbourg and Alsace. 
 
 Champ de Boulogne (Le), 1803- 
 4. The wonderful preparation of Bona- 
 parte at Boulogne for an invasion of 
 England. A large army was collected, 
 and above 2,000 flat-bottomed vessels, 
 built for transports, were moored at 
 Boulogne, Etaples, and Ambleteuse. 
 Yfhen all was ready the descent was 
 deferred to the spring of ISOJ:. Li the 
 meantime other matters diverted the 
 attention of the First Consul, and in 
 180J: he was crowned emperor, so the 
 invasion came to nothing. 
 
 The Column of Boulogne commeTnorates this 
 ' Champ de Douloglie.' 
 
 Champ, pronounce sham, the r silent. 
 
 Champ de Mai, or 'the Field of 
 May.' After a.d. 755 the Champs de 
 Mars were held in May. June 1, 1815, 
 was held in Paris, in a large camjjus 
 mai'tius, the famous assembly called the 
 * Champ de IMai ' during the ' Hundred 
 Days ' when Napoleon proclaimed, in the 
 presence of the deputies, the electoral 
 colleges, and the army, L'Acte addition- 
 nel aiix constitutions de VEmpire. 
 See below. 
 
 It was called ' the Field of May,' but was held 
 IJune. 
 
 Champ de Mai, pronounce Sharnd May, 
 
 Champ de Mars, or ' the Field of 
 March.' A grand general assembly of 
 Frank warriors held from time to time 
 in Gaul from the 5th cent, till the time 
 of Charles le Chauve (877), when all 
 trace of them disappears. The objects 
 of these conventions were twofold : (1) 
 that of military reviews in which the 
 freemen came to pay homage to their 
 chief and bring their annual gifts; and 
 (2) consultative deliberations upon, what 
 expeditions should be made, what should 
 be done for the defence of the nation, 
 and what laws should be passed for the 
 better government of the state. From 
 755 these assemblies were held in May. 
 See above. 
 
 Napoleon I. announced a Champ de Mai to be 
 held in the great plain called the Champ de Mars 
 [' Sharnd iXarz ] of Paris, ou 2G May ; but it was 
 not held till 1 June, Iblo. The object was to 
 proclaim L Acte aUdiUond aux cousUlutiona de 
 lE.niiiie.' 
 
 Cham.pagne Speech (TJie), 17G7. 
 
 A si^eech made by Charles Townshend, 
 chancellor of the exchequer, after a 
 dinner party in his own house, which 
 astonished the whole country. 
 
 Horace Walpole says it was ' a torrent of wit, 
 parts, humour, knowledge, absurdity, vanity, and 
 fiction, brightened by all the graces of comedy, 
 the happiness of allusion and quotation, and the 
 bufOoonery of farce.' He adds that it gave him 
 the most singular pleasure he ever enjoyed. 
 
 Champion of the Cross (The). 
 
 Prince Edward (Edward I. of England), 
 who led a crusade (1209-1272). So called 
 mainly from the wound he received from 
 a poisoned dagger. The Emir of Jaffa 
 pretended to be converted, and sent a 
 letter to Edward, but while the prince 
 was reading it the messenger stabbed 
 him. Tlie tradition is that Eleanor 
 sucked the poison from the wound, but, 
 like so many other pretty stories, this is 
 only a troubadour's tale. 
 
 Chancellor (The), of our Uni- 
 versities. Tlie nominal head, but \us 
 duties are de]puted to the vice-chancellor 
 (q.v.). The first cliancellor, in Oxford, 
 elected for life was John Pvussell, bishop 
 of Lincoln, in I-I80. In Oxford tlie 
 chancellor is elected by the House of 
 Convocation (q.v.), in Cambridge by the 
 Senate (q-v.). In both cases the office is 
 practically held for life. The chancellor 
 is expected to be present at his installa- 
 tion and on occasions of a royal visit. 
 
 The chancellor has power to deal with all 
 offences, short of mayhem and felony, between 
 members of the university. 
 
 *,* Blayhem is mutilation of an arm, leg, flngci", 
 eye, or fore-tooth. It takes no cognisance of a 
 broken nose or broken jaw, or loss of an ear. 
 
 Chancellor {The Lord), 1079. 
 Head of tlie Court of Chancery; lord 
 keeper, holding the royal signet, which 
 it is his duty to impress on all documents 
 issued in the name of the sovereign. 
 The lord chancellor is the highest lord 
 in the realm ; he appoints all justices of 
 the peace, is a j)rivy councillor, and ex- 
 officio Speaker of the House of Lords. 
 He is keeper of the king's conscience, 
 visitor of all royal hospitals and colleges, 
 and patron of all royal benefices, which 
 in the king's book are stated to be not 
 more than 20Z. a year. He is al^ 
 guardian of infants and lunatics, and 
 has the general superintendence of all 
 charitable foundations in the nation. 
 
 ChancGllor of Scotland {The). 
 Had duties in Scotland similar to 
 
158 
 
 CHANCELLOK 
 
 CHAPTEK-nOUSE 
 
 fiose of the lord high chancellor of 
 England ; bvit on the unioxi of the two 
 kingdoms in 1707 the office was abolished, 
 and the lord high chancellor of Great 
 Britain is chancellor of both kingdoms. 
 
 Chancellor of a Cathedral 
 
 {The). An officer who superintends the 
 arrangements for the celebration of the 
 religious services. The chancellor of a 
 diocese is quite another officer. 
 
 Chancellor of the Diocese 
 
 (The). Vicar-general to the bishop. An 
 ecclesiastical judge appointed to assist 
 the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical 
 law, and to bold his courts for him. He 
 may be a layman, but must be a doctor 
 of the civil law. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 
 (The). The highest finance minister of 
 the British government. 
 
 Chancellor of the Order of the 
 Gi-arter {The). An officer who seals 
 the commissions and mandates of the 
 chapter, &c. 
 
 Similarly there is a chancellor to every other 
 military order. 
 
 Chancellor's Classical Medal 
 
 (The). In the University of Cambridge, 
 1751. Two gold medals. First given by 
 his grace Thomas Holies, duke of New- 
 castle. See 'Regius Professorship of 
 Greek.' 
 
 Chancellor's English Iledal 
 {The). For English heroic verse. A gold 
 medal for any undergraduate of the 
 University of Cambridge. Founded (1812) 
 by the Duke of Gloucester, chancellor, 
 and continued by his successors in the 
 office. In Oxford this competition is 
 called the Newdigate {q.v.). 
 
 Chancellor's Medal for Legal 
 Studies. In the University of Cam- 
 bridge. First awarded in 1857. In- 
 stituted by Prince Albert, chancellor of 
 the University. See ' Regius Professor 
 of Civil Law.' 
 
 Chancery [The Court of), 1070. 
 Next in power to the House of Peers. 
 It exercises jurisdiction in cases of equity, 
 to abate the rigour of common law. Its 
 head is called the lord ' chancellor ' (q.v.). 
 
 Called 'Chancery' from the carwelli or lattice- 
 work to keep off public intruders. 
 
 Chandos Clause of the Reform 
 Bill [The), 18 Aug., 1831. That tenants 
 
 at will {i.e. from year to year) paying an 
 annual rent of 50Z. have a county vote, 
 regardless of the tenure by which the 
 land is held, or the interest derived 
 from it. 
 
 Chang or Shang Dsmasty {The), 
 B.C. 1766-651. The second Imperial 
 dynasty of China, of the semi-historic 
 period. It gave twenty-eight emperors, 
 whose chief city was Yang-tching. Tiie 
 17th emperor of this dynasty (Poan-keng) 
 changed the name of the dynasty to that 
 of Yn, in which city he held his court 
 (B.C. 1401-1373). 
 
 Chanzos. Poems of love and gal- 
 lantry by the Provencals or troubadours 
 of France. Those of war and chivalry 
 were called ' Sirventes.' 
 
 Chapeaux {Les), 1738-1771. The 
 oligarchical party of Sweden, in the 
 reigns of Frederick and Adolphus Fred- 
 erick. Sb called because they adopted the 
 French chapeau as their badge, to show 
 their French proclivities. They were 
 bitterly averse to the late treaty with 
 Russia, and openly avowed their desire to 
 recover all the provinces which had been 
 ceded to the czar. The faction oiDposed 
 to the Chapeaux or Hats were called the 
 Caps iq-v.). The leader of the Hats was 
 Count Syllenborg. The leader of the 
 Caps was Count Horn. 
 
 The Hats were composed chiefly of the remains 
 of the late king's military officers and servants; 
 and entertained principles favourable to the old 
 system of administration. 
 
 Chaperons. Many popular factions 
 have been distinguished by the colour of 
 their hoods. The ' chaperon rouge ' was 
 the Paris colour, the ' chaperon blue ' was 
 the Navarre colour. In 1356 the com- 
 mune of Paris adopted a ' red and blue 
 hood.' In 1379 the workmen of Gand in 
 their revolt against the Duke of Burgundy 
 adopted ' white hoods.' 
 
 Chapter of Mitton ( The), or ' Wliite 
 Battle.' Between the English and the 
 Scotch, 20 Sept., 1319. >See' White Battle.' 
 
 Cha,pter-house {The). A house 
 contiguous to a cathedral or collegiate 
 churcli, where, in Catholic times, the 
 monks and canons of monastic establish- 
 ments, with the dean and prebendaries, 
 used to meet for the management of their 
 society. They are now used for the dean 
 and chapter as their official chamber. 
 
CHAREaiTES 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 159 
 
 Char'egites, (3 syl.). Moslem fanatics, 
 who classed themselves vv ith the free-born 
 Arabs, and disclaimed tive yoke of sulo- 
 ordination and reason. Tuese enthusiasts 
 agreed that there would bo no peace and 
 unity till Ali, Moawiyah, and Amrou 
 (viceroy of Egypt) v/ere dead ; so three of 
 their number were told off and furnished 
 with poisoned daggers to despatch the 
 three. The viceroy of Egypt escajjed, 
 because the assassin mistook the deputy 
 for the viceroy, and slew the wrong person. 
 Moawiyah (prince of Damascus) was 
 wounded, but not killed. Ali, the calif, 
 received a movtal wound from the third 
 assassin in the mosque of Cufa. 
 
 Charge of the Light Brigade 
 
 [The), or 'Death charge of the GOO at 
 Balaclava ' 26 Sept., 1854. It was the 
 13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lancers, 
 the 11th Hussars commanded by Lord 
 Cardigan, the 8'uh Hussars, and the 4th 
 Light Dragoons. The Russians were 
 advancing in great strength to cut off the 
 Turkish force from the British. Lord 
 Raglan sent an order to Lord Lucan to 
 advance, and Lord Lucan, not understand- 
 ing what was intended, applied to Captain 
 Nolan, who brought the message, and 
 Nolan replied ' Tiiere, my lord, is your 
 enemy.' Lucan then gave orders to Lord 
 Cardigan to attack, and the 600 rode 
 forward into the jaws of death. In twenty 
 minutes 12 officers were killed and 11 
 wounded; 147 men were killed and 110 
 wounded, and 325 horses were slain. The 
 blunder must be shared by Lord Lucan, 
 General Airey, and Cai)tain Nolan. How- 
 ever, never victory was more glorious to 
 the devoted men than this useless charge. 
 ' It was magnificent, but it was not war.' 
 When Lord Cardigan rallied the scattered 
 remnants, and said ' My men, someone has 
 blundered,' they replied, ' Never mind, 
 my lord, we are ready to charge again, 
 if it is your lordship's command.' 
 
 Charing Cross. Not from chere 
 reine in honour of Eleanor, the ' dear 
 queen ' of Edward I., for it was so called 
 before Edward's time. In the Close Roll, 
 6 Rich. II., p. 1 (lob2), we read that the 
 custody of the falcons ' at Cliarryng, near 
 Westminster,' was gi'anted to Simon 
 Barley, who was to receive 12d. a day 
 from the Wardrobe. 
 
 Charitable Corporation Fund 
 (TAe), 1731. A horrible swindle which 
 
 numbered on the board six members of 
 Parliament and several noblemen. The 
 scheme was to lend money to the poor 
 upon small jsledges at 5 per cent, interest. 
 When the capital reached 600,000^. the 
 board decamped with all the money. It 
 was a most disgraceful transaction. 
 
 Charity {Brothers of), 1520. A 
 religious order instituted to relieve the 
 indigent, ratified in 1621 by Paul V. 
 Another order called ' The Sisters of 
 Charity ' was instituted by Vincent de 
 Paul, 8 Aug., 1655. 
 
 Charlemagne. A French com 
 pound for Charles-ma gnus. Called by 
 the Germans Karl the Great, or Karl I. 
 The English usually adopt the French 
 compound (born 742, king of the Franks 
 768-814, emperor of the West, 800-814). 
 He was the third and youngest son of 
 Pepin le Bref. Charlemagne was the 
 founder of the Carlovingian dynasty, which 
 followed the Merovingian in ' France ' and 
 was succeeded by the Capetian. 
 
 Pronounce shar'-le-mah'n'. 
 
 The pedigree runs thus from father to son: 
 Pepin d Heristal ; Charles Martel (his son) ; Pepin 
 le jjref (his son) ; Charlemagne. 
 
 The son of Charlemagne was Louis le Debon- 
 naire, and his grandson was Charles II. le Chauve. 
 
 Charlemagne, emperor of the West 
 and king of France, was son of Pepin le 
 Bref (742, 771-814). His nine wives were 
 
 1. Hamiltrude, a poor Frenchwoman, who bore 
 him several children. 
 
 2. Desiderata, who was divorced. 
 
 3. Hildegarde (died before him), daughter of 
 Hildebrand, count of Suabia, mother of Charles 
 (king of Italy) and of Louis le Dybonuaire. 
 
 4. Fastrade, daughter of Count Rodolph the 
 Saxon (died before him). 
 
 5. Liutgarde the German (died before him). 
 
 6. IMaltegarde. 
 
 7. Gersuinde the Saxon. 
 
 8. Regina. 
 
 9. Adalinda. 
 
 Cliarlemsbgne {The Seco7id). Karl 
 V. of Spain and Austria, called by the 
 French Charles-quint (1500, 1519-1556, 
 abdicated, and died 1558). 
 
 Charles. For those of Germany see 
 ' Karl,' of Sweden ' Carl,' of Spain ' Carlos,' 
 of Italy ' Carlo.' See also ' Charlemagne.' 
 
 EITG-LAND. 
 
 Charles I. of England. Son of 
 James I., born at Dunfermline, in Scot- 
 land (1600, 1625-1649) ; beheaded for 
 treason against his parliament by making 
 war upon their army. He marrietl 
 Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henri IV. 
 of France. His sons Charles and Jamea 
 
160 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 succeeded to the crown, and his daughter 
 Mary married WiUiam II. of Orange. 
 
 His style was : Charles D.G. of Great 
 Britain, France, and Ireland, King, 
 Defender of the Faith, &c. 
 
 The chief battles were Edgehill (Warwickshire) 
 23 Oct., 1642, won by Rupert and lost again ; New- 
 bury (Berkshire) 20 Sept. 1643, in which Charles lost 
 hi« £'pr>pral Gary, lord Falkland; Blarston Moor 
 (Yorkshire), 2July,lG44, in which Cromwell defeated 
 Prince Rupert ; and Naseby (Northamptonshire) 
 Xt june, io»u, won Dy J?airlax and Cromwell. This 
 ■victory closed the contest. 
 
 The servaniswho followed the body from London 
 to Windsor were Herbert and Captain Anthony 
 Mildmav, his sewers: Captain Preston; .Toyiier, 
 the king's cook ; and Murray, his coachman, who 
 rtvn^'^ the hearse.— IiGHE and DAVIS, Annals of 
 Windsor. 
 
 Charles II., of England. Son of 
 
 Charles I., born 1630, dates his reign from 
 1G48-9, restored Saturday 29 May, IGGO, 
 died 1685. Married Catharine or liaterine. 
 Infanta of Portugal, had no legitimate off- 
 spring, but many children by mistresses. 
 
 His style was : Charles D. G. of Great 
 Britain, France, and Ireland, King. 
 Defender of the Faith. Head of the 
 Anglican and Hibernian Church. 
 
 Wife, &c. of Charles II. His wife was 
 the Infanta Katerine of Portugal ; but 
 his wandering fancy fell on Nell Gwynne ; 
 Davies ; Roberts ; Louise Rene'e de 
 Querouaille, created duchess of Ports- 
 mouth ; Barbara Villiers, created duchess 
 of Cleveland, &c. These women were 
 thrown in his way for political ends, 
 answered their purpose, and were 
 successively supplanted by others. 
 Probably, Nell Gwynne came the nearest 
 to his true affection, if such a volatile 
 heart was capable of such a passion. 
 
 Charles II. was a traitor to his country, being 
 the mere tool of Louis XIV. ; a man of the loosest 
 morals ; a ' heretic ' under false colours ; and 
 faithless in every stage of life. We have had some 
 bad monarchs, but it would be hard to find one 
 worse than Charles II. 
 
 Escape of Charles II. After the 
 battle of Worcester, 3 Sept., 1G51, he 
 first went to White Ladies, in Stafford- 
 shire, but the family being away, Mr. 
 Giffard disguised him as a servant, and he 
 remained aU the next day with Richard 
 Penderell at Boscobel, near White 
 Ladies. At night they tried to reach the 
 house of Mr. Wolfe, Shrewsbury, and next 
 day returned to Boscobel. Being told that 
 the soldiers were searching for him, he 
 concealed himself, with Major Carlis, in a 
 polled oak, and at night sought refuge 
 seven miles off in the house of Mr. 
 Whitegreave Next day Mrs. Lane, the 
 
 sister of Colonel Lane, took him as a 
 groom to Bristol. From Bristol he went 
 to Lyme, riding before Mrs. Judith 
 Connesby, and thence to Brldport, and 
 from Bridport to Shoreham, where (17 
 Oct.) he embarked on a merchant vessel 
 and was landed at Rouen. 
 
 Issue of Charles II. (none by his wife). 
 
 James, duke of Monmouth, by Lucy 
 Walters. 
 
 Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth, by 
 Lady Shannon. 
 
 Charles (duke of Southampton), 
 Henry (duke of Grafton), George (duke 
 of Northumberland), and Charlotte 
 (countess of Lichfield), by the Duchess of 
 Cleveland (Lady Castlemaine, or Mrs. 
 Palmer, nee Barbara Villiers). 
 
 Charles, duke of St. Albans, by Nell 
 Gwynne. 
 
 Charles, duke of Richm.ond, by the 
 Duchess of Portsmouth (Louise de 
 Querouaille). (Pronounce Koo-rah'e.) 
 
 Mary, countess of Dumbarton, by 
 Mary Davies. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 Charles II. {le Chauve), of France 
 (823, 840-877), grandson of Charlemagne. 
 
 Father, Louis I., le Debonnaire; 
 Mother, Judith of Bavaria ; Son, Louis 
 II., le Begue. He died while Alfred the 
 Great was king of England. 
 
 Charles I. was ' Charlemagne ' (q.v.). 
 
 Charles III. {le Sirnple), of France 
 (879, 887-929). Posthumous son of 
 Louis II., le Begue, and brother of Louis 
 III. 
 
 Charlemagne (Charles I.) ; whose son was Louis 
 I., le Lebonimire; Louis s son was Charles II., le 
 Chauve, whose son was Louis II., le lii-ijiu'. 
 
 Louis II., le Begue, had two sons, viz. Louis III. 
 and Charles III. From the latter the line was 
 continued in his son Louis IV., &c. 
 
 Charles IV., {le Bel), of France 
 (1294, 1322-1328). Third son of Philippe 
 IV., le Bel, and last of the Capetian 
 dynasty. 
 
 Contemporary with Edward II., who 
 was his brother-in-lav\^, having married 
 Isabelle, ' the she wolf of France.' 
 
 Huguos Capet ; Robert, his son ; Philippe I., hia 
 son: Louis VI., his son; Louis VII., his son; 
 I'hilippe II., his son ; Louis VIII., his son ; Louis 
 IX., his son; Philippe 111., his son; Ihilippe IV., 
 his son ; whose three sons were Louis X., Pliilippe 
 v., and Charles IV. Hcu ' Fatal Three." 
 
 Charles V. {le Sage), of France 
 (1337, 13G4-1380). Grandson of Philippe 
 v., and third of the Valois line. 
 
 4 
 
CHARLES 
 
 CHARLOTTE 
 
 101 
 
 FatJier, Jean 11., le Bon ; Mother, 
 Bonne, daughter of the blind king of 
 Bohemia slain at Creepy ; Wife, Jeanne, 
 daughter of the Due de Bourbon. 
 
 Contemporary with Edward III. and 
 Richard II. of England. 
 
 • The Valois line was from Thilippe III., son of 
 St. Louis [IX.], whose second son was Charles de 
 Valois. 
 
 Charles VI. {le Bien-aime), of 
 Fr.\nce (1308, 1380-1422). An .imbecile, 
 who resigned his kingdom to Henry V. 
 of England, after the battle of Agincourt. 
 He was the fourth of the Valois line. 
 
 Father, Charles V. ; Mother, Jeanne, 
 daughter of the Due de Bourbon ; Wife, 
 Isabelle of Bavaria. One of his daughters, 
 Isabelle, married Richard II. of England, 
 and another, Catherine, married Henry 
 v., and afterwards Owen Tudor of Wales. 
 
 Contemporary with Richard 11., 
 Henry IV., and Henry V. of England. 
 
 Charles VII. {le Victorieux), of 
 France (1403, 1422-14G1). So called 
 because he succeeded in wresting France 
 from the hands of the English. His first 
 success was due to Jeanne d'Are. 
 
 Father, Charles VI., the Imbecile ; 
 Mother, Isabelle of Bavaria ; Wife, 
 Marie d'Anjou, daughter of Louis II. of 
 Naples ; Son, Louis XL 
 
 Contemporary with Henry VI. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Charles VIII. {VA fahle), of France 
 (1470, 1483-1498), last of the Valois line. 
 
 Father, Louis XL ; Mother, Charlotte 
 of Savoy ; W^ife, Anne of Brittany. 
 All his children died young. 
 
 Contemporary with Edward V., 
 Richard III., and Henry VII. of England. 
 
 Charles IX., of Fr.\nce (1550, 1560- 
 1574), of the Valois-AngoulOme line. 
 Notorious for the St. Bartholomew 
 slaughter {q.v.). 
 
 Father, Henri II. ; Mother, Catharine 
 de'- Medici ; W^ife, Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Maximilian II. of Austria ; no issue. 
 
 Contemporary with Elizabeth of 
 England. His mistress was Marie 
 Touchet, who afterwards married 
 Francois de Balzac, whose younger 
 daughter was the Marchioness of Ver- 
 neuil, mistress of Henri IV. It was Henri 
 IV. who made the anagram on the name 
 of ' Marie Touchet,' Je charme tout. 
 
 Charles V. had two sons, Ciiaules VI. and 
 Louis, due d'Anjou. 
 
 The elder branch of the Valois line, viz. Charles 
 VI.; Charles VII., his son; Luris XI., his son; 
 Charles VIII., his son ; no surviving issue. 
 
 The younger branch or second son of Charles 
 v., viz. Louis, due d'.Vnjou; Louis, due d Orleans 
 who had two sons, viz. Charles, due d Orleans, and 
 Jean, comte d Anijouleine. 
 
 First take Charles, due d'Orleans : his son was 
 Louis XII., no son. 
 
 Next take Jean, comte d'.\ngouIeme : his son 
 was Charles, due d'Angouleme, whose son was 
 Francois I. ; then comes Henri II., his son, who 
 had three sons, all crowned, viz. Francois 
 II., Charles IX., and Henri III., with whom 'the 
 dynasty became extinct. See ' Fatal Three.' 
 
 Charles X., of Fr.\nce (1757, 1824- 
 1830 ; abdicated and died in 1836). The 
 fourth son of Louis the Dauphin, grand- 
 son of Louis XV., and last of the 
 Bourbon dynasty. The only king of 
 France who reached his 80th year. 
 
 Father, Louis the Dauphin ; Mother, 
 Marie Leczinska ; Wife, Maria Theresa 
 of Savoy ; So7i, Henri [V.] never crowned, 
 lived at the castle of Frohsdorf in Austria, 
 where he died in 1883. His eldest son 
 Louis-Antoine married Marie-The'rese 
 (his cousin, daughter of Louis XVL), ' the 
 modern Antigone.' 
 
 Contemporary with George IV. 
 
 Charles X., on abdicating, assumed the title of 
 Comte de Marnes. He first retired to Holyrood 
 in Scotland, then to Hradschin near Prague, and 
 lastly to Giiritz, where he died. 
 
 The Bourbons : Henri IV. ; Louis XIII., his 
 son; Louis XIV., his son, died 1715; [Louis, le 
 grand dauphin, his son, died 1711 ; Louis, due do 
 liourgogne, dauphin, his son, died 171-2]: Louis 
 XV., his son, died 1774 [Louis, the dauphin, died 
 17^5], leaving three sons, Louis X\I., LouiS 
 XVIIL. and CHARLES X. See ' Fatal Three." 
 
 (Louis XVII., the son of Louis XM.,te Mailur.-was 
 never crowned, but as he sur\ived his father ho 
 received the empty title, like Henri V. (stjc above), 
 and Napoleon II.). 
 
 Charles le Tdm^raire or the 
 Bold, duke of Burgundy (1433-1477). 
 ' Bold ' he was not ; foolhardy or self- 
 willed would be nearer the mark. 
 
 Charles's Law (1787). The volume 
 of a gas under constant pressure expands 
 when raised from the freezing to the boil- 
 ing point, by the same fraction of itself, 
 whatever be the nature of the gas. 
 
 Citizen Charles lived 17461823. This law is also 
 called • Dalton's Law,' who publislied it in 18U1, and 
 ' Gay-Lussac s Law,' who published it in 1ko2. 
 Charles di d not publish it at all, but it is mentioned 
 in his rdemoir. 
 
 Charlotte {The Princess), daughter 
 of George IV. Her mother's name waa 
 Caroline (afterwards the wife of George 
 IV.) ; her husband was Prince Leopold 
 of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the 
 Belgians). She was married 2 May, 1816, 
 at Carlton House. Her town residence 
 was Camelford House ; and her country 
 residence was Claremont, not long ago 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 CHARTS 
 
 CHARTISTS 
 
 the property of Lord Clive. She was 
 born 7 Jan., 1796, and died m child- 
 birth 6 Nov., 1817. The name of her 
 accoucheur was Croft. 
 
 Charte Constitutionnelle (of 
 
 France), 1814. Granted by Louis XVIII., 
 and re-formed in 1830 after the abdication 
 of Charles X. 
 
 Charter of Community {A). A 
 charter of corporate rights, a French 
 term. See ' Chartered Towns.' 
 
 Charter of 1830 (France). The 
 charter granted by Louis-Philippe when 
 he was made King of the French. This 
 was a modification of the Constitutional 
 Charter granted in 1814 by Louis XVIII. 
 Its chief item was changing the line of 
 monarchs into the family of Louis- 
 Phiiipi^e, Due d'Orleans, and his de- 
 cendants. 
 
 M. Guizot said: 'The Charter of 1830 would be 
 transmitted to future generations as an inviolable 
 deposit ; and would' secure for France the alliance 
 of order and liberty, the most invaluable coheri- 
 tance which a nation could receive ' (1847). 
 
 Charter of Liberties [Henry I.'s), 
 1100. This charter was the re-establish- 
 ment of the laws of Edward the Confessor. 
 Magna Charta is for the most part a mere 
 renewal of the same. 
 
 Charter of Louis XVIII. (The). 
 See above, ' Charte Constitutionnelle.' 
 
 Charter {The People's), 1838-1848. 
 It consisted of these six items : (1) Man- 
 hood Suffrage, (2) Annual Parliaments, 
 (3) Stipendiary Members, (4) Vote by 
 Ballot, (5) Electoral Districts, and (G) No 
 Property Qualifications for members. It 
 was drawn up by William Lovett, a 
 working man, but the preamble was 
 written by Mr. Roebuck, M.P. In 1848 
 the monster petition was taken to the 
 House of Commons in three cabs, but 
 being examined, was found to contain 
 the name of the Duke of Wellington 15 
 times, with whole strings of fictitious 
 names, such as Snub-nose, Hook-nose, 
 Long-Nose, Short-nose, &c. It was a 
 comjilete failure, and brought the Chart- 
 ists into such ridicule that the society 
 fell to pieces. See ' Chartists.' 
 
 Their first petition was presented to Parliament 
 by Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
 
 Charter-house (The). A corrup- 
 tion of Chartreuse, i.e. Carthusian house 
 — in Aldersgate Street. It was originally 
 founded by Sir Walter de Manny, in 1371, 
 
 as a monastery ; but, on the suppression 
 of monasteries in 1537, it was used by 
 Henry VIII. as a depot for his nets and 
 pavilions. It was next sold to the Duke 
 of Norfolk, and sundry other persons. 
 In 1611 Thomas Sutton bought it for 
 13,000Z. of Lord Suffolk, and endowed it 
 with the revenues of more than twenty 
 manors, lordships, and other estates, for 
 eighty poor brethren over 50 years of 
 age ; and the free education of forty-four 
 boys, ' sons of poor gentlemen,' admitted 
 at the age between 10 and 14. 
 
 The following were educated at this school : 
 Dr. Barrow. Judge Blaekstone, Addison, Sir Rich- 
 ard Steele, John Wesley, Bishop Thirlwall, George 
 Grote, Thackeray, Sir Charles Eastlake, and many 
 others. Removed to Godalmiug, Surrey, in 1872. 
 
 Charter Schools [The), 1733. In 
 Ireland. Schools chartered by govern- 
 ment for the education of the Irish poor 
 on the principles of the Established 
 Church. Grant withdrawn in 1832. See 
 ' Incorporated Society for Promoting 
 English Protestant Schools in Ireland.' 
 
 Chartered To'wns. According to 
 feudal law, towns (like all the rest of the 
 soil) pertained to the feudal lords ; and 
 the inhabitants, together with their shops 
 and houses, were the property of these 
 lords ; but when a town was chartered 
 it was emancipated and set free. It then 
 chose its own magistrates, had its own 
 guild, its own police, and its own bye- 
 laws. The bailiff or steward hitherto ap- 
 pointed by the feudal lord to collect his 
 dues was then superseded by a mayor 
 and other civic officers, elected by the 
 townsmen. The feudal lord had no 
 longer any legal authority in the town, 
 which was wholly governed by its own 
 magistrates and the king. 
 
 Louis VI. (1108-1137) was the first to grant char- 
 ters of community in France ; but Ilenry I. in 
 1100 granted such charters in England, and pro- 
 bably Edward the Confessor did the same. 
 
 Charters of Inspeximus or of 
 
 'Vidimus.' Charters reciting previous 
 charters and confirming them, with the 
 addition of some new privilege. ' In- 
 speximus' or 'Vidimus,' i.e. we have 
 insx^ected or seen the old charter, and 
 confirm it. 
 
 Chartists. Organised 1838, but the 
 word was in use in 1832. The most sedi- 
 tious speakers were Stephens (a dissent- 
 ing minister), Oastler, and Feargus 
 O'Connor. Charles Ernest Jones, bar- 
 
CHAETIST 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND 
 
 ma 
 
 rister-at-law, was also a great Chartist 
 advocate (1819-1869). 
 
 The Rev. Joseph Rayncr Stephens, of Hyde, 
 Chester, was in 1839 iinprisoued ia Knutsiord 
 g lol for 18 months. 
 
 For the six points see above, 'Charter (The 
 People's).' 
 
 Chartist Constitution {The). It 
 contained six items. See under ' Charter 
 {The People's).'' The Chartists intended 
 to march to the House of Commons on 
 10 April, 1848, to place Peargus O'Connor 
 in the chair, and pass their charter ; but 
 the whole scheme fell through. 
 
 Chartist Convention {The), 1889. 
 Also called by them the 'National 
 Convention' {q.v.). 
 
 Chartist E-iots in Birmingham 
 
 {The), 1838. Of these riots the Duke of 
 Wellington said in the House of Lords : 
 * I have seen as much of war as most men ; 
 but I have neA"er seen a town, carried by 
 assault, subjected to such violence as 
 Birmingham has been in one single hour 
 by its own inhabitants.' 
 
 Chartist Kiot at IMe^wport 
 
 {The), 29 Sept., 1839. Led by John Frost 
 (linendraper, a magistrate), Williams, and 
 Jones. Upwards of twenty persons were 
 killed in this riot. The three leaders 
 were condemned to be hanged. Sen- 
 tence of death was commuted into trans- 
 portation for life ; but in May 1858 the 
 three were pardoned and returned to 
 England. 
 
 Chartrenx. A religious order, called 
 in English 'Carthusians' {q.v.). La 
 Grande Chartreuse is a celebrated French 
 monastery in the department of Is^re, 
 which owes its origin to St. Bruno, who 
 settled there in 1084. The monks were 
 despoiled in the revolution of 1789. 
 
 Chasidim,«.e. Pietists. I. Those who 
 resisted the efforts of Antiochos Epipha- 
 nes and his successors to lure the Jews 
 into idolatry, 
 
 II. Jewish ascetics who studied the 
 Kabbala, and sought by mortifying the 
 flesh to come into closer communion with 
 God and his angels. 
 
 III. In 1750 Israel Baal Shem pre- 
 tended to work miracles, and the revived 
 Chasidim became numerous, but at his 
 death in 17G0 they died out again. 
 
 IV. In 1760, among the Jews of the 
 Ukraine. The sect spread rapidly through 
 Poland and other parts of Bussia. They 
 
 are very strict observers of the law ; be- 
 lieve in the miracles of their saints, and 
 in their power of curing bodily ailments. 
 Joyfuhiess is insisted on by these Pietists, but it 
 is said to tsnd to Epicureanism. 
 
 Chasles Forgeries {The). M. 
 Chasles, a member of the French Aca- 
 demy of Sciences, gave out that he had 
 bought 27,000 MSS. for 5,000^., but would 
 not tell where, ' lest others should go and 
 spoil his market.' Amongst these MSS. 
 was a correspondence from Alexander 
 the Great to Aristides, several letters 
 from Attila, king of the Huns, and from 
 the widow of Martin Luther. Several 
 also from Judas Iscariot to Mary Magda- 
 lene, and from Lazarus to St. Peter. 
 What, however, more nearly concerns 
 Englishmen was a faded yellow MS., 
 purporting to be letters from Pascal to 
 Sir Isaac Newton, to prove that Newton 
 had pilfered his system of gravitation. 
 The tale was that this MS. belonged to 
 the Abbey of Tours ; came into the pos- 
 session of Comte de Boisjourdain, who La 
 1791 was wrecked on his way to America. 
 The MS. was sold, and the purchaser 
 gave it to M. Chasles. Another letter 
 was produced from Galileo, stating that 
 the discovery had been made known to 
 him. A committee was formed to ex- 
 amine into the matter, when a poor tool 
 named Vrain Lucas was discovered to 
 be the forger, and, after conviction, was 
 severely punished. See ' Literary For- 
 geries.' 
 
 Chassepot Rifle, 1866. A breech- 
 loading rifle invented by M. Chassepot, 
 and adopted by the French government. 
 It was largely used by the French in the 
 Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. 
 
 Chasseurs de Vincennes, or 
 
 * Tirailleurs,' i.e. sharp-shooters, 1835. A 
 coY-ps in the French army organised by 
 the Duke of Orleans, and armed with the 
 new rifle. They were first garrisoned at 
 Vincennes; but now a whole battalion 
 has been organised. 
 
 Chaste ^Week {The). Hebdomada 
 Casta. The week preceding Lent ; so 
 called because the faithful vowed in that 
 week to observe inviolable chastity 
 throughout the coming Lent. 
 
 ChateauT^riand {Edict of). In 
 France, 27 June, 1554. Published by 
 Henri II., renewing the persecution of 
 ai:2 
 
164 
 
 CHATTEETON 
 
 CHESTNUT 
 
 the Huguenots, and referring cases of 
 ' heresy' to the civil as well as to the 
 ecclesiastical judges. The edict prohibits 
 all books of an unorthodox tendency. 
 
 Chatter ton {Thomas). 'The mar- 
 vellous boy.' A literary impostor. He 
 began in 1768 to produce poems which 
 he'professed to be from the pen of Tho- 
 mas Rowley, a monk of the 15th cent. 
 Chatterton was born at Bristol, and com- 
 mitted suicide (1752-1771). See ' Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 Cliattertonian Controversy 
 {The), 1770. This controversy was 
 whether the poems said by Thomas Chat- 
 terton to be Rowley's were forgeries or 
 not. Rowley was said by him to have 
 been a priest of Bristol in the reigns of 
 Henry VI. and Edward IV. The forgery 
 was exposed by the poets Mason and 
 Gray. The wonder is how anyone the 
 least acquainted with the literature of 
 the period referred to could be deceived. 
 Modernise the spelling, and the deception 
 is manifest. The boy, however, was a 
 true poet and great genius. 
 
 Chaucer of Artists (TM- Albert 
 Diirer, of Niirnberg (1471-1528), called by 
 his countrymen the ' prince of artists.' 
 
 A contemporary artist was Lucas Kranach 
 (1472-1558), famous for his portraits of Luther, 
 Melanchthon, and other reformers. These por- 
 traits are as celebrated as the portraits of Charle- 
 magne and his successors by Albert Diirer. 
 
 Chaucer of France {The). Cle'- 
 ment Marot, valet to Francois I. (1484- 
 1544). 
 
 Chaucer of Scotland {The). Wil- 
 liam Dunbar (14G5-1530). His ' Thistle 
 and Rose,' an allegory, celebrates the 
 marriage of James IV. (the Thistle) with 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. (the 
 Rose), and is a rich specimen of poetical 
 allegory worthy the bard of Woodstock, 
 
 Chaucer's Inn, the ' Tabard,' was 
 burnt down in the Great Fire of London, 
 1666. Rebuilt and called the 'Talbot' 
 or ' Dog ' till 1873, when it was converted 
 mto a gin-shop. 
 
 Chaumont {Treaty of), 1 March, 
 1814. A treaty of alliance against Napo- 
 leon, between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Prussia, and Russia. The allies bound 
 themselves to pursue without relaxation 
 war against France, till Nai^oleon con- 
 sented to renounce all the acquisitions 
 made by France since the commencement 
 
 of 1792, and to abandon all interference 
 with any state except France. 
 
 Chauvinism originally meant ex- 
 travagant admiration of Napoleon ; but 
 now it means jingoism. Chauvin is a 
 character in Scribe's Soldat Laboiireur, 
 an intense admirer of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 Cheapside Knight {The). Sir 
 Richard Blackmore, who resided at Sad- 
 lers' Hall, Cheapside, and was knighted 
 by V/illiam IIL (1650-1728). 
 
 Chefs Plaids {The). The parlia- 
 ment or general assembly of Sark, con- 
 vened by the ' Seigneur ' {q.v.). The 
 members consist of the seneschal, the 
 prevot, the greffier, and the tenants of 
 the forty farms. 
 
 Chelsea Philosopher {The), or 
 ' The Sage of Chelsea.' Thomas Carlyle 
 (1795-1881) ; he was born at Ecclefechan, 
 in Dumfriesshire, but settled in Chelsea. 
 
 Chemistry {Father of Frejich). 
 Arnaud de Villeneuve (1238-1314). 
 
 Chemistry {Professorship of). In 
 the University of Cambridge, 1709; 
 founded by the University. Stipend, 
 500Z. a year. 
 
 Cherubim. Ezekiel's cherubim is 
 identical with the four standards sta- 
 tioned at the four sides of the Tabernacle 
 in the Wilderness : the Lion for Judah, 
 Man for Reuben, Ox for Ephraim, and the 
 Flying Eagle for Dan (Gen. xxx. 14). 
 According to Dante the Cherubim in- 
 habit the Fixed Stars, and the Seraphim 
 the Primum Mobile. See ' Evangelical 
 Symbols.' 
 
 Cheruscan League {The), a.d. 9. 
 A league of German tribes each side of 
 the Weser to drive out the Romans from 
 their territory. Hermann, cpJled in Latin 
 Arminius, was chosen chief ; and suc- 
 ceeded in destroying the army of Varus, 
 and driving the Romans beyond the Rhine. 
 
 Chestnut Bells. In 1886, in New 
 York, and some other large cities in the 
 United States, the gallery gods carried 
 little bells into the theatres, and rang 
 them when a stale witticism (or ' chest- 
 nut ') was uttered by the actors. Tiiese 
 bells soon became a stale nuisance, and 
 were called ' chestnut bells.' 
 
 Chestnut is an Americanism for a stale joke oi 
 witticism. 
 
 i 
 
CHEVALIER 
 
 CHIEF 
 
 105 
 
 Chevalier de St. George {The), 
 17C8. The name and title assumed by- 
 James the Pretender, just as he was 
 about to cross over to Scotland as its 
 king. This son of James II. is generally- 
 called the ' Old Pretender.' See ' Warm- 
 ing-pan.' 
 
 His son -was Charles Edward [Stuart], the 
 • Young Pretpiider," -who, on the death cf his 
 lather, laid claim to the throne of Great Britain ; 
 but, being signally defeated at CuUoden in 1746, 
 he fled to the continent. 
 
 *<,* He assumed the name of Betty Blake, an 
 Irishwoman, w/ien he escaped to S!;ye, accom- 
 panied by Flora Macdonald. The sum of 30,000i. 
 was set on his head. 
 
 Clievalier sans peur et sans 
 
 reproche {Le). The Chevalier de 
 Bayard (1476-1524). Like Horatius 
 Codes, the Roman, lie defended alone a 
 bridge {Garigliano) against a -whole 
 army ; and, like Fabricius, he rejected 
 with indignation the offer of a villain 
 to poison Pope Julius II., with whom he 
 was at war. 
 
 Chevaliers de Xjivonie {Les). 
 The same as the ' Freres de la milice du 
 Christ,' or the ' Chevaliers Porte-glalve ' 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Chevaliers du Poignard {Les), 
 28 Feb., 1791. Certain royalists who, 
 being alarmed at the attack of the 
 French mob on the prison of Vincennes 
 (called the Seoond Bastille), rushed to 
 the Tuileries to defend the king and 
 royal family. La Fayette, with his guards, 
 searched the courtiers, and took from 
 them a large basket full of poniards, 
 daggers, pistols, and sword-canes. The 
 courtiers were very roughly handled. 
 Marat declared in his journal, L'Ami du 
 Peujyle, that 5,000 poniards had been 
 manufactured against the patriots ; but, 
 after a strict search, only thirty-six were 
 found in the whole city, and those be- 
 longed to persons engaged in tlie slave- 
 trade. See ' Day of the Poniard.' 
 
 Chevaliers Porte-glaive {Les). 
 In Latin ' Ensiferi,' 1201. A religious 
 military order founded by Albert d'Apel- 
 dorn, bishop of Livonia, to subdue 
 countries still pagan. They were first 
 called ' Les Freres de la milice du Christ,' 
 and were sometimes called ' Les Cheva- 
 liers de Livonie.' They wore a white 
 robe with two red swords on the breast. 
 In 1237 the order was amalgamated with 
 the Teutonic Knights, and remained so 
 
 till 1525, when the original order was re- 
 constructed. 
 
 Chevy Chase. A British ballad 
 based on the story of the battle of Otter- 
 burn, Aug. 1388. This battle was de- 
 clared by Froissart to have been tlie 
 bravest and most chivalrous ever fought 
 in his day. The two chieftains were 
 Percy and Douglas ; and, if the ballad 
 so named can be trusted, Douglas was 
 slain by an English arrow, which pierced 
 his heart, and Percy was slain by Hugh 
 Montgomery. Probably a mere tale. 
 {CJievaucher, to ride ; chevauchage^ a 
 riding out ; clievaiichee, chased.) 
 
 Chicard. A French harlequin, so 
 called from Mons. Chicard, the originator. 
 His costume consists of a helmet, a 
 postilion's wig, a flannel shirt, and cavalry 
 trousers. His arms are half-bare, and 
 his hands are thrust into buff gloves with 
 large cuils. 
 
 Chichele Professorships {The). 
 One for International Law, and one for 
 Modern History, in Oxford University. 
 Formed out of fi.ve suppressed fellow- 
 ships in All Souls, 1854. Stipends, 750Z. 
 a year each. 
 
 Henry Chicheley, or Chichele, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, founded All Souls College in 1437. 
 
 Chicken {The). Mr. Michael Angelo 
 Taylor was so called because, in the 
 debate on the Westminster scrutiny in 
 1785, he said, ' I always deliver my 
 legal opinion in this house with great 
 diffidence, because I am young — a mere 
 chicken in the profession of the law.' 
 
 Chief Secretary of Ireland 
 
 {The). Practically the prime minister of 
 the lord-lieutenant. He advises and di- 
 rects the viceroy, and is responsible to 
 parliament for every act of the Irish Ad- 
 ministration ; but to the viceroy belongs 
 the prerogative of pardon. The chief 
 secretary is president of the Local Go- 
 vernment Board, and can be called to 
 account for every detail connected with 
 the poor law. As head of the civil 
 service he can be interrogated in parlia- 
 ment upon well nigh everything which 
 takes place in Ireland ; the police (both 
 the Royal Irish Constabulary and the 
 Dublin Metropolitan Police) are not 
 under him, both being self -governed. The 
 chief secretary's office has two depart- 
 
166 
 
 CHILD 
 
 CHILTERN 
 
 ments, each presided over by one of the 
 jiermanent under-secretaries. 
 
 Child of Fortune [The). So 
 Nai^oleon called Marshal Masseiia after 
 the battle of Rivoli, 14 January, 1707, and 
 created him ' due de Rivoli.' 
 
 Child of Hale. John Middleton, 
 the giant, born at Hale, in Lancashire, in 
 1578. His height was 9 feet 3 inches. 
 Dr. Plott tells us that John Middleton 
 wanted only 6 inches to equal Goliath in 
 size.' 
 
 Goliath was 6 cubits and a span. 
 
 Child of the Cord {The). The 
 prisoner summoned to appear before the 
 Vehmgerichte {q.v.), who was always 
 dragged bound before the tribunal. If 
 found guilty the president said to him : 
 ' Prisoner ... I devote your neck to the 
 rope, your body to the birds of prey, and 
 may God have mercy on your soul.' He 
 was then dragged bound out of the court 
 and hanged on the nearest tree. See 
 * Free Bench.' 
 
 Child Pil.-^r images (13th cent.). 
 A religious epiclemic which broke out in 
 Europe in 1212, but the last boy crusade 
 was in 1459. Threats and persuasions, 
 love and fear, had no effect upon the boys, 
 who wept day and night, pined, and 
 trembled in every limb. There was no 
 difference in the social scale, the children 
 of counts and barons ran away from home 
 as well as the sons of shepherds and 
 tradesmen. 
 
 Childermas, or 'Holy Innocents' 
 Day,' 28 Dec. In commemoration of the 
 children slain by Herod. 
 
 The coronation of Edward IV. was put off till 
 the Monday, because the preceding day was 
 ' Cliildermas Day.' 
 
 Children's Crusade {The), 1212. 
 Preached in France by Stephen, a peasant 
 boy, and in Germany the same year by 
 Nicholas, also a peasant boy. Some 
 90,000 children left their mothers and 
 schoolmasters in the spring 'to rescue 
 the Holy Land from the infidels,' and 
 ships were placed at their disposal. The 
 French contingent embarked at Mar- 
 seilles in August ; part perished the same 
 month by shipwreck on the island of San 
 Pietro, and the rest were sold into slavery 
 to Mohammedans. The German contin- 
 gent reached Genoa in August, and was 
 utterly dispersed by various disasters be- 
 fore the next spring. 
 
 Children's !Employm.ent Com- 
 mission {The), 1841. To inquire into 
 the employment of children in mines, 
 cotton mills, and other industries. In 
 1842 they laid before Parliament a state- 
 ment of the employment of children in 
 coal-mines which greatly shocked the 
 moral sense of the country, and Lord 
 Ashley took the subject up. 
 
 Children of Rebecca, 1843. 
 
 "Welsh rioters whose object was to destroy 
 toll-gates. So called from Gen. xxiv. 60. 
 Laban said to Rebecca or Rebekah, ' Let 
 thy seed possess the gate of those that 
 hate thee.' 
 
 Chiliasm. The belief that Christ 
 will come to earth and rule the world 
 from Jerusalem for 1,000 years. The 
 Latin word ' millennium ' means the same 
 thing. The Revelation of John is the 
 chief authority of the Chiliasts. 
 
 Papias, Justin Blartyr, Irenasus, Tertullian, and 
 LactantiuswereCliiliasts, but Origen was opposed 
 to the notion. Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, says, 
 in the millennium 'every vine will bear 10,000 
 branches, every branch 10,000 shoots, every shoot 
 10,000 sprigs, every sprig 10,000 bunches, every 
 bunch 10,000 berries, and every berry 36 times iJ5 
 gallons of wine ; and if a saint comes to pluck a 
 berry it will cry out, "Pluck me, O saint ! I am 
 better for being plucked, praise the Lord." ' 
 
 The Fifth Monarchy Men were, of course, Chill- 
 asts, only they maintained that the golden age 
 had begun, and that they were of it. 
 
 Chilly Saints {The Three). St. 
 Pankratius, St. Liberatus, and St. Ser- 
 vatius, whose anniversaries are the three 
 cold days of May the 11th, 12th, and 
 18th. Some substitute St. Mamertus for 
 St. Liberatus. 
 
 Chiltern Hundreds. There are 
 three, viz. Stoke, Desborough, and Bonen- 
 ham or Burnham. At one time the 
 Chiltern HiUs between Bedford and 
 Hertford, &c., were covered with beech 
 trees, which formed shelter for robbers ; 
 so a steward was appointed by the crown 
 to pvit down these marauders and protect 
 the inhabitants of the neighbourhood 
 from their depredations. The necessity 
 of such watch and ward has long since 
 ceased, but the office remains ; and when 
 a member of parliament wishes to vacate 
 his seat, one way of doing so is by accept- 
 ing the office of steward of the three 
 Chiltern Hundreds. Being thus advanced 
 to a government office, his seat is ex 
 officio vacated. Immediately the member 
 has effected his object he resigns his 
 oHice again. The gift is in the hands of 
 
CHIMINAGE 
 
 CHOPPINa 
 
 3G7 
 
 the chancellor of the exchequer. In 
 18-12 it was refused to the member for 
 Reading. This acceptance began in 1750. 
 
 Similar crown offices are the Stewardshii> of the 
 Manor of Poyiiing.*, of East Heudred and Nortii- 
 Btead, and the escheatorship of Blunster. The 
 holder of these sinecures is party to a contract 
 between the crown and certain hypothetical con- 
 tractors. One farthing sufflces to make the con- 
 tract. 
 
 Chimina^e. Toll for passing through 
 a forest. Those who carried brushes, 
 timber, bark, or coal on their backs to 
 sell, i^aid no chiminage. Also called 
 ' pedagium ' (French chemin, a road or 
 way, chiminus regince). 
 
 Chimney-tax. ' Hearth-money,' or 
 • Chimnev-money.' A tax of 2s. a chimney 
 levied bv 13, 14 Car. II. c. 10 (16G2), but 
 abohshed by 1 WiU. & Mary, c. 10 (1G89). 
 
 Chinese Bible {The), Compiled 
 and partly composed by Confucius, di- 
 vided into five books : — 
 
 1. Called the Yih-Eing, a treatise on 
 cosmogony. 
 
 2. Called the Shu-King, the acts and 
 maxims of Yaou, Shun, and other ancient 
 kings held in religious veneration. 
 
 3. Called the Shi-King, which contains 
 811 sacred poems. 
 
 4. Called the Ee-King, or book of rites, 
 containing maxims and directions for 
 everyday life and all conditions of men. 
 
 5. Called the Chun-tsien, a history of 
 Confucius's own times. 
 
 Chinese Caesar [The). Kao-hoang- 
 
 ti, founder of tlie Han dynasty, one of 
 the most illustrious that ever occupied 
 the Chinese throne (dynasty lasted B.C. 
 ~ 202-A.D. 22G). 
 
 Chinese "Wars {The) with Great 
 Britain. The First War 1834-1842 ; the 
 Second War 1855-1858. The cause of 
 the first war was the prohibition of the 
 opium trade by the Chinese Government. 
 When this prohibition was disregarded 
 the British boats were fired on from the 
 Chinese forts. Commissioner Lin was 
 Bent to adjust the dispute, and his first 
 demand was that aU the opium in store, 
 whether in factories or boats, should be 
 given up to him to be burnt. This was 
 done. Then Lin forbade all trading 
 whatsoever between Great Britain and 
 China. This provoked hostilities, and 
 after several successes the British at- 
 tacked Nanking ; whereupon the Chinese 
 concluded a treaty of peace 26 Aug., 
 
 1842, in which Hong Kong was ceded to 
 Britain. 
 
 The Second War broke out (1855) in 
 consequence of the bad faith of tlie 
 Chinese, who violated the treaty. The 
 English now demanded free access to 
 Canton, and, this being refused, they pro- 
 ceeded to besiege that city. A second 
 treaty of peace at Tientsin was at once 
 concluded, and the war ceased in 1858. 
 
 The first treaty of peace stipulated (1) 
 the surrender of Hong Kong; (2) 21 
 million dollars [about 5 millions stei'ling] 
 for war indemnity ; (3) free trade between 
 Britain and China, and (4) the following 
 to be open ports, in each of which a 
 British consul was to reside, viz. Canton, 
 Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shang- 
 hae. 
 
 Napoleon, by the Berlin Treaty {q.v.'), boycotted 
 Great Britnin as the Chinese did, and both at- 
 tempts failed. Any individual may refuse to deal 
 with any other, but no one has a right to enforce 
 that prolaibition on another against his will. 
 
 Chivalrous Madman {The). 
 
 James IV. of Scotland (1473, 1488-1513), 
 slain at Flodden Field. 
 
 Cholera [Morbus]. An epidemic 
 which appeared in Bengal, the Isle of 
 France, and the He de Bourbon in 1818, 
 1819, and 1S20. It appeared in Sunder- 
 land 26 Oct., 1831, in Edinburgh 6 Feb., 
 1832, and in March had reached Dublin. 
 In Paris the deaths between March and 
 Aug., 1832, were 18,000. It raged in Rome 
 and in the Two Sicilies, Genoa, and Berlin 
 from July to Aug., 1837. In 1818, 1849 
 it again appeared in England, and the 
 death-rate of September was 3,183, and 
 from 17 June to 2 Oct. it was 13,161. In 
 1866 it appeared again in Great Britain, 
 and in fifteen weeks above 5,000 persons 
 in London were carried off by it. It re- 
 turned to Germany in 1883, 1884. 
 
 Chopping with the Whittle. 
 
 An ancient tenure. ' Walter de Aldeham 
 holds land of the king in the More in the 
 county of Salop by the service of paying 
 to the king yearly at his Exchequer 
 2 knives [whittles], whereof one ought 
 to be of that goodness that it would cut, 
 at the first stroke, into the middle of a 
 hasle rod of a year's growth, and of a 
 cubit in length. The same service ought 
 to done in the middle of the Exchequer 
 in the presence of the treasurer and 
 barons on the morrow of St. Michael ; 
 aaid the said whittles are to be dcJivered 
 
1C3 
 
 CHOEBISHOPS 
 
 CHRIST 
 
 to tlie Cliamberlain for tlie king's use.' 
 Blount, Ancient Tenures, 1815. 
 
 Cliorbisliops, or * Chorepiscopi.' 
 Suffragans, or rural bishoi^s, delegated 
 by the diocesan. In 846, at the Council 
 of Sens, Andrad Modicus was appointed 
 cliorbishop; but in 849 the Council of 
 Paris deposed all the chorbishops of 
 France. 
 
 Pronounce Eor-Mshops. 
 
 diouans. I. Fiist Period. "Were 
 bands of insurgent royalists who, during 
 the first French Revolution, organised a 
 reactionary movement against the Blues 
 (or Republicans). The original Chouan 
 was Jean Cottereau, a maker of sabots, 
 near Laval, who turned smuggler. He 
 was called Chouan, or screech-owl [chat- 
 huani], because he rallied his men, or 
 warned them of danger by imitating the 
 cry of that bird, and all his gang went 
 by the name of Chouans. In 1791 several 
 ' trees of liberty ' were destroyed in Brit- 
 tany, and other outrages were fomented 
 by seditious priests. In 1792 an insur- 
 rection was planned by the Marquis de 
 la Rouarie, under the sanction of the two 
 brothers of Louis XVI. The marquis 
 entered into communication with Jean 
 Cottereau, who, with his Chouans, car- 
 ried on successfully a guerilla war with 
 the Blues, till he fell, 28 July, 1794. 
 
 II. Sccoiul Period. George Cadoudal 
 was the next leader of the Chouans, or 
 royalist insurgents of Brittany. He was 
 born in 1771 near Auray, where his 
 father was a miller. He was captured 
 by the Blues in 1794, but made his es- 
 cape, and became more active than ever 
 in the royalists' cause. Annoyed at the 
 dissensions of the Vendean generals, he 
 organised an army in which no aristocrat 
 was permitted to hold command. So 
 brave, so well drilled, and so well offi- 
 cered was this Chouan army that General 
 Hoche was unable either to subdue or 
 to disperse it. In 1799 George Cadoudal 
 was the soul of the conspiracy to over- 
 throw the First Consul (Bonaparte), but 
 on the 18 Brumaire he was forced to re- 
 nounce the war, and took refuge in 
 England. In 1803 he joined Pichegru's 
 plot against the First Consul, but the 
 conspiracy being discovered, Cadoudal 
 was apprehended and put to death, 
 25 June, 1804. 
 
 III. Third Periods. Many petty 
 Bpurts of Chouannerie broke out after 
 
 1799, when George Cadoudal was obliged 
 to give up the struggle. In 1803 it 
 ceased for a while, in 1814-1815 it 
 again started into life on both banks of 
 the Loire, but Lamarque stamped it out. 
 In the July Revolution (1830) the Du- 
 cliesse de Berry tried to revive Chouan- 
 nerie on behalf of the Due de Bordeaux, 
 but it was soon crushed out by the ener- 
 getic measures of M. Thiers. 
 
 Chouans, pronounce Shicahng. 
 
 Chouannerie. Guerilla warfare by 
 volunteers on behalf of a royal cause. The 
 word is from Chouans, the insurgents 
 of Brittany, who rose on behalf of Louis 
 XVI., and also against the First Consul 
 (Bonaparte). Sometimes the word means 
 "devotion to the kingly cause in France, 
 as chauvinistn means enthusiastic de- 
 votion to Napoleon I. and the Imperial 
 cause. 
 
 CliOW, or Tchow dynasty {The). 
 The third Imperial dynasty of China. It 
 gave 34 sovereigns, and lasted 866 years 
 (from B.C. 1122 to 256). Yn was the seat 
 of government. This dynasty is called 
 that of the 'Kings Combatant,' being a 
 period of almost unvarying contention 
 and feudal strife. 
 
 Confucius and Mencius, the Chinese philoso- 
 phers, were both born under this dynasty. 
 
 Chremonidean War {The), e.g. 
 
 2G8 or 263. When Athens was taken by 
 Antigonus Gonatus. So called from Chre- 
 monidcs, the Athenian, who distinguished 
 himself m the defence of the city. 
 
 Christ {Knights of), 1318. A mili- 
 tary order, founded in Portugal by King 
 Dionysius ; also founded in Brazil in 1813. 
 
 Christ {Order of), 1205. In Livonia, 
 instituted by Albert, bishop of Riga. The 
 popes also confer the ' order of Christ.' 
 
 Christ's Birth. 
 
 Idler fixes it in . . Dec. B.C. 7 
 Petavius and Usher . 25 Dec. „ 5 
 Bengel ... 25 Dec. „ 4 
 
 Anger and Winer • . March „ 4 
 Scaliger .... Oct. „ 3 
 St. Jerome . . 25 Dec. „ 3 
 
 Eusebius (Bk. i. 6.) . .6 Jan. „ 2 
 (Dr. Geikie, ' Life of Christ,' i. p. 5B9.) 
 
 Bunsen shows, on the authority of Irenseus, tha t 
 Jesuswas born some fifteen years before the tine 
 assigned, and that he lived to be about fifty years 
 of afe'e. 
 
 Basnage, the Jew, in his ' Hist, des Juifs,' placed 
 the birth nearly a century sooner than A.D. 1. 
 
 According to Luke ii. 1-7. it was about A.D. 10. 
 
 I 
 
CHRIST 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 1G9 
 
 Christ Church, 1526. Founded 
 by Ciirdinal Wolsey. The most aristo- 
 cratic and wealthy of all the colleges of 
 Oxford. The head-master of this college 
 only is called the* Dean. 
 
 Christ's College. In Cambridge 
 University, founded by the Lady Mar- 
 garet, countess of Richmond and Derby, 
 mother of Henry VII., in 1505. 
 
 The founder of St. John's College also. Snrely 
 this college ought to be Christ College, as Christ 
 Church in Oxford. What would be said of Tri- 
 nity's College, Peter's House, or Corporis ChriHti 
 College ? Bishop Latimer, Milton, and Cudworth 
 ■were of this college. 
 
 Christ's Hospital (The Blue-coat 
 School), London, 1553. founded by Ed- 
 ward VI. (the year of his death). 
 
 Called Blue-coat from the blue ■woollen coat 
 fastened round the waist with a narrow red 
 leather girdle. The boys wear yellow breeches 
 and yellow stockings, bands, and a very small 
 blue worsted cap. 
 
 Christadelphians {The), 1st cent. 
 Brethren of Christ, not brethren in 
 Chi'ist. Revived by Dr. Thomas in the 
 19th cent. The immortality of the soul, 
 the theory of hell, the devil, disembodied 
 spirits, and the Trinity they utterly dis- 
 believe ; but the millennium they believe 
 in fully. The Holy Ghost is not a dis- 
 tinct person, they say, but simply the 
 instrumental power of the Father. And 
 Jesus Christ is God, only because the 
 Spirit of God dwelt in Him fully and 
 without measure. Dr. Thomas died in 
 1871, but the Thomasites continue still. 
 
 Christian Advocate (T/je). In the 
 
 University of Cambridge, 1789 ; founded 
 by the Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's 
 College. In 1860 converted into the 
 Hulsean Professor of Divinity [q.v.). 
 
 Christian Brethren {The), 1525. 
 An association chiefly of London trades- 
 men and citizens, who smuggled over 
 and circulated the Gospels and Epistles 
 translated by Tyndale, and reprinted at 
 Cologne or Worms the tracts of WycHf 
 and Luther. 
 
 Christian Charity {Knights of), 
 1578. Instituted by Henri III. of France 
 for the benefit of poor military officers 
 and maimed soldiers. It resembled our 
 ' Poor Knights of Windsor ' {q.v.). 
 
 Christian Cicero {The). Lactan- 
 tius, first of the Latin fathers {q.v.). 
 About 250-330. Converted 301. 
 8 
 
 Christian Club {The), 1768. A 
 political union in the borough of Shore- 
 ham, where the burgesses agreed to sell 
 their borough to the highest bidder, and 
 share the proceeds equally. Called the 
 
 * Christian ' club because, like the early 
 Christians, they agreed to have all things 
 [i.e. the proceeds of the bribe] in common. 
 
 Christian Connexion {The), 
 1800. Chiefly in the United States of 
 America. They recognise no leader, no 
 creeds, no forms of prayer. The Bible 
 is their code, and each man is his own 
 intei-preter. Their great law is universal 
 toleration. The general creed is this : 
 There is one God ; Christ the Son of God 
 is the Mediator between God and man. 
 The Holy Ghost is the power and energy 
 of God. Of course the table of com- 
 munion is open to all who choose to 
 attend. 
 
 Christian Eloquence {Founder 
 of). Bourdaloue (1632-1704). Especially 
 famous for his ' Lent Sermons.' 
 
 Christian Era. It was Dionysius 
 
 * Exiguus,' in the 6th cent., who introduced 
 the felicitous custom of dating from the 
 birth of Christ. He, however, was incor- 
 rect in fixing the Nativity after the death 
 of Herod ; and indubitably it was not in 
 December, but either in the spring or 
 autumn. 
 
 Ireneeus (ii. 22, 5) tells us that Jesus was between 
 40 and 50 when he was put to death, but the general 
 opinion is that he was between 33 and 84 years of 
 age. 
 
 Christian Era {The). 
 Fixed by Dionysius Exiguus at zero a.d. 1 
 Eusebius . . b.c 2 
 
 Jerome and ScalTger . „ 3 
 Anger, Bengel, Petavius, 
 
 Winer, Usher . . „ 4 
 
 Ewald . . . . „ 5 
 
 Idler . . . • „ 7 
 
 Bunsen . . . , „15 
 
 Irenseus apparently , „ 20 
 
 Luke ii. 1-7 . . a.d. 4 or 5 
 
 (See Josephus,'Ant.' xvli. 1. 1, and Eusebius, i. 6.) 
 
 (On the authority of Ireneeus Jesus was 50 at hla 
 
 crucifixion.) 
 
 In regard to the month of the Nativity, Euse- 
 bius places it in January ; Anger and Winer in 
 the spring; Scaliger in Oct.; Bengel, Idler. 
 IrensBus, Petavius. and Usher in Dec. 
 
 The Christian Era, suggested by Dionysius 
 Exiguus, began to be used a.U. 526. Christmas 
 Day was celebrated in the reign of Antoninus 
 Pius (1.S8-1G1), and the festival is attributed to 
 Telesphorus. (See ' Dec. 25.') 
 
 Christian Era {The). This era 
 begins Jan. 1, a.d. 1, or A.U.C. 753. Firs* 
 
170 
 
 CHEISTIAN 
 
 CHEISTINOS 
 
 used by Dionysius Exiguus in 526. In- 
 troduced into Italy in the 6th cent. ; into 
 France in the 7th cent. ; ordained by the 
 Council of Chelsea in 816. Not generally 
 used in Spain till the 11th cent. ; not in 
 Portugal till 1415; not in the Eastern 
 Church till 1453. 
 
 Called the 'Year of Grace'; the Year of the 
 Incarnation ' ; ' Annus Traboationis' ; and some- 
 times ' Recapitulatio Dionlsii ' [sic]. It is generally 
 tiiought that A.D. 1 should be A.D. 4, in order to 
 bring in Herod the Great, who died that year ; but 
 the government of Cyrenius, mentioned by Luke, 
 requires an adjustment in the opposite direction, 
 ae he was proconsul of Syria 4-5, according to the 
 calculation of Dionysius. 
 
 Christian Fathers {The), 8rd 
 cent. Irenaeus, Pantaeus, Clemens Alex- 
 andrlnus, Tertullian {Latin), Minucius 
 Felix {Latin), Hippolytus, Origen, Gre- 
 gory Thaumaturgus,Cyprian, and Metho- 
 dius (10 altogether). See ' Doctors.' 
 
 Christian Forgeries {The), Of 
 Brahmanic writings printed in French 
 at Yverdun, in 1778, imposed even on 
 Voltaire. A Carmelite missionary justi- 
 fies the forgery, as the object was laud- 
 able. Origen thought that a good aim 
 or end justifies the means. See 'Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 Christian Sen'eea {The). Joseph 
 Hall, bishop of Norwich (1574-1656). 
 
 Christian of the Cleek, 1335, 
 &c. A Scotchman who, in the early part 
 of the reign of Edward III., used to catch 
 men with a ' cleek,' or hook, for food. Sir 
 Walter Scott gives us a heartrending 
 picture of the miserable condition of the 
 people who saved life by devouring their 
 fellows. 
 
 Christians. Believers in Christ 
 were so called first at Antioch in apos- 
 tolic times. In modern times the sect so 
 called own no name or founder but the 
 Lord Jesus. 
 
 The following sects keep the word with a differ- 
 ence : Christian Believers, Christian Brethren, 
 Christian Connexion, Christian Disciples, Chris- 
 tian Eliasites, Christian Israelites, Christian Mis- 
 Bion, Christian Teetotallers, Christian Temperance 
 Men, Christian Unionists, The Free Catholic 
 Christian CViurch, The Free Christians, The Free 
 Christian Association, The Free Evangelical 
 Christians, The Free Grace Gospel Christians, The 
 Rational Christians, The Unitarian Christians, 
 The United Christian Church, The Universal Chris- 
 tians, The Christians of St. John (q.v.). The Chris- 
 tians of St. Thomas (q.v.), &c. 
 
 Christians are subdivided into three general 
 categories : 
 
 1. Those who admit the authority of tradition 
 and of the Pope, as Roman and Greek Catholics. 
 
 2. Those who acknowledge some authority 
 besides the Bible: The Greek Church, which ac- 
 knowledges the authority of the patriarchs of Con- 
 
 stantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. 
 The Russian Church, which acknowledges the 
 Czar as ' liead of the Church.' The Chaldaian 
 Cliurch, or Nestorians ; the Monophysites or Euty. 
 cheans, as the Copts, Jacobites, and .Armenians. 
 
 3. Those which acknowledge no authority ex- 
 cept the Bible. They are (n) Unitarians, (b) Trini- 
 tarians : as the Arians and Socinians ; the Ana- 
 baptists, the Anglican Church or Church of Eng- 
 land, Arminians, Baptists, Calvinists, Congrega- 
 tionalists. Enthusiasts, Episcopalians or those 
 Protestants who have an order of Bishops, Evan- 
 gelicals, Hernhiitters, Huguenots or French Cal- 
 vinists, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Mo- 
 ravians, Mormons, Mystics, Nonconformists, 
 Presbyterians, Puritans, Quakers or Friends, 
 Remonstrants, Shakers, Swedenborgians, Wes- 
 leyans, Zwinglians, &c. These and many others 
 ■will be found under their distinctive name. 
 
 Christians of St. John {The), 1st 
 cent. A sect which recognised John the 
 Baptist as their head. They repeated their 
 baptism annuall/; denied the divinity of 
 Christ ; attributed a body to God ; called 
 Gabriel God's son, and declared that God 
 created the world by the instrumentality 
 of Gabriel and 50,000 angels. At death, 
 they asserted that the soul went to diffe- 
 rent spheres. 
 
 Christians of St. Thomas {The), 
 A.D. 883. Said to have been founded by 
 Thomas the Apostle. In 883 ambassa- 
 dors of Alfred visited the shrine of the 
 founder in the neighbourhood of Madras. 
 They were then governed by the bishop 
 of Ajigamala, who exercised jurisdiction 
 over 1,400 churches and 200,000 souls. lu 
 1500 the Portuguese inquisitors accused 
 them of the Nestorian heresy, and after 
 a fierce persecution Malabar was reduced 
 under the dominion of the Pope of Rome. 
 They remained sixty years in this servi- 
 tude (1599-1663), when, the Portuguese 
 empire being shaken, the Malabar Chris- 
 tians asserted their independence and 
 relapsed into their Nestorianism {q.v.). 
 
 The ' Thomists ' were Roman Catholics. The 
 disciples of Thomas Aquinas were quite another 
 class of Christians. 
 
 Chris ti'na of Sweden. Crowned 
 under the title of ' king,' was bern 1626, 
 reigned 1633-1664, abdicated, and died 
 1689. She was the daughter of the great 
 Gustavus. 
 
 Christinos and Carlists, 1833, 
 
 &c. In Spanish history. The partisans 
 of Donna Maria Christina (regent for her 
 daughter, Isabella Maria II.) and Don 
 Carlos, brother of the late king. A 
 salique law had been passed in Spain by 
 Felipe V., but was repealed by Carlos IV., 
 as he had only a daughter. Don Carlos 
 claimed his right of succession, on the 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
CHRISTMAS 
 
 CHUPATTIE 
 
 171 
 
 salique law. His partisans were called 
 Carlists, and for seven years a tedious 
 guerilla war ensued. It was renewed 1873, 
 and ended in 1876. 
 
 Christmas Day. Now held on 25 
 Dec. The early Christians held it, some 
 in May, some in April, and some in June. 
 It could not have been m December, as 
 shepherds would not be in the fields 
 watching their flocks by night in that 
 month. Most likely it took the place of 
 the Yule-feast and Roman festivals held 
 during the winter solstice. The festival 
 of the Nativity was introduced at Antioch 
 in 375, but in the forged Isidorian 
 Decretals (q.v.) Telesphoros (who lived 
 in the 2nd cent.) is said to have insti- 
 tuted it. 
 
 The Puritan Parliament abolished the Christmas 
 festival ; and the decoration of churches and 
 houses was made an act of sedition. 
 
 Christmas Day, 1684. Eight of 
 the British sovereigns were all living. 
 
 1. Richard Cromwell, born 4 Oct., 
 1626-1712. 
 
 2. Charles II., born 29 May, 1630-1G85. 
 
 3. James II., born 14 Oct., 1633-1701. 
 
 4. William III., born 4/14 Nov., 1650- 
 1702. 
 
 5. Q. Mary II., bom 30 Apr., 1662-1694. 
 
 6. Q. Anne, born 6 Feb., 1664-1714. 
 
 7. George I., born 28 May, 1660-1727. 
 
 8. George II., born 30 Oct., 1683-1760. 
 (See ' Notes and Queries,' Dec. 28, 1889, 
 p. 505.) 
 
 Christm.as Eve. Sir Walter Scott 
 Bays, ' On Christmas Eve the mass is 
 Bung.' Strictly speaking, this is not 
 correct, as no mass is celebrated on the 
 vigil of Christmas Day, or indeed on any 
 vigil ; but it is usual in Rome to celebrate 
 a midnight mass, i.e. a mass in the small 
 hours of the morning of Christmas Day. 
 The service may commence before mid- 
 night, but it cannot be finished till after 
 midnight. It is absolutely necessary that 
 the elements be taken in the morning, 
 i.e. between midnight and midday. On 
 Christmas Day or any other day any 
 number of masses may be said in a church 
 at different altars by different priests, 
 but no priest should celebrate more than 
 one mass in a single day. This is not 
 strictly observed. 
 
 Christmas Prince (A). A Lord 
 of Misrule. 
 
 The High and Mighty Prince, Henry, prince of 
 Parpoole [? Poole Paxk], archduke of Stapulia aud 
 
 Bernardia [Staples and Barnard's Inn], duke of 
 High and Nether Holborn, marquis of St. Giles and 
 Tottenham, count palatine of Bloomshury and 
 Clerkenwell, great lord of the cantons of Islington, 
 Kentish Town, Paddington, and Knightsbridge.— 
 Notes and Q^iericii, 17 March, 1888 iquoted from tho 
 ' Book of ChriBtmas,' by T. K. Hervey, 1835). 
 
 Christopher North. The pen- 
 name assumed by John Wilson (1785- 
 1854). 
 
 Christot'okos, Theot'okos, 
 Theoph'oron. Nestorius (5th cent.) 
 taught that Mary was not fleoTo'/co? 
 (mother of God), but only xp'o'^'otojco? 
 (mother of Christ), for God cannot be 
 born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth he 
 called e€o4>6pov (possessed of God). These 
 distinctions were condemned by the 
 Council of Ephesus in 431. 
 
 Chronicle of St. Neots (The). 
 The Chronicle of Asser is so called be- 
 cause it was discovered in the monastery 
 of St. Neots. 
 
 Asser, bishop of St. David's, Wales, died 910. His 
 chronicle goes down to 893, and has been con- 
 tinued by other hands. 
 
 Chronicles of Denis (The), or 
 ' Chronicles of France.' The lives of St. 
 Louis (IX.) and his brothers (Robert, 
 Alphonse, and Charles), and the sons of 
 St. Louis, Philippe III. le Hardi, and 
 Robert de Clermont (the root of the 
 Bourbon dynasty of France). It was 
 written by Guillaume de Nangis, who 
 died in 1300, and was a Benedictine 
 monk of St. Denis. 
 
 Suger (1092-1152), the wise minister of Louis VH. 
 le Jeune, is called the precursor of the Chronicles 
 of St. Denis. [Pronounce Sahit Dnee.] 
 
 Chronology {Father of). Scaliger 
 the younger (1540-1609). 
 
 Chry SOS torn, or Golden -mouth. 
 John, patriarch of Constantinople, was 
 so called, but not till long after his death. 
 His oratory was very attractive, appeal- 
 ing more to the feelings and passions 
 than to the reason (347-407). 
 
 Dion, the rhetorician, was surnamed ChryBOstom 
 before the patriarch (A.D. 60-117). 
 
 Chupattie Mystery (The), Feb. 
 1857. Just before the Indian mutiny, a 
 native policeman entered a village of 
 Oude, carrying two chupatties, or cakes, 
 and ordered the person who took them 
 to make ten more and distribute two to 
 the five contiguous villages. In a few 
 hours the whole country was alive with 
 watchmen running from place to place 
 with these cakes. The mystery has not 
 
172 
 
 CHURCH 
 
 CHURCH-SCOT 
 
 yet been solved, but two facts are known : 
 (1) that soon all India was in mutiny ; 
 and (2) that five centuries previously a 
 similar distribution of cakes in China 
 led to the mutiny which overthrew the 
 dynasty of the Moguls. 
 
 Church {Orders of the). The sacra- 
 ment of orders is only one ; but it is di- 
 vided into seven grades in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 I. Latin Church : Seven clerical orders 
 (or grades) : Ostiarius, exorcist, reader, 
 acolyte, subdeacon, deacon, priest. The 
 last three are called the greater orders ; 
 the other four are called the lesser orders. 
 The priesthood completes the grades; 
 the dignitaries being only priests. 
 
 Subdeacons have been classed with the higher 
 orders only since the time ot Innocent III. (1193- 
 1216). 
 
 Bishops, priests, and deacons are said to be of 
 divine institution. 
 
 The five orders of ostiarius, exorcist, reader, 
 acolyte, and subdeacon are human institutions, 
 which (we are told) have existed from apostolic 
 times. 
 
 Ten clerical orders. Those who insist 
 that there are ten clerical orders in the 
 Latin Church reckon these three amongst 
 the grades : the tonsure, the office of 
 precentor, and episcopal consecration. 
 
 II. Greek Church : Either Four cleri- 
 cal orders: reader, subdeacon, deacon, 
 and priest ; 
 
 Or Eleven. Those who maintain that 
 there are eleven clerical grades in the 
 Greek Church recognise the following : 
 sexton, confessor, singer, ostiarius (or 
 doorkeeper), exorcist, acolyte, reader, 
 Bubdeacon, deacon, priest, and bishop. 
 
 III. Anglican Church : Three clerical 
 orders : deacon, priest, and bishop. 
 
 Church-ale. A wake to commemo- 
 rate the dedication of a church. These 
 revels consisted of drinking and sports, 
 especially dancing. 
 
 In 16,S4 Denham issued an order in the western 
 circuit to put an end to the disorders attending 
 church-ales, bid-ales, and clerk-ales.— HowiTT, 
 Hist, of Englatui (Charles I. ch. ill. p. 159). 
 
 Church Army {The), 1882. A 
 home missionary society for the conver- 
 sion of the masses by out-door and in- 
 door meetings, and by personal influence. 
 
 Church Catechism (T^e). Strype 
 assigns it to Nowell (' Ecc. Mem.' ii. 368) ; 
 but Churton, in his ' Life of Dean NoAvell,' 
 attributes it to Poinet, afterwards bishop 
 of Winchester (pp. 403, 407). The ' Church 
 
 Catechism' must not be confounded with 
 what is called ' Cranmer's Catechism ' 
 {q.v.), which was originally German. 
 
 Church-cess (Ireland). Same as 
 church-rate in England, for the general 
 expenses connected with the parish (Pro- 
 testant) church, such as clerk's salary, 
 washing the surplice, cleaning the church, 
 buying the sacramental bread and wine. 
 Levied in Ireland on Catholics as well as 
 Protestants, and in England on dis- 
 senters as well as church-goers. Church- 
 rates abolished 1868 (31, 32 Vict. c. 31); 
 but the Irish church-cess was abolished 
 in 1833. It amounted to 80,000Z. a year. 
 See ' Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' 
 
 Church Cities. In feudal times, 
 were those built on church lands ; and in 
 these the abbot or bishop was chief 
 magistrate. Generally speaking these 
 cities were much more free than ' Ducal 
 Towns ' {q.v.). 
 
 Church Education Society 
 
 {The). In Ireland, 1839. Supported 
 wholly by voluntary subscrij)tions. This 
 society was started by those who dis- 
 approved of Mr. Stanley's ' National 
 Schools' (g'.-y.), because religious instruc- 
 tion was disallowed, and because any 
 person, of any persuasion, at certain 
 hours, might give special instruction to 
 the children whose parents sanctioned it. 
 The Church Society insisted that the 
 Bible should be taught, and that reli- 
 gious instruction should he given to the 
 children in conformity with the prin- 
 ciples of the Established Church. 
 
 Church Forgeries. Mosheim says 
 (vol. ii. 17) : * Acts of councils, records, 
 epistles, and whole books were forged by 
 these zealous fanatics [the monks], in 
 order the more easily to rob and plunder 
 the credulous, on whom they imposed 
 their glaring and fraudulent absurdities.' 
 See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Church-scot. The same as church- 
 rate, a tax levied as far back as 692 for 
 the repair of churches, and the supply of 
 what was needful for divine worship. It 
 was paid at Martinmas, according to a 
 rate made at Christmas. In case of 
 failure to pay the rate, a fine of twelve 
 times the amount was imposed. In 1868 
 Mr. Gladstone virtually abolished parish 
 church rates by making the payment 
 voluntary. 
 
CHURCH 
 
 CINQ 
 
 173 
 
 Churcli Temporalities Act 
 
 (The). Ireland, 1834 (3, 4 Will. IV. c. 37). 
 Investing the revenues of the suppressed 
 bishoprics of Ireland (about 50,000Z.) in the 
 Board of Ecclesiastical Commissioners, 
 to be applied by them to the erection 
 and repairs of churches, church-rates, 
 and other ecclesiastical purposes. The 
 archbishoprics of Cashel and Tuam were 
 reduced to bishoprics, the total number 
 of sees being 10, instead of 21 as hereto- 
 fore, with 2 archbishops instead of 4. 
 
 The suppressed sees were Ardagh, Clogher, 
 Clonfert with Kilniacduagh, Cork with Ross, 
 Dromore, Elphin, Kildare, Killala with Achonry, 
 Ossory, Raphoe, VVaterford witli Hsmore. Value 
 in 18:« of the 11 sees, 61,5'ili. Of those Clogher was 
 10,u()0/. a year, and Elphin i),4si/. 
 
 There are now (1890) 4 Catholic archbishops and 
 24 Catholic bishops in Ireland, 
 
 Church of Christ {The). See 
 'Disciples.' 
 
 Cicero {The British). William Pitt, 
 earl of Chatham (1708-1778). 
 
 Cicero {The Christian). Lucius Cse- 
 lius Lactantius (died 830). Tutor of 
 Crispus, son of Constantine. 
 
 Cicero {The German). Johann 
 Sturm, printer and scholar (1507-1589). 
 
 Cicero of France {The). Massil- 
 lon, bishop of Clermont (1663-1742). The 
 conclusion to his sermon called ' The Day 
 of Judgment ' is sublime and harrowing. 
 
 Cicero of G-ermany. John elector 
 of Brandenburg (1486-1499). 
 
 Cicero of Latin Christianity 
 
 {Tfie). Augustine (354-430). 
 
 Cicero of the British Senate. 
 
 George Canning (1770-1827). 
 
 Cicero's Mouth. Philippe Pot, 
 prime minister of Louis XL (1428-1494). 
 
 Cicero's Murderer was Popilius 
 
 Lcenas. 
 
 Cid el Campeador (4 syl.). Don 
 Roderigo Ruy Diaz de Bivar [i.e. Rode- 
 ric, son of Diego of BivarJ, a nobleman 
 of Castile (1040-1099). 
 
 ' Cid ' is an Arabic word meaning lord, and 
 •campeiidor ' — champion. 
 
 Cid'aris. The head-dress of Persian 
 monarchs, not unlike the French cap of 
 liberty, or Phrygian cap. Only the king 
 is allowed to wear the top of the cap 
 erect. The cidaris of Darius was blue 
 and white, or purple and white (Quintus 
 Curtius, book iii, eh. 3, and vi. chap. 6). 
 
 Cimbri. The inhabitants of the 
 Chersonesus Cimbrica. Confederated 
 with the TeutonC'S, they invaded the 
 Roman dominions, and were overthrown 
 by Marius in the battle of the Campi 
 Raudii, B.C. 101. 
 
 Cimbrian Panic {The), b.c. 105. 
 A Roman panic after the annihilation 
 of five armies by the Cimbrians. This 
 panic rose to its climax after the terrible 
 defeat of Caepio, the consul in Gallia 
 Narbonensis. 
 
 Cimburgis Lip {The). A pro- 
 truding under-jaw, with a heavy lip in- 
 disposed to shut close, often called the 
 'Austrian Lip.' It came from Kaiser 
 Maximilian L, and was inherited from 
 his grandmother, Cimburgis, a Polish 
 princess, who married Kaiser Friedrich 
 
 in. 
 
 Cimon {Peace of), b.c. 447. Which 
 brought to a close the hostility between 
 Persia and Greece. 
 
 This treaty of peace was made by AnaxIcr&tSs, 
 not Cimon, who had lately died. 
 
 Cincinna'ti {The), or * Cincinnatus- 
 es,' 1783. An order in the United 
 States of N. America, established by the 
 officers of the anti-British army ' to 
 perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
 fund for tlfe relief of the widows and or- 
 phans of those who fell in the War of In- 
 dependence.' Their badge is Cincinnatua 
 receiving the ensigns of dictator, and the 
 motto is * Omnia reliquit servare rem- 
 publicam.* 
 
 Cinerarians, * Cinerarii.' So Chris- 
 tians were called by their enemies, be- 
 cause they reverenced the ashes or bones 
 of the dead. 
 
 Reliqua SS. Mirac. S. Ursinari, sumptis de con- 
 cineratione sanctissimi corporis in sepulcro ejus 
 duohus dentibus. Hinc ' cinerarios ' cacholicos ap- 
 pellabaut heretic!.— Du Cange, vol. ii. p. 619, col. 2. 
 
 Cinq Mars {Conspiracy of), 1642. 
 A conspiracy secretly fomented by the 
 king himself, Louis XIIL, ' to get rid of 
 Richelieu, whose domineering spirit was 
 most hateful to him. Those who favoured 
 the conspirators were called ' Royalists,' 
 the adherents of Richelieu were called 
 'Cardinalists.' The object of the con- 
 spiracy was to dismiss Richelieu and 
 make Cinq Mars chief minister. The 
 plot being discovered, and it being known 
 that Cinq Mars had made a treaty with 
 Spain, the leading conspirators were 
 
174 
 
 CINQUE 
 
 CIKCULAR 
 
 arrested. Cinq Mars and other noblemen 
 were beheaded ; the Due de Bouillon was 
 deprived of his principality, which was 
 confiscated to the throne; and the in- 
 famous Due d'Orle'ans turned king's evi- 
 dence. 
 
 Kichelieu brought to the block at least six noble- 
 men : Marillac, Cinq Wfirs, De Thou, Chalais, 
 BouteviUe, and Montmorency. 
 
 Cinque Centisti. Those Italian 
 artists of the 16th cent, who formed the 
 Cinque Cento school. See ' Seicentisti,' 
 and ' Trecentist!.' 
 
 Cinque Cento (2 syl. each), 500. 
 Used to designate the style of art which 
 rose in Italy after 1,500. 
 
 The Golden Age of Italian art, con- 
 taining the immortal five, who all died 
 after 1500, viz. : 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci "who died 1520 
 
 Baphael 1520 
 
 Correggio » 1534 
 
 Michel Angelo [MichelagrwloT » 1564 
 
 Titian „ 1576 
 
 • His name was Michel Angelo Buonarroti. 
 •,* In literature Italy produced at the same 
 period : 
 
 Machiavelll vrho died 1527 
 
 Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) ... „ 1533 
 
 Tasso (Gerusalemme Liberata) „ 1595 
 
 All these, except Tasso, were born in the cen- 
 tury before, so that many use the word ' Cinque- 
 cento' to denote the sensuous school that fol- 
 lowed the immortal five— a school which borrowed 
 their subjects from heathen mythology. 
 Pronounce Chin-kwa Chehto. 
 
 Cinque Ports (T^e). Incorporated 
 in 1212 by King John. The five ports 
 are Dover, Hastings, Sandwich, Komney, 
 and Hythe. Three other ports, viz. Eye, 
 Winchelsea, and Seaford, were subse- 
 quently added. The governor is entitled 
 lord warden. 
 
 Cinque in English Is pronounced Sink. 
 
 Circe of the Revolution (The). 
 Madame Roland (1754-1793). The most 
 fascinating woman of the period. As she 
 was led to the guillotine she exclaimed, 
 bowing to the statue of Liberty, ' O 
 Liberty, how many crimes are committed 
 in thy name ! ' 
 
 Circle of Popilius (The). The 
 necessity of explaining your intentions 
 without hesitation or delay. The tale is 
 that Popilius was sent by the Roman 
 Senate as envoy to Antiochus, king of 
 Syria, and was commissioned to forbid 
 the king making war on Egypt, or harass- 
 ing the children of Ptolemy. Antiochus 
 replied that he would think about the 
 
 matter, when Popilius drew a circle round 
 the king, and said : ' Prince, you must 
 reply before you leave this circle.' Anti- 
 ochus, taken by surprise at this boldness, 
 replied at once, ' Tell the Senate I will 
 do what they demand of me.' Having 
 so said, Popilius saluted him, and offered 
 him the friendship of the Roman people. 
 
 Circle of Stennis {The), or ' Circle 
 of Odin.' A circular hole in one of the 
 huge Standing Stones of what is called 
 the Orcadian Stonehenge. This Standing 
 Stone was at one time used by rustics for 
 plighting troth. The lovers joined hands 
 in this hole, and swore by Odin to be 
 faithful to each other. This plight is 
 called the ' promise of Odin,' and making 
 the plight is 'taking the promise of 
 Odin.' 
 
 We were wedded alter the ancient manner of 
 the Norse, our hands were clasped in the circle of 
 Odin, with . . . vows of eternal fidelity.— Sir W. 
 Scott, The Pirate, chap, xxxiii. 
 
 Circles of G-ermany (The). De- 
 partments or districts. In 1387 Kaiser 
 Wenceslaus divided Germany into four 
 circles, viz. (1) Saxony ; (2) the Rhine 
 provinces; (3) Austria, Bavaria, and 
 Suabia; and (4) Franconia and Thuringia. 
 
 In 1438 Kaiser Albert II. increased the 
 number to six, each of which had a right 
 to be represented on the diet or national 
 assembly. The circles were : Franconia, 
 Bavaria, Suabia, Westphalia, Upper 
 Rhine, and Saxony. 
 
 In 1512, under Maximilian I., the num- 
 ber of circles was increased to ten, -v iz. 
 Austria, Bavaria, Burgundy, Franconia, 
 Lower Rhine provinces, Upper Rhine 
 provinces. Lower Saxony, Upper Saxony, 
 and Westphalia. 
 
 Each circle had an ecclesiastical and 
 lay prince, with a military chief. 
 
 At the Reformation the circles were 
 divided into Catholic, Protestant, and 
 Mixt. The Catholic Circles were Austria, 
 Bavaria, and Burgundy ; the Protestant 
 Circles were those of Upper and Lower 
 Saxony ; and the Mixt Circles were the 
 other five. In 1806 the division into circles 
 was broken up by the ' Confederacy of the 
 Rhine.' 
 
 Circular Coin. 'When English 
 coin is made circular the prince of Wales 
 shall be crowned in London.' Th'S 
 ' prophecy ' is attributed to Merlin. In 
 1281 Edward I. issued a new coinage of 
 round halfpence and farthings, and for- 
 
CIRCUMCELLIANS 
 
 CITY 
 
 176 
 
 bade the penny to be divided into four 
 quarters. David, thinking this to be 
 the thing predicted, invaded England 22 
 March, 1282, and, being joined by Llewel- 
 lyn, brought Edward I. into the field and 
 led to the conquest of Wales. In 1284 
 Edward's son was born at Carnarvon, 
 and was presented to the Welsh as the 
 
 * prince of Wales.' When Llewellyn's 
 head was placed on the Tower of London 
 it was crowned with a willow-wreath in 
 derision of the ' prophecy.' The circular 
 coin and coronation of the Welsh prince 
 synchronised, but the prophecy brought 
 about its own accomplishment. 
 
 Cireumcellians {The), or 'The Cir- 
 cumcelliones,' a.d. 317. A kind of ' Sal- 
 vation Army ' organised by the Donatists, 
 which marched from town to town with 
 staves in their hands, to redress wrongs, 
 and propagate their own religious views. 
 They set slaves at liberty, released debtors 
 from prison, and called themselves ' The 
 Saint's Chiefs.' They were very zealous, 
 and courted martyrdom, but were at last 
 put down by the magistrates. (Lat. cir- 
 cvmcello, to beat about, to go about. Ex- 
 cello, to excel, is to go beyond others). 
 
 The leaders were called Captains ; the 'soldiers' 
 (who were peasants) carried huge clubs called 
 Israelites; their war-cry was ' Praise be to God.' 
 
 Circumspecte Agatis {The Sta- 
 tute of), 13 Edw. I. St. 4 c. 1, A.D. 1285. 
 Defining more strictly the power of the 
 clergy, and directing the bishops to see 
 that the parishioners kept their parish 
 churches in repair. 
 
 The statute is called ' Circumspecte AgStis,' from 
 the first two words. 
 
 Cirrhaean War {The), b.c. 595-586. 
 This was the First Sacred War. See 
 
 * Sacred War.' 
 
 Cisalpine Republic {The), 1797. 
 Bonaparte, after the battle of Lodi, organ- 
 ised two states in Italy, one on the south 
 and the other on the north side of the 
 river Po. These two states were united 
 next year into one under the title of the 
 Cisalpine Republic, with Milan for the 
 capital. 
 
 Cistercians, 1098. Reformed Bene- 
 dictines, founded by Robert, abbot of 
 Moleme, in Burgundy, who retired with 
 some twenty monks to Citeaux, in the 
 diocese of Chalons, His order rapidly 
 increased, and acquired the form and 
 privileges of a religious republic, which 
 
 exercised a sort of dominion over other 
 monastic orders. The Cistercians were 
 great graziers and wool-growers. 
 
 Cities of Great Britain. 
 
 Aberdeen, the granite city. 
 Birmingham, the midland capital. 
 Brighton, the queen of watering-places. 
 Edinburgh, the modern Athens. 
 Liverpool, the modern Tyre. 
 Manchester, Cottonopolis. 
 Worcester, the faithful city, so called 
 
 from its motto : ' Floreat semper civitas 
 
 fidelis.' 
 Brighton is often called ' London-super-: 
 
 Citizen King (T^ie). * Le roi citoyen • 
 Louis Philippe of France (born 1773, 
 reigned 1830-1848, died 1850). He was a 
 member of the Jacobin Club, the son of 
 Philippe Egalite, and one of the leaders 
 of the revolutionary party. As a king he 
 was most despotic and autocratic. 
 
 Servius Tullius of Rome was called the 
 ' People's King.' 
 
 Cittadini {The). The Venetian 
 bourgeois, between the popolari and gen- 
 tiluomini. 
 
 City Flat Cap {The). The cap of 
 Edward VI.'s reign, similar to the cap of 
 the Blue-coat Boys. Subsequently called 
 the Statute cap {q.v.). See ' Cap.' 
 
 City of Brotherly Love {The). 
 
 A translation of Philadelphia, the chief 
 city of Pennsylvania, U.S. of America. 
 
 City of David ( The). Mount Zion, 
 the fortified part of Jerusalem, where 
 David had his palace. 
 
 City of Elms {The). New Haven, 
 Connecticut, the streets of which are 
 thickly shaded with elm-trees. 
 
 When happier days shall return . . . the South 
 . . . will re ir a monument of gratitude in the 
 beautiful City of Elms, over the ashes of her 
 greatest benefactor (Eli Wliituey).— Edw. Evb- 
 BETT, 18C1. 
 
 City of Magnificent Distances 
 
 {The). Washington, chief city of the 
 U.S. of America, intersected with fifteen 
 avenues from 180 to IGO feet wide. It was 
 designed to cover a space of four and a 
 half miles long by two and a half wide. 
 
 City of K'otions {The). Boston, 
 Massachusetts, ' the metropolis of Yan- 
 keedom.' 
 
 City of Peace {The). I. Jerusalem. 
 The word Salem means peace. Jesua, 
 
176 
 
 CITY 
 
 CIVIL 
 
 ' King of the Jews,' was called the ' Prince 
 of Peace ' (Salem). 
 
 II. Bagdad, the capital of the Abbas- 
 sides (3 syl.). 
 
 The calif retired from Bagdad, and established 
 his residence at Samara on the Tigris, about 
 twelve leagues above the City of Peace.— Gibbon, 
 ch. 111. 
 
 City of Rocks {The). Nashville, 
 in Tennessee. 
 City of St. Mark (The). Venice. 
 
 City of Spindles (The). Lowell, 
 in Massachusetts, the largest cotton city 
 of the U.S. of America. 
 
 City of Victory (The). Cairo, 
 which means victory. The Arabic name 
 is El Kahira (the Victorious). Founded 
 969 by Gohar, lieutenant of Moez (the 
 first Fatamite kalif ). 
 
 City of the Golden Gate {The). 
 San Francisco in California. 
 
 City of the Seven Hills {The). 
 Both Rome and Constantinople stood on 
 seven hills. 
 
 City of the Seventy Isles {The). 
 Venice. 
 
 City of the Straits {The). Detroit, 
 which means a strait. It is situated on 
 the west bank of the strait connecting 
 Lake St. Clair with Lake Erie. 
 
 City of the Violated Treaty 
 
 {The). Limerick, in Ireland ; so called 
 from the repeated violations of the treaty 
 signed Oct. 1691, granting to Roman 
 Catholics the same privileges in the exer- 
 cise of their religion as they enjoyed in 
 the reign of Charles II. 
 
 Years of unjust and vindictive penal laws show 
 that the name, ' City of the Violated Treaty,' was 
 well bestowed.— Knight. 
 
 City of the Violet Crown (r^ie). 
 Athens. Aristophanes {Equites, and 
 Acharnians) calls it locrr€<l)avo<:. Ion 
 [meaning a violet'] was a representative 
 king of Athens, whose four sons gave 
 names to the four Athenian classes. It 
 was Ion's city, the city of the violet, the 
 city of King Ion or king of the Violet 
 Crown. 
 
 Similarly, Paris, the city of Louis or 
 Lys, is the city of the lily. 
 
 [Pitt] loved England, as an Athenian loved the 
 City of the Violet Crown.— MacaulaY. 
 
 Civil Era of Constantinople 
 [The). This era began 1 Sept. B.C. 5508. 
 
 Civil Jewish Era {The). Thia 
 era began Oct. B.C. 3761. 
 
 Civil Law {The), or 'Corpus Juris 
 Civllis.' A collection of the laws, edicts, 
 and imperial decrees of the Roman Em- 
 pire ; first compiled by private indi- 
 viduals, afterwards by Theodosius, a.d. 
 438, and finally by Justinian, a.d. 533. It 
 comprises (1) The Institutes or first prin- 
 ciples of Roman Law ; (2) The Digest or 
 Pandects in 50 books, being the opinions 
 of eminent lawyers ; (3) a new Code or 
 collection of Imperial Constitutions in 
 12 books, and (4) the Novels, or new 
 constitutions of succeeding emperors. 
 This body of laws was unknown in feudal 
 times till a copy was discovered at 
 Amalfi, in Italy in 1130, and produced a 
 greater effect on the laws, pursuits, and 
 characters of the Middle Ages than any 
 book ever published before or since. 
 
 The Corpus Juris Civilis, with certain modifica- 
 tions, restrictions, and additions, is still an 
 authority in our Ecclesiastical, Admiralty, and 
 University Courts. 
 
 Civil List {The). The yearly sum 
 of money granted by the British govern- 
 ment for the support of the household 
 of the reigning monarch and the dignity 
 of the crown. 
 
 It used to include the royal household, 
 the privy purse, the royal palaces, the 
 salaries of the chancellor, judges, great 
 officers of state, and ambassadors, the 
 incomes allowed to the several members 
 of the royal family, secret service money, 
 pensions, and other irregular claims. 
 The army and navy, with the interest of 
 the national debt, have been separate 
 charges since the accession of James I. 
 
 At tlie beginning of the reign of Vic- 
 toria the Queen surrendered the here- 
 ditary revenues of the crown, and received 
 from parliament a yearly stipend of 
 385,000^., with 1,200Z. a year for pensions 
 ' to those who have just claims on the 
 royal bounty.' Her Majesty pays her 
 own household, but all other national 
 expenses are paid by parliament as 
 separate items. 
 
 Civil Marriage Act. 6, 7 Will. 
 IV. c. 85. 17 Aug., 1836. Provided for 
 the celebration of marriage without re- 
 ligious service, before a registrar, or 
 with religious service in any certified 
 place of religious worship, leaving it 
 optional with the parties concerned to be 
 married, as aforetime, in a parish church, 
 
CIVIL 
 
 CLARENDON 
 
 177 
 
 by licence, or after banns. By this Act 
 marriage is constituted a civil compact 
 consummated before witnesses, with or 
 without religious service. 
 
 Civil Oath (The), 13 July, 1790. 
 Taken in the Champ de Mars, first by 
 Lafayette on behalf of the National 
 Guards, then by the President of the 
 Assembly, and then by the king himself 
 (Louis XVI.), who said ' I, king of the 
 French, swear to use all power delegated 
 tome by the constitutional law of the State 
 to maintain the Constitution [q.v.) de- 
 creed by the National Assembly, and 
 accepted by me.' The oath taken by 
 Lafayette and the President was : ' We 
 Bwear to be faithful to the nation, the 
 law, and the king. To maintain with 
 our utmost power the Constitution de- 
 creed by the National Assembly, and to 
 remain united to all Frenchmen by the 
 indissoluble bonds of fraternity,' 
 
 Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Marx. 
 
 Civil Service [The). The duties 
 rendered by those in government ap- 
 pointments, and paid for by the State. 
 The whole list would be over 15,000 
 names, including the officers of the royal 
 household, the officers of the House of 
 Lords and House of Commons, all such 
 offices as the Treasury, Home, War, 
 Foreign, Admiralty, Post, &c. (but not 
 policemen, postmen, and such other em- 
 ployes as receive weekly wages). In 1855 
 a law was made for the examination of 
 candidates for the Civil Service, who 
 enter generally as clerks and rise by 
 seniority, the age at entrance being be- 
 tween eighteen and twenty-five, and the 
 first year's stipend about 80Z. Of course 
 the more important departments are not 
 included. 
 
 The Civil Serrlce Estimates are between seven 
 and eight millions sterling annually. 
 
 Civil Wars of Rome {The). In 
 their widest extent they began with 
 Tiberius Gracchus, and terminated with 
 the election of Octavius Augustus to the 
 empire, b.c. 133-31. In a more limited 
 sense, they mean the contest between 
 Caius Marius and Cornelius Sylla, or 
 Sulla (B.C. 88-78). 
 
 The original cause of the civil war 
 was the struggle between the oligarchy 
 and the democracy of Rome. This 
 struggle lasted till Sylla restored the 
 Senate to sovereignty ; but this sove- 
 
 reignty was soon disturbed by Julius 
 Cessar. 
 
 Clan-na-G-ael(r7«e), 1870. An Irish 
 Fenian organisation founded in Phila- 
 delphia, and known in secret as the 
 ' United Brotherhood.' Its avowed ob- 
 ject is to secure ' the complete and ab- 
 solute ir dependence of Ireland from 
 Great Britain ; and the complete sever- 
 ance of all political connection between 
 the two countries, to be efTected by un- 
 ceasing preparation for armed insurrec- 
 tion in Ireland.' See ' New Departure.' 
 
 In 18.9.3 Alexander Sullivan was elected one of 
 the thr'-e heads of this murder club. Ilis col- 
 leatruos were Colonel Michael Boland, and D. C. 
 Feely (.or, rs some say, Michael Kirwin). To this 
 club the dyn imlte outrages in London are duo, 
 the desi^'ns to murder the Queen's ministers, and 
 all the outrages ol 1883 connected with 'Homo 
 Bule' (q.v.). 
 
 Clare College, Cambridge, 1326. 
 This is University Hall, founded by 
 Richard Badew, chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity. It was destroyed by fire, and 
 on its restoration by Elizabeth de Clare, 
 countess of Ulster, changed its name 
 to Clare Hall; since 1857 called Clare 
 College. 
 
 Clare Election {The), 1828. An 
 epoch in the history of Ireland. Daniel 
 O'Connell was elected M.P., although, 
 being a Catholic, he was disqualified 
 from taking his seat. So popular was he, 
 and so powerful the Catholic Association, 
 that the Duke of Wellington (the pre- 
 mier), and Sir Robert Peel (leader of the 
 House of Commons) did not dare to 
 resist the movement ; and in 1829 Sir 
 Robert brought in his bill for Calholic 
 Emancipation, which was carried. 
 
 The Clara election was the harsh prelude to 
 Catholic Emancipation and civil equality.— 
 HowiTl, llislory of England (year 1828, p. 125). 
 
 Clarenceux King - of- arms. 
 
 English herald of the southern provinces. 
 That of the northern provinces is called 
 Norroy [q.v.). Clarenceux king-of-arms, 
 like Garter king-of-arms, was first ap- 
 pointed by Henry V. 
 
 Clarendon, in Wiltshire {The Coun- 
 cil of), A.D. 1164. It comprised the 
 king (Henry II.), the 2 archbishops, 11 
 bishops, 40 of the higher nobilitj'-, and a 
 host of barons. It was convened in con- 
 sequence of the conduct of Thomas 
 Becket, and its judgments are comprised 
 in the 16 canons called 'The Constitu- 
 tions of Clarendon ' {q_.v.). 
 
178 
 
 CLAEENDON 
 
 CLEMENTINES 
 
 Clarendon Press [The). Univer- 
 sity of Oxford. The building was erected 
 by Lord Clarendon, partly out of the 
 profits of his ' History of the Rebellion,' 
 1713-1880. On the south side Bibles 
 and Prayer-books are printed, on the 
 north side general literature. Ten dele- 
 gates have the management of the press, 
 the vice-chancellor being one. The cor- 
 responding foundation in Cambridge is 
 the Pitt Press {q.v.). 
 
 Clarisses, or * Poor Clarisses,* 1224. 
 Founded by St. Francis of Assisi, and 
 placed under the charge of Clara, or 
 Clarissa, of Assisi, his favourite nun. See 
 under ' Franciscans.' 
 
 Clarty Hole. Muddy hole or slough, 
 the site of Abbotsford, on the south bank 
 of the Tweed, the residence of Sir W. 
 Scott. 
 
 Claude {The English). Kichard Wil- 
 son (1713-1782). 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850. 
 See ' Bulwer-Clayton,' &c. 
 
 Clean-the-Causey Riot, 1515. 
 
 The street riot between the rival factions 
 of Angus and Arran. The former repre- 
 sented the Douglas party, and the latter 
 the Hamiltons. The partisans of the 
 Earl of Angus were swept from the cau- 
 seys or streets like dirt. 
 
 Cleanest City in the "World 
 [The). Broeck, in Holland. It is 'pain- 
 fully clean and neat.' 
 
 Cleanse the Cause'way {The 
 Battle of), 1522. A skirmish between the 
 Douglases and Hamiltons in the High- 
 street, Edinburgh. The Douglas party 
 occupied the High-street, and attacked 
 their opponents as they issued in disorder 
 from the narrow closes or lanes. The 
 Hamiltons were driven out of the city, 
 leaving upwards of 70 men dead. 
 
 Their strife had been appeased since the battle 
 of Cleansethe-Causeway, and Arrau drew outiiis 
 forces in support of Angus, and not in opposition 
 to him.— Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scctiand, xxil. 
 
 Clear the Causeys. See ' Cleanse 
 the Causeway ' and ' Clean the Causey.' 
 
 Clearing-House {The), 1775. A 
 building in Lombard Street, where debit 
 and credit cheques from different banks 
 are balanced by transfer tickets. These 
 tickets are white and green ; the ivhite 
 being vised when the bank has to pay a 
 balance to the Clearing-house, and the 
 
 green when it has to receive one. By this 
 means transactions to the amount of 
 several millions daily are settled. 
 
 There is a Railway Clearing-house in Seymour 
 Street, London (adjoining the Euston Station), 
 which enables ditferent companies to carry on 
 a through traffic. The Railway Clearing Act was 
 passed in 1850. Most large commercial cities have 
 clearing-houses. 
 
 Clem's Day(OZ^). St. Clement's day, 
 the blacksmiths' day (23 Nov.). St. Cle- 
 ment is patron saint of blacksmiths, as 
 St. Crispin is of shoemakers, St. "Wini- 
 fred of bakers, St. Louis of barbers, St. 
 John Port Latin of booksellers, St. Lucy 
 of candle-makers, St. Joseph of carpen- 
 ters, St. Christopher of ferrymen, St. 
 Peter of fishermen, St. Sever of fullers, 
 St. Eloy of goldsmiths, St. William of 
 hatters, St. Yves of lawyers, St. Arnold of 
 millers, St. Florian of mercers, St. Cloud 
 of nailers, St. Luke of painters and 
 sculptors, St. Cosmo of doctors, St. Se- 
 bastian of pinmakers, St. Gore of potters, 
 St. Nicholas of seamen, St. Gwendoline of 
 shepherds, St. Hubert of sportsmen, St. 
 Peter of stonemasons, St. Goodman of 
 tailors, St. Urban of vintners, St. Boni- 
 face of wheelwrights, St. Blaise of wool- 
 combers &c. &c. 
 
 Clementi'na. A spurious account 
 of the journeys of Clemens Romanus 
 with the Apostle Peter. The Apostolic 
 Canons and Constitutions attributed to 
 him are also spurious. Clemens is said 
 to have died in 102. See ' Literary For- 
 geries.' 
 
 Clementine Liturgy {The). The 
 oldest liturgy extant. It directs that two 
 deacons shall stand, one on each side of 
 the altar, holding their fans of vellum, 
 fine linen, or peacock's feathers, to wave 
 off the flies, and prevent their defiling 
 the sacred elements. See ' Liturgy.' 
 
 Clementine Museum {The), of 
 the Vatican, 1773. Founded by Clement 
 XIV. It was improved by Pius VI., and 
 then called Museo-Pio-Clementino. 
 
 Clementines {The). Nineteen dis- 
 courses, preceded by two letters. One of 
 Peter to James, bishop of Jerusalem, and 
 the other of Clement to the same. The 
 discourses are spurious Christian stories, 
 but the work was esteemed next to the 
 Holy Scriptures. There is no reason to 
 believe it to have been the work of Cle- 
 mens Romanus. On these fictitious 
 homilies rests the sole evidence that St. 
 
CLEMENTINES 
 
 CLINIC 
 
 179 
 
 Peter ever was in Rome. See ' Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 What is usually understood by Clementines is 
 the third part of the Decretals of liaimond de 
 Pennafort, a continuation of the text iq.v.) to- 
 gether with the rescripts since Boniface VIII. 
 Undertaken by the order of Clement V. The Cle- 
 mentines of Clement I. are homilies, and wholly 
 apocryphal. The Clementines of Clement V. are 
 ' constitutions,' decrees, or rescripts of Roman 
 pontiffs, forming the seventh volume of the Decre- 
 tals. The Extravagantes Joannis (XXII.) form 
 what was the ' Extravagantes Communes ' of the 
 Corpus Juris Canonicl. 
 
 Clementines and Urbanists, 
 
 1878. The followers of Clement VII., 
 pope in Avignon, and Urban VI., the 
 simultaneous pope in Rome. France 
 and Spain were Clementines. The split 
 lasted fifty-one years, during all which 
 time there were always two popes. 
 
 Cleomen'ie -war {The). The war 
 waged by Cleomenes III., king of Sparta 
 (22.5-222), against the Achaeans, aided by 
 Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia. 
 Cleomenes was completely defeated at 
 the battle of Sellasia, B.C. 222, and in 
 B.C. 220 put an end to his life. 
 
 Cleopatra's Needles. Two obe- 
 lisks of the time of Thothmes III., who 
 reigned in Egypt some 1,500 years before 
 Cleopatra was born. 
 
 Clerical Titles. The English clergy 
 first assumed their honorary titles at 
 the beginning of the 18th cent. Every 
 clergjTnan is called ' Reverend.' Addres- 
 sed in letters by strangers ' Rev. Sir.' An 
 archbishop is styled, ' Most Reverend 
 Father in God,' or ' The Most Reverend 
 Arbp. of — .' Addressed as ' Your Grace,' 
 * May it please your Grace.' A bishop 
 is styled ' The Right Reverend Father in 
 God,' or ' The Right Reverend the Bishop 
 of — .' Addressed as ' My Lord.' Deans 
 are called ' The Very Reverend the Dean 
 of — ,' Addressed in letters ' Mr. Dean,' 
 or 'Dear Mr. Dean.' Archdeacons are 
 called * The Venerable.' Addressed in 
 letters by strangers ' Rev, Sir.' 
 
 The title of Canon was assumed by canons and 
 honorary canons in the last quarter of the Itlth 
 cent. They are addressed as Canon — , or the 
 Bev. Canon — . Seu ' Church Orders." 
 
 Cler'ici Regula'res (4 syl.). Monks 
 ordained to the priesthood, and who lived 
 in monasteries (10th cent.). 
 
 Cler'ici Secula'res (4 syl.). Parish 
 
 clergymen who lived in their own houses 
 and might marry (10th cent.). 
 
 • Clericis Laicos ' {The Bull), I. 
 
 1074. By which Gregory VII. forbade 
 prelates to receive investiture from secu- 
 lar princes. This bull gave rise to the 
 long contention about investitures. 
 
 II. Of IIGO. Directed against Kaiser 
 Friedrich I. 
 
 III. Of 1227, 1246, Directed against 
 Friedrich II., Barharossa. 
 
 IV. Of 1263. Directed against Man- 
 froi, king of Naples. 
 
 V. Of 1294. Issued by Pope Boniface 
 VIII., forbidding Edward I. and all other 
 princes, under pain of excommunication, 
 to tax church property without permis- 
 sion from Rome. In 1296 Edward, in 
 defiance of this bull, did tax church pro- 
 perty, and that severely ; nay, more, he 
 outlawed all those ecclesiastics who re- 
 fused to pay the levy, and then confis- 
 cated their whole property. 
 
 VI. Of 1327, 1346, Directed against 
 Ludwig of Bavaria. 
 
 Clerk of Assize. A salaried officer 
 attached to each circuit, who accompanies 
 the judge at the assizes, to issue sub- 
 poenas, orders, writs, and other processes. 
 
 Clerk of the Pipe. An exchequer 
 clerk for making out leases for crown 
 lands, sheriffs' accounts, and so on. The 
 Pipe Office was abolished in 1833, 
 
 The office is so called (says Lord Bacon) because 
 the whole receipt of the court is finally conveyed 
 Into it by means of divers small pipes or quUls, as 
 water into a cistern. 
 
 Clerks in Oxford University, Stu- 
 dents on the foundation, received at re- 
 duced fees. These foundations belong 
 to the five colleges : Magdalen, Merton, 
 New College, Queen's, and Wadham. See 
 
 * Bible Clerks,' ' Sizars,' ' Servitors.' At 
 Jesus College, Oxford, there are three 
 
 • clerks ' not on the foundation. 
 
 Clerk-ales. A festive meeting in 
 the house of the parish clerk, celebrated 
 with drinking, dancing, and sports. 
 
 The ordinary amusements (1C«'J) In country 
 parishes were church-ales, clerk-ales, and bid- 
 ales.— T. v. Shoet, D.D., Hist, oj tlui Church of EnO' 
 land, p. 392. 
 
 Climacteric Years. Certain years 
 in the life of man which were at one time 
 considered to be turning-points in his 
 health and fortune. They were 7 and 
 its multiples. The Grand Climacteric 
 was 63, which consists of 8 times 3 mul- 
 tiplied by 7, all ' sacred ' numbers. 
 
 Clinic Baptism. Baptism admin- 
 istered to a clinic us, or one on a sick- 
 bed. No clinicus could enter holy orders. 
 N2 
 
180 
 
 CLINICU3 
 
 CLUB 
 
 ClinictlS. One who lias received 
 clinic haj)tism — that is, one who has 
 been baptized on a sick-bed. 
 
 Cliquot. The sobriquet given by 
 Punch to Frederick William IV. of 
 Prussia (1795, 1840-1861), who was fond of 
 champagne with the ' Cliquot ' brand. 
 
 Clog Almanac {The). A square 
 stick of some hard wood about 8 inches 
 long, which might either be hung up in 
 a room or be fitted into a walking-stick. 
 It was a ' perpetual almanac,' showing 
 the Sundays and other fixed festivals. 
 Used in Denmark, and brought to Eng- 
 land by the Danish invaders. 
 
 Close Communionists, or ' Strict 
 Communionists.' Those Baptist dis- 
 senters who admit no one to partake 
 with them of the Lord's Supper who is 
 not one of their special persuasion. Dr. 
 Doddridge says, ' They most inconsis- 
 tently avow that they hope to sit all 
 together in the great Marriage Supper of 
 the Lamb, but refuse to sit together at 
 the table of a little Bethel.' 
 
 Closelings, 1687. Private confe- 
 rences in which James II. sought to win 
 over men of influence and men in office 
 to aid him in the abolition of the Test 
 Acts, which excluded Catholics from 
 office. He said, of course, men must act 
 as they think proper, but, at the same 
 time, they could not expect to continue 
 in his favour or employ while they acted 
 in direct violation of his wishes. The 
 Lords Derby, Thanet, Shrewsbury, Lum- 
 ley, and Newport, with Vice-admiral 
 Herbert and many others, at once re- 
 signed their respective offices. 
 
 Closter Seven {Convention of), 10 
 Sept., 1757. Concluded with the French 
 by the Duke of Cumberland, but dis- 
 avowed by the British parliament. By 
 this most disgraceful compact Hanover 
 was left in the hands of the French, and 
 it was agreed that England and France 
 should take no further part in the Seven 
 Years' War. 
 
 Clothier of England {The). Jack 
 of Newbury — that is, John Winchcomb — 
 the greatest clothier in England in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. He kept 100 looms 
 in his own house at Newbury. 
 
 Cloveshoo, in Kent {The Council 
 of), 747. Called by Cutlibert, arch- 
 
 bishop of Canterbury, in deference to a 
 request of Pope Zacharias. It was de- 
 cided in this Council that bishops should 
 visit their dioceses every year ; that the 
 people should be taught the Creed and 
 the Lord's Prayer in the vulgar tongue, 
 and have the two sacraments explained 
 to them ; prayers for the dead were en- 
 joined. The great historical value of this 
 council is, however, that there is no in- 
 dication that the English Church was at 
 the time under submission to the See of 
 Rome, although Wilfrid, an ultra-par- 
 tisan of the Roman pontiff, and friend of 
 Cuthbert's, was certainly present. 
 
 Club {The), 1689. A league of dis- 
 contented Whigs in the Scotch Conven- 
 tion of Estates, at the beginning of the 
 reign of William and Mary. The leaders 
 were Montgomery, the Lords Annandale 
 and Ross, and the factious Sir Patrick 
 Hume. These clubbists caused for a 
 time great trouble. They opposed every 
 measure which the ministers introduced 
 in the Scotch ' Convention of Estates,' 
 refused all supplies, and claimed for the 
 convention a veto on the nomination of 
 Scotch judges, by which they put a stop 
 to the business of the Court of Session. 
 They tried to ruin the Dalrymples, and 
 succeeded in carrying an act to incapaci- 
 tate all who had served James II. from 
 holding office under the new sovereigns. 
 The government of Scotland was at a 
 deadlock ; both the legal and legislative 
 business was at an end. The object of the 
 clubbists was to compel the king to give 
 them posts in the government of Scotland. 
 By the end of the year their influence 
 declined, and the nation insisted that 
 business should be obstructed no longer. 
 
 Club des Enrages {Le), 1789. A po- 
 litical club which acted with the Breton 
 club {q.v.) at the outbreak of the Great 
 French Revolution. When the States- 
 General was about to be convened, these 
 two clubs vehemently insisted that the 
 Tiers Etat should outnumber the other 
 two orders together. 
 
 Club Monarchique {Le), 1790. A 
 nickname of the ' Feuiilants Club ' {q.v.). 
 
 Club Parliament {The), 1426. So 
 called because, arms teing prohibited, 
 the retainers of the barons appeared with 
 clubs on their shoulders. This prohibi- 
 tion was made in consequence of tha 
 
CLUB 
 
 COALITIONS 
 
 181 
 
 brawls of the Duke of Gloucester and 
 Cardinal Beaufort. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Club of Equality and Freedom 
 
 {The), 1793. A Scotch club in sympathy 
 with the French revolutionists. 
 
 Club of '89 {The). A branch of the 
 Jacobin Club {q-v.). It held its meetings 
 in the Palais Royal. Lafayette, Bailly 
 the mayor of Paris, the Abbe' Sieyes, and 
 Mirabeau were members of this club. 
 Though called the ' Club of '89,' it was 
 not founded till 1790. It was nicknamed 
 Le Club Monarchique, being friendly to 
 the monarchic constitution. It changed 
 its quarters from the Palais Royal to a 
 convent of the Feuillants, near the 
 Tuileries, and was then known at ' The 
 Feuillants.' 
 
 Clubbists. /See above, 'The Club.' 
 1689. 
 
 Clubmen, 1644. A society formed 
 for self-defence against Maurice's and 
 Goring's armies in the west. They were 
 yeomen and others, who armed them- 
 selves with clubs to resist military ma- 
 rauders. They were not political, and 
 being between two stools, were befriended 
 by neither. The king's party hated them 
 because they hindered their movements ; 
 and the parliamentary party called them 
 * traitors to the commonwealth ' because 
 they opposed the depredations of Fair- 
 fax's army. They were strong in num- 
 bers (some 10,000 in all), but want of 
 discipline was their weakness. Their 
 badge was a white ribbon. 
 
 The republican party had cause to be suspi- 
 cious if it is true that ' after the battle of Naseby 
 there was found on Sir Lewis Davis a royal com- 
 mission for raising clubmen to aid the king's 
 party.' 
 
 Cluniac Order {The), or 'Cluniacs,' 
 942. A branch of the Benedictine monks 
 reformed by Odo abbot of Cluny, in 
 Normandy. Introduced into England by 
 William earl of Warren, in 1077. 
 
 Coal Burner (T/ze). Edmund king 
 of Sweden (1026-1051) was called Kol- 
 hrenner because he enacted ' If anyone 
 injures his neighbour's goods, he shall 
 have goods to the same value burnt in a 
 coal-fire.' 
 
 Coalition Ministry {The). The 
 ministry formed under Lord North and 
 Charles James Fox, from 5 April, 1783, to 
 19 Dec. same year. 
 
 Also the Aberdeen Administration, 
 28 Dec, 1852, to 30 Jan., 1855. 
 
 Coalitions against France. 
 
 First coalition 1793, made by England 
 and all the powers of Europe, except 
 Sweden and Denmark. Napoleon Bona- 
 parte won the battles of Montenotte, 
 Milesimo, Dego, Mondovi, Lodi, Lonato, 
 Castiglioni, Bassano, Areola, Rivoli, Ta- 
 gliamento. The Treaty of Campo For- 
 mio was made 17 Oct., 1797. 
 
 Second coalition 1799, by Russia, Aus- 
 tria, England, Naples, Portugal, Turkey, 
 &c., a year and a half after the Treaty of 
 Campo Formio ; 1800 famous for Bona- 
 parte's ' Forty Days' Campaign,' in which 
 he won the battles of Montebello and Ma- 
 rengo ; and Moreau won those of Iloch- 
 stlidt, Hohenlinden, and Traun. Peace 
 of Luneville, 9 Feb., 1801. 
 
 Third coalition 1805, consisting of 
 England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. 
 Napoleon won the battle of Austerlitz. 
 Peace of Presburg, 26 Dec, 1805. 
 
 Fourth coalition 6 Oct., 1806, to the 
 Treaty of Tilsit, 8 July, 1807, consisting 
 of Prussia, Saxony, Great Britain, and 
 Russia. Napoleon won the battles of 
 Schleitz (9 Oct.), Saalfeld (10 Oct.), Jena 
 and Auerstadt (14 Oct.), Potsdam (16, 
 
 17 Oct.), Berlin (28 Oct.), Eylau, the 
 most bloody of all his victories (8 Feb., 
 1807), Heilsberg (10 June), and Fried- 
 land (14 June, 1807). 
 
 Fifth coalition of April 1809, to the 
 battle of Wagram (6 July, 1809). Na- 
 poleon won the battle of Ingolstadt 
 (20 April), Eckmiihl, in Bavaria (22 April), 
 and Wagram (6 July). 
 
 He was wounded in tlie heel at Ratlsbon 23 April; 
 was defeated by the Archduke KavX at Aspern 
 21 May, and at Essling 22 May ; and was excom- 
 municated by the pope 10 June, 1809. 
 
 Sixth and last coalition, consisting of 
 Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and 
 Great Britain, 3 March, 1813 to the 
 banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena, 
 
 18 Oct., 1815. 
 
 Napoleon won the battles of Liitzen 
 2 May, 1813, Bautzen (in Saxony) 19 May, 
 Wurschen 20 May, Hochkirchen 21 May, 
 Dresden 27 Aug. (here Marshal Moreau 
 was slain), St. Dizier 27 Jan., 1814, 
 Brienne 29 Jan., Champ-Aubert 10 Feb., 
 Montmirml 11 Feb., Chateau-Thierry 
 
 13 Feb., Champ-Aubert (a second time) 
 
 14 Feb., Me'ry-sur-Seine 24 Feb.; and 
 after his escape from Elba he won the 
 battle of Ligny 16 June, 1815. 
 
182 
 
 COASTGUARD 
 
 COCKPIT 
 
 He lost the battles of Leipzig 16, 18, 
 19 Oct., 1813 ; Rothiere 1 Feb., 1814 ; Laon 
 7 March, Quatre Bras 16 June, and 
 "Watekloo 18 June, 1815. 
 
 Coastguard. A force originally 
 established to prevent smuggling. In 
 1856 it was placed under the Admiralty, 
 and is now divided into eleven districts, 
 each under a captain of the navy, and 
 the whole under a commodore. The 
 number is 4,000. 
 
 Coat and Conduct Money. Mo- 
 ney required for the equipment and 
 transport of the militia. This tax was 
 extorted by Charles I. (' Fairfax Corre- 
 spondence,' vol. ii. p. 2.) 
 
 Cobden Prize (The). For an essay 
 on political economy. For members of 
 the University of Cambridge who have 
 not graduated more than three years. 
 Value 50Z. Founded by the Cobden Club 
 in 1876. See * Political Economy.' 
 
 Cochrane-plack. Debased coin 
 issued in Scotland in the reign of 
 James III. by Cochrane, the royal mason, 
 on whom the king conferred the earldom 
 of Mar, lately made vacant by the mur- 
 der of the king's brother. When Coch- 
 rane was told that the base coin would 
 certainly be called in, he answered in- 
 credulously, ' Yes, on the day when I am 
 hanged.' But so it turned out — Cochrane 
 was hanged, and the Cochrane-plack was 
 called in. 
 
 Cockade City {The). Petersburg, 
 in Virginia. 
 
 Cockburn's Act. The Act of Sir 
 Alexander Cockburn in 1853 to abolish 
 ' list offices,' set up after the Act of 1845 
 to abolish sweepstakes. In list offices 
 money was staked in advance on an ad- 
 venture, and they proved to be most 
 disastrous of all the methods of gambling, 
 especially among clerks, shopboys, and 
 servants, who were induced to rob their 
 employers under the promise of certainly 
 winning. 
 
 Though betting houses were abolished in 1858 
 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119), yet Tattersall escapes the law 
 because he himself has direct personal interest in 
 a bet, like a ' bank ' ; and gentlemen there bet with 
 each other freely, without any interference what- 
 ever. No bet can be recovered as a debt in any 
 court of law. They are ' debts of honour ' only. 
 Gambling was prohibited by law even in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. (1541). 
 
 Cock Lane Ghoat (The). Near West 
 
 Smithfield, London, 1760-1762. The Duke 
 of York,with Lady Northumberland, Lady 
 Mciry Coke, Lord Hertford, and Horace 
 Walpole, all in one hackney-coach, drove 
 to the ' haunted house,' while the rain fell 
 in torrents. The house was crammed 
 full, above fifty people having crowded 
 into the room, lighted with one tallow 
 candle, and stayed from seven till half- 
 past one in midwinter, to witness the 
 knockings and scratchings of the ghost, 
 which refused to make any manifesta- 
 tions. But such a company tells plainly 
 what hold the imposition had taken on 
 the public. The case was this : Kent, a 
 broker, having lost his wife, was visited 
 by his sister-in-law Fanny, with whom he 
 fell in love. They took lodgings with Par- 
 sons, parish clerk of St. Sepulchre's, and 
 each made a will leaving all to the sur- 
 vivor. Fanny died suddenly, and Parsons 
 gave out that Kent had murdered her. 
 In proof of this, certain knockings and 
 scratchings were heard every night in the 
 chamber lately occupied by Fanny, and 
 these were attributed to her ghost. When 
 questions were asked ' the ghost knocked 
 once to signify yes, twice to signify no, 
 and scratched to indicate displeasure.' 
 Parson's daughter, a child of 12, took a 
 board into her bed, and made these 
 knockings and scratchings, which for 
 many months set all London agog, and 
 even made matter for sober history. 
 
 Cock-pen Tree. A large hollow 
 oak in that part of Sherwood Forest called 
 Birkland, from the number of silver 
 birches. In the hollow of this tree game 
 cocks were penned for the Shrove Tuesday 
 sports, to keep them well out of the way 
 of dunghill poultry. The tree is now 
 called 'The Major,' or the 'Major's 
 Oak,' from Major Rooke, the antiquary. 
 
 This tree is very large, fifteen persons can be 
 packed inside it. The bole grips the earth with a 
 circumference of 90 feet ; 6 feet above the ground 
 its girth is 30 feet ; and its branches cover a cir- 
 cumference of 240 feet. It stands in a part of the 
 forest belonging to the Earl Man vers, and is almost 
 always called the ' Major Oak." 
 
 Cockpit, Whitehall, the Privy Coun- 
 cil Office. Also a locality where persons 
 lived, for George duke of Albemarle died 
 ' at his apartment in the Cockpit ; ' and 
 the Princess Anne, we are told, ' left the 
 Cockpit ' to live ' at Zion House.' 
 
 After the Restoration, the Treasury Board sat 
 at a place called the Cockpit.— Cox, Inst, of Eng. 
 
 Govern, ii. vii.682 (1803). 
 
 Cockpit of Europe {The). Bel- 
 
COCLES 
 
 CODEX 
 
 183 
 
 gium is so called because it has been the 
 site of more battles than any nation in 
 Europe. 
 
 Codes, or Horatius Codes, of 
 
 Horn. John Haring, of Horn, who de- 
 fended the Diemerdyke against 1,000 
 Spaniards, and made his escape un- 
 wounded by either spear or gun. 
 
 Codes, or Horatius Codes, of 
 the Tyrol, 1793. Alexander Davy 
 Dumas, father of the novelist, who, at 
 Brixen, defended the passage of abridge 
 on which Dumouriez's success wholly 
 depended. 
 
 Code Henri (The). That is the 
 code of Henri, king of Hayti (1767, 1811- 
 1820). Joining the black insurgents 
 against the French, he became head of 
 the Haytian army in 1806, president of 
 Hayti for life in 1807, and king of Hayti 
 in 1811. He was a giant in stature, and 
 his courage was indisputable. 
 
 Code de ITapoldon (Le), 15 Mar., 
 1803 to 17 Sept., 1804. A French code of 
 laws regulating all that pertains ' aux 
 droits civils, a la personne et a la pro- 
 prie'te des citioyens.' 
 
 There are several other codes used in France, 
 as Le Code de Commerce, Le Code de Procedure 
 Civile, Le Code d Instruction Criminelle, Le Code 
 Penal, LeCode Rural, Lo Code Forestier, Le Code 
 de la Peche fluviale ; all except the last two are 
 Napoleonic codes. There are also Le Code Mill- 
 taire, Le Code Maritime, Le Code de lEnregistre- 
 ment, Sec. 
 
 Code Noire (Le). That is, a code 
 of laws for the negroes in the French 
 colonies, made by Colbert, in the reign 
 of Louis XIV. 
 
 Code of Lanego {The). An excel- 
 lent code of laws drawn up at Lanego, in 
 Portugal, by order of King Alfonso I. 
 (1139-1185). 
 
 Code of Melrose (TTi^). A collec- 
 tion of laws compiled at Melrose Abbey ; 
 the work of many learned jurisconsults, 
 appointed for the purpose by David L of 
 Scotland, who reigned 1114-1143. 
 
 Codex Alexandri'nus. Long sup- 
 posed to be the oldest MS. of the Bible 
 extant. It is preserved in the British 
 Museum, and was published in facsimile 
 under the care of Charles Godfrey Woide, 
 in 1786 (London). It contains all the New 
 Testament, except Matt, i., xxv. 5 ; John 
 vi. 50, viii. 52 ; and 2 Cor. iv. 13, xii. 6. This 
 valuable MS. was found in Alexandria, 
 
 and was presented to Charles I. in 1628 
 by Cyril Lucar, at one time patriarch of 
 Alexandria. It is in four vols., size 10 in. 
 by 13, in double columns, and in uncial 
 or capital letters. The Codex Vaticanus 
 [q.v.) is older. See ' Sinaitic MS.' 
 
 Supposed to be of the 5tb cent., towards the 
 close. 
 
 Codex Argen'teus, or rather * Ar- 
 genteus Codex.' A MS. of the Gospels 
 in Moeso-Gothic, by Ulfilas bishop of 
 the Goths (348-388). It was discovered 
 by Arnold Mercator, in the abbey of 
 Werden, and taken to Prague in 1597, 
 where it remained till 1648, when it 
 was captured and presented to Christina 
 of Sweden. Finally, it was presented to 
 the University of Upsala in 1662 by Count 
 Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie. Called 
 Argenteus, or the Silver MS., from its 
 silver letters. 
 
 Codex Augiensis. Purchased by 
 Richard Bentley, and presented, after his 
 death, to Trinity College, Cambridge, by 
 Thomas Bentley. It contains most of 
 the Pauline Epistles, in Greek and Latin. 
 
 Codex Basiliensis. A MS. copy 
 of the four evangelists, with a few gaps, 
 attributed to the close of the 10th cent. 
 Belonging to the library of Basel, or 
 Basle. 
 
 Codex "Bezos, or ' Cantabrigiensis,' 
 A Bible MS. of the middle of the Gth 
 cent., once in the possession of Beza, and 
 sent by him as a gift to the University 
 of Cambridge. It contains the Gospels 
 and the Acts. Edited in 2 vols, folio by 
 Thomas Kipling in 1793. 
 
 Codex Claronionta'nus. Con- 
 taining the Pauline Epistles. This MS., 
 which belongs to the latter half of the 6th 
 cent., was edited in facsimile by Tischen- 
 dorf in 1852 (Lips.) 
 
 Codex Coislinia'nus. Belonging 
 to the Imperial Library of Paris. It is 
 a MS. of the 6th cent. 
 
 Codex Cyprius. Formerly Colber- 
 tinus. Containing the four Gospels. The 
 MS. belongs to the 9th cent. 
 
 Codex Damasce'nus. A Greek 
 
 MS. of the Old and New Testament, 
 with the Epistle of Barnabas and part 
 of * Shepherd ' of Hermas. It was dis- 
 covered in 1S89 by M. Papadopulos in 
 the vaults of the Arabic library oi 
 Damascus. 
 
IS< 
 
 CODEX 
 
 COGNIZANCES 
 
 From the eTtreTt>eljrTn©a,gr*<ie«'riptJon glv^n ot 
 this nev-fcnnd MS., it se^-n-s t<? be a copy of the 
 SiTiaitic C^iex. The dou M inicht e*«il\ be settled 
 hy referrjiig t-o the ' Shepherd,' which in the 
 ^m&itic MS. I&cks the oonclusioa. 
 
 * Codex Diplomat icus Sici- 
 lias.' 1791. A literary forgt^iy. by Abbo' 
 Giuseppe Vella^ who confessed his frauds, 
 and was sentenced te fift^een years' im- 
 prisonment. He died 1S14. See ' Lite- 
 rary Forgeries,' 
 
 His other boolc is Liiird drl ConsiplUi di EgitUt, 
 17SS. 
 
 Codex Dubliniensis. A palimp- 
 sest belonging to Trinity College, Dublin. 
 It belongs te the close of the 6th cent., 
 and was edited in facsimile by Dr. Barrett 
 in 1801. 
 
 Codex Ephra'iini. The Parisian 
 
 palimpsest, so called because over the 
 original Bible MS. some troAtises of 
 Ej hraim the Syrian have been inscribed. 
 It is preserved in the Royal Library at 
 Paris. Edited in facsimile by Tischen- 
 dori, 184S (Lips.) Latter part of 5th 
 cent. 
 
 Codex Sinait'ieus. A Greek MS. 
 of the Old and New Testament, with 
 f-he Epistle of Barnabas, and part of the 
 ' Shephej-d' of Hennas, discovered in 1S59 
 by Tischendorf in tlie Convent of St. 
 Catherine. This codex, supjvised to be- 
 long to the 4th cent., is one of the oldest 
 in the world. In 1S6S it wa^ ac-quired by 
 the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Codex Tlieodosia'nus. A recuHl 
 of the Roman laws since the reign of Con- 
 stantine, reduced by the o:^der of Tlieo- 
 dosius II.. and promulgat.ed in the East 
 in 4SS. Valentinian III, introduced tlie 
 codex into the "West. 
 
 Codex Vatieanus. The oldest MS. 
 of the New Testament, containing the 
 four gospels, the Acts, the Catholic 
 Epistles, and the Pauline Epistles. A 
 facsimile of this MS., comprising the 
 LXX. version of the Old Testament, 
 was issued at Rome (edited by Cardinal 
 Mai), and published in 1858, 4 vols, folio. 
 Called ' Vaticanus ' because it is pre- 
 served in the Vatican Library at Rome. 
 Its date is supposed to be of the 4th 
 cent. It does not contain the Revela- 
 tion of John the divine. Copies are to be 
 found in all the chief libraries of Chris- 
 tendom. 
 
 This MS. contains TOOleAresof the finest veUum, 
 fcbouft a toot square, bound together. 
 
 It Is very donhtfol which codeit is the older, 
 the VatioAnus or the Sinaiticxis. The sccretArv of 
 the Kible Society cI8 .Vpiil. ISiQi vrrU.es to me thaa 
 the lfttt.er is • regarded as the oldest MS. of the 
 New Testament.' 
 
 Coenobites (8 syl.). Tliose who 
 lived in community, having all things in 
 common. The locality where they dwelt 
 was called the Co?nobium, and the first 
 was built by Pachomius in Egyi->t k.t>. 
 840. The ccpnobium was subsequently 
 called a ' monast-ery,' and the Ca?nobite a 
 * monk.' It was St. Basel who reduced 
 monachism into a system a.d. 878. 
 
 Of coarse the word is compoanded of the two 
 Greek words ro«.»c, i!''^> coiY:mon life, or livinf 
 in o».->TOmon\ in contradistinction to .^Jichoritea 
 or Hermits, who lived solitary lives. 
 
 Coeur de Lion, ' Lion's-heart.* 
 Richard I. of England (1157, 1189-1199). 
 Probably so called from his generosity, 
 magnanimity, and bravery. 
 
 It is said by the tronbadonrs that Richard ao- 
 QTiired the name of Laon s-heATt from a contest 
 he had with a lion, like r»jivid, the son of .Te«se, 
 and in the cont<>st. thrusting his mailed arm 
 down the lion £ throat, he tore out ite heart. 
 
 Cogito, ergo sum. Because I think, 
 therefore I must exist. Descart^s's axiom 
 (1597-1650>. He argued thus: 'I think, 
 but thought cannot proceed from nothing; 
 if therefore I think, I must be some- 
 thing.' Pushing the argument further 
 back, as ex nihil-o nihil Jit, if something 
 cannot proceed from nothing, and I my- 
 self am something, there must be a 
 something from which I proceed, and 
 tliat something is God. 
 
 Of conrse the t.<i,llacy of this argument is patent, 
 for it makes cogitation the proof of what is re- 
 quired to be proved, and Descartes {-2 syl.i is hope- 
 le.ssly involved in a vicious circle. Ice is cold, 
 therefore there is such a thing as ice. 
 
 r>escArt«s furthermore said : ' I can thin'k of 
 eternity and infinity, subjects beyond a finite 
 mind ; and .^s no man can think beyond himself, 
 man must possess a soul. " sp^irk of the Peity." 
 But CA.n a man think of eitlier eternity or in- 
 finity ? r»oes he not think inst*'a4 of time without 
 dimension, and the finite multiplied ? ' 
 
 Cognac {Treaty of), 22 Mar., 1526. 
 Between Leo X., Francois I., Henry VIIL 
 of England, Venice, Florence, and Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 Cognizances of English Kings. 
 Tlie Cross of St. George has been the 
 royal badge since its introduction by 
 Edward III., but all the kings up to the 
 time of Henry VII. (inclusive) had their 
 private cognizance also. 
 
 StF-P-EV, a ss.gittary. 
 Hh;vn\" II., an escarbunrle. 
 KiCHAiu) I., John, and U£nst m.. a star abov* 
 & horned cre^iceut. 
 
COIFFURE 
 
 COLONISATION 
 
 185 
 
 Edward I., a golden rose. 
 
 Edwai:d II., a ciistle, in allasion to hismothcr'B 
 arms (Cast.ilei. 
 
 Edwakd III. had several badges, as a falcon, 
 the oatrich feather, a griffln, and the stump of a 
 ' tree. 
 
 Richard II. adopted the stamp and the falcon, 
 but added the hart couchant, the peacock, and 
 the sun behind a cloud- 
 
 Hk.nky IV., the ermine, the eagle, and the 
 panther crowned. 
 
 Henry v., a lighted beacon, an ant^loi)e and 
 rwan chained, with crowns round their necks. 
 
 Henry VI., the antelope, panther, and doable 
 ostrich feather. 
 
 Edward IV., the falcon within a fetterlock, the 
 rose and sun, a white hart, a white wolf, and a 
 sable dragon and bull. 
 
 Edward V., the falcon and fetterlock. 
 
 Richard III., the rose and son, a white boar ; or 
 boar and thorn-tree. 
 
 Henry VII., a hawthorn bush crowned, a grey- 
 hound, the red dragon of Wales, a portcullis, red 
 and white rose combined. 
 
 Coiffure h la serviette (La). A 
 head-dress devised by Le'onard, hair- 
 dresser of Marie Antoinette. It consisted of 
 a coarse whity-brown table-napkin twisted 
 into the hair amidst real vegetables, such 
 as artichokes, cabbage-leaves, carrots, 
 turnips, and radishes. 
 
 Coincidences — 
 
 I. The fall of liobespierre was 1794, 
 which added together = 21. Now add 
 the two together thus, 1794 + 21 = 1815, 
 the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 n. 1815 added together = 15, which two 
 added together, thus 1815 -h 15 = 1830, the 
 fall of Charles IX. 
 
 It would be remarkable if 1902 were to completo 
 the triad so striking in French history. 
 
 III. It is curious about Louis Philippe. 
 The year of his birth, or the year of the 
 queen's birth, or the year of his flight, 
 added to the year of his coronation, will 
 give 1848, the date of abdication (this is 
 another French triad — q.v.). He was bom 
 1773 ; his queen was born 1782, and his 
 flight was 1809 ; the sum of each is 18. 
 And 1830 + 18 = 1848. 
 
 IV. Charles I., Louis XVI. each con- 
 tains 8 letters. 
 
 Charles was decapitated January, Louis 
 was guillotined January. 
 
 The sum of the day of the month in 
 each case is 3. Thus Charles was exe- 
 cuted January 30, Louis January 21. 
 
 The sum of the year in each case is 20. 
 Thus 1049 = 20; and 1793 = 20. 
 
 Hence, finally, the entire summation is 
 identical, 8 letters in the names, month 
 January, sum of the daj's of the month 
 8, sum of the year 20 ; and total 31 + 
 January. 
 
 V. Louis XIV. The number 14 is the 
 Bum oi the figures of his age, 77 = 14 ; 
 
 the sum of the figures which make the 
 date of his coronation 1643 = 14 ; and 
 the sum of the figures which make the 
 date of his death 1715 = 14. 
 
 Coining Machine of the Revo- 
 lution (The). The guillotine, so called 
 by Fouquier Tinville, the public accuser, 
 because the wealthy were always sus- 
 pected when money was needed. 
 
 Cold shade of the aristocracy 
 
 (The). It was Colonel Napier, in his 
 ' History of the Peninsular War,' who said 
 the people were doomed ' to wither in the 
 cold shade of the aristocracy.' 
 
 Cold Year {The\ 1614. 
 
 Collar of Tomar (TAe). A golden 
 torque which Malachy, monarch of Ire- 
 land, took from the neck of a Danish 
 chieftain whom he had conquered. 
 
 Let Erin remember the days of old. 
 Ere her faithless sons betrayed her. 
 
 When Malachy wore the cellar of gold 
 Ti'hich he won from the proud invader. 
 T. ilooEE, Irish Melodiet. 
 
 Collection des Deux-Ponts 
 
 [La). A collection of the Latin classics 
 published at Deux-Ponts, or Zwey- 
 briicken in Bavaria, towards the close of 
 the 18th and in the first quarter of the 
 19th cent. 
 
 Colliberts. So the Cagots {q.v.) are 
 called in Poitou, Maine, and Anjou. 
 
 Colloquy of Poissy (The), 15G1. 
 A synod of Catholics and Calvinists held 
 at Poissy to settle the religious contro- 
 versies by which France was molested. 
 The end of this colloquy was to make 
 each party more fiercely hostile than 
 before, and their animosity broke out 
 into a desolating religious war. 
 
 Collyrid'ians (The), or 'Collyridian 
 Christians,' A.D. 373. Heretics abundant 
 in Arabia, who invested the Virgin Mary 
 with the name and honours of a goddess. 
 They were so called because they offered 
 to the goddess virgin a icoAAvpa or cake. 
 The heresy was carried from Thrace to 
 Arabia by some women. 
 
 Colonisation of Ulster (TJw), 
 1610. A measure introduced in the reisrn 
 of James T. for the pacification of Ire- 
 laud. It was a vast measure of spolia- 
 tion. Two-thirds of the north of Ireland 
 was confiscated to the crown, and the 
 land was allotted to Scotch and Eughah 
 
186 
 
 COLOQUINTIDA 
 
 COLUMN 
 
 settlers. The Corporation of London 
 undertook the colonisation of Derry. 
 Without doubt this ' plantation of Uls- 
 ter 'was a brilliant success; but its in- 
 justice has not even yet been condoned 
 by the Irish. 
 
 An attempt was made, In 1889, to 'colonise' 
 evicted farms, in Ireland, by English and Scotch 
 tenants. 
 
 Coloquint'ida (St.). So Charles I. 
 was called. Coloquintida is colocynth 
 (or ' bitter apple '), which is extremely 
 bitter and nauseous. To say Charles 
 was to the Levellers a Coloquintida is 
 about equivalent to saying he was to 
 them 'a very bitter pill.' See Claren- 
 don's ' Rebellion,' book iii. p. 91 (Oxford 
 edit. 1839). In 2 Kings iv., 'Death in 
 the pot,' or * wild gourds,' is in the 
 old versions translated ' coloquintida,' 
 whence the Levellers obtained their 
 comparison. 
 
 The Levellers styled him [Charles I.] an Ahab 
 and a Coloquintida, a man of blood, and the ever- 
 lasting obstacle to peace and liberty.— HowiTT, 
 Hmi. u/ Eng. (Charles I., chap. vi. p. 284). 
 
 Colora'do (U. S. America). So called 
 from Rio Colorado or coloured river 
 (Red River) which falls into the Vermi- 
 lion Sea. The inhabitants are nick- 
 named Bovers. 
 
 Colossus of Danish Literature 
 
 (The). Baron Ludwig Holberg (1081- 
 1754). One of the greatest authors of 
 comedy that ever lived. He was also 
 an historian and satirist. 
 
 Colossus of the 19th cent. {T7ie). 
 Napoleon Bonaparte (17G9-1821). 
 
 Colours for Church Decora- 
 tions. 
 
 White for festivals of our Lord, for 
 Easter, and for all saints except martyrs. 
 
 lied for martyrs, for Ash Wednesday, 
 the last three days of Holy Week, and 
 Whitsuntide. 
 
 Blue for all week days after Trinity 
 Sunday. 
 
 Blue or green, indifferently, for ordi- 
 nary Sundays. 
 
 Violet, brown, or grey for Advent and 
 Lent. 
 
 Black for Good Friday. 
 
 Colours for the Days. An effort 
 was made in France to introduce letter- 
 paper of a special colour for each day of 
 the week. 
 
 For Sunday, a delicate mauve. 
 
 Monday, pale green. 
 Tuesday, pink. 
 
 Wednesday (an unlucky day), sombra 
 grey. 
 
 Thursday, blue. 
 Friday, white. 
 Saturday, straw-colour. 
 
 Colours in China. 
 
 Yellow is the imperial colour, restricted 
 to the emperor and his sons. Symbolical 
 of faith. 
 
 Purple is the colour worn by the em- 
 peror's grandsons. 
 
 Bed is the symbol of virtue, truth, and 
 sincerity. 
 
 Verviilion is the colour in which im- 
 perial edicts are written. 
 
 Black denotes guilt and vice. 
 
 White denotes moral purity. The 
 colour of mourning indicative of hope. 
 
 Colours. See ' Military Colours.' 
 
 Colston's Day, or 'The Colston 
 Day,' 13 Nov. The anniversary of the 
 birth of Edward Colston (163G-1721), 
 merchant, and M.P. for Bristol (1710). 
 He founded and endowed schools and 
 almshouses in Bristol, and on the anni- 
 versary of his birthday the four follow- 
 ing societies dine together : — 
 
 The Colston, established 1726. 
 
 The Dolphin, established 1749 (the 
 Colston crest is two dolphins). 
 
 The Grateful, established 1758. 
 
 The Anchor, 17G9. 
 
 Large sums of money are collected 
 at these dinners for annuities to aged 
 persons, relief for lying-in women, ap- 
 prenticing boys, and money gifts. In 
 188G the subscription amounted to 3,534Z. 
 
 Columbia. America is so called 
 from Columbus, who discovered it. A 
 part is still called British Columbia. It 
 was called America from Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci, the pilot who accompanied Alonzo 
 de Ojeda in 1499 and published an ac- 
 count of the voyage. This book first 
 made the New World popularly known. 
 
 Columbia, Columbia, to glory arise, 
 The queen of the world, and the child of the skies. 
 Dr. T. DwiGHT. 
 
 Hail, Columbia, happy land ! 
 
 Joseph Hopkinson, 1789. 
 
 Column of Antoninus (T/ie). At 
 
 Rome ; made of marble, 176 feet high, in 
 memory of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius 
 Antoninus. Like that of Trajan, this 
 column is covered externally with spiral 
 
COLUMN 
 
 COMMEND AM 
 
 187 
 
 bas-reliefs representing the wars carried 
 on by this emperor. As Sixtus V. caused 
 the original statue of Trajan to be sup- 
 planted by that of St. Peter, so he caused 
 the original statue of Antoninus to be 
 supplanted by that of St. Paul. 
 
 The spiral staircase has 106 steps, and the 
 column has so windows to lot in light. This pillar 
 Is very inferior to Trajan's Column. The column 
 in the Piazza Colonna at Rome, called the Pillar 
 of Antoninus, is really one raised by the senate 
 to Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the 
 Marcomanni. 
 
 Column ofJuly(TM, 1832. Paris. 
 Made of bronze, erected on the Place de 
 la Bastille, to commemorate the Revolu- 
 tion of July iq.v.), 1830, when Charles X. 
 abdicated. It is surmounted with a 
 statue of Liberty standing on one foot. 
 In 1840 the bodies of the victims of that 
 revolution, which had been thrown into 
 a ditch, were disinterred. A monster 
 hearse being provided, 50 coffins (each 
 containing ten bodies), drawn by 24 black 
 horses, were buried in the vault under 
 this column. 
 
 Column of the Place Venddme 
 
 (T/ie), 1806-1810. Paris. Made of bronze, 
 erected in honour of Napoleon I., and 
 containing, in a spiral, pictorial repre- 
 Bcntatious of his victories in a series of 
 bas-reliefs, 900 feet long, and terminating 
 with the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. This 
 jnagnificent column, made of cannons 
 taken from enemies, the facsimile of 
 Trajan's famous column, was surmounted 
 with a statue of Napoleon himself. 
 
 On 17 May, 1871, it was hurled to the ground by 
 the Communists out of hatred to Napoleon III. 
 It was re-erected in 1874, but the statue of Napo- 
 leon was replaced with another standing on one 
 leg, infinitely inferior in every respect to the ori- 
 ginal one. 
 
 Columns. See * Pompey's Column,' 
 • Trajan's Column.' 
 
 Columns of Hercules {The). Two 
 large pyramidal columns set up by the 
 Phoenicians as lighthouses and land- 
 marks, dedicated one to Hercules (the 
 Bun) and the other to Astarte (the moon). 
 By the Greeks and Eomans the two 
 pyramidal mountains at the Straits of 
 Gibraltar, viz. Calpe and Abyla, the 
 former in Europe and the latter in Africa, 
 were termed ColumncB Herculis from 
 their resemblance at a distance to the 
 Phoenician columns. 
 Calpe (2 syl.), Ab'-y-lah, i.e. Ce-u'-ta. 
 
 Combat of the Thirty {The). 
 ' Le Combat des Trente,' 1351. Thirty 
 
 Bretons against thirty Englishmen. It 
 was the defiance of Jean sire de Beauma- 
 noir to the English chatelain of Ploer- 
 mel. Eight of the English being slain, 
 the combat was brought to a close. It 
 is said that Beaumanoir, exhausted by 
 fatigue and heat, drank the blood which 
 flowed from his wounds. See ' Battle.' 
 
 Combative Kings {The). The 
 dynasty of Tcheou-kue of China, from 
 the tenth to the third cent. B.C., when 
 China was broken up into a multitude of 
 minor states alwaj^s at war with each 
 other. In B.C. 247 Thsin-chi-hoang-ti (of 
 the dynasty of Tsin) united all the states 
 under one sovereign ; pushed back the 
 Moguls ; and built the Great Wall. 
 
 Combination Laws {The), 1860. 
 The Statute of Labourers enacted ' that 
 all alliances [combinations] of masons, 
 carpenters, and other artificers,' be an- 
 nulled and declared unlawful. Abolished 
 in 1824, since which times Trades-Unions 
 {q.v.) have become very general. See 
 ' Criminal Law Amendment Act.' 
 
 Comedy {Father of French). Moliere 
 (1622-1673). 
 
 Comity de Surveillance, 1792. 
 
 A committee in the French Revolution 
 whose function was to examine the de- 
 nunciations received by the Committee 
 of General Safety. After the butcheries 
 of 2 Sept. this committee drew up an 
 address, recommending all the communes 
 in France to follow the same example. 
 See under ' Committee.' 
 
 This address was signed by Duplain, Panis, Ser- 
 gent, Lenfant, Marat, Lefort, Jordeuil, adminis- 
 rators of the Coniite de Surveillance, constituted 
 at the Mairie, 2 Sept. 1792. 
 
 Commandery {A). A district con- 
 taining estates with a revenue annexed, 
 belonging to a military order, and go- 
 verned by a knight-commander, or the 
 whole body of knights subject to a knight- 
 commander, as the Commanderies of 
 Malta, of St. Lazare, of Calatrava, of 
 Alcantara, of St. Bernard, and of St. 
 Antony. Till 1267 Commanderies were 
 called Preceptories. 
 
 Commenda, or * Ecclesia Commen- 
 data.' A living commended by the 
 crown to the charge of a clergyman to 
 hold till a person is duly provided for it. 
 It may be either temporary or perpetual. 
 
 Commendam (In). A living is held 
 
188 
 
 C0MMENDAT0R3 
 
 COMMISSIONERS 
 
 •in commendam' when (to prevent its 
 becoming void) it is committed {commen- 
 datur) to the charge of a clergyman till 
 it can be conveniently provided with a 
 pastor. Thus when a rector or vicar is 
 made a bishop his benefice becomes void 
 from the moment of consecration, but, 
 being ' commended ' to a commendatory, 
 the bishop retains the income till his suc- 
 cessor is provided. 
 
 Commendators. A Scotch term 
 meaning secular persons upon whom 
 church benefices are bestowed. The 
 livings are commended, i.e. entrusted to 
 their care and keeping. They are, ^ro 
 tempore, trustees of the priories, abbeys, 
 or dioceses committed to them. The 
 living thus held in trust was called a 
 commendatory. 
 
 Commendatory Abbot (^). Was 
 
 a secular clerk provided by the pope to 
 enjoy the fruits of an abbey, generally 
 for life, without being saddled with clerical 
 duties. 
 
 ComLmendatory Letters. Letters 
 written by one bishop to another on be- 
 half of a clergyman or layman going to 
 the diocese. 
 
 Commenda'tus [pi. Commendati]. 
 In baronial times was a person who 
 lived under the protection of some great 
 man. He was a voluntary vassal, and 
 paid voluntary homage for the sake of 
 protection. 
 
 Commerce {Father of English). 
 Edward HI. (1312, 132G-1377). 
 
 Commissaires de la Commune 
 
 [Les), 10 Aug., 1792. A title assumed by 
 Danton, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and 
 Collot d'Herbois, who usurped on this 
 day the municipal functions of Paris. 
 
 Comm.issary {The). In the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. An executive officer 
 appointed by the chancellor by letters 
 patent to hold a court of record for all 
 privileged persons and scholars under the 
 degree of M.A. 
 
 Commission {The Farnell), 1889. 
 See ' Parnell,' &c. 
 
 Commission of Innoeency 
 
 {The), 16G3. A commission appointed by 
 the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland, to inquire into the guilt or inno- 
 cency of those Cathohca whose estates 
 
 had been forfeited by Cromwell. Tho 
 cases were so numerous that the session 
 was limited, and only a fourth of the 
 cases were adjudicated. The other three- 
 fourths (about 3,000 in number) were 
 stripped of their estates whether they 
 were innocent or not. 
 
 Commission of Inquiry {The), 
 1623. A commission appointed by James 
 I. to examine into the titles of holders of 
 land in the province of Leinster and the 
 adjoining districts. The commission ad- 
 judged 82,500 acres of land to be crown 
 land, and James tried to plant it with 
 Englishmen and Scotchmen, as he had 
 done Ulster. 
 
 Commission of Twelve {The), 
 1793. An extraordinary board appointed 
 by the National Convention to watch 
 over the commune, arrest those who in- 
 terrupted the business of the house, and 
 to judge traitors. It forthwith arrested 
 He'bert; whereupon a riot ensued, and 
 the Convention was obhged to dissolve 
 the commission. 
 
 Commissioners of Delinquen- 
 cy, 1650. Commissioners appointed after 
 the rebellion of Ireland to decide what 
 lands were forfeited by the rebellion, and 
 what Catholics were entitled to receive 
 compensation. Those Catholics who in the 
 lifetime of Charles I. had served the king 
 against the rebels, and would be entitled 
 to retain any part of their estates, were to 
 iresign that part and receive an equivalent 
 in the waste lands of Connaught ; but no 
 Catholic, under any condition, was to re- 
 side in any town or within a certain fixed 
 limit of a town. There were commis- 
 sioners to decide on the qualifications of 
 Catholics, others to arrange the details of 
 those to be transplanted to Connaught, 
 and others to receive and hear claims. 
 The first sat in Athlone^ the second in 
 Loughrea, and the third in Dublin. 
 
 Commissioners of Innoeency. 
 
 See ' Commission of Innoeency.' 
 
 Commissioners of National 
 Education {The). In Ireland. 1833. 
 The board appointed to carry out the 
 plan of national education introduced by 
 Mr. Stanley, chief secretary. See ' Na- 
 tional Schools, Ireland.' 
 
 The first commissioners were the Duke of 
 
 Leinster, Archbishop Whately, Archbishop Mur- 
 ray, Rev. Dr. Sadlier, Rev. James Cirlile {Pn-sby- 
 ti'iian), A. R. Blake (CatkoHc), and liobert Holmes 
 {Unitarian). 
 
 I 
 
COMMISSIONERS 
 
 COMMITTEE 
 
 189 
 
 Commissioners of Parliament. 
 
 Part of the civil government of Cromwell, 
 appointed to grant commissions by letters 
 patent, and to examine into the legality 
 of those holding any public office. In 
 Ireland their chief duty was to adjust and 
 apportion among the claimants confis- 
 cated estates. 
 
 Commissioners of Trust {The), 
 1647. Twelve persons appointed by the 
 general assembly of confederates and 
 Protestants in Ireland to guard the treaty, 
 and vested with powers to levy soldiers, 
 raise money, and perform all acts of su- 
 preme authority in Ireland. The arrange- 
 ment fell through because the king was 
 beheaded before he had signed it. 
 
 The Catholics were granted by the treaty free- 
 dom of religion, seminaries for the education of 
 their children, admission to Parliament, and an 
 amnesty for the late rebellion. 
 
 Committee of Estates (The), 
 1640. A committee appointed by the 
 Scotch Parliament which had been pro- 
 rogued by Charles I., but which refused to 
 obey, declaring the warrant to be informal. 
 They instantly voted a tax of 10 per cent. 
 on rents, and 5 per cent, on interest of 
 nionej'', and appointed a Committee of 
 Estates to act in the place of the king in 
 giving assent to their measures. 
 
 Committee of Evils (The), 1625. 
 A committee of the House of Commons in 
 the second year of the reign of Charles I. 
 for the remedy of giuevances and abuses. 
 The Committee of Grievances brought 
 forward to the notice of the house what 
 were national grievances, and the Com- 
 mittee of Evils suggested remedies. Thus 
 the Committee of Grievances complained 
 of purveyance [collecting provisions at a 
 Bet price], tonnage and poundage, and so 
 on ; and the Committee of Evils, attribut- 
 ing these grievances to the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham, insisted on his being punished. 
 
 Committee of Grievances (T/te), 
 1626. A committee of the House of Com- 
 mons to check the encroachments of the 
 young king Charles I. It was especially 
 directed against the Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, the king's favourite, whose inso- 
 lence, extravagance, incapacity, and 
 licentiousness were a great scandal. 
 
 Committee of Murder (The), 
 
 1690. A committee appointed by the 
 Whigs, in the reign of William and Mary, 
 to uaquire into the concern of euudry in- 
 
 dividuals in the deaths of Lord Russell, 
 Algernon Sidney, and others of the Whig 
 party. John Hampden (grandson of the 
 great patriot) and John Howe were the 
 most violent, and would have inundated 
 the nation with blood if William had not 
 stoutly resisted the persecution. 
 
 Committee of Nine (The), 6 April, 
 
 1793. The Committee of Public Safety 
 iq.v.) in the French revolution. It con- 
 sisted of nine members. 
 
 Committee of Public Safety 
 
 [The). ' Le Comite du Salut Publique,' 
 formed in the French revolution, 6 April, 
 
 1793, by a decree of the Convention. 
 For a year it was omnipotent, and had 
 under it the ' Revolutionary Tribunal,' 
 the ' Revolutionary Committees,' and the 
 Committee of General Security.' It ori- 
 ginally consisted of nine members chosen 
 from the Convention, the leaders being 
 Danton, Barere, and Cambon. Three 
 more were added in June ; and, after the 
 fall of the Girondists, Robespierre and 
 Carnot belonged to the committee. It 
 was this committee which inaugurated 
 the Beign of Terror, and filled France 
 with scaffolds. It was broken up 27 July, 
 
 1794. See ' Committee of the Two 
 Kingdoms.' 
 
 Revolutionary committees and Committees of 
 General Safety were .-ilso appointed in every com. 
 mune of France. The former to receive denun- 
 ciations and the latter to look after the police. 
 
 Committee of Purchases, 1792. 
 A committee of Frenchmen, under Bider- 
 mann, the banker, and consisting of Jews 
 and speculators, whose function was to 
 make bargains for the array under Du 
 mouriez and pay the soldiers. The sol- 
 diers were paid in cash, but all bargains 
 were paid for in assignats. All emigrants 
 were plundered of their money, jewels, 
 furniture, and works of art ; and the 
 peoi)le of Belgium were treated as aris- 
 tocrats. Plunder and robbery- were thus 
 made a very profitable trade. 
 
 Committee of Religion. 1. 1626. 
 A committee of the House of Commons, 
 in the second year of Charles I., to put 
 down the growth of popery, which had 
 become aggressive from the large suite 
 of Roman Catholics introduced by the 
 queen. The committee presented its 
 report 25 Feb., 1629. It complained that 
 the bishops licensed the circulation of 
 books favourable to popery. It advised 
 
190 
 
 COMMITTEE 
 
 COMMITTEES 
 
 that such books as those of Mainwaring 
 and Montague should be burnt; that 
 candlesticks should be removed from 
 communion-tables, now impiously called 
 high-altars; that pictures, lights, and 
 images should be removed from churches ; 
 that crossing and turning to the east in 
 prayer should be forbidden ; that better 
 and more learned men should be preferred 
 to church livings ; and better provision 
 be made for the supply of holy ministers 
 to the several parishes. 
 
 II. 6 Nov., 1640, a committee of the 
 whole house appointed by the Long Par- 
 liament for providing preachers, and re- 
 moving ministers of scandalous character. 
 
 Committee of Safety. I. In the 
 civil wars of Charles I. was a supreme 
 council which sat in the Painted Cham- 
 ber, Westminster. Pym was president, 
 and amoiig the members were Lord Saye 
 and Sele, Sir Harry Vane, Harry Marten, 
 Selden, St. John, and others. 
 
 11. Oct. 1775. A committee formed 
 from the congress convened by Governor 
 Gage at Salem, and adjourned by the 
 ' patriots ' to Concord, a town about 25 
 miles from Boston. Here a standing 
 committee was appointed, which assumed 
 the name of ' The Committee of Safety,' 
 with authority to call out the militia 
 when they thought it necessary for the 
 defence of the province. The French 
 afterwards adopted the same idea in 
 their Comite du Salut Publique. 
 
 Committee of Seeresy (The), 
 6 Jan., 1721. A committee appointed by 
 the House of Commons to examine into 
 the South Sea Company's failure. The 
 committee was appointed merely to 
 soothe the angry feelings of the public. 
 The directors in the service of the crown 
 were discharged 11 Jan., and the rest were 
 examined before the House of Lords. 
 Knight, the coii^pany's cashier, ab- 
 sconded 22 Jan., wag imprisoned at Ant- 
 werp, 3 Feb. ; escaped, and was pardoned 
 18 Oct. the same year. It was not till 
 1 June, 1733, that an inquiry into the 
 conduct of the company was made in the 
 House of Lords. Broderick was chair- 
 man of the committee, and Jekyll, Moles- 
 worth, &c. were members put upon it. 
 
 Committee of Supplies (The), 
 
 1774. To purchase ammunition, ordnance, 
 and other military stores, when the Com- 
 mittee of Safety Igi'V.) thought it advis- 
 
 able to call out the militia in defence of 
 the province of Massachusetts. 
 
 Committee of Twelve (The), 
 1793. A committee appointed by the Con- 
 vention, through the influence of the 
 Girondists, to watch over the designs of 
 the commune and to arrest those persons 
 who were dangerous to the public peace. 
 The Twelve were the sworn enemies of 
 the Jacobins. 
 
 Committee of the Protestant 
 
 Interest ( The), 1780. Formed to resist 
 any relaxation of the penal code against 
 the Catholics. The synod of Glasgow 
 was especially rancorous, but the synod of 
 Edinburgh favoured measures of relief. 
 
 Committee of the States, 1777. 
 Appointed by Congress to sit during their 
 recess. It consisted of one delegate from 
 each state ; nine to form a quorum. This 
 committee exercised such powers as 
 Congress thought fit to vest thenr with. 
 
 Committee of the Two King- 
 doms {The), Dec. 1843. So the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety was called, when 
 Scotland joined the Parliamentary party. 
 This was after the death of Pym. It was 
 again called into active service in 1647. 
 
 Committee of the -whole 
 House {A). All the members of the 
 House of Commons in attendance, pre- 
 sided over by a chairman for the nonce 
 instead of the Speaker. After a public bill 
 has been printed and distributed to the 
 members, it is read for the second time 
 and then 'committed.' When the day 
 for ' committing ' has arrived, the Speaker 
 moves ' that I do now leave the chair,* 
 and the bill is read clause by clause, and 
 line by line, till every part has received 
 the approval of the house, and then the 
 Speaker resumes his chair to receive the 
 report. 
 
 Committees of Correspond- 
 ence, 1779. To carry out reform in Par- 
 liament ; organised in twenty-one counties, 
 and in the towns of York, Bristol, Cam- 
 bridge, Nottingham, Newcastle, Reading, 
 and Bridgwater. The chief promoters 
 of these committees were Lord Rocking- 
 ham, in Yorkshire ; Lord Shelburne, in 
 Buckinghamshire ; Lord Mahon (son-in- 
 law of Chatham), in Kent ; the Duke of 
 Richmond, the Marquis of Carmarthen, 
 Sir George Savile, Edmund Burke, and 
 Charles James Fox. 
 
COMMITTEES 
 
 COMMORANTES 
 
 191 
 
 In 1780 Committees of Correspondence were 
 ortranised by the Protestant Association in 
 numerous towns to resist any relaxation of the 
 penal acts against the Catholics. The anti- 
 Catholic furore culminated in the Gordon riots. 
 
 Committees of General Se- 
 curity, or ' Comite de Surete Generale ' 
 (1793). Appointed by the Convention to 
 act under the Committee of Public Safety 
 to look after the police. 
 
 Common Good {The). A Scotch 
 phrase meaning the public funds of a 
 burgh. 
 
 Common Prayer Book [The). 
 
 Was drawn up chiefly by Goodrich 
 bishop of Ely, and Ridley bishop of 
 Rochester. Their coadjutors were Skyp 
 bishop of Hereford, Thirlby bishop of 
 Westminster, Day bishop of Chichester, 
 Holbeach bishop of Lincoln, Dr. May 
 dean of St. Paul's, Dr. Taylor dean of 
 Lincoln, Dr. Haynes dean of Exeter, 
 Dr. Redmayne dean of Westminster, Dr. 
 Cox the king's almoner, and Dr. Robert- 
 son archdeacon of Leicester. In the 
 communion office there were added the 
 Archbishop of York and the Bishops of 
 Durham, Worcester, Norwich, St. Asaph, 
 Lichfield, Salisbury, Carlisle, Bristol, and 
 St. David's. 
 
 Common Recovery. A legal 
 fiction practised in the reign of Ed- 
 ward IV. for cutting off entails. The 
 estate being forfeit to the crown was 
 granted to a person by private agreement. 
 This person brought an action against the 
 grantor for unjustly claiming such estate. 
 Of course the suit was pennitted to go by 
 default, and the entail, being declared 
 lost, the fee simple of the property re- 
 curred to the possessor, to be disposed of 
 as he thought proper. 
 
 Common Sense, 1776. A pamphlet 
 by Thomas Paine, then living in Phila- 
 delphia, urging the Americans to claim 
 independence. It ridiculed the idea of a 
 small island, .8,000 miles off, ruling the 
 immense continent of America, and 
 threatening thi'ee million men, more 
 vigorous and more virtuous than their 
 would-be enslavers. This spark was 
 sufficient to rouse the Americans, who 
 at once signed their Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Commoners. The ordinary students 
 of the University of Oxford, called ' pen- 
 sioners ' in the University of Cambridge. 
 
 In the University of Cambridge 'Fellow Com- 
 moners ' are pensioners who dine at the Fellows' 
 
 or Masters' table. They are generally married 
 men, noblemen, and elderly men. They wear a 
 gold tassel on their cap instead of a silk one and 
 have the privilege of paying higher fees. 
 
 Commons* King {The). The Com- 
 mons' King of Rome was King Servius 
 Tullius, sixth king of Rome. His mother 
 was a captive taken at Comubium, and 
 became the female slave of Tanaquil, wife 
 of Tarquin I. Servius was by birth a 
 slave also, but married the king's daugh- 
 ter and succeeded to the throne. 
 
 Louis Philippe of France was caUed ' Le ro! 
 
 citoyen.' 
 
 Commons Spiritual {The). The 
 Proctors of Convocation, who, in the 
 reign of Richard II., were elected aa 
 knights of the shire were. 
 
 Commonwealth, or Free State, 
 19 March, 1649. So the government of 
 the United Kingdom was called, as soon 
 as it was constituted after the execution 
 of Charles I. 
 
 Commonwealth (TAe). Lasted in 
 England eleven years (1649-lGGO). Dur- 
 ing which period, Cromwell was Lord Pro- 
 tector for about four and three-quarter 
 years (16 Dec, 1653, to 3 Sept., 1658), and 
 was styled 'his highness.' During the 
 Commonwealth, the recognised govern- 
 ment superscription ran thus : ' Keepers 
 of the liberties of England by the au- 
 thority of Parliament.' 
 
 Commonw^ealth of Babina 
 
 {The), 16th cent. A society founded in 
 Poland in the time of Sigismund Au- 
 gustus, last male heir of the house of 
 Jagello (1548-1572), so called from Ba- 
 bina, the place of meeting. They had a 
 regular mock government, under king, 
 senate, and magistrates. "The executive 
 was elected from something which ap- 
 peared ridiculous in the member elected. 
 Thus, an officious man was made arch- 
 bishop, a disputatious one was made 
 speaker, a boaster was made commander- 
 in-chief. To decline to serve was to be 
 outlawed. Thus every foible was held up 
 to observation, and Babina was a word of 
 terror. Without doubt the society did a 
 vast amount of good. It gradually died out. 
 
 Commorantes in Villa. Gradu- 
 ates of the University of Cambridge, not 
 on any of the college staffs, but members 
 of the Regent's House (called the White 
 Hoods). When the university was re- 
 organised in 1858, the term was abolished 
 
192 
 
 COMMUNE 
 
 COMPAQ NIE 3 
 
 and the Begent's House formed part of 
 the Senate. 
 
 Commune of Paris {The), 14 July, 
 1789. A municipal revolutionary board, 
 which took the place of the ' Conseil de 
 Viile ' and held its sessions in the Guild 
 Hall (Hotel de Ville). It had the supreme 
 government of the city, the appointment 
 of the civil officers, and the magisterial 
 duties. It was presided over by a pro- 
 vost — Chaumette was the first provost, 
 and the next was Bobespierre, at whose 
 fall the commune was abolished (27 July, 
 1794). 
 
 Com.'m.UlieS (2 syl.). Chartered 
 towns were so called in France. The first 
 was the commune of Mans, in 1066. 
 
 Com.m.u'nes (3 syl.). A supplement, 
 in five books, to the Corpus Juris Cano- 
 nici, being the Extravagantes of popes sub- 
 sequent to John XXII. Not unfrequently 
 called ' Extravagantes Communes.' 
 
 Communion Service {The First), 
 1548. By a committee of bishops and other 
 clergy, appointed by Cranmer. It made 
 auricular confession optional ; appointed 
 that the eucharist should be given in both 
 kinds ; that the Host should not be ele- 
 vated ; that the chief part of the service 
 should be in English ; that the ,bread 
 should be of the same form and kind as 
 heretofore; and that the words used 
 should be those printed in our Common 
 Prayer Book, now in use. 
 
 Communism. A scheme for asso- 
 ciating men and women together without 
 recourse to the laws of social and political 
 economy, usually resorted to. The repre- 
 sentatives of communism are Bobert 
 Owen, St. Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, and 
 Enfantin. 
 
 (1) Owen published his scheme in 1813, 
 and tried it in 1825, at Orbiston, in Lan- 
 arkshire. This scheme failed, and in 
 1843 he opened his ' Harmony Hall,' in 
 Hampshire ; but this also was a failure. 
 
 (2) St. Simon established a corporate 
 society at Menilmontant, but Louis 
 Philippe charged it with immorality and 
 irreligion. The readers were imprisoned 
 and the commune dissolved. 
 
 (3) Fourier established his 'phalans- 
 tery' at Bambouillet, but it proved a 
 total failure. 
 
 (4) Proudhon is noted for his axiom, 
 • La proprie't^, c'est le vol,' 1848, and for 
 
 his Banqtie du Peuple, 1849, which had 
 for its object the suppression of carsital. 
 It was closed by authority, and Proudhon 
 fled to Geneva. 
 
 (5) Enfantin, a partisan of St. Simon, 
 advocated the abolition of marriage ties, 
 and was prosecuted on the grounds of 
 public decency. See ' Socialism,' ' St. 
 Simonianism,' ' Supreme Father.' 
 
 Communists {The). A secret so- 
 ciety, which the report of the Government 
 of Ziirich, 1844, says was then in exist- 
 ence in Switzerland. Its object was ' the 
 enfranchisement of all humanity ; the 
 abolition of property, of heritage, of 
 money, of wages, of laws, and of punish- 
 ments.' They also insisted on an equal 
 distribution of labour and enjoyment. 
 See 'Communism.' 
 
 Commutation Act. See 'Tithes 
 Bill.' 
 
 Comneni {The), or 'The Comne- 
 nians.' A family of Boman origin which 
 furnished six Byzantian emperors, one 
 Heraclean, and three of Trebizond. The 
 six of Constantinople are : Isaac (1057- 
 1059), Alexis L (1081-1118), John (1118- 
 1143), Manuel (1143-1180), Alexis 11. 
 (1180-1183), and Andronicus (1183-1185), 
 who was dethroned. 
 
 The one of Heraclea was David, grand- 
 son of Andronicus. 
 
 Alexis III., who founded a dynasty at 
 Trebizond, which lasted from 1204 to 
 1462. 
 
 The rest of the Comneni migrated to 
 the Morea and Corsica. Napoleon used 
 to claim descent from these Comneni. 
 
 Comorbans, or Corbes. Lay 
 
 dignitaries who held in Ireland church 
 lands. If not dignitaries, they were called 
 Erenachs. Like lay- abbots, they appro- 
 priated to themselves the revenues, leav- 
 ing the clergy the fees and tithes. (From 
 the 9th to the 17th cent.) , 
 
 Compagnacci {The). A set of 
 foolish youths in Florence, during the 
 palmy days of Lorenzo de' Medici ; who, 
 laying aside all sense of shame, gave 
 themselves up to every sort of wicked- 
 ness, emulating each other in the depths 
 of naughtiness to which they could attain. 
 
 Compagnies {Les). Often called 
 'Les grandes compagnies.' Bands of 
 troops composed of different nations, and 
 led by a general whose device was * L'ami 
 
COMPANION'S 
 
 COMPUEGATOnS 
 
 193 
 
 du Dieu et I'ennemi du tout le monde.' 
 See ' Companions' League,' ' Condottieri.' 
 
 One of them called himself ' The enemy of God, 
 of pity, and of mercy.' 
 
 Companions' League {The), 
 
 1360. A confederacy of the mercenary 
 troops disbanded by Edward III. after 
 the battle of Poitiers (1356). The league 
 mustered 40,000 soldiers, and fought 
 several pitched battles with the French 
 troops. In 1366 they joined Duguesclin's 
 army levied to aid Henry da Trastamare 
 against his brother Pedro the Cruel. 
 This league was a confederacy o'f Lea 
 grandes compagnies {q.v.). 
 
 Companions of Jehu (TAe). The 
 Chouans, a royalist faction in France in 
 1800. Louis XVIII. being Jehu, whose 
 * companions ' were bound to aid him in 
 ' cutting off, root and branch, all who had 
 taken part in the assassination of his royal 
 brother' (Louis XVL). See 2 Chrbn. 
 xxii. 7. . 
 
 Company of 1789 (The). The 
 club of the Feuillants was originally so 
 called. Its platform was the support of 
 the constitution against the ultra party. 
 They took the constitution of England for 
 their model. On 28 March, 1791, the club 
 was forcibly dispersed by a raging mob. 
 
 Company of St. George {The), 
 1379. A company of adventurers under 
 Alberic di Barbiano. This company was 
 a most famous school of great generals 
 from its formation to the 16th cent. 
 
 Compassionate Allowance. A 
 
 government gratuity to the widows and 
 children of those in the British army 
 slain in the Crimean War (1855-1856). 
 
 Compassionate Brothers {The), 
 1540. Founded at Seville, in Spain, by the 
 Portuguese John di Dio, who had served 
 in Africa under Charles V. They ob- 
 tained their funds by begging. Their 
 chief functions were nursing the sick and 
 reforming inunoral women. The brothers 
 were laymenunder no rule till 1572, when 
 the pope subjected them to the rule of 
 St. Augustine. 
 
 Competitive Examination for 
 
 the Civil service, introduced in 1855. 
 Every candidate is required to pass first 
 a preliminary examination. 
 
 Compitalian Lares. Gods who 
 presided respectively over the several 
 9 
 
 quarters of the city (Rome). Compltum 
 was the place where two or more roads 
 met, as Trivium was the place where two 
 or more streets met. It was customary 
 with the Romans to erect altars, shrines, 
 and small temples at these spots, as 
 Roman Catholics used to erect on such 
 spots crucifixes. The Lares CompitaUs 
 were the deities who presided over cross 
 roads (Prcpertius, iv. 3, 54). Varro 
 tells us the word compHuvi comes from 
 the verb competo, to agree in one. 
 
 Complaint {The), 1450, or, in full, 
 * The Complaint of the Commons of Kent.' 
 The petition of grievances presented by 
 John Cade, calling for administrative 
 and economical reforms, a change of 
 ministry, a more careful expenditure of 
 the royal revenue, and the restoration of 
 freedom of election, which had been 
 broken in upon both by the crown and 
 by the great landlords. 
 
 Compline. The last of the eight 
 daily services of the Catholic Church and 
 of the four gi'eater ones. At bed-time. 
 The word means complete. See ' Canoni- 
 cal Hours.' 
 
 Complutensian Polyglot 
 
 Bible {The), 1502-1517. Printed under 
 the patronage and at the expense of 
 Cardinal Ximenes at Compliitum {i.e. 
 Alcala de Henares in New Castile, about 
 nineteen miles from Madrid, in Spain). 
 
 Comprehension {A), 1670. A 
 decree by Leighton to pacify the Scotch 
 clergy irritated by the Act against Field 
 Conventicles {q.v.). It required that they 
 should attend presbyteries as they were 
 established before the year 1638. The 
 bishops were required to waive their 
 claim of a negative voice, and all who 
 pleased were to be at liberty to protest 
 against it. {See Lingard, ix. 4.) 
 
 Compromise {The), 1567. The 
 league between the Protestants and 
 Catholics of the Netherlands, headed by 
 the Prince of Orange, the Count Egmont, 
 and the Count Horn, to put down the 
 Inquisition, introduced into their country 
 by Philip II. of Spain. The Duchess of 
 Parma, who governed the country, gave 
 way to the storm, and abolished the In- 
 quisition ; by which wise concession she 
 broke up the league. 
 
 Compur'gators. Twelve persons 
 who swore that they believed an accused 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 COMTE 
 
 CONCOEDAT 
 
 person who pleaded ' not guilty ' to be 
 innocent of the crime charged against 
 him. The finding was called ' compur- 
 gation.' This basis of our common jury- 
 system existed in the Saxon times, and 
 is generally placed to the credit of Alfred 
 the Great. 
 
 Conite's Three States. The theo- 
 logical state, the metaphysical state, and 
 physical state. ' Chacun de nous, en 
 contemplant sa propre histoire, ne se 
 souvient-il pasqu'ilaete successivement, 
 quant a ses notions les plus importantes, 
 theologien dans son enfance, metaphysi- 
 cien dans sa jeunesse, et physicien dans 
 sa virilite ? ' In the infancy of thought the 
 mind attributes changes in phenomena to 
 the overruling will of some divinity which 
 shapes them. In the next stage the mind 
 attributes changes of phenomena to some 
 hypcthetical abstract principle. In the 
 third, or mature stage, the mind clings to 
 facts, and attributes jjhenomena to those 
 agencies which experience or experiment 
 teaches us to have been in operation. 
 
 Comuneros, 1520-1521. A Span- 
 ish party opposed to the appointment 
 of Karl V. of Germany to the Spanish 
 crown. Padilla, a young nobleman of 
 Toledo, was at the head of the insurgents. 
 They were defeated by the royalists at 
 Villalar in 1521, and Padilla was executed. 
 This civil war is called the * Guerra de las 
 Comuniades.' 
 
 Conacre System {The). The sys- 
 tem of subletting small patches of land, 
 consisting of from 1 to 5 acres, for a single 
 potato crop. Thus, in Ireland, a landlord 
 of, say, 100,000 acres, would farm it to a 
 middleman, and live in England or 
 abroad. The middleman will divide this 
 large tenement into several smaller ones, 
 which he will let out to tenants, say from 
 100 to 500 acres each. These tenants will 
 sublet a part (say in parcels of from 10 
 to 50 acres) to other tenants ; and, lastly, 
 these farmers will ' conacre ' small patches 
 to some peasant to grow on it a crop of 
 potatoes for the current year. So that 
 sometimes six or eight persons under the 
 landlord make a profit of the land, and 
 the last occupant pays at the rate of 8Z. 
 or 101. per acre for his little patch of 
 land. 
 
 Conception of the Virgin 
 Mary (T/ie), or 'Festum Beatfe Mariae 
 de Adventu,' 8 Dec. Instituted 1356. 
 
 There is an order of nuns, which was founded in 
 1484, entitled ' The Conception of Our Lady.' Their 
 dress is a white gown, a blue mantle, and a scapu- 
 lary. 
 
 Conceptualisni. Abelard's ter- 
 tiuni quid [q.v.]. 
 
 Concord of Madrid {The), 1526. 
 Extorted by Karl V. from Francois I., his 
 captive. Fran(;ois consented to give u]3 
 all claims to Flanders and Artois, the 
 possession of Naples, Milan, Genoa, and 
 all other Italian territories, to deliver the 
 dauphin and Due d'Orleans into the 
 hands of Karl as hostages, and bound 
 himself to return into captivity if these 
 conditions were not fulfilled within four 
 years. Francois also promised to marry 
 Queen Eleonora (sister of Karl V.), to re- 
 store Bourbon and the rest of the rebels 
 to their estates and honours, to pay 
 Henry VIII. all the money which Karl 
 owed him, to lend Karl his whole navy, 
 with 500 men-at-arms and 6,000 foot 
 soldiers, to put down the princes of Italy, 
 and to use his influence with the' King of 
 Navarre and Duke of Gueklres to get 
 Karl appointed heir to their dominions. 
 The pope absolved Francois from his 
 obligation to observe this scandalous 
 exaction. 
 
 Concordat of 1801 (TAe). Between 
 Pius VII. and NajDoleon Bonaparte, then 
 first consul. It put an end to the anarchy 
 introduced by the revolution in the 
 Galilean Church, and re-established the 
 French hierarchy. The appointment of 
 bishops was left in the hands of the tem- 
 poral power, but their institution was 
 reserved to the pope. 
 
 A new division of the dioceses of France was 
 made. The appointment of cures or vicars was 
 left to the bishops. Napoleon said to Cabanis : 
 ' Do you know what this Concordat really is ? It 
 is the vaccination of religion. In fifty years there 
 will be no more religion in France than small-pox.' 
 
 Concordat of 1855 (T/je). Between 
 Pius IX. and the Emperor Francis Joseph 
 of Austria. This concordat was abrogated 
 in 1870. 
 
 Concordat of Francois I., a.d. 
 
 1515. A repeal of the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion, which the pope had condemned, and 
 the substitution of a compromise. By the 
 Pragmatic Sanction the independence of 
 the Galilean Church was secured, and its 
 freedom from all papal encroachments; 
 by the Concordat the pope and king made 
 a partition of the spoil. The king ap- 
 pointed to vacant bishoprics within six 
 
CONCORDAT 
 
 CONFEDERATES 
 
 195 
 
 months ; if the nominee was objected to 
 by the poj)e, three months more were 
 allowed, and if then the appointment 
 was objected to, the pope made the ap- 
 pointment. By this foolish arrangement 
 annates or first fruits were again rendered 
 to the pope. Of course the French par- 
 liament and council greatly objected, but 
 the king carried his point. 
 
 Concordat of Vienna (T7ie), 1448. 
 Drawn up by Kaiser Friederich III., and 
 approved of by Czar Nicholas V., esta- 
 blishing the canonical election, abolishing 
 the Acts called ' Provisiones ' for curbing 
 the arbitrary power of the crown, abolish- 
 ing pontifical expectatives, determining 
 in what cases the pope could dispose of 
 German benefices, and substituting a tax 
 spread over two years for annates. 
 
 Concordat ofWorms (The), 1122. 
 Between Pope Calixtus II. and Hein- 
 rich V. of Germany. This instrument 
 put an end to the long contention about 
 investitures. The pope recognised the 
 right of the monarch to give temporal 
 investitures, and reserved to himself the 
 right of spiritual investitures. 
 
 A concordat is a contract between the pope and 
 a temporal potentate to fix their respective 'rights 
 in matters pertaining to the Church and State. 
 
 Condignitism. A doctrine taught 
 by Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), who 
 contended that man in his natural state 
 cannot so live as to merit or earn God's 
 grace ; but that with Divine assistance he 
 could do so, and render himself worthy 
 (condignus) of salvation. This sort of 
 merit is called the ' merit of condignity.' 
 
 The 'merit of congruity' is the possibility of 
 BO ordering our lives as to di'.tcrve grace, and with 
 the desert, of course, follows the grace. Hee 
 'Congruism.' 
 
 Condottie'ri. Either free-lances, 
 or bands of adventurers, who for hire 
 entered the service of anyone who would 
 pay them. Hawkwood's condottieri hired 
 themselves into the Venetian service in 
 the 14th cent., and were called the Eng- 
 lish condottieri. A condottiere is not a 
 captain or leader of a band, but a free- 
 lance, or a company of free-lances under 
 a leader. Thus Hawkwood collected a 
 band of condottieri, and made the best 
 bargain he could with those who were 
 willing to pay for their services. At the 
 same time Francesco Sforza was a con- 
 dottiere; so also Angelo de la Pergola, 
 
 Nicolo Piccinino, and Guide Torello were 
 noted condottieri. 
 
 Of course the word condottie're means a captain 
 or leader, and condottieri those under a leader. 
 
 Confarrea'tion. A species of mar- 
 riage in ancient Rome ; so called because 
 the chief ceremony was partaking of the 
 panis farreus (bread made of spelt) in the 
 presence of ten witnesses. This was 
 the highest form of marriage ; and certain 
 offices in the state, such for example as 
 the Flamen Dialis, could be held only 
 by those who were born of parents thus 
 married. 
 
 Our bridecake is a relic of the pants farreus. 
 
 Confederacy of Delos {The),-B.c. 
 477. A league to place Athens, instead 
 of Spai'ta, at the head of Greece, chiefly 
 brought about by the treason of Pausa- 
 nias. Called the Confederacy of Delos, 
 because the deputies of the allies were to 
 meet annually in Delos in the temple of 
 Apollo and Artemis. 
 
 Confederate Catholics {The), 
 
 1641. An Irish secret society formed in 
 Ulster, where 50.000 Englishmen were 
 assassinated. 'Husbands were cut to 
 pieces in the presence of their wives ; 
 children's brains were dashed out be- 
 fore their parents ; women were brutally 
 violated, and driven naked to perish in 
 the woods. Some were burned ; others 
 drowned for sport; many were buried 
 alive. The contest was that of Catholic 
 against Protestant ; and the rebels, believ- 
 mg that Charles I. really befriended them, 
 called themselves ' the king's army,' and 
 claimed to be acting on the king's commis- 
 sion. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Confederates {The), 1861-18^55. 
 The Southern States of North America, in 
 the American civil war, consisting of 
 South Carolma, Georgia, Florida, Vir- 
 ginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mis- 
 sissippi, Louisiana, and Texas. These 
 states were utterly opposed to what 
 was called the Garrison school, which 
 considered American slavery a scandal. 
 Sumner and Seward took up the question, 
 and organised an anti-slavery party. The 
 Southerners confederated, and resolved 
 to separate from the Union, the federalists 
 or unionists armed to preserve the Union. 
 As the war went on the slavery question 
 was thrust to the forefront. The South- 
 erners were vanquished, slavery was abol- 
 ished, and the Union was preserved. 
 o2 
 
lOG 
 
 CONFEDERATION 
 
 CONFESSION 
 
 Confederation {The Irish), 1846, 
 Formed by the Young Ireland party 
 when it separated from the old Repealers, 
 led by Daniel O'Connell. The meetings 
 were held in the Music Hall, Abbey Street, 
 See * -Irish Associations.' 
 
 Confederation of Bar [The), 1768. 
 Formed by the Catholics of Poland against 
 the dissidents [q.v.]. It was dissolved in 
 1778. 
 
 Bar is a town of Podolia. The confederation was 
 Bupported by Russia. See ' National Confederacy 
 ol Poland.' 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine 
 
 (The), 1806. The Gennan states confede- 
 rated by Napoleon. As allies of France 
 each state was bound to furnish a con- 
 tingent to the French army. In 1808 
 the number of Germans yielded 120,000 
 men to Napoleon's call. Bavaria and 
 Wiirtemburg allied themselves to France 
 in 1805, and in reward of this unpatriotic 
 conduct these electorates were raised into 
 kingdoms. In 1806 fourteen other Ger- 
 man princes signed an act of alliance, and 
 in 1808 other princes did the same. After 
 the disaster of Moscow in 1813 the con- 
 federation broke up, and the German 
 princes allied themselves against their 
 common enemy. 
 
 The fourteen were, the Elector (now called the 
 Grand-Duke) of Eaden, the new Grand-Duke of 
 Cleves (Napoleon's brother-in-law), the Laiidgraf 
 (now called G rand-Duke ) of Hessen-Darmstadt, the 
 Prince of Nassau-Usinges, the Prince of N:>ssau- 
 Weilburg, the Prince of HohenzoUern-Hechingen, 
 the Prince of Isenberg-Birstein, the Prince of 
 Liechtenstein, the Duke of Aremberg. the Count of 
 Lagen. Subsequently, the Duke of Wiirzburg, the 
 King of Saxony, the King of Westphalia, the Duke 
 of Mecklenburg, and some other small princes. 
 
 Conference [The), 1661. Held at 
 the Savoy, in the residence of the Bishop 
 of London (Dr. Sheldon). Four months 
 were awarded to it (2.5 March-25 July). 
 Between twenty-one Episcopalians and 
 twenty-one Presbyterians. After long 
 dispute, the nonconformists reduced their 
 gi-ievances to these eight : The sinfulness 
 
 1. Of wearing a surplice. 
 
 2. Of the cross in baptism. 
 
 8. Of calling the baptized regenerate, 
 
 4. Of kneeling at the Lord's Supper. 
 
 5. Of administering the Lord's Supper to the sick 
 and impenitent. 
 
 6. Priestly absolution. 
 
 7. Returning thanks promiscuously in the Burial 
 Service. 
 
 8. Subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles- 
 
 Conference of London {The), 
 1826. A diplomatic congress held in 
 London to determiae on the fate of 
 Greece. 
 
 Confession of Augsburg {The), 
 1530. A summary of faith drawn up by 
 Melanchthon, and presented to the Em- 
 peror Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg. 
 This confession is based on ' The Articles 
 of Torgau' (g.u.), and contains twenty-one 
 articles on doctrine, and seven on prac- 
 tical matters. They very much resemble 
 the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of 
 England. 
 
 Torgau, pronounce Tor-gotD. 
 The last 7 are these :— 22 : of both kinds, see Art. 
 XXX. ; 23 : of the marriage of priests, see Art. xxxii. ; 
 24 : of the sacrifice of the mass, see Art. xxxi. ; 25 : of 
 oral confession ; 26 : of distinction of meats ; 27 : of 
 conventual vows ; and 28 : of the authority of 
 bishops. Compare also the 21 Articles of the Con- 
 fession with the Articles of the Church of Eng- 
 land, viz. : 1 : of God with Art. i. ; 2 : of original sin 
 with Art. ix. ; 3 : of the Son of God with Art. ii. ; 4 ; 
 of justification with Art. xi. ; 5 : of prpaching with 
 Art. xxiv. ; 6 : of obedience ; 7, 8 : of the Church with 
 Art. xix. XX. ; 9 : of baptism with Art. xvii. ; 10 : of 
 the Lord's Supper with Art. xxviii. xxix. xxx. ; 11 : 
 of confession ; 12 : of penance ; 13 : of the use of the 
 sacraments with Art. xxvi. ; 14 : of church govern- 
 ment with Art. XX. ; 15 : of church order ; 16 : of 
 secular government with Art xxxvii. ; 17 : of 
 Christ's second coming ; 18 : of free will with Art. 
 X. ; 19 : of the cause of sin with Art. ix. ; 20 : of faith 
 and good works with Art. xii. xiii. ; and 21 : of the 
 worship of saints. 
 
 Confession of Bale {The), 1534. 
 The first Helvetic confession of faith, 
 drawn up by Zwingli in 1530, was so 
 called because it was ratified at Bale. 
 
 Confession of Brandenburg 
 
 {The). The confession of faith drawn 
 up in the city of Brandenburg by order 
 of the elector, with a view of reconciling 
 the tenets of Luther with those of Calvin, 
 and to put an end to the disputes occa- 
 sioned hj the Confession of Augsburg. 
 
 Confession of Bullinger {The). 
 The Expositio Simi^lex of Heinricli 
 Bullinger, the successor of Zwingli, at 
 Cologne, 1566. 
 
 Confession of Emden {The)y 
 1562. By the Belgian reformers. 
 
 Confession of Wiirtemburg 
 {The), 1551. A Lutheran confession of 
 faith. 
 
 Confession of Zwingli. In 1523 
 the government of Ziirich invited the 
 Protestants and Catholics to a con- 
 ference, in the hope of adjusting their 
 religious difficulties. Zwingli drew up 
 his arguments under sixty-seven heads, 
 and the council gave their vote in 
 his favour. These sixty-seven articles 
 he afterwards submitted to Francois I. 
 of France, and called them his Coti- 
 fession. They are worthy to be com- 
 
CONFESSION 
 
 CONGREGATION 
 
 107 
 
 pared with the twenty-eight articles of 
 the Confession of Augsburg, drawn up 
 by Melanchthon, or the Thirty-nine 
 Articles of the Church of England. 
 
 Confession of the Druses {TJie), 
 11th cent. (1) The Unity of God. He 
 manifested himself to man seven times, 
 the last being in the person of Hakim ; 
 (2) there are five superior ministers who 
 have all manifested themselves to man — ■ 
 the chief of them were Hamza and 
 Christ ; (3) the transmigration of souls ; 
 (4) Hiikim shall by-and-bye reign on 
 earth, and all its kingdoms shall be sub- 
 ject to him ; (5) the seven points are 
 truth, mutual aid, renunciation of all 
 other religions, belief in one Hakim (as 
 God), contentment, submission, and se- 
 paration from heretics. 
 
 Confessions of the Reformed 
 Churches, (l) The Helvetic Con- 
 fessions, as that of Basel in 1530, and 
 that of Bullinger, called Expositio Sim- 
 plex, in 15GG ; (2) the Tetrapolitan Con- 
 fession in 1531 ; (3) the Gallic Confession 
 in 1559 ; (4) the Palatine, or Heidelberg, 
 Confession in 1575; and (5) the Belgic 
 Confession in 1559. See each of these in 
 loco. 
 See also ' Westminster Confession of Faith.' 
 
 Confessor of the Household. 
 
 One of the twelve royal chaplains, whose 
 office it is to read prayers every morning 
 to the family, to visit the sick, to prepare 
 conmiunicants, and give advice on points 
 of religion to those who desire information. 
 Confirmatio Charta'rum, 25 
 Edw. I. A.D. 1257. By which Magna 
 Charta was directed to be allowed at the 
 common law, all judgments contrary 
 thereto were declared void, copies of the 
 charter were directed to be read in all 
 cathedral churches tvv^ice a year, and 
 sentences of excommunication were de- 
 nounced against all those who infringed 
 the charter. 
 
 Conflans(rrea//yo/), 1465. A treaty 
 of peace after the battle of Montlhe'ry 
 [q.v.). 
 
 Confreres de la Congregation de 
 Notre-Dame de Mise'ricorde, 1223. A 
 religious order instituted in Barcelona 
 by Pierre de Nolasque, a Frenchman, for 
 the redemption of slaves. Till 1308 it 
 was chiefly supported by the laity. The 
 members went barefoot. 
 
 Confucianism. Called 'Yu,' the 
 
 orthodox, or state, religious system of 
 China, devised by Confucius. 
 
 The other two systems are rrrrn'swKRationalism), 
 and Fo or Buddhism. Confucius is h'uiij-fu-tsa, 
 Kung thej)hilosoplier. His three cliiof books are 
 (1) The Luni/ii or sayings; (2) the Ta-hio or Great 
 Lesson; and (S) the Chu,ag-yutig,oi doctrine of tlio 
 mean. 
 
 Congd d'^lire {A\ 25 Hen. VIII. 
 
 c. 20, A.D. 1534. A licence sent to the 
 chapter to elect one of the persons 
 named by the crown to a vacant bishop- 
 ric. If the chapter refuses to elect 
 within twenty days, it incurs the penalty 
 of prasmunire. 
 
 Pronounce conjay day-leer', 
 
 Congesta Mendve'dii. A collec- 
 tion towards the history of Denmark by 
 Eric VI. or VIII. (Mendvedius), 1274, 
 
 1288-1319. 
 
 Congested Districts of Ireland. 
 
 Those parts of Donegal and Kerry which 
 are mere mountain or bog lands. The 
 population is so thick that, even if cabins 
 and holdings were free, the people could 
 not earn a living. 
 
 Dillon says he ' would include Leitrim, Galway, 
 Roscommon, and western hall of Cork also ' (April 
 I'^itO). A line drawn down the map fifteen miles 
 from the sea would about enclose this area. 
 
 Congregation {The), 1559. A 
 name assumed by the Protestants of 
 Scotland in the regency of Marie de 
 Guise. The leaders, called the 'Lords 
 of the Congregation ' {q-v.), pledged 
 themselves to see the ' Solemn League 
 and Covenant ' {q.v.) carried out. 
 
 The Duke of Chatelherault abandoned the con- 
 gregation [reform party]. In this predicament 
 the Lords of the Congregation made still more 
 impassioned appeals to Cecil.— HowiTT, Hist, of 
 Eng., vol. ii. p. 405. 
 
 Congregation de Propaganda 
 Fide {The). A Board of high church 
 dignitaries in the Catholic Church which 
 consult on the propagation of the Catholic 
 religion throughout the world. 
 
 Congregation of France. Sea 
 
 * Genovefains.' 
 
 Congregation of Relics {The). 
 A board of high Catholic dignitaries 
 whose duty it is to enquire into the 
 genuineness of supposed relics. 
 
 Congregation of St. 'Ma,VLr{The)f 
 
 1G21. Reformed Benedictines. 
 
 Congregation of the Holy 
 OiliCe [The). The congregation at Roma 
 
198 
 
 CONGREGATION 
 
 CONGRESS 
 
 to which the direction of the tribunal of 
 the Inquisition is subject. It was estab- 
 lished in 1542 by Paul III., and consists 
 of twelve cardinals, a commissary, several 
 'theologians,' 'consulters,' and 'quali- 
 fiers ' whose duty it is to report on each 
 case for the information of the cardinals. 
 See ' Holy Office.' 
 
 Congregation of the Index 
 
 {The). A committee appointed by Pope 
 Pius V. to read books and state which 
 should be prohibited to Catholic readers. 
 Those prohibited were published from 
 time to time in what was called the 
 ' Index.' "We find the following pro- 
 hibited: Milton's 'Paradise Lost,' Gold- 
 smith's 'History of England,' Bacon's 
 ' De Augmehtis Scientiarum,' Locke ' On 
 the Human Understanding,' Cudworth's 
 'Intellectual System/ Whately's 'Logic,' 
 ' Little Henry and his Bearer ' (a child's 
 tale), Gibbon, Robertson, Sismondi, 
 Hallam, J. S. Mill, Addison, Kant, parts 
 of Descartes, Malebranche, Fleury, Fene- 
 lon, Dante ; all Calvin's Luther's and 
 Voltaire's works ; all works of heresiarchs 
 on any subject whatsoever, and every book 
 which threw doubt on Catholicism. 
 
 Congregation of the Lord (r/ze), 
 
 Scotland, 1557. Consisted of a band of 
 Protestants who met r.t Edinburgh. 
 They were led by the Earls Argyll, 
 Morton, and Glencairn. They covenanted 
 to stand together in mutual defence of 
 faithful ministers,, gospel truths, and the 
 holy sacraments. The Established Church 
 was styled ' The Congregation of Satan.' 
 
 The Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. was 
 ordered to be used iu the paribh churches of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Congregation of the Oratory 
 
 {The), 1558. Founded by Philip de Neri. 
 Confirmed by the pope in 1575. Estab- 
 lished in France in 1611 by Father de 
 Berule. Introduced by Newman into 
 England in 1847. 
 
 Congregation of the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford {The), 1854. Consists 
 of the heads of colleges, professors, ex- 
 aminers, and university officials, with all 
 members of the Convocation who have 
 resided 140 nights within a mile and a 
 half of the university. Duties are, to 
 deliberate and vote on statutes proposed 
 by the Hebdomadal Board {q.v.), and to 
 submit their deliberations to the House 
 
 of Convocation {q.v) to be accepted or 
 rejected as the case may be. 
 
 Congregation of the Visita- 
 tion {The), IGIO. Under the rule of 
 St. Augustine, founded by the Baronesa 
 of Chantal at Annecy. Confirmed by 
 Urban VIII. in 1020. 
 
 Congregations of Aids {i.e. ' de 
 Auxiliis '). Began 2 Jan., 1598. Polemical 
 consultations or conferences between the 
 Dominicans and the Jesuits. The fourth 
 was held in 1601, opened in Jan. and closed 
 in July. The last began 14 Sept., 1605, 
 and went on to 1 March, 1606. Paul V., 
 in Aug. 1607, prohibited its renewal. 
 
 Congregationalists or • Inde- 
 pendents,' 1580. Those dissenters who 
 maintain the right of each separate con- 
 gregation to choose its own minister and 
 lay down laws for its own government. 
 They are all trinitarians and pajdo- 
 baptists, and thus differ from the Uni- 
 tarians and the Baptists. 
 
 Called Independents because each congregation 
 is independent, and admits neither bishops, elders, 
 nor any other board, not of their own choosing, to 
 interfere with their choice of ministers or church 
 government. Mr. Bobinson or Mr. Jacob founded 
 the sect. 
 
 Congregationists, 1557-1638. The 
 Scotch reformers. The whole body was 
 called the Congregation ; but from 1638, 
 when they bound themselves by oath 
 to adhere to the Solemn League and Cove- 
 nant {q.v.) the reformers were called 
 Covenanters. Not unfrequently the Con- 
 gregationists are called Covenanters 
 also, but this is not strictly correct. 
 
 In the spring of 1562 Elizabeth became engaged 
 to the supiiort of the Huguenots . . . against their 
 government as slie had suuported the Covenanters 
 of Scotland.— HowiTT, History oj' England, vol. ii. 
 p. 418. 
 
 Congress. The American Senate 
 and House of Representatives. The Se- 
 nate is elected for six years, the President 
 for four years, and the Representatives 
 for two years. 
 
 Congress of Carlsbad (r7ie),1819. 
 
 For regulating the affairs of Germany. 
 
 Congress of Laybach {The), 1820. 
 For deliberating on the condition of Spain, 
 Portugal, and Naples. 
 
 Congress of "Vienna (r/ie),2 Oct., 
 1814, to 23 March, 1815, at the close of the 
 great war. By this congress the Cape 
 of Good Hoi^e, the Mauritius, Malta, and 
 Corfu were assigned to England ; Finn 
 
CONGRESS 
 
 CONSEIL 
 
 199 
 
 Ian ct and Poland to Russia; Lombardy 
 and the Venetian States to Austria ; 
 Saxony, Franconia, and Swedish Ponie- 
 rania to Pr^ssm; Tuscany to the Arch- 
 duke Ferdinand ; Genoa to the King of 
 Sardinia ; Parma and Placentia to Marie 
 Louise, the wife of Napoleon ; Norway 
 to Sweden ; and the Two Sicilies to Fer- 
 dinand VI. of the Bourbon dynasty. 
 
 Congress of the United Colo- 
 nies {The), 10 May, 1775. The style 
 assianied by the second congress of Phila- 
 delphia, in revolt from Great Britain. 
 They issued a prohibition of the export 
 of provisions to any British colony or 
 fishery, or of any supply to the British 
 soldiers in Massachusetts, or of the nego- 
 tiation of any bill drawn by a British 
 officer. See ' Thirteen United Colonies.' 
 
 Congress's O'wn, 177G. Hazen's 
 Canadian regiment, kept up by recruiting 
 in the States. It was on ihe side of the 
 Americans in the War of Independence. 
 
 Congruism. A doctrine taught by 
 Duns Scotus (12G5-1303), who maintained 
 that man in his natural state can so regu- 
 late his life as to deserve God's grace, 
 and this natural fitness or congruity for 
 grace obliges the Deity to grant it. See 
 * Condignitism,' 
 
 Molinism (q.v.) is a modification of this. 
 
 Conjuration de I'Epingle Rose 
 
 {Tia), 1816. A French secret society 
 which ' prit pour signe de ralliement une 
 epingle rose.' See ' Society of the Black 
 Pin.' 
 Pronounce : Con-ju-rah'-se-on'g dla-imhn-gl, &o. 
 
 Connecticut (U.S. America). So 
 called from its river of the same name, 
 which enters the state about twenty miles 
 north of Hartford. The nickname is ' the 
 Wooden Nutmeg State,' or ' Nutmeg 
 State,' from a trick played by one of its 
 'cute ones, who sold imitation nutmegs 
 made of wood as real nutmegs, and real- 
 ised by his dishonesty a pot of money. 
 
 Conn^table [Lord High Constable 
 of France]. First appointed by Henri I., 
 from which reign to that of Louis XIII. 
 he was the highest dignitary of the 
 crown. In times of war he was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army, with abso- 
 lute power; even the king himself at 
 Buch times was Avholly under his com- 
 mands. In peace he was war minister, 
 
 and took precedence of all other ministers 
 of the crown. The office was abolished 
 in 1C27, but was nominally restored by 
 Napoleon I. in favour of his brother 
 Louis. The most noted of the Conne- 
 tables were : — 
 
 Chatillon (1250-1329) under Phihppe 
 le Bel and Louis X. 
 
 Du GuESCLiN (1314-1380) under 
 Charles V. 
 
 Clisson the Butcher (1320-1407) under 
 Charles VI. 
 
 BouEBON (1489-1527) under Francois I. 
 
 MoNTMOBENCY (1493-15G7) under 
 Henri II., Francois II., and Charles IX. 
 
 Lesdiguieres (1543-1626) under Henri 
 IV. and Louis XIII. 
 
 Conqueror {The), 1027, 10G6-1087. 
 In English history means William I., 
 duke of Normandy, who conquered 
 Harold II. in the battle of Senlac, and 
 obtained the English crown thereby. 
 
 Conqueror of the Danes. Brian 
 Boru, monarch of Ireland. It was in the 
 battle of Clontarf, 1014, that the Danes 
 in Ireland were so utterly defeated that 
 they never more made head in that 
 island ; but such as remained mixed with 
 the natives and became one people with 
 them. Brian was assassinated on the 
 day of conquest, aged 88. 
 
 Brian has been made a parallel to our Alfred 
 the Great, but in moral greatness never king 
 equalled our Alfred. 
 
 Conrad. See Konrad. 
 
 Con's Half, and Mogh's Half. 
 
 Con of the hundred battles was king of 
 Meath, and Mogh Nuad was king of the 
 province of Leinster. Mogh overcame 
 Con in ten fights, and claimed half of 
 Con's kingdom. 
 
 Conscript Fathers. ' Patres Con- 
 scripti.' After the expulsion of Tarquin 
 a new element was introduced into the 
 Roman Senate. The new senators were 
 called conscripti, while the original 300 
 patricians were still called patres. So 
 that the senate then consisted of patres 
 et conscripti, and was addressed by 
 speakers as patres, conscripti, or con- 
 scripts, fathers, perverted into the com- 
 pound word Conscript Fathers. 
 
 Conseil des Anciens {Le), 23 
 Sept., 1795-10 Nov., 1799. In French 
 history. Consisted of 250 members, whose 
 function was to elect the directors, and 
 
200 
 
 CONSEIL 
 
 CONSIGLIO 
 
 to ratify or reject the resolutions of tlie 
 'Conseilsdes Cinq-cents '(g-.w.). One-third 
 of the council retired annually. Both 
 these councils were created by the con- 
 stitution of Year III. {q.v.). Each mem- 
 ber must be at least forty years of age, 
 married or a widower, and have been 
 a householder for fifteen years. They 
 sat in the Tuileries. 
 
 Conseil des Cinq-eents (Le), 
 23 Sept., 1795—10 Nov., 1799. One of 
 the two councils created by the constitu- 
 tion of Year III. [q.v.]. It consisted 
 of 500 members, elected for three years. 
 Each member must be at least thirty 
 years of age, and have been a house- 
 holder for ten years. This assembly 
 proposed the laws, which were then sub- 
 mitted to the ' Conseil des Anciens ' 
 iq.v.). They held their sessions in the 
 Salle de Manege (rue Kivoli). 
 
 Conseil d'Etat (Le), of Year 
 VIII. (1799). Modified in 1814, 1815; 
 reorganised by the law of the 19th July, 
 1845; greatly modified by the constitu- 
 tion of 1848 and by the law organic of 
 1849 ; but in 1852 it was restored to its 
 original state. It is an assembly of 
 magistrates to prepare the laws and give 
 advice on all questions of national im- 
 portance. It consists of councillors, 
 masters of requests, and auditors; and 
 is divided into six sections, viz. the 
 legislative section, the section of foreign 
 affairs, the section du contentieux, de 
 I'interieur, de I'instruction publique, and 
 the section des cultes. 
 
 Conseils des Prud'horaines 
 
 (Les). Municipal tribunals to arbitrate in 
 disputes between masters and workmen. 
 The council is composed of merchants, 
 master-workmen, common workmen, and 
 manufacturers, all elective except the 
 president, who is named by the govern- 
 ment. In all disputes not exceeding 
 200 francs (81.) their judgment is final. 
 There was such a Council at Marseilles 
 m 1452, called the Prudliommes FS- 
 cheurs, Louis XI. in 1464 established 
 such a council at Lyons. In 1806 was 
 established a modern council at Lyons, 
 and similar ones have since been insti- 
 tuted all over France. In 1844 a council 
 of Prud'hommes was organised for the 
 metal trade, and in 1847 for manu- 
 facturers of all sorts of tissues, chemists, 
 
 and all other trades. In 1853 these 
 councils were recognised by law. 
 
 Prud'hommes, according to Boiiillet, is from the 
 Latin prudcns homo, but Scheler disputes this. 
 
 Conservative and Radical. 
 
 These terms were substituted in 1832 for 
 Tories and Whigs ; it was soon after the 
 passing of the Reform Bill. The parti- 
 sans of Sir Robert Peel adopted the 
 appellation, and gave out that their plat- 
 form was to conserve or maintain the 
 constitution against the inroads of de- 
 mocracy, which were ' destructive.' Radi- 
 cals are those who would eradicate, or 
 pull up by the roots, the monarchy, and 
 establish instead a democracy, or republic. 
 The term ' Radical ' is older than that of 
 Conservative, being applied in 1818 to 
 the party headed by Henry Hunt and 
 Major Cartwright, who advocated a racZi- 
 cal reform ; but since 1832 its meaning 
 has been changed. The Tories were 
 averse to change, the Conservatives were 
 willing to amend, the "Whigs would pre- 
 serve the monarchy, the Radicals would 
 convert it into a democracy. 
 
 Lord Eldon always manfully adhered to the old 
 ■word Tory ; the word respected, time honoured 
 of his party, under which for near two centuries 
 they had so gallantly defended the altar and the 
 throne— talking rather contemptuously of the 
 upstart appellation of ' Conservatives,' among 
 whom, he foretold, would be introduced some 
 very lax notions of religion and politics.— Lord 
 Campbell, Lives of the Chancellovs, xvii. p. 580. 
 
 Conservatoire, or * Conservatorio.* 
 An Italian school for the study of music, 
 its advancement, and purity. In Naples 
 there was at one time three such schools, 
 and in Venice four. In 1818 the Nea- 
 politan conservatoires were reduced to 
 one, called the Real Collegio di Musica, 
 and the Venetian schools were similarly 
 reduced. In 1808 a grand Conservatorio 
 was founded at Milan. In 1842 a school 
 for music was established by Mendelssohn 
 at Leipsic; and one was founded at 
 Cologne in 1849. 
 
 In 1784 was established a similar school called 
 L'Ecole Royale de Chattt, d-c.; and in 1793 was 
 founded the InstiUit National de Musique, which 
 in 1795 was changed into the Conservatoire de 
 Musiqtie. 
 
 Consiglio Maggiore {The). The 
 lower house of legislature in the re- 
 public of Florence, which in the time of 
 Savonarola consisted of 3,200 members, 
 divided into three sections, each of which 
 held office for six months. This council 
 did not originate laws, but had the 
 power of veto, and voted without dis- 
 
CONSISTOIRES 
 
 CONSPIEACY 
 
 201 
 
 cussion. All laws were proposed by the 
 Signoria, were discussed by the upper 
 chamber, called the Ottanta, and were 
 then sent to the great council to be 
 accepted or rejected. 
 
 Consistoires Isra'61ites [Les), 
 
 15 March, 1808 (France). Reorganised 
 5 May, 1844 ; distinguished into the 
 Consistoires Departiyientaux and the 
 Consistoire Central, which sits in Paris. 
 
 Consistorial (.4). In the Protest- 
 ant communion of France means an 
 assembly for the regulation of all things 
 bearing on the discipline and temporali- 
 ties of the Protestant churches. It ap- 
 points pastors and supplies vacancies. 
 In the Calvinist communion a synod 
 consists of five consistorial churches. 
 In the Lutheran communion five con- 
 sistorial churches constitute an In'-jJec 
 Hon. In Strasburg there is a General 
 Consistory, which has authority over all 
 other consistories and inspections. In 
 Paris, since 1852, has been instituted a 
 ' Conseil Central ' of the two churches. 
 
 Consistorial Phrases. Certain 
 
 Bible phrases learnt by Catharine de 
 Medicis with which to beguile the Con- 
 sistorials who had joined the Huguenots. 
 These were common in her mouth : To 
 ajyjJ't'ove of the counsel of Gamaliel; 
 Beautiful are the feet of those icho 
 preach the Gosjjel of Peace ; the king 
 she called the Lord's anointed, or tJie 
 image of the living God; I call the 
 Eternal to witness; Before God and 
 His angels. 
 
 Consistorialists, 1574. French 
 malcontents of the tradesmen and mer- 
 chant class, as opposed to the nobles, 
 magistrates, and councillors of towns. 
 Many of the clergy were Consistorialists. 
 These malcontents were very unwilling 
 to take up arms, but once in the battle- 
 field they insisted on sufficient guaran- 
 tees for the liberty of the reformed 
 church. The nobles, on the contrary, 
 were ever ready for a compromise if they 
 benefited thereby. The malcontents were 
 Catholics, but many joined the Hugue- 
 nots so long as they found it to their 
 advantage to do so. 
 
 Consistory [A). In Roman history. 
 A secret council of the Roman emperors 
 {Cuiisistorium), 
 
 Consistory (The). In Church his- 
 tory, the college of cardinals or council 
 of the Pope. There is a public and a 
 secret consistory. The public consistory 
 meets in the great room of the palace of 
 St. Peter, and the pope in his pontifical 
 robes, seated on a throne, and attended 
 by his court, presides. In this court 
 judicial causes, the canonisation of saints, 
 &c., are determined. The secret con- 
 sistory is held in the chamber called the 
 ' Chamber of Papogay ' (q.v.), and only 
 cardinals are admitted. In this court 
 the election of cardinals and bishops is 
 determined. 
 
 Consistory Court. The prseto- 
 rium of a diocesan bishop, held in his 
 cathedral, for the trial of ecclesiastical 
 matters arising within his jurisdiction. 
 The judge is the bishop's chancellor, or 
 his commissary, and the appeal is to the 
 archbishop of the province. 
 
 In Scotland a large portion of the Consistory 
 Court of Edinburgh was transferred to the courts 
 of the sheriffs by 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 69. 
 
 Consolati. The Consoled, a name 
 by which the Waldenses {q.v.) are some- 
 times called, on account of the consolation 
 and peace of mind which they derived 
 from their views of gospel Christianity. 
 
 Consolidated Fund (The), 1787 
 (27 Geo. III. c. 13). The union of the Ag- 
 gregate, General, and South Sea Funds. 
 In 1816, that of Ireland was combined 
 with it. This fund is pledged for the 
 pajonent of the whole interest of the na- 
 tional debt of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Consolidation Acts. Acts of 
 Parliament which combine dilferent pro- 
 visions of separate clauses into one act. 
 Thus we have — 
 
 The Companies' Clauses Consolida- 
 tion Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 16). 
 
 The Lands' Clauses Consolidation 
 Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 18). 
 
 The Railways' Clauses Consolidation 
 Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 20). 
 
 This is done to save the repetition, in 
 each special act, of the clauses intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Consols. The different government 
 stocks consolidated into one fund. The 
 Consolidated Annuity Act was passed in 
 1757. 
 
 Conspiracy of Pazzi {The). The 
 Pazzi was the rival power of the Medici 
 in Florence. Lorenzo de' Medici used 
 
202 
 
 CONSPIEACY 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 all his efforts to keep his rivals out of 
 power, and Sixtus IV,, the pope, who 
 hated the Medici, leagued with Francesco 
 Pazzi and Salviati (archbishop of Pisa) 
 to murder Lorenzo and his brother, and 
 place the Pazzi in the chief offices of 
 Florence. The plan was to murder the 
 two brothers while bent in adoration at 
 high mass. The elevation of the host by 
 the Archbishop of Pisa was to be the 
 secret sign of the attack. Bandini was 
 to murder the younger brother, and two 
 ecclesiastics were to despatch Lorenzo. 
 The younger brother, Giuliano, was mur- 
 dered, but Lorenzo escaped, and the con- 
 spirators were all put to death. 
 
 Conspiracy of 1618. Well known 
 to English readers by the tragedy of 
 * Venice Preserved ' by Otway (1682). The 
 Abbe St. Real says that the Duke d'Os- 
 suna, the Marquis de Bedmar, and Don 
 Pedro di Toledo, governor of Milan, con- 
 certed a plan for the destruction of Venice, 
 and entrusted to Pierre and Renault the 
 chief execution. On the eve of its 
 maturity, Antoine Jaffier, a French cap- 
 tain, one of the conspirators, peached, 
 and the conspiracy was dissolved. Pierre 
 and forty-five of his accomplices were 
 drowned, and Jaffier, being found to hold 
 communications with the conspirators 
 whom he had denounced, was drowned 
 also. 
 
 Belvidera is a wholly imaginary character. 
 Pierre was not stabbed by JatUer, and Jaffier did 
 not kill himself. Breaking on the wheel was a 
 punishment wholly unknown in the Kepublic of 
 Venice. Probably the whole conspiracy was 
 altogether a mare's-nest. 
 
 Constance {Treaty of), 1183. A 
 model of future treaties between the 
 German empire and the North Italian 
 states. By this treaty, signed by Frede- 
 rick Barbarossa, after his defeat at Leg- 
 nano in 1176, the Italian cities were 
 confirmed in their independence; they 
 had the right of declaring war, of coining 
 money, &c. See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' 
 voh i. p. 355. 
 
 Constantine of Gaul [The). Clo- 
 vis was sometimes so called, as Gibbon 
 informs us (465, 481-511). Constantine 
 was the father of the Christian Church in 
 the East, and Clovis was the father of the 
 ' Orthodox ' Church in Gaul. 
 
 Constantine Cross {A). 
 
 The inhabitants of Dakota were treated to a sub- 
 Uii.o . . . display on the morning of 9 January, 
 
 18R0, at nearly the time of sunrise. Three gorgeous 
 prismatic columns . . . shot up from the verge of 
 the prairie into the heavens in intense brilliancy, 
 equalling the light of the sun itself. . . . These 
 prismatic columns extended one-third of the way to 
 the zenith, and at the upper end gradually blended 
 with the sky. What made the phenomenon re- 
 markably striking was that the centre column 
 assumed the form of a cross, from a small cloud 
 which hung directly athwart the centre, and was 
 illuminated by the light of the sun, still below the 
 horizon, and forming the transept of the figure of 
 the cross,.— The Leeds Merciirv (quoted in ' Notes 
 and Queries,' 22 Jan., 1889, p. im). 
 
 Constantinople [Convention of), 
 1784. Between Catherine II. of Russia 
 and the Porte, confirming to Russia the 
 sovereignty of the Crimea. 
 
 Constituent Assembly [The), 
 27 June, 1789. ' L'Assemblee Constitu- 
 ante.' The name assumed by the Na- 
 tional Assembly [q.v.) after it was joined 
 by the Duke of Orleans and forty-seven 
 other members of the aristocracy, with a 
 large number of the clergy. So called 
 because the work they set themselves to 
 perform was to get France a constitution. 
 
 In 1848 the Legislative Assembly of 
 France was again called L'Assemblee 
 Constituante, because it set itself to give 
 France a.nother constitution, a democratic 
 republican one, with a four-years president 
 and universal suffrage. It met 4 May, 
 finished its labours 4 Nov., on 12 Nov. 
 proclaimed the republican constitution, 
 and gave place to the Legislative Assem- 
 bly. 
 
 In the first of these were three parties, the 
 right, the left, and the centre. The rigiit were tho 
 ministerial party, the left the republican party, 
 the centre the moderate party, or trimmers. 
 
 Constitution [A). The cudgel car- 
 ried by a Muscadin [q.v.). 
 
 Constitution de la R^publique 
 
 [La). I. 26 Feb., 1848-14 Jan., 1852. The 
 Second Republic of France. This constitu- 
 tion was even more democratic than that 
 provided by the Acte Constitutionnel 
 [q.v.). Every Frenchman in France, who 
 had attained the age of 21, was an elector, 
 and everyone who was 25 years old was 
 eligible to be a deputy in the National 
 Assembly, which consisted of 900 mem- 
 bers. There was only one assembly, the 
 members of which were elected by uni- 
 versal suffrage, the age of 21 being the 
 one and only restriction. The motto of 
 this constitution was ' Liberty, Fraternity, 
 and Equality.' 
 
 II. 13 Feb., 1871. This was the fifteenth 
 change since the reign of Louis XVI., 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 203 
 
 SO Sept., 1791. Represented by a presi- 
 dent and National Assembly. 
 
 The National Assembly Tiomlnally consists of 
 700 members, but as any deputy can represent 
 more than one constituency, the number docs not 
 
 Constitution Fran^aise (La), 30 
 Sept., 1791. Decreed by the National 
 and Constituent Assembly, and accepted 
 by Louis XVI. It was monarchical and 
 representative. The previous form of 
 government was thenceforward called 
 the 'Ancien Regime.' In 17i)3 the 
 Acte Constitution7iel {q.v.)intvodnced a 
 purely democratic crovernment, called the 
 * Constitution of '93 ' (q.v.). 
 
 Constitution of »83 (The). The 
 constitution given to France by the ' Acte 
 Constitutionnel ' presented to the nation 
 by the Convention 21 June, 1793, and based 
 on the sovereignty of the people, and the 
 indivisibility of the republic. On the 
 death of Robespierre inl79ithe Thermi- 
 dorians had the chief power, and set 
 about abolishing the Constitution of '93, 
 and on 24 June, 1795, they created an 
 executive director, assisted by two 
 councils. 
 
 Constitution of the Prasident 
 
 (The), 14 Jan., 1852. See ' Constitution of 
 the Second Empire.' 
 
 Louis Napoleon was elected president of the 
 French Republic 10 Dec, 1848; he re-establishod 
 universal suffrage 2 Dec, 18ol ; he v/asmade presi- 
 dent for ten years, by plobiscito. 20. 21 Dec. Is.'il ; 
 the Second Empire was established 7 Nov., 18J2; 
 Louis Napoleon was elected emperor by plebiscite 
 21, 22 Nov., 1862; and ha assumsd the title of 
 Napoleon III. Dec. 2, 1852. 
 
 Constitution of the Second 
 
 Empire (T/ie). Much the same as that of 
 the president, 14 Jan., 1852. It consisted 
 of an emperor, a senate, and a legislative 
 chamber. The senate consisted of 150 
 members chosen by the emperor, and each 
 member had a stipend equal to 1,200L a 
 year. Tha deputies of the corps Ugislatif 
 were elected for six years by uui verssil suf- 
 frage, and received a salary equal to lOOZ. 
 a month during the time of session. In 
 case of a dissolution, a new coi'ps le'gis- 
 latif was to be in sessions within six 
 months. The number of deputies fluctu- 
 ated with the population, each of the 
 eighty-nine departments having one re- 
 presentative for every 35,000 inhabitants. 
 There was also a council of state com- 
 posed of the emperor, all members of the 
 imperial family, a president, vice-presi- 
 
 dent, and about 150 councillors; acting 
 as a high court of appeal. In 1870 the 
 emperor resigned the right of proposing 
 laws, and made himself a ' constitutional 
 emperor.' 
 
 Constitution of the Second 
 Republic [The), 13 Feb., 1871. M. 
 Tillers being the first president and 
 minister of war, with a stipend of 2,000Z. 
 a year. See ' Constitution de la Re'pub- 
 lique,' II. (Thiers, pronounce Tear.) 
 
 Constitution of Year III. {The), 
 24 June, 1795—24 Dec, 1799. This 
 form of government was adopted in 
 France after that called ' The Constitu- 
 tion of '93,' which after the reign of 
 terror was impracticable. The legisla- 
 tive power was vested in two houses, 
 called the Council of Elders ai\d the 
 Council of 500. The former contained 
 250 members. The executive was en- 
 trusted to five directors, called the 
 Directory. All laws were to emanate 
 from the 500, the elders rejected or 
 ratified them, and the directors saw 
 that they were carried out. 
 
 Constitution of Year VIII., 
 
 24 Dec, 1799—2 Aug., 1802. It vested the 
 power of government, in France, in 3 
 consuls, 60 senators, 100 tribunes called 
 the tribunate, and 300 legislators called 
 the corps liyislatif. 
 
 The 1st and 2nd consuls were to hold ofiBce for 
 10 years, the 3rd for only 5. The 1st consul was 
 almost absolute. In 1802 the consular ollice was 
 for life. In 1814 the conservative senate became 
 tiie ■ Chamber of Deputies." In 1807 the tribunate 
 was suppressed, and the corps legislatif was 
 addressed by the Cornell d'Etat. 
 
 In 1814 the corps legislatif was replaced by the 
 Chamber of Deputies. During the 'Hundred 
 D -.ys ' the Chamber of Deputies was called the 
 ' Gil xmber of Representatives ;' In 1S15 it was 
 atfain called the 'Chamber of Deputies;' and in 
 l8oi it resumed its name of the corps legislatif, 
 
 Conctitution of Year X. {The), 
 
 2 Aug., 1802—18 May, 1804. Bona- 
 parte was made consul for life, and the 
 entire executive power was vested in his 
 hands. The act which established this 
 constitution was the Senatus-consulte 
 organique de la constitution {YearX). 
 
 Constitution of Year XII. 
 
 {The), 18 May, 1804—4 June, 1814. Con- 
 ferring on Napoleon I. the title of em- 
 peror. The act which created this con- 
 stitution was the Senatus-consulte or- 
 ganique de VEmvire Francais (Year 
 XII). 
 
204 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS 
 
 CONTINENTAL 
 
 Constitutions were the edicts of 
 the Roman emperors. The first com- 
 pilation of these edicts was by Theodosius 
 the younger, from Constantine to a.d. 
 438 ; but tlie great compilation was the 
 Imperial Constitutions of Justinian, 
 A.D. 529. 
 
 See ' Apostolical Constitutions.' 
 
 Constitutions {The). That is, the 
 Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.). 
 
 The pope advocated the side of the primate 
 [i.e. Becket], and condemned 'the Constitutions.' 
 — PiNNOCK, A7ialijsis of the Early Church, p. 82. 
 
 Constitutions of Clarendon 
 
 {The), 1164. Sixteen ordinances agreed 
 to in the General Council assembled by 
 Henry II. at his palace of Clarendon, "Wilt- 
 shire. The objects of these ordinances 
 were to define the limits between civil and 
 ecclesiastical jurisdictions, to abolish the 
 abuses arising from the encroachments of 
 the popes, and to limit the papal patron- 
 age and jurisdiction in the realm. 
 
 These enactments provide that the clergy shall 
 be amenable to the king's courts ; that no appeal 
 shall in any case be carried from the king s 
 courts to the pope ; that no dignitary of England 
 shall quit the kingdom without the king's per- 
 mission ; that no officer or tenant of the crown 
 shall be excommunicated without the king's 
 sanction ; that presentations to all royal livings 
 shall be with the king; that the revenues of 
 vacant livings still accrue to the crown ; that all 
 bishops shall be made by the king's writ ; and 
 before consecration every nominee shall pay 
 homage and fealty to the crown. 
 
 Constitutions of King Half 
 
 {The). Regulations for pirates : (1) No 
 one to wear a sword more than an ell 
 long; (2) each pirate must be able to 
 encounter twelve ordinary men ; (3) no 
 boys or women to be made prisoners ; 
 (4) no wounds to be bound till after the 
 lapse of twenty hours. (Bartholinus, 
 ' De Causis Contemptse a Danis Mortis,' 
 book ii. 9.) 
 
 Constitutions of Otho {The), 
 1287. Passed by a council held in Lon- 
 don by Otho, the papal legate, forbidding 
 the clergy to keep concubines * openly in 
 their houses,' or to visit them ' openly, 
 to the great scandal of religion.' The 
 same constitutions forbade the clandes- 
 tine marriages of priests, which were 
 declared to be very common. 
 
 Constitutional Agitation Act 
 
 {The), 1792. A mere mask to mislead 
 the loyalists of Ireland, by giving out 
 that Irish agitation should be carried on 
 by constitutional means. 
 
 It is a, plan that has proved eminently success- 
 ful in preventing the Government from grappling 
 with the bcs'inning of sedition ... it is a game of 
 masked sedition. — Irish Seditions, 1792-1880, p. 34. 
 
 Constitutional Assembly of 
 Rome {The), 30 March, 1848. A re- 
 publican assembly of deputies established 
 in Rome by the triumvirate Mazzini, 
 Armellini, and Suffi. 
 
 Constitutional Charter {The), 
 4 June, 1814. Given by Louis XVIII. to 
 France. It established a representative 
 government, composed of two houses, one 
 of hereditary peers (a house of lords) and 
 the other of elective depu ies (a house of 
 commons). The franchise he restricted 
 to persons above 30 years of age who paid 
 annually at least 12Z. of direct taxes. 
 
 He thus disfranchised about three and a half 
 millions of his subjects. 
 
 Constitutional Society {The), 
 1709. A society founded by Horne Tooke 
 and Wilkes for supporting the Bill of 
 Rights. In 1775 Lord North commented 
 sharply on the conduct of this society, 
 and Tooke was prosecuted for circulating 
 letters of the society denouncing the skir- 
 mish of Lexington (America) ' as a bloody 
 murder on our own part of British sub- 
 jects.' The society voted the sum of lOOZ. 
 for the relief of the widows and children 
 of those who fell at Lexington on the 
 American side. 
 
 Constitutionalists The), 1814, of 
 Spain. The Exaltados or radicals were 
 so called, because they wanted to restore 
 the constitution given to Spain in 1812, 
 but abolished by Ferdinand VII. in 
 1814. 
 
 In 1S20 Ferdinand swore adherence to the con- 
 stitution, and for two years matters went on more 
 smoothly ; but then civil war broke out afresh, 
 Louis XVIII. interfered, and for many years Spain, 
 from one cause or another, was in almost cease- 
 less broils. 
 
 Consubstantialists(rM- Those 
 who maintained what was palled the 
 homO'Ousion, i.e. that the Father, Son, 
 and Holy Ghost are all of the same na- 
 ture. Aristotle says the stars are con- 
 substantial or homo-ousian. So men are 
 consubstantial or homo-ousian. 
 
 Consulate {The), of France, from 
 10 Nov., 1790-18 May, 1804. See * Conr 
 stitution of Year VIIL' 
 
 Continental System {The). A 
 pet system of Napoleon's to ruin England 
 by ruining her trade. He prohibited any 
 
CONTINENTAL 
 
 CONVENTION 
 
 nation over which he had control or in- 
 fluence to trade with Great Britain ; he 
 enjoined that every subject of the British 
 kingdom who set foot on the continent 
 •should be accounted a prisoner of war, and 
 all British merchandise be considered law- 
 ful prize. The folly of boycotting England 
 was this : as Great Britain was the best 
 customer of these continental nations, 
 they ruined their own commerce in seek- 
 ing to ruin that of England. 
 
 The first announcement of this system was made 
 9 Feb., IHOI ; the ' Berlin decree ' was made 21 Nov., 
 1807. Austria acceded to tlie system 24 Nov., 1807 ; 
 Sweden 17 Sept. 1809 ; the Eoman States in Dec. 
 Eussia relaxed 31 Dec, 1810. Strenuous efforts were 
 made by France to enforce the system in 1812, but 
 after the Moscow expedition in the autumn of that 
 year the system was wholly abandoned. 
 
 Continental Troops {The), 1775. 
 A body of men maintained by the 
 united colonies of North America, in 
 the War of Independence, and placed 
 under George Washington. The conti- 
 nental troops must not be confounded 
 with the provincial militia. 
 
 Continual Council (The). Certain 
 great prelates and lords, who combined 
 together in the reign of Edward I. to 
 control the king and overpower the par- 
 liament. Edward II. tried to oust them 
 by choosing his council from men of in- 
 ferior rank, but the ' continual council ' 
 then formed themselves into a standing 
 committee of bishops, earls, and barons, 
 for the government of the realm, and 
 drew up certain 'articles of reform,' 
 which transferred the power of the crown 
 uito the hands of the ' Lords Ordainers,' 
 as the committee called themselves. Ed- 
 ward 11. resisted for a time, but was 
 ultimately compelled to take some of the 
 most powerful of the barons into his 
 privy council. 
 
 Contra-Remonstrants, or ' Anti- 
 Eemonstrants,' 1611. The Calvinists, or 
 Gomarists(g'.y.), who opi)osed the Remon- 
 strants or Arminian party. This party 
 became more violent after the Synod of 
 Dort, 1619. 
 
 It is said that the Socinian bias of Vorstius 
 greatly weakened the Arminian party. 
 
 Conventicle Acts [The). I. The 
 First, 16 Car. II. c. 4 (1664). By this act, 
 every person found at any dissenting meet- 
 ing, where more than five persons were 
 present, was punishable by fine, or three 
 months' imprisonment. For a thud 
 
 offence a person might be transported for 
 seven years. 
 
 In 1670 (22 Car. II. c. 1) this act was 
 enlarged. Children above 16 j-ears of age 
 were to be fined 5s. each for attending 
 such meetings for the first offence, and 
 10s. for every subsequent offence. The 
 preacher was to be fined 201. for the first 
 offence, and 40Z. for every subsequent 
 one. The master of the house where the 
 meeting was held was to be fined 201. for 
 each offence. Repealed by the Toleration 
 Act, 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1689). 
 
 IL The Second, 1670 (22 Car. II.). By 
 which it was furthermore enacted, that 
 all incumbents who had been admitted 
 by the kirk-sessions and lay-elders during 
 the interregnum in England must receive 
 a jpresentation from the patron of the 
 living, and be instituted afresh by the 
 bishop of the diocese, under pain of de- 
 privation. In consequence of this law 
 350 parishes were declared vacant. 
 
 Convention Rationale (La), 10 
 Aug., 1792. Succeeded the ' Assemble'e 
 Le'gislative.' The first sessions held 
 21 Sej)t., when royalty m France was 
 abolished, and France was declared a re- 
 public. 17 Jan., 1793, they condemned 
 Louis XVI. to death. 1 Feb., 1793, they 
 declared war against England, Spain, and 
 Holland. 5 Oct., 1703, they introduced the 
 Revolutionary Calendar. 16 Oct., 1793, 
 they condemned to death Mary Antoin- 
 ette. 81 Oct., 1793, they condemned to 
 death twenty-one of the Girondin depu- 
 ties. 5 April, 1794, they condemned to 
 death Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and 
 several members of the club of the Cor- 
 deliers. 27 July, 1794, they outlawed 
 the two Robespierres and their chief 
 partisans. 31 May, 1795, the" .-^iippressed 
 the Revolutionary Tribunal. 22 July, 
 1795, they concluded peace with Spain. 
 26 Oct., 1795, they passed a decree of 
 general amnesty, and declared its ses- 
 sions terminated. They met in the 
 Tuileries. Chief members were Brissot, 
 Collot d'Herbois, Condorcet, Couthon, 
 Danton, Gensonne, Marat, Pethion, 
 Robespierre, St. Just, Tallien, and 
 Vergniaud. 
 
 Convention Parliament {The). 
 I. 1660. The first parliament after the 
 restoration, consisting of both houses. It 
 was not called together by order of the 
 sovereign, but was merely convened by 
 
CONVENTION 
 
 CONVOCATION 
 
 Monk. Passed an act restoring the an- 
 cient general constitution of kings, lords, 
 and commons, and was legalised by 
 Charles II. The Convention Parliament 
 was certainly the most bloodthirsty and 
 mfamous of all the parliaments in the 
 annals of English history. Even John 
 Milton, the immortal poet, was con- 
 demned by it to death ; but the fame of 
 his great genius saved him, and Eng- 
 land was si)ared the scandal of so great 
 a shame. First met 25 April, 1660 ; dis- 
 solved 29 Dec, 1660. 
 
 II. 22 Jan., 1689, dissolved 29 Jan., 
 1691, under William III. (prince of 
 Orange). Conferring the crown on Wil- 
 liam and Mary. See ' Parliament ' and 
 ' Geneva Convention.' 
 
 Convention of Cintra (The), 30 
 August, 1808. This was really the conven- 
 tion signed at Torres Vedras, when Junot 
 agreed to quit Portugal ; but the despatch 
 of Sir Hew Dalrymple, inclosing a copy 
 of the treaty, was dated from Cintra, 13 
 miles from Torres Vedras. Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley was so disgusted with the treaty 
 that he requested to be recalled. 
 
 The French ought to have been made to disgorge 
 all their spoil. The llussian fleet ought to have 
 been given up to England ; and Junot, with his 
 army, ought to have been forbidden to take any 
 further part in the war. 
 
 Convention of Estates. The 
 
 Scottish Parliament was so called be- 
 tween the removal of a king from Scot- 
 land and the Union. Convention is a 
 word applied to a parliament not sum- 
 moned by the king. Sometimes spoken 
 of as ' The Estates,' and sometimes as 
 * The Convention.' 
 
 Convention of St. Cloud (The), 
 5 July, 1815. A military convention 
 signed at St. Cloud by Davoust, Welling- 
 ton, and Bliicher, to put an end to further 
 hostilities. The next day the allies 
 entered Paris for the 2nd time, and 
 Louis XVIII. foUowed on the 8th. 
 
 Convention of Sempach (The), 
 1393. The act of confederation between 
 the Swiss and the Austrians. The two 
 memorable battles of Morgarten and 
 Sempach, won by the Swiss, had lowered 
 the pride of Austria, who concluded peace 
 with Switzerland for twenty years. 
 
 Convention of the Irish Eule 
 
 {The). According to their own circular, 
 the object of tlu& association was 'to 
 promote the confederation of every body 
 
 in America, and, if possible, in the whole 
 world, to advance the welfare of a 
 wretched, oppressed, plundered, and mis- 
 governed people [the Irish], and to awaken 
 the long-suspended conscience of a power- 
 ful and brutal foe [the English].' 
 
 Converters, or 'Propagators of 
 the Faith,' 1630. Missionaries, or rather 
 ambulating controversialists — monks, 
 Capuchins, and Recollets (q.v.) — with 
 others of meaner sort, paid for every 
 convert they made to the Catholic faith. 
 
 Fenelon says many were cordwainers, brokers, 
 tailors, itinerant grinders, and little shopmen, 
 who, without any study, abandoned their trade 
 to convert the Huguenots ; but they drew down 
 upon the Converters universal contempt by their 
 ignorance and fanaticism. 
 
 Convertisseur. A title given to 
 Pe'lisson, the great converter of the 
 French Huguenots in the reign of Louis 
 XIV. In 1677 Louis devoted a secret 
 fund for the conversion of these ' heretics,' 
 the price paid per head was about 5s. 
 (6 livres), and Pelisson was the chief in- 
 strument in distributing this fund. 
 
 The French livre = a franc. The livi-e tourvoia 
 was a little less, but in each case 20 sous = 1 livre. 
 The exact deficit of the livre tournois was : 81 such 
 livres were equal to 80 francs. 
 
 Convocation, 12th cent. An as- 
 sembly of the archbishops, bishops, and 
 canons, summoned by the king's writ 
 for the purpose of assessing themselves 
 in levies of taxes. Subsequently other 
 church questions v/ere discussed in these 
 meetings, but the crown had the power 
 of proroguing and dissolving them. In 
 10i)5 the clergy gave up the power of 
 taxing themselves, and Convocation lost 
 its7'aison d'etre. Now, Convocation con- 
 sists of two houses ; in the upper house 
 sit the prelates; in the lower house 
 deans, archdeacons, canons, and proctors. 
 Both are mere debating societies without 
 one jot of authority. 
 
 In the Convocation of York the same distinction 
 exists, but the business has generally been con- 
 ducted in one assembly (1890). 
 
 Convocation. In England. A synod 
 of clergymen dating from 8 Hen. VI. c. 1, 
 A.D. 1429. Reconstituted by 25 Hen. VIII. 
 c. 19, A.D. 1533, but greatly changed in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1600. 
 
 The Convocation of Canterbury was 
 then made to comprise all the bishops of 
 the province, who compose the upper 
 house. While the lower house con- 
 sists of 22 deans, 53 archdeacons 24 
 proctors of chapters, 44 proctors of the 
 
CONVULSIONISTS 
 
 CORINTHIANS 
 
 217 
 
 parochial clergy, and one precentor (of 
 St. David's). 
 
 The Convocation of York is of much 
 smaller extent. Occasionally the two act 
 together. See ' House of Convocation.' 
 
 In 1870 the Convocation of Canterbury ap- 
 pointed the Committee of Revisers of the Autho- 
 rised Version of the Bible. 
 
 Convulsionists, 1632. I. The con- 
 vulsion epidemic broke out in whole 
 nunneries about Bordeaux, especially in 
 the convent des Ursulines of Loudun, an 
 educational establishment. In 1G86, the 
 French refugees, driven from house and 
 home in the infamous dragonnade expedi- 
 tions, were affected by the same epidemic. 
 See ' Convulsionnaires ' and ' Plagues,' 
 &c. 
 
 II. 1882. An extreme democrat or 
 radical, whose f)latform is convulsion, or 
 plucking up the established order of all 
 things by the roots. 
 
 Convulsionnaires, 1730. Certain 
 Jansenists of France who met in St. 
 Medard's churchyard, in the suburbs of 
 Paris, where was the tomb of the Abbe 
 Fran(^ois de Paris, who had died in 1727, 
 where numberless miracles were alleged 
 to have been done. These fanatics 
 ' threw themselves into the most violent 
 contortions of body ; rolled about on the 
 ground, imitated birds, beasts, and fishes; 
 and when utterly exhausted .went off in 
 convulsions or a swoon.' Louis XV. 
 ordered them to be imprisoned in 1733, 
 but it was not possible to stamp out the 
 fervour altogether. In the revival meet- 
 ings in the last quarter of the 19th cent, 
 similar exhibitions have been recorded 
 m the daily papers. 
 
 When the king commanded the cemetery gates 
 to be closed, a wit wrote over them : 
 
 Henceforth the king forbids God's grace 
 To show His wonders in this place. 
 
 Co-operative Stores. Retail 
 stores for the sale of groceries, draj)ery- 
 goods, shoes, and even butcher's meat 
 and poultry, of the best quality at the 
 lowest profitable price. The movement 
 began at Rochdale in 1813. In London 
 the Civil Service Co-operative Store does 
 an enormous business, insomuch that an 
 original IZ. share is worth 2001. (1890), 
 and the capital of the stores is worth 
 seven millions sterling. The next largest 
 is the Army and Navy Stores. Every 
 customer must be a member by the pay- 
 
 ment of 20.S., and all sales are strictly for 
 ready money. A member may hold as 
 many as 200 shares. 
 
 Copenhagen {Peace of), 10 June, 
 1660. Between Denmark and Sweden, 
 effected by the Swedish Government on 
 the death of their king Carle X. By 
 this treaty the district of Trondhjem and 
 the island of Bornholm were restored to 
 the Danes. See ' Treaty of Roskilde.' 
 
 Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem. 
 
 Copley Medal (The), 1709. Insti- 
 tuted in the Royal Society of London 
 by Sir Godfrey Copley for scientific dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Copts, or * Copti.' Egyptian Chris- 
 tians of the Eutychian heresy. They 
 continue the practice of circumcision. 
 Their patriarch lives in Cairo, and is 
 called the Patriarch of Alexandria and 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Copyright. See 'Lord Mahon's 
 Act.' 
 
 Coqueluehe (The Great Plague of), 
 1580. Was so called in France ' parce que 
 les malades a I'agonie rendaient des sons 
 enroue's, comme le fait un coq.' A sort 
 of catarrhe convulsif, or hooping-cough. 
 
 Cordeliers. I. The French name 
 for the strictest branch of the Franciscan 
 friars, who wore a girdle of knotted cord. 
 
 II. 1790. A republican club which 
 held its sessions in the convent of the 
 Cordeliers, Paris. It was opposed to the 
 Jacobins (q.v.), and affected extreme 
 poverty. It was this club which de- 
 manded the abolition of royalty and the 
 institution of a free republic. Closed 
 by the Convention at the death of Danton 
 in 1794. 
 
 The chief members were the giant Danton ; the 
 scarcely less notorious Camille Desrnoulins, He- 
 bert, the editor of ' Ptre Duchene,' and Marat, the 
 bloodtliirsly young surgeon. Camille Desmoulins 
 was the editor of a popular journal called Le I'ieux 
 Cordelier. 
 
 Corinthians. I. Prize-fighters. Fal- 
 stafE calls himself ' a Corinthian .... a 
 lad of mettle ' (1 Hen. IV. act ii. 4). So 
 called from the Isthmian games held by 
 the Greeks on the Isthmus of Corinth 
 every alternate spring. In these games 
 boxing formed a j)rominent part, and St. 
 Paul, in his first epistle to the Corin- 
 thians (ix. 26), alludes to the racing and 
 boxing so famous in Corinth, when he 
 says, ' I, therefore, so run, not as uncer- 
 
203 
 
 COEK 
 
 CORONA 
 
 tainly ; so fight I, not as one that beateth 
 the air,' 
 
 A Corinthian, a swell of the first water. 
 
 Brave Tom, the champion, with an air 
 Almofct Corinthian took the chair. 
 
 Crib, Memorial. 
 
 II, In the days of the Regency, Corin- 
 thians meant London bloods, or, more 
 strictly speaking, members of the Pugi- 
 listic Club, in Bond Street, London, of 
 which both George the prince regent 
 and his brother Frederick duke of York 
 were distinguished members. The Prince 
 Regent was the chief champion of the 
 Bristoleans (Belcher, Cribb, and Moli- 
 neux), the Duke of York was leader of 
 the Hebrew school, of whom Mendoza 
 was the principal. Thomas Cribb was 
 actually attached to the household of the 
 Prince of Wales, much to the annoyance 
 of the general public. 
 
 Cork, in Ireland, is the Irish corcah, 
 a marsh. 
 
 Cork -boys, 17C2. A political Irish 
 association, a Cork branch of the White- 
 boys (q.v.). Their especial grievance 
 was the payment of tithes. See ' Irish 
 Associations,' 
 
 Corn Importation Bill (The), 
 184(5. When wheat is 48s. the duty shall 
 fall by Is. with every shilling in price 
 till it touches 53s., when the fixed duty 
 shall be 4s, This scale to last for three 
 years, and to disappear on 1 Feb., 1849, 
 leaving from that date only a normal 
 rate of duty. All colonial wheat and 
 flour to be admitted at once at a nominal 
 rate. 
 
 Corn-law Rhymer {The). Ebe- 
 nezer Elliott (1781-1849) ; born near 
 Rotherham, in Yorkshire. His Corn-law 
 Rhymes were published in 1831. 
 
 Corn Laws (The). Laws to regu- 
 late the exportation and importation of 
 corn date as far back as 1300, which pro- 
 hibited the exportation of corn except to 
 Calais and Gascony. In 1393 the right 
 to export was granted. In 1436 the right 
 to exj)ort was granted only when wheat 
 did not exceed 6s. Sd. a quarter. From 
 that time sundry laws were made, till 
 1828, when the sliding scale was 'pcT- 
 fectcd.' By this law, if wheat was sell- 
 ing at 02s. a quarter, a duty of 24s. 8d. a 
 quarter was imposed on imported corn ; 
 for every shilling less than 62s. a quarter 
 
 an extra shilling was added to the im- 
 port duty ; but when corn exceeded that 
 price, the import duty rapidly decreased, 
 till the price of coin reached 73s. a 
 quarter (famine price), when a minimum 
 duty of a shilling was imposed on im- 
 ported corn. 
 
 Cornage. A kind of tenure in grand 
 sergeanty. The service in this tenure 
 was the blowing of a horn to warn the 
 subjects of the king when any invasion 
 of the Scots was detected or apprehended 
 (Latin, cornu, a horn). 
 
 Corn-cracker State (The). The 
 State of Kentucky, The inhabitants are 
 called Corn-crackers, 
 
 Corneille du Boulevard (Le). 
 Guilbert de Pixe're'court (1773-1844), 
 
 Cornwallis (A). A sort of Guy 
 Fawkes procession once held in the U.S., 
 to commemorate the struggle for inde- 
 pendence, typified by the surrender of 
 Lord Cornwallis at York Town in 1781 to 
 the united American and French army. 
 Prior to this he had rendered himself 
 formidable to the Americans in the 
 battle of Brandywine, by the reduction 
 of Charleston, and his victories at Cam- 
 den and Guilford, Now obsolete. 
 
 Coro'na {The Eoman). 1. ' Corona 
 Castrensis,' or ' Corona Vallaris,' a gold 
 crown, ornamented with palisades [valla), 
 bestowed on the soldier who first sur- 
 mounted the stockade, and forced his 
 way into an enemy's camp, 
 
 2, Corona Civtca (a civic crown), a 
 chaplet of oak-leaves and acorns,' be- 
 stowed on the Roman soldier who saved 
 the life of a comrade in battle and slew 
 the antagonist, 
 
 3. Corona Classtca, or Corona Nava- 
 lis, or Corona Eostrdia, a gold chaplet 
 designed to imitate the beaks of ships 
 {rostra), presented to the admiral who 
 had destroyed an enemy's fleet {classis). 
 
 4. Corona Longa, a festoon of flowers 
 hung round the neck on festive occasions, 
 as on the feast of Bacchus, &c, 
 
 5, Corona Murdlis (or mural crown) 
 decorated with the towers and turrets of 
 a battlement, and bestowed on the soldier 
 who first scaled the walls of a besieged city. 
 
 7. Corona Natalitta, a wreath of 
 laurel, ivy, or parsley, hung over a door 
 to announce the birth of a child. In 
 
COr.ONA 
 
 COEPOEAL 
 
 209 
 
 Holland a rosette of lace is the natal 
 symbol. 
 
 8. Corona OhsidiondUs, a garland of 
 grasses and wild flowers presented to a 
 commander who came to the relief of a 
 besieged army. The least in value, and 
 highest in honour, of aU crowns. 
 
 9. Corona Oleaglna, a wreath of olive- 
 leaves, presented to all those by whose 
 counsel or instrumentality a triumph 
 was obtained, whether present or not in 
 the action. 
 
 10. Corona Ovdlis, a chaplet of myrtle 
 won by a general in an ovation. 
 
 11. Corona PactUis, or Pleclilis, a 
 wi-eath of natural flowers with their 
 leaves and stalks, worn on festive occa- 
 sions. 
 
 12. Corona Badidta, for gods and 
 emperors. A band of gold set round 
 with conical rays, tapering upwards. 
 
 13. Corona SutUis, a wreath of roses 
 without their stalks, worn by the Salii at 
 their festivals, 
 
 14. Corona Triumphdlis, worn by a 
 general in a triumph. Some were laurel 
 leaves without their berries, some were 
 gold leaves in imitation, and some were 
 of gold, not worn, but presented as a 
 valuable gift. 
 
 Corona never meant a royal crown. No. 12 
 vas worn by emperors not as impc rata r but divus. 
 Ihe royal head-dress was a white band tied 
 beiiind the head in a bow with long ends. Asiatic 
 taonarchs wore a blue and white fillet. 
 
 Besides the corona mentioned above, there were 
 others not honorary, but only emblematical, such 
 as the Corona Saccrdotdlh, worn during sacritice, 
 both by priests and people. 
 
 Corona Fiinebiis, or ScpulchrSlis, with which the 
 dead were crowned. 
 
 Corona Convividlis, the Corona NnpHdlis, and the 
 Corona Kntntilia over the door of the vestibule 
 \vhere a child was born. 
 
 Coro'na Sacerdotalis. A crown 
 of flowers worn by the clergy on certain 
 high festivals, when they walked in pro- 
 cession from the monastery to the parish 
 church. Thus, in the fifteenth century, 
 Eoger de Walden went to St. Paul's to be 
 enthroned bishop, crowned with a wreath 
 of red roses. Poiidore Vergil (sixteenth 
 .century) refers to the same custom at the 
 feast of St. Paid. Stow speaks of ' the 
 dean and chapter issuing from the west 
 door with roses on their heads.' 
 
 The tonsure was called the ' corona clericalis,' 
 meant to symbolise the crown of thorns.— BEDE, 
 V. 22, 
 
 Coronation of English Queens 
 
 {The). The queen of William I. crowned 
 two years after the coronation of the 
 
 king ; the queen of Henry I, ditto ; the 
 queen of John not crowned with him, but 
 alone ; the queen of Henry III, not 
 crowned with him, but afterwards alone ; 
 the queen of Edward III. crowned alone ; 
 the queen of Henry IV. not crowned 
 with him, but alone ; the queen of Henry 
 V. ditto ; the queen of Henry VI. ditto ; 
 the queen of Henry VII. crowned long 
 after him; the queens of Henry VIII. 
 some crowned and some not crowned; 
 the queen of Charles I, never crowned ; 
 the queen of Charles II, ditto ; the queen 
 of George I. ditto ; the queen of George 
 IV. never crowned. 
 
 Coronation of the Ass {The). 
 
 An important ceremony in the Festival 
 of Vesta, to commemorate the following 
 incident: Vesta was once brutally as- 
 saulted by some Eoman ruffians, who 
 would have offered her indecent violence, 
 but were alarmed by the sudden braying 
 of an ass. See ' Feast of the Ass.' 
 
 Coroners, 1079, were originally state 
 officers with authority to determine felo- 
 nies; but now they only take inquisitions 
 of death. They are elected for life, and 
 have authority to assemble juries, "When 
 a jury is assembled, it is charged and 
 sworn by the coroner to inquire, upon 
 view of the dead body, how the party 
 came by its death. Eecently, the coroner 
 has been empowered to order the attend- 
 ance of a legally-qualified medical at- 
 tendant to make a post-mortem examina- 
 tion if required. The fee is one guinea 
 for attendance without a post-mortem, 
 and two guineas for attendance with 
 post-mortem examination. 
 
 Corporal D'Eprd, 1814. A sobri- 
 quet under which the imperialists toasted 
 Napoleon while he was in Elba. D'Epre 
 is a pun on the word depre, parted [from 
 
 us]. 
 
 Corporal Violet, 1814, The sobri- 
 quet under which Napoleon was toasted 
 during his stay in Elba. The violet is 
 and was the floral emblem of the French 
 empire. Napoleon left for Elba in May, 
 but it was generally thought by the im- 
 perial party that he would return the 
 spring following 'with the violets,' and 
 so he did. 
 
 The Government of Louis XVIII. never paid the 
 moncv promised to the ' Emperor of Elba,' and 
 therefore broiie the contract which bound the exile 
 to his abdication of the throne of Franca. 
 
210 
 
 CORPORATION 
 
 CORRUPT 
 
 Corporation Act (T7ie), 1661. This 
 act, i^assed in the reign of Charles II., 
 coniijelled everyone, before being admit- 
 ted to any office in any municipal corpo- 
 ration, to take the sacrament in the 
 Established Church, to subscribe the de- 
 claration abjuring the Solemn League 
 and Covenant, and also that against the 
 lawfulness of taking up arms against the 
 ruling sovereign on any pretence what- 
 soever. See ' Test Act ' and ' Municipal 
 Corporation Act.' 
 
 Corporation and Test Act Re- 
 peal Bill {T}ie\ 9 Geo. IV., May 1828. 
 To repeal the * Corporation ' and ' Test ' 
 Acts {c[.v.). See 'Municipal Corporation, 
 &c.' 
 
 Corporation Oath {The), 1661. 
 Passed by the Pension Parliament {q.v.) 
 to this effect : ' I do declare and believe 
 that it is not lawful upon any pretence 
 whatever to take arms against the king; 
 and I do abhor that traitorous position of 
 taking arms by his authority against his 
 person, or against those commissioued by 
 him.' 
 
 Corps Ldgislatif {Le), of the Con- 
 sulate, 24 Dec, 1799. Consisting of 300 
 deputies. The Tribunate acted as a 
 legislative grand jury, deciding what 
 laws and bills were to tae laid before the 
 Corps Legislatif. In 1807 the Conseil 
 d'Etat took the place of the Tribunate. 
 In 1814 this body was reiDlaced by the 
 ' Chamber of Deputies.' During the 
 
 • Hundred Days ' the ' Chamber of I)ei)u- 
 ties ' was called the Chamber of Bepre- 
 sentatives. In 1815 it was again called 
 the ' Chamber of Deputies.' In 1852 it 
 resumed the name of the Cor^s Legis- 
 latif. 
 
 Pronounce Cw lay-jis-lah'-ieef. 
 
 Corpus Christi College. I. Cam- 
 bridge [C. C. C. C], 1352. Founded by 
 the guilds of Corpus Christi and of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, assisted by Henry 
 duke of Lancaster, and originally called 
 'Benet College.' The head is called 
 
 • master.' 
 
 II. Oxford, 1516. Founded by Fox, 
 bishop of Winchester. The head is called 
 ' president.' 
 
 Corpus Christi Festival {The). 
 Called by the French Fete Dieu, 1264, in 
 honour of the consecrated host or wafer. 
 It is held on the Thursday following 
 
 Trinity Sunday, and is the most splendid 
 festival of the Catholic Church. 
 
 Corpus Juris Canon'ici. A sum- 
 mary of the legal responses and papal 
 rescripts respecting the jurisdiction of the 
 Church of Rome. It contains three parts : 
 viz. (1) The Decretals, in 5 books ; (2) The 
 Text, in 5 books ; and (3) The Extrava- 
 gantes Communes. — The Decretals, com- 
 piled by Raimond de Pennafort, by order 
 of Gregory IX., contain the rescript of 
 the popes Alexander III., Innocent III., 
 and Gregory IX., and was published in 
 1234. The Text was compiled by order 
 of Boniface VIII., and continued the De- 
 cretals to the reign of the living pope. 
 The Extravagantes Communes contained 
 the ' Clementines,' or constitutions of 
 Clement V. and the Extravagantes Johan- 
 nis (XXII.). 
 
 Corpus Juris Civi'lis. The sum- 
 mary of Roman laws made in the reign 
 of the Emperor Justinian. It consisted 
 of four parts : (1) The Code, in 12 tables ; 
 
 (2) The Digest or Pandects, in 50 books ; 
 
 (3) The Institutes, & ]?recis of the Digest 
 to teach the rudiments of Roman law, 
 in 4 books ; and (4) the Novels, contain- 
 ing 16 edicts and 168 new laws by Justi- 
 nian himself. The first three published 
 A.D. 533, the last in 534. 
 
 Correggio. The best pictures of 
 Correggio were actually used in the royal 
 stables in the North to keep the wind 
 from the backs or tails of the horses. 
 
 Well then, the Charles of Mb. West 
 And Oliver, I do protest. 
 And eke the witnesses of resurrection (Peter 
 and John) 
 Will stop a hole, keep out the wind, 
 And make a properer window-blind, 
 Than great Correggio, used for horse-protec- 
 tion. 
 
 Peter Pindar, Lyric Odes, li. 
 
 Correggio of Sculptors {The). 
 Goujon (1515-1572), slain in the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Corresponding Society {The), 
 1792. A society in London in strong 
 symj)athy with the French revolutionists, 
 whicli corresponded with the National 
 Convention of France. The object of the 
 society was to establish a republic in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Corrupt Practices Act {The), 
 
 1854 (21, 22 Vict. c. 87). Relating to 
 bribery, treating, and undue influence at 
 the election of members of parliament. 
 
COEEUPTIBLES 
 
 COTEEIE 
 
 211 
 
 Numerous additions and amendments of 
 the original act have been made. The 
 New Act came into force in 1883. 
 
 Corruptibles {The), or 'Corrupt- 
 ibilists, 537. A party of the Monophj^sites 
 of Alexandria, supported by Justinian, 
 and led by Theodosius, a disciple of 
 Severus. This party, favoured by the 
 Empress Theodora, and the arms of the 
 eunuch Narses, were called by their op- 
 ponents Imperialists or Melcliites. It 
 was opposed to the ' Corruptibles ' {q.v.), 
 and so bitter was the animosity that the 
 streets of Alexandria were deluged with 
 blood. It is said that 200,000 Christians 
 were slaughtered in one day at the instal- 
 lation of Apollinarius as patriarch of 
 Alexandria. This, of course, is a gross 
 exaggeration. 
 
 The Corruptibles -were Nestorians, who insisted 
 on the perfect manhood of Clirist. Tlie Incor- 
 ruptibles were Eutychians, who insisted tliat tlis 
 body of Christ was not, like ours, corruptible, but 
 was a celestial body. 
 
 Corse Present. An oblation made 
 at funerals. See ' Soul-shot.' 
 
 Corsica Paoli. Pasquale de PaoH, 
 a native of Corsica, leader of the war in 
 Corsica against Genoa. When the island 
 was conquered by the French, Pasquale 
 de Paoli took refuge in England. 
 
 Corsican Ogre(T/?e). Napoleon I., 
 who was a Corsican by birth and family 
 (1769, 1804-1814 ; died 1821). 
 
 Corsican Sesostris (r7ie). Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte (1769-1821, reigned 1804- 
 1814). 
 
 Cortes (2 syl.). The representative 
 assembly of the estates of Spain and of 
 Portugal. 
 
 Corvee. Gratuitous work enforced 
 by feudal tenure. It consisted either of 
 personal labour or the gratuitous loan of 
 horses and oxen. The usual work was 
 to cut down and stack the lord's hay, to 
 lop and cut his firewood, to dig and 
 plough his land, to keep his ditches and 
 hedges in order, and to sweep and repair 
 his chimneys. Turgot, the French min- 
 ister, abolished much of this enforced 
 labour, 27 June, 1787, and the rest was 
 abolished by the Constituent Assembly 
 and the Convention. 
 
 Still used in Egypt, &c. 
 
 Corvi'nus. J^nos Hun'yadi was so 
 called (1400-1456). The tale is that his 
 
 mother, Elizabeth Morsiani, was a par- 
 amour of the Emperor Sigismund, who 
 gave her a ring, and j)romised to load her 
 child with honour if she presented this 
 ring. Elizabeth was on her road to the 
 king's palace when a crow snatched the 
 ring from her son's hand and flew up 
 with it to a neighbouring tree. Her 
 brother shot the bird and restored the 
 ring. When her son, who was named 
 Janos, was grown to man's estate, the king 
 bestowed on him the domain of Hunj-ad, 
 with 00 villages, and gave him as coat-of- 
 arms a crow carrying a ring in its beak. 
 Whence his name, John of Hunyad, Cor- 
 vinus. 
 
 Coryp'hsBiis of the Interpre- 
 ters of Law {The). Bartolus of Sasso- 
 Ferrato, in Umbria (1313-1356). He 
 practised law in Pisa and Perugia, and 
 is known for his commentaries on the 
 Corpus Juris Civllis. A French proverb 
 runs thus : ' He knows his Bartolus as 
 well as a cordelier knows his Dormi.' (II 
 sait son Bartole comme nn cordelier son 
 Dormi.) 
 
 The Dormi was a celebrated recueil of sermons 
 of the fourteenth century. The words ' Dormi 
 secure ' are the first two words of the book. 
 
 *,* The coryplaeus was the leader and chief 
 speaker of the chorus in Greek dramas. Houce, a 
 leader, chief, best of the kind. 
 
 Cosherers. Irish vagi-ants who 
 lived by preying on their neighbours. 
 There were always in Ireland a number 
 of ' young gentlemen ' who lived by ' cosh- 
 ering ' on the country with their horses 
 and hounds, preying on the farmers, 
 drinking, gambling, and running into 
 debt. 
 
 Coshery. An Irish custom which 
 entitled the chief lord or dynast to exact 
 from his tenants provisions and lodging 
 for himself and his retinue. 
 
 These dynasts used to come with a great multi- 
 tude of people to monasteries and gentlemen's 
 houses, and there continue for two days and two 
 nights, tailing meat and drink at their pleasure, 
 while their horses and servants were quartered 
 upon the poor farmers of the neighbourhood, and 
 nothing was paid for their entertainment. — T. 
 Moore, Hist, of Ireland, ch. xlv. 
 
 Coterie, 1770. The first English 
 female club. Amongst other members 
 were the Duchess of Bedford, Lady Betty 
 Delme, the Countess of Pembroke, Mrs. 
 Fazakerly, Lady Molyneux, Miss Pelham, 
 &c. Play was both deep and constant. 
 
 Though called the Female Coterie, 'Ladles might 
 ballot for gentlemen ; ' hence Sir T. Tancred was 
 a member, so was George Augustus Selwyn. 
 
 r2 
 
212 
 
 COTTEREAUX 
 
 COUNCIL 
 
 Cottereaux {The). A band of bri- 
 gands organised in 1792 by John Cotte- 
 reaux, a cobbler of Laval. He rallied his 
 men by screeching like an owl, and hence 
 these desperadoes were nicknamed 
 Screech-owls or Chouans. John Cotte- 
 reaux was slain in 179-4 in an encounter 
 with the French Republican army. See 
 * French Brigands.' 
 
 Pronounce Cot'-ro', and Shicdn. 
 
 Lescoteraux, ou Routiers, ou Brabanijons, etaient 
 des miserablos de la secte de Pierre de Bruys, es- 
 pece de Manicheens, qui avait surtout intecte de 
 BBS erreurs le Languedoc et la Gascogne. lis 
 faisaient protossion da ne craindre ni Dieu ni les 
 hommes. lis se mettiient aux gages de tous ceux 
 qui voulaient commettre quelque crime, et ils se 
 signalaient par toutes sortes de brigandages. 
 Henri II., roi d'Angleterre, les avait pris a son 
 service en 1174 pour combattre son flls llichard. — 
 Les Petits Bnllmuiisics, vol. vi. p. r,50. ' 
 
 (The word coteraux in this extract is an ana- 
 chronism, as John Cottereaux died in 1794.) 
 
 Cottssmore Pack (The). Rutland- 
 shire. One of the three packs of the old 
 ' Melton-Mowbray Hunt,' established in 
 1759. They were the Earl of Lonsdale's 
 hounds. The other two packs were the 
 Duke of Rutland's and Mr. Osbaldiston's, 
 called the Quorn pack, of Leicester. 
 The 'Melton-Mowbray Hunt ' is now a 
 thing of the past, but the Duke of Rut- 
 land's hounds, the Quorn, and the Cottes- 
 more hounds are still celebrated (1890). 
 
 Cottonian Library (The), 1753. 
 In the British Museum, but purchased 
 for the use of the public in 1700. It was 
 collected by Sir Robert Cotton (1570- 
 1634), and consisted originally of 958 
 volumes ; but part was burnt by a fire 
 which broke out in Ashburnham House, 
 and the present collection consists of 746 
 entire volumes and 98 defective ones. It 
 is rich in historical documents, from the 
 Saxon times to the reign of James I. It 
 also contains numerous registers of 
 English monasteries, the charters of 
 Edgar and of Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, 
 near Winchester, written in gold letters, 
 and the MS. called the ' Durham Book,' 
 which is a copy of the Latin Gospels, 
 with an interlinear Saxon gloss, written 
 before the year 800, and reputed to have 
 belonged to the Venerable Bede. 
 
 COUNCIL OB COUNCILS. 
 
 A complete list of the 2,730 Church councils, wi th 
 •* brief summary of the subjects of debate in each, 
 v.-ould fill at least fifty pages of this Dictionary. 
 Those here given require to be known by all 
 students of Church history. See p. 218, col. 2, 
 'Councils (.contradictory),' and ' General Councils.' 
 
 Council, Parliament. In the 
 
 early times of parliaments we frequently 
 meet with the word ' council,' especially 
 in the reigns of Edward III. and 
 Richard 11. After the Leicester Parlia- 
 ment iq.v.), a parliament was an assembly 
 of the commons with* the clergy and 
 barons. A great council was an assembly 
 to which the commons were not sum- 
 moned. Strictly speaking, a parliament 
 had the power of granting taxes, and a 
 council was called merely to consult with 
 the king on matters where taxes were 
 not concerned. 
 
 Council (A Civic). 'Concilium 
 Civile,' in which a local bishop meets 
 the clergy of his diocese. 
 
 Council {A Great). 'Concilium 
 Magnum,' an oecumenical council or great 
 synod. The Council of Nice is called 
 ' Magnum et Universale Concilium.' 
 The whole college of bishops dispersed 
 throughout Christendom ought to be 
 convened to an CBCumenical or general 
 council. 
 
 CoMncil [The Palace). 'Concilium 
 palatlnum,' 859. These councils were 
 held biennially in the royal palace of the 
 Carlovingian kings, and were conventions 
 of the bishops — ' generales episcopormia 
 conventus.' 
 
 Council [A Plenary). 'Concilium 
 Plenarium ' is one to which a metropoli- 
 tan invites all the bishops under his 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 Council [A Provincial). ' Concilium 
 Provinciale.' 
 
 Sunt et provincialia Concilia quae post ilia uni- 
 versalia necessario recipere debemus, quia et in 
 illis multa ecclesiasticis negotiis necessaria re- 
 perimus. — Bernaldus Constantiensis Pres- 
 byter, De Reconciliatione lapsorum, p. 267. 
 
 Council {Privy). See ' Privy Coun- 
 cil.' 
 
 Council for the Propagation 
 of Faith and th3 Extirpation of 
 
 Heretics (The), 31 May, 1050. At Turin. 
 Designed for the extirpation of the Vau- 
 dois. If the council could not convert 
 the Vaudois to the ' Catholic ' faith, they 
 were to extirpate them as heretics. 
 
 Council of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 {The), Nov. 809. An ecclesiastical 
 council, held at Aix-la-Chapclle, on the 
 ' Procession of the Holy Ghost.' The 
 ' Filioque ' controversy, which long dis- 
 turbed the church, was this: Did the 
 
 i 
 
COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 213 
 
 Holy Ghost proceed from the Father 
 only, or from the Father and the Son 
 (Jilioque) ? The Greek Church main- 
 lamed the former, the Eoman Church 
 the latter dogma. The Council of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle condemned the Greek dogma. 
 Council of Albi [The], in Lent 
 1255. That is the Council held at Albi, 
 in France, for the final extirpation of the 
 Albigensian heresy. 
 
 Council of Ariminium {The). 
 
 That is, Eimini, in Italy, a.d. 359 ; con- 
 vened by the Emperors Constans and 
 Constantius to decide upon the Arian 
 controversy. 
 
 This council condemned as heretics Arius, Ursa- 
 Cius, Valens, and others. 
 
 Councils of Aries {The). L a.d. 
 314, assembled by Constantine against 
 the Donatists {q.v.). _ 
 
 II. A.D. 353. Against Athanasius and 
 others. 
 
 III.-VII. On discipline : viz. A.D. 442, 
 452, 521, 554, 813. 
 
 VIII A.D. 1059. Against the Arch- 
 bishop of Narbonne. 
 
 IX. a.d; 1205. Kespecting church 
 government. 
 
 X. A.D. 1211. To excommunicate the 
 Count of Toulouse, the great defender of 
 the Albigenses. 
 
 XI. A.D. 1234. Against heretics. 
 
 XII. A.D. 1260. Against the followers 
 of Joachim, abbot of Flores, called ' The 
 Prophet.' It was his 'Everlasting 
 Gospel ' which was condemned in the 
 council. 
 
 XIII. A.D. 1274. Ecspecting church 
 discipline. 
 
 Council of Basel {The), 1431-1443. 
 
 The Ninth General Council of the 
 Western Church (eighteenth), convened 
 for the reunion of the Eastern and 
 Western Churches, and for general re- 
 form. It declared the authority of a 
 general council superior to that of the 
 pope, and that appeals lay from the pope 
 to a general council ; it abolished annates 
 or first-fruits, and wrested from the pope 
 the right of electing to, vacant bishop- 
 rics and benefices. Pope Eugenius was 
 so disgusted that he set up an oppo- 
 sition council ; whereupon the Council of 
 Basel cited him to appear before them, 
 but he refused, and declared the council 
 dissolved. The council now deposed the 
 pope, and elected Felix V. in his place, 
 
 thus making a new schism. En?enius 
 died in 1447, Felix resigned, and Nicho- 
 las V. remained sole pope. 
 
 Eighteenth if numbered from the Council of 
 Nice, A.D., 325, when the Eastern and Western 
 Churches were not divided. 
 
 Council of Blood {The). So the 
 council established in the Netherlands 
 by the Duke of Alba was called by the 
 Brabancjons, in consequence of the nu- 
 merous executions which it ordained. 
 The Counts of Egmont and of Horn were 
 two of its victims. See under ' Conseil.' 
 
 Councils of Carthage {The). I. 
 A.D. 200. Eespecting the rebaptism of 
 heretics. 
 
 II. A.D. 251. To confirm the election 
 of Cornelius as pope ; to regulate the re- 
 admission of apostates ; and to condemn 
 the schism of Felicissimus. 
 
 in. A.D. 252. Respecting the treatment 
 of apostates. 
 
 IV. A.D. 253. Respecting the baptism 
 of infants. 
 
 V. A.D. 254. Respecting the deposition 
 of Basilides and Martial, Spanish bishops. 
 
 VI. A.D. 255. Respecting rebaptism. 
 
 VII. A.D. 256. To confirm the previous 
 council. 
 
 VIII. 312. To elect Caecilianus as 
 bishop of Carthage. He was deposed by 
 the Donatists. 
 
 IX. A.D. 397. To abolish love feasts. 
 It declared the Apocryphal writings of 
 equal authority to other scriptures. See 
 * Laodicea.' 
 
 X. A.D. 401-411. Respecting the Do- 
 natists. 
 
 XI. A.D. 412. Against Celestius. 
 
 XII. A.D. 416-418. Against Pelagius 
 and Celestius. 
 
 XIII. A.D. 419-425. On the appeal of 
 Apiarius to the pope. 
 
 XIV. A.D. 484. A conference appointed 
 by Huimeric between the Catholics and 
 Ajrians. The Catholic bishops exiled. 
 
 XV. A.D. 525. On the liberties of mo- 
 nasteries. 
 
 XVI. A.D. 535. For the restitution of 
 the rights and possessions of the church 
 usurped by the Vandals. 
 
 Council of Chalce'don {The), 451. 
 The Fourth General Cotincil, convened 
 by the Emperor Marcian to condemn 
 the heresy of Eutyches. This council 
 confirmed the condemnation of the 
 Nest orians. 
 
214 
 
 COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 The Eutychinn heresy merged the human nature 
 of Christ in his divine nature. The Ni'stnrians 
 divided the Godhead and manhood of Christ into 
 two distinct persons and natures. 
 
 The First General Council was held at Nice 325 
 and condemned the Arian heresy. The Second 
 General Council was held at Constantinople in 
 880 and condemned the Macedonian heresy. The 
 third General Council was held at Ephesus, and 
 condemned the Nestorian heresy. The Fourth 
 condemned the Eutychian heresy. Arius denied 
 the divinity of Christ. Macedonius denied his 
 humanity. Nestorius maintained that Mary was 
 not the mother of God but of Jesus, for God could 
 not be born. And Eutyches maintained that the 
 human nature was merged in the Divine and there 
 lost. See ' General Councils.' 
 
 Council of Cloveshoo (The). In 
 Kent, A.D. 747, Convened by Cutlibert, 
 archbishop of Canterbury. It enacted 
 that every bishop should visit his diocese 
 at least once a year; that the people 
 should be taught the Creed and the Lord's 
 Prayer in English, and should have the 
 nature of the sacraments explained to 
 them in English. Other canons were 
 passed for the correction of morals and 
 discipline. 
 
 Prayers for the dead were enjoined in this 
 council. 
 
 Councils of Constance (The). 
 
 1. A.D. 1043. To establish 'public and 
 universal peace ' in Germany. 
 
 II. A.D. 1094. To reprobate simony and 
 incontinence, and to regulate the time of 
 Easter and Whitsuntide. 
 
 III. A.D. 1153. For the divorce of Fre- 
 derick Barbarossa and Adelaide, 
 
 IV. The Eighth General Council 
 of the Western Church (seventeenth ), 
 A.D. 1414-1418. Against Wyclif, Huss, 
 and Jerome of Prague, With impotent 
 rage this council not only condemned the 
 opinions of Wyclif, but ordered his bones 
 to be exhumed and burnt. Thirteen 
 years afterwards his bones were actually 
 exhumed and burnt, and the ashes thrown 
 into the river Swift. This council de- 
 posed the three contemporary popes 
 (Gregory XIL, Benedict XIII., and 
 John XXIIL), and elected Martin V. 
 pope. Gregory died first, and no other 
 was elected in his place : then John, and 
 then Benedict, leaving Martin V. the sole 
 pope, and thus closing the Great Schism 
 which had lasted from 1378 to 1429, 
 
 Seventeenth it reckoned from the Council of 
 Kice. A.D. 325, whon the Eastern and Western 
 Churches were not divided. 
 
 Councils of Constantinople 
 
 {The). Those of 336, 339, and 360 were 
 in favour of Arius, 
 
 The Second General Council, May 
 
 to July 381. Called by Theodosius, It 
 condemned appeals to Eome, and deter- 
 mined the limits of the Metropolitan 
 provinces. It also condemned Mace- 
 donius, who denied the divinity of the 
 Holy Ghost, 
 
 The councils of 382, 883, 394 were 
 convened to pacify the schismatics, if 
 possible. 
 
 The council of 403 was in favour of 
 Chrysostom, and that of 404 deposed him. 
 
 The council of 448 condemned Euty- 
 ches. See ' Eutychians,' 
 
 The council of 450 condemned the 
 dogmas of Nestorius and Eutyches. See 
 ' Nestorians.' 
 
 The council of 459 condemned the 
 Simoniacs, 
 
 The council of 492 confirmed the Coun- 
 cil of Chalcedon, 
 
 The council of 495 or 496 deposed 
 Euphemius, 
 
 The council of 516 condemned the 
 Council of Chalcedon, 
 
 The council of 518 reversed the con- 
 demnations of Euphemius and Mace- 
 donius, and restored their exiled par- 
 tisans. 
 
 The councils of 520, 531, 532 were in 
 favour of Euphemius, who was ordained 
 patriarch. 
 
 The council of 536 condemned ' hereti- 
 cal ' bishops. 
 
 The councils of 543, 547, 551 condemned 
 Origen, 
 
 The Fifth General Council, 553, also 
 condemned Origen, So did the council? 
 of Constantinople of 588, 626. 
 
 The council of 638 was in favour of 
 the Monothelites [q.v.). 
 
 Sixth General Council, 680-681, con- 
 demned the Monothelites {q.v.). 
 
 The councils of 712, 715, 730 were 
 in condemnation of the ' Sixth General 
 Council,' 
 
 The councils of 786, 806, 809, 812, 814 
 condemned the Iconoclasts {q.v.). 
 
 The council of 815 deposed Nicephorus. 
 In this council the Iconoclasts had it all 
 their own way. 
 
 The councils of 821, 829 were called to 
 reconcile the Catholics and Iconoclasts, 
 but the Catholics refused to attend. 
 
 The councils of 842, 847 condemned 
 the Iconoclasts, 
 
 The council of 858 deposed Photius 
 (the fons et origo of the separation of the 
 two churches). 
 
COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 215 
 
 The council of 8G1 restored Photius 
 and deposed St. Ignatius. 
 
 The council of 8G7 reversed the decision 
 of the previous council 861, and deposed 
 Photius again. 
 
 Eighth General Council, 8G9-870, de- 
 posed Photius and condemned the Icono- 
 clasts. 
 
 The council of 1054 anathematised the 
 pope's legates. 
 
 The councils of 1066, 1067 were against 
 incestuous marriages. 
 
 The council of 1110 condemned the 
 Bogomiles or Bogarmitae {q.v.). 
 
 The councils of 1140, 1143, 1144, 1147, 
 1157 condemned the works of Constantiue 
 Chrysomale. 
 
 The council of 1170 was to effect the 
 union of the Eastern and Western 
 Churches. 
 
 The councils of 1277, 1280 excommu- 
 nicated the opponents of the union. 
 
 The council of 1283 condemned Veccus. 
 
 The councils of 1284, 1285 reversed 
 the judgments of 1277, 1280, and con- 
 demned those who sought the union of 
 the two churches. 
 
 The council of 1341 condemned Bar- 
 laara, the opponent of Palamas. 
 
 The council of 1345 condemned the 
 doctrine of Palamas, the opponent of 
 Barlaam ; he was imprisoned 1346, but 
 in 1349 was created patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, and in 1351 a synod in the same 
 city confirmed his doctrine. 
 
 The council of 1450 was also against 
 the union. 
 
 The councils of Constantinople give a lament- 
 able picture of the Eastern Church, which seems 
 to have had no fixed principle. 
 
 Council of Eanham {The). In 
 Oxfordshire, 1008, convened on the sub- 
 ject of church government. It decreed 
 that tithes of produce should be paid at 
 AUhallows, but tithes of young at Whit- 
 suntide. That Rome-shot should be paid 
 at St. Peter's mass, soul-shot iimnediately 
 the grave was opened, light-shot thrice a 
 year, plough-alms a fortnight after Easter. 
 That on Sunday no trade should be 
 carried on. 
 
 Council of Elders {The), or 'Con- 
 Beil des Anciens,' 23 Sept., 1795. One 
 of the two Legislative Councils of Year 
 III. in French history. The other coun- 
 cil was ' Le Conseil des Cinq-cents,' which 
 had the sole right of initiating laws ; the 
 Elders had the power of veto or approval. 
 
 The executive was placed in a board of 
 five directors called the Directory. 
 Le Conseil des Anciens consisted of 250 members. 
 
 Councils of Ephesus {The). I. 
 A.D. 245. Condemned Noetus. 
 
 II. A.D. 401. For the election of a 
 bishop. 
 
 III. A.D. 431. The Third General 
 Council, condemned Nestorius and Pela- 
 gius. It laid down this canon, that every 
 diocese and province shall exercise the 
 right of ordaining unmolested and in- 
 violable, and no bishop shall occupy an- 
 other's diocese. Each province is ' Auto- 
 cephalus,' and each diocese independent. 
 
 IV. A.D. 449. Called the Latrocinium, 
 or ' Robber Sjoiod ' {q.v.). 
 
 V. A.D. 476. Respecting Basiliscus 
 and the Council of Chalccdon. 
 
 Council of Holy Martyrs {A). 
 ' Concilium Martyrum Sanctorum,' a 
 place where many martp's or holy men 
 lie buried. 
 
 Council of Laodicea {The), a.d. 
 
 360. Excluded the apocryphal writings 
 from the canon of Scripture ; but the 
 Council of Carthage, in 397, declared 
 them to be ' of equal authority with the 
 other scriptures.' 
 
 Councils of the Later an {The). 
 
 I. A.D. 649. To condemn the Monothe- 
 lites {q.v.). 
 
 II. Nov. 864. To depose and excom- 
 municate the Bishop of Porto. 
 
 III. Aug. 900. To restore the Bishop 
 of Langres. 
 
 IV. Jan. 993. To canonise Udalric, 
 bishop of Augsburg. 
 
 V. Feb. 1111. Respecting investitures. 
 Pope Pascal II. compelled by Kaiser 
 Heinrich V. to concede the right. 
 
 VI. March 1112. To revoke the con- 
 cession of Pope Pascal II. 
 
 VII. March 1116. To excommunicate 
 Kaiser Heinrich V. 
 
 Vm. A.D. 1123. The First General 
 Council of the Western Church, held by 
 Callixtus n. {Ninth). 
 
 IX. A.D, 1139. The Second General 
 Council of the Western Church, for the 
 reunion of the Eastern and Western 
 Churches {Tenth). 
 
 X. A.D. 1179. The Third General 
 Council of the Western Church. It 
 placed in the cardinals the sole right 
 of electing the pope. Decided on tha 
 
216 
 
 COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 crusade against the Albigenses. Anathe- 
 matised the Albigenses as heretics, and 
 forbade their interment in consecrated 
 ground [Eleventh). 
 
 XL Nov. 1215. The Fourth. General 
 Council of the Western Church. Held by- 
 Innocent III. to deprive Kaymond count 
 of Toulouse of his dominions for pro- 
 tecting the Albigenses. To anathematise 
 the English barons for forcing Magna 
 Charta on King John, and declaring the 
 charter null and void. To vote for the 
 extermination of heretics. And to de- 
 clare transubstantiation to be a tenet of 
 the ' Catholic ' Church. 
 
 XII. July 1511 (The Fifth General 
 Lateran). The Tenth General Council 
 of the Western Church. By Julius II. to 
 declare void the Council of Pisa. 
 
 XIII. March 1517. To abolish the 
 Pragmatic Sanction. To confirm the 
 concordat with Francois I. To impose a 
 tax of one-tenth for war with Turkey. 
 And to issue a decree against the print- 
 ing of ' dangerous books.' (This was in 
 fact a part of the preceding council.) 
 
 If reckoned from the Council of Nice, when 
 the Eastern and Western Churches were not 
 divided, those general councils would be num- 
 bered thus: A.D. 1123 (the Tenth), A.D. 1139 (the 
 Eleventh), A.D. 1179 (the Twelfth), A.D. 1215 (the 
 Thirteenth), and A.D. 1511-1517 (the Nineteenth). 
 
 Council of Lyons [The), 1245. The 
 Fifth General Council of the Western 
 Church (Fourteenth), held by Innocent 
 rV., to depose the Kaiser Friederich II. 
 
 A.D. 1274. The Sixth General Council 
 of the Western Church (Fifteenth), held 
 by Gregory X. Eespecting the election 
 of bishops, the reunion of the Eastern 
 and Western Churches, the reduction of 
 the Begging Friars, and the reformation 
 of the clergy. 
 
 The Council of 1528 was against 
 Lutheranism. 
 
 Fourteenth and Fifteenth, if reckoned from the 
 Council of Nice, A.D. 325, v/hen the Eastern and 
 Western Churches were not separated. 
 
 Council of Mantua [The), 1536. 
 Summoned by Paul III., who cited Henry 
 VIII. to appear before it. Henry VIII. 
 of course denied the authority of the 
 council. 
 
 Council of Nice, or 'Nicaea.' 
 Called The First General Council, a.d. 
 825. Assembled by Constantine against 
 the Arians. The sentence runs thus : — 
 *The Catholic and Apostolic Church 
 anathematises all who say that there was 
 
 a time when the Son did not exist ; that 
 He had no existence previous to his birth 
 in Bethlehem ; that He was created out 
 of nothing; or who say that He was 
 formed from another substance or es- 
 sence ; or who say that He is capable of 
 change.' It also condemned the Melesian 
 schism iq.v.), and ' settled ' the Paschal 
 or Easter Controversy {q.v.). 
 
 The Nicene Creed, as it now stands, was not 
 published by tliis Council, but by the Council of 
 Constantinople in Ssl. It was drafted at Nice, 
 approved of by the Council of Milan in 346, by the 
 Council of Sardica in 317, and the Council of 
 Rimini in 360 ; but it was completed by the 
 Council of Constantinople. 
 
 The SevetUk Ecumenical, Council was also held at 
 Nice A.D. 7fc7. 
 
 Council of Ofacers {T7ie), 1647. 
 Officers elected from each of the par- 
 liamentary regiments to examine into 
 and rectify the ' distempers ' of the par- 
 liamentary army. To this upper council 
 was added a lower one, consisting of two 
 privates or officers not higher in rank than 
 ensigns, and called the adjutants or ad- 
 jutators or adjuvants, and afterwards 
 Agitators, because, like the Roman tri- 
 bunes, they were ceaseless disturbers of 
 the peace. This lower council soon be- 
 came the Aaron's rod of all the other 
 national assemblies, and dominated even 
 the parliament itself. Charles I. called 
 Cornet Joyce ' Mr. Agitator Joyce,* not 
 by way of reproach, but as a usual 
 method of address. 
 
 Council of Peers (The), 24 Sept., 
 1640, or ' Great Council of Peers.' Con- 
 vened at York by Charles L, who was 
 unwilling to summon a parliament, be- 
 cause his parliaments always insisted 
 on redress of grievances before they 
 would vote supplies. The object for 
 which the Council of Peers was convened 
 was to grant supplies in order to raise 
 an army against the Scotch, who had en- 
 camped on Dunse-law hill, and threatened 
 to advance. 
 
 Council of Pisa (The), 1409. Con- 
 voked by the cardinals of the rival popes 
 (Gregory XH. and Benedict XIII.). The 
 two popes were summoned to appear, 
 but refused, and were declared contu- 
 macious, schismatic, heretical, and per- 
 jured. They were both deposed, and 
 Alexander V. elected pope. The con- 
 demned popes treated the decrees of the 
 council with supreme contempt ; and all 
 the council effected was to make three 
 
COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 217 
 
 popes instead of two, all of whom hurled 
 curses, calumnies, and excommunications 
 at each other. Declared void by the 
 Filth General Lateran Council. 
 
 Council of Sar'dica (The), or 
 'Sardia,' in Thrace, a.d. 347; to settle 
 the controversy between the Arians and 
 Athanasius. It condemned the Arians. 
 
 Councils of Toulouse {The). 
 
 I. 13 Sept., 1056. Against simony, 
 the marriage of ecclesiastics, and other 
 abuses. 
 
 II. 10G8. Against simony. 
 
 III. 1118. Against the Manichgeans. 
 
 IV. Nov. 1229. To establish the In- 
 quisition. 
 
 Council of Trent (The), or *Tri- 
 dentum,' 1545-1563. Assembled by Paul 
 in., and continued under Julius III. 
 and Pius IV., to fix what should be 
 admitted as orthodox doctrine. Its main 
 object was to condemn the Reformation. 
 
 Council of Trouble (The), 1567. 
 Tlie organisation, under Margaret, go- 
 vernor of the Netherlands, under which 
 18,000 jjersons in three years were put 
 to death. Also called ' The Tribunal of 
 Blood.' 
 
 Council of Trullo (The), a.d. 692. 
 The Fifth and Sixth General Council^ 
 which conlirmed the decree of the Council 
 of Ephesus, that every bishop shall ordain 
 unmolested in his own diocese, and no 
 bishop shall interfere in another's diocese 
 or province. 
 
 In the language of the council, each province is 
 Autocephalous, and each diocese independent and 
 Iree except to its own metropolitan. 
 
 Council of War [A). A conference 
 of officers on some matter in which the 
 chief commander, pending war, wishes to 
 state his own opinion upon some military 
 or naval matter, and hear what his 
 officers think about it. In the navy the 
 council of war usually consists of flag 
 officers, assisted sometimes by other 
 officers of lower rank. In the army the 
 commander-in-chief can call whom he 
 thinks proi)er to confer with him. 
 
 Council of the Earthquake 
 
 {The), 1382. The council, held at Black- 
 friars, and headed by Courtenay, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, to condemn Wyclif 
 and his teachings. The archbishop sub- 
 milted twenty-four allegations drawn 
 10 
 
 from Wyclif's works ; but an earthquake 
 in the midst of the proceedings terrified 
 every prelate present, except the pri- 
 mate, who declared that the earthquake 
 was a good omen, signifying that God 
 would expel from the church the ill 
 hmnours of heresy. 
 
 Council of the Senate {The). 
 University of Cambridge, established in 
 1857 (19,20 Vict., c. 88), which must send 
 a ' grace ' to the senate before that legis- 
 lative body can move in any matter. 
 The council consists of the chancellor 
 and vice-chancellor, with eight other 
 members of the senate chosen from the 
 electoral roU {q.v.). The eight membera 
 hold office in the council for four years. 
 
 The eight members of the council consist ot 
 2 heads of colleges, 2 of the professors, and 4 other 
 members. 
 
 Council of the Troubles {The). 
 So the Spaniards called the ' Council of 
 Blood ' {q.v.). 
 
 Council of the 6 {The). For the 
 exclusion of the Stuart dynasty and the 
 restoration of Great Britain to a re- 
 public. Of this council four were be- 
 headed, viz. Russell, Algernon Sidney, 
 Monmouth, and Argyll ; Essex died in 
 the Tower by his own hand; and Howard 
 of Escrick (a traitor and sad villain) 
 perished in great poverty, deserted and 
 hated by all men. 
 
 Hampden said ' that the coming Into England of 
 King William was nothing else but the continuing 
 of the council of six.'— Howitt, HUt. of Eiiylatul. 
 
 Council of the 10 {The), 'I Dieci; 
 1310. A secret tribunal of the republic 
 of Venice, armed with unlimited powers 
 in watching over the safety of the state. 
 It punished at discretion aU secret ene- 
 mies of the republic. At first it was 
 prorogued annually, but in 1325 it was 
 made perpetual, and continued as long 
 as the Venetian republic endured. 
 
 Council of the 13 {The), 1658. A 
 council of state, with Cromwell at the 
 head, appointed after the dissolution of 
 the Long Parliament. The council se- 
 lected a parliament of 150 members; 139 
 for England, 6 for Wales, 6 for Ireland, 
 and 5 for Scotland. It was to last fifteen 
 months, when they were to choose suc- 
 cessors and disperse. It was called the 
 ' Little Parliament ' {q-V.), 
 
 Some proposed that the council of state should 
 consist of 10 members ; Bome of JOi^iter the model 
 
218 
 
 COUNCIL 
 
 COUNCILS 
 
 of the Jewish eanhedrim ; others of 13, In imita- 
 tion of Christ and his apostles. The last sugges- 
 tion was adopted.— Dr. Lingakd, Hist, of Eng., 
 viii. 6. 
 
 Council of the 16 (The), 'Conseil 
 des Seize,' 1585. A committee of sixteen 
 members of the Catholic League of 
 France to prevent the crown descending 
 to Henri of Navarre, a Protestant, on the 
 death of the reigning king, Henri III., 
 who was childless. The plot was to pro- 
 claim the old Cardinal de Bourbon king. 
 This, however, was a mere bait, for if they 
 had succeeded, they would have given the 
 crown to Charles de Lorraine, due de 
 Mayenne. 
 
 On the death of Henri III. In 1589 the old cardi- 
 nal was actually proclaimed Charles X., but Henri 
 of Navarre, by his victories of Arques and Ivry, 
 secured the crown to himself, and in the interim 
 the old cardinal died. 
 
 Council of the 38 {The), 1649. The 
 government of England was vested in a 
 council of thirty-eight members, with 
 Cromwell at the head, after the execution 
 of Charles I. 
 
 Council of the 40 {The.) See 
 
 ♦ Forty.' 
 
 In 1653 Cromwell intended to dissolve the Long 
 Parliament, and substitute a ' Council of Forty,' 
 with himself at the head. But after dismissing the 
 parliament he appointed instead a ' Council of 
 Twelve,' with himself at the head (making 13), in 
 Imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. 
 
 Council of the 100 {The). The 
 
 great legislative and executive council of 
 ancient Carthage, which concentrated in 
 itself all the real power of the state. The 
 two elective magistrates called ' Suffetes * 
 were amenable to the council of the self- 
 elected hundred, who held office for 
 life, and so was the senate, which con- 
 sisted of 300. Similarly in Venice the 
 doge and senate were amenable to the 
 Council of Ten. 
 
 Council of the 400 {The),B.c. 594. 
 Instituted by Solon of Athens. See 
 
 * Government of the 400.' 
 
 Council of the 500 {The). I. In 
 
 Greek history. BouArj riov nevraKOvioiV. 
 
 The Athenian Senate. Solon divided the 
 people into four tribes, each of which 
 chose a representative. Klisthenes in- 
 creased the number to ten, and then the 
 senate was increased to 500. 
 
 11. In French history. 'Conseil des 
 Cinq-cents,' from 27 Oct., 1795 to 14 Dec, 
 1799, was one of the two councils, the 
 other being called the * Conseil des 
 Auciens,' consisting of 250 members. 
 
 Both these were legislative bodies like 
 our lords and commons. The executive 
 was placed in a board of five directors 
 called the ' Directory.' The 500 had the 
 exclusive power of the initiative ; the 
 elders only vetoed or confirmed the mea- 
 sures. 
 
 Councils {Contradictory Church). 
 
 A.D. Council of : — 
 
 810. Arles condemned Athanasius, so 
 in 385 did the Council of Tyre, and 
 in 354 the Council of Milan ; but in 
 325 the Council of Nice confirmed 
 the tenets of Athanasius, and so did 
 the Council of Sardica in 347. 
 825. Nice condemned Ariusas a heretic; 
 but three Councils of Constanti- 
 nople {q.v.), the Council of Aries in 
 853, and the Council of Milan in 354, 
 declared Arianism to be the ortho- 
 dox faith. Eusebius, bishop of 
 Nicomedia, sided with Arius. When 
 Julius, in 336, succeeded Mark, he 
 called a council at Sardica, but it was 
 so divided on the subject that each 
 party excommunicated the other. 
 
 357. SiBMiUM condemned the dogma of 
 Homoiousion {q.v.)] but the Coun- 
 cil of Ancy'ra and that of Constanti- 
 nople confirmed it. 
 
 360. Laodicea excluded the Apocrypha 
 from the canon of scripture ; but 
 in 397 the Council of Carthage 
 declared it to be equal in every 
 respect to all other scripture. 
 
 382. Constantinople confirmed the' 
 Council of Calcium ; but in 516 
 another Council of Constantinople 
 reversed the previous decision. 
 
 403. Constantinople was in favour of 
 Chrysostom; but that of 404 de- 
 posed him. 
 
 492. Constantinople confirmed the 
 Council of Chalcedon ; but in 516 
 another Council of Constantmople 
 condemned it. 
 
 495. Constantinople deposed Euphe^ 
 mius ; but that of 518 reversed tha 
 decree, and restored him. 
 
 638. Constantinople confirmed the 
 doctrine of the Monothelites (4 syl.), 
 as the true faith ; but in 680 another 
 Council of Constantinople con- 
 demned it as heresy. Three other 
 councils condemned that of 680. 
 The Lateran Council of 648 also 
 condemned it. 
 
COUNCILLORS 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 219 
 
 712. Constantinople condemned the 
 
 Sixth General Council. 
 730. Constantinople approved of Icono- 
 clasm ; but in 814 condemned it. In 
 815 approved of it ; but in 842, 869, 
 870 condemned it. In 787 it was 
 condemned by the council held at 
 Nice. 
 754. Constantinople condemned the 
 worship of images. In 766 the 
 Council of Jerusalem favoured 
 images, so did the Council of Nice 
 in 787. In 829 the Council of Con- 
 stantinople again condemned them, 
 but in 842 another Council of Con- 
 stantinople reversed the judgment 
 of the previous one. 
 852. Constantinople deposed Photius ; 
 861 it restored him and deposed 
 Ignatius; in 867 it reversed the 
 judgment of 861. 
 1112. Lateran revoked the 5th Lateran 
 
 of the previous year, 
 1284, 1285. Constantinople reversed the 
 
 judgments of 1277, 1280. 
 1341. Constantinople condemned Pala- 
 mas; but in 1345 another council 
 reversed the judgment. 
 1511. IV. Lateran declared the Acts of 
 the Council of Pisa null and void. 
 N.B. — A complete list of all the Contradictory 
 Councils would require several pages of this Note- 
 book. 
 
 Councillors (The). Since the Muni- 
 cipal Corporations Act of 1835, every 
 burgess is qualified to be elected who was 
 of full age on the last day of August pre- 
 ceding the election, provided (1) he has 
 occupied premises within the borough 
 continuously for three preceding years, 
 and has for that time resided within seven 
 miles of the borough ; (2) provided also 
 he has been rated to the poor-rate, and 
 has paid both poor-rates and borough- 
 rates. In the council is vested the entire 
 deliberative and administrative functions 
 of the corporation. They appoint the town- 
 clerk (q-v.), the treasurer {q.v.), the mayor 
 {q.v.), and aldermen, all from their own 
 body. They control the police, the 
 watch, and the lighting ; make bye-laws, 
 impose fines for nuisances, and are respon- 
 sible for the government of the borough. 
 They control the burgess fund, and ap- 
 point the salaries of police magistrates. 
 
 Counter-Remonstrance {The), 
 1611. The counterblast put forward by 
 Frans Gomar of Bruges against the 
 
 Remonstrance (q.v.) of the Arminians, 
 presented to the States of Holland in 
 1610, and dogmatically laying down the 
 dogmas of absolute predestination and 
 reprobation. 
 
 Counter-Remonstrants. Ultra- 
 Calvinists or Gomarists who put forward 
 the Counter-Remonstrance [q.v.). The 
 States tried to reconcile the Remonstrants 
 and Counter-Remonstrants in 1614, but 
 wholly without effect, and so violent did 
 the contest grow that the Remonstrants 
 had to be protected by a military guard. 
 In 1619 the Synod of Dort was convened, 
 and the Arminians were excluded from 
 pleading their cause. Since then the 
 Remonstrants have become more tem- 
 perate and less Calvinistic. 
 
 Countess of Huntingdon's 
 Connexion (The), 1770. A sect of 
 Calvinistic Methodists founded by Selina 
 countess of Huntingdon, widow of Theo- 
 philus earl of Huntingdon. They use the 
 English Prayer-book. 
 
 Counties Corporate. Twelve 
 cities and five towns in England with 
 territories annexed, governed by their 
 own sheriffs, who are quite independent 
 of the county sheriffs. 
 
 The twelve cities are Bristol, Canter- 
 bury, Chester, Coventry, Exeter, Glou- 
 cester, Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Nor- 
 wich, Worcester, and York, 
 
 The five toivns are Kingston-upon-Hull, 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nottingham, Poole 
 and Southampton. 
 
 In 1889 London was erected into a 
 county of itself. 
 
 There are some In Ireland. 
 
 Country (^;^e), 1620. The anti-Court 
 party. The terms ' Court and Country ' 
 to express the royalists and anti-royalists 
 first arose in the parliament assembled 
 30 Jan., 1620, by James I. 
 
 In 1678 the ' Country ' was the opposi- 
 tion party, bent on overturning the go- 
 vernment of Lord Danby, and on the exclu- 
 sion of the Duke of York from the succes- 
 sion. After the death of Charles II., the 
 Dukes of Buckingham and Shaftesbury 
 (who were in the ' Cabal ') were its leaders. 
 
 In 1692 they were often called the 
 * Grumbletonians,' and were opposed to 
 what was called the ' Patriot party.' They 
 were the ' outs ' in Walpole's ministry. 
 The ' ins ' or ' let alones ' were the Patriot 
 party, called formerly the * Coui't party.' 
 
220 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 COUP 
 
 In the latter part of the reign of 
 George I., and in the reign of George II., 
 the Court party meant the Whigs, and 
 the Country party the Tories. In the 
 early part of George I.'s reign the Whigs, 
 or Court party, were called the Hano- 
 verians. 
 
 Country Pastor (A). The pen- 
 name of Archbishop Whately (1787- 
 1863). 
 
 Country of the Three Moun- 
 tains (The), and of four rivers, Hun- 
 gary. The mountains are the Tatra, 
 Fatra, and Matra. The rivers are the 
 Danube, the Theiss, the Drave, and the 
 Save. The last three are tributaries of 
 the Danube, which empties itself in the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 County Councils, 1889. 
 
 1. They have charge of the public 
 buildings, such as the shire-hall, the 
 police-courts, the bridges, the lunatic 
 asylums, &c. in the county. 
 
 2. They appoint the public analyst, the 
 inspector of weights and measures, the 
 county surveyor, the county treasurer, 
 and the county coroner, 
 
 3. They have to keep up the highways 
 {i.e. the disturnpiked roads). 
 
 4. They carry out the regulations 
 connected with the Contagious Diseases 
 (Animals) Act, the compensation to 
 those who have to destroy their infected 
 animals, and the restrictions to be placed 
 on the importation of cattle. 
 
 5. They make regulations, &c. to pre- 
 serve the purification of rivers. 
 
 6. They, in union with the justices of 
 peace, have the charge and appointment 
 of the county police. 
 
 7. They are bound to put in force the 
 Allotment Act, and to enable labouring 
 men, according to the council's discretion, 
 to obtain allotments. 
 
 8. They are, at their discretion, to 
 assist emigrants from this country to other 
 places of settlement. 
 
 9. All local taxes are handed over to 
 them, whether from probate duties or the 
 consolidated funds. 
 
 The councils are elected for three years ; and 
 they appoint the aldermen who hold office for 
 six years. 
 
 Cotmty Courts, 1846. Originally 
 established for the recovery of small debts 
 under 20^., subsequently extended to 50Z., 
 aaid in 1865 to 5001. They now take cog- 
 
 nizance not only of debts to the amount 
 stated, but of all personal actions, not 
 criminal, where the amount does not ex- 
 ceed 501. ; and exercise all the functions 
 of the High Court of Chancery in suits 
 by creditors, legatees, devisees, heirs-at- 
 law, &o., in which the estate and personals 
 do not exceed 500Z. They also take cog- 
 nizance of the dissolution of partnerships ; 
 but the vice-chancellor has the power of 
 removing a suit from a County Court to 
 the Court of Chancery. 
 
 Coup de Bourguignon {Un). A 
 blow given from behind ; a cowardly blow ; 
 the blow of an assassin. The origin of 
 this iDhrase is as follows : The Due de 
 Biron, who was beheaded in the reign of 
 Henri IV., was told by an astrologer, ' de 
 se garder d'un coup de Bourguignon par 
 derriere.' When brought to the block he 
 asked who was to be his headsman, and 
 was told ' a man from Burgundy.* Then 
 the words of the astrologer flashed into 
 his memory : ' Beware of the blow of a 
 Burgundian,' and the words became pro- 
 verbial. 
 
 Coup d'etat. I. 23 de Juin, 1789. 
 After the Seance Royale, the master of 
 the ceremonies commanded the Tiers 
 etat to retire as the other two classes 
 had left and the assembly was over. 
 Then Mirabeau, one of the deputies, 
 told the Tiers not to leave : ' Nous 
 sormnes ici ' (he exclaimed in a voice of 
 thunder), 'noussommes ici par la volonte 
 du peuple, nous n'en sortirons que 
 par la force des baionnettes.' He then 
 made the deputies swear not to part till 
 they had given the nation a constitution. 
 Finally he declared the person of a deputy 
 inviolable. (This was carried by 493 
 against 34 voices.) 
 
 Pronounce Coo da-tah' de Ju'ah'n (n slight and 
 nasal). 
 
 II. De 18 Fructidor, 4 Sept. 1797. By 
 the Directory. The royalists had made 
 great head in the elections. They had 
 returned 42 new deputies, and had suc- 
 ceeded in getting Pichegru appointed 
 president of the ' Five Hundred,' Barbe 
 Marbois as chief of the Elders, and Bar- 
 thelemy as the new director. At mid- 
 night 12,000 armed men, with 40 pieces of 
 cannon, were stationed round the Tuile- 
 ries; 52 of the deputies, including Piche- 
 gru, Barbe Marbois, and Barthelemy, were 
 arrested and transported to Cayenne ; the 
 
COUP 
 
 COURT 
 
 elections of 48 of the departments were 
 cancelled ; and 35 of the journals were 
 suspended. 
 
 Coup de Jarnac. A treacherous 
 blow, a stab in the dark. In 1547, in 
 the presence of Henri II. of France, La 
 Chataigneraie, a favourite of the king's, 
 and Guy Chabot, lord of Jarnac, fought 
 a duel at St. Germain. After a few 
 sword strokes Chataigneraie fell in a 
 very suspicious manner, being wounded, 
 it was supposed, by some secret emis- 
 sary of the king, and not by his ad- 
 versary. 
 
 Coupe-tdte. Mathieu Jouve Jour- 
 dan (1749-1794). So called because he 
 boasted that he had cut off the head of 
 De Launay, governor of the Bastille. 
 He also cut off the heads of two of 
 the body-guards at Versailles (6 Oct., 
 1789), and stuck them on pikes, re- 
 proaching the people because they had 
 allowed him to cut off the heads of only 
 two of the guards. 
 
 Pronounce Coop-tait, 
 
 Cour de Po^'son (Le), IGSO. A court 
 of justice to try the poisoners Brin- 
 villiers, La Voisin, and La Vigoureux. 
 
 Court and Country {The), 1620. 
 See ' Country.' 
 
 Court Fools. A long list is given 
 in the ' Readers' Handbook,' pp. 344, 345, 
 346. The following have obtamed an 
 historical reputation : — 
 
 ARcniE Armstrong, jester to James I. axid 
 Charles I. He died IG-ifl. 
 
 Brusquet, 'who never had his equal in re- 
 partee' (1512-1503). 
 
 Chicot, jester to Henri III. and IV. of France. 
 
 CouLON, ' prince of mimics." He died 18o8, and 
 Was jester to Louis XVIII. 
 
 DuFRESNOY, the ' Joi^, :\riller ' of France. Jester 
 In the court of Louis XIV. 
 
 Klaus Narr, jester in the court of the Elector 
 Friedrich the Wise of Prussia, ilis jests have 
 been frequently printed. 
 
 ScoGAN, court fool to Edward IV. 
 
 Triboulet, court jester to Louis XII. and 
 Francois I. (14S7-15o6). 
 
 Court-leet. The same as * Court of 
 Frank-pledge ' {q,v.). 
 
 Court-Martlal. A military tribunal 
 for trying military or naval men for 
 offences of discipline: such as mutiny; 
 abandonment of a post, guard, or fortress ; 
 desertion, &c. The president of the 
 court should be a field officer, and in no 
 case may be inferior in rank to a captain. 
 It has even the power of life and death, 
 but the offender is shot, not hanged. 
 
 Court of Arches (The). The su- 
 preme court of appeal m the archbishopric 
 of Canterbury, formerly held in St. Mary- 
 le-Bow. In 1567 it was removed to the 
 Common Hall of Doctors' Commons, but 
 since 1867 the sittings have generally 
 been held at Westminster. 
 
 The court used to be held in the church of St. 
 Maryle -Bow (Sancta Maria de A rcubus), so called 
 because the steeple was raised on pillars built 
 archwise, like bent bows. 
 
 Court of Audience {The), or 'Au- 
 dience Court.' Belonging to each of the 
 archbishops, and having the same autho- 
 rity as the Court of Arches (q.v.), but 
 inferior to it in dignity and antiquity. 
 The Dean of the Arches was the official 
 auditor of the Audience. 
 
 Court of Augmentations (The). 
 27 Hen. VIIL, c. 27, a.d. 1536, established 
 for managing the revenues of the lesser 
 monasteries given to the crown. 
 
 The annual revenues of the 875 smaller monas- 
 teries was 30,000(. The wages of an ordinary 
 workman in the reiijn of Henry VIIL was M. a day, 
 and of a master workman id. The wages in iHttO 
 of a labourer is 2s\ Cd., and of a gardener 3s. 6d. 
 That is, ten times the price of wages in the reign 
 of Henry VII. So 30,OOOJ. would equal 300,000i. of 
 money in 1390. 
 
 Court of Cassation (The). An 
 ancient French court of appeal, having 
 the i50wer to quash (casscr) the judg- 
 ments of all inferior courts. It was 
 divided into three chambers, called La 
 Chambre des Rcquetes, La Chambre de 
 Cassation Civile, and La Chambre de 
 Cassation Criminelle. In 1790 the court 
 was replaced by the ' Tribunal de Cassa- 
 tion,' but in 1804 the old title was 
 restored. 
 
 Court of Claims (The). I. A court 
 established in the early part of the reigii 
 of Charles II. to decide on the rival 
 claims or titles of estates in Ireland con- 
 fiscated by Cromwell. It will be remem- 
 bered that Cromwell confiscated many 
 of the estates of the ancient Irish no- 
 bility who had joined the rebellion, and 
 bestowed them on his own adherents. 
 When Charles 11. Avas restored the evicted 
 noblemen applied for the recovery of 
 their estates, and this covirt was estab- 
 lished to settle the rival claims. The 
 restorable Irish were divided into Inno- 
 cents, Ensignmen (q.v.), and Aiticlemen 
 iq.v.). 
 
 II. A court established in the reign of 
 William III. to investigate the claims 
 and dispose of the lands forfeited in 
 
223 
 
 COURT 
 
 COURT 
 
 Ireland by the adherents of James II. 
 The chief sufferer by this court was the 
 Earl of Clancarty. 
 
 Court of Commissioners of 
 Ilevie"W {The). To revise the sentence 
 of the court of ' Delegates ' {q.v.). Both 
 this court and the High Court of Dele- 
 gates are abolished. 
 
 Court of Conscience. For the 
 
 recovery of small debts. These courts, 
 of which there were several in London, 
 Westminster, and other trading districts, 
 were superseded by county courts in 
 1846. 
 
 Court of Ecclesiastical Com- 
 mission {The), 1686. Instituted by 
 the lord chancellor under the advice of 
 Jeffries. It had supreme power to de- 
 cide dogmatically on all ecclesiastical 
 matters, without restraint of laws, 
 canons, or customs. The commissioners 
 consisted of three divines and three lay- 
 men. The archbishop (Sancroft) refused 
 to sanction the commission, and was set 
 aside by Cartwright, bishop of Chester. 
 
 The three clerics were the archbishop of Can- 
 terbury (SancrofVi, the bishop of Durham, and the 
 bishop of Eochester. 
 
 The three laymen -were the lord chancellor 
 (J)'jYnes), the lord treasurer, and the chief justice 
 of the King's Beach. 
 
 Court of Exchequer {The), 1357. 
 A court of appeal (31 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 12), 
 consisting of a court of revenue and a 
 court of common law. Its equity juris- 
 diction was, by 5 Vict., c. 5 transferred to 
 the Court of Chancery ; and by 19, 20 
 Vict, the Court of Exchequer was abo- 
 lished, and its jurisdiction transferred to 
 the Court of Session {q.v.). 
 
 A Court of Exchcque* was established in Scot- 
 land by 6 Anne c. 26. 
 
 Court of Faculties {The). Estab- 
 lished by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4, trans- 
 ferring to the two archbishops certain 
 fees and prerogatives previously claimed 
 by the pope of Rome. The chief oiScer 
 is called ' Magister ad facultates.' Of late 
 years the court is mainly occupied in 
 granting licence to marry without publi- 
 cation of banns. 
 
 By 25 Hen. VIII. this court was given dispensing 
 power in regard to pluralities— eating meat in 
 Lent, pew rights, monuments, modes of burial, 
 erecting organs in churches, levelling church- 
 yards, removing buried bodies, and so on. 
 
 Court of Frank-pledge {The), or 
 * Court-leet.' A court of record held 
 annually within a hundred, lordship, or 
 
 manor, which every resident freeholder 
 was bound to attend in order to take an 
 oath of allegiance. It took cognisance of 
 all crimes committed within its juris- 
 diction. The business is now performed 
 by the quarter sessions and justices of 
 the peace. 
 
 Court of Hiorh Commission 
 
 {The), 1559. Established by 1 Eliz. c. 1 
 for the settlement of ecclesiastical of- 
 fences. It became most obnoxious in the 
 reign of Charles I., as it assumed un- 
 warrantable proportions, almost all 
 offences of a political tendency being 
 construed as ecclesiastical. Established 
 in Scotland by James I. m 1610. 
 Abolished in 1641 (16 Car. I. c. 11). 
 
 Court of Love {The), 12th to 14th 
 cent. A tribunal of ladies established to 
 decide metaphysical questions of gal- 
 lantry. Andre le Chapelain has col- 
 lected the rules of this court in his ' De 
 arte amatoria et reprobatione amoris.' 
 
 Court of Peculiars {The). An 
 annex of the Court of Arches {q.v.), hav- 
 ing jurisdiction over those parishes which 
 are exempt from the jurisdiction of the 
 Ordinary. Superseded by the Court of 
 Probate. 
 
 Court of Pie-powder. 'Curia 
 pedis pulverizati,' so called from the 
 dusty feet of the suitors ; is a court of 
 record, incident to every fair and 
 market. The steward of the owner of 
 the market is ex officio judge, and has 
 power to administer justice for all com- 
 mercial injuries in that fair or market. 
 See Stephen, ' Commentaries,' iii. 321 n 
 (1830). 
 
 Pipowdere est un Court qui est incident a ches- 
 cune f aire, pour le determination de ditiorenccs sur 
 contract et touts disorders en ceo commis. — Tentws 
 de la Ley, p. 478. 
 
 Court of Session {The), 1532. In 
 Scotland, established by James V. of that 
 nation. A central and supreme tribunal 
 of justice. In 1808 the Court of Session 
 was divided into two separate courts called 
 the First and Second Divisions. 
 
 Court of Tynwald (A). The 
 
 Manx court of legislature, consisting of 
 the Council and the House of Keys {q.v.). 
 The court at Tynwald Hill was formed by King 
 Orry, who gave the Manx their legislative govern- 
 ment about the time of the emigration of Rollo to 
 Normandv, and of Ingolf to Iceland, doting the 
 reign gf Harald Harfager, 872-933. 
 
COURT 
 
 COVENANTERS 
 
 223 
 
 Court of the Four Boroughs 
 
 (The). In Scotch history, a high court of 
 appeal, to which Edinburgh, Stirling, 
 Roxburgh, and Berwick sent commis- 
 sioners. When Berwick fell into the 
 hands of the English, either Lanark or 
 Linlithgow was substituted. 
 
 Courts of Requests. Established 
 by Cardinal Wolsey for the recovery of 
 small debts. They were abolished in 
 1846, when the Small Debts Act was in- 
 troduced. 
 
 There was a Court of Requests of the king in 
 person ; but the court was virtually abolished by 
 lb Car. I. c. 10. 
 
 Courte-heuse. Robert, eldest son 
 of William the Conqueror, was so called 
 on account of the shortness of his legs. 
 
 Courtenay {Peregrine). The pen- 
 name of W. M. Praed (1802-1839). 
 
 Courtenay Riots (The), 1832. 
 
 One John Nicholls Thom, of Truro, as- 
 sumed the name of Count Rothschild, of 
 Rose Hill, Heme Bay ; and afterwards as 
 Sir William Percy Honeywood Courtenay 
 he laid claim to the old seats of Hales 
 Place and Powderham Castle, He was 
 now called ' King of Jerusalem ' and 
 'Knight of Malta.' Being found to be 
 insane, he was confined for a little time, 
 but in 1838 made his escape, called him- 
 self the ' Saviour of the World,' and with 
 a large following, carrying a blue and 
 white flag, surmounted with a rampant 
 lion, proceeded to various farmhouses. 
 At Bossenden three constables attempted 
 to arrest the madman, but one being shot, 
 the other two fled. A hundred and fifty 
 of the 45th regiment were then sent 
 against the rebels, when ten were shot, 
 amongst whom was Courtenay himself. 
 
 Cousin (Trusty and well-heloved 
 cousin). So the monarchs of Great 
 Britain address every peer of the degree 
 of earl, in formal instruments such as 
 writs, commissions, and so on. The style 
 of address runs back to the time of 
 Henry IV. ; and Blackstone tells us that 
 this king, either by his wife, his mother, 
 or his sisters, was actually related or allied 
 to every earl in the realm, and, being a 
 usurper, never ceased reminding his peers 
 of their connection with the crown in his 
 own person. The custom remains, though 
 the raison d'etre has long since ceased 
 ('Commentaries,' i. 398). 
 
 Cousinhood (The). The Grenville 
 family, in the reign of George II., was so 
 called from its 'many flourishing branches,' 
 which have furnished in 150 years 3 first 
 lords of the treasury, 3 secretaries of 
 state, 2 keepers of the privy seal, and 
 4 lords of the admiralty, all sons or 
 grandsons of the first Countess Temple. 
 
 In Pitt's administration, 1756, there were, four of 
 the Grenville famiiy. Pitt was first lord ; his 
 brother-in-law (Lord Temple) was first lord of the 
 admiralty ; his next brother, George Grenville, 
 was treasurer of the navy ; the tliird brother, 
 James Grenville, was at the Treasury Board. 
 Horace We.lpole sarcastically remarked, ' Tis a 
 pity that Pitt has not Grenville cousins enough to 
 fill the whole administration.' 
 
 Covenant (The), 1643. An agree- 
 ment between the English and Scotch 
 parliamentarians, to do all in their power 
 to bring the churches of the three king- 
 doms into a uniformity of faith, church 
 government, and form of worship ; to ex- 
 tirpate popery, prelacy, schism, and pro- 
 faneness ; to preserve intact the rights 
 and privileges of the parliament, and the 
 liberties of the kingdom ; to punish ma- 
 lignants ; to unite England and Scotland 
 in lasting union ; and to lead, both in pri- 
 vate and public, lives consistent with a 
 God-fearing and God-loving people. See 
 ' National Covenant,' ' Solemn League 
 and Covenant,' &c. 
 
 The first ' Covenant ' was subscribed 3 Dec, 1557, 
 pledging the subscribers to ' mnintain and set for- 
 ward the Word of God.' Another was subscribed 
 In 15H0, abjuringthe tenets of the Church of Kome. 
 The Covenant of 1638 was provoked by Archbishop 
 Laud. See ' National Covenant.' 
 
 Covenanters, 1557. Scotch re- 
 formers, who subscribed to the Solemn 
 League and Covenant {q.v.), or to the 
 National Covenant (q-v.). It was first 
 introduced in the reign of James V. In 
 1581 the General Assembly of Scotland 
 drew up a Confession of Faith, and this 
 covenant was signed by James VI. of 
 Scotland and I. of England. In 1590 and 
 1596 it was again subscribed to. In 1638 
 it was renewed, and the Covenanters 
 bound themselves by oath to preserve 
 religion in the same state in which it 
 existed in 1580. Strictly speaking, the 
 Covenanters date from the time of this 
 oath (1638), but the ' congregation ' {q.v.) 
 are sometimes called covenanters, be- 
 cause they bound themselves to the 
 Solemn League and Covenant. 
 
 In the spring of 1562 Elizabeth became engaged 
 to support the Huguenots against their govern- 
 ment, as she had supported the Covenanters of 
 Scotland.— HoAViTT, Hist, of Eng., vol. iL p. 4ia 
 
221 
 
 COVENTKY 
 
 CEANMER 
 
 Coventry Act {The), 22, 23 Car. II. 
 c. 1, making cutting and maiming a capital 
 offence. So called from the ill usage 
 of Sir John Coventry by some of the life- 
 guardsmen, in revenge of something he 
 said in parliament respecting the king's 
 theatrical amours. 
 
 The tale is that Sir John Coventry, Oct. 
 3670, rose in his place in parliament, and 
 asked a question which was considered to 
 be a reflection on the king's amours. 
 Charles was furious, and Sir John was 
 attacked one night in the streets, when 
 his nose being cut to the bone, he ever 
 after wore a patch. It became a common 
 jest for courtiers to put a patch on their 
 nose, and strut about in mimicry of Sir 
 John, in order to divert the king. 
 
 I will have his nose slit as wide as Coventry's.— 
 Sir W. Scott, Peveril of tlie Peak, chap. 37. 
 
 Coverd ale's Bible, 1535. This 
 translation of the Bible by Miles Cover- 
 dale, afterwards Bishop of Exeter, was 
 dedicated to Henry VIII., and was the 
 first English Bible sanctioned by royal 
 authority. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Coxians and Knoxians, 1556. 
 The followers of Dr. Coxe, dean of Christ 
 Church (Oxford), and John Knox, who 
 left England during the reign of Mary, 
 and retired to the Continent. Dr. Coxe 
 insisted on the use of the English Liturgy 
 and made a point of repeating the re- 
 sponses aloud ; but Dr. Knox (backed by 
 Calvin) objected to the Common Prayer- 
 book, and insisted on the use of the 
 Genevan service. The altercation be- 
 came so noisy that the magistrates had 
 to interfere. Coxe retired to Strasburg, 
 and settled there; Knox retired to 
 Geneva. 
 
 C. P. pricked against a sailor's name 
 in the muster-roll of a man-of-war stood 
 for ' civil power,' meaning that the man 
 had been sentenced by the civil power to 
 serve in the fleet. It was equivalent to 
 rogue or vagabond. Such men were nick- 
 named 'Newgate birds,' i.e. they had 
 flown out of prison aboard ship. 
 
 Craeovia. Avoir ses lettres de 
 Cracovie, to be recognised and pro- 
 claimed a liar. The Hotel de Cracovie is 
 in ' Moncorbeau,' in the de'partement de 
 Lot-et-Garonne. The master, who is a cafe- 
 tier, ' delivre, moyennant quelques sous, 
 des brevets de hableurs, que les mauvais 
 
 plaisants envoient, par la voie de la poste, 
 aux menteurs de leur connaissance.' 
 
 Patent of Membership.— Nous ayant fait sa; 
 voir que depuis longteraps vous vous etiez exerce 
 dans le noble art de maltraiter toute sorte de 
 verites, a. amplifier les recits, en augmentant et 
 diminuant aux faits qui arrivent en ce monde 
 terrestre, et que par des succes heureux, fruit 
 d'une imagination feconde et brillante, vous etiez 
 parvenu a inventer des verites qui n'ont jamais 
 existe, a creer des histoires qui, sans vous, au- 
 raient reste eternellement dans I'oubli. . . . Nous, 
 toujours zeles a maintenir et accroitre la haute 
 reputation de notre ordre . . . avonsjuge apropos 
 de vous incorporer dans notre diete, et vous re- 
 cevoir en frere bien-aime. . . . Fait et passe dans 
 notre diete generale.— Signed by the secretary, 
 
 Craeovia. L'arhre de Cracovie. 
 A tree in the garden of the Palais Koyal 
 was so called ' a cause des menteries de- 
 bitees sous son ombrage, ou parce que 
 les nouvellistes se reunissaient la pendant 
 les troubles de Pologne ' {Quitf\xd.,Dictiorh- 
 naire des Proveries Frmiqais, p. 273). 
 
 ,Te donne sept-mille livres . . . . au baron da 
 Kniran, a condition qu'il se rendra, tous les lundis 
 et vendredis . . . . au Palais Royal, sous larbre 
 de Cracovie, et que la il lira des nouvelles sup- 
 posees a cette multitude dc faux politiques et da 
 vrais descBUvres, qui gobent tout ce qu'on leur dit. 
 — Le Livre des Quatre Couleurs, p. 109. 
 
 Craft-gilds. Clubs of tradesmen 
 in contradistinction to merchant-gilds. 
 These gilds were all-powerful with ap- 
 prentices, who were required to carry 
 their work to the craft-box to be inspected 
 by the committee of masters, bad work 
 being punished by fines. Any work- 
 man who proved refractory might be 
 expelled, in which case he was not allowed 
 to exercise any trade within the limits of 
 the gild. Our ' Livery Companies ' are 
 relics of the craft-gilds. 
 
 Edward III. was a member of the Armourers' 
 
 craft-gild. 
 
 Craftsman (The), 1724. A very 
 celebrated journal planned and esta- 
 blished in the reign of George I. by ' the 
 Patriots,' in opposition to the ministry 
 of Walpole. Bolingbroke and Pulteney 
 were the chief organisers of this j)aper. 
 
 Crane's Charity. For the relief of 
 sick scholars. To pay nurses, medicine, 
 medical attendance, and give money 
 grants to sick scholars in the University 
 of Cambridge, or one of the following 
 grammar-schools, that of Wisbeach, Cam- 
 bridge, Lynn, and Ipswich. The pro- 
 ceeds of the gift received in order by the 
 five aforestated institutions. Founded 
 by John Crane in 1654. 
 
 Cranmer's Bible, 1539. This was 
 Coverdale's Bible (q.v.), examined and 
 
CRANMER 
 
 CREED 
 
 2:5 
 
 corrected by Archbishop Cranmer, who 
 also wrote the preface. It was printed 
 by Grafton in 1540, and every parish was 
 obliged by royal proclamation to have a 
 copy in the parish church under a penalty 
 of iOs. a month. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Cranmer's Catechism was not 
 composed by Cranmer, but only adopted 
 by him. It was originally written in 
 German for the youth of Niiraburg; was 
 translated into Latin by Justus Jonas, 
 the friend of Luther ; was brought to 
 England in 1548, and translated by Row- 
 land Taylor, one of Cranmer's chaplains. 
 It insists on Three Sacraments — baptism, 
 absolution, and the eucharist — and states 
 that those who have heathen parents 
 and die without baptism are ' damned 
 eternally.' Our Church Catechism is 
 quite another thing, probably the work 
 of Nowell or else of Poinet. 
 
 It was not originally written in question and 
 answer. It contained a third sacrament, called 
 the ' Sacrament of Keconciliation.' 
 
 Crannoges (2 syl.), or 'Crannogs.' 
 Fortified islands in the Irish or Scotch 
 lakes, in common use as dwelling-places 
 among the ancient Celtic inhabitants. 
 Herodotos (v. 16) speaks of the lake- 
 dwellings of Lake Prasias. A crannoge 
 was generally approached by a boat. In 
 the Irish annals frequent mention is 
 made of these lake-dwellings between the 
 9th and 17th cent. That at Lough Lynch, 
 in Antrim, was the birthplace of Colkitto ; 
 and that of Roughan Lake was the last 
 retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil in 1641. In 
 1853-4 similar dwellings were found in 
 Lake Ziirich (Switzerland), in Lake Con- 
 stance, and at Morges, on the Lake of 
 Geneva; and since 1857 lake dwellings 
 have been discovered in Savoy, Hanover, 
 Denmark, Borneo, New Guinea, Burmah, 
 and Siam. 
 
 Craven Fund. For researches in the 
 languages, literature, history, archasology, 
 and arts of ancient Greece and Rome, or 
 for the comparative philology of the Indo- 
 European languages. Value 40Z. a year. 
 Left to the University of Cambridge by 
 John lord Craven, and founded in 1886. 
 
 Craven Scholarships. For 
 
 classics. I. Two for undergraduates in 
 the University of Cambridge. Present 
 value 50Z. a year, tenable for seven years. 
 Founded by John ' lord Craven. See 
 ' Regius Prof, of Greek.' 
 
 In 1861 new rules were made for these scholar- 
 ships. 
 
 II. Six in the University of Oxford of 
 the value of 80Z., and tenable for three 
 years. Founded by Lord Craven in 1647. 
 
 Craven Studentship. Philology. 
 Value '2001. for one year, but the holder 
 eligible for re-election. The funds for 
 this studentship were left by John lord 
 Craven, but it was not founded till 1886. 
 Cambridge University. 
 
 Subjects : Languages, literature, history, arch- 
 seology, and arts of .ancient Greece and Rome, 
 or else the comparative philology of the Indo- 
 European languages. 
 
 Crazy Jane. Joanna la Loca, 
 daughter and heiress of Isabella of Spain. 
 She was born to vast dominions, but was 
 imbecile, and spent her time in watching 
 the coffin of her husband Philip, who 
 she believed would come to life again 
 (1479-1555). 
 
 Crazy Poet (The). Nathaniel Lee, 
 the dramatic poet, who was confined four 
 years in Bedlam (1657-1690). 
 
 Cream-coloured Parasite (The), 
 1770. Bradshaw, one of Bute's agents 
 with the king (George III.). 
 
 Credenza di Sant' Ambrogio, 
 
 1198. The House of Conmions in the 
 
 Milanese republic. 
 
 S. Ambrogio, i.e. St. Ambrose, patron saint of 
 Milan. 
 
 Credit Foncier, 1852. A French 
 method of borrowing money on real pro- 
 perty. Its peculiarity is that the repay- 
 ment of the loan is by an annuity ter- 
 minable at a certain date — the date and 
 annuity being so calculated that when 
 the last payment is made, the loan and 
 interest are both extinguished. 
 
 In England, loans advanced from the Queen 
 Anne's bounty are of a similar character. A 
 clerg^Tnan borrows a sum of money on the se- 
 curity of his ' living,' and either he or his succes- 
 sor pays annually a sum of money equal to the in- 
 tei-est and part of the principal, so that in twenty 
 years both are extinguished. 
 
 Creed of Pope Pius IV. (The). 
 In Latin, ' Professio Fidei Tridentlna,' 
 A.D. 1504 : (1) the seven sacraments ; (2) 
 the Trent doctrine of justification and ori- 
 ginal sin ; (3) the propitiatory sacrifice of 
 the mass ; (4) transubstautiation ; (5) com- 
 munion in one kind only ; (6) purgatory ; 
 (7) invocation of saints ; (8) veneration of 
 relics ; (9) image worship ; (10) the Ro- 
 man Ch'irch is the mother of all Christian 
 
226 
 
 CKEMERA 
 
 CROMNYO-MANTIA 
 
 churches ; (11) oheclience to the pope is 
 obligatory ; (12) the decrees of all synods, 
 Trent included, must be accepted. This 
 oath is to be taken by all priests and all 
 members of a monastic order. ' Hanc 
 veram catholicam Fidem, extra quam 
 nemo salvus esse potest, voveo, spondeo, 
 et juro.' See ' Confession ' and ' Symbol.' 
 Crem'era (The). A river which flows 
 into the Tiber below Veii. It was here 
 that the Fabian clan marked out their 
 place of abode when they quitted Rome. 
 
 Creole State {The). Louisiana. 
 The original settlers were French and 
 Spanish. 
 
 Crescent and the Cross (The). 
 Mahometanism and Christianity. The 
 Saracenic symbol is a crescent; the 
 Christian symbol is the cross. 
 
 The battle of Tours was to decide -whether or 
 not the Cross was to sink under the Crescent. — 
 Chroniqucs de St. Denys, book v. 26. 
 
 Crescent as a Turkish Symbol 
 
 (The). The Sultan Othman (1259-1326), 
 founder of the Othman or Ottoman 
 dynasty, saw in a vision a crescent moon 
 which went on increasing till it reached 
 from furthest east to furthest west. This 
 led him to adopt the symbol which had 
 been in use by the Janissaries at least 
 half a century previously, and he took 
 for his motto ' Donee totum compleat 
 orbem.' 
 
 Philip, father of Ale-Jtander, meeting with great 
 difflcuUies in the siege of Byzantium, set workmen 
 to undermine the walls; but a crescent moon 
 discovered the design, which miscarried. Conse- 
 quently, the Byzantes erected a statue to Diana, 
 and the crescent became the symbol of the state. 
 This legend reminds us of the Thistle of Scotland. 
 
 Crespi {Treaty of), 17 Sept., 1544. 
 Between Karl V. and Francois I., bind- 
 ing the two sovereigns to unite for the 
 defence of Christendom against the 
 Turks, and to unite their families by the 
 marriage of the second son of Francois 
 with a daughter of Karl. 
 
 Henry VIII. was allied with Karl in an inva- 
 Bion of France, but while Henry was besieging 
 Boulogne Francois broke up the alliance by a 
 separate treaty. 
 
 Crests of the Kings of Eng- 
 land {The). 
 
 Richard I., a lion, assumed in the cru- 
 sade. The same was borne by Edward 
 III., Henry VII., Edward VI., James I., 
 and has since been recognised as the 
 crest of the royal family of England. 
 
 Edward III. sometimes bore a white 
 raven crowned. 
 
 Alexander the Grea,t assumed a ram's head undei 
 pretence of being sprung from .Jupiter Aminon. 
 
 Julius Caesar adorned his helmet with a star to 
 denote his descent from Venus. 
 
 Crime'an War {The), 1853-1856. 
 
 In 1852 Napoleon III. demanded that 
 the protectorate of the Holy Places in 
 Turkey should be restored to the Latin 
 Church, according to the treaty of 1740, 
 called ' The Charter of the Latins.' The 
 Greek Church, supported by Russia, had 
 gradually ousted the Latin Church ; and 
 Turkey, wholly indifferent to the religious 
 question, but fearing to offend either 
 France or Russia, swayed backwards and 
 forwards according to the pressure made 
 to bear upon her. Threatened by Russia, 
 the sultan at last declared war in Oct. 
 1853, and, being supported by England 
 and France, hostilities were carried on 
 till 1855, when Russia sued for peace, 
 and a treaty of peace was signed by all 
 the belligerents 30 March, 1856. The 
 secret object of Napoleon III. was to 
 divert the attention of the French from 
 home politics. 
 
 Criminal Law Amendment 
 
 Act {The), 1871. Provides 'that no 
 person shall be liable to punishment for 
 doing any act on the ground that it tends 
 to cripple or restrain the free course of 
 trade.' 
 
 Crimson and White. In the 
 
 Valois-Angouleme dynasty, the Catholic 
 soldiers wore crimson jackets and scarfs; 
 but the soldiers of the Protestant faction 
 wore white jackets and scarfs. The Swiss 
 guard wore a giey livery. 
 
 Crofters. Descendants of the High- 
 land clansmen dwelling in the Western 
 Isles, and the counties of Ross, Argyll, 
 Sutherland, Inverness, and the islands 
 of Orkney and Shetland. They occupy 
 small farms or crofts. In 1745 the chiefs 
 claimed the ownership of the lands, and 
 during the present century have made 
 large clearances for sheep-walks. 
 
 Crofters' Act {The), 1886. Provides 
 
 (1) security of tenure for the crofters; 
 
 (2) fixed reasonable rents ; (3) compen- 
 sation for improvements; (4) enlarge- 
 ment of holdings; and (5) bequest of 
 holdings. 
 
 By this Act a crofter Is a yearly tenant of a hold- 
 ing not rented at more than SOI. a year. 
 
 Cromnyo-mantia. A kind of 
 divination with onions laid on the altar 
 
CEOMWELL 
 
 CROSS 
 
 227 
 
 on Christmas Eve. 
 tomy of Melancholj^ 
 
 See Burton, ' Ana- 
 vol. ii. p. 341. 
 
 Cromwell Grandison. So La- 
 fayette was called by Mirabeau. The 
 Grandison referred to was Sir Charles 
 Grandison, the hero of a novel by Samuel 
 Richardson, so faultless a gentleman that 
 Sir W. Scott wrote of him as ' the fault- 
 less monster that the world ne'er saw.' 
 Lafayette was as dogmatic and dictatorial 
 as Cromwell, and assumed all the French 
 Buavity and finesse of a Sir Charles. 
 
 Cromwell of France (The). 
 Francois Maximilien Joseph Isidore 
 Robespierre (1759-1794). Both were main 
 instruments in bringing their respective 
 kings to the block, and both after the death 
 of their king rose to supreme power ; but 
 in other respects there was very little 
 resemblance between them. 
 
 Tallien was one of the first to denounce him 
 [Robespierre] from the tribunal ; and the whole 
 assembly shouted, ' Down with the tyrant ! Down 
 with the Cromwell ! —Pbince, Parallel History, 
 vol. iii. p. 98. 
 
 Cromwell of the Jews (The). 
 Judas Maccabseus, died B.C. 160. 
 
 Cromwell's Mad Chaplain. 
 
 Hugh Peters (1599-1660). His favourite 
 text was Psahn cxlix. 6-9, ' To bind their 
 kings with chains, and their nobles with 
 fetters of iron.' 
 
 Cromwell's Trench. A woody 
 dell about half-a-mile from Lathom, in 
 Lancashire. So called because the par- 
 liamentary army made their camp there 
 when they besieged the Countess of Derby 
 in her castle. 
 
 'Cromwell's Stones' are two circular holes In a 
 large stone which evidently once contained 
 nodules of iron. It is said that the parliamentary 
 besiegers used these holes as moulds for casting 
 balls during the siege. 
 
 Cromwellians. Tlie partisans of 
 Oliver Cromwell (1599, 1653-1658). 
 
 Cronbane Halfpenny, 1789. A 
 token of the Associated Irish Mine Com- 
 pany, payable at Cronbane Lodge, Wick- 
 low. It had on one side the head of a 
 mitred bishop (perhaps meant for St. 
 Patrick), with the legend croncane 
 
 HALFPENNY. 
 
 Croppies (The). So the Irish in- 
 Burgents were called in derision, when, 
 in 1796-97, soldiers and yeomanry 
 marched over the country to put down 
 
 the various societies which kept the 
 island in continual terror. They were 
 so called because of their short-cut hair. 
 In 1798 Ireland was in revolt. Some 
 15,000 * rebels ' mustered on Vinegar 
 Hill, near Enniscorthy ; the camp was 
 stormed by English troops under General 
 Lake, and the revolt stamped out. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Croppers, 1812. The tag-rag of 
 ' General Lud,' who went about destroy- 
 ing the new frames for the finish of 
 woollen goods. These Croppers were 
 the men hitherto employed to finish the 
 woollen goods; and the new frames, 
 which did the work better, faster, and 
 cheaper, threw them out of employ. The 
 chief ringleader was a man named Mellor. 
 These riots broke out from time to time 
 for four or five years. 
 
 Croquants (Les). Peasants of 
 Guyenne, who revolted in the reign 
 of Henri IV. and in that of his sou 
 Louis XIII. They were reduced to 
 submission in 1595, and again in 1636, 
 by the Due d'Epernon. 
 
 It is said they were so called from the town 
 Crocq (Creusc). The w ord is used as a verb : ' Lea 
 gens de guerre qui de toutes parts croquaiont le 
 peuple.' — Bor.DiER and Chaeton, Uistoire dt 
 France, vol. ii. p. Iu7, col. 2. 
 
 Cross. 
 
 Agnus Dei 9. 
 Altar cross 5. 
 Austral cross 18. 
 Cardinal s cross 13. 
 Constantine s cross 16. 
 Croix de Bourgogne, 10. 
 Cross crosslet l>. 
 Cross patonee 6. 
 Cross pattce 8. 
 Cross pendant 5. 
 Cross potent 4. 
 Cross of the Passion 12. 
 Cross of the Resurrec- 
 tion 9. 
 Cross of Victory 9. 
 Crux decussata 10. 
 Crux immiasa 12. 
 Egj-plian cvobs U. 
 Fiichee 17. 
 Fleury cross 3. 
 Greek cross 1. 
 
 Holy Rood 1-2. 
 Lambeaux 15. 
 Latin crosr, Ii. 
 Maltese cross 7. 
 Marking cross 11. 
 Moline cror,8 2. 
 Patriarch 8 cross 13. 
 Pectoral cross 4. 
 Pope scrobS 14. 
 Reliquary cross 10. 
 Rood 12. 
 
 St. Andrsw^s cross 10. 
 St. Anthony's cross 11. 
 St. Georgo s cross 1. 
 St. Patricks cross IJ. 
 Saltire 10. 
 Southern cross 13. 
 Spire crofaB 8. 
 Tau cross 11. 
 Teutonic cross 7. 
 Triumphant cross 12. 
 
 (1) mkm Greeh cross. The basis of all 
 
 others. Two straight lines 
 bisecting each other at ri^ht 
 angles. St. George's cross, red 
 on white. 
 
 (2) jT^j Cross moline. A Greek cross 
 
 ■*• with the ends turned round 
 both ways. 
 
 (3) .^ Cross fleury. A Greek cross 
 
 with afleitr-de-Us on each end. 
 Q2 
 
228 
 
 CEOSS 
 
 CROSS 
 
 (6)*.> 
 
 (9) ►'I' 
 
 (10) X 
 
 (11) T 
 
 (12) -J- 
 
 (13)4- 
 
 (14)4- 
 (15)^ 
 
 (16) I 
 
 (17) f 
 
 Cross potent. A Greek cross 
 with each end crutched. The 
 Fectoral cross. 
 
 Cross patonee. A Greek cross 
 with three points at each ex- 
 tremity. The cross pendant 
 or Altar cross. 
 
 Cross crosslet. A Greek cross 
 with a cross at each extremity. 
 
 Maltese cross. A Greek cross 
 narrowing towards the centre, 
 with two points at each ex- 
 tremity. The Teutonic knights 
 wore a black Maltese cross. 
 
 Cross pattee. A Maltese cross 
 without the points at the ex- 
 tremities. The Spire cross. 
 
 Agnus Dei. A Spire cross on 
 the top of a blunt spear. The 
 cross of the Resurrection. 
 The cross of Victory, 
 
 St. Andrew^s. The capital let- 
 ter X. White on blue. St. 
 Patrick's cross, red on white. 
 Crux decussdta. The Be- 
 liquary cross. In heraldry 
 called a Saltire. Croix de 
 Bourgogne. 
 
 Tau cross. A Greek letter T. 
 St. Anthony's cross. An Egyp- 
 tian cross. The Marking cross, 
 or Crux AnsCita. 
 
 Lati7i cross. A Greek cross with 
 the stem length eued. Crux 
 immissa. Cross of the Passion. 
 The Triumphal cross. When 
 placed on the chancel screen 
 and made large, it is called the 
 Bood or the Holy Bood. 
 
 Cardinal's cross, carried before 
 a cardinal. A double Greek 
 cross. A Lorraine cross. The 
 Patriarch's cross in the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Pope's cross, carried before the 
 pope. A triple Greek cross. 
 
 The Lamheaux. A Maltese 
 cross on a Latin stem, set on a 
 lambel with three pendants. 
 
 Constantine's cross. ^ A cross 
 with a Greek P [RJ = Chr, i.e. 
 ChrListos]. 
 
 A cross crosslet with the lower 
 stem pointed, technically called 
 fitchee. 
 
 (18) The Austral or Southern cross. 
 
 A constellation con- : -j- : 
 
 sisting of four bright ! * ! 
 
 stars disposed in a - : : 
 
 cruciform fashion, i ,„. ^ \ 
 
 the upper and I " i 
 
 lower stars point- ' i i 
 
 ing to the south • i 
 
 pole. i ^ i 
 
 Cross {The sign of the). This is 
 made by carrying the right hand to tLj 
 forehead, the stomach, the • 
 
 left shoulder, and the right i 
 
 shoulder, thus forming the • ; c 
 
 four points of a Latin cross. It j 
 
 is said that this was a secret ; 
 
 sign practised by Christians • 
 
 for mutual recognition, and 
 that it maybe traced back to the 2nd cent. 
 
 Cross of Christ (The). The Em- 
 press Helena, mother of Constantine, is 
 sui^posed to have found the cross hidden 
 in a cave, near the Temple of Venus, at 
 Jerusalem. We are told that slie cut it 
 up into three unequal pieces, one of which 
 she enshrined in a silver casket, and gave 
 it to Macarius, patriarch of Jerusalem ; 
 another part she sent to Constantinople, 
 and the rest she sent to Rome, where it 
 was deposited in the church of the Holy 
 Cross. This part is now enclosed in one 
 of the four pillars which support the 
 dome of St. Peter's Church. The part 
 sent to Constantinople was given by 
 Baldwin II. (king of Jerusalem) to St. 
 Louis [IX.] of France, and it is ke^Dt in 
 Notre-Dame de Paris. The part sent to 
 Jerusalem was, in 636, subdivided into 
 nineteen pieces, four of which were kept 
 at Jerusalem, and the rest were sent, three 
 to Antioch, three to Constantinople, two 
 to Cyprus, two to Georgia, and one 
 to each of the five following places : 
 Alexandria, Ascalon, Crete, Damascus, 
 and Edessa. See ' Crucifixion,' Belies of 
 the. 
 
 Macarius was the person who suggested to 
 Helena that the true cross of the three discovered 
 should be tested by touching with the crosses a 
 woman readj' to die. The two crosses of the two 
 thieves produced no elfect, but the moment she 
 felt the touch of the true cross she leaped up, 
 restored to perfect health. As Helena was eighty 
 years old at the time, one is rather surprised that 
 she parted with so valuable a treasure. 
 
 Calvin says that * fifty men could not carry the 
 wood of what is called the true cross.' Luther 
 thinlts there was wood enough ' to build an im- 
 mense house." Cyril of Jerusalem tells us the 
 wood was multiplied 'like the loaves and tishea 
 when Jesus fed the multitude In the desert ' • 
 
cr.oss 
 
 CEOWN 
 
 229 
 
 and St. Paulinus tells us that, although chips 
 t^ere cut from it daily, ' yet the wood never 
 BuUered diminution.' 
 
 By a diligent search I find the follow- 
 ing places are said to possess parts of the 
 cross : — Aix-la-Chapelle, Amiens, Angers, 
 Aries, Arras, Autun, Avignon, Bauge, 
 Bernay, Besan^on, I3ologna, Bonifacio, 
 Bordeaux, Bourbon-Larchambault, Bour- 
 ges, Brussels, Chalinargues, Chalons, 
 Chamirey, Chatillon, Chelies in Anjou, 
 Chelles, Compiegne, Conques, Cortona, 
 Courtray, Denmark, Dijon, Donawert, 
 England, Faphine, Fiume, Florence, 
 Gand, Geneva, Grammont, Jaucourt, Je- 
 rusalem, Langres, Laon, Libourne, Lille, 
 Linibourg, Longpont, Lorris, Lyons, 
 Macon, Maestricht, Marseilles, Milan, 
 Mount Athos, Montepulciano, Naples, Ne- 
 vers, Norway, Nuremberg, Padua, Paris, 
 Pisa, Poitiers, Pontigny, Ragusa, Riel- 
 les-Eaux, Rome, Royaumont, St. Die, 
 St. Florent, St. Quentin, St. Sepulchre, 
 Sens, Siena, Tournay, Treves, Troyes, 
 Turin, Valcourt, Vamback, Venice, Ven- 
 loo. These I have traced, but doubtless 
 there are several others. 
 
 Mount Athos has 878,300 cubic millimetres of the 
 cross ; Kome has 537,587 ; Brussels 51C,0D0 ; Venice 
 445,5«2 ; Ghent 436,450 ; and Paris 237,731. 
 
 Cross of Shame (The). The ♦ Fiery 
 Cross ' (q.v.) was so called, because dis- 
 obedience to its summons was deemed 
 infamy. 
 
 Crosses on Tombs. 
 
 Seven crosses designate the tomb of a 
 bishop, who alone can administer all the 
 seven sacraments. 
 
 Five crosses designate the tomb of a 
 priest, who can administer five out of the 
 seven sacraments. 
 
 Otie cross marks the tomb of an ordi- 
 nary Christian, to indicate his faith in 
 the cross as his one hope of salvation. 
 
 Crosse Scholarships. For Theo- 
 logy. Tliree in the University of Cam- 
 bridge for Bachelors of Arts ; value 20Z. a 
 year each, and tenable for three years. 
 Founded by the Rev. John Crosse, vicar 
 of Bradford, Yorkshire, 1832. See ' Re- 
 gius Professor of Divinity.' 
 
 Crossing the Line. The first 
 authentic account of the ordeal observed 
 on board ship dates 1702. One sailor 
 represents Neptune and another his wife 
 Amphitrite ; another his barber, and the 
 rest his suite. All dress in the most 
 
 grotesque raiments they can obtain. A 
 tarred topsail is formed into a bath, and 
 a throne is provided for Nej^tune and 
 his wife. Those midshipmen who have 
 never crossed the line are then brought 
 forth, while the men pour over them 
 buckets of water, or play the fire hose 
 into their faces. Their faces being 
 tarred are scraped by the barber, and 
 the victims are then soused into the bath 
 provided. Here they are left to struggle 
 out and make their escape as they best 
 can. This horse-play is now almost 
 entirely, and in most cases wholly, 
 abolished. 
 
 Crossman's Catechism. This is 
 Robert Nelson's ' Whole Duty of a 
 Christian,' edited and abridged by-Cross- 
 man. Nelson lived 1656-1715, and was 
 a non- juror, but the intimate friend of 
 Tillotson. 
 
 Crouchback. Edmund Plantage- 
 net, 2nd son of Henry III., and first earl 
 of Lancaster. Next brother to Edward 
 I. (1241-12D6). 
 
 Cvown (The). It was Walter Walker, 
 grocer, at the sign of the Crown, who 
 said he would make his son heir of the 
 crown. When Edward IV. was told of 
 this merry jest, he ordered Walker to 
 be arrested and put to death for treason 
 (1461). 
 
 Crown. A crown is the circlet of 
 gold, &c., ornamented, placed over the 
 cap represented in England by a border 
 of ermine and a silk or velvet loose cap. 
 The crown of the sovereign and Prince 
 of Wales has a jewelled diadem of gold 
 arched over the cap, surmounted with a 
 ball and cross pattee. Cap velvet, turned 
 up with ermine. 
 
 The sovereign's crown has two dia- 
 dems crossed at right angles. The crown 
 of the Prince of Wales has only one 
 diadem. The coronet has a fleur-de-lis, 
 and 4 crosses pattee, alternately. A 
 cross patte'e stands in full-front midway 
 between the spring of the diadem. 
 
 The robe of state of the Prince of Wales is of 
 purple velvet, lined with ermine, and trimmed 
 with a deep ermine cape reaching to the elbows. 
 Its speciality is five rows of ermine tails. 
 
 Baron's crown. A velvet cap with er- 
 mine border similar to that of other peers, 
 but the coronet differs from that of a vis- 
 count by having only 8 round pearls on 
 
2C0 
 
 CPvOWN 
 
 CROWN 
 
 the upper rim instead of 14. In France 
 ' une torsade en perles.' 
 
 His robe of state is similar to that of a viscount, 
 but the cape has only 2 rows of black spots. A 
 prince has 5 rows, a duke 4 rows, a marquis half 4 
 and half 3, an earl 3, a viscount hall 3 and half '2, 
 a baron 2. 
 
 A prince's coronet bears on the upper rim 
 t fleurs-de-lis and 4 crosses pattee, a duke's 
 8 strawberry leaves, a niarc|Uis's 4 strawberry 
 leaves alternating with 4 golden balls, an e.irl s 
 4 points surmounted with balls alternating with 
 4 strawberry leaves, a viscount's with 14 golden 
 balls, a baron's with 8 golden balls. 
 
 Duke's crown consists of a velvet cap 
 ■with a border of ermine, and the coronet 
 over it is a circle of gold -with jewels, the 
 upper rira being set with 8 gold straw- 
 berry leaves. In France the leaves were 
 ' fleurs de persil.' 
 
 His state robe is a crimson velvet mantle lined 
 vrith white taffeta (not ermine), but the cape is 
 ermine, reaching to the elbows, having 4 (instead 
 of 5) rows of ermine tails. 
 
 His parliamentary robe is scarlet cloth, lined 
 vith white taffeta, and the ermine cape. 
 
 Earl's crown. A velvet cap with a 
 border of ermine, with a circlet of gold 
 enriched with jewels, from the upj)er 
 rim of which rise 8 points, each sur- 
 mounted with a round pearl, towering 
 somewhat above the cap, and between 
 these points 8 small gold strawberry 
 leaves. In France the leaves were 
 omitted. 
 
 His robe of state Is crimson velvet, like that of 
 a duke, but the cape has only 3 rows of black spots 
 instead of 4. 
 
 Marquis's crown. A velvet cap with 
 a border of ermine, and a coronet of gold 
 jewelled like that of a duke, but with 
 this difference, instead of eight straw- 
 berry leaves on the upper rim, the rim is 
 surmounted with 4 strawberry leaves and 
 4 round pearls. In France they were 
 parsley leaves. 
 
 His state robe is a crimson velvet mantle, and 
 the cape has 4 rows of black spots on the right 
 Bhoulder, and only 3 rows on the li'ft. 
 
 Prince's crown (except the Prince of 
 Wales). A velvet cap turned up with 
 ermine and surmounted with a gold ball. 
 The gold and jewelled circlet has 
 4 crosses pattee and 4 fleur-de-lis alter- 
 nately, but there is no diadem, nor ball 
 and cross. 
 
 The princesses* crown is like that of 
 the princes'. 
 
 The nephews and nieces have straw- 
 berry leaves in the place of fleurs-de-lis 
 and crosses pattee. 
 
 Viscount's croum. The cap is the same 
 as that of a duke, marquis, or earl; but 
 the gold and jewelled coronet has 14 
 
 round pearls on the upper rim, quite 
 close together. In France the pearls 
 were arranged in sets of three. 
 
 His state robe is the same as that of an earl, 
 with this difference, instead of 3 complete 
 rows of black spots, there are 3 rows on the riyht 
 shoulder and only 2 on th6 left. See 'Marquis,' 
 above. 
 
 Crcwn {A). In the Catholic Church 
 is the subjective recognition of superior 
 Christian merit : as the crown of virginity, 
 the crown of humility, the crown of learn- 
 ing, the crown of martyrdom, &c. St. 
 Peter of Piavenna received the ' triple 
 crown of virginity, doctorate, and martyr- 
 dom.' St. Angelus, in 1225, received ' the 
 triple crown of virginity, preaching, and 
 martyrdom.' St. Cecilia received the 
 double crown of -virginity and martyr- 
 dom. 
 
 Crown {The English). It is said 
 that Alfred, in 872, was the first English 
 sovereign to wear a symbol of regal 
 authority. 
 
 In 929 Athelstan wore a coronet not 
 unlike that of our earls. 
 
 William the Conqueror added a coronet 
 with points to his ducal cap. 
 
 In 1483 Richard III. introduced the 
 crosses, and Henry VII. the arches in 
 1485. 
 
 The oldest crown now existing in 
 England is that of Charles II., 1000. 
 
 The present crown was made in 1838, 
 the jewels being taken from old crowns 
 broken up. It contains a large ruby and 
 a large sapphire. 
 
 The smaller stones are 1,363 brilliants, 1,273 rose 
 diamonds, 273 pearls, 147 table diamonds, 16 sap- 
 phires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, and 4 drop pearls. 
 
 In l:^S6 Richard II. pawned his crown and re- 
 galia for a loan of 2,0OOJ. 
 
 Crown [The Papal). In 593 Pope 
 Hormisdas wore a cap of state. 
 
 In 1053 Pope Damasus II. followed the 
 same example. 
 
 Hildebrand (1073-1083) wore a royal 
 crown, with the legend, Corona regni de 
 manu Dei. 
 
 In 1160 the papal cap was encircled 
 with a crown. 
 
 Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) added a 
 second crown, with this legend, Diadema 
 imperii de manu Petri. 
 
 It is very doubtful who introduced the 
 third crown. Some say it was John XXII. 
 (1816-1334), some say it was Benedict 
 XII. (1334-1342), and some ascribe it to 
 Urban V. (1362-1370). It indicates su- 
 
CEOWN 
 
 CRUSADES 
 
 231 
 
 preraacy in temporal power, in spiritual 
 power, and in ecclesiastical power, in 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 
 Crown and Anchor Associa- 
 tion (T/^e), 1795. For the 'protection 
 of liberty and property from republicans 
 and levellers.' The chairman was Mr. 
 Eeeves, M.P. 
 
 Cro-WTi and Government Se- 
 curities Bill {The), 1848. To facilitate 
 prosecutions for political ofTences. The 
 bill was especially directed against the 
 war party of Ireland urged on by Mr. 
 Mitchel, M.P., editor of the 'United 
 Irishman ' {q.v). 
 
 Crown Oration {The), b.c. 330. 
 Soon after the battle of Chaeronea, Ctesi- 
 phon proposed that Demosthenes should 
 be presented with a golden crown in the 
 theatre, during the great Dionysiac 
 festival, for his services to Athens, 
 ^schines uidicted Ctesiphon for this 
 proposal, and Demosthenes spoke in his 
 defence. The oration of ^schines is 
 called the ' oration against Ctesiphon ' ; 
 that of Demosthenes is called his oration 
 * on the Crowu,' or his ' Crown oration.' 
 jEschincs failed to secure a fifth part of 
 the votes, and quitted Athens to live in 
 Rhodes. 
 
 Crown of Thorrs {The). Placed 
 on the head of Jesus ; was not found in 
 the cave with the cross, and there is no 
 record extant of its discovery. In the 
 thirteenth century Baldwin II., king of 
 Jerusalem, gave it to St. Louis [IX.] of 
 France, who built in Paris a holy chapel 
 for its depository. It is devoid of thorns 
 now, for they have been given away to a 
 vast number of churches, and parts have 
 been set in rings. I myself have seen 
 and handled one of these rings. This 
 relic and fragments of the Cross are borne 
 in procession by twelve canons at 8 o'clock 
 every Good Friday night through Notre 
 Dame de Paris. At least this was the 
 case when I lived in Paris. See ' Cruci- 
 fixion,' Belies of the. 
 
 In the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, Is a ring said to 
 contain a small part ol one of the thorns. 
 
 Crowns. The kaiser-kings of Ger- 
 many received tlaree crowns. I. The 
 silver crown, as king of Germany. II. 
 The iron crown of Lombardy, as king of 
 Italy; and III. The imperial crown as 
 k user of the Holy Roman Empire. The 
 
 first he received at Aix-la-Chapelle, the 
 second at Monza, and the third at Rome ; 
 but Karl V. (Charles-quint) was the last 
 kaiser-king who received the imperial 
 crown at the pope's hands. 
 
 The imperial crown was a small mitre, cleft in 
 the front instead of at the sides. 
 
 Crown of St. Stephen {The). The 
 crown of Hungary. Stephen I. (979, 997- 
 1038), called ' the Apostle of Hungary,' 
 received a crown from Pope Sylvester II., 
 with which the emperor of Austria is 
 still crowned as ' king of Hungary.' See 
 ' Corona.' 
 
 If Hungarian independence should be secured 
 through the help of Prince Napoleon, the prince 
 himself should accept the crown of St. Stephen. — 
 Kossuth, Memoirs of my Exile (1880). 
 
 Crucifixion {Belies of the). See 
 under 
 
 The Bandage. 
 
 The Robe. 
 
 „ Blood. 
 
 „ Spear. 
 
 „ Cross. 
 
 „ Spontra. 
 
 „ Crown of Thorns. 
 
 „ Stai lease. 
 
 „ Cup. 
 
 „ Table. 
 
 „ Grave clothes. 
 
 „ Title. 
 
 Handkerchief. 
 
 „ Tunic or Shirt. 
 
 „ Nails. 
 
 „ Whipping-post. 
 
 „ Reed. 
 
 
 Crusades, from 11th to 13th cent. 
 Expeditions to recover Palestine from the 
 Moslems. So called because the soldiers 
 wore a cross on the shoulder or breast as 
 a badge of their religious faith. 
 
 1st, in 109G-1099; decreed by Urban 
 II. It ended in the capture of Jerusalem 
 by the crusaders. 
 
 2nd, in 1147-1149 ; led by Louis VII. 
 and Konrad III. Its object was the 
 relief of Christians oppressed by the 
 Moslems. It was a complete failure. The 
 Christians had to surrender Jerusalem. 
 
 3rd, in 1189-1192. This crusade was the 
 most heroic. Frederick Barbarossa of 
 Germany, Philippe Augustus of France, 
 and Richard Coeur de Lion of England 
 were among the crusaders, while the re- 
 nowned Saladin was on the other side. It 
 was brought to an untimely close, on 
 Saladin's agreeing to allow pilgrims free 
 access to the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 4th, in 1198-1204. Constantinople was 
 taken. 
 
 5th in 1216-1221. The sultan recovered 
 Damietta. 
 
 6th, in 1215-1229. Kaiser Friederich II. 
 proclaimed King of Jerusalem ; but in 
 1244 Jerusalem was retaken by the Turks. 
 
 7th, in 1248-1253. A truce of ten years 
 concluded. (Led by St. Louis of France.) 
 
 8th, in 1270-1272. Nazareth taken, truce 
 
232 
 
 CHUSCA 
 
 CUMEAN 
 
 of ten years concluded. (Led by St. Louis, 
 who died at Tunis, on his way, 25 August, 
 1270.) 
 
 CruS3Ca [Accademia della), 1582. The 
 famous Florentine Academy, instituted to 
 enrich the literature and improve the 
 language of Tuscany. So named be- 
 cause it discarded as hran all words not 
 purely Tuscan. The great Italian dictio- 
 nary was produced by this Academy, 
 1612. See ' Delia Crusca.' 
 
 Crusoe's Island. Juan Fernandez 
 is so called by sailors, from a persuasion 
 that it was the island of Defoe's famous 
 story. 
 
 Crusty diristopher. So Tenny- 
 son called Professor Wilson, who noticed 
 the works of the young poet in ' Black- 
 wood's Magazine ' with praise not un- 
 mixed with censure, 1830. 
 
 Crystal Palace {The), 1851. A 
 large building almost entirely of iron and 
 glass constructed in Hyde Park, London, 
 as an exhibition room for all nations in 
 the world. It was 1,818 feet long, 408 feet 
 wide, and 66 feet high, crossed by a tran- 
 sept 108 feet high and 408 feet long, 
 enclosing several noble elms. It was 
 nearly four times the length of St. Paul's 
 and twice the width. It contained 84 
 miles of gutter to carry off the rain, 
 900,000 feet of glass, and covered over 18 
 acres of ground. The designer .was 
 Mr. Joseph Paxton, and the contractors 
 were Messrs. Fox and Henderson ; their 
 contract being 79,800Z. and the material, 
 or 150,000^. without it. The actual cost 
 was 176,030Z. It was begun 26 Sept., 1850, 
 and opened 1 May, 1851. It realised a 
 profit of 150,000^. in 144 days. 
 
 Cuckoo Ale. Ale drunk the first day 
 one hears the cuckoo. In Shropshire it 
 was atone time customary for the labour- 
 ing classes, as soon as the cuckoo was 
 heard by them for the first time in the 
 year, to leave off work, and spend the 
 rest of the day in merry-making, a main 
 part of which was drinking cuckoo ale. 
 This was drunk out of doors to welcome 
 the cuckoo. 
 
 Cuckoo Day, 14 April. The birthday 
 of the Princess Beatrice. The tradition 
 is that the old woman let the cuckoo out 
 of her bag at Heathfield Fair. 
 
 Cuentas del G-ran Cdpitan. A 
 
 ridiculous pretence of an account of 
 money spent. Gonsalvo, the great cap- 
 tain, was accused by Ferdinand of mis- 
 appropriating the public money, and was 
 commanded to produce his accounts. 
 Gonsalvo read aloud: 'Item the first, 
 200,703 ducats and 9 reals to friars, nuns, 
 and mendicahts, to offer up prayers for 
 the success of his majesty's arms. Item 
 the second, 700,494 ducats and 10 reals to 
 spies.' Here Ferdinand, who had never 
 sent Gonsalvo money enough to pay the 
 soldiers, seeing the jest, and fully ashamed 
 of the accusation, interrupted the captain 
 by a burst of laughter which was echoed 
 by the whole court. 
 
 Cuirassiers. Heavy horsemen wear- 
 ing, in the time of Queen Mary, body- 
 armour over their buff coats. They carried 
 sword and pistol. Napoleon had twelve 
 regiments of cuirassiers. The Russian 
 cuirassiers are armed with lances. In 
 England, at the present day, the Life 
 Guards and Horse Guards wear cuirasses. 
 Pronounce Eue-ras-saeah. 
 
 Culdees. Secular clergy attached to 
 cathedrals and performing the office of 
 dean and chapter to the episcopate. They 
 were pretty numerous, and made their 
 first appearance in the 9th cent. No- 
 thing is heard of them after the 14th 
 cent. The word seems to be Irish, and 
 to mean ' Attendants of God ' {ceile De). 
 
 Cum Occasione {The Bulls), 1653. 
 By which Innocent X. condemned the five 
 famous propositions of Jansen. In 1665, 
 Alexander VII. prescribed a formula for 
 the condemnation of Jansen and the 
 Jansenists, which all ecclesiastics were 
 required to sign. 
 
 Cumean Sibyl. Amalthsea offered 
 9 vols, of x3roj)hecie3 on the future of 
 Rome to Tarquinius Superhns, who re- 
 fused to purchase them. Having de- 
 stroyed three of them, she returned the 
 following year, asking the same price for 
 the remaining six. Tarquin again refused 
 to purchase them ; whereux^on Ajnalthsea 
 destroyed three more, and demanded the 
 original price for the three left. The books 
 were bought, placed in a coffer, and stowed 
 away in the crypt of the capitol under the 
 charge of two patricianf:. The custodians 
 were afterwards increased to ten. and then 
 to fifteen. In the reign of Honoriua 
 
CUP 
 
 CURTMANTLE 
 
 233 
 
 they were burnt by StilTco, his master of 
 the horse. (Varro, ' Aiitiqaities,' vol. ii.) 
 
 It is rather remarkable tnat Tarquinius Su- 
 porbus died at Cumee, the home of the famous 
 . Bibyl. 
 
 Cup or Chalice (The) used by oiir 
 Lord at the Last Supper has been pre- 
 served, according to tradition ; but there 
 are two cups which profess to be the 
 genuine one. Some affirm that it is the 
 silver chalice at Valencia, in Spain ; but 
 others insist that it is the green glass cup 
 at Genoa, which was taken to Paris in 
 1816, and broken in the transit. This 
 cup has two handles and is of hexagonal 
 form. Its diameter a-top is 326 milli- 
 metres, and it will hold three litres of 
 liquor. See ' Crucifixion,' Relics of the. 
 
 The ' SacroCatino ' is sometimes identified with 
 the ' Holy Graal ' of the romances of the middle 
 ages ; but many consider the Holy Graal to be the 
 paten and not the cup. In Arthurian romance it 
 eeems to be a golden vessel, not silver or glass, and 
 suits the idea of a paten with the consecrated 
 bread tar better than that of a chalice. Thus v.-e 
 read ipart iii. chap. 3, 4, 85, 102), ' immediately the 
 bread had been distributed the graal vanished.' 
 
 Cupid's Gardens. A corruption 
 of Cuper's Gardens. Public gardens laid 
 out byBoydell Cu]per, gardener to Thomas, 
 earl of Arundel. Boydell Cuper, when 
 Arundel House was taken down, obtained 
 numerous mutilated marbles, which he 
 erected in these gardens. They were op- 
 posite Somerset House, were opened to 
 the public in 1678, and ceased to exist 
 in 1753. These gardens were famous for 
 fireworks, but no less notorious for licen- 
 tiousness. 
 
 Curfew Bell {The' A corruption 
 of couvre-feu, ' put out tlie fire.' William 
 the Conqueror ordered the bell to be rung 
 at eight o'clock every night in every city 
 and town in En.^/and, when every fire 
 and every lamp and candle was to be put 
 out. This was not to annoy the English, 
 but to prevent fires and conspiracies. 
 William had enforced the same in Nor- 
 mandy as an act of police before the 
 battle of Hastings. 
 
 Curia Hegia [The), 1860. The 
 supreme court of judicature in Hungary. 
 
 Curia Regis, or Council of the 
 Realm, 1172. A sort of parliament held 
 by Henry II. at Lismore for the purpose 
 of conferring with the prelates and mag- 
 nates on tlae government of Ireland. 
 Henry determined to extend to his 
 English subjects in Ireland the laws and 
 
 usages they were accustomed to while 
 they lived in England. These laws and 
 usages extended over what was called the 
 Pale iq.v.), but all the rest of Ireland con- 
 tinued to observe their own laws and 
 usages. 
 
 Sir John Davies informs us that no legislative 
 council was held in Ireland for 140 years after the 
 council at Lismore, but that Irish representatives 
 attended the English parliaments. 
 
 Curlew Mountains [The). The 
 county of Leitrim was so called even in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Curop'alate. One who had charge 
 of the palace in the Eastern Empire, 
 called in the Prankish kingdom ' Maire 
 du Palais,' by the Romans ' Major domus,' 
 and in English ' Steward of the House- 
 hold.' Michael I. was called ' Curopala- 
 tus,' because he was Mayor of the Palace 
 to Stciuracius, whom he deposed and suc- 
 ceeded 2 Oct., 811. Being himself de- 
 posed by Leo, he turned monk and died 
 about 845. 
 
 Curry-powder Duke [The). The 
 Duke of Norfolk, who, during the corn- 
 law agitation, said in a speech he was 
 surprised that the poor did not put a 
 pinch or two of curry-powder in their 
 stews, as it gave the meat such a piquant 
 flavour. 
 
 I remember Sir Robert Harvey saying in a public 
 speech that he was surprised the poor did not 
 more frequently eat a red herring at breakfast, as 
 it gave such a piquant flavour to bread and butter. 
 In ridicule of this speech, a red herring was often 
 carried on a pole in political elections. The re- 
 mark of the I'rincess Lamballe was of a similar 
 character. She was surprised the poor did not 
 ent briochen, as bread was so dear. And our 
 Princess Cliarlotte said she would rather eat beef 
 than starve. 
 
 Curse of Cromwell (The), 1650. 
 His campaign in Ireland, which certainly 
 was stained with revolting cruelty. Wit- 
 ness the massacres of Drogheda and 
 Clonmel. He was lord-lieutenant at the 
 tune. 
 
 This bloody campaign has always been remem- 
 bered in that countrv as the ' Curse of Cromwell.' 
 — HowiTT, Hist, oj Eny. (Commonwealth, p. 315), 
 
 Curse of Scotland {The). The 
 Nine of Diamonds is so called from i(;3 
 resemblance to the nine lozeng'js in tlje 
 heraldic bearing of John Dalryn pie, first 
 earl of Stair, so scandalously concerned 
 in the massacre of Glencoe {q.v.). 
 
 CUitraantle. The surname of 
 Henry II. of England. He wore the 
 Anjou mantle, which was shorter thaa 
 
234 
 
 CUEULB 
 
 DACTYLS 
 
 the robe worn by his predecessors (1133, 
 1154-1189). 
 
 Curule Magistrate {A). A Roman 
 state officer, such as dictator, consul, 
 prsetor, &c., who sate on an ivory chair 
 at the head of public assemblies. All 
 the children of such a magistrate became 
 nobles [nohiles]. The Curule chair was 
 like a camp-stool, which could easily be 
 moved about, and was placed in the 
 chariot of the magistrate when he rode 
 in state. 
 
 Curulis is connected •with currus, a chariot; 
 hence equus curulis (a carriage-horse), friumphus 
 ewulis (a carriage triumph', in contradistmction 
 to an ovation which was made on foot. 
 
 Gustos Rotulo'rum. The chief 
 officer of the court of Quarter Sessions 
 ig.v.), who has custody of the records or 
 rolls ; he must be a justice of the peace 
 of the county, nominated by the crown, 
 and appointed by the commission. 
 
 Cynic Philosophers {The) of 
 ancient Greece. Founded by Antis- 
 thenes the Athenian (b.c. 440-376). 
 Cynic is an adjective from kv^os (gen. 
 of Kvvoiv, a dogj ; so called because Antis- 
 thenos taught in the gymnasium called 
 Cynosargtis {tlie White Dog). He was a 
 censor of public morals and manners. 
 Diogenes of Sinope (b.c. 412-323) af- 
 fected to be surly like a dog, and like a 
 dog snarled at every one. The Athenians 
 raised to his memory a pillar of Parian 
 marble surmounted with a dog. The 
 substance of the mscnption being — 
 
 Say, dog, I pray, what guard you in that tomb ? 
 
 ' A dog.' His name ? ' Diogenes.' From far ? 
 ' Sinope.' He who made a tub his home ? 
 
 ' The same. Now, dead, among the stars a star.' 
 
 Cyclic Poets (T/te). Theepicpoets 
 who sprang up after Homer, and con- 
 fined themselves to the same cycle of 
 events, viz. the Story of Troy. Staslnos 
 of Cyprus chose for his subject events 
 immediately preceding the Trojan war. 
 Arctinos of Miletus related the story of 
 the wooden horse. Agias of Troezene 
 took for his subject the return from Troy. 
 And Eugamon of Cyrene made a con- 
 tinuation of the Odyssey. 
 
 Nee sic iucipies, ut scriptor cyclicus olim. 
 
 HoKACE, Ars Poeiica, 137. 
 
 Cy-pr6s Process {The). The pro- 
 cess of approximation. Where a literal 
 execution is inexpedient or impracticable, 
 the court will execute a devise as nearly 
 as it can, according to the spirit of the 
 
 devisor's words, or, to speak technically, 
 cy-pres. For example : if there are no 
 objects remaining to take the benefit of 
 a charity, the court will dispose of the 
 revenues by a new scheme on the prin- 
 ciples of the original trust. 
 
 As in law, a cy-pres or approximate administra- 
 tion of an obsolete devise is admissible, so in re- 
 ference to the Bible, is it not incumbent upon you 
 to apply what seems obsolete to cases analogous 
 to those originally intended ?— Dr. Hessey, Moral 
 Difficulties connected with the Bible (1871), p. 112. 
 
 Cyrena'ic Sect {The). Founded at 
 Cyrene, in Africa, by Aristippos, who 
 studied under Socrates. He taught that 
 pleasure is the ultimate object of human 
 pursuit, but that virtuous motives and 
 virtuous conduct are indispensable to 
 true pleasure. Aristippos died B.C. 880. 
 
 Cyzicenus. Antiochus IX., king of 
 Syria, who was educated at Cyzicos (b.c. 
 112-9G). 
 
 Czar (Caesar or Kaiser), 1237. A 
 title first conferred on Dimitri I., son of 
 Yaroslaf, by the Greek emperor. Before 
 then the sovereign was called Kniaz 
 (grand-duke) or Welik Knez (great 
 prince), a title which ran on concurrently 
 with czar till 154 !>. After the battle of 
 Pultowa, in 1709, the head of the Russian 
 empire was also styled emperor and 
 autocrat. 
 
 The monarch of Casan was called tzar. This 
 monarchy was conquered, in 1545, by Ivan Vassi- 
 livich (the Terrible) ; and it is said that Ivan then 
 dropped the titles of Kniaz and Welik Knez, and re- 
 tained only that of ' tzar ' or * czar.' 
 
 D. By the Mutiny Act, 21 Vict. c. 9 
 (1858) it was enacted that, ' on the first, 
 and on every subsequent conviction for 
 desertion, the court-martial . . . may order 
 the offender to be marked on the left 
 side, two inches below the armpit, with 
 the letter " D " (deserter), not less than an 
 inch long, with some ink, or gunpowder, 
 or other preparation not liable to be ob- 
 literated.' 
 
 For other brands, see * F ' (' Diet, of 
 Phrase and Fable,' p. 281), ' V,' and ' S.' 
 
 DacoitS. Brigands, so called in 
 Oude, Burmah, &c. But sometimes the 
 Dacotah Indians of North America are 
 incorrectly called Dacoits. 
 
 Dacoity. Brigandage. 
 
 Dactyls, or ' Idean Dactyls.' Priests 
 of Cybele, Saturn, and Jupiter, dwelling 
 in Crete, on Mount Ida. 
 
DAGGER 
 
 DAME 
 
 23R 
 
 Baid to be called ' Dactyls ' from the Greek word 
 
 toKJvXoi, a finger, because iheywere ten in number. 
 
 Dagger-ale. A very celebrated ale 
 Bold at ' The Dagger ' ordinary, in Hol- 
 born. The dagger refers to the City 
 arms. 
 
 Dagger-money. A tax to provide 
 arms and police, when judges entered a 
 town, to prevent their being molested or 
 attacked bji highwaymen. 
 
 Dagger-scene in the House of 
 Commons {The). During the French 
 Kevolution, Edmund Burke on one occa- 
 sion threw a dagger on the floor of the 
 house, vociferating ' There is French fra- 
 ternity for you ! Such is the poignard 
 which French Jacobins would plunge into 
 the heart of our sovereign.' Canning 
 spoilt this bunkum by saying : ' The 
 gentleman has brought his knife with him, 
 but where is the fork ? ' 
 
 Dague de la Mis^ricorde {La), 
 or the ' Mercy of God.' A broad strong 
 poniard, which was hung on the right side 
 of the Scottish-French archers. See Sir 
 W. Scott, ' Quentin Durward,' chap. v. 
 
 Daguerreotype {TJie), 1825. The 
 production of permanent pictures on 
 plated copper by Louis Jacques Mande 
 Daguerre (1789-1851). 
 
 Daibutsu. The great statue of 
 Buddha, in Japan. It is about 600 years 
 old, 50 feet in height, and 100 feet in 
 girth ; it is made of bronze and silver, but 
 the eyes are of gold. The proportions are 
 exquisite, and probably it is the finest 
 idol in existence. 
 
 Daily Courant {The), 11 March, 
 1702. Called the first daily newspaper in 
 England. 
 
 Daily iN'e'WS {The). Commenced 
 21 Jan., 1846, London. 
 
 Daily Paper {First English), 11 
 March, 1702. The ' Daily Courant.' See 
 * English Mercurie.' 
 
 Daily Paper {First French), 1777. 
 Called the ' Journal de Paris.' 
 
 It contained an article on the ' Almanach des 
 Muses,' a short letter by Voltaire, the advertise- 
 ment of a library, two or three miscellaneous 
 articles, and a pun ; the pun was the chief attrac- 
 tion, and continued so for some time. 
 
 Daily Telegraph {The). A Lon- 
 don newspaper, commenced 29 June, 
 1855. 
 
 Daisy League {The), 1887. A league 
 formed at Belfast for the promotion of 
 women's rights, and for Home Rule in 
 Ireland under imperial control. Not in- 
 dependent Home Rule or separation from 
 Great Britain. The badge of the league 
 is a daisy, and the motto is ' Faith, Hope, 
 and Charity.' Of course the idea was 
 suggested by the Primrose League {q.v.) 
 
 Dalcassians,orDalgais. The people 
 of North Munster, including Clare, Lime- 
 rick, and the country about Cashel as far 
 as the mountains of Sliablama, in Ossory. 
 The people of South Munster were called 
 Eugenians (Eoganachts, or sons of 
 Eogan). 
 
 Dalreudi'ni. Natives of Ulster, 
 same as Dalriads {q.v.). 
 
 Dalriada. Antrim in Ireland is so 
 called from Cairbre Riada,on one of whose 
 descendants the country was settled by 
 the arbitration of St. Colman, a.d. 572. 
 
 Carbre, or Cairbre, was generally called Carbre 
 'of the Long Arm.' 
 
 Dalriadie Rulers (T^e). The kings 
 of Argyllshire. Dalriada is the ancient 
 name of the northern half of Antrim, in 
 Ireland. Cairbre (of the Long Arm) of 
 the race of Riada, who lived in the 3rd 
 cent., planted a colony on the shores of 
 Argyllshire, in Albany, and in 50G some of 
 his descendants founded there the king- 
 dom of ' Dal-riada in Albany.' In 843 
 Kenneth MacAlpin united the Dalriads 
 and Picts under one sceptre, and became 
 the first king of Albany. 
 
 About two centuries afterwards Albania began 
 to be known as Scotia, or Scotland. 
 
 ' Hector Boece added by i nter polation from forty 
 to forty-five Scotch kings to the authentic Irish 
 list of Dalriadic rulers.'— T. MoOEE, History oj Ire- 
 land, chap. viii. p. 137. 
 
 Dalriads {The). The Irish-Scots, 
 who possessed themselves of a part of 
 Argyllshire, in the middle of the 3rd 
 cent. 
 
 Damage-cleer {i.e. damna clenco- 
 rum). A fee paid to the clerks of courts 
 before judgment was executed. It was 
 the tenth part in all Common Pleas, and 
 a twentieth part in the King's Bench and 
 Exchequer courts, of all damages exceed- 
 ing five marks. Abolished in 1665. 
 
 Dame de Beaute {La). Agnes 
 Sorel, the mistress of Charles VIL of 
 France (1410-1450). So called from the 
 ' Chateau de Beaute,' on the banks of the 
 Mame, given her by the king. 
 
236 
 
 DAMIANISTS 
 
 DANE 
 
 Damianists. Those nuns of the 
 Order of St. Claire who followed the 
 most austere rule of St. Francis. Those 
 who followed the modified rule introduced 
 by Urban IV. in 12G4 were denominated 
 "UThanists. 
 
 Damien (Father). A Belgian Catho- 
 lic missioner (1839-1889) who devoted his 
 life to the care of the lepers at Molokai. 
 He caught the disease, and speedily fell 
 a victim, at the age of 49. 
 
 Damiens [Bobert Franqois), Jan. 
 1757. Attempted the life of Louis XV. as 
 he was stepping into his coach to return 
 to the Trianon, by stabbing him between 
 the fourth and fifth rib. The devilry of 
 the French in torturing this creature is 
 wholly without precedent. First incisions 
 were made in his arms and thighs, into 
 which boiling oil was poured. He was next 
 chained on an iron bed, and the torture 
 again applied. On 28 March, amidst a vast 
 crowd of people, he was taken to the 
 Place de Greve, and being fastened by 
 iron gyves to a scaffold, one of his hands 
 was burnt in liquid flaming sulphur. His 
 thighs, legs, and arms were then excori- 
 ated with red-hot pincers, and boiling oil, 
 molten lead, hot resin, and sulphur were 
 poured over the wounds. Next, tight liga- 
 tures being tied round his wrists and 
 ankles, four young horses were fastened 
 to the ropes to pull the limbs asunder. 
 This lasted an hour, when the medical 
 attendants ordered the tendons to be cut. 
 Again the horses were lashed, and one 
 arm and leg were severed. After a few 
 more pulls the other members were pulled 
 off, and the man expired. In 1704 Gold- 
 smith published his ' Traveller,' and at 
 the conclusion alludes to ' Damiens' bed 
 of steel.' See Smollett's ' History of Eng- 
 land,' vol. v., chap. 12, p. 3. 
 
 Dan. So Daniel O'Connell was lov- 
 ingly designated by the Irish. 
 
 Danaanian Dynasty ( TJie) . A dy- 
 nasty said to have reigned in Ireland, and 
 to have been succeeded by the Milesians. 
 They were descendants of Tuatha na 
 Danaan {q.v.), who had migrated to Scot- 
 land, and had been led back by Nuad of 
 the ' Silver Hand.' See ' Silver Hand.' 
 
 Danans {The). Invaders of Ireland 
 in prehistoric times, who overthrew the 
 Belgse settlement in one great battle and 
 the ' Irish ' in another, and made them- 
 
 selves masters of the island. The Belgsa 
 were allowed by them a free territory in 
 Connaught. 
 
 By the ' Irish ' must be understood the Fomo- 
 rians and Partholanians (.q.v.). 
 
 Dance of St. Guy [The), 1378. An 
 epidemic in Germany ; also called the 
 ' Dance of St. Witt.' It was supposed 
 that the v'ctims of this disease were pos- 
 sessed, and therefore they were exorcised 
 by the priests. 
 
 Pausanias tells us that the daughters of Proa- 
 tus and the •women of Argos fancied they were 
 cows, and ran about the meadows under this 
 hallucination. Compare Daii. ii. 32, 33. 
 
 Dancing Mania [The), 1374. A 
 strange disease, which pervaded different 
 parts of Germany, and first broke out in 
 the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 Persons would join hands, forming large 
 circles, and dance like mad people till they 
 fell exhausted to the ground. The magis- 
 trates of the Rhenish cities were obliged to 
 put down the mania by an armed force. 
 In the French Revolution a similar mania 
 prevailed, the ' Carmagnole ' being the 
 name of the dance and song which then 
 moved men, women, and children -to a 
 temporary frenzy. 
 
 Called in Holland ' St. John's Dance ; ' in Ger- 
 many ' St. Witt's Dance; ' in Strasburg ' St. Guy s' 
 or ' St. Vitus's Dance." 
 
 Dancing-masters [Father of all). 
 Beauchamps, who died 1G95. Louis XIV. 
 took lessons of him for twenty years. 
 
 Dando {The), Sept. 1427. A kind of 
 influenza which affected nearly everyone 
 in France. It began with pains in the 
 shoulders and loins, shivering fits fol- 
 lowed, and then a tearing cough. It 
 lasted fifteen or sixteen days. A chro- 
 nicler says during the dando not a man 
 or woman could be found who had not a 
 large pimple either on the mouth or on 
 the nose. 
 
 Dandy. For the different names of 
 French dandies, see ' Incroyables.' 
 
 Dandy King (T7ie). Joachim Murat, 
 king of Naples, called by Napoleon ' Un 
 roi de theatre.' He used to parade the 
 streets of Paris dressed like a stage king 
 in silks and satins (1771-1815). 
 
 Egan says the word ' dandy ' was first used in 
 1820; this requires confirraation, for velocipedes, 
 invented in 1779, were called 'dandy-horses,' and 
 were common in 1618. I myself rode one at the 
 time. 
 
 Dane Territory. In England. At 
 the Peace of Nottingham, 868, Alfred the 
 Great divided England into two parts, 
 
DANEBKOG 
 
 DARIEN 
 
 237 
 
 the larger of which he assigned to the 
 Danes ; but he kept London in his own 
 portion. The boundary ran along the 
 Thames to the mouth of the Lea ; then 
 by Bedford and the river Ouse to the old 
 Roman road called ' Watling Street.' See 
 ' The Five Burghs.' 
 
 Danebrog {The Order of), 1219. In- 
 stituted in Denmark by Waldemar the 
 Victorious. Revived in 1671 by Chris- 
 tian V. To recompense services rendered 
 to the state, whether military or civil. 
 The decoration consists of a cross of gold 
 pattee, enamelled with white, and sus- 
 pended with a white ribbon edged with 
 red. 
 
 Brog = flag. The order is in honour of the na- 
 tional rtag of Denmark. 
 
 Danegelt. A tax first levied in 991 
 by Ethelred the Unready to bribe the 
 Danes, who had invaded the kingdom, to 
 quit it. Several times during the reign 
 of Ethelred the Danes returned, and re- 
 ceived fresh bribes. It is said that he 
 paid them altogether 150,000^. (fully four 
 and a half millions according to Me 
 •present value of money). The tax was 
 from tune to time levied by subsequent 
 kings, under pretence of fortifying the 
 kingdom or maintaining a fleet or army 
 against the Danes. Edward the Con- 
 fessor abolished it ; but it was again col- 
 lected, under the name of ' Heregeld ' 
 (army tax), in the reigns of William I., 
 William II., Henry I., and Stephen. 
 
 In 991 the tax was Is-, for every hide of land, but 
 the ta>. was soon doubled. 
 
 Danelagh. Means the * Danes' law,* 
 but the word is apjilied to the ' Five 
 Burghs' given by Alfred to the Danes 
 at the Peace of Nottingham in 868. The 
 • Five Burghs of the Danes ' were Derby, 
 Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and 
 Stamford. 
 
 According to the ' Bromton Chronicle," the 
 Danelagh contained fifteen counties mot five), viz. 
 Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Hertfordshire, 
 Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Lincoln, Notting- 
 hamshire, Derbyshire, Northamptonshire, Leices- 
 tershire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordsliire, and all 
 that vast territory called Northumbria. 
 
 Danish Butler (The). Baron 
 Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754), author of 
 the heroi-comic Hudibrastic poem en- 
 titled ' Peder Paars.' 
 
 Danites {The). Sometimes called 
 'Destroying Angels.' The more violent 
 raembers of the Mormon community 
 who carried out the decrees of the Elders 
 on recalcitrant brethren. A number of 
 
 them, disguised as Indians, massacred a 
 party of Mormons withdrawing from the 
 Utah settlement. Brigham Young was 
 accused of complicity. 
 
 ' P'r'aps you've heard tell of Danites?' I had 
 heard ... of that spiritual police of Mormon- 
 dom, of those fierce zealots who obey their pro- 
 phet blindly . . . Seth's right ; we don't want to 
 set up any chaps to paint Injun on our account, 
 as Angel Brown, and young Harris, and the 
 Danites did.'— Charles Dickens, Christmas Num- 
 ber, 1861, ^U the Year Rowui, p. 41 (Xom Tiddler's 
 Ground). 
 
 Dante of Philosophy {The). 
 John Baptist Pico, professor of rhetoric 
 in Naples (1688-1740). 
 
 Danton of the Gironde {The). 
 Isnard, son of a perfumer at Grasse ; a 
 literary man, formed on the old Grecian 
 and Roman model. He was a thorough 
 republican of very im]Detuous character. 
 
 Dantonists. The followers of Dan- 
 ton, one of the three leaders in the Reign 
 of Terror, the other two being Hebert 
 and Robespierre. When Danton thought 
 that blood enough had been shed, he 
 halted and advised moderation, but was 
 trampled in the dust by those less scrupu- 
 lous than himself. Robespierre accused 
 him of monarchical proclivities, and he 
 was condemned to death by the Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal. 
 
 Danubian Principalities {The). 
 
 Moldavia and WaUachia, constituted 
 into independent states by the Conven- 
 tion of Paris, 19 Aug., 1858. They were 
 united provisionally by a firman of the 
 Sultan, 12 Nov., 1861. United under tho 
 title of Roumania 23 Dec, 1861. 
 
 Darbyites (Dar^-by-ites), Darby- 
 ism, 1832. A split from the Plymouth 
 Brethren on the doctrine of the humanity 
 of Christ. So called from. John H. 
 Darby. 
 
 Darg. The regulation enforced by 
 the trades union among colliers, that no 
 workman shall raise in a day more of the 
 mineral than could be easily raised by 
 the most inexperienced and unskilful of 
 the colliers. 
 
 Dajg =. day : contract work by the day. 
 
 Darien Scheme (T/ie). TheDarien 
 Company was projected by William 
 Paterson (founder of the Bank of Eng- 
 land) in 1694. Incorporated by Act of 
 Parliament in Scotland, 1695. Settle- 
 ment abandoned in 1699, and finally in 
 1700. The scheme was to colonise the 
 Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, 
 
238 
 
 DARK 
 
 DAY 
 
 in order to form a commercial entrepot 
 between the eastern and western hemi- 
 spheres ; and a monopoly of all the trade 
 of Asia, Africa, and America was granted 
 to the company. The ground, however, 
 belonged to Spain, and the climate was 
 fatal to the colonists. Many having died 
 and more sickened, a Spanish force was 
 sent against the new-comers, which broke 
 up the company entirely. 
 
 Then there were malcontents [in Scotland] 
 created by the government opposition to the 
 Darien scheme. . . . The Darien malcontents 
 ■were for the most part revolutionists.— Ho WITT, 
 History of England (Anne, p. 182). 
 
 Dark Ages [The). From the fall of 
 the Roman empire, a.d. 475, to the re- 
 vival of literature on the discovery of the 
 Pandects at Amalfi in 1137. Not to draw 
 the limits too finely, say 700 years (450 
 to 1150). The Middle Ages {q.v.) may be 
 extended to about 1550, covering from 
 ten to eleven centuries. 
 
 Darling of Mankind (T/ie). Ves- 
 pasian the Roman emperor (9, 70-79). 
 Titus was called the ' Delight of Man- 
 kind ' (40, 79-81). 
 
 Darvel G-atheren. A great wooden 
 idol in "Wales, held in great veneration. 
 There was a legend that one day Darvel 
 would burn a forest. When Friar For- 
 rest, in 1538, the confessor of Queen 
 Katharine, was burnt for denying the 
 king's supremacy, this image was cast 
 on the pile. 
 
 David Darvel Gatheren, 
 As saith the Welshmen, 
 
 Fetched outlaws out of hell ; 
 Now is he come, ■« 1th spear and shield, 
 In harness to burn in Smith field. 
 For in Wales he may not dwell. 
 And Forrest, the friar, 
 That obstinate liar, 
 
 That wilfully shall be dead, 
 In his contumacy 
 The gospel doth deny 
 The king to be supreme head. 
 
 Dar-winism. So called from Charles 
 Darwin. Is the theory that species owe 
 their origin to natural selection, or the 
 survival of those best adapted to the 
 surroundings, &c. 
 
 Evolution is the development of new species of 
 animals and plants by a natural process, of which 
 the chief factors are heredity, variation, and 
 adn.ptation. Hence Darwinism and evolution are 
 quite distinct ideas. 
 
 Daughter of Jerusalem. Mount 
 Zion, the fortified part of Jerusalem. 
 Here David had his palace, and hence it 
 was also called ' The City of David.' 
 
 Dauphin of France (The), 1349. 
 Heir apparent of the crown, like our 
 
 * Prince of Wales.' Humbert II. count 
 of Dauphiny, by the Treaty of Vincennes 
 (30 May, 1349), ceded Dauphiny to the 
 crown of France, and from that time to 
 the first Revolution the eldest son of the 
 reigning king was entitled ' The Dauphin.' 
 The wife of a dauphin was entitled Dau- 
 phine (2 syl.). 
 
 The Grand Dauphin means the eldest 
 son of Louis XIV., named ' Louis de 
 France' (16G1-1711). The son of the 
 Grand Dauphin also died before his 
 grandfather (1GB2-1712). 
 
 David Dale's People. Scotch 
 Independents. So called from David 
 Dale of New Lanark, the philanthropist 
 (1738-1806). 
 
 Davidians, or the ' Family of Love.' 
 So called from David George, who made 
 himself sometimes Christ and sometimes 
 the Holy Ghost. See Strype, ' Cranmer,' 
 p. 291. Their tenets are touched upon in 
 the preface to the ' Ecclesiastical Polity,' 
 and a short account of them is given in 
 Sir W. Scott's ' Woodstock,' ii. p. 218. 
 
 David George published an account of his 
 visions in 1542, under the title of the ' Book of 
 Wonders." He died in lots. 
 
 Davies Scholarship. For Classics. 
 Value about 30Z. a year, tenable for seven 
 years. Founded in the University of 
 Cambridge by the Rev. Jonathan Davies, 
 D.D., provost of Eton, 1804. See ' Regius 
 Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Davis Chinese Scholarship. 
 
 Tenable for two years. Founded in the 
 University of Oxford by Sir John F. 
 Davis, F.R.S. 
 
 Davis Strait. So called from John 
 Davis, an English navigator of the 16th 
 cent. 
 
 Day of Adoration (The). ' Dies 
 Adoratus,' 14 Sept. Called also ' L'exal- 
 tation de la Sainte Croix,' ' en mcmoire de 
 ce qu' Heraclius rapporta sur le Calvaire 
 en 642 la vraie croix que Chosroes, roi des 
 Perses, avait enlevee 14 ans auparavant.' 
 
 Day of Federation {The), 14 July, 
 
 1790. The anniversary of the storming 
 of the Bastille, when the people swore 
 ' to defend the liberty of France.' 
 
 Day of Ferdinand (The), 27 May, 
 1800. By a most disgraceful trick, 
 Napoleon Bonaparte persuaded the old 
 king of Spain to abdicate, and then he 
 set his own brother Joseph on the vacant 
 
DAY 
 
 DAY 
 
 239 
 
 throne. The Spaniards, disgusted at 
 this treachery, rose as one man, massacred 
 the French garrison at Madrid, and cut 
 to pieces the squadron at Cadiz. This, 
 of course, led to reprisals, and the result 
 was the long Peninsular "War {q.v.), so 
 glorious to the Duke of Wellingtcm, end- 
 ing with the battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 
 1H15, and the banishment of Napoleon to 
 St. Helena. 
 
 Day of July (The). 'Joumee de 
 Juillet,' 14 July. Noted for the insurrec- 
 tion of the people of Paris in 1789, and 
 the taking of the Bastille. Between 
 1790-1792 the anniversary was called 
 the ' Fete de la Fe'de'ration. See ' Days of 
 July.' 
 
 Day of New Cloaks (The). 
 
 Old Christmas Day was at one time so 
 called in France, from the custom of giving 
 on that day a new robe to each courtier. 
 
 On Christmas Eve, 1245, the king [Louis IX.] 
 bade all his court be present at early morning 
 mass. At the chapel door each man received his 
 new cloak, put it on, and went in. ... As the day 
 rose, each man saw on his neighbour's shoulder 
 the cross which betokened the crusading vow.— 
 KITCHIN, History of France, vol. i. p. 828. 
 
 Day of Poniards (The), 28 Feb., 
 1791. The day of the attack on the 
 prison of Vincennes (2 syl.), called ' the 
 Second Bastille.' On this day a large 
 number of courtiers rushed to the Tui- 
 leries to defend the king and royal 
 family. Lafayette with the National 
 Guards disarmed them, and they were 
 very roughly handled by the mob. This 
 day was called 'the Day of Poniards' 
 because Marat, in his journal, L'Ami du 
 Petiple, declared that 5,000 poniards had 
 been manufactured in Paris for the use 
 of the aristocrats against the patriots. A 
 diligent search was made by order of the 
 National Assembly, but only thirty-five 
 poniai'ds could be found, and those were 
 for persons engaged in the slave trade. 
 
 A number of the king's friends . . . had flocked 
 to the palace, as on the Day of Poniards.— HowiTT, 
 History oj England (George UI., p. 418), 
 
 Day of Reason (The), 8 June, 
 1794. When the bishops and clergy of 
 Paris, decorated with caps of liberty, re- 
 nounced their sacerdotal office and pub- 
 licly declared : ' We now abjure the trade 
 of superstition, and are resolved hence- 
 forth to be men instead of Christians ; to 
 own no temple but the sanctuary of the 
 law; no divinity but liberty; no object 
 of worship but our country ; and no 
 gospel but the constitution.' 
 
 The Bishop of Moulines trampled on his cross 
 and mitre, and, taking up a pike and cap of 
 liberty, preaclied to the people that ' death is an 
 eternal sleep.' 
 
 Day of Rest (The). 
 
 Christians set apart 1st day of the week fSunday). 
 Greeks „ 2nd „ „ (Hi'onday). 
 
 Persians „ Srd „ „ (Tuesday). 
 
 Assyrians „ 4th „ „ (Wednesday). 
 
 ^in^d Jesfda} " ''^ » " (Thursday). 
 
 Turks „ 6th „ „ (Friday). 
 
 Jews „ 7th „ „ (Saturday). 
 
 See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Day of St. Ferdinand {The). A 
 repetition of the ' Sicilian Vespers.' See 
 ' Day of Ferdinand.' 
 
 Day of the Barricades. See 
 
 ' Barricades.' 
 
 Day of the Bastille (The), 14 July, 
 1789. The day on which the Bastille 
 was demolished by the French rabble. 
 
 Day of the Burae {The). The 
 
 first Sunday of Lent is so called by the 
 Lotharingians, from the custom of carry- 
 ing bandons or torches on that day, first 
 observed in 1249. The day is known as 
 the ' Burae; ' hence ive read such phrases 
 as these : — ' Die crastina burarum,' or 
 ' Feria quinta post buras.' See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Day of the Camel {Th^„ * Nov., 
 
 A.D. 657. The famous battle of Bassorah, 
 in which Ali defeated Ayesha, Telha, and 
 Zobeir. It was the first civil war of the 
 Moslems, and received its name from the 
 following circumstance : Ayesha, the 
 prophet's widow, who hated Ali (son of 
 Fatima), went to the battle on a camel, 
 with seventy men to hold her bridle. 
 All the seventy men were slain, and the 
 cage or litter in which Ayesha rode was 
 struck with so many darts and javelins 
 that, as Gibbon says, it was like a porcu- 
 pine with its quills. 
 
 Day of the Dupes {The), 11 Nov., 
 1630. Marie de Medicis, the queen 
 mother, hating Richelieu, induced her 
 son, Louis XIII., to dismiss him ; and 
 the king, unable to resist his mother, 
 commanded the cardinal to resign his 
 portfolio. The lady was triumphant, 
 her friends were loud in their congratu- 
 lations, and all thought the influence of 
 the queen mother was paramount. Next 
 day Eichelieu waited on the king to 
 place in his hands the seals of office ; 
 Louis relented, refused to accept the 
 resignation, and Eichelieu became more 
 powerful than ever. This day is called 
 
210 
 
 DAY 
 
 DEAD-CART 
 
 in French history 'La Journde des 
 Dupes.' The dupes were the queen 
 mother, her younger son the Duke of 
 Orleans, Michel and Louis de Marillac, 
 and all their clique. 
 
 Day of the Millers (^7^e). 'Jour- 
 n^e des Farines,' 3 Jan., 1591. When 
 some of the partisans of Henri IV., dis- 
 guised as millers, attempted to get pos- 
 session of the barrier de St. Honore', in 
 Paris, with the view of making themselves 
 masters of the city. Li this they failed. 
 
 Days. See also 
 
 Baronial days. 
 Black days. 
 Egyptian days. 
 
 Eed-letter days. 
 Scarlet days. 
 Sundays. 
 
 Days in Banc. Days appointed 
 by the courts, or fixed by statute, when 
 process must be returned, or when par- 
 ties served v/ith writs are to make their 
 appearance in full court. 
 
 Days of Grace. The three days 
 beyond the time at which a 'bill' is 
 actually due. Sunday, Good Friday, 
 and Christmas Day do not count. 
 
 Days of Ill-name. ' Dies male- 
 dicti,' also called ' Dies ^gyptiaci ' and 
 * Dies ^gri.' Two days in every month 
 held unlucky by the Egyptians, because 
 they fancied ' quod in aliqua hora dierum 
 illorum non erat bonum sanguinare (id 
 est sanguinem minuere), nee aliquod opus 
 incipere.' On these days they would 
 commence no new work, nor start on a 
 journey. St. Augustine refers to this in 
 his ' Commentary on Epistle to the Gala- 
 tians,' chap. iv. 
 
 Days of July {Tlie). ' Joumees de 
 Juillet,' the 27, 28, 29. When the people of 
 Paris rose and drove Charles X. from 
 the throne for suppressing the liberty of 
 the press, 1830. See ' Day of J uly.' 
 
 Days of Jnne {The), 5, 6. I. An 
 ^meute provoked in Paris by the Re- 
 publicans at the funeral of Lamarque, 
 deputy of the Opposition, 1832. Barri- 
 cades were thrown up in the quarters of 
 St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis [Sahn 
 Dnee], &c. The troops were called in, and 
 on the 6th put down the disturbance by 
 taking the church of St. Merry by storm. 
 
 IL 23, 24, 25, 26. A bloody insurrec- 
 tion by the party styled the ' Democra- 
 tique et Sociale ' against the republic 
 established in France 24 Feb., 1848. It 
 »»as aroused by the dissolution of the 
 
 ateliers naMonaux. St. Jaques, St. Mar- 
 ceau, and St. Antoine were besieged, and 
 it was only put down by calling out the 
 soldiers under the direction of Cavaignac. 
 Seven generals were killed, and Mgr. 
 Affre (archbishop of Paris) was shot on 
 the 25th, attempting to stop the slaughter. 
 The loss of life was enormous, but the 
 number of slain was not allowed to be 
 published. 
 
 DeDonis Conditiona'libus('8'^a- 
 
 ttite). The statute of Westminster which 
 established in England the power of 
 creating an entail (13 Edw. I. c. 1). 
 
 De Eminenti, 1642. The bull of 
 Urban VIII. against Jansen and his book 
 * Augustlnus.' 
 
 De Hseretico Comburendo 
 
 iThe),2 Hen. IV. c. 15, a.d. 1401. An Act 
 forbidding all unlicensed preaching ; au- 
 thorising bishops to arrest anyone sus- 
 pected of propagating unsound doctrines ; 
 and all persons arrested were to be kept in 
 prison till they abjured their errors, or in 
 default thereof were to be handed over to 
 the secular power, which ' shall forthwith 
 do them to be burnt.' Repealed by 
 29 Car. II. c. 9, a.d. 1677. 
 
 William Sawtrey, a London clergyman, was the 
 first to suffer. He was arrested by Archbishop 
 Arundel, and burnt alive for refusing to adore the 
 cross. 
 
 De Officiis. By Cicero, 1466. Printed 
 by Fust and his son-in-law Peter Schasffer. 
 The first secular book ever printed in 
 moveable metal types. The three books 
 previously printed were Bihlia Sacra 
 Latina, Bihlia Latina, and Fsalviormn 
 Codex. 
 
 De Profundis. The first two words 
 of the Psalm cxxx. in Latin, sung by 
 Catholics in the funeral service. 
 
 Deacon. A deacon must be 22 years 
 of age. His duties in the Greek and 
 Latin Churches are: (1) to administerthe 
 alms to the poor, and to administer the 
 Eucharist, but not to consecrate. 
 
 Deacons were prohibited from celebrat- 
 ing the Holy Communion by the Act of 
 Uniformity (q.v.), 1662, 14 Car. II. c. 4. 
 
 Dead-cart (The). A cart which tra- 
 versed London from nightfall to daybreak 
 during the plague. It was accompanied 
 by two men, one with a bell, and the other 
 with ft long pitchfork. The bell was rung 
 fzom tijae to time to give notice that the 
 
DEAD 
 
 DEANS 
 
 211 
 
 cart was at hand, and when the dead were 
 pushed mto the street, they were tossed 
 by the pitchfork into the cart, and carried 
 to a great pit, where they were shot 
 down wholesale (1665). 
 
 The pit in Aldgate was 40 feet by 16 feet, and 
 9 feet deep. Atiove 400 bodies were shot into it 
 between the 6th and 20th of Sept. 
 
 Dead Hand (The). Mortmain, i.e. 
 the possession of lands and tenements in 
 'dead hands,' or hands which cannot 
 alienate. 
 
 These may have been his reasons for seeking the 
 protection of the 'dead hand.'— H. Hayman, D.D. 
 
 A corporation is a ' dead hand ' because it can- 
 not alienate. So is the Church. 
 
 Dead's Part {The). That portion of 
 the moveable estate of a deceased person 
 which remains over, after satisfying the 
 legal claims of wife and children. In 
 Scotland the surplus is the only part which 
 the deceased could dispose of by will 
 or testament. Abolished by 19, 20 Vict. 
 c. 94. 
 
 Dead Reckoning. A term in navi- 
 gation, signifying the calculation of a 
 ship's place at sea, made independently 
 of celestial observations. 
 
 Dead Weight Annuity (The). 
 4 Geo. IV. c. 22. Military and naval pen- 
 sions, and pensions given to civil super- 
 numeraries. They expired in 18:37. 
 
 Dead Woman Crowned (4), 1357. 
 Ines de Castro, wife of Pedro (I.) of 
 Portugal. Pedro had clandestinely mar- 
 ried Ines de Castro, and his father Affonso, 
 king of Portugal, had her privately assas- 
 sinated. In 1357 Affonso died, and Pedro 
 succeeded to the crown. He then had the 
 corpse disinterred, sumptuously arrayed, 
 and crowned. Pedro stood beside the 
 corpse, and the nobles did homage to it by 
 kissing the hand. The ceremony being 
 over, the dead body was restored to its 
 sepulchre again. 
 
 Dean. In Oxford University; the 
 title of the master of Christ Church, 
 which is a cathedral. 
 
 Dean Ireland Exef^etical Pro- 
 fessorship {The). In Oxford Univer- 
 sity. Stipend 6001. a year. Founded by 
 Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel College, dean 
 of Westminster, 1847. 
 
 Dean Ireland's Scholarships. 
 
 Four for Latin and Greek, tenalsle for four 
 years. Founded in the University of | 
 11 
 
 Oxford by Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel Col- 
 lege, dean of Westminster, in 1825. 
 
 Dean of Faculty (r/ie). President 
 of the incorporation of advocates or 
 barristers in Scotland ; elected annnally. 
 
 Dean of G-uild. In Scotch burghs 
 was head of the mercantile body called 
 the ' Guild brethren.' At one time he 
 was a judge in mercantile and maritime 
 causes within the burgh, but is now a kind 
 of city edile. 
 
 Dean of University College, 
 
 London. The principal or head of a 
 faculty chosen for a limited period. 
 
 Deans {Honorary). Without juris- 
 diction, such as the dean of the Chape] 
 Koyal, of St. James's Palace, &c. 
 
 Deans {BuraT). Are deputies of the 
 bishop, planted all round his diocese, to 
 inspect the conduct of the parochial 
 clergy, inquire into and report dilapida- 
 tions, and armed with judicial authority 
 in matters not of serious importance. 
 
 Deans of Chapters. Are either of 
 cathedral or collegiate churches. Such 
 as the dean of Canterbury and the dean 
 of St. Paul's, who are governors over the 
 canons. It is a crown appointment, and 
 the dean must reside eight months in 
 the year, and may hold a living with his 
 deanery. The office in Durham is worth 
 8,000Z. a year ; of St. Paul's, of West- 
 minster, of York, and of Manchester is 
 worth 2,000Z. a year ; of most other 
 cathedrals about 1,000?. a year; but from 
 agricultural depression in the last ten 
 years (1890) the value of all church bene- 
 fices dependent on tithes has much de- 
 preciated. 
 
 Deans of Peculiars, or * Deans in 
 Peculiar.' Have sometimes jurisdiction 
 and cure of souls, and sometimes juris- 
 diction only. Of this nature is the dean 
 of Battle in Sussex, founded by William I., 
 the dean of Westminster, the dean of the 
 chapel of St. George of Windsor, and the 
 dean of King's Chapel. The following 
 have jurisdiction but no cure of souls, 
 viz. the dean of Arches in London, the 
 dean of Bocking in Essex, the dean of 
 Croydon in Surrey, and the dean of Christ 
 Church, Oxford. 
 
 Deans of Provinces, or 'Deans 
 of Bishops.' Like the bishop of London, 
 who is ' dean of the province of Canter 
 
DEANS 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 bury.' The archbishop sends to him his 
 mandate for summoning the bishops of 
 liis province when a convocation is to be 
 assembled. 
 
 Deans of the Chapel Royal 
 
 (The). In Scotland there are three such 
 deans appointed by the crown ; the duties 
 are quite nominal, being limited to an 
 occasional sermon before the sovereign 
 when in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Deasy's Act, 1860. An Irish land 
 act, which reduced the question to a 
 mere matter of contract. So that the 
 tenant's house, the out-offices, the fences 
 and drains, made or paid for by the 
 tenant, were the property of the landlord. 
 This continued till 1870, when an act 
 was passed to provide compensation for 
 improvements and prevent capricious 
 evictions. 
 
 Death Rate. The number of in- 
 habitants at present on the earth is 1,300 
 millions. 
 
 The annual death rate is 33 millions ; 
 92 thousand daily : nearly 4 thousand 
 every hour,* 60 every minute, and 1 every 
 second. 
 
 Only 1 in 1,000 reach the age of 100, 
 1 in 500 reach the age of 80, 6 in 1,000 
 reach the age of 65. 
 
 • In round numbers : More exact, 33,033,033 
 die annually, 91,824 daily, 3,730 hourly. 
 
 Death with Music. Leopold I., 
 the kaiser (1658-1705), on his death-bed 
 requested that the court musicians might 
 be introduced, that he might die to the 
 sounds of sweet music. Mirabeau's last 
 words were ' Let me die to the sounds of 
 delicious music' 
 
 Deaths (Begistration of). See 
 'Eegistration,' &q. 
 
 Debarring. In the Scotch church, 
 means excluding from communion all 
 those deemed by the minister and his 
 lieutenants unworthy to ' partake of that 
 feast,' 
 
 Debased Style [The], 1600. Ap- 
 plied to architecture means that which 
 followed the Reformation period. Called 
 debased, because the designs were in- 
 ferior to the previous styles, and the 
 execution by no means good. There was 
 no unity, but different schools and diffe- 
 rent periods were mixed together. 
 
 The first was the Early English oc Lancet style, 
 the second the Decorated, the third t)ie Florid 
 or Perpendicular, and tlio lourtk the Debased. 
 
 Debateable Land {The). 'The 
 space between the Esk and the Sark, 
 bounded on the third side by the march 
 dike. It seems properly to belong to 
 Scotland, but having been disputed by 
 both crowns, was styled "The Debate- 
 able Land." In the reign of James VI. (I. 
 of England) Sir Richard Graham, obtain- 
 ing from the Earl of Cumberland a lease 
 of this tract, bought it of James, and got 
 it united to the county of Cumlaerland.' 
 (Pennant, ' Tour in Scotland,' vol. ii. p. 82.) 
 
 Decadence. In ancient art applied 
 to works subsequent to the reign of 
 Augustus. In modern art the term ia 
 applied to the post-renaissant period, or 
 the rococo style introduced in the reign 
 of Louis XV. 
 
 In Greece the term is applied to art subsequent 
 to the time of Pericles, the turning point of Greek 
 art. In England art reached its lowest point in 
 the reign of George IV. 
 
 Dec'adistS. Those who observed the 
 new French Calendar introduced by 
 Fabre d'Eglantine in 1793. So-called 
 because the year was divided into decades 
 (10 days instead of weeks), the 10th 
 decade being called decadi. 
 
 There were 360 decades in a year, and these 
 made up 300 days, the odd 5 (to make up 36.5 days) 
 ■were called Sans-culottides, or holidays for the 
 Bans-culottes or operatives. 
 
 Decalcea'ti, 1570. The barefooted 
 friars. They were Augustine and Fran- 
 ciscan friars of the stricter rule, which 
 forbade the wearing of boots or shoes. 
 
 Deccan {i. e. the south). The country 
 between the river Nerbuddah and the 
 river Krishna. 
 
 Decelsean War {The),^ b.c. 413. 
 Decelea was a demus of Attica on the 
 borders of Boeotia. In the nineteenth 
 year of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 413) 
 the Peloponnesians, under Agis, seized 
 and fortified the demus, and thereby 
 greatly annoyed the Athenians. It was 
 held till the close of the Peloponnesian 
 war (B.C. 404). 
 
 December 25. The time of the 
 winter solstice has been held in high 
 festival by well nigh all the nations of 
 the earth, and probably our festival of 
 the Nativity was fixed to this day in 
 order to divert a long and general pagan 
 practice to the birth of Christ in Bethle- 
 hem. The 25 Dec. was chosen for the 
 festival in* the reign of Antoninus Piua 
 
DECEMBER 
 
 DECLARATION 
 
 243 
 
 (138-161), and is attributed to Teles- 
 phorus. 
 
 China.— The birth of Buddha, son of Maya, Is 
 celebrated 25 Dec— Bunsen. The Angel Messiah; 
 LiLLIE, liuddha and Jlmhlhism, p. 73. 
 
 Druids.— The festival called ' Nolagh ' was cele- 
 brated at the winter solstice.— HiGGlNS, Anaca- 
 lypsis, vol. ii. p. 99. 
 
 Egypt.— Horus, son of Isis, is said to have been 
 born at the close of Dec— M. Le Clekk de 
 Septehenes, Kcligion of the Ancient Greeks, p. 
 214 ; BONWICK, E.nipiian Belief, p. 157. 
 
 Greece.— The birth of Demeter (Ceres), Dionysos 
 (Bacchus), and Herakles (Hercules), were all cele- 
 brated during the winter solstice. Just as that 
 of Osiris was in Egypt. The Greeks called 25 Dec. 
 ' The Triple Night.'— Kchgioii of i)ie Ancient Greeks, 
 p. 215 ; Anaealtipsis, vol. ii. p. 99. 
 
 India.— Monier Williams (Hind^fan, p. 181) te'ls 
 us that numerous Indian tribes keep Yule as a 
 religious festival, decorate their houses with 
 garlands, and make presents to their friends at 
 this festal season. 
 
 Mexico.— The festival called ' Capacrame ' was 
 held in the winter solstice.— His( Indies, vol. ii. 
 p. 354. 
 
 Home.— The festival called 'Natalis Soils In- 
 vlcti ' was celebrated on 25 Dec with public 
 games.— Eev. J. B. GROSS, Tlie Heathen Religion, 
 p. 287. 
 
 Persia.— The great festival in honour of the 
 birth of Mithras was at the same period — Celtic 
 Druids, p. 1G3 ; GROSS, &c., p. 287. 
 
 Scandinavia.— The festival called Jul, in honour 
 of FrejT, son of Odin, was our Yule. 
 
 Germany.- The Yule-feast; the French Noel, 
 the Scandinavian Jul, the Druidical Nolagh. 
 
 *,* On this day [25 Dec] the birth of Christ was 
 lately fixed at Rome, in order that, while the 
 heathen were busy with their profane ceremonies, 
 Christians might perform their holy rites un- 
 disturbed.— Chrysostom. 
 
 December Laws (T/te), 1867, which 
 gave to Hungary its present form of 
 government. 
 
 Decembrists (in Russian history), 
 1825. Revolutionists who, at the death 
 of Czar Alexander I., on 1 Dec, tried to 
 introduce a constitutional government in 
 Russia. This revolution was headed by 
 some of the chief military and naval 
 ofificers in the empire. It came to 
 naught, and multitudes were imprisoned 
 for long periods. Thus Colonel Batten- 
 koff was imprisoned in the fortress of 
 Petrojiavlovsk, in St. Petersburg, from 
 Dec. 1825 to Feb. 1846, when he was 
 exiled to West Siberia. 
 
 Decemviral Tribunal (The). Of 
 Venice. Called in English the ' Council 
 of the Ten,' or * The Ten ' {q.v.). 
 
 Decemvirs (The), or Council of Ten, 
 B.C. 451, Appointed both to administer 
 justice, conduct the government, and 
 command the armies of Rome, as well as 
 to draw up a new body of laws. Their 
 code was called ' The Twelve Tables,' or 
 Leges Duodecim Tabularuvi,ih.e Magna 
 Charta of old Rome. Abolished B.C. M9. 
 
 There were ten curators of the Sibylline Books 
 called the Dcrcmviri. Originally the curators were 
 only two. called the Duumviri, appointed by King 
 Tarquin. The number was increased to ten by 
 the Licinian Laws, B.C. 366. SuUa added five 
 more B.C. 82, and Julius Coesar in about B.C. 46 
 augmented the number to sixteen. 
 
 Decided (The). A secret society 
 sprung from the Carbonari after the un- 
 successful outbreak of 24 June, 1817. 
 They were the Guelphs of the papal 
 states, the republican ' Brother Pro- 
 tectors ' of France, the ' Adelphi ' of 
 Piedmont, and the ' Society of the Black 
 Pin.' 
 
 DecimationTax(^/^e),1654. 'That 
 all who had ever borne arms for the king, 
 or had declared themselves to be of the 
 royal party, should be decimated ; that is, 
 should pay a tenth part of all the estate 
 which they had left to support the 
 charge which the commonwealth was put 
 to by the unquietness of their temper, 
 and the just cause of jealousy which 
 they had administered.' 
 
 The decimation tax was denounced as unjust, 
 because it was a violation of the Act of Oblivion 
 (3.t'.).— Dr LlNGARD, Hisi. of Eng. viii. 7. 
 
 Declaration for refuting Four 
 Scandals (^), 6 Dec, 1GG2. The four 
 scandals which Charles II. abjured were 
 these : — 
 
 I. That the Act of Indemnity was in- 
 tended to be merely temporary. 
 
 II. That he intended to keep a largo 
 standing army. 
 
 III. That he was a persecutor. 
 
 IV. That he favoured popery. 
 
 Declaration at the Savoy, Lon- 
 don [The), 29 Sept., 1658. A declaration 
 of faith drawn up by the Independents 
 in the Savoy, London; not unlike the 
 Confession of Faith of the divines at 
 Westminster. The chief difference is in 
 the church government, which is wholly 
 democratic 
 
 The Church of England is governed by parlia- 
 ment and bishops, assisted by the de-j ns and other 
 ecclesiastics. The Presbyterian Church is go- 
 verned by the presbyter and elders. The Inde- 
 pendents leave all government to the discretion 
 of each individual congregation. 
 
 Declaration of Breda, in Hol- 
 land {The), 1660. In which Charles II., 
 then in exile, promised a general anxnesty 
 to all concerned in the parliamentary 
 wars, religious toleration, and satisfaction 
 to the army. Sometimes called the ' De- 
 claration from Breda.' There was this 
 proviso — ' unless parliament in its wisdom 
 sees fit to determine otherwise.' 
 
 b2 
 
2U 
 
 DECLARATION 
 
 DECLAEATION 
 
 Declaration of Cliarles II. 
 
 (The). I. 25 Oct., 1660. A declaration 
 having for its professed objects ' the pro- 
 motion of godliness, the encouragement 
 of public and private religious services, 
 the observance of the Lord's day, and 
 the holiness of ministers.' It promised 
 that all holy offices should be filled with 
 holy men, that confirmation should be 
 carefully performed, that bishops should 
 have no civil power, that the liturgy 
 should be revised, that the cross in 
 baptism and bowing at the name of 
 Jesus should be left free, and that only 
 the oaths of allegiance and supremacy 
 should be required, without subscription 
 and canonical obedience. 
 
 11. For the Settlement of Ireland, 
 28 Nov., 1660. Whereby soldiers and ad- 
 venturers who had been planted on the 
 estates of the Irish by the Common- 
 wealth were to retain them, except 
 they had belonged to persons who had 
 remained entirely neuter in the civil 
 war. In such cases the soldiers and 
 adventurers were to give back thu estates 
 to the Irish, and were to receive com- 
 pensation from the ' fund of reprisals,' 
 
 Declaration of Cromwell (The), 
 
 1654. Forbidding any clergyman or fellow 
 of a college to preach, be an instructor 
 of youth, or administer the sacraments, 
 under pain of imprisonment or exile. 
 This prohibition continued in force till 
 the Restoration. 
 
 Declaration of Dunfermline 
 
 (The), 1650. In this instrument Charles 
 II. was called upon by the Scotch 
 presbytery to lament his father's oppo- 
 sition to the work of God and to the 
 ' Solemn League and Covenant ' (q.v.), 
 which opposition had caused the blood 
 of the Lord's people to be shed. He 
 was called upon also to deplore the 
 idolatry of his mother, the toleration of 
 which in the king's house could not fail 
 to provoke the anger of a jealous God, 
 who visits the sins of the fathers on the 
 children. He declared that he sub- 
 scribed the covenant in sincerity of heart, 
 and would in future have no friends but 
 those who were friends to the covenant, 
 and that such friends should in no wise 
 be held his enemies. He acknowledged 
 the sinfulness of the treaty with the 
 bloody rebels of Ireland, which he now 
 declared to be null and void. He de- 
 
 clared his detestation of both popery and 
 prelacy, as well as of idolatry and heresy, 
 schism and profaneness. He promised 
 to reform the Church of England and 
 conform it to the Church of Scotland, ac- 
 cording to a plan to be drawn out by the 
 Assembly of the Divines of Westminster. 
 
 Declaration of G-eorge I., in 
 
 1728. George I. was a Lutheran, and in 
 order to conform church and state to his 
 own views, prohibited the clergy touch- 
 ing on politics in their sermons, but 
 allowed Convocation to transact eccle- 
 siastical business and make church 
 canons. 
 
 Declaration of Independence 
 
 (The). Signed 4 July, 1776, by the 
 American Congress, declaring the * United 
 States of North America' independent 
 and separated entirely from the British 
 crown. The Independence was acknow- 
 ledged by France 16 Jan., 1778, and by 
 Holland 19 April, 1782 ; provisional arti- 
 cles of peace were signed by England 
 S Sept., 1782. The Declaration waa 
 drawn up by Thomas Jefferson, of Vir- 
 ginia ; John Adams, of Massachusetts ; 
 Roger Sherman, of Connecticut ; Robert 
 R. Livingstone, of New York ; and Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania. It was 
 signed by eleven states, and the name 
 American Colonies was changed into 
 ' The United States ' (of North America). 
 Provisional articles of peace were signed by 
 England at Paris 3 Sept., 1782; the definitive 
 treaty was signed at Paris 3 Sept., 1783 ; and Joiin 
 Adams was received by George III. as ambassador 
 of the United States 2 June, 1785. 
 
 Declaration of Indulgence 
 
 {The). I. 26 Dec, 1672. PubHshed by 
 Charles II. of England, ' by virtue of his 
 ecclesiastical i)owers, suspending all penal 
 laws against Nonconformists. The real 
 object was to legalise the Catholic reli- 
 gion. In virtue of this edict John Bunyaa 
 left his prison at Bedford. The declara- 
 tion was a mere political ruse whereby 
 the ' traitor king ' hoped to play into the 
 hands of Louis XIV., and it was imme- 
 diately followed by a dissolution of the 
 triple alliance against France, and a 
 declaration of war with Holland. The 
 Commons, suspecting the villainy of the 
 king, passed the Test Act ; and the Duke 
 of York, the Lord High 'Treasurer, and 
 many high officers in the army, wera 
 obliged to retire from public life. 
 
 For the Declaration in the reign of James H. see 
 p. 245. 
 
DECLARATION 
 
 DECLARATION 
 
 245 
 
 II. 8 April, 1687, by James II. He 
 removed the oaths and penalties from 
 Dissenters, that Roman Catholics might 
 be eligible to places of emolument and 
 influence on his privy council, the two 
 houses of parliament, the corporations, 
 universities, the church, and even in the 
 army and navy. It ran thus : — ' We 
 have thought fit, by virtue of our royal 
 prerogative, to issue forth this our De- 
 claration of Indulgence, making no doubt 
 of the concurrence of our two houses of 
 parliament when we sliall think it con- 
 venient for them to meet.' See ' Decla- 
 ration of Indulgence 1G88.' 
 
 III. 1688, by Jai7ies II. Commanding 
 the bishops to instruct their clergy to 
 read in their respective churches, in 
 London on 20 May, and elsewhere on 
 27 May, the Declaration of 1687, with 
 this additional clause, stating the king's 
 unalterable resolution to secure to his 
 subjects 'freedom of conscience for ever,' 
 and of rendering merit henceforth the 
 sole qualification for office. See ' Seven 
 Bishops.' 
 
 Declaration of Jamesto-wn 
 
 {Th-e), 1650. By ten Irish bishops and 
 ten other clergymen, charging Ormond, 
 the lord-lieutenant, with negligence, in- 
 capacity, and perfidy. They protested, 
 however, that although they were com- 
 pelled to withdraw from the government 
 of the king's viceroy, they had no in- 
 tention of disputing the royal supremacy ; 
 but under present circumstances the Irish 
 were no longer bound by the articles of 
 pacification. Next day they appended a 
 form, of exconmiunication against all 
 those who abetted either Ormond or 
 Ireton, in opposition to the interests of 
 the Catholic confederacy. 
 
 Declaration of Liberty of Con- 
 science {The), 27 April, 1688. Ordered 
 to be read in all churches, 4 May. Seven 
 bishops {q.v.) petitioned against the order 
 May 18, and were committed to the Tower 
 June 8. This Declaration, sometimes 
 called a 'Declaration of Indulgence,' 
 annulled the penal laws against Roman 
 Catholics as well as against Nonconform- 
 ists, and abrogated the Test Act. The 
 object of James 11. was to introduce 
 popery, and to appoint papists to all 
 offices of state, magistracies, and mili- 
 tary posts. 
 
 Declaration of Rights {The). 
 I. Tendered by the Convention to 
 William and Mary, and accepted 13 
 Feb., 1689. This Declaration set forth 
 how King James II. tried to subvert 
 the laws and liberties of the kingdom 
 by levying money without consent of 
 parliament, by persecuting those who 
 petitioned him, by keeping a standing 
 army in time of peace, by violating 
 freedom of election, by returning corrupt 
 jurors, by excessive bail, fines, and 
 punishments. And ' they do claim and 
 insist on all and singular the premises, 
 as their undoubted rights and liberties.' 
 The Declaration, being accepted, was 
 formed into a ' Bill of Rights.' 
 
 II. Sept. 1774. Passed by the first 
 American Congress, which met in Car- 
 penters' Hall, Philadelphia. It was 
 attended by dei^uties secretly sent from 
 twelve different states. The Declara- 
 tion set forth that the colonists had lost 
 neither the rights of nature nor the 
 privileges of Englishmen by emigration, 
 and consequently, that the late acts of 
 the British Parliament were gross viola- 
 tions of their rights, especially as affect- 
 ing Massachusetts. They resolved, there- 
 fore, to suspend all imports, or all use of 
 imported goods, till harmony was restored 
 between Great Britain and her American 
 colonies. 
 
 ni. May, 1776 (United States) :— 
 
 I. All men are born equally free, possessing 
 natural rights which no compact can deprive 
 them of. 
 
 II. All power is vested in the people, from whom 
 it is derived. 
 
 III. The people have an inalienable and inde- 
 feasible right to reform, alter, or abolish any form 
 of government at their pleasure. 
 
 IV. The idea of an hereditury first magistrate is 
 unnatural and absurd. [True, but popular elec- 
 tions are great evils.] 
 
 Declaration of Sports {The), 
 1617. Issued by James I. of England, 
 to signify his pleasure that on Sundays, 
 after divine service, ' no lawful recreation 
 shall be barred to his good people. Non- 
 conformists and others not attending 
 divine service at church shall be pro- 
 hibited from taking any part in the 
 sports, nor shall anyone be allowed to 
 go out of his own parish.' The sports 
 specified in the Declaration as fit for 
 Sunday are 'dancing, archery, leaping, 
 vaulting, May-games, morrice-dances, 
 and the setting-up of May-poles ; ' but 
 bear and bull baiting, bowling, and inter- 
 ludes were forbidden. Charles L (looo) 
 
246 
 
 DECLARATION 
 
 DECRETALS 
 
 also caused the Declaration to be read 
 from the pulpit of parish churches. 
 Declaration of Toleration 
 
 {The), 15 March, 1672. Suspending all 
 penal laws on account of religion ; pro- 
 mising licences and places of worshij) to 
 Protestants, provided they met together 
 with open doors ; and granting liberty of 
 private worship to all paj)ists. 
 
 Declaration of Vienna (The), 
 13 March, 1815. An act published by 
 the allies declaring Napoleon I. an outlaw. 
 
 Declaration of the Clergy. 
 * De'claration du Clerge ' ' or ' Liberte's 
 Gallicanes.' Lisisting on a distinction 
 between spiritual and temporal power ; 
 and placing infallibility not in the pope, 
 but in the whole episcopal body united 
 under the pope. This Declaration 
 furthermore recognised the supreme 
 authority of the general councils and of 
 the sacred canons. As drawn up by 
 Bossuet in 1682 it may be thus sum- 
 marised : — 
 
 Que I'eglise doit etre regie par les canons; que 
 saint Pierre et sessuccesseurs n'ont re<;u de puis- 
 sance que sur les Glioses spirituelles ; que les regies 
 «t les constitutions adniises dans le royaume 
 doivent etre maintenues, et les bornes posees par 
 nos peres demeurer inebranlablcs ; quelesdtcrets 
 et jugements du pape ne sont irreformables 
 qu'autant que le consentement de I'eglise est iu- 
 tervenu, &c. 
 
 Declaration of the Rights of 
 
 Man (T/ie). In French historj\ 1 Oct., 
 1789. Adopted by the Assemble'e Consti- 
 tuante of Paris, setting forth all the new 
 liberties, equality of imposts, and the 
 eligibility of anyone and everyone to 
 public of&ces. Called in French, ' La 
 DdclaraJion des droits de I'homme et du 
 citoyen,' It was drawn up by Comte 
 Emanuel Sieyes, better known as I'Abbe 
 Sieyes. 
 
 The Abbe Sieyes was a monarchist, and declared 
 a monarchy to be more favourable to liberty than 
 a republic. He opposed the licentiousness of the 
 press, declined sitting in the Convention, opposed 
 the Jacobins throughout, and declared that the 
 Convention could not constitutionally try Louis 
 XVI. for his life, because such a proceeding would 
 make the Convention both accuser and judge. 
 Sieyes was one of the few prominent men who 
 survived the Bevolution, and died in his bed at the 
 age of 88. 
 
 Declaratory Act (The), 1766. An 
 
 act declaratory of the supreme power of 
 parliament over the colonies. This act 
 the Americans objected to, although the 
 Stamp Act was repealed. 
 
 Decorated English, 1275-1375. 
 In architecture ; succeeded the Early 
 Euglish or Lancet style. It is more orna- 
 
 mental, and the principal lines run pyra- 
 midically rather than horizontally or 
 vertically. 
 
 Decoration or Memorial Day, 
 30 May. An annual holiday in the 
 United States of America to honour 
 those deceased soldiers of the north 
 who took part in the war between 
 the Federals and Confederates. The 
 cemeteries are visited and decorated 
 with wreaths of flowers. 
 
 In the extreme south, where Bprlng comes in 
 earlier, an earlier day is taken. 
 
 Decree of Berlin (The), 21 Nov., 
 1806. Also called the Continental Sys- 
 tem, which declared the British Isles in 
 a state of siege, and prohibited all com- 
 merce and correspondence with the hated 
 nation. Every Englishman found in a 
 country occupied by France was declared 
 a prisoner of war. All merchandise be- 
 longing to an Englishman was lawful 
 prize. All trading in British goods was 
 forbidden. And, by a subsequent addi- 
 tion to this decree, all English goods, 
 wherever found, were to be burnt. 
 
 Decree of Fontainebleau(r7?e), 
 18 Oct., 1810. Ordering that all English 
 goods wherever found should be burnt in 
 all countries directly or indirectly belong- 
 ing to France. 
 
 Decree of 3 Ventdse, Year III. 
 (TJie), 21 Feb., 1795. The state under- 
 takes to pay sa,laries to the Catholic 
 clergy ; but any persons may freely exer- 
 cise any other form of religious worship, 
 provided they violate no law, and pay 
 their own expenses. See the 'Law of 
 Germinal,' 
 
 Decretals. The second volume of 
 the canon law, containing the respo.ises 
 of sundry popes and church councils to 
 questions put to them. The first collec- 
 tion was made by Dionysius Exiguus 
 somewhere about 550 ; but what is gene- 
 rally understood by the word is the com- 
 pilation made by Gratian, a Benedictine 
 monk, in 1151. This was supplemented 
 by Pope Gregory IX. about a century 
 later, and the supplement was called 
 Extra. Boniface VIII. supplied a sixth 
 volume, called Sexte, and the letters of 
 Clement V., called Clementines, make 
 two more volumes. The last volume, 
 called Extravagantes contains the deci- 
 sions of the popes between Urban IV. 
 and Sixtus IV. both included. See ' Falsa 
 Decretals.' 
 
DECRETUM 
 
 DEFEITr^'P.BS 
 
 m 
 
 Deeretum of Gratian (The), 1151. 
 A compilation by Gratian, an Italian 
 monk, of canons, papal epistles, and 
 patristic sentences, arranged into titles 
 and chapters, like the Pandects. 
 
 This deeretum gives authority to the False De- 
 cretals of Isidore. It was supplemented in l-2;34 
 by the decretals of Raimond do Pciinafort, which 
 consist almost entirely of the rescripts issued by 
 the later popes, especially Alexander III., Inno- 
 cent III., Honorius III., and Gregory IX. The 
 deeretum is nearly obsolete. 
 
 Dec'uman Gate (The). The rear- 
 ward gate of a camp. The opposite or 
 front gate was the prostorian gate. In a 
 Roman camp there were always four gates. 
 The prcetorian gate faced the enemy; 
 the decuman gate was the furthest from 
 the enemy, and was called dec'uman, be- 
 cause the tenth legion were posted near 
 it. The gate on the right side of the 
 camp was the 2yort a principalis dextra, 
 and the one opposite to it on the left side 
 was porta principalis sinistra. 
 
 Deciimus is another spelling of deciwMS (tenth), 
 as maxumus is of maximus. 
 
 Dee's Speeulum {Dr.). In which 
 persons were told they could see their 
 friends in distant lands, and how they 
 were occupied. It is generally said that 
 this speculum was a ' polished piece of 
 cannel coal,' but this is a mistake, as it 
 was a piece of solid pink-tinted glass 
 about the size of an orange. It is now 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 Deed-bote. Amends for misdeeds, 
 sometimes substantial and sometimes 
 only chastisement or punishment ; satis- 
 faction. {D(Bd-but, slth act oi atonement.) 
 
 Confession, restitution, deed-bote, and penance 
 were strictly enforced [by St. Dunstsui].— Early 
 English Church. 
 
 Deemsters. In the Isle of Man. 
 There are t\yo judges so called, whose 
 courts are held weekly, alternately at 
 Douglas and Castletown, by the deemster 
 of the soutJiern division, and at Ramsey 
 and Peel (or Kirk Michael) by the 
 deemster of the northern division. An 
 appeal from the deemster's judgment 
 may be made to the staff of government. 
 
 In the Isle of Man and in Jersey, 
 deemsters decide disputes without pro- 
 cess or charge. They are chosen by 
 the contending parties (Ang.-Sax., devia, 
 an umpire). At one time there was a 
 deemster, or demster, attached to the 
 High Court of Justiciary in Scotland, 
 who pronounced the * doom ' or sentence 
 
 of condemned persons ; the office was 
 attached to the executioner, but has 
 been long abolished. 
 
 Referred to in Scott's ' Old Mortality ' and ' Heart 
 of Mid-Lothian." 
 
 Deev-bend (devil-binder). Tah- 
 Omars was so called from his victories 
 over his enemies (deevs). A mythic 
 shah of Persia placed B.C. 870-840. His 
 successor was his nephew, the famous 
 Jam-sched. 
 
 Defenderof the Faith. I.John 
 de Torquemada (1388-14G8). He was a 
 Dominican, born at Valladolid, and re- 
 ceived in 1437 the honour of ' Defender 
 of the Faith ' from the Council of Basle. 
 He denounced the heresies of Wyclif and 
 of Huss. He was finally made a cardinal. 
 
 II. 'Fidei Defensor,' 1521. A title 
 conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of 
 England in grateful acknowledgment of 
 a book written in Latin against Martin 
 Luther, entitled ' A Defence of the Seven 
 Sacraments' [Assertio Septem Sacra- 
 mentoruin adversus Martinum Luthe- 
 rium). The pope subsequently withdrew 
 the title, but in the thirty-fifth year of the 
 king's reign the parliament legally con- 
 firmed it, and it still remains. 
 
 The title had been assumed by Richard 11. in 
 his proclamation against Wyclif. Henry IV. in 
 1411 had been styled ' The Chief Defender of the 
 Orthodox Faith,' and Henry HI. was called ' De- 
 fender of the Church.' The bull of Leo X. was 
 preserved by Sir Robert Cotton, and is signed by 
 the pope, 4 bishop-cardinals, 15 priest-cardinals, 
 and 8 deacon-cardinals. Henry's book Is now in 
 the Vatican, and contains this inscription in the 
 king's handwriting: 'Anglorum rex Henricus 
 Leoni X. mittit hoc opus et fidei testem et ami- 
 citise.' 
 
 *,* The title ' Defender of the Faith ' seems to 
 have been given to advocates of ecclesiastical 
 suits who defended the Church against those who 
 opposed its doctrines, rules, and discipline. 
 
 Defenders. I.a.d.407. Ecclesiastical 
 history. Church officers. In 420 one or 
 more were appointed to each patriarchal 
 church. 
 
 II. 1690. An Irish secret association 
 formed after the battle of the Boyne in 
 defence of the Catholics. Opposed by 
 the Orangists. They were very active in 
 the uprisings between 1798-1803. 
 
 III. 1795. An Irish Roman Catholic 
 association organised in self-defence 
 against the Peep-o'-Day Boys, a Presby- 
 terian association which arose in Ireland 
 in 1790. In 1688 all the Catholic property 
 of Ireland was confiscated. In the latter 
 part of the 18th cent, some attempts 
 were made to ameliorate this injustice, 
 
2d8 
 
 DEFENESTRATION 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 and the Protestants of the north clamour- 
 ing for * Protestant ascendency ' associ- 
 ated themselves into a society called 
 ' The Peep-o'-Day Boys,' whose object 
 was to maintain the Protestant ascend- 
 ency, and resist all Catholic encroach- 
 ment. The Roman Catholics then or- 
 ganised themselves into a society called 
 ' The Defenders,' and collisions became 
 common, but the principal aggressions of 
 the Defenders were nocturnal plunder, 
 house-breaking, and murder. In 1795 a 
 pitched battle was fought in the county 
 of Armagh, attended with much blood- 
 shed. Ultimately the Defenders amalga- 
 mated with the United Irishmen {q.v.), 
 and the great opponents were the Orange- 
 men, a Protestant association. See 
 * Irish Associations.' 
 
 The battle of the Diamond, In -which the Catho- 
 lics of Ireland sustained great loss, was fought 21 
 Sept., 1725, and the first Orange lodge was formed 
 later in the same day. 
 
 Defenestration of Prague {The), 
 23 May, 1618. That is, the ejection out 
 of windows by the Bohemians. The 
 Bohemians had two Protestant churches, 
 one in the diocese of Prague, and the 
 other in the territory of the abbot of 
 Braunau. The archbishop of Prague 
 and the abbot pulled down these re- 
 formed churches, and when the Protes- 
 tants remonstrated they were told it was 
 the king's pleasure. So Count Thurn of 
 Bohemia headed a deputation which went 
 to the royal castle of Prague to lay their 
 grievance before the king. Being ad- 
 mitted into the council hall, they were so 
 insolently received that they threw two 
 of the councillors and the king's private 
 secretary out of the windows into the 
 moat. This was the beginning of the 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 
 Precisely the same thing occurred at Prague in 
 1410, when someone from the royal castle threw a 
 stone at a procession of Bohemian reformers. 
 Instantly a rush was made into the council hull, 
 and thirteen of the magistrates were thrown out 
 of the windows into the streets. 
 
 Degree of Meridian. First mea- 
 sured by Eratosthenes between Syene 
 and Alexandria, about B.C. 196 ; next by 
 Posidonius between Alexandria and 
 Rhodes, A.D. 112-150; then by the brothers 
 Ben Shaku by order of the calif Al Ma- 
 miin, on the plain south of Damascus, 
 A.D. 813-833. It was measured from 
 London to York by Norwood in 1633-1635. 
 It was measured in France by the Abbe 
 Picard, between Amiens and Malvoisine, 
 
 in 1669-1671. It was measured in Lap- 
 land by Maupertius, Clairaut, and others 
 in 1735 ; in Peru by Bouguer and others 
 in 1735 ; at the Cape of Good Hope by 
 Lacaille in 1752. 
 
 Dei Gratia. Introduced into English 
 charters in 1106. It continued in the 
 British coinage up to 1849, when it was 
 discontinued in the florins, thence called 
 the ' graceless florins.' These coins were 
 recalled the same year, and the letters 
 D.G. were restored. 
 
 It is in reality a relic of the exploded doctrine ol 
 the 'divine right of kings." Thus M.N. is king by 
 divine right, or Dei gratia, and not by human 
 appointment, or hominum gratia. 
 
 Deilemites. See ' Di'-le-mites.' 
 
 De'ipassia'ni or * Patripassionists.' 
 Certain Unitarians who maintained that 
 God is one and indivisible, and denied 
 the three personalities of the Trinity. 
 Hence, said they, the being crucified on 
 Calvary was not God the Son (for there 
 is no such being), but God the Father, or 
 the one and only God. St. Augustine 
 refers to these ' heretics.' 
 
 Dek'abrist. A Decembrist, from 
 Dekaber, the Russian for December. It 
 denotes those persons who suffered death 
 or captivity for the part they took in the 
 military conspiracy which broke out in 
 St. Petersburg in December 1825, on the 
 accession of Czar Nicholas to the throne. 
 
 Delaval Papers {The). A large 
 collection of letters, state papers, and old 
 records belonging to the Delaval family 
 of Seaton Delaval, discovered by John 
 Robinson in 1888 in certain store-rooms 
 of the disused Royal Northumberland 
 Glass Works, Hartley, near Seaton Dela- 
 val Hall, and presented to the museum- 
 of the Society of Antiquaries. See ' Notes 
 and Queries,' 1889, May 25, pp. 415, 416. 
 
 Dela^ware (Pennsylvania). The 
 English name of an Indian tribe (the 
 Lenilpe) with which William Penn chiefly 
 negotiated. 
 
 Delaware (U.S. North America). A 
 river and a state so called from Lord 
 Delaware, governor of Virginia under 
 James I. He rendered the colony great 
 services (died 1618). The nickname of 
 the inhabitants of this state is Musk-rats, 
 Visited by Lord Delaware in ICIO ; was settled by 
 Swedes in 16'27 ; passed to the Dutch in 1655; was 
 ceded to England in 1()()4 ; made into a separata 
 colony in 1704 (but was attached to Pennsylvania); 
 and became one of the United States n 1776. 
 
DELEGATES 
 
 DEMOCEATIO 
 
 219 
 
 Dele^^ates [The High Court of), 
 1533. Estal)iished by Act of Parliament 
 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19) as a tribunal of 
 appeal from the Ecclesiastical and Ad- 
 miralty Court. The jurisdiction was 
 transferred to the Privy Council in 1832 
 (2, 3 Will. IV. c. 92). 
 
 Delegation (The), 18G7. A body of 
 delegates in the Austro-Hungarian king- 
 dom, in which both states ai'e equally 
 represented; the house acts in matters 
 which affect both the kingdoms, such as 
 relations with foreign countries, army 
 and navy, peace and war, &c. Besides 
 this house each kingdom has its own 
 legislative chambers, consisting of an 
 upper and lower house. 
 
 Delenda est Carthago. Carthage 
 must be destroyed, or wiped out of the 
 nations of the earth. The words with 
 which old Cato used to finish his speeches. 
 Alexander said to the same effect, ' No 
 world two suns can bear ' — that is, Persia 
 and Macedonia cannot both exist together. 
 Napoleon said that London must be 
 Btamped out. 
 
 Delicate Investigation (The), 
 
 1806. This was a closed-door investiga- 
 tion by the four lords, Erskine, Grenville, 
 Spencer, and EUenborough, into the 
 conduct of the Princess Caroline, cousin 
 and wife of George, prince regent of 
 Wales, with the view of a separation for 
 alleged adultery. The real cause of 
 offence was the intimacy of the prince 
 with Lady Jersey, whose dismissal, 
 demanded by Caroline, was refused. The 
 four lords gave a very unsatisfactory 
 verdict of ' Undue levity,' and the princess 
 was banished from the receptions at 
 Windsor. A trial was afterwards ar- 
 ranged, called * a Bill of Pains and Penal- 
 ties,' 1820. Denman and Brougham 
 undertook the defence, and the Bill was 
 abandoned — i.e. the queen was acquitted 
 — in November. She was refused admis- 
 sion into Westminster Hall at the coro- 
 nation of her husband (July 1821) and died 
 the following August. 
 
 Delight of Mankind (T/ie). Titus 
 the Roman emperor (-iO, 79-81). 
 
 Delinquents, 1641. Those pro- 
 ceeded against for having exercised 
 illegal powers in levying arbitrary taxes, 
 nnd in the sentences of the Star Chamber, 
 High Commission, and so on. 
 
 There was an order of Parliament directing the 
 coniiscation of their estates. In this order cer- 
 tnin bishops and otiicr of the clergy are named. 
 We constantly find them coupled with Papists. 
 
 Delia Crusca {L'Accademia), or 
 
 * Delia Cruscan School,' 1582. Instituted 
 at Florence ; but in 1785 a number of 
 English residents at Florence assumed 
 the name of ' Delia Cruscans,' and 
 amused themselves by writing verses 
 which they published in the 'Florence 
 Miscellany.' These verses were con- 
 spicuous for affectation and insipidity, 
 but got introduced into two daily English 
 newspapers, 'The World' and 'The 
 Oracle.' Gifford says the epidemic spread 
 ' from fool to fool ' ; but in 1794 Gifford's 
 
 * Baviad,' and in 1796 his ' Ma9viad,' so 
 mauled these simpletons that the name 
 of ' Delia Cruscan ' became a by-word for 
 literarj'^ puerility. 
 
 Gifford's Delia Cruscan bookworm, who ' lives 
 upon a uhiloine for a week,' has become proverbial. 
 
 Delphine Classics (The), 1670- 
 1680. ' In usum Delphini.' The chief 
 Latin authors, edited by Pierre Huet for 
 tiie French dauphin. They contain, in 
 the margin of the text, the ' interpretatio ' 
 in italic type, and at the bottom of each 
 page a commentary which explains every 
 allusion and difficulty. At the close is a 
 verbal concordance of great value, added 
 chiefly by the Daciers (husband and 
 wife). 
 
 They were republished by Valpy In 183 volumes. 
 181.-1.S30. 
 
 Delta of ' Blackwood's Magazine * 
 was David Macbeth Moir, 1798-1851, 
 He was author of ' Casa Wappy.' 
 
 Deluge. See ' Flood.' 
 
 Demagogische Umtriebe, 1817. 
 
 An attempt of demagogues in Germany 
 to stir up the people against the govern- 
 ments. In 1819 a committee was ap- 
 pointed to examine into it, and in 1834 a 
 tribunal of arbitration was constituted. 
 
 Democratic Labour Associa- 
 tion, 1890. Organised by Michael 
 Davitt in Ireland, in opposition to Mr. 
 Parnell's notion of peasant proprietor- 
 ship. Davitt insists that there should 
 be neither landlords nor proprietors of 
 land, under any kind of denomination, 
 whether farmers or independent gentle- 
 folk, but that the people of the soil have 
 each a natural right to 'a man's full 
 share ' of the land, which he has as much 
 right to take from the farmer proprietor 
 
250 
 
 DEMOCEITUS 
 
 DEPOSED 
 
 as from the landed proprietor. Mr. Par- 
 nell's platlorm is that farmers should be 
 proprietors, not tenants. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 D^mocratique et Sociale. See 
 
 ' Days of June, II.,' p. 240. 
 
 Democritus Junior. Rev. Robert 
 Burton, author of the 'Anatomy of 
 Melancholy ' (1576-1640). 
 
 Demon of the South {The). 
 Philip II. of Spam (1527, 1555-1598). 
 
 Demosthenes [The High-horn). 
 William the Silent, prince of Orange. 
 
 The High-born Demosthenes electrified large 
 assemblies by his indignant invectives against 
 the Spanish Philip, 1568.— Motley, The Dutch Re- 
 public, pt. iii. 2. 
 
 Demosthenes of America (T/^e). 
 
 Daniel Webster, the statesman. Like 
 Demosthenes, he was neither florid nor 
 impassioned, but he reasoned with irresis- 
 tible force, and his language was terse, 
 well chosen, and telling. He had the 
 power of sarcasm, but seldom used it. 
 His face, figure, and voice made him 
 master of his audience. 
 
 Demosthenes of France {The). 
 Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791); also 
 called ' The Hurricane,' from the over- 
 powering force of his eloquence and 
 irresistible audacity. He was so corpulent 
 that he was jocosely called the Tub. 
 
 Demosthe-ies of the Pulpit. 
 
 Dr. Thomas Rennell, dean of Westmin- 
 ster, was so called by William Pitt (1753- 
 1840). 
 
 Demy' (plu. Demies). A ' scholar ' of 
 Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 
 Denmark, i.e. dain-mark. Dain 
 means fiat, hence the Gennan danieder, 
 on the ground, &c. The Danskir occu- 
 pied the flat or low lands between Goth- 
 land hills and the sea. 
 
 Denyer and Johnson Scholar- 
 ships. Two for theology. Value 50/. a 
 year each, tenable for one year. Founded 
 in Oxford University from the revenue 
 of the scholarship founded by John 
 Johnson, D.D., fellow of Magdalen Col- 
 lege, and the prizes offered by Mrs. 
 Denyer for two theological essays. In- 
 corporated in 1878. 
 
 Denys {St.). Martyred 251. The 
 tradition is that after being beheaded he 
 
 walked from Paris four miles to found 
 an abbey, where now stands the town of 
 St. Denys, carrying with him his head 
 under his arm, and resting seven times 
 on the way at equal distances to bless 
 and console his followers. Crosses were 
 erected at these seven places, and it was 
 long customary to lay the dead which 
 passed by on one of these crosses for a 
 few minutes. 
 
 St. Denys, prononnce Sahn dnee. 
 
 Deodand. A chattel or chattels 
 forfeited as a peace-offering to God for 
 causing the death of a human being, as 
 when a brick or tile falls on him, or the 
 wheel of a cart runs over him. When the 
 forfeit was transferred from the church to 
 the crown, instead of the chattel being 
 forfeited, a money-fine was imposed. 
 Abohshed 18 Aug., 1846 (6, 10 Vict. c. 62). 
 
 Deontology, 1830. Jeremy Bent- 
 ham's system of the science of morality 
 or Maxima felicUas doctrine. Deon, a 
 Greek word, means ' right ' or ' fit,' and the 
 great aim of deontology is to secure the 
 ' greatest happiness to the greatest num- 
 ber.' There can be no doubt that Bent- 
 ham was in advance of his age, and many 
 points once considered Utopian are now 
 established by law. 
 
 Departments, 1790. Territorial 
 divisions of France made by the Consti- 
 tuent Assembly. 
 
 The ' Departements Maritimes ' (8 syl.) are the 
 five great ports, viz. Lorient, Brest, Toulon, Cher- 
 bourg, and Rochefort. 
 
 Deposed Kings of England. 
 
 I. Before the Conquest. 
 Sigebert of Wessex, a.d. 755. 
 Alcred of Northumbria, 774. 
 Ethelred I., 779. 
 Eardwulf and Ethelwulf, 857. 
 Edwy, 957. 
 
 Ethelred II., 1013. 
 
 Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. 
 
 II. Since the Conquest. 
 Edward II., 1327. 
 Richard II., 1399. 
 Henry VI., 1460. 
 
 James II., 1688. Euphemistically 
 called his ' abdication.' 
 
 Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for 
 
 treason against his parliament and beheaded ; 
 Ch irles II. was not exactly deposed, but ho waa 
 kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. 
 The most absolute and tyrannical of our sove- 
 reigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dynasties, 
 but Wales and Scotland are eminently democratic. 
 
DEPOSED 
 
 DETERMINIST3 
 
 251 
 
 The Stuarts claimed the 'right divine " of kiivjs, 
 buc James I. and Charles II. did no honovir to tue 
 claim. 
 
 Deposed Kings of France. 
 
 Louis XVI., like Ciiaries I., was not 
 only deposed but executed, 1793. 
 
 Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice de- 
 posed, 1814, 1815. 
 
 Charles X. (l^^oO), like James 11., is 
 said to have ' abdicated.' 
 
 Louis-Philippe (1818), also said to have 
 'abdicated.' 
 
 Napoleon IIL, 1872. 
 
 I>eprdtrisation, 7 Nov., 1793. 
 When Mgr. Gobel, archbishop of Paris, 
 and hundreds of the clergy appeared at 
 the bar of the Convention, and declared 
 they would henceforth acknowledge no 
 master, in heaven or earth, except the 
 sovereign people. They renounced their 
 ministry, and abandoned the Christian 
 religion. 
 
 Derby Day. The Wednesday of 
 the great spring meeting which takes 
 place at Epsom, in Surrey, in the month 
 of May. The Derby week is the week 
 succeeding Trmity Sunday, and Derby 
 Day, which is the second day of the 
 races, is the most important horse-race 
 day in the kingdom and 'the greatest 
 English holiday. 
 
 Derby is generally pronounced Dar'-be. 
 
 Derby Scholarship. In Oxford 
 University. The recipient must have 
 highly distinguished himself either in the 
 final examination or as the wimier of 
 university scholarships and prizes. 
 Founded in honour of Edw. Geoffrey S. 
 Stanley, earl of Derby, chancellor of the 
 university, by subscribers in Lancashire. 
 Value, the interest of 4,300Z. Founded 
 1870. 
 
 Derbyites or * Darbyites.' A split 
 from the Plymouth Brethren, under a 
 Mr. Darby, on the subject of the human 
 nature of Christ. 
 
 Derbyshire Hudibras {The). 
 
 George Eyre. 
 Derbyshire Insurrection (The), 
 
 1817. Stirred up by Jeremiah Brand- 
 reth, a framework-knitter of Nottingham 
 who induced 300 Derbyshire and Notting- 
 ham men, chiefly miners, to march with 
 him to London' and overturn the govern- 
 ment. At Eastwood, some three miles 
 from Nottingham, they were overtaken 
 
 by a troop of horse-soldiers, and fled in 
 all directions. Several were taken pri- 
 soners and three executed at Derby, one 
 of whom was Brandreth the leader. 
 
 Derbyshire Neck (The). Goitre 
 or swelling in the throat produced, some 
 think, by excess of lime in the water 
 used for drinking. 
 
 Dervises, i.e. paupers, a.d. 759. A 
 species of Moslem monk, of which there 
 are thirty-two sects. They live in con- 
 vents, the principal establisliment being 
 at Konieh, in Caramania. They fast 
 •every Thursday. They are great opium 
 eaters and are given to strong drinks. 
 The dancing dervises twist themselves 
 round with extended arms for hours to- 
 gether, all the while repeating the name 
 of Allah. Persia is noted for its dervises. 
 
 Descartes. See ' Cogito, ergo sum.' 
 
 Despairing Shepherd (The). 
 Addison is meant, and the lady was the 
 dowager Countess of Warwick. The 
 ballad is by Nicholas Eowe (1716). 
 
 Despard's Conspiracy, 1803. A 
 
 very foolish plot devised by Colonel Ed- 
 ward Desi^ard of Ireland to assassinate 
 the king (George III.), and establish in 
 Great Britain and Ireland a republican 
 form of government. Despard and six 
 others were executed on Kennington 
 Common. If Despard was not partly 
 insane, this silly plot was out of revenge 
 for being superseded in office on the 
 Mosquito Shore in consequence of having 
 got into some squabble with the colony. 
 
 Destroying Prince (T7ie). Tamer- 
 lane or Timur the Tartar (1336, 1370- 
 1405). So called in India because in 1396 
 he made in Delhi a general massacre -o.^ 
 the inhabitants. It is said that 100,000 
 were put to death in a single hour (!) 
 
 Destructionists. Those Christians 
 who believe that after the wicked have 
 suffered in hell in proportion to their 
 sins they will be destroyed. The Rev. 
 Mr. Bourne of Norwich is the founder 
 of this sect. 
 
 They deny that they teach the doctrine of 
 annihilation ; assert that (U'straction is the scrip- 
 ture term, and say they are not bound to be wise 
 above what is written. 
 
 Determinists. Those who believe 
 that the actions of men are not pre- 
 determined by God, but are determined 
 
252 
 
 DETROITS 
 
 DEVIL'S 
 
 by the nature which they mherit and 
 surrounding circumstances. 
 
 Detroits {Treaty of), 13 July, 1841. 
 Between England, Austria, France, 
 Prussia, Bussia, and Turkey ; by which 
 the sultan engaged to close the Bospho- 
 rus and the Dardanelles to all nations 
 without distinction or favour ; revoking 
 the privilege accorded to Bussia by the 
 treaty of Unkiarskelessi. 
 
 Deus Vult. The war-cry of the first 
 crusade (1096-1099). At the Council of 
 Clermont in France, after Pope Urban 
 had finished his address in favour of a 
 crusade against the Saracens, the as- 
 sembly shouted Deus vult (God wills it), 
 the crowd outside took up the cry, and 
 Urban, crossing his arms over his breast, 
 and bending to the rails of the altar, said 
 with deep emotion, ' God wills it, God's 
 will be done.' 
 
 Deux-Ponts [The Dynasty of the). 
 *Deux-Ponts' is the French form of 
 Zweibriicken in Bavaria. After the abdi- 
 cation of Christina, last of the dynasty 
 of Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden, Charles X., 
 of the principality of Deux-Ponts, was 
 elected king of Sweden. The dynasty 
 lasted from 1054 to 1751. Charles X. 
 was cousin of Christina, but is generally 
 called Charles the Aggressor. The suc- 
 cessor of Charles X. was Charles XI. 
 (16G0-ir,97), 'The Golden Era of Art.' 
 Then followed Charles XII., surnamed 
 the Warlike, or ' Brilliant Madman.' 
 
 Deux-Ponts pronounce deh po'n, ' n ' very slight 
 and nasal. 
 
 Devadassi (The). Indian girls at- 
 tached to the temples. They prepare 
 the garlands, dance and sing before the 
 idols, and take part in all public pro- 
 cessions. See * Bayaderes.' 
 
 Devil (The). I. * Le Diable.' Olivier 
 Ledain, the tool of Louis XI., and once 
 the king's barber. So-called from his 
 malice and mischief-making. He was 
 executed in 1484. 
 
 II. John Hunyades, surnamed Corvin 
 (1400-1456), called 'The Devil' by the 
 Turks, from the terror of his name. 
 Called Corvinus from his crest, which was 
 a crow with a gold ring in its beak. 
 
 Hunyades pronounce Hu' -ne-a-dee. 
 
 III. Giovanni de' Medici was called 
 Le Grand Diable iUd8-152(i). So-called 
 
 by the French on account of his horrible 
 cruelties at Caravaggio and Biagrasso in 
 1524. 
 
 IV. A noted public-house (No. 2, Fleet 
 Street), purchased in 1788 by Child's Bank 
 firm. Here the original Apollo Club was 
 held, and here lawyers of the neighbour- 
 hood used to dine, sticking up a notice 
 on their doors ' Gone to the Devil,' that 
 those who wanted them might know 
 where to find them. See the ' Heaven.* 
 
 Devil {Bohert the). 1. Bobert of 
 Normandy, surnamed the Magnificent, 
 father of William the Conqueror (1028- 
 1085). 
 
 II. Bobert Francois Damiens, who 
 attempted to assassinate Louis XV. 
 (1714-1757). (See 'Damiens.' 
 
 Devil {Son of the). Ezzelino, chief 
 of the Ghibellins, governor of Vicenza. So 
 called on account of his diabolical cruel- 
 ties (1215-1259). 
 
 Devil {The French). Jean Bart, an 
 intrepid French sailor born at Dunkirk 
 (1650-1702). 
 
 Devil ( The Wliite). George Castriot, 
 called 'The White Devil of Wallachia' 
 (1404-14G7). 
 
 Devil Dick. Bichard Porson, the 
 Greek critic (1759-1803). 
 
 Devil of Arras {The). Cardinal 
 d'Alibi, sent in 1418 to negotiate a peace 
 between the ArmagnacsandBurgundians. 
 The cardinal offered fair terms, but while 
 the Count of Armagnac was signing the 
 treaty the soldiers of Louis XL mas- 
 sacred both him and his followers. 
 
 Devil of Vendue (T/ie). J.Antoine 
 Bossignol, the commissioner in the Ven- 
 dean War (1759-1802). 
 
 Devil*S Bible (TAe). An exquisite 
 MS. Bible, inscribed on 300 asses' skins, 
 and taken to Stockholm after the 30 years' 
 war. The tradition is that a poor monk 
 was condemned to death, but was told 
 that the sentence would be commuted if 
 he would copy out on asses' skins the 
 whole Bible in a single night. At night 
 he made a compact with the devil to 
 exchange his soul for the required tran- 
 script. The writing is exqijisite, and every 
 letter is a model. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Each of the many editions of Tyndale's New 
 Testament possesses some distinct cbaracterislio 
 
DEVIL'S 
 
 DIALOGUE 
 
 253 
 
 by -which it may be recognised. The edition of 
 
 lijo'i has a woodcut of the Devil with a wooden leg, 
 Bowing tares.— DoRE, Early English Bibles. 
 
 Devil's Bridge {The). L Over a 
 precipice of Mount St. Gothard. It has 
 only one arch. 
 
 II. In Cardigan, Wales. Over a preci- 
 pice at the base of which flows Monk's 
 brook. 
 
 Devil's Parliament {The). The 
 parliament assembled by Henry VI. at 
 Coventry, in 1459. So called because it 
 passed attainders on the Duke of York 
 and his chief supporters. See 'Parlia- 
 ment.' 
 
 Devil's Staircase {The). General 
 Wade's road up the Corry Arrack, con- 
 structed after the rebellion of 1715. It 
 wound up the mountain by seventeen 
 zigzags, or traverses, and down the other 
 side. 
 
 If this road you had seen before it was made, 
 You'd hold up your hands and bless General Wade. 
 
 Devil's Wall {The), in Germany, 
 which extends from the Danube to the 
 Ehine ; built by the Romans to preserve 
 the possessions south of Germany from 
 the incursions of the Teutons and Ger- 
 mans. It was begun by Hadrian. 
 
 Devoirs of Calais. Customs due 
 to the king for merchandise brought to 
 Calais or exported therefrom while our 
 staple was there. 
 
 A staple is a mart or place where goods are 
 stored or exposed for sale. There were courts of 
 staple, statutes of staple, and a mayor of the 
 Btaple. 
 
 Devolution {The War of). See 
 'War of Devolution.' 
 
 Dewanny Adawlut {Court of). 
 An Indian court for trying revenue and 
 other cases. ' Adawlut ' means a court 
 of justice, and 'Dewanny' the jurisdic- 
 tion of a deivan, a minister of the revenue 
 department. 
 
 Dey. The chief of Algiers before the 
 French conquest. The Algerian militia 
 was under a pacha sent from Constanti- 
 nople, but in IGOO permission was ob- 
 tained from the sultan to elect a dey, to 
 counteract the tyranny of the pacha- 
 governors. The power of the deys 
 grew rapidly, and in 1710 the dey Baba- 
 Aly actually deposed the pacha and 
 obtained from the sultan the investiture 
 of regency. As the deys wei'e always 
 elected from Constantinople, they were 
 always under the jjower of the sultan. In 
 
 1732 six deys were installed and assas- 
 sinated in one day. The last dey of 
 Algiers was Hussein, who reigned twelve 
 years, up to the occupation of the French 
 in 1830. 
 
 Dgelallian Era {The). The Per- 
 sian era followed to this day, and begun 
 in 1075. Dgel-al-Eddin, son of Alp- 
 Arslan (the valiant lion), called Malek- 
 Shah (1071-1092), appointed eight astro- 
 nomers to reform the calendar. 
 
 Dharina Subha {The), 1830. A 
 Hindu society formed at Calcutta for the 
 purpose of keeping up the ancient usages 
 of the Hindu faith, and especially of the 
 Suttee, which the ' Company ' had made 
 illegal. 
 
 Diadem. A diadem was anciently a 
 fillet worn round the head, and tied be- 
 hind with a bow having long ends. 
 
 In Egypt, the diadem bore the symbol 
 of the sacred serpent. 
 
 In France, Clovis wore a diadem ; and 
 Francois I. was the first to adopt a 
 crown. 
 
 In Greece, Alexander the Great 
 adopted the Persian diadem. 
 
 In Persia, the diadem was a blue fillet 
 worked with white, and bound round the 
 tiara or turban. 
 
 In Borne, Julius Cfesar bound his head 
 with a diadem of laurel leaves. Diocle- 
 tian introduced the Persian diadem. 
 Constantine the Great habitually wore it 
 ornamented with precious stones. Sub- 
 sequent emperors adorned it with single 
 or double rows of pearls and precious 
 stones. 
 
 *^* What we now call a diadem is the 
 gold and jewelled band springing from 
 the coronet and arched over the cap. 
 The Prince of Wales has one diadem to 
 his crown, the sovereign has two crossing 
 each other at ri-ht angles. 
 
 Dialogue with Trypho. By Jus- 
 tin Martyr, a.d. 156, in Latin. Trypho is 
 a Jew supposed to be travelling in Greece, 
 having been driven out of Palestine 
 during the insurrection of Barchocab; 
 and Justin Martyr is supposed to convert 
 him. He shows from the Old Testament 
 that Jesus Christ is the Messiah, and 
 confutes the usual charges of the Jews 
 against this theory. The disputations of 
 the first and second day are lo:it. 
 
234 
 
 DIAMONDS 
 
 DIATESSARON 
 
 Diamonds of note. (N.B. 151^ carats = 1 oz.) 
 
 Carats 
 (uncut) 
 
 Carats 
 (cut) 
 
 Name 
 
 Discovered 
 
 Possessor 
 
 1(180 (?) 
 
 Never cut 
 
 Braganza 
 
 1741 
 
 Kingof Porti-gal 
 
 787.. 
 
 367.«- 
 
 Rajah of Mattan 
 
 175G 
 
 Rajah of Mattan (Borneo) 
 
 — 
 
 VHi 
 
 Orloff 
 
 — 
 
 Czar of Russia (sceptre) 
 
 — 
 
 13Ji 
 
 Florentine .^ 
 
 — 
 
 Emperor of Austria 
 
 242 i 
 
 
 Tavernier 
 
 lOfiS 
 
 Stolen in 1792 
 
 loO 
 
 1P8V 
 
 — — 
 
 1775 
 
 King of Portugal 
 
 410 
 
 13(;| 
 
 Pitt or Regent 
 
 1702 
 
 King of Prussia 
 
 254 
 
 1 7 , 
 
 Star of the Soutli 
 
 18J3 
 
 A Brazilian diamond, 
 
 186.i 
 
 1-<!To 
 
 Koh-i-noor 
 
 B.C. 56 
 
 Queen of England 
 
 — 
 
 6G 
 
 Shah ^. 
 
 
 Czar of Russia 
 
 83? 
 
 78J 
 
 Nassac 
 
 _ 
 
 Lord [Marquis of] Westminster 
 
 288| 
 
 
 Lie/hi yellow . 
 
 _ 
 
 Stewart (diamond) 
 
 150 
 
 — 
 
 Porter Rhodes 
 
 1872 
 
 Found in South Africa 
 
 112 
 
 67J 
 
 Blue 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 63> 
 
 Sancy 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 Czar of Russia 
 
 — 
 
 49 
 
 Pigott 
 
 
 Bought by Messrs. Rundell and 
 Bridge 
 
 83} 
 
 46] 
 
 Star of South Africa ... 
 
 1837 
 
 88i 
 
 44 V 
 
 Dudley 
 
 
 Earl of Dudley 
 
 — 
 
 49 V 
 
 Hope .. : 
 
 — 
 
 Mr. Henry Hope's family 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 Pacha of Egypt . 
 
 — 
 
 Khedive of Egypt 
 
 — 
 
 28 
 
 Charles the Bold 
 
 — 
 
 
 TheGr 
 
 jat Mogul is t 
 
 he Koh-i-noor. 
 
 
 The Brs 
 
 ganza dianio 
 
 nd was discovered in Brazil, and is now among the Portuguese State jewels. 
 
 It is the si 
 
 ze of a hen s 
 
 3gg. and is valued at 58 million pounds sterling. It has never been cut, and 
 
 many fane 
 
 y it must be 
 
 a, White Topaz ; if so, the diamond of the Rajah of Mat'tan is the largest 
 
 known. £ 
 
 4. W. Streeti 
 
 ZR, in his ' Precious Stones and Gems ' (p 
 
 111), says it is valued at S8,350,(W0i. 
 
 
 %• Far the history of these diamonds see under the respective names. 
 
 Diamond IS'ecklaee (The), 1785. 
 
 A necklace presented through Madame 
 de Lamotte by Cardinal de Rohan, as he 
 supposed, to Marie Antoinette. It was a 
 swindling transaction of the Countess 
 de Lamotte. The fact is this. The 
 Cardinal de Rohan, a profligate church- 
 man, entertained a love passion for the 
 queen; and the Countess de Lamotte 
 induced him to purchase for 85,000^. a 
 diamond necklace, made for Madame 
 Dubarry, and present it to the queen. 
 The cardinal handed the necklace to the 
 countess, and when the time of payment 
 arrived Boehmer, the jeweller, sent his 
 bill in to the queen. Marie Antoinette 
 denied all knowledge of the matter, and 
 in the trial which ensued it was proved 
 that the countess had sold the necklace 
 to an English jeweller and kept the 
 money. The trial lasted nine months, 
 and created immense scandal. 
 
 Diane de France. The Duchess 
 of Angouleme (1538-1619). She married 
 Francois de Montmorency, and in 1572 
 contrived his escape from the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew. She exercised great 
 influence over Henri HI. and Henri IV. 
 of France. 
 
 Diane de Poitiers (1499-1566). 
 Married Louis de Bro'ze. Her influence 
 in the court of Henri 11. of France was 
 
 paramount. The king created her 
 Duchesse de Valentinois. Even Catherine 
 de Medicis, the queen, was under the 
 thumb of the court favourite. At the 
 death of Henri II. she retired to Anet, 
 and disappeared wholly from public life. 
 
 Diapason. See ' Musical Scale,' &c. 
 
 Diapente (4 syl.). See 'Musical 
 Scale,' &c. 
 
 Diatessaron. <See ' Musical Scale,' 
 &c. 
 
 Diatessaron {Tatian's). An here- 
 tical precis of Four ' Gosj)els,' ascribed 
 to Tatian, and supposed to confirm the 
 existence of four gospels, and only four, 
 received by the church at the time. There 
 were three or more Tatians in the first 
 four centuries of some celebrity : 
 
 I. The Platonic philosopher (bom in 
 Syria, A.D. 130), a disciple of Justin the 
 MartjT, author of ' Discourses to the 
 Greeks' (published by C. Gessner in 
 1546, and by Otto, le'na, 1851). He be- 
 came a Gnostic and chief of the En- 
 cratistes, or total abstainers. 
 
 II. Tatian of Mesopotamia, who lived 
 in the 5th cent., author of the ' Diates- 
 saron ' in bad Greek ; a Latin transla- 
 tion by Victor of Capua is inserted in 
 the ' Library of the Fathers.' 
 
 III. A martyr who suffered death in the 
 reign of Julian. His day is 12 Sex^t., &c. 
 
DICKON 
 
 DIET 
 
 2-5 
 
 Many erroneously ascribe the ' Diates- 
 saron ' to the Platonic Tatian, but the 
 Greek of the ' Discourses * is far better 
 than that of the ' Diatessaron,' and the 
 style of thought is widely different. 
 
 Dickon of the Broom. Richard 
 Cceur de Lion. So called from the 
 genista or broom plant worn by his 
 ancestors, as pilgrims, symbolical of 
 humility ; whence the name Plantagenet. 
 Strange as it may seem, never was there 
 so proud and overbearing a line of princes 
 as these self-styled ' humble ones.' 
 
 Dictator. The first dictator of 
 Rome was Titus Larti us, created dictator 
 B.C. 498, about nine years after the expul- 
 sion of the ' kings.' The cause was the 
 fear of a domestic sedition. Cincinnatus 
 was dictator B.C. 458; Mamercus ^milius 
 in 437, 433, and 426 ; Quintus Servilius, 
 B.C. 439 ; Camillus was five times dictator, 
 B.C. 396, 390, 389, 368, 367 ; Papirius about 
 820 ; and Fabius Maximus 315. After B.C. 
 202 the ofSce fell into abeyance ; but in 
 B.C. 82 it was revived by Sulla ; in B.C. 48 
 Julius Caesar was dictator. The office was 
 offered to Augustus B.C. 23, but declined. 
 
 The office was formally abolished by Antony 
 B.C. 44. 
 
 Dictator of Letters [The). Vol- 
 taire (1694-1778). 
 
 Dictum of Kenilworth [The), 
 15 Oct., 12G6. After the battle of Eves- 
 ham and death of Simon de Montfort, 
 Moritfort's younger son shut himself up 
 in Kenilworth Castle, and there sustained 
 for six months a siege by the royal forces 
 of Henry III., but at the end of six 
 months he surrendered. A decree was 
 then enacted that hereafter all who took 
 up arms against the ruling sovereign 
 shall pay to the crown five years' value 
 of all their lands and possessions. This 
 is called ' The Dictum of Kenilworth.' 
 
 Dido, niece of Jezebel. 
 
 ITHOBAL I., king of Tyre (1 Kings xvi. 13) had 
 for children, Bf.l[us], Margenus, and Jezel^el. 
 
 Belus was the father of Pvgmalion and Dido (of 
 Carthage). 
 
 Hence Jezebel was Dido's aunt. 
 
 Dies Fasti. Business days. On 
 these days, marked F, the praetor adminis- 
 tered justice, and assemblies of thepeoi^le 
 might be held. Subsequently a law was 
 passed forbidding the holding of a comitia 
 upon certain of the dies fasti. 
 
 Fasti dies, quibus certa verba legitima, sine 
 piaculo, preetoribus licebat fari. Eraut h^ec tria, 
 
 do [actionem], dico [jus], aMico [aliquid mea sen- 
 teutia].'— VAiiRO. 
 
 Dies Intercisi. Half-holidays. On 
 these days it was lawful to administer 
 justice one part of the day, but not for 
 the other half. 
 
 Dies Irse. A famous medieval hymn 
 on the Last Judgment, beginning with 
 the line ' Dies iraj, dies ilia,' supposed to 
 be the work of Thomas of Cela'no, a 
 native of Abruzzi, in Naples, who died 
 about 1255. It forms a portion of the 
 service of the mass. The first and third 
 stanzas are : 
 
 I. 
 
 Dies irse, dies ilia, 
 Solvet bseclum in favilla, 
 Teste David cum Sibylla. 
 
 III. 
 
 Tuba mirum spargens sonum 
 Per sepulcra regionum, 
 Coget onines ante tlironum. 
 
 That day of wrath, that fearful day, 
 Shall melt both heaven and earth away. 
 As David and the Sibyl say. 
 
 III. 
 The trumpet by the angel blown 
 Shall wake the dead, bring bone to bone. 
 And summon all before the throne. 
 
 Dies Nefasti. Holidays. On these 
 
 days it was unlawful to administer justice, 
 
 and assemblies of the people could not 
 
 be held. Marked N. 
 
 Numa nefastos dies fastosque fecit.— LiVY. 
 bk. i. 10. 
 
 Diet {The). I. Of the old German 
 Empire. It was summoned by the em- 
 peror twice a year, and oftener if needful, 
 and met usually at Ratisbon. The em- 
 peror and his diet levied taxes, enacted 
 laws, declared war, and made peace. 
 The diet consisted of three chambers, 
 that of the electors, that of the princes, 
 and that of the Imperial cities. Each 
 chamber deliberated separately, and then 
 the electors and princes ratified or re- 
 fused the proposition. If they ratified it, 
 the emperor was asked to sign it, and it 
 became law. 
 
 Switzerland and Poland had their diets. Greek 
 Si-aiTa, the diet of the ^taiTi^rat, or justices-in- 
 eyre. 
 
 II. Of the German Bund. A per- 
 manent assembly containing the pleni- 
 potentiaries of the thirty-five soverei.gn 
 states. The place of meeting was the 
 free city of Frankfort-on-the-Main. The 
 diet might be either a plenum of seventy 
 representatives, or a federative council 
 of seventeen. Every state of the Bund 
 
256 
 
 DIET 
 
 DIET 
 
 has at least one vote in the plenum ; 
 Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Han- 
 over, and Wiirtemberg had four votes 
 each, five other states had tliree votes each, 
 and three other states had each a double 
 vote. In the minor or federative council 
 the eleven principal states had one vote 
 each, and all the rest of the states six 
 votes amongst them. Austria always 
 presided. Superseded in 1848 by the 
 National Assembly. See ' Reichstag.' 
 
 This -was all changed in ls7l. As to Hanover, it 
 Is now only a geographical name. It was attached 
 to Prussia in 18CG. 
 
 Diet of Augsburg (T/ie). I. 1530. 
 Convened by Karl V. to put an end to 
 the Lutheran controversy. At this diet 
 the Protestant party presented and read 
 out their ' Confession,' or summary of 
 their faith. This summary spread over 
 twenty-eight chapters, and had been 
 drawn up by Melanchthon. A confuta- 
 tion on behalf of the Romanists was put 
 in, and met the emperor's approval. It 
 was therefore decreed that all Protest- 
 ants shall forthwith return to their 
 allegiance to the see of Rome on pain of 
 the emperor's severe displeasure. This 
 decision led the Reformers into an 
 alliance, called ' The League of Smal- 
 kald ' iq.v). See ' Augsburg Confession.' 
 
 There were three other diets, so-called, in 1500, 
 1518, 1548 (see ' Interim '); and 1555, which conceded 
 to the Lutherans liberty of conscience. See next 
 article. 
 
 IL 26 Sept., 1555. Also called 'The 
 Religious Peace of Augsburg.' Accord- 
 ing to the treaty of Passau (1552) an 
 imperial council was called for the 
 autumn of 1555. Karl V. would take no 
 part in it ; he was disgusted at the turn 
 of affairs, and deputed his brother Ferdi- 
 nand, ' king of the Romans,' to represent 
 him. The diet was held at Augsburg, 
 and full liberty of conscience was con- 
 firmed. Lutherans and Catholics were 
 declared alike eligible to all offices of 
 the state, and to seats in the imperial 
 diet. Every ruler in Germany might 
 sanction in his own province whatever 
 form of religion he chose, but all were to 
 tolerate those who held different views. 
 
 Diets of Compearance. Scotland. 
 The days on which a party to a civil or 
 criminal process is cited to appear in 
 court. Till 1823 there were two such 
 diets, because there were two summonses, 
 but since then only one summons and 
 one diet to a process. 
 
 Diet of Hungary {The). Is com- 
 posed of the king {i.e. Emperor of Austria) 
 and two chambers. The upper chamber 
 consisting of the higher clergy, the mag- 
 nates, the two courts of apjjeal, and two 
 representatives from each chapter, county, 
 city, and privileged district. 
 
 Diet of La Magione {The), 1502. 
 The confederacy of Cardinal Orsini, his 
 brother Paolo, Vitellozzo Vitelli, and 
 other magnates, to assassinate Cesare 
 Borgia. Cesare by craft managed to 
 assemble all the lords of this conspiracy, 
 apart from their troops, in the castle of 
 Sinigaglia, where he had them all 
 strangled. 
 
 Diet of Roncaglia {The), 12 Nov., 
 1158. It declared Italy to pertain to the 
 empire of Germany. 
 
 Diet of Spire or Speyer {The). In 
 Bavaria. I. a.d. 1526. Called by the 
 German princes to terminate the reli- 
 gious differences stirred up by Martin 
 Luther. It was resolved to request the 
 Emperor Karl V. to call a general 
 council, and in the interim each indi- 
 vidual state in Germany was to regulate 
 its own church matters. 
 
 II. A.D. 1529. In which the decrees of 
 the previous diet were revoked and de- 
 clared to be illegal. The Edict of Worms 
 was directed to be put in full force ; 
 and the Gospels were not to be preached 
 except in the sense approved of by. the 
 Church. The Lutheran ■princes protested 
 against this decision of the diet, and 
 appealed to the emperor (Karl V.) 
 and to the next general council. Hence 
 arose the name of Protestants. See 
 * Diet of Worms.* 
 
 Diet of Switzerland (T/ie). Is 
 
 composed of the representatives of the 
 several cantons, and is held every two 
 years, alternately at Ziirich, Berne, and 
 Lucerne. Each canton has a vote. 
 
 Diet of "Worms (T/ie). 1.1495. Maxi- 
 milian asked for troops against Charles 
 VIII. of France; but instead of troops 
 the diet proclaimed a perpetual peace, 
 by which decree private feuds were 
 stamped out ; for instead of appeals to 
 arms the angry barons were commanded 
 to refer their grievances to courts of law. 
 
 II. The Diet of 1521, to which Charles- 
 quint (Karl V.) cited Luther, and com- 
 manded him to recant. Luther made 
 
DIETRICH 
 
 DIONYSIAN 
 
 257 
 
 answer : ' "Whatsoever can be shown in 
 my writings contrary to the Word of 
 God I will freely retract ; but he who 
 fihall take away from that book or add 
 thereto, God will take away his part from 
 the Book of Life.' Luther was then 
 dismissed. This is what is generally 
 meant by the ' Diet of Worms.' 
 
 The other diets of W^orms were those of 1547 and 
 1578. 
 
 Dietrich.. A German way of spell- 
 ing Theodoric, the great Gothic hero. 
 
 Dieu et mon Droit. Assumed as 
 a motto by Richard Coeur de Lion (1189- 
 1199). It was revived by Edward III. in 
 1340. 
 
 Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge {Society for the), 1825. Consist- 
 ing chiefly of eminent public characters 
 and men of distinguished literary and 
 scientific merit. The object was the 
 diffusion of useful knowledge to all 
 classes of society, by periodical litera- 
 ture. Mr. Henry (afterwards Lord) 
 Brougham was the leader, and published 
 the first book, on ' The Objects, Advan- 
 tages, and Pleasures of Science,' in 1827. 
 
 Digest. The Pandects of Justinian, 
 in fifty books, containing the opinions of 
 eminent lawyers on points of Roman law, 
 digested or arranged in systematical 
 oi'der by Tribonian and sixteen assist- 
 ants. It was finished in three years, 
 A.D. 533. Digesta is the Latin term ; the 
 proper Greek title is Pandectce. The 
 symbol is £f, a corruption of the Greek tt 
 (p). A manuscript copy of Justinian's 
 Digest was discovered at Amalfi in 1137, 
 and was carried from Pisa to Florence in 
 1411. 
 
 Dilemee (The). The middle part of 
 Ghilan, raised into a separate government 
 by Abu Shujah ul Buiyah, a fisherman, 
 while Persia was under the califs (10th 
 cent.). The govermnent of the Dilemee 
 included Irak, Ears, Kerman, Khuzistan, 
 and Laristan. 
 
 Dilemites (3 syl.) or 'Bouides,' (2 
 syl.). A Mussulman dynasty (932-1055) 
 in Ears, Kerman, Khuzistan, Laristan, 
 and part of Irak, contemporary with the 
 Samanides (q.v.), while Persia was a 
 province of the califs. Founded by Abu 
 Shujah ul Buiyah, a fishernmn of Dilem 
 in Mazanderau. He had three sous, and 
 
 an astrologer told him all his sons should 
 be kings, and so it was : AH, his eldest 
 son, was king of Ears and Irak Adjemi. 
 Dying childless, he was succeeded by his 
 brother Ruken u Dowlut Hussein Buiyah. 
 The third of the fishei'man's sons was 
 virtually king of Bagdad. Persia was at 
 the time a province of the Califs. 
 
 The Samanides (q.v.) were contemporary from 
 902 to 999. 
 
 Dilettanti Society (The). A so- 
 ciety of some sixty gentlemen for the 
 study of antique art, formed into a club 
 in 1734, and holding its meetings in the 
 Thatched-house Tavern, St. James Street. 
 In 1764 three members were sent to the 
 East to make drawings : they were Mr. 
 Chandler for the literary part, Mr. 
 Revett for the architectural part, and 
 Mr. Pars to take drawings of bas-reliefs 
 and views. They returned in 17GG, and 
 published two magnificent volumes. In 
 1811 another expedition was sent out, viz. 
 Mr. Gill (Sir William), Mr. Francis Bed- 
 ford, and Mr. John Gandy, who visited 
 Asia Minor, and published two volumes 
 of drawings, one in 1817 and the other in 
 1835. These are all first-class works. 
 The following gentlemen were members 
 of the society : Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 Charles James Fox, the Duke of Norfolk, 
 George Selwyn, David Garrick, George 
 Colman, Lord Holland, Sir Joseph Banks, 
 and Sir George Beaumont. 
 
 Dinner Bell (r/ie). Edmund Burko 
 (1729-1797), though a great orator, was, 
 especially in the latter part of his life, 
 most prolix. General Fitzpatrick said 
 of him : — 
 
 Ask any person In the house who is the best- 
 informed man, and the answer will certainly be 
 Mr. Burke. Ask who is the greatest wit, and the 
 answer will be Mr. Burko. Who is tlTe most 
 eloquent ? Mr. Burke. Who is the most tedious ? 
 Mr. Burke. 
 
 Dionysian Cycle (The). The cycle 
 harmonising the Alexandrine and Roman 
 usage. It was Dionysius Exiguus who 
 constructed this table, which was in use 
 till the reform of the calendar by Gregory 
 XIII., in the latter half of the 16th cent. 
 
 Dionysian Period {The), or 
 * Great Paschal Period,' 532 years. The 
 Ethiopians, who use the ' Era of Diocle- 
 tian,' do not date as we do, consecutively 
 from one period, but after the lapse of 
 532 years begin again. This is called 
 the ' Dionysian Period.' 
 
 
 
25d 
 
 DIONYSIUS 
 
 DISPERSION 
 
 Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 
 xii. 34), The books called the ' Celestial 
 Hierarchy,' ' Mystical Theology,' and the 
 ' Name of God,' ascribed to him, are 
 spurious, and certainly are not earlier 
 than the 5th cent. See ' Literary For- 
 geries.' 
 
 Diploma {A). A ' libellus duorum 
 foliorum,' written on one side, granted 
 by a magistrate either for a passport or 
 to confer some privilege or favour on the 
 person named therein. Greek SurAo'os 
 double, StrrAoft) to double, fitVAwjaa. 
 
 Diploma Leopoldin-um. The 
 
 constitution of Transylvania, granted by 
 Leopold I. — the Magna Charta of Tran- 
 sylvanian freedom. It guaranteed reli- 
 gious toleration, the existence of Hun- 
 garian laws, and the reservation of offices 
 and appointments of state to natives 
 only, and a large number of minor 
 immunities. 
 
 Directions {The), 1695. For the 
 unity of opinion in the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, issued by command of William 
 and Mary under the advice of Archbishop 
 Tenison. It followed the l7ijunctions for 
 the maintenance of church discipline. 
 
 Directory {The). 'Le Directoire,' 
 the executive of the Constitution of Year 
 III. (27 Oct., 1795—9 Nov., 1799). The 
 legislature consisted of two houses, the 
 Council of Elders and the Council of 
 500. The number of the directors was 
 five, named by the two councils, and 
 they were elected for five years, without 
 power of re-election. They appointed 
 the ministers and les generaux-en-chef. 
 Abolished by Napoleon in Nov. 1799. 
 
 The rrnlitary glory of France was never greater 
 ihan in the Directory. It had for its commanders 
 Bonaparte, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, andMoreau. 
 
 Directory for Public Worship 
 
 {The), or ' The Directory,' 1645. A book 
 put forth by the Westminster Assembly 
 of Divines {q.v.) to supersede the Book 
 of Common Prayer. The Creed, the 
 Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments 
 were omitted ; the sign of the cross in 
 baptism, private and lay baptism, and 
 the use of the ring in matrimony were 
 disallowed ; the Confession, the absolu- 
 tion in the ' Visitation of the Sick,' the 
 Burial Service, saints' days, and Christ- 
 mas Day were dispensed with ; the 
 Apocrypha, vestments, crosses, crucifixes. 
 
 roodscreens were forbidden. For the 
 use of the people the Assembly put forth 
 their ' Larger a.nd Shorter Catechisms.' 
 The Directory contained directions, but 
 no prayers. It is almost obsolete. 
 
 Disastrous Peace {The). 'La 
 Pais Malheureuse,' 1558. Made after 
 the battle of Gravelines. It was signed 
 at Cateau-Cambresis. By this treaty 
 Henri II. of France renounced all claim 
 to Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 
 Thus ended the Italian war, which had 
 lasted for sixty-five years (1483-1559). 
 
 Discalceatl of the Augustine Order 
 were reformed by Friar Thomas of Jesus, 
 a Portuguese, in 1570. 
 
 Disciples of Christ {The), or the 
 ' Disciples.' Members of the ' Church of 
 Christ,' or ' Campbellite Baptists.' Or- 
 ganised by Alexander Campbell, who 
 emigrated to America early in the 19th 
 cent. They are Baptists, and think all 
 Christians have departed from the sim- 
 plicity of the gos^Del. They ignore all 
 creeds, and take the Bible as their only 
 rule of faith and practice. 
 
 Discipline {The First Booh of), 
 1560. Was drawn up by John Knox and 
 four other ministers, laying down rules 
 for the Scotch, for the election of their 
 church ministers by the congregation, 
 for their examination by the elders, for 
 the election of elders, the way of dealing 
 with ecclesiastical offenders, and other 
 matters of discipline. 
 
 The Second Book op Discipline, 1578. An 
 exposition of Presbyterianism by the Committee 
 of the General Assembly, in which Andrew Mel- 
 ville tool£ a leading part. It sets forth the line of 
 demarcation between the civil and ecclesiastical 
 powers, the platform being Presbyterianism. 
 
 Discoverers, 1623. Agents em- 
 ployed by the English government, in 
 the reign of James I., to scrutinise Irish 
 titles to estates, and to discover flaws if 
 possible. Their reward was a part of the 
 lands discovered to have faulty titles. 
 
 The disturbed state of Ireland, and the law 
 fluctuating between English and Irish tenure, 
 caused great laxity in the enrolment of patents 
 and rights of all sorts in Ireland, and full 500,000 
 acres were added to the crown by the Discoverers. 
 
 Dispersion {Day of the), 5 July. 
 Instituted 1098, in commemoration of the 
 dispersion of the apostles, each of whom 
 then went to a specific field of labour. 
 
DISSENTERS 
 
 DIVINE 
 
 259 
 
 Dissenters' Acts {The). In the 
 rei^:!! of Charles II. 
 
 The Corporation Act [q-v.), excluding 
 dissenters from municipal offices, 16(31 
 (13 Car. II. St. 2, c. 1). 
 
 The Act of Uniformity {q.v.), 16G2 
 (14 Car. II. c. 4). 
 
 The Conventicle Acts {q.v) of 1664 
 (16 Car. II. c. 1) and 1670 (22 Car. 11. c. 1), 
 forbidding conventicle assemblies. 
 
 The Five Mile Act {q.v.), 1665 (17 Car. 
 II. c. 2). 
 
 The Test Act {q.v.), 1673 (25 Car. II. 
 c. 2), excluding dissenters from govern- 
 ment offices. 
 
 See also tho Toleration Act, exempting dissenters 
 from certain penalties, l&Sy (1 Will. & Mary, e. 18) ; 
 the Savoy Conference (.q.v.), IGOl ; and tho ' Seven 
 Bishops.' 
 
 Dissidents {The), of Poland, 1548. 
 The Greek Church party, with the Cal- 
 vinists, Arians, and other Protestants. 
 In 1573 Henry of Valois, by the ' Pacta 
 Conventa,' gave freedom of worship and 
 equality of rights to all Poles, regardless 
 of their religious creeds ; but still the 
 Catholics persecuted and oppressed the 
 dissidents. In 1736 the ' Pacta Conventa ' 
 was repealed. Russia interfered on 
 behalf of the dissidents (for Russia be- 
 longed to the Greek Church), and was 
 supported by England, Prussia, Sweden, 
 and Denmark, but without success. In 
 1767 the dissidents united into what was 
 called the Confederation of Radom, and 
 applied to Russia to support their cause. 
 Next year the Catholics of Poland, calling 
 themselves ' patriots,' combined into the 
 Confederation of Bar. Poland was divided. 
 Russia interfered, and this led, in 1772, 
 to the partition of Poland. 
 
 Dissidents. In Polish history. 
 Originally the Polish Christians generally 
 spoke of themselves as ' nos dissidentes 
 in religione ' from the Catholic Church ; 
 but in 1572 the Catholics called the 
 Lutherans ' dissidents ' and the Greek 
 Church ' schismatics.' 
 
 Dissolution of Monasteries 
 
 {The). The lesser monasteries, entirely 
 dissolved in 153D (31 Hen. VHI. c. 13), 
 were restored by Queen Mary, but again 
 suppressed, and the property vested in 
 the crown 1559 (1 Eliz. c. 24). 
 
 Distinguished Service Order 
 
 (The), Nov. 18: ij. A naval and military 
 order founded by Queen Victoria for dis- 
 tinguished merit in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Ditch {The), 625, or 'Expedition of 
 the Nations.' The great defeat of the 
 Koreish tribe by Mohammed ; after which 
 the tribe concluded a truce and then sur- 
 rendered Mecca to him. 
 
 Dithmarschen War {The). 
 Count Gerhard VII. of Holstein at- 
 tempted to subjugate Dithniarsch, but 
 the mhabitants resisted, and defeated 
 the count with considerable loss (1386). 
 In 1500 John I. of Denmark resolved to 
 subjugate the rebels, and marched into 
 Ditlunarsch with an army of 30,000 men ; 
 but he was utterly defeated, and the 
 sacred banner called ' the Dannebrog ' 
 became the trophy of the conquerors. 
 
 Diversions of Purley {The). A 
 philological treatise by John Home 
 Tooke (Pt. I., 1786; Pt. n., 1805), to 
 prove that all words were originally 
 formed from objects of external i)ercep- 
 tion. Called ' Purley ' from the residence 
 of William Tooke, his benefactor. The 
 title of the work is headed by the Homeric 
 
 phrase sTrea nrepyevra. 
 
 The persons of the dialogue are: JB (for Dr. 
 Beadon, afterwards bishop oi Gloucester); H (for 
 Home Tooke), and T (for VViiUam Tooke). 
 
 Divine Aspasia. ' Whom to know 
 is a liberal education.' (Steele, ' Tatler,' 
 No. 49 ; Lady Elizabeth Hastings, 1082- 
 1739). 
 
 Divine Doctor {The), or the * Ec- 
 static Doctor.' Johan van Ruysbroeck, 
 the mystic, born at Ruysbroeck, near 
 Brussels (1294-1381). 
 
 Divine Legation {The), or, in full, 
 
 ' The Divine Legation of Moses demon- 
 strated.' By William V/arburton, bishop 
 of Gloucester (1738), to prove that the 
 Pentateuch must be a divine revelation, 
 because it is silent on the subject of a 
 future state. This extraordinary pro- 
 duction has laid under tribute such a 
 parade of learning as was never equalled, 
 except, perhaps, in Burton's ' Anatomy 
 of Melancholy.' Everyone is aghast at 
 the learning, but no one is convinced. 
 
 Divine Right of Kings {The). 
 A 17th cent, dogma, implying the belief 
 that kings hold their office by divine 
 appointment, and are the earthly repre- 
 sentatives of deity. So they are in a 
 theocracy like Judsea and the popedom. 
 The dogma was sanctioned in the book 
 of the Canons of Convocation, 1604 ; bub 
 
220 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 DOCTOR 
 
 in the Bill of Rights, 1GS9, the right of 
 the people to depose the monarch, to 
 change the order of succession, and to 
 confer the throne on whom they think 
 proper is distinctly set forth. In Great 
 Britain the monarch has only parlia- 
 mentary right, and the parliament that 
 makes a sovereign can unmake also. 
 
 In Russia the Czar still claims the ' divine right 
 to govern wrong,' and, accordingly, in ias3, Alex- 
 ander insisted on placing the crown on his own 
 head. 
 
 Divorce a mensa et thoro (Latin). 
 A partial divorce, severing wife and 
 husband ' from board and bed,' but not 
 annulling the marriage. In this sort of 
 divorce neither husband nor wife could 
 marry again so long as both remained 
 alive. Divorces a mensa et thoro were 
 granted by the ecclesiastical court when 
 man and wife could not, from incompati- 
 bility of temper or ill-usage, live under 
 the same roof. 
 
 Now called ' judicial separation ' ; the court has 
 
 Eower to order alimony for the wife. The new 
 iw of divorce dates from iHol. In 1878, by the 
 ' Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act,' a wife can 
 plead cruelty as a sulllcient cause for judicial 
 separation. 
 
 Divorce a vinculo matrimonii. A 
 total divorce ' from the bond of matri- 
 mony,' in consequence of some canonical 
 impediment existing before marriage, 
 such as bigamy, kinship within the pro- 
 hibited degrees, &c. The children of 
 Buch parents are illegitimate. 
 
 By the law of 1857 adultery is made a valid plea 
 for an entire dissolution of marriage; but the 
 Council of Trent, which closed in isiiy, pronounced 
 marriage to be absolutely indissoluble. 
 
 Divorce Court, 1857 (23, 24 Vict. 
 
 144). A court which takes the juris- 
 diction of divorce out of the ecclesiastical 
 courts. It is composed of a judge 
 ordinary, the three chiefs in the courts 
 of common law, and three present judges. 
 After divorce the ofiendiiii^ party is free 
 to marry again. 
 
 Dix-huit Bru?r,aire. Tear VIII. 
 The coup d'etat of Bonaparte, when the 
 Directory was overthrown, and the su- 
 premacy of Bonaparte established (9 
 Nov. 1799). 
 
 Dixie Professorship. Of eccle- 
 siastical history. Stipend 500Z. a year 
 and a fellowship at Emmanuel College. 
 Pounded in the University of Cambridge 
 by Sir William Dixie, of Emmanuel 
 College, 18S4. 
 
 Djezzar,«.e. Butcher. Achmed Pacha 
 (1735-1804). He was originally a slave, 
 and rose to the pashalic of Acre. He is 
 noted for his dogged defence of Acre 
 against Napoleon I. in 1799. His cruelty 
 was a monomania, for at times he was 
 both tender-hearted and charitable. See 
 ' Butcher.' 
 
 Djoubanians (The). A dynasty 
 which reigned in Irak and Khorassan 
 from A.D. 1335 till 1378, founded by 
 Djouban, tutor of Behader-Khan. He 
 married the khan's sister and revolted. 
 Tamerlane conquered this part of Persia, 
 and made his son governor thereof. 
 
 Doce'tss (The), or 'Docetes' (3 syl.). 
 A sect ascribed to Simon Magus. They 
 believed that the body of Christ was a 
 sort of phantom body, like that which 
 had appeared to Adam{ and Eve, Cain 
 and Abel, Noah and Abr^nam, and there- 
 fore that the sufferings and death of 
 Christ were not real. Supposed to be 
 referred to in 2 John vii. (Greek Soxew, 
 to seem, to appear.) 
 
 The Docetfe were a Gnostic sect, and, like the 
 Gnostics generally, considered matter the oppo- 
 site of spirit, and evil the opposite of good. As 
 God is spirit and only good, evil must be resident 
 in matter, and it would be no more possible for a 
 divine nature to take a material body than for 
 good to mix with evil. 
 
 Doce'tlsm. The doctrine of the 
 Docetae {q.v.), which was this, that the 
 humanity, the actions, and the sufferings 
 of Christ were only phenomenal and not 
 real. 
 
 Doctor Doetorum. Alexander of 
 Hales, Gloucestershire, the * Irrefragable 
 Doctor,' a friar minor, who applied the 
 rules of Aristotle to school philosophy. 
 His chief work is ' Summa Theologise.' 
 He died in 1245. 
 
 Doctor My-book. John Abemethy 
 (17G4-1831). So called because he said 
 to so many of his patients, ' I must refer 
 you to my book ; there are only about a 
 dozen pages you need read. Begin at 
 p. 73, and you will soon find all that I 
 can tell you or you need know.' He was 
 not a physician, but a surgeon. His 
 fundamental principle was that most 
 ailments, whether of the legs or eyes, 
 feet or head, are due to deranged diges- 
 tion, and that a ' blue pill,' with 4 ozs. of 
 food three times a day, will prove a 
 panacea. 
 
DOCTOR 
 
 DOCTORS 
 
 261 
 
 Doctor of Asia. Polycabp, bishop 
 of Smyrna, in Asia ; or ' Doctor of the 
 Holy Church of Smyrna ' (26 Jan.), 72- 
 167. 
 
 Doctor of Dancing {The). Beau- 
 champs, of whom Louis XIV. took 
 lessons for twenty years. Beauchampa 
 died 1695. 
 
 Doctors {Scholastic) who bear complementary titles. Those marked with a 
 * are ' Doctors of the Church.' The rest are, for the most part, Medieval Schoolmen. 
 
 * ^* Those without a date have been borrowed from a list sent J'rutii America to 
 the publishers. 
 
 Doctor Admirabilia ... ... 
 
 Angelicus ... ... 
 
 Authenticus 
 
 Bonus 
 Christianissimu3 
 
 Collectivus 
 
 Communis 
 
 Difflcilis 
 
 Divinus 
 
 Doctorum... 
 
 Dulcifluus 
 
 Dulcissimus 
 
 Ecstaticus 
 
 Evangelicus 
 
 Facundus 
 
 Famosissimus 
 
 Famosus 
 
 Fertilis 
 
 Fundatissimus 
 
 Fundatus 
 
 „ et Copiopus 
 
 Illibatus 
 
 llluminatus 
 
 ,, et Acutus... 
 Illustratus 
 
 Ingeniosissimus 
 
 Inviiicibilis 
 
 Irrefragabilis 
 
 Marianus 
 
 MelliHuus... ... 
 
 Methodicua 
 
 Wirabilis 
 
 Notabilis ... „. 
 Optimus ... ... 
 
 Ordinatissimus . 
 Perspicuus 
 Planus et Clnrus 
 
 ,, et Perspicuus .. 
 
 Profltabilis 
 
 Profundissimus . 
 Profundus^ 
 
 Rcfulgidus 
 Kesolutissimus 
 Resolutua ... 
 Sapiens 
 Scolasticus 
 
 Bi-COit (Roger) .. 
 Aquinas (iVuww-s)* ... 
 
 Gregory of Rimini 
 
 BhinkeTj (Walter) ... 
 
 G%Rson (John Out rlierdc) 
 
 Caraccioi.1 (LardaipJio) 
 
 Aquinas (Thomas)* 
 
 John of Ripatransone 
 
 RUYSBKOECK (Jan df) 
 
 llAL,i:.S(AU'j:aiidero/) ... 
 
 ANDRE.E or Andreas (Antonius] 
 
 EUYSBROECK (Jan dc) 
 
 "\VycLiF(/i)//;0 
 
 Peter AuitEOLDS „ 
 
 Innocent V. 
 
 Torre (Bertmnd de la) 
 
 Francis of Candia 
 
 iEGiDius or Giles of Colonna 
 
 \ A.B.RO (GulU'lnmx) 
 
 Middleton (Richard) ... ... 
 
 Alexander Alsmanicus 
 
 LULLY (iia?/mond) 
 
 JMairone (Francois de) (docteur eclairO 
 
 Marca (Fra)i(ois de) ... 
 
 Adam de Marisco (bishop of Ely) 
 
 Alphonso de Novo Castro 
 
 Occam ( IVilliam) (excommunicated by John XXII). ... 
 
 l'OUK(Peter) 
 
 Hales (.^i''.r(7?!<ter of) (GlouceEtcrshire) 
 
 Duns Scotus (founder of the Scotibis) 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux* 
 
 Bassol (John), a Scot 
 
 Bacon (Roqer) 
 
 Peter de 1 Isle 
 Antony of Padua ... 
 
 Bassol (John), a Scot 
 
 BoNET (Nidiolas) 
 
 Barley (IF.) 
 
 BVRLEY (WnJter) 
 
 Bonet (Nicholas) 
 
 iEGiDius or Giles of Colonna 
 
 Jacobus de Ascoli ... ... 
 
 Bradwardine (Thomas) (bishop of Chichester) ... 
 
 Middleton (Richard) „. _ 
 
 Alexander V. (pope) 
 
 DuRAND de St. Pour<;ain (Gxdllaume) (bishop of Meaux) 
 
 Baconsthorp (John) 
 
 Wessel (Jart iferjruinJ!) 
 
 Alfred, the Philosopher 
 
 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury* m. 
 
 AnSelm of Laon ... 
 
 Buridan ... 
 
 Castro Novo (Hugh de) (an Englishman) 
 
 Odon (Gerard) ., 
 
 [John of Antioch, Climacus (525 600), and Epiphanus were also surnamod ' Scolaoticu:.'] 
 
 Seraphicus 
 
 Singularis ... 
 
 Soleranis _.. „. 
 
 Solidus 
 
 Sublimis et llluminatus 
 
 Sublilis 
 
 Subtilissimus 
 
 Sufflcens 
 
 Theologicus 
 
 XJltimus Scholasticorum 
 
 Universalis 
 
 utiiis" ... ."; ;;; 
 
 Venerabilio 
 
 BONAVENTURA (Giovanni di Fidenza)* 
 
 Occam (WiUinvi) (excommunicated by John XXII.) 
 
 Goethals (Henry of Gheu;,) 
 
 Middleton (Riduird) 
 
 Tauler (Johann) „. „ 
 
 Duns Scotus ... 
 
 PlETRO Aquila *" "'. '." ''.'. Z^. ... 
 
 Cz,EiJiEiiGKS(Matthieu Nicholas dc) 
 
 Biel (GafcWt'O 
 
 Aquinas (Thomas)* 
 
 Alan de lisle 
 
 Lyra (Nicholas de) 
 
 Hildebert 
 
 OcCAil (WUtiam) ^ 
 
 1214-1202 
 1212-1 -1274 
 died 1357 
 
 1204-1381 
 died 1245 
 died 1320 
 
 1294-1S81 
 1324-1384 
 14th cent. 
 1225-1276 
 
 1247 1316 
 13th cent, 
 died 1364 
 
 1235-1315 
 died 1327 
 
 1276-1347 
 
 died 1245 
 
 1265-1308 
 1091-1153 
 died 1347 
 1214-1292 
 
 1105-1231 
 died 1347 
 died 1360 
 
 1275 1.S57 
 died 1360 
 1247 1316 
 
 1290-1349 
 died 1364 
 1339-1410 
 1267-1333 
 died 1346 
 1419-1489 
 died 1270 
 1033-1109 
 1050 1117 
 1295 1360 
 died 1310 
 
 1221-1274 
 1276 1347 
 1217 1293 
 died 1364 
 12:10 1361 
 1265-1308 
 
 1350-1420 
 1360 1440 
 1420-1495 
 1224-1274 
 1114-1203 
 1270-1340 
 1055-1133 
 1276-1347 
 
262 
 
 DOCTORS 
 
 DOCTORS 
 
 Doctor Venerabilis Pierre de Cluny 
 
 [Bede the Anglo-Saxon historian (G73-735) is also called the ' Venerable.'] 
 
 Doctor Venerandus Gregory of Fonts 
 
 II. A Supplemental List. Other complementary titles. 
 
 Aquila Doctorum AiLLY (Pierre (V) 
 
 „ „ Aquinas (r;i()?)irts) 
 
 [J. B. Bossuet, bishop of Meaux (1627-1704) was called the 'Eagle of Meaux,' and also 
 Christian Eloquence. ] 
 
 FULGENTIUS, bishop of Euspina 
 
 PiETRO, bishop of Ravenna 
 
 John, patriarch of Constantinople 
 
 Ephrem, one of the Fathers of the Greek Church 
 
 John of Salisbury 
 
 Aquinas was so called by Pius V 
 
 Hales (.itexajutcro/) 
 
 Pierre, author of ' Historia Scholastica ' 
 
 Mairone (Frain'ois de) 
 
 Gkosseteste (Boberi) 
 
 „ ,, excommunicated 
 
 Lombard (Pie<j-o) 
 
 Hilary, bishop of Poitiers (The Rhone of Latin 
 
 Eloquence) 
 
 [J. B. BossuetTwas called the ' Rhone of Christian Eloquence.'] 
 
 Augustine of his Age (r;ie) 
 
 Chrysologus (Golden Speech) 
 
 Chrysostom (Golden Mouth) ... 
 
 Deacon (T/ie) 
 
 Desbcon (T)ie Little) 
 
 Fifth Doctor of the Church (T/w) 
 
 Fons VitiB 
 
 Mangeur or Comeston 
 
 Maglster Abstractionum 
 
 „ Contradictionis ,„ 
 
 ,, Scolarum 
 
 „ Sententiarum 
 
 MaUeus Arianorum 
 
 Malleus Hereticorum . 
 Princeps Theologorum 
 Scotus Minor 
 Theologian (T/ie) ... 
 
 Thorough Doctor '(flie) '. 
 
 AiLLY (Pierre d') 
 JliGiDius of Colonna 
 PlETRO Aquila 
 Gregory of Nazianzus 
 Isidore of Seville ... 
 Varbo (Gidielmus) ... 
 
 1350 1420 
 1224- 1274 
 'Rhone of 
 
 464-533 
 433-450 
 344-407 
 320 379 
 1110-1182 
 1224-1274 
 died 1245 
 died 1180 
 died 1327 
 1174 1253 
 
 1100-1164 
 
 300-367 
 
 1350 1420 
 1247-1316 
 1.850-1420 
 
 Doctors ( TJhiquist). ' Docteurs Ubi- 
 quistes ' are doctors not members of the 
 Sorbonne, tbe college of Navarre, or the 
 Cholets. 
 
 Doctors of Reason {The). Mem- 
 bers of the Chinese sect of Tao or Taou, 
 a kind of rationalistic religious sect. 
 
 Tao, one of the Chinese names of the Supreme 
 Being, is identified by some missionaries with the 
 ' Logos ' of St. John's Gospel. Sec ' Tao.' 
 
 Doctors of the Cliurcli. Certain 
 canonised authors of the early and medi- 
 seval Christian Church whose works have 
 been accepted as authority on doctrine, 
 dogma, and discipline. There have been 
 hundreds and thousands of Theological 
 Doctors, but the following list contains 
 all those distinctively recognised by Ca- 
 tholics as ' Doctors of the Church,' and 
 must not be confounded with the ' Scho- 
 lastic Doctors.' 
 
 To make this list as correct and perfect as pos- 
 sible, I have been carefully over all the many 
 thousand names of the BoUandists, with those 
 contained in the ' Dictionnaire Hagiographique ' 
 of the Abbe Migne. 
 
 (Greek, Latin, signify the language in which the 
 ■works were written). The wwjU/i shows the ' Saint's 
 day.' 
 Alfonso Maria of Liguori, Naples, 
 
 Founder of the Order of Liguorians 
 
 or Redemptorists. Called by Pius IX. 
 
 ' one gf the doctors of the Church ' 
 
 (2 Aug.) Latin 1696-1787 
 
 Ambrose, archbishop of Milan (7 Dec.) 
 
 Latin 340-397 
 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury (21 
 
 April) Latin 1033-1109 
 
 Aquinas. See helow, ' Thomas.' 
 A'iiianasius, patriarch of Alexandi-ii 
 (2 May) ^ ' «. ... Urcnk 
 
 Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa 
 (28 Aug.) . .. Latin 
 
 Basil the Great, archbishop of Caesarea, 
 in Cappadocia (14 June) ... Grecii 
 
 Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, ' the Mel- 
 lifluous or Most Mellifluous Doctor ' 
 (20 Aug.) ... Latin 
 
 Bonaventura (Giovanni di Fidenza), a 
 cardinal-bishop, 'the Seraphic doc- 
 tor ' (14 July; Latin 
 
 Chrysologus. See below, ' Pietro Chry- 
 sologus ' 
 
 Chrysostom. See helow, ' John Chrysos- 
 tom ' 
 
 Clemens or Clement of Alexandria 
 (Titus Flavins Alezandrlnus) (4 Dec.) 
 
 Greek 
 
 Cyprian (Thascius Cacilius), bishop of 
 Carthage, and one of the 'Fathers' 
 (16 Sept.) ... Greek 
 
 Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, and one 
 of the ' Fathers ' (28 Jan.) ... Greek 
 
 Ephrem, ' the Deacon ' of Odessa. One 
 of the ' Fathers ' (1 Feb.) ... Greek 
 
 Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia, in 
 Cyprus. One of the 'Fathers' (12 
 May) Greek 
 
 Fulgentius (Fabius Claudius Gordina- 
 nus), bishop of Kuspina, in Africa, the 
 'Augustine of his age ' (1 Jan.) Latin 
 
 Gregory the Great, pope (12 March) 
 
 Latin 
 
 Gregory of Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, 
 'the Theologian.' One of the 
 'Fathers,' and archbishop of Con- 
 stantinople (9 May) Greek 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa, brother of S. Basil 
 (y March) Latin 
 
 Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 'Malleus 
 Arianorum ' and the ' Rhone of Latia 
 Eloquence.' One of the ' Fathers ' of 
 the Church (13 Jan.) Latin 
 
 HiPPOLYTUS, bishop of Portus, in Rome, 
 author of the ' Refutation of all Here- 
 sies ' (22 Aug.) Greek 
 
 Isidore, archbishop of Seville, ' the 
 Theologian ' (4 April) Latin 
 
 Jerome, ' Father of the Latin Church ' 
 (30 Sept.) Latin 
 
 John Chrysostom (Goldi>n Mouth), pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople, and one of 
 the 'Fathers ' ^27 Jan.) ... ... 3feek 
 
 1091-1153 
 1221-1274 
 
 210-258 
 died 444 
 
 464-533 
 644-604 
 
 died 238 
 570-636 
 
 344-407 
 
DOCTORS 
 
 DODD 
 
 2GS 
 
 606-756 
 390-461 
 
 155-216 
 
 died 450 
 
 403-404 
 
 J(5hn Damascenus or ' Joannes Damas- 
 
 cenus (6 May) Gret'k 
 
 Leo I. the Great, pope (11 April) Latin 
 
 Manahen, propliet of Antiocli (24 May.) 
 
 (.SV«! Abbe IMigne, ' Dictionnaire Ha- 
 
 . giographique ') Greek * * 
 
 Nil of Ancyra, of Galatia. A disciple of 
 St. Chrysostom. (Sre Migne, ' Diction- 
 naire Hagiographique ') (12 Nov.) 
 
 Greek died 1005 
 
 ORIGEN of Alexandria (22 April) Greek 185 247 
 
 Pantenus or Pantsenus of Alexandria 
 
 (7 July) ... Greek 
 
 PiETEO Chrysol'ogus (Golden Speech), 
 
 archbishop of Ravenna (2 Dec.) Latin 
 
 Prosper Aquitanas (25 June) ... Latin 
 
 Satyeus, brother of S. Ambrose (17 Sept.) 
 
 Latin 
 
 Thomas of Aquino or Thomas Aquinas, 
 'Angel of the Schools,' 'Eagle of Di- 
 vines,' ' Universal and Angelic Doc- 
 tor,' ' The Fifth Doctor of theChurch," . 
 • The Dumb Ox ' (7 March) ... Latin 1224-1274 
 *«* The four preceding doctors of the Latin 
 Church were — 
 
 1. Ambrose of Milan 840-397 
 
 2. Augustine of Hippo a54-4;?0 
 
 8. Jerome, ' Father of the Latin Church ' 345-4-20 
 
 4. Gregory the Great 544-604 
 
 ■VNTien Pius V. in 1567 declared Aquinas to be the 
 'Fifth Doctor of the Church,' he did not ignore 
 those between Gregory and Aquinas, but spoke of 
 
 5. Thomas as we speak of the Tenth Muse, or 
 Eighth Wonder of the World, meaning some one 
 or some wonder of striking excellence. There 
 may have been others more learned than Aqui- 
 nas, as there are poets superior to Marie Lejars 
 de Gournay, surnamed 'the Tenth Muse,' and 
 buildings more marvellous than the palace of the 
 Escurial of Toledo, called the ' Eighth Wonder.' 
 Such phrases are merely complementary hyper- 
 bole. 
 
 Doctors of the Sorbonne. * Doc- 
 teurs en Sorbonne.' The Sorbonne is a 
 secular ecclesiastical college founded in 
 Paris by Robert de Sorbon in 1252. The 
 members live in common, and are pro- 
 vided with everything necessary for life 
 and well-being. The head of the college 
 is called the Proviseur, and his assistant 
 is called a Prior. The buildings were re- 
 stored by Richelieu in the 17th cent. Since 
 1821 these buildings have been the seat 
 of the University of Paris, consecrated 
 to humanity studies, the arts, sciences, 
 and theology 
 
 The following doctors of the Sorbonne 
 are placed in the 'Petits Bollandistes ' 
 among the saints. They were ' Martyrs 
 of the Revolution ' (M. R.). 
 BURTE (Jean Francois), -u-hose day is 2 Sept. 
 
 'MEVR (Vincent de), 
 Thorame (Jides (ie Pazery de) 
 
 June 
 2 Sept. 
 
 Doctors' Commons^ A college of 
 doctors in the civil law, London, wherein 
 the Court of Admiralty and the princi- 
 pal ecclesiastical courts were held. 
 Founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, dean 
 of the Arches. The original house was 
 destroyed by the great fire of London in 
 16G6. Building taken down in 1867. 
 
 Doctrinaires. L or ' PrO^res de la 
 Doctrine,' 1592. Founded by Caesar de 
 Bus of Avignon, and confirmed by the 
 pope in 1597. The object of the society 
 was to instruct the poor, especially in rural 
 districts, in religious matters. Many 
 schools were under them. Caesar de Bus 
 also established a female society for 
 women called ' Filles de la Doctrine.' 
 
 II. 1815. A political party in France 
 favourable to a constitutional govern- 
 ment, and hoping to combine perfect 
 liberty with regality. Royer-Collard was 
 the chief, or pere de la doctrine. See 
 above. 
 
 The following were eminent doctrinaires, viz. 
 Camille Jordan, De Broglie, De Serre, Duchatel, 
 Duvergier, De Hauranne, Guizot, Jaubert, and 
 Remusat. 
 
 Doctrine of Signatures (The). 
 The doctrine that visible signs indicate 
 the virtues and uses of natural objects. 
 Thus white was cold, and red hot. Hence 
 in fever red medicines, such as mulberries 
 and pomegranates, were prescribed. For 
 liver complaints yellow substances werj 
 recommended. Malignant plants, says 
 Coles, have a sad or evil appearance, 
 either in their leaves, flowers, or fruit. 
 Euphrasia, or * eye-bi'Ight,' has a spot 
 like the pupil of the eye ; walnuts, which 
 represent the human brain, are good for 
 idiocy ; nettle-tea for the nettle-rash ; 
 bilberry and turmeric, being yellow, are 
 good for jaundice ; liver-wort, which is 
 spotted like tubercles on the liver, is 
 good for liver complaints. So through- 
 out Nature puts her label on everything, 
 if men were but wise enough to read her 
 writing. 
 
 Doctrines of Port Royal. The 
 
 community of Port Royal, in Paris, were 
 the most strenuous defenders of the 
 famous book called ' Augustlnus ' by 
 Cornelius Jansen, which was designed to 
 show that St. Augustine was unsound on 
 the clootrines of grace, free-will, predesti- 
 nation, and universal redemption. Jan- 
 sen's book was condemned by Pope 
 Urban VIII., and the school of Port 
 Royal was suppressed in 1660. 
 
 [She] had adopted the tenets of the Jansenists, 
 with ijerhaps a still further tendency towards the 
 reformed doctrines than those of Port Royal.— Sir 
 W. SCOTT, liedyauntlet, chap. xvU. 
 
 Dodd, D.D. {William), 1753-1777. 
 Hanged at Tyburn for forging the name 
 of Lord Chesterfield to a'bond for 4,200Z. 
 
2G4 
 
 DODO 
 
 DOMESDAY 
 
 Dodo {The). This bird, now extinct, 
 was seen hj the Portuguese in the Mau- 
 ritius in 1499 ; it was seen by the Dutch 
 in 1598 ; it was figured by De Bry in 
 IGOl, by Ckisin in 1G05, and by Bontius 
 in 1658 ; the bones of a dodo were dis- 
 covered in the Mauritius by Clark in 
 1805. 
 
 Thpre is a dodo's foot in the British Museum ; a 
 head and foot in the Asbmolean Museum, Oxford. 
 
 Dog, or ' Dog Steenie.' George Vil- 
 liers duke of B'v.kingham. When first 
 made the king's favourite [James I.], the 
 queen said " Now you must be my watch- 
 dog, and whenever the king is inclined 
 to make a fool of himself, you must pull 
 the old sow by the ear.' 
 
 Buclsingham -wrote from Madrid to .Tames to 
 send over jewels: 'first your best ha^'-^iid, the 
 Portugal diamond, the rest of the pen iit dia- 
 monds to make up a necklace to give the ^nfanta, 
 and the best rope of pearls, with a rich chain or 
 two for myself to wear, or else your dog will lack a 
 collar ' (1623). 
 
 Dog-days, or * Canicular Days.' The 
 forty days beginning with 3 July and 
 ending 11 Aug. So-called from Caniculus, 
 the Dog-star, or Sirius, in the constella- 
 tion called Canis Major, the brightest of 
 the fixed stars. The Egyptians had the 
 beginning of their year dependent on the 
 heliacal rising of the Canicula, coinciding 
 with the flood of the Nile. 
 
 Dogs, or Barbets. So the Vaudois 
 were usually called by the Catholics. The 
 Vaudois employed by gentlemen as foot- 
 men to stand behind a carriage were 
 called barbets. 
 
 The Marquises Fleury and Angrogna, fearing 
 the bite of the dogs (barbets), were not the last to 
 run away.— L^GER (quoted by Ant. Monastier, 
 Hist, oftlie Vaudois Church, p. 304). 
 
 Dogado. The territory of the doge 
 of Venice, comprising the city of Venice, 
 the isles of Malamocco, Chioggia, and 
 Brondolo, with a narrow slip of coast be- 
 tween the mouths of the Adige and the 
 Musone. By a law in 1367 neither the 
 doge nor any of his family could hold any 
 estate beyond the dogado, and if before 
 raised to the office any doge happened to 
 have any estate or fief beyond this terri- 
 tory, he was obliged to sell it. 
 
 Doge, i.e. duke. The chief magis- 
 trate of several Italian republics. In 
 Venice (697) and Amalfi (897) the office 
 was held for life ; in Genoa from 1528 
 the office was limited to two years; in 
 Kagusa from 787 it was monthly, so that 
 
 there were twelve doges a year. The 
 doge was both general and judge, ruling 
 in concert with a representative council 
 of the chief citizens. The first doge of 
 Venice, 697, was Paulucci Anaferto; the 
 last was Ludovico Marini, for in 1795 
 Napoleon I. abolished the office. Marini 
 was elected in 1789, and died 1803. The 
 doge was ' rex in foro, senator in curia, 
 captivus in aula.' 
 
 The constitution of Venice was a pyramid, rest- 
 ing on the basis of the grand council, and rising 
 tlirough the senate and the college to the doge, the 
 ornamental apex. In 1172 the election of doge was 
 transferred from the people to the grand council. 
 
 Dogget's * Coat and Badge,' 
 1715. The prize of a rowing match on the 
 Thames, instituted by Thomas Dogget, 
 an actor. The race day is 1 Aug., the 
 day of the accession of George I. The 
 race is from London Bridge to the ' Old 
 Swan ' at Chelsea, when the tide is 
 strongest against the rowers. 
 
 Dogmael's Stone (St.). A stone in 
 Pembrokeshire with an inscription in 
 Ogham. See ' Golspie Stone.' 
 
 There Is another near Margam in Glamorgan- 
 shire, and one near Crickhowel, in Brecknock- 
 shire. The town is called St. Dogmell in Bartho- 
 lomew's Gazetteer.' 
 
 Dogmatists and Empirics. Two 
 
 schools of medicine in Alexandria which 
 prevailed during the three centuries pre- 
 ceding the birth of Christ. The Dogma- 
 tists or Methodists were those who fol- 
 lowed certain prescribed rules; the 
 Empirics were those who trusted to 
 experiment and experience. The chief 
 of the Dogmatists were Erastratos, The- 
 mison, and Coelius Aurelianus. 
 
 The chief of the Empirics were Philinos of Cos, 
 Sextus Empiricus, and Heraclldes of Tarentum. 
 
 Dom-Boc. A book of dooms or 
 * Liber Judicialis.' A code of laws com- 
 piled by Alfred the Great from the West 
 Saxon collection of Ina, the Kentish col- 
 lection of Ethelbert, and the Mercian 
 laws of Offa. 
 
 It begins, ' The Lord spake all these words, say- 
 ing. . . .' Then follow the Ten Commandments, 
 part of the Mosaic Law, and the Golden Bule ; 
 then the ecclesiastical and civil laws. 
 
 Dome of Chosroes (r7ie). A mag- 
 nificent edifice in Modain, one of the 
 wonders of the East, built in the 6th 
 cent, by Chosroes the Great of Persia. 
 
 DomesdajT Book. 
 Book.' 
 
 See ' Doomsday 
 
DOMICELLiE 
 
 DOMINUS 
 
 2G5 
 
 Domicellae Camerae Reginee. 
 
 Ladies of the bedchamber ; generally, if 
 not always, married ladies. 
 
 Domicellae Reginee. Maids of 
 honour, and of course unmarried. 
 
 Domiciliary Canons. Canons 
 not in holy orders, and therefore having 
 no right to any particular chapter. 
 
 Domina Anglorum. Maud, 
 daughter of Henry I., and mother of 
 Henry 11., by Geoifrey Plantagenet, 
 count of Anjou. 
 
 Domingo {Bevolt of Santo) from 
 the French yoke. 
 
 (a) The revolt of the slaves broke out 
 22 Aug., 1791, and Toussaint Louverture, 
 a negro chieftain, was proclaimed gover- 
 nor for life in 1801, but he died in 1803. 
 
 {h) Another revolt, to expel the French 
 from the island, broke out in 1803. The 
 revolters put themselves under British 
 protection ; D'Essalines (originally a 
 slave) was appointed governor, and the 
 ancient name of Hayti was restored. In 
 1804 the governor declared himself em- 
 peror of the whole island, but in 1806 he 
 was assassinated, and the French part 
 of the island was divided into two parts 
 — a negro republic and a mulatto com- 
 monwealth. In 1822 Peter Boyer, a man 
 of colour, reduced the whole island under 
 one government — a representative re- 
 public — but he abdicated in 1843, and 
 retired to Paris, where he died in 1850. 
 
 (c) In 1844 the Spanish portion of the 
 island was seized by the blacks, and 
 formed into a republic under Santana, 
 and in 1849 Faustin Soulouque, a negro, 
 proclaimed himself Faustin I. emperor 
 of Hayti, but he abdicated in 1861. Sal- 
 nave was declared president 11 Jan., 1870, 
 but was shot by the French on the 15th 
 of the same month. 
 
 At present (1R001 the island is divided into two 
 republics : one (Hayti) French-speaking, and the 
 Other (Santo Domingo) Spanish-speaking. 
 
 Dominica Bran'donum. Pro- 
 perly was the Sunday preceding Quadri- 
 gesima Sunday (1st in Lent). See ' Sun- 
 days.' 
 
 Brandones appellabant Oalli primam quadra- 
 gesimalis jejunii hebdomadam, quod hujus prima 
 die snb vesperum pueri brandonihwi, seu facibua 
 accensis februare solerent. Dominica brandonum 
 Quadragesimam preBcedit. — Ducange, Glossary 
 Urando). 
 
 Dominica de Rosa, or 'Lastare 
 Sunday' i^.v). The fourth Sunday in 
 12 
 
 Lent, when the pope blesses the golden 
 rose. See ' Sundays.' 
 
 Domin'ical Letters {The). From 
 Dominica (dies), i.e. Sunday ; the Sun- 
 day Letters. They are A B C D E F G, 
 used in almanacs to mark the Sundays 
 throughout the year. The 1st, 8th, 15th, 
 and 22nd days are marked A ; the 2nd, 
 9th, 16th, 23rd, &c., are marked B, and 
 so on. Hence, on whatever day the first 
 Sunday of the year falls, the letter which 
 marks it will mark every other Sunday 
 in the year. If it is A (the 1st of the 
 month) every Sunday will be A, and so 
 on, because there are seven days and 
 seven letters. 
 
 Dominicans, or Preachmg Friars, 
 1215. A religious order of the rule of 
 Augustine, founded by St. Dominic at 
 Toulouse for preaching and the con- 
 version of heretics. In 1233 the func- 
 tion of Inquisitors was added. They 
 had several houses in Italy, Spain, Por- 
 tugal, France, Germany, and England, 
 In 1218 the Dominicans of Paris were 
 called Jacobins, because their convent 
 was in the Rue St. Jacques. Among the 
 most famous of the order were Albert 
 the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, Ray- 
 mond of Penafort, Vincent of Beauvais, 
 Caietan, Dom Soto, &c. They sustained 
 a long rivalry with the Franciscans, but 
 were suppressed in France in 1790 by 
 the National Assembly. Their outer 
 dress is a black garment with a scapu- 
 lary and capuchin of the same cloth. 
 They also carry a rosary suspended from 
 their girdle. 
 
 By the Second Council of Lyons the Begging 
 Friars were limited to the Dominicans or Black 
 Friars, the Franciscans or Grey Friars, the 
 Augustines (also Black Friars), and the Carmelites 
 or White Friars. 
 
 There are Dominican nuns and Dominican ter- 
 tiaries, &c. 
 
 Dominicans, 1793, &c. Those 
 Frenchmen who observed Sunday after 
 the introduction of the new French 
 Calendar, which abolished the week of 
 seven days and introduced a decade of 
 ten days instead. The Dominicans had, 
 of course, fifty-two weeks in the year, 
 the Decadists had thirty-six decades. 
 
 Dominion Day. Canada, 2 July, 
 
 Dominus. Ds. on tombstones, in 
 the middle ages, indicates either a 
 clergyman or a knight. Clergymen were 
 then addressed as knights. 
 
2G6 
 
 DOMINUS 
 
 DONATISTS 
 
 Dominus ac Redemptor Fos- 
 ter, 1773. The famous brief of Clement 
 XIV. suppressmg ' for ever the society 
 of the Jesuits, out of regard to the peace 
 of the church.' 
 
 Domitian Road (The), b.c. 122. 
 Constructed in Gaul by Cnseus Domitius 
 (Ahenobarbus). 
 
 Don, Dom, Dona. Don is Do- 
 
 [7ni]nus, Dom is Dom-inus, Dona is 
 jDo[rn*]«a. Don and Dona are Spanish 
 forms, Dom is Portuguese. At one time 
 these were given only to princes, bishops, 
 and seniors, then to hidalgos ; butnow-a- 
 days they are very often mere polite 
 forms of address, like our esquire. 
 
 Donald Ballach, i. e. the Freckled. 
 Cousin-german of Alexander lord of the 
 Isles. 
 
 Donati [The), 1293. A faction in 
 Florence opposed to the Cerchi. So 
 named from two powerful houses. Dante, 
 the poet, was connected with the house 
 of the Donati. See ' Donatists.' 
 
 In Pistoia, an ally of Florence, there were two 
 Bimilar factions, the Neri and the Bianchi. The 
 Neri sided with the Donati, and the Bianchi with 
 the Cerchi. The Neri were zealous Guelfs, and 
 the Bianchi were of the Ghibelline party. When 
 Dante was in Pistoia he joined the Bianchi, and 
 his house was pulled down about his ears by the 
 Neri zealots. (Cerchi pronounce Cher-he.) 
 
 Donation of Constantine [The). 
 The tale is that Constantine the Great 
 (306-337) was healed of leprosy by the 
 water of baptism under St. Silvester, the 
 Roman bishop. In reward of this service 
 the emperor withdrew from Rome, and 
 founded a new capital in the East. The 
 Roman capital he resigned to St. Sil- 
 vester and his successors for ever (' pa- 
 latiam nostrum, et urbem Romam, et 
 totius Italiae civitates '). If this tale is 
 accepted, the 'Donations of Pepin and 
 Charlemagne ' were no donations at all, 
 but simply restitutions of a part of Con- 
 stantine's Donation. The deed has been 
 proved to be a gross and impudent for- 
 gery. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 In Ariosto we read that the Deed of Constan- 
 ttne's Gift was found in the Moon with other 
 rubbish— 
 
 Di varil flori ad un gran moote passa, 
 Ch' ebbe gia buono odore, or putia forte. 
 Questo era il dono (se pero dir lece) 
 Che Costantino al buon Silvestro fece. 
 
 Orlando Furioso, xxxiv. 80. 
 
 Donation of Pepin (The). By the 
 liberality of Pepin and Charlemagne the 
 
 ancient patrimony of farms and houses 
 of the popes was transformed into the 
 temporal dominion of cities and pro- 
 vinces. This first-fruits of the conquests 
 of Pepin, called his donation, was the 
 germ of the temporal dominions of the 
 pope of Rome (' Liber Pontificalis,' p. 
 171). 
 
 The 'donation' Included the territories of 
 Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, taken from 
 Astolphus. THe donation was greatly enlarged 
 by Charlemagne.— Cndf'j; Carnllnm. 
 
 The ' Donation of Constantino ' was a forgery 
 probably of the notorious Rlculfe, who is'supposed 
 to have forged the ' Decretals ' (8th cent.). 
 
 Donatism, a.d. 311. Tlae religious 
 tenets of Donatus, the Numidian bishop, 
 who insisted that personal holiness made 
 a Christian ; and that the apostolic suc- 
 cession of bishops did not of itself form 
 the necessary medium of communication 
 with Christ ; that, in fact, Christianity 
 is a personal matter more than a matter 
 of pedigree. At one time Donatism ran 
 Catholicism very hard indeed, and at the 
 present day there are not many who would 
 not subscribe to this fundamental doc- 
 trine of Donatus, ' that he who by faith 
 and works shows himself an approved 
 Christian, is to be accounted a Christian, 
 whether that grace has been communica- 
 ted by apostolic succession or not.' 
 
 Don'atistS. I. a.d. 811. A religious 
 sect founded by Donat, bishop of Casa 
 Nigra, in Africa. Donatus declared that 
 Ceecilianus, bishop of Carthage, was not 
 duly elected, and that all those in his 
 obedience were heretics. His heretical 
 doctrines were these : that baptism ad- 
 ministered by heretics is null and void ; 
 and that the church is not infallible, 
 seeing it had erred in the case of Coeci- 
 lianus. The Council of Aries, held a.d. 
 314, acquitted Csecilianus and condemned 
 Donatus. Donatus and his followers 
 now seceded from the church and formed 
 a new sect which, in 380, had as many 
 as 172 bishops. The fundamental doc- 
 trines" of the new sect were these : (1) 
 that the Son is inferior to the Father, 
 and the Holy Ghost is inferior to the 
 Son ; (2) that personal holiness is far 
 more important than apostolic succession, 
 and (3) when any member is excom- 
 municated for offences, he must be re- 
 baptized before he can be again admitted 
 into church membership. 
 
 II. A.D. 316. The followers of Donatus, 
 bishop of Carthage, who, being con- 
 
DONNELLAN 
 
 DORISLAUS 
 
 237 
 
 demned by pope and emperor as a schis- 
 matic, revolted, and carried with him a 
 large following of reformers, who lighted 
 a civil war and desolated Africa in the 
 reigns of Constantine and his successors 
 till the Vandal invasion. St. Augustine 
 combated these * sectaries.' 
 
 Donnellan Lectureship {The), 
 1794. Instituted in Dublin University 
 under the will of Anne Donnellan. 
 
 Dooms of Ethelbert {The\ a.d. 
 597. Giving a legal status in England 
 to the Chi-istian church. 
 
 Doomsday Book, or 'Domesday 
 Book,' 1085-1086. A statistical survey 
 of that part of England which was under 
 the sway of William the Conqueror. So 
 called, probably, because it was of autho- 
 rity in all dooms, i.e. judgments in dis- 
 puted questions which afterwards arose 
 on matters contained therein. It was 
 anciently known as the ' Liber de Win- 
 tonia ' (Book of "Winchester), because at 
 one time it was preserved in the royal 
 treasury of that city, under three locks 
 and keys. It was printed and published 
 in 1783 in two folio volumes. In 1816 
 two supplementary volumes were pub- 
 lished. See beloiv ' Supplementary 
 Volume.' N.B. The counties of Durham, 
 Northumberland, Westmoreland, and 
 Cumberland are omitted. 
 
 There are two volumes: one called the Great 
 Domesday Book and the other the Little Domes- 
 day Book. The great book contains S8'2 double 
 pages of vellum, each page having a rfouhic column. 
 Some of the capital letters are in red ink, and 
 some passages are touched with red ink. It con- 
 tains a survey of thirty-one counties. The Little 
 Domesday Book contains 4o0 double pages of vel- 
 lum in .ii)igle column. It contains the counties of 
 Essex, Norfolk, Sufiolk, part of Rutland, part ot 
 Lancashire, York, and Chester. 
 
 Contents : The name of the place ; the present 
 tenant ; the tenant in the time of Edward, 1041 ; 
 how many hydes of land in the manor ; how many 
 ploughgates in demesne (i.e. reserved in the lord's 
 own hand) ; how many homagers or vassals ; how 
 many villeins ; how many cottars ; how many 
 serfs ; what freemen ; how many tenants in 
 socage (i.e. by hereditary right) ; how much wood ; 
 how much meadow and pasture ; what mills and 
 fishponds ; how much has been added or taken 
 away since 1041 ; what the present value. The 
 return was three-fold : (1) As these details were 
 In 1041 ; (2) As they had been given by William ; 
 and (S) As they were when the survey was made, 
 
 Doom.sday Book (Supplementary 
 VoJunies). Vol. i. contains an introduc- 
 tion by Sir Henry Ellis, and indices of 
 the names contained in Doomsday Book. 
 Vol. ii. contains (1) the E.xon Domesday 
 {q.v.) \ (2) the Inquisitio Eliensis, or sur- 
 
 vey of the lands of the monastery of 
 Ely, i.e. of the counties of Cambridge, 
 Hertford, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
 Huntingdonshire ; (3) the Winton Domes- 
 day, containing two surveys of the city 
 of Winchester : one made between 1107 
 and 1128, and the other made in 1118; 
 and (4) the Bolden Book {q.v.), or survey 
 of the see of Durham made in 1183. 
 
 Dorian Mode {The). In music is 
 our scale of D played entirely on white 
 notes of the piano, with the minor 
 seventh so characteristic of Greek music. 
 Practically singers began their scale with 
 A instead of D. 
 
 Dorians. One of the four distinc- 
 tive peoi)le of old Greece, who conquered 
 Peloponnesus and settled there. This is 
 called ' The Return of the Heraclldae.' 
 There were also Dorian settlements in 
 Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands. 
 They were a sturdy unpolished race. In 
 architecture it was the strongest, sim- 
 plest, and plainest of the three orders ; in 
 philosophy it was of the Pythagorean 
 school ; in politics highly aristocratic ; 
 in dialect harsh and rough. Scotch is 
 often called the British Doric. 
 
 The three orders were the Ionic, the most chaste 
 and elegant ; the Corinthian, tlie most ornate ; and 
 the Doric, the most plain and the strongest. 
 
 Doric School of Greek Poets 
 
 {The), Founded by Alcman and Stesi- 
 choros. Alcman of Lydia (b.g. 660-600) 
 was a Spartan slave, emancipated. He 
 wrote in the Doric dialect ; most of his 
 poems are erotic, but very few fragments 
 remain. In one of his odes he exclaims, 
 ' Oh that I were a seamew, which wings 
 its flight among the halcyons, and runs 
 on the surface of the sea-waves. Bird 
 of spring with radiant plumage, and 
 heart that knows no sigh ! ' This is not 
 unworthy to be compared with that 
 beautiful verse of the psalmist, ' Oh that 
 I had wmgs like a dove, for then would 
 I flee away and be at rest ! ' 
 
 Stesichoi'os (b.c. 632-552) was a native 
 of Sicily, and was the father of the choral 
 epode. His poems are in irregular verse, 
 and the subjects are 'The Labours of 
 Hercules,' the ' Return of the HeraclIdiB,' 
 the ' Siege of Troy,' ' Return from Troy,' 
 and the ' Calj^donian Hunt.' 
 
 Alcman wrote in Old Doric ; but Theocritos, 
 Bion, and Moschos wrote in New Doric. 
 
 Dbrislaus {Dr.), in 1649. Was sent 
 by the British parliament as envoy to 
 
263 
 
 DORSETSHIRE 
 
 DOVER 
 
 the States of Holland, while Charles II., 
 in exile, was holding his court at the 
 Hague. The very evening of his arrival, 
 while he sat at supper in the inn, six 
 gentlemen with drawn swords dragged 
 him from his chair, and murdered him 
 on the floor. These assassins were 
 Scotchmen, followers of Montrose, and 
 Dorislaus had been recently employed 
 * to draw the charge against the king.' 
 
 As long as he (William II. prince of Orange) 
 lived, no atonement could be obtained for the 
 murder of Dorislaus.— Dr. Lingard, Hist, of Engl., 
 viii. 5. 
 
 It must be remembered that William II. had 
 married a daughter of Charles I., and all the 
 partisans of the stadtholder were rabid royalists. 
 
 Dorsetshire Labourers (The), 
 1884. At the Dorchester assizes six 
 agricultural labourers were tried and 
 convicted of being members of an illegal 
 society, and for administering illegal 
 oaths. They belonged to a trades-union 
 in which those initiated were admitted 
 blindfold into a room where was the pic- 
 ture of a skeleton and a skull. These 
 labourers were sentenced to transporta- 
 tion for seven years. 
 
 It was now proposed that, as the Orange leaders 
 had violated the law as much as the Dorsetshire 
 labourers, they should be dealt with in the same 
 manner, and that if evidence could be obtained, 
 the Duke of Cumberland [grandmaster], Lord Ken- 
 yon, the Bishop of Salisbury [chaplain]. Colonel 
 Fairman, and the rest should be prosecuted in the 
 central criminal court.— HowiTT, Hist, of Engl. 
 (year 1836, p. 273). 
 
 Dort {Synod of). Held between 
 13 Nov., 1618, and 25 May, 1619. It was 
 an assembly of Protestant divines to con- 
 sider the nature and tendency of the 
 doctrines of Arminius, professor of 
 divinity in Leyden. The synod decided 
 in favour of Calvinism, and excommuni- 
 cated Arminius and his adherents. 
 
 Dotation of Pepin {The). See 
 'Donation,' &c. 
 
 Dotted Bible {The). An edition 
 of the Bible printed in 1578, page for 
 page with that of 1574. See ' Bible.' 
 
 Douay Bible {The), 1581. A trans- 
 lation made by the professors connected 
 with the College of Douay, founded in 
 1568 by Dr. William Allen for the educa- 
 tion of English boys designed for the 
 Romish priesthood. These students 
 were to be sent into England as itinerant 
 preachers, with the view of creating a 
 reactionary feeling and upsetting the 
 Reformed Church. Dr. Allen himself 
 worked on the translation. See ' Bible.' 
 
 Double Procession {The). That 
 is the Filioque dogma. Did the Holy 
 Ghost proceed from the Father and the 
 Son, or from the Father by the Son? 
 The former is the dogma of the Western 
 Church; the latter is the belief of the 
 Eastern Church. 
 
 Doublement du Tiers {Le), 27 
 
 Dec, 1788. When the commons or depu- 
 ties of ' Le Tiers ' were made equal in 
 number to the deputies of the noblesse 
 and clergy both together. There were 
 572 of the Tiers, 572 of the other two 
 estates, and a chairman. 
 
 Doubling Ordinance (T^e), 1662. 
 A law that whoever advanced one-fourth 
 more than his original share for land in 
 Ireland should be entitled to double the 
 quantity of land ; but if any ' adventurer ' 
 refused to make such advance, any other 
 person might reap the benefit, provided 
 he repaid the ' adventurer ' the sum ori- 
 ginally subscribed. 
 
 Those who subscribed 2001. were to have 1,000 
 acres in Ulster ; those who subscribed 3001. were 
 to have 1,000 acres in Connaught; those who 
 subscribed 4501. were to have 1,000 acres in Mun- 
 ster ; and those who subscribed 6001. were to have 
 1,000 acres of the forfeited land in Leinster. The 
 Bubscribers were called ' The Adventurers." 
 
 Douglas's Larder, 1307. * James 
 Douglas penetrated into his own country 
 in disguise, and, collecting some of his 
 ancient followers, surprised the English 
 garrison placed by Lord Clifford in 
 Douglas Castle, and putting the garrison 
 to the sword, he mingled the mangled 
 bodies with a large stock of provisions 
 which the English had amassed, and set 
 fire to the castle. The country people 
 to this day call this " Douglas's Larder." ' 
 (Sir W. Scott, ' History of Scotland,' ix.) 
 
 Having Bet fire to his castle, he fled to the 
 mountains, saying that he liked better to hear 
 the lark sing than the mouse cheep. 
 
 Douglas Wars {The), 1572, 1573. 
 
 Skirmishes in the regency of James earl 
 of Morton, in which prisoners were re- 
 lentlessly executed on both sides. 
 
 Douloir {The). An instrument of 
 death resembling the more modern guil- 
 lotine. It was used in the reign of 
 Henri IV. for the execution of his godson, 
 the Duo de Montmorenci. 
 
 Dover {Treaty of), 22 May, 1670. A 
 secret compact between Charles II. of 
 England and Louis XIV. of France, 
 negotiated through Henrietta duchess of 
 
DOVES' 
 
 DBAMA 
 
 269 
 
 Orleans, and providing that Charles 
 should publicly announce his conversion 
 to Romanism; and if any disturbance 
 ensued, that Louis should send to his 
 aid a French army and a subsidy of three 
 million francs. 
 
 Doves' Dung (2 Kings vi. 25). 
 Sold in the siege of Samaria at the rate 
 of half a pound for twelve shillings, does 
 not mean the droppings of pigeons, but 
 the plant called by botanists ' ornitho- 
 gallum,' from two Greek words, optitfos 
 ■yaAa, bird's milk, and known as ' the 
 Star of Bethlehem ' — i.e. the star-shaped 
 flower of Bethlehem. The roots of these 
 plants are white, edible, and in some 
 English counties are sold for ' French 
 asparagus.' They are much eaten in the 
 Levant, where the plant abounds, roasted 
 like chestnuts or boiled. The plant sold 
 in Samaria would be better understood 
 by the equivalent, ' A bunch of asparagus 
 or half a pmt of chestnuts for twelve 
 shillings.' 
 
 Dow Purse. The money anciently 
 given by the bridegroom to his bride on 
 their wedding day. It was a Roman 
 custom, but obtained among the Greeks, 
 the Jews, and almost all the northern 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 The Greeks called it opSpiov Scopov. In Germany 
 it is called Morgengabe, i.e. morning present. 
 
 Downing College. In Cambridge 
 University, founded by Sir George Down- 
 ing, of Gamlingay Park, Cambridge, in 
 ISOO, opened in 1821. 
 
 Do-wning Professorship of the 
 
 laws of England. Stirond 2001. a year. 
 Founded 1800, in the University of Cam- 
 bridge, by Sir George Downing, Bart., 
 founder of Downing College, Cambridge, 
 and of the Downing Professorship of 
 Medicine. See ' Regius Professorship of 
 Civil Law.' 
 
 Downing Professorship of 
 Medicine {The), in the University of 
 Cambridge, 1800. Founded by Sir George 
 Downing, Bart., the founder of Downing 
 College, Cambridge, and of the Downing 
 Professorship of the Laws of England. 
 Stipend 2001. more than a Fellow of 
 Downing receives. See ' Regius Profes- 
 sorship of Physic' 
 
 Doxology [The). In the reign of 
 Constantine the Great there were four 
 forms of the doxology in use :— 
 
 1. Glory be to the Father, and to the 
 Son, and to the Holy Ghost. 
 
 2. Glory be to the Father, and to the 
 Son, in the Holy Ghost. 
 
 3. Glory be to the Father, in the Son, 
 and in the Holy Ghost. 
 
 4. Glory be to the Father, hy the Son, 
 and in the Holy Ghost. (Philostorgius, 
 Book III., chap, xiii.) 
 
 Doyen des Rois {Le). So Louis 
 XIV. used to style himself in the latter 
 years of his long reign. He reigned 72 
 years, and it will not be easy to find in 
 history a reign of equal length. 
 
 Dozen Peers (The). The 12 peers 
 assembled at the instance of the barons, 
 in the reign of Henry III., to be privy 
 councillors, or rather conservators of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Dozsa Rebellion {The), 1513-1514, 
 Hungary. Also called the Kurucz Re- 
 bellion, that is the rebellion of the Cru- 
 ciferi, because the original insurgents 
 were intended to be ' soldiers of the cross.' 
 It was a peasants' uprising against 
 the oppressions of the upper class. 
 Of course the rebels were defeated im- 
 mediately they came into conflict with 
 the better trained, and George Dozsa waa 
 put to death with the most savage cruelty. 
 He was seated on a red-hot iron chair, a 
 red-hot iron crown was placed on his 
 head, and a red-hot sceptre in his hand, 
 and to add to his tortures his flesh was 
 then torn from his bones. See ' Damiens.' 
 
 Draco Regis. The standard borne 
 in war anciently by our kings. It had 
 the figure of a dragon wrought on it. 
 
 Dragonnades (3 syl.), 1685. An 
 armed expedition to stamp out Protest- 
 antism in France, Each expedition was 
 led by a bishop, who demanded that every 
 Protestant should abjure Protestantism, 
 and those who refused to do so were left 
 to the tender mercies of the dragoons 
 who accompanied him. Hundreds were 
 thrown into dungeons ; hundreds who 
 fled were hunted down like wild beasts ; 
 many were gibbeted or sent to the gal- 
 leys ; and not a few were cut down by 
 the sword. 
 
 The persecutions were rene-wed in 1723 and 1724, 
 
 Drama {Father of the French), 
 JodeU (1532-1578), 
 
270 
 
 DEAMA 
 
 DEUSES 
 
 Drama [Father of the modern Ger- 
 man). Andreas Greif (1616-1GG4). 
 
 Drama [Father of the Greelc). 
 Thespis, 6th cent. B.C. 
 
 Drama [Father of the Spanish). 
 Lopd de Vega (1562-1G35). 
 
 Drapier's Letters, 1724. A series 
 of letters by Dean Swift on the halfpence 
 and farthings coined for Ireland by- 
 William Wood, iron and copper founder 
 of Wolverhampton. Drapier is repre- 
 sented as a poor but independent- spirited 
 shoj)keeper, utterly unskilled in law, but 
 who did not mean to be ruined if he 
 could help it. In these letters the Irish 
 were told that Wood's patent was in- 
 iquitous, and that the contract had been 
 infamously carried out. Wood was called 
 a 'wood-louse,' and his copper was de- 
 clared to be vile brass, 20 of which coins 
 were not worth 10 honest ones. The 
 Irish refused to take Wood's halfpence, 
 and the government was compelled to 
 withdraw the coinage. Swift became 
 immensely popular in Ireland, but Sir 
 Isaac Newton, master of the mint, ex- 
 amined the coin, and declared it to be 
 rather above the terms of the contract. 
 
 Dreadful "Woman [The). Caro- 
 line, the wife of George prince regent. 
 Married 1795, separated the year her 
 daughter was born, 1796, died 1821. 
 
 The Whigs threatened to espouse in a body the 
 cause of the Dreadful Woman, and bring her to 
 the front again. — WiNGl'lELD, Abigail liou:e, vol. i. 
 p. 169. 
 
 Dresden [Treaty of Peace at). 2-5 
 Dec, 1745, was signed at Dresden the 
 treaty which concluded the second Sile- 
 sian war between Maria Theresa of 
 Austria and Frederick II. the Great of 
 Prussia. By this treaty Silesia was 
 again restored to Prussia. See ' Berlin,' 
 treaty of. 
 
 Drinking in Belgium. The Bel- 
 gian labourer spends one quarter of his 
 wages in dram-drinking. On ordinary 
 days he requires six drams a day, and on 
 festal ones more. The first, called a 
 Worm-killer, is taken at 5.30 a.m. ; the 
 second, called an Fi/e-opener, at 8 a.m. ; 
 the third, called a Whip, at 11 a.m. ; the 
 fourtS, called a Digester, at 2 p.m. ; the 
 lifth, called a Soldier, at 5 p.m. ; and the 
 sixth, called a Finisher, at 7.30 p.m. 
 
 Drinks of Great Men. 
 
 Braham, the singer— Bottled porter. 
 
 Bye(jn— Port -wiiio. 
 
 Chahles v.— Alicante. 
 
 Ckumwell — Malvoisie. 
 
 FkanC us I.— Sherry. 
 
 FuELiiiRiCK THE Gheat— Tokay. 
 
 Prederick William IV. of Prussia— Cliquot. 
 
 Gladstone— Kgg beaten up in sherry. 
 
 Goethe— Johannisberg hock. 
 
 Henri IV.— Surenes. 
 
 Humboldt— Sauterne. 
 
 Kean (Edmund), the actor— Beef tea for break- 
 
 fast, cold brandy. 
 Napoleon I.— Chambertin. 
 Peter the Great— Madeira, 
 Rahelais -Old Chablis. 
 Richelieu (Cardinal)— Romance. 
 Richelieu (Marshal)— Medoc. 
 Rubens -Marsala. 
 Saxe (Marshal do)— Champagne. 
 Talleyrand — Chateau-Marga,ux. 
 
 Driving for Rent (Ireland). 
 Driving the cattle of a defaulting tenant 
 into a pound, there to be kept till the 
 rent is paid, or sold by auction till the 
 money due to the landlord is realised. 
 
 Droits of Admiralty. Derelict 
 ships and other property picked up at 
 sea and unclaimed. These possessions 
 at one time were the perquisites of the 
 lord high admiral ; but by the Merchant 
 Shipping Act of 1854 they were placed 
 under the control of the Board of Trade. 
 
 Droughty Year of '28 [The), i.e. 
 1826. The prevailing wind was north. 
 Corn ceased to grow, and grass was dried 
 up. The hottest day of the year was 
 28 June, when the thermometer in 
 England stood at 90° in the shade. 
 
 Drum [The Sacred). An object of 
 religious veneration and instrument of 
 magical incantations among the Lap- 
 landers in former times. It was hollowed 
 out of a piece of pine or birch, and 
 covered with skin like a kettledrum. 
 The drumstick was a reindeer's horn. 
 Every family had its sacred drum, and 
 the movement of certain rings attached 
 to it was the domestic Urinx and 
 Thummim. 
 
 Drunken Pa,rliament(T72e). The 
 
 parliament assembled at Edinburgh 
 1 Jan., 1661, the members of which, says 
 Burnet, ' were almost iDcrpetually drunk.' 
 It annulled, in a single act, all the pro- 
 ceedings of its predecessors during the 
 last twenty-eight y ars. By this measure 
 the whole church system of Scotland fell 
 to the ground. See ' Parliament.' 
 
 Druses [The) of the Lebanon. The 
 seven heads of their religious creed are: 
 
DET 
 
 DUCHOBORZES 
 
 271 
 
 1. Speak the truth to a Druse ; 2. Every 
 Druse must stand fast to every other 
 Druse ; 3. The rehgious creed of a Druse 
 must be exckisive; 4. A Druse must 
 believe in the unity of Hakem as God ; 
 
 5. A Druse must be contented with his lot; 
 
 6. he must submit his own will wholly ; 
 
 7. he must eschew the devil and all false 
 doctrine. 
 
 Hakem (the sixth Fatimite calif of Ejtypt) taught 
 tli-it he himself was the tenth and lasi revelation 
 ot God to man. He was therefore a sort of Christ 
 or God manifest in the flesh. The chief is always 
 called the Hakem. 
 
 Dry Mass. 'Missa Sicca,' mass 
 without the elements. The Introitus, 
 Collect, Epistle, Gospel, and Canticles 
 constitute the entire service. This sort 
 of mass was performed when * sacerdos 
 non potest conficere, quia forte jam cele- 
 bravit, vel ob aliam causam, potest, 
 accepta stola, Epistolara et Evangelium 
 legere, et dicere Orationem dominicam, 
 et dare benedictionem.' This mass wa3 
 not allowed in the Netherlands, and was 
 vehemently objected to by the Jansenists. 
 It is now quite obsolete. 
 
 Dryden of Germany (The). 
 Martin Opitz of Silesia (1597-1C39). No 
 more like the Duke of Buckingham's 
 poet ' Squab ' than Beau Brummel is 
 like Dr. Samuel Jolinson. 
 
 Duad. According to Pythagoras is 
 the second mathematical quantity, viz. 
 length. The point is the monad, length 
 the duad, breadth the triad, and depth 
 the tetrad. Physically, intellectual capa- 
 city is the monad, scientific knowledge is 
 the duad, opinion the triad, and percep- 
 tiou by the senses the tetrad. 
 
 Dualism. Same as Manichcism, 
 So-called because it teaches the twofold 
 nature of everything, one evil and the 
 other good. Thus there is a principle of 
 good and a principle of evil in soul and 
 matter, male and female, and even in 
 deity. The correlative of dualism is 
 monism. 
 
 Dublin Castle. I. A collection of 
 public government offices, such as the 
 Privy Council Chamber, the Chief Secre- 
 tary's Office, the Prisons Office, the 
 bureau of the Constabulary and Metro- 
 politan Police, the Record Tower, &c., 
 conjoined in one block of buildings, with 
 the lord lieutenant's official residence, 
 where he dispenses hospitality. 
 
 II. 1880. A convenient but not very 
 precise phrase to express the policy 
 introduced in the Gladstone administra- 
 tion of arresting men known to the agents 
 of government ' for inciting to any act of 
 violence or intimidation, and tending to 
 interfere with or to disturb the main- 
 tenance of law and order ' (in Ireland). 
 
 Dublin University. In 1591 (at 
 
 the especial direction of Queen Elizabeth) 
 the first stone of Trinity College, Dublin, 
 was laid. This university has a chan- 
 cellor, vice-chancellor, provost, vice- 
 provost, and nineteen professors. The 
 students may, if they choose, take an ad 
 enndem at either Cambridge or Oxford. 
 That is a graduate of Trinity College, 
 Dublin, may take the same degree at 
 Cambridge or Oxford without being called 
 on to pass an examination. 
 
 Due de Roussillon {Le). A name 
 and title assumed by Henri Cosprons of 
 Perpignan, but not recognised in France. 
 The man so-called was ' d'une famille 
 tout-a-fait bourgeoise.' He disappeared 
 suddenly into obscurity, and whether 
 alive or dead in 1890 is not known. 
 
 Ducal Towns. In feudal times were 
 those built on the domains of dukes and 
 other princes. They were inhabited by 
 the duke's retainers, who were subject 
 to just such laws and service as each par- 
 ticular duke thought proper to impose. 
 Generally the townsmen were obliged to 
 ask their lord's permission even to marry 
 or give in marriage, and the lord expected 
 a fee for his permission. When license 
 for a marriage was obtained, a herald 
 announced it in the streets, and at one 
 time the ceremony could not be per- 
 formed till that day twelvemonth. See 
 'Imperial Free Cities,' and 'Church Cities.' 
 
 Duchess of Devonshire's Kiss 
 
 {The). In 1784, the Duchess of Devon- 
 shire, with Lady Duncannon, Mrs. Crewe, 
 Mrs. Damer, and some others, dressed 
 in blue and buff, the colours of the 
 American Independents, canvassed per- 
 sonally for Mr. Fox. In the purlieus of 
 Westminster a butcher, in his sleeves 
 and apron, stoutly refused his vote ex- 
 cept on the condition that he might give 
 her grace a kiss. The request was 
 granted, and the vote secured. 
 
 Duchoborzes {The), or 'Ducho- 
 bortzi,' A sect of the Eusso-Grcck 
 
272 
 
 DUDLEY 
 
 DUNCES' 
 
 church (18th cent.). They believe that 
 human souls existed before the creation 
 of the world, and, like the Swedenborg- 
 ians, ascribe hidden mysterious mean- 
 ings to Bible language, which only in- 
 ward light can unfathom. They reject 
 the use of pictures, and observe neither 
 the rite of baptism nor of the eucharist. 
 During the reign of Alexander I. an im- 
 postor, named Kapustan, who called 
 himself a prophet, taught them the trans- 
 migration of souls. Disputes arose, 
 many were burnt alive, many others were 
 put to death in other ways, and in 1841 
 almost all the residue were transferred 
 to the provinces beyond the Caucasus. 
 
 Dudley Diamond (The). A Cape 
 diamond weighing 46 carats, triangular 
 in shape, and of great brilliancy. It was 
 bought by the Earl of Dudley, and has 
 been set in a beautiful head ornament 
 (1872). 
 
 Duke, 1337. The first English duke 
 was Edward the Black Prince, created 
 by his father (2 Edward in.), 1327. 
 
 Duke of Exeter's Daughter 
 (The). The famous rack in the Tower of 
 London is so called, because it was in- 
 vented by the Duke of Exeter when he 
 was high constable, 1447. 
 
 Duke of Thunder {The). Horatio 
 Nelson, in allusion to his Sicilian title 
 ' Duke of Bronte ' (in Sicily). 
 
 Bronte is the Greek for thunder 
 
 Duke of York's School (The). 
 The ' Royal Military Asylum ' at Chelsea 
 is so called because, in 1800, Frederick 
 duke of York was the chief instrument 
 in founding the soldiers' orphan asylum 
 at Chelsea. In 1803 schools were opened 
 for 700 boys and 300 girls, children of 
 deceased soldiers. The girls' school is 
 abolished. 
 
 Duke -with the Silver Hand. 
 
 Nuad, who led the tribe of the Danaans 
 from Scotland back to Ireland. Having 
 lost his hand in the great battle of Moy- 
 tura, Cred a goldsmith made him a silver 
 one, which the surgeon Miach, son of 
 Dian Kect, fixed on his wrist. See 
 
 * Golden Hand,' ' Iron Hand ' (Keating, 
 
 * Ogygia,' part iii. chap. 10). 
 
 In this phrase duke = king, as in dukes of Edom 
 (1 Chron. i. 51-54). Shakespeare calla the king of 
 Athens ' Duke Theseus ' ; Horace calls Laomedon 
 king of Xroy, ' the fraudulent duke ' (Odes III. iii. 
 
 24), because he borrowed money from the templeis 
 and never restored it. Tlien we have the dukes 
 of Parma, of Holatein, of Savoy, &c. ; and several 
 grand-dukes. 
 
 Dulceans or Dulcinists (The), 
 1300. Heretics, so called from Dulcin 
 (* — 1308), an Italian, who gave out that 
 his was to be the third reign ; first, the 
 Father, from the beginning to the com- 
 ing of Christ ; then the son to the year 
 1300 ; and then the reign of Dulcin, the 
 Holy Ghost, when the authority of the 
 pope was to cease. He and his wife were 
 burnt to death, in 1308, by Pope Cle- 
 ment IV. 
 
 Dulcifluous Doctor (The). ' Doc- 
 tor Dulcitluus ' or ' Dulcissimus,' Anto- 
 nius Andreas or Andrea, a scholastio 
 philosopher, who died 1320. 
 
 Dulwich College, 1619. Founded 
 by Edward Alleyne, a tragic actor. 
 
 Pronounce Dul'-Htch. 
 
 Dulwich Gallery (The). A col- 
 lection of pictures in a gallery constructed 
 by Sir John Soane, and connected with 
 Dulwich College. It was opened to the 
 public in 1812. The collection originated 
 with M. Noel Desenf ans, a picture dealer, 
 agent to Stanislaus king of Poland ; and 
 bequeathed to Sir Francis Bourgeois, 
 who left it to the trustees of Dulwich 
 College. 
 
 Dumas (Alexandre). A French 
 novelist (1803-1870). According to the 
 Times newspaper (13 Dec, 1870, j). 6) 
 Alexandre Dumas wrote 1,200 vols. His 
 memoirs take up thirty volumes. In hig 
 heyday he made 30,000^. a year. 
 
 Dumb Ox of Sicily {The). Thomas 
 Aquinas (1224-1274), so called by his 
 fellow-students at Cologne ; but Albertus 
 Magnus, his tutor, said. The dumb ox 
 will one day fill the world with his low- 
 ing.' Longfellow, in ' The Golden Le- 
 gend,' calls him ' the dumb ox of Cologne,' 
 from the monastery of Cologne. He was 
 born in Naples. 
 
 Dunces' Day. In the University of 
 Cambridge, Ash Wednesday, 18th cent., 
 &c. Eight by-term men received their 
 degrees as haccalaurei ad baptistam in 
 the folloAving Michaelmas term ; and 
 eight more as haccalaurei ad diem cine- 
 rum on Ash Wednesday, or ' Dunces' 
 Day' (W. W. Eouse Ball, ' Hist, of the 
 Study of Mathematics,' &c., 1889). 
 
DUNKEES 
 
 DUTCH 
 
 273 
 
 Dunkers, or 'Timkers.' A sect 
 of German-descended Baptists founded 
 in Pennsylvania in 1724. They are 
 divided into several minor sections, 
 chiefly differing in points of discipline. 
 To this sect may be assigned the German 
 Seventh-day Baptists. They believe that 
 salvation is to be obtained only by pen- 
 ance and mortification of the body and live 
 in meditation. They deny the eternity of 
 future punishment, and believe that the 
 dead have the gospel preached to them. 
 They are sometimes called * Pennsyl- 
 vanian Baptists,' and dress like Domini- 
 can friars, in black gowns. The word 
 Dunker or Tunker is from tunken, to dip. 
 
 Hannah Adams, in her ' Religious World Dis- 
 played,' calls the Dunkers ' a medley of the Bap- 
 tists, Universalists, Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews, 
 Methodists, and Roman Catholics.' They are, 
 however, distinguished for their piety and bene- 
 volence. 
 
 Dunmow Flitch (The). A custom 
 of the manor of Little Dunmow, of un- 
 certain origin, of giving a flitch of bacon 
 to any married couple who would take 
 oath that for a year and a day since they 
 were wed they never once wished them- 
 selves unmarried. During six centuries 
 only seven persons have claimed the 
 prize ; the last claimants were John and 
 Susan Gilder, of Tarling, Essex, in 1772. 
 Harrison Ainsworth tried to revive the 
 custom, but without success. 
 
 Dunse {Pacification of), 18 June, 
 1639. Between Charles I. and the Scots. 
 
 Dunse La'W. Is no legal enactment 
 or legal custom at all, but a beautiful 
 little hill close by the town of Dunse on 
 'which the Covenanters encamped when 
 Charles I. invaded Scotland with a view 
 of forcing episcopacy and the Church of 
 England Prayer-book on the people of 
 Scotland. See ' Pacification of Dunse.* 
 
 Durani Dynasty (T/ie). Founded 
 in Afghanistan by Nadir Shah in 1747. 
 
 Durham {University of). Patent 
 granted by Cromwell, 15 May, 1657. 
 Incorporated by royal charter, 1837. 
 
 Durham Book {The). A copy of 
 the Latin gospels with an interlinear 
 Saxon gloss, written before the year 800, 
 illuminated in the most elaborate style 
 of the Anglo-Saxons, and reputed to 
 have once belonged to the Venerable 
 Bede. It is in the Cottonian collection 
 
 of the British Museum Library. See 
 ' Lindisfarne MS.' 
 
 Durham Letter {The), Oct. 1850. 
 
 A letter written by Lord John Russell to 
 the Bishop of Durham on the subject 
 of ' Papal Aggression ' {q.v.), which con- 
 tained these words : ' The Roman Catho- 
 lic religion confines the intellect and 
 enslaves the soul.' This letter caused 
 great excitement for a few weeks. A 
 bill passed through both houses with 
 large majorities against the establish- 
 ment of a Catholic hierarchy in England 
 and Ireland, but it proved a dead letter. 
 The hierarchy continued, and soon the 
 angry feeling of the nation subsided. 
 
 Duri Durani (Pearl of Pearls). 
 The title assumed by Shah Ahmed, 
 founder of the Kaubul empire. He died 
 1773, after a reign of twenty-six years. 
 
 Dutch School {The) of painting. 
 The golden age was the 17th cent. Fault- 
 less in drawing, arrangement, colour, 
 and also for texture of garments, hair of 
 the head and beard, skin, &c. 
 CUYP, head of all animal painters ... 1605-1691 
 
 DOVW (Gerard) 1613-1675 
 
 Hals (From), unsurpassed in portraits 1584-16(i6 
 HoBBEMA, famous for tree-foliage 
 
 LlEKENS 
 
 Ml^RIS 
 
 Metsu (.Gabriel) 
 
 OSTADE 
 
 Paul Potter, famous animal painter 
 Rembrandt, one of the greatest artists 
 
 of all time 
 
 Ruysdael 
 
 Steen (.7(7n) 
 
 Terblrg. called ' 'White Satin • 
 
 Van DER Helst 
 
 Van DEE Heyden, architectural artist 
 
 VANDERWELDE(.-r(inVjn) 
 
 ,, ( fViUiam). in the service of Charles II. 1633-1707 
 Weenix, famous for still life ... ... 1640-1719 
 
 WOUVERMANS (Philip) 1620-16C8 
 
 (Jan) 1624-1666 
 
 ■Wynants 
 
 1607-1633 
 16;55-1681 
 1680-1680 
 1610-1685 
 1625-1654 
 
 1607-1669 
 
 1608-11181 
 1610-1670 
 1637-1712 
 1629-1673 
 
 Dutch Toys. Not toys made by the 
 Dutch, but by the Germans {Deutsche). 
 They are chiefly made at Sonneberg 
 in Saxe Meiningen. 
 
 Dutch War {The). I. 1652-1654. 
 Carried on chiefly by Admiral Blake and 
 the Dutch admiral Van Tromp in Crom- 
 well's time. Several engagements took 
 place with varying success, and at last 
 the Dutch sued for peace. 
 
 IT. 1666-1GG8. Carried on by Louis 
 XIV., and terminated by the Peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, between Louis XIV. and 
 Carlos II. 
 
 III. 1672-1674. Carried on by Louis 
 T 
 
274 
 
 DUUMVIEI 
 
 EAGLE 
 
 XIV., and terminated by the Peace of 
 Hyswick, signed by France, Austria, 
 Spain, and Holland. 
 
 Duumviri. The two chief magis- 
 trates in Roman colonies who represented 
 consuls. The two officers originally 
 appointed in charge of the Sibylline 
 books were also called duumviri. 
 
 There were duumviri whose duty it was to dis- 
 tribute corn to the people, duumvirs charged with 
 the temple edifices and their services, as well as 
 the colonial duumvirs, and many others. 
 
 Dyeing. In the dark ages the Jews 
 were the only dyers. Hume says that 
 the English, in the reign of Henry II., 
 wore their robes white because they knew 
 not the art of dyeing ; but Hallam proves 
 that woad was imported in the reign of 
 John for dye. We also find allusions to 
 a vegetable substance called ' folium,' 
 used by the English for dyeing wood red 
 or purple, in the 13th century. In 1628 
 two dyers of Exeter were flogged for 
 teaching the art of dyeing in the North 
 of England. 
 
 Dynamite Saturday, 24 Jan., 
 1885. When great damage was done to 
 the Houses of Parliament and the Tower 
 of London by explosions of dynamite. 
 The Law Courts and some other public 
 buildings were to have been attacked, 
 but were happily too well guarded. See 
 
 Dynam.iters, 1882. Irish rebels 
 who used dynamite to destroy the public 
 buildings of the English and destroy the 
 private property of those obnoxious to 
 them. In 1883 t lese Fenians were espe- 
 cially active, being urged to mischief by 
 the money and encouragement received 
 from the Irish in North America. 
 
 Dynast. A provincial ruler of Ire- 
 land, king in his own province, but sub- 
 ject to the Ard-righ, or supreme lord of 
 the island. From the 5th to the 12th 
 cent. Ireland was a pentarchy. Roderic 
 O'Conor, who died in 1198, was the last 
 Ard-righ, or Milesian over-lord. In 
 1175, by a treaty signed at Windsor, he 
 became the liegeman of Henry II. See 
 Rymer, 'Foedera,' vol. i. p. 31. 
 
 Not one seventh part of the kings of Ireland, 
 before its conquest by Henry II., died a natural 
 death. This applies not only to the monarchs, 
 but also to the dynasts and even to the heads of 
 septs. Ireland was never so ill governed as when 
 under the rule of Irishmen. 
 
 Dynasty danced out {A), 1760. 
 Mr. Hawkins Brown (aged 30), in his 
 
 travels, danced one evening at the court 
 of Naj)les. His dress was a ' volcano 
 silk with lava buttons,' and his dancing 
 was with ' such agility and vigour ' that 
 the queen laughed till she was in convul- 
 sions, which terminated in a miscarriage, 
 and changed the dynasty of the Neapo- 
 litan throne. 
 
 D3rvour (Scotch). A bankrupt. 
 
 Dzat and Bedagat. The sacred 
 books of the Buddhists. 
 
 Eagle {An). As an ensign. 
 
 An eagle stripped of its feathers, em- 
 blematic of the Nile, was the ensign of 
 the ancient Egyptians. 
 
 An eagle was adopted as an ensign by 
 ancient Rome, B.C. 104. Marlus confined 
 the golden eagle to the legions. It had 
 wings displayed and a thunderbolt in one 
 of its talons. 
 
 The head of a white eagle, stripped of 
 feathers, was the ensign of the Lagldcs. 
 
 A gold or silver eagle at the end of a 
 pike (with wings displayed), emblematic 
 of the sun, was the Persian ensign in the 
 time of Cyrus. 
 
 The Teutonic knights in 1148 adopted 
 an eagle as their cognizance. 
 
 In Modern times: the eagle was 
 adopted, as a Hussian symbol, by Ivan 
 Vassilivich (who died 1584). 
 
 It was adopted by the United States 
 of North America in 1783. 
 
 It was adopted in France by Napoleon 
 I. in 1804 (superseded by the Fleur-de- 
 lys in 1815), and restored by Napoleon 
 III. in 1852. 
 
 Eagle {The Double-headed). Appears 
 on the arms of the Holy Roman Empire 
 vmder Kaiser Siegmund or Sigismuiid, 
 1433. See ' Eagle of Austria.' 
 
 Eagle and Child in the eagle's 
 
 nest {The). Crest of the Earl of Derby. 
 The tradition is that Sir Thomas Lathom, 
 in the reign of Edward III., had only a 
 daughter by his wife, and, wishing for a 
 son, had a natural son whom he wished 
 to make his heir. His difficulty, of 
 course, was his wife, and this difficulty 
 he surmounted thus : he conveyed the 
 infant boy to an eagle's nest, and leading 
 his lady to the spot, she heard the cries 
 of a child in the tree. Her pity was 
 moved, and the child was adopted. This 
 child was afterwards Sir Oskytel. The 
 daughter Isabella married Sir John 
 
EAGLE 
 
 EAST 
 
 275 
 
 Stanley, who adopted the crest of Eagle 
 and Child, with the motto Sans 
 changer (J. Roby, ' Traditions of Lanca- 
 shire '). 
 
 Eagle of Austria {The). Kaiser 
 Ludwig V, (1311-1347) chose two black 
 eagles for the national device ; but Karl 
 IV. (1317-1378) changed the device into 
 a black eagle with two heads. 
 
 Eagle of Christ [The). St. John 
 the Evangelist is called by Dante 
 V aquila di Cristo (' Paradiso,' xxvi. 53). 
 It was St. Augustine who changed the 
 ancient symbolism of the Four Evange- 
 lists derived from Ezekiel's cherubim. 
 
 Irenseus says John was the lion, and 
 Mark the eagle ; others make the lion sym- 
 bolise Matthew, and the man sjanbolise 
 Mark; but now the vian represents 
 Matthew, the lion Mark, the ox Luke, 
 and the eagle John. See 'Evangelical 
 Symbols.' 
 
 Unde mihi videntur qui ex Apocalypsi (iv.7) Ilia 
 quatuor animalia ad intelligcndos quatuor 
 Evangelistas interpretati sunt, probabilius all- 
 quid attendisse, lUi qui leonein in Matthteo, 
 hominem in Marco, vitulum in Luca, aquilam in 
 Joanne intellcxcrunt, quani llll qui hominem 
 Matthaeo, aquilam Marco, bovem Lucse, leonein 
 Joanni tribuerunt.— De Consens. Evang. i. 6. 
 
 Eagle of Divines {The). Thomas 
 d'Aquinas, the 5th doctor (1221-1274). 
 
 Eagle of Doctors, 'Aquila Doc- 
 torum.' Pierre d'Ailly, called the ' Eagle 
 of France,' and the * Hammer of Heretics ' 
 (1350-1120). 
 
 Eagle of Meaux {The). Bossuet 
 (1627-1704), bishop of Meaux, a great 
 pulpit orator, especially famous for his 
 ' Funeral Orations.' 
 
 Meaux, pronounce Mo. 
 
 Ear of Dionysius {The). The 
 second of the ' latomlte,' or quarries of 
 Syracuse, used as prisons. The Athenians 
 were confined therein, and subjected to 
 all the torments of hunger, filth, and foul 
 air. Capt. William Henry Smyth (1824) 
 describes this cavern, and says amidst 
 its many grottoes is one resembling the 
 tympanum of the human ear, which is 
 remarkable for its echoes. It is 64 feet 
 high, varies from 17 to 35 feet in breadth, 
 and is 187 feet long. It is said that 
 Dionysius the tyrant had it constructed 
 'that its guardsman might overhear the 
 conversation of the prisoners confined 
 therein. 
 
 At one time the grotto v.-as 72 feet high and 
 219 feet long, but Capt. Smyth says a part of ib 
 
 has been filled up, and that if two persons speak 
 together the report is ' a confused clamour.' 
 Without doubt the shnpe resembles the hollow of 
 the human ear, and without doubt it was used at 
 one time as a prison. 
 
 Earl Marshal's Court {The). 
 Abolished in 1041 by the Long Parliament 
 {q.v.). The earl marshal used to preside 
 (jointly with the constable) over the 
 Court of Chivalry. The last proceedings 
 of the court were in 1631. 
 
 There is still an earl marshal, head of the 
 College of Arms. 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen's Act {The), 
 1843. Determining questions respecting 
 ' calls,' and the election of pastors in the 
 church of Scotland.' 
 
 No legislation can possibly settle such questions 
 finally. 
 
 Earl of Flint {The). The inexorable 
 chief justice, George Jeffreys, was so 
 called by the people after James II. made 
 him a peer (Baron Jeffreys of Wem), 1640- 
 1689. 
 
 Early English. Applied to archi- 
 tecture 1190. Distinguished by the 
 Pointed arch, which was either lancet- 
 shaped, equilateral, or obtuse-angled. 
 Merged in the Decorated or Geometrical 
 in 1275. 
 
 Early English Text Society 
 
 {The). Established in London 1864. 
 
 Earth Houses. Underground build- 
 ings called ' Picts' Houses,' ' Weems,' 
 and 'Caves.' Little stone houses built 
 underground to hide people in time of 
 war. Sometimes forty or fifty are found 
 in Scotland clustered together. 
 
 East Country Company {The). 
 Called by Elizabeth 'The Royal East 
 Company,' the company which traded 
 with the Baltic. The woollen cloths 
 were principally made in Suffolk and 
 Yorkshire. Ipswich, having the noblest 
 harbour on the east, was most prosperous. 
 Laud ruined the company by his reli- 
 gious dogmatism, and drove the workers 
 in woollen goods to Holland, ' whereby 
 the Dutch became instructed in a 
 manufacture which before they knew 
 nothing of.' 
 
 East Hendred, Northstead, 
 and Hempholme Manors. The 
 
 stewardship of which serves the purpose 
 of the Chiltern Hundreds when the 
 Buckinghamshire office is not vacant. 
 East Hendred is in Berkshire ; post to^-n 
 ' ' "" ' shire, ni.cj: 
 
 Wantage. Hempholme is in Yorkshii 
 
 12 
 
273 
 
 EAST 
 
 EATING 
 
 Beverley. The Escheatorshlp of Muneter serves 
 for a similar purpose. See ' Chiltern Hundreds.' 
 
 East India Company (The), 1599. 
 
 A company of merchants who sent out 
 four ships to trade with the East Indies. 
 In 1600 it was chartered by Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and in 1624 was vested with powers 
 of government. Other companies were 
 chartered in 1657, 1688, 1698, &c. In 1702 
 the companies were united. In 1773 a 
 governor-general was appointed at Ben- 
 gal. The charter ceased in 1833, but 
 was renewed the same year. In 1858 
 the government of India was transferred 
 to the crown. 
 
 In 1P53 the number ol directors was reduced 
 from 24 to 18. 
 
 East India Company {The 
 Danish), 1616. Dissolved in 1634. New 
 one formed in 1670, a third in 1686, and a 
 fourth in 1731. In 1777 the rights of the 
 company were purchased by the king. 
 
 East India Company (The 
 Dutch), 1595. Several companies united 
 by the States in 1602. 
 
 East India Company {The 
 French), 1664. Dissolved 1770. A new 
 company formed 1785, but dissolved in 
 1790. 
 
 East India Company {The Os- 
 tend). Formed by Leopold in 1718, 
 dissolved by Charles VI. in 1731. 
 
 East India Company {The 
 Sivedish), 1741. Reorganised in 1806. 
 
 Easter Eggs (Serving one with). 
 Pelting one in the pillory with rotten 
 eggs. In 1565 a Catholic priest in Scot- 
 land was seized in the service of the mass 
 at Easter. Being seized he was dragged 
 . to the market-cross of Edinburgh, and 
 there pelted with mud, filth, and rotten 
 eggs. This was called * serving him with 
 his Easter eggs.' 
 
 Easter Limit {The). 'Terminus 
 Paschalis.' From 8 March to 5 April. 
 It begins with the vernal full moon, or 
 that which immediately follows it. The 
 earliest possible Easter Sunday is 22 
 March, and the latest possible is 25 April. 
 Easter Sunday in 1943 will fall on 25 
 April, as it did in the year 1886. 
 
 The Easter new moon must fall somewhere be- 
 tween 8 March and 5 April. If on 8 March Easter 
 lay would be 21 March, if on 5 April it would be on 
 18 April. Now if 21 March happens to be Saturday, 
 Easter Sunday will be the next day (March 22), the 
 »arIieBt possible. If, on the other hand, 18 April 
 
 should happen to be Sunday, then Easter Sunday 
 would be postponed a week, viz. to 25 April, the 
 latest day possible. 
 
 ',* If the full moon fell on a Sunday, Easter day 
 was postponed for a week, to prevent the coinci- 
 dence of the Jewish passover and the Christian 
 Easter being on the same day. 
 
 Easter "Week. 'Hebdomada Pas- 
 chalis.' The week beginning with Easter 
 Monday, and ending with the following 
 Saturday, and therefore containing only 
 6 days. The next week following it was 
 ' Hebdomada in Albis' {q.v.), which con- 
 tained 8 days; and the week before it 
 was the Great Week or Passion Week 
 {q.v.), which contained 13 days. 
 
 Easterlings {The). 15th cent. 
 Mariners of the Hanse-towns, as terrible 
 at sea as the pirates of Algiers were after- 
 wards. Spelman derives our word ster- 
 ling [money] from these traders. 
 
 In the time of Kichard I. monie coined In the 
 east parts of Germany began to be of especiall 
 request in England for the puritio thereof, and 
 was called Easterling monie. Shortly after, some 
 of that countrie skillful in mint matters and in 
 all dies, were sent for into this realm to bring the 
 coine into perfection. Which since that time was 
 culled of them sterling, for Easterling.— Camden. 
 
 Eastern Church {The). Separated 
 from the Western or Latin Church about 
 324-334, and a rivalry began in 341. In 
 451 the Council of Chalccdon conferred 
 on the bishop of Constantinople equal 
 rank and power with the bishop of Rome. 
 John in 588 assumed the title of ' (Ecu- 
 menical Patriarch.' The bishop of Con- 
 stantinople is now generally called ' the 
 Patriarch,' or ' the Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople.* See ' Patriarch.' 
 
 Eastern Empire {The). The 
 eastern portion of the old Roman em- 
 pire after its division by the brothers 
 Valentinian and Valens, a.d. 364. Valens 
 took the eastern part, with Constanti- 
 nople for its capital ; and Valentinian 
 the western part, with Rome for his 
 capital. The Eastern empire ended in 
 1453, when Mahomet II. warred against 
 Constantine, who was slain, and the 
 Eastern empire fell to the Ottomans or 
 Turks. 
 
 The Western empire fell much sooner, viz. in 
 A.D. 476. 
 
 Eating Fruit {Death from). An- 
 acreon died from eating grapes. La 
 Belle Gabrielle died from eating an 
 orange. Kaiser Albert IT., Friedrich III., 
 and Maximilian I. all died from eating 
 melons. Gen. Knox (U.S.) from eating 
 raisins. 
 
EAU 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL 
 
 277 
 
 Eau de Brinvilliers, 1718. A 
 
 poison made by Godin de Sainte Croix, 
 who lived in scandalous intimacy with 
 the Marchioness Brinvilliers, and fur- 
 nished her with the means of poisoning 
 her father, her two brothers, and several 
 others. The marchioness chiefly em- 
 ployed a powder, called ' le poudre de 
 succession.' 
 
 Eb'ionites (4 syl.). Judaising Chris- 
 tians of the 1st cent. They insisted on 
 circumcision, despised the prophets, ac- 
 cepted only the gospel of St. Matthew, 
 and that they interpolated ; looked on 
 Jesus only as a human being, but be- 
 lieved that Christ descended on him at 
 his baptism. Paul's Epistles they re- 
 jected as antinomian. The Ebionites con- 
 tinued to exist as a sect after 300. 
 
 M. Guizot says the first Christians of Jerusalem 
 ■were called Ebionites, on account of their poverty ; 
 called in Kom. xv. 20 ' the poor saints.' These 
 'poor saints' were afterwards accused of the 
 heresy of denying the divinity of Christ. (^jSaiot, 
 poor, insigniiicant.) 
 
 Eblana, i.e. Dublin in Ireland. 
 
 EcelesiaApostolica. The Church 
 at Rome, called ' Cathedra Petri,' as 
 having been founded by St. Peter. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Commission 
 
 {The). 1. 1583. A permanent commis- 
 sion, consisting of 44 members, established 
 by Queen Elizabeth to decide on all 
 questions respecting supremacy and uni- 
 formity. It had power to deprive any 
 clergyman of his benefice without appeal. 
 Heresy, schism, nonconformity, and even 
 incest and adultery, fell within the pale 
 of this court. Practically the whole 
 power of the court rested with the 
 bishops, and as there was no code to re- 
 fer to, each question as it arose had to 
 be left to the private judgment of the 
 court or bishop appealed to. Parker 
 deprived a vicar of his benefice for deny- 
 ing the verbal inspiration of scripture. 
 Whitgift tried to force on the church the 
 Calvinistic supralapsarian dogma. Ban- 
 croft was hot for the divine right of 
 bishops. Abbot had no mercy on Eras- 
 tians ; Laud none for anti-Erastians. 
 
 ' Supralapsarlanism," the doctrine that the fall 
 of Adam and Eve, as well as the salvation or 
 rejection of every living being, was predestined 
 from all eternity. 
 
 ' Er astianlsm, ' the dogma that the church is, and 
 ought to be, wholly dependent on the State. 
 
 II. 1686. Appointed by the advice of 
 Jeffreys, the lord chancellor, with full 
 
 authority, and without appeal, to decide 
 on all ecclesiastical matters, without re- 
 straint of canon, civil, or municipal law. 
 The commissioners were three divines 
 and three laymen, all tools of the king 
 (James II.), and their first act was to 
 suspend Compton, bishop of London; 
 because he would not favour the Romish 
 party. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Comm.issioners 
 
 {The), 1840. Amended from 1836. Ex 
 officio the two archbishops and all the 
 bishops of England and Wales, the deans 
 of Canterbury, St. Paul's, and West- 
 minster, the lord chancellor, the two chief 
 justices, the master of the rolls, the chief 
 baron, and the judges of the prerogative 
 and admiralty courts, the president of 
 the council, first lord of the treasury, 
 chancellor of the exchequer, and one of 
 the secretaries of state. Also nine lay- 
 men, not ex officio, seven appointed by 
 the crown, and two by the archbishop of 
 Canterbury. Five commissioners make 
 a quorum, the highest in rank or else 
 the senior commissioner to take the chair. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Courts. To de- 
 cide on matters exclusively pertaining to 
 the clergy and the established religion. 
 Bacon enumerates ten such courts in his 
 time : — 
 
 1. Convocation (q.v.). 
 
 2. The Court of Arches (q.v.), 
 
 3. Prerogative Court (q.v.). 
 
 4. Court of Audience (q.v.). 
 6. Court of Faculties (q.v.), 
 
 6. Court of Peculiars (q.v.)- 
 
 7. Consistory Court iq.v.). 
 
 8. Archdeacon B Court (q.v.). 
 
 9. Court of Delegates. See ' Delegates.' 
 
 10. Court of Commissioners of Review (q.v.\ 
 
 *»* In ia57 the Prerogative Court was merged 
 in the Court of Probate. 
 
 In 1832 the Commission of Delegates was super- 
 seded by the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
 Council. 
 
 II. In Scotland there have been three 
 ecclesiastical courts — (1) the General 
 Assembly ; (2) the Commissary Court ; 
 and (3) the Court of Teinds. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Er a of Antioch 
 
 {The). This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Era of Constan- 
 tinople {The). This era began 1 April, 
 B.C. 5508. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Titles Assump- 
 tion Act {T?ie), 1851. To prohibit the 
 pope of Rome from conferring on ecclesi- 
 astics titles connected with the names of 
 places in the United Kingdom, such as 
 
278 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL 
 
 ECORCHEURS 
 
 Westminster, Nottingham, and bo on. 
 This act was provoked by what is called 
 the ' papal aggression ' of the court of 
 Rome, which, 30 Sept., 1850, had divided 
 Great Britain into territorial bishoprics 
 under the Catholic archbishop of West- 
 minster. Lord John Russell introduced 
 the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. Repealed 
 1867. 
 
 Ecclesiasticum Reservatum. 
 
 A provision made in 1555 whereby it was 
 stipulated that if any of the German 
 clergy abandoned the Roman Catholic 
 Church hereafter, his benefice should be 
 forthwith filled up by a Catholic succes- 
 sor. With this exception, the alienation 
 of all ecclesiastical property, secularised 
 before the Treaty of Passau, in 1552, was 
 confirmed by the Diet of Augsburg in 
 1555. 
 
 Passau, pronounce Pas-sow, as In now. 
 
 Eclectic School (The). 1. Of 
 Italian painting, succeeded the cinque 
 cento (q.v.). The Carracci headed the 
 movement. Domenichino (1581-1641) and 
 Guido Reni (1575-1642) were exponents 
 also of the same school, 
 
 II. Of French painting, founded by 
 Paul Delaroche (1797-1856). He selected 
 from the Classic and Momantic schools. 
 
 Eclectics {The). Alexandrine philo- 
 sophers. Potamon and Ammonios Saccas 
 (2nd cent.) were the first who attempted 
 to fuse Platonism and Aristotelianism 
 into one consistent system. The Neo- 
 Platonic school was founded by Plotinus 
 (205-270). 
 
 Modern eclecticism was foimded by 
 Victor Cousin, the French philosopher. 
 
 Ecole Polyteelinique {The), 1795. 
 France. For the education of young men 
 for the army, navy, civil engineering, and 
 telegraphy. 
 
 Ecoles Centrales, 2 Feb., 1795. 
 Established by the National Convention 
 for teaching sciences, arts, and letters. 
 There must be 300,000 inhabitants in 
 order to have such an institution. Iq 
 1802 many of these schools were con- 
 verted into ' grammar schools ' {Lycees), 
 and in 1808 many ceased to exist. 
 
 Ftonounce A -coal sen-trahl. 
 
 Ecoles Chr^tiennes {Frires des), 
 1681. Instituted at Reims by J. B. de la 
 Salle for the gratuitous instruction of 
 children in the elements of religion and 
 
 in elementary instruction. ' Les Freres 
 portent une grande robe de bure noire et 
 un chapeau a comes.' This order was 
 not suppressed at the Revolution, and 
 still flourishes in France and other Chris- 
 tian countries. 
 
 Pronounce A -coal kra-te-en. 
 
 Ecoles Pieuses {Les). The 'homes' 
 of the waifs and strays brought under 
 the care of the Piaristes {q.v.). 
 Pronounce A -coal pe-uze. 
 
 Ecoles Primaires, 1802. To give 
 children elementary instruction, as read- 
 ing, wi'iting, arithmetic, and the elements 
 of French grammar. In some elementary 
 schools geography and history are taught. 
 They subdivide into ecoles puhliques (or 
 communales), and ecoles privees ; the 
 former are directed by laymen and the 
 latter by ecclesiastics. They are under 
 the inspection of the bishops, pastors, 
 rectors, prefects, sub-prefects, and 
 mayors. 
 
 Pronounce ^-coaZ pre-mair. 
 
 Ecoles Secondaires, 1802. For 
 teaching ancient and modern languages, 
 geography, history, and the elements of 
 science. They include grammar schools 
 {lycees), colleges, boarding schools {pe7i- 
 sions), and so on. 
 
 Pronounce A -coal skone-dair. 
 
 Economists. Christians who take 
 for their rule of life 1 Cor. ix. 20 : ' All 
 things to all men.' In other words, ' Do 
 as Rome does,' that is, adapt yourselves 
 in every respect, as far as possible, to 
 the society in which you are thrown. 
 
 Economists (French economistes). 
 A name given to certain French writers 
 of the 18th cent., who maintained that 
 agriculture is the only fountain of 
 wealth, and therefore clamoured for a 
 land-tax. They were usually called 
 ' Physiocrates ' {q.v.). 
 
 Ecorcheurs {Les), 1437. A gang of 
 adventurers who committed great ra- 
 vages, chiefly in Hainault, during the 
 revolt of the Low Countries against the 
 Duke of Burgundy. The best known of 
 their leaders were Villandras and Cha- 
 bannes the bastard. They were called 
 the Skinners {ecorcheiirs), ^ays Bouillet, 
 ' parce qu'ils se composaient pour la 
 plupart de bouchers ou d'ecorcheurs de 
 betes,' or else because they stripped those 
 who fell into their hands of all their 
 
fiCRASEZ 
 
 EDICT 
 
 279 
 
 clothes, even their body-linen. See 
 ' French Brigands.' 
 
 Pronounce Lays a-kor-shure. 
 
 lEJcrasez l'infd,ine. A party watch- 
 word among the Encyclopaedists, meaning 
 Down with superstition, or Down with 
 senseless mummery. In full it would be 
 J^crasez Vinfdme superstition (' Wal- 
 poliana,' ii. 8y). 
 
 Pronounce A -krah-zay lahn-fahm. 
 
 Ecstasy of Plotinus. A rapture in 
 which he lost his personal consciousness 
 and became part of the ' universal mind.' 
 Plotinus says this ecstasy may be attained 
 by music, by love, or by meditation. 
 Paul speaks of such rapture in 2 Cor. 
 xii. 2. 
 
 Ecstatic Doctor {The). See * Di- 
 vine Doctor.' 
 
 Ec'thesis of Heraclius. Published 
 638. Heraclius was emperor of the East, 
 and the Ecthesis was the famous edict 
 in favour of the Monoth'elites (4 syl.), 
 q.v. 
 
 Ecumenical Bishop, a.d. 592. 
 John, bishop of Constantinople, assumed 
 this title, but Gregory I. of Rome induced 
 Mauritius, emperor of the East, to insist 
 on his di-opping the title. 
 
 Councils {The 
 
 Ecumenical 
 
 Eight). 
 
 I. At NiC.EA in Bithynia, hold S25, to condemn 
 the doctrine of Arius. who denied the divinity of 
 Christ. Present 318 bishops. 
 
 II. At C0N3T.4^NTIN0PLE, held 381, to condemn 
 the heresy of Macedonius, who denied the divinity 
 of the Holy Ghost. Present 150 bishops. 
 
 III. At Ephesus, held 441, to condemn Nesto- 
 rius, who denied the divinity of the Virgin Mary. 
 Present 200 bishops. 
 
 IV. At Chalce'don, held 451, to condemn the 
 Monophysite heresy, Present G;^0 bishops. 
 
 (N.B.— The Anglican Church admits these four.) 
 
 V. At Constantinople [the si'cond\ held 553, to 
 condemn the Nestorians. Present 1G5 bishops. 
 
 VI. At Constantinople {the third), held G80, to 
 condemn the Monothelites. Present 170 bishops. 
 See ' Synods." 
 
 VII. At NiC.'Exahe second), held 787, to condemn 
 the Iconoclasts and re-establish images. 
 
 VIII. At Constantinople (the fourth), 869, to 
 depose Phocius and reinstate Ignatius. In this 
 council the Monoth'elites and the Iconoclasts 
 were both anathematised. 
 
 Monophysiies (Greek /iovoc, ^uo-ij, one nature), the 
 human raised to the divine. 
 
 NestorUins allow the co-existence of the two 
 natures of Christ, but not their union. 
 
 Monothelites, that is MofoeeXrjra,. (Greek aiwo?, 
 eeXvt^a., one will), the human will of Christ being 
 absorbed, as they supposed, in the Divine will. 
 
 Edda. A collection of mythic and 
 heroic songs of Scandinavia. The Poetic 
 or elder Edda was compiled by Sasmund 
 
 Sigfusson, and the songs compiled by 
 him are supposed to belong to the 8th 
 cent. ; the oldest copy of Sa3mund's Edda 
 is of the 14th cent. It is from the 
 original MS., and is preserved in the 
 Royal Library of Copenhagen. Published 
 by Resen in 1665, and edited by Rask in 
 1818. 
 
 The Prose or younger Edda was com- 
 piled by Snorro Sturleson, the Scandi- 
 navian Livy (1178-1241). It is supposed 
 to have been compiled from posthumous 
 papers left by Ssemund, Icelandic sources 
 and traditions, and treats of Scandina- 
 vian mythology. This is sometimes 
 called the Resenian Edda, because it 
 was translated by Resen, in 1640. 
 
 Ssemund hinn Froda, Sigfusson, lived 1054-1133. 
 Snorro Sturleson, 1178-1241. The elder Edd,t con- 
 sists of two parts, the first mythological and 
 the second heroic. The Siemund Edda contains 
 the famous poems of the Nibelungen cycle. 
 
 Edgar's Law. This was no law in 
 the ordinary acceptation of the word, 
 but the English constitution as it shaped 
 itself in the hands of his minister 
 Dunstan. 
 
 When the people clamoured for Edgar's law 
 they meant they wished to be governed in the 
 same way as Edgar governed the nation (^59-975).— 
 Fkeeman. 
 
 Edict {The Perpetual). 1. Of Ha- 
 drian, A.D. 132. A compilation of all the 
 edicts of preceding ediles and praetors, 
 made by Salvius Julianus. 
 
 II. 1611. The forty-seven articles pub- 
 lished by Albrecht, archduke of Austria, 
 for the administration of justice in his 
 dominions. 
 
 Edict of Berlin {The), or 'Decree 
 of Berlin,' 21 Nov., 1806. Issued by. 
 Napoleon I., declaruig the blockade of 
 the British Isles, and ' boycottmg ' the 
 English. 
 
 Edict of Chateaubriant {The), 
 1551. By Henri II., against the Cal- 
 vinists. 
 
 Edict of Cr^mieu {The), 1536. By 
 Francois of Cremieu, to regulate the 
 jurisdiction of bailies, seneschals, and 
 presidents {presidiaux). 
 
 Edict of Grace {The), July 1629. 
 A treaty granted ' by grace ' to the 
 Huguenots soon after the capture of La 
 Rochelle. By this treaty the reformers 
 were reinstated in the possession of their 
 places of worship, their cemeteries, and 
 the exercise of their religion in the 
 
280 
 
 EDICT 
 
 EDICT 
 
 places they had before used, 'pending 
 their return to the Cathohc Church.' 
 
 By -what has been said we may judge of the 
 condition of the Reformed after the Jidict of 
 Grace.— FISlice, Hist, of the Protestants of Fiance, 
 book iii. 7. 
 
 Edict of January (The), 1562. 
 Provided that those reformers who had 
 taken possession of churches and eccle- 
 siastical property in France should re- 
 store them without delay. It forbade 
 reformers to destroy images or crosses, to 
 meet within the walls of any town, or to 
 go armed to any meeting (unless, indeed, 
 they were of the privileged classes). 
 
 Edict of July {The), 1561. Grant- 
 ing toleration in France to domestic 
 gatherings of reformers, but forbidding 
 public meetings. See ' Edict of January.' 
 
 Edict of June 20 (The), 1730. A 
 confirmation of the edict of 1620, grant- 
 ing to the church members of the three 
 Vaudois valleys the right of working in 
 their houses (with closed doors) on 
 Catholic feast-days, of being employed on 
 public works, and of acquiring real pro- 
 perty. See * Edict of Pacification.' 
 
 Edict of May 13 (The), 169L In 
 favour of the Vaudois, recognising their 
 lawful establishment in the land of their 
 ancestors, from which they had been 
 expelled, their right to their hereditary 
 possessions, and the revocation of the 
 edicts of January and April 1686. 
 
 Edict of Melun (The), 1580. Re- 
 dressing the complaints of the clergy. 
 
 Edict of Milan {The), March, 313. 
 Published by Constantine in favour of 
 Christians. 
 
 Edict of Nantes (The), 1598. An 
 edict published by Henri IV. granting 
 toleration to all Huguenots or Protes- 
 tants, and placing them on entire equality 
 with his Catholic subjects. Revoked by 
 Louis XIV. (1685). 
 
 Pronounce Nantes to rhjnne with aunt, can't. 
 
 Edict of Pacification {The), 1694. 
 Granting full toleration not only to the 
 Vaudois who belonged to the reformed 
 religion from birth, but also to converts 
 from Catholicism. This edict, as far as 
 proselytes were concerned, was revoked 
 by Victor Amadeus, and at the beginning 
 of 1730 the exiles went to Geneva. 
 
 These edicts are very numerous in the ICth 
 cent., with a view of putting an end to the reli- 
 gious wars. The most celebrated are— 
 
 The Edict of 19 May, 1563, by Charles IX., per- 
 mitting Huguenots to assemble and worship ia 
 tlieir own way. 
 
 The Edict of Nantes. See above. 
 
 Edict of Petites-Dates {The). 
 'L'Edit des Petites-Dates,' 1550. By 
 Henri II., for the repression of abuses 
 introduced ' dans la collation des benefices 
 ecclesiastiques.' 
 
 Edict of Restitution {The), 1630. 
 A foolish edict by Kaiser Ferdinand II. 
 in the Thirty Years' War, after the re- 
 tirement of the Danes. It enjoined re- 
 storation to the Catholics of the two 
 archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, and 
 all the parish churches, lands, and other 
 property, which had been confiscated by 
 the Protestants since the Treaty of Passau 
 (7 Aug., 1552, i.e. 78 years ago). CompU- 
 ance with this edict was well-nigh im- 
 possible, and at the Peace of Westphalia 
 (24 Oct., 1648) the edict was cancelled. 
 Passau, pronounce Pas-sow, as in note. 
 
 Edict of Revocation {The), 1685. 
 That is the Revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes {q.v.) by Louis XIV. 
 
 It was he [Louis XIV.] who in 1685 signed the 
 fatal Edict of Revocation.— FfiLlCE, Hist, of the 
 Protestants of France, bb.. iii. 7. 
 
 Edict of Romorantin {The), May 
 1560. Proposed by the French chancel- 
 lor, Michel de I'Hopital, restoring to 
 the bishops the adjudication of the crime 
 of heresy. This edict was prodigal of 
 the most scandalous penalties, but it 
 saved France from the establishment of 
 the Inquisition which Cardinal de Lor- 
 raine laboured hard to introduce. 
 
 Edict of Theodoric {The), a.d. 
 500. Promulgated in Italy, but super- 
 seded by Justinian's laws in 554. 
 
 Edict of Toleration {The), 1787 
 (102 years after the Revocation). The 
 Huguenots or Protestants are spoken of 
 in this edict as ' non-Catholics.' It 
 granted to non-Catholics the right of liv- 
 ing in France and of exercising any 
 vocation ; permission to marry before 
 justices; and the right of interment 
 without calling in a Catholic priest. As 
 no penalty was mentioned for noncon- 
 formity, of course perfect toleration was 
 tacitly granted to all religionists. 
 
 Edict of Union {The). I. a.d. 405. 
 Published by Honorius against the Do- 
 natists and Manichaeans, with a view of 
 ' uniting ' them with the Catholic Church. 
 
EDICT 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 281 
 
 II. 21 July, 1588. The edict by which 
 Henri III., who had been driven out of 
 Paris, was supported by the League, and 
 declared s'unir a elle. 
 
 Edict of 1693 {The), 13 April. 
 French history. This edict solemnly 
 confirmed the Kevocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, and enjoined that new means 
 should be employed for the better in- 
 struction of the people in the true reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Kantea (1 eyl.), to rhyme -with aunt, Jaunt. 
 
 Edict of 1724 {The), or • The Royal 
 Declaration of 1724,' 14 May. By Louis 
 XV. on the advice of Cardinal Dubois, 
 This was the last law against the French 
 Protestants, and the most severe of all. 
 It declared the punishment of perpetual 
 imprisonment at the galleys for men, and 
 life seclusion for women, with confisca- 
 tion of property, if they attended any 
 religious service except those of the Ca- 
 tholics. The galleys or imprisonment for 
 all who sheltered or omitted to denounce 
 a ' heretic' All children to be baptized 
 by a Catholic priest within twenty-four 
 hours of their birth, and to be sent to a 
 Catholic school till fourteen years of age. 
 Notice to be given to the parish priest of 
 illness. No marriage to be legalised 
 unless solemnised by a Catholic priest. 
 No child to be sent out of France to be 
 educated. No ofiice whatever to be held 
 except by Catholics. All mulcts to be 
 for the relief of necessitous new converts. 
 
 Ediles (2 syl.). Annual magistrates 
 in Rome whose duty it was to see to the 
 edifices {cedes), especially the public 
 baths, aqueducts, and market-places. 
 There were curule ediles and plebeian 
 ediles, the latter instituted B.C. 493. 
 They ceased to be created in the reign of 
 Constantine. 
 
 Edinburgh, is Edwins-burgh, so 
 called from Edwin, who founded the castle 
 in the 6th cent. In Notts is a village 
 called Edwin-stowe, where Edwin was 
 buried. Here Robin Hood was married. 
 
 Edinburgh {Treaty of), 6 July, 
 1560. Between Queen Elizabeth and 
 the Scots for the evacuation of Scotland 
 by the French. By this treaty Fran- 
 cois II. and Mary fully recognised the 
 right of Elizabeth to the English crown, 
 and agreed that Mary, in time to come, 
 
 should neither assume the title nor bear 
 the arms of England. 
 
 At their coronation in Paris Francois and Mary 
 ■were proclaimed king and queen of France 
 England, and Scotland. The princes of Lorraine 
 had money struck in France bearing the arms of 
 England ; and proclamations were made in the 
 names of Francois and Mary, king and queen ot 
 the three realms. 
 
 Edinburgh {University of), 1582. 
 Founded by James VI. (James I. of Eng- 
 land). Reconstituted in 1858. 
 
 Edinburgh Review {The). Com- 
 menced in Oct. 1802. The political views 
 were those of the Whig party. 
 
 Edmund Crouchback, 1241- 
 
 129G. First earl of Lancaster, 2nd son of 
 Henry III., the eldest son beingEdward I. 
 
 Edmund Hall {St.), Oxford. Said 
 to have been founded by Edmund arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, in the reign of 
 Henry III. The head of the Hall is 
 called ' the Principal.' 
 
 Edrisites (3 syl.), 785-919. A 
 Mussulman dynasty which had Fez as 
 the seat of government. The founder 
 was Edris (785-793), of the race of Ali, 
 poisoned by order of the calif Harun 
 al Rashid. 
 
 Edris was succeeded by Edris II. (793-828); 
 Mohiujimed I., Ali, Yahia I., Yahia II., Ali II., 
 Yahia III., Yahia IV. (90i5-yl9). 
 
 Education. The first parliamentary 
 grant for education was made in 1834. 
 The Committee of Privy Council was 
 appointed in 1839. Public elementary 
 education in England and Wales was 
 provided for in 1870 (33, 34 Vict. c. 75). 
 
 Edward I. ' Longshanks,' king of 
 England (1239, 1274-1307). Son of 
 Henry III. He married twice : (1) 
 Eleanor daughter of Ferdinand HI. of 
 Castile, by whom he had four sons and 
 eight daughters. The first two sons 
 died young, and the last three daughters. 
 
 3rd son, Edwabd II. (the first prince 
 of Wales) who succeeded his father. 
 
 The daughters who married are 
 Eleanor, Joan, Margaret, Beatrix, and 
 Elizabeth. Mary was a nun at Ames- 
 bury, and died 1286. 
 
 By his second wife he had two sons } 
 Thomas earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of 
 Woodstock, earl of Kent. 
 
 His style and title: 'Edwardus rex 
 Anglioe dominus Hiberniae et dux Aqui- 
 tanise ' (Guienne). 
 
 His title to France : On the death of 
 
282 
 
 EDWAED 
 
 EDWAED 
 
 Charles IV., two claimants for tlie crown 
 appeared, Philipjie de Valois his cousin, 
 and Edward I. his nephew. If the 
 Salique law was set aside, then Blanche 
 (sister of Charles IV.), wife of PI' )e 
 de Valois, was the heiress ; if the Salxque 
 law remained in force, Edward, who 
 claimed through his mother Isabelle, 
 must be set aside, and again Philippe de 
 Valois, grandson of Philippe III. le Bel, 
 was heir. In neither case had Edward 
 any just claim. 
 
 Philippe III. -was father ol Philippe IV. and 
 of Charles de Valois. 
 
 PHILIPPE IV. was father of Louis X., Philippe 
 v., Charles IV., and Isabelle (who married 
 Edward II.). See ' Fatal Three.' 
 
 Charles IV. left a daughter, Blanche, who 
 married Philippe [VI.], son of Charles de Valois. 
 This was after his accession to the throne; he 
 was then son-in-law as well as cousin to the last 
 king, Charles IV., and grandson of Philippe III. 
 
 Ed^ward II. ' Caernarvon,' king of 
 England (1284, 1307-1327). This son of 
 Edward I. was born at Caernarvon, and 
 was the first English prince of Wales. He 
 married Isabella, daughter of Philippe IV. 
 of France, his cousin, by whom he had 
 two sons and two daughters. 
 
 1. Edwaed III., who succeeded his 
 father. 
 
 2. John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall. 
 
 3. Joan, who married David Bruce, 
 king of Scotland. 
 
 4. Eleanor, who married Eeynald 
 count of Gueldres. 
 
 His favourites were Gaveston, who 
 was twice banished — in 1297 and in 1307 
 — and at last executed summarily by the 
 indignant barons in 1312. Edward's 
 next favourite was Hugh Despenser, 
 who was executed in 1326. 
 
 He was murdered in Berkley Castle 
 by Maltravers and Gournay. 
 
 His style and title, up to 1326, was : 
 
 * Edwardus, D.G. rex Anglias, dominus 
 Hiberniae, et dux Aquitanite ' (Guienne). 
 From 1326 he discontinued the title of 
 
 * dux Aquitanige.' 
 
 Ed"ward III. ' "Windsor,' so called 
 from the place of his birth (1312, 1327- 
 1377). Married Philippa of Hainault, 
 by whom he had seven sons and five 
 daughters. 
 
 Born 
 Ist son. Edward the Black Prince, 
 born at Woodstock, 
 father of Eichakd II., 
 who succeeded his 
 grandfather. # • 1330 
 {Isabella) * 
 
 2nd son. William, born at Hatfield, 
 
 who died 1336 . . 1334 
 {Joanna, born 1335, died 
 1348.) 
 
 8rd son. Lionel duke of Clarence, 
 
 born at Antwerp . 1338 
 
 4th son. John of Gaunt, born ai\ 1339 
 Ghent, duke of Lan- [ or 
 caster . . . . ) 1340 
 
 5th son. Edmund duke of York, 
 
 born at King's Langley 1341 
 {Blanche, died young ; 
 
 Mary and Margaret) * * * 
 
 6th son. William, born at Wind- 
 sor, lived only from 
 June to Sept. . . 1348 
 
 7th son. Thomas, born at Wood- 
 stock, created duke of 
 Gloucester 1385 by 
 Eichard II., and mur- 
 dered in 1397. Born, 
 according to Stow and 
 Dugdale . . . 1355 
 After the death of Philippa, Edward 
 
 III. attached himself, without marriage, 
 
 to Alice Perrars or Perrers, one of the 
 
 ladies of the bedchamber. 
 
 His style and title, from 1327 to 1337 : 
 
 'Edwardus, D.G. rex Anglite, dominus 
 
 Hibernise, et dux Aquitanias ' (Guienne). 
 
 From 1337 to 1377 : ' Edwardus, D.G. 
 
 rex Angliae et Franciae [sometimes 
 
 ' Francige et Angliae 'J, dominus Hiberniae, 
 
 et dux Aquitaniae.' 
 
 N.B. — All the monarchs of England 
 
 from 1377 styled themselves ' king of 
 
 France ' up to 1800, when George III. 
 
 relinquished the senseless title. 
 
 His claim to the throne of France. 
 
 On the death of Charles IV. without 
 
 male issue, the claimants were Philippe 
 
 de Valois and Edward III. of England. 
 
 The former was crowned as Philippe VI. 
 
 de Valois. 
 Philippe III. of France had two sons, viz. 
 
 Philippe IV. (who succeeded htm) and Charles de 
 
 Valois. 
 Philippe IV. had for Issue Louis X. (who buo- 
 
 ceeded and died without issue), Philippe V. (who 
 
 also died without issuel, and Isabelle. 
 Philippe the claimant \vas the son of Charles de 
 
 Valois, grandson of Philippe III., and cousin of 
 
 the last king, CHARLES IV. 
 
 Edward III. was the son of Isabelle, and great- 
 grandson of Philippe III., and nephew of the last 
 
 king, Charles IV. 
 *,* The main argument was this : As women 
 
 could not succeed to the crown, therefore Isabelle 
 
 had no claim whatever, and her children could 
 
 have none. 
 
 Edward III. and the two captive 
 kings. — At the battle of Poitiers, 1355 
 Jean II. of Fiance was made captive 
 
EDWAED 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 283 
 
 and brought to England. At the same 
 time David II. of Scotland, defeated at 
 Neville's Cross in 1346, was made captive. 
 Thus were there two kings at one and 
 the same time captives in London. 
 
 Edward IV. First of the line of 
 York. The claim of York was un- 
 doubtedly superior to that of Lancaster, 
 being from the third son (Lionel) of 
 Edward III. ; whereas the house of Lan- 
 castei- was from John of Gaunt, the fourth 
 son, and therefore a younger brother. 
 The descent was from Lionel, third son 
 of Edward III. 
 
 Lionel's daughter Philippa married Edward 
 Mortimer. Tlieir son was Roger Blortimer; and 
 Roger Mortimer's daughter Anne married 
 Richard (son of Edmund duke of York). 
 
 Richard duke of York, the IVhite /I'ose, was slain 
 in the battle of Wakefield; and his sons were 
 Edward IV. and Richard III. 
 
 Edward married Ehzabeth Woodville, 
 a widow, and was the first of our sove- 
 reigns since the Conquest to marry a 
 subject. He had ten children, but of the 
 seven who reached maturity five were 
 girls and two boys. Edward V. suc- 
 ceeded, but he and his brother Richard 
 were both murdered in the Tower. 
 
 Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of 
 Edward IV., and called ' The Rose of 
 York,' or 'The White Rose of York,' 
 married Henry VII., and thus united the 
 rival branches of York and Lancaster. 
 
 His style and title : ' Edwardus, D.G. 
 rex Angliae et Franciae, et dominus 
 HiberniiB.' 
 
 Edward "V. Nominal king of Eng- 
 land for about a month (1483). He was 
 thirteen years of age, and his brother 
 Richard was nine ; both were murdered 
 in the Tower by order of their uncle 
 Richard pil.] duke of Gloucester. The 
 actual assassins were Slater, John Digh- 
 ton, and Miles Forest. In the reign of 
 Charles II. the bodies of the princes were 
 found under a staircase, and removed 
 to Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster 
 Abbey 1674. 
 
 Edward V. and Dr. Shaio. — Dr. Shaw, 
 at St. Paul's Cross (Sunday, 22 June, 
 1483), preached from these words in the 
 Book of Wisdom, ' Bastard slips shall 
 not strike deep root,' his object being to 
 show that Edward V. was a bastard. He 
 said that Edward IV. was married to 
 Lady Eleanor Butler, the widow of Lord 
 Butler of Sudely and daughter of the 
 Earl of Shrewsbury ; consequently, Eliza- 
 
 beth Woodville (mother of Edward V.) 
 was merely a concubine, and that Stil- 
 lington, bishop of Bath, was a witness. 
 As Edward V. was the son of a concubine, 
 he could not come to the throne. 
 
 To set aside Edward and his brother Richard 
 •would not render Richard duke of Gloucester 
 heir, because his elder brother Clarence left two 
 sons behind; but Clarence having been put to 
 death for treason barred his sons by his attainder. 
 
 Richard III. (1483) ordered Edward V. to be 
 called ofElcially ' Edward the bastard, lately called 
 Edward V.' 
 
 Edward VI. Son of Henry VIH 
 (1537, 1547-1553). He died after an 
 attack of small-pox, leaving the crown 
 to Lady Jane Grey. His style was ' Ed- 
 ward, D.G. of England, France, and 
 Ireland king ; Defender of the faith, and 
 supreme head of the Anglican and 
 Hibernian Church.' 
 
 The Pretender, Edward VI. — Lam- 
 bert Simnel, son of Thomas Simnel, a 
 joiner of Oxford, instructed by one 
 Simons, a priest, to personate Edward 
 Plantagenet, son of the Earl of Warwick, 
 and become a ' pretender ' to the crown, 
 in the early part of the reign of Henry VII. 
 (1486). lie was crowned at Dublin as 
 Edward VI. 2 May, 1487. Being de- 
 feated at Stoke by Henry VII. (16 June, 
 1487), he was made a scullion in the 
 king's kitchen, but was afterwards raised 
 to falconer. 
 
 Henry released Edward Plantagenet from 
 prison and showed him publicly to the people, to 
 show the imposition of Lambert Simnel. Edward 
 VI. [Simnel] was crowned by the Bishop of Meath, 
 with a diadem taken from a statue of the Virgin 
 Mary, and carried to the castle on the shoulders 
 of a chieftain named Darcy. 
 
 Edward VI.'s First Prayer 
 Book or The First Liturgy of Edward 
 VI. 1549 (2, 3 Edw. VI.). Substituted for 
 the Latin Mass Book. By the Act for 
 Uniformity all clergymen who refused to 
 adopt the new liturgy were subject to 
 imprisonment for six months for the first 
 offence, loss of benefice for the second 
 offence, and perpetual imprisonment for 
 the third. 
 
 The Daily Ser-vice did not contain the Intro- 
 ductory Sentences, E.xhortation, Confession, and 
 Absolution, but began with the Lord's Prayer. 
 There were no State prayers in this liturgy. 
 
 The Litany contained a petition against the 
 papacy. 
 
 The Communion Service did not contain tha 
 Ten Commandvwnts, but enjoined that water be 
 mixed with the wine. 
 
 In the Baptismal Service exorcism was em- 
 ployed to drive out the evil spirit ; the child was 
 clothed in a chrisom, and was anointed on the 
 head. 
 
 The Catechism formed part of the service, but 
 it comprised only an exposition of the Creed, tho 
 Lord'B Prayer, and tho Ten Coromandineuta. 
 
284 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 In the Marriage Service the sign of the cross 
 ■was to be made on the forehead of the newly- 
 married persons, and a present of money was 
 given to the bride when the ring was put on her 
 finger. 
 
 In the Burial Service prayers for the dead 
 •were offered. 
 
 Vestments. The priests of parish churches 
 ■were to wear a surplice only ; in cathedrals the 
 hood was to be -worn in preaching. 
 
 Edward VI.'s Second Prayer 
 Book, or The Second Liturgy of Ed- 
 ward VI., 1552. The first liturgy re- 
 formed by Cranmer under the advice of 
 Bucer and Peter Martyr. 
 
 In the Daily Service the Introductory Sen- 
 tences, the Exhortation, the Confession, and the 
 Absolution were added. 
 
 In the Communion Service the Ten Command- 
 ments were added; but the Introit, prayers for 
 the dead, the name of the Virgin Mary, the sign of 
 the cross, and mixing water with the wine were 
 all omitted. 
 
 In the Baptismal Service exorcism, anointing 
 the child, chrisom, and dipping the child thrice 
 were omitted. 
 
 In the Marriage Service the sign of the cross 
 and present of money were omitted. 
 
 In the Burial Service prayers for the dead 
 were omitted. 
 
 Vestments. The nether albe, ' vestments,' and 
 cope were forbidden. Prelates might wear a 
 rochet, but other clergymen 'a surplice only.' 
 
 Edward Longshanks. See 
 « Edward I.' 
 
 Edward of Caernarvon. See 
 'Edward II.' 
 
 Edw^ardofHampton, Edward VI. 
 
 (1537, 1547-1553). Called Hampton from 
 Hampton Court, the place of his birth. 
 
 Edward of Hampton was no otherwise prince of 
 Wales th'in under the general title of England, his 
 father being king of England and Wales.— COKE, 
 Reports (3 Jacobi, sect. viii.). 
 
 Edward the BlackPrince (1330- 
 1376). Son of Edward III., king of 
 England, and father of Eichard II. As 
 he died a year before his father, he never 
 succeeded to the crown. He was called 
 Black because he was a name of terror 
 to the French. 
 
 Similarly Lord Clifford was called Black for his 
 cruelties. George Petrowitsch was called by the 
 Turks Bla^k Geonje from the terror of his name ; 
 Agnes countess of March was called Black Afines 
 for her resistance to Edward III. at Dvmhar. The 
 Black Sea means the sea of terror, and the Black 
 Wind the wind of terror. See ' Black." 
 
 Edward the Confessor (1004, 
 
 1041-1066). A king of England before 
 the Conquest. Canonised 1166 by Alex- 
 ander III. The use of the Great Seal 
 was first introduced by this king. 
 
 Confessores dicti qui martyrio vitam pro Christo, 
 quern palam confess! et contestati sunt, flnierunt. 
 I>u Cange, vol. iii. p. 644, col. 1. 
 
 Edward the Elder (870, 901-925), 
 king of England, 
 
 Edward the Martyr (961, 975- 
 979). A king of England before the Con- 
 quest, assassinated at Corfe by order of 
 his stepmother Elfrida, to make room for 
 her own son, Ethelred the Unready. 
 
 Edward was no martyr in the ordinary sense of 
 the word, but he was basely and treacherously 
 murdered. 
 
 Edward the Outlaw. Son of 
 
 Edmund Ironside, outlawed to Sweden 
 by Canute. 
 
 Eelkhanee Tables (The). The 
 astronomical tables of Nazir-u-Dien, pro- 
 duced in the reign of Hoolaku, shah of 
 Persia (1258-1265). They are still highly 
 esteemed, and are referred to for the 
 latitude and longitude of places not yet 
 fixed by European observations. See 
 ' Star Tables.' 
 
 The word Eelkhanee means ' Chief of the Tribes.' 
 
 Effendi. A Turkish title of courtesy 
 equal to our squire, and always placed 
 after the proper name. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, in speaking to a Turkish gentleman 
 the word eftendi is used as the French 
 use monsieur before a proper name. The 
 Grand Chancellor of Turkey is called 
 ' Reis Effendi,' 
 
 Egalit6 (Monsieur). Louis Philippe 
 Joseph, due d'Orle'ans (1747-1793). Wlien 
 Barere, president of the National As- 
 sembly, put the question what punish- 
 ment should be accorded to the king, 
 Louis XVI., the Due d'Orleans rose 
 and said, ' La mort sans phrase.^ It is 
 somewhat strange, but the only person 
 who voted against the sentence of death 
 was Thomas Paine, an Englishman, who 
 had the manhood to say to the assembly, 
 ' The king's death, instead of an act of 
 justice, will appear in history as an act 
 of vengeance.' Louis !^galite was guil- 
 lotined 1793. 
 
 Egypt and Bible History. 
 
 There were thirty dynasties in ancient 
 Egypt. From B.C. 3892 to 340. 
 
 The I. dynasty began in Upper Egypt 
 with Menes, B.C. 3892. Menes founded 
 the city of Memphis. 
 
 No trace of the ' Flood ' has yet been discovered 
 by Egyptologists. 
 
 II. dynasty began with Boethos, 
 B.C. 3639. The second king of this line 
 was Kakan, who introduced the worship 
 of Apis, the sacred bull. 
 
 in. dynasty began with Necherophes, 
 
li^tjrYJi'T 
 
 EIGHT 
 
 B.C. 8338. The Sphinx was carved in 
 this dynasty. 
 
 IV. dynasty began with Khufu [Suphis 
 or Cheops], B.C. 3124. Khufu built the 
 great pyramid. His successor, Khafra 
 or Khafren [Cephren or Kephren], built 
 the second great pyramid ; and the third 
 king of the same line, Menkara [My- 
 kerinos], built the third great pyramid. 
 
 V. dynasty began B.C. 2840. The VI. 
 began B.C. 2744, the last monarch being 
 Queen Nitocris, noted for her great 
 beauty. VII. dynasty began B.C. 2592 ; 
 the VIII. B.C. 2522 ; the IX. B.C. 2674 ; 
 the X. B.C. 2565 ; the XL B.C. 2423. 
 
 XII. dynasty began B.C. 2380 with 
 Amen'emhat. In this dynasty were built 
 the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes, and 
 the obelisk of Heliopolis. Amenemhat's 
 son was Usurtesen I. 
 
 XIII. dynasty began B.C. 2136; the 
 XIV. B.C. 2167. 
 
 Hyksos or 'Shepherd Kings' were 
 probably Arabs. The XV., XVI., XVU. 
 dynasties (b.c. 1842, 1684, 1591). 
 
 It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in 
 B.C. 1806, while the XVI. dynasty was regnant. 
 
 It is supposed that JOSEPH was viceroy of 
 Sutapepe-Nubti of the same dynasty. About B.C. 
 1713. 
 
 Hyk = king, Sos = shepherds. 
 
 XVIII. dynasty was founded by 
 Aahmes [Amasis], B.C. 1591, who expelled 
 from Egypt the Shepherd Kings. 
 
 XIX. dynasty, B.C. 1443, was the Golden 
 Age of the Pharaohs. The XIX. began 
 with Ramses I., who was succeeded by Seti 
 [Sethos], who built Karnak. Ramses II. 
 was by far the greatest of all the kings 
 of Egypt. It is said that he had 170 
 children, of which 111 were sons, that 
 he reigned 67 years, and died above 96 
 years of age. After his death came a 
 period of confusion. 
 
 It is supposed that MoSES was born in the reign 
 Of the great Ramses, and that the Exodus occurred 
 after his death, during the reign of Arisu, a usurper 
 and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. 
 
 No hint can be traced by Egyptologists eitlier of the 
 Exodm or Oie Passage of the Red Sea. 
 
 XX. dynasty was founded B.C. 1269 by 
 Set-Nekht, and Egypt was on its full 
 decline. 
 
 XXI. dynasty began b.c. 1091. 
 
 Solomon married Abra, the daughter of 
 Pfusenes II. [Pit>hannl, last king of this line. She 
 was 19 years of age (1 Kings iii. 1). It is supposed 
 that 'Solomon's Song' was an epitbalamium of 
 this alliance. 
 
 XXII. dynasty was founded by She- 
 ehouk [Shishak], B.C. 961, who received 
 under his protection Jeroboam, and 
 
 afterwards marched against Rehoboam 
 with 12,000 chariots and 60,000 horsemen. 
 
 See 1 Kings xiv. 25, and 2 Chron. xii. 
 
 It is supposed that 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15, and xvi. 8, 
 &c., refer to Zerah, the fourth of tliis dynasty, 
 generally called Osorthon II. 
 
 XXin. dynasty began B.C. 787. The 
 second king of this line (Osorthon IV.) 
 was the Egyptian Hercules. 
 
 XXIV. d^-nasty had only one sovereign, 
 Bochoris, B.C. 729-716. He was deposed 
 and put to death by Shabak. 
 
 XXV. dynasty founded by Shabak, 
 B.C. 716. 
 
 Ho SEA gave tribute to this king (2 Kings xvH. 8). 
 The successor of Shabak was Shabakok, 
 called So in 2 Kings xvii. 4. 
 
 Hezekiah formed a confederacy with So, king 
 of Egypt, against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
 and Sennacherib marched against the allies 
 (2 Kings xviil., xix.) ; but So had been succeeded 
 by Tirhakah or Tarach. 
 
 XXVI. dynasty was founded by Psam- 
 metik [Psammetichus] the Great, B.C. 685. 
 His son, Neku II., called Pharaoh-Nechoh 
 (2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c.), overthrew Josiah 
 and slew him. 
 
 Pharaoh Hophra, the seventh of this line, con- 
 temporary of Jeremiah (xliv. 80), was dethroned 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. In 525 B.C. 
 Egypt was an appanage of Persia (dynasty XXVII.); 
 then followed a Saite dynasty, a Mendesian, and 
 a Sebennyte, after which the Persian power was 
 restored. Next came the Grseco-Macedonian 
 period; and B.C. 30 Egypt became a Boman 
 province. 
 
 Egyptian Days. Unlucky days. 
 There are three in the year, viz. the last 
 Monday in April, the 2nd Monday of 
 August, and the 3rd Monday of December. 
 Called Egyptian because ill-luck was 
 attributed to them by the Egyptian 
 astrologers. In the Exeter Kalendar, a 
 MS. of the time of Henry II., there are 
 24 Egyptian days. 
 
 Three days there are in the year which we call 
 ' Egyptian days.'— So.rort MS. (British Museum). 
 
 *,* In regard to Friday, the Brahmins and 
 Buddhists consider it a dies mala, as well as many 
 Christians. 
 
 Egyptian Hall (The). In the 
 Mansion House, City of London. It was 
 built after the description of the Egyptian 
 Hall by Vitruvius. 
 
 Egyptian Version of the Sacred 
 Scriptures, embraces the Coptic and 
 Memphitic, in the dialect of Lower 
 Egypt. It is ascribed to the Srd cent. 
 
 There is a version in the dialect of Upper 
 Egypt, called ' Sa'hidic ' or ' Theba'idic,' even more 
 ancient. Probably close upon the 2nd cent. 
 
 Eight (The), i.e. ' Al Motamen.' So 
 the Kalif Al Motassem was called by a 
 
286 
 
 EIGHT 
 
 EISTEDDFOD 
 
 play on his name, after his death. His 
 subjects used to say he was the 8th of 
 his dynasty, was born in the 8th month, 
 reigned exactly 8 years, 8 months, and 
 8 days, had fought 8 battles, and left at 
 death 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8,000 slaves, 
 and 8 millions of gold. 
 
 It is possible that this may be true, just as it is 
 possible that a dealer may hold thirteen trumps 
 in his hand. 
 
 Eight Articles {The), 1555. While 
 Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were in 
 prison they drew up their confession of 
 faith in eight articles: (1) the Scriptures 
 are the true word of God ; (2) the three 
 Catholic creeds are to be believed ; (3) 
 justification is by faith only; (4) marriage 
 is lawful to all men ; (5) we reject the 
 dogma of transubstantiation ; (6) we 
 reject the dogma of purgatory ; (7) the 
 cup in the Lord's Sujjper is to be given 
 to the laity ; and (8) public worship is not 
 to be carried on in any foreign tongue. 
 See ' Articles.' 
 
 Eight Canonical Hours (The). 
 
 In the Catholic Church. There are four 
 great (printed in capitals), and four little 
 (printed in italics). 
 
 Matins, or Nocturnes, between mid- 
 night and daybreak. On festivals and 
 Siandays, three psalms, three anthems, 
 and three lessons. 
 
 Laudes, at daybreak. Five psalms, 
 two or more capitules (scripture extracts), 
 prayers, and canticles. 
 
 Prime, six o'clock in the morning. 
 The first hour of the day. 
 
 Tierce, nine o'clock in the morning. 
 The third hour of the day. 
 
 Sexte, twelve o'clock, or mid-day. The 
 sixth hour of the day. ^ 
 
 Nones, three o'clock in the afternoon. 
 The ninth hour of the day. 
 
 Vespers, at sunset. Five psalms, a 
 capitule, a hymn, the Magnificat, one or 
 more anthems, and prayers. 
 
 Compline, at bedtime. Confession, 
 one lesson, three psalms, an anthem, a 
 hymn, a capitule, a short response, Nunc 
 Dimittis, and prayers. 
 
 Eight Paradises (The), or ' Hesht 
 Behesht.' Eight gardens in Ispahan, on 
 either side of the gate called CharBaugh. 
 Each garden has a pleasure-house. 
 
 Eighteenth Brumaire (The 
 Battle 0/ the), Year VHI. (9 Nov., 1799). 
 
 Between Napoleon Bonaparte and the 
 Directory, The Directory was overthrown, 
 and Bonaparte constituted ' First Consul.' 
 
 Eighth "Wonder of the World 
 
 {Tfie). The Escurial of Spain {q.v.). 
 
 Eighty {The), or the Ottanta. The 
 upper house of legislature in the re- 
 public of Florence, in the time of Savon- 
 arola ; the lower house consisted of 
 3,200 henefiziati, divided into three sec- 
 tions, holding office for six months. All 
 laws were proposed by the Signoria, 
 discussed by the Ottanta, and voted in 
 silence into law by the Commons, 
 
 The benfUziaii were those who had already held 
 office in the state, or had been proposed for office. 
 The former were called the Seduto, and the latter 
 the Vediito. 
 
 Eighty-six. ' The immortal 86.' The 
 followers of C. S. Parnell in the House 
 of Commons in 188G, &c. These 86 
 really ruled the House, for they voted as 
 one man, and could overthrow or carry 
 any measure. Home Rule was the great 
 question. The Tory government was 
 thrown out by the 'immortal 86,' and 
 Mr. Gladstone, who supported Home 
 Rule, was supported by them. 
 
 Eikon Basilike (I-kon Ba-zil-I-ky). 
 Published 1649, at one time attributed 
 to Charles I. : but John Gauden, writing 
 to the Bishop of Exeter, says the book 
 'is wholly and only my invention.' It 
 contains a full account of the trial and 
 condemnation of the king. 
 
 Eikonoclastes (5 syl.), 1649. Mil- 
 ton's reply to ' Eikon Basilike.' 
 
 Eisteddfod {The), 1078. First ap- 
 pointed by Gryffith ap Conan to reform 
 the Welsh bard system. In these annual 
 meetings bards of merit rehearsed their 
 poems, and minstrels played their harps. 
 These bards were oral historians and 
 genealogists. An Eisteddfod was held at 
 Caerwys, 26 May, 1568, by proclamation 
 of Queen Elizabeth. It was again re- 
 vived by the Gwyneddigion Society in 
 1798; and again by the Cymrodorion 
 Society in 1828. It lasts several days, 
 and begins with the opening of the Gor- 
 sedd (or council of bards), and concludes 
 with the Eisteddfod, or competition for 
 prizes in poetry, recitation, and music. 
 
 Eisteddfod is from the Welsh verb eistedd, to 
 Bit, and means a session, meeting together, or 
 muster. 
 
EL DOEADO 
 
 ELECTORS 
 
 237 
 
 ElDora'do. Manoa, the hypothetical 
 capital of Guiana, supposed by Sir 
 Walter Raleigh and others to be so 
 affluent that it was called ' The Golden 
 City,' and Guiana was called ' The 
 Golden Empire.' 
 
 He (Sir Walter) seems to have heard many 
 ■wonderful rumours of gold mines, and of cities 
 built of gold and silver, and even embossed with 
 precious stones: but he discovered no ran, !?nificent 
 iManoa, with pinnacles blazing with diamonds 
 end rubies, nor any goldmines, only signs of gold 
 in the mountains beyond the Spanish town of St. 
 Thomas.— HowiTT, History of England (James I. 
 vol. iii. p. 74). 
 
 Elders (The), or 'Council of the 
 Elders ' (Conseil des Anciens). One of 
 the two legislative councils of the ' Con- 
 stitution of Year III.' in French history 
 (Sept. 22, 1795). It had no power of 
 initiating any law, but only of veto or 
 approval. The initiative was restricted 
 to the ' Council of 500 ' (g.v.), and the 
 executive to the five directors. 
 
 Eldest Son of the Church [The). 
 Clovis, grandson of Morwig or Merovens 
 (465,481-511). The first king not an Arian. 
 
 Eldon Law Scholarship. Value 
 200Z., and tenable for three years. 
 Founded in the University of Oxford in 
 honour of Lord Chancellor Eldon in 
 1830. 
 
 El'eanor Crosses. Twelve me- 
 morial crosses erected in places where 
 the bier of Eleanor of Castile, wife of 
 Edward I., rested on its way from 
 Hornby, in Lincolnshire, where she died, 
 to Westminster, where she was bui'ied. 
 Three still remain : viz. at Walsham, 
 Northampton, and Geddington. Charing 
 Cross was destroyed in 1647, but a model 
 of it stands in the front of the South- 
 Eastern railway station, Strand, London. 
 
 The twelve are these : Charing, Dunstable, 
 Geddington, Grantham, Lincoln, Northampton, 
 St. Albans, Stamford, Stoney Stratford, Walsham, 
 West Cheap, and Woburn. 
 
 Charing cross was the work of Richard and 
 Roger Crandale. 
 
 Dunstable cross was the wor'j of John Battle. 
 
 Lincoln cross was the v orli of Richard de Howe. 
 
 A'oi7/t//OTpto« cross was tiic work of John Battle. 
 
 Stoney SUatJord cross was the work of John 
 Battle. 
 
 Walsham cross was the joint work of Dymenge 
 de Leger and Dymenge de Reyns. 
 
 West Cheap was rebuilt by John Hetherley, lord 
 mavor of London. 
 
 Wohnrn cross was the work of John Battle. 
 
 *,* Some of these crosses were certainly nob 
 memorial crosses, but were built by Queen 
 Eleanor herself as works of piety. 
 
 Eleanor, Maid of Brittany. 
 Sister of Prince Arthur, and next to 
 
 Arthur lawful successor to the crown of 
 England. John usurped the crown, and 
 both Eleanor and Arthur were captured 
 by him at Mirabel 31 July, 1202. Arthur 
 met with his death mysteriously, and 
 Eleanor was imprisoned for life. She 
 died in Bristol Castle 1241. 
 
 Eleatic School of Philosophers 
 
 {The). So called from Elea, in Italy, 
 the chief seat of these philosophers. 
 They were divided into the Old and New 
 Schools. The Old School was speculative, 
 like the Ionic sect, and taught that there 
 is but one element. The New School 
 confined themselves to the study of 
 natural philosophy. 
 
 The chief of the Old School were 
 Xenophanes, the founder (b.c. 556-456) ; 
 Parmenidc'S (b.c. 513-430), and Zenon 
 (B.C. 430-40.-)). 
 
 The chief of the New School were 
 Leucippos (b.c. 510-430), Democritos 
 (B.C. 509-400), and Protagoras (b.c. 
 481-411). 
 
 Xenophanes revived the Eastern theory that 
 God and the Universe are identical. 
 
 The Elpatic Metaphysicians were Pantheists, 
 and the Eleatic Physicians were .\tomistics. 
 
 Electoral Roll (The). University 
 of Cambridge. Consists of members of 
 the senate who have resided for fourteen 
 weeks, at least, within Ih mile of Great 
 St. Mary's Church. Tlie following are ex 
 officio members : All officers of the Uni- 
 versity (members of the senate), all heads 
 of houses, all professors and public 
 examiners. 
 
 The Electoral Roll Is published by the first 
 Monday in October, from which day residence is 
 calculated. 
 
 Electors (The). Originally the seven 
 most powerful feudatories of Germany, 
 who assumed the exclusive privilege of 
 choosing the kaiser. They were (1) the 
 king of Bohemia, (2) the duke of Saxony, 
 (3) the margrave of Brandenburg, (4) 
 the count palatine of the Rhine, (5) the 
 archbishop of Mentz or Mayence, (6) 
 the archbishop of Treves, and (7) the 
 archbishop of Cologne ; the archbishop 
 of Mentz was the official president, and 
 ' Convener of the Electors.' 
 
 In IfilS the Duke of Bavaria was substituted for 
 the King of Bohemia (the palsgrave), but in 1(548 
 the palsgrave was readmitted, and in 1692 Ernest 
 duke of Hanover was created the ninth elector; 
 but in 1777 the number was again reduced toe;.?/' «. 
 In 1356 the Golden Bull of Karl IV. recognised the 
 right of the electors to choose the king, but in 1800 
 the whole system was abolished by Kapoleoa 
 Bonaparte. 
 
ELECTRIC 
 
 ELIZABETH 
 
 The title of Elector continued to be held In 
 Hesse-Cassel till 1866. The electoral crown was a 
 scarlet cap turned up with ermine. 
 
 Electric Telegraph {The). Pa- 
 tented by Cooke and Wheatstone 12 June, 
 1837 ; broii^jht into use on the Great 
 Western Railway 1839 ; purchased by 
 the postmaster-general 81 July, 1868 ; 
 management of the telegraph assumed 
 by the post-office 5 Feb., 1870. 
 
 Morse's original instrument dates from 1835. 
 The submarine electric telegraph from Dover to 
 Calais was laid in Aug. 185iJ, and purchased by 
 the postmaster-general in 1888. 
 
 Elemental Spirits. Beings sup- 
 posed in the middle ages to preside over 
 the four elements. The elemental spirits 
 of fire were called Salamandees ; the 
 elemental spirits of air were called 
 Sylphs ; the elemental spirits of earth 
 were called Gnomes (1 syl.); and the 
 elemental spirits of water were called 
 Undines (2 syl.). 
 
 Elephant {Order of the), 1189. A 
 Danish military order created by Knut VI. 
 after his crusade in the East, when an 
 elephant was killed. Revived in 1458 
 by Christian I. The cordon is blue moird. 
 
 Elephants. The eight which sus- 
 tain the world, according to Indian my- 
 thology, are called Achtequedjams. 
 
 Eleusin'ian Mysteries {The). 
 The sacred rites with which the annual 
 festival of Ceres was celebrated at Eleusis 
 in Attica. 
 
 Eleuther'ia. Games in honour of 
 Zeus Eleutherios, so named from Eleu- 
 theris, a city of Boeotia, near which the 
 famous battle of Platsea was won B.C. 
 479. See ' PlataBa.' * 
 
 Eleven (TAe). Athenian magistrates 
 who had the charge of executing cri- 
 minals. 
 
 When he [Socrates] came in from bathing, he sat 
 down, and did not speak much. For then the 
 oflQcer of the Eleven came in.— PhATO, Tlie Phaedon. 
 
 Eleven Articles {The), 1560. Pro- 
 visionary articles drawn up by the bishops 
 in the early part of the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth for the instruction and guid- 
 ance of the clergy and people till the 
 meeting of convocation : (1) The Trinity 
 is to be believed ; (2) the holy scriptures 
 and the three creeds are all sufficient ; 
 (3) the Church has authority to decree 
 rites and ceremonies ; (4) all persons not 
 lawfully appointed shall be excluded 
 
 from the ministry ; (5) asserts the royal 
 supremacy ; (6) renounces all papal juris- 
 diction ; (7) declares that the Common 
 Prayer Book is according to scripture ; 
 (8) forbids exorcism, and the use of oil, 
 salt and spittle in baptism ; (9) rejects 
 private masses, and denies the propitia- 
 tory sacrifice of the mass; (10) enjoins 
 communion in both kinds; and (11) 
 rejects images, relics, praying on beads, 
 pilgrimages, miracles, and so on. See 
 ' Articles.' 
 
 Eleven Members {The), 1647. 
 When the army presented their ' Humble 
 Representation' to parliament, it de- 
 manded the expulsion of eleven members, 
 with Holies at their head. The army 
 charged these members with stirring up 
 strife between them and the parliament, 
 and with a secret design of renewing the 
 civil war. The eleven members were not 
 expelled, but were induced to withdraw. 
 A London mob forced the House to recall 
 the eleven, and fourteen peers with 100 
 commoners fled to the army. Cromwell 
 in two days took London, restored the 
 114 fugitives, and expelled the obnoxious 
 eleven. 
 
 Elgin Marbles {The), 1816. So 
 called from Lord Elgin, who collected 
 them during his mission to the Porte in 
 1802. They were chiefly derived from the 
 Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the 
 Acropolis of Athens, of which they formed 
 part of the frieze and pediment built 
 by Phidias about B.C. 500. They were 
 purchu,sed by the British government 
 for 35,000Z., and placed in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Elgin, pronounce qin as In the word ' begin,' not 
 like the monosyllable. 
 
 Elijahs of Mosul {The). One of 
 the three branches of the Nestorians. 
 The other two are the ' Josephs of Ami'da' 
 and the ' Simeons of Ormia.' 
 
 Eliot {George), the pseudonym of 
 Miss Marian Evans (afterwards Mrs. 
 Cross), a novelist (1819-1880). 
 
 Elisabeth {Mad.), sister of Louis 
 XVI., who shared the captivity of the 
 Royal family, and was scandalously guil- 
 lotined in 1794. 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. 
 (1533, 1558-1603). Katharine was 
 divorced 23 May and Elizabeth born 
 7 Sept. the same year. Elizabeth is 
 
ELIZABETHAN 
 
 EMBASSY 
 
 called * The Virgin Queen of England,' 
 because she was never married. 
 
 Her style was : ' Elizabeth, D.G. of 
 England, Fian e, and Ireland queen ; De- 
 fender of tlie ii'aith ; Supreme Governor 
 of the Church of England and Hibemia.' 
 
 Elizabeth (1 Eliz. c. 1) insisted that the title 
 ' Supreme Governor of the Church ' should be 
 substituted for ' Supreme Head of the Church.' 
 
 *,* Elizabeth atid Manj queen of Scots. Elizabeth 
 Vas not the cousin of Mary queen of Scots, but 
 the cousin of Mary's father. 
 
 Henry VII. had issue Henry VIII. (who suc- 
 ceeded him) and Margaret (who married James IV. 
 of Scotland). 
 
 ELIZ.4BETH was a daughter of Henry VIII. 
 
 Margaret's son was James V. of Scotland, and 
 Mary queen of Scots was the daughter of James V, 
 (she married Henry Stuart, lord Darnley). 
 
 Her favourites were, first, Hobert Dudley (earl of 
 Leicester), who died 15S8; then Robert I'evereux 
 (earl of Essex), executed for treason in 1601. 
 
 Elizabethan Architecture. A 
 
 style of domestic architecture which pre- 
 vailed in the reign of Elizabeth, especially 
 used in mansions and palatial buildings. 
 Its gables are most characteristic. 
 
 Ellorton Theological Essay. 
 
 Oxford University. Value 211. annually. 
 Founded by Dr. Ellerton, fellow of 
 Magdalen College, 1825. 
 
 Ellison Gallery (The) of water- 
 colour paintings. Presented to the nation 
 by Elizabeth Ellison, and placed in the 
 South Kensington Museum, "May 18C0. 
 
 Elms {The). The place of execution 
 in Smithfield previous to the reign of 
 Henry IV., when the gibbet was erected 
 at Tyburn, which continued to be the 
 chief place of execution in London till 
 1783. 
 
 Eloquence {Father of French). 
 Alain Chartier, secretary to Charles VI. 
 and VII. He was both poet and prose 
 writer (1386-1458). 
 
 Eloquent Doctor {The). Peter 
 Aureolus, archbishop of Aix. There was a 
 Peter of Ravenna surnamed Chrysologos, 
 or Golden-speech, who died 450, and was \ 
 canonised. And two Chrysostoms or \ 
 Golden-mouthed, viz. Dion and John. 
 Dion was born in Bithynia a.d. 30 and 
 died 116, and John was born at Antioch 
 847 and died 407. It is this latter who 
 is generally known as St. Chrysostom (the 
 saint with the golden mouth). 
 
 Elrington and Bosworth Pro- 
 f jisorship. See ' Anglo-Saxon, &c.' 
 13 
 
 Elzevirs. Books printed by a cele- 
 brated family of printers in Holland be- 
 tween 1533 and 1680. The 12mo and ICmo 
 classics are beautifully and correctly 
 printed. The Virgil, Terence, and other 
 Roman classical authors, the New Testa- 
 ment and the Psalter, have an unrivalled 
 reputation. 
 
 Emancipation Act ( The), 13 April, 
 1829. The act which emancipated Ca- 
 tholics from religious and civil disabilities 
 in the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland. It was framed by Sir 
 Robert Peel, in the ministry of the Duke 
 of Wellington, and signed by George IV. 
 
 Emancipation of Slaves {The), 
 
 28 August, 1833 (3, 4 Will. IV.). By this 
 act slavery was abolished throughout 
 the British colonies, and slave-owners 
 were compensated by a grant from par- 
 liament of 30 millions sterhng. 
 
 In 1861 Alexander II. of Russia emancipated 50 
 million serfs, but ' it has proved a gigantic failure, 
 as the wretchedness of the peasantry is greater, 
 the cultivation of the soil inlerior, and much of 
 the land is little better tlian waste. Xhey cnnnot 
 pay the interest of the money, which is 95 millions 
 stprling, and hundreds are knonted every year. 
 The result is the irrepressible Nihilists, by whom 
 Alexander was blown to pieces.'— Xin^tcenth Ceii' 
 iury, June 1889. 
 
 Emania {The Kings of). King 
 Kimboath of Ireland built the palace of 
 Emania in Ulster, an epoch from which 
 Tigernach dates the dawn of authentic 
 Irish history. From this splendid palace 
 the princes of Ulster were called the 
 * kings of Emania.' The princely palace 
 of Emania was utterly destroyed when 
 Muredach [Emain Macha] Tirech invaded 
 Ulster, and dispossessed his cousin, the 
 usurper Colla, of his kingdom (a.d. 327). 
 
 It was Colla himself and his brothers who burnt 
 Emania after their return from banishment. 
 
 Embargo Act {The), 22 Dec, 1807, 
 of President Jefferson, forbidding Ameri- 
 can vessels to leave their ports. This 
 was, in fact, a measure preparatory to 
 war, allowing merchants to call home 
 their ships, and the country to put itself 
 into a posture of defence. Repealed 3 
 Feb., 1809, 'as ruinous to the States, un- 
 satisfactory to France, and ineffectual as 
 a retaliation upon England.' 
 
 Embassy of the Three Philo- 
 sophers {The), B.C. 151. An embassy 
 sent by the Athenians to tlie Roman 
 senate to obtain o. mitigation of thr- tin:; 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 EMBASSY 
 
 EMMANUEL 
 
 (500 talents) imposed on them for attack- 
 ing Oropus. The fine was reduced to 
 100 talents. The three philosophers sent 
 were Diogenes the Stoic, Critolabs the 
 Peripatetic, and Carucades (founder of 
 the third academy). 
 
 Embassy to China [The), 1703. 
 
 (George) lord Macartney was sent by 
 George III. on a friendly embassy to 
 Kien Lung, emperor of China, who was 
 at the time in his summer residence, 
 Zhe-hol, in Tartary. His journey from 
 Pekin to Zhe-hol was most gratifying, 
 and more information of this ancient 
 people was gained in this embassy than 
 in all preceding ages put together. He 
 tells us that white is worn in mourning, 
 but never by brides ; that the left is the 
 Bide of honour; that titles of honour 
 never descend ; and that all ranks, except 
 that of emperor, depend on competitive 
 examination. Yellow is the imperial 
 colour. 
 
 Ember Days, 1095. Four times a 
 year : the spring being the Wednesday, 
 Friday, and Saturday of Ember week, or 
 the week after the first Sunday in Lent ; 
 the summer being the same days after 
 Whit-Sunday; the autumn the same 
 days after the feast of Holy Cross (14 
 Sept.) ; and the lointer the same days 
 after the feast of St. Lucia (13 Dec). 
 These seasons in the Western Church 
 are appointed for the ordination of the 
 clergy. 
 
 German quatember, i.e. 'quatuor tempora,' i» 
 lovir seasons. Consult Skeat's Dictionary. 
 
 Emerald Club [The), 1882. A 
 branch of the Fenian Brotherhood whose 
 object was to work by force alone for the 
 freedom of Ireland. Dynamite and other 
 compounds of nitro-glycerine were freely 
 employed. The Emerald Society was 
 organised in the United States of North 
 America, and was contemporary with the 
 Dublin ' Invincibles.' The principal of 
 the Emerald Society was O'Donovan 
 Rossa. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Emerald of the G-reen Vault 
 
 [The). An immense uncut Peruvian 
 emerald given by Randolph II. to the 
 Elector of Saxony, and kept in the Green 
 Vault {grimes Geicolbe) at Dresden. 
 
 This 'vault' is in the Zwinger, a group of 
 buildings erected by Augustus II. as a vestibule to 
 his new palace. It is called^ ' Green ' from the 
 colour of the paper or hangings with which it was 
 origiuarlly covered. Ihe regalia used at the coro- 
 
 nation of Augustus (a present of Karl V.) are 
 still kept in the seventh apartment. The Emerald 
 is in the eighth or last apartment. 
 
 ^meute. A riot of a political cha- 
 racter, the result of what the French call 
 ' attroupement ' or party meetings in the 
 public streets and squares. These public 
 musters were first declared illegf-I in 
 France in 1791 ; the law was confirmed 
 24 May, 1834, and again 7 June, 1818, 
 when the pillagers of shops, breakers of 
 windows, plunderers of arms, stump 
 orators, and leaders of riots were most 
 severely handled. 
 
 The Great Three Days !^meute of 
 1830 occurred on Tuesday, Wednesday, 
 and Thursday, 27, 28, 29 July, when 
 Charles X. was obliged to flee and ab- 
 dicate. 
 
 Em.irian Provinces {The). The 
 northern part of the States of the Church 
 {i.e. the Bomagna), with the duchies of 
 Parma and Modena, which in 18G0 were 
 attached to Sardinia, but now form part 
 of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 In 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte called Emilia the 
 'Emilian Republic' New Emilia comprehonda 
 liologna, Ferrara, Forli, Massa and Carrara, Mo- 
 dena, Palma, Placentia, Ravenna, and Reggio. 
 
 Em.ilie {The Divine), to whom 
 Voltaire wrote verses, was Madame 
 Chatelet, with whom he lived at Cirey 
 for ten years. Her palfrey was called 
 ' Eossignol.' 
 
 Emir al Om.ra. Commandant of 
 commandants ; a military rank and title 
 created by the Calif Rhadi (G3G*as a sop 
 to the Turkish guards, a constant terror 
 of the Abbasides (3 syl.), as the Pretorian 
 guards were of the Roman emperors. 
 This great officer had the sole manage- 
 ment of all military matters ; officiated 
 for the calif in the mosque of Bagdad ; 
 and had his name mentioned in the 
 public prayers. The French ' Mayor of 
 the Palace ' resembled in rank and power 
 the Emir al Omra of the Abbaside califs. 
 Imperatof imperatorum would be the Latin equi- 
 valent. 
 
 Emm.a. So Harold called his coat- 
 of-mail. 
 
 And he put on his coat-of-mail which he called 
 Emma, and which was so strong that no man 
 could pierce it.— Fkeeman, Uld English History, 
 &c. p. 314. 
 
 Emmanuel College. n Cam- 
 bridge University. Founded by Sir 
 Walter Mildmay in 158i. 
 
EMMETT'S 
 
 EMPEEOE 
 
 291 
 
 Emmett's Insurrection. In 
 
 Dublin 23 July, 1803, in which Lord Kil- 
 warden and several other persons were 
 assassinated by the insurgents. It re- 
 ceived its distinctive name from Robert 
 Emmett, a young enthusiast, wholieaded 
 this outbreak, and only arrived in Dublin 
 the previous year (1802). Emmett had 
 manufactured a large number of arms, 
 and heaped together a vast amount of 
 ammunition. He expected 2,000 rebels 
 to meet him at Contigan's mills before 
 nine o'clock on Wednesday morning, 
 23 July, 1803, but everything went 
 wrong. The man who was to turn the 
 fuzees and rammers for the beams had 
 forgotten them, the jointed pikes were 
 all lost by an explosion in Patrick Street, 
 the slow matches got mixed with others, 
 the fuzees of th» grenades were nowhere 
 to be found, the scaling-ladders were 
 not finished, and of the 2,000 men 
 only eighteen put in an appearance. How- 
 ever, Eimnett, with five or six others, in 
 their green uniforms, marched towards 
 the Castle, and were informed that Lord 
 Kilwarden's carriage had been stopped, 
 and that both his lordship and his 
 nephew had been murdered. A company 
 of soldiers soon dispersed the insurgents, 
 and Emmet, being arrested, was tried, 
 condemned, and executed 19 Sept. the 
 same year. 
 
 Thomas Moore refers to Robert Emmett in his 
 ' Irish Melodies, ' O breathe not his name ' ; and 
 again, " She is far from the land where her young 
 hero sleeps.' Emmett was engaged to a daughter 
 of Curran. 
 
 Emoraim {The). Jewish doctors who 
 assisted in composing the Gema'ra, which 
 took about 311 years. It contains anno- 
 tations, discussions, and amplifications 
 of the Mishnah. There are two Gemaras 
 — that" of Babylon, completed a.d. 500, 
 and that of Jerusalem, finished in the mid- 
 dle of the 4th cent. The Mishnah and 
 Gemara together make what is called the 
 Tahnud. 
 
 Empecinado {The). Juan Martin 
 Diaz of Spain, the Spanish guerilla chief 
 (1775-1825), so called from pecina, a 
 pool or marsh ; the villagers of Spanish 
 marshes were nicknamed Empecinados. 
 Diaz was a man of enormous muscular 
 strength. George III. gave him a sword 
 which no man could wield but himself. 
 When captured in 1825 he burst the 
 cords which, bound him, threw from him 
 
 five men, and was only captured by 
 casting a cloak over him. Thus en- 
 tangled he was hanged on a tree. 
 
 Another derivation of the name is this : 'El Em- 
 pecinado, c. a. d. VempotHse, qui lui fut donne, 
 parce qu'il etait dun village de coidoiiniers, 
 etat oii Ion fait, comme on salt, grand usage de la 
 poix.'— liouiitet. 
 
 EmperorElect of the Romans. 
 
 Maximilian, who failed to get himself 
 crowned kaiser, in 1508 assumed the title 
 of ' Emperor Elect of the Romans.' Till 
 then the ' emperors elect ' were only 
 called ' Kings of the Romans ' {q.v.). 
 
 Emperor of Elba {The), 1814. 
 Napoleon I., after his abdication. Elba 
 is an island 20 leagues in extent, with 
 12,000 inhabitants. Napoleon was allowed 
 an annual income of 240,000?., and Jose- 
 phine, with other members of his family, 
 were allowed 80,000?. more. He entered 
 Elba 10 May, and left it 26 Feb., 1815 
 (298 days). 
 
 Emporor of the German King- 
 doms {The), 'Kaiser der deutschen 
 Reiche,' 18 Jan., 1871. William I., king of 
 Prussia, during the siege of Paris was 
 created ' German Emperor.' In the pre- 
 ceding Nov. he was made head of the Ger- 
 man Confederation {q.v.). The Austrian 
 monarchs were only kings of Germanjt 
 and emperors of the West, i.e. the Holy 
 Roman Empire, and hence were kaiser- 
 kings. They were sometimes called 
 emperors, a title which did not belong to 
 them as sovereigns of Germany, but as 
 sovereigns of the ^Vest. 
 
 ' Emperor of Germany ' is not a correct desig- 
 nation, but either ' Ucutscher Kaiser' {Genivm 
 Emperor) or ' Kaiber der deutschen Reiche.' 
 
 Emperor of the Romans. ' Em- 
 perors of Rome,' ' Emperors of the Holy 
 Roman Empire,' or ' Emj)erors of the 
 West,' all titles equivalent to kaiser, 
 borne by Charlemagnfe and his suc- 
 cessors. Otto the Great, king of Ger- 
 many, revived the title. From 1508 the 
 king of Germany was ex officio emperor 
 of the Romans, and the king elect was 
 emperor elect of the Romans, and con- 
 tinu'^d so till his coronation ; previously 
 the king elect of Gei-many had been en- 
 titled ' king of the Romans.' 
 
 Emperor of the Romans, i.e. king of Germany 
 after his coronation. 
 
 Emperor Elect of the Romans, the king elect 
 Of Germany from the time of Maximilian. 
 
 King of the Romans, the king elect of Germany 
 between Otto I. and Maximilian I. 
 
 u2 
 
292 
 
 EMPIRE 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDISTS 
 
 Empire St; ate (The) of North 
 America. New York, which has thirty- 
 six votes in the Electoral College of 401. 
 
 Empirics and Dogm.atists. Two 
 schools of medicine in Alexandria in the 
 three • centuries preceding the birth of 
 Christ. The Empirics took experience 
 as the only base of curing maladies. 
 The Dogmatists, or Methodists, were the 
 regulars who treated diseases according 
 to rule. The chiefs of the Empirics were 
 Phillnos of Cos, Sextus Empiricus, and 
 Heraclldes of Tarentum. 
 
 The chief of the Dogmatists were Erasistratos, 
 Themison, and Ccelius Aurelianus. 
 
 Empirics and Rationalists. Two 
 
 rival schools of philosophy. The Em- 
 pirics insist that our sole knowledge of 
 the material world depends upon our 
 senses. The Rationalists or Idealists 
 contend for an innate sense or per- 
 ception. Chief of the Empiric philo- 
 sophers are the Peripatetics, the disciples 
 of Democritos, Epiciiros, and Aristotle, 
 among the ancients ; and the di;iciples of 
 Hobbes, Locke, Condillac, and Diderot, 
 among the moderns. 
 
 The chief of the Rationalists or Idealists are 
 Plato, Malebranche, Kant, Scheliing, and Hegel. 
 
 There was also another school of Idealists, 
 the exponents of which were Berkeley, Hume, 
 ^ichte, &c. 
 
 Empress of India, 1877, Queen 
 Victoria assumed the title in addition to 
 her other titles. 
 
 Enabling Statute (The), 1540 (32 
 Henry VIII. c. 28). I. Enabling a tenant- 
 in-tail to make a lease for three lives, or 
 twenty-one years, to bind his issue. 
 
 li. Enabling a husband seised in right 
 of his wife in fee-simple, or fee-tail, to 
 make a similar lease to bind his wife and 
 her heirs, provided she joined therein. 
 
 III. Enabling ecclesiastics seised of 
 an estate of fee-simple in right of their 
 churches, to make leases to bind their 
 successors. Repealed by 19, 20 Vict. c. 
 120, s. 35. 
 
 There are other enabling acts by which eccle- 
 Biastical lands may be leased. 
 
 Enactments (Bussian). The old 
 form used in Russia was Boiare prigo- 
 vorili, i czar prikazal (The seniors are 
 of opinion, and the czar has enacted). 
 The seniors were called fto/yars = Latin 
 majores, ox primores, tiU Peter the Great 
 abolished the title. 
 
 Encke's Comet. Recurs in about 
 1,200 days. It was not discovered by 
 Encke (2 syl.), but its periodicity was. 
 
 Seen by Mechain 17 Jan., 1786. 
 
 Seen by Caroline Herschel 7-27 Nov., 
 1795. 
 
 Seen by Bonvard, Huth, and Pons 
 20 Oct. to 19 Nov., 1805. 
 
 Seen by Pons 25 Nov., 1818, to 12 Jan., 
 1819. 
 
 Johann Franz Encke (2 syl.) was born at Ham- 
 burg in 1701, and died in 1865. 
 
 Encratistes (3 syl.). See ' Encra- 
 tites.' 
 
 Encratites [The), or Abstainers, 
 A.D. 173. A religious sect founded by 
 Tatian, one of the Greek Fathers. They 
 abstained from marriage, meat, wine, and 
 indeed all bodily indulgences. They 
 distinguished between God and the 
 Creator, and they denied the reality of 
 Christ's body. 
 
 Encumbered Estates Act {The\ 
 14 Aug., 1848. Ireland. To enable per- 
 sons whose estates were encumbered by 
 mortgages, chancery suits, or otherwise, 
 to sell them at once, without delay or 
 expense, either wholly or in part, with * a 
 parliamentary title,' which is given at 
 the time of sale. 
 
 The Cmirt was established 28 July, 1849, and 
 closed 31 Aug., I.s5«. A similar Court was estab- 
 lished in the West Indies 11 Aug., 1854. 
 
 Encumbered Estates of Ireland. 
 
 Estates under the Court scattered all 
 over Ireland, with deserted mansions and 
 empty houses. Receivers take the place 
 of the non-resident landlords, and, of 
 course, are able to do nothing to help 
 the tenants or pay for improvements. 
 
 Encyclical Letter {An). A letter 
 from the pope or church council addressed 
 to a whole nation or the whole of Chris- 
 tendom. In 1884 the French nation was 
 addressed by an encyclical letter. 
 
 E icyclopasdists, 18th cent. 
 Leaders of thought who, in a publication 
 entitled the ' Encyclopaedia,' popularised 
 enquiry into the Christian religion, poli- 
 tics, science, and government. No doubt 
 these writers prepared the way for the 
 Great Revolution. 
 
 The chief were D'Alembert (1717-17S.3), joint 
 editor with Diderot of the famous ' Encyclopcedia, ' 
 in 28 vols., to which Voltaire and other living 
 savants contributed, Diderot (171'2-1783), a mate- 
 rialist, who made the ' Encyclopaedia ' a vehicle 
 tor the difCusion of materialistic and atheistic 
 
END 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 opinions. J. J. Roiisfieau, Grimm, Dumarsnis, 
 Voltaire, Baron d'Holbach, and Jancourt. (K.B. 
 Biography and history were excluded.) 
 
 End of the World. Nostradamus 
 said, in 1566 : 
 
 Quand Georges Dieu crucifera, 
 Que Marc le ressuscitera, 
 Et que St. Jean le portera, 
 La fin du moude arrivera. 
 
 That when Good Friday falls on 23 
 April (St. George's Day), and Easter 
 Sunday on 25 April (St. Mark's Day), 
 and Corpus Cliristi falls on 24 June 
 (Jolin the Baptist's Day), the world will 
 come to an end. This coincidence of 
 dates occurred in 1886, but the world 
 still wags. The same coincidences oc- 
 curred in 1784, 1666 (Great Fire), and, 
 what is strange, in 1546, in 1451, 1421, 
 1204, 1109, 1014, 919, 672, 577, 482, b87, 
 140, and in 45. So will it be in 1943. 
 
 *^* Sir Isaac Newton calculated (so 
 says the critic Corneille de Pauw) ' qu'une 
 comt^te heurtera si violemment notre 
 soleil en I'an 2255, qu'il n'y a plus aucune 
 esperance qu'il soit encore en etat 
 d'eclairer les liabitants de notre monde 
 apres cet accident.' 
 
 Endless Peace (The), a.d, 533. 
 Purchased by Justinian of Kosroes or 
 Chosrocs I. the Great, king of Persia, 
 for 11,000 pounds of gold (about 440,000Z. 
 sterling). It lasted barely seven years 
 (Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' xli.). 
 
 Erifans sans Souci {Lcs). A 
 volunteer theatrical company of young 
 tradesmen in Paris, in the 15th cent., for 
 the representation of satirical farces, in 
 which Hving characters and current 
 events were introduced. There was 
 another company formed of lawyers and 
 called the 'Basocians' (q-v.). 
 
 Pronounce Ahn-fahn sahgn soo-see. 
 
 Enfant de Miracle {L'). Napo- 
 leon I. 
 
 ' They flit like phantoms about the mimic court 
 of the " Enfant de Miracla." '—'I'lie Oracle, ItiSo. 
 
 Enforcing Act (T/ie). Passed Con- 
 gress 9 January, 1809. Its object was to 
 preserve strict neutrality between Eng- 
 land and France. All vessels from these 
 two countries were, by this act, excluded 
 from the United States. 
 
 Engagement (The). I., or Scottish 
 Covenant, 1643. The agreement of the 
 Assembly of Divines met in Henry VII. 's 
 Chapel at Westminster, to maintain 
 
 Presbyterianism. . The whole clergy were 
 required to submit ; and 3,000 were ejected 
 from their livings for refusing to do so. 
 
 II. In 1647. A secret treaty between 
 Charles I. and the ' Solemn League and 
 Covenant' {q-v.). Charles engaged to 
 establish Presbyterianism in Scotland 
 and extirpate the sectaries ; and the 
 league engaged to restore the king by 
 force of arms. See ' Engagers.' 
 
 III. In 1649. The new oath substi- 
 tuted by the Long Parliament, after the 
 execution of Charles I., for the oaths of 
 Supremacy and Allegiance : ' I swear to 
 be true and faithful to the government 
 established without king or house of 
 peers, and never to consent to their re- 
 admission.' 
 
 Some doubt may be raised of the policy of the 
 'Engagement.' . . . As long as it was confined to 
 those who held office under the government, it 
 remained a mere question of choice ; but when it 
 was exacted from all Englishmen above 17 years 
 of age ... it became tb many an act of necessity, 
 and served to irritate rather than to produce 
 Becuxity.— Dr. Lingakd, History of England, viii. 5. 
 
 Engagers (The), 1649. Or the party 
 of Hamilton, pledged to support ' the 
 Engagement.' The Duke of Hamilton 
 collected some 15,000 men, tumultuary 
 and ill-disciplined, on the king's 
 (Charles I.'s) behalf; but they were 
 utterly routed by Cromwell near War- 
 rington, and Hamilton surrendered. The 
 Engagers were the moderate Presbyterian 
 party; the rigid Presbyterians, called 
 ' Wiiigamores,' had the Duke of Argyll 
 for their leader, and were the dominant 
 party in the middle of the 17th cent. 
 
 If the Covenanters got the upper hand ... he 
 [Monirose] must abandon his most devoted fol- 
 lowers, the old Royalists and Engagers, and take 
 the covenant himself.— HowiTT, History of Eng- 
 land tCommonwealth, p. 315). 
 
 England. Its Sovereigns and Dynas- 
 ties since the Conquest : — 
 
 Norman line — Four kings (1066-1154) : 
 William I. the Conqueror; William II. 
 Pvufus (son) ; Henry I. Beauclerc 
 (brother) ; Stephen of Blois (nephew). 
 
 Plantagenet line — Eight kings (1154- 
 1399) : Henry II. (grandson of Henry I.); 
 Richard I. Coeur de Lion (son) ; John 
 Lackland (brother) ; Henry III. (son) ; 
 Edward I. Longshanks (son); Edward 11. 
 (son) ; Edward III. (son) ; Richard II. 
 (grandson). 
 
 House of Lancaster — Three kings 
 (1399-1461) : Henry IV. (son of John of 
 Gaunt duke of Lancaster); Henry V 
 (son) ; Henry VI. (son). 
 
294 
 
 ENGLAND'S 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 House of York — Three kings (1461- 
 1485) : Edward IV. (son of Eicliard duke 
 of York); Edward V. (son); Eichard HI. 
 (brother of Edward IV.). 
 
 Tudor line — Five sovereigns (1485- 
 1603): Henry YJl. (son of Edmund 
 Tudor and Margaret Beaufort) ; Henry 
 VIII. (son) ; Edward VI. (son) ; Mary 
 (daughter of Henry VIII. and Katharine 
 of Aragon) ; Elizabeth (daughter of 
 Henry VIII. and Anne Boleynj. Lady 
 Jane Grey not reckoned in the list. 
 
 Stuart Dynasty {sovereigns of Great 
 Britain) — Pour sovereigns (1603-16S9) : 
 James I. (son of Mary queen of Scots) ; 
 Charles I. (son) ; [Commonwealth : 
 Cromwell, Lord Protector] ; Charles II. 
 (son of Charles I.) ; James II. (brother) ; 
 Anne (daughter of James II.). 
 
 House of Orange (Revolution), 1689- 
 1714 : William III. (prince of Orange) 
 [grandson of Charles I.] and his wife 
 Mary (daughter of James II.), conjointly. 
 
 House of Hanover — At present (1890) 
 five sovereigns (1714-*) : George I. 
 (elector of Hanover) ; George II. (son) ; 
 George III. (grandson, son of Frederick 
 prince of Wales) ; George IV. (son) ; 
 William IV. (brother) ; Victoria (niece of 
 William IV., daughter of Edward duke of 
 Kent). See ' English Sovereigns.' 
 
 The Saxon race, •which dominated 827-lOlS, gave 
 fourteen sovereigns. The Saxons and Danes 
 gave eight sovereigns (1013-1066). 
 
 N.B. — The English monarchs descend 
 through the female line from King 
 Egbert, the first king of England ; and 
 trace back in the male side up to Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, whose son, Henry I., 
 married Matilda, daughter of Margaret 
 and Malcolm III. of Scotland. Margaret 
 was the daughter of Prince Edward, and 
 granddaughter of King Edmund, lineally 
 descended from Egbert. See ' Victoria.' 
 
 England's Darling. Hereward 
 the Wake, lord of Burn in Lincolnshire, 
 famous for his resistance to William the 
 Conqueror. He established his ' camp 
 of refuge ' in the Isle of Ely, where, in 
 1071, he was joined by Earl Morcar. 
 Morcar surrendered and was im^jrisoued 
 in Normandy, but Hereward escaped. 
 
 * Ensiland's Standard Ad- 
 vanced,' 1 May, 1649. A manifesto 
 ssued by Captain Thompson demanding 
 the completion of public freedom, vowing 
 justice on the murderers of Arnold and 
 
 Lockyer, and threatening, if a hair of 
 Lilburne's head was touched, to avenge 
 the wrong seventy-and-sevenfold. Tliis 
 party was put down on 17 May by Fairfax 
 and Cromwell, who shot Cornet Thomp- 
 son (brother of Capt. Thompson) and two 
 corporals in Burford churchyard ; the 
 rest promised to return to Ireland. 
 
 Locliyer, a trooper, a brave young fellow of 23, 
 was shot by Fairfax and Ct'omwell. 20 April, 104f), 
 for mutiny. He was buried witli military honours, 
 followed by thousands with sea-green and blacii 
 ribbons on their hats. 
 
 (The) 
 
 English. Aristopliands 
 
 Samuel Foote (1722-1777). 
 
 English. Chrysostom (The). 
 
 Jeremy Taylor is so called by Coleridge 
 in ' Table Talk ' (4 June 1830). 
 
 English Church Union (The), 
 abbreviated into E.C.U. Formed in 
 1859 ' for the purpose of uniting church- 
 men in defence of the doctrine and disci- 
 ]Diine of the Church of England, and of 
 the rights and liberties of her faithful 
 children.' It is what is called a high- 
 church or ' ritualistic '. association. 
 
 The ' Church Association ' represents the ' mode- 
 rate ' or ' Evangelical ' party. 
 
 English Claude (The). Thomas 
 Gainsborough (died 1788 at the age of 61). 
 
 English Crown (The). 
 the following jewels : 
 
 Containa 
 
 1 large ruby, irregularly 
 polished. 
 
 I large broad-spread 
 sapphire. 
 
 16 sapphires, 
 
 II emeralds. 
 
 4 rubies. 
 
 l,Hm brilliants. 
 
 1,27'2 rose diamonds. 
 
 147 table diamonds. 
 
 4 drop shaped pearls. 
 
 273 pearls. 
 
 The gross weight of the crown made in 1838 by 
 Messrs. Kundcli A Bridge is .Sfl oz. 5 dwta. Troy. 
 
 The famous rubv was given to Edward the Ulack 
 Prince by Don Pedro of Castile in 1307. Usury V. 
 wore it in his helmet at the battle of Agincourt in 
 1415. 
 
 English Ennius {The). See ' En- 
 nius.' 
 
 English Garrison {The). So the 
 Irish landlords were denominated by 
 the partisans of the Irish Land League 
 {q.v.). The third allegation of the Times, 
 in their charge called 'Parnellism and 
 Crime,' 17 Sept., 1888. 
 
 We [the three Roj'al Commissioners] find that 
 the respondents did enter into a conspiracy to a 
 syr^tem of coercion and intimidation to promote 
 an agrarian agitation ... for the purpose of im- 
 poverishing and expelling from the country tha 
 Irish landlords, who were styled the ' Engliiih 
 Garrison.'— Kecdict (1890). 
 
 English Justinian {The). Ed- 
 ward- I. (1239, 1272-1307). So called 
 
ENGLISH 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 295 
 
 because, like Justinian, he codified the 
 laws, and reduced to practical shape the 
 institutions of his predecessors. Edward 
 I., in fact, begins a new epoch ; all before 
 him was ancient England, all from his 
 accession is modern England. He de- 
 fined the limits of civil and ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction, instituted the appointment 
 of ' Conservators of the Peace,' now called 
 ' Justices of the Peace,' organised into 
 their present shape the superior courts 
 (the Queen's Bench, the Exchequer, and 
 the Common Pleas), and instituted the 
 ' Court of Appeal,' the basis of our ' Court 
 of Chancery.' 
 
 In this reign were passed the ' Statute of Mort- 
 main,' 127L), and the '^Statute cf Kliuddlan,' 1281. 
 And both Magna Charta and the Charter of the 
 Forest were coutirined. 
 
 English Language {The). Or- 
 dered to be used in all courts of law, 1362 
 (3G Edw. ni. St. i. c. 15). 
 
 It is a pity that the sovereign still uses Norman 
 French, instead of English, in expressing the 
 royal assent or dissent to Acts of Parliament. 
 
 English Language, how derived. 
 
 II. Indian (Sanskrit). 
 2. Persian (Zend). 
 3. Slavonic (Russian). 
 4. CeZ^?c (Gaelic and Cymric). 
 5 GrcEco-Latin (Greek). 
 6. Gothic (German). 
 Teutonic [l. Ma;so-GotMc. 
 
 Gothic J 2. Loiv German (English, 
 has three 1 Dutch, Flemish). 
 
 groups is. High German (German;. 
 See ' Erse.' 
 
 English Martsrr {The first), 10 
 March, 1401. William Sawtre, rector of 
 Lynn, Norfolk, who was burnt at the 
 stake in the reign of Henry IV. 
 
 * English Mercurie ' {The), 1588. 
 Was for many years considered to be tiie 
 oldest English newsi)aper, but in 1839 
 Mr. Thomas Watts of the British Museum 
 proved it to be an impudent forgei'v, as 
 the paper on which it is printed bears 
 the arms of the House of Hanover, and 
 the initials ' G. R.' See 'Literary For- 
 geries.' 
 
 English TTational Anthem. 
 
 ' God save the King ' (or Queen). 
 
 E nglish Pale ( The). In Ireland. The 
 five districts of Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, 
 Waterford, and Wexford. Generally 
 called ' the Pale ' (Henry II.). 
 
 There was aa ' English Pale ' about Calais. 
 
 English Pope (The). Adrian IV. 
 (1100, 1154-1159). His name was Nicho- 
 las Breakspear. 
 
 English Sovereigns do not suc- 
 ceed to the crown by hereditary right, 
 but by parliamentary authority. A 
 crooked sort of descent is preserved, but 
 not like that of our hereditary nobility. 
 
 WiLLLVM I. had no hereditary right 
 at all. The heir (though not of royal 
 descent) was Harold. 
 
 William II. had no hereditary right. 
 The heir was his elder brother Robert 
 duke of Normandy. 
 
 Henry I. had no hereditary right. The 
 heir was Robert. 
 
 Stephen, the nephew of Henry I., had 
 no hereditary right. The heir was 
 Maud. 
 
 John had no hereditary right. The 
 heir was Arthur, son of Geoffrey, 4th son 
 of Henry II. John was the 5th son. 
 
 Henry II. had no hereditary right. 
 The heir was Eleanor, damsel of Brittany, 
 heiress of William I. 
 
 Henry IV. had no hereditary right 
 after Richard II. ; the heir was Edward 
 Mortimer, earl of March, by descent 
 from Lionel (3rd son of Edward III.). 
 Henry IV. was the son of John of Gaunt 
 (4th son of Edward III.). 
 
 Henry V. and VI. were out of the 
 direct line, which was continued in the 
 line of Mortimer earl of March. 
 
 Richard III. had no right to the 
 crown while Edward V. was alive, and 
 after the death of his nephew Edward 
 the direct heirs were the sons of George 
 duke of Clarence, his elder brother. 
 
 Henry VII. had no right in descent ; 
 he was the son of Edmund Tudor, whose 
 only pretence to ' royal descent ' was 
 that his grandmother was the widow of 
 Henry V. (daughter of Charles VI king 
 of France). The heir was Elizabeth of 
 York, whom he married after he became 
 king. 
 
 There was another equally shadowy 'claim.' 
 His paternal grandmother, Margaret, was the 
 granddaughter of an illegitimate son of John of 
 Gannt (i.e. John Beaufort earl of Richmond had 
 a natural son by Katharine Swynford). 
 
 William III. and Mary had no here- 
 ditary right. The heir was the Old 
 Pretender. 
 
 Anne had ho hereditary right. The 
 heir was the Queen of Sardinia, by Hen- 
 rietta Anne, daughter of Charles I. 
 
 George I. had no hereditary right. 
 
296 
 
 ENaLISH 
 
 EOLIO 
 
 This line was cTiosen by parliament be- 
 cause the Brunswickers were the nearest 
 Protestant relatives to their predecessors. 
 See 'England,' its sovereigns and dy- 
 nasties. 
 
 English Sweat (The), Sept. 1482. 
 So called because those attacked were 
 covered from head to foot with a profuse 
 perspiration. It lasted twenty-four hours, 
 and sometimes longer, but left an extreme 
 languor with palpitations for three years, 
 and in some cases till death. Some 600 
 persons were attacked daily, and ninety 
 out of a hundred died. It reappeared in 
 the years 1485 and 1486. See ' Plague,' 
 &c. 
 
 From 1506 to 1551 a modification of this disease 
 appeared in Great Britain and in France. It was 
 attributed to bad drainage, and was especially- 
 fatal to tiie fat and non-industrial class. Twelve 
 hours decided whether it would prove fatal or not. 
 
 In 1533 it broke out in Germany and the Nether- 
 lands, and again appeared in England in 1542 and 
 1551, since which time it has not recurred. 
 
 English Twenty Club {The). A 
 club restricted to twenty of the best 
 shots amongst the English volunteers. 
 In 1884 Albert Victor, son of the prince 
 of Wales, joined the club. 
 
 English in the Pale. The Eng- 
 lish settled in Ireland, holding the estates 
 of native chiefs expelled by Strafford. 
 These colonists kept themselves apart 
 not only from the Irish proper but also 
 from the Anglo-Irish. Many of the Pale 
 were Catholics. See ' English Pale.' 
 
 Enne'ades (3 syl.). The great work 
 of Plotlnus, the neoplatonic philosopher, 
 edited by Porph^Try his disciple. It con- 
 sists of six sections each divided into nine 
 parts; hence the name Enneades or 
 Nines. 
 
 Ennius {The English). Layamon, 
 who wrote a translation in Saxon of ' The 
 Brut ' of Wace (13th cent.). 
 
 Ennius {The Sjmnish). Juan de 
 Mena of Cord(5va (1412-1456). 
 
 Ennius of France {The). Jehan 
 de Meung (1260-1820), surnamed Clojn- 
 nel, because he was lame and hobbled in 
 his gait. He added 1,280 verses to the 
 ' Romance of the Hose,' begun by Lorris. 
 
 Enoch {The Book of). Ptef erred to 
 by Jude, supposed to have been written 
 about A.D. 40. Three Ethiopic versions 
 were brought to Europe by Bruce in 
 1773 ; and a translation of it into English 
 
 by Dr. Laurence was published in 1821; 
 and much more recently Dr. Kenealy 
 published a translation ' illustrated.' 
 
 It is divided into five parts : (1) the fall of the 
 angels and the journey of Enoch through the 
 earth under the guidance of an angel; (2) tlie re- 
 velation made to Enoch, as that of the revelation 
 of St. John; (3) astronomy and the phenomena 
 of the seasons ; (4) the prophetic vision of the 
 Messiah's kingdom till the Last Judgment ; (5) ex- 
 hortations and moral reflections. 
 
 Bruce presented one of his MS. copies to the 
 Bodleian Library, Oxford. 
 
 Ensign of the British Navy 
 
 {The). The Union Jack. It consists of 
 three crosses, the blue field of St. Andrew 
 is the field ; then the white saltire of St. 
 Andrew and the red saltire of St. Patrick, 
 joined together, with a white edging to 
 the latter, to express the field ; over all 
 is charged the red cross of St. George 
 fimbriated with white. 
 
 The white ensig-n of the British or 
 Eoyal Navy is the banner of St. George, 
 with the 'Jack' cantoned in the first 
 quarter. 
 
 The red ensign is that of the merchant 
 service. 
 
 The blue ensign is that of the naval 
 reserve. 
 
 Ensignmen, 1662. Those evicted 
 Irishmen who joined the ensigns of 
 Charles II. in Flanders, and after his re- 
 turn were entitled to have their estates 
 restored to them by the Act of Settle- 
 ment. To prevent injustice the then 
 holders were ' reprised ' by the grant of 
 land elsewhere of the same value. 
 
 The claimants fared but badly. One of them 
 was Lord Castleconnell,who had served Charles II. 
 for five or six years as a common soldier in the 
 Netherlands, in the Puke of York's regiment. 
 Another was Colonel Charles MacCarthy I'.eagh, 
 onca the owner of a principality. It was found 
 impossible to carry out the Restoration Settle- 
 ment. 
 
 Enthusiasts {The). A sect of the 
 Independents which sprang up during 
 the civil war between Charles I. and the 
 parliament. The word was applied to 
 all those who insisted that the Scriptures 
 must be interpreted by the light of pri- 
 vate inspiration. 
 
 Under the head of Independents .... were the 
 Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
 Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectlsts, Soci- 
 nians, Arians, and otliers.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. 
 (Cliarles I., chap. vi. p. 273). 
 
 Eolic Dialect. The Eolians formed 
 one of the four great divisions of Greece, 
 and dwelt originally north of Thessaly, 
 but pushed their way southwards. Their 
 dialect was distinguished by an aspira- 
 
EON 
 
 EPIDEMICS 
 
 207 
 
 tion of initial vowels, called the digamma. 
 Alcpcos, Sappho, Corinna, and Pindar 
 wrote in the Eolic dialect. One of the 
 modes of music was called Eolic ; it was 
 less grave than the Doric, and less 
 effeminate than the Lydian and Ionian. 
 
 Eon de I'Etoile, 12th cent. A reli- 
 gious impostor who gave himself out to be 
 the Son of God, and drew around him a 
 host of followers. In 1148 he was taken 
 before the Council of Reims, and pro- 
 nounced to be an idiot, but was thrown 
 into prison and died there. He used to 
 pervert '■ Eurn qui venturus est' into 
 * Eon qui venturus est.' 
 
 Eons. Intermediaries between the 
 Supreme Being and the Jewish Jehovah ; 
 or, according to the Gnostic theory, be- 
 tween God and man. Wisdom is an Eon, 
 so is Faith, so is Prudence. Basilides 
 says there are 365 such beings, but Valen- 
 tin admits only thirty. 
 
 In modern phraseology the -word ' Eon ' (from 
 the Greek rtion, for ever) means an interminable 
 period. Thus Eternity is said to be ' eon upon 
 eon.' 
 
 Ephesian Letters. Magical letters 
 from an inscription of the statue of 
 Diana in the temple of Ephesus. These 
 letters were looked on as an amulet or 
 charm. They were ascribed to the 
 Dactyli or priests of Cybele. The letters 
 were Askion, Kataskion, Tetras, Dam- 
 namenetts, Aisia. 
 
 When Milesius contended with Ephesius at the 
 Olympic games, Ephesius proved the successful 
 competitor, because he had the Ephrnian U'ltt-rs 
 attached to his heels. When these were removed 
 Milesius was the winner. 
 
 Epliors. Five contemporary Spartan 
 magistrates of almost unlimited civil 
 power. The two contemporary kings 
 were, for the most part, only generals of 
 the army. 
 
 Ephtalites (3 syl), or White Huns 
 iq.v.). 
 
 Epicureans (The). Ancient Greek 
 I)hilosophers, so named from Epicuros of 
 Samos, the founder. He taught in hia 
 own private grounds in Athens, and his 
 disciples, like tlie Academics, were called 
 the ' Garden sect.' His system was that 
 the chief aim of life should be enjoy- 
 ment ; that the liighest degree of enjoy- 
 ment is perfect repose ; and that is to be 
 obtained only by keeping a sound and 
 healthy mind in a sound and healthy 
 body. Epicuros lived B.C. 312-270. His 
 disciples were Metrodoros, Polytenos, and 
 Hermaclios. His successors were Poly- 
 stratos, Basilides, Protarchos, and others 
 of less note. 
 
 Heraclltos of Ephesus (B.C. 543-483) taught that 
 happiness is the end and aim of life. 
 
 Epicure'ans {The Sect of the). One 
 of the Grecian sects in the early ages 
 of Christianity. They denied that God 
 troubles Himself about mundane matters, 
 and taught that the world was made by 
 the chance conflux of atoms. They dis- 
 believed in a resurrection ; held that 
 man consists only of a material body, 
 and as this life is his end-all and be- 
 all, his duty is to make the best of it, 
 without taking any thought of a state 
 after death. 
 
 Epicu'rus of China (The). Tao 
 or Taou, generally called by the title 
 Laou-keun. He is mentioned by Kong- 
 foo-tse {Confucius), with whom he was 
 contemporary (about 5th cent. B.C.). 
 See ' Tao ' and ' Taoism.' 
 
 Epidemics. Such diseases as 
 attack a large number of persons at the 
 same time. The following have been 
 noted : — 
 
 Year Popular Name 
 
 Scientific Name 
 
 Affected 
 
 Authority 
 
 1374 
 
 1523 
 
 1642, &C. 
 
 1731 
 
 1800 
 
 Various 
 
 1845 
 
 Dancing mania 
 
 Wolf madness 
 
 Demoniacal possc'^'iion 
 Convulsionaries of St. Mudard 
 
 Incendiarism 
 
 Witchcraft 
 
 Suicide 
 
 Visions 
 
 Panic 
 
 Chorea-VMnia 
 
 Lijcanthropia 
 
 Demono-mania 
 
 Theo-mania 
 
 Pyro-mania 
 
 Demono-pathia 
 
 Melnncholia 
 
 Delusions 
 
 Pan-phubia 
 
 Hundreds 
 
 Many 
 Thousands 
 
 Maiiy 
 
 Hecker 
 Calmiel 
 
 Marc 
 
 Vaiiom 
 
 Esquirol 
 
 Boismont 
 
 'Edin. Keview,'1849. 
 
 Asiatic cholera appeared in Ea.uland in ls:31 and several times since Russian influenza was very 
 fatal in London in 1720, and has frequently appeared in England since 1162. 
 
298 
 
 EPIPHANES 
 
 EEA 
 
 Eplph'anes (4 syl.). Ptolemy V. 
 This surname seems to have been given 
 in irony. Similarly Ptolemy II., called 
 'brother-lover,' murdered all his brothers, 
 and Ptolemy IV., called ' father-lover,' 
 murdered both father and mother. So 
 Ptolemy V., who began to reign at the 
 age of 4, was poisoned at the age of 28, 
 having distinguished himself in nothing. 
 He was simply a commonplace villain. 
 
 Epipliany {The). A season kept in 
 remembrance of the visit of the Magi to 
 the infant Jesus in Bethlehem. First cele- 
 brated in 360. Twelfth day (or 6 Jan.). 
 It was not held as a separate festival till 81.3. 
 
 Episcopacy in Scotland. The 
 
 three old women who hurled their stools 
 at the head of the dean of Edinburgh, 
 22 July, 1637, for attempting to read the 
 Anglican service in St. Giles's Church, 
 were Euphemia Henderson, Bertha Craig, 
 and Elsj)a Craig. The congregation 
 shouted, ' A pope ! a pope ! Antichrist ! 
 Stone him ! stone him ! ' 
 
 Episcopal Cap {The). A cap 
 adorned with cordels and silk threads of 
 a green colour. ' Pileus pontificalis cor- 
 dulis ac floccis sericis coloris viridis 
 ornatus.' See Du Cange, vol. v. p. 300. 
 See 'Caps.' 
 
 'Cordula' means little cords or threads, a 
 word not to be found in Latin dictionaries. 
 
 Episcopalians. Properly means 
 those who accept the institution of 
 bishops as rulers of the Church, but in 
 modern parlance the term is restricted 
 to the Church of England, and those 
 churches which are associated with it, as 
 Catholics is to the Church of Rome and 
 Presbyterians to the Church of Scot- 
 land. The words are convenient and only 
 perversely distorted to their etymological 
 meanings. 
 
 It is puerile to contend against the ordinary 
 acceptance of these words. They speak with 
 sufficient preciseness for ordinary language, and 
 If more is required we must indeed ' speak by the 
 card or equivocation will undo us.' 
 
 Episcopi Vagan'tes (8 syl.). 
 Free bishops. They had no diocese, 
 but received the title for their learning. 
 They were almost entirely Irish, and 
 assumed the power of ordaining, till a 
 Council called in 816 decreed that no 
 Scot (Irishman) so ordained should be 
 admitted into the ministry. 
 
 Epoch of the Building of Solo- 
 mon's Temple {The), May b.c. 1015. 
 
 Era — Epoch. An era is a series of 
 years beginning from an epoch. An epoch 
 is an important event which constitutes 
 the starting point of the series. Thus the 
 birth of Christ was the epoch from which 
 the Christian era begins to count, either 
 backwards or forwards, or both. 
 
 Before the Nativity there was no 
 general starting point of historic dates, 
 but each nation chose its own epoch; 
 generally the foundation of a city, the 
 commencement of a dynasty, or some 
 famous victory. These eras can easily be 
 reduced to B.C. or a.d. if required, accord- 
 ing to the notes appended to several of 
 the following eras. The Catholic Church 
 divides the whole history of man into six 
 epochs or ages of unequal length, viz. : — 
 
 1. From Adam to Noah ; 
 
 2. From Noah to Abraham ; 
 
 3. From Abraham to David ; 
 
 4. From David to the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity ; 
 
 5. From the captivity of Judah to the 
 birth of Christ ; 
 
 6. From the birth of Christ to the end 
 of the world. 
 
 But indej)endent of these epochs there 
 are numerous other events which have 
 been made points de dejjart by different 
 people : — 
 
 The Era of the Greek Olympiads B.C. 776 
 
 The Era of the Foundation of Rome ... 753 
 
 The Era of Nabonassar 747 
 
 The Era of Alexander the Great 824 
 
 The Era of the SeleucidEe 312 
 
 The Julian Era 45 
 
 and so on. 'See ' ^ra.' 
 
 Era {The Mundane). Many chrono- 
 logists date from the foundation of the 
 world, at any rate up to the Nativity ; 
 but great diversity of opinion exists on 
 the subject. The chief authorities are : 
 ' The Benedictines,' Calmet, The Greek 
 Church, Professor Hales, and Archbishop 
 Usher. 
 
 The Benedictines' system is better known as 
 'L'Art de Verifier les Dates.' 
 
 I)om Augustin Calmet (l()72-17o7) was a learned 
 theologian of Lorraine, author of a ' Dictionary of 
 the Bible,' in French. 
 
 The Greek Church based its calculation on the 
 Septuagint. 
 
 Hales (Prof. Williaml of Dublin University, 
 author of a ' New Analysis of Chronology ' (1809- 
 1814). 
 
 Dr. James Usher, archbishop of Armagh, was 
 born in Dublin (1580-1656) ; and is the author of 
 ' Annales Veteris et Novi Testament!,' and a book 
 of universal Chronology. 
 
 Number of years between the Creation 
 
 AND THE Nativity. 
 
 According to the modern Greek Calendar .... 7.388 
 
 According to Josephus 7'283 
 
 According to Scaliger ^ m, —, ... 56_J 
 
ERA 
 
 ERA 
 
 299 
 
 Accordingto the ancient Greek Church ... 5508 
 
 According to Professor Hales 5411 
 
 According to ' L'Art de Verifier Ics Dates ' ... 49G8 
 
 According to Archbishop Usher 4004 
 
 Accordingto Calm et 4000 
 
 According to the Jews S7G0 
 
 See ' Era of Antioch,' ' Era of Constanti- 
 nople,' ' Era of Alexandria,' &c. 
 
 Prof. William Hales, the Chronologist, who died 
 In 18.'U, must not be confounded with Alexander 
 de Hales, who died in 1242, and was called the 
 ' Irrefragable Doctor.' 
 
 Era of Abraham {The). Those 
 who rcmke the patriarch Abraham the 
 epoch of their chronology begin their era 
 1 Oct., B.C. 2016. 
 
 To reduce the era of Abraham to the Christian 
 era, subtract 2,015 years and throe months. The 
 remainder will be the year and the month. 
 
 Era of Actium {The), or 'the 
 Actiatic Era.' Began 1 Jan. B.C. 30. It 
 commemorates the victory of Octavianus 
 (Augustus Cissar) over Antony. 
 
 Weourselves often spsak of events as occurring 
 before or since the Conquest. 
 
 Era of Alexander {The), or Era of 
 the Lagidee, that is of Ptolemy son of 
 Lagus, a general of Alexander the Great, 
 v/ho reigned in Egypt after the death of 
 the Macedonian. The era here referred 
 to was that which began with the death 
 of Alexander, and was used in Egypt after 
 the accession of Ptolemy. It began 
 12 Nov., B.C. 324. 
 
 Called in Latin JEra Philippi or ^ra Bicornis. 
 
 Era of Alexandria {The). A com- 
 putation of Julius Africanus adopted 
 by the Christians of Alexandria, who 
 reckoned the interval between Adam and 
 Christ to be 5,500 years, or rather 5,502. 
 In the re!gn of Diocletian ten years 
 were deducted, and 5,787 was called 
 5,777 of the world, or 277 of the incar- 
 nation. 
 
 Era of American Indepen- 
 dence {The), 4 July, 1776. 
 
 Era of Antioch {The). According 
 to Panodorus of Antioch, the chronolo- 
 gist, who lived in the 5th cent., the world 
 was created 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. 
 
 This differs from the Mundane Era of Alexan- 
 dria, which was fixed at 5502 ; but In A.D. 285, ten 
 years bein?? subtracted from the Alexanflrian cal- 
 culation, both the eras were aliiie. tiee ' £ia, Xlie 
 Mundane.' 
 
 Era of Augustus {The), or of 'the 
 Empire,' adopted by the Romans. It 
 began B.C. 27. 
 
 Era of Bengal, or * The Bengalee 
 Era.' Measured by solar time, and not 
 
 by lunar, like the Mohammedan year. It 
 is supposed, however, to be derived from 
 the Hegira, and in the middle of the 
 16th cent, the two correspond. 
 
 Era of Bithynia {The). An era 
 adopted by the Bithynians, who took for 
 their starting point the year when they 
 threw off the Macedonian yoke, and be- 
 came indej)endent ; that is, B.C. 2b8. 
 
 This means that the year B.C 288 of the Chris- 
 tian Era was the year 1 of the Bithynian Era. 
 
 Era of Constantinople {The). 
 
 Adopted in the Eastern Empire in the 
 7th cent. Like the" Era of Antioch {q.v.), 
 it began from the creation of the world. 
 According to this calculation, the interval 
 between the Creation and the Nativity 
 was 5,508 years, and the birth of Christ 
 occurred in the 5,509th year. The Rus- 
 sians followed this era till the reign of 
 Peter the Great. 
 
 The civil year of Constantinople began 1 Sept.; 
 the ecclesiastical year either 21 Blarch or 1 April. 
 So in the Church of England the civil year begins 
 on New Year s Day, but the ecclesiastical year in 
 the preceding Advent, four weeks before Cliristmas 
 Day. 
 
 Era of Creation (T/ie). /See 'Era, 
 
 The Mundane.' 
 
 Era of Diocletian {The). Began 
 29 Aug. A.D. 284, when Diocletian was 
 proclaimed emperor of Rome. This era 
 was used by Christians till the introduc- 
 tion of the Christian era. See next 
 article. 
 
 Era of Jesus Christ {The), or the 
 ' Christian era,' the ' Year of Grace,' or 
 * the Incarnation.' Begins 1 Jan. in 
 4714 of the Julian period. This era was 
 first used in 527 by Dionisius Exiguus, a 
 monk of Scythia, and a Roman abbot, 
 but was not generally adopted till long 
 after that. In France in the 8th cent., 
 in England in July 816, in Spain in the 
 11th cent., in Portugal in 1415, in the 
 Eastern empire in 1453. It was in use 
 in England as far back as a.d. 680. 
 
 Herod the Great died A.U.C. 750, and the era of 
 Jesus Christ is a.u.C. 753. There must be an error 
 of three years or more, for Herod not only died 
 A.U.C. 750, but he spent the last forty days of hia 
 life at Jericho. 
 
 Kegnante in perpctuum ac gubernante Domino 
 nostro Salvatore seoula universa, anno recapitu- 
 lationis Dionisi, id est ab Incarnatione Chrii^ti, 
 sexcentessimo octuagessimo [c«0]. . . . Ego Oshere 
 Rex. . . . 
 
 Sometimes called ' Annus Trabeationia ' ; and 
 sometimes ' The Circumcision.' 
 
 Era of Julius Csesar {The), or 
 'the Julian Era.' It was B.C. 46 when 
 
SCO 
 
 ERA 
 
 ERA 
 
 Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, and 
 Julian's system prevailed in England 
 till 1752, when it was superseded by the 
 Gregorian year. What we call the ' Old 
 Style' is that according to the Julian 
 system :and what we call the 'New 
 Style' is the Old Style corrected. In 
 1752 the diiTerence was twelve days. 
 
 Russia still adheres to the ' Old Style.' 
 
 Era of Kings {The). See 'Era of 
 the Seleucidse.' 
 
 Era of ITabonassar (The). This 
 era began on Wednesday, 26 Feb., B.C. 
 747. Nabonasr.ar was the founder of the 
 kingdom of Babylon. The Jews at this 
 era made their year consist of 365 days 
 instead of 360. 
 
 Famous in astronomy, being the era followed by 
 Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It was used by the 
 Chaldsean astronomers, and was transmitted by 
 Callis'thenes to Greece. 
 
 Era of Pisa [The). Much used in 
 France in the 12th cent. ; it preceded our 
 common era by one year. 
 
 Era of Rome (The). See 'Era of 
 the Foundation of Rome.' 
 
 Era of Saliv^hana Saka {The), 
 or ' The Saka ' {i.e. the year), began a.d. 
 78. Named after Salivahan, a king who 
 reigned many years in the Deccan, and 
 was a great encourager of the arts and 
 sciences. This era is much used in the 
 southern provinces of Hindustan. The 
 years are called ' Saka.' 
 
 Era of Spain (r/ie). Began 1 Jan., 
 B.C. 38, and was in commemoration of 
 the conquest of Sjiain by Augustus the 
 year preceding. This era was long fol- 
 lowed in Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Era of Tyre {The). Began 19 Oct., 
 B.C. 125 ; the year when the Tyrians ob- 
 tained their autonomy from the Syrian 
 kings. This era was used in Syria. 
 
 To reduce the Tyrian Era to the Christian Era, 
 subtract 124, and if the given year is less than 125, 
 deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the 
 year B.C. 
 
 Era of ■yicram^^ditya is reckoned 
 from B.C. 56, and prevails chiefly in the 
 northern provinces of India, and in Guz- 
 erat. It is called after a sovereign of 
 Malwa, who defeated Soka king of Delhi, 
 and acquired possession of the most im- 
 portant throne of India. The years are 
 called ' Samvat.' 
 
 According to India,n mythology the world is to 
 iBsiioviyuys [agesj.three of which are past already. 
 
 The fourth, called the Knli-yug, is the last and 
 worst. 
 
 Era of Yezdegird (T7ie). A Per- 
 sian era which began on the accession of 
 Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, 
 16 June, A.D. 632. Also called ' the Ge- 
 lalsean era.' 
 
 To reduce the Persian to the Christian era, add 
 to the Persian era G30. 
 
 Era of the Arabians {The). See 
 * Era of the Hegira.' 
 
 Era of the Armenians {The). 
 This era began Tuesday, 9 July, a.d. 
 552, when the Council of the Armenians 
 confirmed the condemnation of the Coun- 
 cil of Chalcedonia, pronounced in 530, and 
 thus completed their * schism.' 
 
 Era of the Ascension {The). 
 
 Tlie era was used only by the author of 
 the ' Chronicle of Alexandria,' who dates 
 the martyrdom of Menas, ' Anno CCLVII 
 Domini in coelos assumptionis.' 
 
 To reduce this era to our A.D. add 38. Thus the 
 martyrdom of St. Menas of Cotys is given in tlia 
 'Chronicle': 'Anno CCLVII I)omini in coelos 
 assumptionis.' Which would bo A.D. 2y5. 
 
 Eraof the Chinese (T7^e). Begins 
 B.C. 2697. The Chinese begin their era 
 with the accession of the Emperor Yao, 
 a semi-historical monarch of the Tenth 
 Ki (or race). Yao was the traditional 
 author of the Chinese calendar, who first 
 divided the year into 365 days, with an 
 extra day every fourth year. 
 
 It is said that on one occasion, during the reign 
 of Yao, the sun did not set for ten days. Soma 
 perSi nr, quote this, but not wisely, in confirmation 
 of Joshua X. 12. 
 
 Era of the Foundation of 
 
 nom.e{The). A.U.C. 
 According to Vai'ro 21 April, B.C. 753 
 According to the Capitoline Marbles 752 
 According to Polybius . . . 751 
 According to Archbishop Usher , 748 
 According to Fabius Pictor . . 747 
 According to Newton . . . 627 
 
 Cato, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Solinus, and 
 Eusebius follow the date given by the Capitoline 
 Ma,rbles. 
 
 The Roman emperors, with Plutarch, Tacitus, 
 Dion, Aulus Gellius. Censorinus, Onuphrius, Ba- 
 ronius, Prof. Hales, Bibhop Beveridge, Strauchius, 
 Dr. Playfair, &c. follow the computation of Varro. 
 
 Era of the French Kepublic 
 
 {The). Began 22 Sept., 1792, the day of 
 the foundation of the French Bepublic, 
 and terminated 31 Dec, 1805. 
 
 The following talila will show the correspond- 
 enco between the foolish French system and the 
 ordinary Christian era 
 
EEA 
 
 ERASTIANISM 
 
 801 
 
 Year 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 From 22 Sept 
 
 , 1702 to 21 Sept 
 
 , 1703 
 
 11. 
 
 11 M 
 
 17 13 „ „ 
 
 I7;i4 
 
 III. 
 
 II i> 
 
 1704 „ „ 
 
 1795 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 17.1.5 „ 
 
 179G 
 
 V. 
 
 II 
 
 17J6 „ „ 
 
 1797 
 
 VI. 
 
 " 
 
 17 '7 „ „ 
 
 17 8 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 17!W „ „ 
 
 1799 
 
 VIII. 
 
 11 11 
 
 17)9 „ „ 
 
 18 TO 
 
 IX. 
 
 11 
 
 IS )0 „ „ 
 
 ISOl 
 
 X. 
 
 ' 
 
 !>- 1 11 .. 
 
 1892 
 
 XI. 
 
 II 
 
 UJI „ „ 
 
 1803 
 
 XII. 
 
 " 
 
 18 j8 
 
 1804 
 
 XIII. 
 
 " 
 
 18j4 
 
 1805 
 
 XIV, 
 
 
 18J5 to 31 Dec 
 
 ,1805 
 
 EraoftheHeg'ira(rM. Adopted 
 by all Mohammedans. It began with the 
 ' flight ' of Mohammed from Mecca, 16 
 July, 622. 
 
 The i of ' Hegira ' is generally pronounced long, 
 but it would be more correctly written and pro- 
 nounced ' Hedj'rah.' The word does not mean 
 jlight hut emiiiration. Some place the Hedjrah on 
 Thursday, 15 July. 
 
 Era of the Jews {The). The 
 Jews now date from creation, which they 
 place B.C. 3760, and they begin their 
 year with the new moon next after the 
 autumnal equinox. 
 
 Era of tlie Maccabees {The). 
 
 Began B.C. 106, when Judas Maccabseus 
 took the command of the insurgent Jews 
 who sought to throw off the yoke of An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes. His arms were suc- 
 cessful, he destroyed every vestige of the 
 heathen religion, restored the Mosaic 
 law, and established a Jewish dynasty 
 called the Asmonasan which lasted to 
 B.C. 37, when Herod the Great was made 
 king of Judaea by the Romans. This era 
 of the Maccabees is called by the Jews 
 * the Era of Kings.' 
 
 In 2 Maccabees vii. we read of a mother and her 
 seven sons who were martyred by Antiochos Epi- 
 phanes, because they refused to eat swine's flesh 
 at the king s command. This massacre is said 
 to have occurred B.C. 166, and is celebrated in 
 the Catholic Church on 1 August. These seven 
 brothers were not related to the great Asmonsean 
 family, but it is rather remarkable that both the 
 events referred to occurred in the same year. 
 
 Era of the Martyrs {The). Began 
 23 Feb., 303. It was the tenth and last 
 persecution of Diocletian, the Roman 
 emperor, to which he was instigated by 
 his colleague Galerius. Diocletian died 
 A.D. 313. 
 
 The ' Era of Diocletian ' (q.v.) and the ' Era of 
 the Blartyrs' are often used as synonymous terms, 
 but the former began 29 August, 284, and the latter 
 23 Feb., 303. Without doubt Christians used the 
 era of Diocletian in consequence of the persecu- 
 tions which rendered the reign so memorable. 
 
 Much error prevails on the subject of these per- 
 secutions. We are apt to forget that Christians in 
 rower instituted the crusades, the wars of the 
 Waldenses and of the Albigenses, the Dragon- 
 Hades, the Tliirty Years' war, the Bartholomew 
 
 slaughter, the fires of Smithfield, and all the 
 horrors of tlie Inquisition. All religious persecu- 
 tions arose from a conviction that there is only 
 one right religion ; and those in power think that 
 religion which is sanctioned by the state is the 
 right one. 
 
 Era of the Olympiads {The). 
 
 Began 1 July, B.C. 776. The era of the 
 Olympiads is a system of dates adopted 
 by the ancient Greeks. An Olympiad 
 was the interval of four years between 
 two consecutive celebrations of the Olym- 
 pic games. Tiiese games were trials of 
 strength and agility tested by running, 
 boxing, leaping, wrestling, and so on, held 
 at Olympia, a plain of Elis, every fourth 
 year. They were first employed for 
 ciironological purposes, when Choroebos 
 won the foot-race, the principal match 
 before chariot-races were introduced. 
 
 By this system of dates, events were said to 
 have occurred on the 1st, 2nd, &c. year of tlie so- 
 and-so Olympiad, mentioning the nunaber of cele- 
 brations since the establishment of the era in 
 B.C. 770. 
 
 Era of the Persians. See * Era 
 
 of Yezdegird.' 
 
 Era of the Seleu'cidse {The). 
 
 Began 1 Oct., B.C. 312, when Seleucus 
 Nicator, king of Syria, took possession 
 of Babylon. The dynasty lasted 247 
 years, to B.C. 64. 
 
 Seleucus Nicator, one of the best generals of 
 Alexander the Great, was a native of Macedon,and 
 therefore the era which he founded is sometimes 
 called the ' Macedonian Era.' 
 
 It was called by the Jews the Era of Contracts, 
 certainly a very apt appellation. 
 
 Erasmus's Paraphrase. This 
 was a paraphrase of the Scriptures, in 
 1547, placed with the Bible in parish 
 churches. 
 
 Erastianism.. The religious tenets 
 of Thomas Erastus, a physician of 
 Baden (1521-1583), who asserted that 
 the church is a civil institution, sub- 
 ordinate to and dependent on the civil 
 power. Thus it is said that the Church 
 of England is Erastian or a parlia- 
 mentary church, and that its articles 
 and discipline depend on acts of parlia- 
 ment. Erastus taught that the Christian 
 ministry is not a divine institution, that 
 Christ and his apostles prescribed no 
 particular form of church government, 
 and that the punishment of all offences 
 belongs to the magistrate. Of course 
 he denied the dogmas of apostolical 
 succession, the power of the keys, and 
 ordination. He taught that anyone 
 might preach who liked, and that the 
 
302 
 
 EREMITES 
 
 ESPOUSAL 
 
 success of preaching depended solely on 
 moral suasion. 
 
 The Scotch Covenp.ntcrs called submission to 
 the civil powers ' Erastiini=ni.' The book of 
 Erastus is entitled ' De Excommunicatioiie eccle- 
 Biastica.' 
 
 Eremites of St. Paul {The), or 
 ' Freres de la Mort,' IStli cent. A reli- 
 gious order under the patronage of St. 
 Paul the Anchorite. Tneir special duty 
 was to attend to the sick and preside at 
 funerals. They wore on their scapulary 
 a death's head and cross-bones. 
 
 Erenachs. Laymen who held in 
 Ireland church lands. If dignitaries 
 they were called Comorbans. They ap- 
 propriated the revenues, like lay abbots, 
 leaving to the clergy only the tithes and 
 fees. (From the 9th to the 17th cent.) 
 
 Erfurt {Treaty of), 27 Sept., 1803. 
 Between Napoleon I. and Alexander of 
 Eussia. Nai)oleon agreed to recognise as 
 parts of the Russian empire Finland 
 (taken from Sweden), and Moldavia and 
 Walachia (taken from Turkey); and 
 Alexander promised to support Joseph 
 Bonaparte as king of Spain. 
 
 Eric. Blood-fine which the kindred 
 of a layman convicted of homicide were 
 compelled to pay to the family of the 
 slain (Ireland). 
 
 Eric's La-W. The ancient laws of 
 Sweden collected into a single volume 
 by orders of Eric IX., who reigned 1150- 
 1162. 
 
 Eri'gena means 'the Irishman.' 
 Joannes Scotus, the Schoolman, is so 
 called. Scot and Irish were at one time 
 synonymous terms; so that John Eri- 
 gena and John Scotus mean the same 
 thing. (Died 875.) 
 
 He must not be confounded with Duns Scotus, 
 the Schoolman (121)5 1X8). 
 
 Erlau {He has won the fame of). 
 An Hungarian proverb. In 1552 Erlau 
 was besieged by the Turkish army of 
 Solyman the Magnificent. Women 
 joined the men in its defence, and so 
 obstinately resisted that the Turks raised 
 the siege, and Erlau was saved. This 
 was one of the noblest defences in his- 
 tory. (Erlau, -lau to rhyme with now.) 
 
 Ernest of Hanover. Called the 
 Confessor on account of his having intro- 
 duced into his dominions the ' Augsburg 
 Confession ' {(l-v.). 
 
 Erse. The native Irish language. 
 Celtic is divided into Cymric and Gaelic. 
 
 Cymric is Welsh, old Cornish, and 
 Armorican or Breton. 
 
 Gaelic is Highland Scotch, Erse, and 
 Manx. See ' English Language,' &c. 
 
 Escalier des Malheureux (!»'). 
 A back or private staircase in the palace 
 by which the boon companions of Pliara- 
 mond entered into his sanctum sanctorum. 
 "When Pharamond wanted a little relaxa- 
 tion he made a well-known sign, and 
 entering this apartment, ' on admettait 
 C3UX a qui les ministres avaient refuse 
 leur audience, ou que la garde avait re- 
 butes; et cet escalier, par lequel le 
 monarque et eux passaient egalement, 
 s'appelait " I'escalier des Malheureux " ' 
 {Bictionnaire Historiqiie, &c.,-pa,iL G. S. 
 desR . . . .). 
 
 Escu'rial {The). A famous monas- 
 tery in New Castile called 'the eighth 
 wonder of the world.' It is a pile of 
 granite of great magnificence. 
 
 The tale is that Felipe II. of Spain in the battle 
 of St. Quentin vowed to St. L(jrcnzo (on whose 
 day, 15 Aug., 15.57, the battle was fought) that if he 
 would grant him the victory he would build a 
 monastery to his honour. As St. Lorenzo was 
 burnt to death on a gridiron the monastery was 
 bull!, hi the form of a gridiron, long courts repre- 
 senting the bars of the gridiron. It was begun in 
 1563, and finished in 1584, and was intended for 
 palace, mausoleum, and monastery. It has 14,000 
 doors, and 11,000 windows. 
 
 Es'karites (3 syl.). Mohammedan 
 Platonists, who place the summum ho- 
 num in the ' Contemplation of the Great 
 Omnipotent.' They are moral and of 
 most placid temper. 
 
 Eskimo. Is derived from Ashkimai, 
 and means ' eaters of raw flesh.' A term 
 applied to them in contempt by the 
 Indians of Algonkin stock. 
 
 Espousal of the Adriatic {The). 
 An annual ceremony on the feast of 
 Ascension in Venice from 1177 to the 
 end of the republic, when the doge went 
 in his state barge, the ' Bucentaur,' to 
 the shore of Lido, near the mouth of the 
 harbour, and dropped a gold ring into 
 the sea, saying, ' We wed thee with this 
 ring in token of our true and perpetual 
 sovereignty.' The origin of this custom 
 is as follows : When Pope Alexander III. 
 Avas driven out of Rome by Frederick 
 Barbarossa, hetook refuge in Venice, and 
 was honourably entertained in the doge's 
 palace. Ziani, the doge, sent an embassy 
 
ESSAYS 
 
 ET-CETERA 
 
 SOS 
 
 to the kaiser demanding the restitution 
 of the pope, but Barbarossa repHed, 
 ' Unless the Venetians will deliver the 
 fugitive into niy hands a captive in chains 
 I will utterly extirpate the republic' 
 War was the inevitable consequence. 
 The Venetians proved the victors, and 
 the kaiser's son Otto fell into their hands. 
 Pope Alexander went forth to meet the 
 victorious fleet, and, giving the doge a 
 gold ring, said to him, ' With this ring 
 take, on my authority, the lordship of 
 the sea,' and the anniversary was kept 
 ever after. 
 
 Essays and Reviews, 1860. By 
 several Oxford_scholars on ecclesiastical 
 subjects. Condemned by the Conference 
 of Clergy at Sion House, 25 Jan., 1861. 
 Tiie judgment of the Court of Arches 
 against Williams and Wilson was re- 
 versed by the Judicial Committee of the 
 Privy Council, 18 Feb., 1864. Synodical 
 judgment on the book passed 24 June, 
 1864. 
 
 Essenes (2 syl.). A very ancient 
 Jewish sect who maintained that the 
 essence of religion is silence and contem- 
 plation. Many passed their life in celi- 
 bacy; they looked on the Mosaic law as 
 an allegorical system of mysterious 
 truths, and renounced the outward letter. 
 ' The letter killeth, it is the spirit [or 
 spiritual meaning] which giveth life.' 
 
 Essex Junto [The), 1812. A certain 
 party of the federalists of theUnited States 
 imbued with Anglomania, and favourable 
 to monarchy and separation. All the 
 federalists were opposed to war with 
 England, and favourable to a war with 
 the French republic. The American 
 government stigmatised the platform of 
 the junto as treason, and as tending to a 
 dissolution of the union. 
 
 ki the head of this minority (said Jefferson) is 
 what is called the Essex Junto of Massachusetts, 
 but the majority of these leaders do not aim at 
 Beparation. In this they adhere to the known 
 principle of General Hamilton— never, under any 
 views, break the union. Anglomania, monarchy, 
 and separation, then, are the principles of the 
 Essex federalists ; Anglomania and monarchy 
 those of the Hamiltonians : Anglomania alone 
 that of the people who call themselves federalists 
 (vol. iv. p. 188). 
 
 Est-il Possible? Nickname of 
 Prince G-eorge of Denmark, given him by 
 his father-in-law, James II. He was the 
 consort of Queen Anne, and his everlast- 
 ing exclamation was ' Est-il possible ? ' 
 
 Estates of the Realm. Not king, 
 lords, and commons, but lords spiritual, 
 lords temporal, and the commons. Hence 
 we read of the ' king and the three 
 estates of the realm.' 
 
 Esther. The Persian word is Ar- 
 tishona. Her real Hebrew name was 
 Hadassah. 
 
 Estrith'sonides (4 syl.). The 
 second dynasty of Denmark (1047-137.'5). 
 So-called from the founder, Svend, son 
 of Estritha, sister of Canute the Great 
 of England. 
 
 Estrapa'do [The). A punishment 
 in which the victim was raised by his 
 hands tied behind hun, and then let fall 
 once, twice, or more, with a concussion. 
 The French called the suspension of a 
 victim on a movable gibbet which (rising 
 and falling alternately) plunged him into 
 a fire and pulled him out, tlie ' punish- 
 ment of the estrapade.' This was also 
 sometimes repeated twice, thrice, or more 
 times. 
 
 Etablissements de St. Louis 
 
 {Les), about 1255. A recueil of laws and 
 ordinances under the direction of Louis 
 IX., especially aimed at the venality of 
 justice, the harsh treatment of creditors, 
 and the extravagant . rate of interest. 
 The code is still extant, and shows both 
 wisdom and a love of justice. Published 
 in Paris 1786. 
 
 Etats G-6n6raux {Les). A French 
 deliberative assembly, consisting of all 
 the three states, viz. the noblesse, the 
 clergy, and the commons. The first was 
 convoked by Philippe IV., in 1302, and 
 the last by Louis XVI. in 1789, when the 
 total number of deputies was 1,145. That 
 is, 572 commons, 572 noblesse and clergy, 
 and a chairman. 
 
 Louis le Gros (1108-11.S7) admitted the commons 
 into the Legislative Assembly, and called the name 
 T^'Asst'inhlee des Tmis EtuU. The commons were not 
 again called till 1302. 
 
 Pronounce A-tah' jen-a-ro'. 
 
 Et-cetera Oath [The], 1641. An 
 oath imposed by Ciiarles I. upon the 
 clergy, who were required to swear that 
 they ' would not consent to alter the 
 governmynt of the church by arch- 
 bishops, bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c.,' 
 and to give a fixed declaration of opinion 
 respecting church dogmas, government, 
 rites, and ceremonies. 
 
S04 
 
 ETERNAL 
 
 EULOGIA 
 
 Eternal City {The). Ancient Rome. 
 
 Ethelred the Unready. That is, 
 the Unwise (*, 978-1016). His great 
 unwisdom was shown in the massacre of 
 the Danes on St. Bryce's Day, 13 Nov., 
 1002, in warding off the Danes by bribes 
 rather than by war, and in his most un- 
 fortunate clioice of ministers to execute 
 his commands. 
 
 He bribed the Danes time after time. In 9D1 he 
 paid them lO.OOCL to retire, in 997 he paid them 
 ](1,000;. to leave the country. In 998 he increased 
 his bribe to 20,000L, in 909 to 24,000/., then 3l5,OOOL 
 In 1002 he tried secret massacre, and in 1003 ha 
 bribed Sweyn, who had come over to avenge the 
 blood of his countrymen, -with 14,000/. in money 
 and sixteen counties. 
 
 Ethelwolf S Charter. An erro- 
 neous term for ' Ethelwolf's Grant.' This 
 king of Wessex gave a tenth part of his 
 private estate to ecclesiastical purposes ; 
 and, in return, the churches gifted were 
 to perform weekly certain ' religious ' 
 services. He ordained that one poor 
 man on every ten hides of his own land 
 should be maintained in food and 
 clothing. He released from all payment 
 (except the trinoda necessitas, q.v.) a 
 tenth part of the folkland. 
 
 Selden, Hume, and others quote this as the legal 
 origin of tithes ; but tithes were established in 
 the 6th cent., if not before. Ethelwolf reigned in 
 Wessex 836-858, and hoped to avert invaders and 
 bring peace on his kingdom by giving largely to 
 the church. 
 
 Ethiopic Version {The) of the 
 Bible, supposed to be of the 4th cent. 
 This version is printed in Walton's Poly- 
 glot, but with many inaccuracies. See 
 ' Scriptures.' 
 
 Eton School, or College, 12 Sept.,^ 
 1440. Founded by Henry VI. as the* 
 ' College of the Blessed Marie of Eton, 
 by Wyndesore.' The ' Montem ' was 
 abolished in 1847. 
 
 The Montem was a kind of ' black mail ' exacted 
 by the boys triennially on Whit Tuesday from all 
 ■who passed the mound (or montem) called Sa,lt 
 Hill, and the ' gratuities,' called unit, sometimes 
 amounted to 1,000/. 
 
 The last ' Montem ' exaction was made in 1844. 
 
 Ettrick Shepherd {The). James 
 Hogg, born at Ettrick, a shepherd and 
 poet. Died 1835. 
 
 Eubages {The). The 2nd order of 
 Druids — they may be called the working 
 clergy. The Druids were the high priestly 
 party, a princely order. The inferior 
 order were called Bards. Hence the 
 three classes were Druids, Eubages 
 (3 syl.), and Bards. 
 
 Eudoxian Heresy {The). Pro- 
 mulgated by Eudoxius, patriarch of An- 
 tioch, in the 4th cent. — That the Son had 
 an independent mind, and, therefore, 
 might differ from the Father; so that 
 Father and Son might be at variance. 
 
 Eu-er'getes (4 syl.). The well-doer, 
 or benefactor. Ptolemy III., king of 
 Egypt, was so called after ravaging 
 Syria and Persia, when he brought back 
 2,500 statues of Egyptian gods carried 
 away by Cambyses (b.c. 246-221). 
 
 Eugene Aram. A market gar- 
 dener's son, of Newby, in Yorkshire, who 
 set up a school at Knaresborough. In 1745 
 one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, was 
 missing, and thirteen years afterwards 
 Richard Houseman dropped a remark 
 about a skeleton in St. Robert's Cave, 
 which caused him to be apprehended. 
 Houseman on his trial accused Aram, 
 who was apprehended and executed in 
 1759. 
 
 Euge'nians. The people of South 
 Munster, i.e. Waterford, Cork, and Kerrj'', 
 so called from Prince Eogan. Those of 
 North Munster were called Dalcassians. 
 
 Eu'gubine Tables {The). Seven 
 bronze tables with inscriptions, dis- 
 covered at Gubbio (Eugubium), where 
 they are still preserved. The literal 
 characters on four of the tables are 
 Umbrian, on two of them Latin, and on 
 the remaining one partly Umbrian and 
 partly Latin. The inscriptions are sup- 
 posed to date between three and four 
 hundred je&xs before Christ. [Eugubine 
 3 syl.] 
 
 The subjects are directions respecting sacriflco 
 and forms of prayer. 
 
 Euhe'merism, 4th cent. The teacli- 
 ing of Euhemerus or Evemerus, who 
 taught that the heathen gods — Mars, 
 Bacchus, Apollo, and so on — were either 
 kings or noted worthies in the fabulous 
 island of Panchsea, which he placed in 
 the Southern Ocean. Some explain 
 miracles by euhemerism. 
 
 Eulo'gia. Is bread, blessed by the 
 priest at the time of mass, for the benefit 
 of those unable to attend, or for com- 
 municants who were allowed to take it 
 home with them. The custom gave rise 
 to the panis beat us (pain benit), or Holy 
 Bread {q.v.). 
 
 Food blessed by the priest is sometimes callctl 
 Eulogia. 
 
EUNOMIANS 
 
 EVANGELICAL 
 
 305 
 
 Eunom'lans, 4tli cent. Disciples 
 of Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicura, who 
 maintained that G-od the Father could 
 'not be of the same nature as Jesus 
 Christ, because no creature can be equal 
 to the Creator. He also denied the 
 proper humanity of Christ, disbelieved 
 the dogma of the Trinity, and believed 
 that the Virgin Mary had other children 
 besides Jesus her ' first-born.' 
 
 European Wars. The two greatest 
 of modern histox'y are the Seven Years' 
 War and the War of Europe against Napo- 
 leon I. Li the Seven Years' War {q.v.) 
 England, Sweden, and Prussia opposed 
 Russia, Austria, Saxony, and France. In 
 the Napoleonic war England, Russia, 
 Prussia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, (fee, 
 combined to dethrone the ' disturber of 
 nations.' 
 
 Euse'bians. Another name for 
 Arians, so called from Eusebius, bishop 
 of Nicomedea, who supported Arius, con- 
 demned by the Council of Nice a.d. 325. 
 This was not Eusebius the historian. 
 
 Eutych'eans, or ' Monoph'ysites,' 
 A.D. 418. Followers of Eutyches the 
 archimandrite, who maintained that 
 Christ was not man, but God only ; and 
 that his humanity was absorbed in his 
 divine nature, ' as a drop of rain by the 
 eea.' His heresy was condemned by the 
 Council of Chalcedon in 451. 
 
 Eusine Sea {The). The hospitable 
 sea. Originally called 'the Axine,' or 
 inhospitable sea. Similarly, the Cape of 
 Good Hope was first called ' the Cape of 
 Despair ' ; Beneventum was originally 
 called ' Maleventum ' ; and Dyrrachium 
 was called ' Epidamnus,' till the Romans 
 thought -damnus too much like datn- 
 num to be lucky. 
 
 Evangelic League {The), 1G13. 
 A confederacy of the Lutherans and 
 Calvinists of Bohemia against the Kaiser 
 Mathias. It was counterbalanced by 
 another confederacy, called ' the-Catholie 
 League,' and the contests of the two 
 leagues kept Germany in a most dis- 
 turbed state through the entire reign. 
 Mathias died in 1(519, and was succeeded 
 by his cousin Ferdinand II., when the 
 Thirty Years' War between Catholics and 
 Protestants deluged Germany in blood. 
 See nexc aa'liole. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance {The). 
 
 I. 1608. An alliance of the Protestant 
 states of Germany in self-defence. It 
 was opposed by the Holy Alhance, formed 
 in 1609. 
 
 The chief Protestant states of the alliance were 
 the Electoral Palatinate, Wiirtcmberg, Hessen- 
 Cassel, and the margraviate of Baden-Darlach. 
 
 II. 1845. The alliance of all Christians 
 without regard to denominational dis- 
 tinctions ; for the advancement of ' evan- 
 gelical ' religion ; the counteraction of 
 infidelity, romanism, and mere ritual- 
 ism ; and for the strict observance of the 
 Christian sabbath. See ' Nine Articles.' 
 
 Evangelical Community {The). 
 The Moravian Association so called 
 themselves. It was a kind of social 
 reijublic. The chief ecclesiastics, called 
 ' the Ancients ' (elders), regulated all the 
 acts, both civil and religious ; presided 
 over the education of the children, en- 
 joined penances, pronounced excom- 
 munications, and determined the rank of 
 each member of the coixununity. 
 
 Evangelical Doctor (T7i6'). John 
 
 Wyclif (1324-1384). Called a heresiarch 
 by Catholics, but ' the morning star of the 
 Reformation' by Protestants. Bouillet 
 numbers among his sins : ' Wiclef exas- 
 pere attaqua des lors la puissance papale 
 au spirituel et au temporel, et traita le 
 pape A'Antechrist. II niait la trans- 
 substantiation ; la necessite de la con- 
 fession pour qui a la contrition ; la damna- 
 tion des enfants morts sans bapteme [! !] ; 
 I'effieacite des indulgences ; la primaute 
 du siege de Rome ; la hie'rarchie ; le droit 
 des clercs et des moines aux biens tem- 
 porels,' &c. (' Dictionnaire Universel,' 
 p. 2010, col. 2.) 
 
 *,* No doubt Wyclif was morally aided in his 
 work by th3'Gre:\t Schism of the West' (q.v.), 
 when the pope of Rome and pope of Avignon never 
 tired of cursing and excommunicating each other. 
 
 Evangelical Prophet {The). 
 Isaiah is so called from his clear and 
 constant allusions to the Messiah. Isaiah 
 was cut to pieces by a wooden saw, 
 B.C. 698, aged 60. 
 
 Evangelical School {The). Of 
 Germany under tlie leadership of Schleier- 
 macher, whose 'Discourses on Religion,' 
 1804-1828, made a new era in German 
 tlieology ; but his greatest work ia 
 ' Christian Faith ' (1768-1834). 
 
306 
 
 EVANGELICAL 
 
 EXAECH 
 
 Evangelical Symbols. The sym- 
 bols of the four Evangehsts, taken from 
 Ezekiel's cherubim {see ' Cherubim ') are — 
 a man, a Hon, an ox, and an eagle, men- 
 tioned in Rev. iv. 6-7 as supporting the 
 throne of God. Jerome was the first to 
 give the present appropriation of the 
 man to Matthew, the lion to Mark, the 
 ox to Luke, and the eagle to John. 
 Matthew begins with the human descent 
 of Christ from David, and Luke has the 
 ox because his gospel begins with the 
 account of Zacharias serving in the 
 temple. The eagle refers to the doctrine 
 of tlie logos, and the lion to the beasts 
 in the desert where Jesus was tempted 
 with which Mark begins his gospel. The 
 union of the four symbols in one creature 
 is called a tet'ramorph. 
 
 Often the four Evangelists bear four 
 bannerols on wdiich are respectively in- 
 scribed the initial sentence of each 
 gospel. Perhaps the oldest symbol is a 
 mountain from which issues four streams, 
 and a lamb standing at the top. 
 
 In frescoes, windows, &c. 
 
 Maiihnci is represented -with a pen, writing at 
 the dictation of an angel. 
 
 Marl: is represented writing, and with a winged 
 lion at his feet. 
 
 Luke has a pen, but is not writing. He is study- 
 ing a scroll. 
 
 John is represented as a youth rapt in thou.s;ht, 
 and an eagle about to take flight to heaven 
 stands by him. 
 
 Evangelical Union [The), 1608. 
 An alliance of the Protestant states of 
 Germany formed at Auhausen in Bavaria ; 
 it was opposed in 1G09 by the Holy 
 Union, formed at Wiirzburg. 
 
 Evangelical Unionists {The), 
 1810. A religious sect founded in Scot- 
 land by James Morison, who taught that 
 the greatest sin is want of belief in 
 the universal atonement of Christ — i.e. 
 that Christ, by his death, saved all men, 
 past, present, and yet unborn. 
 
 There are also the Evangelical Free Church, 
 the Evangelical Mission, the Free Evangelical 
 Christians, the Working-man's Evangelical llis- 
 sion, and, in the middle of the 19th cent., the ' Low 
 Church party ' of the Anglican Church -w ere 
 called 'Evangelical' (Churchmen), and the Ger- 
 man Protestant Church is called otflcially the 
 ' Evangelical Church.' 
 
 Evangelics and Papalins. So 
 
 Strype designates the Protestants and 
 Papists at the accession of Queen Eliza- 
 beth. By ' Papalins ' he means, not 
 Roman Catholics, but the half-and-half 
 Papists, the compromisera of a papistic 
 bias. 
 
 Evans Prize for Theology. Value 
 about 9Z. Founded in the University of 
 Cambridge by the friends of the Vener- 
 able Robert Wilson Evans, D.D., arch- 
 deacon of Westmoreland 1869. {See 
 ' Regius Professor of Divinity.') 
 
 Evem'erism. See ' Euhemerism.' 
 
 Ev'erest (3 syl.), probably the highest 
 mountain in the world, is named after 
 Sir George Everest, surveyor-general of 
 Lidia. The mountain, which is in the 
 Nepaul range of the Himalayas, is 29,002 
 feet above the level of the sea (nearly 
 5^ miles). 
 
 Evergreen Pam. Lord Palmer- 
 ston, or Henry John Temple, third 
 Viscount Palmerston, 1784-1863. He 
 was born 20 Oct., died 18 Oct., was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey 27 Oct., entered 
 Parliament 1807. Was M.P. 56 years, 
 and died at the age of 79. 
 
 Everlasting Aris'teas {The). 
 A mythical character of ancient Greece, 
 like the Wandering Jew of more modern 
 times. He taught Homer (about B.C. 
 900), and reappeared in sundry places 
 400 years afterwards. 
 
 Exalta'dos {The) of Spain, 1819, &c. 
 The extreme radical party in the reign 
 of Ferdinand VII. ; tliey were especially 
 irate because the Inquisition was restored. 
 The Exaltados were composed of dis- 
 banded soldiers, with a sprinkling of 
 Spanish dons. The high tory party were 
 called ' Absolutists ' {q-v.). 
 
 The Exaltados were called ' Constitutionalists ' 
 because they wanted to restore the constitution 
 given to Spain in 1812, abolished by Ferdinand VII. 
 in 1814. 
 
 Exaltation of the Cross {The). 
 * Exaltatio Crucis.' A festival held 14 
 Sept. Instituted in 642 in memory of 
 ' la vraie croix que Chosroes, roi des 
 Perses, avait e'levee 14 ans auparavant.' 
 
 Ex Apostolatus Officio. A bull 
 by Paul IV., wherein ' by his apostolic 
 authority' he ratifies 'all and singular 
 sentences, censures, and penalties of ex- 
 communication, suspension, interdict, 
 deprival, at any time decreed or promul- 
 gated by pope, council, decree of the 
 fathers, canons, apostolic constitution, 
 or ordinance, against heretics and schis- 
 matics.' 
 
 Exarch. I. A viceroy of the By- 
 zantine emcire in the West. He had the 
 
EXCHEQUER 
 
 EXEMPT 
 
 807 
 
 government of a province, as the exarch 
 of Rome, the exarch of Africa, the exarch 
 of Italy, and the exarch of Ravenna. 
 
 II. The Ecelesiastical exarchs were 
 delegates of the patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople or of some sjiiod, charged to visit 
 a diocese and see to the moral conduct 
 of the clergy. At the present day an 
 exarch of the Greek Church is tanta- 
 mount to a legate of the Western 
 Church. 
 
 Manj' bishops and archbishops of the Greek 
 Church are called exarchs 
 
 Exchequer {The). Low Latin scac- 
 carium, Norman French eschequier. The 
 word is generally ascribed to a ' che- 
 quered table, much like a chessboard, at 
 which the barons sat,' and in defence of 
 this etymology it is said that the use of 
 this ' chequered table ' was to assist the 
 board in its calculations. This is Cam- 
 den's suggestion. Chevellet connects the 
 word with the German Schatz (a treasure), 
 and the Court of the Exchequer would 
 then mean the court of the royal reve- 
 nues ; but Scheler says of this suggestion : 
 ' C'est incontestablement une erreur.' 
 The court was established by William the 
 Conqueror in the Aula Regis, and its chief 
 work lay in the assessment and collection 
 of the revenue. 
 
 Exeb.equer (Court of). See under 
 ' Court.' 
 
 Exchequer Bills, 1096. Bills for 
 money, or promissory bills issued from the 
 exchequer by authority of parliament. 
 They vary from lOOZ. to 1,000/., and bear 
 interest at l^cl. per cent, per diem. They 
 form the chief part of the unfunded debt 
 of the nation. Government from time to 
 times gives the holders of these bills the 
 option of having the bills paid off at par 
 or of receiving new bills. Charged on 
 the Consolidated Funds from 18 April, 
 18G1. 
 
 Excise — Customs. Excise is a 
 duty imposed on home goods, made, 
 manufactured, or grown. This sort of 
 tax was first imposed on beer 1648. It 
 was introduced by Pym, the republican 
 (German accise, ' tribute '). Customs, an 
 impost on things of foreign growth or 
 manufacture. 
 
 Exclusion [The Bill of), 11 Nov., 
 1680. To exclude James duke of York 
 from the throne after the death of his 
 
 brother Charles II. The bill passed 
 through the Commons, but was thrown 
 out by the Lords. 
 
 James duke of York did succeed to the throne, 
 but being a Papist Wi'.'iam and Blary were invited 
 over by the Protestant parly. James fled, and it 
 °was declared that he had abdicated. 
 
 Exclusionists, 1680. Adherents of 
 the Exclusion Bill [q.v.). They were the 
 Whig party. 
 
 Excommunication — Interdic- 
 tion. Excommunication is exclusion 
 from Christian fellowship. Interdiction 
 is a prohibition to perform a religious 
 rite, service, or ceremony. In mediaeval 
 times the excommunication of a king 
 absolved his subjects from allegiance. 
 
 Execra'bilis [The Bulls), 1460. In 
 which Pius II. forbids appeals to a 
 future council. 
 
 1530, in which Clement VII. condemns 
 the divorce of Henry VIII. 
 
 1606, by which Paul IV. forbids the 
 Catholics of England to take the oath of 
 allegiance. 
 
 10 June, 1809, launched by Pius VII. 
 against Nax^oleon I. This was avenged 
 by the captivity of the pope. 
 
 Executive Council of the State 
 
 {The), 1048. The Council of Forty, with 
 John Milton the poet for secretary. 
 Appointed to govern the nation after the 
 execution of Charles I. There was to be 
 a parliament convened for six months 
 every two years, and for the other 
 eighteen months the council was without 
 control. 
 
 Executive of the University 
 of Cambridge {The). The Chancellor, 
 the High Steward, the Vice-Chancellor, a 
 Commissary, the Sex Viri, the Public 
 Orator, the Librarian, the Registrary 
 with his assistant, the two Proctors, the 
 two Pro-proctors with their two assist- 
 ants, the two Esquire Bedells, the Uni- 
 versity Marshal, the two Members of 
 Parliament for the University, the 
 Counsel, the Solicitor, and tiie Syndics. 
 See each. 
 
 Exempt Lords. In the Common- 
 wealth meant lords suspended or de- 
 barred from exercising the functions of 
 their office. 
 
 '14 May, 1660. The Lords passed a 
 vote for calling on all those lords who 
 
503 
 
 EXETEK 
 
 EXPOSITOR 
 
 had formerly been exempted for siding 
 with the king.' 
 
 Exeter College, Oxford, 1314. 
 Founded by Walter de Stapledon, bishop 
 of Exeter. The Head-master is called 
 the Rector. See ' Pusey and Ellerton 
 Scholarships.' 
 
 Exeter Hall is quite another place. It is a 
 large proprietary building on the north side of 
 the Strand, London, completed in 1831, and used 
 for concerts and public meetings. The Handel 
 festivals and the 'May Meetings' (.q.v.) have 
 rendered the place famous. It is 131 feet long, 
 76 feet wide, and 45 feet high. 
 
 Exhibition, London. I. The 
 WorlcVs Fair, opened 1 May, 1851, 
 and closed 15 Oct., 1851. The building 
 was a monster glass palace, and the 
 exhibition consisted of manufactured 
 articles, works of art, jewellery, and 
 curiosities. 
 
 II. The International Exhibition was 
 opened 1 May, 18(32, and closed 1 Nov., 
 1862, 
 
 Similar exhibitions have been since opened in 
 numerous places. The first in Paris, called 'the 
 Universal Exhibition,' was opened 1 April, 18(57, 
 and closed 1 July, 18G7. The Paris Exhibition of 
 1889 surpassed all the others for splendour of de- 
 sign and variety of exhibits. The Eilfel Tower 
 was a prominent feature. 
 
 Exhibitioner. In Oxford Uni- 
 versity one who holds an exhibition ; a 
 kind of scholarship in Corpus Christi; 
 and in Worcester College. Exhibitioners 
 are now called scholars. 
 
 Exon. A title applied to certain 
 officers of the Yeomen of the Guard. 
 Latin exon-erarius, i.e. one relieved from 
 work or active service, but still remaining 
 in a position of dignity and ease. Exons 
 are also called exempts. 
 
 Exon Domesday. The statistical 
 survey of the Conqueror's commission 
 for the monastery of Exeter, containing 
 the counties of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, 
 Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Corn- 
 wall. This survey contains, what is 
 omitted in the great Domesday Book, 
 the tally of live stock, as well as the 
 names of landowners, the amount of land 
 held by each, the number of vassals, 
 villeins, cottars, and serfs, the amount 
 of i)asture land and arable land, the 
 number of mills and fishponds, &c. 
 
 Exorcist. This officer of the Greek 
 and Latin churches had nothing to do 
 with the act of exorcising, but only to dis- 
 criminate between the really possessed 
 
 and those who jDretended or were supposed 
 to be so. In the fourth Council of Carthage 
 it was prescribed that the bishop, when 
 he ordained an exorcist, should place a 
 book in the hand of the aspirant, and 
 say to him, ' Take this book, study it, 
 and receive power to lay hands on the 
 possessed, whether they be baptized or 
 only catechumens.' The exorcism itself 
 was delegated to certain priests by the 
 bishop of the diocese. 
 
 Ex-oukontians. Arians were so 
 called by their opponents, because by 
 their tenets Christ was created out of 
 nothing (ex-onk-onta), in which respect 
 alone He differed from man. 
 
 Expectation Sunday. The Sun- 
 day before Whit Sunday. Acts i. 4, Christ 
 commanded the disciples 'that they 
 should not depart from Jerusalem, but 
 ivait for the promise of the Father.' 
 They waited till the day of Pentecost 
 and the promise was fulfilled. See ' Sun- 
 days.' 
 
 Expectation "Week. The week 
 
 preceding Easter, commemorative of the 
 waiting or expectation of the apostles for 
 the outpouring of the Spirit, which came 
 at Pentecost. 
 
 Expectative Canons. Canons 
 without revenue or prebend, but possess- 
 ing the title of canon, with a voice in the 
 chapter, and a place in the choir till a 
 prebend became vacant. 
 
 Expectatives (4 syl.), or 'Man- 
 dates.' Letters of request from the poi)e 
 praying that benefices be conferred on 
 certain individuals nominated in the 
 
 letters. 
 
 Experimental Physics {Pro. 
 fessorskip of). In the University of 
 Cambridge, 1871, founded by the Uni- 
 versity. Stipend 850Z. a year. 
 
 Explanation {Act of), 1649. A bill 
 brought into parliament by the Duke of 
 Ormond, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to 
 confirm the Protestants in the estates 
 confiscated from Irish Catholics, after 
 ■what is called the ' Irish Eebellion.' This 
 act was quaintly called the ' Magna 
 Charta of the Protestants of Ireland.' 
 
 Expositor {The). Averroes, the 
 Moorish expositor of Aristotle ; born at 
 Cordova, in Spain, 1120 ; died between 
 1196 and 1206. 
 
EXSURGE 
 
 FACT 
 
 809 
 
 Exsurge, Domine [The Bulls). I. 
 1377. By Gregory XI. against Wyclif. 
 
 II. 1520 by Leo X. against Luther. This 
 bull was publicly burnt 10 Dec, 1520, at 
 Wittenberg by Luther, 
 
 Pronounce Ex-sur'-ge Bom'-i-ne. 
 
 Extension Teaching, 1887. Ex- 
 tending the voluntary popular education 
 to a regular course of uistruction cover- 
 ing between two and three years. The 
 instruction to contain two groups — (1), 
 natural, physical, and mathematical 
 science; and (2) history, political eco- 
 nomy, mental science, literature, and art. 
 It requires the students to attend a 
 consecutive series of lectures for six 
 terms in a group of subjects, and an 
 examination proof of efiiciency either 
 in Latin or some modern language, the 
 first three books of Euclid, and algebra 
 as far as quadratic equations. 
 
 Extradition Treaty. For the 
 mutual surrender of criminals (not poli- 
 tical) who have taken refuge in another 
 kingdom. Concluded between England 
 and France 13 Feb., 1843, and the same 
 year between England and the United 
 States of America. 
 
 Since 1813 similar treaties have been made with 
 other nations, so that now we have extradition 
 treaties with Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, 
 [France], Hayti, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, 
 Prussia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden and Norway, 
 Switzerland, Tonga [the United States], &c. 
 
 Extravagants or ' Extravagantes 
 Constitutiones,' in canon law are decre- 
 tals or constitutions published after the 
 Clementines {q-v.), not at first included in 
 the Corpus Juris Canonici, but forming a 
 supplementary volume. They consist of 
 the Extravagants or papal constitutions 
 of John XXII. and a few of his suc- 
 cessors. They were added to the Corpus 
 Juris Canonici by John Lancelot in the 
 time of Paul IV. (1555-1559). 
 
 The whole Corpus Juris Canonici consists of (1) 
 the Decretals of Kaymond of Penaforte (12.»i. in 
 5 books ; (2) the Sixt, or continuation of the 
 Decretals, also in 5 books; and (3) the Extra va- 
 gantes Communes, consisting of the Clementines, 
 in 5 books, and Extravagantes Joannis in 1 book. 
 Subsequently 5 books of Communes were added, 
 being the rescripts of later popes. 
 
 Ezra. Same as Esdras, Zoroaster, 
 or Zerdusht. The last is the Persian 
 translation of Ezra, which means ' help.' 
 He died B.C. 440, aged 99. 
 
 F. The three F's. Mr. Butt's Irish 
 platform (1876) : F[ixity of tenure], F[ree 
 sale], F[air rent]. The principle of com- 
 
 pensation for unexhausted improvements 
 was introduced in Ireland in the Land 
 Act of 1870 ; that of the Three Fs in the 
 Land Act of 1881. 
 
 Fabian Method (The). Delay. 
 Fabius Maximus, instead of attacking 
 Hannibal, harassed him by marches and 
 countermarches. Hencv>; the proverb, ' To 
 win, like Fabius, by delay.' 
 
 Fabius of America {The). George 
 Washington (1732-1799). 
 
 Fabius of Austria (TZ/e). Marshal 
 Daun, able and cautious (1703-17(jij). 
 
 Fabius of France {The). Anne 
 Montmorency (1493-15G7), so called from 
 the way he conducted his expedition 
 against Kaiser Karl V. — annoying him 
 in every way, alluring him from place 
 to place, and never coming to a general 
 battle. 
 
 Fable of Jenkins' Ear {The), 
 
 1738. Capt. Robert Jenkins, master of a 
 sloop trading from Jamaica, was boarded 
 and searched by a Guarda Costa (Spanish 
 coastguard), and barbarously ill-treated. 
 He affirmed that the Spanish captain had 
 cut oil one of his ears, and Jenkins 
 carried about with him an ear wrapped 
 in wadding. On 16 March he appeared 
 at the bar of the House of Commons, and 
 Pulteney, Barnard, Y7yndham, and Pitt 
 made political capital out of the story to 
 embroil the nation with Spain ; but Burke 
 dubbed the whole story a fable. This 
 incident or fable led to a declaration of 
 war with Spain. 
 
 Fabliaux, 1150-1350. Short fables 
 or tales in verse, such as ' Reynard the 
 Fox' and Parnell's' Hermit.' The fabliaux 
 poets were wandering minstrels very in- 
 ferior in position to the Troubadours and 
 Trouveres. The best of all this immense 
 pile of French verse which has come 
 down to us is the fabliau of ' Aucassin 
 and Nicolette,' which is tender, natural, 
 and full of interesting situations. 
 
 Fabuls9 Atella'nse. A species of 
 farce written in the Oscan language, 
 which was spoken in all the south of 
 Italy, and, from its resemblance to Latin, 
 was understood by educated Romans. 
 
 Atellanae, from Atella, a city of the Oscans, in 
 Campania, where these farces were performed. 
 
 Fact and Right. 
 
 Fact.' 
 
 See ' Right and 
 
310 
 
 FACTORY 
 
 FALAISE 
 
 Factory Act {The), 9 Aug., 1870 
 (33 & 3i Vict. c. 62). Working hours, 6 
 to 6 or 7 to 7, except Saturdays, when 
 work is to close at 2 p.m. Extra hours 
 6 to 8 p.m., 7 to 9 p.m., or 8 to 10 p.m., 
 not more than five days in any week, and 
 not more than forty-eight days in any 
 year. This not to be allowed in anywise 
 except two hours are allowed for meals, 
 at least half an hour of the time being at 
 five o'clock p.m. The Factory and Work- 
 shop Act of 1878 (41 Vict. c. 16) repealed 
 all previous acts, and consolidated them 
 into one comprehensive statute. It was 
 amended in 1883 (46 Vict. c. 53). 
 
 In 1890 there was a European clamour for 
 higher wages and a reduction of working time to 
 eight hours a day. 
 
 Factory King {The). Richard 
 Oastler (1789-1861). 
 
 Faculty {A Grant of). Is an order by 
 the bishop of a diocese to do something 
 or enjoy something not permitted by 
 common law ; such as an alteration in a 
 church, the erection there of a gallery or 
 organ, to place a tablet on the church 
 walls, to obtain a particular seat in a 
 church, and so on. 
 
 Faculty of Advocates {The), 
 1424. Scotland. The college or society 
 of advocates who plead in all actions 
 before the courts of sessions, justiciary, 
 and exchequer. 
 
 The statute runs : ' Gif there bee onie pure 
 creature, for faulte of cunning or dispenses, that 
 cannot or may not follow his cause, the king . . . 
 Ball ordaine the judge before quhom the cause 
 Bulde be determined, to purvey and get a leill and 
 a wise advocate to follow sik pure creatures' 
 causes; and gif fiik causes be obteined, the wran- 
 ger sail assyith baith the partie skaithed and the 
 advocatis coastes and travel.' 
 
 Fagot Votes. See 'Dictionary 
 of Phrase and Fable,' p. 283. From the 
 following quotation it would seem that 
 this term is literal, and that buying a few 
 fagots and hiring for a few pence a room 
 in a hut gave a person a vote at elections 
 for members of parliament. 
 
 Faggot, voters were there in plenty, renting a 
 room of some old crone at a penny or so a week, 
 lij^hting a tire with a small faggot of sticks, and 
 thus standing in freedom s might an elective 
 burgess.— C. Thomson, Autobiography, p. 58. 
 
 Faineants, i-e. worthless. A term 
 applied to the latter Merovingian kings 
 of France, in which reigns the mayors of 
 the palace really governed the kingdom, 
 and the kings were mere puppets. 
 
 They were Thierry III., Clovis III., Childe- 
 bert in., Dagobert HI., CMlperic U., Thierry IV., 
 
 and Childeric III., dethroned in 730. Of these 
 seven kings, five were the third of their name. 
 See ' Fatal Three.' 
 *,• Louis v. was also called ' le Faineant." 
 
 Fair Maid of Galloway {The). 
 Margaret, sister of Earl William of 
 Douglas, on whom descended the estates 
 of Galloway, Wigton, Balvenie, Ormond, 
 and Annandale, after the execution of 
 William in 1440. She married William, 
 heir of James the Gross, her cousin- 
 german. 
 
 Fair Maid of Kent {The). Joan, 
 daughter of the earl of Kent. She was 
 the wife of the Black Prince, and mother 
 of Richard II., born 1326, married 1361, 
 died 1385. 
 
 The Black Prince was born in 1330. At his mar- 
 riage he was 31 and his wife 35 years of age. 
 Edward died 1376, so h^p widow survived him nine 
 years. Her son was crowned 1377. 
 
 Faire Ruelle. To receive guests in 
 one's bedchamber. 
 
 Armande Bejart had made a start by receiving 
 her guests, sumptuously attired and reclining on a 
 state-bed. The guests passed on both sides of the 
 bed. This was called /aire ruelie.— Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury (June 1889, p. 7'Js). 
 
 Faithful Worman(T;^e). Prender- 
 gast (in the reign of Henry II.). When 
 MacGallapatrick of Ossory sought a safe- 
 conduct to the Norman camp in Ireland 
 to exculpate himself from treason his 
 friend Prendergast was appointed his 
 escort. On his reaching the camp, 
 O'Brien insisted on his death, but Pren- 
 dergast, drawing his sword, swore on the 
 cross that no harm should befall the man 
 who had confided in his honour ; and he 
 was allowed to conduct his friend back 
 again in safety. 
 
 Fakirs (Fa-keers'). Paupers; a 
 species of religious recluse common in 
 India and the East generally. They live 
 on alms, but subject themselves to great 
 hardships to earn eternal happiness. 
 Some neither lie nor sit for years toge- 
 ther. Some hold their hands over their 
 heads all life long. Some go about 
 well-nigh naked, exposed to heat, cold, 
 and the stings of insects. Some live 
 in ditches. Some carry fire on their 
 heads. Some condemn themselves to 
 perpetual silence. And all live an ascetic 
 life. 
 
 Falaise {The Treaty of), 1174. 
 V/illiam king of Scotland (brother of 
 Malcolm IV.) invaded Northumberland, 
 but was made prisoner at the battle of 
 
FALCZY 
 
 FALSE 
 
 :ii 
 
 Alnwick and taken tc Henry II., who was 
 at Northampton The Scotch redeemed 
 their king by making him hegeman to 
 Henry, and the treaty was signed at 
 Fahxise. in Normandy. This treaty is 
 important, as it made the king of Enghmd 
 the overlord of the king of Scotland. 
 Hicliard I. cancelled this? treaty for a sum 
 of money equal to 100,000Z. of the present 
 day. 
 
 Falczy {Peace of). 24 July, 1711. 
 Between Russia and Turkey, by which 
 Czar Peter I. the Great agreed to restore 
 Azof to the Porte. 
 
 Falk Laws (TJie), 1873. So called 
 from Dr. Falk, who insisted on the com- 
 pulsory education of the clergy of 
 Prussia. The laws are four in number : 
 (1) The first was directed against the 
 abuse of ecclesiastical discipline for poli- 
 tical purposes, such as ' boycotting,' 
 excommunication, and anathemas ; (2) 
 the next regulated the effect of secession 
 from the Church on the obligation to 
 meet certain taxes; (3) the third law 
 was directed at the evasions of Roman 
 Catholics of State education incumbent 
 on all Germans ; and (4) abolished the 
 legality of papal tribunals, recognising 
 the judgments of the German eccle- 
 siastical courts as the only authority 
 on Church matters. In 1874 these four 
 laws were supplemented by others to 
 ensure more perfect obedience. 
 
 Dr. Adalbert Falk was apjaointed by Prince 
 Bismarck ' Minister of Public Worship ' 22 Jan., 
 1872. In 1872 Prince Bismarck carried tiirough 
 the Prussian Houses a bill to transfer tiie control 
 of primary education from the Church to the 
 State authorities. 
 
 Falkenstein (Battle of), 1814. 
 Called ' The Battle of the Rocks ' ; in 
 ■which a party of French mountaineers 
 defended themselves from an army of 
 Germans and Cossacks by liurhng rocks 
 upon them. 
 
 Fall of the Leaf (T/ie), 1712. The 
 Act 10 Anne, c. 19, a.d. 1712 imposed a 
 stamp-duty on newspapers, and so many 
 were consequently discontinued that it 
 was called the ' Fall of the Leaf.' 
 
 False Coiner (The). Philippe III. 
 *Le Hardi' of France was so called 
 because he debased the coin. (1245, 
 1270-1285.) 
 
 False Decretals (The), 835-845. 
 A shameless forgery purporting to be 
 
 forty-nine rescripts oi bishops in the first 
 four centuries. Signed by such names 
 as St. Anacletus (who died 78), St. Alex- 
 ander (who died 100), St. Fabian (who 
 died 236), Julius (who died 337), and St. 
 Athanasius (who died 373). The object 
 of the Decretals is to diminish the 
 authority of metropolitans over their 
 suffragans, by establishing an appellant 
 jurisdiction of the Roman See in all 
 causes, and by forbidding national coun- 
 cils to be holden without its consent. 
 Every bishoj) is made amenable only to 
 the tribunal of the pope. Every accused 
 person might aj^peal to the pope from 
 any civil sentence. The pope only could 
 make new sees or translate from one see 
 to another. Upon these spurious de- 
 cretals has been built the great fabric of 
 papal supremacy. Koch says that this 
 book ' produced enormous changes in the 
 Roman hierarchy, doctrine, and disci- 
 pline ; and has to an incalculable extent 
 raised the authority of the pope.' 
 
 They assume to have been compiled by St. Isi- 
 dore of Pelusium, who diad 450, but certainly had 
 no existence for nearly 400 years later. 
 
 The ' False Decretals ' are subdivided into three 
 parts : 
 
 Part I. contains 61 decretals of popes in the first 
 three centuries (from Clement, a.d. 91, to Sylves- 
 ter, A.D. 814). 
 
 Part 11. contains the Canons of the Councils. 
 
 Part III. contains the decretal epistles from 
 Sylvester to Gregory the Great (34-590). 
 
 The False Decretals assert that Constantino the 
 Great ceded to Pope Sylvester and his successors 
 the empire of the West, and that tlie Church of 
 Rome has the charge of the whole flock of Christ, 
 as the successor of St. Peter. That every bishop 
 emanates from Rome, and that the power of the 
 pope overrides that of the councils. 
 
 *,* It is passing strange that a vile forgery should 
 have been accepted and appealed to as authority 
 by the Catholic Church for nearly 1,000 years. It 
 was appealed to in 8G5 by Nicholas I. ; by the Ecu- 
 menical Council in 870; again by Leo. IX. (104S- 
 1054). It was made the basis of the Hildebrandine 
 system (1073-lOSO) ; was referred to as authority 
 bv the Abbot Barlaam in 1:!41 ; by the Council of 
 Florence, 7 May, 1437 ; and was confirmed by the 
 Council of Trent in 1.564. 
 
 They were proved to be forgeries by Nicolas 
 Cusanus in 1482 ; by Laurentius Valla in 1457 ; by 
 Contius in 1586, but his evidence was suppressed; 
 and by Blondel in 162S, but his book was placed 
 in the ' Index.' At length. Pope Pius VI., in 1789, 
 had the honesty and courage to declare the author 
 of the book Tmpoxtor Neqiiissimtis, and the decretals 
 ' infamous forgeries.' See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 The author of tliese decretals was either Isidore 
 Mercator aCenobite,or Benedict Levita of Mentz, 
 or Riculfe archbishop of Mentz who brought them 
 to France in 811. 
 
 False Hermit (The), Enrico the 
 Italian was so called by the Catholics 
 because he was a hermit of the ' heretical ' 
 Waldenses. He was condemned to death 
 in 1134 by the Council of Pavla, but 
 escaped and died in 1147. 
 
312 
 
 FAMILIES 
 
 FAST 
 
 Families {The). A secret society 
 founded by Anguste Blanqui and Ber- 
 nard, chiefs of the French SociaUsts and 
 Communists. This red repubHcan party 
 were greatly instrumental in bringing 
 about the revolution of 1830. 
 
 Familist. 1540. One of the religious 
 sect called ' the Family of Love ' {q.v.). 
 
 Under the head of Independents .... were the 
 Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
 Familists, Enthusiast?, Seekers, Perfectists, So- 
 cinians, Arians, and others.— HowiTT, History of 
 England (Charles I., ch. vi. p. 273). 
 
 Familists. A religious sect in New 
 England in the 17th cent. This sect 
 looked for rare revelations and forsook 
 the revealed word (John Habvard, 1G28). 
 
 The Davidlans (q.v.) are so called in England 
 and Holland. 
 
 Family Feud, or 'Blood Feud.' 
 See ' Vendetta,' ' Rimbecco.' 
 
 Family Pact {The), ' Facte de Fa- 
 mille,' 15 Aug., 1761. A secret compact 
 made at the instigation of the Due de 
 Choiseul by all the crowned heads of the 
 Bourbon race to stand together in de- 
 fence of each other, and put an end to 
 the British maritime supremacy. The 
 family consisted of Louis XV. of France, 
 Carlos III. of, Spain, Ferdinand IV. of 
 Naples, and Filippo of Parma. Spain 
 bound herself to deprive Great Britain 
 of her commercial privileges in America, 
 and to transfer them to France. France 
 bound herself to aid Spain in the re- 
 covery of Gibraltar. The ' Pact ' was 
 quite efEete, and was broken up by the 
 revolution in 1789. 
 
 Louis XV. was the fourth of the Bonrbon dynasty 
 (founded by Henri IV.); Carlos III. was the ftftli 
 of the Bourbons in Spain (founded by the grandson 
 of Louis XIV.); Ferdinand IV. was Carlos's son; 
 and Filippo of Parma was son of Charles de 
 Bourbon. 
 
 Fam.ily of Love {The), or * Fami- 
 lists, 1540. A religious sect founded by 
 Henry Nicholas, a mercer of Delft, and 
 introduced into England in 1570 by 
 Vitells. These sectaries made all reli- 
 gion consist of inward love to Christ 
 They rejected infant baptism, the 
 divinity of Christ, and original sin. 
 
 Fanariotes (4 syl.). Greek drago- 
 mans residing at Fanar, in Constanti- 
 noj)le, and exercising considerable 
 induence in Turkey in the 17th and 18th 
 centuries. The insurrection of the 
 Greeks in 1821 put an end to their power. 
 
 Faneuil Hall. In Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts. Built in 1742 by Peter Faneuil 
 and presented by him to the town for 
 public meetings, &c. 
 
 Fanny {Lord). John lord Hervey 
 (1G96-1743). Lord Privy Seal in 1740; 
 ' half wit, half fool ; half man, half beau.' 
 It is said that he used rouge, drank 
 asses' milk, and took Scotch pills. 
 
 These lines are weak, another's pleased to say, 
 Lord Fanny weaves a thousand such a day. 
 
 PuPE, Sat. and Ep., i. 8. 
 
 Like gentle Fanny's was my flowery theme, 
 A painted mistress or a piirling stream. 
 
 Pope, Prologue {.■^at. and Ep.), line 149. 
 
 Far'andole (3 syl.), or ' Faran'dola.' 
 A sort of country dance peculiar to the 
 South of France and North of Italy, akin 
 to the Carmagnole {q.v.). It was under 
 the excitement of this dance that Mare- 
 chal Brune was murdered at Avignon in 
 1815. 
 
 Farmer G-eorge, or ' The Farmer 
 King,' The sobriquet of George III. 
 
 Farmer Godric and his Cum- 
 mer Godgifu. Henry I. of England 
 and his wife Matilda (daughter of King 
 Malcolm of Scotland and Margaret sister 
 of Edgar the Atheling). By this marriage 
 the blood of Cerdic and Alfred was 
 blended with that of Rolf and the Con- 
 queror. 
 
 Farmers General. In French 
 ' Fermiers Generaux.' Those in the an- 
 cient regime of France who farmed the 
 public revenues, such as tallage, gabelle 
 (or tax on salt), the tax on tobacco, the 
 octrois, and so on. Originally forty in 
 number, but afterwards increased to sixty. 
 They were immensely rich, and were ap- 
 pointed by the 'ministre de finances,' 
 who expected his pot-de-vin for the ap- 
 pointment. Suppressed by the Assembles 
 Constituante in 1790,' 
 
 Farnese (3 syl.). A princely Italian 
 family, famous for their patronage of the 
 arts. In their palace at Rome they pos- 
 sessed some of the finest sculptures of 
 the world, as the Farnese Bull, now at 
 Naples ; the Farnese Flora, Hercules, 
 and Gladiator. 
 
 Fast Days. In the Catholic Church 
 Wednesday was a fast in commemoration 
 of the day when Jesus was betrayed and 
 taken prisoner, and Friday the day of his 
 
FASTI 
 
 FATHER 
 
 813 
 
 crucifixion. To these was added Saturday 
 to commemorate the entombment. 
 
 The quadrigesimal or Lent fast com- 
 memorates the forty days passed by Jesus 
 in the wilderness ; it was originally only 
 forty hours. 
 
 There are four different sorts of fast : 
 
 (1) Jejunium generdle (binding on all); 
 
 (2) Jejunxum consuetudinarium (a local 
 fast) ; (3) Jej u?iiuvi j^cenitentidle {hy wa,y 
 of penance) ; and (4) Jejunium votlvum 
 (consequent on a vow). 
 
 The Mohammedans fast the whole 
 month of Ramadan, when the Prophet 
 brought the Koran from heaven. 
 
 Fasti. In ancient Rome days when 
 the law-courts were open ; ' Nefasti ' days 
 when they were closed. Also public re- 
 gisters. These registers were of two 
 Borts, Fasti Kalendures (or Sacri) and 
 Fasti AnndUs. The Fasti Kalendares 
 were almanacs. The Fasti Annales were 
 chronicles of the year containing the 
 names of the consuls and other magis- 
 trates for the current year, and a brief 
 notice opposite each day of some past 
 historic event in Roman history. 
 
 Ovid's Fa.sti is a poetical companion to the calen- 
 dar published by Julius Ciesar. 
 
 Fat Thursday. See ' Zobia grassa.' 
 
 Fat Tuesday. See ' Mardi Gras.' 
 
 Fatal Stone {The). A palladium, as 
 the ' Fatale Marmor ' or ' Stone of De- 
 stiny ' [q.v.) of Scotland. The Fatal Stone 
 of Artizoe, of the Persians, mentioned by 
 Pliny. The ' Black Stone ' of the Seids. 
 The ' Fatal Stone ' is described as a large 
 mass of very rich grey silver ore of an 
 Indian South American tribe, removed 
 from place to place, as the tribe fled be- 
 fore the Spanish invaders. See ' Caaba.' 
 
 Probably the ' Great Goddess Diana which fell 
 from heaven ' was a meteoric stone, like the ' Fatal 
 Stone ' referred to above. 
 
 Fatal Three. The succession of 
 three brothers has been singularly fatal 
 in France. The Capetian dynasty ter- 
 minated with the three succeeding 
 brothers (sons of Philippe TV. le Bel), 
 viz. Louis X., Philippe V. , and Charles IV. 
 The Valois line came to an end by the 
 succession of the three eons of Henri II., 
 viz. Francois II., Charles IX., and Henri 
 III. Similarly, the Bourbon dynasty 
 terminated with the three sons of Louis 
 the Dauphin, viz. Louis XVI., Louis 
 XVIIL, and Charles X. The empire also 
 14 
 
 consisted of Napoleon I., Napoleon II., 
 and Napoleon III. 
 
 After Charles IV., the third brother of the Cape- 
 tian dynasty, came Philippe de Valois, a collateral 
 branch. After Henri III., the third brother of the 
 Valois dynasty, came Henri de Bourbon, a colla- 
 teral branch, .\fter Charles X., the third brother 
 of the Bourbon dynasty, came Louis Philippe, a 
 collateral branch. And with the third of these 
 triplets monarchy in France died out. Of the 
 seven Rois Faim'ants of France, five were the third 
 of the name— Thierry III., Clovis III., Childebert 
 III., Dagobert III., and Childeric III. And after 
 Napoleon III. the empire was converted into a 
 republic. 
 
 Fatale Marmor, the 'Lia Fail' 
 {q.v.), or ' Stone of Destiny.' See above, 
 'Fatal Stone.' 
 
 Fatale, pronounce Fay-td'-le. 
 
 Father and Friend of the 
 
 People {The). Henri IV. of France 
 
 (1553, 1589-lGlO). 
 
 II fut de ses Bujets le vainqueur et le pere.— 
 Voltaire. 
 
 Father and Mother of his 
 People {The). Kang Hi (1653, 1661- 
 1724). One of the best of the Chinese 
 emperors. 
 
 Father Fritz. The name of en- 
 dearment given to Friedrich II. the 
 Great by his Prussian subjects (1712, 
 1740-1786). 
 
 Father Violet. Napoleon I. (1769- 
 1821, emperor 1804-1815). So called 
 after his banishment to Elba, because he 
 assured his partisans that he would ' re- 
 turn to France with the violets.' Violets 
 are still the symbol of imperial pro- 
 clivities in France. 
 
 Father of Biblical Criticism 
 
 {The). Origen is called the father of 
 Biblical criticism and exegesis (185-254). 
 He was accused and tortured for heresy. He 
 denied the inspiration of scripture, rejected much 
 of the historical portions of the Bible, and dis- 
 believed in eternal punishment. 
 
 Father of Botany {The). Toume- 
 fort (3 syL), 1656-1708. Linnasus fol- 
 lowed him in all the main parts of his 
 system. 
 
 Father of British Inland Na- 
 vigation {The). Francis Egerton, 
 duke of Bridgewater (1736-1803). Brind- 
 ley constructed for him a canal between 
 his coal pits at Worsley to Manchester, 
 which reduced the carriage of. coals from 
 12s. to 6s. a ton, and their price from Id. 
 to 3fZ. a cwt. 
 
 The ' Bridgewater Canal,' commenced in 1753, 
 was by no mean the Ji/s( canal in the British Isles. 
 
314 
 
 FATHER 
 
 FATHER 
 
 The New River Canal was begun in 1G08, the 
 Carmarthenshire Canal in 1755, the Droitwich to 
 the Severn in 1756, &c. But it was the first great 
 navigable canal. 
 
 Father of Burlesque Poetry 
 
 (The). Hipponax of Ephesus (b.c. 566- 
 520), a Greek poet. 
 
 Father of Chronology (The). 
 
 Josephus Justus ScalTger (1540-1609). 
 His great work is ' De Emendatione Tem- 
 porum.' 
 
 Father of Church History 
 
 (The). Eusebius, first of the Greek 
 Fathers {q.v.) and author of an Ecclesi- 
 astical History in ten books (Greek) from 
 A.D. 1 to 324. Also called ' Father of 
 Christian History ' (265-338). 
 
 Father of Cruelty. Alliakem I. 
 of Cordova who exiled to Africa 40,000 
 of his own subjects for rebellion a.d. 818. 
 He was also called ' He of the Suburbs,' 
 because he razed to the ground the 
 suburbs in which the above-mentioned 
 rebels resided. 
 
 Father of English Poetry (The). 
 
 Geoffrey Chaucer, the greatest English 
 poet up to the time of Shakespeare. 
 There were English poets before him, 
 but Chaucer was ifiter ignes Luna 
 minores. 
 
 Father of French Chemistry 
 
 {The). Arnaud de Villeneuve (1238- 
 1314). He discovered sulphuric, muria- 
 tic, and nitric acids ; obtained alcohol 
 from fermented liquors ; and procured 
 the spirit of turpentine by dissolving in 
 alcohol the juice of pine- wood. 
 
 Father of French Eloquence 
 
 (The). Alain Chartier (1386-1458), secre- 
 tary to Charles VI. and Charles VII. 
 
 Father of French Philosophy 
 
 {The). D'Alembert, mathematician, litte- 
 rateur and encyclopaedist (1717-1783). 
 Called the ' Mazarin of Letters.' 
 
 Father of French Poetry [The). 
 Thibault (1210-1253), comte de Cham- 
 pagne, and afterwards king of Navarre. 
 He introduced the alternate masculine 
 and feminine rhymes. 
 
 Feminine rhymes for the most part end in e or 
 es\ silent in prose, but pronounced slightly in 
 poetry at the end of a line. 
 
 Thibault, pronounce Tee'-ho. 
 
 Father of French Satire {The). 
 Mathurin Regnier (1573-1G13). 
 
 Eeguier, pronounce liain'-yca. 
 
 Fathers of French Sculptors 
 
 {The). Goujon and Pilon (16th cent.). 
 The former, called the Correggio of sculp- 
 tors, was slain in the- Bartholomew 
 massacre. 
 
 Father of French Surgery 
 
 {The). Ambroise Pare (1517-1590), author 
 of a treatise on Gunshot Wounds. 
 
 Father of French Tragedy 
 
 {The). Robert Gamier (1534-1590). The 
 foreboding dream in his ' Hippolyte ' has 
 nothing superior in Corneille or Racine. 
 However, Corneille is generally looked 
 on as ' the Father of French Tragedy.' 
 
 Father of Grace and Elegance 
 
 {The). So the French style Du Bellay, 
 one of their Pleiad poets, also called ' the 
 French Ovid' (1524-1560). 
 
 Father of Landscape Garden- 
 ing {The). Lenotre (1613-1700). He 
 laid out the gardens of Versailles, the 
 Tuileries, St. Cloud, St. Germain, Fon- 
 tainebleau, Clugny, Chantilly, Meudon, 
 and Sceaux. He died at the age of 88, 
 never having had a day's illness in his 
 life. 
 
 Father of Letters {The). Louis 
 
 XIL (1462, 1498-1515). 
 
 FrauQois I. (1494, 1515-1547). 
 
 Lorenzo de Medicis of Florence (1448- 
 1492). 
 
 Maecenas, the Roman statesman, waa called 
 the Patron of Letters (B.C. 73-8). 
 
 Father of Medicine {The). Hip- 
 pocrates, b.c. 460-357. 
 
 Father of Mesmerism {The), or 
 ' Animal Magnetism.' Mesmer (1734- 
 1815). He taught that there exists a 
 force in man which he could communi- 
 cate to others, and that this force was of 
 a sedative character, inducing sleep or 
 alleviating pain. 
 
 Father of Modern French 
 Literature {The). Claude de Seyssel 
 (1450-1520), celebrated for being the first 
 prose writer in French with any degree 
 of purity. 
 
 Father of Modern German 
 Poetry {The). Martin Opitz of Silesia 
 (1597-1639). 
 
 Father of Modern Philosophy 
 
 {The). Roger Bacon, a friar, author of 
 ♦ Opus Majus ' (1214-1202). 
 
FATHEK 
 
 FATHER 
 
 315 
 
 Father of Modern Scepticism 
 
 (The). Bayle (1647-1706), author of a 
 French ' Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary.' 
 
 Father of Modern Swedish 
 Poetry (The). Stjernlijelm {Shearn- 
 yebn), 16tli cent., contemporary with 
 Shakspeare, Lope de Vega, &c. 
 
 Father of Parody {The). Hippo- 
 nax of Ephesus (b.c. 566-520), a Greek 
 poet. 
 
 Father of Physiology (The). 
 Haller (1708-1777). He wrote eighty-six 
 books on medicine and physiology. 
 
 Father of Political Dissenters 
 
 (The). Sir John Oldcastle, commonly 
 called Lord Cobham (1360-1417). Burnt 
 to death in the reign of Henry V. He 
 was condemned by Archbishop Arundel 
 in 1413, but the sentence was carried out 
 by Henry Chicheley, Arundel's successor, 
 14 Dec, 1417. Lord Cobham was said to 
 be unsound on these four points ; Tran- 
 Bubstantiation, penance, pilgrimages, and 
 inaage-worship. 
 
 Father of Satire (The). Archi- 
 lochos of Paros (b.c. 710-690), a Greek 
 poet. He inveighed against Paros, against 
 Thasos, and against Lycambes, who 
 promised to give him his daughter in 
 marriage, but afterwards retracted his 
 word. Lycambes was so pricked to the 
 heart by the satire of the poet that he 
 hanged himself. 
 
 Archilochum proprio rabies armavit iambo, 
 HoR. De Arte Poetica, 79. 
 
 Father of Waters. The Irrawaddy 
 (Burmah). Johnson, in his ' Rasselas,' 
 calls the Mississippi 'the Nile of the 
 Father of Waters.' 
 
 Father of his Country. 
 
 Andronicos Palceologos assumed the 
 title (1260-1332). 
 
 Augustus (' Pater atque Princeps ' — 
 Horace), b.c. 63, 31-14 a.d. 
 
 Cicero, who broke up the Catiline con- 
 spiracy (B.C. 106-43). 
 
 The Romans offered the same title to Marius 
 after his annihilation of the Teutonea and 
 Cimbri, but he declined to accept it. 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici is so designated on 
 his tombstone. 
 
 ' CosmiiK Mediri | Hie situs est, | Decreio publico, | 
 Pater Patriie (1519-1574). 
 
 DoRiA [Andrea) is so called on his 
 statue at Genoa (1468-15G0). 
 
 Julius G'esar was so styled after he 
 had quelled the Spanish insurrection 
 (B.C. 100-44). 
 
 Laurence O'Toole, archbishop of 
 Dublin, who died 14 Nov., 1180 : he was 
 of the illustrious house of O'Tuathal, and 
 was canonised in 1226 by Honorius III. 
 
 Louis XVni. of France (1755, 1814- 
 1824). 
 
 Washington {George), ' Defender and 
 Paternal Counsellor of the American 
 States ' (1732-1799). 
 
 See also 1 Cliron. iv, 14. 
 
 Father of his People {The). 
 Lou=s XII. of France (1462, 1498-1515). 
 
 Even Louis XI. was so called. The French, as 
 a rule, have not been happy in their royal 
 appellatives. 
 
 Father of the English Uni- 
 tarians {The). John Biddle of Glou- 
 cestershire (1615-1662), He was thrice 
 imprisoned by the Long Parliament, and 
 was at last liberated in 1652 by the Act 
 of Oblivion. He was again arrested in 
 1655, but Cromwell discharged him in 
 1658 ; he was again arrested in 1662, and 
 fined lOOZ. Not being able to pay the 
 fine, he died in prison within five weeks. 
 
 Father of the Forest {The). It 
 
 stands in California in Tulare County, 
 is 450 feet high, and 138 feet round the 
 trunk. 
 
 Father of the French Drama 
 
 {The). Rotrou (1609-1650) was so called 
 by Corneille. If not the ' father of the 
 drama,' he was doubtlessly the ' founder 
 of the French theatre ' so far as scenery 
 is concerned and the general conduct of 
 the stage. 
 
 Father of the German School 
 
 {The). Albert Diirer (1471-1528). 
 
 Fuseli says of Albert Diirer, ' though called the 
 Father of the German School, he neither reared 
 scholars, nor was he imitated by German artists 
 of any age.' 
 
 Father of the Land League. 
 
 Ireland. Michael Davitt, 1879. 
 
 Father of the Modern Drama 
 
 {The). In Germany. Andrew Gryph 
 (1619-1664), prince of the Silesian poets. 
 Shakspeare died the very year that 
 Gryph was born. He wrote both tra- 
 gedies and comedies, but is pompous, 
 declamatory, and overstrained. 
 
 Father of the People {The). 
 Christiern III. of Deimiark (1502, 1534- 
 1559). 
 
BIO 
 
 FATHERS 
 
 FEAST 
 
 Gabriel du Pineau, a French lawyer 
 (1573-1644). 
 
 Fathers {Last of the). St. Bernard 
 (1091-1153). 
 
 The ' Fathers of the Church ' were followed by 
 the ' Schoolmen.' 
 
 Fathers of the Greek Church. 
 
 Those Christian writers of the Greek 
 Church who succeeded the Primitive 
 Fathers {q.v.), and lived in the 4th and 
 5th cents. : 
 
 Died 
 
 842 Eusebius of Nicomedia. 
 
 873 Athanasius. 
 
 879 Ephrem of Edessa (the deacon). 
 
 — Basil the Great. 
 
 886 Cyril of Jerusalem. 
 
 390 Gregory of Nazianzus in Cappa- 
 
 docia. 
 896 Gregory of Nyssa. 
 403 Epiphanius. 
 407 Chrysostom. 
 444 Cyril of Alexandria. 
 
 Fathers of the Latin Church. 
 
 Contemporary with those of the Greek 
 Church (q.v.). 
 Died. 
 
 317 Lactantius. 
 
 397 Ambrose of Milan. 
 
 420 Jerome (2 syl.). 
 
 430 Augustin of Hippo. 
 
 467 Hilary. 
 St. Bernard (1091-1153) is called the Last of the 
 Latin Fathers, and was followed by the Schoolmen. 
 
 Fatherland. Germany. 
 
 What is the German fatherland ? 
 Is't Prussia's realm or Suabian-land? 
 Is't where the Rhenish red-grapes hang ? 
 Or -where the Baltic sea-mews clang ? 
 Oh ! nay, nay, nay. so cribbed a strand 
 Is not the German fatherland. 
 
 Our fatherland all Germany— 
 Who speak the tongue our sons must be. 
 God give us courage, will, and strength, 
 To free it in its breadth and length ; 
 Join every heart, join every hand 
 Till Germany's one fatherland. 
 
 Arndt (translated by E. C, B.). 
 
 Fatigue Party. Men of the rank 
 and file employed on works, such as 
 making roads, digging trenches, moving 
 guns, pitching camps, &c., not their 
 special military work. They are said to 
 be 'men on fatigue.' 
 
 Fatimites (3 syl.). An Arabian 
 dynasty in Egypt, founded by Mahadi 
 Obaidallah, a descendant of Fatima, 
 daughter of Moliammed ' the projihet ' 
 (910-1171). On the death of Adhid (last 
 of the Fatimites) the dynasty of the 
 
 Ayubides (3 syl.) succeeded. The Fati- 
 mites of Egypt wore red turbans. 
 
 The princes of the Fatimites were called Aliades 
 (.3 syl.), from All, cousin of Mohammed. Ali married 
 Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, and was pro- 
 claimed kalif in 666. 
 
 Faust {The English). Dr. Dee, the 
 astrologer (1527-1608). 
 
 Favoured Child of Victory 
 
 {The). Marshal Massena, duke of Rivoli 
 (1758-1817), so called because his whole 
 career in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, 
 and Poland had been an unbroken series 
 of victories. He was foiled by Viscount 
 Wellington (Duke of Wellington) at 
 Busaco 27 Sept., 1810. 
 
 Fawkes {Gziy, i.e. Guido). Was at 
 the taking of Calais by Archduke Albrecht 
 in 1598. He took part with Catesby 
 and the other conspirators in Gunpowder 
 Plot, 1604-5, was arrested 5 Nov. 1605, 
 and executed at Westminster 31 Jan., 
 1606. 
 
 In 1850, the year of 'the Papal aggression,' the 
 figure of Cardinal Wiseman was substituted for 
 Guy Fawkes in the street processions. 
 
 Fealty was performed standing ; 
 homage was performed kneeling. Fealty 
 was sv/orn to by oath ; homage required 
 no oath. In fealty the vassal stood 
 before his lord, and laying his right 
 hand on the Bible, said aloud: 'Know 
 ye this, my lord, that I swear to be 
 faithful and true to you, and to bear 
 faith to you for the lands that I shall 
 hold of you. • And I will lawfully do unto 
 you the customs and services which I 
 ought to do, and at the times assigned. 
 So help me God and his saints.' Then 
 taking up the book he kissed it, and put 
 it back again. See ' Investiture of 
 Vassals.' 
 
 Feast, Feasts. See also 'Festa,' 
 ' Festum,' and ' Fete.' 
 
 Christian Feasts are (a) Fixed; (6) 
 Movable. 
 
 {a) The Fixed Christian Festivals are 
 
 All Saints or All Hallows, 1 Nov. 
 
 All Souls in honour of all the faithful 
 dead, whether canonised or not, 2 Nov. 
 
 Candlemas Day or the Purification of 
 the Virgin Mary, 2 Feb. 
 
 Christmas Day or the Nativity, 25 Dec 
 
 Circumcision, 1 Jan. 
 
 Epiphany or Twelfth Day, 6 Jan. 
 
 Iimocents' Day, 28 Dec. 
 
FEAST 
 
 FEAST 
 
 817 
 
 Lady Day or Annunciation of the 
 Virgin Mary, 25 March. 
 
 The following are also called Saints' 
 Days, or Red Letter Days : — 
 
 S. Andrew SO Nov. 
 
 Barnabas 11 June 
 
 James the Elder 26 July- 
 John the Baptist (his Nativity) 24 June 
 
 John the Evangelist 27 Dec. 
 
 Luke the Evangelist 18 Oct. 
 
 Mark the Evangelist 25 April 
 
 Matthew the Evangelist .. 21 Sept. 
 
 Matthias 24 Feb. 
 
 Michael (Blichaelmas Day) ... 29 Sept. 
 
 Paul (his Conversion) 25 Jan. 
 
 Peter (by Catholics Peter & Paul) 29 June 
 
 Philip and James the Less 1 May 
 
 Simon and Jude ^ 28 Oct. 
 
 Stephen (the first martyr) ... 26 Dec. 
 
 Thomas (the shortest day) ... 21 Dec. 
 
 (6) Movable Christian Feasts : — 
 
 Ascension Day or Holy Thursday, ten 
 days before Whit Sunday. 
 
 Ash Wednesday, the first day in Lent. 
 
 Easter Sunday {q^v.). 
 
 Good Friday, the Friday before Easter 
 Day. 
 
 Palm Sunday, the Sunday before 
 Easter Day. 
 
 Pentecost or Wliit Sunday, the seventh 
 Sunday after Easter. 
 
 Sexagesima Sunday, (about) sixty days 
 before Easter, second Sunday before Lent. 
 
 Trinity Sunday, the Sunday following 
 Whit Sunday. 
 
 See each of these in loco. They all depend on 
 Easter Day. 
 
 Feasts {Grecian), or Grecian Fes- 
 tivals. 
 
 Agraulia, or Agrauria, held at Athens 
 in honour of Agraulos or Agrauros, 
 daughter of Cecrops. 
 
 Artemisia in honour of Artemis 
 [Diana] ; the bread offered to the goddess 
 was called lochia, and the women who 
 performed the sacred rites were called 
 loinbai. 
 
 Diony'sia in honour of Dionysos [Bac- 
 chus], observed in Athens with great 
 splendour and numerous ceremonies. 
 
 Eleusinia, the most celebrated and 
 most mysterious festival of any in Greece. 
 The greater mysteries were celebrated 
 at Eleusis, in the month Boedromion 
 (the latter half of Sept. and the former 
 of Oct.). 
 
 Panathenaia in honour of Athene 
 [Minerva], protectress of Athens. It 
 lasted several days and was celebrated 
 with great magnificence. 
 
 The festivals of Greece were very numerous. 
 There were fifty beginning with the letter A. And 
 besides these special festivals there were the 
 
 times set apart for the Isthmian, NSmSan, Olym. 
 plan, and Pythian games. 
 
 Feasts {Boman), or Roman Festivals. 
 
 1. In January : The Agondlia in 
 honour of Janus on the 9th ; and Car- 
 mentalia in honour of Carmenta (mother 
 of Evander) on the 11th. 
 
 2. In February: The Faunalia in 
 honour of Faunus on the 13th; the Lu- 
 percdlia in honour of Pan, on the 15th ; 
 the Begifiigium on the 2-ith, to com- 
 memorate the flight of Tarquin ; and two 
 or three others. 
 
 3. In March: the Matrondlia to com- 
 memorate the termination of the Sa- 
 bine war on the 1st; the Liberdha in 
 honour of Bacchus on the 18th ; the 
 Quinquatrta in honour of Minerva, on 
 the 19th ; and two others. 
 
 4. In April : the Megalesia, on the 4th 
 and 5th, in honour of the mother of the 
 gods ; the Ceredlia in honour of Ceres, 
 on the 9th ; and three others. 
 
 5. In May : on the 1st the sacred rites 
 of the Bona Dea were performed by the 
 vestal virgins ; the Leniurta, to the souls 
 of the deceased, on the 9th ; and two 
 others. 
 
 6. In June : On the 1st were several 
 festivals, one of which was that of Juno 
 ino7ieta. Other festivals were held on 
 the 4th, 7th, 9th, and 10th. 
 
 With the festivals of this month the Fasti of 
 Ovid end. The other six books are lost, 
 
 7. In July were seven festivals. 
 
 8. In August were four festivals. 
 
 9. In September : the Ludi Magni 
 were held on the 4th in honour of the 
 great gods ; and on the 13th the consul 
 fixed a nail in the temple of Jupiter. 
 
 10. In October were two festivals. 
 
 11. In November were two festivals. 
 
 12. In December : the Saturnalia were 
 held on the 17th, the most celebrated 
 festival of the whole year, when aU per- 
 sons of every rank gave themselves up to 
 feasting, frolic, and fun. 
 
 Besides the time devoted to the games. 
 
 Feast of Fools, or ' Festum Fatno- 
 rum.' The Christian substitute of the 
 Roman Saturnalia. The same as ' Festum 
 Kalendarum' {q.v.), 1 Jan. Abolished 
 in Germany by the Council of Basel 
 (1431-1449) ; in France by Charles VII. 
 in 1444. Observed at Antibes (2 syl.) as 
 late as 1644. See ' Festum Asinorum.' 
 
 This was not the Ass's Festival, as many assert. 
 The Ass's Festival was the 14th of Jan., and cora- 
 memorated the ' Flight into Egypt,' whereas the 
 
318 
 
 FEAST 
 
 FEDEEALISTS 
 
 Peast of Fools was New-year's day, and thence 
 called 'Festum Kalendarum.' It was called Fcstum 
 hypodiacoHomm, ' non quod revera soli Subdiaconi 
 has scelestas choreas ducerent; sed quodhac jocu- 
 lar! appellatione indicare voluerint festivitatem 
 hancfuisse ebriorum clericorum veldiaconorura." 
 Du Cange, vol. iv. p. 298, article ' Kalendse." It was 
 a day of drunkenness and debauchery, in which 
 the clergy took a leading part. 
 
 Feast of Liberty ( The). A festival 
 held by the Athenians every five years, 
 in commemoration of the victory of 
 Salamis over Xerxes and his host. It 
 was celebrated on the battle-field of 
 Platsea. 
 
 Feast of ITature {The), 10 Aug., 
 1793. To celebrate the ' perfected consti- 
 tution.' Se'chelles and David the painter 
 were the chief devisers. A plaster statue 
 of Nature was erected on the Place de la 
 BastiUe, having two streams of water 
 sprouting from her breasts. The front of 
 the pedestal bore the words, ' We all are 
 her children.' Other mottos were ' Hell 
 vomits kings,' and 'Hell vomits priests.' 
 The chief members of the Convention, 
 public committees, and commune kneeled 
 in adoration to this plaster image, pray- 
 ing her to receive the eternal devotion of 
 the French. Then followed firing of can- 
 non, scattering of flowers, kissing, and 
 dancing. The nurses of the foundling 
 hospital brought their children to ' Mother 
 Nature,' and the Dames de la Halle were 
 crowned with wreaths. In the Place de 
 la Revolution (now ' de la Concorde ') was 
 a gigantic statue of Liberty with a forest 
 of poles bearing red caps, and inscribed, 
 * Imitate us ; we are free.' 
 
 Feast of Pikes {The), 14 July. So 
 the ' Feast of the Federation ' is called by 
 Carlyle, because the Bastille was taken on 
 14 July, 1790, by the mob, for the most 
 part armed with pikes. 
 
 France roared simultaneously to the welkin, 
 bursting forth into sound and sinol^e at its Feast 
 of Pikes.— Caklyle, French. Revolution, vol. iii. 
 bk. ii. 1. 
 
 Feast of Reason {The), 10 Nov., 
 1793. Celebrated by decree of the Con- 
 vention at Paris. 
 
 Feast of Reconciliation {The), 
 
 25 Jan., 1555. A grand religious proces- 
 sion in London, in the reign of Queen 
 Mary, to commemorate the return of 
 England to the See of Rome. It was to 
 be held annually on St. Andrew's day 
 (25 Jan.). 
 
 The bishops were empowered to ' reconcile ' all 
 to the Catholic Church, and enter their '- 
 
 registers. Those who did not give in their names 
 were to be proceeded against as heretics. Thia 
 was followed by four years of persecution, when 
 about 300 suffered death. 
 
 Feasts of the Etre Supreme 
 
 {The), 8 June, 1794. Celebrated by de- 
 cree of the Convention at Paris. See 
 also * Festa,' ' Festum,' and ' Fete.' 
 
 Feathers Tavern Association 
 
 {The), 1771. An association opposed to 
 the abolition of subscription to the Thirty- 
 nine Articles and confessions of faith. Its 
 name is derived from the place of meet- 
 ing. In 1772 the association presented a 
 petition to parliament on the subject. It 
 was signed by 200 clergymen and 50 lay- 
 men, chiefly lawyers. 
 
 Febron'ianism, anti - papalism. 
 John Nicholas von Hontheim, who assu- 
 med the pen-name of Justinus Febronius, 
 wrote a book, ' De Prsesenti Statu Eccle- 
 siae,' published in 1767, to prove the inde- 
 pendence of national churches, and the 
 ' home rule ' of diocesan bishops. It met 
 with the severest censures of the Roman 
 tribunals. 
 
 February Patent or Ordi- 
 nance {The), 1801. Promulgated for the 
 establishment of a central Reichsrath, 
 consisting of a house of lords and house 
 of representatives from all the provinces 
 of the Austrian empire. Hungary re- 
 fused to send any representative, and in 
 1867 Hungary was granted its present 
 form of government. 
 
 February Revolution {The), 1848 
 (22, 23, 24). In which the govern- 
 ment of Louis Philippe of France was 
 overthrown. It began at a reform ban- 
 quet with the cry of Vive la Beforme ! 
 and ended in three days with the cry of 
 Vive la Bepuhlique ! The king fled, and 
 a republic was proclaimed 24 Feb. 
 
 Fedavees. A company of young 
 
 men, agents of the Chief of the Assassins, 
 a secret society of Asia. They dressed in 
 white, with red bonnets and girdles, and 
 were armed with daggers ; but they as- 
 sumed all sorts of disguises. 
 
 Federalism, 1792, 1798. A scheme 
 proposed by the Girondists {q.v.) to form 
 tlie different departments into a federacy, 
 like the United States of America. 
 
 Federalists {The), 1841. Ireland. 
 "When the House of Commons decided 
 
FEDEEALS 
 
 FENELON 
 
 819 
 
 that demands for the repeal of the Union 
 were unconstitiTtional, the repealers called 
 themselves 'Federalists,' and declared that 
 their platform was not identical with the 
 repeal for which Daniel O'Connell had 
 previously been agitating. They said they 
 were opposed to the dismemberment of 
 the Imperial Parliament, but favoured the 
 idea of an Irish Parliament to have juris- 
 diction in exclusively local affairs. O'Con- 
 nell accepted the new programme. 
 
 Federals [The), 1861-1866. In the 
 American Civil War the Federalists were 
 those who armed to preserve the Union 
 against the Confederates (g-.i).) or Southern 
 States. 
 
 Federate Republicanism, 1793. 
 
 A French federation against the Con- 
 vention. The chief league consisted of 
 Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. Keller- 
 mann was sent with 30,000 troops to re- 
 duce Lyons to obedience, and tlie siege 
 lasted from 19 Sept. to 9 Oct., 1793, when 
 the city surrendered, and 2,000 of the 
 inhabitants were put to death. Toulon 
 was set on fire, and the federation was 
 stamped out. 
 
 Federation of the Champ de 
 Mars, or 'Fete of the Federation,' 
 11 July, 1790. The first anniversary of the 
 taking of the Bastille in Paris, when 
 60,000 persons assembled, and Louis XVI. 
 swore to preserve the constitution worked 
 out by the Constituent Assembly. 
 
 A second federation was held 14 July, 
 1792. 
 
 A third was held during the famous 
 Hundred Days {q.v.), 26 May, 1815. This 
 is more properly called the Cliamp de 
 Mai, but it was held in the Champ de 
 MuTs of Paris. Here Napoleon the Great 
 proclaimed what is called ' L'Acte Addi- 
 tionnel ' — that is, the act which Napo- 
 leon, during the Hundred Days, ' ajouta 
 aux Constitutions de I'Empire.' Tliis 
 assembly, announced for 26 May, did not 
 reaUy take place till 1 June. 
 
 Fee-penny [The). A fine paid or 
 exacted of a debtor if his debt was not paid 
 to time. Sir Thomas Gresham, writing 
 from Flanders, frequently requests the 
 English government to settle its debts ' to 
 save the fee-penny.' 
 
 Fehmgerichte (4 syl.), or the ' Holy 
 Fehm.' A secret tribunal of the middle 
 
 ages, in Westphalia. Its object was espe- 
 cially to terrorise the barons, whose law- 
 less conduct was the curse of the land. 
 These tribunals were at their climacteric 
 in the 14th and 15th cents. 
 
 The members of the tribunal were called 
 * Wissende ' (3 syl.), the initiated. 
 
 The district over which it exercised 
 judicial authority was called the ' Red 
 Land.' 
 
 The assessors of the court and execu- 
 tors of its sentences were called ' Frei- 
 sclioffen ' (free justices). 
 
 The presiding judge was the ' Freigraf ' 
 (free count). 
 
 The kaiser (king of Germany) was ex 
 officio one of the ' Wissende.' 
 
 Felix'ians, 8th cent. A Spanish sect 
 so called from Felix bishop of Urgel. 
 He taught that Christ in respect of his 
 divine nature was the Son of God by 
 generation ; but in respect of his human 
 nature was only the adopted Son of God, 
 like other holy men. This was called the 
 ' Adoption Controversy.' 
 
 Elipandus (archbishop of Toledo) was a Felixian. 
 
 Fellow Commoners, in Cam- 
 bridge University, are students who pay 
 higher fees, wear a distinctive costume, 
 and 'common' or dine at the Fellows' 
 Table. They were called in Oxford Uni- 
 versity ' Gentleman Commoners.' They 
 are generally either noblemen or married 
 men. 
 
 Female Hi gh Sher iff( The). Anne 
 countess of Pembroke, a staunch royalist 
 in the reigns of Charles I. and II. On the 
 death of her father, the Earl of Cumber- 
 land, in 1643, she succeeded to the here- 
 ditary office of Slieriff of Westmoreland, 
 attended the judges of assize, and sat with 
 them on the bench at Appleby. 
 
 Fencing the Tables. Keeping 
 from the eucharist all whom the ' Fencers ' 
 thought unworthy to be communicants. 
 One clergymen of Dumfries forbade from 
 the table aU who used minced oaths, 
 such as ' heth, teth, feth, fegs, losh, gosh, 
 and lovenenty.' 
 
 Fdnelon of Germany {The). 
 Lava'ter (1741-1801). Born at Ziirich; 
 the founder of physiognomonie, or the art 
 of reading character by physiognomy. 
 
 Fdnelon of the Reformation. 
 
 Johann Arnd of Anhalt (1555-1021). 
 
320 
 
 FENIAN 
 
 FEEMIERS 
 
 Fenian Heroes [The). The heroes 
 of Finn, called by Ossian ' Fmgal.' ' Gal ' 
 means the alien or foreigner, as Wales, 
 &c. 
 
 Fenians, or Fenian Brotlier- 
 hood. An association of Irish rebels 
 ill-disposed to the British government, 
 and bent on a separation of Ireland from 
 England. It was organised in America 
 by James Stephens in 1858. The leaders 
 were called ' Head-Centres,' and their 
 subordinates were called ' Centres.' 
 
 It was introduced into Ireland in 1865 
 by James Stephens, the ' head-centre,' 
 who was imprisoned in Dublin, 11 Nov., 
 but made his escape, 24 Nov., by the 
 connivance of the turnkey. 
 
 This society, which made the most 
 reckless attacks on life and property, 
 was condemned, 12 Jan., 1870, by Pope 
 Pius IX., and on 14 Oct. by General 
 Grant, president of the U.S. of America; 
 but it still remains active for mischief. 
 
 18 Sept., 1807, Sergeant Brett was killed ; and on 
 13 Dec. the wall of Clerkenwell House of Detention 
 ■was blown up by these miscreants. The attack 
 on Clerkenwell prison was for the rescue of 
 Richard Bourke. 
 
 12 March, 1868, O'Farrell, a Fenian, made an 
 attempt to assassinate in Sydney the Duke of 
 Edinburgh, the second son of Queen Victoria. 
 
 In May 1882 Lord Frederick Cavendish (the 
 newly-appointed viceroy of Ireland) and Thomas 
 A. Burke, under-secretary, were savagely assassi- 
 nated while walking in Phoenix Park, Dublin. 
 
 In March 1883 simultaneous attempts were made 
 to blow up the offices of the Local Government 
 Board and the office of the Times ' newspaper. 
 
 In 1884 the Fenians attempted to blow up with 
 dynamite four of the chief railway stations. 
 
 *,* The name ' Fenian ' is a base dishonour to 
 the famous national militia, the Fianna Eirin, 
 whose achievements formed a source of song and 
 romance honourable to Ireland. Fingal, son in- 
 law of King Comhalor Combal (A.D. 212-353), little 
 thought his name would be so degraded in the 19lh 
 cent. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott alludes to the Fenians in ' The 
 Antiquary,' but not the Fenians condemned by 
 every right-thinking man, under the patronage of 
 Michael Davitt. 
 
 Fer, ant feri ; feri, ne feriare 
 
 (Suffer or strike ; strike lest you be 
 stricken), or thus, * Aut fer, aut feri ; ne 
 feriare, fei*i.' The jingling words inces- 
 santly muttered by Queen Elizabeth 
 while she remained in doubt whether to 
 sign the death-warrant of her cousin 
 Mary or not. 
 
 Ferdinand I. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
 many of the house of Austria (1503, 1556- 
 1564). 
 
 Father, Philipp the Handsome ; 
 Mother, Jua,ria, daughter of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella; his elder brother was 
 Kabl v., and his grandfather was Kaiser 
 
 Maximilian I. ; Wife, Anna Jagellon of 
 Bohemia; Son and successor, Maxi- 
 milian II. Contemporary with Mary 
 and Elizabeth. 
 
 Ferdinand II. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
 many of the House of Austria. He was 
 son of Karl duke of Styria, and succeeded 
 his cousin Mathias on the throne of 
 Germany (1608, 1637-1657). He began 
 the infamous thirty years' religious war 
 against the Protestants. 
 
 Father, Karl archduke of Styria ; 
 Mother, Maria of Bavaria; Son and 
 successor, Ferdinand III. Contem- 
 porary with James I. and Charles I. 
 
 Ferdinand I. had two sons, viz. Maximilian II., 
 who succeeded him, and Karl, who died duke of 
 Styria. 
 
 Karl of Styria (the 2nd son of Kaiser Fer- 
 dinand I.) had for issue Ferdinand II., who suc- 
 ceeded his cousin Mathias on the throne of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Ferdinand III. Kaiser-king of 
 Germany (1608, 1637-1657). 
 
 Father, Ferdinand II.; Mother, *; 
 Wives (1) Mary- Anne of Spain, mother of 
 Leopold, his successor, (2) Mary Leo- 
 poldina of Austria, and (3) Eleanora of 
 Mantua. Contemporary with Charles I. 
 and the Commonwealth. 
 
 Ferdinand the Summoned. 
 
 Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon (1285, 
 1295-1312). So called because, when he 
 ordered two noblemen, the brothers 
 Carvajal, to execution without trial, they 
 summoned him to appear before the 
 tribunal of God within thirty days, and 
 within the allotted time he died. 
 
 Fergus Maelvor [Sir W. Scott's 
 Waverley). The original was Major 
 Donald Macdonald, executed on Satur- 
 day, 18 Oct., 1746, with eight others. 
 
 Feringhee (Afghanistan). A Euro- 
 pean. 
 
 Fermiers G-^n^raux. A name 
 
 given in France, before the Revolution 
 of 1789, to a privileged association who 
 ' farmed ' the public revenues. It was a 
 shocking jobbery, the fermiers being 
 selected either by the minister of finance 
 (who made his selection for a money 
 consideration) or by the king's mis- 
 tresses. The number was forty, but rose 
 to sixty a little before the revolution. 
 These farmers paid the king a fixed sum 
 and made what profit they could out of 
 the taxpayers. 
 
 Vtonoxxncedi Fair'-vie-ay jen-e-ro'. 
 
FERNEY 
 
 FESTUM 
 
 821 
 
 Ferney [The Patriarch of). Vol- 
 taire (1094-1778). After his departure 
 from Prussia he retired to Ferney, a 
 quiet httle spot near Geneva. He died 
 at the age of eightj--tvvo. 
 
 Ferocious Beast of Auso'nia 
 
 {The). So Caracalla, the Roman em- 
 peror, was called by the Alexandrians. 
 It is said that the tyrant was pleased 
 with the name, and boasted of it. 
 Ausonia meaus Italy. 
 
 Ferra'ra {Feace of), 26 April, 1433. 
 Between Venice and Milan, brought about 
 by Nicholas marquis d'Este, the ' Paci- 
 ficator of Italy.' 
 
 Ferry of Death {The). The ferry 
 of the Irtish, leading to Siberia. So 
 called because it leads the Russian exile 
 to political death. 
 
 To cross the Ferry of Death, to be laid on the shelf 
 in political life. 
 
 Fertile Periods. Plato teUs us 
 there are times when the powers of 
 minerals, vegetables, and animals sym- 
 pathise magically with superior natures, 
 and have a greater aptitude to partici- 
 pate in those superior powers. At those 
 periods ' miracles ' abound, for inferior 
 things partake of the Divine powers. 
 When no such celestial powers are 
 inherent in minerals, vegetables, and 
 animals, Plato says it is a 'barren 
 period.' . 
 
 Festa Brachio'rum, or 'Festa 
 Manualia,' 1493. Days on which no works 
 requiring the aid of horse and cart might 
 be done. Manual labour means such as 
 is done by the skill of the hands ; but 
 brachial labour is such as is done by the 
 muscular force of the arms. 
 
 [Festa] ' Manualia ' seu ' Brachiorum ' vulgo 
 appellantur, in quibus videlicet ipsa prohibitio per 
 totam diem ad ea duntaxat opera et negotia quse 
 Bine equis et carrucis fieri possuntseextendebat.' 
 — Stattitti Ecc. MeiiUiis. 14ua. See Ilistoria Meldetts. 
 inter lustrum, p. 54-2. 
 
 Festa Capit'uli, i.e. those fete 
 days ' quoB Capitulum habent ' : as AU 
 Saints', Annunciation, Ascension, As- 
 sumption, Epiphany, Michaelmas Day, 
 Nativity of Christ (Christmas Day), Na- 
 tivity of John the Baptist, Pentecost, 
 Purification of the Virgin Mary, and the 
 Resurrection. Add to these the fOte day 
 of Mary Magdalene, and that of Hugh of 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Festa Domin'ica. Sacred fes- 
 tivals set apart in honour of some saint, 
 
 martyr, or confessor of the Christian 
 Church, called in English a saint's day. 
 
 Festival of St. Napoleon {The), 
 1806. 15 Aug., the birthday of Napoleon, 
 was so designated by the first Emperor 
 of the French. 
 
 Festival of the Sacrifices {The). 
 ' Id-al-Azha,' or 'Kurban Bairam,' the 
 second or Great Bai'ram, is observed by 
 Mohammedans in commemoration of 
 Abraham offering his son. It is observed 
 seventy days after the Lesser Bairam, 
 and lasts four days. 
 
 Festum Ar'chitricli'ni. The 
 
 second Sunday after Epiphany, the 
 gospel of which day is John ii. ; the 
 marriage feast, when the Architricllnus 
 wanted wine and Jesus miraculously sup- 
 plied it. See ' Sundays.' 
 
 Festum Asino'rum. 14 Jan., to 
 commemorate the ' Flight into Egypt.' 
 Several rituals of this festuin are extant. 
 That of Beauvais, in France, has a rubric 
 which orders the priest to bray three 
 times, and the congregation to braj^ three 
 times in answer. As the ass was led 
 to the altar a hymn of nine stanzas was 
 sung, each stanza ending with hee-haw, 
 hee-haw ! The first runs thus {see ' Feast 
 of Fools ') : — 
 
 From out the East 
 Came forth the beast, 
 Both strong and fair, 
 Its packs to bear. 
 Hee-haw ! Sir Ass, 
 fiee-haw ! 
 
 Festum Bea'tae Mari'ae de Ad- 
 
 ventu, i.e. the Conception of the 
 Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. Instituted 1356. 
 
 Festum. Broncher'ise, i.e. Fes- 
 tum Braneher'ire, or Pahn Sunday (the 
 Feast of Branches). See ' Sundays.' 
 
 Festum. Cam.pana'rumi. The 
 
 festival of the Annunciation; the day 
 after Quasimodo Sunday; that is, the 
 Monday next after Easter Monday. So 
 called because on this day ' ad Salu- 
 tationem-angellcam solemnius pulsantur 
 campante ' (Du Cange). 
 
 With us the Annunciation is called ' Lady 
 Day,' celebrated on 25 March. 
 
 Festum Canaba'rum. The Feast 
 of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii.). 
 
 Festum Cande'lse. The founder's 
 day of any church or religious institu- 
 tion when candles were lighted in honour 
 
 Y 
 
 Orientis partibus, 
 Ads-entavit Asinus, 
 Pulcheret fortiss'imus, 
 Sarcinis aptissimus.. 
 He, sire Aiie,lie! 
 
322 
 
 FESTUM 
 
 FESTUM 
 
 thereof. This festival used to be called 
 in old English Lichtmesse. 
 
 Pestum Compassio'nis Bea'tae 
 
 Mari'ae. Instituted 1423, and held the 
 Friday before Palm Sunday. 
 
 Festum Coro'nae Christi. Insti- 
 tuted 1357. Innocent VI. appointed it 
 to be held as the ' Feria 6 post octavam 
 Kesurrectionis Dominicae.' 
 
 Festum. Corporis Christi, or at 
 full 'Festum Consecrationis Cor]3ori3 
 Christi,' or in brief ' Festum C.C.C.' In- 
 stituted 1371. The great C.C.C. festival 
 is ' 5 feria post Octavam Pentecostes.' 
 
 Another festival of ' Corpus Christi ' was that 
 called ' Festum Sacrosanct! Sacramenti,' in Ger- 
 man Frohnleiclmavwfest, instituted by Urban IV. 
 iu 1264 ; it followed the octave of Pentecost. 
 
 The 'Festum Eucharistioe,' instituted in 1356, 
 ■was another ' Festum Corporis Christi.' 
 
 Festum de Clav'ibus, 1355. In- 
 stituted by Innocent VI. in honour of 
 the nails used in the crucifixion of Christ. 
 
 Festum Divisio'nis Apostolo'- 
 
 rum., 5 July. When Bede, Usuard, and 
 others say the apostles parted company, 
 and each went into his special field of 
 labour. Also called the Festival of the 
 Dispersion ; instituted 1098. 
 
 Festum Duplex. When two fetes 
 occur on the same day. In which case 
 the greater festival is observed and the 
 lesser one is deferred to the day following. 
 
 Festum Fatuo'rum. See 'Fete 
 des Fous.' 
 
 Festum. Florum.. ' Nono Kalen- 
 das Junii ' (May 24). 
 
 Festum Herba'rum. Assumption 
 
 Day (15 Aug.). This was the day when 
 Eoman women carried bundles of herbs 
 to the temples, as offerings to their gods. 
 The [Roman] Catholic Church preserved 
 the custom, but changed the object of 
 veneration. 
 
 The Assumption is the act of taking up to heaven 
 the Virgin Mary bodily without dying. This 
 change was made in the 5th cent. 
 
 Festum Hypapantes, or ' Purifi- 
 cation of the Virgin Mary,' Feb. 2. Also 
 called 'Festum Luminum.' Instituted 
 542. 
 
 Hypapante means 'meeting together.' It was 
 on this day that Mary met Simeon and Anna the 
 Prophetess. 
 
 Festum Hypodi'acono'rum. 
 
 The fete of the Subdeacons, a part of 
 
 the Saturnalia, when archbishops and 
 bishops, with all the inferior clergy, 
 played practical jokes on each other, and 
 all forms of distinction were, for the 
 time being, held in abeyance. The 
 general character of the feast was gross 
 drunkenness, and the name was a satire 
 on the worldly lives of the general clergy. 
 As Beletus says, 'hac joculari appella- 
 tione indicare voluerint, festivitatem 
 banc fuisse ebriorum clericorum.' 
 
 Festum Kalenda'rum. A Chris- 
 tian substitution of the Roman Saturn- 
 alia, at the close of the old year and 
 beginning of the new. It was a time of 
 unlaridled license, when slaves and 
 servants were on equal footing with 
 their masters. Men, women, and chil- 
 dren dressed up as beasts, and ran 
 about the streets braying, roaring, bark- 
 ing, and indulging in the coarsest practi- 
 cal jokes. The early Church, unable to 
 abolish the custom, tried to divert its ob- 
 ject, and introduced innovations scarcely 
 less objectionable than the old Roman 
 licentiousness. One day of the feast was 
 a satire on the drunkenness of the clergy, 
 and was called ' Festum Hypodiacono- 
 rum ' (g'.y.), or the Subdeacons' Fete, 
 where subdeacon included all eccle- 
 siastics, from the archbishop to his 
 curate. 
 
 Augustine refers to the feast in his ' Sermo da 
 Tempore,' 215; and in the 'Life of Eligius,' bk.ii. 
 chap. 15, we read 'KuUus in Kalendis Januarii 
 nefanda et ridiculosa, vetulas, aut cervulos, aut 
 jotticos [practical jokes] faciat.' 
 
 Festum Lu'minum., or 'Festum 
 Hypapantes.' The Feast of Purification 
 (Greek uirairauTr]), from the meeting of 
 Simeon and Anna with Christ, whom 
 they had long waited for in the Temple 
 Also called ' Festum St. Simeonis.' 
 
 Festum Oliva'rum. The Sunday 
 before Easter day, generally called Palm 
 Sunday. See ' Sundays.' 
 
 Festum Saneti Petri ad Vin'- 
 CUla, 1 Aug. Instituted by the order 
 of Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Theo- 
 dosius. This was the continuance of an 
 old heathen festival in honour of the 
 victory of Actium, in which Octavius 
 overcame Antony. The festival was 
 continued, but its object was changed. 
 
 Festum Translatio'nis Jesu, 
 
 or the ' Day of Transfiguration.' Insti- 
 tuted 6 Aug., 1498. (Matt. xvii. 1-13.) 
 See also under the word Feast.' 
 
FETE 
 
 FEUILLANTS 
 
 323 
 
 F^te Days. See ' Holy Days.' 
 
 Fete de 1' An e. Introduced into Paris 
 in the 15th cent. ; was a ridiculous carica- 
 ture of the Flight into Egypt. A young 
 woman with an infant in her arms was 
 seated on an ass, led by an old nian 
 representing Joseph, and followed by a 
 long procession to the cathedral church, 
 accomj)anied by bishops and their clergy. 
 As it went along, chanting the appointed 
 canticles, the crowd responded hi>tha I 
 hinha ! imitating the bray of an ass. It 
 was not discontinued tiU the close of the 
 IGth cent. 
 
 other similar processions were the ' Marche du 
 Boeuf Gras' (ly.r.), 'La fete de la Kouteille,' 'La 
 fete dcs Cornards,' ' La fete des Tons ' (.Sir Fools, 
 Feast of '), and ' La fete du Geant aux Ours ' (on 
 3 July). 
 
 Pronounce Fate de lahn, Fate d'la Bou-tau'-e, Fate 
 de Fuo. 
 
 F§te des FOUS. January, in com- 
 memoration of the Flight into Egypt. 
 This profane exhibition was immensely 
 popular in France from the 12th to the 
 IGth cent. 
 
 Fdte-Dieu, 1246. A festival insti- 
 tuted by Urban IV. in honour of the 
 host or consecrated wafer, called ' Festum 
 Corporis Christi,' and held in France on 
 the Sunday following Trinity Sunday. 
 At one time it was celebrated with street 
 processions and great pomp, but the 
 street processions ceased in 1830. 
 
 Except in France the festival is held on the 
 Thursday following Trinity Sunday. 
 
 F6te of the Federation. See 
 
 under ' Federation.' 
 
 Fetes. See ' Holy Days.' 
 
 Fetichism. An idolatry of the 
 grossest sort. The name was given by 
 the Portuguese to the adoration paid by 
 negroes in Africa to the fetiche^s, such as 
 fire, water, animals, trees, stones, and 
 invisible beings such as the Grisgris of 
 Central Africa, the Manitotis and Ockis 
 of America, the Burkhans of Siberia. 
 
 The priests of this idolatry are called fifriofs in 
 Africa, 70/(;//t((;s in America, and shamans in Cen- 
 tral Asia. 
 
 If a worshipper does not get what he prays for, 
 he w ill addicss his idol tbu : ' How now. dog of a 
 spirit! Wo give you lodging in a magnificent 
 temple, we gild you handsomely, feed you well, 
 and offer incense ; yet, after all this, you are so 
 ungrateful as to refuse us what we ask.'— Astley, 
 Collection of Voyaufs. 
 
 Fetters of Greece [The). Deme- 
 trias, Chalcis, and Corinth were so called 
 by Demetrius Poliorcetes of Macedon. 
 "Iho freedom promised,' said the ^tolians, 
 
 ' was an illusion . . . The fetters of Greece would 
 only be clasped lighter by a stronger hand.' — The 
 Students' Home, p. 3o(j. 
 
 Feu Saere, or 'Mai des Ardents.' 
 A terrible malady which appeared in 
 Paris A.D. 945 ; in Scotland in 954 ; and 
 in Italy and Germany in 985. ' Ce mal 
 [says SauvalJ brulait a x^etit feu, et con- 
 sumait sans qu'on y put reme'dier . . . 
 elle brulait les entrailles ou toute autre 
 partie du corps, qui tombait en lam- 
 beaux. Sous une peau livide, elle con- 
 sumait les chaires en les separant des os. 
 Ce que ce mal avait de plus etonnant, 
 c'est qu'il agissait sans chaleur, et pe'ne- 
 trait d'un froid glacial ceux qui en 
 etaient atteints ; et qu'a ce froid niortel 
 succedait une ardeur si grande dans les 
 memes parties, que les malades y eprou- 
 vaient tons les accidents d'un cancer.' 
 
 Feudal System {The). Holding 
 estates bj' military service. William I. 
 divided the kingdom of England into 700 
 fiefs and about 60,000 knights' fees (or 
 holdings). These knights' fees or second- 
 ary holdings were held, not of the crown 
 immediately, but of one of the 700 crown 
 vassals under similar service. The 700 
 vassals were bound to supply the crown 
 with soldiers according to a fixed scale, 
 and the secondary holders supplied the 
 vassals under whom they held in a 
 similar way. Bishops and abbots were 
 bound, in times of war, to supply the 
 king with soldiers in proportion to their 
 possessions. 
 
 Feuillantines (4 syl.), 1583. Pte- 
 formed Feuillants, an order founded by 
 Marguerite de Polastron. Anne of Aus- 
 tria, in 1622, founded a house of Feuil- 
 lantines in the Faubourg St. Jacques, 
 Paris. 
 
 Feuillantism. The political prin- 
 ciples of the Feuillants in the French 
 revolution. It was reformed monarch- 
 ism. 
 
 Feuillantism— that party which loves liberty 
 yet not more than monarchy.— Carlyle, French 
 lievolution, vol. ii. bk. v. 10. 
 
 Feuillants (The), 1577. Reformed 
 Benedictines, founded by Jean de ja 
 Barriere, Abbe de Notre Dame de Feuil- 
 lant, in France. They go about bare- 
 headed and bare-footed, sleep upon 
 wooden pallets, eat kneeling, and impose 
 on themselves incredible austerities. 
 Their robe is white, with a white hood. 
 In 1630 Urban VIII. separated tie 
 
324 
 
 FEUILLANTS' 
 
 FIEEY 
 
 Feuillants of Italy, and called them 
 'Reformed Bemardins.' The Feuillans 
 or Feuillants are often called the Bare- 
 footed Monks. 
 
 Pronounce Fuh'e-yahn'. 
 
 Feuillants' Club {The), or ' Club 
 des Feuillants,' 1790. The more moderate 
 of the Jacobins. So called because they 
 held their meetings at a convent of the 
 Feuillants {see above), near the Tuileries. 
 The chief of the club were Lafayette, 
 Bailly, Duport, and the brothers Lameth. 
 Their enemies nicknamed them the 
 ' Club Monarchique.' Extinguished Nov. 
 1791. 
 
 The original name of the club was the ' Com- 
 pany of 1789.' 
 
 Fez (The), or 'Council of Tara,' in 
 Ireland. The triennial meeting of the 
 subordinate chieftains, priests, and bards, 
 held at Tara in Ireland, and instituted 
 by Ollav Fola about 900 years b.c. Ollav 
 Fola reigned forty years and died in 
 peace. 
 
 In the second year of his mission Patrick pre- 
 sented himself before the Fez . . . and Logary 
 the king declared himself a convert.— 27u'£;iton- 
 vica (article ' Ireland,' p. 465). 
 
 fi" for Pandects, ff is a corrupt way 
 of making the Greek n, v, the initial 
 letter of Pandects. 
 
 Fiacre. A French cab, so called 
 because the first fiacres were made in the 
 Hotel St. Fiacre, Rue St. Martin. 
 
 St. Fiacre is the patron saint of gardeners. 
 
 Fian'a Er'ion {The). A very 
 celebrated Irish militia commanded by 
 Fingal (or Fein M'Cooil), in the reign of 
 Cormac, grandson of Conn. It consisted 
 of 9,000 men of great strength, activity, 
 and intelligence, who were bound to 
 choose wives solely for their merits, 
 never to ill-treat a woman, and never to 
 turn their backs on a foe. This force was 
 annihilated at the battle of Gabra, or 
 Gawra, in Meath, where Oscar, the son 
 of Ossian the poet, fell. 
 
 Fiann {The). An ancient order of 
 warriors in Ireland. No man of the 
 order was allowed to marry a dowered 
 wife, lest he might choose her for her 
 money and not for her merits. No man 
 of the order might use his strength 
 against a woman. None might assert 
 his own rights seLfislily against another's 
 wants. 
 
 Fief or Feud. Conquered land 
 
 let out, not for money, but military ser- 
 vice. The Romans let out conquered 
 land for usufruct, called Emphyteusis 
 (grafting), the grantor was the ' stock,' 
 the tenant was only the graft. Feud is 
 a corrupt contraction of 'phut', fut, feud. 
 And fee, fief are variants of the same 
 Latinised Greek word. 
 
 Field Conventicles {Act against), 
 1670. A field conventicle is ' any un- 
 authorised meeting for religious worship, 
 even in a private house, if any of the 
 hearers stand in the open air.' Every 
 minister who preaches and prays on such 
 occasion during the three following years 
 shall incur the forfeiture of his property 
 and the punishment of death. 
 
 Field Fortification has for its ob- 
 ject the protecting of camps, villages, 
 posts, passages of rivers, and the con- 
 struction of such works as may be re- 
 quired to aid the operations of an army 
 in the field. Trenches and offensive 
 works executed on the spot in carrying on 
 a siege also belong to 'field fortification.' 
 
 Field of March {The), or ' Champ 
 de Mars.' A national convention or 
 assembly held during the first dynasty of 
 France. It was revived by Pepin d'He- 
 ristal, but after a.d. 755 was held in May, 
 and called Champ de Mai. Napoleon I. 
 revived these assemblies in the ' Hundred 
 Days ' (June 1, 1815). 
 
 Pronounce Sharnd Marz, Sharnd Ma'-e. 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold {The). 
 Called in French history Le Champ du 
 Drop d'Or. The site between Guisnes 
 and Ardres, where in June 1520 was held 
 an interview between Henry VIII. and 
 Francois I. of France. So splendid and 
 gorgeous was this fete, that the site where 
 it was held was called ' The Field of the 
 Cloth of Gold.' 
 
 Fiery Cross (T^e). A blazing torch 
 in the form of a cross, carried from hill 
 to hiU to sununon the clans to battle. Sir 
 Walter Scott speaks of it in ' The Lady 
 of the Lake.' He says the chaplain slew 
 a goat, and dipped the cross in its blood. 
 It was then delivered to a swift runner, 
 who ran with aU his speed to the next 
 hamlet, where he presented it to the prin- 
 cipal person, who was bound to send it on. 
 Every man, from 16 to 60 years of age, 
 was expected instantly to repair fully 
 
FIERY 
 
 FILIOQUE 
 
 equipped for war to the place of rendez- 
 vous on pain of ' fire and sword.' In the 
 civil war of 1745-6 the Fiery Cross was 
 Bent round thus. 
 
 The ' fiery cross ' was borne swiftly through the 
 townships and parishes (of Upper Canada), calling 
 forth a levy en mnssrot the loyal inhabitants, who 
 rushed to the defence of the capital.— HowiTT, 
 Hist, of Eng., 1837, p. 389. 
 
 Fiery Tears of St. Lawrence 
 
 {The). The shooting stars which appear 
 with considerable regularity between the 
 9th and 14th of August. The festival of 
 St. Lawrence is the 10th August. 
 
 Fieschi Laws, 1887. Some very 
 stringent laws against the French press, 
 published after the attempt of Fieschi on 
 the life of Louis Philippe, king of the 
 French, by the ' infernal machine ' (^7.^.). 
 Enormous fines were unposed on those 
 who ridiculed the king, or disputed tlie 
 wisdom of any act of his government, or 
 who avowed themselves republicans, or 
 who published a print of any sort with- 
 out subjecting it first to the minister of 
 the interior. 
 
 The fines were from 400^ to 2,000/. sterling for the 
 first offence, double that for a second offence, and 
 BO on. 
 
 Pronotmce Fe-esk'ke. 
 
 Fifteen {The). The judges of the 
 Sui^reme Court of Session in Scotland. 
 
 Fifteen {Ozit in the Fifteen). A 
 partaker in the Derwentwater rebellion, 
 1715. fi'ee' Forty-five.' 
 
 Is it so singular that a man should have been 
 out in the forty-five ? . . . your father, I think, . . 
 . . was out with Derwentwater in the fifteen. — 
 Sir W. Scott, Jiedtjaunilet, chap. vii. 
 
 Fifteen Mysteries {The), in Catho- 
 lic theology. See ' Five Joyous Mysteries,' 
 ' Five Dolorous Mysteries,' and ' Five 
 Glorious Mysteries.' Observe the triplet. 
 
 Fifteen Years' Farce (T7ie). The 
 
 Great French Revolution which ended in 
 the coronation of Napoleon I. (1789-1804). 
 La comedie de quinze ans was admirably played 
 In France . . . but what have been the results?— 
 Mazzixi, Faith of tlie Future. 
 
 Fifth Doctor of the Church 
 
 {The). So Pius V. called Thomas Aquinas 
 (1224-1274). 
 
 The Four Doctors of the Latin Church, em- 
 phatically so called, were St. -Ambrose (340-.S'.)7), 
 St. Jerome (345 420 , St. .\ugustine (3oi 430', and 
 St. Gregory. The fifth doctor was similar to 
 such phrases as the ' Tenth Muse,' the ' Eighth 
 Wonder of the World,' &c., meaning one of super- 
 eminent merit. 
 
 Fifth Monarchy Men appear in 
 1054. They believed in the four great 
 
 monarchies of Antichrist, marked out 
 by the prophet Daniel (ch. vii.), viz. the 
 Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian, and Ro- 
 man, the fifth being that of Christ on 
 earth. In politics they were republicans, 
 acknowledging no earthly king but Christ ; 
 and they conspired to murder CromweU, 
 the lord-protector. In the reign of 
 Charles 11., led by one Venner, a wine- 
 cooper, they proceeded to ' take the king- 
 dom of heaven by force, without waiting 
 for Christ ' ; the king sent the military 
 against them, and after some severe fight- 
 ing, the ringleaders were taken captive 
 and executed 1660, and the sect died 
 out. 
 
 Filibuster. A corrupt spelling of 
 the French ' flibustier,' called in English a 
 buccaneer {q.v.). Filibusters were piratical 
 seamen, resolved to force their way into 
 the New World jealously guarded by the 
 Spanish. The most famous were Morgan 
 (a Welshman), who took Panama in 1670 ; 
 Pierre Legrand of Dieppe, who with 
 twenty-eight men took the ship of a Span- 
 ish admiral ; Nau I'Olonnais, Michel le 
 Basque, who made themselves masters of 
 Vera Cruz in 1683; and Monbars the 
 Exterminator, who in 1683 took Vera 
 Cruz. After the accession of William III. 
 the French flibustiers and the English 
 buccaneers were in deadly antagonism ; 
 but after the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, 
 the piratical expeditions were put an end 
 to. 
 
 Filio'que Controversy, which long 
 disturbed the Church, was this : ' Did the 
 Holy Ghost proceed from the Father by 
 the Son, or from the Father a?id the Son 
 {filioque)? The Greek Church maintained 
 the former, the Latin Church the latter 
 dogma. The phrase was added to the 
 Creed by Recared in the Council of 
 Toledo A.D. 589 ; was adopted by Charle- 
 magne in 788 ; and by Benedict VIII., at 
 the instance of Kaiser Heinrich II., in 
 1014. Tliis question is often called 'the 
 Procession of the Holy Ghost.' 
 
 It must be confessed that the authority is not 
 very satisfactory. Eecared, Charlemagne, and Hein- 
 rich II. of German J' are not the names we should 
 select to settle a point in divinity. Recared, or Re- 
 carede, was the seventeenth Iting of the Visigoths 
 in Spain, who compelled his subjects to embrace 
 the Christian faith, and was therefore called ' The 
 Catholic' He was converted only two years and 
 a few months before the Council of Toledo w.as 
 convened. The addition of lUioqw to the Nicene 
 Creed created a flame of discord between the 
 Eastern and Gallic Churches. Pope Leo III. was 
 averse to the addiiiou. 
 
326 
 
 FILIUS 
 
 FIEE 
 
 Filius Nullius, or ' Filius popidi,' 
 a bastard. In the eyes of the h\w an ille- 
 gitmiate son is nobody's son ; and as such 
 a son has no ' blue blood ' he is only a 
 commoner, or one of the ignohile vulgus. 
 
 Filles Bleues (Les), 1604. Also called 
 the ' Celestial Annunciades ' (4 syl.). A 
 religious order instituted by Maria Vic- 
 toria Fornaro. Tliey wore blue mantles, 
 and hence their name. , 
 
 Pronounce Fee-yd bltih. 
 
 Filles de Sagesse {Les). The grey 
 nuns of St. Laurent. 
 
 A host of other religious communities might be 
 added, as : 
 
 Filles de Ste Genevieve I Filles Reponties 
 Filles de la Providence Filles St. Thomas, &c. 
 Filles du Calvaire | iiee ' Founders.' 
 
 Filles-Dleu. Hospitallers, at one 
 time called Soeurs de St. Gervais, because 
 in 1300 they were charged with the hos- 
 pital of that name. Their dress is a 
 white gown and black mantle. 
 
 Filmerite (3 syl.), I7th cent. A 
 disciple of Sir Eobert Filmer (*— 1688), 
 author of ' The Anarchy of a Limited 
 and Mixed Monarchy,' opposed to a Wil- 
 liamite or adherent of the House of 
 Orange. The Filmerites, like Arch- 
 bishop Sancroft and Dean Hickes, 
 believed in the 'divine right of kings,' 
 and were therefore zealous Jacobites and 
 advocates of the political doctrine of 
 ' Passive Obedience ' or ' Non-resistance ' 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Fine of Leinster {The). Exacted 
 for more than 500 years, and paid by 
 more than forty kings to the king of 
 Meath. It consisted of 3,000 cows, 3,000 
 hogs, 3,000 sheep, 3,000 copper caldrons, 
 8,000 ounces of silver, and 3,000 mantles, 
 and was paid every second year till 
 A.D. 963, when it was remitted. For the 
 reason of this fine see ' Boarian . . . 
 Tribute.' 
 
 Fines {Statute of), 4 Henry VIII. 
 This was a renewal of the law of 
 Edward IV., by which entails could be cut 
 off at pleasure, and thus the great land- 
 owners were enabled to divide their 
 estates amongst their children, bequeath 
 them, or sell them. 
 
 Fingal. The Territory of the Fin- 
 gal or White Strangers, consisting of 
 Dublin and certain parts to the north 
 thereof. See ' Wliite Strangers.' 
 
 bta,ffa la called ' Fingal's cave;' or, more 
 
 strictly speaking, the cave in the Isle of Staffa is 
 so called. 
 
 Macpherson's Fingal was Finn, rig [king] of the 
 Leinster Finns or Finians, who resided at a dun 
 or fort at Alinhain [Allen] in Kildare. Transferred 
 by Macpherson to Morven in Scotland. 
 
 Finn's Fingers. Five enormous 
 stones, each about 5 feet in height, and 
 some 4 tons in weight, on the top of the 
 hill of Shanthamon, in the county of 
 Ca'van, Ireland. 
 
 Finns, the Fenni of Tacitus, and 
 Phinni of Ptolemy, belonging to the 
 Ugrian race or Ogres, probably of Mon- 
 golian origin. They were divided into 
 five groups : the Finns of Finland ; the 
 Lapps ; the Permian Finns ; the Volga 
 Finns ; and the Ugrian Finns, to which 
 group the Magyars IMard'-yahs] belong. 
 
 FirbolgS {The). The remnant of 
 the old Thracian Nemedians which re- 
 turned to Ireland under the conduct of 
 the five sons of Dela. The tribe had 
 been driven from the island by the 
 Fomorians, said to be African pirates, 
 descendants of Ham. The sons of Dela, 
 according to Irish tradition, divided the 
 island into the five kingdoms of Leinster, 
 Munster, Ulster, Connaught, and Meath, 
 each of the sons being ruler of one of 
 these principalities. The rule of these 
 princes continued forty, or, as some say, 
 eighty years, when they were dispossessed 
 by the Danaans under Tuatha-na- 
 Danaan {q.v.), a people famed for necro- 
 mancy. 
 
 The Irish still call strangers ' Fawmorries 
 (Fomorians). The Nemedians are said by chroni 
 clers to have been descendants of Japhet, 
 through Nemedius. Of course all this is only 
 Bardic history. The FirbolgS were probably 
 Belgae, or Belgae who migrated from Britain. 
 
 Fire and "Water Interdicted. 
 
 ' Aquae et Ignis Interdictio.' The judicial 
 form of words used to signify that the 
 person referred to was banished from 
 Italian soil. He might go where else he 
 liked, but must not remain in Italy. 
 
 Fire Brigade Committee {The 
 MetrojJolitan). Responsible for the 
 management of the 700 men and the 
 state of their 150 fire-engines, 150 fire- 
 escapes, 150 horses, and 28 miles of hose. 
 Since 1889 the number of fire-engines 
 has been increased in London to 170. 
 The whole city and county of London is 
 divided into four districts. A, B, C, D, 
 each district being under a separate 
 superintendent, who is paid 195^. a year. 
 
FIRE-CROSS 
 
 FIRST-FRUITS 
 
 327 
 
 All the districts are connected by tele- 
 graphs and telephones. 
 
 The average number of fixes in the metropolis 
 IS about 2,00u a year. 
 
 Fire Cross {The). See 'Fiery 
 Cross.' 
 
 * Fire First.' ' Gentlemen of the 
 French Guard, fire ' (said Lord Charles 
 Hay) ; to which the Comte d'Auteroche 
 replied, ' Fire yourselves, gentlemen of 
 England ; we never fire first.' The 
 battle of Fontenoy, 10 May, 1745. 
 
 Quant a moi, je tiens le mot de M. d'Auteroche, 
 'Messieurs les Anglais, tirez les premiers,' tres 
 authentique. . . . Les deux troupes sont en 
 presence. Lord Hay crie, s'avancant hors des 
 rangs : ' Messieurs les gardes f ran<;aises, tirez.' 
 M. d'Auteroche alors va k sa rencontre, et le 
 saluant de I'epee : ' Monsieur (lui dit-il), nous ne 
 tirons jamais les premiers; tirez vous-memes.' 
 _M. E. FoURNIER (an eye-witness). 
 
 Get engagement se fit a distance si rapprochee 
 que les officiers anglais, au moment d arreter 
 leur troupe, nous salutrent le chapeau a la main; 
 les notres ayant repondu de meme a cette cour- 
 toisie. . . . Lord Charles Hay sortit de son rang, 
 et s avanca ; le comte d Auteroche, lieutenant 
 des grenadiers, se porta alors au-devant de lui. 
 ' Monsieur (dit le capitaine, lord Hay), faites 
 done tirer vos gens ; ' ' Non, Monsieur (repondit 
 d'Auteroche), nous ne tirons pas les premiers ; ' et 
 B'etant de nouveau salues, ils rentrerent chacun 
 a son rung.— L Esprit daiis I'Histoire, chap. lii. 
 pp. 348, 349 (Paris, 1883). 
 
 Lord Charles Hay gives a different version : 
 ' When we came within 20 or 30 paces of [the 
 French], I advanced before our regiment, drank 
 to them, and told them we were the English 
 guards, and hoped they would stand still till we 
 came up to them, and not swim across the Scheldt, 
 as they did the Mcin at Dettingen. Upon which 
 I immediately turned about to our regiment, 
 speeched them, and made them huzzah, I hope 
 with a will. An officer [d Auteroche] came out of 
 the ranks, and tried to make his men huzzah ; 
 however, there were not above three or four of 
 the brigrtdc that did so. —Letter (now in the pos- 
 Bession of the Marquis of Tweeddale, at Yester 
 House). 
 
 Fire of Antwerp (The), 29 July, 
 
 1588. So the Spaniards called the fire- 
 ships sent by Drake and Hawkins into 
 the Armada. The eight vessels, under 
 charge of Cajit. Young, ran right into the 
 Spanish fleet in full blaze, sending forth 
 explosion after explosion. The Spaniards, 
 remembering the Dutch fire-ships, 
 shouted, ' The fire of Antwerp ! The 
 fire of Antwerp ! ' and every vessel was 
 put in motion to escape in the darkness 
 as best it might. The confusion was 
 terrible, ships running foul of each other, 
 and escaping from Ostend to Calais. A 
 thunderstorm, with a furious gale of wind 
 from the south-west, added to the terrors 
 of that terrible night. 
 
 Firman {A). A decree issued by the 
 sultan, signed with his cipher, and sealed 
 
 •with his signet. Also a passport given 
 to travellers by a pacha. 
 
 First Book of Discipline (The), 
 1561. A book of church polity drawn 
 up by John Knox and five others for the 
 use of Scotland. 
 
 First Book of Homilies (The), 
 
 1547. In which is comprised the doc- 
 trines of the Church of England, as 
 established in the reign of Edward VI., 
 declaring that salvation rests solely on 
 a lively faith in the merits of Jesus 
 Christ ; and that no works without such 
 faith are good works in a scripture 
 sense. 
 
 First Comm.union Office (The), 
 
 1548. In the reformed Church of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 First Day of the Republic (The). 
 French history. 20 Sept., 1792. When 
 the National Assembly at the proposal of 
 M. d'Herbois rose en masse, and, waving 
 their hats, shouted, ' We declare royalty 
 in France abolished for ever.' 
 
 First English Liturgy {The), or 
 'Book of Common Prayer,' 1548. The 
 Second Liturgy was in 1552. The Forty- 
 two Articles in 1553 ; reduced to Thirty- 
 nine in 15G3 ; and modified to their pre- 
 sent form in 1571. 
 
 First ifnglish Martyr {The), 1401. 
 William Sawtre, rector of St. Oswyth, 
 London, a Lollard, in the reign of Henry 
 IV., was the first person who suft'ered at 
 the stake in England for religious 
 opinions. 
 
 There is a tradition that St. Alban fell 
 a martjTT in the persecution of Diocletian 
 A.D. 305. The tale is that he served in 
 the Roman army, but, having offered 
 an asylum to Amphibalus, a Christian 
 priest, in order to save his guest he 
 changed dresses, and being apprehended 
 was beheaded at Verulamium. It is said 
 that a church was afterwards erected on 
 the spot, and the name of the town was 
 changed to St. Albans. 
 
 First-fru'.ts, or ' Annats.' The first 
 year's income of a church living paid to 
 the pope, forbidden in 1534 (by 25 Hen. 
 VIII. c. 20). Granted to the crown in 
 1534 (2C Hen. VIII. c. 3) ; restored to the 
 church in 1555 (by 2, 3 Phil. & Mar. c. 4j; 
 again granted to the crown in 1559 (by 
 1 Eliz. c. 4) ; restored to the church by 
 
328 
 
 FIEST 
 
 FIVE 
 
 letters patent of Queen Anne, 3 Nov., 1703. 
 See ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' 
 
 Abolished in Fra7ice in 1438 by the 
 'Pragmatic Sanction,' under Charles VII. 
 
 Abolished in Ireland in 1883 (3, 4Wm. 
 IV. c. 37). 
 
 Ceased in Spain under Carlos V. 
 (1519-1558). 
 
 In Germany it formed one of the Cen- 
 tum gravamina presented to the em- 
 peror in 1521, and the claim ceased. 
 
 When Dr. Benson in 1883 was made archbishop 
 of Canterbury his fees amounted to 885L 5s. The 
 r> mount for this presentation has now been re- 
 duced to 281L 5,s. tiU. 
 
 First Gentleman of Europe. 
 
 George IV. (1762, 1820-1830). 
 
 Louis d'Artois of France was so called also. 
 
 First Martyr of Liberty {The), 
 1770. North America. Christopher Snider, 
 a Boston lad. Theophilus Lillie, a Boston 
 shopkeeper, persisted in selling English 
 goods after they were tabooed. His 
 shop was attacked by the mob, and one 
 of his shopmen, named Richardson, fired 
 on the mob and killed the boy Snider, 
 who was followed to the grave by a pro- 
 cession reaching a quarter of a mile, and 
 the boy was exalted into a martyr. 
 
 First Year of Equality {Tlie), 
 1792, beginning 22 Sept. The address 
 Monsieur was abandoned, and the word 
 Citizen substituted in its stead. 
 
 Fishing Inquiry {A). In parlia- 
 mentary language means an inquiry at 
 large ; an inquiry into a given question 
 not for the sake of solving that question, 
 but with the hope that something may 
 turn up. 
 
 This is what is called in the familiar language 
 of lobbies of parliament ' a fishing inquiry.' Fish- 
 ing for somptliing to say about the matter ; but 
 you cannot get your fish if tiie fisli will not come 
 into your net.— W. E. GLADSTONE, Speech at Calder, 
 17 Nov.. 1885. 
 
 Fitzwilliam Museum [The). Of 
 books, paintings, illummated MSS., en- 
 gravings, &c. in Cambridge ; to which 
 has been added, in 1834, the Mesman col- 
 lection; in 1850 eighty-three ancient 
 marbles collected by John Disnay. In 
 1861 John Ruskin gave twenty-five water- 
 colours by J. M. W. Turner, R.A. ; and 
 in 1862 Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented 
 to the museum thirty pictures of modei'n 
 English masters. Since then many other 
 valuable presents have been added by 
 different donors, and the university has 
 I urchased numerous rarities. Founded 
 
 by Viscount Fitzwilliam of Trinity Hall 
 in 1764. 
 
 Five {Council of), 1722. The Earl of 
 Arran, the Earl of Orrery, Lord North, 
 Lord Gower, and Atterbury bishop of 
 Rochester. A junto constituted to bring 
 back the Stuart dynasty after the birth 
 of Charles Edward. 
 
 Five Acts {Sidmouth's and Castle- 
 reagh's), 1819. After the Manchester 
 Massacre {q.v.) Lord Sidmouth brought 
 in three bills in the House of Lords, and 
 Lord Castlereagh two bills in the House 
 of Commons to prevent large gatherings 
 of a political character and political 
 articles like those of Hone calculated to 
 disturb the public peace. The five bills 
 all passed, and were 
 
 (1) An Act to prevent the training of 
 persons to the use of arms {Sidmouth). 
 
 (2) An Act to prevent and punish 
 blasphemous and pernicious libels {Sid- 
 mouth). 
 
 (3) An Act to authorise justices of the 
 peace to seize arms collected for riotous 
 purposes {Sidmouth). 
 
 (4) An Act to impose stamp duties on 
 newspapers {Castlereagh). 
 
 (5) An Act to prevent blasphemoua 
 and seditious meetings {Castlereagh). 
 
 Five Articles {The), 1559). Drawn 
 up by Convocation at the beginning of 
 Queen Elizabeth's reign, and forwarded 
 by Bonner to the lord keeper to be laid 
 before parliament. They were these : 
 (1) The corporal presence to be main- 
 tained ; (2) the elements after consecra- 
 tion are no longer bread and wine ; (3) 
 the mass is a propitiatory sacrifice ; (4) 
 the lawful successor of St. Peter is the 
 supreme head of the Church ; and (5) the 
 clergy only are to settle all matters bear- 
 ing on doctrine and church discipline. 
 No notice was taken of this petition. 
 See ' Articles.' 
 
 Five Articles of Dort {The), 1618- 
 1619. Calvinistic views of (1) absolute 
 predestination and election ; (2) redemp- 
 tion only through the death of Christ ; 
 
 (3) original sin and human corruption ; 
 
 (4) conversion not of ourselves, but the 
 gift of God ; (5) the final perseverance of 
 the saints. 
 
 In church government the Synod of Dort de- 
 cidedly preferred Presbyterianism to Episcopacy. 
 
 Five Articles of Perth {The), 
 1618. (1) The communion shall be 
 
FIVE 
 
 FIVE 
 
 829 
 
 received kneeling, and not sitting ; (2) in 
 extreme cases the communion may be 
 privately administered; (3) in extreme 
 'cases baptism may be privately adminis- 
 tered ; (4) young people, when advanced 
 to a suitable age, shall be confirmed by 
 the bishop ; (5) the five following days 
 shall be holidays — viz. Christmas Day, 
 Good Friday, Easter Day, Ascension 
 Day, and Pentecost. These five ►enact- 
 ments were passed by a parliament held 
 at Perth, in the reign of James I. of 
 England, and were designed as the thin 
 edge of a wedge to introduce into Scot- 
 land a form of worship similar to that of 
 the Anglican Church. 
 
 Five Burglis of the Danes 
 
 (The). Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Not- 
 tingham, and Stamford. These five 
 burghs were called the ' Danelagh ' 
 (Dane-Law), because they were ruled by 
 Danish and not by English law. Ke- 
 covered from the Danes in 941 by 
 Edmund. 
 
 Five Christian Verities {The). 
 In Catholic theology. 
 
 1. The child Jesus, conceived in the 
 womb of the Virgin Mary, was verily and 
 indeed the Son of God, and the second 
 person of the Trinity. 
 
 2. This Jesus is true God, one with 
 the Father and the Holy Ghost. 
 
 3. The two perfect natures exist in one 
 only person. The divine nature received 
 from God the Father, and the human 
 nature from his mother Mary. 
 
 4. All that pertains to the person of 
 Christ as a substance is unique ; but all 
 that pertains to his nature is double. 
 
 5. The Virgin Mary is veritably and 
 properly the IMother of God. 
 
 (Mgr. Guerin, Vies des SaiJits, vol. iii. 
 pp. 625, 626.) 
 
 Five Dolorous Mysteries {The). 
 In Catholic theology. 
 
 1. The agony of Christ in the olive 
 garden. 
 
 2. The scourging. 
 
 3. The crowning with thorns. 
 
 4. The burden of the cross borne to 
 Calvary. 
 
 5. The crucifixion. 
 
 Five Glorious Mysteries {The). 
 
 In Catholic theology. 
 
 1. The Eesurrection. 
 
 2. The Ascension. 
 
 S. The descent of the Holy Ghost on 
 the day of Pentecost. 
 
 4. The assumption of the Virgin, body 
 and soul, to heaven. 
 
 5. The consummation of her glory by 
 her triple coronation of grandeur, power, 
 and goodness. See ' Crowns.' 
 
 Five Good Emperors {The) of 
 Eome, They succeeded the Flavian Em- 
 perors {q.v.). They were Nerva, Trajan, 
 Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus 
 Aurelius. 
 
 Five Hundred (T7ie). See 'Coun- 
 cil of 500.' 
 
 Five Hundred {The), or Les Cinq- 
 cents, 1795. One of the two legislative 
 councils of the ' Constitution of Year 
 III.' in French history. Dispersed by 
 Napoleon I. in 1799. See ' Council of 
 500.' 
 
 Five Hundred of Athens {TJie). 
 
 The original number of the senate aj)- 
 pointed by Solon was 400, a hundred for 
 each tribe, but Klisthenes increased the 
 number to 500. B.C. 401 the constitution 
 of Athens was changed into an oligarchy 
 of 500, but this state of things only lasted 
 from March to June, when the democracy 
 was restored. 
 
 Five Joyous Mysteries {The). 
 
 In Catholic theology. 
 
 1. The annunciation and conception 
 of the Word or Logos in the Virgin's 
 womb. 
 
 2. The visitation and influence of 
 grace on John the Baptist, who ' leaped 
 in the womb.' 
 
 3. The birth in Betlilehem. 
 
 4. The purification and offering made 
 by Mary in the temple. 
 
 5. Christ's visit to the temple at the 
 age of twelve, when he was found by his 
 mother among the doctors. 
 
 Five Kings {The). I. b.c. 2598- 
 2205, preceded by the three emperors, 
 and forming the tenth or mythic period 
 of Chinese history. The names were 
 Chao-hao, Chouan-hio, Ti-ko, Yao, and 
 Shun. In the reign of Shun is placed 
 the great flood or inundation of China. 
 Next followed the semi-historic period. 
 
 II. In A.D. 990, five kings were simul- 
 taneously conver:.ed to Christianity — 
 viz. Olaf king of Sweden, Harold king of 
 Denmark, Miczyslaf sovereign of Poland, 
 Vladimir grand-duke of Muscovy, and 
 
330 
 
 FIVE 
 
 FIVE 
 
 Geisa prince of Hungary. A European 
 panic, that the world was coming to an 
 end, some time between 901 and 1000, 
 may account for the religious fervour of 
 the times. Never were there so many 
 kings entitled ' pious ' before or since. 
 
 Five Kings of France {The). 
 
 The five Directors, 1795. 
 
 The five kings of France sit in their curule 
 chairs with their flesli coloured breeches and 
 regal mantles. — Atelier du Lys, ii. 
 
 Five Members of the G-eneral 
 Assembly {The). In 1(J05 James I. 
 of England asserted his right to call 
 and dissolve the General Assembly of 
 the Church of Scotland; but several of 
 the Scotch clergy resisted this innova- 
 tion, and five of them were punished by 
 banishment. See 'Arrest of the Five 
 Members ' by Charles I. in 1642. 
 
 Five Mile Act {The), 17 Car. II. 
 c. 2, A.D. 1655. This act subjected 
 every Nonconformist minister who ap- 
 proached within five miles of any 
 corporate town, or other place where 
 he had been used to x^^'each, to a 
 j)enalty of AOl., or six months' imprison- 
 ment, unless he would take the oath that 
 ' he deemed it unlawful, under any pre- 
 text, to take up arms against the king, 
 and that he would in no wise seek to 
 bring about any alteration of government 
 either in church or state.' Abolished by 
 the ' Act of Toleration ' in 1689. 
 
 The act aimed at those who had been driven 
 from their livings by the ' Act of Uniformity,' as 
 well as at Nonconformists. 
 
 Five l^ations (T/ie). The Iroquois, 
 
 afterwards called ' The Six Nations,' q.v. 
 See also ' Pentapolis,' ' History of the 
 Five Nations ' (N.Y. 1727, 1866 ; London 
 1747, 1755). 
 
 Five Orders of the Clergy 
 
 {The). 3rd cent, Subdeacons, Acolyths, 
 Exorcists, Readers, and Ostiarii, said by 
 the Church of Rome to be apostolic 
 institutions. The duty of suh-deacons 
 is to wait upon the deacons in divine 
 service. In the Roman Church there 
 are seven, in some churches many more. 
 Acolyths did the menial work, such as 
 lighting the candles, carrying the sacred 
 vessels, bread and wine, &c. Exorcists 
 had charge of the dtemoniacs. Headers 
 read the scriptures in that part of the 
 service in which the catechumens were 
 admitted. Ostiarii were the door- 
 keepers. 
 
 Five Points {The), 1536. The five 
 
 points of Calvinism are — (1) Absolute 
 election and reprobation ; (2) particular 
 and not universal redemption; (3) the 
 grace of God is irresistible ; (4) the will 
 is not free to choose or reject God's 
 grace ; (5) the final perseverance of the 
 saints. 
 
 Or in brief thus : (1) Absolute election and repro- 
 bation ;i'2) particular redemption; (3) irresistible 
 grace ; (4) the will is not free ; (6) the perseverance 
 of the saints. 
 
 Five Propositions of the Jan- 
 
 senists {The). The bishops of France 
 subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X. 
 in condemnation of five heretical propo- 
 sitions said to be contained in the 
 ' Augustinus ' of Jansenius. They are 
 these : 
 
 1. Some of God's commandments are 
 impossible to be kept by the righteous. 
 
 2. A man doth ever resist inward 
 grace in the state of fallen nature. 
 
 3. In order to merit, or not merit, it is 
 7iot indispensable to have a freedom of 
 will, but only freedom from restraint. 
 
 4. The semi-Pelagians were heretics, 
 because they maintained the necessity of 
 an inward preventing grace. 
 
 5. It is heretical to say that Jesus 
 Christ died for all mankind. 
 
 Five Races {Period of the), or in 
 Chinese Woo-tae, 420-618. This period 
 includes the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 
 12th imperial dynasties, called Tseng, 
 Tsee, Leang, Tchin or Chin, and Swi. 
 From 420 to 534 the empire was divided 
 into southern and northern, the former 
 being the imperial line. From 534 to 
 618 it was divided into the southern, 
 eastern, and western empires. In 618 
 the three empires were united again 
 under the Swi dynasty. 
 
 Five Sacraments {The). (1) Con- 
 firmation ; (2) Penance ; (3) Orders ; (4) 
 Matrimony ; (5) Extreme Unction. Ar- 
 ticle XXV says ' these five are not to be 
 counted [by the Anglican Church] for 
 sacraments of the gospel, being such as 
 have grown partly of the corrupt follow- 
 ing of the apostles, partly are states of 
 life allowed in the scriptures.' 
 
 Five Successions {Period of the), 
 or Heehoo-Woo-tae. This includes t:ie 
 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th imperial 
 dynasties of China, called Hehoo-Leang, 
 Hehoo-Tang, Hehoo-Tsin, Hehoo-H"iu, 
 and Hehoo-Chew. The seat of empire 
 
FIVE 
 
 FLAGELLANTS 
 
 831 
 
 was at Kai-fong-foo. It lasted from 
 907 to 960. During all this period the 
 Tartars held the north of the emi)ire. 
 Tiie Five Successions gave way to the 
 Song or Tsong dynasty, called the 19th, 
 but the Tartars continued to occupy the 
 north. In 1206 the Monguls established 
 themselves in the west, and Teniou-gin 
 assumed the title of Genghis Khan {i.e. 
 supreme khan or over-lord). 
 
 Five Thousand {The), b.c. 411. A 
 nominal distinction which included all 
 the citizens of Athens. In contradistinc- 
 tion to the 500 oligarchs. It meant that 
 Atliens was to be governed by all the 
 citizens, and not by 500 only ; that its 
 government should be democratic, and 
 not oligarchical. 
 
 Fives Court {The). The head- 
 quarters of the ' fancy,' during the regency. 
 It was in the neighbourhood of the Hay- 
 market. There was another in St. 
 Martin's Lane. In ' fancy ' slang the 
 hand is called ' a bunch of fives.' 
 
 Flag Captain, Flag Lieuten- 
 ant. A captain or lieutenant in a flag 
 ship. A flag lieutenant in the navy is 
 about tantamount to the aide-de-camp of 
 a general in the army. It is his duty to 
 see that the admiral's orders are com- 
 municated to the various ships of the 
 sqiiadron. See ' Flag Officers ' in ' Diet, 
 of Phrase and Fable.' 
 
 Flag of the Prophet (The), or 
 ' Sanjak-Sheriff; 632. The sacred banner 
 of the Mohammedans. Originally the 
 white turban of the Koreish, captured 
 by Mohammed. Subsequently a green , 
 flag was substituted, being the curtain i 
 which hung before the door of Ayesha, ! 
 one of the prophet's wives. It is pre- ! 
 served most carefully in a chapel or the ' 
 seraglio, and watched over by several 
 emirs. 
 
 Flags {Modem National). 
 
 America, field with seven red and six 
 white stripes, and a blue canton with 
 stars. ' Stars and Stripes.' 
 
 AuHtria, red, white, and red (hori- 
 zontally). A shield and crown in the 
 white stripe. 
 
 Belgium, black (next the staff), yellow, 
 and red (vertically disposed). A device 
 in the yellow stripe. 
 
 Denmarh, a red field, with a white 
 cross cutting it into quarters. 
 
 France, blue (next the staff), white, and 
 red (vertically disposed). 
 
 Greece, a blue field with a white cross 
 in the canton, and four white stripes. 
 
 Holland, red, white, and blue (hori- 
 zontally disposed). 
 
 Mexico, a white flag with a black 
 spread eagle, holding in its beak a green 
 serpent. 
 
 Norway, a red flag, quartered by blue 
 and yellow stripes, and the first quarter 
 crossed. 
 
 Portugal, blue and white, vertically 
 disposed (blue next the staff). Shield 
 and crown in the centre. 
 
 Prussia, a white flag with a black 
 eagle and a small black Maltese cross in 
 the top corner next the staff. 
 
 Russia, a white flag with two blue 
 stripes running from corner to corner 
 like a St. Andrew's cross. 
 
 Spain, red, yellow, and red (hori- 
 zontally disposed). 
 
 Sweden, a blue flag, quartered with 
 yellow stripes. In the first quarter 
 several crosses. 
 
 Switzerland, a red flag with a white 
 cross in the centre. 
 
 Turkey, a red flag with a silver cres- 
 cent and star with eight points. 
 
 Venezuela, yellow, blue, and red 
 (horizontally). A device in the yeUow 
 stripe. 
 
 See ' Standards,' and ' Black Flag,' 
 • Red Flag,' ' White Flag,' ' Yellow Flag.' 
 
 Flagellants. Fanatics who ap- 
 peared at sundry times in Europe, and 
 marched about in procession along the 
 streets and public roads to appease the 
 wrath of God. They marched two and 
 two, singing dolorous hymns, mingled 
 with groSns; and every now and tuen 
 stopped to whip eacli other with 
 scourges to ' atone for the sins of the 
 people.' They first appeared in the 11th 
 cent, under St. Peter Damian. Again in 
 1268, when Reinier, a Dominican, formed 
 them into a sect. Again in 1349, when 
 Germany was attacked with the pesti- 
 lence, called the Black Death {q.v.). 
 Again in 1574, when Henri III. of France 
 joined the sect. They still exist in Italy, 
 France, Mexico, and New Mexico, but 
 their number is small. 
 
 The Flagellants were naked to the -waist, but on 
 march threw over their shoulders a white cloak, 
 hence they were called 'Blancs-battus.' They 
 threw off the cloak when the scourging began, and 
 insisted that ' Without shedding of blood there 
 was no remission.' They called themselves the 
 
332 
 
 FLAMINIAN 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS 
 
 Brotherhood of the Cross (q.v.), and -wore a cross 
 on their breast, another on their back, and a 
 third on their hat. 
 
 Black Flagellants were so called from their 
 black masks. 
 
 Bluf Flagellants were so called from their blue 
 mantles. 
 
 While Flagellants were so called from their 
 white mantles. See ' Blancsbattus.' 
 
 Flamin'ianWay (T7i(9). The great 
 high road made by Flaminius, the Censor, 
 from Eome, through the Sabine country 
 to Ariminium, B.C. 220. 
 
 Flamrnoek's Rebellion, 1495, 
 in behalf of Perkin Warbeck. The most 
 formidable danger which ever threatened 
 the throne of Henry VII. The rebellion 
 was crushed out by the king's artillery 
 at Blackheath. Thomas Flammock, the 
 leader, was hanged at Tyburn in 1497. 
 
 Flanders. In 862 erected into a 
 coimty vmder Baldwin ' Bras-de-Fer,' 
 continued to 1119. Then follow Charles 
 I. of Denmark, 1119-1127, and WiUiam 
 Clinton of Normandy, 1127-1128. 
 
 The dynasty of Alsace and Hainault, 
 1128-1405. 
 
 The dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy, 
 1405-1482. 
 
 The Austrian dynasty, 1482-1506. 
 
 Charles Quint in 1659 incorporated it 
 with the seventeen provinces called ' The 
 Circle of Burgundy.' Since 1830 it has 
 belonged to Belgium. 
 
 Flanders Mare {A Great). So 
 Henry VIII. called Anne of Cleves, who 
 was married to him by deputy, and sepa- 
 rated by mutual agreement. Born 1515, 
 married 6 Jan., and divorced 12 July, 
 1540, died at Chelsea 1557, aged 42. 
 
 Fla'via Caesarien'sis. One of the 
 
 five provinces into which Britain was 
 divided in the reign of Severus.* It con- 
 sisted of the western portion of the 
 island. It had a separa,te ruler, but that 
 ruler was subject to the prefect, or 
 governor-general, of the island. 
 
 Flavian Emperors (The) of 
 Eome. The successors of the Ctesars, of 
 whom Nero was the last. After a year 
 of anarchy, order was restored by Titus 
 Flavins Vespasian, who gave his name of 
 Flavian to the new dynasty, which con- 
 sisted of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 
 the 12th emperor. See ' Five Good Em- 
 perors.' 
 
 Flaxman G-allery (TJie). A col- 
 lection of some 140 plaster casts modelled 
 
 by John Flaxman, R.A., and presented 
 by Miss Denman to the council of Uni- 
 versity College, London. 
 
 Fleet Marriages. Fictitious, clan- 
 destine, or irregular marriages, in the 
 17th and 18tli cents., solemnised without 
 banns or licence in the Fleet chapel, or 
 in some ' marriage-room,' dignified for the 
 nonce with the name of chapel, generally 
 some tavern. These marriages were 
 performed by disreputable parsons who 
 lived in the purlieus of Fleet Prison, 
 which were not under the jurisdiction of 
 the bishop. They were declared illegal by 
 Lord-Chancellor Hardwicke's Act, which 
 came into operation 2C March, 1754. 
 
 March 25, the day before these marriages became 
 illegal, as many as 217 marriages were celebrated 
 and entered in one of the Fleet register books. 
 
 Fleet Prison. A metropolitan 
 prison abolished in 1842, and pulled down 
 in 1845. It was situated on the side of 
 the river Fleet, and was used for persons 
 committed by the Ecclesiastical Courts, 
 the Court of Equity, the Exchequer 
 Court, and the Common Pleas. 
 
 It was burnt by Wat Tyler in the reign of 
 Richard II., issl ; again in the great Fire IGOJ ; and 
 again in the Gordon Riots 17aO. 
 
 Flemish Painters. 
 
 Called Name 
 
 Albrecht DUBER .... 1471-1528 
 Lucas van Leyden {Lucas 
 
 Dammesz) 1494-15S3 
 
 Hans Holbein 1495-1554 
 
 Otho van Veen (Otto-Venius) 1548-1588 
 Sir Peter Paul Rubens . . 1577-1640 
 
 David Teniers 1582-1649 
 
 Jacob Jordaens 1594-1678 
 
 Sir Antony Vandyck . . . 1599-1641 
 Hermanszoon Eembrandt 
 
 van Eyn 1606-1674 
 
 Snyders (1579-1657) the great animal painter was 
 contemporary with Rubexis. 
 
 Fleshly School (The), 1871. A 
 school of English poetry, of which the 
 chief exponents areD. G. Eossetti, Swin- 
 burne, Whitman, and Baudelaire. It 
 means sensuous, voluptuous, amorous 
 poetry, ' verging on nastiness.' The 
 term was given to this school of writers 
 by Eobert Buchanan in the ' Contempo- 
 rary Eeview,' Oct. 1871. 
 
 Fleur-de-lis {The), or 'Lily of 
 France,' first adopted by Louis VII. le 
 Jeune (1120, 1137-1180) as a symbol of 
 the French monarchy. The royal stan- 
 dard was thickly charged with the 
 
FLIGHT 
 
 FLOEIDA 
 
 833 
 
 flower, but Charles VI. (1380-1422) re- 
 duced the number to three. Tlie nature 
 of the emblem is uncertain. Some think 
 it is a bee, the emblem of the early 
 kings — Clovis and his successors. Some 
 fancy it is a toad or frog, whence 
 Nostradamus calls the French crapauds. 
 Some think it is the flower of the reed 
 placed in the hands of Christ by the 
 soldiers when they crowned him with a 
 diadem of thorns. And some think it is 
 an emblem of the Trinity, ' tria juncta in 
 uno,' which probably is the basis of the 
 symbol. 
 
 Some heralds tell us that -when the Franks 
 chose a king they raised him on their shields, 
 and placed a reed, for sceptre, in his hand ; hence 
 the ancient kings are represented holding a fleur- 
 de-lis. 
 
 Flight into Egypt {The), 14 Jan. 
 The flight of the Holy Family from 
 Bethlehem to Egypt, in order to escape 
 the slaughter of the Innocents about to 
 take place under the orders of Herod the 
 Great. 
 
 Flint Jack. A notable forger of 
 prehistoric implements. 
 
 Floating Debt. Government loans 
 not funded, but to be paid off in full at a 
 stated time. If the government is unable 
 to meet the demand, the floating debt, or 
 Buch part of it as cannot be met, is con- 
 verted into funded debt — that is, a debt 
 on which interest is paid by government 
 either for a fixed term of years or for 
 ever. The former is called terminable 
 annuities, and the latter perpetual an- 
 nuities. 
 
 Flogged by Deputy. When Henri 
 IV. of France abjured, and was received 
 into the Catholic Church in 1595, two 
 ambassadors were sent to Rome to do 
 penance for him. They knelt in the 
 portico of St. Peter's and sang the 
 ' Miserere,' a blow being given on their 
 shoulders with a switch at each verse. 
 
 Lesage, in his ' Gil Bias ' (v. 1) makes Raphael 
 the deputy of the marquis's son ; but Raphael, not 
 seeing the justice of the substitution, ran away. 
 Strange as it may seem, yet is it sanctioned by 
 both God and man. Thus for the sin of David 
 thousands of his subjects were 'scourged' by a 
 plague. And what else is the entail of Adam's dis- 
 obedience '? 
 
 N.15. Flogging in both Bervices was abolished in 
 England in 188-2. 
 
 Flood {Date of the). According to 
 
 Septuagint 
 Jackson . 
 Hales 
 Jo&ephus . 
 
 . S-'4(; I Persian . 
 
 . 3170 I Hindi'i . 
 
 . 3155 Samaritan 
 
 . 3140 Howard . 
 
 2998 
 2GJ8 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Clinton . . . 2482 
 Playfair . . . 2852 
 Usher . . . 2348 
 Marsham & Calmet 2344 
 
 Petaviua . . 2329 
 
 Strauch. . . 2293 
 
 Hebrew . . . 2288 
 
 Vulgar Jewish . 2104 
 
 Floral G-ames of Toulouse 
 
 {The), 1 May, 1322. A literary con- 
 test instituted at Toulouse for the en- 
 couragement of poetry. The prizes con- 
 sisted of flowers made of gold or silver, 
 chiefly the violet, eglantine, marigold, 
 amaranth, and lily. The poets who 
 belonged to the institution were called 
 ' The college of the gay science.' The 
 games still exist, and the prizes are given 
 away every year on 3 May. 
 
 Florentine Diamond {The). 
 Weighs 139,^ carats, and is among the 
 crown jewels of the Emperor of Austria. 
 It has a slight citron tint, and is valued 
 at 105,000^. It belonged to Charles the 
 Bold, and after the battle of Granson was 
 picked up by a Swiss, who thought it was 
 a bit of glass, and sold it to a priest for a 
 gulden. The i)riest sold it for 3 francs, and 
 it was next bought for 200?. by Bartholo- 
 mew May, a merchant who lived in Berne. 
 May sold it to a Genoese for a large sum 
 of money; Ludovico Sforza bought it of 
 the Genoese for double what he had 
 given ; it then came into the possession of 
 Pope Julius II., and Pope Julius presented 
 it to the Emperor of Austria. 
 
 Flores Historia'rum, or ' Flowers 
 of History,' by Matthew Paris, is in 
 reality the work of Wendover continued 
 by Matthew Paris. It begins at creation 
 and goes down to 1238. Matthew Paris 
 brought it down to 1259, and William 
 Eishanger continued it still further. 
 
 Florid or Perpendicular Style. 
 
 Succeeded the Decorated English in the 
 14th cent., as the Decorated had suc- 
 ceeded the Early English or Lancet style 
 in the 13th cent. The Florid style is so 
 called from its profusion of ornamental 
 detail. It is called Perpendicular from 
 the perpendicular mullions of the windows, 
 the lines of the panel-work, and the 
 Tudor arch. One of the finest specimens 
 is Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. Its 
 best j)eriod was between 1375 and 1598. 
 
 The Tudor arch was four-centred. St. George's 
 Chapel, Windsor, and the nave of Canterbury 
 Cathedral are good specimens of this style of 
 architecture. 
 
 Florida (U.S. North America). So 
 called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, 
 because xt was discovered on Palm 
 
FLOWEK 
 
 FLOWERY 
 
 Sunday, called in Spanish ' [Pascua] 
 Florida.' The nickname of the inhabit- 
 ants in this state is Fly-up-the-Creeks. 
 
 Flower Badges. Of Families. 
 
 Blue cornflower, the badge of William 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 Erica cinerea, the five-leaved heath, 
 the badge of the Macalisters. 
 
 Erica Tefrdlix, the cross-leaved heath, 
 the badge of the Macdonalds. 
 
 Genista,ihe badge of the Plantagenets. 
 
 Primrose, the badge of the Primrose 
 League, in honour of Lord Beaconsfield. 
 
 Mose (red), the badge of the Lancas- 
 trians. 
 
 Eose (white), the badge of the Yorkists. 
 
 Violet, the badge of Napoleon and the 
 French imperialists. 
 
 Wild Strawberry, the badge of the 
 Frasers. 
 
 Flow^er Bad{;;e3. Of Nations. 
 
 Athens . . . The Violet. 
 
 Canada , . . Sugar-maple. 
 
 England . . . Led Rose. 
 
 Florence . . . Giglio (Lily). 
 
 France . . . Iris Lily. 
 
 Ireland . . . Shamrock-leaf. 
 
 Prussia . . . Linden. 
 
 Saxony . . . Mignonette. 
 
 Scotland . . . Thistle. 
 
 Wales . . . . Leek-leaf. 
 
 As in England the Lancastrian badge was a red 
 rose, and the Yorkist a white one, so in Florence 
 the GueHs (or pa.pal party) adopted the red lilii, 
 and the Ghibellines (or imperial party) a tihite one. 
 
 Flo"Wer Symbols. Of Moral quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Box a symbol of Immortality. 
 
 Cedar „ Fidelity. 
 
 Corn-ears „ Holy Commtinion. 
 
 Dates „ Faith. 
 
 Grapes „ The blood of Christ. 
 
 Holly-berries „ The Resurrection. 
 
 I'v „ „ 
 
 OUve „ Peace. 
 
 Orange-blossom „ Virginity. 
 
 Palm „ Victory. 
 
 Hose „ Incorruption. 
 
 Vine „ Christ our Life. 
 
 A\ hite Lily „ Purity. 
 
 Yew ,, Death. 
 
 The amaranth, cypress, laurel, myrtle, oak, 
 olive, asphodel, and rosemary are funereal plants. 
 
 Flower of the Levant (The). ' II 
 fiore di Levante,' Zante. 
 
 Flower of the Sun (The). The 
 Elixir of Life. The alchemists called all 
 sorts of fiocculent substances obtained by 
 distillation flower, hence we have ' flowers 
 of sulphur,' ' flowers of benzoin.' The 
 flower of the sun was a bright ruby stone 
 called the ' philosopher's stone.' 
 
 He that has once the ' Flower of the Sun,' 
 Xhe perfect ruby which we call eiuir, 
 
 Can confer honour, love, respect, long life ; 
 Give safety, valour, yea, and victory 
 To whom he will. In ^^^(ht-and twenty days 
 He'll make an old man of four score a child. 
 Ben Jon son. The Alehymist, ii. 1. 
 
 Flower-pot Plot (^;^e), 1692. An 
 
 infamous imposition got up by Young 
 and Blackhead, who hoped to make 
 money by it, like Titus Oates. These 
 villains wrote an engagement to bring 
 back James II. and seize William. 
 Having forged the signatures of Marl- 
 borough, Cornbury, Sancroft (the ex- 
 primate), and Sprat bishop of Rochester, 
 they secreted the document in a flovvei*- 
 pot at the bishop's house at Bromley. 
 The bishop was arrested, but denied all 
 knowledge of the plot, and then Black- 
 head confessed the forgery. 
 
 Flower Sermon (The), May 18.51. 
 Established by W. M. Whittemore, D.D., 
 rector of the united parishes of St. 
 Katherine Cree and St. James. It is 
 usual to present nosegays, which are 
 then sent to hospitals. 
 
 Flowers. According to Herrick the 
 ancient inhabitants of this island used to 
 adorn their houses all the year round 
 with green boughs. At Christtnas with 
 bay, rosemary, and mistletoe, up to 
 Candlemas day (2 Feb.) ; from Candle- 
 vias to Easter with box ; at Easter with 
 yew ; at Whitsuntide with birch and 
 flowers, oaken boughs, and bent (a kind 
 of grass). 
 
 Flowers dedicated to Saints. 
 
 Baneberry to St. Christopher. 
 
 Be:\n (the common) to St. Ignatius. 
 Corn-feverfew to ... St. Anne. 
 Spider-wort to St. Bruno. 
 
 Toyvort to the shepherds, for their purses. 
 Valerian (blue) to Jacob, for his angels' ladder. 
 
 Flow^ers referring to Saints. 
 
 Briony (black) Our Lady's seal. 
 
 Clematis The Virgin's bower. 
 
 Hyacinth (blue) ... St. Dorothy's tears. 
 
 Lily of the Valley ... Madonna s tears. 
 
 Oleander St. Joseph's nosegay. 
 
 Flowery Kingdom {The). China. 
 
 Flowery Land {The), or 'Hwa 
 Kwoh.' China ; meaning the ' flower of 
 the world.' Certainly no land is more 
 productive. 
 
 It justifies the long-existent and always increas 
 ing hope of foreigners that the Flowery Land would 
 evenUially adopt this most speedy and effectual 
 mode of locomotion. — Fung Yke, Nineteenth Cen 
 tury, Feb. 1890, p. 225. 
 
 Flowery Land Pirates {The), 
 186-4. ' The Flowery Land ' was the name 
 of the pirates' cutter. The captain, the 
 
FLY 
 
 FOMORIANS 
 
 835 
 
 mate, and several others were murdered 
 
 in tlie passage from London to Singapore. 
 Five Spaniards were publicly executed at 
 Newgate for this outrage. 
 
 Fly {Killed by a). Adrian IV., the 
 only Englishman who has been pope. He 
 was Nicholas Breakspeare of Langley, 
 aud succeeded to the papal throne in 1151 ; 
 died, being choked by a fly, in 1159. 
 
 Flying Company (TJie), 1561. 
 Chosen troops of 100 musketeers for con- 
 stant service, destined to act in defence of 
 the Vaudois at any point where an attack 
 was threatened by their Catholic perse- 
 cutors. Two pastors always attended the 
 ' company.' 
 
 Flying Dutchman {The), 1806, or 
 ' Ship of Doom.' The reflection of a vessel 
 off the Cape of Good Hope, occasionally 
 seen at a considerable distance, and re- 
 garded by sailors with superstitious terror. 
 The tale is that this mirage is the ship 
 of Vanderdecken, who in 180(5 tried in vain 
 to enter Table Bay, and swore he would do 
 so, if he ' beat about the Cape till the day 
 of doom.' Out of punishment his ship 
 and crew were turned into phantoms, 
 ' beating about the bay,' and bringing 
 evil to all who view the vessel. 
 
 Flying Highwayman {The). 
 Richard (Dick) Turpin, 1711-1739. To- 
 day in town, to-morrow at York, the next 
 dav at Chester, 'an alibi personified.' 
 Hanged at York 1739. 
 
 Flying Roll {The), 1175. A book 
 compiled by James Jershom "White from 
 the writings of Joanna Southcott and 
 John Wroe. It is a jumble of texts from 
 Genesis to Revelation, supposed to have 
 a meaning known only to the initiated. 
 
 Flying Squadron {The), 1705. 
 Those members of the Scotch Parliament 
 who professed to act independently, but 
 soi;ght their own ends by joining one 
 of the other two parties (Jacobites and 
 revolutionists) as suited tliem. Their 
 leader was the Marquis of Tweeddale. 
 
 Fo, or Foe. The founder of a religious 
 system in China which may be called 
 ?3addhism, or reformed Brahmanism. 
 His birth is placed B.C. 1027. He taught 
 as his fundamental principles truth and 
 altruism, to take the life of no living 
 creature, to abstain from wiue, not to steal 
 
 or covet, to keep the body in chastity and 
 temperance, and to believe in a future 
 state. The priests are called ' Bonzes,' 
 and live in monasteries. 
 
 The orthodox or state religion of China is Con- 
 fucianism (Yu) ; and there is a third system called 
 Taoism, or rationalism. 
 
 Fodrum Regale (3 syl.). Certain 
 customary supplies of provisions, at the 
 expense of the city where the German 
 emperor resided when he visited Italy. 
 See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. p. 346. 
 
 Folio {Tom). Thomas Rawlinson, a 
 bibliophilist, who flourished 1681-1725. 
 
 Folk Mote. The Court of the Hun- 
 dred in Saxon England. It was held once 
 a month, and was presided over by the 
 alderman and bishop of the diocese. This 
 mote was superior to the Hall Mote and 
 inferior to the Shire Mote. 
 
 In the Folk Mote all contracts for the sale of 
 land were made ; and such crimes were tried as 
 could not be judged by the lord of a tithing or 
 town. 
 
 Folkungs {The). A race of ad- 
 ministrators in Sweden, somewhat like 
 the French ' Mayors of the Palace.' They 
 called themselves Jarls, and were in 
 power from 1250 to 1387, when the 
 regency of Sweden was given to Mar- 
 garet, queen regent of Denmark and 
 Norway. In 1397 by the' Union of Cal- 
 mar ' the three kingdoms were nominally 
 united in Eric, grand-nephew of Mar- 
 garet ; but Sweden had separate adminis- 
 trators from 1471 to 1523, when Gustavus 
 broke from Denmark, and erected Sweden 
 into an independent kingdom. 
 
 Folkungs of Norway {The), from 
 1319 to 1387. Like the Folkungs of 
 Sweden these rulers were not kings, but 
 resembled the ' Mayors of the Palace ' in 
 French history. The Norwegian Folk- 
 ungs were Magnus VIII., also Folkung 
 of Sweden (1319-1350), Hako VIII. (1350- 
 1380), and Olaf V. (1380-1387). 
 
 Folly of Spain {The), or ' Folies 
 d'Espagne.' A hvely dance tune. The 
 dancers used castanets. The measure 
 was a trois temps, and the movement 
 moderately fast. 
 
 Fomo'rians {The). According to 
 Keating (p. 116), the original owners of 
 Ireland. They supported themselves by 
 fishing and fowling. When Partholan 
 and his four sons, some 2,200 years before 
 the Christian era, visited Ireland, these 
 
53C 
 
 FONDATION 
 
 FOOLSCAP 
 
 Fomorians were found in the island. It 
 is said they were an Iberian or Basque 
 colony. Moore, in his ' History of Ire- 
 land,' calls the Fomorians ' African sea- 
 rovers, who infested the coasts of Ireland 
 afte7- the extirpation of Partholan's race.' 
 He says they stamped out the Neme- 
 dians, held the island for 200 years, and 
 were succeeded by the Firbolgs. Of 
 course, this is only ' bardic history,' but 
 the storming of Tor Innis by the Neme- 
 dians is the subject of a very famous 
 Irish poem. 
 
 Fondation Montyon {La), 1825. 
 Founded by J. B. Eobert Auget baron 
 de Montyon, who gave 5 million francs 
 aux convalescents sortant des hopitaux 
 de Paris, qui auraient le jylus hesoin 
 de secours. The money was invested, 
 and brings an annual interest of 10,000Z. 
 sterling. Everyone who has been in a 
 hospital for five days receives 1 franc, 
 and the bounty rises to 25 francs. 
 
 rronovince, Lahfone-dah'-se-on Moan-te'-yone. 
 
 Fondeurs, or ' Clippers.' Bands of 
 robbers which disturbed France in the 
 unsettled times of Charles VI. and VII. 
 They were often accompanied by the 
 ecorcheurs and other vagabonds. 
 
 Fontainebleau {Treaties of). 
 
 (1) 1542. A treaty of alliance between 
 Francois I. and Gustavus Vasa. 
 
 (2) 2 Sept., 1679. A treaty of peace 
 between France, Denmark, and Sweden. 
 
 (3) 10 Nov., 1785. A treaty of peace 
 between Austria and Holland, by the 
 'mediation of France. 
 
 (4) 27 Oct., 1807. A secret treaty 
 between Napoleon I. and Carlos IV. of 
 Spain, for the deposition of the House of 
 Braganza for refusing to accept the 
 ' Continental System.' By this compact, 
 Portugal was partitioned between the 
 Prince of Asturias and a young libertine 
 named Godoy, chief minister of Spain. 
 
 In 1()40, Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke and 
 recalled the Duke of Braganza. The concordat 
 between Napoleon and Pius VII. at Fontaine- 
 bleau took place 25 Jan., Ibl3. 
 
 FontangeS {A la). A style of head- 
 dress in the reign of Louis XIV., in 
 which long streaming ribbons were intro- 
 duced. Mile. Fontanges (2 syl.) was maid of 
 honour to Mme. de Montespan, and was 
 a court favourite for a few months; but 
 she died at the age of 20. 
 
 Fontenoy {Battle of). See 'Fire 
 First.' 
 
 Fonthill Abbey. Was commenced 
 by Beckford in 1795, and sold by him in 
 1822. 
 
 Foolisll. More foolish than Abu 
 Gabshan. An Arabian proverb. Kofa 
 made Abu Gabshan intoxicated, and in- 
 duced him to deliver up the keys of the 
 temple of the Kaaba, When he grew 
 sober he saw the full evil of his folly, but 
 it was too late. The tribe of Khozaab, 
 which had been in possession of Mecca 
 and its temple, were deprived of both 
 by the Koreish, who retained possession 
 till the time of Mahomet. 
 
 Fools {Last of the titled) of France 
 was L'Angely (1(320-1679), court fool of 
 Louis XIII. He was of good family, but 
 very poor. His satire was so caustic that 
 he grew rich by the blackmail given him 
 to purchase exemption from his sallies. 
 
 Armstrong, court jester to .Tames I. and 
 Charles I., was the last of the titled fools in Eng- 
 land. He died 167-2. 
 
 Fools' Fair, 14 Sept. Held in the 
 Broad Gate, Lincoln, for the sale of 
 cattle. Licensed by William and Mary. 
 Called ' Fools' Fair ' because the time is 
 so unsuitable for the purpose. Being 
 harvest time, very few can attend it, and 
 Lincohi at the time had no special trade 
 or manufacture. See ' Fete des Fous.' 
 
 Fool's-cap Livery {The), 1563. 
 A badge livery adopted by the Calvinists 
 of the Netherlands to show their con- 
 tempt and abhorrence for Cardinal Gran- 
 velle, a pompous, arrogant, bigoted 
 churchman, sent by Philip II. of Spain 
 to introduce Roman Catholicism into 
 Holland and stamp out Calvinism. A 
 party of young nobles, to show their con- 
 tempt for this churchman, assumed a 
 dress in ridicule of the cardinal's finery. 
 It was something like that of a poor 
 monk, of the coarsest grey cloth, without 
 any ornament except that of a fool's cap 
 and bells embroidered on the sleeves. 
 This was in allusion to the cardinal's 
 custom of calling the Flemings 'fools.' 
 In a few days aU the Flemings assumed 
 the new livery. 
 
 Foolscap Paper. The smallest 
 folio-sized paper. It used to have the 
 royal arms in the water-mark, but the 
 Bump Parliament ordered the water- 
 
FOOT 
 
 FOEMULART 
 
 837 
 
 mark to he chariged for a fool's cap and 
 bells. There seems to be a pun in the 
 device from the Italian /of/ ^io cajJO (chief 
 Qr full-sized sheet of paper). 
 
 Foot of a Fine (The). The fifth or 
 last part of a fine, containing all the 
 matter, the day, year, and place, and be- 
 fore vvliat justices the fine was levied. 
 A corruption of the old French la pee or 
 la 2)es - j5a/.r. After proclaiming the fine 
 in the Common Pleas, the justice said, 
 * Criez la pees ' {i.e. Proclaim the peace), 
 and the Serjeant read the concord or 
 agreement between the parties. The 
 foot of the fine is, therefore, the j^aix or 
 final agreement as stated by the countor 
 or Serjeant. 
 
 Foot-page, or * Foot-bearer.* An 
 attendant in olden times whose duty it 
 was to squat under the table of kings 
 and other great men, and keep his mas- 
 ter's feet warm, by rubbing them with his 
 hands, nursing them in his lap, and even 
 cherishing them in his bosom. 
 
 The foot-bearer shall hold the feet of the king 
 In his lap. from the time he [the king] reclines at 
 the board t : 1! he goes to rest ; and he [the foot-pa ge] 
 Ehall chafe them with a towel, and during all that 
 time shall watch that no harm befalls the king. 
 He shall eat of the same dish from which the king 
 takes his food ; and shall light the first caudle 
 before the King.— SOUTHEY, Madoc (note). 
 
 Fops' Alley. A railed-off passage 
 in front of the pit of the Italian opera- 
 house, where dandies lounged who 
 thought their figures showed more to ad- 
 vantage in a standing posture than in 
 a sitting one. They wagged their cha- 
 peaux bi'as, and dropped their canes, and 
 hallooed to their friends in the boxes, 
 being thus an intolerable nuisance. 
 
 Forbes Mackenzie Act (The), 
 1833. For the regulation of public- 
 houses in Scotland (16, 17 Vict. c. G7). Its 
 object was to prevent grocers from being 
 secret publicans, for no liquor is to be 
 drunk on the premises where groceries 
 are sold. No liquor is to be sent out 
 from any hotel or inn on Sundays before 
 six in the morning, nor after eleven at 
 night. Some grace was allowed to 
 travellers journeying either on pleasure 
 or business. 
 
 Foreign Canons. Such as did not 
 officiate in the canouries to which they 
 wore attached. They were the non-rec'- 
 deutiary canons. 
 15 
 
 Foreign Enlistment Acts (The). 
 In 1605 British subjects were prohibited 
 from entering foreign service (3 Jac. I. 
 c. 4, s. 18). £i 1835 the prohibition was 
 suspended by order in council. 
 
 The enlistment of foreigners into the British 
 service was permitted in 1854 (18 Vict. c. 2). 
 
 Foreigners' Friend (The). Der- 
 mot king of Leinster, who brought over 
 English and Welsh allies to assist him 
 in regaining his throne, from which he 
 had been driven by Tiernan O'Ruarc, 
 lord of Breffny, in 1168. 
 
 Forest Cantons of Switzerland 
 
 (The), or the ' Waldstetten,' that is, 
 Schwitz, Uri, and Unterwalden. 
 
 Forester {Fannjj). The pen-name of 
 Emily Judson (Chubbock), an American 
 author. 
 
 Forester (Frank). The pen-name 
 of Henry William Herbert, an English- 
 born American author. 
 
 Forfeiture and Corruption of 
 Blood. A law which existed before the 
 Conquest, that a man guilty of treason 
 forfeits his estates to the crown, and can 
 transmit no title of dignity to his heirs. 
 
 In America the law of ' Corruption of Blood ' 
 cannot exist, for there are no titles of dignity 
 teansmittable. 
 
 i^orgeries (Literary). See under 
 * Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Fork-Beard. Sueno (Swe-no) king 
 of Denmark (985-1014). 
 
 He exacted the tribute called Danegeld, and in 
 1013 was crowned king of England. Tyfve-skeg or 
 Fork-Beard was succeeded by his son Canute. 
 
 Form of the Beads (The), 1538. 
 Certain instructions for praying drawn 
 up by Browne, archbishop of Dublin. 
 
 Forma Pau'peris (In). By statutes 
 passed in the reigns of Henry VII. and 
 VIII., if a plaintiff swore he was not 
 worth hi. beyond the clothes he was 
 wearing, he luid counsel and attorney 
 assigned him by the coui't gratuitously, 
 and aU court-fees were excused him. 
 
 Formula of Concord (The), or 
 ' Consensus,' 1576. Drawn up at Torgau ; 
 suppressed at Brandenburg in 1614 ; re- 
 published in Switzerland in 1675. 
 Torgau, pronounce Tor-gow. 
 
 Formulary, or ' Formula.' I. 1653. 
 In which Innocent X. condemned the 
 five propositions of Jansen taught in his 
 
838 
 
 FORT 
 
 FORTY 
 
 famous book entitled ' Augtistlnus '{q.v.). 
 He commanded tlie Jansenists to sub- 
 scribe to it, but tlicy refused to do so. 
 
 II. The formulary of 1665, in which 
 Alexander VII. confirmed the formulary 
 of Innocent X. The Jansenists still re- 
 fused subscription. In 1668 Pope Cle- 
 ment, to prevent a schism, withdrew the 
 formulary, and this is called the ' Peace 
 of Clement IX.' 
 
 Fort Adjutant {A). A staff-officer 
 in command of a fortress. They have an 
 extra pay of is. 9d. daily. 
 
 Forties {The), 1826. The forty shil- 
 ling franchise of Ireland, repealed 1829. 
 See ' Forty-shilling Freeholders.' 
 
 Mr. O'Connell at the head of the priests and the 
 ' Forties ' was declared by the sheriff duly elected. 
 — HowiTT, Hist, of Eng., year 18-28, p. 117. 
 
 Mr. O'Connell had repeatedly declared that he 
 ■would not accept emancipation if the faithful 
 • Forties ' were to be sacririced. He would rather 
 die on the scaffold than submit to such a measure. 
 —Ibid, year 1829, p.l42. 
 
 Fortification [Permanent). The 
 art of shutting in a circumscribed piece of 
 ground, or a city, by defensive masses of 
 earth and ditches, to resist the attacks of 
 an enemy. Every plot of ground so 
 fortified is supposed to be surrounded by 
 a polygon of fortification, and the works 
 constructed on any one side of this poly- 
 gon constitute a front of fortification. 
 The great mass of earth thrown up from 
 the ditch inwards is the ramfart ; and 
 the covering shot-proof mass of earth on 
 the outer edge of the rampart is the 
 paravet. The step of earth behind the 
 parapet (about a foot high) is called 
 the banquette. 
 
 A rampart is about 7J feet high. 
 
 Fortunate (The). So Philippe VI. 
 de Valois was called, but his whole reign 
 was a series of calamities. In this reign 
 the French lost the battles of Sluys 
 (Slu'iz) and Cre'cy. 
 
 The French have been singularly unhappy in 
 their royal ' pet ' names. 
 
 Forty. This number is very con- 
 Bpicuous in the Bible and Christian 
 Church. 
 
 1. It rained forty days and forty nights in the 
 Flood.-Gen. vii. 12. 
 
 2. IMoses twice fasted for forty days and forty 
 n'glits— Eaod.xxiv. 18, &c. 
 
 8. The spies sent to Canaan were forty days in 
 Bearching the land. — Num. xiii 35. 
 
 4. The Israelites wandered forty years in the 
 ■wilderness.— Ps. xcv. 10. 
 
 5. Goliath defied the armies of Saul for forty 
 days. — 1 Sam. xvii. 16. 
 
 6. Elijah fasted forty days.— 1 Kings six. 8. 
 
 7. Ezekiel bore the iniquities of the house ot 
 Jacob forty days, a day for a year. 
 
 8. Jonah cried to the Ninevites, ' Yet forty days 
 and Nineveh shall be overthrown.' — Jonah iii. 4. 
 
 9. Jesus fasted and was tempted forty days in 
 the wilderness.— 3/tt«. iv. 2. 
 
 10. Jesus tarried on earth forty days after his 
 resurrection.— ^-(c/s i. 3. 
 
 11. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus forty years 
 after the .\scension. 
 
 12. According to Church tradition Jesus was 
 forty hours in the tomb. 
 
 13. The Lenten Fast continues for forty days, 
 from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sunday. Intro- 
 duced into England by order of .Edbald king of 
 Kent, A.D. 640. 
 
 14. One of the saints of the Catholic Church is 
 called ' Quadragesimus,' said to have been a 
 shepherd, and under-deacon of Pa via. His day is 
 26th Oct. 
 
 If). St. Swithin's days of rain are forty. 
 
 16. The Je'ws were forbidden to indict more than 
 forty stripes on an offender. 
 
 17. The martyrdom. See ' Forty Martyrs.' 
 
 Forty (The). 1. 'I Quarantia.' A 
 council of state, in Venice, between the 
 Six Sages and 450 representatives, of 
 whose origin and positive duties very 
 little is known. It was a permanent 
 body, which seems to have represented 
 the chief families of Venice, and exercised 
 criminal justice. In the best days 
 the doge had a Council of Six, to 
 which every bill was first submitted. The 
 Six sent it to the Forty, or council of 
 state, and then it was sent to the legis- 
 lative assembly, consisting of 450 repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 The 40 electors of the doge were in 1249 increased 
 to 41 to prevent an equal division. The nomina- 
 tion of these electors was very complex. The 
 Grand Council first selected 30, who were reduced 
 by ballot to 9. These 9 nominated 40, who were 
 reduced by ballot to 12. These 12 elected 2.5, who 
 were reduced by ballot to 9. These 9 elected 4.5, 
 who were reduced by ballot to 11. These 11 elected 
 the 41 electors, and the 41 electors chose the doge 
 out of the Grand Council. 
 
 II. Besides the council of state in 
 Venice, there were three tribunals, each 
 of which was composed of forty members. 
 (1) The tribunal of appeal from the city 
 magistrates ; (2) Another tribunal of 
 appeal from the suburban magistrates; 
 and (3) a high court of assize which took 
 cognisance of aU criminal offences except 
 treason. 
 
 III. The Academic Fran^aise, founded 
 by Richelieu in 1635, consists of forty 
 members, neither more nor less. Its 
 original intention was to fix and purify 
 the French language. Membership is 
 now the highest literary distinction which 
 the nation can bestow. 
 
 The election of the ' head administrator ' of the 
 Theatre Francais to a seat among the ' Forty ' of 
 the Academie is, after the lapse of 200 years, in 
 atonement for the non-election of the founder him- 
 self [M. Claretie elected 22 Feb., 1889].— 2^inefee»<A 
 Century, July 1«89, p. 85. 
 
FORTY 
 
 FORTY-TWO 
 
 839 
 
 IV. The English Academicians are 
 called ' The Forty.' 
 
 Mr. Faed lacked not backers all the way up and 
 down among the ' Forty,' and Sir Frederick's 
 threat of resignation had no terrors. — Truth, 
 13 Jan., ISriT. 
 
 V. One of the inferior courts of Athens 
 consisted of 40 magistrates (ot reaaapd- 
 Kovra), who went on circuit to settle con- 
 troversies about money, actions of assault 
 and battery, and neglect in attending the 
 public assemblies. 
 
 Forty Columns (TJie), or * Chihel 
 Sutun.' A lofty erection still existing, 
 but in a somewhat dilapidated condition, 
 in 41^^ N. lat., on the route of the cara- 
 vans from Bokha'ra to China (Heeeen, 
 ' Asiatic Nations,' vol. iii. p. 389). 
 
 This is the ' Stone Tower' of Ptolemy.— Gees' ra- 
 phia, bk. i., ch. 12. 
 
 'Forty-five (The). The rising which 
 took place in Scotland in 1745. It -vvas an 
 attempt on the part of Prince Charles 
 Edward Stuart to regain the throne of 
 James II. Lewis Gordon, brother of the 
 Duke of Gordon, was one of the adiierents. 
 
 'Forty-five {Out in the). One of 
 the Jacobites who had taken part in the 
 rebellion of 1745, when the anti-Hano- 
 verian furore ran very high not only in 
 the Higlilands of Scotland, but also in 
 England. 
 
 He designated the rebellion of 1745 as the afair 
 of '45 ; and spoke of one engaged in it as a person 
 •who had been out in the forty -five. —Sit W. SCOTT, 
 RedgatintU't. 
 
 In the forty-five, that is, concerned or involved 
 in the rebellion of 1745. 
 
 I sutfered in the forty-five. — Jft.ch. x. 
 
 A71 old 'forty-five mmi, one formerly concerned in 
 the rebellion of 1745.— 16. 
 
 Forty-hour Prayers, 1560. Made 
 before the ' saint sacrement ' in the times 
 of public calamities, jubilees, 'les jours 
 gras,' and so on. At one time they lasted 
 forty hours without interruption, because 
 Christ was ' forty hours in the tomb.' In- 
 dulgences were granted by Pius IV. to 
 those who observed these pritres de 
 quarante heures. 
 
 Forty Martyrs (The), 320. The 
 martyrs of the famous TJiundering Le- 
 gion, condemned to death by Agricolaus 
 for refusing to offer sacrifice at Sebaste, 
 in Lesser Armenia, in obedience to their 
 cominander Licinius. It is said that they 
 ■were exposed naked on the surface of a 
 pond frozen over, and St. Basil tells us 
 that they lay there for three days, and all 
 
 their limbs were mortified by the cold 
 (St. Basil, ' Homily ' 20, vol. i. p. 452). 
 
 Forty-nine Men, or ' The Forty- 
 nine Officers.' Protestant royalist offi- 
 cers who had served Charles I. in Ireland 
 before 1649. These officers by a declara- 
 tion of Charles II. were to receive their 
 arrears in lands at the rate of 12s. 6d. in 
 the pound, and an equal dividend of 
 whatever should remain of their se- 
 curity. 
 
 Forty - shilling Freeholders 
 
 {The Irish), 1826. Men entitled to the 
 elective franchise who swore that their 
 tenement was equal to them in value to 
 40.S. a year. A hut and small potato 
 plot were sufficient to give a vote. In 
 order to multiply votes farms were cut 
 up into small holdings, whereby a large 
 constituency was created scarcely re- 
 moved from actual pauperism, and 
 almost entirely under the command of 
 the parish priest. Repealed 1829 (10 
 Geo. IV. c. 8), after the Bill for the 
 Emancipation of Catholics had passed. 
 
 Till 14'29 universal suffrage prevailed, but votes 
 were then confined to 40«. freeholders in the 
 counties, and the qualification of a county mem- 
 ber was the possession of a freehold worth 401. a 
 year, equal to iOOl. at the present time. 
 
 Forty-times Forty Churches 
 
 {The City of), Moscow. 
 
 Forty-two Articles {The), 1552, 
 1553. The original number of the Arti- 
 cles of the Church of England. In 1502 
 seven were omitted, and the number 
 was reduced to thirty-nine by the sub- 
 stitution of four new articles. 
 
 THE AKTICLES OMITTED. 
 
 1. (Art. X.) Of Grace. No man is 
 constrained to sin. 
 
 2. (Art. xvi.) Of Blasphemy against 
 the Holy Ghost. That is, perversion of 
 ' God's Word,' or malignant opposition 
 to it. 
 
 3. (Art. xix.) All men bound to keep 
 the moral law. 
 
 4. (Art. xxxix.) The resurrection of 
 the dead is not past. 
 
 5. (Art. xl.) The soul does neither 
 sleep nor perish with the body. 
 
 6. (Art. xli.) Of the millenarians. De- 
 claring the dogma a fable derived from 
 Jewish tradition. 
 
 7. (Art. xhi.) Not all men wiU be 
 saved. 
 
 Xho new articles are the v., xii., xxix., and xxx. 
 
 z2 
 
840 
 
 Fosg 
 
 FOUNDERS 
 
 Foss of Ma'rius {The), b.c. 103. 
 A canal cut by the soldiers of Marius 
 when encamped against the Cimbrians. 
 It ran from the rear of his camp on the 
 right bank of the Rhone to the coast. 
 Its object was to secure ready access to 
 the sea. 
 
 F6ujdarry Court {The). In India, 
 the court of criminal law. The ' foujdar ' 
 is a magistrate of police who takes cog- 
 nisance of criminal matters. 
 
 Foul Baid {The), 1417. The dis- 
 honourable inroad ; referring to the raid 
 of the Regent Albany on Roxburgh Castle 
 and the town of Berwick while Henry V. 
 was in France. The Dukes of Exeter 
 and Bedford, with an English army, 
 compelled Albany to raise both the sieges. 
 
 The Duke of Albany was prime minister of 
 Scotland to Robert I., Robert II., and James I. 
 (fifty years); he ■was above eighty at his death 
 (1419). 
 
 Foul- weather Jack. The Hon. 
 John Byron, admiral and navigator, who 
 was noted for the tempestuous weather 
 which pursued him in all his voyages 
 (1723-1786). 
 
 Founder of Cliristian Elo- 
 quence {The). Bourdaloue (1632- 
 1704), unrivalled for argument, method, 
 and depth of thought. His ' Lent Ser- 
 mons ' are the best known of his works. 
 
 Founders of Religious Orders. 
 
 Annunciades (numerous) 
 
 — Celestes MariaVittoriaFornr.ri 
 
 — of Bourges Jeanne de Valois 
 
 — of Savoy Amadcus VI. 
 
 Augustines Augustine of Hipi;o 
 
 Barefooted Friars (nu- 
 merous) 
 
 Barefooted Alcantarines Ferdinand Gomez 
 
 — Augustines Tommaso da Jeaus 
 
 — Carmelites ... Theresa of Avila 
 
 — Eremites or Erraites 
 
 (several) 
 
 — Franciscans ... ... Paolo of Foligno 
 
 — Trinitarians Jean Bapiiste . de la 
 
 Conception 
 
 Benedictines Benedict of Nnrsia 
 
 Bernardines Bernard of Clair vaux 
 
 Brigettines or Nuns of Brigitte or Bridget ol 
 
 our Holy Saviour S^veden 
 
 Brothers of Charity ... Vincent de Paul 
 
 Camaldules Romualdus 
 
 Capucinsor Capuchins ... Matteo Baschl 
 
 Carmelites(White Friars) John of Jerusalem 
 
 — of Macon Margaret of St. Joseph 
 
 Several others 
 
 Carthusians Bruno 
 
 Celestines Pierre de Moron [Celes- 
 
 tine v.] 
 
 Christian Doctrine ... Ippolite Galantini 
 
 Cistercians ... Robert de Molesme 
 
 Clarisses or Poor Clares Clare of Assisi 
 
 Clercs Mineurs ... Francesco Caracciolo 
 
 — Reguhers (Theatins) ... Gaetano of Chieti 
 
 (Latin Tlirntr) 
 —~ Of the Mother of God Giovauui Leonardl 
 
 Clercs Somasques Geremia Emiliani 
 
 Cluniacs Bernon abbe de Cluny 
 
 Congregation of the Holy Frances Hary Paul 
 Heart of Mary Liebermann 
 
 — Holy Hearts Marie Joseph Coudrin 
 
 — Holy Trinity Marie de la Croix 
 
 — Son of Mary Louis Marie Baudouin 
 
 — Very Holy Sacrament Louis Agut 
 
 — Very Holy Trinity ... PhlUp Neri 
 And several others 
 
 {Gaston de Rente and 
 Henri Michael Buch 
 Daughters of Calvary „. Antoinette d'Orleans 
 
 — Charity Vincent de Paul 
 
 — Providence .... ... Marie de Lumagne 
 
 And several others 
 
 Doctrinaires Csesar de Bus 
 
 Dominicans ... Dominic 
 
 Feuillants . Jean de la Barriere 
 
 Filies Dieu (originally 
 
 ScEurs de St. Gervais)... 
 
 Franciscans Francis of Assisi 
 
 Fratres CellitaB or Mex- 
 
 ians ... ... .. Mexius 
 
 Frtres des Ecoles Chre- Jean Baptiste de la 
 tiennes Salle 
 
 — Mineurs Francis of Assisi 
 
 Gilbertines ... ... Gilbert bishop of Mcaux 
 
 Hieronimites of Fiesole Charles de llumene 
 
 — of the Observance ... Loup of Olmedo 
 
 — of Spain Thomas of Siena 
 
 — of Umbria Pietro of Pisa 
 
 Hopital de Mouzo Gerard Teinturier 
 
 Hospitallers Gerard Tom 
 
 Jesuits Ignatius Loyola 
 
 Lazarists Vincent de Paul 
 
 Liguorians ... ... ... Alfonso of Liguori 
 
 Minims Francis of Paula 
 
 Minorites Francis of Assisi 
 
 Missionaries of the Pre- 
 cious Blood Ga spar d del Bufalo 
 
 Norbertines Korbert archbishop of 
 
 Magdeburg 
 Notre Dame de Refuge ... Elizabeth of Ranfaing 
 There are thousands of institutions entitled 
 Notre Dame 
 
 Oratorlans Philip Neri 
 
 Order of France Pierre de Eerulle 
 
 — Mercy Pierre de Nolasque 
 
 — Our Holy Saviour ... Brigitte or Bridget of 
 
 Sweden 
 
 — the Holy Cross Theodore of Celles 
 
 — the Incarnate Word Jeanne Marie de .\iatel 
 
 — the Perpetual Adora- Catherine Mechtilda da 
 
 tion S. Sacrement 
 
 — the Very Holy Trinity Felix de Valois 
 
 And many others 
 Ordre de Flore S. Joachim 
 
 — de r(JEuvrede la Jeun- 
 
 esse John Joseph Allemand 
 
 — de Pulsano John of Mathera 
 
 — des Servites Manetto, Sostenus, and 
 
 five others 
 
 — de Tres-sainte Trinite Jean de Matha 
 Penitents Angela countess of Civi- 
 
 tella 
 
 Picpus Abbe Condrin 
 
 Preaching Friars of S. 
 
 Dominic Dominic de Gusman 
 
 Premonstratensians ... Norbert archbishop of 
 
 Magdeburg 
 Priests of the Mission, or 
 
 Lazarists ... ... Vincent of Paula 
 
 EecoUets.ref ormed Fran- 
 ciscans John of Guadalupe 
 
 Redemptorists ... Alfonso of Liguovi 
 
 Reformed Bernardines... Louis Perrucard de 
 
 Ballon 
 Eeligieuses Auxiliatrices 
 
 des ames du Purga- 
 
 toire Marie de la Providence 
 
 Religious Hospitallers .. John de Dieu 
 St. Fintan of the Order of 
 
 St. Jerome Mary Garcias 
 
 Second Founder of the 
 
 i'illes de Ste. Genevieve Marie Bouneau 
 
FOUB 
 
 FOUB 
 
 841 
 
 Seralnalres de la Provl- FranQois de Chancier- 
 
 Sibiors of Charity of 
 
 Joseph 
 
 — of iUercy 
 
 — of Ste. Anne 
 
 — of St. Gervais 
 
 — of the Hermitage 
 
 — ot the lluly Family ... 
 
 — of the Presentation of 
 Mary, &c. 
 
 Society of French Mis- 
 sions 
 
 Soeurs Grises 
 
 Sylvestrians 
 Tabcnnites .., 
 Templars 
 
 Trappists 
 
 Terti uries of St. Francis 
 
 Teutonic Kiiifclits 
 
 Third Order of the 
 
 Humble 
 
 Urbanists 
 
 Elizabeth .Vnne Bayley 
 Marie Therese Char- 
 lotte de Lainourous 
 Jeanne de la None 
 Franvois Armaud Ger- 
 
 vnis 
 Ursula Benincasa 
 Marie Ue Kodat 
 
 Marie Anne Kivier 
 
 John Baptist Rauzan 
 Marie Marguerite 7Jfi- 
 
 jfost de LaJLtumuiais 
 
 U-Youville 
 Sylvester Gozzolini 
 
 Hngues des Payens, 
 Geoltrey de St. .\dhe- 
 mar, and 7 otliers 
 Rotrou count of Perche 
 I'r.incia of Assi; i 
 Frodtrick duke of 
 Suabia 
 
 Jean de Meda 
 S. Isabolle (confirmed 
 by Urban II.) 
 Ursulines Angela of Merici 
 
 Foundling Hosp'tal {The). Lon- 
 don, 1739. Foundt'd by Capt. Coram. 
 
 One established at IMiian in 787. 
 „ „ at Pi-r.s in 1640. 
 
 , „ at Siockhohn in 1763 by the 
 
 Frtemasons. 
 
 Four Ancient Books ofWales 
 
 (T/ie). 'The Black Book of Carmar- 
 then,' ' The Book of Aneurin,' ' The 
 Book of Taliesin,' and the poetical por- 
 tion of ' The Red Book of Hergest ' (q.v.). 
 It was published in 18C8, with an 
 En-rllsh translation, by the Rev. Canon 
 Wiihams and the Rev. D. Silvan Evans. 
 
 Four Articles (The). Drawn up 
 by Bossuet in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 
 1. The ecclesiastical power shall be 
 subordinate to the civil power in France. 
 
 2. The decision of a general council 
 shall supersede the dictum of a pope. 
 
 3. The church shall at all times con- 
 form to local usages and municipal laws. 
 
 4. The judgment of the pope even 'in 
 matters of faith shall not bo binding 
 unless ratified by a general council. See 
 ' Articles.' 
 
 Four Attributes of Glorified 
 Bodies {TJie). In Catholic tb>eology : 
 Subtlety, agility, luminosity, and immor- 
 tality (Mgr. GuEEiN, ' Vies des Saints,' 
 vol. ix. p. 559). 
 
 Four Burghs (The). Edinburgh, 
 Stirling, Berwick, and Roxburgh ; noted 
 for their ' Court of the Four Burghs,' 
 superseded by the ' Convention of Royal 
 Burghs,' 1187. 
 
 Four Cardinal Virtues {The). 
 In Catholic theology : Fortitude, justice, 
 prudence, and temperance. 
 
 Four Credenze {The). After the 
 treaty of Constance {q.v.), 1183, Frederick 
 Barbarossa introduced a podesta or dic- 
 tator into Milan, not a native, and under 
 him were four estates or credenze : (1) 
 the old consuls and their officers ; (2) tlie 
 capitani or higher nobles, with the arch- 
 bishop of Milan at their head ; (3) the popo- 
 lani or burghers ; and (4) the valvassori or 
 inferior nobles. Soon these four estates 
 practically resolved themselves into the 
 aristocracy and ^proletariat or popolani. 
 
 Four Creeds {The). Of theCathohc 
 Church of Rome : The Apostles' Creed, 
 the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian 
 Creed, and the Creed of Pius V. 
 
 Four Days' Battle {The), 1-4 
 June, 1665. Between the English fleet 
 under the jointcommand of PrinceRupert 
 and the Duke of Albemarle, and the 
 Dutch fleet under the command of De 
 Ruyter and De Witt off the North Fore- 
 land. The English lost ten ships and 
 1,700 men killed and wounded ; the 
 Dutch lost two admirals, seven captains, 
 and 1,800 men, with fifteen vessels of all 
 sorts. The Dutch claimed the victory, 
 and without doubt had the advantage. 
 
 Four Hundred {The), b.c. 411. 
 The oligarchical legislature of Athens. 
 This body formed an irresponsible 
 government, and held its sittings in the 
 senate house. In four months the con- 
 stitution of the 400 was overthrown, and 
 the govermnent placed in "the hands of 
 5,000 citizens instead of the entire male 
 population. 
 
 A committee of five was first chosen ; this com- 
 mittee chose ninety-five members ; and each of 
 the hundred chose three. 
 
 Four Hundred and Fifty {The). 
 The legislative assembly of ancient 
 Venice, chosen from the six quarters of 
 the city. The privy council of the dogo 
 consisted of the Six Sages ; the great 
 council of state of forty members. 
 
 Four Masters {The). Rhyming 
 annalists of Ireland. The annals were 
 compiled in the 17th century (1636) by 
 Michael O'Clery, with the assistance of 
 three other antiquaries. Harris tells us 
 they are ' chiefly drawn from the annals 
 of Clonmacnois, Inisfail, and Senat, as 
 well as from other approved and ancient 
 
842 
 
 FOUR 
 
 FRA 
 
 chronicles of Ireland.' A full acconnt 
 maybe found in Mr. Pet Lie's ' Remarks 
 on the History and Authenticity of tlie 
 Autograph Original of the Annals of the 
 Four Masters.' 
 
 Four Points {The), 1854. (1) The 
 cession of the Russian protectorate in 
 the Principalities, and establishment of 
 a European protectorate in its stead; 
 ('2) the free navigation of the Danube ; 
 (3) an arrangement to put an end to 
 Russian preponderance in the Black Sea, 
 and for bringing the Ottoman govern- 
 ment into harmony with European go- 
 vernments ; and (4) the renunciation by 
 Russia of a protectorate over the Chris- 
 tian subjects of the sultan. 
 
 Four Symbols {The), or standards 
 in Catholic theology. 
 
 (1) The Apostles' Creed; (2) the 
 Nicene Creed; (3) the symbol of Con- 
 stantinople ; and (4) the Athanasian 
 Creed. 
 
 The Constantinople formulary was made at the 
 Council Oi Constantinople in 331, and is recited at 
 mass. It is identical wioii the Nicene Creed, 
 except in tlie one article aboat tli3 procession of 
 the Holy Ghost from the father [Jilivzue). 
 
 Four Vov/s of the Order of 
 St. Francis of Paula. Poverty, 
 chastity, obedience, and the quadra- 
 gesimal life (i.e. the Lenten fast of 40 
 days). 
 
 Fou'rierism. The social system 
 devised by Charles Fourier. He would 
 divide men into groups of 400 families, 
 and these gToups into series, and these 
 series into phalanxes. A single group he 
 would place ujider one immense roof, and 
 there should be supplied every appliance 
 of industry and art. No army would be 
 required, no wars could ever break out, 
 as all the world would be one great 
 family. 
 
 Fourteen Sa,intly Helpers 
 
 {The). The fourteen saints to whose 
 churches, between Bamberg and Coburg, 
 annual pilgrimages were made, viz. 
 George, Blaise, Erasmus, Vitus, Panta- 
 loon, Christoplver, Denys or Dionysius, 
 Cyriacus, Aciiatius, Eustace, Giles or 
 ^gidius, Margaretha, Catharine, and 
 Barbara. 
 
 Fourth Estate {The). The news- 
 paper j)ress. The ' three estates of tlie 
 realm' in the legislature are the lords 
 Bpiritual, the lords temporal, and the 
 coiuiuons. The newspaper press as a 
 
 power may well be called * the fourth 
 estate,' with a moral power far greater 
 than the other three. 
 
 Fourth of July {The), or 'Tlie 
 glorious Fourth of July.' In American 
 history is glorious as being the day of 
 the Declaration of Independence (177G). 
 
 Fowler {The). Heinrich I. of Ger- 
 many is so called, because he was flying 
 his hawks on the slopes of the Harz 
 mountains when the messengers came to 
 tell him he had been chosen king. 
 
 Fox {A). An old English broadsword. 
 So called because it bore the figure of a 
 fox, the rebus of a famous sword-maker. 
 
 Come, come, comrade, . . . put np your fox, and 
 let us be jogging.— Sir W. Scott, Kcnilicorth, ch. iv. 
 
 0)1 point of fox. 'By the sword's 
 point.' 
 
 Thou diest by point of fox. If thou compst 
 a-pryingto this tower once more. -Ibid. ch. xxix. _ 
 
 (Probably, ' fox ' is the Latin falx, 
 wiiich is the Greek nekeKvs, a hatchet, 
 axe, or pruning-knife.) 
 
 Fox {The). A vessel of 170 tons 
 burden, fitted out by Lady Franklin, and 
 committed to the charge of Capt. 
 HcClintock, to go towards the North 
 Pole to ascertain if anything could 
 be learned of the fate of Sir Jolin 
 Franklin or his two sliips, the ' Erebus ' 
 and ' Terror.' On 6 May, 1859, was dis- 
 covered in a cairn a document stating 
 that Sir John Franklin had died 11 June, 
 1847. Numerous relies of the two crews 
 were brought home and publicly ex- 
 hibited in London. It was also ascer- 
 tained that Sir John had discovered the 
 long-sought-for North-west Passage. 
 
 'Fox's Martyrs.' The 120 sup- 
 porters of Charles James Fox who lost 
 their elections when parliament was dis- 
 solved 25 March, 1784. 
 
 Foxites (2 syl.). Quakers, followers 
 of George Fox, founder of the sect (1024- 
 1090). 
 
 His muzzle, formed of opposition stuff, 
 Firm as a l''o\ito, would ujt lose its ruH, 
 
 Peteb PiNDAii, The Hazor-stiUer. 
 
 Fra Dlavolo. Michele Pezza, one 
 of the leaders in the Calabrian insurrec- 
 tion. In 17^1) Cardinal Ruffo made him 
 a colonel. He was taken captive by the 
 French, and was hanged at Naples in 
 1806. 
 
 Fra Moria'le (4 syl.). Montreal 
 d'Albano, proven^al condoltiere, died 
 
FKANCE 
 
 FEANCISCANS 
 
 843 
 
 1354. Being sentenced to death by 
 Rienzi, he ' summoned ' the tribune to 
 follow him within a month, and within a 
 month Bienzi was killed by the fickle 
 mob. 
 
 France, (a) The three Boyal dy- 
 nasties of France : — 
 
 I. The Merovingian race (420-752), 
 gives 34 sovereigns (including Phara- 
 niond"). 
 
 II. The Carlovingian race (752-987) 
 gives 16 sovereigns. 
 
 III. The Capetian race (987-1848) 
 gives 37 sovereigns. But the Eepublic 
 was 1792-1804 ; the Empire of Napoleon I. 
 was 1S04-1814. In 18i8 Louis Napoleon 
 was president, and emperor 1852-1871. 
 In 1871 a republican form of govern- 
 ment was established. 
 
 The Capetian dynasty was often in- 
 direct. The first nine kings were in 
 direct descent. Then came Philippe III. 
 Le Hardi, called the Philippine line, 
 1270-1285 ; the elder branch gave five 
 kings, 1285-1C28 ; the Valois branch gave 
 seven kings, 1328-1498; then followed 
 the Valois-OrlJans branch, Louis XIL, 
 1498-1515 ; then the Valois-Angouleme 
 dynasty of five kings, 1515-1589 ; then 
 the Bourbon race from 1589. Louis- 
 Philippe was Bourbon-Orleans. 
 
 {b) The six great peers of France. In 
 the time of Henri I. (1031-lOGO). The 
 Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Aqui- 
 taine, the Duke of Normandy, the Count 
 of Champagne, the Count of Flanders, 
 and the Count of Toulouse. Eacli of 
 these peers had almost equal power with 
 the king himself. 
 
 According to Ronsard (Frnnciadt), the Franks 
 •were so called from Francion, son of Hector of 
 Troy. Of course this is a poet s fahle. 
 
 Franchi {Ausonio). The pseudonym 
 of Francesco Bonavino, the Italian phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 Francis II. (Frjfnz). Emperor of 
 the Romans and king of Gex'many. From 
 6 Aug., 1806, called ' emperor of Austria ' ; 
 born 1768, died 1835. He reigned as 
 kaiser-king of Germany, 1792-1806 ; as 
 emperor of Austria, 1806-1835. 
 
 Father, Leopold II. ; Mother, the 
 Infanta Maria Louisa ; Wives, Elizabeth 
 of Wiirtemberg, mother of Ferdinand 
 his successor, who abdicated ; Maria 
 Theresa, mother of Maria Louisa, who 
 married Napoleon I. ; Maria Louisa of 
 Austria; and Charlotte Augusta of 
 
 Bavaria. Francis II. was brother of 
 Marie Antoinette, the unhappy wife of 
 Louis XVI. of France, both of whom 
 were guillotined. 
 
 He gave up the Netherlands and Lombardy by 
 the treaty of Campo Formio, but received Venice 
 17 Oct., 1707. 
 
 Gave up all his possessions on the left bank of 
 the Rhine by the treaty of Luneville, 3 Feb., 1801. 
 
 Gave up aU his Italian states, buabia, and the 
 Tyrol, by the treaty of Frcsburg, 26 Dec. 1SC5. 
 
 Renounced the dignity of emperor of Germany, 
 but retained that of emperor of Austria, 6 Aug., 
 iKOi;. 
 
 End of the Holy Boman Empire, 1806, after last- 
 ing lOOG years. 
 
 Francis - Joseph (Franz- Joseph), 
 Emperor of Austria and king of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia. Born 1830, reigned 
 1848- 
 
 He succeeded his uncle Ferdinand, 
 who abdicated in 1848. Father, Francis 
 (younger brother of Kaiser Ferdinand), 
 son of Francis II. ; Wife, Elizabeth of 
 Bavaria ; contemporary with Victoria. 
 
 His son Rudolph, heir apparent to the throne, 
 ■was born 1858, married Stephanie of P.elgium 1881, 
 and put an end to his life in Feb., 1889. 
 
 Franciscans {The), or 'Fratres 
 Minores,' 1209. Followers of the rule of 
 St. Francis of Assisi, originally divided 
 into ' Conventuals ' and ' Observantins.' 
 The Conventuals lived in convents and 
 monasteries ; the Observantins [q-v.) were 
 hermits, and in France were called Cor- 
 deliers, from the cord which they used 
 for belt. The strictest of the Observan- 
 tins were barefooted. 
 
 lie collets of Spain were formed in 
 1500 by Father John of Guadalupe. ' Le 
 nom Becollets fut donne a ces religieux, 
 parce qu'ils vivaient dans des convents 
 solitaires, et qu'ils faisaient une profes- 
 sion plus spe'ciale de la pratique de la 
 retraite et de recueillement ' (Gu£rin, 
 ' Pet. Boll.' xii. p. 43). 
 
 Pveformed Cajnicins of Tuscany, 1525; 
 formed by Matteo Baschi of Urbano. 
 
 The Capucins 'ont une piece sur le 
 derriere de leur habit, comme S. Fran- 
 cois le recommande dans son testament.' 
 They have long beards, but St. Francis 
 himself had a very short beard. Both 
 the Be'collets and the Capucins wear a 
 brown dress, but Cordeliers a black one. 
 
 Second Order of St. Francis: The 
 Clarisscs, or followers of St. Clair. 
 They were called, in France, ' Urbanists,' 
 because they obtained their constitution 
 from Urban IV. (in 1203), but generally 
 they went by the name of ' The poor 
 sisters Clarisses,' or the ' poor Clarisses.' 
 
844 
 
 FRANCO-AUSTKIAN 
 
 FEANCONIA 
 
 The Minories of London were so called 
 from the Minory convent of Clarisses. 
 
 The Grey Sisters of Flanders were 
 Franciscans who originally dressed in 
 grey, but subsequently adopted either 
 white, black, or dark blue. They took 
 on themselves the vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience. 
 
 Thikd Order, instituted by St. Fran- 
 cis in 1221, for both sexes. These Fran- 
 ciscans followed their own vocations, 
 married and were given in marriage. 
 The Dominicans, Augustines, Minims, 
 Carmelites, and Servites, all had a 
 similar order. 
 
 Penitents were of this order, instituted 
 in 1397 by Angela countess of Civitella. 
 ' Eecollettines ' are reformed Penitents. 
 
 Nurses of hospitals, asylums, &c., who 
 took on themselves the vows of chastity, 
 poverty, and obedience to the bishop of 
 the diocese. They went by various 
 names. In Spain, %Iinimes infirmiers, 
 or Obrcgons, from Bernardin Obregnn of 
 Madrid. In Flanders, les Bons-Fieux or 
 Bons Fils. 
 
 Mgr. Guerin (vol. xii. p. 44) tells us there were 
 1,500 'maisons de Franciscains ' and dyO.OOO reU- 
 qieux in England in lasO. Introduced into England 
 in 12-24. Some Franciscan tertiaries live in con- 
 vents. 
 
 They -were called ' Grey Friars ' from the colour 
 of their dress, as the Dominicans were called 
 ' Black Friars,' and the Carmelites were called 
 ' Vv'hite Friars. They were in everlasting antago- 
 nism with the Dominicans ever since 1250. 
 
 Franco- Austrian "War {The), 
 1859. Between France and Austria, to 
 deprive the latter of Italy. France was 
 victorious. Total loss of hfe, 40,000. 
 Cost of the war, 60,000,000Z. sterling. 
 
 Franco -Prussian "War {The), 
 1870, 1871. Between Napoleon III. 
 emperor of France, and Williain I. king 
 of Prussia. The French were defeated in 
 every great batule and in every siege. 
 The chief battles were those of Weissen- 
 burg, Worth, Saarbriick, Vionville, Gra- 
 velotte, Beaumont, and Sedan. By these 
 victories William I. became German 
 emperor. This is called ' The Six 
 Months' War ' (from 28 July, 1870, to 28 
 Jan., 1871). Total cost of the war, 
 500,000,000?. sterling. Total loss of hfe, 
 225,000. William I., who was king of 
 Prussia, added to his titles ' German 
 emperor' {Deiitscher Kaiser). 
 
 Francois I. le Grand. Also called 
 * Le Pere des Lettres.' Of the Capetian 
 dynasty, and second of the Valois-An- 
 
 goulome line (1494, 1515-1547). The 
 Renaissance iDeriod. Francois I. 'had 
 the largest nose in France, except his 
 jester ' (Tribnulet). 
 
 Father, Charles comte d'Angouleme 
 (great-grandson of Charles V. and cousin 
 of Louis XII., whom Fi'an^ois succeeded); 
 Mother, Louise of Savoy ; Wives, Claude, 
 daughter of Louis XII., mother of Henri 
 II. his successor, and Eleanore, widow 
 of Emmanuel of Portugal, and sister of 
 Charles-Quint, emperor of Germany. 
 Contemporary with Henry VIII. and 
 Leo X. His first mistress was the 
 Countess of Chateaubriant ; his second 
 was Mdlle. Heilly, created duchesse 
 d'Etampes (that is, she was married, 
 under cover, to Jean de Brosse, who was 
 requited by being made due d'Etampes). 
 Another of his mistresses was La belle 
 Ferronniere, the nominal wife of one 
 Ferron, an ironmonger. 
 
 Charles V. had two sons, Charles VI. and 
 Louis due d' Orleans. 
 
 From the former descen4od in direct line 
 CiiAKLES VII., Louis XI. his son, and Charles 
 VIII. No surviving issue. 
 
 Louis due dOrleans had also two sons— viz. 
 Cha,rlGS due d'Orleans and Jean d AngouIi''nie. 
 
 Louis XII. was son of Claarles due d Orleans. 
 
 ,Tean d'Angouleme had for son Charles d'Angou. 
 leme, whose son was FRAN90IS I. 
 
 Francois II. of France (1543, 
 1559-GO).' Was son of Plenri II. and 
 grandson of Francois I. While dauphin 
 he married Mary Stuart, daughter of 
 James V. of Scotland. After his death 
 the widow became queen of Scots and 
 married her cousin Henry Darnley. Coiv- 
 temporary with Elizabeth. 
 
 Franc o'ni (Roi). Joachim Murat. 
 So called by Napoleon for his theatrical 
 display. Franconi was a pompous, con- 
 ceited director of one of the minor thea- 
 tres of Paris. Murat, though undoubtedly 
 intrepid, was extremely vain, and used 
 to parade the streets of Naples in silks 
 and satins like a theatre king (1771- 
 1815). 
 
 Franco'nia. A large district of Ger- 
 many lying north and south of the river 
 Main, originally peojiled by the Franks. 
 In the early part of the empire this pro- 
 vince enjoyed the privilege of electing 
 the king of Germany within its own ter- 
 ritory, and of crowning him by the hands 
 of its own archbishop (Mainz), primate 
 of the empire. In 912 Konrad I., count 
 of Franconia, succeeded the Carlovin- 
 gians in Germany, but gave them only 
 
FEANCONIA 
 
 FEATICELLI 
 
 845 
 
 one Iring ; but after the extinction of the 
 Saxon djTiasty, the house of Franconia 
 succeeded in the person of Konrad II., 
 and suppUed Heinrich III., IV., and V. 
 The house of Hohenstauffen was a branch 
 of the same powerful hne. At the close 
 of the Hohenstauffen dynasty Franconia 
 rapidly declined, and no\v forms a part 
 of the kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 Franconia {House of). Repre- 
 sented in Germany by one king, Konrad 
 I. of Franconia (912-918). Succeeded 
 by the house of Saxony. Another house 
 of Franconia reigned in Germany (1024- 
 1106) , represented by Konrad II., Heinrich 
 III., and Heinrich IV. 
 
 Frangistan. The country of the 
 Franks. Europe generally was so called 
 by the Saracens. 
 
 others have made private offers ... to disjoin 
 tlicir forces from tlie camp of the kings of Fran- 
 gistan.— Sir W.Scott, The Talisman, chap. xv. 
 
 Frank Pledge. A law which pre- 
 vailed in England before the Conquest, 
 whereby every member of a tything was 
 held responsible for the good conduct of 
 everyone within the tything. Hallam 
 says ' ten men in a village were made 
 answerable for each other.' 
 
 Frank Tenements, or ' Freeholds.' 
 Lay tenements which were divided into 
 knight-service and free-socage. The 
 former of these was divided into knight- 
 service proper, grand-sergeanty, comage, 
 &-C. Free-socage w^as divided into petit- 
 sergeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavel- 
 kind. 
 
 Sergeanty means service rendered to the king. 
 Grand-sergeanty was personal service, petit-ser- 
 geanty was a money or other payment as rent. 
 This payment miglit be merely nominal, as the 
 delivery of a corn of wheat or small tuft of grass, 
 a fish, a flag, and so on. 
 
 Franks of Walla'chia (Ths), 
 1750. A politico-religious secret society, 
 founded by Frank, a neophyte of Walla- 
 chia. He preserved the Jewish doctrines 
 and the Roman Catholic ritual. He was 
 interred at death with royal honours, 
 and his daughter became the Sovereign 
 of the Faitliful. The members of this 
 sect are very numerous. 
 
 Frankfort {Treat y of), 10 May, 
 1871. A treaty of peace between Ger- 
 many and France after the terrible 
 Franco-German war. 
 
 Franking Letter,"-. Sending let- 
 ters by post free of charge. This pri- 
 
 vilege was claimed by the House of 
 Commons in 1660, when the post-office 
 was first legally established. Each 
 member of parliament was entitled to 
 send ten letters a day (not exceeding an 
 ounce in weight) to any part of the 
 United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen 
 free. Members used to give franks to 
 their friends, relations, and constituents. 
 Abolished in 1840, when the uniform 
 penny-post was introduced. 
 
 Cabinet ministers still send letters free of post, 
 and letters from and to the post-olQce general ard 
 all free. 
 
 Franklin {Benjamin), 1706-90. 
 Aged 84. Turgot happily said of him : 
 
 Eripuit ccbIo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. 
 
 ' Eripuit coelo fulmen ' refers to his 
 lightning conductor, and the latter clause 
 to the part he took in American mde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Fraternelle {La), 1793. A society of 
 Parisian women, which met under the 
 roof of the Jacobins. Each woman car- 
 ried a dagger. 
 
 These were female patriots, whom the Girondins 
 called 'Megceras,' and count to the extent of 
 8,000 ; with serpent-hair all out of curl, who have 
 changed the distaff for the dagger. They are of 
 the Societj. called FraierncUe, w hich meets under 
 the roof ofthe Jacobins.— Carlyle, French lieculu- 
 tioii, vol. iii. bk. iii. 7. 
 
 Fraternity of St. G-eorge {The). 
 A military order established in the reign 
 of Edward IV. for the defence of the 
 Irish Pale, or the four counties of Dublin, 
 Meath, Kildare, and Louth. It consisted 
 of 40 knights, 40 squires, and 120 archers. 
 
 In the time of John the Pale contained twelve, 
 counties. 
 
 Frates'clli(T7ip),or 'Piagno'ni.' The 
 disciples and friends of Savonarol'a, or 
 the republican party of Florence. 
 
 Fraticelll {The). A section of the 
 Italian Franciscans, founded by Father 
 Maurato and Father de Fossombroni, 
 who lived as hermits, and observed the 
 rule of St. Francis in all its rigour. 
 Tire Fraticelli gave out that the Church 
 of Rome is the Babylon spoken of in 
 the Book of the Revelation; that the 
 rule of St. Francis was the rule observed 
 and enjoined by Christ ; that the sacra- 
 ments are inutile ; and that the per- 
 fection of the Christian regime is abso- 
 lute poverty. This schism had a material 
 tendency to lower the tem.poral authority 
 of the papacy, and helped greatly to pave 
 
Me 
 
 FRATEES 
 
 FEEE 
 
 tlie way to the Reformation. They were 
 joined by the Beghards {q.v.). 
 
 Sometimes the Fratres Minores are called Fra- 
 ticelli, which means about the same thhig. The 
 term is also applied by way of contempt to the 
 Catharists, Waldenses, and other ' heretics.' 
 
 Fratres Cellitae. A rehgious order 
 pretty common in G-ermany and the 
 Netherlands ; sometimes called Mexians, 
 from Mexius, their fomider. 
 
 Fratres Conversi. Lay monks 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Conversi proprie dicebantur, qui a sseculari 
 vita, quam aliquandiu professi fuerant, vitsm 
 monachicanm amplectabantur, et ad morum con- 
 versionem veniebant. Ditterebant a Kutritis, qui 
 scilicet ab infantia in monasteriis enutriti ean- 
 dem vitam amplexati erant. — Du Cange, vol. ii. 
 p. 703, col. 1. 
 
 Fraunhofer's Lines. The dark 
 lines of a solar spectrum, first carefully 
 observed and measured by Fraunhofer in 
 1815. 
 
 Frederick. For German kings see 
 Friedrich. 
 
 Frederikshamn, in Finland 
 {Treaty of), 17 Sept., 1809. A treaty of 
 peace between Sweden and Russia, by 
 which Sweden ceded Finland to Russia. 
 Charles XIII. of Sweden also promised 
 his adhesion to the ' continental system,' 
 and closed her ports to British commerce. 
 
 Free Bench {The). I. The place 
 where a lodge of the Vehmgericht {q.v.) 
 Was held. See ' Frei-graf s. 
 
 II. A widow's dower in a copyhold. 
 
 Free Burghers. Judges, with the 
 Frei-graf s, in the Vehmgericht (q.v.). The 
 president was called the grand master. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland {The), 
 1843. That part of the Presbyterian 
 Church which resists all interference with 
 the free choice of ministers by the con- 
 gregations over which they are called to 
 preside. No patron, no board, no trustees 
 can present. They may nominate, but 
 cannot over-ride tlie will of the congrega- 
 tion. Between 18-CO May as many as 
 470 ministers and professors signed an 
 Act of Separation, thus renouncing all 
 claim to the benefices which they held. 
 See ' Seven Ministers,' ' Veto,' ' Volun- 
 tary Controversy,' ' Non-Intrusionists.' 
 
 The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chandler, 
 Candlish. Welsh, Buchanan, and Gordon, with 
 Messrs. Guthrie, Cunningham, and Dunlop. 
 
 Free Communionists, or 'Open 
 Communionists.' Those Baptist dissen- 
 ters who admit other orthodox Christians 
 
 to partake with them of the Lord's 
 Supper. John Bunyan, author of ' Pil- 
 grim's Progress,' was a 'Free Com- 
 munionist.' See * Close Communionist.' 
 
 Free Coup. A term applied in Scot- 
 land to a piece of waste land where rub- 
 bish may be deposited free of charge. 
 
 Free Lances [Middle Ages]. Mili- 
 tary rovers collected together under a 
 free captain, and hired out by any 
 government which wanted a ready-made 
 army. In Italy they were called condot- 
 tieri ; in France they were called Com- 
 pagnies Gr ancles. 
 
 Free Methodist Church {The), 
 1860. Their distinctive points are sim- 
 plicity in dress, free pews, extempore 
 preaching, no instrumental music, no 
 choir. They are Wesleyans in doctrine. 
 
 Free Socage. Free tenure of land. 
 It was divided into petit-sergeanty, 
 tenure in burgage, and gavelkind. 
 
 Free Trade, 1779. This phrase was 
 coined by Grattan in the Irish Parlia- 
 ment, and referred to the restrictions 
 placed on the Irish trade by the British 
 Parliament. 
 
 In the reign of Charles II. acts were passed pro- 
 hibiting the Irish from sending to England either 
 cattle, provisions, or manufactures. As labour 
 was cheaper in Ireland, the English tradesmen, 
 farmers, and manufacturers thought they would 
 be ruined by Irish competition. Free Trade meant 
 the liberty of trading freely with England. 
 
 Free Trade Battle {The). The 
 struggle for the reform of our customs 
 and excise laws, which culminated in the 
 abolition of the corn laws in 1816. The 
 battle may be divided into four periods : 
 (1) From 1822 to 1830, in Avhich Huskis- 
 son was the moving spirit ; (2) from 1830 
 to 1840; (3) from 1840-1846, when 
 Villiers, Cobden, Sir Robert Peel, John 
 Bright, and Lord John Russell were the 
 most prominent characters ; and (4) from 
 the rej)eal of the corn laws in 1846 
 onwards. 
 
 No nation has followed suit, although Cobden 
 predii;ted all would within twenty years. On the 
 contrary, all nations of Europe. America, and even 
 our own colonies, think Free Trade a great politi- 
 cal mistake (1.S90). 
 
 Free "Will. The Arminians in- 
 sisted on the freedom of the will to 
 choose the right and reject the wrong. 
 Calvinists are what is called ' Necessi- 
 tarians,' i.e. they deny that the will 
 is free. If the propensities of a man 
 are evil, his will is enslaved by his evil 
 propensities; if his heart has been 
 
FEEEMAN 
 
 FREETHINKING 
 
 847 
 
 chnnged by conversion, his will acts in 
 obedience to the Spirit of God withiu him. 
 Freeman {Mr. and Mrs.). The 
 Princess Anne and Duchess of Marl- 
 borough mutually agreed to abandon all 
 formalities and court etiquette in t.'iclr 
 intercourse with each othei". To this end 
 Anne and her hushand were to be called 
 ' Mr. and Mrs. Morley,' while the Duke 
 and Duchess of Marlborough were to be 
 called ' Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' 
 
 Freeman's Roll (The), 1832. A 
 list of the Freemen (q.v.) made out by 
 the town-clerk of a borougli or nuinicipal 
 town (5, 6 Wm. IV.c.76). As the Reform 
 Bill did not disfranchise the freemen, a 
 list was kept of those then living that 
 they might still retain their municipal 
 rights ; but no new freeman was admitted, 
 and the old ' citizens ' gradually died 
 out. See ' Burgess Roll.' 
 
 "FreemaBoniThe Female). The Hon. 
 Mrs. Aldworth of Newmarket, co. Cork, 
 the youngest child and only daughter of 
 the Right Hon. Arthur St. Leger (created 
 Viscount Doneraile 2B June, 1703). The 
 lady concealed herself, it is said, in a 
 clock-case, got frightened, and thus re- 
 vealed her presence. It was resolved by 
 the brotherhood, to prevent further mis- 
 chief, to receive Mrs. Aldworth into the 
 craft (nee Elizabeth St. Leger). 
 
 In 1882 Mdlle. Marie Deraismes was received into 
 the Grand Orient Lodge of Paris. 
 
 Freemasons. Grand Lodge held 
 at York, under the patronage of King 
 Edwin, A.D. 926. Henry VI. entered the 
 order in 1442. Duke of Sussex was 
 gi-and master 1813 to 1843. Besides 
 Edwin and Henry VI., Edward the Con- 
 fessor, Henry VII., William III., and 
 George IV. were ' free accepted masons.' 
 So were St. Dunstan, William of Wyke- 
 ham. Sir Thomas Gresham, Inigo Jones, 
 Sir Christopher Wren, and a host of 
 others whose names are household words. 
 
 First French Lodso. at Paris 1725 
 
 First American Lodge . . . . „ . . 1730 
 
 First Gf^rman Lodge, at Hamburg .. .. 17.S5 
 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland .. .. .. .. 1736 
 
 Freemasonry. The tenets and sys- 
 tem of tin Freemasons: 'I'exercice de 
 la bienfais mce, I'e'tude de la morale uni- 
 verselle, et la pratique de toutes les vertus.' 
 In French Masonry, in which I was ac- 
 cepted, the initiatory steps are called 
 Voyages, the club-houses are called 
 Lodges, and the head of n lodge is called 
 
 The Venerable (in English lodges the 
 Master). A lodge formed is called a Temple. 
 There are thirty-three degrees, but the 
 three early ones are most important, called 
 Apprentice, Companion, and Master. (In 
 England the Companion is called the 
 Craftsman or Fellow-craft.) The initiated 
 form a council c..':ed The Great East, or 
 Grand Orient', m Eng'uind the Grand 
 Master. In F^^nce there are two annual 
 banquets to celebrate the winter and 
 summer solstice. In England banquets 
 are more frequent, but less significant. 
 French Master Masons wear a highly 
 decorated pale blue scarf, on which are 
 hung the masonic jewels. 
 
 Freemasonry is generally traced to the building 
 of Solomon s Temple. It. w:is introducrd vaho 
 I England ill A.D. 67i. The grand lodge at York was 
 founded in 92G. In France each lodge has an 
 Orator, and when I was made a Master Mason in 
 Paris the oration made to me was ' On the Im- 
 mortality of the Soul.' I found the French lodges 
 less social than those of England, but never once 
 entered a lodge without boing expected to con- 
 tribute freely to some charity. 
 
 Freemen. Persons in boroughs or 
 municipal towns who had by birth, 
 marriage, adoption, purchase, or appren- 
 ticeship the right of citizen, from which 
 right they were the sole electors of the 
 municipality and members of parliament 
 for such town or borough. At the time 
 of the Reform Bill (1831) many of these 
 freemen were in almshouses, many were 
 paupers, many were in workhouses, and 
 many in gaol, but still retained their 
 votes, which were bought for a sum of 
 money varying from 5Z. to ten times that 
 sum, and in some cases even more. 
 
 Freethinkers. Those whoare not in 
 bondage to any church formulary, such 
 as creeds, articles of I'cligion, and con- 
 fessions of faith. They hold themselves 
 free to think for themselves, and feel 
 themselves not bound to think as coun- 
 ci's, states, or churches think for them. 
 Their thoughts on religious subjects are 
 not bound, but free. 
 
 Freethinking Christians, 1799. 
 They acknowledge no law of church 
 government and no doctrine of faith 
 binding but such as the New Testament 
 teaches. They may be called Unitarians, 
 or Deists, in that tiiey reject the divinity 
 of Christ, the doctrine of the atonement, 
 the notion of original sin, the dogmas of 
 election and reprobation, atei nal punish- 
 ment, angels, the immortality of the 
 Boul, and the inspiration of the Bible. 
 
818 
 
 FKEI 
 
 FEENCH 
 
 Frei Grafs. The jiiflges of the 
 Velmigericht {q-v.). See ' Free Burghers.' 
 
 French Artists. 
 
 1. The Floreniine school : Jean Cousin 
 (1492-1570), Nicolas Poussin (1594- 
 16(35), &c. 
 
 2. The Italian-French school : Vouet 
 (1589-1649), Lesueur (1617-l(;5.->), Lehrun 
 (1619-1690), Pierre Mip-nard (1610-l-<;5), 
 Jouvenet, called the ' Carracci of France ' 
 (1647-1707), &c. 
 
 3. The Bomantic school: Greuze 
 (1726-1805). 
 
 4. The Statuesque Bchool: J.-L. David 
 (1748-1825). 
 
 5. The EcaJistic school : Carle Ver- 
 net (1758-1836), Horace Vernet (1789- 
 1863), Ge'ricault (1791-1824), &c. 
 
 6. The Eclectic school : Paul Dela- 
 roche (1797-1856), Delacroix, Hersent, 
 Prudhon, Ary Scheffer, &c. 
 
 French. Assembly {The). The 
 legislative assembly of France is divided 
 into Right and Left. The Right includes 
 the Legitimists, the Orleanists, and the 
 Imperialists. The Left includes the 
 Republicans and the Radicals. The 
 Legitimists are those who favoured the 
 fortunes of the older branch of the 
 Bourbon family, represented till 1883 by 
 the Comte de Chambord, who was called 
 by them 'Henri V.' The Orleanists 
 favoured the Louis Philippe branch of the 
 Bourbon family. On the death of the 
 Comte de Chambord, in 1883, the Legiti- 
 mists and Orleanists became united. The 
 Imperialists favour the family of Napo- 
 leon. The Legitimists used to constitute 
 the 'Extreme Right,' the Orleanists the 
 ' Right Centre.' The Radicals sit in the 
 ' Extreme Left,' and the Republicans in 
 the ' Left Centre.' 
 
 French Brigands and insurgents. 
 
 Jacquerie. 
 
 Ilailiotins. 
 
 Paslour 
 
 Routiers, 
 
 See 
 
 Cabochiens. 
 Chaperon s-blancs. 
 Communists. 
 Cottereaux. 
 Ecorcheurs. 
 
 French Byron {The). 
 
 Musset (1810-1857). 
 
 Paul de MuFset has gone to rejoin his brother, 
 the French Bjron — a lets powerful Byron than 
 yours, yet a poet to the tips of his fingers.— ED. 
 ABOUT, To tlie Atliinc,-it7n,3July, lb80. 
 
 French Club {The), 1792. A fede- 
 ration of art.'sans and soldiers of the 
 
 Alfred de 
 
 national guard, who had weapons con- 
 cealed in the building where they met 
 (near the Tuileries), with which they 
 were to arm themselves and rush to the 
 defence of the king if his life was 
 threatened by any of the desperadoes of 
 the Paris mob. This club cost the court 
 10,000 francs a day (400Z.). 
 
 French Cro"wn {The). Made in 
 1791, contained the following diamonds : 
 The Regent, the Blue Diamond, the 
 Sancy, the Golden Blies, the Crown 
 diainond, the Ebenda, the Mirror of 
 Portugal, the Tenth Mazarine, and a 
 large number of others without specific 
 names. Valued at 588,112Z. when, in 
 1810, Napoleon commanded the crown 
 jewels to be re- valued ; but in 1791 they 
 were supposed to be worth 807,808Z. 
 
 French Ennius {The). Guillaume 
 de Lorris (1235-1265), author of the first 
 part of the ' Roman de la Rose ' {q.v.). 
 
 French Florentine School of 
 
 Painters {The). Includes Cousin (1492- 
 1570) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). 
 
 French Fury {The), 1582. The 
 Duke of Anjou and Brabant had been 
 recently raised to the sovereignty of the 
 Netherlands ; but, finding the Prince of 
 Orange a great check on his actions, 
 resolved to make himself in one day 
 master of all the towns in which were 
 French garrisons. The seizure of Antwerp 
 fell to the Duke's lot, and he assembled 
 his soldiers in the city, ostensibly for a 
 review. At a given sign the French 
 troops fell on the burghers, and set fire 
 to the city. The burghers drove the 
 French soldiers out of the city. Above 
 1,500 fell, among whom were 260 of noble 
 rank. The biter was bit, and the French 
 were victims of their own ' Fury.' 
 
 French Iso'crat^s {The). Fle- 
 
 chier, bishop of Nismes (1632-1710). 
 Florid, antithetical, and elegant in style. 
 His masterpiece is his oration over 
 Marshal Turenne. 
 
 French Maccabseus {The). Simon 
 de Montfort (1150-1215), the most cele-. 
 brated military genius of the 12th cent 
 Entrusted by Philippe II. (Auguste) with 
 the crusade against the Albigenses in the 
 south of France (1208-1218). 
 
 French Ovid {The). Du Bellay,one 
 of the PUiade Frangaise (1524-1560), 
 
FRENCH 
 
 FRENCH 
 
 849 
 
 called also the 'Father of Grace and 
 Elegance.' Spenser speaks of him as 
 ' first garland of free poesy that France 
 brought forth.' 
 
 The v.ord Olive, the title of his 115 sonnets, is an 
 anagrt'.m of Viole, the nnnie of the lady whom he 
 Celebrates, as Petrarch shadowed forth his Laura 
 under the figure of a laurel. 
 
 French Painters {Mediceval). 
 
 Nicolas Poussin 1594-1G65 
 
 Claude le Lorrain [Claude 
 
 Gelee] lCOO-1682 
 
 Bourdon 1616-1671 
 
 Le Sueur , . 1617-1655 
 
 Le Brun 1619-1790 
 
 French Peasant Pelief Fund 
 
 (The). Originated by the 'Daily News' 
 Sept. 1870 and closed April 1871. 
 
 French Phidias {The). J. B. Pi- 
 galle (2 syl.), 1714-1784. 
 
 His nude statue of Voltaire is, however, well- 
 nigli ridiculous. 
 
 French Pindar (T/^c). Two of the 
 French poets are so designated : (1) Jean 
 Dorat (1507-1588) ; and (2) Ponce Denis 
 Lehrun (1729-1807). 
 
 French Pl^i ade ( The) . ' La Pleiade 
 Frangaise ' in the reign of Henri III, 
 (1574-1589), composed of the seven poets 
 Ronsard, Du Bellay, Remi Belleau, Jo- 
 delle, Bai'f, Pontus de Thiard, and the 
 seventh was either Dorat or Amadis 
 Jamyn. 
 
 Under Louis XIIL (1610-1643) was a 
 second batch called La Pleiade Fran(;aise, 
 and consisting of Rapin, Commire, Larue, 
 Santeuil, Menage, Dupe'rier, and Petit. 
 
 The term is borrowed from the Alexandrians 
 under Ptolemy Philadelphos, who so called seven 
 contemporaneous poets, viz. Lycophron, Theo- 
 crites, Aratos, Nicander, ApoUonios, Callimachos, 
 and Philiscos (called Homer the younger). 
 
 French Propertius (The). An- 
 toine Bertin, who died 1790, at the age of 
 38. He possessed the brilliant imagina- 
 tion and also the licentiousness of the 
 Latin ijoet. 
 
 French Raphael {The). Lesueur 
 (1617-1655), 
 
 French Revoluf on. L JohnKar- 
 rion, elector of Brandenburg, more than 
 two centuries before the French Revolu- 
 tion, says of 1789, in his journal (still in 
 MS.) : ' Alors sera I'une des plus grandes 
 conjonctions et la dixieme totale renau- 
 tion {sic) de Saturne, laquelle, aprcs la 
 Nativitey de Nostre Seigneur, mil vii 
 
 cents et Ixxxix, sera totalement accom- 
 plie ; et si le monde doit apres plus 
 durer, nul ne scait {sic) sinon Dieu. O 
 quelles grandes merveilles Ton verra 
 ad'onc {sic), tant de variations et destruc- 
 tions, jji-incipalement es constitutions et 
 ordinances chrestiennea . . . &c.' 
 
 Against the year yy2o he has these words : ' II y 
 auroit grand effusion de sang des chrestions, et 
 grandes oppressions d'aulcuns grands flefz.' 
 
 11. Between 1719 and 1889 there have 
 been seventeen revolutions in France. 
 The Reign of Terror and that of Napoleon 
 were terrible for their slaughter. 
 
 The accumulated deficit of France in 
 ten years, ending 1889, was 240 millions 
 sterling. The revenue has fallen short of 
 the expenses about 24 millions sterling 
 annually. 
 
 The financial embarrassment which led 
 to the Great Revolution was a little over 
 two millions sterling. 
 
 The financial embarrassment in 1889 
 was, in round numbers, 1,686 millions 
 sterling. 
 
 The public debt of Great Britain in 1890 was 599 
 millions ; of France 1,'286 millions. 
 
 In ten years the public debt of Great Britain 
 (ias9) has decreased O; millions sterling ; of Franca 
 it has increased 240 millions. Mr. Goschen in 18S9 
 reduced it 20 millions. 
 
 French Revolution {The First). 
 From 5 May, 1789, to 27 July, 1794. 
 
 Chief Leaders of the First French 
 Mevolution : — 
 
 Comte de Mirabeau, 17S9 1791. 
 
 Danton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1793. 
 
 Robespierre, from June 179.S to 27 July, 1794. 
 
 Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, 
 Marat. Carrier, Hebert, Santerre, Camille Desmou- 
 lins, Kolan d and his wife, Brissot, Bernave, Sieyes, 
 Barras, Tallien, &c. 
 
 Great Days of the First French 
 Bevolution: — 
 
 1789. 17 June. The Tiers Etaf constituted itpelf into 
 the 'National Assembly'; 20 June, the day 
 of the Jeu tie Paiime, when the Assembly 
 took an oath not to separate till it had 
 given France a constitution ; 14 July, Storm- 
 ing of the Bastille ; 5. 6 Oct., the king and 
 National Assembly transferred from Ver- 
 sailles to Paris. This closed the ancient 
 rihjhiv of the court. 
 
 1791. 20, 21 June. Flight and capture ol the king, 
 queen, and royal family. 
 
 1792. 20 June, attack on the Tuileries by San- 
 terre; 10 Aug.. attack on the Tuileries and 
 downfall of the monarchy ; 2, 3, 4 Sept., 
 massacre of the state prisoners. 
 
 1793. 21 Jan., Louis XVI. guillolined ; 31 May, com- 
 mencement of the Keign of Terror; 2 Juno, 
 the Girondists proscribed; 16 Oct., JMarie 
 Antoinette guillotined ; 31 Oct., the Giroai. 
 dists guillotined. 
 
 1794. 5 April, downfall of Danton; 27 July, down- 
 fall of Robespierre. 
 
 French Revolution of Feb. 
 1848. See under Revolution ' &;c. 
 
850 
 
 FRENCH 
 
 FRIDAY 
 
 French Revolution of July 
 
 1830. See under ' Revolution,' &c, 
 
 French Kosclus {The). Francois 
 Talma (1770-1826), the greatest of French 
 tragedians. Roscius the great actor was 
 a comedian. 
 
 French Theatre {Founder of the). 
 Rotrou (1G09-1650). Corneille calls him 
 
 his father, 
 
 French Triumvirate {The), 1560. 
 Francois due de Guise, Marshal St. 
 Andre, and the Comte de Montmorency, 
 who leagued together against the queen 
 mother Catherine de' Medici. They were 
 leaders of the high Catholic party, and 
 irreconcilable enemies of the Huguenots. 
 
 French Vegetius {The). The 
 Chevalier de Folard, born at Avignon 
 (1669-1752). 
 
 French of the East {The). The 
 Persians. ' Vanity ' (says James Morier) 
 'is their besetting sin, and that alone 
 will account for the lust of comphment 
 which prevails in both nations.' 
 
 French of the TTorth(r7ie). The 
 
 Poles. So called from their vivacity, 
 fickleness, love of society, and quickness 
 of parts. 
 
 Frenchmen. It was Voltaire who 
 described his countrymen as 'half 
 monkey and half tiger.' 
 
 FreresBleus {Les). Affiliated Phila- 
 delphians, whose object was the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons. They were 
 organised by Lieut. -Colonel Oudet. See 
 ' Philadelphic Society.' 
 
 Frdres Mineurs. See ' Fraticelli.* 
 
 Freres Precheurs, or ' Preaching 
 
 Friars.' Dominicans [q.v.). 
 
 Freres de la Mil^ee du Christ. 
 
 See ' Chevaliers Porte-glaive.' 
 
 Pronounce Frair d'lah me-leece ; She-val-le-ay port 
 glaiv. 
 
 Frferes de la Mort {Les). The 
 Eremites of St. Paul, 13th cent., whose 
 special province was to look after the 
 sick and preside at funerals. They had 
 on their scapulary a death's head, which 
 they kissed by way of grace before meat, 
 and laid beside thera. 
 
 Friar Bacon's Study. On Folly 
 Bridge, Oxford. A gateway tower to 
 
 defend the passage and keep out un- 
 desirable intruders. 
 
 Friars {The Four Brandies of). 
 
 (1) Augustine Friars, or mendicants ; 
 
 (2) Franciscans, or Grey Friars ; (3) Do- 
 minicans, or Black Friars; (4) Carmelites, 
 or White Friars. 
 
 The Franciscans and Dominicans were al'ways 
 'cat and dog.' 
 
 Friars Conventual. The first 
 order of St. Francis of Assisi was divided 
 into ' Conventuels ' and ' Observatins.' 
 
 On les appela conventuels parce qu'lls vivaient 
 dans de grands couvents, au lieu que ceux qui 
 suivaient la r^gle diuis toute sa purete deineu- 
 raient dans des ermitages, ou dans des maisons 
 basses et pauvres. — Mgr. Gu£rin, Les Petites BoU 
 landisk'S, vol. xii. p. 42. 
 
 Friars Observant. Those Fran- 
 ciscans who dwelt in hermitages or huts, 
 observing the rule of St. Francis in all 
 its length and breadth. Those who dwelt 
 in convents were called ' Conventuals ' 
 {see above). There were four classes of 
 Observants : (1) the Observatins, consti- 
 tuted in 1363 ; (2) those who followed the 
 strict observance ; (3) those of the Order 
 of Mercy, called 'the Great Observants'; 
 and (4) the Preaching Friars of the pri- 
 mitive observance who were reformed 
 Dominicans. 
 
 All the Friars Observant were [1335] ejected from 
 their monasteries and dispersed. Some were 
 thiust into prisons, and others were confined in 
 tlie houses of the Friars Conventual.— HowiTT, 
 Hutory of Eiuiland, vol. ii. p. 215. 
 
 Friars Minor {The), or ' Minorites ' 
 (8 syl.), 1209. Founded by St. Francis 
 of Assisi. They arrived in England in 
 1224, and were called ' Grey Friars' from 
 the colour of their dress. 
 
 Subsequently divided into Observants, Con- 
 ventuals, Capuchins, Kecollets, Cordeliers, &c. 
 
 Friday Lucky to the United 
 
 States. On Friday, 21 Aug., 1492, 
 Christopher Columbus sailed on his great 
 voyage of discovery. On Friday, 12 Oct., 
 
 1492, he first discovered land. On Fri- 
 day, 4 Jan., 1493, he sailed on his return 
 voyage to Spain. On Friday, 14 March, 
 
 1493, he arrived at Palos in safety. On 
 Friday, 22 Nov., 1493, he arrived at His- 
 paniola in his second voyage to America. 
 On Friday, 13 June, 1494, he discovered 
 the continent of America. On Friday, 5 
 March, 1496, Henry VIII. gave John 
 Cabot his commission. On Friday, 7 
 Sept., 1565, Melendez founded St. Au- 
 gustine, the oldest town in the U.S. On 
 Friday, 10 Nov., 1620, the ' Mayflower,' 
 
FRIDAY 
 
 FRIEDRICH 
 
 851 
 
 with the Pilgrim Fathers, made the 
 harbour of Provincetown. On Friday, 
 22 Dec, 1G20, the Pilgi-im Fathers landed 
 at Plymouth rock. On Friday, 22 Feb., 
 George Washington was born. On Fri- 
 day, 16 June, Bunker Hill was seized 
 and fortified. On Friday, 17 Oct., 1777, 
 the surrender of Saratoga was made. 
 On Friday, 22 Sept., 17$0, the treason of 
 Arnold was laid bare. On Friday, 19 
 Sept., 1791, was the surrender of York 
 Town. On Friday, 7 July, 1776, the 
 motion was made "by John Adams that 
 the U.S. are and ought to be independent. 
 The ' Great Eastern ' sailed from 
 Valentia on Friday, 13 July, 18G6, and 
 landed safely at Heart's Content (New- 
 foundland), with the ' cable,' Friday, 27 
 the same month (' Norfolk Beacon,' 
 U.S.). 
 
 Aurengzebe considered Friday a lucky 
 day, and used to say in prayer, ' O that 
 I may die on a Friday, for blessed is he 
 who dies on that day ! ' 
 
 Friday {TJnluckn). Friday, 5 Oct., 
 B.C. 105, was marked oicfastus in the 
 Roman calendar, because on that day 
 Marcus Mallius and Ciepio the consul 
 were slain, and their whole army was 
 annihilated in Gallia Narbonensis by 
 the Cimbrians. 
 
 Considered very unlucky in Spain. 
 
 It is deemed an unlucky day by 
 Buddhists and Brahmins. 
 
 The reason given by Christians for its 
 ill-luck is because it was the day of 
 Christ's crucifixion ; but surely that is 
 not an ' unlucky ' event to Christians. 
 
 A Friday moon is unlucky for weather. 
 
 Friedrich I. Barbarossa, or Red 
 Beard. ' The father of his country.' 
 Kaiser-king of Germany (1121, 1152- 
 1190). Drowned while fording the Selef, 
 a river of Cilicia. Second of the house 
 of Hohenstauffen or Suabia. He was the 
 first king to set pendant seals to diplomas. 
 
 Father, Friedrich duke of Suabia, 
 brother of Konr.\d III., founder of the 
 dynasty. Mother, A^rnes sister of Hein- 
 rich the Proud. Wives, Adelaide, repu- 
 diated ; Beatrice of Burgundy, mother of 
 his son and successor Heinrich VI. 
 Contemporary with Stephen, Henry II., 
 and Richard I. (Coeur de Lion). 
 
 Of course, Konrad III. was his uncle. 
 
 Friedrich. II. Iron Tooth, son of 
 F.iedrich I. count of Hohenzollern, 
 
 elector of Brandenburg. So called be- 
 cause he showed his teeth to the unruly 
 barons who presumed on his youth to 
 rebel against him. He abdicated in 
 1470 in favour of his brother Albert 
 [Albrecht], the Achilles and Ulysses of 
 Germany. 
 
 Friedricll II. The Wonder of the 
 World. Kaiser-king of Germany (1194, 
 1215-1250). Probably poisoned by his 
 son Manfroi, who poisoned his brother 
 Konrad in 1254. 
 
 Father, Heinrich VI. Mother, Con- 
 stance, heiress of the Two Sicilies. Wives, 
 Constance of Aragon ; Yolande, or lo- 
 lanthe, daughter of the king of Jerusalem, 
 mother of Konrad IV., who succeeded 
 him ; and Isabella daughter of Henry III. 
 of England. Contemporary with John 
 and Henry III. 
 
 Kaiser Otto III. (98.3- 1002) was also called 'The 
 Wonder of the World.' 
 
 Friedr'ch III. the Pacific, or, 
 rathei-, 'the Indolent,' Second of the 
 Habsburg line of kings (1415, 1440-1490), 
 the longest reign of the kaiser-Icings of 
 Germany. Emperor of the Romans 
 1452, and this was the last time that any 
 German king was crowned at Rome. It 
 was this roi faineant that adopted the 
 five vowels for the imperial device, mean- 
 ing ' Austrias Est Iniperare Orbi Uni- 
 verso,' or 'Alles Erdreich 1st Oester- 
 reich Unterthan'; in English, 'Austria's 
 Empire Is Overall Universal.' Like his 
 predecessor and successor Maximilian, 
 he died of dysentery by indulging too 
 freely in a melon. Three successive 
 kings died of melon-colic. 
 
 Father, Ernst dukeof Austria. Mother^ 
 Cimburgis, a Polish princess. Wife, 
 Eleonore daughter of Edward king of 
 Portugal. Sun and successor, Blaxi- 
 milian I. Contemporani v\'ith Henry VI., 
 Edward IV., Edward V., Richard IIL, 
 and Heniy VII. 
 
 *^* Ernst father of Friedrich III. 
 was cousin of Kaiser Alsert II., who 
 married Elizabeth daughter of Kaiser 
 
 SlEGMUND or SiGISJIUND. 
 
 Friodrioh III. kaiser-ldng of Germany reigned 
 53 years (ll'iO li'^'i). and died at the ago of 78. 
 
 George III. of Great iJritain roiyiied CO years 
 (IVGO-l.sJO). and died at the age of 82. 
 
 Louis XIV. of France reigned 72 years (1048-1715), 
 and died at the age of 77. 
 
 Friedricll the Handsome. A rival 
 claimant of the German throne with 
 LudwJer V. Both were elected and belli 
 
8&2 
 
 FrJEDRICH 
 
 FEUCTIDOR 
 
 crowned, but Fiiedricli, being defeated 
 at the battle of Miihldorf in 1322, wa3 
 imprisoned, and Ludwig remained king. 
 
 Friedrich "Wilhelm IV. of Prus- 
 sia (17'J5, 1840-18G1), son of Frederick 
 William III. Father, Fbiedbich WrL- 
 HELM III.; Mother, Louisa Augusta of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; Wife, Elizabeth 
 Louisa of Bavaria; Sore, Wilhelm I. king 
 of Prussia and German emioeror. Coiv- 
 temporary with Queen Victoria. 
 
 Friends {The Society of), 1G24. 
 Quakers, a sect founded by George Fox, 
 of Drayton, in Leicestershire, a shoemaker. 
 They believe in the main fundamental 
 principles of what is called 'Orthodox 
 Christianity,' but they express their re- 
 ligious creed in the very words of the New 
 Testament Scripture, and each member 
 has the liberty of interpreting the words. 
 Their main speciality is the belief of ' the 
 Light of Christ in man,' and hence they 
 entertain a broader view of the Spirit's 
 influence than other Christians. 
 
 In morals, propriety of conduct, good order, and 
 philanthropy, the Quakers are a pattern society. 
 
 Friends of God {The), 1370-1400. 
 A brotherhood formed by Nicholas of 
 Basel, which protested against the sacer- 
 dotalism of Germany and Switzerland. 
 
 Friends of Liberty and Equal- 
 ity {The), 1794, An Hungarian secret 
 society, organised by Martinovics for the 
 purpose of introducing the principles of 
 the French Revolution. The society had 
 not been in existence many months when 
 it was stamped out, Martinovics and six 
 others being executed by the sword in a 
 field near Buda, still called ' the field of 
 blood.' 
 
 Friends of Truth {The). Quakers 
 were so-called in the seventeenth century. 
 They are now called ' Friends.' 
 
 Friends of the People {The), 
 April 1792. A political association formed 
 in London for the purpose of obtaining a 
 reform in the representation of the people. 
 Headed by Gray, Baker, Whitbread, She- 
 ridan, Lambton, and Erskine. 
 
 Frith Gild. A peace-club or volun- 
 tary society pledged to the maintenance 
 of peace and mutual security. A member 
 of the gild was called a ' Frith-man,' and 
 a breaking of the j)eace was a ' Frith- 
 breach.' These Frithgilds were very 
 general th'-'oughout Europe in the 9Lh and 
 
 10th cents. Our friendly societies are 
 ' Frith-gilds.' 
 
 Fronde {La), 1648-1653. A French 
 insurrection provoked by the meanness 
 and arrogance of Mazarin, the chief mi- 
 nister, while Louis XIV. was still a minor. 
 At length the chief nobility united in a 
 grand council, and insisted on a I'eform, 
 such as the abolition of monopolies, the 
 reduction of taxes, the examination of 
 public expenditure, prohibition of arrest 
 without assigning a cause, and so on. 
 Mazarin resisted, and even arrested 
 Blancmenil (president of the council), and 
 Broussel, a conspicuous member. All 
 Paris rose in insurrection, and compelled 
 Mazarin to release his prisoners. Mazarin 
 and the queen-mother fled, and both par- 
 ties prei^ared for war. The insurgents 
 soon disagreed among themselves, and 
 Mazarin, at the head of 8,000 men, returned 
 to Paris in triumph. The insurgents in 
 this riot v/ere called Froiideurs, and the 
 court party were called Mazarimans 
 (q.v.). 
 
 jNIonglat thus explains the term. He says that 
 the Paris parlement forbade boys to sling stones, 
 and one day a young barrister said, ' Quandcesera 
 mon tour, je fronderai bien I'opinionde mon pere." 
 Here fronderai means to combat, to oppose : but the 
 •whole point of the remark was in allusion to tha 
 Fronde war, and therefore it could not have origi- 
 n'lted the term. 
 
 The word became popular slang for several 
 Tears. EverythUtg \va.s a. la Fro tide. There were 
 Fronde hats, coats, and gloves ; Fronde muifs and 
 fans ; Fronde dishes and loaves of bread ; Fronde 
 songs and tunes 
 
 Fronde {The Little), lf.5.1. The great 
 Conde, in the guerre de la Fronde, was 
 originally of the court or Mazarin party, 
 but he quarrelled with the party, and 
 made a split called ' the Little Fronde.' 
 This was a third party, for though Conde 
 hated Mazarin much, he hated the par- 
 liamentarians more. 
 
 Frondeurs. Slingers, common in 
 the Spanish armies in the 13th and 14th 
 cents. The natives of the Balearic Isles 
 were most noted slingers. The Greeks, 
 Romans, and Carthaginians had com- 
 panies of slingers; so had the French 
 and German. "" But the word is chiefly 
 associated with the insurgents of the 
 Fronde war, called les Frondeurs, who 
 were opposed to the court party called 
 Mazarinians {q.v.). 
 
 Frue'tidor {Bix-huit), i.e. 4 Sept., 
 1797. A noted coiqj d'etat, by the ma- 
 jority of tlie Directory against Bartlie- 
 leniy and Carnot, and againr:t those mem- 
 
FUERO 
 
 FURIES 
 
 853 
 
 bers, both of the Conseil des Cinq-cents 
 and of the Conseil des Anciens, thought 
 to be favourable to royalty. The three 
 directors wei'e Barras, Lare'veillere-Le- 
 paux, and Rewbell. The result of this 
 revolution was the deportation of the two 
 directors, 11 members of the Conseil des 
 Anciens, 42 members of the Conseil des 
 Cinq-cents, 35 journalists, a host of priests, 
 and numerous others called * conspirators.' 
 
 Fuero Jusgo {The). The code of 
 the Visigoths in S^Dain, 
 
 Fueros (The). The written laws of 
 Jaca (Spain), the most ancient of Europe. 
 They were confirmed by Alfonso III., and 
 called 'the Ancient IJsages of Jaca.' 
 Fuero = charter, statute, or code of laws. 
 
 There were the ' Fuero of Leon,' the ' Fuero of 
 Naxera,' the ' Basque fueros,' Ac which were char- 
 ters. These charters were abolished by Eopartero, 
 but restored in 1S44 by Queen Isabella. 
 
 Fugger (Antony). A modern Croesus. 
 When Charles-Quint was shown by Fran- 
 cois I. the royal treasury in Paris, he 
 said to the king, ' There is a lineia-weaver 
 in Augsburg that could pay for all this 
 out of his own purse.' 
 
 Fuh-lie. First of the five emperors 
 of China. Like the old kings of Rome, 
 the mythological kings of China rei^re- 
 sent five periods and not five persons. To 
 Fuh-he is attributed the invention of 
 writing, and he is said to have tauglit the 
 people the art of rearing cattle, fishing, 
 &c., and to have instituted the rite of 
 marriage. Musical instruments are also 
 attributed to this mythical king. 
 
 Fullers and Weavers of Ghent 
 
 (The), 1344. A trade dispute, in which 
 Jacob von Artevelde, the great brewer, 
 sided with the fullers, and Gerrard Denys 
 with the weavers. In a battle fought in 
 the market-place as many as 1,500 fullers 
 were slain, and trade was utterly ruined. 
 Artevelde (4 syl.) was assassinated 9 July, 
 1345. 
 
 FUTQ. A kind of cock, often repre- 
 sented on Chinese works of art, and em- 
 broidered on the dresses of mandarins of 
 a certain rank. Like the roc of the Arabs 
 and the phoenix of the Egyptians, the 
 Chinese ' fum ' is mythological. It is a 
 salamander, with the head of a goose, the 
 hindquarters of a stag, the neck of a 
 snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead and 
 beak of a cock, and the back of a tortoise. 
 
 It is about 6 cubits high, and is called 
 ' the mandarin of tune.' 
 
 Fum (George lY.). Fum 'the Chi- 
 nese bird of royalty ' was represented on 
 the ceiling of the staircase at the north 
 end of the main corridor of the Brighton. 
 Pavilion (then called the Chinese Gal- 
 lery). 
 
 And where is Fum the Fourth, our royal bird, 
 Gone down, it seems to Scotland. . . . 
 
 Byron, Don Juan, xi. 78. 
 One day the Chinese bird of rojalty— Fum, 
 Thus accosted our own bird of royalty— Hum, 
 In that palace or china-shop, Brighton, which 
 
 ■VVTien Fum had just come to pay Hum a visit. 
 
 Thomas Brown (Moore), The Fudge 
 Family in Paris. 
 
 Here, ' Fum ' seems to mean Louis of 
 France, and ' Hum ' George IV. 
 
 Fundamental TiSiW (The), 29 Sept. 
 (Oct. 11), 1802, Russia. The whole judicial 
 system of Russia was then settled on a 
 nevv^ basis, securing the independence of 
 the courts of justice, the limitation of the 
 courts of appeal, the introduction of the 
 jury system in criminal cases, and the 
 appointment of judges by the state. It is 
 framed in three parts, the first treating 
 of the constitution of the courts in 91 
 articles ; the second of criminal procedure 
 in 157 articles ; and the third of civil pro- 
 cedure in 138 articles. By the first, judi- 
 cial power is vested in justices of the 
 peace, with the senate as a final court of 
 appeal. By the second, prosecution is 
 placed under the control of a public pro- 
 secutor. By the third, it was decreed 
 tliat there should be in future two courts 
 of appeal. 
 
 Fuor-Usciti (The), or the 'turned- 
 out ones.' So were called those persons 
 of the Neri and Bianchi (Blacks and 
 Whites) who were exiled by the faction 
 which for the time being had the upper 
 hand. Dante, a White, was one of the 
 Fuor-TJsciti (1302). Singular of Fuor- 
 Usciti is Fuor- Uscito. 
 
 Let Florence perish, so long as the Fiwr-Usciti get 
 
 bick to the city ; let her streets run with blood, h"r 
 
 treasure be exhausted, her foes victorious, uniil 
 
 I the Funy-Usciti be within her walls again. — Mrs. 
 
 Oliphant, Makers of Florence, p. 54. 
 
 Furies of the G-uillotine (The). 
 The Tricoteuses, or women who frequented 
 the public clubs and revolutionary tribu- 
 nal of France, where they sat knitting, 
 and openly expressed their approval or 
 disapproval of the proceedings. With the 
 fall of the Jacobins they disappeared. 
 A A 
 
d54 
 
 FUROR 
 
 GABELLE 
 
 They were called Tricoteuses from their 
 knitting, and Furies from their violence. 
 
 Furor Berser'kicus. An artifice 
 of battle among the Danes, like the In- 
 dian war-whoop. In this furor the men 
 tried to resemble wild beasts, such as 
 wolves and dogs. They bit tlieir shields; 
 they howled ; they threw off their cloth- 
 ing ; they rushed about frantically ; they 
 made hideous faces. It was at length 
 made penal. 
 
 Eric eaj-1 of Norway Omnex berserkos Nortrcgia 
 exulare jusi^ii sGretlis Saga, p. 142). 
 
 Furry Dance {A). A processional 
 dance in May consisting of thirty or more 
 couples, who danced to the ancient Cel- 
 tic Furry tune in at the front door of 
 houses and out at the back door. It dif- 
 fered from the May dance, which was 
 round a May-pole. In Lithuania proces- 
 sional dances on the octave of May-day 
 have existed from time immemorial. 
 
 Sometimes, but erroneously, called the ' Flora 
 Dance,' or Floralia. 
 
 Flirstenbund {T7ie), March 1785. 
 The alliance of Friedrich II. (the Great) 
 of Prussia with the Electors of Saxony 
 and Hanover, for the maintenance of the 
 German constitution. By this master- 
 stroke of policy Friedrich defeated tlie 
 kaiser's plot of adding Bavaria to Austria. 
 
 Fuste et bac'ulo. ' By staff and 
 baton,' commonly called ' tenure by the 
 verge.' A mode of tradition or delivery 
 of real x>i'operty where there is no house. 
 In France, seisin was made by delivery of 
 a baton or pair of gloves ; in Lombardy 
 by a spear ; in Germany by a clod or 
 twig ; in Scotland by a pen. 
 
 Fuste (Latin) in 2 syl. 
 
 Fyzoola Klian. The charge brought 
 by Mr. Wyndham against Warren Hast- 
 higs, governor-general of India, was his 
 conduct to Fyzoola Khan, the Rohilla 
 chief, 1787. The basis of the charge was 
 this : The Nabob of Oudh wanted to 
 seize certain lands belonging to the Ro- 
 hilla chief, and gave Hastings 100,000Z. 
 to help him in this seizui'e. Hastings now 
 told the Rohilla chief if he would give 
 him one and a half million sterling he 
 would guarantee his retention of these 
 lands. Fyzoola (3 syl.) replied he did not 
 possess so much money, and the matter 
 was allowed to drop. 
 
 G. Cornwall. George IV. so signed 
 his private letters to his personal 
 
 friends. See 'N. & Q.,' 19 April, 1884, 
 p. 305. 
 
 Or of Edward's Race. There 
 was a ' prophecy ' afloat in the reign of 
 Edward IV. that the king's son would 
 perish by the hands of a person whose 
 name began with G. Clarence, the 
 king's brother, was named George, and 
 Edward, with the Woodvilles, always 
 suspected him of aiming at the crown. 
 Fabyan says that Clarence was drowned 
 in the Tower in a butt of Malmsey wine, 
 but he left behind a brother Richard 
 duke of Gloucester, who was generally 
 credited with the death of Edward V. as 
 well as with that of Margaret's son 
 Edward, the Duke of Clarence, Henry 
 VI., and many others. 
 
 G-abelle. From the German gahe^ 
 tribute, impost, was a tax imposed on 
 salt by Philippe IV. le Bel in 1286, and 
 was one of the causes of the revolution. 
 There were many other gabelles, as the 
 gahelle des draps, gahelle des vins, 
 gahelle de tonlieu (standing in the mar- 
 kets for sale), &c. ; but when used alone 
 it always means the tax on salt. The 
 king had the monopoly of this article, 
 and every person was compelled to buy 
 at least 7 lbs. of it yearly, whether wanted 
 or not. Heads of families had to buy 
 the same quantity for each member of 
 their establishment; but no one was 
 allowed to use this salt for pickling or 
 corning beef. Another injustice was 
 this : the price varied in different pro- 
 vinces; thus, what would cost 32s. in 
 other provinces, was sold by government 
 in Auvergne for 8s. As many as 8,000 
 persons were annually imprisoned in 
 France for infringing the salt laws. 
 See ' Pays de Grande Gabelle,' ' Pays de 
 Petite Gahelle.' 
 
 Not till 1340 was the tax extended to all France. 
 Edward III. with a pun called it La Loi tialique. 
 
 HISTORY OF LA GABELLE. 
 
 Imposed by the Etats Generaux in 
 1353, and abolished by the Assemblee 
 Constituante 10 May, 1790. It brought 
 into the revenue at one time as much as 
 60,000,000 livres, and in the reign of 
 Louis XVI. 38,000,000 francs. Some pro- 
 vinces redeemed the tax, others obtained 
 (from sundry causes) exemption h-o.n. 
 additions to the original levy, so thattl'O 
 greatest inequality existed, and at the 
 time of the revolution one-third of the 
 
GABERLUNZIES 
 
 GALLIA 
 
 855 
 
 country paid two-thirds of the tax. Be- 
 tween 1519 and 1553, Poitou, Saintonge, 
 Aunis, Anjou, Limousin, La Marche, 
 Pe'rigord, and Upper Guienne, redeemed 
 the tax ; other provinces bought off a 
 partial exemption ; while Artois, Flanders, 
 Henault, Calais, the Boulonnais, Alsace, 
 Be'arn, Lower Navarre, and other modern 
 acquisitions of the ci-own were, like 
 Brittany, wholly exempt from the tax. 
 This inequality of necessity was the cause 
 of smuggling, and we are told that every 
 year there were more than ' 4,000 saisies 
 domiciliaires, plus de 3,400 emprisonne- 
 mens, et plus de 500 condamnations a des 
 peines capitales ou afflictives.' It seems 
 that a temporary tax on salt was imposed 
 by an ordinance of Louis IX. as far back 
 as 1246, by Philippe le Bel in 128fi, again 
 by Philippe VI. de Valois in 1340, and 
 in 1853 by the Etats Gre'neraux ' pour des 
 besoins momentane's.' Discontinued in 
 1358; but Charles V. (13G4-1380) made 
 it a permanent tax. "Wholly sui^pressed 
 28 March, 1790. 
 
 Gaberlun'z^es. Licensed beggars 
 who were compelled to v/ear a badge to 
 distinguish themselves from the Thig- 
 gers and Scoi'ners {q.v.). Gaberlunzies 
 were called blue-gowns in England. 
 
 Gadel'ian Conquest of Ireland 
 
 {The). Gadelus or Gathelus, an Egyp- 
 tian and contemporary of Moses, was the 
 son of Scota (daughter of a Pharaoh of 
 Egypt). He descended on Ireland under 
 the conduct of two sons of Milesius 
 (king of Spain), B.C. 1372, and utterly 
 sul)daed the race of Tuath. From these 
 Gadelians all the kings of Ireland, do-UTi 
 to the English conquest in a.d. 1172, 
 descended, and in Irish history are called 
 the ' princes of the Milesian race.* 
 
 We are also told that the Irish are called Scots 
 from Scota, the Egyptian princess. Of course 
 these traditions must not be accepted as his- 
 torical facts, but they are necessary to be known. 
 
 Gaelic. Comprehends the Irish, the 
 Highland-Scotch, and the Manx lan- 
 guages. 
 
 G-agging Act (The). In England, 
 1795 (36 Geo. III. cc. 7, 8), for treason 
 and sedition. 
 
 Gaisford Prizes (The). One for 
 Greek prose and one for Greek verse. 
 Oxford University. Founded by sub- 
 scription in memory of Dr. Thomas 
 
 Gaisford, dean of Christ Church, regius 
 professor of Greek, 1856. 
 
 Galeazzo's Lent. A system of 
 torture calculated to prolong the victim's 
 life for forty days. It was the invention 
 of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Milan (1277, 
 1322-1328). 
 
 GalenistS. A branch of Men- 
 nonists, founded by Galenus in 1664. 
 They advocate freer views both in doc- 
 trine and discipline than the strict Men- 
 nonites. See ' Mennonites.' 
 
 Galile'ans. Those Jews who held 
 it unlawful to obey a heathen magis- 
 trate. Josephus says they agreed in all 
 things with the Pharisees, but insisted 
 that they owed subjection and obedience 
 only to God. When (Luke xxiii. 5) Jesus 
 was represented to Pilate as a Galilean, 
 an insinuation was made that he acknow- 
 ledged no obedience to Csesar. 
 
 Probably all that was meant is that he was a 
 native of that province. Julian said in his dying 
 moments, ' Thou hast conquered, O Galilean !' Tho 
 disciples of Jesus were called Galileans (Acts ii. 7). 
 
 Galley Ha'pence (The). Genoan 
 coins brought into England by the galley- 
 men who came hither with wine and 
 other merchandise. They were broader 
 than the English ha'penny, but not so 
 thick. They were prohibited by Henry 
 IV. as a legal tender. 
 
 Galleys (The). As a punishment in 
 France was fixed by an ordinance of 
 Charles IX. in 1564, to be not less than 
 ten years. The bagnes were substituted 
 for the galleys in 1748 ; and the name was 
 changed to travaux forces by the Con- 
 stituent Assembly in 1798. By the Code 
 Napole'on in 1810, the sentence of tra- 
 vaux forces included forfeiture, infamy, 
 and branding. Branding was abolished 
 in 1832, and travaux forces in 1852. 
 
 Gallia. The country of the Galli or 
 Gauls. The Latin Galli and Greek Va\- 
 Aarat are classic forms of the word 
 Keltai (Celts). The German form is 
 Waelchs, whence our word Welch. 
 Gallia, Wales, and Walloon, all mean the 
 ' land of the Celts.' 
 
 For a familiar instance of the interchange of G 
 and W compare Guillaume and William. 
 
 Gallia Bracca'ta. Later on, Gallia 
 Narbonensis. Called ' Braccata ' from the 
 hraccce or trousers worn by the natives. 
 
856 
 
 GALLIA 
 
 GAPING 
 
 Gallia Coma'ta. All Transalpine 
 
 Gaul excei^t Gallia Braccata [q-v.). So 
 called from the long hair worn {coma). 
 It included Belgica, Celtica, and Aqui- 
 tanica. 
 
 Gallia Warbonensis corresponded 
 with the ancient provinces of Languedoc, 
 Provence, and Dauphine. 
 
 Gallic Caesar (The). Napoleon I. 
 
 Gall-' can Chureli [The). The 
 liberiies of the Gallican Church were as- 
 serted in 1438 in the Pragmatic Sanction 
 Xq.v.) ; and in 1512 by the Concordat [q.v.) 
 between Pope Leo X. and Francois I. ; 
 and were distinctly defined by Bossuet in 
 1682 in his famous ' Four Articles ' (q.v.). 
 
 Gall^'c Confession {The), 1599. 
 One oi the chief continental confessions 
 of faith by ihe Calvinistic or Reformed 
 Church of France. See ' Confessions.' 
 
 Gallican Liberties, 1682. As 
 opposed to Ultramontanism {q.v.) were 
 thus summarised by Bossuet : — 
 
 Que I'EgUse doit etre regie par les canons ; que 
 eaint Pierre et ses successeurs n'ont recu de 
 puissance cjue sur les choses spirituelles ; que les 
 regies et les constitutions adniises dans le 
 royaume doivent etre maintenus, et les bornes 
 posees par nosperes demeurer inebranlables ; que 
 les decrets et jugements du pape ne soiit irre. 
 formables qu'autant que le consentement de 
 I'eglise est intervenu . . . &c. 
 
 *,* The defenders of the Uhn-tes gallirnni'x were 
 Hinomar, Gerson, Bossuet, the Abbe Fleury, the 
 Cardinal de la Luzerne, Bausset, Frayssinous, 
 Guillon, Boyer, Alire, &c. 
 
 Gallican Liturgy {The). Dates 
 from before the time of Pepin (9th cent.). 
 It is based on the Oriental liturgies, be- 
 cause the first missionaries of Gaul were 
 from Greece. It remained in use till 
 Charlemagne introduced the Gregorian 
 liturgj'. The liturgy now used in France is 
 the Roman, with some slight alterations. 
 See ' Ambrosian Liturgy,* ' Spanish 
 Liturgy,' &c. 
 
 Gallican Missal. See above. 
 
 Galileans {The). Catholics who 
 insist on what they call the liberies 
 gallicanes, one of which is the distinct 
 separation of the spiritual and temporal 
 powers. They place ' infallibility ' not in 
 the pope, but in the whole church pre- 
 sided over by the pope. They acknow- 
 ledge the authority of General Councils. 
 See ' Gallican Liberties.' 
 
 Gallcwglasses and Kernes. 
 
 ' Gallowglasses ' were ancient Irish heavy- 
 armed foot-soldiers ; but ' Kernes ' were 
 Irish foot-soldiers of very mean condition, 
 ana without armoux. See the ' Cent. 
 Mag.' 1890, p. 296. 
 
 Game Chicken {The). Pearce, 
 the prize-fighter. He fought with John 
 Gully, who was taken out of the debtors' 
 1 risen by Colonel Mellish to fight this 
 champion of the ring. Gully was beaten, 
 but afterwards fought Gregson twice, and 
 then retired, to settle at Newmarket. 
 
 Game Laws. Before the Carta de 
 Foresta, 1224, the killing of game was 
 punishable with death. Qualifications 
 to kill game were introduced in 1389. 
 Annual certificates required by 25 Geo, 
 III. c. 50 (1785). Permission to sell 
 game given by 1, 2 Will. IV. c. 32 (1831). 
 
 1 1 France game laws were abolished in 1789. 
 
 ( a 13 includes hares, pheasants, partridges, 
 g o..s^, iieath and moor lowls, black-game, and 
 bi sD ids. The close season is their respective 
 times oX breeding and rearing. 
 
 Gangway. To sit below thegarig- 
 way in the House of Commons, to sit 
 among the independent members. The 
 gangway is a passage running across the 
 house, which separates the supporters of 
 the government and the opposition from 
 the independent members. 
 
 In a ship the gijngway is the way out or into 
 the ship. Ang.-Sax. yantjan, tu go. 
 
 Gants Glacis {Les). The Black 
 Mousquetaires during the Fronde war. 
 Very dandified, but brave and daring. 
 See ' Mousquetaire.' 
 
 Gaoler of Wapoleon at St. 
 
 Helena {The). Sir Hudson Lowe, 
 military governor of St. Helena wliile 
 Napoleon was there in banishment. 
 
 Ga.ping Gulf {The). A book pub- 
 lished by John Stubbs, a student of Lin- 
 coln's Inn, showing how undesirable it 
 was that Queen Elizabeth should marry 
 the Due d'Anjou, especially after the 
 frightful massacre of the Huguenots on 
 St. Bartholomew's eve. Stubbs and his 
 publisher were seized and taken to the 
 market-place of Westminster, where both 
 had their right hand cut off by driving a 
 cleaver through the wrist with a mallet. 
 The moment Stubbs lost his hand, he 
 waved his cap with his left hand, crying 
 * Long live the queen 1 ' 
 
GARDE 
 
 GARDEN 
 
 857 
 
 Ga^de Doloureuse. A castle in 
 the marches of "Wales, so called because 
 it was greatly exposed to attacks by the 
 Welsh. 
 
 Garde Imp^riale {La), 1804. Called 
 before the Garde Consulaire, and orga- 
 nised in 1799. It first consisted of 9,775 
 men, but in ISli the number was in- 
 creased to 102,706 men. In 1809 it 
 was subdivided into the Vieille Garde 
 and the Jeune Garde, and admission into 
 it was given only as recompense for 
 merit, and after having served in three 
 campaigns. 
 It -was re-established In 1856 by Napoleon III. 
 
 Garde Mobile {La), 1848. Com- 
 posed chiefly of young soldiers, and 
 ranking between the Garde Nationale 
 and the general army. It was a species 
 of Garde Nationale Mobile for Paris 
 only. It consisted of 24 battalions of 
 IjOCO men each. 
 
 Garde Municipale de Paris 
 
 (La), 1802-1813, and again 1830-1848. 
 The guard charged with the preservation 
 of good order in the city of Paris. In 
 the old monarchy this guard was called 
 the guet, sujipressed in 1792, when it 
 was supplanted by the gendarmerie, 
 changed in 1795 into the Legion de 
 police generale of 5,844 men. In 1813 it 
 took the name of the Gendarmerie Iin- 
 periaJe de Paris, and in 1816 the Gen- 
 darmtrie Boy ale de Paris, and consisted 
 of 1,021 men and 471 mounted police. 
 From 1830-1848 it was called the Garde 
 Municipale, and consisted of twelve 
 companies, four of which were mounted. 
 It was suppressed in 1848, and its place 
 supplied by the Garde Bepuhlicaine and 
 the Gendarmerie Mobile. It next became 
 la Garde de Parts, and in 1852 the 
 Gendarmerie de Paris. 
 
 Garde Wa,tionale {La), 1789. Im- 
 provised by the municipality of Paris on 
 13 July, and called at first the Garde 
 Sourgeoise. Its badge was a blue and 
 red cockade (the colours of the city) ; 
 white, the royal colour, was afterwards 
 added by its general, Lafayette. Charles 
 X. disbanded the guard in 1827 for 
 insubordination. It was reorganised in 
 1830. In 1848 it became a mere mob 
 army of some 200,000 volunteers, but 
 Napoleon III. reduced it to order in 1852, 
 and gave it for motto ' Libert i, ordre 
 public' 
 
 Garde Royale (La), 1815. A corps 
 instituted by Louis XVIII. , and consist- 
 ing of picked men, to which were added 
 two regiments Suisses. Dissolved in July 
 1830, when they tried in vain to defend 
 Charles X. 
 
 Gardes de la Marche (Les), 
 who accompanied the king wherever 
 he went. They consisted of 24 picked 
 noblemen from the Gardes du Corps 
 die Boi {q.v.). See ' Gold Stick.' 
 
 Gardes du Corps du Roi {Les), 
 or ' Garde Ecossaise,' 1448. Organised by 
 Charles VII. of France. They consisted 
 of 300 archers, all of whom ranked as 
 gentlemen, and were sumptuously armed, 
 equii)ped, and mounted. Each one was 
 allowed a squire, a valet, a page, and 
 two yeomen, with corresponding equip- 
 age ; so that cadets of the best families 
 in Scotland were sent to serve in this 
 honourable corps. They wore the Scotch 
 bonnet and feather, and, in the reign of 
 Louis XL, a massive silver brooch, called 
 a ' Virgin Mary,' the Virgin Mary being 
 made by him their colonel. They wore 
 a loose surcoat of rich blue velvet, with 
 a large white St. Andrew's cross of silver 
 bisecting it before and behind. Sup- 
 pressed in 1791, but restored by Louis 
 XVIII. in 1814, and formed into six 
 companies, called tho Corps Ecossaise, 
 the Corps de Gramont, the Corps de 
 Poix, the Corps de Luxembourg, the 
 Corps de Wagram, and the Corps de 
 Baguse. Finally disbsmded in 1830. 
 
 One of the two yeomen attached to these 
 guardsmen was called his ' knife-man ' (i-OH/c/icr), 
 from a large knife which he carried to despatch 
 those whom his master had thrown to the ground 
 in a melee. 
 
 Gardes-c6tes {Les). French coast- 
 guards, created in 1791 ; reorganised in 
 1799 ; suppressed in 1814 ; and re-esta- 
 blished in 1831. 'lis se ferment six 
 compagnies de canoniers.' 
 
 Gardes Franpalses {Les), 1553. 
 Formerly a part of the royal household 
 troops, consisting of ten companies of 
 100 men each, and having barracks in 
 the faubourgs of Paris. This guard took 
 rank above all the rest of the army. In 
 1789 it fraternised with the insurgents, 
 and became a part of the Garde Nationale 
 de Paris. 
 
 Garden of England. Worcestershire 
 and Kent. Both so called. 
 
GAEDEN 
 
 GATES 
 
 Garden of Erin. Carlow, in Leinster. 
 
 — Europe. Italy and Belgium. 
 
 Both so called. 
 
 — France. Amboise, in the cle- 
 
 partement of Indre-et-Loire. 
 
 — India. Oude. 
 • — Italy. Sicily. 
 
 — South Wales. The southern 
 
 division of Glamorganshire. 
 
 — Spain. Andaluci'a. 
 
 — the Argenti?ie. Turcuman, a 
 
 province of Argentinia. 
 
 — the East. Ceylon and Burmah. 
 
 Both so called. 
 
 Ceylon is also called 'The Re- 
 splendent ' ; the ' Jewel of the 
 Eastern Sea'; the * Gem of Para- 
 dise.' Its climate and produc- 
 tions are quite unrivalled. 
 
 — the West. Illinois and Kansas. 
 
 Both so called. 
 
 — the Wo7-ld. The region of the 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Garden and the Lane (The). 
 
 Covent Garden Theatre and Drury Lane 
 Theatre. 
 
 The old-fashioned friendly rivalry between the 
 Garden and the Lane is renewed this year [Dec. 
 
 1887J. — Newspaper x>ara(jrti2'f>- 
 
 Garden of the Mid-West (The). 
 Evesham, in Worcestershii'e. Famous 
 for table-fruit and kitchen produce. 
 
 Garden Sect {The). The disciples 
 of Plato were so called because they 
 attended his lectures in the Academy, a 
 garden in the suburbs of Athens which 
 once belonged to Academes. Epicures 
 taught in his own private garden. 
 
 Garigliano {Bout of the), 1503. 
 The rout of the French, Ted by Saluce and 
 Bayard (the chevalier sans j^eiir et sans 
 reproche),\)Y Gonsalvo the Great Captain. 
 Above 4,000 French fell in this rout, with 
 all their standards and baggage, tents, 
 provisions, stores, and splendid artillery. 
 A capitulation was signed the next day. 
 In 1860 (Nov. 3) Francis I. king of 
 Naples was routed on the banks of the 
 same river by Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 Garrick Fever {The), 1742. A con- 
 tagious disorder which broke out in 
 Dublin, ascribed to the heat of the 
 theatre crowded to hear Garrick during 
 unusually hot weather. 
 
 Garter King of Arms {The), 
 
 1417 ; also ' Principal King of Arms.' 
 Two sex^arate offices held by the same 
 
 person. It was Henry V. who instituted 
 the Garter King to attend upon knights 
 at their solemnities, call them to their 
 installation, see that their arms are hung 
 over their stalls, to grant arms, and to 
 marshal national funeral processions. 
 See ' Heralds.' 
 
 There are altogether four Kings of Arms, for 
 England : Garter and Bath ; and the two provin- 
 cial kings Clarenceux and Norroy: the former 
 having jurisdiction over all parts south of the 
 Trent, and the latter over all parts twrth of that 
 river. Bath King of Arms, though not a mem- 
 ber of the college, takes precedence next to 
 Garter. The ofSce was created in 1725 for the ser- 
 vice of the Order of the Bath. The King of Arms 
 of Scotland is ' Lyon,' and for Ireland ' Ulster." 
 
 Gas from coal. Described by Clayton 
 in 1739. First applied to illumination 
 in 1792 by Murdoch. Introduced into 
 Paris in 1802, into London by Winsor in 
 1803. Came into general use in London 
 in 1814, and in Paris about 1820. The 
 Gas Company was chartered in 1810 
 (50 Geo. III., c. 163). 
 
 The meter was invented by Crossley in 1815, 
 Clegg's meter in 1816. 
 
 Gastein Convention {The), 1885. 
 
 In which Austria and Prussia agreed to a 
 joint occupation of Schleswig, Holstein, 
 and Lauenburg. See ' Schleswig-Holstein 
 Question.' 
 
 Gate of France {The Iron) 
 Longwy, a strong military position. 
 
 Gate of Italy {The). That part of 
 the valley of the Adige (3 syl.) which is 
 in the vicinity of Trent and Eoveredo. 
 It is a narrow gorge between two moun^ 
 tain ranges. 
 
 Gate of Science {The), or 'Daur 
 ul Ilm.' Shiraz was so called of old. 
 Sadi and Hafiz were both born in Shiraz. 
 
 Gate of Tears {The). Babelman- 
 deb, the passage into the Red Sea. 
 
 Like some ill-destined bark that steers 
 In silence through the Gate of Tears. 
 MooEE, Lalla Rookh (The Fire Worshippers). 
 
 Gate of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 G-ates {The). In Scripture language 
 means the towns and fortresses. 
 
 Thy seed shall possess the gate of his enemies. 
 —Get), xxii. 
 
 •-• Gates of Hell = the power or dominion ol 
 Satan. 
 
 Gates of the Grave = the brink ol death. 
 
 Gates or Mountain Passes of Asia 
 Minor. 
 The Albanian Gates. Either the pass 
 
GATES 
 
 GAUTAMA 
 
 559 
 
 of Derbend along the Caspian Sea or else 
 the Sarmatian Pass. 
 
 The Amanian Gates. Tamir Kapu 
 (or the Iron Gate of the Turks), a Cyclo- 
 pean arch, where the hills come down to 
 the sea-beach at the head of the gulf. 
 
 The Cappadocian Gates. The pass 
 described by Strabo and explored by the 
 Euphrates expedition, leading through 
 Taurus to Marash (ancient Germanica). 
 
 The Caspian Gates, ' Caspiae Portae' 
 or ' Caspiae Pyloe,' a defile near Teheran 
 [Teh-ran'], in ancient Media. 
 
 The Caucasian Gates. A defil-e in the 
 Caucasus range leading from Mosdok to 
 Titlis. In this narrow valley Strabo 
 tells us the river Aragon flows. Now 
 called 'Dariel.' 
 
 The Cilician Gates. The Taurus 
 Pass (Kulak Bughaz or Golek B(5ghaz). 
 
 Darius^s Pass. Across the Amiinus, 
 north of Issus, and near the Amanian 
 Gates. 
 
 The Gates of Syria. The Pass of 
 Ballan. Pictanus of the 'Jerusalem 
 Itinerary'; Ei-ana of Cicero. Near this 
 pass was the battlefield of Issus. 
 
 Thermojyylce, or ' the Hot Gates,' gene- 
 rally called ' Pylse ' or ' The Gates.' The 
 celebrated pass between Tiiessaly and 
 Locris, immortalised by the heroic de- 
 fence of Leontdas and 300 Spartans 
 against the enormous host of Xerxes. 
 
 Gsites of China, (The). The cluster 
 of rocky islets called ' the Ladrones.' 
 
 Gates of the Caspian, or 'Pylae 
 Caspiae.' See above, ' Caspian Gates.' 
 
 Gates of the Occult Sciences 
 
 {The). Forty, or as some say forty-eight, 
 books on niagic in Arabic. The first twelve 
 on sorcery and enchantment ; the thir- 
 teenth on disenchantment. 
 
 Gatton and Old Sarum. Although 
 wii bout inhabitants, had the right, befoi'e 
 I80I, of returning two members of par- 
 liament. In the reform agitation ' Gatton 
 and Old Sarum' proved a tour deforce. 
 
 Gaudents {Les Chevaliers), 1201. A 
 religious order of Italy, whose special 
 work is to protect the widow, the orphan, 
 and the poor. They wear a white dress 
 with a red cross, surmounted with two 
 stars, and follow the rule of the Domini- 
 cans, but may marry if they like. Both 
 father and mother must be of noble 
 birth. 
 
 Gaul. See ' Gallia.' 
 
 Gaultier. * As aspish as Gault.er. 
 Claude Gaultier was a French advocate 
 (1590-16G6), referred to by Boileau. 
 
 Dans vos discours chagrins plus aigre et plus 
 
 mordant 
 Qu une femme en furie, ou Gaultier en plaidant. 
 
 Sat. ix. 
 
 Gaurian Dynasty (The). So 
 
 called from Gaur in West Afghanistan, 
 because Hussein Mahmoud Ghori was 
 governor of Gaur under the Gaznevides 
 (3 syl.), before he declared himself inde- 
 pendent in 1155. He overthrew them in 
 1158, and usui'ped the kingdom; but the 
 Gaurians were in turn overthrown by 
 the Khans of Kharism in 1213. 
 
 The second Gaurian Dynasty was the 
 'House of Khilji,' which succeeded in 
 1288. The last of the house (Khusru) was 
 dethroned and put to death, 22 Aug., 1321, 
 by Ghiizi Khan Toghlak, who founded 
 * The House of Toghlak.' 
 
 Gau'tama {Prince). Prince Sid- 
 dar'tha, born on the borders of Nepaul 
 B.C. 600, died B.C. 543 at Kusinag'ara in 
 Oudh. He became a Buddh, and was 
 the founder of the Buddhists, which em- 
 brace more than a third of the human 
 race. 
 
 Father, Suddhod'ana king of Sak'ya. 
 Mother, Queen Maya. Wife, Yasod'hara. 
 Cit>/, Kapilavas'tu. Son, Pv,ahula. 
 
 His horse was Kantara ; his pleasure- 
 palace Vish'ramvan' ; his charioteei 
 Channa. 
 
 As Buddha he dwelt first on the rock 
 Munda by the village of Dalidd' ; then 
 in the solitudes of Sena'ni ; his dress a 
 yellow robe. 
 
 *^* Buddhism consists of four truths 
 and eight precepts which lead to Nir- 
 va'na, i.e. sinless rest which never 
 changes. The four truths are : Sorrow ; 
 desire the cause of sorrow ; the conquest 
 of self; and the victory over sorrow. 
 Eight precepts lead to victory. The five 
 commandments of Buddha are : (i.) Kill 
 not ; (ii.) Give freely ; (iii.) Bear no false 
 witness ; (iv.) Shun intoxicating drinks ; 
 (v.) Touch not thy neighbour's wife. 
 The eight precepts are : Right doctrine, 
 right purpose, right converse, right con- 
 duct, right purity, right thought, right 
 lowliness, and right rapture. (Sir Edwin 
 Arnold, ' The Light of Asia,' bk. i.) 
 
 'Lord Buddha — Prince Siddartha styled in 
 oartk.' 
 
360 
 
 GAVELKIND 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Gavelkind. A law whereby all tlie 
 sons succeed alike. By this tenure an 
 estate does not escheat to the lord (in 
 case of felony), the maxim being 'The 
 father to the bough [gallows], the son to 
 the plough [land].' In default of sons 
 the property descends to daughters. 
 
 Suppose A, B, C, to be three sons, and A dies, 
 leaving a daughter ; then A's daughter takes her 
 third with B and C. 
 
 Gay [Joseph). The pen-name of 
 Captain John Durant Breval, who wrote 
 ' The Confederates,' 1717 ; ' The Progress 
 of a Rake,' 1733 ; ' The Lure of Venus,' 
 1733; &c. 
 
 The fabulist and author of the 'Beggars 
 Opera ' was John Gay (ie»8-1732). 
 
 Gay Science (The), or 'The Joyous 
 Science,' that of minstrelsy. In Norman 
 French, the Joyeuse Science. 
 
 '[I am] an unworthy graduate of the Gay 
 Science, my lord,' said the musician, ' yet let me 
 say for myself, th t I will not yield to the king of 
 minstrels, Geoffrey Rudel, though the king of 
 England hath given him four manors for one 
 Bong.'— Sir \V. Scott, The Betrothed, eh. xix. 
 
 Gazari, Gazeri, or Gacari. The same 
 as the Cathari or Paterini, meaning 
 Puritans. Called in Italy 'Paterini,' 
 * Cathari,' or ' Gazari ' ; in France, ' Les 
 Vaudois,' and ' Les Pauvres de Lyon.' 
 
 The Albigenses were quite another sect, although 
 both protested against the dogmas of the Catholic 
 Church, and the evil lives of its clergy. 
 
 Gazette (The). Published at Venice 
 in 1563. 
 
 Published at Paris by Renaudot, 25 
 May, 1631. 
 
 Published at Oxford 1665. See ' Pall 
 Mall.' 
 
 The gazette now means with us an 
 official newspaper in which proclama- 
 tions, notices of appointments, bank- 
 ruptcies, dissolutions of partnership, and 
 so on are published by government. It 
 is issued every Tuesday and Friday. 
 
 Gaznevides (3 syl.). A Tartar and 
 Musulman dynasty which lasted 184 
 years (999-1183), so called from Gazne, 
 the birthplace of Alp Tekin the founder. 
 It succeeded the Samanides (3 syl.). 
 The greatest of the Gaznevides was Mah- 
 moud, who reigned in the eastern pro- 
 vinces of Persia (967, 927-1030). He was 
 ' the slave of the slave of the commander 
 of the faithful,' and was the first who 
 was ever called sultan. 
 
 Gelal'ean Era (The). This era 
 began 15 March, A.D. 1079. So called i 
 
 from Gelal Eddin Malek Shah, who 
 reformed the old Egyptian calendar. 
 
 The reign of Malek was illustrated byithe Gelal- 
 ean Era, which surpasses the Julian and ap- 
 proHches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. 
 Gibbon, chap. Ivii. 
 
 Gelosi (J.). A celebrated troop of 
 Italian comedians who acted in Venice. 
 They went to Blois in 1577, and then to 
 Paris. In 1588 a fresh company of 
 Gelosi appeared at Blois, and then at 
 Paris, where they acted till 1604. 
 
 Gema'ra (The). The second part 
 of the Talmud, or commentary on the 
 Mishna, regarded as the text. There 
 are two commentaries — viz. the Baby- 
 lonian Gemara (completed a.d. 500), and 
 the Jerusalem Gemara (middle of the 
 4th cent.), the former of which is by far 
 the better one. 
 
 Gemblours [Battle of), Jan., 1578. 
 In which Don John of Austria defeated 
 the Dutch, and spread consternation 
 throughout the Netherlands. 
 
 Gemon'ise Scalse. The staircase 
 in Rome down which criminals con- 
 demned to death descended from their 
 prison cells to execution. It was near 
 the Tiber. 
 
 Gemotes (2 syl.). There were several 
 in the Saxon period, as — 
 
 The Shire-gemote, or county court, 
 which met twice a year. 
 
 The Burg-getnote, met thrice a year. 
 
 The Hitndred-gemote, met monthly. 
 
 The Halle-gemote or ' court-baron.' 
 
 The Witena-gemote, which corre- 
 sponded to the Reichstage (2 syl.) of the 
 Franks. A national assembly. 
 
 Gendarme (2 syl.), i.e. gens armdta. 
 The men who accompanied a feodal lord 
 to battle. In 1453 Charles VII. ap- 
 pointed a permanent gendarmerie. In 
 the reign of Louis XVI. it was replaced 
 by the Gendarmerie de Luneville. In 
 1791 the Constituent Assembly converted 
 it into the Gendarmerie departementale; 
 under Napoleon I. it was called the 
 Gendarmerie d'elite ; at the restoration 
 it was called the Gendarmerie Boy ale ; 
 in 1830 it was replaced by the Garde 
 Municijoale, called in 1848 the Garde 
 Bepublicaine, and in 1852 the Gen- 
 darmerie de Paris. 
 
 General [The). Of religious orders in 
 the Catholic Church. The supreme head 
 
GENERAL 
 
 GENERALISSIMO 
 
 8G1 
 
 (under the pope) of each of the leading 
 rehgions orders. 
 
 The Superior of an individual convent, &c., is 
 an abbot, prior, rector, superior, &c. 
 
 A Provincial has authority over ail the con- 
 vents, &c., of a province. 
 
 A General has authority over all provinces. 
 
 General Assembly {The), 1G89. 
 The supreme court of the Scotch Kirk, 
 composed of delegates from every pres- 
 bytery in the church. Two elders are 
 elected by the Town Council of Edin- 
 burgh, one by each burgh, a representa- 
 tive is elected by the senate of each of 
 the four universities, and an elder by 
 the church in India. It meets annually 
 in May, and sits for ten days ; and if any 
 business is left over it is settled by a 
 commission nominated by the General 
 Assembly. 
 
 G-eneral Assembly of the Pres- 
 byterian Church, of Ireland 
 
 {The), 1840. The union of the General 
 and Secession Synods. It contains 
 about 500 congregations under forty 
 presbyteries. 
 
 General Baptists. Those dis- 
 senters of the Baptist connection who 
 uphold the doctrine of general redemp- 
 tion in contradistinction to the Particular 
 Baptists, who maintain the Calvinistic 
 doctrines of election, predestination, and 
 reprobation. See ' Free Communionists.' 
 
 General Bourn. Niclmame of 
 Mons. Thiers the French historian (1797- 
 1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 
 
 Thiers, pronounce Te-air. 
 
 General Councils. The first at 
 Nice, A.D. 325, against Arius, who denied 
 the divinity of Christ. The second at 
 Constantinople, 381, against Macedonius, 
 who denied the true humanity of Christ 
 and the Holy Ghost. The third at 
 Ephesus, 431, against Nestorius, who 
 said the Virgin Mary was the mother of 
 Jesus, but not BeoT6K.o<; (the mother of 
 God). The fourth at Chalcedon, 451, 
 against Eutyches, who maintained that 
 the human nature was merged in the 
 divine nature. The fifth at Constanti- 
 nople, 553, which condemned Origen's 
 doctrine that parts of the scripture are 
 either allegorical or figurative. The 
 sixth at Constantinople, (i80, against the 
 Monoth'elites (4 syl.), who maintained 
 that, although Christ had two natures, 
 He had but one will, that of his divine 
 16 
 
 nature. These are the only councils of 
 acknowledged authority. 
 
 Council 1 declared Christ to be God 6,\r,9S(; 
 (truly). Council 2 declared Him to be God and 
 Man reXcojc (perfectly). Council 3 declared Him to 
 be God and Man (iffi..ii/>e'r<uc(indivisilily). And Coun- 
 cil 4 declared him to be God and Man navyxiTuit 
 (distinctly). The decisions of these four councils 
 are acknowledged by the Church of England. See 
 ' Ecumenical Councils.' 
 
 Of the Western Church : 
 
 I, 2, 3, 4. All of the Lateran in Rome, 
 A.D. 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215 (or 10, 11, 12, 
 13). 
 
 5, 6. Both at Lyons, ad. 1245, 1274 (or 
 14, 15). 
 
 7. Council of Vienne in France, A.D. 
 1311 (or 16). 
 
 8. Council of Constance, a.d. 1414 to 
 1418 (or 17). 
 
 9. Council of Basel, Ferrara, Flo- 
 rence, A.D. 1431 to 1443 (or 18). 
 
 10. Council of the Lateran, ad. 1511 to 
 1517 (or 19). 
 
 II. Council of Trent, a.d. 1545 to 1563 
 (or 20). 
 
 12. Council of the VaticsCn, 1869-1870. 
 
 Numbered from 10 to 20 if taken from the Council 
 of Nice, A.D. 32.5, v.'hen the Eastern and Western 
 Churches were not divided. 
 
 General ISTon - subscribing 
 
 Presbyterian Association {The), 
 Ireland, 1850. The union of the three 
 non-subsci'ibing presbyteries of Ireland — - 
 viz. ' The United Presbytery or Synod 
 of Munster,' ' The Presbytery of An- 
 trim,' and ' The Remonstrant Synod of 
 Ulster.' They claim the right of private 
 judgment and non-subscription to creeds 
 or confessions of faith. 
 
 General Privilege of Peter 
 
 III. The Magna Charta of Aragon, 
 1283. The Fueros de Aragon contain a 
 series of provisions against tallages, 
 spoliations of property, sentences of the 
 justiciary without assent of the Cortes, 
 appointments of foreigners to judicial 
 offices, trials of accused persons in places 
 beyond the kingdom, the falsification of 
 the coin, bribery of judges, absolute 
 power, and so on. It was an improve- 
 ment on our own charter. 
 
 Generalissimo Procession {A). 
 
 An extraordinary religious procession, in 
 which all the chief men of the state took 
 part. In the Generalissimo Procession of 
 Paris, 29 Jan., 1535, the king, Franc^ois I., 
 all the clergy, ambassadors, lords, presi- 
 dents of the courts of justice, and all the 
 notables took part. The reliquary of the 
 
8C2 
 
 g:^nekalite 
 
 GENTB 
 
 St. Chapelle was carried through the 
 streets ; the head of St. Louis ; a piece of 
 the true cross, the crown of thorns, a real 
 nail, the spear-head, and the shrine of Ste. 
 Genevieve. The king went bare-headed, 
 holding a lighted torch. Every house 
 passed by was lighted with tapers, and 
 the inmates holding lighted candles sank 
 on their knees. 
 
 G^ndralitd, in the ancient regime 
 of France, was the jurisdiction of an 
 intendant-general of finance. The num- 
 ber of these go'neralites varied. In the 
 14th century there were four; under 
 Francois I. the number was increased to 
 sixteen ; in 1787 there were thirty-two. 
 Abolished in 1789. 
 
 G-eneva — Home, Protestantism- 
 Catholicism. Strictly speaking, Geneva 
 means Calvinism. 
 
 I -^vould have you know 1 care as little for Geneva 
 as ior Rome ; as little for homilies as for pardons. 
 —Sir W. Scott, The Abbot, ch. xvi. 
 
 Gene'va Bands, 1652. Clerical 
 
 bands in imitation of those worn by the 
 Calvinistic Protestants of Geneva. Till 
 the last quarter of the 19th cent, they 
 were worn by the clergy of the established 
 church and university men ; but since the 
 Oxford Tract movement both the bands 
 and the black gown have been ahnost 
 entirely abandoned by clergymen. 
 
 Gene'va Bible (The), 15G0. The 
 Bible translated by the English exiles at 
 Geneva. The exiles who assisted in this 
 translation were Knox, Coverdale, Good- 
 man, Gibbs, Samson, William Cole, Whit- 
 tingham, and Gilery. It was the first 
 Bible in Roman letter, divided into verses. 
 This is the famous ' Breeches Bible,' based 
 on Tyndale's translation. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Coverdnle had already produced his own trans- 
 lation in ]5:;5, and had superintended the produc- 
 tion of the ' Great Bible,' 1539. 
 
 Geneva Catechisms (The), 1530. 
 A larger and shorter formulary, the work 
 of Calvin. A standard work in Switzer- 
 land, the Netherlands, France, and Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 Luther published a larger and smaller cate- 
 chism 1529 ; and a larger and shorter catechism 
 ■were compiled in the reign of Edward VI., the 
 shorter one by Crannier, and the larger one by 
 Poynet or Ponet. There is also a larger and 
 shorter catechism of the Presbyterian Churches, 
 the shorter one publislied in 1G47, and the larger 
 one in 1()48. These form part of the ' Westminster 
 Confession of Faith.' 
 
 Geneva Convention (The), 1863. 
 An international agreement to respect the 
 
 persons and property of those who give 
 voluntarily their services in times of war 
 to attend on the sick and wounded. They 
 must have a recognised costume, flag, and 
 arm-badge (a red cross on a white ground). 
 If taken prisoners they are to be dis- 
 charged without ransom. Often called 
 « The Red Cross Society.' 
 
 First brought into operation in the Franco- 
 German War 1870-71. The idea was popularised by 
 a book written by M. Durant, Un Souvmir de Snlfe- 
 rino, 18G2, and the Convention was held the follow- 
 ing year at Geneva, attended by delegates from 
 Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, France, Great 
 Britain, Hanover, Hesse-Darmstadt, Italy. Prus- 
 sia, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden, Switzerland, 
 and Wurtemberg. 
 
 Gene'va Formula (The), 1543. 
 
 Published six years before the First Book 
 of Edward VI. It was the first to origi- 
 nate the idea of making the singing of 
 psalms take the place of vocal response on 
 the part of the people. Provision was 
 made for extemporaneous prayer, and for 
 prayer on special occasions. 
 
 Grene^j-ieve {Canons Begular of Ste.), 
 1615. Ratified by Gregory XV. The 
 abbey of Ste. Genevieve was built by 
 Eugenius III. in 1148. 
 
 Pronounce Jhan'-ve-ave, 
 
 Gengiskha'nians (The), or *Gen- 
 gisk'hanides ' (4 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
 (1225-1258), which supplanted the Kha- 
 riz'mians {q-v.). 
 
 The four Idngs were Gengis Khan, 1225 ; OktaT, 
 1229 ; Kaiouk, 1242 ; and JNIangou, 1250. Mangou sent 
 his younger brother Houlagou to conquer the west 
 of Asia. This done, the conqueror fixed his resi- 
 dence at Tauris, in Persia; took Bagdad in 1258 
 from the Califs ; and carried his conquests into 
 Syria. Hp succeeded Mangou in 1258, and formed 
 a branch line of the Gengiskhanians, which con- 
 tinued to 1336, when it gave place to the Ilkhan- 
 ians. 
 
 Genoese War (The), 1378-1381. 
 The Venetians call the ' War of Chiozza ' 
 (q.v.) the ' Genoese War.' And the new 
 nobles aggrandised after the war they call 
 'The Nobles of the Genoese War' ('I 
 Nobili della Guerra di Genova.') See 
 * Nobles of the, &c.' 
 
 Genovefains. Canons of the abbey 
 de Ste. Genevieve, which formed what is 
 called the ' Congregation de France,' in- 
 stituted by Clovis in 500. They followed 
 the rule of St. Augustine, and wore a 
 white robe with a rochet, but when abroad 
 a black cloak. 
 
 Gente Grassa (The). The substan- 
 tial tradesmen of Italy, like the Medici. 
 Gento i2 syL). 
 
GENTILHOMME 
 
 GEORGE 
 
 8G3 
 
 Gentilhomme de la Peinture 
 
 (Le). Rubens (1577-164U) is so called by 
 Charles Blanc. 
 
 - Gentiluom'ini (The). The mas- 
 ters of Venice both by sea and land, 
 corresponding with the burghers of Flo- 
 rence. The lowest class was the popo- 
 lari or plebeians, then the cittadini, then 
 came the gentiluomini, about 3,000 in 
 number. 
 
 Gentle (The). Izaak Walton, the 
 Angler (1593-1683). Angling is called 
 'The Gentle Craft.' Probably there is 
 something of a pun in the phrase, refer- 
 ring to the bait of gentles used by anglers. 
 
 Gentle Shepherd. George Gren- 
 ville (1712-1770). 
 
 In ITfiS Sir Francis Dashwood proposed a tax 
 upon cider and perry, which Pitt (.Earl Chatham) 
 objected to. Whereupon George Grenvillo declared 
 the tax inevitable, and added, if Pitt objected to it, 
 ' Let him tell me where the money is to be raised, 
 let him tell mo where,' he repeated. Pitt, who sat 
 opposite, hummed, in tone mimicking Grenville, 
 the beginninfiof a popular tune of the day, ' Gentle 
 Shepherd. tf>ll me where?' The House was con- 
 vulsed with laughter, and Pitt walked out. 
 
 Gentleman George. George IV., 
 also called Handsome Al Raschid. See 
 ' Fum.' 
 
 Gentleman IIighwaynian(T/^^). 
 I. Tom King, friend of Richard (Dick) 
 Turpin ; the ' Pylades and Orestes of the 
 road.' Accidentally shot by Turpin in a 
 scuffle, in 1739. 
 
 II. Claude Duval, executed 1670. 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine {The), 
 1731. Originated by Cave. 
 
 Gentlemen Commoners. Stu- 
 dents in the Oxford University who dine 
 at the Fellows' table, and wear a dis- 
 tinctive college costume. Called in Cam- 
 bridge University Fellow Commoners 
 (g'.w.). They are generally either noble- 
 men or married men. 
 
 Gentoo. An obsolete term at one 
 time applied to the natives of Hindustan. 
 It is the Portuguese gentio, meaning a Gentile. 
 
 Geology {Professcrskip of). In the 
 University of Cambridge, 1727, founded 
 by Dr. Woodward ; and hence the pro- 
 fessor i^ also called the Woodwardian 
 professor. Stipend, 5001. a year. 
 
 George I. First of the Hanoverian 
 dynasty in England. He died on his road 
 to Osnaburg, and was buried in Hanover 
 (1660, 1714-1727). He could not speak a 
 word of English, and looked on Great 
 
 Britain only as a useful appendage to 
 Hanover. 
 
 Father, Emestus duke of Brunswick, 
 &c. ; Mother, Sophia daughter of Eliza- 
 beth, granddaughter of James I. of Eng- 
 land ; Wife, Sophia Dorothy of Zell, only 
 daughter of George William duke of 
 Brunswick and Zell ; Issue, Geokge [II.], 
 his successor, and Sophia, who married 
 Frederick William of Prussia, and was 
 the mother of Frederick II. the Great. 
 
 His style. — George, Dei Gratia, of 
 Great Britain, France, and Ireland, king ; 
 Defender of the Faith. 
 
 His Mistresses were the Countess Platen and 
 Madame Herrengard Melusina von Schlcmberg, 
 who said to the London rabble : ' Mein people, 
 why do ye abuse us thus ? We do be come here 
 to Kngland only for all your goods.' 
 
 *»* Of course George I. had no hereditary right 
 to the throne of England, but only a parliamen- 
 tary ri^;ht. His mother was a granddaughter of 
 .James I., and the line of his father runs back to 
 Maud, daughter of our Henry II. 
 
 George II. King of Great Britain, 
 second king of the House of Hanover 
 (1683, 1727-1760). He died on Saturday, 
 25 Oct. Like his father, he looked on Great 
 Britain only as the appendage of Hanover. 
 
 Father, George I. ; Mother, Sophia 
 Dorothy daughter of George William 
 duke of Zell; Wife, Caroline Wilhel- 
 mina of Anspach ; Issue, three sons and 
 five daughters. Frederick Lewis (Prince 
 of Wales), father of George III., died 
 about ten years before his father, George 
 II. His nichyianie was Prince Tite. 
 
 His style and title. — George, Dei 
 Gratia, of Great Britain, France, and Ire- 
 land, king ; Defender of the Faith. 
 
 From Frederick Lewis prince of Wales the 
 Princess Alexandra is detcended, thus : His 
 youngest daughter, Caroline Matilda, married 
 Christian VIII. of Denmark, the son of whom was 
 Frederick VI. of Denmark ; the son of Frederick 
 
 VI. was Frederick VII,; the son of Frederick 
 
 VII. was Christian IX., whose daughter is 
 Alexandra princess of Wales (great-great-great- 
 grandchild of George II.). 
 
 George III. Son of Frederick Lewis 
 prince of Wales, and grandson of George 
 II. (1738, 1760-1820), born in London, 
 and the first of the line of Brunswick 
 who was a Briton born. He married 
 Charlotte daughter of Charles duke of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, by whom he had 
 fifteen children, viz. nine sons and six 
 daughters. The eldest son George [IV.] 
 succeeded to the throne, but he had pre- 
 viously been prince-regent. Familiarly 
 called ' Farmer George,' or ' the Farmer 
 King.' 
 
 Style and title. — From 1760 to 1800: 
 
8G4 
 
 GEORGE 
 
 GERMAN 
 
 George, D.G. of Great Britain, France, 
 and Ireland, king ; Defender of the Faith. 
 From 1800 to 1820 : George, D.G. of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, king ; Defender of the Faith. 
 
 George III. was the father of Geohge IV., 
 \ViLi,iAM IV., and Edward duke of Kent (the 
 father of Queen Victoria.) 
 
 G-eorge IV. King of Great Britain, 
 &c.. Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lune- 
 burg, Duke of Cornwall and Roth say. 
 Earl of Chester and Carrick, Baron of 
 Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, hereditary 
 Grand Steward of Scotlaiad, &c. Born 
 1762, regent from Feb. 1811, king 1820, 
 died Saturday, 26 June, 1830. 
 
 Father, Geokge III. ; Mother, Sophia 
 Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; Wife, 
 his cousin Caroline, daughter of the 
 Prince of Brunswick; Issue, Charlotte, 
 who married Leopold (afterwards king 
 of Belgium). Nicknames : The Magni- 
 ficent (from his love of gorgeous apparel). 
 Prince Florizel, Fum the Fourth, The 
 Fat Adonis of Fifty, the First Gentleman 
 of Europe. Style and title, as George 
 III. after 1800. 
 
 At the age of sixteen he fell in love vrith Mrs. 
 Robinson, an actress, who received an annuity of 
 500i. a year ; in 1785 he married Mrs. Fitzlierb' it, 
 a widow, but the man i 'ge was a 'German one.' 
 After his marria,ge with Caroline of Brunswick 
 his favourite lady was the Countess of Jersey. 
 
 George {A St.). A badge worn over 
 the armour by every English soldier in 
 the 14th cent., and subsequently. On 
 the invasion of Scotland by Richard II., 
 in 1386, and at the battle of Agincourt, it 
 was ordained that 
 
 Everiman, of what estate, condicion, or nation 
 they be of, so that he be of oure partie, shall here 
 a signe of the acmes of St. George, large (botlie 
 before and behynde) upon parell that yf he be 
 slayne or wounded to dcth, he that hath so doon 
 to hym shall not be putte to deth for defaulte of 
 the crosse tliat he lacketh. And that non enemy 
 do bere the same token or crosse of St. George, 
 notvvithstandyng if he be prisoner, upon payne of 
 deth. 
 
 *j,* The St. George is a red cross on a white 
 field. In the Order of the Garter it is a figure of 
 St. George on horseback piercing the fallen 
 dragon, on a mount. 
 
 George {Knights of St.), 1. 1201. A 
 military order of Alfana, in Spain. Con- 
 firmed by John XXII. in 1317 ; united to 
 the order of Montesa by Benedict XIII. 
 in 1399. Extinct. 
 
 II. In Burgundy, 1400, founded by 
 Philibert de Miolans. Extinct. 
 
 III. 1273, in Carinthia, founded by 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg. Revived in 1468 
 by Frederick III. Extinct in 1598. 
 
 rV. 1470, in Austria, founded by Fre- 1 
 
 derick III. to guard the frontiers of 
 Bohemia and Hungary. 
 
 V. 1492, at Borne, instituted by Alexan- 
 der VI., and abolished in 1578 by Gregory 
 XIII. 
 
 VI. 1500, in Germany, founded 1500. 
 Extinct. 
 
 VII. 1535, at Bavenna, founded by 
 Paul III., and abolished in 1578 by Gre- 
 gory XIII. 
 
 VIII. 1729, in Bavaria, refounded by 
 Karl VII. 
 
 IX. 1769, in Bussia, founded by Ca- 
 therine II. ; and restored by Alexander I. 
 in 1801. 
 
 X. 1819, in Sicily, instituted by Fer- 
 dinand I. 
 
 XI. 1833, in Lucca, instituted by Duke 
 Charles Louis. 
 
 XII. 1840, in Hanover, instituted by 
 Ernest Augustus. 
 
 George the Magnificent. See 
 
 above, George IV. 
 
 Georgia, in N. America. So named 
 in honour of George II., in whose reign 
 the first white settlement thex'e was 
 effected (1733). The nickname of the 
 inhabitants is Buzzards. 
 
 Geougen [The). A gang of Tartar 
 robbers, enlisted under Moko, slave of a 
 Topa prince. The gang swelled into a 
 camp, then into a tribe, and then into a 
 numerous people. The posterity of Moko 
 assumed the title of Klian or Cagan a.d. 
 400. 
 
 German Athens. Wittenberg was 
 so called by Giordano Bruno. 
 
 German Catholics. A religious 
 party in the German Catholic Church 
 with independent congregations. They 
 call themselves ' Christian Catholics.' 
 They are not Protestants. This party 
 sprang into being in 1844, when Bishop 
 Arnoldi ajipointed a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Coat at Treves, which called forth 
 a, protest from J. Ronge (2 syl.), a priest 
 of Silesia, who characterised the relic as 
 the ' coat of idolatry.' 
 
 German Confederation (The). 
 I. ' Der Deutsche Bund,' 8 June, 1815 ; 
 constituted by treaty of Vienna, after 
 the battle of Waterloo, to create a barrier 
 against French aggression. Its object 
 was to grant to the thirty-nine states of 
 Germany external and internal security. 
 Of the states Austria and Prussia were 
 large kingdoms, and Bavaria, Saxony, 
 
GEEMAN 
 
 GHAUTS 
 
 865 
 
 Hanover, and Wiirtemberg were minor 
 kingdoms; the other thirty-three states 
 were grand duchies, free cities, &e. Each 
 state was bound to supi)ly 1 per cent, 
 of its population to form an army iu 
 time of war. Austria presided, but in 
 18u6 was exckided from the Bund by the 
 treaty of Prague. 
 
 The princedom of Gotha became extinct in 1826 ; 
 the duchy of Anlialt-Cothen was annexed to 
 Anhalt Dessau in 1847 ; the principalities of Hoheu- 
 zollern-Hechingen and of HohenzoUern-Sigma- 
 ringen were annexed to Prussia in 1849; the ducliy 
 of Anhalt-Bernberg became extinct in 1863 ; and 
 in 180(5 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, 
 and part of Hesse-Darmstadt were annexed to 
 Prussia. 
 
 II. 1871. During the Franco-Prussian 
 
 war (Nov. 1871), Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
 Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxony 
 joined the North German Confederation, 
 which consisted of Prussia and the states 
 north of the Main. By this extension 
 the North German Confederation was 
 changed to the ' German Confederation,' 
 and on 18 Jan., 1871, the king of Prussia 
 was elected German emperor. 
 
 After the Seven Weeks' War, 18G6, the following 
 Btates formed a part of Prussia :— The kingdom of 
 Hanover (annexed) ; Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
 Frankfort (annexed) ; Lauenburg (since ISiio^ 
 Schleswig and Holstein (annexed); Kaulsdorf, 
 Gersfeld, and Orl (ceded by Bavaria) ; Hesse- 
 Komburg. Amt-Homburg, Amt-Meisenheim (ceded 
 by Hesse-Darmstadt). 
 
 German Emancipation War 
 
 {The), 1813. That is, to emancipate Ger- 
 many fi'om the hands of Napoleon. The 
 battles fought in 1813 were Liitzen and 
 Bautzen, Grossbeerin, Katzbach, Dres- 
 den, Culm, Dennewitz, Leipzig, and 
 Hanan. The last of the battles was that 
 of V/aterloo in 1815. 
 
 German Emparor. Not 'Emperor 
 of Germany,' but either ' Deutscher Kai- 
 ser ' or ' Kaiser des Deutschen Reiches ' 
 (Kaiser of the Gennan Dominion). See 
 ' Prussia {King of) ' for his various titles. 
 
 German Florence {The). Dres- 
 den, noted for its architecture and col- 
 lections of art. 
 
 German Herriek (The). Paul 
 Flemming of Silesia (1009-1()4U). Some of 
 his Anacreontic odes are etjual to those 
 of the great Greek erotic j)oet. His 
 sonnet on ' Myself,' and his ' Epitai^h,' 
 are gems of heaven-born poetry. 
 
 German Iliad {The). The Nibel- 
 ungen Lied, the most important poem of 
 the middle ages. It is in thirty-nine 
 books, and is about as long as Milton's 
 
 ' Paradise Lost.' The poem is divided 
 into two parts. The first part contains 
 the marriage of Siegfried and Kremhild, 
 and ends with the death of the bride- 
 groom ; the second part is the marriage 
 of the widow with Etzel, in order to 
 revenge the murder of her first husband. 
 
 German Knights of the Cross 
 
 {The). The ' Teutonic knights ' {q.v.). 
 
 German Literature {Father of). 
 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781). 
 
 German K"estor of Philosophy 
 
 {The). Ernst Platner (1744-1818). 
 
 German Odyssey {The). 'The 
 Kudrun,' and second best poem of the 
 Hoheustauft'en school. It is divided into 
 three parts. (1) The Hagen; (2) the 
 Hilde ; and (3) the Hedel ; so called 
 from the chief characters. 
 
 German Pliny {The), or 'the 
 Pliny of Germany.' Koiu'ad von Gesner 
 of Ziirich (1516-156,5). So called from 
 his ' Catalogue of Plants,' in four lan- 
 guages, and his ' History of Animals ' (in 
 Latin), a marvellous production, which 
 from that day to this has been accounted 
 a memorable treatise. 
 
 German School of Painting 
 
 {The), 1490-1520. Founded by Hoi- 
 bein, Albrecht Diirer, and others. 
 
 German Strabo {The). Sebastian 
 Munster of Ingelheim (1489-1521), author 
 of a ' Universal Cosmography.' 
 
 German Version of the Bible 
 
 {The). Old Testament, at the expense of 
 the Kaiser Wenceslaus, 1405, first printed 
 in 1466 ; Luther's version, 1522-1530. 
 
 German'icus {The French). Louis 
 the dauphin, son of Louis XV. (1729- 
 1765), father of three kings ; Louis XVI., 
 Louis XVIIL, and Charles X. 
 
 Gesta Romano'rum. A legen- 
 dary book of the middle ages, in Latin. 
 The stories are short, with religious 
 morals. The compiler was Elinandus, a 
 monk, and the morals were added sub- 
 sequently by Peter Bercheur of Poitou. 
 
 Ghauts. Buildings on the banks of 
 the Ganges and other rivers of Northern 
 Hindustan for the use of bathers. The 
 steps down to the river form lounging 
 places where the idle or devout pass 
 their happiest hours. 
 
866 
 
 GHAZNEVIDES 
 
 GrBRALTAE 
 
 Ghaz'nevides (3 syl.). A Tartar 
 Musulnian dynasty, which reigned over 
 a large part of Persia and Hindustan. 
 So called from Ghazna or Gazna, the 
 birthplace of Alp-Tekin, who drove ^ 
 the Samanides (3 syl.)- There were on.y 
 four kings of this dynasty — viz. Alp Tekin 
 (9G0-975), Sebek Tekin (975-999), Mah- 
 moud (999-1028), and Masoud (1028-30). 
 
 The Ghaznevides, called the sixth dynasty, con- 
 temporary ^vith the Califs, reigned only over a 
 part of Persia. It was succeeded by the Seldjiiks 
 of Persia. 
 
 Ghib'ellines (3 syl.). A political 
 party in Italy which maintained the 
 supremacy of the German kaiser-kings 
 over the Italian states in opposition to 
 that of the pope. The Guelfs were sup- 
 porters of the pope and of Italian inde- 
 pendence. The Ghibellines were the 
 imperial party, the Guelfs were the 
 papal party. The strife began with a dis- 
 pute about investiture between Gregory 
 VII. and the kaiser-king Heinrich IV. 
 The first time the names were used as a 
 battle-cry was at the combat of Weins- 
 berg, between Konrad of Franconia and 
 Heinrich the Lion, in 1140. The names 
 continued in use till 1450. 
 
 The commander of the Imperialists at the battle 
 of Weinsburg was Friedrich duke of Suabia (tlio 
 khig's cousin), who lived a.t Vv'eblingeu, corrupted 
 into Ghibelline. Guelf was the name of the leader 
 of the papal army. 
 
 Ghebres {The), i.e. infidels. All 
 non-Musulmans except Jews and Clii'is- 
 tians. The appellation is more especially 
 aiM>lied to the followers of Zoroaster 
 t-.o fire-v/orshipper. Also called Parsees, 
 from Farsistan, their originiil locality. 
 They are gentle, faithful, benevolent, and 
 hospitable. (Persian ghebr, an infidel.) 
 
 Ghebres, pronounce Ge' bsrs (hard g). 
 
 Ghengis Khan (Dynasty of), 1222- 
 1259. Ghengis (the Great Warrior) is a 
 Chinese title given to Temudgin for his 
 vast exploits. His empire included Per- 
 sia. In 1250 his fourth son, Mangou, 
 succeeded his brother in China, and for 
 eight years Persia had no separate sove- 
 reign. 
 
 Ghent. Notorious for its rebellions. 
 In the public library of Flanders is a 
 book entitled ' The 120 revolts of the 
 good city of Ghent.' 
 
 Ghent, pronounce Gah n (with n nasal). 
 
 Ghent (Peace of). 24 Doc, 1814. 
 Between Great Britain and the United 
 
 States, bringing to an end the second 
 American War. 
 
 Ghorides (2 syl.), * Gaurides,' or 
 ' Ghorians.' A dynasty which reigned in 
 Persia from 1158 to 1213, founded by 
 Hussein Mahmoud Ghori, governor of 
 Gaur or Ghor in Afghanistan. Under 
 Ala Eddin they conquered all Persia and 
 drove out the Ghaznevides (3 syl.) in 
 1158 ; but in 1213 they were supplanted 
 by the khans of Kharizm. 
 
 A branch of the House of Ghor reigned in Hin- 
 dustan from llS'J to 1215. when the Kharismiaus 
 drove them out ; but the Kharismians, in 1398, were 
 in turn supplanted by the Pathans. 
 
 Giants' Stairs of Venice. A flight 
 of forty-five stone steps leading to the 
 doge's palace at Venice. Marino Falie'ri 
 was beliea,ded on the landing of the stair- 
 case Friday, 16 April, 1355. On the same 
 landing the doge was accustomed to take 
 the oath after his election, before he 
 entered the palace. The giant stairs are 
 guarded by two noble statues of Mars and 
 Neptune, emblems of the military and 
 naval power of Venice ; the works of San- 
 sovi'no of Florence (1479-1570). 
 
 Giaour, a corruption of the Turkish 
 'Yaoor,' is applied by Moslems to a 
 Christian, and means a,n infidel. 
 Pronounce, djoicr. 
 
 Gibraltar (Siege of), Sept. 1782. 
 Gibraltar was taken by Sir George 
 Eooke in 1704, and ceded to the English 
 in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht. Several 
 efiorts have been made to wrest it from 
 our hands, but the most serious was the 
 siege in Sept. 1782, when the Spaniards 
 invested the fort, which was gallantly 
 defended by General Elliott. When all 
 hope of reducing the place was aban- 
 doned, the Spaniards determined to 
 intercept the supplies and starve the gar- 
 rison into a surrender; but Lord Howe 
 succeeded in supjilying abundant food, 
 and the Spaniards raised the siege. 
 
 Gibraltar of America, or the 
 IJqw V/orld. Quebec, a city on 
 Cape Diamond in the province of Quebec. 
 
 Gibraltar of Greece. A preci- 
 pitous rock 700 feet above the sea. 
 
 Gibraltar of the West Indies 
 
 (The). The Bermudas. 
 
 These islands were discovered by Juan Beimu- 
 dez, a Spranard, in lfi5'2 ; but, being colonised by Sir 
 Goorge Somers, they are Bouietimes called ' Souicrs 
 Ibles.' 
 
GILBEET'S 
 
 GIUNTA 
 
 Gilbert's Act, 1782. To incor- 
 porate parishes into unions, whereby 
 parishes under the power of hxndlords 
 'were not depopulated in order to save 
 poor rates. 
 
 Gril'bertines (3 syl.). A religious 
 order founded by St. Gilbert of Sempring- 
 ham in England, who lived 108i-1190. 
 
 Gilded Youth. {The). See ' Jeun- 
 esse Dore'e.' 
 
 The prisons of Lyons, Avignon, Marseilles, Tar- 
 ascon, and Toulon were no sooner filled with 
 Jacobins than they were broken open by what 
 were called the "gilded youth,' and the prisoners 
 massacred.— HOWITT, Hist, of Engl. (Geo. III. 1795, 
 p. 143). 
 
 Gillies' Hill (The), 1314. The hill 
 behind which the gillies were stationed 
 at the battle of Bannockburn to guard 
 the luggage. "When they saw the battle 
 was going in favour of the Scotch, they 
 could restrain themselves no longer, but 
 rushed forwards to share the victory and 
 the booty. The English, thinking them 
 to be a body of reserves, lost heast and 
 fled, and the Scotch obtained a complete 
 and signal victory. 
 
 The g of ' Gillies ' is hard, and not like J, as in 
 gin. 
 
 Gilt Lance (A). A symbol of vas- 
 salage. A royal vassal, when he first paid 
 homage, received a gilt lance to denote 
 that he was henceforth the king's man 
 [puer regis]. 
 
 Gin Act [The), 1736. Sir Joseph 
 Jekyll, greatly concerned at the excess of 
 gin drunk by the poor, proposed to put a 
 heavy tax on it, so as to put it out of tlie 
 reach of the operative. The duty he 
 suggested was to be 20.s. a gallon on all 
 gin sold retail, and 50Z. yearly for the 
 licence to a retailer. 
 
 Gipsy {The). 1. Dudley earl of Lei- 
 cester (1532-1588). 
 
 II. Antonio Sola'rio, the painter and 
 illuminator, was called ' Zingaro ' (li)82- 
 1455). 
 
 The fp.vourite greyhound of Charles I. was 
 named ' Gipsey.' See ' Jlemoirs," 329. 
 
 Giraldus Gambrensis, i.e. 
 Gerald the Welshman. His father was 
 a Norman and his mother Welsh. His 
 name was Gerald or Girauld de Barri 
 (1147-1222). 
 
 Gir'lingites (3 syl.). The followers 
 of Mary Ann Girling, of Tiptoe, Hordle, 
 Hampshire. According to her manifesto, 
 dated 18S3, Jesus Christ was not only 
 
 God and man, but man and woman ; the 
 only visible part being the man nature. 
 Mrs. Girling says : ' I am the second 
 appearing of Jesus, the bride, the Lamb's 
 wife, the God-mother, and there will not 
 be another.' This crazy woman had some 
 thousands of deluded followers. 
 
 Girls' Friendly Society {The), 
 1875. The objects are (1) to band 
 together in one society ladies as asso- 
 ciates, and girls as members, for mutual 
 help, sympathy, and prayer. (2) To en- 
 courage purity of life, dutifulness to 
 parents, faithfulness to employers, and 
 thrift. (3) To provide the privileges of 
 the society for its members, wherever 
 they may be, by giving them an intro- 
 duction from one branch to another. 
 
 Giron'dins {Les). In English ' The 
 Giron'dists.' The pure republican party 
 in the National Assembly and National 
 Convention of the first French revolu- 
 tion. So called because it consisted 
 mainly of the deputies of the Gironde. 
 Tliis party was distinguished for its 
 oratory, and for a time dominated the 
 assembly ; but, horrified at the September 
 massacres, they condemned the Reign of 
 Terror, and tried to bring in more mode- 
 rate measures. This drew upon them 
 the hatred of the demagogues ; and on 31 
 May, 1793, some twenty-nine of the Giron- 
 dists were arrested at the instigation of 
 Robespierre, and on 31 Oct. twenty of 
 them were guillotined, amongst whom 
 were Brissot, Gensonne, Vergniaud, Du- 
 ces, and Sille'ry. Valaze stabbed him- 
 self while he stood in the dock under 
 his mockery trial. 
 
 They were oalled Federal hti, because they 
 wanted to unite all the deptrtments of France 
 into a Fciteracy like that of the United States of 
 America. 
 
 Girton College, 1873. A college 
 for ladies, about two miles from the town 
 of Cambridge. 
 
 Gisors', in Normandy {Peace of), 
 March 1114. A treaty between Henry I. 
 of England and Louis VI., in settlement 
 of certain disputes respecting the riglits 
 of William the son of Henry I. to certain 
 tei-ritories in France. By this treaty 
 Maine and Brittany were ceded to Henry. 
 
 Giunta(r/ie). Of Venice. Consisted 
 originally of ten patricians, but at a 
 later period of twenty. It was sometimes 
 called ' The Twenty.' 
 
SC8 
 
 GLADIATOEIAL 
 
 GLORIOUS 
 
 Gladiatorial War {The), b.c. 73. 
 
 Headed by Spartacus, a Tliracian, who 
 had served in the Roman army, but had 
 turned brigand, and, being captured, 
 was made a gladiator. Crassus brought 
 this war to an end at Brundusiuni, but 
 Pompey claimed the honour because he 
 accidentally intercepted 5,000 fugitives 
 and put them to the sword. Crassus 
 hanged 6,000 of the captives along the 
 road from Rome to Capua. 
 
 Glasgow Arms {The). A tree, a 
 bird, a bell, and a ring. For the legend 
 see ' Phrase and Fable,' p. 345. 
 
 Here is the tree which never grew ; 
 Hf^re is the bird -wliich never Hew ; 
 Here is the boll whicli never rang ; 
 Here is the fish which never swam. 
 
 The tree is the hazel, which supplied 
 St. Kentigern with the torch with which 
 he lighted the lamps of Culross Cathe- 
 dral. 
 
 The hird is St. Serf's robin-redbreast 
 restored to life by St. Kentigern. 
 
 The hell is the one brought by the 
 Baint from Rome, and hung in the tree 
 to summon the people to prayer. 
 
 The fish is the salmon caught in the 
 Clyde, containing the ring given to 
 Oina, the faithless queen, as a love-token 
 by the king (7th cent.). 
 
 Glass Houses. Those who live in 
 glass houses should not throio stones. 
 >Vhen the Scotch came over in throngs 
 with James I., the English were greatly 
 enraged against them- ; and, instigated by 
 the Duke of Buckingham and others, 
 the windows of the houses occupied by 
 these interlopers were broken in all 
 directions. A party of Scotchmen com- 
 bined and retaliated by smashing the 
 windows of Buckingham's mansion, 
 which was called ' the Glass House,' and 
 the duke brought his complaint to the 
 king, who answered, ' Those who live in 
 glass houses, Steenie, shouldn't throw 
 stones.* 
 
 Glassists or ' Glassites ' {The), 1728. 
 Followers of John Glass, afterwards 
 called ' Sandemanians ' {q.v.). This 
 Scotch sect was founded in the 18th cent. 
 Zvlembers are admitted by a holy kiss, and 
 abstain from all animal food that has not 
 been well bled. John Glass condemned 
 all national establishments of religion, 
 and maintained the 'congregational 
 gystcm.' 
 Robert Sandeman was a disciple of John Glasa. 
 
 Glencoe. See 'Massacre of Glen- 
 coe.' 
 
 Glipping. Eric V. or VII. king of 
 Denmark was so called because of his 
 incessant habit of winking (ISiO, 1259- 
 1286) ; murdered 22 Nov. 
 
 Globe Theatre {The). Of which 
 Shakespeare was a shareholder ; was 
 built in 1593, and a patent for it was 
 granted in 1603 by James I. It was 
 burnt down in 1613, rebuilt in 161-1, and 
 demolished somewhere between 1610- 
 1650. 
 
 Glomerel Schools, 14th cent. 
 
 Grammar schools in Cambridge con- 
 nected with the University. In these 
 schools the lads were taught the ele- 
 ments of Latin. A dozen glomerel 
 schools were under the inspection of a 
 Master of Glomery {Magister Glomaricp), 
 who had a bedell to attend him. On 
 these glomerels the University conferred 
 the degree of ' Master in Grammar.' 
 
 Gloria {The), or 'Great Doxology* 
 (Luke ii. 14). 'Glory to God in the 
 highest, and on earth peace, good will 
 towards man.' The ' Gloria in excelsis,' 
 sung in the Latin Church after the 
 introitus (except on the penitential days 
 of Advent and during Lent). 
 
 Called the ' Great Doxology ' to distinguish it 
 from the ' Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, 
 and to the Holy Ghost,' sung at the end of each 
 psalm. 
 
 Glorieuse Rentrde {La). The 
 ' Glorious Return,' 16S9. The return of 
 certain of the Vaudois under the leader- 
 ship of Arnaud. They had been driven 
 from their homes by Duke Victor Ama- 
 deus, at the command of Louis XIV., who 
 threatened to invade Savoy if the Vau- 
 dois were not driven out. Slost of them 
 took refuge in Switzerland, and about 
 800 contrived to get back. 
 
 Glorious First of June {The^. 
 
 I. In English history, 1 June, 1794. 
 The victory of Lord Howe, with 25 ships, 
 over the French fleet, with 20 ships. 
 Probably the phrase is French, and refers 
 to the sinking of ' Le Vengeur.' 
 
 II. In French history, 1 June, 1794. 
 When it is said that ' Le Vengeur ' refused 
 to surrender to Lord Howe, but,. instead 
 of so doing, the crew sank the ship, and 
 all went alive into the deep, shouting, 
 * Vive la Republique ! ' Villaret de 
 Joyeuse had command of the vessel. 
 
GLORIOUS 
 
 GNOSTICISM 
 
 869 
 
 The English version is that Lord Howe, 
 with 25 ships, encountered the French 
 fleet of 26 ships off Ushant. In less than 
 an hour the French admiral fled. The 
 English captured two ships of eighty- 
 guns, and four seventy-fours. Another 
 seventy-four sank immediately after it 
 was captured. As for the ' Le Vengeur,' 
 the crew craved help, and many were 
 picked up by the victorious English. All 
 London was illuminated for three nights 
 for this victory, and King George visited 
 Lord Howe personally on board his flag- 
 ship, gave him a sword, and made him a 
 linight of the Garter. 
 
 Glorious Fourth (TJie), i.e. of 
 July. The day on which Americans 
 celebrate the anniversary of theii inde- 
 pendence (1776). 
 
 Glorious Three Days (The). In 
 French history. Tuesday, Wednesday, 
 and Thursday, 27, 28, and 29 July, 1880, 
 when Paris rose in arms against Charles X., 
 compelling him to flee and abdicate. 
 Thursday the 29th is called ' The Glorious 
 Third.' 
 
 Glory and Sun of the East 
 
 (The). Kharim Khan, vakel (regent), 
 1753-1779. He constituted Shiraz the 
 capital of Persia, and restored peace to 
 the country. 
 
 He never would take the title of shah. 
 
 Glory of Bristol (The).^ The 
 ' Great Britain,' an iron steamship built 
 at Bristol. Its dimensions were 1,795 tons 
 register, and 3,270 tons burden. Launched 
 in 1815. The engineers were I. Brunei, 
 jun., and Mr. Bremner. 
 
 Gloucester. Called the ' Good Duke 
 of Gloucester,' Lord Protector of Eng- 
 land. Was born 1391 and ' found detid ' 
 in 1447. He was the brother of Henry V., 
 and named protector during the minority 
 of his nephew Henry VI. He married 
 Eleanor Cobham in 1435, who was 
 accused of witchcraft and imprisoned in 
 1441. Gloucester was arrested for high 
 treason 11 Feb., and found dead (probably 
 the work of Cardinal Beaufort) 28 Feb., 
 1447. 
 
 Glover's Roll, 1586. A copy of the 
 famous Roll of Arms made by Glover, 
 Somerset Herald, and preserved in the 
 College of Arms. It goes back to the 
 reign of Henry III. The original vellum 
 roll is lost. 
 
 Gloves. Bishops, in the Catholic 
 Church, wear violet gloves, cardinals 
 scarlet, and popes white. 
 
 In maiden assizes, both in England and Scot- 
 land, the presiding judge is presented with a pair 
 of white kid gloves. 
 
 Women first used gloves in France in the reign 
 of Henri III. They were knitted gloves. Leather 
 gloves were not introduced till the reign of Louis 
 XIV. Their importation into England was for- 
 bidden in 1706 (6 Geo. III. c. l!i). 
 
 The Greeks and Romans did not wear gloves, 
 but used an armour to protect their hands in war. 
 
 Gluckists, 1774-1780. Followers of 
 Johann Christoph von Gluck, of Bohemia, 
 in the great musical war between Piccini 
 and Crluck. Gluck tried to reform the 
 Neapolitan school, in which the dialogue 
 and bushioss of opera were wholly sub- 
 sidiary, and the music was the only 
 thing regarded. The scenes were un- 
 connected, and only served as vehicles 
 for the airs and orchestra. Those who 
 thought Gluck's reform an improvement 
 were called Gluckists, but those who 
 thought the music only was worth con- 
 sideration in opera were called Piccinists, 
 from Nicolo Piccini of Naples, a con- 
 temporary composer. 
 
 Piccini's fame rests on his 'Didon,' ITS.S, and 
 ' Koland,' 1778 ; Gluck's fame rests on liis ' Orfeo,' 
 'Alceste,' 'Armida,' ' Iphigenie en Aulide,' and 
 ' Iphigenie en Tauride.' The 'Alceste' (of Euri- 
 p.^des), ' Iphigenie en Aulide ' (of Racine), and the 
 'Iphigenie en Tauride,' are in the French language. 
 Tiie ' War ' in France was musico-political. Blaria 
 A'ltoinette, a German by birth, was a Gluckist, 
 and therefore all her enemies were Piccinists. 
 Wagner followed Gluck in his operatic reforms. 
 A free translation of a French squib : — 
 One day the Bluses had a quarrel 
 To whom tliey sliould present the laurel— 
 
 Whether to Gluck or to Piccini ; 
 They could not for the world ^igree 
 'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee ; — 
 
 ' There's not a pin to choose between ye. 
 So Pic or Gluck (say I) or neither, 
 Or both, for aught I care, or either ; 
 More undocided than Babouc, 
 Here's heads for Pic, and tails for Gluck.' 
 
 Glutton-masses. Celebrated five 
 times a year. The people in the vicinity 
 brought to the secular clergy all sorts of 
 roast and boiled meats, with jiasties and 
 other viands, with strong drinks of every 
 sort. As soon as mass could be de- 
 spatched, the clergy and people of the 
 difl!erent parishes set to in good earnest 
 to see who could devour and drink the 
 most in honour of the Blessed Virgin. 
 
 Gnosticism. The Gnostics taught 
 that God lived in divine light, called 
 TT\rip<j>ixa, and was all in all. The next 
 stage was a long succession of aeons, in 
 which the Demiurgos, or Cx'eator, ap- 
 peared. Then followed Man, an earthy 
 BB 
 
370 
 
 GNOSTICS 
 
 GOD'S 
 
 compound with an imprisoned soul. 
 Those souls which shall be able to throw 
 off corruption will join the pleroma, the 
 rest will pass into other bodies. They 
 supposed man to be tripartite, having a 
 TTi/eviua or spirit derived from the ple- 
 roma, a ij/vx-n or soul bestowed by the 
 Demiurgos, and a body or liArj of 
 matter. Christ came to liberate the 
 pneuma from the psyche and hyle. They 
 despised the body and mortified it, and 
 of course preferred celibacy to wedlock. 
 For the same reason they denied the 
 resurrection of the body, and maintained 
 that its only resurrection was in baptism. 
 They rejected the divinity and humanity 
 of Jesus. His divinity, in that He was 
 inferior to God ; his humanity, in that his 
 body was only a sort of phantom. All 
 diseases they ascribed to malignant imps 
 who had power over nature. 
 
 Evil, say the Gnostics, Is the opposite of Good, 
 and therefore of God. If God is a spirit, matter 
 is the opposite, and evil must be in matter, and 
 hence the antagonism between matter and God. 
 
 Of Gnostics there were more than fifty sects, of 
 which the chief were the Basilidians, Valenti- 
 dians, Ivlarcionites, and later on the Manichiseans. 
 They flourished in the 3rd cent., and disappeared 
 in the 5th. 
 
 G-nostics. All those multifarious 
 sects which welded Greek, Roman, and 
 other philosophies with Christianity. 
 Such as the systems of Aristotle, Plato, 
 Pythagoras, Heraclltos, Empedocles, 
 Mysticism, Demonology, and the science 
 of Cabbala. Thus, accepting the person 
 of Christ, the Gnostics taught that he 
 was an aBon sent from heaven to reclaim 
 the better part of the human race. Some 
 maintained that the divine and human 
 nature of Christ united at baptism, and 
 separated at the crucifixion, when ' God 
 forsook him.' Others maintained that 
 his humanity was a mere illusion. Their 
 canonical books are widely different to 
 those received by the Christian Church 
 in our days. 
 
 They are the ' Prophecies of Cain,' the ' Writings 
 of Pachnr,' the ' Psalms of Valentliius and Bnrde- 
 Bancs,' ' Gnottic Hymns by Marcos, the ' Books of 
 Adam, Enoch, Moseh, Eliah, Is:i,jah,' with books 
 called ' Barkor,' 'Armagil,' 'Barbelon,' 'Balsa- 
 mum,' ' Lensiboras," &c. 
 
 G-nostics. Of Syria : Saturninus, 
 Bardesanes, Tatian, and Severus. 
 
 Of Asia : Cerdo, Marcion, Lucian or 
 Lucan, and Apelles. 
 
 Of Alexandria : Valentinus, Basilides, 
 Carjiocrates, Heracleon, Ptolemseus, Se- 
 cuudus, Marcus, Colobarsus. 
 
 Lesser Gnostic Sects : Sethians, Cain- 
 ites, and Opliites. 
 
 All in the first two centuries. 
 
 Gobbo (JZ). The Hunchback. I. Peter 
 Paul Bonzi of Cortona, the famous 
 painter (1580-1640). 
 
 II. Lonati of Milan, the famous violinist 
 (I7th-18th cents.). 
 
 Gobelin Tapestry, or 'Tapestry 
 
 of the Gobelins.' A famous tapestry 
 made in the Faubourg St.-Marcel, Paris, 
 and so called from the brothers Gobelin, 
 dyers from Reims, who made a fortune 
 by their scarlet dye in the reign of 
 Francois I. Louis XIV. in 1667 con- 
 verted the business into a royal manu- 
 facture, and employed eminent artists, 
 like Lebrun, to invent designs. It was 
 then designated ' Tlie Royal Hotel of the 
 Gobelins,' and the manufactures pro- 
 duced were called ' The Tapestry of the 
 Gobelins.' 
 
 The tale is that a dyer of Leyden one day left on 
 a window seat lined with tin a bottle of aqua 
 regia near some cochineal which he was using. 
 The bottle was accid ntally thrown down, and 
 mixing with the cochineal produced an exquisite 
 scarlet dye. The man thought the tin had some- 
 thing to do with it, and by mixing in cream of 
 tartar first some flnely-pov.dered cochineal and 
 then some tin in solution succeeded in discover- 
 ing the famous dye. 
 
 God of Flowers (T/ie). So Simon 
 Varelst, the great flower-painter, called 
 himself. 
 
 God save the King. The national 
 anthem of Great Britain and of Prussia. 
 Was (according to Cappell) the work of 
 Dr. Henry Carey, both words and music 
 (1G96-17'13). Cappell says it was com- 
 posed as a birthday hymn for George II., 
 and performed for the first time in 1740 
 at the Mercers' Company. 
 
 The words are an imitation of the ' Domine sal- 
 vum fac regem ' of the Catholic Church service. 
 Some still as-cribe the words and music to Dr. 
 John Bull iirjOlMSOD, professor of music in Gresham 
 College, and chamber-musician to James I. 
 
 G-od-Bote. An ecclesiastical fine 
 paid for offences against God. 
 Man-bote was a fine paid for slaying a man. 
 
 God's Congregation of poor 
 unarmed Christian Brothers, 
 
 1537. So Simon Menno of Friesland 
 called his followers. See ' Mennonites.' 
 
 God's House {The League of). *La 
 Ligia de la Chiada.' Switzerland ; for the 
 independence of the territory previously 
 subject to the Bishop of Coire. Formed 
 between 1424-1436. 
 
GOD'S 
 
 GOLD 
 
 C71 
 
 God*S Peace, 1035. See 'Holy 
 Peace.' 
 
 , God's Truce, 1040. A suspension 
 of arms from sundown on Wednesday 
 till sunrise on the Monday following, and 
 on all festivals. It superseded the ' Holy 
 Peace ' {q.v.), 1005, which was an entire 
 cessation of arms. All princes and 
 barons bound themselves to abstain from 
 feuds and spoliation on the days pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 Goddess of Liberty [The), 10 
 
 Aug., 1793. The Goddesses of Liberty 
 and of lleason were entiu'oned by the 
 French Convention at the suggestion of 
 Chaumette, and the cathedral of Notre 
 Dame de Paris was desecrated for the 
 purpose. The wife of Momoro the prin- 
 ter was the best of these ' goddesses.' The 
 procession was attended by the municipal 
 officers and national guards, while troops 
 of ballet girls carried torches of truth. 
 Incredible as it may seem, Gobet (the 
 archbishop of Paris), and nearly all the 
 bishops, vicars, canons, priests, and curc'S 
 of Paris, stripped themselves of their 
 canonicals, donned the red nightcap, and 
 joined in this blasphemous mockery. So 
 did Julien of Toulouse, a Calvinistic dis- 
 senting minister. See ' Goddess of 
 Keason.' 
 
 Mrs. Momoro, it is admitted, made one of the 
 best goddesses of Reason, though her teeth were 
 a little defective. — Cahlvle, French lievoUiUou, 
 Vol. iii. bk. v. 4. 
 
 Goddess of lleason (The), 10 Nov., 
 17i'3. A festival was given at Notre 
 Dame, Paris, in honour of the ' Goddess 
 of Reason,' who was personated by Mile. 
 Candeille of the Opera, one of the 
 earliest of these ' goddesses.' She wore 
 a red Phrygian cap, a white frock, a blue 
 mantle, and tricolour ribbons. Her head 
 was filleted with oak-leaves, and in her 
 liand she carried the pike of Jupiter- 
 Peuple. In the cathedral a sort of temple 
 was erected on a anouud, and in this 
 temple (called the Temple of Philosophy) 
 Mile. Candeille was installed. Young 
 girls crowned with oak-leaves were her at- 
 tendants, and sang hjmins to her honour. 
 See ' Goddess of Liberty.' 
 
 The two goddesses — one of Liberty and one of 
 Eeason— have caused some conlusion of naiues; 
 and similar installations were repeated at Lyons 
 and other places, as well as at Notre Dame and 
 BC. Sulpice. 
 
 Mile, ilaillard, the actress, is mentioned by 
 LmiHrtine as one of the goddesses, -who was 
 Cuui^eiltjd, uiuch at,aiubt iier ^vill, to play the part. 
 
 And Mile. Aubray vras one of the goddesses of 
 
 Reason. 
 
 A new religion. Demoiselle Candeille, of the 
 Opera ; a woman fair to look upon when well 
 rouged. She, borne on palnnquin, shoulder high, 
 with red woollen nis^htcap, in azure mantle, gar- 
 landed with oak, holding in her hand the pike of 
 the JupilerPeuple, sails in, herilded by white 
 young women girt in tricolor. This .... is our 
 new divinity— Goddess of Reason, worthy, and 
 alone worlhv of revering.— Caklyle, French Be- 
 volution, vol. iii. bk. v. 4. 
 
 Goderic. A nickname given by the 
 Normans to Henry Beauclerc. They 
 called his wife Matilda by the nickname 
 of Godithe or Godiva, because, as Wace 
 says, they ' tint la terre si sagenienfc.' 
 The sneer would be better understood by 
 ' The goody king and queen.' 
 
 Gold Coined. By Darius, son of 
 Ilystaspes, B.C. 521-485. First coined at 
 Rome A.D. 207. First coined in England 
 by Henry III. in 1257. 
 
 Gold Keys [The). The badge or 
 token of office given to the groom of the 
 stole and mistress of the robes. 
 
 The queen [Anne] had repeatedly infiisted to 
 Marlborough that the duchess should deliver up 
 the gold keys .... but that resolute woman re- 
 fused to comply.— HowiXT, Hist, oj' England (Anne, 
 274). 
 
 Gold Mine of Europe (The), So 
 Transylvania was once called; but the 
 supply of gold now obtained thence is so 
 much decreased that the title is no longer 
 applicable. 
 
 Gold People (The). So the Arabs 
 style the peoi:)le of the towns of Barbary; 
 the injiabitants of the Tell or cultivated 
 lands they call the Silver people ; and 
 the inhabitants of the Sahara they call 
 the Camel people. 
 
 Gold Purse of Spain (r/ie). An- 
 dalusia, the city from which Spain derives 
 her chief wealth. 
 
 Gold Rings. By Roman law, were 
 restricted by Tiberius (a.d. 22) to citizens 
 with certain property qualifications. Se- 
 verus (193-211) conferred the privilege 
 on the army. Justinian in 529 removed 
 all restrictions, and allowed any one who 
 liked to wear them. 
 
 Gold Stick. The colonel of the 2nd 
 Life Guards, who stands next to the 
 sovereign on state occasions, and carries 
 an ebony staff surmounted with a gold 
 head engraved v.'ith the royal cypher and 
 crown. He is assisted by anotiier ofticer 
 called the Silver Stick, The following 
 
 B B 2 
 
S72 
 
 GOLD 
 
 GOLDEN 
 
 extract from the standing orders of tlae 
 2nd Life Guards was supplied to me 
 direct from the Lord Chamberlain's 
 Oftice, St. James's Palace, July 1890. 
 
 ' In consequence of a conspiracy exist- 
 ing in 1528, the king's person [Henry 
 VIII.] was supposed to be in danger. It 
 was, therefore, ordered that one of the 
 captains commanding the Life Guards 
 should wait next to his Majesty's person, 
 before all others, carrying in his hand an 
 ebony staff with a gold head engraved 
 with his Majesty's cypher and crown. 
 Another principal officer, carrying an 
 ebony staff with a silver head, was 
 ordered to be near the captain to relieve 
 him occasionally. They were to be in 
 attendance on the king's person v/hen- 
 ever he walked, from his rising to his 
 going to bed, except in the royal bed- 
 chamber.' See ' Golden Staff.' 
 
 The 'Morning Post,' describing the investiture 
 of the royal princes in 1890, says : 'General Earl 
 Howe, C.B., was introduced to her Majesty s pre- 
 Ecjice by the Lord Chamberlain, and received 
 from her Majesty the gold stick of office as 
 colonel of the '2nd Regiment of Life Guards.' 
 
 Gold of Affliction {The). A per- 
 sonal tribute in the Eastern empire on 
 the industry of the poor. Abolished by 
 Anastas'ius about 500. 
 
 Timotheus of Gaza chose this tax as the subject 
 of a drama. He made it necessary for a father to 
 send out his own daughter to earn money to pay 
 the tax by the wages of unrighteousness. Tins 
 play contributed in no small measure to the aboli- 
 tion of the tax. 
 
 Gold of Tolo'sa, or Toulouse Gold, 
 ill-gotten and ill-starred wealth. It is 
 said that Caepio the consul, on his march 
 against the Cimbrians, stole from the 
 temple of Tolosa the gold and silver de- 
 posited there. His subsequent defeat 
 was regarded as a divine punishment for 
 this sacrilegious act ; and hence arose the 
 Latin proverb, Aurum Tolosanum hahet, 
 meaning ' his ill-gains will never prosper.' 
 
 Golden Age [The). The Greeks 
 and Romans ijlaced their golden age 
 under the rule of Saturn. 
 
 Hesiod described five ages, and Byron adds a 
 Bixth, the ' Age of Bronze.' Hesiod's five ages : — 
 
 The Golden Age, or patriarchal, under the rule 
 of Saturn. 
 
 The Silver Age, or voluptuous, under the rule of 
 Jupiter. 
 
 The Brazen Age, or warlike, under the rule of 
 Neptune. 
 
 The Heroic Age, or renaissant, under the rule of 
 Mprs. 
 
 The Iron Age, or utilitarian, under the rule of 
 Pluto. 
 
 The Prnnze Age (of Bjron), under Napoleon 
 Boni'.L'.'ito. 
 
 Golden Age of England (The). 
 
 The reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558- 
 
 1G03). 
 
 Statrsmnn : William Cecillord Burleigh 1520-1508 
 
 Dimnntists : Shakespca re (wrote 35 plays) 1564-1016 
 
 Ben Jonson (' Rare Ben ') 1574-1G37 
 
 Beaumont (1580-1007) and Fletcher ... 1570-1625 
 
 Massinger 1583-1639 
 
 Poets not dramatists : 
 
 Spenser, ' Faery Queen ' 155.S-1599 
 
 1 usser, ' 500 points of Good Husbandry" 1515-15B0 
 
 Buchanan (elegant Latin verse) .. 150e-158'2 
 
 Ecclesiastics : John Knox (Scotch Re- 
 former) 1505-157^ 
 
 Hooker, ' Ecclesiastical Polity ' ... 1053-10 1 
 
 J7i</orirt(i.s- : Camden, ' Britannia' ... 15~l-li>i3 
 
 Stow, 'Chronicle.' &c 15J5-10i)5 
 
 Holinshed, ' Chronicles' .. died 15ti0 
 
 Schi.lar : Sir Philip Sidney, 'The" tnrcel- 
 
 lus of England,' Author of ' Arcadia ' 1554-1586 
 
 To these add ' The Admirable ' Crichton. a -.vii- 
 vcrs.'il genius (1551-1583), Sir Thomas Greslikm, '..ho 
 f reat merchant, and a host of others not so well 
 known. 
 
 */ It is rather remarkable that our three chief 
 queens have all marked epochs in English history. 
 
 Elizabeth : The Golden Age. 
 
 Anne : The Silver Age. 
 
 Victoria : The Iron Age and Age of Science. 
 
 Golden Age of France (The). 
 Louis XIV. It contained the following 
 great men : — 
 
 Army: Turenne, Conde. Luxembourg, Catinat, 
 Cr.iquy, Vendume, and Villars. 
 
 Nni-ji : Duquesne, Tourville, and Duguay 
 Trouin. 
 
 Ministers : Colbert, Lou vols, and-Torcy. 
 
 Clergt/vien: Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Masaillon. 
 
 Statesmen: Mole, Lamoignou, Talon, D'Agues. 
 Beau. 
 
 Military Engineer '. Vauban. 
 
 Architects: Mansard and Perrault. 
 
 A rtists : Pujet, Girardon, Le Poussin, Le Sueur, 
 and Lo Brun. 
 
 Landscape Gardener: Le Vautre. 
 
 Poets: Racine, Corneille, I\tolit're, Quinault, 
 Lafontaine, La Bruyere, and Boileau. 
 
 Tutors to his child rcn : Montausier , Fenelon, Huct, 
 rit^chier, and De Fleury. 
 
 This galaxy gave him a title to be called ' Le 
 grand monarque.' 
 
 Golden Age of German Lite- 
 rature {The), 1750-1850. It con- 
 tained : — 
 
 Klopstock, author of 'Messiah' 1708-1803 
 
 Lofising, poet and prose writer .. 1729-1781 
 Herder, ' Outlines of the Philosophy of 
 
 the History of Man ' ... 1744-1R13 
 
 Wieland, the ' Voltaire of Germany' ... 1733 1S13 
 
 Goethe, author of ' Faust ■ _. 1740-1832 
 
 Schiller, the poet 175!i-18J5 
 
 Kant, the philosopher... ... ^. ... 17:M-1804 
 
 Fichte, „ ... „. ... ... 1712 1 14 
 
 Schelling, „ «. ^ ... ~. 1775-ls.j4 
 
 Hegel, „ 177U 1831 
 
 Burger, Voss, Kotzebue, Schlegel, Gesner, Zim- 
 mermann, Sturm, Richter, &c. 
 
 l; lumgarten, Moses Mendelssohn, Hamnnn, 
 Haller, Winckelmann, Mesmcr, Sir William Her- 
 Bchel, Lavater, Pestalozzi, Hahnemann, Gall, .tc. 
 
 With the musical composi-rs, Beethoven, 
 Hummel, Meyerbeer, Spohr, Weber, and others. 
 
 Golden Age of Italian Art 
 
 {Tlie). See ' Cinque Cento.' 
 
GOLDEN 
 
 GOLDEN 
 
 Golden Age of Poland {The). 
 That of Sigismund I., the Great, and his 
 son Sigismund II., Augustus (1506-1572). 
 
 Grolden Age of the Roman 
 
 Empire {The). The age of Antonmus 
 
 Pius (138-161). 
 
 The reign of Augustus is called the Augustan 
 
 Age. 
 
 Augustus B.C. G3— A.D. 14 
 
 Livy thistorian^ ... o9-17 
 
 Ovid (' Metamorphoses') 43-18 
 
 Horace (poet) fi5-B.C. 8 
 
 Vii-gil (poet) _ 7d-B.C. 19 
 
 And many others. See ' Augustan Age.' 
 
 Golden Angel, Golden Fleece, 
 Golden Spurs. See under ' Order,' 
 &c. 
 
 Golden Ass {The). A romance by 
 Aj)puleius. It is the adventures of 
 Lucian, a young man, metamorphosed 
 into the form of an ass, but still retaining 
 his manly intelligence. This satire con- 
 tains the exquisite episode of Cupid and 
 Psyche {Sl'-ke). 
 
 Golden Book {The). 'H Libro 
 d' Oro.' The register of Venetian no- 
 bility. Anyone enrolled in the ' Golden 
 Book,' if 25 years old, was a member of 
 the Grand Council. 
 
 When Bonaparte took possession of Venice in 
 17'J7, the ' Golden Book ' was burned at the foot of a 
 Tree of Liberty. 
 
 The attainment of the chancellorship was 
 more than once preferred to inscription in the 
 'Golden Boo^.'— History of Venice, vol. L p. 206 
 (Murray, 1831). 
 
 Golden Bull {The). 
 
 I. Of Hungary, 1222. Wrung from 
 King Andrew II. by his nobles, just as 
 Magna Charta was extorted from John. 
 Anclrew II. of Hungary, surnamed 
 ' Hi'erosolymitanus,' was a feeble, self- 
 willed, worthless king, like our John. 
 
 The nobles and the church -were to be exempt 
 from taxes. 
 
 The daughter of a noble without male heir shall 
 inherit one-fourth of his prop rty. 
 
 No noble shall be obliged to follow the king in 
 any foreign war. 
 
 The palatine (/.?. mayor of the palace) shall be 
 the supreme judge. 
 
 No foreigner to hold office or dignity without 
 consent of the council of the realm. 
 
 The king shall not grant counties or offices of 
 any kind in perpetuity. 
 
 If the king violates any of the laws in this bull, 
 it shall not be treason to levy war on him. 
 
 Called the ' Golden Bull ' because the attached 
 seal was enclosed in a golden case or box. 
 
 *»* It is rather remarkable that one of the very first 
 couutries in Europe to effeet the liberty of subjects 
 should havebeen one of the last-born nations, the Iluns 
 of Hungary. 
 
 II. Bulla Aurea of the Empire, 1356. 
 Published by Kaiser Karl IV. at the Diet 
 of Niivuberg. Considered the Magna 
 
 Charta of Germany. It prevented a 
 repetition of the contests which had 
 hitherto arisen whenever a vacancy in 
 the throne occurred ; and regulated the 
 functions, number, and privileges of the 
 electors. Called ' golden ' because the 
 seal attached to the parchment was of 
 gold instead of lead, or else that it was 
 enclosed in a golden case. 
 
 Since 1440 the electorate has been merely 
 nominal, as the House of Rudolph has been per- 
 manently established. 
 
 It limited the number of electors to seven (three 
 prelates and four lay princes*. The prelates were 
 the three Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and 
 Treves ; the lay princes were the King of 
 Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Margr^if of 
 lirandenburg, and the Pfalzgraf of the Rhine. 
 Their persons were declared sacred. Every ques- 
 tion was to be decided by majority and without 
 appeal. Frankfort was appointed the place of 
 session, and Aixla-Chapelle the place of corona- 
 tion. 
 
 Golden Cord {The Society of the), 
 1888. Organised by Mr. Scadding, an 
 American minister, among the boys of his 
 parish. The majority of the members 
 are newsboys, from nine to thirteen, and 
 they are pledged to keep five rules: 
 (1) To be loving and lovable; (2) to be 
 pure in heart, mind, and body ; (3) to 
 pity and help the poor and weak ; (4) to 
 be kind to dumb creatures ; (5) to hate 
 all shams, meanness, and dishonesty. 
 Having signed this pledge, the boy re- 
 ceives the badge— a knot of golden cord. 
 
 Golden Dragon of Bruges {The). 
 Taken in one of the crusades fi'om St. 
 Sophia, in Constantinople, and placed on 
 the belfry of Bruges (1 syl.). 
 
 Philippe van Artevelde transferred it to Ghent, 
 where it is still. 
 
 Golden Election {The). The 
 election of Addison, Hugh Boulter (after- 
 wards primate of Ireland), and Wilcox, 
 as demies of Christ Church, Oxford. 
 Addison was born 1672, Boulter 1671, Wilcox 1673. 
 
 Golden - footed Dame {The). 
 Leader of a troop of women who rode in 
 the attitude and armour of men, under 
 the banner of Conrad, in the second 
 crusade. The leader of the Amazonian 
 baud wore buskins and gilt spurs. 
 
 Golden Gate {The). 
 
 I. The entrance of the land-locked 
 bay on which San Fi-ancisco is seated. 
 
 II. Or ' Gate of the Seven Towers ' 
 (Jedicula Kapi) of Constantinople. Dr. 
 Smith says that over this gate was the 
 following inscrii3tion : 
 
 Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata Tyrannl 
 Aurea Becla gerit, qui portam construit auio, 
 
874 
 
 GOLDEN 
 
 GOLDEN 
 
 and adds, ' cited by Sirmond, in his notes 
 upon Sidonius.^ It still exists ; and near 
 it is a smaller arch, also called the Golden 
 Gate. 
 
 Golden Gate of Constanti- 
 nople {The). The entrance of the 
 Golden Horn {q.v.) or port of Constanti- 
 nople. It has no connection whatever 
 with the Lofty Gate or Sublime Porte of 
 the vizier's official residence. 
 
 The Bosphorus and the Hellespont may be con- 
 sidered as the two gates of Constantinople. . . . 
 When these gates were shut, the capital still 
 enjoyed every production which could supply the 
 wants or gratify the luxury of its inhabitants 
 . . . but when the passages of the straits were 
 thrown open, they admitted the natural and arti- 
 ficial riches of the north and south, the Euxine 
 and Mediterranean. — GIBBON, xvii. 
 
 Strange, after this, that Gibbon should more 
 than once speak of ' battering the Golden Gates 
 of Constantinople with axes.' 
 
 Golden Gate of Salo'na, {The). 
 A gate in the palace of Diocletian, in 
 Dahnatia. It was to his palace in Dal- 
 niatia that the emperor retired after his 
 abdication. The gate, which still opens 
 into the market-place, was probably gilt 
 when it was first built. 
 
 Golden Girdle. Louis VIII. made 
 an edict that no courtesan should be 
 allowed to wear a golden girdle under 
 very severe penalties. Hence the pro- 
 verb : ' Bonne renommee vault mieux que 
 ceinture doree.' 
 
 Golden Hand. General Zelislaus 
 lost his right hand in battle, and Boles- 
 laus III. gave him a gold hand. See ' Silver 
 Hand,' ' Iron Hand,' and ' Steel Hand.' 
 
 Zelislaus ducis pariter atquemilitis officio func- 
 tus contra Moravos dextram aniisit. Eum Bo), s- 
 Ihus III., Polonorum rex, collaudatum pro meii is 
 et virtute, aurea manu donavit.— Hisi. I own. 
 bools V. 
 
 Golden Hind {The). Sir Francis 
 Drake's ship, on board which Queen 
 Elizabeth on one occasion dined. 
 
 Golden Horde (The), or ' La Horde 
 d'Or.' The Tartars of the Kaptschak, 
 who established themselves in 14G3 in 
 the Crimea, the chief city of which penin- 
 sula was called Or or Perekop, the Greek 
 Taphros. The Tartar word Or, the 
 Slavonic word Perekop, and the Greek 
 word Taphros, all mean the same thing, 
 that is, a ' ditch or trench.' The Horde 
 d'Or simply means the ' Horde of the 
 Isthmus.' Our ' Golden Horde ' is a blun-- 
 dering translation of La Horde d'Or, 
 which should be the Horde of Or, or of 
 
 Perekop. Compare Greek oupos, opo? (a 
 channel, a boundary). 
 
 The usual explanation is this. The horde was 
 called ' the golden ' from the girgeous tapestry of 
 the Khan's tent, and that a pressnt of the emjaeror 
 of China to Ghengis Khan of a rich tent suggested 
 the title. The suggestion is utterly worthiets. 
 
 Golden Horn (The). A branch or 
 gulf of the Bosphorus, called also the 
 Port of Constantinople. It runs from 
 Galata north-w^estward, and is called 
 golden from its great beauty and the 
 wealth of the cities on each side. 
 
 The harbour of Constantinople obtained, in a 
 very remote period, the denomination of the 
 Golden Horn. The curl which it describes might 
 be compared to the horn of a stag or of an ox. 
 The epithet of golden was expressive of the riches 
 which every wind wafted into the capacious port. 
 Gibbon, ch. xvii. 
 
 Golden Legends {The), 13th cent. 
 A collection made by James de Voragine 
 (3 syl.), a Dominican. There are 177 
 sections, each of which is devoted to a 
 particular saint. That of Felix listening 
 to a bird, rendered into verse by Long- 
 fellow in 1851, is what is distinctively 
 meant by ' The Golden Legend.' 
 
 Golden Mass. 'Missa Aurea,' a 
 mass in celebration of the Virgin Mary ; 
 so called from its great pomp and mag- 
 nificence. See ' Mass.' 
 
 Golden Mouth {The). I. John of 
 Antioch, called Chrysostom (a.d. 347-407). 
 He was archbishop of Constantinople. 
 
 II. Dion the rhetorician (90-117). 
 
 Golden IMumber {The). The 
 ' Meton'ic Cycle ' or ' Cycle of the Moon,' 
 B.C. 432, devised by Meton. It ranges 
 from 1-19, because 19 years make a 
 cycle. The number used to be engraved 
 in letters of gold on pillars of marble. 
 
 Add 1 to the date of the year, and divide by 19. 
 The remainder is the golden number. If no re- 
 mainder, then 19 is the golden number. This 
 number determines the epact, and the time of 
 Easter. Thus thS epact for 18S0 is 9. 
 
 Golden Rose {The). Arose wrought 
 of gold, and blessed by the pope on Mid- 
 Lent Sunday (Lsetare Sunday, q.v.), and 
 presented to some Catholic whom the 
 pope thinks proper to honour. Du Cange 
 fixes the origin to Innocent IV. (1243- 
 12.54). 
 
 Isabella of Spain, and Eugenie the wife of 
 Napoleon III., have both received the Golden 
 Rose. Isabella of Spain was certainly no model 
 queen. Henry VIII. also received one from Cle- 
 ment VII. (! !) 
 
 Golden Rule {The), la Arithmetic, 
 the Bule of Three. 
 
GOLDEJ^ 
 
 GONFALONIERE 
 
 875 
 
 In Morals, *Do unto others as you 
 would be done by.' 
 
 G-olden Shield {Knights of the). 
 A French miUtary order instituted by 
 Louis II. for the defence of the country. 
 Motto : ' AUons.' 
 
 Golden Spears {The). The title 
 and ornament of the best army of the 
 Persians, consisting, in the days of . 
 Chosroes II., of 50,000 men. Cut to 
 pieces in the great battle of Nineveh, 
 1 Dec. A.D. 627 (Gibbon, xlvi.). 
 
 Golden Speech, or Chrysolngus, 
 Pietro bishop of Ravenna (*433-450). 
 
 Golden Spurs {Order of the), 1.530. 
 Instituted by Pope Paul III. Regulated 
 anew by Gregory XVI. in 1840. 
 
 Golden Staff. Thomas Mowbray 
 first earl marshal of England was so 
 created by Richard II. He and his succes- 
 sors were authorised by charter to carry 
 before the king a gold staff surmounted 
 with the royal arms, and having the Mow- 
 bray arms at the lower end. All other 
 marshals carry a wooden staff. See 
 'Black Rod,' ' Gold Stick,' &c. 
 
 It is said that William Marshall, who married 
 Isabel daughter of Sbrongbow, by whom ho came 
 into possession of the paliitinate of Leinster hi4d 
 by her father, carried a gold staff at the corona- 
 tion of Richard I. 
 
 Golden State {The). California, in 
 North America. 
 
 Golden Stream {The), or 'Chrysor- 
 roas,' Joannes Damasconus (676-756). 
 The first to apply the logic of Aristotle 
 to Christian dogmas and doctrines. 
 
 Golden Tongued {The). See 
 ' Golden Speech.' 
 
 Golden Valley {The). The eastern 
 part of Limerick is so called from its 
 great fertility. 
 
 Golden Veil {The). The Khalif of 
 Bagdad was inaugurated by a golden veil, 
 strongly perfumed with musk, being 
 thrown over his head. 
 
 Golden Verses of Oppian {The). 
 The KvinffyeTLKa, a Greek poem on 
 hunting, for which the Emperor Caracalla 
 jiaid him a piece of gold for every line. 
 He also wrote a poem on fishing. Oppian 
 died A.D. 213, aged 30. 
 
 Golden Verses of Pythagoras 
 
 {Tlie). May be thus rendered into Eng- 
 lish : — 
 
 Ne'er suffer sleep thine eyes to close 
 
 Before thy mind hath run 
 O er every act, and thought, and word, 
 
 From dawn to set of sun ; 
 For wrong take shame, but grateful feel 
 
 If just thy course hath boen : 
 Such efforts day by day renewed 
 
 Will keep thy soul from sin. 
 
 Golden Violet {The). The original 
 prize given by the 'Gaie Societe des Sejit 
 Troubadours de Toulouse,' founded in 
 1328, for the best poem sent in by May- 
 day every year. This society was the 
 origin of the ' Academy of Floral Games,' 
 in France. 
 
 Company {The). 
 Incorporated by 
 
 Goldsmiths' 
 
 London, 1393. 
 Richard II. 
 
 Goldsmiths' Wotes. Bank-notes 
 were originally so called, because the 
 bankers were all goldsmiths. 
 
 Golspie Stone {The). A stone in 
 Svitherland, with an Ogham inscription. 
 See ' Dogmael's Stone.' 
 
 Other stones in Scotland with Inscriptions in 
 Ogham are the Newton Stone and Logi'^ Stone in 
 Aberdeenshire, and the Bressay Stone in Shetland. 
 
 G. O. M. ' The Grand Old Man.' So 
 W. E. Gladstone, in his last premiership 
 (1881-1885), was called, half in ridicule 
 and half in admiration. Born 1809. 
 
 Go'marists or ' Anti-Remonstrants,' 
 1611. Calvinists, so called fx'om Frans 
 Gomar of Bruges (1563-1641), who put 
 forth a strong ' Counter-Remonstrance ' 
 against the Ai'minian ' Remonstrance ' 
 {q.v.) presented to the States of Holland, 
 in 1610. This Counter-Remonstrance dog- 
 matijally affirmed the dogmas of absolute 
 predestination and reprobation. 
 
 Gombette {La loi), a.d. 502. A 
 Burgundian code of considerable re^Dute, 
 often printed, even so late as 1855. It was 
 so called from Gombaud or Gondebaud, 
 the third king of Burgundy, who died 
 A.D. 516. A second part was added in 
 519 by Sigismond, the son and successor 
 of Gondebaud. Gombette (2 syl.). 
 
 I observe that this code is often erroneously 
 called by English authors La loi Gourbelic, origi- 
 nally, without doubt, a typographical error. 
 
 Gonfalon'iere {The), 1292. The 
 title given to the chief magistrate of 
 Florence. Subsequently, a gonfalonier 
 
376 
 
 GONFALONS 
 
 GOOD 
 
 of justice, with eight priors, constituted 
 the Signoria, held office for two months, 
 and Uved in the palazzo at the pubhc 
 charge. In other. Itahan repubhcs the 
 gonfaloniers were officers of justice, vary- 
 ing in number, and commanders of 
 regiments. In France, a gonfalonier 
 was the person who carried the gonfalon, 
 or grand banner of the church. This 
 sacred flag was always committed to 
 the charge of the avoues, or temporal de- 
 fenders of the churches and abbeys. 
 
 Gop.'falons {The). Of Florence, were 
 the sixteen standards of the four quarters 
 of the city. The quarters were named 
 from the four chief churches (Santo 
 Spirito, Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, 
 and San Giovanni) ; the gonfalons were 
 named after the devices blazoned on 
 them. 
 
 The four gonfalons of the Santo Spirito 
 quarter were the Ladder, the Shell, the 
 Whip, and the Dragon. 
 
 The four gonfalons of the Santa Croce 
 quarter were the Car, the Ox, the Golden 
 Lion, and the Wheels. 
 
 The four gonfalons of the Santa Maria 
 Novella quarter were the Viper, the Uni- 
 corn, the Red Lion, and the White Lion. 
 
 The four gonfalons of the San Giovanni 
 quarter were the Black Lion, the Dragon, 
 the Keys, and the Vair. 
 
 The standard-bearers were called the 
 'Sixteen,' and next to the Signory the 
 office was the most honourable in 
 Florence. 
 
 Gongorlsm. A stilted bombastic 
 style, called sometimes Estilo culto. The 
 word is derived from Luis de Gongora y 
 Argote, a Spanish poet born at Cordova 
 (1.561-1627). 
 
 G. H. Lewes, speaking of Calderon, says : ' I 
 seriously declare that his poetry does not seem to 
 me a whit richer in thought or feeling than that of 
 Lope de Vega, while it is even more defaced by 
 hyperbolical conceits and frigid Gongorisms.' 
 
 Gonville Hall, Cambridge, 1348. 
 Founded by Edmund Gonville, rector of 
 Terrington and Rushworth, in Norfolk. 
 See 'Caius College' (Keys College), by 
 which name it is now generally called. 
 
 Gonville Hall was enlarged by Bishop Bateman 
 in 1353. 
 
 Gronza'ga {The House of). A long 
 line of sovereign dukes of Mantua and 
 Montferrat (1328-1665), when the terri- 
 tory was taken possession of by the kaiser- 
 king Joseph L 
 
 Good Bishop of Marseilles 
 
 {The). Henri FrauQois Xavier de Bel- 
 sunce (1671-1755), who night and day, 
 with heroic courage, exerted himself to 
 succour the dying during the plague of 
 1720-21, to cheer the despairing, to com- 
 fort the afflicted, and to j)oint all to that 
 source of help which alone holds the 
 issues of life and death. 
 
 A similar devotion was shown in the 19th cent, 
 by Father ]Jami<?n, a Belgian priest, who spenb 
 sixteen years at the leper settlement at Molokai, 
 a H^iwaiian island. This devoted priest caught 
 the disease, and died from it in Blay 1889. 
 
 Good Cousins, 1808. The initiated 
 of the Carbonari. There were (1) appren- 
 tices, (2) masters. 
 
 Good Duke {The). Edward duke 
 of Somerset, lord Seymour, governor of 
 the person of the king's [Edward VL] 
 Majesty and protector of all his realms; 
 lieutenant-general of all his armies, both 
 by land and sea ; lord high treasurer, earl 
 marshal of England, knight of the most 
 noble order of the garter, &c. If honours 
 make goodness, he must have been ' good ' 
 indeed. Yet all his greatness and good- 
 ness did not save him from a traitor's 
 death. He was made lord protector in 
 1547, and was beheaded on Tower Hill 
 22 Jan., 1552. 
 
 Good Diike Humphrey {The). 
 Brother of Henry V. and lord protector 
 of England during the minority of 
 Henry VI. His brother John duke of 
 Bedford was regent of France (1391- 
 1447). 
 
 He was arrested for high treason 11 Feb., 1447, 
 and found dead '28 Feb. Probably murdered by 
 Cardinal Beaufort. 
 
 Good Duke of Argyll {The). 
 John Campbell, duke of Argyll (1678- 
 1743). 
 
 Good Friday. The Friday before 
 Easter Day. Kept sacred in commemo- 
 ration of the crucifixion on Calvary. It 
 seems to have been set apart by Con- 
 stantino the Great, who forbade ' the 
 holding of law-courts and markets' on 
 that day. In England and Ireland it is a 
 dies nan. 
 
 The day of the Crucifixion is by no means cer- 
 tain. Supposing tho ' Last Supper ' to be the 
 pascha, the three synoptists say tliat the Cruci- 
 lixioii took plicetheday ((/(.-/■, i.f. loth Nisan; bub 
 John informs us that the pascha occurred after 
 the Crucifixion. 
 
 Good Friend, 1854. A nickname 
 given to Napoleon III., from a letter 
 
GOOD 
 
 GOODY 
 
 C77 
 
 which he wrote to the Emperor Nicholas 
 of Eussia. The letter began ' Sire,' and 
 not ' Sire, my brother,' and ended ' Your 
 Majesty's good friend.' The letter was 
 published in the ' Moniteur,' and was like 
 a red flag to the Russian autocrat. 
 
 Good Lord James {The) of 
 
 Douglas, the friend of Bruce (died 1330). 
 He was entrusted with the heart of 
 Bruce, to carry it to the Holy Land and 
 bury it there ; but, on reaching Seville, 
 he entered the service of Alfonso against 
 the Moors, and was slain. The heart was 
 brought back and buried in Melrose 
 Abbey. 
 
 Goodman of B alien ^eich. The 
 
 name assumed by James V. of Scotland 
 when he made his disguised visits in the 
 districts round Edinburgh and Stirling. 
 
 Goodman's Fields, Whitechapel, 
 London. So called from a large farmer 
 of the name of Goodman. 
 
 At this farm I myself in my youth have fetched 
 Bfiiny a hap orth of milk, and never had less than 
 throe ale-pints in summer and one in winter, 
 always hot from the kine and strained. One 
 Trolop, and afterwards Goodman, was the farmer 
 there, and had thirty or forty kine to the pail.— 
 SX'uW, Survey of London (loiJb). 
 
 Good Men. So the Waldenses (q.v.) 
 were called in Germany, from the sin- 
 cerity of their persuasion and purity of 
 their lives. 
 
 G-ood Men of St. Martin (The). 
 ' Buonomini di San Martino.' A chari- 
 table society of twelve men, founded in 
 the middle of the 15th cent, by Antonino 
 (afterwards archbishop of Florence, and 
 known as St. Antonio). Called ' San 
 Martino ' from the little homely church 
 of St. Martin, the headquarters of the 
 brotherhood. It still exists in Florence. 
 The object of this charity was the relief 
 of those who had fallen into poverty, but 
 were unable to earn their bread, and were 
 ashamed to beg. 
 
 Dante was married In thi3 church, and was 
 born within sight of it. 
 
 Good Parliament (The), 1376. In 
 the reign of Edward III. So called from 
 its sturdy opposition to the illegal govern- 
 ment of the Crown, or royal council. 
 Tiie speaker was Sir Peter do la Marc, 
 and the Black Prince most heartily sup- 
 ported the Commons. It denounced the 
 mismanagement of the French war, the 
 oppressive taxation, and Jol-n of Gaunt 
 the duke of Lancaster, who was obliged 
 
 to withdraw from the council. It de- 
 manded a strict account of how the public 
 money had been expended. It exposed 
 a terrible list of abuses j not sparing the 
 king himself and his mistress Alice 
 Perrers. Alice was driven from the court, 
 and made to swear never to return again. 
 It impeached Lord Latimer and William 
 Lyons ; and presented 160 petitions of 
 grievances. It demanded the annual as- 
 sembly of parliament and freedom of elec- 
 tion ; denounced the papal aggressions, 
 and demanded a more vigorous prosecu- 
 tion of the war. See ' Parliament.' 
 
 The taxes levied for the pope were five times 
 those levied for the king. 
 
 Good Queen Anne (The). The 
 wife of Richard II. of England. On her 
 marriage she was 15 and Richard 16. She 
 was the daughter of Karl VI. kaiser "of 
 Germany, who attended his father, the 
 blind old King of Bohemia, at the battle 
 of Cre'cy, and was gi-anddaughter of 
 Sigismund. Anne of Bohemia was good 
 looking and most amiable. She married 
 Richard 14 Jan., 13S2, and died at Sheen 
 7 June, 1394, aged 27. 
 
 Many suppose the phrase is meant to apply to 
 Anne daughter of James II., because she trans- 
 ferred to the church the money called ' Queen 
 Anne s Bounty ' (q.v.) ; but Anne Stuart was the 
 mere tool of stronger minds. 
 
 Good Queen Maud. First wife 
 of her cousin Henry I. of England, and 
 daughter of Malcolm of Scotland. Married 
 1100, died 1118. 
 
 Good Recent (TJie). James Ste- 
 wart, earl of Murray (or Lloray), natural 
 son of James V. of Scotland, by Mar- 
 garet, daughter of John 4th lord E'rskino. 
 Assassinated by Hamilton of Bothweil- 
 haugh 21 Jan., 1570. 
 
 Good Swordsman {The). 'Le 
 bon sabreur,' Joachim Murat, marshal of 
 France (1771-1815). 
 
 Good Templars {The Indcjiendeni 
 Order of). This order is pledged to total 
 abstinence. It was formed in New York 
 in 1851, and introduced at Birmingham 
 in 18GS. The president is styled the 
 ' Grand Worthy Chief.' 
 
 This order has no connection with the ' Knights 
 Templars ' (i/.w.). 
 
 Goody Palsgrave. So Anne (wife 
 of James I. of Phigland) used to call her 
 daughter Elizabeth, after her marriage 
 with Frederick elector palatine and 
 ' king of Bohemia.' She had eight son3 
 
878 
 
 GOORKHA 
 
 GOSPELLERS 
 
 and five daughters. * Goody ' was a term 
 of contempt. Elizabeth is often called 
 ' queen of Bohemia.' 
 
 Grave Maurice [i.e. the Graf Moritz] and Prince 
 Rupert, &o celebrated in the wars of England be- 
 tween Charles I. and his parliament, were her 
 sons ; and Sophia, the mother of George, was her 
 daughter. 
 
 GrOOrkha (India). A cow-herd; a 
 name applied to every native of Nepaul. 
 It properly belongs to the Gorkhalis, a 
 Hinduised and warlike race of Nepaul. 
 
 Goose Moon {The). So the North 
 American Indians call the month in which 
 the flocks of geese from the Arctic shores 
 arrive. These geese supply the Indians 
 with a much-coveted food in winter. 
 
 Goose Tower [The). The tower of 
 the Castle of Gurve, built by Valde- 
 mar I. of Sweden in 116G. In this tower 
 captives taken in war, called geese, were 
 confined. 
 
 Gordon Riots {The), 1778. Riots 
 organised by Lord George Gordon as a 
 l^rotestation against the relaxation of the 
 penal code against English Roman 
 Catholics. 2 June, 1780, Lord George 
 Gordon, with some 100,000 followers, left 
 St. George's Fields, with the view of jjre- 
 senting a monster petition (containing 
 120,000 names) for the repeal of the late 
 act. The soldiers were called out ; only 
 eight persons in the House voted with 
 Lord George ; but the mob were riotously 
 inclined, and went about destroying 
 Roman Catholic chapels, the shops of 
 Roman Catholics, and molesting those 
 who resisted their foolish fanaticism. 
 This went on for six days ; on the ninth 
 Lord George Gordon was apprehended on 
 a charge of high treason. Twenty-one 
 of the rioters were executed in July 1780, 
 but Lord George was acquitted as of 
 unsound mind. He ultim.ately died in 
 Newgate of a fever in 1793. 
 
 On 2 June, 1780, the chapel of the Sardinian 
 minister was razed to the ground. 
 
 On 5 Juno a Catholic school and three priests' 
 houses were destroyed. 
 
 On 6 June Mewgato was forced, and .300 prisoners 
 were released ; and in the evening several houses 
 ■were set on fire. 
 
 On 7 June King's Bench Prison, the Fleet Prison, 
 Bridewell, and Beveral private houses were de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Gorham Case {The). A dispute 
 
 between the Rev. George C. Gorham and 
 the Bishop of Exeter, who refused to in- 
 stitute him to the vicarage of Bramford 
 Speke in Devonshire, in 1848. Gorham 
 
 applied to the Court of Arches, and his 
 application was dismissed by Sir Herbert 
 Jenner Fust (2 Aug., 1849). An appeal 
 was then made to the Privy Council, 
 which reversed the order of the Covirt of 
 Arches (8 March, 1850). The bishop then 
 applied to the Court of Queen's Bench, 
 but was cast (15 April, 1850). Another 
 application by the bishop to the Court of 
 Common Pleas also failed (2 May, 1850). 
 Ultimately Gorham was instituted, 
 7 August, 1850. The case created an 
 immense sensation, as it was a combat 
 between the Evangelical Church party, 
 represented by Gorham, and the High 
 Church party, represented by the Bishoj) 
 of Exeter. 
 
 A somewhat similar contest occurred in 1889, 
 when the Bishop of Lincoln was sunmioned to 
 appear before the Arclibishop of Canterbury for 
 wliE't were called ' Kubrical offences.' iS'ee 'Lin- 
 coln Impeachment,' &c. 
 
 Gorlitz Process {The), 1850. A 
 celebrated trial which took place in Ger- 
 many. The Countess of Gorlitz was 
 strangled by a servant named Johann 
 Stauff, whom she had caught stealing 
 articles from a desk in her sitting-room. 
 The case was tried at Darmstadt, and the 
 jjrisoner pleaded ' Not guilty,' but was 
 imprisoned for life. The main interest of 
 the case rested on this point : the body of 
 the countess was burnt, and Dr. von Sie- 
 bold maintained it was desti'oyed by 
 spontaneous combustion, while the che- 
 mists Bischoff and Liebig denied the 
 possibility of such combustion. 
 
 Gortonists. A religious sect in New 
 England, so-called from Samuel Gorton 
 (1()U0-1G77), a sectary who denied the 
 humanity of Christ. Extinct. 
 
 Go'schens, 1888. A Stock Exchange 
 term for the new 2f per cent, stock, which 
 was for the first time officially quoted 
 30 March, 1888. Named after George 
 Joachim Goschen, chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, who projected the conversion. 
 
 Gospellers, 1549. A religious party 
 in England, said to have been very profli- 
 gate in their lives, and thus to have 
 brought scandal on the Reformed Church. 
 Article 38 of the Church of England is 
 aimed at these men : ' The goods of Chris- 
 tians are not [in] common ... as certain 
 Anabaptists do falsely bf)ast.' 
 
 When two ministers read the communion ser- 
 vice, the one who stands on the norLli hide of the 
 table is called the Gospeller because he reada the 
 j GospeL 
 
GOSPELS 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 879 
 
 Gospels {Spurious). 
 
 The Gospel of 
 
 Andrew 
 
 Apelles 
 ' Barnabas 
 
 Cerinthus 
 
 Eve 
 
 James the Greater 
 
 Judas Iscariot 
 
 Lucianus 
 
 Lucius 
 
 Matthew (false) 
 
 The Gosr'el of 
 Matthias 
 Marcion 
 Nicodemus 
 Peter 
 Philip 
 
 Tatian^?;^ Diatcssaron 
 Thaddeus 
 Thomas 
 Valentinua 
 
 The Gospel of Perfection 
 The Gospel of the Ebionitcs (4 syl.). 
 The Gospel of the Infancy of Ciuist 
 The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary * 
 The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles 
 The Gospel according to the Kgvptians 
 The Gospel according to the Hebrews 
 The Gospel according to the Syrians 
 The Everlasting Gospel (i:Uh cent.) 
 The Four Gospels of the Manicheans 
 The History of Joseph the Carpenter 
 The Protevangelium of James [Toldoth Jeschu] 
 *,* It is from these that Mohammed derived his 
 hnowlrdge of the Saviour. 
 
 Irenseus (i. 17) tells us that the Gnostics, in the 
 2nd cent., had an innumerable multitude of 
 spurious books ; and in the following ago the num- 
 ber greatly increased. In the 4th cent, there were 
 at least 80 gospels. See under ' Gnostics.' 
 
 Grotescalc, sumamed The Second 
 Effulgence. A German heretic (806- 
 8G8). His 'heresy' seems to have been 
 the Calvinistic doctrines of absolute 
 election and reprobation. He was con- 
 demned by the Council of Mayence in 
 848, imprisoned by the order of Ilincmar 
 archbishop of Eeims, and died in gaol 
 in 8G8. 
 
 Go'thamite. A New Yorker. 
 
 Gothamist, a man of Gotham, in Nottingham- 
 Bhire. 
 
 Gothic Architecture {Pointed 
 style). Originated about IICO. 
 
 Gothic Code {The), or ' Codex Le- 
 gum Barbarovum.' The laws of the 
 barbarians codified by Alaric, king of the 
 Visigoths, and augmented by his suc- 
 cessors. See ' Codex.' 
 
 Gothic Liturgy {The). Same as 
 the ' Mozarabic Liturgy ' {q.v.). 
 
 Gothic War {The), a.d. 331. The 
 Sarmatians being threatened by Alaric, 
 king of the Goths, applied to Constan- 
 tine the Great for protection. The 
 emperor gladly responded to the request, 
 and after three or four engagements of 
 varying success, the Goths retreated across 
 the Danube, and Constantine received the 
 honours of a triumph. 
 
 Goth'icus. Claudius II. of Rome was 
 BO called because he defeated the Scyth- 
 ians, Heruli, and Goths, who had invaded 
 
 Moesia, A.D. 269. In the great battle at 
 Nai'ssus there were more than 320,000 
 Goths, and as many as 50,000 were slain. 
 
 Goths {The). Part of the great 
 Teutonic swarm at one time dispersed 
 about the southern and eastern shores of 
 the Baltic. Afterwards they moved to- 
 wards the Black Sea, where, in the middle 
 of the 3rd cent., thej^ split into two parts. 
 Those who remained in the east of Europe 
 were called the Eastern [Ostro] Goths ; 
 and those who journeyed westwards were 
 called the Western [Visi] Goths. 
 
 Gottesfreunde {The), or ' Society of 
 the Friends of God,' who strove to esta- 
 blish the 717110 myst'ica, or loving inter- 
 course with deity. 
 
 Gourides (2 syl.). A dynasty which 
 reigned in Persia in the 12th cent., 
 founded by Hussin Mahmoud Gouri, 
 governor of Gour under the Gaznevides. 
 He declared himself independent in 1155. 
 Under Alah Eddyn the Gourides con- 
 quered all Persia, and drove out the Gaz- 
 nevides in 1158; but in 1213 they were in 
 turn driven out by the Carizmians. 
 
 Government {The Act of), 1657. 
 The act which made Cromwell the Lord 
 Protector. The Speaker, in the name of 
 the Commons, invested him with a mantle 
 of state, placed the sceptre in his hand, 
 and girt the sword of justice by his side. 
 By this act of government Cromwell was 
 allowed to name his successor, but in all 
 after cases the office was to be elective. 
 
 The Commons had previously offered Cromwell 
 the title of iiiiig. but the army disapproved; and 
 Cromwell told the Commons he could not under- 
 take the government burdened with such a title. 
 
 Government of July {The). The 
 Eoyal Republic, with Louis Philippe, an 
 elective king, called ' King of the French,' 
 not ' King of Prance.' From 9 Aug., 1830, 
 to 24 Feb., 1818. 
 
 Government of the Cortes 
 
 {The), 1814-1823. The constitutional 
 monarcliy established in Spain after the 
 fall of Napoleon. 
 
 Government of the ITational 
 Defence {The), 2 Sept., 1S70, to 13 Feb., 
 1871. After the battle of Sedan, when 
 the French emperor (Napoleon III.) 
 yielded up his sword to William king of 
 Prussia, certain persons arrogated to 
 themselves the offices of state under the 
 title of ' The Government of the National 
 
GOVEENMENT 
 
 GEACE 
 
 Defence * ; but they resigned their office to 
 the National Assembly, when M. Thiers 
 was appointed president of the new 
 republic. (Thiers, pronounce Te-air.) 
 
 G-overnment of the 400 {The), 
 B.C. 411. An oligarchy instituted in 
 Athens for the democracy, by the i^er- 
 suasion of Alcibiades. The 400 were 
 chosen by five presidents, and in them 
 •B'-as lodged absolute power. This form 
 of government lasted only four months. 
 
 Governor-General of India, or 
 
 ' Governor-General of the United Colony,' 
 i.e. Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, 1786. 
 Each of these provinces has a governor, 
 but that of Bengal has precedence. 
 
 Gower. Apart of Glamorganshire, 
 colonised by Flemings in the reign of 
 Henry I. These colonists did not speak 
 Welsh. 
 
 Gownsmen. Men who had risen 
 by their wise counsel in civil affairs ; in 
 contradistinction to military heroes, called 
 Men of the Sword. The terms were 
 common in Queen Elizabeth's reign. We 
 still use the phrase ' Carpet Knights ' for 
 lord mayors and other civil ofticers who 
 receive the order of knighthood. 
 
 Gowrie Conspiracy {The), 5 
 Aug., IGOO. The king's version is that 
 during a hunting expedition Alexander 
 Euthven informed him that a mysterious 
 stranger with stores of gold was in Euti;- 
 ven Castle, and that it would be desirable 
 for the king to see him. The king went 
 to the castle with a few attendants, and 
 was taken by Alexander to a high tower, 
 where, instead of a stranger, he found 
 Henderson, one of Gowrie's servants. 
 He says that Alexander tried to murder 
 him, but he called out ' Treason,' and, 
 some of his attendants coming to his 
 rescue, Alexander was slain. The noise 
 of the scuffle roused the house, and the 
 Earl Gowrie, with seven retainers, rushed 
 into the tower, whereupon a scuflle en- 
 sued, and Gowrie fell dead at the hand 
 of Sir John Eamsay. Some say the whole 
 tale is most improbable, and that it is 
 more likely that James was the aggressor, 
 and murdered the twobrot'iers to avenge 
 an insult offered to him by their father, 
 in the 'Eaid of Euthven' {q.v.). The 
 clergy generally disbelieved the king's 
 version, and refused to offer up thanks to 
 God for his deliverance; but a day was, 
 
 nevertheless, set apart for the purpose. 
 The truth of the matter seems to be that 
 the two brothers wanted to kidnap the 
 king, but met with their death and the 
 king escaped. 
 
 Graal {The), or 'The Holy Graal.' 
 A miraculous chalice made of a single 
 emerald, which possessed the power of 
 preserving chastity and prolonging life. 
 Said to have been the cup from which 
 Christ drank at the last supper, and in 
 which Joseph of Arimathea caught the 
 last drops of blood as Christ was taken 
 down from the cross. In 1170 Chre'tien 
 of Troyes sang of the search by knights 
 for this miraculous cup, which was a very 
 favourite subject in the middle ages. 
 
 Grace was the title assumed by 
 Henry IV, of England on his accession 
 in 1399. ' Excellent Grace ' was assumed 
 by Henry VI. in 1425, and was retained 
 till Henry VIII. adopted the word ' Ma- 
 jesty ' {q.v.). An archbishop or duke of 
 the United Kingdom is still addressed as 
 ' Your Grace.' 
 
 Grace {A). In the University of 
 Cambridge means a proposal by the 
 Council offered to the Senate to be con- 
 firmed. All laws, all degrees, all permits, 
 all licences, connected with the University 
 are graces before they take effect by the 
 authority of the Senate {q.v.). 
 
 A grace for a degree is called a supplicat. 
 
 Grace {The Act of), 1G96. Provides 
 maintenance for debtors in Scotland 
 when imprisoned by their creditors. 
 
 In England general pardons at the beginning of 
 a new reign, or on other special occas-ions, are 
 called Acts of Grace. In the reign of William and 
 Mary, at the dissolution of the United Ministry 
 of Whigs and Tories, a general pardon for all 
 political offences, called an Act of Grace, was 
 Bent down to the House, 1689. 
 
 Grace {Days of). See ' Days of Grace.* 
 
 Grace Darling, 6 Sept., 1838. 
 The ' Forfarshire ' steamboat, with sixty 
 persons on board, was wrecked on its 
 passage from Hull to Dundee. A few 
 escaped in the larboard quarter-boat, bub 
 the vessel itself went to pieces on a rock 
 near the Fame Islands. Half the ship 
 was carried away, with aU the persons in 
 the cabin or on the stern and quarter- 
 deck, but the other half stuck fast on the 
 rock. Grace Darling, who was living 
 with her father in the Longstone light- 
 house, heard the screams, and induced 
 her father to go with her in a lifeboat to 
 
GRACELESS 
 
 GEAND 
 
 881 
 
 the rock. The sea was very rough, the 
 wind high, and the rain heavy, but Grace 
 and her father saved nine persons. This 
 heroic maiden died 20 Oct., 1842, of con- 
 sumption, aged 25. 
 
 Graceless and Godless Florins 
 
 (The). The florins struck in 1849 by Mr. 
 Sheil, Master of the Mint. The le.L'end 
 was only ' Victoria Regina,' both F.D. 
 {fidei defensor) and D.G. {Dei gratia) 
 being omitted. This gave great offence, 
 and the coins were called in the same 
 year. 
 
 Graces (T/ze). Articles of the cove- 
 nant between Charles I. and the great 
 landed proprietors of Ireland. Charles 
 had quartered a large military force on 
 the Irish ; and the chief proprietors 
 agreed to pay the king 120,000^. to be 
 secured in their rights and properties.* 
 The Graces provided : That the king's 
 claim to lands in Ireland sliould be 
 limited to sixty years ; that the pro- 
 prietors of Connaught should receive 
 new patents ; that the exactions of the 
 soldiery should be restrained ; that the 
 fees of the king and the powers of the 
 court should be defined ; and that a gene- 
 ral pardon for past offences should be 
 granted. The articles were never carried 
 into effect. 
 
 * That is, that the Discoverers {q.v.) should not 
 be sent to examine the titles ol their estates. 
 
 Gradual. That part of the Mass 
 which intervenes between the epistle 
 and the gospel; it consists of a few 
 verses of the psalms chanted on the steps 
 [gradus) of the altar. 
 
 Gradual Psalms. * Psalms of the 
 Steps,' ' Songs of Degrees,' Psalms 120- 
 134. The meaning is uncertain. Pro- 
 bably they were the psalms sung during 
 the time of burnt-sacrifice, called olut, 
 m-olut (of degrees). 
 
 Graf. In Germany a reeve, as in our 
 word sheriff, i.e. shire-reeve. Subse- 
 quently it was a mere honorary title, 
 somewhat like the French count. The 
 original function of the reeve was to 
 collect the revenues of his district. The 
 word is very old, and occurs in the Lex 
 Salica (5th cent.). Charlemagne divided 
 his vast empire into grafschaften or 
 districts, over each of wliich was a chief 
 magistrate called a graf. See 'Mar- 
 graf,' 'Pfalzgraf.' 
 
 Graham's Dyke. The rampart 
 running along the line of the detached 
 forts which Agricola planted a.d. 81 
 between the firths of Clyde and Forth, 
 to serve as a defence against the Picts 
 and Scots. Also called the ' WaU of An- 
 toninus.' 
 
 Called the ' Wall of Antoninus ' because it was 
 made by Lollins Urbicus, general of the Emperor 
 Antoninus. The ' Dyke of Urbicus ' connects 
 these forts together. Hee ' Grimes Dyke.' 
 
 Grahamise. To open letters at the 
 post office in order to trace crime. ' Har- 
 courting ' is a word of the same meaning, 
 introduced while Sir "William Harcourt 
 was home secretary (1880-1885). 
 
 Grammarians, or ' GrammatTci.' 
 Philologists of ancient Rome. Suetonius 
 has written a history of the Grammatici. 
 The most famous were Aristarchus, Dio- 
 nysius, Didymus, Flaccus, and Quin- 
 tilian. But of the second century of the 
 Christian era the following names are 
 well known: Pollio, Eutychius, Athe- 
 neeus, Julius Pollux, Macrobius, and 
 Aulus Gellius. 
 
 Gramota Soudebnaia. The code 
 of laws drawn uj) for the people of Novo- 
 gorod by Jaroslaf I. of Russia (1015- 
 1055). The code is still in force. 
 
 Granary of Athens (The). The 
 district about Kertch. The buckwheat 
 of this district carried off the prize in the 
 Great Exhibition of London in 1851. 
 
 Granary of Europe {The). Hun- 
 gary, famous for its cereals. Sicily was 
 so called at one time. 
 
 Granary of Turkey {The). So 
 Egypt used to be called. 
 
 Grand Alliance {The). I. Of 
 Kaiser Leopold and Holland against 
 Louis XIV., signed at Vienna 12 May, 
 1689. Joined by England 20 Dec, 1681) ; 
 by Spain 6 June, 1690 ; and by Saxony 
 2 June, 1694. 
 
 II. Against Louis XIV. and the Spanish 
 Succession. Between the kaiser. Great 
 Britain, Holland, Prussia, and Hanover ; 
 signed at the Hague 7 Sept., 1701. 
 
 III. Against Napoleon I., 3 March, 
 1813. This was the 6th and last coalition 
 against Napoleon, encouraged by the 
 disastrous Moscow expedition. The alli- 
 ance, signed at Reichenbach, consisted 
 of Prussia and Austria, Russia, Sweden, 
 and Great Britain. Denmark joined 14 
 
382 
 
 GRAND 
 
 GRAND 
 
 Jan., 1814. Before this Denmark had 
 thrown in her lot with Napoleon. 
 
 Grand Assize [The). Appointed 
 
 by Henry II. to supersede trials by 
 battle. A freeholder might refer his dis- 
 pute to twelve legal knights, and, if tbey 
 agreed in their verdict, their judgment 
 was final ; if not, others were selected till 
 the verdict was unanimous. 
 
 Grand Climacteric {The) of 
 
 man's life is 63, the compound of the two 
 mystic numbers 7x9. Of course it needs 
 hardly be added that this year is not 
 more fatal to man than any other. 
 
 Certainly 9x9 is far nearer the psalrcist's 'four- 
 Bcore ' years. As a rule, five times the years of 
 full growth is the natural term of animal life. 
 
 Grand Companies {The), or ' Free 
 Companies.' Troops of adventurers that 
 desolated France in the reign of Jean II. 
 le Bon, and the first part of the reign of 
 Charles V., his son. The nucleus of these 
 bandits was the disbanded German mer- 
 cenaries after the battle of Poitiers (1356). 
 Being without employment, they enlisted 
 under any daring leader that would hire 
 them, and spread themselves abroad 
 as a desolating scourge. To free the 
 country of this pest Charles induced 
 them to take service under Duguesclin, 
 and sent them to the Spanish war, where 
 they were either slain or took service 
 under the Black Prince (1367-1369). 
 
 Grand Corneille {Le). Pierre 
 Corneille (1606-1684). Thomas Corneille 
 was also a dramatist (1625-1709). 
 
 Grand Corrupter {The). Sir 
 Robert Walpole (1676-1745). He was 
 expelled the House 17 Jan., 1712, being 
 found guilty of ' a high breach of trust, 
 and notorious corruption.' There is no 
 doubt that he always had a profound 
 faith in bribery, and never scrupled to 
 exercise it. 
 
 Grand Council {The). 'Consiglio 
 
 Grande.' An assembly of Venetian noble- 
 men over the age of 25. All persons 
 eligible were inscribed in the Golden 
 Book. The Grand Council chose a com- 
 mittee of 11 to elect the members of the 
 Grand Council ; the Grand Council, after 
 5 ballots and 5 scrutinies, elected the 
 Council of Forty; and the Council of 
 Forty elected one of the Grand Council 
 for doge, 
 
 Grand Coutu'mier of "Nov- 
 mandy {Tlie). A collection of the 
 ancient laws of Normandy, compiled in 
 the 3rd year of Henry III., and contain- 
 ing the laws and customs prevailing in 
 the reigns of Henry II., Richard I., and 
 John. 
 
 Grand Days. Those days in tho 
 term which are ' dies non juridici,' in the 
 Inns of Court and Chancery, as Candle- 
 mas day in Hilary — Ascension day in 
 Easter — St. John the Baptist's day in 
 Trinity — and All Saints' day in the 
 Michaelmas term. 
 
 In the French monarchy the annual 
 assizes were called the Grand Jours, es- 
 pecially the extraordinary assizes of the 
 kings of France in the provinces. In the 
 reign of Francois I. there were many 
 such, e.g. in Poitiers 1531, and again 
 1541 ; at Moulins in 1534, 1540, 1545 ; at 
 Troyes in 1535 ; at Angers in 1539, &c. 
 The last Grand Jour was held by Louis 
 XIV. in 1665 at Clermont-Ferrand. 
 
 Grand Duke of the West {The). 
 The Duke of Burgundy. Philippe III. 
 le Bon (1396, 1419-1467) was 'due de 
 Bourgogne, de Lorraine, de Brabant, de 
 Limbourg, et de Gueldres; comte de 
 Flandre et d'Artois ; comte-palatine de 
 Hainault, de Zeeland, de Namur, et de 
 Zutphen ; seigneur de la Frise, de Salins, 
 et de Malines.' 
 
 Grand Master. The head of the 
 Hospitallers, Templars,Teutonic Knights, 
 and Freemasons respectively. 
 
 Grand Monarque(ie). LouisXIV. 
 (1638, 1613-1715). He was for twenty 
 years the pupil of Mons. Beauchamp, the 
 dancing-master, and in his wars with 
 Marlborough reduced France to the 
 verge of bankruptcy. His religious per- 
 secutions were almost as disastrous to 
 France as his wars with England. It is 
 well for a nation not to have such ' great 
 kings ' as Louis XIV. 
 
 It is truly pitiable to call such a man as George 
 IV. ' the First Gi?ntleman of Europe,' or Louis XIV. 
 the ' Grand Monarque ' of France. Honri IV. was 
 twice as ' Great ' as the pupil of M. Beauchamp. 
 
 Grand Old Man {The), or G.O.M. 
 I. William Ewart Gladstone was so-called 
 in his last administration, 1881-1885. 
 Lord Rosebery first used the expres- 
 sion 26 April 1882, and the Right Hon. 
 Sir W. Vernon Harcourt repeated it, 
 18 Oct. the same year. 
 
GRAND 
 
 GRANGERITE 
 
 883 
 
 II. Dr. Hook, when vicar of Leeds 
 (18o7-1859), addressing a working class, 
 said, in refei'ence to the ' Messiah,' Han- 
 del, 'the Grand Old Man,' entertained 
 the town with that oratorio for a whole 
 week [Leeds Weekly Express, 9 Nov., 
 Local Gossip). 
 
 Grand Pensionary {The). In 
 Holland, or ' Assessor juris peritus,' the 
 chief minister of the States, and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. The office 
 lasted for five years, but the same person 
 was eligible for re-election. The most 
 famous were Jean de Witt (died 1672) and 
 Heinsius (1689-1720). Office abohshed 
 by Napoleon I. in 1795. 
 
 There used to be a pensionary in each of the 
 main cities of Holland. 
 
 G-rand Privilege {The). 'Groot 
 Privilegie.' The Magna Charta of Hol- 
 land, granted 1477 by Mary duchess of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Grand Remonstrance {The), 
 22 Nov., 1G41. Adopted by the Long Par- 
 liament against the measures of Ciiarles 
 I. It was brought in by Pym, who de- 
 clared it was not the intention of the 
 parliament to abolish episcopacy, but 
 only to limit and reduce the power of 
 the bishops. It repudiated the charge of 
 being revolutionary. It demanded the 
 observance of the laws against papistry ; 
 securities for the even administration of 
 justice ; and the employment of ministers 
 who had the confidence of parliament. 
 
 Grand Serjeanty. An ancient 
 English tenure by which a man holds his 
 lands and tenements of the king by ser- 
 vice, such as carrying the royal banner 
 or king's lance ; leading an army ; carry- 
 ing the coronation sword ; being the 
 king's carver, butler, chamberlain, and 
 so on. 
 
 Grand Tour {The). The tour 
 made by wealthy Englishmen through 
 France, Switzerland, Italy, and home by 
 Germany. 
 
 Grand Vizier. Cliief minister of 
 the Ottoman empire, introduced by Amu- 
 rath I. in 1386 ; abolished by Mahmoud II. 
 in 1838 ; but restored by Abdul Medjid 
 in 1839. 
 
 In 750 the chief minister of the kallf was called 
 vizier. 
 
 Grande Mademoiselle {La). 
 Anne Marie Louise d' Orleans, duchess of 
 
 IMontpensier, and first cousin of Louis 
 XIV. She was the daughter of Gaston 
 due d'Orle'ans, and 3Iarie de Bourbon- 
 Montpensier. Louis XIII. was her uncle. 
 La Grande Mademoiselle was one of the 
 richest heiresses in Europe. 
 
 Grande Semaine {La), 27, 28, 29 
 July, 1830. Tuesday, Wednesday, and 
 Thursday of the Insurrection of Paris 
 which drove Charles X. from the throne, 
 and substituted for him Louis Philippe, 
 called the Citizen-king. Semaine (2 syl.). 
 
 Grandees, 1648. So the members 
 of the council of officers were called in 
 the reign of Charles I. The members of 
 the inferior council were called Adjutors, 
 and subsequently Agitators. 
 
 Grandes Compagnies {Les), 14th 
 cent. Gangs of adventurers which deso- 
 lated France in the reigns of Jean II. 
 and Charles V. They were recruited by 
 strangers of all nationalities, especially 
 by the Germans whom Edward III. had 
 set at liberty after the treaty of Bretigny 
 in 1360. The populace rose up against 
 them and put them down for a time, but 
 they reappeared in 1361 under the name 
 of Tards- Venus. Duguesclin had the wit 
 to enrol them in the army of Enrique of 
 Trastamare, and employed them in the 
 Spanish war against Pedro the Cruel. 
 
 Grandes Pr^cieuaes {Les). The 
 learned women of the HOtcl Rambouillet, 
 in contradistinction to the Precieuses 
 Ridicules. 
 
 Ljs Grandes Precieuses sont de ces choses ex- 
 cell-ntes aptes a etre imitees par de mauvais 
 Binges.— MOLIEKE. 
 
 Grandison-Cromwell. So La- 
 fayette (1754-1834) was called by Mira- 
 beau. He wanted to appear a Christian 
 gentleman, like Richardson's ' Sir Charles 
 Grandison,' but in his heart of hearts he 
 had the ambition of a Cromwell. 
 
 [Paris rang] with endless talk about English 
 Monk, nay about Cromwell. O thou poor Grandi- 
 son-Cromwell !— Caelylb, French Jievolutioii, vol. 
 ii. bk. vi. 1. 
 
 Grangerite {A). One who extends 
 and supplements a book by collateral 
 matter culled from all sorts of sources, as 
 prints, maps, newspaper cuttings, selec- 
 tions frona other books, pamphlets, auto- 
 grai^h letters, and so on. So called from 
 the Rev. J. Granger (1710-1776), who 
 ' grangerised ' a biographical historv of 
 Engla'.id (17G9) with ' supplement ' (1774). 
 See BoWDLEfiisE. There are also the wordJ 
 
384 
 
 GEANITE 
 
 GRAVE-CLOTHES 
 
 ' Grangerlse,' ' Grangerism,' ' Grangerisation," &c. 
 Forster's 'Life of Diokcns," 3 vols, was ' gran- 
 gerised ' to 9 vols, in America, by plaj'bills, engrav- 
 ings, portraits, views, catalogues, illubtrations, 
 and other supplemental matter. 
 
 G-raniteCity (T^e). Aberdeen, Scot- 
 land. Many of the houses are built of 
 the granite which abounds in the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 Granite Redoubt [The), 14 June, 
 1800. The grenadiers of the Consular 
 Guard of Bonaparte (First Consul) were 
 so called from the stand which they made 
 at the battle of Marengo against the Aus- 
 trians. 
 
 Grailth. Tire sacred book of the 
 Sikhs. There are really two Granths : 
 one the Adigranth by Arjunmall, and 
 the other by Guru Govind Sinh. Both 
 are metrical and very bulky. 
 
 Under me (Govind) the bows of the Singhs have 
 proved triumphant over the sabres of the Mos- 
 lems ; and the precepts of the Granth over the 
 cowardly doctrines of the Vedas and Shastras.— 
 Govind, History of his IVars. 
 
 Grape-stone [Killed by a). Ana- 
 creon the poet was choked by a grape 
 stone, B.C. 478, aged 85. The favourite 
 concubine of Yezid II., kalif of the Sara- 
 cens, was also killed in the same manner, 
 A.D, 726. See ' Eating Fruit.' 
 
 Grasshopper (The). Callimidr>s, an 
 Athenian, in the time of Philip of Mace- 
 don ; so called on account of his vivacious 
 wit and liveliness. 
 
 Grateful Order of St. Cathe- 
 rine (The), 1712. A Eussian order 
 founded by Peter the Great, in gratitude 
 to his wife for delivering him from cap- 
 tivity by bribing the Turkish vizier. 
 
 Grateley {Synod of). During the 
 reign of Edgar. Made ten regulations 
 for the Church, by far the most important 
 ever passed : 
 
 1. Regulated tithes. 
 
 2. Authorised judges to execute sen- 
 tence on those condemned by the trial of 
 ordeal. 
 
 3. Against witches and highwaymen. 
 
 4. Names the towns authorised to coin 
 money. 
 
 5. Awards the punishment for debasing 
 coin. 
 
 6. Regulates ordeals. 
 
 < 7. Forbids buying and selling on Sun- 
 ' days. 
 
 8. Against perjury. 
 
 9. Commands bishops to assist the 
 judges. 
 
 10. Against remiss and negligent 
 magistrates. 
 
 Gratian's Decretal, or ' DecrG- 
 tum Gratiani.' A part of the ' Corpus 
 Juris Civllis' collected by Gratian, a 
 Benedictine monk of tlae 12th cent, in 
 Tuscany. The collection took him twenty- 
 four years to compile. 
 
 Grattan's Parliament. Consisted 
 of a house of lords and house of commons. 
 It was altogether Protestant, and was 
 elected exclusively by Protestants till 
 towards the close of its career, when 
 Catholics were admitted to the franchise. 
 It was eminently the representative of the 
 property class of Ireland, and many of its 
 members were the nominees of the IBritish 
 government. Pitt based his argument for 
 the Union mainly on the ground that the 
 Irish Parliament was not workable. In 
 1780 Grattan proposed in the Irish Par- 
 liament the abolition of ' Poyning's Act ' 
 iq-v.). It was not then carried, but in 
 1782 he moved what is called the 'Decla- 
 ration of Rights ' — that any claim out of 
 Ireland to bind the kingdom of Ireland 
 is illegal. In April the same year he as- 
 sumed the question to be carried, and de- 
 clared that henceforth no body of men, 
 excej)t the Irish Parliament, has any 
 right to make laws by which Ireland shall 
 be bound. In May C. J. Fox repealed the 
 bill of 6 Geo. I., and Ireland was set free. 
 Grattan was rewarded by a grant from 
 the Irish Parliament of 50,000Z. See 
 ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Grattan's Parliament passed 54 coercion acts. 
 It began in one revolution, and ended alter the 
 pvitting down of an insurrection. The Irisli par- 
 liament was united to that of Great Britain in 
 1800, by what is called the 'Act of Union.' Grat- 
 tan's statue in Dublin was erected in 1876. 
 
 Grave of the Russians (The), 
 1733. On the death of Augustus II. of 
 Poland, Stanislaus Leczinski was elected 
 king, but his election was opposed by 
 Austria and Russia. Stanislaus fled, and 
 shut himself up in Dantzic, where he was 
 besieged by the Russian army, but made 
 so stout a defence that a place is still 
 shown on the fortifications of Dantzic 
 called ' The Grave of the Russians.' 
 
 Grave-clothes (The), in which the 
 body of Christ was wrapped after the 
 crucifixion, are thus tabulate'd by hagio- 
 graphers ; Aix-la-Chapelle contains some; 
 
GRAVE-STONES 
 
 GREAT 
 
 885 
 
 the parts deposited at Bosan^on were 
 thrown away at the Revohition ; Cadouin, 
 in the diocese of Pe'rigueux, claims to 
 possess a cloth, somewhat more than two 
 yards and a half in length, and a yard and 
 a quarter in breadth ; Cahors is especially 
 rich in the sacred gi-ave-clothes, it claims 
 to possess the cloth which covered the 
 head of Jesus, it is of Egyptian linen 
 ' trois doubles superposes ' ; Carcasso, in 
 Italy, contains some of them ; Chambery 
 has one beautiful bit of linen cloth, said 
 to have been employed on the occasion ; 
 Mayence has some of the grave-clothes ; 
 in Rome several churches profess to con- 
 tain some of these relics ; Toulouse has 
 some ; and in Turin is a square of linen 
 four and a half yards long, spotted with 
 blood, and said to be the napkin wrapped 
 round the head. See ' Crucifixion, Relics 
 of the: 
 
 If all the grave-clothes said to be relics were used, 
 It must have taken considerable time to have 
 folded them up neatly and placed them on the seat 
 where the body was laid. 
 
 Grave-stones {Jewish). An image 
 or effigy with uplifted hands, signifies a 
 Jewish priest. A vase of water delineated 
 on a grave-stone signifies a Levite, who 
 bathed the hands of priests or poured 
 water over them. 
 
 In Catholic symbolism figures with their hands 
 on their breasts, and chalices, denote priests. 
 
 Figures v ith crozier, mitre, and poiatiflcals, re- 
 present prt'/K.'-'s. 
 
 Figures with armour represent knicjhis. 
 
 Figures with legs crossed represent either cm- 
 $a<1-rs or rruirrifd men. 
 
 Figures with mantle and large ring represent 
 num. 
 
 Gray. See ' Grey.' 
 
 Gray's Inn. One of the four Inns 
 of Court, having the sole power of calling 
 persons to the degi-ee of barrister. 
 
 The four Inns of Court are the Inner Temple, 
 the Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. 
 Now Inn is aifiliated to the JMlddle Temple; 
 Thavies Inn and Furnival s Inn to Lincoln s Inn ; 
 Clifford s Inn and Clement s Inn to the Inner 
 Temple ; Barnard s and Staple's to Gray's Inn. 
 
 Greased Cartridges, 1857. -In 
 January, a man employed in India 
 in making cartridges for the new 
 Enfield rifles just supplied to our native 
 soldiers, asked a sejioy of the 2nd Grena- 
 diers for a draught of water from his 
 drinking-pot. The high-caste sepoy was 
 indignant, for if the pot but touched the 
 lips of the artisan, it would have be^n 
 polluted for ever. The man replied, with 
 a sneer that the sepoy need not fce so 
 Bqueamish, as the new cartridges were 
 17 
 
 greased with bullock fat, and every sepoy 
 would lose caste in biting off the end. 
 The horrible tale spread like wildfire. 
 The Hindils were told the grease was that 
 of the sacred cow, the Moslem soldiers 
 were told it was the grease of the unclean 
 swine. Others asserted it was a mixture 
 of cow and pig fat. And this led to the 
 Indian Mutiny {q.v.). 
 
 Great Antiquity {The). The re- 
 vised records and chronicles of Ireland by 
 the suggestion of St. Patrick. Parts 
 existed for many centuries, as ' The Book 
 of Armagh,' ' The Psalter of Cashel,' 
 ' The Book of Glandaloch,' ' The Leabhar 
 Gabala,' and others, from which much of 
 the ancient history of Ireland is derived. 
 ' The Psalter of Cashel ' was compiled by King 
 Cormac. It was a book of annals, very valuable, 
 but unhappily lost. 
 
 Great Bear {The), or ' Ursa Major.' 
 The finest of the northern constellations, 
 consisting of seven great stars. Called 
 ' Ceorl's Wain ' (the churl's v/aggon), cor- 
 rupted into King Charles's Wain. Also 
 called the plough. The figure of a bear 
 with a fox's tail is certainly a funny 
 anomaly. 
 
 Great Beds. I. Deut. iii. 11. The 
 bedstead of Og king of Bashan was 
 9 cubits long and 4 cubits wide, after the 
 cubit of a man, i.e. 18 in. In English 
 measure the length was 13 ft., and the 
 width 6 ft. 
 
 II. The Great Bed of Ware is 12 ft. 
 long and 12 ft. wide, said to have been 
 made for Warwick, ' the King-maker.' 
 
 III. The bed of Reims Cathedral in 
 which Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
 slept at their coronation was 7 ft. 10 in. 
 long, and 7 ft. 8 in. wide. Its height was 
 8 ft. from the ground, which must have 
 been most inconvenient. 
 
 Great Bible {The), or 'Great Eng- 
 lish Bible,' 1539-1541. Published in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. A translation under 
 Archbishop Parker, who induced the 
 bishops and other learned men to under- 
 take it in portions. The different parts 
 were afterwards joined together and 
 printed with short notes in folio. In 1589 
 an octavo edition was brought out. In 
 1572 another folio edition was printed 
 with corrections, and several prolego- 
 mena. This was called ' Matthew Parker's 
 Bible.' See ' Bibles.' 
 
 The Great Bible was based on Tyndale's trans- 
 lation. 
 
 CO 
 
GREAT 
 
 GREAT 
 
 Great Britain. A name adoj)ted 
 on the legislative union of Scotland and 
 England by the Act of Union passed 16 
 Jan., 1707. It was provided by this act 
 that the two kingdoms of England and 
 Scotland should be united into one under 
 the name of Great Britain. 
 
 Great Bullet-head (The). George 
 Cadoudal, the French royalist (1709- 
 1804). He was head of the Chouans after 
 the death of Jean Cottereau, and in 1802 
 joined Pichegru's conspiracy {q.v.). 
 
 Great Captain {The). I. Hernan- 
 dez Gonzalo de Cordova y Aguilar (144o- 
 1515). Called El Gran Capitan in 1496 
 after reducing Upper Calabria, surprising 
 Laino, and going to the aid of Ferdinand 
 at Atella in the first half of the year 149G. 
 He finished up the year by expelling the French 
 from Naples. 
 
 II. Manuel I. emperor of Trebizond 
 (1120, 1143-1180). 
 
 Great Cham ofLiterature {The). 
 Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784). 
 
 Great Civil ^^ar {The). The war 
 in the reign of Charles I. 
 
 Nor was he less affected when his aunt narrated 
 the sufferings and fortitude of Lady Alice . . . 
 during the Great Civil War.— Sir W. ScoTT, 
 Waverlcy, chap. v. 
 
 Great Commoner {The). I. Sir 
 John Barnard, who, in 1717, proposed to 
 reduce the interest of the National Debt 
 from 4 to 3 per cent. Any creditor, how- 
 ever, was at liberty to receive his princix:>al 
 in full, if he liked. It was William Pitt 
 (Lord Chatham) who gave this designa- 
 tion to Sir John Barnard. 
 
 Mr. Goschen in 1888 reduced the interest from 
 SI. to 22?. per cent. 
 
 II. WiUiam Pitt (afterwards Earl of 
 Chatham), 1708-1778. Buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Great Company {The). I. 1343. 
 The first was commanded by the German 
 Guarnieri or Duke Werner, who wrote on 
 his corslet ' Enemy of God, of Pity, and 
 of Mercy.' It was employed against the 
 Visconti by the league of the Montferrat, 
 La Scala, Carrara, Este, and Gonzaga 
 houses. 
 
 II. 1353. Bands of adventurers under 
 the command of Fra Moriale, and after- 
 wards of Conrad Lando. It consisted of 
 40,000 men, of whom 5,000 were cuirassiers. 
 It hired itself out to anyone who wanted 
 
 a ready-made army, and exacted black- 
 mail from cities and castles to be secure 
 against depredations. See 'Pind'aris.' 
 {See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. p. 498.) 
 
 Les Compacinies Gronitr/t were the condottieri or 
 free-lances of France ; the chief were under Sir 
 Hugh Calverley, Sir Matthew Gournay, and the 
 Chevalier Verte. Under Duguesclin they en- 
 listfd in the Spanish army, and disappeared from 
 history 13G0. 
 
 Great Cond6 {The). Louis prince 
 de Conde'. , Died 1674, aged 65. 
 
 Great Council {The), 1173. A 
 
 Venetian council of 480 members, who 
 represented the general assembly of the 
 whole peoj)le, and was renewed every 
 year. The electors were a committee 
 of twelve, two from each of the six dis- 
 tricts or Sestieri. From this body a 
 committee of sixty formed the senate, 
 and assisted the doge. 
 
 Great Council of the Peers 
 
 {The), 24 Sept., 1640. Assembled at York 
 by Chai'les I., who was unwilling to 
 summon a parliament because the par- 
 liament always insisted on redress of 
 grievances before they would grant sup- 
 plies. This great council was called to 
 grant supplies to raise an army to resist 
 the Scots, who had recently encamped on 
 a hill called Dunse Law, and threatened 
 to advance. 
 
 Great Council of the Realm 
 
 {The). The witenagemote, or parlia- 
 ment of the Norman kings of England. 
 All tenants who held directly of the 
 crown, all bishops, and the greater abbots, 
 with the great officers of the court, con- 
 stituted this council. It was not so much 
 an assembly of ' wise men ' as an as- 
 sembly of feudal vassals. In the reign 
 of Henry I. the lesser barons were 
 excused attendance, though their right 
 of doing so remained. In 1265 Simon de 
 Montfort summoned knights from each 
 county and two burgesses from each 
 town to his parliament. From 1295 the 
 great council had become the parlia- 
 ment of the realm, in which every order 
 of the state was represented, and having 
 the control of the legislation and execu- 
 tive government of the nation. 
 
 Great Cromwell Bible {The), 
 1538-39. The first edition of the foho 
 Bible, printed in the reign of Henry 
 YIII, The edition contained 2,500 
 copies, one of which was set up in every 
 church in England, and secured to a 
 
GREAT 
 
 GEEAT 
 
 887 
 
 desk by a chain. Within three years 
 seven editions were pubhshed. See 
 • Bibles.' 
 
 This was not Oliver Cromwell, but Thomas 
 Cromwell,- who was beheaded in 1540. 
 
 G-reat Dauphin {The). Louis, son 
 of Louis XIV. (1661-1711). 
 
 The son of the Great Dauphin was called ' The 
 Little Dauphin.' Both died before Louis XIV. 
 
 G-reat Disease {The). Leprosy. 
 
 G-reat Duke {The). The Duke of 
 Wellington (1769-1852). 
 Bury the Great Duke 
 
 With an empire's lamentation ; 
 Let us bury the Great Duke 
 To the noise of the mourning of a great nation. 
 Tennyson. 
 
 Great Earl of Cork {The). Eichard 
 earl of Cork, lord high treasurer of 
 Ireland in the reigns of James I. and 
 Charles I. 
 
 Great Eastern {The). The iron 
 'leviathan ' steamship built by Brunei in 
 1857. It made its first voyage across the 
 Atlantic in 1860. It was broken up in 
 1888. 
 
 G-reat ElcM {The). Stratford Can- 
 ning (Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe), ambas- 
 sador to the Ottoman Porte 18-41-1858 ; 
 born 1787, died 1880. 
 
 The Turkb called him the 'Padishah of the 
 Padishah.' 
 
 Great Elector {The). Frederick 
 William elector of Brandenburg (1620- 
 
 1688). 
 
 G-reat Fire {The), or 'The Great 
 Fire of London,' 1666, the year after the 
 Plague, which it put an end to. It broke 
 out at a bakehouse near London Bridge. 
 Only six persons perished in the fire, 
 though 600 streets, 13,000 houses, 80 
 churches, St, Paul's Cathedral, the 
 Custom-house, GuildhaU, and 4 stone 
 bridges were destroyed. The people, to 
 the amount of 200,000, camped out in the 
 fields of Islington and Highgate. 
 
 Great Harry {The), 1509. The 
 first double-decker built in England ; it 
 had three masts. It was 1,000 tons 
 burden, and cost 14,000Z. This ship was 
 built by order of Henry VII., and was 
 completed in the year of his death. It 
 was accidentally burnt at Woolwich in 
 1553. {See ' Archteologia,' vol. iii. p. 266.) 
 See ' Henri Grace a Dieu.' 
 
 The second great ship was the ' Henri GrAce h, 
 Dieu,' and the third was the ' Sovereign of the 
 Seas.' See ' Great MichaeL' 
 
 Great-head, or * Caenmore.' Mal- 
 colm III. of Scotland, who married Mar- 
 garet sister of Edgar Atheling (1024, 
 1057-1093). See also ' Grostcte.' 
 
 Great King {The). The King of 
 Persia was so called during the prosperity 
 of that empire. 
 
 Great Light {The), or Llever Mawr. 
 Cyllin or Linus (2 Tim. iv. 21), brother of 
 Claudia (wife of the senator Pudens, and 
 grandfather of King Lleirwg [Lucius], 
 who is said by some to have introduced 
 Christianity into Britain a.d. 59). 
 
 Of course the introduction of Christianity into 
 Britain by King Lucius is generally denied ; but 
 other conjectures, no less fanciful, are : St. James 
 the son of Zebedee (Ussher); Simon Zelotes (Cave) ; 
 Joseph of Arimathea (Gildns); St. Paul (£i(S('6(!(s) ; 
 St. Peter ; Aristobulus, &c. All that is certain 
 is this : Christianity was introduced by someone, 
 probably in the 1st or 2nd cent. In the Council of 
 Aries, 314, the British Church was represented by 
 three bishops (York, London, and Lincoln). 
 
 Great Magician of the IQ"orth 
 
 {The). Sir Walter Scott is so called by 
 Professor John Wilson (1771-1832). 
 
 Great Marquis {The). 
 
 I. James Graham marquis of Montrose 
 (1612-1650). 
 
 II. Dom Sebastiano Jose de Can-alho 
 marquis of Pombal, the greatest of all 
 the Portuguese statesmen (1699-1782). 
 
 Great Michael {The). A monster 
 ship constructed by James IV. of Scot- 
 land. Its sides were 10 ft. thick; ita 
 length was 240 ft., breadth 36 ft. It 
 required 300 mariners to work her, and 
 would hold 1,000 soldiers. A cannon ball 
 would not pierce her sides. See ' Great 
 Han-y,' and ' Henri Grace a Dieu.' 
 
 Great Mogul {The), 1526. A title 
 first assumed by Baber, fifth in descent 
 from Tamerlane. The sovereigns of 
 Delhi continued the title. 
 
 Great Mogul Diamond {The). 
 
 The history of this diamond runs back 
 to B.C. 56, but little is known of it till the 
 14th cent., when it was held by the rajah 
 of Malwa. Later on it fell into the hands 
 of the sultans of Delhi, after their con- 
 quest of Malwa. Tavernier tells us he 
 saw it among the jewels of Aurengzebe, 
 and says in the rough state it weighed 
 793g carats. The Shah Djihan sent it to 
 Hortensio Borgio, a Venetian lapidary, to 
 be cut, when it was reduced to 186 carats. 
 Djihan was so enraged at this great waste 
 that he not only refused to pay the lapi- 
 c c2 
 
GREAT 
 
 GREAT 
 
 dary, but he also fined him 1,000 rnpees. 
 This is all that is known of the ' Cxreat 
 Mogul Diamond,' but it is supposed that 
 the Koh-i-noor is the same stone — under 
 which name the rest of its history will be 
 found. See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Q-reat Moralist {The). Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson (^1709-1784). 
 
 Great O {Tlie). Daniel O'Connell 
 (1775-1847). 
 
 As to O ConncU, depend upon it that whatever 
 Mr. Stanley may wish to do, Jlr. Stanley s masters 
 have other uses to make of the great O thAU to 
 gag him Gleig, Life of Wellington (year 1830). 
 
 Great Pan [The). Voltaire (1094- 
 1778). Also called the * Dictator of Let- 
 ters.' 
 
 Great Paschal Period {The). 
 53*2 years. See the ' Dionj-sian Period.' 
 
 Great Peace {The), 8 May, 13G0. 
 The peace-treaty of Bre'tigny between 
 France and England, whereby Edward III. 
 renounced his pretension to the crown of 
 France, and his claim to Normandy, 
 Anjou, and Maine. He still, however, 
 retained Calais, Guisnes, Guienne, and 
 Poitou. 
 
 Great Plague {The). In French, 
 'La Grande Peste,' 1580. It began in 
 Poi'tugal, and Lisbon was well-nigh de- 
 populated. It was very fatal in Provence 
 and Aix. In 1581 it appeared in Mar- 
 seilles, where it carried off all the m- 
 habitants, except 3.000. In Paris it 
 appeared, and the city was overrun ^vith 
 thieves. See ' Plagues.' 
 
 Great Power of God {Th^). 
 Simon Magus (Acts viii. 10). 
 
 Great Rebellion (T/^e). The civil 
 war in England which broke out between 
 Charles I. and the Parliament. It began 
 22 Aug., 1642, and practically terminated 
 with the defeat of the king at Naseby in 
 1645. 
 
 Great Roll of the Pipe {The). 
 A record made up year by year of the 
 revenue accruing to the crown in the dif- 
 ferent counties of the realm. The certain 
 revenues consisted of farms, fees, castle- 
 guard, and other rents; the casual 
 revenues consisted of fines, amercements, 
 wards, marriages, reliefs, and other profits 
 which fell to the crown by A-irtue of its 
 prerogatives. The series of these pipe 
 rolls, according to Madox ('History of 
 
 the Exchequer') goes back to 1155, 
 continues unbroken to 1834, and con- 
 tains invaluable notices of distinguished 
 persons in English history through all 
 that time by contemporaries. There is 
 one roll of a still earlier date. It has 
 been printed, and Mr. Hunter has shown 
 that it belongs to tlie 31st year of Henry I. 
 These records and ' Domesday Book ' are 
 documents unequalled for antiquity in 
 all Europe. 
 
 The ofllce (Clerk of the Pipe) is so called because 
 the whole receipt of the court, says Lord Bacon, 
 is finally conveyed into it by divers small pipes, 
 as water is conveyed into a cistern. 
 
 Great Sabbath {The), or Holy 
 Saturday. The day between Good Friday 
 and Easter Sunday. 
 
 Idem dicitur Sabbatum Luminum, in Chronico 
 Orientali (page 125), quod in eo baptismi fierent 
 quos ^ojrKTMoit vocant Grieci.— Du Cakge. 
 
 Great Schism of the West 
 
 {The), 1378-1429. The time when there 
 were two or more contemporary popes, 
 one chosen by French cardinals and the 
 other by Italians. On the death of 
 Gregory XI. the Italians chose Urban 
 VL, a Neapolitan, for his successor ; but 
 the French cardinals, who were far the 
 greater number, nominated one of their 
 own countrjnnen, who was crowned by 
 them as Clement VI. (1378). Urban held 
 his court at Rome, and Clement at 
 Avignon. England, Italy, Bohemia, Ger- 
 many, Prussia, Poland, and the Scandin- 
 avian kingdoms acknowledged the Roman 
 pope ; but France, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, 
 and Cyprus acknowledged the French 
 pope. 
 
 In this unseemly schism sometimes there were 
 three contemporary popes, as for example Gregory 
 XII., Benedict XIII.. and Alexander V. ; and some- 
 times as many as four, as John XXIII., Gregory 
 XII., Benedict XIII., and JIartin V.; andagain.lohn 
 XIII.. Gregory XII., Clement VIII., and Martin V. 
 This disgraceful schism continued for more than 
 half a century. 
 
 Great Sea {The). The Mediter- 
 ranean was so called by the ancient Jews, 
 Greeks, and Romans. 
 
 Great Storm {The), 27 Nov., 1703, 
 in the south of England. The damage in 
 London was some two millions sterling, 
 and at Bristol about a quarter of a million. 
 In Little Wild Street chapel, Lincohi's-Inn 
 Fields, a sermon is annually preached 
 on the 27th Nov. to commemorate this 
 national calamity. 
 It suggested to Addison that happy line— 
 lUdes on the whirlwind and directs the storm. 
 
 I 
 
GREAT 
 
 GEEEK 
 
 E89 
 
 Great Unknown (The). Sir Walter 
 Scott. So called because his principal 
 romances and novels were not issued 
 under his name, and speculation was agog 
 'as to the real author (1771-1832). 
 
 Great Unpaid (The). Justices of 
 the peace, whose sentences on offenders 
 have given gi-eat dissatisfaction to those 
 who love even-handed justice. Thus at 
 Dulverton, March 1886, Sarah Ann Black- 
 more was sentenced to 12 months' hard 
 labour for stealing turnips to the value 
 of id. The very same week Riva Eugene, 
 accused of stealing a policeman's cape, 
 was dismissed, ' because the weather was 
 cold, and policemen should not leave 
 their capes about to tempt cold people.' 
 In the same week William Maltby, aged 
 10, was sentenced to one month's im- 
 prisonment and four years in a reforma- 
 tory for stealing a shilhngsworth of 
 onions, at Southampton. 
 
 Great Unwashed (The). The 
 artisan class were first so called by Sir 
 Walter Scott. 
 
 Great 'Wall of China (TJie). 
 Completed B.C. 214 by Chi-Hwang-Ti of 
 the Tsin dynasty. Every third man of 
 the Vv'hole empire was employed on the 
 work, and half a million of them died of 
 starvation. All the houses of Great 
 Britain would not suffice to build such a 
 wall, the contents of which would be 
 enough to build two walls 6 ft. high and 
 2 ft. thick round the equator. 
 
 Great Week (The). Hebdomada 
 Magna. The 13 days between the 5th 
 Sunday of Lent and Easter Sunday 
 (neither of the Sundays included). These 
 13 days were called Passion Week (q.v.). 
 
 Great "Western (The). A steam- 
 ship which sailed from Bristol to New 
 York in 1838. See ' Great Eastern.' 
 
 Grecian Year of the "World 
 
 (The). This was 1 Sept., B.C. 5598. 
 
 Grecizing Jews. Descendants of 
 Abraham born in foreign countries where 
 Greek was spoken. They were the Grf ek 
 Hebrews, in contradistinction to the 
 Flebrew Hebrews, who spoke Aramaic 
 or debased Hebrew. 
 
 Greco. An Italian who made an 
 attempt on the life of the Emperor Napo- 
 leon III. iq.v.), U Dec, 1SG3. 
 
 Greek {The Pronunciation of). Set 
 ' Greeks and Trojans.' 
 
 Greek Cap (TM- Was 
 egg-shaped ; made, accord- 
 ing to a bust of Ulysses, 
 thus : — 
 
 See * Caps,' and ' Hats.* 
 
 Greek Church {The). ' The East- 
 em Church,' and ' the Russian Church,' 
 at one time united with the Church of 
 Rome. In 588 the bishop of Constan- 
 tinople assumed the title of patriarch, 
 and in GOO the title of pope v/as re- 
 stricted to the bishop of Rome. The 
 Greek Church rejects the dogma of pur- 
 gatory, the celibacy of the clergy, and of 
 course the infallibility of the pope. It 
 administers the eucharist in both kinds, 
 and objects to images, though not to 
 pictures. Greek Catholics believe in con- 
 substantiation, and, like the Roman 
 Catholics, adore the Host. 
 
 WTiat is absurdly called The Schismatic Greek 
 Church is that which dciiies the procession of the 
 Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, called 
 the FiUoquc (q.v.), introduced into the creed in C8') 
 by Recared, and sanctioned by the Council of 
 Toledo. Of course, if there is any schism at all 
 about the matter, it was not by those who adhered 
 to the old creed, but by those who introduced the 
 new departure and their followers. 
 
 Greek Church Catechism {The), 
 1642. Prepared by Peter Mogilas. It 
 received authority as a standard or sym- 
 bolical book from the sjaiod of Jerusa< 
 lem in 1672, and is often called the 
 ' Larger Russian Catechism,' to distin- 
 guish it from the Smaller Russian Cate- 
 chism prepared by the order of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 Greek Fathers (T/^e Tew). Called, 
 with five Latin ones, the ' Later Fathers ' 
 (4th cent.), viz.: Eusebius, Athanasius, 
 Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of 
 Nj'ssa, Cyril of Jeiusalem, Chrysostom, 
 Epiphanius, Cyril of Alexandria, and 
 Ejihrem the Syrian. See ' Latin Fathers.' 
 
 Greek Fire. A terrible weapon 
 invented by Callinlcus, a native of Helio- 
 polis in Syria, who imx)arted the secret 
 to the Greek government. It was used 
 in battles and sieges, by sea and land. 
 It was either poured from the ram- 
 parts from large boilers, or hurled in red- 
 hot balls of stone or iron. Sometimes 
 fire-ships were charged with it, and some- 
 times it was blown through long copper 
 tubes from the prows. We are told it 
 
590 
 
 GREEKS 
 
 GREEN 
 
 •was made of naphtha, that it caTicht fire 
 immediately it came in eontdct with the 
 air. and that it produced a great smoke, 
 a loud explosion, and a fierce flame. 
 
 It seejns to have bees rock oil. as the inflam- 
 ZQ&ble liquid sprang from the earth, and to have 
 been mixed -vritli sulphur and pitch from eversrreen 
 fir-tre^s. It -was treason to reveal the secret. It 
 continued in use till the 14th cent., -when gun- 
 povrder look its place.. 
 
 Greeks and Trojans (The). L 
 The advocates of Greek literature in the 
 reign of Henry Till, were called the 
 Greeks, and those who held fast t-o the 
 old Latin schoolmen were called the 
 Trojans. Both Oxford and Cambridge 
 furiously resisted the introduction of 
 Greek literature, and denounced tlie 
 Greek Testament as heterodoxy. It was 
 prohibited in the University of Cam- 
 bridge under very severe penalties. 
 Henry VHI. commanded Greek to be 
 taught in Oxford, and established a Greek 
 professorship at Cambridge. Erasmus 
 taried to teach it, but was unable to resist 
 the opposition he met with. 
 
 n. A fiery contest respecting the pro- 
 nunciation of Greek introduced by Sir 
 John Cheke (1514-1557). Regius Profes- 
 sor of Greek in the University of Cam- 
 bridge. Sir John (then a Protestantl 
 introduced a new pronunciation of Greek 
 which Gardiner, the chancellor, con- 
 demned. Sides were chosen by the 
 scholars : those who supported Sir Jolin 
 were called ' Trojans,' those who opposed 
 him called themselves ' Greeks.' As Gar- 
 diner was a CathoHc the contention was 
 really Protestants r. Catholics. Many a 
 street fight was fought by the scholars ; 
 but at length the king in coxmcil com- 
 manded the innovation of the regius pro- 
 fessor to be discontinued. See ' Ramists.' 
 
 Green was tlie colour consecrat-ed to 
 the Fatimites ; JVliite to the Ommiades; 
 Black to the Abbassides (each S syl.). 
 
 Green-aprons (Th^). Xonconfor- 
 niist preachers. 
 
 Unbeneficed Xoncons that live by alms, and no 
 Pateruost-er no penny, say the Green-aprons.— 
 HiCKEEJXGiLL, l^rUttcrafi, pi. i. p. -21. 
 
 Greenbacks. A popular name 
 for the paper currency of tlie United 
 States, from the colour of the printing 
 on the backs of the notes. 
 
 Green Bag Inquiry (The). I. On 
 8 Feb.. 1S17, the celebrated green bag 
 vras sent by the Prince-regent to the 
 
 Lords, and another on the following day 
 to tlie Commons. These green bags 
 (always referred to as one), stuffed with 
 documents regarding the occurrences in 
 the Midland counties, as the Derbyshire 
 insurrection (q.v.). the Blanketeers (^.r.), 
 &c. were to be examined by secret 
 committees in both houses. The Lords 
 committee produced their report on 
 23 Feb., the Commons produced theirs 
 on the 27th. From documents dated 1816 
 they said there could be no doubt that 
 schemes of conspiracy were iu agitation, 
 and the events in 1817 in Derbyshire and 
 Yorkshire confirmed these averments. 
 The msurrections, however, were not for- 
 midable, and the mass of the "people took 
 no part in them. The committee con- 
 demned the ministry for their arbitrary 
 measure in suspending Habeas Corpjis, 
 for having executed three men at Derby, 
 and for imprisoning or transporting 
 twenty others. Mr. Tierney called the 
 whole affair 'absurd, contemptible, and 
 ludicrous.' See ' Spencean Philanthro- 
 pists.' 
 
 II. 1820, an inquiry into the conduct 
 of Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV., 
 accused of adultery with Bergami, her 
 chamberlain. The evidence was inclosed 
 in sealed green bags, wliich were laid on 
 the table of the House of Lords and 
 Commons for investigation. The bags 
 contained documents connected with a 
 commission sent to Mihrn in 1S18 ; but 
 as far back as 180(3 the queen was charged 
 with having given bu-th to a cliild at 
 Blackheath, after her separation from the 
 king. The queen was tried and acquitted. 
 
 Sir Siamuel Romilly says the boy -was BiUy 
 Austin, son of Sophia" Austin, born in Bro-srnlo\v 
 Street Hospital 11 July. lts>2, and taken by the 
 iqueen]. then Princess of Wales, into her house the 
 same year. 
 
 Green Book (The). The register 
 of the South Sea Company, so called 
 from the colour of its covers. "Wlienthe 
 bubble exploded. Mr. Knight, the casliier, 
 fled to France, carrymg the green book 
 with him. GeneriU Ross declared the 
 swindle to be ' the greatest villany and 
 fraud ever contrived to ruin a nation.' 
 
 Green Books iT/jfl. In Italy. Cor- 
 responds to our blue-books (q.v.). They 
 contain all sorts of government reports, 
 papers, and other documents. 
 
 Green Cap. To wear a green cap, 
 to be a bankrupt. In France, ' porter le 
 
GREEN 
 
 GREEN 
 
 891 
 
 bonnet vert.' This phrase rose from an 
 ancient custom which was common even 
 in the 17th cent, of compelling bankrupts 
 to wear a green cap, out of disgrace, and 
 to put men on their guard against them. 
 
 G-reen Cloth {Board of). A court 
 of justice held in the counting-house of 
 the British monarch's household, and 
 composed of the lord steward and inferior 
 officers. To this court is committed the 
 charge and supervision of the royal 
 household in matters of justice and go- 
 vermnent, with power to correct offenders, 
 and to maintain the peace of the juris- 
 diction of the court-roj'al, which extends 
 200 yards, every way, from the gates of 
 the jialace. Without a warrant from this 
 court no servant of the household can be 
 arrested for debt. It takes its name from 
 the green cloth spread over the board at 
 which it is held (Wharton, 'Law Dic- 
 tionary '). 
 
 The Board of Green Cloth executed in 1849 the 
 remaining functions of the ' Marshalsea Court." 
 
 Green Cockade (The\, 1789. The 
 cockade worn by the French insurgents at 
 the commencement of the Great Revolu- 
 tion. Camille Desmoulins, on one occa- 
 sion, snatching a green twig from a tree 
 after addressing the mob, stuck it in his 
 hat as a cockade. The whole mass of 
 people followed his example, and a woman 
 brought out a great roll of green ribbon 
 and cut it into bows as far as it would go. 
 This was the revolutionary cockade till 
 the militia of 48,000 was embodied, when 
 a cockade of red and blue (the Parisian 
 colours) was substituted instead. 
 
 Green Count (The), 1348. Ama- 
 dous VI. count of Savoy (1334, 1343- 
 1383) was so called because he appeared 
 in green at a tournament and was so 
 announced. 
 
 Green Crescents. 
 
 the orthodox Moslems. 
 Turbans.' 
 
 Green Flags {The). The soldiers 
 of the Fatimites. Hence the banner of 
 the sultan of Damascus was a crescent 
 on a gi-een flag. The Abbassides (3 syl.) 
 ha«73 a crescent on a black flag, and tlie 
 Ommiades (3 syl.) a crescent on a white 
 flag. Ordinarily by ' green flags ' we 
 mean the Arab troops. 
 
 A.B a railway signal a green flag signifies caution. 
 
 The symbol of 
 See ' Green 
 
 Green Isle (T^e). Ireland is so called 
 from its brilliant verdure. 
 
 Green-Mountain Boys {The), 
 1775. Three hundred men, led by Ethan 
 Allen, who, in the American war of in- 
 dependence, joined the volunteers, who 
 undertook to secure the passes into 
 Canada. They came from the Green 
 Mountains which run through a large 
 part of Vermont. 
 
 Green-ribbon Club {The). An 
 anti-popery club held at the club-house in 
 Fuller's Rents, London, in the reign of 
 Charles II., known in history chiefly 
 by its procession on 17 Nov., 1080, 
 'organised under the auspices of the Earl 
 of Shaftesbury. It went from Moorgate 
 to Temple Bar, where, in front of the 
 club-house, the whole array of popish 
 effigies which had been carried in the 
 procession were burnt amid fireworks 
 and tremendous shouts. It is said there 
 were at least 100,000 spectators. 
 
 The club-house, says Roger North, was a sort of 
 carrefour at Cliancery Lane. 
 
 Green Room {The). The actors' 
 muster-room in theatres. So called be- 
 cause it is painted green to relieve the 
 eyes of the actors distressed with the 
 glare of the foot-lights. To this room 
 they retire when they make their exit 
 from the stage. 
 
 Green Scarfs {The). The badge of 
 Mazarin, Isabella, and the family of 
 Conde. 
 
 Red Scarfs, the badge of Henri III. and Charles 
 IX. ; White Scarfs, the badge of Crusaders. Arnia. 
 gnacs.and Huguenots ; Tricolour Scarfs still woin 
 ia France by the municipal magistrates andcom- 
 missaire of police. White Hoods, the badge of the 
 Burgundians. 
 
 Green Silver. A halfpenny tax 
 paid yearly to the feudal lord, as rent, by 
 every tenant in the manor of Writtel, 
 Essex, whose front-door opens on Green- 
 bury. 
 
 Green Spectre {The). Irish Re- 
 bellion. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 It is worth while to consider what means can be 
 adopted to prevent the periodical reappearance 
 of the Green Spectre of Ireland.— Iiis/j Seditions 
 from 1792 to 1880, p. 04. 
 
 Green Standard {The). Of the 
 Turks ; never unfurled except in danger. 
 Said to have been given to Mohammed 
 by the Angel Gabriel, and hence called 
 ' The celestial standard.' 
 
392 
 
 GEEEN 
 
 GEESHABI 
 
 Green Thursday, or 'Dies Viri- 
 dium ' (Luke xxxiii. 31). Maundy- 
 Thursday, the day of absolution in the 
 Lutheran Church, preparatory to the 
 Holy Communion, which is celebrated 
 the day following {i.e. on Good Friday). 
 Tn German called ' Griindonnerstag.' 
 
 Green Turbans. The descendants 
 of Fatima, in Turkey, called emirs or 
 shereefs, wear gi-een turbans ; but the 
 Fatimites of Egypt wore red ones, like 
 the unorthodox Persians. 
 
 In Afghanistan every synd, or Afghan doscend- 
 ant of the Prophet, is entitled to wear a green 
 turban. 
 
 Green Vault of Dresden (The). 
 Griine Gewulbe ' ; is in the Z winger, a 
 group of buildings erected by Augustus 
 11. as a vestibule to his new palace. It 
 is called ' Green ' from the colour of the 
 paper or hangings with which it was 
 originally covered. The regalia used at 
 the coronation of Augustus (a present of 
 Karl V.) are still kept in the seventh 
 apartment. The ' Emerald of the Green 
 Vault ' is in the eighth or last apartment. 
 
 Greens and Blues {The). The 
 livery colours of opposed charioteer 
 factions in Constantinople, which in the 
 time of Justinian verged on sedition. 
 Like our Light and Dark Blue, which 
 are the livery colours v/orn by the con- 
 tending Universities of Cambridge and 
 Oxford in athletic contests such as the 
 boat race. The Blues in Constantinople 
 denoted the votaries of Justinian, and 
 the Greens those of Anastasius. 
 
 Cambridge is Light Blue. Oxford is Dark Blue. 
 In Constantinople there were two minor factions, 
 called the Whites and the Rsds ; but these merged 
 into the other two, the Whites into the Blues, and 
 the Reds into the Greens. 
 
 Gregorian Calendar {The), 1582. 
 The calendar reformed by Pope Gregory 
 XIII. by expunging ten days, in order to 
 restore the equinox to March 21, the day 
 on which it fell in the Council of Nice in 
 A.i>. 325. In order to prevent the re- 
 currence of a like error in future, he 
 ordered that of years ending centuries 
 only those divisible by 400 should be 
 accounted leap years (excepting 400, and 
 all multiples of 400). Introduced into 
 Italy, Spain, and Portugal in 1582 ; into 
 France a few months later ; into Catholic 
 Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- 
 lands in 1583 ; into Poland in 1580; into 
 Hungary and Denmark in 1700 ; into Pro- 
 
 testant Switzerland in 1701 ; into England 
 in 1752 ; into Sweden in 1753 ; but Russia 
 still retains the old style. 
 
 The centuries 1700, 1800. 1900 are not leap years, 
 because 17, 18, 19 will not divide by 4 ; but the 
 years 1600, 2000, and 2100 are leap years, because 
 16, 20, 24 are multiples of 4. 
 
 Gregorian Chant {The). The 
 chant of Ambrose (bishop of Milan), 
 which had only four tones, extended to 
 eight tones by Gregory the Great (591- 
 604). It was taken from the Greek chant 
 used in the mysteries of Eleusis. 
 
 The Arabrosian chant had four tones or modes, 
 called the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo- 
 lydian. 
 
 Gregorian Epoch {The). Begins 
 March 1582, when the New Style or 
 Reformed Calendar was introduced by 
 Gregory XIII. 
 
 Gregorian Liturgy {The). This 
 is the Roman liturgy {q.v.). 
 
 Gregorian Mass. 'MissaS. Gre- 
 gorii,' a mass ' quo3 juxta ritum Gregoria- 
 num celebratur.' See ' Mass.' 
 
 Gregorian Year (T/V). The civil 
 year of the Gregorian Calendar. 
 
 Gregorians {The), 1376. A religious 
 society named after Gregory the Great, 
 founded in Holland by Geert Groote and 
 Florentius Radewin. Not unlike the 
 subsequent society known as Moravians 
 or the United Brethren. They acknow- 
 ledged no conventual distinctions, and 
 enjoined community of goods, ascetic 
 habits, and the use of the vernacular 
 tongue in all religious services. 
 
 Gregory Act {The). By which 
 tenants in Ireland could not get relief 
 from the workhouse if they held mora 
 than a quarter of an acre of land, with- 
 out surrendering their holding. 
 
 Grenville Collection {The), 1846. 
 Added to the British Museum Library 
 by the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville. It 
 consists of 20,240 volumes, and cost 
 about 54,000L It contains the Mazarine 
 Bible (2 vols. 1455), a copy of ' Livy * 
 on vellum (14G9), the Ald'ine 'Virgil' 
 (1505), a Shakespeare (1623), Azzoduidi's 
 ' Ovid,' a series of early editions of 
 * Orlando Furioso,' &c. 
 
 Gresliam Lectures {The), 1575. 
 
 Lectures on the seven sciences (divinity, 
 astronomy, music, geometry, law, physic, 
 and rhetoric), delivered in Gresham 
 
GRETNA 
 
 GRIMM'S 
 
 COS 
 
 Col'ege, and founded by Sir Thomas 
 Gresliam, the merchant. The lectures 
 were neglected from 1700 to 1762, and 
 then the building was sold to the govern- 
 ment for the site of an excise office. 
 Some attempts have been made to revive 
 the lectures, which were delivered in the 
 Royal Exchange till the fire of 1838. 
 The new buildings were opened in 1813. 
 
 The lectures were established in 1575, but the 
 college was not completed till 1579. 
 
 Gretna G-reen Marriages. Wlien 
 
 Lord-Chancellor Hardwicke, in 175-4, 
 brought in his bill for the virtual aboli- 
 tion of Fleet mai-riages by compelling 
 the publication of banns on three succes- 
 sive Sundays, or else an expensive licence ; 
 he wished to extend the operation of the 
 bill to Scotland also ; but, failing in this, 
 marriages ^t Gretna Green without 
 banns, notice, or licence continued to the 
 close of the year 1856, when by 19 & 20 
 Vict. c. 96, 8. 1, they were declared to be 
 irregular. 
 
 Grey {Lady Jane), 1537-1554. 
 Reigned ten days, and was beheaded. 
 She was persuaded or forced by her 
 father-in-law (the Duke of Northumber- 
 land) to usurp the crown. Her name is 
 not received in the list of English 
 monarchs. 
 
 Henry VII. was the father of Henby VIII. and 
 Marv. 
 
 Henry VIII. was the father of Edward VI., 
 Mary, and Elizabeth (no issue). 
 
 Now take Mary, Henry VII. 's daughter: her 
 Becond husband was Charles Brandon duke of 
 Suffolk, by whom s^he had Frances [Brandon], who 
 married Henry Grey ; and the Lady Jane was 
 their daughter. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey married Lord Guilford Dudley 
 (fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland), aged 
 sixteen. 
 
 *,* Lord Guilford Dudley was the grandson of 
 the scandalous lawyer of the firm Empson and 
 Dudley so notorious in the reign of Henry VII. 
 
 . Grey Friars (The). So the Fran- 
 ciscans were called from the colour of 
 their drf ss, as the Dominicans were 
 called ' Black Friars,' and the Carmelites 
 were called ' White Friars.' 
 
 Grey League (The), 1424. *Grau- 
 biinden ' or ' Lia Grescha,' one of the 
 three unions of the Grisons. So called 
 from the grey homespun worn by the 
 unionists, whence the word ' Gris-ons ' 
 and the German ' Graubiinden.' In 
 1427 the three leagues united into a 
 general federation, and formed an alliance 
 with the Swiss cantons. 
 
 The other two unions are the Cadeian League 
 (q.v.) and the League of the Six Jurisdictions. 
 
 Grey Sister of Hearts (The). 
 Julienne Wittinghoff, baroness von Kru- 
 dener (1764-1824), a mystic, credited with 
 prophesying Na])oleon's flight from Elba 
 and his fall at Waterloo, Alexander I. of 
 Russia was one of her disciples ; and when 
 she went to Paris during its occupation by 
 the allies, her religious ' drums ' were the 
 fashion of the hour. 
 
 The baroness promoted the ' Holy Alliance ' in 
 18-j, and died in the Crimea, 13 Dec. 1824. 
 
 Grey Sisters (The), 1634. Sisters 
 of Chavity, so called from their grey dress. 
 A society of unmarried women, whose 
 functions are to nurse the sick, and do 
 what they can to relieve the sufferings of 
 all inmates of hospitals. The society was 
 founded in France by Vincent de Paul 
 and the widow Lcgras. Suppressed at 
 the Revolution, but restored by Napoleon 
 in 1807, under the presidency of the 
 empress-mother. 
 
 Greysteil. Lord Ruthven, son of 
 the Lord Ruthven who mui'dered David 
 Rizzio, was so called from Sir Greysteil, 
 the hero of a metrical romance very 
 popular at the time. He was honoured 
 for his courage and hardihood, in which 
 respect he resembled Greysteil. 
 
 Griffith's Valuation, 1826. To 
 provide for the more equal levying of 
 grand jury cess and county charges. 
 Made by Richard Griffith, the commis- 
 sioner appointed under Act 7 Geo. IV. 
 c. 62, for Ireland. 
 
 The Tenement Valuation, 1846-7, amended by 
 Act (1852) was used for all public and local assess- 
 ments, as well as for all imperial purposes, till the 
 new assessment came into operation. 
 
 Grimes Dyke, a.d. 140-141. A 
 
 rampart and ditch formed by Lollius 
 Urbicus, general of Antoninus Pius, from 
 Dunglass Castle (on the Clyde) to the 
 heights above Caer Ridden Kirk. It had 
 nineteen forts, with an average interval of 
 two miles. Also called Graeme's and 
 Graham's Dyke. 
 
 Grimes is Keltic for ' great." 
 
 Grimm's Law. The formula of 
 Jacob Louis Grimm, the j)hilologer, for 
 the variation of consonants as a word 
 passes out of one country into another. 
 
 For example : the Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit p 
 becomes/ in English: thus pater becomes /aincr, 
 
394 
 
 GrJSE 
 
 GUERCINO 
 
 Grise League {The), 1424. The 
 second league of the Grisons for inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Grisognel the Grey Cloa'k. 
 
 Geoffrey of Anjou, father of Henry 11. 
 (1113-1151). 
 
 His son was called ' Curtmantle.' 
 
 Grist Tax {The), 1815. An absolute 
 prohibition on the delivery of wheat out 
 of warehouse, and its importation for 
 home consumption till the price reached 
 80s. per quarter was imposed. In 1822 
 this act was amended, and in 1828 a slid- 
 ing scale was established (' Notes and 
 Queries,' 2 May, 1889, p. 180). 
 
 Groans of the Britons {The), 
 A.D. 426. A letter addressed to Aetius, 
 the popular captain of the day, to come 
 and help the English against the con- 
 stant irruptions of the Picts and Scots. 
 But the Romans were at the time dread- 
 ing the advance of Attila; and the Britons, 
 left to the tender mercies of their ra- 
 vagers, invited over the Saxons. 
 
 Grost§te or Grosseteste. Robert 
 Copley, bishop of Lincoln (1175, 1235- 
 1253). Sometimes Anglicised into ' Great- 
 head.' 
 
 Grub Street Journal, London. 
 Grub Street is now called Milton Street, 
 famous at one time for trashy literature. 
 The journal was a folio in size, and con- 
 tinued to be issued to the end of the year 
 1737. It then became a quarto, and was 
 entitled ' The Literary Courier oi Grub 
 Street.' 
 
 He, honest man, was deep in Grub Street and 
 polemical divinity.— Andrew Marvell, T/te Re- 
 hearsal, &c. See also ' Dunciad,' i. 38. 
 
 Grumbletonians, 1C92. The anti- 
 court party, or out-of-office party. By a 
 refined euphemism the court party was 
 called ' The Patriot Party ' and the 
 Grumbletonians the ' * Country Party.' 
 Bolingbroke and Walpole were the two 
 representative men in 1723 (Macaulay, 
 ' Hist, of Eng.,' chap. xix.). 
 
 Grypus {ypviros, Hooked Nose). So 
 Antiochus VIII., king of Syria, was 
 called (B.C. 141-196). 
 
 Guard. See ' Garde.' 
 
 Guardian and Lieutenant of 
 the Realm. So George I. called the 
 Prince of Wales, when left in charge of 
 the United Kingdom, in 1716. He was 
 
 extremely jealous of his son, and would 
 not hear of his being called regent. It 
 was not, however, a new title, as the 
 Black Prince had borne it in 1338, &c. 
 
 Guebres [Infidels], So the Moslems 
 call all, except Jews and Christians, who 
 do not profess Islamism ; but generally 
 the Parsees are meant. See ' Giaours.' 
 
 Guelf Fund. A considerable 
 amount of money which falls annually to 
 the emperor of Germany, and is not de- 
 pendent on the consent of parliament. A 
 part is paid to subsidise newsj)apers, and 
 50,000Z. is spent yearly in secret service. 
 It is called the ' Guelf Fund ' because 
 it arises from the interest of the seques- 
 tered property of the Hanoverian dynasty. 
 
 Guelfs and Ghibellines {The), 
 12th cent. The Guelfs were dukes of Ba- 
 varia, who contended with the house of 
 Hohenstauffen for pre-eminence. From 
 a mere German feud the contention ad- 
 vanced to a long and bitter struggle be- 
 tween the civil and spiritual powers. 
 The Guelfs were the pope's party, and 
 laboured to set the pope above the 
 crowned princes. The Ghibellines were 
 the imperial or civil party, and tried to 
 set the kaiser above the pope. 
 
 In consequence of this rivalry, we find two rival 
 contemporary popes, Alexander III. (a.d. 1159) the 
 Guelfic pope, and Victor IV. (a.d. 115;)) the kaiser's 
 pope. Of course the latter was called an anti- 
 pope by the Roman party. Guelf was duke of 
 Saxony ; Ghibelline, or rather Waiblingen, is a 
 town of Wiirtemberg, the patrimonial seat of the 
 HohenstaufEen family. . . . The words were first 
 used as the battle cries in 1138 when Guelf, the 
 brother of Henry the Proud, was defeated by Kon- 
 rad of Hohenstauffen at Weinsberg. 
 
 *^* [After the reign of Kaiser Heinrich 
 VII., in 1313, the terms 'Guelf and 
 * Ghibelline ' completely changed their 
 original meaning. The Ghibellines were 
 originally the imperial party, but from 
 1313 Italian rebels were called Ghibel- 
 lines. This was because the German 
 emperors were for ever disturbing the 
 government of the Italian states ; and as 
 these emperors were Ghibellines, so the 
 word came to denote a disturber of the 
 state, a rebel, or insurgent. Of course, 
 the insurgents were not slow to retort on 
 the government party the nickname of 
 Guelfs. The Hanoverian British line is 
 that of the Guelfs. See ' Tories.' 
 
 Guereino {Squint Eye). Gian Fran- 
 cesco Barbieri, a famous painter of the 
 
GUEPJNETS 
 
 GUINEVER 
 
 895 
 
 Bolognese school. His masterpieces are 
 the fresco of ' Aurora ' in the Villa Ludo- 
 visi, the ' Persian Sibyl,' and ' St. Petro- 
 nilla ' (1590-1666). 
 
 Gue'rinets {The), 1684. Enthusiasts 
 and visionaries in France ; a sort of Illu- 
 minati. 
 
 Guerra de las Comunerades 
 
 (5 syl.), 1520-1521. The insurrection of 
 the Comuneros under Padilla, a young 
 nobleman of Toledo. The insui-gents 
 were defeated at Villala, and Padilla was 
 executed. See ' Comuneros.' 
 
 Guerra di Cand^a {Una). 'War 
 to the knife.' A Venetian expression 
 alluding to the siege of Candia by the 
 Turks (1667-1G68). This siege cost the 
 lives of 30,000 Christians and 120,000 
 Turks. Candia was ultimately obliged 
 to surrender. 
 
 Guerrillas. Petty wars, or partisan 
 warriors; armed bands of peasants are 
 so called in Spain. The insurrections of 
 Jack Cade, Wat Tyler, and Robert Kett 
 would be so called in Spain. From 1808 
 to 1814 guerrillas were regularly organised 
 against the French, and the names of 
 Empecinado, the Pastor Merino, and 
 Mina, as leaders, are well known. 
 
 Miua's band joined Wellington, and did good 
 BRrvice in the Peninsular war. The guerrillas 
 also joined the Carlists, and distinguished them- 
 selves. 
 
 Guet {Le). The police of the old 
 regime of France, changed, in 1789, into 
 the Garde Mu.nicipale de Paris. It was 
 reorganised in 1254 by St. Louis [IX.], 
 who subdivided the corps into the Gnet 
 Royal, and the G^iet assis or des mestiers. 
 The Guet Royal consisted of twenty ser- 
 gents a cheval and twenty sergents a 
 pied. The Guet assis consisted of bour- 
 geois and artisans, the former being the 
 night watch, and the latter orderlies of 
 the Guet Royal. The Constituent Assem- 
 bly replaced the Guet by the Gendarmerie. 
 
 Pronounce Gu-ay. 
 
 Gueux. 16th cent, ragamuffins. The 
 revolutionists in Spain and the Nether- 
 lands in 1566. There were 300 deputies 
 of the Calvinistic j)arty, headed by H. de 
 Brederode (a descendant of the counts of 
 Holland) and Louis count of Nassau, 
 who demanded of Margaret, the governor, 
 the abolition of the Inquisition. When 
 Margaret seemed about to give way the 
 Count of Barleymont, her counsellor, re- 
 
 commended her to dismiss the deputation, 
 saying to her, ' Ce ne sont que des gueux.' 
 The word was cau;;ht up ; they called 
 themselves ' Les Gueux,' and took for 
 their badge a Avallet and porringer. The 
 ' Gueux des bois ' combated on land, the 
 ' Gueux de mer ' sought a refuge at sea. 
 
 Pronounce Lay getrz ; Geicda bicd ; Geicd mair. 
 
 Guillemites (3 syl.), 1153. A reli- 
 gious congTegation founded at Pescara 
 by St. Gulielmus of Malaval. They 
 soon spread over Italy, France, and Ger- 
 many. From 12L6 they had a monastery 
 at liontrouge, near Paris. They w< 
 called White Mantles {Blancs-Manteaux) 
 from the great white mantles which thoy 
 wore. They ceased to exist long before 
 the Revolution. 
 
 Guillotine {The\ 31 May, 1791. 
 Joseph Ignace Guillotin, M.D., induced 
 the Legislative Assembly of France to 
 adopt the machine which bears his name 
 for the execution of criminals condemned 
 to death. But it was not till 20 March, 
 1792, that a special decree was made for 
 its universal use. It was not the inven- 
 tion of Dr. Guillotin, for a like instru- 
 ment was used in England in the time of 
 Edward III. ' The Maiden ' of Scotland 
 was used in 1578. The Halifax ' Maiden ' 
 was well known. And a similar instru- 
 ment had been used in Germany, Bohe- 
 mia, and Italy. 
 
 The Regent Morton, -who introduced the 
 ' Blaiden into Scotland, was (according to tradi- 
 tion; the first to sutler by it. 
 
 Guinea. The English gold coin, 
 equal to 21s., first coined in 1662. With- 
 drawn from circulation in 1817. 
 
 Physicians, barristers, schoolmasters, clergy- 
 men in temporary office, artists, &c., still preserve 
 the word ' guinea,' and are paid by guineas 
 instead of sovereigns. Honoraria and many sub- 
 scriptions to charities are also paid in guineas. 
 In fact, it is esteemed a more ' aristocratic ' pay- 
 ment. The gold of the first specimens came from 
 the coast of Guinea. 
 
 Guinegate, or ' Guinegatte.' In 
 France. Noted for the ' Battle of the 
 Spurs ' [p. 80, col. 1], won by Henry VIII. 
 over the French. Here, on 7 Aug., 1479, 
 had been fought another battle, Ijetween 
 Louis XL and Maximilian of Austria, to 
 which Philippe de Comines (2 syl-JL re- 
 fers : — 
 
 Remember Guynegate, a warning against the 
 allurements either of plunder or of prisoners ; for 
 Guynegate was lost in the very moment of victory 
 by our too great eagerness for pillage. 
 
 Guinever {The Canons Begular of 
 St.). See ' Genevieve.' 
 
896 
 
 GUIRLANDE 
 
 n 
 
 G-uirlande de Julie. This Julie 
 was the celebratedJuHe Lucie d' Angeiines, 
 daughter of the Marquis de Rambouillet, 
 who presided over the society called 
 L'Hotel de Rambouillet, and married 
 the Due de Montausier. When the due 
 was paying his court to the witty Julie, 
 he made her a present of a MS. book of 
 select poems, which he called the ' Guir- 
 lande de Julie,' illuminated with flowers 
 painted by Robert. The poems were in 
 the handwriting of Jarry. The book was 
 in the family of the Due d'Uzbs in 1870, 
 and probably is there still, but it has 
 been printed and published. , 
 
 Pronounce Gir-land d'zhu-le. 
 
 Gulistan {Peace of), 1813. Between 
 Persia and Russia, 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, 1605. A con- 
 spiracy to destroy the king, lords, and 
 coinmons, by springing a mine secreted 
 under the houses of parliament, on 5 Nov., 
 the day of the king's speech. The plot 
 was projected by Robert Catesby, who 
 was joined by many Roman Catholics of 
 high rank. Guido Fawkes (Guy Faux) 
 was employed to fire the train, but was 
 apprehended in the vaults under the 
 houses of parliament. Sir Everard 
 Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet (a 
 Jesuit), Guy Faux, and some others Avere 
 executed 31 Jan., 1606. Robert Catesby 
 was shot 8 Nov., 1605, while attempting 
 to raise an insurrection in Worcestei*- 
 shire ; and Thomas Percy, of the family 
 of Northumberland, was slaot at Ilolbeach 
 the same day. 
 
 Gunter's Cliain, 1624. A chain 
 
 used for land-measuring. It is 22 yards 
 long, the square of which is 484. Now 
 an acre is 4,840 square yards, and there- 
 fore a square chain is a tenth of an acre, 
 or 10 = 1 acre. Again, a chain contains 
 10,000 square links, and, as 10 chains 
 = an acre, it follows that 100,000 square 
 links = an acre. Lo that, in measuring a 
 field by a Gunter's chain, all that is re- 
 quired is to divide the result by 100,000, 
 or (which is the same thing) to cut off 
 the last five figures, to obtain the area in 
 
 Gunter's Line. A logarithmic 
 line engraved on scales and sectors, 
 serving to perform the multiplication and 
 division of numbers instrumentally. 
 
 Gunter's Q,uadrrvnt. A quadrant 
 for finding the hour of the day, the sun's 
 azimuth, and other problems of the 
 sx^here. 
 
 Gunter's Scale. For resolving 
 questions in navigation by the aid of a 
 pair of compasses. Called by seamen 
 ' The Gunter.' 
 
 Gurgoyles (2 syl.), familiarly called 
 ' The Gurgs,' 1775-1855. A "society 
 which flourished for eighty years at Li-- 
 coln's Inn, being a revival of the old 
 Cambridge Shakespeare Society. It was 
 never formally dissolved. 
 
 Guy's Hospital, 1721. Fomv^sd 
 by Thomas Guy, a London booksell*jr, 
 who was M.P. for Tamworth (1694-1707). 
 
 Gwynn (Nell, or Eleanor). It is said 
 that her real name was Margaret Sjmicott. 
 The dukes of St. Albans are descended 
 from this mistress of Charles II. 
 
 Gymnos'opllists (4 syl.), or ' Naked 
 Philosophers.' Indian philosophers, so 
 called by the Greeks because they went 
 about naked. The two best known are 
 Calanus and Zarmenochegas. The for- 
 mer followed Alexander the Great from 
 India, and, being taken ill, burnt himself 
 alive in the presence of the Macedonian 
 army, B.C. 323. Ilu latter burnt himself 
 alive at Athens in the i^resence of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Thej'' are now represented by the 'sky-clarV 
 branch ot Ihe Jains. At present they eat their 
 without any clothing. 
 
 G-ypsy {plu. Gypsies). Called 
 
 also ' Egyi:)tians,' ' Bohemians,' ' Gitanos,' 
 ' Zingari,' or ' Zingali.' Are mentioned 
 in 1122 in the German paraphrase of 
 Genesis. They appeared in Hungary, Wal- 
 lachia, and Cyprus in 1320 ; in Germany 
 between 1416-1420; at Ziirich in 1418; 
 in Italy in 1422 ; at Paris in 1427 ; in 
 Scotland in 1500. 
 
 Gypsies forbidden to dicell in the 
 la7id : — 
 
 1492, by Ferdinand the Catholic of Sipain. 
 1500, by the Diet of Augsburg . . Germany. 
 
 1530, by Henry VIII England. 
 
 1540, by James V Scotland. 
 
 15G0, by the States of Orleans . France. 
 1740, by Friedrich II. ... Prussia. 
 
 H, on pennypieces, 1875, &c., stands 
 for H[eaton] — the firm of Ralph Heaton 
 & Sons of IBirmingham, which supplied 
 the mint with 100 tons of the bronze 
 pennypieces. Their first issue was 1875 ; 
 
HABEAS 
 
 HAIR 
 
 897 
 
 and the officers of Tower Hill, in order to 
 identify the coin, had the letter H im- 
 pressed on the dies. 
 
 Habeas Corpus [Suspension of 
 the). In times of great political excite- 
 ment the operation of the Habeas Corpus 
 Act is usually suspended, by which per- 
 sons committed are not allowed to be 
 bailed. The committing magistrate has 
 to bear, in such cases, all the responsi- 
 bility of the commitment. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act (TJie), 1679, 
 
 (31 Car. II. c. 2), securing English sub- 
 jects against arbitrary imprisonment. 
 
 This is provided for by the writ called ' Habeas 
 Corpus ad Subjiciendum ' which is addressed to 
 any person who detains anotlier in custody, com- 
 manding him to produce the body of the prisoner, 
 and to state the day and cause of his capture and 
 detention. This done, the court decides whether 
 the prisoner shall be liberated, admitted to bail, 
 or remanded. 
 
 Habsburg^ (House- of). Incorrectly 
 written ' Hapsburg.' I. Furnished Ger- 
 many with Rodolf I., Adolf of Nassau, 
 and Albert I. of Austria (1273-1308). 
 
 The word Habsburg or Habichts-bxirg, built in 
 the 11th cent., means ' hawk's castle.' The castle 
 stood on the right bank of the Aar, in the Swiss 
 canton of Aart,au. 
 
 II. Of Austria. Began with Albert 
 [AlbrechtJ II. the Illustrious (son of Al- 
 bert IV. duke of Austria), and son-in-law 
 of Siegmund the preceding kaiser. Albert 
 was also called ' the Magnanimous ' and 
 ' the Grave.' This line of kaisers began 
 in 1438, and still continues in that part 
 of Germany called Austria and Hungary^ 
 
 The Habsburgcrs of direct male descent ceased 
 In 1806; Karl Yll., son of Maria Theresa, was a 
 Habsburger on his mother's side only. 
 
 Hadith. Traditions about Moham- 
 med the prophet, complementary to the 
 Koran. 
 
 Hadrian's Ileseript. A letter to 
 Serenius Granianus, proconsul of Asia, 
 respec.ting the way he was to treat Chris- 
 tians. ' If anyone shall prove any offence 
 against the laws to have been committed 
 by Christians, proceed against them as 
 the law directs ; but if the charge brought 
 against them be mere calumny, then 
 punish the accuser as he deserves.' See 
 ' Trajan's Rescript.' 
 
 Haeceeity. A term in school divinity 
 meaning the principle of individuation. 
 The Realists maintained that universals 
 only were real, and that they formed in- 
 
 dividuals by the intervention of the prin- 
 ciple of hajcceity. 
 
 Hseret'ico comburendo (Be). A 
 writ against heretics, who, being convicted 
 of heresy by a bishop abjured it, but 
 afterwards relapsing, were delivered over 
 to the secular power to be burnt alive. 
 Abolished by the pension parliament in 
 1677 {tempore Charles II.). 
 
 Hag'gada. The rabbinical inter- 
 pretation of scripture for homiletical 
 purposes. See 'Midrash.' 
 
 Haileybury College, 1806. 
 
 Founded by the East India Comjiany at 
 Great Amwell, Herts, for the education 
 of 105 students intended for the civil 
 service in India. 
 
 Hair. 
 
 Gkeeks. The Spartans combed and 
 dressed their hair carefully, especially 
 when about to encounter any great 
 danger; as Leonldas and his 300 did 
 before starting for Thermopylae. Sailors 
 both in Greece and Rome shaved off 
 their hair after a shipwreck or other 
 calamity, and dedicated it to some deitj\ 
 In mourning, Greek and Roman women 
 cut their hair short, but the men in both 
 countries left their hair rough and un- 
 kempt, as if their grief was too great for 
 their concerning themselves about per- 
 sonal adornment. 
 
 In childhood both Greeks and Romans 
 wore long hair, but the boys, on reaching 
 puberty, had their hair clipped and 
 dedicated to some river-god. At Athens 
 this ceremony took place on the third 
 day of the festival called ' Apaturia.' 
 
 Slaves, both in Greece and Rome, were 
 alwaj^s shaved, and vestal virgins, like 
 Catholic nuns, cut off their hair when 
 they took their vows. 
 
 One way of supplicating was pulling out one's 
 hair. After this manner .\gamemnon present-^d 
 himself before Zeus, when Hector had given tha 
 Greeks an overthrow. — Iliad, xx. 15. 
 
 Romans. Men wore their hair long till 
 about B.C. 300, when short hair and 
 shaving came into vogue. Scipio Afri- 
 canus (B.C. 234-183) was the first Roman 
 who shaved. Under the empire the 
 style of dressing the hair was extremely 
 finical. Mark Antony (b.c. 80-30) is 
 represented as wearing his hair in sausage 
 curls arranged in rows all round his head. 
 The Emperor Gallienus (a.d. 260-268) 
 had his hair powdered with gold-dust. 
 
398 
 
 HAIR 
 
 HAIR 
 
 In Hadrian's time (76, 117-138) full 
 beards and short hair were in vogue, and 
 this fashion continued to the end of the 
 empire. 
 
 The GrAULS and ancient Britons. The 
 Teutonic tribes wore their hair long, as 
 did the ancient Gauls and Britons. That 
 part of Gaul the furthest remote from 
 Roman influence was called Gallia 
 Comdta (long-haired Gaul), to distinguish 
 it from the half-Romanised Gallia To- 
 gdta. 
 
 The Saxons and Danes wore longhair 
 and long beards, but the Normans 
 shaved their chins, and sometimes the 
 back of their heads also. 
 
 England. In the reign of Henry I. 
 (1100-1135) the gentlemen rivalled the 
 ladies in the length of their hair, . and 
 long hair prevailed till the time of 
 Henry VIII. (1509-1547), when short 
 hair came into vogue. In the reign of 
 Charles I. (1625-1649) ringlets and love- 
 locks were affected by the Cavaliers, but 
 Puritans cropped their hair close to the 
 head. In the reign of Charles II. (1661- 
 1685) enormous wigs flowing over the 
 shoulders were worn, and this fashion 
 continued up to the reign of George III. 
 (1760-1820). 
 
 In 1765 the -wig-makers petitioned the king 
 against the discontinuance of wigs, praying for 
 their reintroduction. An excellent satire was set 
 on foot praying his Majesty to introduce the 
 farihiou of wooden legs for the benefit of carpen- 
 ters. 
 
 At the close of the 18th cent, the dis- 
 gusting habit of plastering the hair with 
 flour, powder, and pomatum, to the 
 amount of 2 lbs. or more, was introduced. 
 My father used to tell us how, when he 
 was a young man, and was going to a 
 public entei'tainment, the hairdresser was 
 generally obliged, from stress of business, 
 to come the day before 'to make hishead,' 
 which was the usual phrase ; and that 
 he was obliged to sleep in an armchair 
 for fear of deranging his hair. When the 
 head was ' unmade ' the lard and powder 
 taken out would fill a small basin. He 
 said that every gentleman used to carry 
 a ' scratcher,' with an ivory hand at one 
 end to scratch the back, and a sharp 
 point at the other to scratch the head, 
 because the parasites were so trouble- 
 soine. In my young days, gentlemen 
 wore their hair smooth, with a pig-tail 
 and bag or pig- tail and knocker. Not 
 long after William Pitt introduced his 
 
 tax on hair-powder, the hair was cut 
 
 short as it is at present (1890). 
 
 The style of dressing hair among ladies is far 
 too long a subject for this note-book, but foolery 
 reached its climax in the time of Marie Antoinette. 
 My mother says that in her days the hairdresser 
 was provided with steps, that he might pile up 
 the hair high enough. 
 
 Hair as a sign of Rank. 
 
 The Parthians and ancient Persians 
 of high rank wore long flowing hair. 
 
 Homer speaks of the 'long-haired 
 Greeks ' by way of honourable distinc- 
 tion. Subsequently, the Athenian cavalry 
 wore long hair, and all the Lacedaemonian 
 soldiers did the same. 
 
 The Gauls considered long hair a 
 mark of honour, for which reason Julius 
 CcBsar obliged them to cut off their hair 
 in token of submission, for all slaves were 
 shorn. 
 
 The Franks and ancient Germans 
 considered long hair a mark of high 
 birth. Hence Clodion, the Frank, was 
 styled * the Long-haired,' and his succes- 
 sors were spoken of as les rois chevelures. 
 
 The Goths considered long hair a 
 mark of honour, and short hair a mark 
 of thraldom. 
 
 For many centuries long hair was i»i 
 France the distinctive mark of kings 
 and nobles, and in the time of Charles II. 
 the Cavaliers gloried in long hair. 
 
 Hair shaved ofiF. 
 
 Mohammedans shave the scalp, but 
 leave a tuft of hair for the ' angel to lay 
 hold of when he carries the dead to 
 paradise.' 
 
 The Chinese shave all the head except 
 the top, where the hair is suffered to grow 
 into a long pig-tail. This was a Tartar 
 custom. 
 
 The Buddhist priests shave all the 
 head. 
 
 Catholic priests shave their head more 
 or less. The part shaved is called the 
 'tonsure.' St. Peter's tonsure is quite 
 round the head, to indicate the crown of 
 thorns. St. Paul's tonsure is the whole 
 head shaved like a Buddhist priest's. 
 Simon Magus's tonsure is a semicircle 
 shaved from ear to ear above the fore- 
 head, but not extended to the back of the 
 head. This sort of tonsure is natural 
 baldness. 
 
 Catholic priests shave their faces quite 
 clean, and the same custom is affected 
 by the ' High Church party ' of the 
 Anglican Church. However, Christ and 
 
HAIR 
 
 HALL 
 
 899 
 
 his apostles are always represented with 
 nioustaches and long beards. 
 
 Hair Powder, 1590. An aristocra- 
 tic badge of the Guise party, opj)osed to 
 Henri IV. The Guise party put forward 
 the old Cardinal de Bourbon whom they 
 called king, and in courtly flattery whit- 
 ened their hair, and wore white plumes 
 or white cockades. Originally hair- 
 powder was an aristocratic distinction 
 of the high church and state party in 
 France. It was taxed in England in 
 1795 {11. 3s. 6^.), which brought in 20,000Z. 
 a year. Nowadays hair-powder is worn 
 only by some of the footmen of the 
 nobility and higher commoners. The 
 number of powdered footmen in 1890 was 
 under 900. 
 
 Hakem (A). A Musuhnan magis- 
 trate under a cadi. 
 
 Hal'danites (3 syl.). Followers of 
 James Alexander Haldane (1708-1857) of 
 Aithrie, near Stirling. They are the 
 Scotch Baptists, commonly called ' Mac- 
 lean's People.' 
 
 Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, 
 1749. So named in honour of the Earl 
 of Halifax, then president of the Board of 
 Trade in England. When the army was 
 reduced in consequence of the peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, a great number of sol- 
 diers and sailors were thrown out of em- 
 ploymeijt. It was resolved, therefore, to 
 grant to every settler in Nova Scotia a 
 free passage, 50 acres of freehold land, 
 and another 10 acres for each child. 
 Some 4,000 men with their families ac- 
 cepted the offer, sailed to Nova Scotia 
 under Colonel Cornwallis, and founded 
 the town of Halifax, now the capital of 
 the pi'ovince. 
 
 Halifax Law. Whoever committed 
 a theft exceeding ISd. in value in the 
 liberty of Halifax was summarily exe- 
 cuted on the 'jyn' of Halifax, a kind of 
 guillotine. Taylor the Water-poet (1030) 
 refers to this law and this jyn. 
 
 Hall — College. Colleges are cor- 
 porate bodies. Halls are not incor- 
 porated. 
 
 Hall Marks of gold and silver 
 
 articles. 
 
 Silver articles have now four marks 
 and a cartouch. Beginning on the left 
 hand we have (1) the head of the reign- 
 
 ing sovereign ; (2) the date-letter ; (3) the 
 leopard's head, the company's mark ; 
 (4) the lion passant, the national mark ; 
 and (5) the cartouch containing the 
 initials of the manufacturer. 
 
 The head of the sovereign was first 
 added to the marks in 1784. 
 
 The leopard's head was adopted as the 
 company's mark in 1300. 
 
 The date-letters have been in use since 
 1438. The custom for the last 200 years 
 has been to use capitals and small letters 
 alternately every twentieth year. 
 
 As all common alphabets have been 
 exhausted, the shape of the shield will 
 distinguish a modern mark from a more 
 ancient one of the same character. Thus 
 in 1876 Roman capitals were employed ; 
 so they were in 1790. But the shields 
 were different ; the shield of 1870 beinsr 
 
 and that of 1796 
 
 y 
 
 and of course the sovereign's head differs. 
 
 A is the 1st year, B the 2nd year, G 
 the 3rd year, and so on, omitting J and 
 the last six letters. 
 
 The character of letters hitherto used 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1438-1457 Lombardic, simple, small letters. 
 
 1458-1477 „ ■with external cusps. 
 
 1478-1497 ■„ with double cusps. 
 
 1498-1517 Black letter, small. 
 
 1518-1537 Lombardic. simple, capitals. 
 
 1538-1557 Roman caps, with border. 
 
 1558-1577 Black letter, small. 
 
 From this date the letters are placed in shields. 
 
 1578-1597 Clarendon caps, in shield. 
 
 1598- 1G17 Lombardic, with external cusps, In 
 shield. 
 
 1618 -1637 Italic, small, in shield. 
 
 1638-1657 Court hand „ 
 
 1658-1677 Black letter caps „ 
 
 1678-1696 Black letter, small „ 
 
 1696-1715 Court hand „ 
 
 1716-1735 Clarendon caps ,, 
 
 1736-1755 Clarendon, small letters, in shield. 
 
 1756-1775 Old English caps 
 
 1776-1795 Clarendon, small letters „ 
 
 From this date caps and smalls aW^rnate. 
 /1796-1815 Roman capitals, in shield, flat bottom. 
 U816-1835 Roman small letters „ 
 (■1836-1855 Old English caps, in shield, pointed 
 I bottom. 
 
 11856-1875 Old English smaUs, in shield, pointed 
 [ bottom. 
 
 fl876-l«95 Roman caps, in shield, pointed bottom. 
 11896-1915 Roman smalls „ „ 
 
 Clarendon, i.e. Roman letters ■with no fine 
 strokes, but all black alike. 
 
 *^* The assay-marks guarantee the 
 exact proportion of alloy contained in the 
 article. The standard of perfect purity 
 being assumed to be 24 carats ; the figures 
 — such as 12, 15, 18, 20, &c. — market' on 
 gold and silver articles mean that 12, 15, 
 
400 
 
 HALL 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 18, or 20 carats of the 24, are pure metal, 
 and the rest is alloy. 
 
 Some silver has been assayed out of 
 London, and instead of the leopard's head 
 the following marks are used : — 
 
 For Birmingham ... An anchor. 
 
 ,, Chester Three g irbs and a dagger 
 
 (the City arras). 
 
 „ Exeter A castle with 3 towers. 
 
 „ Newcastle-on-Tyne Three castles. 
 
 „ Sheffleld A crown. 
 
 „ Edinburgh ... ... A thistle. 
 
 „ Glasgow Tree, fish, and bell (the 
 
 City arms). 
 
 „ Dublin A harp crowned. 
 
 (A garb in heraldry is a sheaf of grain.) 
 
 Hall Mote. The court held in Saxon 
 times in the castle hall of the lord of a 
 town or tithing, to punish by fines 
 thieves, vagrants, and disorderly persons. 
 It was inferior to the ' Folk Mote ' {q.v.). 
 
 Hallamshire. So called from the 
 manor of Hallam, or Hallun, north of 
 Eivelin, and ' in the parish of Sheffield.' 
 Before the conquest Attercliffe and Shef- 
 field were integral parts of Hallam manor, 
 but after the conquest the manors of 
 Hallam, Ecclesfelt, Biadfield, and Hans- 
 worth were all occupied by one baron, and 
 called the Manor of, Sheffield. Leland 
 says : — ' Halamshire beginneth a ii mile 
 from Rotheram. Sheffield iii miles from 
 Rotheram, wher the lord of Shreusbyre's 
 castle is, the chese-market towne of Hal- 
 amshire. And Halamshire goith one 
 way vi or vii miles above Sheffilde 
 by west, yet as I here say, another way 
 the next village to Sheffilde is in Derby- 
 shire. Al Halamshire go to the sessions 
 of York, and is counted as a membre of 
 Yorkshire. jEglesfild and Bradfield ii 
 townelettes or villages long to one paroche 
 chirche. So by this meanes ther be but 
 iii parodies in Halamshire that is of 
 name, and a great chapelle ' (' Itin.,' vol. v. 
 f. 94). See ' Hoyland.' 
 
 Hallelujah Band {The). A Pro- 
 testant religious sect whose services con- 
 sist entirely of thanksgiving. 
 
 Halleluj ah Victory ( The), or ' Vic 
 toria Alleluiatica,' 30 March, a.d. 430. A 
 legendary victory of St. Germanus bishop 
 of Auxerre and Lupus bishop of Troyes 
 over the Picts and Saxons at Mold in 
 Flintshire. So called because the Britons 
 led by them shouted 'Hallelujah' so 
 loudly that the enemy was panicstruck 
 and fled. 
 
 St. Germanus was chosen commander against 
 the Saxons ; and not by the clang of trumpets and 
 
 clash of arms, but by singing hallelujah, he routed 
 tlie foe, and they perished in tlae sea. — NENNIUS, 
 Hist, of the Britons, § 47. 
 
 Halley's Comet, 1682. Dr. Halley 
 determined the recurrence of this comet 
 by supposing it to be the same as that 
 which appeared in 1607 and 1531. If so 
 it would appear again in 1759, and so it 
 did. M. Damoiseau calculated that it 
 ou'^ht to appear again in 1835, and so it 
 did. 
 
 It will be seen that these intervals vary from 70 
 to 80 years ; the variation is occasioned by tlie 
 attraction of the planets on the motion of the 
 comet. 
 
 Hallow Eve Fires, 1 Nov. The 
 bonfires kindled in Scotland for the htxr- 
 vest-home festival. The Highlanders 
 keep their bonfire festival, called Belteia 
 iq.v.), on May-day, old style. Gregory IV". 
 changed the feast of All Saints or All 
 Hallows from May-day to 1 Nov. Hence 
 the double feast. The Romans held the 
 festival of Cybele on May-day, and 
 Gregory IV. changed the day for the sake 
 of changing ' Cybele and all the gods ' 
 into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' 
 
 Hallow-e'en. The eve of All Hal- 
 lows (31 Oct.), or day before All Saints', 
 which is 1 Nov. 
 
 The pen-name of 
 
 Halt {Bobert). 
 M. Vieu. 
 
 Hamadanites (4 syl.), 892-1001. Of 
 the tribe of Hamadan. A dynasty of 
 Mesopotamia, including Mosul and 
 Aleppo, occupied by Arabian princes of 
 the tribe of Hamadan. Their history is 
 a tissue of treachery, parricide, and 
 assassination. 
 
 The poets of their court said the Hamadanites 
 were formed v/ith beauty of person, eloquence of 
 speech, and arms of valour. 
 
 Hamadites (3 syl.), 1015-1091. A 
 
 Spanish dynasty, established by Soliman, 
 after the defeat of Mohammed II. of 
 Cordova. 
 
 Hamburg {Treaty of), 22 May, 
 1763. A treaty of amity between Sweden 
 and Russia, on the death of the Czarina 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Hamilton {Patrick), 1504-1528. A 
 Scotch reformer and martyr, of whom it 
 was said, ' The reik of Patrick Hamilton 
 will infect as many as it blows upon.' 
 
 This sentiment was like that uttered by Bishop 
 Latimer, at tlie stake, 1.555: 'We shall this day 
 light up such a blaze in the land as shall never be 
 put out.' 
 
HAMMER 
 
 HANDSOME 
 
 401 
 
 Hammer and Scourcce of the 
 
 English {The). William Wallace, the 
 Scotch patriot (1270-1305), is so called by 
 Fordun. 
 
 Hammer of Scotland [The). So 
 Edward I. is styled on his tomb in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Hampden Clubs, 1816. To pro- 
 secute the cause of parliamentary reform, 
 and to unite the reformers in one system 
 of action. These clubs were established 
 in every town ia the kingdom, and in 
 many villages ; but the great central club 
 was held at the ' Crown & Anchor,' Strand, 
 the president being Sir Francis Burdett. 
 The leading members were William Cob- 
 bett. Major Cartwright, Lord Cochrane, 
 and Henry Hunt. 
 
 Hampton Court Conference 
 
 {The), 12 to 18 Jan., 1604. Between pre- 
 lates and Puritans ; James I. px-esided. 
 This conference was convened to take into 
 consideration the ' Millenary Petitioii ' 
 {q.v.), and it was decided that no change 
 was required. On 16 Jan. the petitioners 
 were called before the king, and, according 
 to the account of James himself, he ' pep- 
 pered them soundly.' On the 18th judg- 
 ment was given adverse to the petitioners 
 and the Puritan party. 
 
 Han Dynasty {The), b.c. 202— a.d. 
 
 25. The second historical and fifth impe- 
 rial dynasty of China. It was divided 
 into two parts : the first sixteen emperors 
 being Si-Han or Western Han, and the 
 last fourteen being Tong-Han or Eastern 
 Han. It was preceded by the Tshin 
 dynasty, and succeeded by the SAn-Kuo 
 or Three States. It gave 16 emperors, 
 lasted 227 years, and held its seat of 
 government at Yn. 
 
 Fro^n A.D. 25 the dynasty was called 
 Tong-Han, which gave 14 emperors and 
 continued to a.d. 220. So that some say 
 the dynasty of Han lasted 422 years and 
 gave 80 emperors. 
 
 This was ono of the most illustrious of all the 
 dynasties of China. 
 
 Hanaper. A treasury, answering to 
 the modern termexcheciuer. From/ic/na- 
 /)erij<.?/i, a hamper or basket used anciently 
 by our sovereigns for holding their money 
 when they journeyed from place to place. 
 ' Hanap ' is French for a goblet or cup, and those 
 gold and silver vessels being packed in hampers, 
 like the coined money, was the origin of the word 
 hcmiiiierium. 
 
 Hanaper OfB-ce. An office belong- 
 ing to the common-law jurisdiction of 
 the Court of Chancery. So called be- 
 cause all writs i-elating to the business of 
 a subject, and their returns, were formerly 
 kept in a hamper {in hanaperio]. 
 
 Hand {The). The hand engraved on 
 the keystone of the arch of the Gate of 
 Justice in the Alhambra, and on seA^eral 
 Mahometan mausoleums, signifies the five 
 prophets — Mahomet, Ali, Hassan, Hosein, 
 and Fatama. 
 
 Handelists. A musical faction in 
 England in 1720-1730, opposed by the 
 Bononcinists or the Italian school. The 
 Prince of Wales was a leader of the 
 Handelists, supported by Pope and Dr. 
 Arbuthnot ; while Marlborough and many 
 others of the nobility were adherents of 
 Bononcini and the Italian music. Some 
 of the admirers of Handel erected an 
 academy in the Haymarket, to secure a 
 supply of operas by Handel, and under 
 his direction. It succeeded for about ten 
 years, when it was closed, because the 
 rage for Italian music was so great that 
 Handel could not resist it. In 1742, how- 
 ever, his popularity returned. 
 
 Handkerchief {The) with which 
 Seraphia is said to have wiped the face of 
 Jesus on his way to Calvary, and on 
 which was miraculously impressed a 
 likeness of the sufferer, is preserved at 
 Rome. It was placed in the Vatican by 
 John VII. in 707 ; and it is now enshrined in 
 one of the four huge supports of St. Peter's 
 dome. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 Philip of Bergamo says that Tiberius Caesar sent 
 his friend Volusian, a valiant soldier of the impe- 
 rial guards, to escort Seraphia to Rome. The 
 emperor was ill at the time, but the moment he set 
 his eyes on the handkerchief he was completely 
 cured. This miracle, he adds, made so great an 
 impression on Tiberius, that he wanted to enrol 
 Jesus amongthe Roman gods ; but the senate would 
 not listen to the proposnl, so the emperor was 
 obliged to content himself with a statue of the 
 Nazarene in his palace. Of course the tale is a 
 mere myth. 
 
 Handsome Al Raschid. George 
 IV., also called Gentleman George. 
 Called Al Raschid on account of that 
 oriental toy palace built by him at 
 Brighton. 
 
 Handsome Englishman {The). 
 John Churchill duke of Marlborough 
 was so called by Turenne, 'and his 
 manners were as wmning as his perdou * 
 (1050-1722). 
 
 DD 
 
402 
 
 HANGING 
 
 HANOVEEIANS 
 
 Hanging Hill. On Haywood Oaks 
 
 Manor, near Black Gate, is where forest 
 dogs were ' expeditated,' and forest offen- 
 ders were ' swung to death.' 
 
 Expeditate is to cut out the balls or claws of a 
 dog's forefeet for the preservation of the king's 
 game.— 0;d Foiv!<t Law. 
 
 The 'canes Leporarii,' which as our record sings, 
 ' iilight never be expeditate,— they are our lord the 
 king's.' 
 
 TheEegarde of Brian d' Insula, 1202. 
 
 Hanging Judge {The). 1. Sir 
 Francis Page (1718-1741). 
 
 II. John Toler earl of Norbury, Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland 
 from 1820 to 1827. 
 
 Hango Massacre (The), 5 June, 
 1855. By Russians, on a party covered 
 by a white flag. While the allied fleet of 
 Great Britain and France was off Cron- 
 stadt, certain prizes had been made by the 
 allies, who agreed to set at liberty seven 
 of the prisoners. These were sent in a 
 boat under a flag of truce to Hango ; but 
 no sooner had they been set ashore, than 
 a party of Russians from ambush fired on 
 the defenceless crew, spite of the white 
 flag, killed 6 and wounded 4 of the crew, 
 and 4 of the Russian liberated captives. 
 The entire crew consisted of only 11 men. 
 See ' Massacre.' 
 
 Hanifites, or Hanefites (3 syl.). 
 
 The most ancient of the four principal 
 orthodox sects of the Musulmans, founded 
 by Abou-Hanifa, called the Socrates of 
 the Musulmans, put to death in 767. 
 
 Hannibal of Batavia {The). Ci- 
 vllis (1st cent.). 
 
 Hannibal of China (I'M- Chee- 
 wang-tee the Great, who reigned thirty- 
 seven years (b.c. 246-209). He com- 
 pletely reorganised the Chinese empire, 
 and finished the great wall begun by 
 Tchao-siang-wang. Chee-wang was con- 
 temporary with Hannibal. 
 
 Hannotin of Flanders. The 
 
 nickname given to Jean Sans-Peur duke 
 of Burgundy by his Flemish subjects. 
 
 Hanover {Line of). George* I., 
 George II., George III., George IV., 
 William IV., Victoria. 
 
 George I. was the son of Sophia and 
 Ernest Augustus duke of Brunswick, 
 both descendants from Henry II. of 
 England 
 
 Sophia thus: Henry II., John, 
 
 Henby III., Edward I., II., III., Lionel 
 
 duke of Clarence, Philippa, Roger Mor- 
 timer, Ann Mortimer, Richard duke of 
 York, Edwaiid IV., Elizabeth wife of 
 Henry VII., Margaret wife of James IV. 
 of Scotland, James V. of Scotland, Mary 
 queen of Scots, James I. of England, 
 Elizabeth wife of Frederick king of 
 Bohemia, Sophia. 
 
 Ernest Augustus thus: Maud daugh- 
 ter of Henry II., Otto duke of Brunswick, 
 Albert I., Albert II., Magnus, Bernard, 
 Frederick, Otto II., Henry, Ernestus, 
 William, George, Ernest Augustus, who 
 married Sophia. 
 
 AH either sons or daughters of the name pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Hanover {Treaty or Convention of), 
 3 Sept., 1725. Signed at Hanover between 
 Great Britain, France, Prussia, and after- 
 wards by Denmark and Holland, to 
 balance the alliance recently made be- 
 tween Spain, Austria, and Sweden. It 
 protected England from the demand of 
 Spain to surrender Gibraltar ; and it de- 
 fended Hanover from the aggressions of 
 Russia. {Tern. Geo. I.) 
 
 Maria Theresa refused to join the treaty, and 
 
 Prussia withdrew in 1727. 
 
 Hanover Rat {A). Originally 
 meant a partisan of the first George 
 elector of Hanover. As these partisans 
 were converts from the true royal line to 
 the German indirect line, a rat soon 
 became a contemptuous word for a turn- 
 coat. 
 
 The origin of the term was this. About the time 
 of the Hiinoverian succession it was observed 
 
 that the English black rat was being supplanted 
 by the larger and fiercer grey rat from Astralfhan, 
 which first appeared in Europe at the beginning 
 of the isth cent., and reached Britain about the 
 middle of the cent. The Jacobites chose to asso- . 
 ciato the Hanover kings and the grey rat together, 
 for both came into England at the same time. 
 
 Hanoverian Succession {The). 
 The crown of Great Britain settled on 
 Sophia duchess dowager of Hanover in 
 1702 (by 18, 14 Will. III., c. 6). Further 
 secured by 6 Anne cc. 41 and 66. 
 
 Hanoverian Tories, 1705. A 
 
 party bent on securing their interest with 
 the house of Hanover, after the Hanovei'ian 
 succession was resolved on. The Jacobites, 
 strange to say, joined this party, to 
 weaken the government and strengthen 
 the chance of the Pretender. 
 
 Hanoverians {The). So the Whigs 
 or Court party were called in the early 
 
HANOVERIANS 
 
 HAEGRAVB 
 
 403 
 
 part of tlie reign of George I., because 
 tliey were favourable to the Hanoverian 
 section. Those opposed to them were 
 called Jacobites or favourers of James II., 
 who had abdicated. 
 
 The whole history of England shows that our 
 kings owe their accession to the sanction of par- 
 liament only, and not to the ' divine right,' blood 
 inheritance, or royal succession. See 'English 
 Sovereigns.' 
 
 Hanoverians and Jacobites. 
 
 So Whigs and Tories were called in the 
 reign of George I. The Whigs or Hano- 
 verians suj)ported George I. and the 
 Hanoverian succession. The Jacobites 
 supported Jacobus (or James) the Pre- 
 tender (son of James II.). 
 
 Hanse Parisienne {La). An as- 
 sociation of Paris ' marchands d'eau,' 
 constituted under Philippe Auguste. It 
 had a monopoly of the navigation of the 
 Seine. Suppressed in 1672 by Louis XIV. 
 
 Hanse Towns {The). The three 
 republics of Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Lubeck. Hanse means a league or 
 union. See helow. 
 
 Hanseat'ic League {The), 1241. 
 A trades-union to protect merchandise 
 from pirates and the pillage of nobles. 
 It began with the three towns of Ham- 
 burg, Bremen, and Liibeck, but ulti- 
 mately contained 85 trading towns. The 
 league was divided into four colleges, 
 viz. Liibeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and 
 Dantzig. Of these Liibeck was the chief, 
 and presided in all the conferences. The 
 league had four principal factories in 
 foreign parts, viz. at London, Bruges, 
 Bergen, and Novogorod. 
 
 In the loth cent, it reached its culminating 
 point ; in 16JS it came into collision with England; 
 in 1630 most of the cities fell off. 
 
 Harakiri. Disembowelling oneself; 
 either by legal sufferance, to prevent a 
 public execution, whereby a man's goods 
 are confiscated and his family attainted, — 
 or to save the dishonour of failure, the 
 scandal of insult, or the sickness of dis- 
 appointed hope. A Japanese custom 
 {hara = the belly, hiri = cutting open). 
 See R. M. Jephson, &c., ' Our Life in 
 Japan,' pp. 392, 393 (18G9). Abolished. 
 
 The practice of harakiri in duelling had a 
 quaint touch of humour. The chidlenger and 
 challenged went home, arranged their afiairs, and 
 then disembowelled themselves. 
 
 Harcourt*s Round Table. A 
 
 private conference in the house of Sir 
 William Harcourt, 14 Jan., 1887, with the 
 
 view of reuniting, if possible, the Liberal 
 party, broken up by Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
 policy. In March a quarrel between Mr. 
 Gladsto'ie and Mr. Chamberlain broke up 
 the conference. 
 
 The phrase ' Round Table' is American, mean- 
 ing what the French call a cercle, or club meetings 
 at each others houses. 
 
 Har'courted. Letters secretly 
 opened at the Post Office to learn their 
 contents. The word was adopted by the 
 Parnellites when Sir William Harcourt 
 was secretary for the home department 
 (1880-1885). The word 'Grahamise' 
 means the same thing. 
 
 It was not unusual for the Parnellites to write 
 on their letters ' Not to be Harcourted.' The sub- 
 ject of Harcoiirting letters was brought to the 
 attention of parliament. 
 
 Hardham's "No. 37. A particular 
 mixture of snuff made by John Hardham, 
 tobacconist and snuff merchant. Fleet 
 Street, London. This Hardham, by a 
 puff of Garrick, realised in a few years a 
 fortune of 22,000/., which at death he left 
 to the poor of Chichester, his natal town. 
 The interest amounts to G82^. yearly. 
 
 . . . Each connoisseur, a transient heaven 
 Finds in each pinch of Hardham s 37. 
 
 CoLTuN, Hypocrisy. 
 
 Hardwieke's Act {Lord), 1753. 
 Directing all marriages to be by licence 
 or banns, and to be solemnised in some 
 church or chapel where banns are usually 
 published. 
 
 By this act St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster 
 Abbey were excluded, as no banns are ever pub- 
 lished in these places. It also rendered Fleet 
 marriages unlawful, and thus abolished an abo- 
 minable church scandal. 
 
 Hare {Knights of the). A military 
 order of twelve knights instituted by 
 Edward III. while he was in France. It 
 is said that a hare ran before the French 
 camp, when the soldiers raised a loud 
 shout. Edward thought it was the crj 
 of battle, and hence the order. Obsolete. 
 
 Hare Prize {The). For an essay 
 on Greek or Roman history or philosophy. 
 Given once in four years to any member 
 of the University of Cambridge who has 
 not graduated more than ten years. 
 Value about 50Z. Founded by the Uni- 
 versity in honour of Archdeacon Hare, of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1861. 
 
 Hargrave Collection of MSS. 
 
 {The), 1813. Purchased for tlae library 
 of the British Museum for 8,000Z. of the 
 representatives of Francis Hargrave. It 
 D D 2 
 
404 
 
 HAEKLENSIAN 
 
 HAEP 
 
 consists of 500 volumes, chiejay belonging 
 to the faculty of law. 
 
 Harklensian Version. See 
 
 * Philoxenian,' &c. 
 
 Harkness Scholarship. For geo- 
 logy and palaeontology. Value 250Z., 
 tenable for one year by any member of 
 the University of Cambridge. Founded 
 in honour of Eobert Harkness, professor 
 of geology at Queen's College, Cork, 
 1887. 
 
 Harla^W {The). I. A municipal regu- 
 lation made after the battle of Harlavv (24 
 July, 1411), in which the provost of 
 Aberdeen was killed — that the chief 
 magistrate of Aberdeen should in future 
 leave the precincts of the liberty only a 
 very brief space. 
 
 n. The battle of the Harlaw. 
 
 .Tames I. also reduced to obedience the Highland 
 chiefs who . . . had forgotten the terrors of the 
 Harlaw.— Sir W. Scott, Rist. of hcotland, xviii. 
 
 Harleian MSS. {The). A collection 
 of MSS. formed by Robert Harley earl 
 of Oxford (1661-1725), and purchased by 
 government in 1754 of the Duchess of 
 Portland (his grand-daughter) for 10,000/. 
 There are 14,236 original rolls, charters, 
 and other deeds, besides 7,639 volumes. 
 The collection is very miscellaneovis, but 
 its main character is historical. It is 
 rich in heraldic and genealogical MSS., 
 in county visitations, parliamentary and 
 legal proceedings, original records and 
 calendars, abbey registers, missals, anti- 
 phonaries, and other Catholic service- 
 books, ancient English poeLry, and works 
 on arts and sciences. It is kept in the 
 British Museum library. 
 
 It also contains the oldest known MS. of 
 Homer s ' Odyssey," two very early copies of the 
 Latin Gospels in gold letters, 3it0 JiS. Bibles or 
 Biblical books, 200 volumes of the Fathers, &c. 
 
 Harmony {The Patriarch of). 
 Nicholas Porpora of Naples (16H5-1767), 
 author of thirty-eight operas. He was a 
 pupil of Scarlatti, and Farinelli (the 
 best male singer on record) was his 
 pupil. 
 
 Harmony Hall, 1844. A building 
 and family collected together in Hamp- 
 shire by Robert Owen, organised on his 
 socialistic principles. Religion, marriage, 
 competition, rivalry, were either abo- 
 lislied or remodelled, and all the inmates 
 were to live in perfect harmony, seeking 
 only the general good, without regard to 
 
 personal or individual ambition or in- 
 dulgence. The scheme proved an utter 
 failure. 
 
 Harmony of the Spheres {The). 
 Pythagoras taught that the motions of 
 the stars through space must of necessity 
 produce sounds, like the motion of any 
 body through the air. As the stars differ 
 in size and ^■elocity, the sounds must 
 differ in tone, and these different notes 
 produce a harmony called the ' Music of 
 the Spheres.' 
 
 Harness Prize {The). For the best 
 essay on some subject connected with 
 Shakespearian literature. Value about 
 50/., and given once in three years to 
 any member of the University of Cam- 
 bridge who has not graduated more than 
 three years. Founded by subscribers to 
 a memorial fund of the Rev. William 
 Harness, of Christ's College, Cambridge, 
 in 1870. 
 
 Harold Blue-tooth {Blaatand). 
 The olst king of Denmark, descendant 
 of the mytiiical Skioid, founder of the 
 Skioldung dynasty (b.c. about 60 to a.d. 
 1044). Harold was the son of Gorm, and 
 succeeded him to a peaceiul and undi- 
 vided kingdom, so that he is often called 
 the ' first of the Skioldungs,' or the first 
 who reigned over all Denmark (a.d. 930- 
 980). 
 
 Harold Harefoot (*, 1035-1040). 
 
 Harold L, a king of England before the 
 Conquest. Swiftness of foot is often 
 spoken of by Homer as a great military 
 virtue. Thus his great hero was called 
 by him ' The swift-footed Achilles.' 
 
 Harp {Cradled in a). Aslauga, wife 
 of Ragner Lodbrok the sea-king, was 
 cradled in a golden harp. 
 
 Etenlm tractus illius incolfe constanter refer- 
 unt, seque a niajoribus suis accepisse perhibent, 
 inventain apad se in exiguo sinu -mgulove maris 
 citharam auream, cujus cavitati inclusa fuerit 
 parvula virgo.— i>'e)ic« Hrij. Dan. iv. chap. 4. 
 
 *,* Ragner or Regenfrid was surnamed Lod- 
 brok (Hairii-breeclws) from the magical garment 
 (daubed with sand, pitch, and hair) which hf 
 wore when he slew the guardian serpent of the 
 Princess Thora, his first wife. 
 
 Harp Lords {Cromwell's). Those 
 soldiers and partisans of Cromwell put 
 into the Irish confiscated estates after 
 the ' Irish Rebellion ' had been crushed 
 out in 1648. On the return of Charles 
 II. these lords of the soil were turned 
 out, and the estates restored to their 
 
HARP 
 
 nATS 
 
 405 
 
 original possessors. Called Harp lords 
 from the Irish harp ; meaning Brumma- 
 gem lords, as Harp shillings (worth about 
 9d. each) mean counters current for a 
 time and then called in. Lords in this 
 phrase do not mean noblemen, but lords 
 of the confiscated soil. 
 
 Harp of Ireland {The). One of 
 the very early lords of Ireland was named 
 David, who took for his cognisance a 
 harp, in honour of the harp of the sweet 
 singer of Israel. 
 
 Harrisburg (Pennsylvania). So 
 named from Mr. Harris, by whom it was 
 first settled, in 1783, under a grant from 
 the Penn family. 
 
 Harry {Blind), 15th cent. Author 
 of a poetical romance entitled ' Sir 
 William Wallace,' 1488. It contains 
 11,861 lines of ten syllables in rhyming 
 couplets. 
 
 Harvard University, 1639, New 
 England. Founded by John Harvard, 
 whose father carried on his business at 
 the Boar's Head, exactly opposite St. 
 Mary Overies, in London (1607-1088). 
 
 Harvest Months. 
 
 jANUAiiY. — The greater part of Chili, 
 portions of the Argentine Republic, 
 Australia, and New Gu'nea. 
 
 Febkuaky to Makch. — The East 
 Indies. 
 
 Apkil. — Mexico, Egypt, Persia, and 
 Syria. 
 
 May. — Japan, China, Northern Asia 
 Minor, Tunis, Algiers, Morocco, and 
 Texas. 
 
 June. — California, Spain, Portugal, 
 Italy, Sicily, Greece, and some of the 
 southern departments of France. 
 
 July. — The larger part of France, 
 Austria, Southern Russia, and the larger 
 part of the United States of America. 
 
 August. — Germany, England, Bel- 
 gium, Netherlands, part of Russia, Den- 
 mark, part of Canada, and the N.-E. 
 States of America. 
 
 September. — Scotland, the larger part 
 of Canada, Sweden, Norway, and the 
 nox'th midlands of Russia. 
 
 October. — The northern parts of 
 Russia, and the northern parts of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 Hash'eniites (3 syl.). The followers 
 cf Haschem the Scherii, who declared 
 
 himself to be of the issue of Mahomet. 
 He was king of Fez in 1508, and founded 
 the dynasty of the Scherifs in 1509. 
 
 Hassan ben Sabah. 'The Old 
 Man of the Mountain,' founder of the 
 Assassins or Hassanis. 
 
 Hastings {hnpeachment of War- 
 ren), from Feb. 1786 to April 1795. 
 Warren Hastings was governor-general 
 of India 1774-1785. He was born 1732, 
 and died 1818. Burke brought before 
 the House of Commons the first charge 
 against Hastings Feb. 1786. Sheridan 
 the third charge (Hastings's treatment of 
 the Begums). This speech lasted five 
 hours, and produced such a sensation 
 that the House arose after it and ad- 
 journed till the next day. The fourth 
 charge (Hastings's selfish contracts and 
 high salaries) was made by Sir James 
 Erskine. The sixth charge (Hastings's 
 conduct to Fyzoola Khan the Rohilla 
 chief) was brought before the House by 
 Wyndham. Sheridan made the seventh 
 charge (Hastings's receipt of bi'ibes). 
 Francis, the su^jposed author of ' Junius's 
 Letters,' made the eighth charge (Hast- 
 ings's mismanagement of the revenues). 
 The case being carried to the House of 
 Lords, it was appointed to begin at 
 Westminster 13 Feb., 1788. The defence 
 began 2 June, 1791. The trial termi- 
 nated in an acquittal 23 April, 1795 
 (having lasted over six years). See 
 ' Sheridan's Begum Speech,' ' Begums,' 
 and ' Fyzoola Khan.' 
 
 Hate of Englishmen {The). So 
 Shane O'Neill, lord of Ulster, called the 
 fortress which he built on his border. 
 
 Hats. I. The Petdsus. A felt hat 
 with broad brim and low crown, used by 
 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was 
 very much like the felt hat still worn 
 by agricultural labourers, only it was 
 fastened with a thong either under the 
 chin or round the back of the head. In 
 the British Museum the horsemen in 
 the Panathenaic procession are repre- 
 
408 
 
 HATS 
 
 HEADS 
 
 sented wearing tliese sorts of hats. See 
 Caps.' 
 II. The Pilios. The ancient Greeks 
 wore a close-fitting skull-cap called a 
 
 •pilTos.' Ulysses is generally repre- 
 sented wearing such a cap. 
 
 III. The GaUrus. The Romans wore a 
 skull-cap of some animal with the hair 
 
 left on, outside, called ' galerus.' The 
 pontifical galerus Lad a spike of olive 
 wood at the top, and strings. See ' Caps.' 
 
 Hats and Caps {The), 1738. Two 
 political factions which arose in Sweden 
 in the reign of Adolf Frederick (1720- 
 1771). The Hats were the anti-Russian 
 I-,arty, who were violently opposed to the 
 late treaty with Russia, and wanted to 
 recover all the provinces ceded to that 
 power. This was the French or Chapeau 
 party. The Caps were for peace with 
 Russia, economy, and retrenchment. 
 This was the Russian party, and the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristic of a Russian 
 was the Muscovite cap. The accession 
 of Gustavus Vasa in 1771 put an end to 
 these factions. No kins^ of Sweden since 
 the time of Charles XII. (1697-1719) to 
 that of Gustavus III. (1771-1792) could 
 siDcak the language of the country. 
 
 Count Gyllenborg was the leader of the Hats, 
 and CountHorn of the Caps. 
 
 Hatted King: {The). Kaiser Joseph 
 II., son of Maria Theresa, was so called 
 by the Hungarians, because he refused 
 to be crowned. 
 
 Hatti-sherifi", or * Scherif .' An 
 irrevocable order issuing immediately 
 from the sultan. A Turkish word brought 
 into use at the time of the battle of 
 Navarino (1827). 
 
 Lord John Russell in 1828 said : ' The govern- 
 ment issued a sort of hatti-sherifl for the pur- 
 pose, calling upon everyone within their influence 
 wlio possessed the faith of a true Mussulman to 
 follow them in opposing the measure ' [i.e. the 
 repeal of the Test Act]. 
 
 Haudriettes (S syl.). Religious 
 Hospitallers who followed the rule of St. 
 Austin ; so called from their founder, 
 Etienne Haudri, secretary of Louis IX. 
 Haudri followed his master to the Holy 
 Land. He abandoned his house to 
 twelve religious paupers, and endowed 
 the society. 
 
 Haute Justice {La). The gallows- 
 tree. 
 
 Romsey Abbey possessed many extraordinary 
 privileges, amongst others the rare and anoma- 
 lous right of In. hniiti'jxistir.i', or gnllows-tree ; a pri- 
 vilege of which the records do not mention any use 
 having been made.— Cassetis History of England, 
 vol. i. p. 149. 
 
 Haw'kubites (3 syl.). A turbulent 
 set of young men in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, whose delight was to molest and 
 ill-treat the old watchmen, women, chil- 
 dren, and feeble old men found after 
 sunset in the ill-lighted streets of London. 
 The Mohocks, Scourers, and Hawkubites 
 were contemporaneous, about 1711-1714. 
 Hawkubites, an Indian tribe of savages. 
 See ' Street Bullies.' 
 
 ' From Mohock and from Hawkubite, 
 
 Good Lord deliver me, 
 Who wander thro' the streets at night 
 
 Committing cruelty : 
 They slash our sons with bloody knives. 
 
 And on our daughters fall ; 
 And if they murder not our wives 
 
 We have good luck withal. 
 Coaches and carts they overturn . . .' 
 An Argument to prove the present race of Mo- 
 hocks and Hawkubites are the Gog and Magog 
 mentioned in the Revelation. 
 
 Head-Centres. The leaders of 
 the Fenian Brotherhood of Ireland; 
 their lieutenants were called 'centres.' 
 James Stephens was appointed the first 
 head-centre of Ireland 11 Nov., 18G5. 
 O'Mahoney was the first head-centre of 
 the brotherhood in America, 1858. 
 
 Head Pacificator {O'ConneU's). 
 Tom Steel, who looked up to his hero 
 with the veneration of Boswell for Dr. 
 Johnson. 
 
 Heads of Houses or Colleges 
 
 {The). 
 
HEALING 
 
 HEBDOMADA 
 
 407 
 
 In Cambridge : The Head of King's is 
 styled the Frovost; of Queens', the Pre- 
 sident ; of all otlier colleges, the Master. 
 
 In Oxford : The Heads of University 
 College, Balliol, and Pembroke are styled 
 the Master; of Oriel, Queen's, and Wor- 
 cester, the Provost ; of Trinity, St. 
 John's, Magdalen, and Corpus, the Pre- 
 sident ; of Merton, All Souls', Wadham, 
 New College, and Keble, the JVarden ; of 
 Jesus, Brasenose, and Hertford, the 
 Principal ; of Lincoln and Exeter, the 
 Bector ; of Christ Church, the Dean. 
 
 Healing Declaration (The), 6 
 
 Nov., 1660. The declaration of Charles 
 n. for the settlement of most Church 
 matters by ' competent persons ' ap- 
 proved of by the king. The idea was to 
 have a united convention of suffragan 
 bishops and synods, or presbyterians ; 
 but the bishops refused to meet the 
 synod. It was ultimately decided to 
 unite the presbyterian and episcopal 
 establishments, and of these the king 
 was to select a certain number to revise 
 the liturgy, and consider such moot 
 points as standing or kneeling to receive 
 the sacrament, signing infants with a 
 cross, bowing at the name of Jesus, and 
 wearing surplices. The bill was thrown 
 out by the parliament, which re-assem- 
 bled 6 Nov. 
 
 Heart of Midlothian (T/ie). The 
 
 Tolbooth (a prison), of Edinburgh, is 
 popularly so called. Sir Walter Scott's 
 novel of the same name gives a graphic 
 description of the Porteous riot, and the 
 execution of Capt. Porteous by the mob. 
 See * Mids of Mar.' 
 
 Hearts of Steel, 1764. Irish in- 
 surgents in Ulster, roused to rebellion 
 by high rents and the rapacity of the 
 agents of absentees. It was a part of 
 the great southern brotherhood called 
 Whiteboys. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Hearth-tax {The), 1662. A tax of 
 two shillings for every fire-hearth and 
 stove, ' payable on the feast of St. 
 Michael and the feast of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary ' (13 & 14 Car. 11. c. 10). 
 Repealed by the special desire of Wil- 
 liam III. in 1089. A hut with two 
 chimneys paid as much as a house or 
 hall with the same number. The hearth- 
 tax and the window-tax were certainly 
 
 the worst and most oppressive taxes 
 ever laid on the people. 
 
 Heaven {The). A public-house in 
 Whitefriars, kept in the reign of Charles 
 II. by Bradley. Charles, with Bucking- 
 ham, Monmouth, Lord Howard, and 
 other debauchees, visited this house, and 
 drank punch there till their wits were 
 out. Colonel Blood and Titus Gates 
 also frequented the house. See ' Gone 
 to the " Devil." ' 
 
 Heaven-born Minister {The). 
 William Pitt was so called in a parlia- 
 mentary oration by Mr. Drake. Prime 
 minister 1783-1801, and again 1804 ; died 
 1806. 
 
 Heavy Peg, 1412, &c. A heavy 
 cannon by which Friedrich count of 
 Hohenzollern, who had lately bought 
 Brandenburg of the Kaiser Siegmund, 
 reduced the turbulent barons to order 
 by blowing up their castles. 
 
 Hebdom'ada. For other weeks see 
 the English equivalent. For example — 
 
 For Hebdomada Casta see Chaste V\'eek 
 
 „ Crucis ,, Week of the Cross 
 
 „ Expectationis,, Week of Expec- 
 
 tation 
 „ Magna „ Great Week 
 
 „ Muta „ Silent Week 
 
 „ Paschalls ,, Easter 'Week 
 
 „ Passionis ,, Passion Week 
 
 „ Penitentialis „ Penitential Weeb 
 
 ,, Pentecostes ,, Whitsun Week 
 
 „ Triniiatis „ Trinity Week 
 
 Hebdom'ada de Excepto. The 
 
 last week in Advent is so called in the 
 Ambrosian ritual. 
 
 Hebdom'ada Grassa(Meat Week). 
 The week preceding Quinquagesima Sun- 
 day, the last week before Lent. The 
 third day after Quinquagesima Sunday 
 is Ash Wednesday, therefore the week 
 preceding was the last in which meat was 
 allowed to be eaten. 
 
 Hebdom'ada in Albis. An oc- 
 tave, beginning the Sunday after Easter 
 and ending the following Sunday, when 
 those baptized on Palm. Sunday laid 
 aside their white stoles. 
 
 Hebdom'ada Indulgentiae, or 
 
 Absolution Week. Between Palm Sun- 
 day and Holy Saturday, when penitents 
 received indulgence or absolution. 
 
 Hebdom'ada Major. Same as 
 
 Holy Week {q.v.). Passion Week, which 
 lasted thirteen days, was Hebdomada 
 
408 
 
 HEBDOMADA 
 
 HEHOO-WOO-TAE 
 
 Magna ; but the last seven of these days 
 constitute Holy Week, or the ' Greater 
 Week ' of the ' Great Week.' 
 
 Hebdom'ada Mediana. Begin- 
 ning with the third of Lent, called in 
 French Mi-careme (Mid Lent). In this 
 week some slight relaxation was allowed 
 of the long Lenten fast. 
 
 Hebdoni'ada Poena'lis, 'Labo- 
 
 riosain Hebdomadam ' vocant Latini 
 Patves. Also called HebdomadaPoenosa. 
 Du Cange says : ' Ilia qua Christus crucem 
 subiit, et quod jejuniis et laborlbus 
 transigatur ad memoriam passionis 
 Christi.' 
 
 Hebdom'adal Council [The), 
 1631. Oxford University. So called be- 
 cause it assembles weekly. This weekly 
 board discusses all measures of reform 
 before they are sent to the House of 
 Congregation {q.v.). The ex-officio mem- 
 bers are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, 
 ex- vice-chancellor, and the two proctors. 
 There are also eighteen members — viz. 
 six heads of houses, six professors, and 
 six members of Convocation, of not less 
 than five years' standing. The council 
 meets every Monday during term time. 
 
 H^bertists. The followers of 
 He'bert, the coarsest and most vulgar- 
 minded of the three leaders in the Reign 
 of Terror, the other two being Danton 
 and Robespierre. It was He'bert who 
 instituted le culte de la raison. 
 
 Anacharsis Clootz, Ronsin, Vincent, and Mo- 
 moro were Hebertists. 
 
 Hebrew of the Hebrews {A). 
 
 A descendant from Abraham. 
 Hebrew Prize. Worth about 20Z. 
 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge 
 by subscription, 1866 ; increased 18G7. 
 See ' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' 
 
 HecataBOS the Abderite (3 syl.). 
 Said to have been the author of a ' History 
 of the Jews,' frequently referred to by 
 Josephus, but pronounced by Origen to 
 be spurious. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Hee'atomphon'ia. A sacrifice 
 made to the Ithomtean Jupiter by such 
 as had slain 100 men in battle. Aris- 
 tomenes of Messenia thrice offered this 
 sacrifice. 
 
 Hectors. Street bullies and brawlers 
 wlio succeeded the ' Tityre tu-s,' and 
 
 delighted to be as rude as possible to 
 women and tlie defenceless. Robbei-y 
 was not their object, but simply to annoy 
 and get talked about. See ' Street 
 Bullies.' 
 
 To hector is to bully or treat with insolence ; but 
 the noble Hector of Troy was as unlike a bully as 
 possible. 
 
 Hedgebote (2 syl.), or ' Haybote 'in 
 English law. The right of a tenant to 
 cut wood on the farm to repair his 
 hedges, gates, and fences, to make rake- 
 handles and handles for forks, &c. 
 
 Hedonism. The system of Aristip- 
 pus, the Cyrenai'tic philosopher, born at 
 Cyrene about B.C. 435. He said that the 
 aim of life should be rj^oviq {hedone, plea- 
 sure), and he passed his life in the court 
 of Dionysius the Tyrant amidst delicacies 
 and indulgences. 
 
 He was very wittv. One day being rebuked for 
 casting himself at the feet of Dionysius he replied, 
 ' Well, it is not my fault if his ears are in his feet.' 
 
 He'donists. Philosophers who 
 placed the suvimum bonicrn in pleasure 
 (igSorri), before Epicurus improved upon 
 their teaching by the dogma that psychic 
 pleasure is sujjerior in degree and dura- 
 tion to physical enjoyments. 
 
 Hegelianism. The philosophical 
 system of Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel of 
 Stuttgart (1770-1831). It may be called 
 an idealistic pantheism. In the Spinozan 
 system God is a substance ; in the Hege- 
 lian system God is spirit. In the Spinozan 
 system God is endowed with both jnatter 
 and mind — the phenomena of the mate- 
 rial and spiritual universe may be com- 
 pared to two parallel streams. In the 
 Hegelian theory God objectifies Himself 
 in nature, rises out of nature, and returns 
 to Himself. 
 
 Heg'ira {The), 16 June, 622. The day 
 that Mahomet fled from Mecca to Medina. 
 The people of Mecca were exasperated 
 because those of Medi'na believed him 
 to be a prophet. From this day the Ma- 
 hometan era begins. 
 
 Generally called Hegira. The Arabic word is 
 ' Hijra,' and means the ' flight ' or emigration. 
 
 Hegu'meni or Mandrites (2 syl.). 
 Superiors of convents in the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Hehoo-Woo-tae, or the Five 
 
 Hehoo races, being the 14th, 15th, 16th, 
 17th, and 18th imperial dynasties of 
 China, called Hehoo-Leang, Hehoo- Tang 
 
HEIDELBERG 
 
 HEINRICH 
 
 409 
 
 flehoo-Tsin, Hehoo-Han, and Hehoo- 
 Cliew, From 907 to 960. During this 
 period the Tartars held the north of the 
 empire. The ' five successions ' ter- 
 minated with the 19th or Tsong dynasty. 
 
 Hehoo, sometimes written in English 'Heou' 
 or ' How ' ; and Chew is written ' Chow." 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism {The), or 
 the 'Palatinate Catechism,' 1563. A 
 religious formulary compiled by the Hei- 
 delberg theologians — Caspar, Olivetan, 
 and Zacharias tjrslnus — at the request of 
 the Elector Friedrich III. of the Palati- 
 nate. This catechism was sanctioned by 
 several synods, and was revised by the 
 Synod of Dort. 
 
 Heidelberg Confession {The), 
 1575, or the ' Palatine Confession.' One 
 of the chief confessions of the continental 
 Calvinistic or Reformed Churches. See 
 'Confessions.' 
 
 Heiltum. {Hile-tum), or 'Heilig- 
 thnm.' That is, holy relics of Nureniberg, 
 exliibited the second Friday after Easter, 
 and consisting of the insignia of the city ; 
 the sword, sceptre, and crown of Charle- 
 magne ; a piece of the true cross, part of 
 the manger of Bethlehem, Longlnus's 
 spear, and portions of the respective 
 claains with which Peter, Paul, and John 
 were bou^-:d, with many other relics. 
 
 The church of the Holy Ghost at 
 Nuremberg, in which the Heiltum was 
 formerly kept, was recently restored; 
 but Nuremberg is now a Protestant city. 
 
 Heinel {Mile.). A famous dancer in 
 London in the last quarter of the 18th 
 cent. See ' Walpole's Letters,' vol. v. pp. 
 827, 355, 383, 431. 
 Dotes upon dancing, and, in all her pride. 
 Swims round the room, the Heinel ot Cheapside. 
 Epilogue to She Sloops to Conquer. 
 Pronounce High'nel. 
 
 HEINRICH OF GEKIIANY. 
 (Heinrich, pronounce Iline-reek.) 
 
 Heinrich. I., or 'Henry I. the 
 Fowler,' surnamed ' the father of his 
 country.' Founder of the Saxon dynasty 
 of Germany. He succeeded Konrad of 
 Franconia (876, 918-936). This dynasty 
 gives five kings — viz. Heinrich I., Otto 
 I., II., III., and Heinrich II. His father 
 was Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony. 
 His empire embraced Holland, Flanders, 
 and Switzerland, as well as Germany. 
 With Heinrich I. the Fowler the modern 
 18 
 
 history of Germany begins, as that of 
 France with Hugues Capet, and that of 
 England with WiUiam the Conqueror. 
 See ' Fowler.' 
 
 Father, Otto the niustrious. Wife, MechtildeB. 
 Contemporary with Edward the Elder and ALhel- 
 stan. 
 
 Heinrich II,, called ' The Saint ' 
 and 'The Lame.' "Was the cousin of 
 Otto III., the grandson of Heinrich the 
 Quarrelsome, and great-grandson of the 
 Fowler. As he died without issue, in him 
 the Saxon dynasty of Germany came to 
 an end. It was Heinrich II. who founded 
 Strasburg Cathedral. 
 
 Heinrich I. (Henry the Fowler), founder of the 
 Saxoa dynasty. 
 
 Otto I. the Great and Heinrich the Quarrelsonte, 
 sons of the Fowler. 
 
 Otto II. son of Otto I. 
 
 OXTO III. son of otto II. 
 
 Heinrich the Fowler 
 
 Otto I. Heinrich the Quarrelsome 
 
 Otto II. Heinrich the Kegent 
 
 Otto III. Hkinrich II. 
 
 Both otto III. and Heinrich II. were great- 
 grandsons of the Fowler. 
 
 Fatluir, Heinrich duke of Bavaria (late regent). 
 Wife, Cunegunda(no children). Contemporary witli 
 Etiielred, Edmund Ironsides, and Canute. 
 
 Heinrich III. the Black King. 
 Second of the house of Franconia (1017, 
 1039-1056). He died at the age of 39. 
 In 1056 he created the title of ' King of 
 the Romans' for the heir-elect of the 
 throne. Called ' Black ' from the colour 
 of his hair. He was an excellent king. 
 
 The kings of Germany were elective, but a father 
 before death generally got his son elected. Hein- 
 rich III. was elected in 1026. 
 
 Father, Konrad II. Mother, Gisela of Burgundy. 
 Wives, (1) Kunihild daughter of Canute ; (2) Agnes 
 mother of Heinrich IV. Contemporary with 
 Hardicanute aud Edward the Confessor. 
 
 Heinrich IV. kaiser-king of Ger- 
 many (1050, 1056-1106). Died at Liege 
 of starvation at the age of 56. The whole 
 reign was one incessant struggle with 
 the pope for mastery. He was three 
 times excommunicated, and once his 
 kingdom was put under the ban of Rome. 
 His eldest son Konrad revolted against 
 him, and died 1101. His second son 
 Heinrich [V.] then revolted, arrested his 
 father, and confined him in a castle. The 
 kaiser made his escape, and died at 
 Liege on the doorstep of a religious 
 house, ' clemmed with hunger and starved 
 with cold.' 
 
 Father, Heinrich III. Mother, Agnes of Aquitaine. 
 Wives, (1) Bertha ; (2) Adelaide of Russia. Contem- 
 porary with Eo 
 the Conqueror. 
 
410 
 
 HEINRICH 
 
 HELL 
 
 Heinricll V. the Parricide, kaiser- 
 king of Germany. Fourth and last of 
 the laouse of Franconia. Son of Heinrich 
 IV. the kaiser-king, and son-in-law of 
 Henry I. of England (1081, 1098-1125). 
 
 Father, Heinrich IV. Mother, Bertha. Wife, 
 Maud daughter of Henry I. of England.* Contem- 
 porary with Rufus and Henry I. 
 
 " Soon after the d*ath of her royal husband, ifnud 
 
 married Godfroi earl of A iijmi, by whom she became 
 of ox 
 
 the mother of our Henry II. surnamed ' Curtmantle. 
 
 Heinrich VI. the Cruel, kaiser-king 
 of Germany, son of Friedrich I., called 
 Barbarossa (1163, 1190-1197). He was 
 poisoned by his wife Messina, Sunday, 
 28 Sept., 1197, at the age of 32. This 
 was the dastard who imprisoned Richard 
 Coeur-de-Lion in 1192, and kept him 
 captive for two years. 
 
 KONRAD III., founder of the royal hooee ot 
 HohenstaufEen. 
 
 Friedrich I., Barbarossa, Konrad's nephe-w. 
 
 Father, Friedrich I., Bnrbarossa. Mother, Bea- 
 trice of Burgundy. Wife, Constance of Sicily. 
 Contemporary with Bichard I. and John. 
 
 Heinrich VII. of Luxemburg. One 
 of the promiscuous kaiser-kings of 
 Germany (1263, 1309-1313). Said by a 
 Dominican monk to have been poisoned 
 by Politian (a Dominican monk), by the 
 sacramental wine, administered to him 
 in the House of God. The only kaiser 
 since the time of Friedrich II. (1220). 
 
 •»* Horrible as this appears, it was not un- 
 common. At least nine other monarchs, we are 
 told, were despatched in the same ^vay. 
 
 Father, John count of Luxemburg. Wife, Mar- 
 garet of Brabant. Contemporary with Edward II. 
 
 Heir. 
 
 I. Apparent. The eldest son is heir 
 apparent, because he is certain to succeed 
 if he outlives his father. 
 
 II. Presumptive. The person who 
 would succeed under present conditions, 
 but who maybe set aside if ihe statu quo 
 is altered. Thus a daughter is heir pre- 
 sumptive, but if a son is born later on 
 the daughter does not succeed. 
 
 Heirs to the Crowns of Europe. 
 
 Austria-Hungary, Prince Imperial. 
 
 England, Prince of Wales. The heir 
 or heiress presumptive is the Prince or 
 Princess Royal. 
 
 Germany, Crown Prince. 
 
 Italy, Prince of Naples. 
 
 Portugal, Prince or Princess Royal. 
 
 Russia, Czarevich and his wife Cza- 
 revna. 
 
 Spain, Prince of Asturias ; the heiress 
 is called the Princess Royal. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, Crown Prince 
 or Princess. 
 
 Helena {The Tyrian). The mistress 
 of Simon Magus. They called themselves 
 Jupiter and Minerva, and gave out that 
 those who believed in them were ab- 
 solved from all obligations to the moral 
 law, seeing they would be saved by 
 grace and not by works. Epiphanius 
 tells us that Simon Magus claimed to be 
 the Messiah, and Helena, he said, was 
 the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Helisea, or ' Court of Helisea.' An 
 Athenian tribunal, fluctuating in number, 
 but usually consisting of several hun- 
 dreds, chosen by lot from the whole body 
 of citizens. It was before this tribunal 
 that Socrates was brought, and by it was 
 he condemned to death. 
 
 Heliastae {The Tribunal of the). 
 An Athenian tribunal which assembled 
 at Helisea. It took cognisance of only 
 very grave offences. The ordinary num- 
 ber of members was 200, but in some 
 cases it amounted to 500, 1,000, and even 
 1,500 members. 
 
 Heliogab'alus. A Roman em- 
 peror (201, 218-222), who had been from 
 infancy high priest in the Temple of the 
 Sun at Emissa, in Syria, where he re- 
 ceived the title of Heliogabaal (Lord of 
 the Sun). 
 
 It will be remembered that Samuel, like Hello- 
 gabalus, was consecrated to the Temple from in- 
 fancy. 
 
 Heliop'olis. The City of the Sun. 
 Baalbek in Sj-ria was so called by the 
 Greeks ; so was On in Egypt, noted for 
 the temple of Actis. 
 
 HelL Called by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians 'Amenthes'; by the GauJs 
 ' Ifurin * ; by the Greeks ' Tartaros ' ; by 
 the Indians ' Patala ' and ' Naraka ' ; by 
 the Jews 'Sheol'; the Mohammedans 
 believe in seven infernos ; by the Persians 
 ' Douzakh ' ; by the Bomans ' Avemus ' ; 
 by the Scandinavians ' Niflheim.' 
 
 Hell (from the verb helian, to cover) means a 
 place covered over, hence a grave. 'Helings' 
 means the eyelids or covers for the eyes ; ' hellier ' 
 is a thatcher or one who covers witli thatch. 
 Chaucer calls Elysium 'Helise.' Then there is 
 the participle 'helling' or ' heling ' = hidden, 
 ' helen ' = caves ; and many other similax words 
 more or less archaic. See beloic. 
 
 HelL So the cellar under the House 
 of Commons, in the reign of Charles I., 
 was called. See ' Pride's Purge.' 
 
HELLENISTS 
 
 HENOTICON 
 
 411 
 
 Hellenists. Those Jews who spoke 
 the Greek language, chiefly resident in 
 Asia Minor, Greece, and Eg^'pt. The 
 Jews of Jerusalem spoke Aramaic, a 
 bastard Hebrew ; whence Paul, when he 
 was permitted to address the Jewish 
 mob, spoke to the people in the Hebrew 
 [Aramaic] tongue. They could hardly 
 be called a sect, although without doubt 
 they corrupted the pure Jewish faith with 
 Greek philosophy and mythology. They 
 had a temple of their own certainly at 
 Leontopolis. {See Josephus, 'Antiqui- 
 ties,' xiii. 3, 1-3.) 
 
 The Ilellejiists were certainly looked on by the 
 strict Jews as unsound, and were accused of ' read- 
 ing the Scriptures in the Egj'ptian manner.' 
 
 Hell-fire Club (The), 1721. Pre- 
 sident, the Duke of "Wharton, a most pro- 
 fligate young nobleman. The central 
 club was in London, but it had affiliated 
 clubs both in Edinburgh and in Dublin. 
 The members were of both sexes, and 
 had such nicknames as Pluto, the Old 
 Dragon, the King of Tartarus, Lady 
 Envy, Lady Gomorrah, and so on. Their 
 toasts were revoltingly blasphemous, and 
 sulphurous flanies were raised at their 
 meetings. Suppressed by royal pro- 
 clamation the same year (1721). 
 
 This was the Medmcnham Club, originally held 
 in Medmenham Abbey. It consisted of wild 
 spirits, euphemistically called 'wits and humor- 
 ists," who assumed the name of ' Monks oi St. 
 Francis.' The inscription over the club door w:!S 
 Fais ce que tu voudras. Langley gives an account 
 of it. When I lived in Paris there was an impor- 
 tant street called ' Hell Street ' iKue d Emer). 
 The name is changed now. 
 
 Helluo liibro'rum (Cicero). A 
 devourer of books ; a great reader. 
 
 Charles in Fletcher s ' Elder Brother ' is a mere 
 'helluo librorum,' who falls in love with 
 Angehna. 
 
 Helmets. The helmet of a king has 
 six bars over the face. (Full faced, 
 gold.) 
 
 The helmet of a noble has five bars 
 over the face. {In profile, steel with 
 gold bars.) 
 
 The helmet of a knight has the visor 
 thrown back. (Full faced, steel.) 
 
 The helmet of a squire has the visor 
 closed. (In profile, steel.) 
 
 The helmet is placed above the escutcheon and 
 supports the crest. 
 
 Helvetia. The modem Switzerland^ 
 the country of the Helvetii. Helvetia is 
 not classic Latin ; the country was never 
 80 called, but Ager Helvetiorum. 
 
 Helvetic Confederation {The). 
 I. After the battle of Morgarten, in 1315, 
 the three cantons of Uri, Schweiz, and 
 Unterwalden formed themselves into a 
 perpetual league, and declared themselves 
 free from Austria. In 1332 Lucerne joined 
 the confederacy; in 1351 Ziiricti; in 
 1352 Zug and Glaris ; in 1353 Berne. 
 Two other victories over the dukes of 
 Austria (one at Sempach in 138(?, and the 
 other at Naefels in 1388), made the name 
 of Switzerland respected in Europe ; and 
 the two subsequent battles of Granson 
 and Morat in 1476 greatly added to this 
 renown. Five other cantons joined the 
 confederacy in 1841; Bale and Schaff- 
 hausen in 1501, and Appenzell in 1513, 
 completed the thirteen cantons. In 1648, 
 at the peace of Westphalia, the Helvetic 
 Confederacy was declared by Austria and 
 all the rest of the European powers to 
 be independent of the empire. 
 
 II. 1814. The old constitution of 
 Switzerland, restored after the banish- 
 ment of Napoleon to Elba. Each can- 
 ton enjoys ' home rule,' but all unite in 
 matters pertaining to the confederacy. 
 
 Helvetic Confessions (T^e). Are 
 
 those of BAle in 1530, and of Bullinger 
 in 1566. The former was an exposition 
 of faith drawn up by Zwingli, and being 
 solemnly sworn to at Bale in 1534, was 
 called the * Confession of Bale.' The 
 other was the exposition drawn up chiefly 
 by Theodore Beza and Bullinger. In 
 this ' confession ' images were proscribed, 
 predestination was acknowledged, only 
 two sacraments were admitted, and the 
 eucharist was regarded as commemora- 
 tive only. The phrase ' Helvetic Confes- 
 sion ' is sometimes used to designate 
 ' Calvinism ' ; and sometimes the ' Re- 
 formed Church of Germany.' 
 
 The religion of Calvin, or the Helvetic Confes- 
 sion, had such a hold on the Ilungaiians tliat it 
 Wi.s soon designated . . . the Hungarian faith.— 
 Vambery, Hungary, ch. xii. 
 
 Helvetic Republic {The), 12 
 April, 1798-1814. A kind of polyarchy 
 vested in French officers and their par- 
 tisans by Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
 compelled Switzerland to become vir- 
 tually a French province. 
 
 Heno'ticon {The), a.d. 482. A con- 
 cordat published by the Emperor Zeno 
 for the reconciliation of the churches of 
 Constantinople and Alexandria. It was 
 issued at the solicitation of Acacius 
 
412 
 
 HENRI 
 
 HENEICIAN3 
 
 patriarch of Constantinople. Whatever 
 its merits, it proved no better than eccle- 
 siastical dynamite, by exciting in the 
 Eastern Empire angry disputes and 
 relentless persecutions. In 484 Pope 
 Felix III. condemned it. In 496 the 
 Emperor Anastasius confirmed it. In 
 519 it was revoked by Justin I. (Greek 
 
 e^WTKcdr). 
 
 Gibbon says, xlvii. : ' The Henoticon was most 
 pleasing to the Egyptians ; yet the smallest blem- 
 ish has not been descried by the jealous and even 
 jaundiced eyes of orthodox schoolmen, and it 
 accurately represents the Catholic faith of the 
 incarnation without adopting or disclaiming the 
 peculi r terms or tenets of the hostile sects." 
 Petavius says, Chalccdonensinn ascivit, but, adds 
 Gibbon, this proves ' he had never read it ' (Greek 
 ivoTi]i, unity). 
 
 Henri Grdce h. Dieu {The). Was 
 built at Erith in 1515. It measured 1,000 
 tons, had four masts, and was the first 
 three-decked ship built in England. It 
 carried 80 guns of various calibres. 
 
 This ship appears in a list of 1552 as ' The Ed- 
 ward,' and all trace of her then ceases. The 
 next British ship of note was ' The Soveraigne of 
 the Seas,' built at Woolwich Dockyard in 1(337 by 
 Mr. Phineas Pett. She also was a three-decker. 
 
 James, in his ' Naval History of Great Eritam,' 
 says : ' There is reason to believe that Riciiard 
 III. owned a few of the ships which he employed ; 
 the rest were either hired of merchants, or sup- 
 plied under a law of the state by the Cinque 
 Ports.' 
 
 The ' Great Harry ' and ' Henri Grace k Dieu ' 
 were two entirely distinct ships. 
 
 The • Great Harry ' was built in the third year 
 of Henry VII., 1488; the 'Henri Grace a Dieu' 
 was built at Erith in 1515. 
 
 The ' Great Harry ' was a <!fo-decker, with three 
 masts ; the ' Henri Grace a Dieu ' had thi-ee decks 
 and four masts. 
 
 The 'Great Harry' was accidentally burnt at 
 Woolwich in 15.j3; the ' Henri Grace a Dieu ' w;ts 
 renamed ' Edward ' after the death of Henry VIII. 
 in 1647, and there is no record of its destruction. 
 
 I hope this will settle the question of historians 
 on the moot point of the identity of these two 
 
 HENBI KINGS OP FRANCE. 
 
 Henri I. of France (1011, 1031- 
 1061). Third of the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 Father, Robert le Pieux : Mothi>r, Constance of 
 Aries ; H'i/e, Anne of Muscovy ; son and successor, 
 Philippe I. I'Amoureux. Contemporary with Ed- 
 ■Ward the Confessor. 
 
 Henri II. le Belliqueux, of France 
 (1519, 1547-1559). Of the Capetian dy- 
 nasty, and of the Valois-Angouleme line. 
 
 Fattier, Francois I. ; Mother, Claude, daughter of 
 Louis XII. ; Wife, Catharine de' Medici, daughter 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici : son and successor, 1'bancois 
 II. Contemporary with Edward VI. and his sister 
 Mary. His mistress was Diane de Poitiers, whose 
 colour was blue. The colour of her rival, the 
 Duchesse d Etampes, was lilac. Diane de Poitiers 
 was created duchesse de Valentinois. 
 
 Charles V. had two sons, Charles VI. and 
 Louis due d' Orleans. 
 
 From the first came, in regular succession, 
 Charles VII. ; Louis XI. his son; and Charles 
 TU. his sou, who left no issue. 
 
 The second son, Louis due d'Orleans, had also 
 two sons, viz. Charles due d'Orleans and Jean 
 d'Aiigoulemo. 
 
 Louis XII. was son of Charles due d'Orleans, 
 but left no male issue. 
 
 From the second son, Jean d'Angouleme, came 
 Francois I., and Henri II. was the son ot 
 Francois. 
 
 Henri III. le Mignon, of France 
 (1551, 1574-1589). Third son of Henri 
 II. (q.v.). Weaker than woman, and 
 worse than harlot. 
 
 Father, HENRI II. ; Mother, Catharine de' Medici, 
 daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici; Wife, Loui-c do 
 Vaudemont ; no issue. Contemporary with Eliza- 
 beth. See ' Fatal Three." 
 
 Henri IV. le Grand, first of the 
 Bourbon kings of France (1553, 1589- 
 1610). He was the tenth in descent 
 from Eobert, the sixth son of St. Louis 
 (IX.), and was related to the last king 
 (Henri III.) only in the eleventh degree. 
 He is generally spoken of as le hon roi 
 Henri. 
 
 Father, Antoineducde Vendome ; Mother, Jea,Tine 
 d'Albret, queen of Navarre ; Wires, Marguerite de 
 Valois, daughter of HENRI II. (she was divorced) ; 
 Maria de'Medici, daughter of the duke of Tuscany 
 and mother of Louis XIII. his successor ; Mistress, 
 La belle Gabrielle, daughter of Antoiae d'Estreevi, 
 created duchess of Beaufort. Conti mporary with 
 Elizabeth and James I. Life attempted by Pierre 
 Barriere in 1593, by Pierre Ouen in 1597, by Jean 
 de lisle in 1(505, and fatally by Ravaillac in 1(310. 
 
 *,'' Robert comte de Clermont (sixth son of ST. 
 Louis ) married the heiress of the Sieur de Bour- 
 bon, and died 1317, leaving Louis due de Bourbon 
 his son and heir. 
 
 The third son of this Louis was Jacques, whose 
 son Jean (Comte de la Marche) married the 
 heiress of the Due de Vendume ; and thsir second 
 son, Louis (Comte de la Marche), died 1446, leaving 
 issue Jean comte de la Marche. 
 
 The son of this Jean was Francois (who married 
 Marie de Luxembourg), and their son was Charles, 
 who died 1537. 
 
 The son of this Charles was Antoine due de 
 Vendome (who married Jeanne d'Albret, queen 
 of Navarre), and these were the parents of 
 HENRI IV. 
 
 Henri V. of France, like Louis 
 XVII. and Napoleon II., was a mere 
 nominal king. He was born 1820, after 
 the assassination of his father, Charles 
 Ferdinand due de Berry (son of Charles 
 X.). When Charles X. abdicated, the 
 next beir to the throne was Henri his 
 grandson, who assumed the title of 
 Henri V., but the French people chose 
 Louis Philippe for their king instead. 
 
 Charles X. died 183(5; the Due de Berry was 
 assassinated by Louvel in 1820 ; and Hem i V. 
 (Comte de Chambcrd) died 1883, at the age of G3. 
 
 Henrieians {The), 1140. Followers 
 of Henry of Italy, called ' the false her- 
 mit,' who was given up in chains to the 
 bishop of Toulouse, and died 1147. They 
 rejected the Apocrypha ; would have no 
 chvu'ches ; administered baptism only to 
 
HENRY 
 
 HENBT 
 
 41S 
 
 adults; denied the real presence and 
 the existence of purgatory ; suppressed 
 masses ; proscribed crucifixes, adoration 
 of saints, relics, images, and prayers for 
 the dead ; they rejected also the separate 
 order of the priesthood and the lawful- 
 ness of oaths. The Henricians, chiefly 
 confined to Switzerland and Germany, 
 merged soon alter 1150 in the Albigenses. 
 Pronounce Hen-ris' -si-am. 
 
 HENBY KINGS OF ENGLAND, ETC. 
 
 (For those of France, see 'Henri' ; for those of 
 
 Germany, see ' Heinrich.') 
 
 Henry I. 'Beauclerc' (good scholar), 
 third son of William the Conqueror 
 (10C8, 1100-1185). He married Maud 
 daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
 and niece of Edgar Atheling, heiress of 
 the Saxon line. Ke had two children by 
 Maud : William, who died at sea 26 Nov. 
 1119; and Maud, who married (at the 
 age of 6) Heinrich V. kaiser of Germany. 
 Heinrich died 112G, and the widow mar- 
 ried, the same year, Geoffrey Plantage- 
 net, from whom descend our long line of 
 kings. 
 
 His style and title : ' Henricus rex 
 Aiiglorum et dux Normannorum.' After 
 HOG we find ' Dei Gratia ' introduced in 
 charters. 
 
 Henry I. had three natural children : two sons, 
 Eobcrt and William, and one daugiiter. llobert 3 
 son was ^Villiam of Gloucester, whose daughter 
 Avisa married King John tLacklandj. 
 
 Henry II. First of the Plantagenet 
 
 dynasty (972, 1002-102i). 
 
 Father, Geoffrej' Plantagenet ; Mother, Matilda 
 daughter of HENRY I. ; Wi/.-, Eleanor, the divorced 
 ■wife of Louis VII. of France (she was divorced 18 
 Murch, 1152, and married Henry six weeks after- 
 wards) ; Mistress, the Fair Rosamond [Clifford]. 
 
 He had three sons and three daughters : — 
 
 1. William, died m infancy. 
 
 2. Henry, d,ed before his father, without issue. 
 8. liicHAED [I., CoBur de Lion], died without 
 
 Issue. 
 
 4. Geoffrey, who married Constantia, daughter 
 of the Duke ol Brittany, by whom he had two 
 children, Eleanor and Arthur. Arthur, heir to 
 the English crown, was murdered by his uncle 
 John, 1-230 ; and Eleanor was confined in Bristol 
 Castle for 40 years. 
 
 6. John. 
 
 His style and title.—' Henricus rex Anglorum, et 
 dux Normannorum et Aquitannorum, et comes 
 Andegivorum, or ' Henricus rex AnKli®, dux 
 Kormannioe et Aquitaniae, et comes Andegaviae.' 
 
 Aquitania is now called Guienne, and Ande- 
 gavia is Anjou. 
 
 Maud the eldest daughter of Henry II. married 
 Henry V. duke of Saxony and Brunswick, from 
 whom our present royal family is descended. 
 [Thus : (1) Otto duke of Brunswick and Lunen- 
 burg, her son ; (2) Albert I., his son; (3) Albert II., 
 son ; (4) Magnus, son ; (5) Bernard, son '. (0) Fried- 
 rich, son ; (7) Otto II., son; (3) Heinrich, son ; (9) 
 
 Ernestusl., son; (10) Wilhelm, son; (11) George, 
 son ; (12) Ernestus II., son, who married Sophia, 
 daughter of the Princess Kli/.abeth, and grand- 
 daughter of James I. of England, wliose son and 
 heir was GeoegE I. of England.] 
 
 Eleanor, another daughter of Henry II., mar- 
 ried Alfonso VIII. of Castile. 
 
 Joan, his youngest daughter, married W^illiam 
 II. of Sicily. 
 
 Henry III. of England, called 'Win- 
 chester ' from the place of his birth (1206, 
 121G-1272). 
 
 Father, JOHN ; Mother, Isabelle of Angouleme, 
 TT'( /■ ■. Eleanor of Provence, bj' v hom he had nine 
 ch.lJren, five of whom died in infancy. 
 
 Ti'.e four who lived to grow up were: 
 
 1. EuwAUD I., who succeeded to the crown ; he 
 was earl of Chester. 
 
 2. Edmund, surnamed Croucbback, earl of 
 Leicester and king of Sicily. 
 
 8. Margaret, who married Alexander III. of 
 Scotland. Slie had a daughter who married 
 Erie king of Norway; and this daugiiter, also 
 named Margaret, was the famous ' Maid of 
 Norway,' wlio succeeded her grandfather (Alex- 
 ander ill.) in Scotland, bvit died on her passage 
 from Norway to Scotland, Sep. 1290. 
 
 4. Beatrix, who married John duke of Brittany. 
 
 His stale ami title from 1216 to 12.5'^ was : ' Hen- 
 ricus, D.G. rex Angliae, dominus Hibernite, dux 
 Normannite et Aquitanite IGuienne], et comes An- 
 degaviae [AiiJdu].' 
 
 From 12.59 to 1272: 'Henricus D.G. rex Anglise, 
 dominus Hibernise, et dux Aquitanise.' He there- 
 fore dropped the titles of ' dux Normannorum ' 
 or ' dux Normanniae,' and of ' comes Andegaviae." 
 
 Henry IV. of England, called Bo- 
 lingbroke because he was born at Boling- 
 broke Castle, in Lincolnshire (1367, 1399- 
 1413). First of the line of Lancaster, 
 which contained the three Henrys — IV., 
 v., and VI.— 
 
 Henry III., son of John. 
 
 Ed^vard I. and Edraund duke of Lancaster, sons 
 of Henry III. 
 
 Edward II., son of Edward I. 
 
 Edward III., son of Edward II. 
 
 E.iirard the iilark I'rim-e, William, Lionel, and J^oAn 
 of Gaunt, sons of Edward III. 
 
 EiCHARD II., son of Edward the Black Prince 
 and grandson of Edward III. 
 
 Philippa (daughter of Lionel), Roger Mortimer 
 (son of Philippai, Edmund Mortimer (son of Roger 
 Mortimer, and heir to the throne on the death of 
 Richard II.)— descendants of Lionel, third son of 
 Ed.vardlll. 
 
 Henry IV. was son of John of Gaunt duke of 
 Lancaster (4th son of Edward III.). 
 
 *,* Henry IV. had no hereditary right to the 
 crown. The legal heir, on the death of Richard II., 
 was Edmund Mortimer earl ol March. Henry was 
 duke of Lancaster in right of his mother Blanche, 
 heiress of Edmund duke of Lancaster. 
 
 i-''7.'/(t;c, Johnof Gaunt. Motlu-r, Blanche, heiress 
 of Edmund duke of Lancaster. Wives : I. Mary 
 daughter of Humphrey de Bohun, by whom he 
 had six children ; II. Joan (daughter of Charles 
 II. of Navarre), no issue. 
 
 His sons were HENRY [V.], his successor ; Thomas 
 duke of Clarence ; John duke of Bedford, regent 
 of France ; and Humphry duke of Gloucester. 
 
 His daughters were Blanche and Philippa. Phi- 
 lippa married Eric X. of Denmark. 
 
 Henry IV. was first of the Lancaster line, and 
 his usurpation brought about the War of the 
 Boses in the reign of Henry VI. 
 
 His stule. and title.—' Henricus D.G. rex Angliffiet 
 FrancisB, et dominus Hibernise." 
 
iU 
 
 HENEY 
 
 HENRY 
 
 Henry V., ' Monmouth,' from the 
 place of his birth (1389, 1413-1422), ' the 
 Enghsh Alexander.' 
 
 Father, Henky IV. Mother, Mary daughter of 
 Huinphry de Bohun. TVi/e, Catherine daughter 
 of Charles VI. of France, by whom he had one 
 child, Henry VI., -who succeeded him. (After the 
 death of Henry his widow married Sir Owen 
 Tudor, captain of the guards. Their grandson 
 was Henry VII., first of the Tudor line). 
 
 His stt/lfi from 1413 to 9 April, 1420, was : ' Henricus 
 D. G. rex AngliEe et Francite, et dominus Hibernise." 
 From 1420 to his death it was : ' Henricus D. G. rex 
 Angliee, hperes et regens Francise, et dominus Hi- 
 bernise.' Henry V. was heir to the French crown. 
 
 *,* The place of his traditional riotous court 
 and merry doings, when Prince of Wales, was 
 Che5'lesmore, near Coventry, an estate belonging 
 to the duchy of Cornwall. 
 
 Henry VI., 'Windsor,' from the 
 place of his birth (1421, 1422-1471). 
 
 Father, HENRY V. ; Mother, Catherine daughter 
 of Charles VI. of France ; Wife, Margaret of Anjou 
 daughter of Rene or Tcni titular king of Najles 
 and dulce of Provence and Anjou. He had one 
 Bon (Edward), murdered by the York party after 
 the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471 
 
 Prince Edward was 18 years old at his death ; 
 he was at the time married to Anne daughter of 
 the Earl of Warwick. Soon after the prince's 
 death his widow married Richard III. 
 
 The regents and guardians of Henry VI. were 
 the Dukes of Bedford, Gloucester 'the good duke), 
 and Exeter, with the Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 Henry VII. His right to the throne 
 was shadowy indeed. He was the son of 
 Edmund Tudor, who married Margaret 
 countess of Richmond, daughter of John 
 Beaufort. This John Beaufort was a 
 natural son of John of Gaunt by Cathe- 
 rine Swynford, the governess of his 
 children, expressly by law disqualified 
 for the succession. Another shadowy 
 claim was that his grandfather. Sir Owen 
 Tudor, captain of the guards, mar- 
 ried Catherine, the widow of Henry V. 
 Neither of these, nor both together, could 
 give Henry Tudor the slightest heredi- 
 tary right. Besides, at the time of his 
 coronation his mother was alive, who, of 
 course, had a prior claim to her son. 
 However, at the death of Richard III., 
 the legitimate heir was Elizabeth, who 
 subsequently married Henry VII. Next 
 to Elizabeth daughter of Edward IV. 
 came Edward earl of Warwick, then 
 Margaret countess of Salisbury. 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that John Beaufort, 
 through whom the father of Henry VIII. laid 
 claim to the crown, had been expressly set aside, 
 and th3 two daughters of Henry VIII. (Mary and 
 Elizabeth) were also expressly set aside, 
 
 Father, Edmund Tudor. Mother, Margaret 
 Beaufort. Wi/e, Elizaljeth of York (the \\hite 
 Bose). His style and title : ' Henricus D.G. rex 
 Anglise et Francice, et dominus Hiberniae.' 
 
 Henry VII. had two daughters and two sons 
 Who lived to maturity. 
 
 His eldest daughter, Margaret, was married to 
 James IV. of Scotland, and it is by this marriage 
 
 that their descendant James VI. of Scotland 
 
 became James I. of Enylnnd. 
 
 Kis other daughter, 3Iary, was married twice^ 
 frtt to Louis XII. of France, and secondly to 
 Chnrles Brandon duke of Sutfolk. by whom she 
 had two daUj'jhters. Frances and EJeanor. Frances 
 was married to Henry Grey marquis of Dorset 
 (and afterwards duke of SutTolk), and it was their 
 child which was the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 Henry VII. of Japan (The) was 
 lyeasu, who, in the name of the Mikado, 
 gave peace, prosperity, and laws to his 
 distracted country, after centuries of 
 civil war (17th cent.). 
 
 Henry VIII. (1491, 1509-1547). 
 Father, Henry VII. Mother, Eliza- 
 beth of York (the White Rose). Wives'. 
 
 1. (1509) Catalina (daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella of Spain), widow of 
 his brother Arthur; mother of Qu(3en 
 Mary. This wife was divorced. Shake- 
 speare spells the name ' Katharine.' 
 
 Arthur survived his marriage only a few 
 months. 
 
 2. (1583) Anne Boleyn (daughter of 
 Thomas Boleyn, of Hever Castle, Kent, 
 earl of Wiltshire). Mother of Queen 
 EHzabeth. Beheaded 1536, 
 
 3. (1536) Jane Seymour (sister of 
 Somerset the protector) ; mother of Ed- 
 ward VI. Died two days after the birth 
 of her son. 
 
 4. (1540) Anne of Cleves. Divorced. 
 
 5. (1540) Catherine Howard (gmnd- 
 daughter of John Howard duke of Nor- 
 folk). Beheaded. 
 
 6. (1543) Catherine Parr (daughter of 
 Sir Thomas Parr). Twice a widow, first 
 of Edward Burghe, and next of John 
 Neville lord Latimer. On the death of 
 Henry VIII. Catlierine married S"r 
 Thomas Seymour, uncle of Edward VI. 
 If Henry had six wives, Catherine had 
 four husbands. 
 
 None of his children had any issue. 
 
 His sttPe and title from l.iOQ to 1521 was : 'Henry, 
 D.G., of England, France, and Ireland. King.' 
 
 From 1C21 to 1534 it was : 'Henrv, D.G., of Eng. 
 land. France, and Ireland, King. Defender of the 
 Fiiiih.' 
 
 From 1584 to 1.547 it was : ' Henry, D.G.. of Eng- 
 land. France, snd Ireland, King. DefT.der of 
 the Failh, and Supreme Head of the Church of 
 England.' 
 
 Henry VIII.'s "Walking Stick. 
 A spiked mace in the Tower of London. 
 In the head of the mace are four barrels, 
 which could be charged with gunpowder. 
 The spikes are formidable triangular 
 knives. 
 
 Henry IX. of Ens:land, 1788. 
 Henry Benedict Maria Clement (la£t of 
 
HENEY 
 
 HERALDS 
 
 415 
 
 the Stuarts). He was the younger brother 
 of Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. 
 Henry [IX.] was a cardinal, but on the 
 death of Charles Edward he succeeded to 
 the mock dignity of king of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and had coins cast with the 
 inscription, ' Henricus nonus Angliaa 
 rex,' and on the obverse, ' Gratia Dei, 
 non voluntate hominum.' Forgetting in 
 such cases that ' Vox populi est Dei vox.' 
 
 Henry [Knights of St.), 7 Oct., 1736. 
 A military Saxon order. A cross attached 
 to a crimson ribbon, 
 
 Henry Beauclerc. Henry I. (q.v.). 
 
 Henry Fitz-Empress {The 
 Statute of), 1172. An enactment of 
 Henry II. and his council in Ireland 
 that, in case of the death of any chief 
 governor, the chancellor, treasurer, chief 
 justices, and certain other officers should 
 be empowered (with the assent of the 
 lords spiritual and temporal) to proceed 
 to the election of a successor to that 
 office (Ireland). 
 
 Henry * Longsword ' (1519, 1547- 
 1559). Henry II. king of England, 
 grandson of Henry I., his mother being 
 Maud daughter of Henry I. 
 
 Also called CURTMANTLE and Fitz-Empress. 
 The Anjou sword was longer and mantle shorter 
 than the sword and mantle of the Norman kings. 
 
 Henry Town-bull. St. John 
 (Henry Viscount Bolingbroke, 1678- 
 1751). (Dr. Arbuthnot, 'John Bull.') 
 
 Henry of Monmouth. Henry V. 
 of England, born at Monmouth Castle, 
 belonging to the great estates of his 
 mother, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the 
 Earl of Hereford (1388, 1413-1422). 
 
 Henry of "Windsor. Henry VI. 
 
 of England, who was born at Windsor. 
 
 On the news of the birth of a son being brought 
 to Henry at Meaux, he eagerly demanded where 
 the boy was born, and on being told at Windsor, 
 he appeared greatly vexed, and repeated to 
 his chamberlain, Lord Fitzhugh, the following 
 lines :— 
 I, Henry, born at Monmouth, 
 
 Shall small time reign, and much get ; 
 But Henry of Windsor shall long reign, and lose 
 all.— 
 But as God wills. 
 
 So be it. 
 
 Heou-Woo-tae Dynasties (T/ie). 
 
 Five dynasties of China. The 14th 
 Imperial dynasty was Heou-Woo-tae 
 Leang or L'ang ; the 15th was Heou-Woo- 
 tae Tang; the 16th was Heou-Woo-tae 
 Tsin; the 17th was Heou-Woo-tae Han; 
 
 and the 18th was Heou-Woo-tae Tche-u. 
 These five dynasties lasted only from 907 
 to 960, and from 927 a wiirlike Tartar 
 horde established itself in the north of 
 China, under Tae-tsong. 
 
 These dynasties are called 'The Five Suc- 
 cessions.' The seat of government was Kaifong- 
 loo. 
 
 Heptarchy (The). The seven king- 
 doms founded in England by seven 
 different Saxon invaders. See ' Bret- 
 walda.' They are : — 
 
 1. Kent founded by Hengist 455 
 
 2. Sussex „ Ella 477 
 
 3. Wessex „ C'ynric 519 
 
 4. Essex „ Eikinwin 526 
 
 5. NORTHUMBRIA „ Ida 547 
 
 6. East Anglia „ O.ia 571 
 
 7. Mercia ,. Crida 584 
 Northumbria was divided at Ida's 
 
 death into Bernicia and Deira, and Deira 
 was absorbed into Bernicia by Oswy in 
 655. 
 
 Egbert, of the Wessex race of kings, 
 united in his own person all the separate 
 kingdoms, and called the united kingdoms 
 England 800. 
 
 Heraelea {Table o/), or 'Lex Julia 
 Municipalis,' which was passed B.C. 45, 
 discovered in 1732 at Heraelea, in 
 Lucania. 
 
 Heralds. I. Of England.— There 
 are 14 — viz. 4 kings-of-arms, 6 heralds, 
 and 4 pursuivants. 
 
 The 4 kings-of-arras are Clarenceux 
 (having power over all parts of England 
 so li^/i of the Trent); Norroy, *.e. North- 
 roy (who has power over all parts north 
 of the Trent) ; and the 2 who serve the 
 Orders of the Garter and the Bath : the 
 former called Garter King-of-arms, and 
 the latter Bath King-of-arms, See ' Gar- 
 ter King-of-arms.' 
 
 The 6 heralds are Somerset, Chester, 
 Windsor, Kiclimond, Lancaster, and 
 York. 
 
 The 4 pursuivants are Rouge Dragon, 
 PortcuUis, Blue Mantle, and Rouge 
 Croix. 
 
 There are seven colours in English heraldry, 
 and nine in French. The seven English colours 
 are or (gold), anient (silver), quh-s (ted), azure (.blue), 
 sable, (black), rert (gieen), and purpure (purple). 
 The two extra colours are tenne (orange), and 
 sangitine (murrey). 
 
 II. Of Ireland. — Consists of 5 mem- 
 bers. The king-of-arms is styled Ulster 
 king-of-arms. 
 
 The 2 heralds are Cork and Dublin. 
 
416 
 
 HEEALDS' 
 
 HEEEMONIAN 
 
 The 2 pursuivants are Athlone (the 
 senior) and St. Patrick. 
 
 III. In Scotland. — The Lyon Court 
 consists of 12 members. 
 
 The king-of-arms is styled Lord Lyon, 
 or Lyon king-of-arms. 
 
 The 6 heralds are called Albany, Islay 
 or Hay, Marchmont, Eoss, Eothesay, and 
 Snowdoun. 
 
 The 5 pursuivants are called Bute, 
 Carrick, Kintyre, Ormond, and Unicorn. 
 
 Heralds' College {The), or ' Col- 
 lege of Arms.' Incoi'porated and chartered 
 in 1483 by Eichard III. 
 
 Herbs {The Feast of), or ' Festum 
 Herbarum.' In German ' Krautweihe.' 
 When women carried herbs and sweet 
 spices to commemorate the anointing 
 after the Sabbath of the Crucifixion week. 
 
 Hercules. Almost every nation has 
 its HercilK'S, or man of marvellous 
 strength, some fabulous and some more 
 or less historical. Diodorus mentions 
 three, Cicero (' De Natura Deorum ') six, 
 and Varro as many as forty-three. Thus 
 Bel is called the Syrian Hercules, Mel- 
 kart the Tyrian, Chon the Egyptian, 
 Dorsanes the Hindu, and Ogmios the 
 Gaulic Hercules. The following are well 
 known : — 
 
 The Attic Hercules : Theseus (2 syl.), 
 who went about performing expLats 
 similar to those of Herakles or HerculCs. 
 
 The Barbaric Hercules'. Simeon of 
 Bulgaria (883-927). 
 
 The Greeks were defeated, and their horn was 
 broken by the barbaric Hercules.— Gibbon, Iv. 
 
 The Egyptian Hercules : (1) Sesostris 
 or Eamses II. the Great, of the XIX. 
 dynasty. A sculptured head of this hero 
 is in the British Museum. (2) Chon or 
 Son, called by Pausanias ' Maceris son of 
 Anunon.' 
 
 The English Hercules : Guy earl of 
 Warwick. 
 
 Warwick . . . thou English Hercules. — DRAY- 
 TON, Polyolbion, xiii. 
 
 The French Hercules : Jean-Baptiste 
 Kleber, the French general, a man of 
 prodigious strength and stature (1754- 
 1800). 
 
 The Greek Hercules : Alkides, i.e. 
 Herakles, who was grandson of Alkseos. 
 
 The Indian Hercules: Dorsanfis, who 
 married Pandaja and became the founder 
 of a race of Indian kings. 
 
 Sometimes Belus is called 'The Indian Her- 
 culcs." 
 
 The Jewish Hercules : Samson, the 
 judge of Israel, who died B.C. 1113. 
 
 The Persian Hercules: Eustum son 
 of Zal, prince of Sedjistan. Matthew 
 Arnold has a poem entitled ' Sohrab and 
 Eustum,' which gives an account of 
 Eustum slaying his son Sohrab. 
 
 The Boman Hercules : Commodua 
 the emperor called himself ' Hercules 
 Secundus.' He was a gigantic idiot who 
 killed 100 lions and overthrew 1,000 
 gladiators in the amphitheatre (IGl, 
 lSO-192). 
 
 The Swedish Hercules: Starchaterus 
 (1st cent. A.D.). 
 
 Hercules {The Famese). A famous 
 statue, the work of Glykon, copied from 
 one by Lysippos ; called ' Farnese ' 
 (3 syl.) from being placed in the Farnese 
 Palace at Eome, but now at Naples. The 
 hero is represented leaning on his club, 
 and holding an apple in his left hand, 
 which rests on his back. There is a 
 copy of this statue in the Tuileries 
 garden of Paris. 
 
 Farnese, pronounce Far-nay'-ze. 
 
 Hercules {Pillars of). Calpe and 
 Abyla; one at Gibraltar and the other 
 at Ceiita. Torn asunder (accordijig to 
 fable) by Alcldes on his route to Gadea 
 {Cadiz). 
 
 Hercules of Music {The). Chris- 
 toph von Gluck (1714-1787). 
 
 Herdsman {King Alfred's). It is 
 said that the name of the herdsman in 
 whose hovel King Alfred was sheltered 
 for six months was Dunulf, who was 
 afterwards educated, ordained, and made 
 bishop of Winchester. 
 
 Hereditary Union {The), 1540. 
 An act by which the crown of Sweden 
 was declared hereditary in the House of 
 Vasa. 
 
 Heregeld, or ' Heregyld ' (3 syl.). 
 An army tax. It was first imposed by 
 Ethelred II. under the name of ' Dane- 
 gelt,' a war tax to resist the invasions of 
 the Danes and buy them off. It was 
 afterwards called ' Here-gyld,' from the 
 Anglo-Saxon words here (2 syl.), an 
 army, and gyld, a tax. See ' Danegelt ' 
 and ' Hidagium.' 
 
 Heremo'nian Line [of Kings] 
 {The). Descendaiots of Hercmon (3 syl.) 
 son of Milesius king of Ireland. 
 
HERETICAL 
 
 HERETICS 
 
 417 
 
 Heretical Baptism. The baptism 
 of heretics (3rd cent.). The controversy- 
 was this : Is baptism valid only when 
 administered in the orthodox church ? 
 If so, baptism by heretics is no baptism 
 at all, and those so baptized must be 
 baptized again in order to be members 
 of Christ's Church. This was the view 
 of the Eastern Church. The Vv'estern 
 Church considered any baptism valid if 
 administered in the name of the Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost ; so that whether 
 performed by heretics or on heretics it 
 mattered not if the orthodox words were 
 uttered when the rite was administered. 
 
 The Synod of Iconium and the Synod of Synnada 
 in I'hrygia decreed that ' heretical b.ititisia is no 
 baptism at all.' Some eight or ten councils con- 
 firmed this view of the question. The Westorn 
 Church would not give way, and council afier 
 council decreed that heretical baptism is valid. 
 This is still the belief of Western churches, 
 ■whether affiliated with Rome or not. 
 
 Heretics are those who differ from 
 the dominant power in some reli^aous 
 point or points which those who condemn 
 them deem essential for the ' true faith.' 
 Thus Jesus Christ was considered a 
 heretic by the Pharisees and Sadducees. 
 The Buddhists are considered heretics 
 by the Brahmins. The Shiites are con- 
 sidered heretics by the Sunnites. 
 
 Sects are those who differ from a main 
 religious body in some point or points less 
 grave than heresy. Thus the Jansenists 
 and Jesuits, the Dominicans and Fran- 
 ciscans, always antagonistic to each 
 other, are virtually sects of the Catliolic 
 Church — Nonconformists of the A- glican 
 Church — and Ismaeliaus of the Shiites. 
 
 In a word, orthodoxy is tlie doxy of the 
 judge; heterodoxy is the doxy cf those 
 condemned by the judge. Both change 
 places asopinions change or the domiKaiit 
 power changes. Thus Mary considered 
 Protestantism heretical, but Elizabeth 
 called it orthodoxy. Laud condemned 
 the Puritans, and, like Ferdinand II., 
 would have stamped them out if he 
 could; whereas the Puiitar.s were evf*/y 
 bit as intolerant during the Common- 
 wealth. See the following i)i loco : — 
 
 Albiqenses. Condemned by the Third Lateran 
 S06. 
 
 Apollinarians. Condemned by the Council of 
 Alexandria in 302, and the Council of Constanti- 
 nople in 381. 
 
 AKIAN3. Condemned by the Council of Nice 
 325. 
 
 Armenians. Condemned by the Council of 
 Cha!ccdonl51. 
 
 r.AUDESAMSTS. 
 
 r.ASiLiDiANS. A branch of the Gnostics. See 
 below, ' Marcionitea.' 
 
 BOGOMILES. Condemned by the Council of Con- 
 st i-tinople 1110. 
 
 L; DDHi.sTS. Called heretics by the T'.rahmins. 
 
 CaLvixists. Condemned by the Council of 
 Trent 1545. 
 
 Celestians. Condemned by the Council of 
 Carthage 412, and again by the Council of Ephesus 
 48J. 
 
 Ckrinthians. a branch of the Gnostics. 
 Certnthus denied that John was the auihor of 
 the Fourth Gospel. 
 
 ClIRlSTlA.NS. Called heretics bv Moslems. 
 
 Chyixes or Shiites (2 syl.). Called heretics by 
 the Sunnites '.2 syl.). 
 
 Cv>PTS or Copri, the Monophysites or Jacobites 
 of Eg.-pt. 
 
 D. iCE'T^. A branch of the Gnostics. 
 
 DoNATisTS. Condemned by the Council of Aries 
 814. 
 
 DRUSES. 
 
 Ebionites (4 syl.). Supposed to be condemned 
 In the Fourth Gospel. 
 
 EUT> CHIANS. Condemned by the Council of 
 Clii-lce.lon 45!. They affirmed th it Christ was 
 one thing :■. :i.l the Loyos ano' iier ; tint there were 
 two natures in Christ before the hypDst itic il 
 union, but after that the two were amiilj^amated 
 into one. 
 
 Gnostics. 
 
 Greek CnrRCH. Condemned by the Council of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 809. 
 
 Hermesians. Condemned by a papal brief in 
 
 1835. 
 
 Huguenots of France. 
 
 HUSMTE3. Hubs was excommunicated by Alex- 
 ander v. 
 
 Iconoclasts. Condemned by severnl councils. 
 
 ISMAELIANS (5 syl.). Deemed heretics by the 
 Sunnites (2 syl.). 
 
 JA'COBITES (3 syl.) or Jaco'bians. of Syria. So 
 called from Jacob, a disciple oi Eutyches. In the 
 7th cent, the Eutychi.ms, Copts, and Monoph'o- 
 61*^88 ;4 syl.), who aclvnowled;.'<^<l but one nature in 
 Christ. hU merged in the ,)arobites or Jacobians. 
 
 Jan'ssnists. Condemned by Innocent X. 
 
 Lutherans. Condemned by the Council of 
 Lyons iryZS, and again by the Council of Trent 1545. 
 
 Macedonians. Condemned by the Council of 
 Constantinople 381. 
 
 Maniche'ans. Condemned by several councils. 
 
 Mar'cionites (4 syl.). Similar to the Basilidians. 
 Perhaps the same. 
 
 Monoph'ysites (4 syl.). A general term for 
 those sectaries of the Levant wlio believe that 
 Christ had only one nature. Sff nboci-. ' Jacobites.' 
 Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon 401. 
 
 Monoth'elites (4 syl 1. Condemned by the 
 Council of Constantinople 680. 
 
 Mon'taxists. Condemned by the bishops of 
 Asia. 
 
 Kazare'ans (3 syl.). A Jewish sect. Acts xxiv. 
 
 Nestoi;ia.vs. Condemned by tlie Council of 
 Ephesus 4.S1, and again by the Council ol Con- 
 stantinople 448. 
 
 Pat'ejuns. Condemned by the Council of 
 Lat( ran 1179. 
 
 Paulianists. Condemned by the Council of 
 Antioch -270. 
 
 Paulicians. 
 
 Pela'gians. Condemned by the C^-mnl of 
 Fplicbus 413, and again by the Council of Carthage 
 4.G. 
 
 Priscillianists. Condemned by the Council 
 
 of Sai agriss 1 ;;81. 
 
 PirOTESTANTS. See ' Calvinists ' and ' Lutherans. 
 
 KEF.JR1IATION. Condemned by the Council of 
 Trent 1545. 
 
 Sabei.lians. Condemned by the Council of 
 Alexandria 261. 
 
 Vaudois. Condemned by the Council of the La- 
 tor:in 1179 : by the bull uf John XXll. in 133i ; and 
 by Innocent VIII. in 1487. 
 
 Wycltfites (3 syl.). Condemned by the Council 
 of Trent 1545. 
 
 Heresy, in Greek aipeati;, simply means a choice, 
 or bouielhing chosen. Ahereticisone wliochooses 
 
 EE 
 
AIS 
 
 HERETICS 
 
 HEEMANDAD 
 
 his own religious opinions, and does not accept 
 blindly those chosen for him by others. 
 
 Heretics {Laws against). The first 
 laws against heretics, on which all subse- 
 quent ones were founded, originated in 
 1220 by the Kaiser Friedrich II. They 
 were for the extermination of heretics, 
 and had been dictated by Pope Hqponus 
 III. Confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1243, 
 by Alexander IV. in 1253, by Urban IV. 
 in 1262, and by Clement IV. in 1265 (four 
 popes, all the IVths of the name). 
 
 • These laws ' (says the pope), ' published by our 
 dearest son Friedrich emperor of the Romans, we 
 praise and approve, so as to be valid for all time. 
 And if anyone attempt to infringe them ... he 
 will incur the wrath of Almighty God. ... As for 
 the persons of heretics, they are all to be burnt 
 alive without appeal or possibility of pardon . . . 
 all their goods are to be conliscated, and never 
 restored to their posterity. Their children and 
 grandchildren shall be held incapable of holdmg 
 any public office, with this one exception, viz. if a 
 Bon informs against the secret lieresy of a father. 
 Persons only suspected of heresy shall be put to 
 death unless they can clear themselves withni a 
 year and a day. llepentant heretics to be impri- 
 soned for life.' 
 
 The bull of Paul III., published in 
 1538 against Henry VIII., contains some 
 new enactments against 'the accomplices 
 of heretics.' 
 
 In Section XII. all the faithful are 
 admonished, under pain of excommuni- 
 cation, 'to avoid and cause others to 
 avoid ' all adherents of the king, and to 
 'have no commerce, conversation, or 
 communion ' with him, his houseliold, 
 vassals, and subjects; they are strictly 
 enjoined not ' to buy or sell, exchange, 
 deal, or chaffer, in any town, fort, castle, 
 or city ' in his dominion, nor ' cause wine, 
 grain, salt, victuals, arms, clothes, wares, 
 or other articles of commerce, to be 
 brought by ship, trireme or other vessel, 
 by mule, horse, or other animal,' to any 
 part of his dominion ; and ' stoutly to 
 refuse all assistance, counsel, or favour 
 to those who, directly or indirectly, 
 secretly or openly, presume to traffic 
 with them.' 
 
 Section X. enjoined ' all who possess 
 armed forces to set them on the king and 
 his adherents.' 
 
 Section XVII. gives everyone full 
 liberty of appropriating to himself all 
 goods belonging to the king or any of his 
 subjects. 
 
 In a word, the bull of Paul IIT. states :— 
 
 1. That no man who refuses to believe all the 
 articles of the Catholic Church has any right to 
 life or property. 
 
 2. No Christian has any right to respect the life 
 cr property of a heretic. 
 
 3. Cliri&tian governments are bound to burn 
 
 alive all heretics and to confiscate all their pro. 
 
 perty. 
 
 4. Children are bound to pry into the secret 
 belief of their parents, and denounce them if 
 heretical. 
 
 5. Error in faith is infinitely worse than moral 
 turpitude. 
 
 6. Anyone may appropriate to himself the goods 
 of a heretic. 
 
 7. Every heretic is virtually an outlaw, and all 
 contracts made with heretics or debts owing to 
 them are nvill and void. 
 
 8. Slavery and the slave-trade should be kept 
 up, ii the slaves are heretical. 
 
 (Abriuged from a letter sent to the ' Times ' from 
 an English Catholic, and published in that jour- 
 nal under the title of 'Papal Infallibility and 
 Persecution.') 
 
 Heretics {The Statute of), 1401. 
 By this infamous act priests were allowed 
 to arrest and imprison all heretical 
 preachers in England, all schoolmasters 
 tainted with Lollardry, all owners and 
 writers of heretical books ; and, on refusal 
 to abjure, or relapse after abjuration, to 
 send the heretic to the stake, 'to be 
 burnt to death on a high place in the 
 sight of the people.' The first victim of 
 this iniquitous statute was William 
 Sawtre of Lynn, in Norfolk. Next fol- 
 lowed John Badbie, for denying the dogma 
 of transubstantiation. 
 
 This statute, often called 'The Statute of 
 Heresy,' was revived by Mary in 1555; but it was 
 the first act of Elizabeth to repeal it. Constantino, 
 in .S'2.'j, passed a penal edict against heretics ; and 
 the Council of Laodicea. in H7'.J, forbade marriages 
 between heretics and orthodox Christians. IJut 
 what was heresy and what orthodoxy in the 4th 
 cent, is impossible to determine. 
 
 Heretics of Brixen. In i486 the 
 magistrates of Brixen refused to burn 
 heretics, on the ground that heresy being 
 an ecclesiastical offence, civil magistrates 
 could take no cognizance of it. Innocent 
 VIII. forthwith excommunicated them, 
 ' without appeal, unless within six days 
 they carried out the sentences of the 
 Inquisition.' 
 
 In 1520 Leo X. condemned the proposition, 
 'Htcreticos comburi est contra voluntatem 
 spiritus." 
 
 Heretics of Pdrigord and 
 
 Pei'igueux. The Waldenses were so 
 called because they abounded inPerigord- 
 and Perigueux in the 12tli cent. 
 
 Heretoga (4 syl.). A Saxon word 
 meaning a general or commander ; from 
 here (2 syl.), an army, and toga, a leader. 
 Latin comes, our tarl, the continental 
 count. German Herzog = duke ; Graf = 
 earl or count. 
 
 Her'mandad {The Santa), or ' Holy 
 Brotherhood.' An association of the 
 
HERMANN 
 
 HEROD 
 
 419 
 
 principal cities of Castile and Aragon, 
 bound together by a solemn league for 
 mutual defence. The first herinan'^^ad 
 in Aragon was established in 1201, that 
 of Castile in 1295. These associations 
 were defences against the barons, whose 
 unruly conduct and depredations were 
 the curse of the middle ages. 
 
 Hermann the Cripple (1013- 
 1054). One of the most marvellous of men. 
 His body was wholly paralysed, so that 
 lie could not move without assistance, 
 and could scarcely speak so as to be 
 understood; yet was his society sought 
 by men from all quarters of the globe. 
 He has left a book of great merit behind, 
 entitled ' A Chronicle of the Six Ages of 
 the World,' containing a history of Ger- 
 many during the 10th and 11th cents. 
 
 Paul Scarron, the French poet, was a similar 
 cripple iliilO-lt)<30). 
 
 Herme'sian Heresy (19th cent., 
 about 182s). The substitution of con- 
 viction for faith. By conviction is meant 
 the persuasion which results from judg- 
 ment and sound reason ; by faith is meant 
 the persuasion of authority. One is be- 
 lief in what sound reason convinces the 
 mind is true ; the other is belief in what 
 the church pronounces to be true. Her- 
 mes of Westphalia was divinity professor 
 in the University of Miinster, and thought 
 by his teaching to amalgamate Catholics 
 and Protestants, as well as Calvinists 
 and Lutherans, but his doctrine was 
 condemned by a papal brief in 1835. 
 
 Herinippic School (The). Her- 
 mippus, the Greek i)hilosopher, placed 
 the elixir vita in the health-bestowing 
 breath of youth. 
 
 Hermit of Lathom {The). Ro- 
 bert Swarsbrick (1740-1821), who lived 
 first in a one-roomed and then in a two- 
 roomed hut at the bottom of the ' Ladies' 
 Walk ' at Lathom. He wrote a journal, 
 and was fond of gardening. 
 
 Hernhutters, or ' Hemhutes,' 1721. 
 The Moravians or ' United Brethren ' 
 were so called, because after the Thirty 
 "Years' War they found refuge in Hurn- 
 hutt, under the protection of Count Zin- 
 zendorf. They profess to take the pure 
 precepts of the gospel as their rule of 
 conduct, choose their ministers by lot, 
 wash each other's feet, celebrate agapse 
 or love-feasts, and address prayer to the 
 Saviour only. 
 
 Hdro de la Fable {Le). Charles 
 de Lorraine, due de Guise (1571-1040), 
 the implacable foe of the Protestants. 
 He bore arms against Henri IV., but 
 tendered his submission; he conducted 
 a fleet against Rochelle, but incurred the 
 displeasure of Richelieu, and retired to 
 Italy, where he died. 
 
 Hero de THistoire {Le). The 
 Due d'Enghien. Ever since 1485, when 
 the house of Enghien passed into that of 
 Bourbon, some member of the family has 
 become historic. Amongst others we 
 have Francois de Bourbon- Vendome, 
 brother of Prince Louis I. de Conde 
 (1519-1544); the Grand Conde (1G21- 
 1659) ; Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, 
 last of the Conde's (1772 -1804). 
 
 Hero of Modern Italy {The). 
 Garibaldi (1807-1882). Certainly the 
 most disinterested hero that ever lived, 
 but treated with scant honour. 
 
 Hero of Rora ( The). Joshua Jana- 
 vel, who lived at Rora, and with seventeen 
 companions put to flight a troop of Irish- 
 men led on by Mario against the Vaudois 
 in 1655. 
 
 Hero of the Wile {The). Horatio 
 viscount Nelson ; so called for his great 
 naval victory over the French, 1 August, 
 1798, for which he was created ' Baron 
 Nelson of the Nile ' (1758-1805). 
 
 Hero of the Wine Hostages 
 
 {The). Nial the Great, who was suc- 
 ceeded in A.D. 406 by Dathy, last of the 
 pagan kings of Ireland. Nial was killed 
 by a flash of lightning. 
 
 Hero of the Peninsula {The). 
 The Duke of Wellington, who, between 
 21 August, 1808, and 10 April, 1814, de- 
 feated five French marshals in the Penin- 
 sula of Spain and Portugal, won nine 
 battles, and made three successful sieges. 
 
 A rare hero indeed. Napoleon's prevailing fault 
 ■was the exaltation of himself and family. Wol- 
 lintfton s t;reiit merit was modest patriotism. 
 Being asked in l.SOC how he could condescend to 
 lead a bri;.iade alter commanding large armies ha 
 replied: 'I am »i;w-?ni(A-«Y7i/«/), as we say In the 
 Eist; thit is, I have eaten the kings salt, and 
 think it my dnty to serve him f-avh fully, wherever 
 he finds it convenient to employ me." This is 
 magnificent magnanimity ; more honourable to a 
 hero than the slaughter of Austerlitz. 
 
 Herod the Great. Son of Anti- 
 pater, prime minister of Hyrciinus. He 
 mixrried ten wives. 
 
 1st. Doris, by whom he had Anli^iatcr. 
 
 ££2 
 
420 
 
 HER0DIAN3 
 
 HETAIEEIA 
 
 2nd. Mariamne the Asmonasan, by 
 whom he had Alexander, Aristohtllus, 
 Herod, Salampso, and Cypres [Aristo- 
 bulus]. 
 
 King Agrippa, who put James to death, was son 
 of Aristobulus. Agrippa's son and davg'ater 
 (Agrippa and Berenice) heard Paul make his de- 
 fence (Acts XXV., xxvi.). This was Herod H. of 
 Judsea. 
 
 3rd. Mariamne, daughter of Simon the 
 high-priest, by whom he had Philip 
 (whose wife was Herodias). 
 
 4th. Malthace, by whom he had Abche- 
 la'us, PhiHp, and Olympias. 
 
 5th. Cleopatra, by whom he had 
 Hebod Antipas and Philip. 
 
 6th. Pallas, by whom he had Phasael, 
 in honour of whom he built Phasaelis. 
 
 7th. Phajdra, by whom he had Roxana. 
 
 8th. Elpis, by whom he had Salome. 
 (Names of the other two wives not known.) 
 
 N.B. — Italics, put to death; capitals, 
 the tetrarchs. 
 
 At the death of Herod the Great the Romans 
 divided the Jewish state into four parts, called 
 tetrarchies — viz. Judisa, G;i,lilee, Iturtea, and 
 Samaria. The first three they gave to the sons of 
 Herod the Great. To Herod Arehelaus was given 
 Judaea; to Herod Antipas was given Galilee (this 
 Is the man who slew John the Baptist) ; and to 
 Herod Philip was given Itursea (he married his 
 niece Herodias, who lived in adultery with her 
 brother-in-law Herod Antipas). The tetrarchy was 
 abolished A.D. 5(j, and Herod II. (Agricola) became 
 sole king of Judsea. Samaria was ruled by Roman 
 governors. For tcible of affinity, see ' Maccabees.' 
 tiee also next article. 
 
 Hero'dians, A Jewish sect in the 
 time of Herod. Dr. Prideaux reduces 
 their tenets into two heads : (1) a belief 
 that the dominion of the Romans over 
 the Jews was lawful, and it was their 
 duty to submit to it; (2) that, under 
 present circumstances, tbey might follow 
 many heathen usages. In fact they were 
 trimmers between political policy and 
 religious obligations. 
 
 Herpd'otos of China {The). Sse- 
 ma-Thsian, author of the Sse-ki, or Annals 
 of China. He lived in the reign of Han 
 Ho-tee, who reigned 89-106. 
 
 Herodotos of Oldljondon {The). 
 John Stow (1525-1605), author of 
 * Summary of the Chronicles of England,' 
 1561, 'Annals of England,' 1580, and 
 ' Survey of London,' 1598. 
 
 Heroes scratched off the 
 Church Doors. So Sheridan called 
 Militia officers who had served four years. 
 An act of parliament enjoined that a list 
 of all persons between 18 and 45 should be 
 affixed in each parish to the church doors 
 
 three clear days before the day of appeal, 
 Sunday being one of the days. Commis- 
 sioned officers who had served four years 
 in the Militia were exempt, and their 
 names were ' scratched off the doors.' 
 
 Heroic Age {The). The semi-historic 
 age preceding the historic. The heroic 
 age of Greece dates from the arrival of the 
 first colony under Inachos, and goes to the 
 19th cent. B.C., the return of the Hera- 
 clldae. China, Persia, and all other civi- 
 lised countries have passed through their 
 mythical age and their heroic age, before 
 they came to their historic period. 
 
 England, Wales, Scotland, and Irel'ud have 
 had their heroic ages. Brute, Coibrand, Guy of 
 Warwick, Arthur, &,c., will readily recur to the 
 mind. 
 
 Herrings {Battle of), Feb. 1429. 
 Sir John Fastolfe carrying provisions, 
 much of which was salt fish, to the Eng- 
 lish army before Orleans, was intercepted 
 by an allied army of French and Scotch. 
 Sir John succeeded in vanquishing his 
 opponents near Rouvrai and reaching the 
 English army. 
 
 Herrying of Buchan {The). The 
 ravaging of tlae country of Comjm earl of 
 Buchan, in 1307, by Robert Bruce, in re- 
 venge for the pertinacity with which the 
 earl had pursued him when, wasted by 
 sickness, he had retreated before him. 
 
 Sir Alexander and Sir Simon Eraser took a very 
 prominent part with Bruce in this expedition. To 
 herry is to plunder or spoil. 
 
 Hertford College, Oxford, 1282. 
 Founded by Elias de Hertford, and called 
 ' Hertford Hall ' ; but the word ' college ' 
 was substituted in 1740. It was dissolved 
 in 1805, but in 1874 was re-2stablished. 
 The head-master is called the Principal. 
 
 Hertford Scholarship. For Latin, 
 value about 30/., and tenable for one year 
 only. The funds are derived from the 
 interest of 1,100Z. made over to the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford at the dissolution of the 
 College in 1834. See above. 
 
 Hes'y chasts or ' Hesicastae.' Mystics 
 of the Greek Church, very similar to the 
 Quietists {q-v.). They either came into 
 being or revived in the 14th cent. 
 
 Anachoretoe dicuntur quoque hesicastse tam- 
 quam quU'sccntes, ii<rvxaiu> enim quiesco significat. 
 — Du Cange, vol.iv. p. &8, col. 2. 
 
 Hetaireia (T/ie), 1820. The Greek 
 confederates, whose resolve was to libe- 
 
nEXAPLA 
 
 HIGH 
 
 421 
 
 rate Greece from the slavery of the 
 Moslem. The leader of the confederates 
 was Prince Alexander Ypsilanti. 
 The confederacy was formed by Rhigas before 
 , 1798. but made small progress till 1816. In 1821 it 
 brought about the Greek devolution. 
 
 Hexapla {The). Ori^en's Old Testa- 
 ment in six columns, each column heing 
 a different language. (1) Hebrew, (2) 
 Hebrew in Greek characters, (3) the 
 Septnagint, (4) the text of Aquila, (5) that 
 of Theodotian, and (6) that of Symina- 
 chos. The book no longer exists. It 
 disappeared in the 7th cent. 
 
 Hia Dynasty, b.c. 2205-1766. The 
 first Imperial dynasty of China, and the 
 first of the semi-historic period. It gave 
 18 emperors, and lasted 440 years. Their 
 capital was Yang-tching. 
 
 It was followed by the Ch.'uig dynasty. Yoo the 
 Great, founder of the Hia dynasty, is the first 
 moiv.irch mentioned in the ' Shoo-king ' of Con- 
 fucius. 
 
 Hialmar's Ordinances for pirates. 
 His men were forbidden to rob women of 
 their money, or to carry them off against 
 their consent. They were also forbidden 
 to eat raw flesh. (BAiiXHOLiNUS, ' De 
 Causis Contemptse a Danis Mortis,' bk. 
 ii.9.) 
 
 Hialtland (3 syl.). The Norse name 
 of Shetland or Zetland Islands, or rather 
 of the mainland of that group. 
 
 Or shall Hialtland's minstrel own 
 One note to rival glorious .John ? 
 
 Sir W. Scott, The Pirate, xxi. 
 
 Hibernia. The Roman name for 
 Ireland. Diodorus Siculus calls it Irin ; 
 Erin is the modern name. Ire-land is 
 Iren-land ; and Hibernia is another form 
 of lernia or Irinia. It is called the Holy 
 Island, and Irin or Erin is connected 
 with the Greek lepo^ (sacred or holy), 
 Hebrew Ira (to revere). 
 
 Hibernian Roscius (The). Gus- 
 tavus Vaughan Brooke (1819-18G2). 
 
 Hiekesites (2 syl.). Non-jurors were 
 so called after Dr. George Hickes, a non- 
 juror and learned Saxonist (1642-1716). 
 
 Hicksites (2 syl.), 1827. Rational- 
 istic Quakers ; so called from Elias Hicks, 
 spoken of by Mr. Conway, ' a sort of 
 mystical and eloquent Thomas Paine.' 
 Walt ^'v hitman wrote in 1887 a life-sketch 
 of this mystic. 
 
 Elias Hicks denied the miraculous conception, 
 the divinity of Christ, the doctrine of the atone- 
 ment, and the inspiration of Scripture. 
 
 Plidage (2 syl.), or 'Hidagium.' A 
 tax paid to Ethelred II. for every hide of 
 land ; levied in money, provisions for the 
 army, armour, ships, &c. By this tax 
 every 310 hides were required to furnish 
 one ship in defence of the kingdom 
 against the Danes, and every 8 hides had 
 to supply 'one jack (foot-soldier) and one 
 saddle (horse-soldier),' fully armed and 
 equipped, in defence of the kingdom. See 
 ' Danegelt.' 
 
 Hieronymites (5 syl.). I. A reli- 
 gious society founded in Holland in 1376 
 by Geert Groote and Florentius Eadewin, 
 who named the society after St. Jekowe. 
 Very similar to the subsequent society 
 known as the Moravians or the United 
 Brethren. They owned no conventional 
 distinctions, enjoined community of 
 goods, ascetic habit.^, and the use of the 
 vernaculiir tongue in religious services. 
 In 1430 the Hieronymites numbered 130 
 societies. 
 
 II. Hermits of St. Jerome, founded in 
 1380 in Umbria by Pietro of Pisa. The 
 austerity of these hermits is almost in- 
 credible. 
 
 III. The Hieronimites of the Obser- 
 vance, instituted in Lombardy by Loup 
 d'Olme'do in 1424 under the reformed 
 rule of Thomas. 
 
 High and Low Church, 1700. 
 
 The favourers of the doctrine of divine 
 right were the High Churchmen, and 
 they, of course, were Jacobites. The 
 friends of William of Orange and the 
 Hanoverian succession, who denied the 
 doctrine of divine right, were the Low 
 Churclimen. 
 
 At the present day High Churchmen are those 
 who exalt the priestly oince and church rites. 
 S<-e bclnic, 'High Church Principles.' The Low 
 Churchmen are what may be called the Evan- 
 gelists or Simeonites, whose creed is ' by grace 
 are ye saved, through faith ; and that not of 
 yourselves, it is the gift of God.' 
 
 High and Mighty States {The), 
 20 Nov., 1789. The title assumed by the 
 States of Brabant when they threw off 
 their allegiance to Austria (Kaiser 
 Joseph II.). 
 
 High Church Principles. These 
 
 seven doctrines may be termed essentials. 
 See 'High and Low Church.' 
 
 1. Baptismal regeneration. 
 
 2. The Apostolic succession of ordained minis- 
 ters. 
 
 3. The power of absolution in priests. 
 
 4. The eueharistic sacrifice. 
 
 5. The real presence of Christ in the elements of 
 bread and wine. 
 
422 
 
 HIGH 
 
 HIGHGEREVE 
 
 6. The cotamunion of saints, militant and tri- 
 umphant. 
 
 7. The authority of the Church, as a Church. 
 
 High Church and Sache verell ! 
 
 So shouted the London mob in 170i), after 
 the trial of the doctor in the House of 
 Lords. His offence was alluding to Lord 
 Godolphin as ' Voipone ' in the sermon 
 preached by him in St. Paul's, London. 
 See ' Voipone.' 
 
 High Commission Court {The), 
 1 Eliz. c, 1, A.D. 1559 ; abolished by IG 
 Car. I. c. 11, A.D. 1G41. This court was 
 instituted to vindicate the dignity and 
 peace of the church by reforming, order- 
 ing, and correcting the ecclesiastical 
 state and persons, as well as all manner 
 of errors, heresies, schisms, abuses, 
 offences, contempts, and enormities. The 
 commission was directed in the reigns of 
 James I. and Charles I. to tyrannical and 
 unconstitutional purposes, and therefore 
 the court was abolished. There was no 
 appeal from the judgments of this court. 
 James 11. partially restored it. 
 
 Kot unfrequently called ' The Court of High 
 Commission.' The test of heresy was the Four 
 Gospels and first four General Councils. Dr. Alex- 
 ander Leighton, for his pamphlet, entitled ' An 
 Appeal to Parliament, or Zion's Plea against 
 Prelacy,' was thus sentenced by Archbishop 
 Laud, in the High Commission Court : ' To be 
 imprisoned for life, and to pay a fine of 10,000/. ; to 
 be degraded from his ministry ; to be whipped. 
 Bet in the pillory, have one ear cut off, and one 
 nostril slit up ; then to be branded on the forehead 
 with S.S. (seditious slanderer), and carried bacij to 
 prison. After a few days to be again pilloried, to 
 lose his other ear, to have his other nostril slit, 
 and being whipped, again to be restored to his 
 dungeon till his death.' 
 
 High Constable {Lord) of Eng- 
 land. The seventh great officer of the 
 crown. The office existed before the 
 Conquest, when it went by inheritance 
 to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
 next fell into the line of Stafford. Li 
 152-2 it became forfeited by the attainder 
 of Edward Stafford duke of Buckingham. 
 Abolished 1869 (32, 33 Vict., c. 47). 
 
 High Constable {Lord) of Scot- 
 land. Keeper of the king's sword, and 
 commander of the army. Instituted by 
 David I. in 1147, and made by Robert 
 Bruce hereditary in the family of Errol. 
 The title is only honorary, but it makes 
 the earl of Errol the hightest peer in 
 Scotland. 
 
 High Court of Justice {The). A 
 court formed for trying Charles I. for 
 'treason against the sovereign majesty of 
 
 the people.' Bradshawwas the president. 
 The king was found guilty by the court, 
 and condemned to death. 
 
 High Mass, ' Missa alta.' The cele- 
 bration of the Eucharist in the Catholic 
 Church, performed musically, and alta 
 voce, with a loud voice. Low mass is 
 merely read, suhniissa voce, with a low or 
 subdued voice. See ' Mass.' 
 
 High K"ational Court {The), 179 ). 
 
 A court which the National Asseniuiy 
 substituted for the court of justice at the 
 Chatelet. This court was to try all treasons 
 against the nation. Barnave was the first 
 president of this High Court. 
 
 High School {The), of Edinburgh, 
 1577. Founded by the magistrates of 
 that city. 
 
 High Steward {The). I. At one 
 time the first great officer of the crown. 
 Established before the Conquest, but 
 abolished in 1265. The olhce is still 
 revived at a coronation, or may be so if 
 a peer is charged with high treason. 
 
 II. Of the Universities ot Cambridge and 
 Oxford. Adjudicates in all cases of felony 
 charged against a member of the univer- 
 sity if committed within the limits thereof. 
 He is also empowered to hold a leet ; but 
 he appoints a deputy, subject to the 
 approval of the senate in Cambridge, 
 and Convocation in Oxford. Appointed 
 in Cambridge by the senate ; in Oxford 
 by the chancellor. In both universities 
 there is a deputy steward. 
 
 The limit of the university is one statute mile 
 from any of the suburbs. Stijiend of the high 
 steward, in Oxford, is bl., and of his deputy 21. 
 
 Highfliers and Moderates, 1835. 
 
 In the Scotch Presbyterian Church. 
 They were also called ' Non-intrusionists ' 
 — that is, those who looked on the veto law 
 {q.v.) passed by the General Assembly as 
 an illegal intrusion or interference with 
 the patron's rights. The Highfliers were 
 the High Church party. See ' Free Church 
 of Scotland.' 
 
 The leaders of the Non-intrusion party were Dr. 
 Chandler, Dr. Candlisii, I>r. Gordon, and Messrs. 
 Guthrie, Cunningham and Dunlop. 
 
 Highgereve, or * Shire-reeve,' we 
 now call a viscount, not meaning a count's 
 deputy or vice, but simply the peer next 
 in dignity to a count or earl. 
 
 Our high sheriff is of course the same word, but 
 its modern meaning is quite diiferent to that of 
 viscount. 
 
HIGHGATE 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 423 
 
 Highficate Prophet (r/ie). William 
 Powell (died 1803). For many years he 
 walked from Sloane Street to Highgate 
 Hill, then started off at a run to the top 
 of the hill. Being asked why he did so, 
 he replied, that if he ceased to do so, the 
 world would be no more. Hence he was 
 called ' The prophet.' 
 
 Highland Host {The), 1679. A 
 scandalous raid against what was called 
 Scotch heretics. Some 8,000 Highlanders 
 were let loose by the English Government 
 upon the Presbyterians, who refused to 
 accept the prelacy which the government 
 of Charles II. tried to force upon them. 
 The savagery of these Highlanders was 
 quite equal to that of the French dragon- 
 nades. Neither age nor sex was spared, and 
 Alva or Torquemada never showed more 
 diabolical ingenuity of torture than these 
 ' brither Scots ' did to their own coun- 
 trymen. 
 
 Highland Plot {The), 1704. A plot 
 m -VYl'^i^ii Simon Fraser and Athol were 
 deeply concerned. Tlie plot was to raise a 
 rebellion in Scotland, to invade England 
 with French soldiers, and having sub- 
 verted the government of Queen Anne, to 
 bring back James, who called himself 
 Prince of Wales, but is better known as 
 the Old Pretender. 
 
 Bishop Burnet [being told of the plot] remarted 
 to the queen that . . thej-did not mean her to live 
 any longer than till they thought their designs tor 
 the prince were well laid ; on which the queen 
 answered very quickly, ' There is no manner of 
 doubt about that. — HowiTX, Hist, of Eny. lAune), 
 p. 180. 
 
 Highness {His). A title given to 
 princes not sovereigns. 'His Roj^al 
 Highness ' or ' His Imperial Highness ' is 
 given to royal or imperial princes. ' His 
 Most Serene Highness ' is given to the 
 collateral branches of the blood royal in 
 Germany. The Sultan of Turkey is en- 
 titled ' His Highness.' 
 
 Till the reign of James I. in England 
 kings were generally addressed as ' His 
 Highness ' ; so were they in Spain till 
 the reign of Charles V. In France, the 
 Duke of Orleans was called ' His High- 
 ness.' In 1633 the elder sons of the cadet 
 branch of the Bourbons took the title 
 of 'His Royal Highness' Under Louis 
 XIV. all legitimate princes were addres- 
 sed as ' HisHighness,' and the Prince of 
 Conde as ' His Most Serene Highness.' 
 
 In addressing the 
 Sultan of Turkey we say ' Your Highness ' ; 
 Koyal princes we say 'Your Royal Highness ' ; 
 
 Imperial princes we say ' Yovir Imperial High- 
 ness ' ; 
 The collateral branches of the blood royal of 
 Germany we s-iy ' Your Serene Highness." 
 *,* The king or queen is addressed as ' Your 
 Majesty.* See ' Majesty." 
 
 Hilary Term. One of the four 
 legal terms of England. It used to be 
 from 11 Jan. to the end of the month. It 
 now terminates the Wednesday l)efore 
 Easter. St. Hilary's day is the 13th Jan., 
 whence the name. 
 
 The other three terms are called Easter Term, 
 Trinity Term, and Michaelmas Term. 
 
 Hildebrand {The Hrjmn of), 8th 
 cent. A popular German legend in 
 metre, without rhymes. The story is this. 
 Hildebrand thought his father was dead, 
 and one day, as he was riding in full 
 armour, he was encountered by another 
 knight, and said to him : ' Sir Knight, tell 
 me thy name and country, but an ye re- 
 fuse to do so, ye shall not pass this way.' 
 The stranger replied, ' Wit you well, I am 
 Sir Hildebrand of Lombardy.' ' Knave,' 
 cried the younger man, ' thou liest ' ; and 
 so saying he let drive at him, and knocked 
 him off his horse. Then going to unlace 
 his helm, he discovered that it was his 
 father whom he had thus slain. 
 
 Hill Coolies. Hindoo highland 
 labourers. 
 
 Hill-men. The Cameronians. 
 
 The religious sect called Hill-men, or Came- 
 ronians, was at that time noted for austerity and 
 devotion, in imitation of C iTneroii. th^ir founder. 
 —Sir W. Scott, Old Mortality (Introduction). 
 
 Hillside Men. Old Nationalists 
 (about 1S81). So called because they 
 believed that one day they would be in a 
 position to fight for their country 
 [Ireland] on the hillside. They had, 
 however, an utter abhorrence of assassi- 
 nation. They were not members of the 
 Land League {q.v.). See 'Irish Asso- 
 ciations.' 
 
 Hippoc'ratds {The British). 
 Thomas Sydenham, M.D. (1624-1689). So 
 called over and over again by Boerhaave. 
 
 Hippoc'rates (r/?«?-Ro?nan). Aulus 
 Cornelius Celsus (1st cent.) was so called 
 because for the most part he followed the 
 great fatner of medicine. 
 
 Hiram [exalted]. The common title 
 of the kings of Tyre, as Pharaoh [the 
 sun] is that of the kings of Egypt. Tiie 
 Hiram, in Solomon's days, was by name 
 Abibalus. 
 
424 
 
 HISTOEIO 
 
 HOLSTEIN-GOTTORP 
 
 Historic Register {The). A 
 
 quarterly publication containing an ab- 
 stract of historical events for three 
 months. Bec^un 1716, discontinued 1738. 
 See ' Annual Register.' 
 
 History [The Father of). Herodo- 
 tus, the Greek historian (b.c. 484-408). 
 
 History of Formosa [The), 1704. 
 By George Psalmanasar, a Frenchman, 
 who pretended to be a Japanese, and 
 published an ' Historical and Geo- 
 graphical Description of Formosa, an 
 island belonging to the empire of Japan.' 
 
 The real name of this literary impostor is not 
 known. It seems that he was born in France in 
 1079, and died in London 3 May, 1763. 
 
 His'triomas'tix. A huge volume 
 by William Prynne, of 1,000 pages, 
 against the stage. He says ' theatres are 
 the chapels of Satan, the players his 
 ministers, and that their frevquentors are 
 rushing headlong into hell.' He not 
 only denounces theatres, but also dancing, 
 music, village sports, and even chanting 
 in churches. 
 
 Hobbe {King). So Edward I. called 
 Robert Bruce. In the statutes of Kil- 
 kenny (1367) the new arrivals from 
 England were nicknamed ' English 
 Hobbes.' {See Du Cange, art. 'Hobel- 
 larii.') 
 
 EqiTi quos Hobinos sive Hobbyes vocant ob 
 mollem gvessxxm.—Antiquitates Hihernicce, p. 38. 
 
 HohenstaufEen {House of). The 3rd 
 German dynasty: 1, the Saxon; 2, the 
 House of Franconia. It gave five kings, 
 viz. Konrad III., Friedrich I. (Barba- 
 rossa), Heinrich VI. the Cruel, Friedrich 
 II. and Konrad IV. 
 
 Konrad III. was the son of Friedrich of Hohen- 
 staufien, who was son-in-law of Heinrich IV. 
 
 On the death of Heinrich VI. there were three 
 contemporary kings of Germany. As Friedrich his 
 sonwasonly two years old the GhibelUne b-irons 
 elected Philip, and the Guelfic barons elected Otto 
 (son of Heinrich the Lion) ; but as Friedrich had 
 been created already ' king of the Konians,' or 
 kaiser elect, of course the other two were usurpers. 
 
 Friedrich von Buren or Staufien, born 1015, the 
 founder of this house, lived in the castle of 
 Hohenstauflen, and married the half-sister of 
 Konrad II. kaiser-king of Germany. 
 
 Pronounce Ho-hen-aiowf'-fen. 
 
 Holding by the Stra^vs. Similar 
 to the old English custom of 'holding 
 by the verge,' i.e. by a rod or stick 
 handed to the tenant, whereby he is 
 admitted into the occupation of a copy- 
 hold estate. There was at one time a 
 large number of these symbolic transfers. 
 Thus a clergyman was presented by one 
 
 of the churchwardens with a sod from 
 the churchyard, whereby the freehold 
 was conferred on the clergyman so long 
 as he remained incumbent of the parish. 
 
 Holland. Was an independent 
 country from 8G3 to 1433 ; when Philippe 
 of Burgundy united it to his vast estates. 
 In 1477 Mary of Burgundy married 
 Maximilian, and Holland, with many 
 other estates, was united to Austria. 
 After Karl V. it passed into the 
 Spanish branch of the house, and in 
 1523, under the influence of Luther, it 
 became Protestant. In 1579 Holland 
 united with six other provinces in the 
 ' Union of Utrecht,' threw off the Spanish 
 yoke, and became a republic, called 
 ' The Seven Provinces,' with William of 
 Orange as stadtholder. In 1621 Holland 
 was united to France. In 1806 it was 
 erected into the kingdom of Holland 
 by Napoleon I. and given to his brother 
 Louis Bonaparte. In 1810 it was again 
 united to France, but after the battle of 
 Waterloo (1814) it was united to Belgium 
 and formed 'The Kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands.' In 1830 Holland and Belgium 
 were divided into two kingdoms, called 
 the 'Kingdom of Holland ' and the ' King- 
 dom of Belgium'; the king of Holland 
 Ptill calls himself the ' King of the 
 Netherlands.' See ' Netherlands.' 
 
 Holland. One of the three dis- 
 tricts of Lincolnshire. Where Boston 
 stands used to be called ' High Hol- 
 land.' The other two districts are Lind- 
 sey (the highest land) and Kesteven (the 
 western part). ' Holland ' is the south- 
 eastern part or fen district. See ' Hal- 
 lamshire.' 
 
 And for that prirt of me [Lincolns.'\, which men 
 
 ' High Holland ' call, 
 Where Boston seated is, by plenteous Wytham's 
 
 fiiU . . . 
 No other tract of land doth like abundance yield. 
 Drayton, Polyolbion, xxv. 
 
 HoUiglasses (buffoons). A word 
 derived from Howie-glass = Eulen-spie- 
 gel, the famous jester, the hero of a 
 popular German tale, translated into 
 English in the time of Shakespeare. 
 
 Mr. Black, speaking of the council, called them 
 holiglasses, cormorants, and men of no religion. — 
 Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxix. 
 
 Holstein-Gottorp {The Dynasty 
 of). I. Sweden. It succeeded that of 
 Deux-ponts, and lasted from 1751 to 
 1818. Adolf Frederik was of the house 
 
HOLY 
 
 HOLY 
 
 425 
 
 of HoIstein-G-ottorp, and was pressed on 
 the nation by Russia. It was in this 
 reign that the factions of the Hats and 
 .Caps arose (q.v.). 
 
 II. Russia. The fourth djmasty, 1762 
 * It has given Peter III. {assassi- 
 nated) ; Catherine II. his widow ; Paul 
 I. their son {assassinated) ; Alexander 
 I. ; Nicholas I., who died during the 
 Crimean war ; Alexander II. {assassi- 
 nated in 1881) ; Alexander UI. 
 
 Holy Alliance {The). 1. 1511-1512. 
 Not holy meaning pious and godly, but 
 holy meaning in the temporal interest of 
 the pope. Li 1509 the pope (Julius II.) 
 had joined the ' League of Cambray ' 
 {q.v.), the object of which was to seize 
 Venetia and divide it between the 
 leaguers. Louis XII., being first in the 
 field, won the brilliant battle of Agna- 
 dello, by which Venice fell into his 
 hands. The pope, being thus outwitted, 
 formed a new league to oust Louis, but 
 died the following year, 1513. The holy 
 alliance consisted of the pope, Spain, 
 Venice, and Switzerland. 
 
 II. In 1609, formed at Wiirzburg, in 
 opposition to the Evangelical Alliance 
 {q.v.) formed by Protestant states of Ger- 
 many in 1608. 
 
 III. The alliance entered into 26 
 Sept., 1815, between the Czar of Russia, 
 the Emperor of Austria, and the King of 
 Prussia. It was agreed by the three 
 contracting parties to pursue no policy 
 in future which had not for its object the 
 maintenance of Christianity, justice, and 
 peace. The three crowns contracted to 
 stand fast to each other, and to suffer no 
 other power to touch any portion of their 
 respective dominions. France entered 
 the alliance 26 Sept. It was under the 
 strength of this alliance that Austria laid 
 claim to Italy. England held aloof, 
 feeling the scheme to be Utopian. Only 
 think of Metternich, Talleyrand, and 
 Castlereagh joining hands to bring peace 
 on earth and good-will towards men. 
 The inconsistency became a matter of 
 ridicule, and feU powerless and abortive. 
 
 Holy Bread. Not the eucharist, 
 which is a wafer in the Catholic Church, 
 but bread brought to the church to be 
 blessed by the officiating priest on Sun- 
 days and feast-days at the time of mass. 
 The ' pain benit ' is distributed to the 
 heads of families and taken home with 
 
 them. The custom dates from 655, and 
 was instituted by the great council of 
 Nice. Du Cange (vol. v. p. 122) calls it 
 ' Panis Beatus, eulogia, pauis a sacerdote 
 benedictione consecratus ' ; but panis 
 beatus is not the synonym of Eulogia 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Hallowed Bread would be a better translation 
 Of ' Panis Beatus ' than Holy Bread. 
 
 Holy Brotherhood {T7ie), or 
 * Santa Hermaiidad.' An association 
 which executed summary justice on all 
 offenders without distinction of rank. It 
 was established in Spain by Ferdinand 
 the Catholic for the suppression of. high- 
 road robbery (1481, 1516). 
 
 Holy Cities of the Islam {The 
 ■Four). Jerusalem, Mecca, Medina, and 
 Damascus. 
 
 Holy Coat of Treves {The). See 
 ' Diet, of Phrase and Fable,' p. 411. 
 Said to be spun from the wool of a lamb 
 by the Virgin Mary, and woven in a 
 grey coat by St. Helena on the Mount of 
 Olives. Christ wore it at the crucifixion. 
 It came into the hands of a Jew, who 
 threw it into the sea because the blood- 
 stains would not wash out, and a whale 
 swallowed it. The whale being caught 
 by a fisherman, the grey coat found in 
 its belly was sold for thirty pieces of 
 silver to Orendel, son of Eygel, a 
 Christian king of Treves. Orendel de- 
 posited the coat in a stone coffin, where, 
 being discovei'ed, it became a venerable 
 relic exhibited to the faithful every 
 twenty-five years. 
 
 Holy Constitution {The), 'La 
 Saiute Constitution,' 817. The division 
 by Louis I. le Debonuaire of his kingdom 
 between his three sons. Lothaire he 
 associated with himself in the empire, 
 to Pepin he gave the government of 
 Aquitaine, and to Louis that of Bavaria. 
 
 Lothaire, associated with his father, was 
 charged with the vice-royalty of Italy. This 
 ' holy constitution ' was certainly most impolitic, 
 and proved to be an Iliad of woes. 
 
 Holy Days observed in the Catholic 
 Church. Some are more or less observed 
 in the Church of England, and used to 
 be marked in the Book of Common 
 Prayer either with red letters or italics. 
 Sundays are not included in this list 
 except they happen to be fete daya. 
 {Those without a date are movable.) 
 
426 
 
 HOLY 
 
 HOLY 
 
 AllSainta « 1 Nov. 
 
 All Souls 2 Nov. 
 
 And^e^v ^ ^.. "^^ ^°^• , 
 
 Annunciation (The), or Lady Pay 2o March. 
 
 Ascension Pay. or Holy Thursday. 
 The fortieth day after Easter. 
 
 Ash Wednesday. The first day of Lent. 
 
 Assumption (T^x?), or Ascension ol 
 Mary 15 Aug. 
 
 Barnabass Day 11 June. 
 
 Bartholomew's Day 2^ ^ug. 
 
 Christmas Day ^ ..., ... ^■- 2;> Deo. 
 
 Circumr-ision of Jesus. New \ ear's Day 1 Jon. 
 
 Commemoration of the Passion. 
 
 Conception of Mary 8 Dec. 
 
 Conversion of Paul 24 .Ian. 
 
 Epiphany, or Twelfth Day ... 6 Jan. 
 
 Fat Ox d'lw). Called in French ^rardi 
 Gras. The day before .Vsh Wednesday. 
 
 Fete Dieu, or Corpus Christi Day. The 
 Sunday next after Trinity Sunday. 
 
 Good Fi-iday. The Friday before 
 Easter Day. _ , ^^ 
 
 GraveClothes (The). In French the 
 Ties Mint Huaite. The Friday next 
 to Good Friday. , , „ ^ 
 
 Holy Cross 14 Sept. 
 
 Holy P.clics of Nevers (r;u;) .^ ... SO Oct. 
 
 Innocents' Day - ... 28 Dec. 
 
 James the Elder ... ... ~ ... 2.S .July. 
 
 John the Baptist's Day ^ ~. ... 2^ June. 
 Beheaded ~. ... -^'.r'^'^S.-. 
 
 John the Evangelist's Days {27 bee! 
 
 Lammas Day 1 Aug. 
 
 Lord s Prayer (The). Called in French 
 L'oraisoii lie Noire Seigiieur. Shi-ove 
 Tuesday. ^ 
 
 Lukes Day 18 Oct. 
 
 Mark's Day -. ... 25 .\pr. 
 
 Matthews Day 21 Sept. 
 
 Michaelmas Day 29 Sept. 
 
 Miracles of the Virgin Mary of Deols 21 May. 
 
 Name of Jesus (r/K-Ho/.w) 1 Jan, 
 
 Name of Mary (T}ie Holy). The second 
 Sunday in Sept. 
 
 Nativity (r/i<>n or Christmas Day ... 25 Dec. 
 
 Nativity of Mary mother of Jesus .. 8 Sept. 
 
 Patronage of Joseph husband of Mary. 
 Fifth Sunday of Oct. 
 
 Patronatje of ISIary wife of Joseph. 
 The third Sunday after Easter. 
 
 Pauls Day . 29 June. 
 
 Pentecost, or '^TiitsMnday. The 
 seventh Sunday after Easter. 
 
 Peter ' prince of the Apostles ' 29 June. 
 
 Petit Fete Dieu 2 Feb. 
 
 Philip and James ... _ 1 '>ray. 
 
 Presentation of Mary 21 Nov. 
 
 Purification of Mary ... 2 Feb. 
 
 Belies (The). The Sunday In the Octave 
 of Ascension. 
 
 Besurrection of Jesus Christ. Uncer- 
 tain. MgT. Guerin says : ' II n y a 
 point de jour que Dieu n'ait fait, et 
 qui nereconnaisse ce grand ouvrier ' 
 (vol. xvl. p. GO). This fete is not the 
 same as Easter Day. 
 
 Seven Sorrows of Mary 1 Sept. 
 
 Shrove Tuesday. 
 
 Simon and Jude 28 Oct. 
 
 Stephen the first Martyr 20 Dec. 
 
 Stigmata of Francis of Assisi .. 17 Sept. 
 
 Thomas's Day (the shortest of the 
 year) 21 Dee. 
 
 Transfiguration (T/u') ... 6 Aug. 
 
 Trinity Sunday. The Sunday nest 
 after Whitsunday. 
 
 Vigils. (Those are numerous.) 
 
 Visitation of Mary to her cousin Eliza- 
 beth ... 2 July. 
 
 See ' Sundays ' and ' Saints' Days." 
 
 Holy Directing Synod (The). 
 A college of bishops established iu Eussia 
 
 by Peter the Great, having supreme con- 
 trol and judgment in all matters eccle- 
 siastical. The only appeal from this 
 synod was to the czar himself. 
 
 Holy Pair {The). A Scotch 
 custom of celebrating the eucharist in 
 the oj)en air. Burns has a poem on tlie 
 subject. This led to such immorality 
 that it was abolished. 
 
 Holy Ghost {Knights of the). 
 
 I. A Keopolitan Order, instituted by 
 Louis of Anjou, king of Naples, 1352. 
 
 II. A French Order, instituted 1198 
 at Montpellier by Comte Guy. In 1672 
 it was united to the Order of St. Lazarus. 
 
 III. A French military order instituted 
 (1.578) by Henri III., who was both born 
 and crowned on "Whitsunday. Kibbon, 
 blue moire'. Abolished in 1789 ; re-esta- 
 blished in 1815, and again abolished in 
 la30. 
 
 Holy Island. I. Lindisfame, about 
 eight miles from Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
 in the German Sea. Once tiie see of the 
 famous St. Cuthbert, but now in the 
 bishopric of Durham. 
 
 II. Ireland was so called at one time 
 from its numerous saints. 
 
 III. Guernsey was so called iu the 
 tenth century from the great number of 
 monks residing there. 
 
 IV. Riigen was SO called by the 
 Slavonic Varini. 
 
 Holy League {The). I. 1511- 
 1512. Between the pope (Julius II.), 
 Ferdinand of Aragon, Veiiice, and Switz- 
 erland, against Louis XII., to dispossess 
 him of Venice and drive him out of 
 Italy. Louis now placed a formidable 
 army under the command of Gaston de 
 Foix, his nephew, who gained three -vic- 
 tories over the league in as many months, 
 viz. at Bologna, at Brescia, and at 
 Ravenna. Li this last victory Gaston de 
 Foix was left dead on the field, and the 
 success of Louis terminated. 
 
 II. 1565. The league of Bayonne 
 {q.v.). 
 
 The Holy League was directed against Scotland 
 as well as against other heretical nations, and 
 how ready soever the Catholic princes n\ight bo 
 to avenge the death of the Catholic Mary, they 
 could not be supposed to entertain much zeal in 
 the cause of the Protestant James. — Sir W. Sco'i'T, 
 Uixl. 0/ Scotland, xxxvii. 
 
 III. 1576. The high Catholic party of 
 France, taking umbrage at the ' Paix de 
 Monsieur ' {q.v.), whicli gave the Protes- 
 
HOLY 
 
 HOLT 
 
 427 
 
 tants the free exercise of their religion 
 in every part of the kingdom except 
 Paris, formed themselves into a ' Holy 
 League ' in defence of the ' Holy Catholic 
 Church ' against the encroachmeuts of 
 the Huguenots. The objects of the 
 league were (1) to exterminate the Cal- 
 vinists ; (2) to shut up the king Henri 
 III. in a monastery; and (3) to crown 
 the due de Guise. The pope gave it his 
 sanction, but its true strength lay in 
 Felipe II. of Spain, who supported it 
 with both men and money. 
 
 Holy Maid of Kent {The). 
 Elizabeth Barton of Aldington, Kent, a 
 religious enthusiast, executed in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. She entered the 
 convent of St. Sepulchre, Canterbury, 
 and was then called ' The Nun of Kent.' 
 In 1531 the parish priest gave out that 
 the nun was inspired. Elizabeth Barton 
 raved against the divorce of Queen 
 Katharine, and threatened the king with 
 deposition and death. She was brought 
 before the Star Chamber, condemned, 
 and executed at Tyburn in 1534. 
 
 Holy Mother of the Russians. 
 
 Moscow; celebrated before its destruc- 
 tion for its number of churches and 
 religious houses. 
 
 Holy Mountain (The). Athos, 
 called by the Franks Monte Santo, and 
 by the Greeks 'Ayioi/ opo?, for its numer- 
 ous monasteries, convents, chapels, and 
 other sacred edifices. It is said that 
 above 8,000 monks reside on Mount 
 Athos. It rises abruptly from the sea 
 to the height of 6,849 feet. (Ahnost a 
 mile and a quarter.) 
 
 Holy Oflaee {The). The examina- 
 tion and extermination of heretics by 
 the Catholic Church. The Inquisition 
 was so called. The Holy Office existed 
 in A.D. 382, when Theodosius I. appointed 
 inquisitors to search out and punish 
 heretics, and the first person put to 
 death by them was Priscillianus of 
 Aragon in 385. The epoch of the 
 modern Inquisition was 1203, when Inno- 
 cent III. was pope ; but ' the modern 
 1 Spanish Inquisition ' dated from 1480, 
 [was suppressed in 1813, restored by 
 I Ferdinand VI. in 1814, and finally sup- 
 pressed in 1820. 
 
 Holy Peace {The), or 'Peace of 
 God,' 1035. An agreement of the 
 
 princes and barons to cease from feuds, 
 spoliation, and wars of aggression. 
 
 The priests read from the churches daily after 
 the gospel this bull : ' May they who refuse 
 to obey be accursed, and have their portion with 
 Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- 
 traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram who went 
 down alive into the pit. Jlay they be accursed in 
 the life which now is : and may their hope of sal- 
 vation, like the light of these candles, be putor.t." 
 So saying the lights were put out, and the people 
 said ' Amen.' In 1040 the Holy Peace was super- 
 seded by ' God's Truce ' (q.v.). 
 
 Holy Roman Empire {The). 
 The western part of the old Roman 
 empire, which was severed from the 
 eastern part in 800, and was given by the 
 pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned 
 ' Emperor of the Romans.' When 
 Charlemagne's empire was divided, Lud- 
 wig the German became kaiser ; but on 
 the death of Karl the Fat the title fell 
 into abeyance for 70 years. In 902 John 
 XII. gave the title to Otto I. the Great, 
 and changed it into ' The Holy Roman 
 Empire.' Francis II. renounced the titles 
 of king of the Romans and emperor of 
 the Romans in 1800, and Napoleon 
 added the Italian states to France 17 
 May, 1809. 
 
 Holy Sabbath {The). Sabbatum 
 Sanctum, the Saturday next before 
 Easter Sunday. 
 
 Holy Sea {The). 'A7101/ TreAayo?, the 
 Archipelago. This is D'Anville's ety- 
 mology (vol. i. p. 281). It is, however, as 
 old as .iEschylus and Plato. Vossius 
 says 'Aye? is a corruption of atyato?, 
 and that the Dorians called the bound- 
 ing waves atyes, goats. We call them 
 horses. 
 
 The fifty islands of the Holy Sea.— Gibbon, chap, 
 liii. 
 
 Holy Sepulchre {Defender and 
 Baron of the). Godfrey, first Latin king 
 of Jerusalem. He rejected the title of 
 king, and refused to wear a diadem 
 ' where Christ was crowned with thorns ' 
 (1061, 1099-1100). 
 
 Holy Sepulchre {Knights of the), 
 328. A military order founded by St. 
 Helena on the discovery of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. Revived by Godfrey of 
 Bouillon 17 July, 1099, again by Baldwin 
 in 1103, and confirmed lil4 by Pascal II. 
 
 Holy Union {The), ir09. A con- 
 federation organised at Wiirzburg of 
 Roman Catholics against the Protestants. 
 
428 
 
 HOLY 
 
 HOMER 
 
 The cotinter league was called the 
 ' Evangelical Union,' which was formed 
 in 1G08. 
 
 Holy Wars (T/je). The Crusades. 
 
 Holy Week. The last seven days 
 of Passion Week {q-v.), or the Great 
 "Week. It begins on Palm Sunday, and 
 ends with Holy Saturday (tlie day preced- 
 ing Easter Sunday). The 4tli day is Spy 
 Wednesday, the 5th Maundy Thursday, 
 the 6th Good Friday, and the last Holy 
 Saturday, or the Great Sabbath. See 
 ' Hebdomada Major.' 
 
 Holy Week has been called the Silent Week 
 (Hebd'oviada Muia), the Week of the Holy Passion 
 (Hebdomada Passbods), the Vacant 'iVec.k (Hcbdo- 
 viada Innt^ciosa), the Penitential Week (Ilcbdomiuia 
 PenitnitUilis); also Hebdomada Indulgentise, Heb- 
 domada Luctuosa, Hebdomada Nigra, and Hebdo- 
 
 Homage was either liege or simple. 
 ' Liege homage ' implied an obligation of 
 service to the lord. ' Simple homage ' 
 was a mere symbol of feudal dependence. 
 ViiiLARET, vol. xii. p. 82 ; vol. xv. p. 199. 
 Abolished in England 1660 (12 Car. II. 
 c. 24). 
 
 In liege homage the vassal, kneeling on both 
 his knees, and placing his two hands between 
 those of his lord, spoke thus : ' I confess myself 
 your man from this day forward to life and limb, 
 and to all earthly worship. Unto you will I be 
 true and leal, and will bear you faith for the lands 
 and tenements I shall hold of you.' Having thus 
 said, the king (without rising from his seat) bent 
 forwards and kissed him on the forehead and on 
 both cheeks. 
 
 Homburg {Synod of), 1526. The 
 First General Reformed Synod, pre- 
 ceding the Diet of Augsburg about four 
 years. It was convened by the Landgraf 
 of Hesse to consider an order for the 
 conduct of worship in conformity with 
 the new religious views. By order of 
 this synod a commission of ecclesiastics 
 and laymen was appointed to draw up a 
 directory for Divine worship and Christian 
 instruction on the base of Melanclitlion's 
 'Book of Visitation,' which formed the 
 ' First Confession of Faith ' of the reformed 
 church. 
 
 Home Rule Federation, 1884. 
 ' The objects of the Home Rule Federa- 
 tion of Great Britain were to organise 
 the Irish vote in the various constitu- 
 encies of Great Britain, and to influence 
 the elections by the Irish vote.' Hor 
 Secretary Frank Hugh O'Donnell. Alfred 
 Henry Ruegg counsel for O'Donnell in 
 the ' Parnellism and Crime ' libel case, 
 2 July 1888 {q.v.). 
 
 Home Kule League, 1870. Pro- 
 jected by Mr. Butt, who stoutly op- 
 posed the repeal of the Union, but 
 agitated for an Irish parliament which 
 should have no power to touch upon 
 imperial matters, but should be em- 
 powered to deal with matters of Ireland 
 of a purely local character. On the death 
 of Mr. Butt in 1879 his scheme passed 
 into the hands of the Land League, and 
 their watchword ' Ireland for the Irish * 
 meant separation from Great Britain. 
 The term Home Rule survived the death 
 of Mr. Butt, and in 1886 Mr. Gladstone, 
 then prime minister, brought in a bill 
 to give Ireland Home Rule, and ex- 
 clude Irish members from Westminster. 
 The measure broke up the great Whig 
 party under the leadership of Lord 
 Hartington, supported by Mr. Chamber- 
 lain (a Radical), Mr. Goschen, and others, 
 who called themselves Unionists, and 
 joined the great Tory party under the 
 government of Lord Salisbury. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Mr. Gladstone's measure was to give to Ireland 
 ' effective self-government in affairs properly and 
 exclusively Irish, subject to the supremacy of the 
 Imperial parliament.' In fact, it was Mr. Butt's 
 scheme. 
 
 ' The objects of the Home Rule League were to 
 obtain for Ireland the right and privilege of 
 managing its own affairs by a parliament as- 
 sembled in Ireland, and to secure for the Irish 
 parliament the right of legislating and regulat- 
 ing all matters relating to the internal affairs of 
 Ireland.'— Alfred Henry Rufgg, counsel for 
 OUonnsU, July 2, 1688 ('Parnellism and Crime' 
 libel case). 
 
 *,* Imperium in imperio is proverbially a dan- 
 gerous hazard. 
 
 Homer, Homeros. Everyone knows 
 that it is somewhat doubtful if Homeros 
 is a proper name or not. It is said that 
 the Iliad and Odyssey were not continu- 
 ous poems by one man, but ancient lays 
 welded together under the direction of 
 Pisistratos. It is not a little remarkable 
 that the Greek word Homeros [o/uiyjpo?] 
 means united or joined together. The 
 great inequality of the poems has also 
 been noticed by critics. Thus the inter- 
 view between Priam and Achilles is ad- 
 mirable, but the death of Hector is con- 
 temptible, and the reconciliation of Aga- 
 memnon and Achilles, which ought to 
 have exhibited magnanimity and gene- 
 rosity, is absolutely puerile. 
 
 Homer and Virgil of Portugal 
 
 {The). Luis de Camoens (1522-1579), 
 author of ' The Lusiads,' i.e. the Lusi- 
 tanians or Portuguese ; a poetic history 
 
HOMER 
 
 HOMME 
 
 429 
 
 of the people, the hero being Vasco da 
 Garaa. 
 
 The subject of the Luslads resembles that of 
 the /Eneid, but bears no resemblance to the epics 
 of Homer. 
 
 Homer {The British). Milton, 1608- 
 1674. 
 
 No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; 
 
 To Britain let the nations homage pn\- : 
 She felt a Homer's fire in Milton's sir lins, 
 
 A Pindar s rapture in the lyre of Griiy. 
 
 Westminster Abbey (Grays Blonument). 
 
 momev {The Keltic). Ossian,sonof 
 Fingal king of Morven. 
 
 Homer [The Oriental). Firdusi 
 (940-1020). See below, ' Homer of Kho- 
 rasan.* 
 
 Homer {The Prose). Henry Fielding 
 the novelist, called by Byron 'The Prose 
 Homer of Human Nature ' (1707-1701). 
 
 Homer {The Scottish). William 
 Wilkie, author of 'The Epigoniad' (1721- 
 
 1772). 
 
 Homer of Ferra'ra {The). ' Omero 
 Ferraretie.' Ariosto is so called by Tasso 
 (1474-1533). 
 
 Homer of Khorasan {The). Abul 
 Casim Firdusi (940-1020), author of 
 * Shah Nameh,' an historical romance of 
 the Kings of Persia (from Kayomurz to 
 Yezdijird), begun by Dukiki, -who was 
 assassinated when he had written only 
 1,000 lines. It was the labour of 30 years. 
 The chief characters in this poem are Rustem 
 (the Persian Achilles); Feridun, the model king; 
 Zohak, the cruel and impious tyrant ; Kavah the 
 blacksmith, an intrepid patriot, whose leather 
 apron, set with jewels, became the banner of the 
 empire till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. The 
 poem runs to 120,000 lines. The characters are bold 
 and various, the diction polished and noble, the 
 narrative especially perspicuous, and individual 
 parts are of surpassing beauty. 
 
 Homer of Modern Days {The). 
 Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). 
 
 Homer of Persia {The). Firdusi, 
 941-1020. See ' Homer of Kliorasan.' 
 
 Homer of Philosophers {The). 
 Plato (B.C. 429-347). 
 
 Homer of our Dramatic Poets. 
 
 So Shakespeare (1564-1616) is called by 
 Dryden. 
 
 Shakespeare was the Homer or father of our 
 dramatic poets ; Jonson was the Virgil. I admire 
 rare Ben, but I love Shakespeare.— Dkyden. 
 
 Homer of the Franks {The). 
 
 Angilbert, who died 814, was so called 
 by Charlemagne. 
 
 Homer of the French Drama. 
 
 Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) is so called 
 by Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Hom.er the Younger. PhiHscos 
 of Corey ra, one of the seven poets of 
 Alexandria, who, in the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphos, formed the Tragic Pleiad. 
 
 His six contemporary poets were Lycophron, 
 Thoocritos, Aratos, Kicander, Apollonios, and 
 Calli machos. 
 
 Home'rides (4 syl.), o/mrjpiSrj?. Those 
 poets who succeeded Homer and eitli-r 
 followed his style or took analogous sub- 
 jects to the Iliad and Odyssey. Also 
 called ' Cyclic Poets ' {q.v.). 
 
 Homerites (3 syl.). A people of 
 ancient Arabia dwelling in Arabia Felix. 
 Gibbon (ch. 1.) says the first silk veil of 
 the Caaba or temple of Mecca was an 
 offering by a pious king of the Homerites 
 700 years before the birth of Mahomet. 
 
 Ho'meromas'tix. Zoilos of Am- 
 phipolis (B.C. 259-336). So called for his 
 caustic criticism on Homer. 
 
 Homil'.a'rium. A collection of 
 homilies. Fifty homilies of the Vener- 
 able Bede in general use for a long time. 
 The deacon Paul Warnefried, by the 
 command of Charlemagne, compiled into 
 a volume homilies for every Sunday in 
 the year (8th cent.) ; it was printed at 
 Speyer in 1482, and again at Cologne in 
 1557. A collection of English homilies 
 in verse was composed in the 13tli cent. 
 It contained a sermon for every Sunday 
 and every festival throughout the year. 
 It is still extant in MS., and a part of it 
 was published by Mr. Small, librarian 
 to the University of Edinburgh. See 
 ' Homilies.' 
 
 Homilies (T/ie). Vol. i. (1547). On 
 ' Salvation,' on ' Faith,' and on ' Good 
 Works ' are attributed to Cranmer ; that 
 on ' Brawling and Contention ' is Lati- 
 mer's, as appears by internal evidence ; 
 that on ' Adultery ' is by Tliomas Becon, 
 one of Cranmer's chaplains; that on 
 ' The Misery of Mankind ' is ascribed to 
 Bonner; of the rest nothing is known. 
 Vol. ii. published 1562; thought to be 
 by Bishop Jewell. 
 
 Some think Latimer was the author of the 
 homilies on the ' Nativity ' and on ' Whit- 
 Suuday.' 
 
 Homme du Lit de Fer {L'). 
 Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, 
 
430 
 
 HOMEOPATHY 
 
 HONORAEY 
 
 fourth son of the Citizen King (Louis 
 PhiHppe of France), born 1822, died *. 
 Pronounce Horn deh leed-fair. 
 
 Homoeopathy {The Creator of). 
 Hahnemann (1755-1843). That is, the art 
 of curing diseases by medicines wliich 
 in healthy bodies would produce like 
 diseases. His motto is Similia siviili- 
 hus curantur, or ' Like cures like.' 
 
 Homoi'an theological party allied 
 to the Arians, before 359, founded by 
 Acacius, bishop of Cesarea. These Chris- 
 tians were called ' Acacians,' from their 
 founder. 
 
 Homoi-OUsion means ' of a similar 
 nature, essence, or state.' Ho^no-ousion 
 {q.v.) means ' of equal essence or consub- 
 stantiate.' Applied to the nature of 
 Christ, what is called the orthodox faith 
 is that He is honio-ousios or consubstan- 
 tiate with the Father. The semi-Arians 
 maintain that He is only homoi-ousios 
 or of similar essence, while strict Arians 
 affirm He is neither one nor the other. 
 
 Arius declared that Jesus Christ might be homoi- 
 ousios (of a similar nature) to the Father ; but 
 could not be homo-ousios (of the same substance). 
 
 Homo-ous'ion {The). Consub- 
 stantial, of the same nature. According 
 to Aristotle, the stars are homo-ousian 
 to each other ; but the word is mainly 
 connected with a theological controversy 
 of the 4th cent, between Arius and 
 Athanasius. The Arians were homoi- 
 ousians, the Athanasians were homo- 
 ousians. That is, the Arians believed 
 the nature of Jesus Christ to be god-like, 
 but not divine; the Athanasians be- 
 lieved it to be very God of very God. As 
 party words the ' orthodox ' were homo- 
 ousians, the non-orthodox were homoi^ 
 ousians. 
 
 Five times was Athanasius expelled from his 
 (archicpiscopal) throne, and almost every pro- 
 vince of the Roman empire was witness to his 
 sufEerings in the cause of Homo-ousion.— Gibbon, 
 xxi. 
 
 Hone {William), 1817. The trial of 
 William Hone for publishing parodies on 
 Scripture or church subjects was, in 
 reality, an attempt to put down the free 
 expression of political opinions. His 
 first trial was 18 Dec. before Mr. Justice 
 Abbot, and the charge was that Hone 
 had published parodies on the Catechism, 
 the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Com- 
 
 mandments. Hone showed that the editor 
 of ' Blaclcwood's Magazine ' had parodied 
 part of Ezekiel ; that Martin Luther had 
 parodied the 1st Psalm ; that Bishop 
 Latimer, Dr. Boys dean of Canterbury, 
 the author of the ' Rolliad,' and Mr. 
 Canning were parodists, but were never 
 accused of blasphemy. The j ury acquitted 
 Hone. The second trial was on 19 Dec, 
 before Lord Ellenborough, and the charge 
 was a parody on the Litany. Hone fol- 
 lowed the same line of defence and was 
 again acquitted. The third trial was 
 20 Dec, for a parody on the Athanasian 
 Creed. Hone showed that Lord Ellen- 
 borough's own father, the bishops War- 
 burton and Tillotson, with hosts of others, 
 dissented from this creed, and he was 
 again acquitted. So ended this govern- 
 ment attempt to gag the press. 
 
 There is but little wit and little worth in these 
 literary trifles, which often olfend against ' good 
 taste • ; but the trials were an outrage on the 
 liberty of free thought. 
 
 Honest Lawyer {The). The 
 tablet to Edward Trelawny, in Pelynt 
 Church, ends with these two lines : — 
 
 Hero lyes an honest lawyer, wot you what, 
 A thing for all the world to wonder at. 
 
 (Died 7 June, 1(530). 
 
 In St. Dunstan's in the West is a tablet to 
 Hobson Judkins ' the honest solicitor,' who died 
 30 June, 1812. 
 
 Honest Man {The). A man of 
 Burton (name unknown), an agent in 
 1586 of Throckmorton, Gifford, and Wal- 
 singham, and spy upon Mary queen of 
 Scots. 
 
 ' The honest man ' was in communication with 
 the brewer who supplied the castle of Chartley 
 with beer, and agreed to carry letters to and from 
 Mary. Those intended for Mary were enclosed in 
 a water-tight bottle, which floated inside the 
 beer-cask : the answers were deposited in a hole 
 in the castle wall, where they were covered by a 
 loose stone. The brewer and ' the honest man ' 
 were both in the pay of Walsingham. The letters 
 were all broken open and read, after which they 
 were resealed and despatched to their address. — 
 HowiTT, History of England, ii. p. 509, &c. 
 
 Honorary Canons and honorary 
 
 prebends, 1838 — that is, canons or pre- 
 bends without any stipend — were created 
 by what is called the ' Oxford Movement ' 
 {q.v.). 'Canon' is now used as an or- 
 dinary title of address, as ' Canon A or 
 B,' and on letters ' The Rev. Canon A or 
 B.' Each bishop has the power of con- 
 ferring a certain number of these honor- 
 ary titles to clergymen within his diocese. 
 Generally fovir. 
 
HONORIANS 
 
 II. Black with silk lining. 
 
 
 Hood 
 
 Lining 
 
 
 
 velvet 
 
 BKck 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Glasgow 
 Edinburgh 
 
 cloth. 
 
 Blue 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 silk 
 
 „ dark 
 
 (•white 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 
 fur border) 
 
 LL.B. 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 velvet 
 
 Gold-coloured 
 
 D.Sc. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 cloth 
 
 Green 
 
 „ (white fur 
 
 D.Sc. 
 
 Edinburghi 
 
 
 border) 
 
 B.Sc. 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 silk 
 
 Puce 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Lampeter 
 
 „ 
 
 Purple ... .„ 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Durham 
 
 „ 
 
 ,,, ,,, 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Glasgow 
 Edinburgh 
 
 cloth 
 
 <• ». M. 
 
 D.D. 
 
 silk 
 
 Bed ... ^ ... 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 
 „ dark ... ... 
 
 U.A. 
 
 Oxford 
 
 
 
 LL.B. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 velvet 
 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 silk 
 
 ;: hekther-beU" 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 
 Eiisset 
 
 M.A. 
 
 London 
 
 ' 
 
 Wliite ... _ 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Cambridgo 
 
 » 
 
 Yellow „. ^ 
 
 B.Sc. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Blue 
 
 HOOD. 
 
 Pale blue silk hood 
 (■with white fur 
 
 
 
 
 border) B.C.C. or LL.D. 
 
 Oxford 
 
 PUBPLE HOODS. 
 
 
 
 Hood 
 
 Lining 
 
 
 
 cloth 
 
 Blue (pale) 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 silk 
 
 (bound 
 
 
 
 
 •with white fur) 
 
 B.C.L 
 
 Durham 
 
 " 
 
 Blue (pale) (bor- 
 dered with white 
 
 
 
 
 fur) 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 cloth 
 
 White ... ... 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 SCABI 
 
 ^ET HOODS. 
 
 
 
 Hood 
 
 Lining 
 
 
 
 cloth 
 
 Black „. 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Oxford 
 
 ,1 
 
 Blue ... „. 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 London 
 
 
 Crimson 
 
 D.C.L 
 
 Oxford 
 
 
 Gold-coloured 
 
 D.Sc. 
 
 London 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pink D.D.orLL.D 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 cashmere 
 
 Purple 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Durham 
 
 cloth 
 
 Bussot 
 
 D.Liii. 
 
 London 
 
 cloth or 
 
 White satin 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 St. Andrews 
 
 silk 
 
 
 
 
 cashmere 
 
 White silk 
 
 D.O.L. Durham 
 
 ViOLI 
 
 3T HOODS. 
 
 
 
 cashmei-e 
 
 -WTiite satin 
 
 D.D. 
 
 St. Andrews 
 
 silk \ 
 
 White sUk 
 
 B.D. 
 
 St. Andre-R's 
 
 Hono'r^"ans (The), a.d. 408. Bar- 
 barian auxiliaries in Gaul and Britain, 
 consisting of two bands of Scots or Atta- 
 cotti, two of Moors, two of Marcomanni, 
 Ascarii, Gallicani, and Victores. So 
 named from Honorius the emperor. 
 
 Honourable. The younger sons of 
 earls, and all the children of viscounts 
 and barons. 
 
 ' The Right Honourable ' is added to 
 the title of peers and peeresses below a 
 marquis. All the younger sons of dukes 
 and marquises, all privy councillors and 
 ex-privy councillors, all the three lord 
 mayors (London, York, and Dublin) are 
 so styled. 
 
 ' The Most Honourable ' is added to 
 the title of a marquis and marchioness. 
 Not ' Most Noble.' 
 
 Dukes and archbishops are styled ' His Grace," 
 and addressed as ' Your Grace.' 
 
 Honours of Scotland (The). 
 Tlie Scotch regalia, consisting of the 
 crown, sceptre, and sword of state, re- 
 garded by the Scotch with superstitious 
 veneration. 
 
 Honours ofWar (TJie). The pri- 
 ■vilege accorded to a garrison surrender- 
 ing after a very brave defence. It pev- 
 mits them to carry away their arms, and 
 in some cases to march out with drums 
 beating and colours flying. 
 
 Honveds {The), or ' Defenders of 
 home,' 1848-1849. Ten battalions of 
 Hungarian insurgents who organised 
 themselves for the defence of house and 
 home. 
 
 Hoods. As a badge. Red hoods 
 the party badge of Paris. Blue hoods 
 the party badge of Navarre. Red and 
 blue tHe party badge of Charles [V.] when 
 dauphin. White hoods the party badge 
 of the Burgundians. 
 
 Hoods. See Chaperons. 
 
 Hoods. I. Black without lining. 
 
 Hood 
 
 tilk 
 Hlk 
 
 corded 
 
 silk 
 stuff 
 
 Trimmed 
 Black silk ... 
 
 Blue 
 
 Gold coloured 
 Mauve 
 Purple 
 Kusset-brown 
 
 B.D. Oxford or 
 
 Camlridg 
 LL.B. London 
 B.Sc. London 
 A.K.C. London 
 L.Th. Durham 
 B.X. London 
 
 Trimnu'd with white fur 
 narrow B.A. 
 
 Oxford 
 Cambridge 
 
 *,* Hoods for medical, musical, civil engmeer- 
 ing, &c. not included. 
 
 Hook-and-Eye-ers. A branch of 
 the strict Mennonites who split off from 
 the general body in 1554. So called 
 because they employed hooks-and-eyes 
 in their dress instead of buttons. See 
 Mennonites. 
 
 Hope Professorship (The) of 
 Zoology, in Oxford University. Founded 
 by the Rev. Frederick William Hope of 
 Christ Church, 1861. 
 
 Hopkins Prize {The). For mathe- 
 matico-physical or mathematico-experi- 
 mental science. Founded in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge in memory of W. 
 
432 
 
 HOEACE 
 
 HOSPITALLERS 
 
 Hopkins, and adjudged every tliree years. 
 First adjudged in 1867. 
 
 Horace of France {The). Be'- 
 ranger (1780-1857). He was called ' The 
 Poet of St. Honorc,' from the street in 
 which he lived, and ' The French Burns.' 
 
 The English Horace. I, Ben Jonson 
 (1574-1037) is so called by Dekker the 
 dramatist. 
 
 II, Cowley (1618-1667) is prepos- 
 terously called by George duke of Buck- 
 ingham ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil 
 of England.' 
 
 The French Horace. Jean Macrinus 
 or Salmon (1490-1557). 
 
 The Portuguese Horace, Antonio Fer- 
 reira (1528-1569). 
 
 The Spanish Horace, Lupercio Argen- 
 sola and also his brother Bartolome are 
 both so called. 
 
 Horatius Codes of the Horn. 
 
 John Haring, who defended a dyke against 
 1,000 Spaniards, till all the men under the 
 governor Sonoy, who were put to flight, 
 had made good their escape. After which 
 he threw himself into the sea and effected 
 his escape untouched by either spear or 
 gun, 
 
 Horatius Codes of the Tyrol. 
 
 Alexander Davy Dumas, father of the 
 novelist. So called because in 1798, while 
 in Dumouriez's army, he alone defended 
 at Brixen the passage of a bridge on 
 which depended the success of the day. 
 
 Horn Fair. An annual fair granted 
 by Henry III. (1268) to Charlton in Kent, 
 for three days, viz. the eve, the day, and 
 the morrow of Trinity, for the sale of 
 winding horns, horn cups, and other 
 vessels or implements made of horn. 
 This fair was abolished in 1872. At 
 horn fair it was usual for all persons to 
 wear some horn ornament, generally on 
 the headgear. 
 
 Horned-Cattle Session {The\ 
 1770. So called because the fiiist and 
 chief item of the king's speech was in 
 allusion to a murrain among horned 
 cattle, though questions of enormous 
 magnitude required attention. Earl 
 Chatham in his speech drew a dismal 
 picture of the domestic condition and 
 .foreign relations of the country. By the 
 1 abandonment of Prussia the nation was 
 without an ally. The internal affairs 
 were even worse. The people were partly 
 
 starving and wholly murmuring. John 
 Wilkes was invading the ancient insti- 
 tutions, Spitalfields was in semi-rebellion, 
 Ireland was netted with Whiteboys, 
 Cork-boys, Levellers, and Hearts of 
 Steel ; America was on the verge of war ; 
 and yet, as Junius says, the ministers 
 make the king a half-ruined grazier 
 rather than the monarch of a vast 
 empire. 
 
 Horse decides who is to be 
 
 king of Persia [A). Cambyses was 
 followed on the throne of Persia by 
 Smerdis the pretender, put forward by 
 the Magi, but he was put to death by 
 Otanes. Otanes then called a council of 
 the chief men to determine on a suc- 
 cessor, and agreed to meet on horseback 
 at sunrise next morning, and he whose 
 horse neighed first they agreed should 
 be king. When Shares, the groom of 
 Darius Hystaspes, heard this he took a 
 mare to the spot the preceding evening, 
 and showed it to his master's horse, 
 which of course neighed next morning 
 as soon as it came to the spot. So 
 Darius was elected king. 
 
 Horsenails {Counting). By the City 
 officers at Westminster Hall. ' Walter 
 le Brun, farrier, in the Strand, was to 
 have a piece of ground in the parish of 
 St. Clement to place a forge there, for the 
 nominal sum of 6 horseshoes. This rent 
 was paid every year to the Exchequer 
 . . . and it is still rendered at the Ex- 
 chequer by the mayor and citizens of 
 London, to whom in process of time the 
 said piece of ground was granted ' (Blount, " 
 ' Ancient Tenures,' 1815). 
 
 In the reign of Edward I. Walter Marescallus 
 paid at the crwevi lapiclcam, six horseshoes with 
 nails for a certain building which he held of the 
 king in capite opposite the stone cross. 
 
 A similar entry occurs in the 15 Edw. II. &o. 
 
 Hospit'allers, or ' Knights Hospit- 
 allers,' or * Knights of St. John of Jeru- 
 lem,' or ' Knights of Malta,' 
 1050, established to protect 
 pilgrims in the Holy Laud, 
 Confirmed by statute in 11 18. 
 They made themselves mas- 
 ters of the Isle of Ejliodes 
 in 1310, but were driven from the island 
 by the Turks in 1522, and established 
 themselves at Malta in 1530. Their dress 
 is black, with a white cross of eight points. 
 Established in England in 1100. Sup- 
 pressed in England in 1540, in France 
 
HOSPITALLERS 
 
 HOTEL 
 
 483 
 
 1792. Dispersedon the capture of Malta 
 by Napoleon I. in 1798. 
 
 Called Hospitallers because they built at Jeru- 
 Balem an hospital for the entertainment of 
 pilgrims. The order still exists, and its flag is 
 Btill seen in Mediterranean commerce. 
 
 Hospitallers of St. Lazarus, 
 
 1119. A religious military order estab- 
 lished at Jerusalem by Crusaders, and 
 confirmed, in 1255, by the Pope. Its 
 special duty was to take charge of lepers. 
 Introduced into France by Louis VII., 
 but in 1490 united in Italy to the order 
 of the Knights of Malta ; in Savoy (1572) 
 to the Knights of St. Maurice ; and in 
 France (lti93) to the Knights of St. 
 Michel. There were 100 chevaliers, who 
 might both marry and hold property. 
 Their medallion was a cross with eight 
 points, alternately green and purple, and 
 adorned with images of the Virgin Mary 
 and St. Lazarus. 
 
 Hospitals and Asylums. We 
 have mention of hospitals in Athens five 
 ce^ituries before the Christian era, and 
 dispensaries long before that time sup- 
 ported by the state. 
 
 The Romans had public physicians at 
 a very early date. 
 
 The ancient Mexicans had hospitals iu 
 all their principal cities. 
 
 Lidia, however, seems to be the nursery 
 of hospitals. King Asoka, B.C. 825, com- 
 manded that hospitals should be built for 
 the poor, sick, and distressed, at each of 
 the four gates of Patna, and throughout his 
 whole empire. FaHian,a Chinese pilgrim 
 (a.d. 400), says : ' The nobles and land- 
 lords founded hospitals for the poor in all 
 places, and thither the poor, the cripple, 
 and diseased might freely repair. They 
 receive every kind of help gratuitously. 
 Physicians attend to their diseases, and 
 order them medicine, food, and drink, 
 according to their judgment. Even when 
 cured they may remain till it is con- 
 venient for them to retire.' 
 
 The first Christian hospital was built 
 by a Roman lady named Fabiola, in the 
 4th cent. 
 
 In regard to asylums : The Egyptians 
 and Greeks took charge of them in their 
 temples. The Mohammedans built 
 asylums for the insane at Fez in the 7th 
 cent. The first Christian asylum was 
 built at Valencia, in Spain, a.d. 1409. 
 
 Hospodar, 13th cent. The sove- 
 reigns of Walachia and of Moldavia. In 
 19 
 
 1391 the hospodar of Walachia fell into 
 the dependence of the Turks, and in 
 1536 the hospodar of Moldavia did the 
 same, and the sultan nominated the 
 hospodar. In 1821 the hospodars were 
 nominated by the boi'ards under the inves- 
 titure of the Porte. In 1829 the Hospodar 
 of the Danubian Principalities was ap- 
 pointed for life by the Treaty of Adria- 
 nople. Sifice 1861 these provinces have 
 formed (with the Dobrudscha) the king- 
 dom of Roumania. 
 
 Host of Israel (The), 1681. The 
 armed Cameronians so styled themselves. 
 They took up arms to dethrone Charles 
 II. and set aside James his brother. 
 
 Hostings [of the lord deputies of 
 Ireland]. Circuits or progresses for the 
 display of military force in terrorem. 
 They were more precautionary than 
 hostile. In some a collision took place, 
 but very many were mere displays or 
 military progressesthrough the Pale (g-.v.). 
 Sometimes a hosting was made into the 
 territory of a rebellious Irish chief. 
 
 Hot Gospeller {The). Edward 
 UnderhiU of Worcestershire, an ardent 
 Protestant, but yet a devoted partisan of 
 Queen Mary. 
 
 Hot Potatoes, 1782. So the 
 British sailors called the red-hot balls 
 fired from Gibraltar into the combined 
 French and Spanish fleet sent to take 
 the Rock from the English. This magni- 
 ficent defence by Gen. Elliot is wholly 
 without a parallel in all history, and the 
 humanity of Capt. Curtis, in saving 250 
 Spaniards at the peril of his life, is an 
 achievement wliich every Englishman 
 must be proud of. 
 
 The girl Campen, daughter of a Tyrolese tailor, 
 sent with a load of hay while the Bavarians and 
 French were fighting against Hofer, kept crying 
 ' Come on ! Come on with ye ! Who cares for 
 Bavarian dumplings ? ' 
 
 H6tel Rambouillet (i')- Very 
 
 influential soirees held at the chateau of 
 Charles d'Angennes marquis of Ram- 
 bouillet, who married (in 1600) Catherine 
 de Vivonne. Their daughter was the 
 celebrated Julie [i.e. Julie Lucie d'An- 
 gennes] who married the Due de Mon- 
 tausier. It was Julie who presided over 
 these soirees, which were attended by 
 Mme. de Sevigne and Mme. de Lafayette. 
 Pronounce Lo-tel liham-boo-yen. 
 
 F F 
 
134 
 
 HOUGHEKS 
 
 HUGH 
 
 Hougliers, 1785. Irish Volunteers 
 belonging to the ' Aggregate Bodies ' 
 {q.v.), who went about maiming the sol- 
 diers and other persons obnoxious to 
 them. The platform was universal suf- 
 frage. The introduction of the question 
 of Catholic disabilities broke up the asso- 
 ciations, and, as Plowden says, ' they dis- 
 appeared like a bubble on the face of a 
 stream.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
 (Houghers, pronounce hok'-hers. 
 
 House of Congregation {The), 
 in Oxford University, consists of all 
 masters of arts and doctors of every 
 faculty of less than two years' standing. 
 Called Necessario Begentes. Heads of 
 colleges, masters of schools, and deans 
 of colleges are called Begentes ad j^laci- 
 tum. Duties are ahnost entirely confined 
 to granting degrees and the appointment 
 of public examiners. In Cambridge 
 University ' The Electoral Roll ' corre- 
 sponds in a great measure with the Ox- 
 ford House of Congregation. 
 
 House of Convocation (The), in 
 Oxford University, consists of all persons 
 who have taken the degree of M.x\. or 
 of doctor, provided their names remain 
 on the boards of their college. All the 
 business of the university as a corporate 
 body is transacted by Convocation, and 
 no statute is binding till it has received 
 the assent of this house. It also confers 
 honorary degrees and degrees of diploma, 
 affixes the common seal to all documents, 
 and elects all offices in the gift of the 
 university. No proposition of legislation 
 originates in this house, nor can it amend 
 any proposition submitted to it; it can 
 only accept or reject. The Council of 
 the Senate in Cambridge corresponds to 
 the Oxford ' House of Convocation.' 
 
 House of Keys {The), in the Isle 
 of Man, consists of twenty-four represen- 
 tatives formerly selected by their own 
 body, vacancies being filled up by the 
 House presenting to the governor ' two of 
 the oldest and worthiest men of the land,' 
 one of whom the governor nominates, and 
 he takes office for life. But since 1866 
 they have been elected by the people 
 (male and female freeholders voting). 
 
 The civil government of the island is vested in 
 three estates : the king or queen in council, the 
 governor and council, and the House of Keys. 
 The latter two constitute a court of Tynwald. To 
 the ' Keys ' or wardens all doubtful and important 
 matters of law are referred. 
 
 Houses of Parliament {The 
 Burning of the), 16 Oct., 1884 (Will. IV.). 
 Caused by overheating the flues with old 
 tallies with which the fires were lighted. 
 
 Household Troops {The). Those 
 troops whose especial duty it is to attend 
 the sovereign and to guard the metro- 
 polis. They are the 1st and 2nd Life- 
 guards, the Royal Horse-guards, and the 
 three infantry regiments called the 
 Grenadiers, the Coldstream Guards, and 
 the Scots Fusiliers. 
 
 Howard {Sister). So Queen Caro- 
 line used to call Mrs. Howard (after- 
 wards countess of Suffolk), mistress of 
 George II. She even employed ' Sister 
 Howard' at her toilet, and otherwise 
 about her person. 
 
 Howard of Russia {The). John 
 Venning. 
 
 Howard-Arundel Collection 
 
 {The), 1831. In the MS. department of 
 the British Museum, and consisting of 
 about 600 volumes of interest in almost 
 every branch of learning, especially con- 
 nected with the history and language of 
 our own country. 
 
 Hubert {Knights of St.), 1414. A 
 military order of Bavaria founded by 
 Guerhard duke of Juliers. Revived in 
 1709 by the Elector Palatine. 
 
 Hubertsburg {Treatj/ of), 15 Feb., 
 1763. A treaty of peace at the close of 
 the Seven Years' war between the 
 Kaiser, Prussia, and Saxony. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company (1670). 
 A corporation chartered by Chai'les II. 
 It consisted at first of Prince Rupert and 
 certain specified associates, who were 
 invested with the absolute proprietorship 
 of ' Rupert's Land,' which consisted of 
 all the regions then discovered and here- 
 after to be discovered within the entrance 
 of Hudson's Bay. The great traffic of 
 the company was in beaver furs. In 
 1783 was formed the North-west Com- 
 pany of Montreal, which in 1821 coalesced 
 with the Hudson's Bay Company. Sur- 
 rendered to the croAvn in 1808, and ceded 
 to the Dominion of Canada in 1869. 
 
 It still exists as a commercial corporation. 
 
 Hugh "Wolf, or ' Hugh Lupus.' 
 Hugh d'Avranches, a near relative of 
 the Conqueror. His device was a wolf'a 
 
HUGUENOTS 
 
 HUNDRED 
 
 head, and William gave to his kinsman 
 almost all Cheshire. 
 
 Huguenots (U-gen-oze, g hard). 
 Members of the reformed church of 
 France, as Protestants are members of 
 the reformed church of Germany, Eng- 
 land, America, and other countries. The 
 Huguenots are called ' French Calvinists.' 
 
 Les uns fontderiver ce nomd'un certain Hugiws 
 [Hugon], chef dun parti religieux et politique a 
 Geneve ; les autres, avec plus de raison. de 
 Tallemand EjVfflreno.ssrwCassocies par serment), nom 
 donne d'abord aux habitants de Geneve souleves 
 et ligues contre le due de Savoie.— Bouillet. 
 
 Another derivation is Hugon, a gate in Tours, 
 near which, it is said, the Huguenots assembled. 
 'Les huguenots avoicnt pris leur nom a cause de 
 la tour Hugon [in Tours] ou ils B'assemblaient.— 
 D'AUBIGNE, Hist. i. 96. 
 
 Hul'sean Lecturer or Chris- 
 tian Preacher {The). In the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, 1789, established 
 by the Rev. John Hulse of St. Jolm's 
 College. The subject to be on the evi- 
 dence for revealed religion and exegesis 
 of obscure texts. Four sermons. 
 
 Hul'sean Prize {The). For an 
 essay on miracles for any member of 
 the University of Cambridge under the 
 degree of M.A. Value between 70Z. and 
 80/. annvTally. Founded by the Rev. 
 John Hulse of St. John's College, 1789. 
 See ' Reg. Prof, of Divinity.' 
 
 Hul'sean Professor of Divinity 
 
 {The). In the University of Cambridge, 
 1728. So called because it was endov/ed 
 by eight-tenths of 1,000Z. left by the Rev. 
 John Hulse of St, John's College. The 
 professor must print and publish six 
 lectures in the course of every six years. 
 Till 1860 the Hulsean Professor was 
 called the Christian Advocate. See 
 ' Regius Professorship of Divinity.' 
 
 The 1,000/. has to be divided thus: one part to 
 maintain two scholars at St. John's College ; 
 another part to found a prize for dissertation ; 
 a third part to support the office of Christian 
 Advocate ; and the fourth part to support the 
 Hulsean Lecturer or Christian Preacher. 
 
 Hu'manistS, 16th cent. A literary 
 set which devoted themselves to the cul- 
 tivation of classical literature {litercB 
 hmnariiores). They not only set them- 
 selves in opposition to classical professors, 
 they also wanted to reform theology. 
 
 Humanita'rians. I. Those Chris- 
 tians who deny the divinity of Christ. 
 
 The primitive Ebionites (4 syl.) and the Cerin- 
 thians were Humanitarians, but not the Arians. 
 
 n. The disciples of St. Simon, who 
 believe in the perfectibility of human 
 
 nature, and ignore the dependence of 
 man upon supernatural aid. 
 
 Humanity Martin. Richard Mar- 
 tin, of Ballinabench Castle, M.P. for 
 Galway, so called from the Martin Act 
 (18'22) for the prevention of cruelty to 
 animals (1754- ). 
 
 If all had been like me, in fact, 
 There'd been no need for Martin's Act. 
 // / had a donkey that tcouldn't go. 
 
 Humble Petition and Advice 
 
 {The), 1656. A petition from parliament 
 entreating the lord protector to take a 
 royal title. A blank was left in the peti- 
 tion for the exact designation, which was 
 ultimately filled up with the word ' Pro- 
 tector.' 
 
 Humble Representation {The), 
 1647. After Charles I. fell into the hands 
 of Cornet Joyce, the army presented to 
 the parliament an ' humble representa- 
 tion,' stating : ' We desire a settlement of 
 the peace of the kingdom, and of the 
 liberties of the subjects. "We desire no 
 change in the civil government, but we 
 demand toleration in religion. We de- 
 mand the repeal of all acts enforcing the 
 use of the prayer-book, attendance at 
 church, and the enforcement of the cove- 
 nant. We ask for triennial parliaments, 
 the reform of the franchise, and the re. 
 adjustment of taxes.' These petitions, 
 with a simplification of law proceedings, 
 constituted the ' Humble Representation.' 
 Charles, however, resisted. 
 
 Hume, Mr. Hume's motion carried 
 without a division, 16 Oct., 1834, by the 
 utter destruction of the two houses of 
 parliament by fire. Mr. Hume had been 
 noted for his efforts to get rid of the old 
 houses, and to have new ones more worthy 
 of the British Legislature. 
 
 Humiles {Ordre des), 1154. A re- 
 ligious confraternity of both sexes, 
 founded at Milan by St. John of Meda. 
 It was in a great measure of the Bene- 
 dictine rule, but had its own badge. 
 Suppressed in 1571. 
 
 Hundred {A.) A county division 
 mentioned in Domesday Book, and gene- 
 rally supposed to include a hundred 
 families. Northumberland, Cumberland, 
 Westmoreland, and Durham are not sub- 
 divided into hundreds, but wards ; York- 
 shire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire 
 are subdivided into wapentakes. York, 
 /F 2 
 
436 
 
 HUNDRED 
 
 HUNTER'S 
 
 shire is likewise divided into three parts, 
 called Bidings. Kent is divided into 
 five laths, and these laths into sixty- 
 three hundreds. Sussex is divided into 
 six rapes, with subordinate hundreds. 
 
 Hundred Days [The). From 
 29 March to 22 June, a.d. 1815. From the 
 time that Napoleon quitted Elba (break- 
 ing his parole) to his abdication. 
 
 In this period occurred the battle of Ligny 
 (16 June) ; the battle of Quatre Bras (16 June) ; 
 and the battle of Waterloo (18 June). 
 
 Hundred Grievances of Ger- 
 many {The), 1522. Presented to Pope 
 Adrian VI. by the Diet of Nuremberg. 
 During the contention between Luther 
 and the pope, Adrian sent a brieve to the 
 Diet of Nuremberg, calling on the princes 
 of Germany to stamp out the plague of 
 heresy. The diet, in reply, sent to the 
 pope a memorial of a 'hundred griev- 
 ances' which they besought the holy 
 father to redress, and that too without 
 delay, as the nation neither could nor 
 would endure them any longer. 
 
 Hundred Isles {The). Venice. 
 
 Hundred Years War {The),\zzc-,- 
 1431. Between England and France. 
 From Edward III. to Joan of Arc. The 
 origin of this long war was Edward's 
 claim to the crown of France. Philippe 
 le Bel left three sons, all of whom died 
 without male issue, and the nearest male 
 heirs were Edward III. (who was the 
 nephew of the three sons), and Philippe 
 de Valois (who was their cousin). The 
 flaw in Edward's claim is the Salic law, 
 which passed over women, and Edward 
 owed his blood relationship to his mother. 
 Edward maintained that, though his 
 mother was cut off, being a woman, the 
 Salic law could not a]3ply to him, being 
 a man ; but Philippe answered, if the 
 mother was cut off, the son was cut oif 
 also. On this dispute began the war 
 which lasted above a century. 
 
 Hun'dreders. The impanelling of 
 * hundredors ' on juries in civil actions 
 abohshed 1705 (4, 5 Anne c. 16). 
 
 Hung, Drawn, and Quartered. 
 
 The punishment of traitors. It is an 
 error to suppose that 'drawn' means 
 dragged on a hurdle by a horse to the 
 place of execution. It means disem- 
 bowelled. The first instance in English 
 history is that of David the Welsh prince, 
 
 20 Sept., 1283. He was 'hung' for 
 causing the murder of the knights in 
 Hawarden Castle ; he was ' drawn ' be- 
 cause he had profaned Palm Sunday by 
 committing the murder on that day ; he 
 was ' quartered ' for conspiring against 
 the king (Edward I.). This was the pre- 
 cedent in cases of high treason. 
 
 It is misleading and a falsifying of history to re- 
 verse these words into ' drawn, hung, and quar- 
 tered,' as some historians do, to intimate that 
 ' drawn ' means dragged on a hurdle to execution. 
 
 Hungarian Anjous (T/ie). Suc- 
 ceeded the Arpad dynasty. Charles 
 Robert was the founder (1309-1342), 
 Louis the Great his son (1342-1382), and 
 Sigismund, in virtue of his wife (1386- 
 1437). Succeeded by the house of Haps- 
 burg. 
 
 Sigismund or Siegmund was king of Hungary, 
 king of Bohemia, and kaiser-king of Germany. 
 He will always be remembered for violating his 
 royal word of safe-conduct, and afterwards assent- 
 ing to the martyrdom of Huss and Jerome of 
 Prague. 
 
 Hungarian Compromise {The), 
 Feb. 1868. Providing the new army 
 organisation. 
 
 Hungarian National Anthem. 
 
 Rakolski's March. 
 
 Hungarian Revolution {The), 
 1848-1849. Under Kossuth. Kossuth 
 resigned 11 Aug., 1849. 
 
 8 June, 18G7, Francis Joseph of Austria was 
 crowned king of Hungary. 
 
 Hungarian Sea {The). Lake 
 Balaton, forty-seven miles long and nine- 
 teen miles wide. Famous for the savoury 
 fogas fish. 
 
 Huns {The). A people driven out of 
 China by Vou-ti {i.e. Hiong-nu). Many 
 left the steppes of Tartary, and made 
 their way to the Caspian Sea. A part, 
 crossing the Caucasus, came into collision 
 with the Eastern Goths in a.d. 375. 
 
 Hunter's Mass. Missa Venatica.' 
 Celebrated very early in the morning for 
 those about to spend the day in hunt- 
 ing, hawking, or the chase. A greatly 
 shortened mass, gabbled ov^r as fast as 
 possible. 
 
 Hunter's Moon. The moon next 
 after the harvest moon, where, as in 
 ' honey-moon,' the word ' moon ' stands 
 for month. The harvest moon is that 
 immediately before the vernal equinox, 
 and the hunter's moon that which follows 
 
HUEEICANE 
 
 HYKS03 
 
 437 
 
 after the vernal equinox. The harvest 
 being over, hunting may begin. 
 
 Hurricane {The). Comte de Mira- 
 beau (1749-1791). Also called ' the De- 
 mosthenes of France,' from the over- 
 powering force of his eloquence. He 
 was so corpulent that he was jocosely 
 called the Tuh. 
 
 HUSS [John), 1376, 1415. The great 
 charge against Huss was his insistence 
 on faith. ' Faith, not in the Virgin, not 
 in the saints, nor yet in the pope, nor in 
 baptism, nor in holy water and oil, but 
 in Christ.' He was burnt alive by order 
 of the Council of Constance, though the 
 kaiser himself (Siegmund) had given him 
 safe conduct. ' I came here ' (he said to 
 the council) ' under the public faith of the 
 kaiser, here present.' In so saying he 
 fixed his eyes on Siegmund, ' who blushed 
 scarlet at the just but unexpected re- 
 buke.' 
 
 Hussite "War [The), 1419-1486. 
 Siegmund was elected kaiser 1410, and in 
 1415-1416 Huss and Jerome were burnt 
 to death. The Hussites were indignant 
 that the kaiser should have pledged his 
 royal word for the safety of Huss and 
 Jerome, and yet should have presidecl at 
 the council which condemned them both 
 to death. In 1419 they put themselves 
 under Ziska the One-eyed and prepared 
 for war. Siegmund also prepared to put 
 down the insurgents, but was defeated 
 over and over again. Ziska died in 1424, 
 and Procop (both the elder and the 
 younger) led the insurgent Bohemians, 
 and no longer stood on the defensive, 
 but carried the war beyond the boundaries 
 of Bohemia with wonderful success ; but 
 at the death of the two leaders peace 
 was made, and Siegmund acknowledged 
 king of Bohemia (1437). 
 
 The Hussites' platform was: (1) Freedom to 
 preach the gospel; ('2) administration of the eu- 
 charist in both kinds to laity as well as clergy; 
 (Ji) prohibition to the clergy to follow secular pur- 
 suits ; and (4) submission of the clergy to the civil 
 power. Their symbol was a chalice. The more 
 moderate were called ' Calixtines ' (3 syl.), and 
 the more extreme ' Taborites ' (3 syl.). 
 
 Hussites (2 syl.). Followers of John 
 Huss of Bohemia (1376-1415), who was 
 condemned to be burnt alive by the 
 Council of Constance. He was a Wyc- 
 lifite of most unimpeachable character, 
 and his murder is one of the blackest 
 stains in the history of the Eoman 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 Hutcheso'nians, 1729. Followers 
 of Dr. Francis Hutcheson, whose ' System 
 of Moral Philosophy ' was based on the 
 ethical notions of Lord Shaftesbury. He 
 deduces all our moral ideas from an innate 
 moral sense, or instinct, which leads us 
 to perform certain acts and to avoid 
 others. 
 
 Dr. Hutcheson, professor of philosophy at 
 Glasgow, died 1747, aged 53. 
 
 Hutchinsonianism, 1724. The 
 
 doctrines of John Hutchhison of York- 
 shire, author of ' Moses' Principia,' in 
 which he defends the Mosaic cosmogony 
 and assails Newton's ' Principia.' He 
 maintained that the Holy Scripture is 
 the only divine revelation of true religion 
 and true science, and that all science not 
 in conformity with Scripture is ' philo- 
 sophy falsely so called.' He substitutes 
 ' a plenum and air ' for Newton's ' vacuum 
 and gravity.' 
 
 John Hutchinson must not be confounded with 
 Dr. Francis Hutcheson. 
 
 He said that the air from the earth to the sun 
 grew more and more rarefied till it became pure 
 light ; but from the sun to the fix''d stars it grew 
 denser and denser, till it stagnated into ' outer 
 darkness.' the very ' blackness of darkness.' 
 
 Hutin (Louis X. of France, 1314- 
 1316) means ' headstrong ' or ' obstinate,' 
 but applied to Louis it was a mere pun. 
 He was sent by his father against the 
 Hutins, a seditious set of people of Na- 
 varre and Lyons, and this expedition 
 gained for him the sobriquet. 
 
 Hydro-parasta'tse, or 'Aquarii.' 
 The followers of Tatian (born 130), who 
 forbade the use of wine even in the eu- 
 charist. (Greek, vStop, water; Trapto-nj/mi, 
 I present.) 
 
 Hyksos (The), or Shepherd Kings of 
 Lower Egypt. A race of Arabs which 
 invaded ancient Egypt, and continued 
 dominant, according to Manctho, for 500 
 years, but according to others about half 
 that time (b.c. 1842-1591). They formed 
 or were contemporary with the 15th, 16th, 
 and 17th dynasties of Upper Egypt. 
 Amosis drove them out and established 
 the 18th dynasty in Thebais, contem- 
 porary with the 19th and 20th. They 
 were driven from the Thebais by Tot- 
 mosis or Thotmosis, but continued to hold 
 certain cantons of Egypt long afterwards. 
 
 It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in 
 B C. l^tOG, while the Ifith dynasty was regnant ; and 
 that Joseph was viceroy about B.C. 1713, in the same 
 dynasty. Ulyk— king, Sos—shephend.) 
 
438 
 
 HYLO-IDEALISM 
 
 ICILIAIT 
 
 Hylo-idealism, 1883. A system 
 thought out by Dr. Lewins, and given to 
 the world in 1882-1883. It is not 
 idealism, but objective or hylo-idealism. 
 The fundamental principle is this : Ob- 
 jects or objective phenomena must be 
 made subjective or mental concepts 
 before they are cognisable. The object 
 is the stimulus and the perceiving brain 
 the response. The two are like the two 
 clocks of a telegraphic wire. The object 
 works one clock, sends it to the brain, 
 and the brain works the other clock. If 
 either clock is out of order, or the tele- 
 graphic wire is broken, no message is re- 
 ceived, and the objective world is cut off 
 from all cognisance or even existence as 
 far as the person in question is con- 
 cerned. 
 
 Hymnus S. MariaD, i.e. the ' Mag- 
 nificat.' 
 
 Hymniis S. Trinitatis. In Latin: 
 ' Sanctus Deus, Sanctus fortis, Sanctus 
 immortalis, miserere nobis.' In Greek : 
 Ayio? (b flebs, "Kyios iaxvpos, "Aytos aSai/aros, 
 
 Hypapanti (Greek, vnairavTr,, a 
 meeting together). It means the meeting 
 of Christ in the Temple by Siineon and 
 Anna, who had long waited for Him. The 
 Feast of Purification is called ' Festam 
 Hypapanti,' ' Festum S. Simeonis,' ' Fes- 
 tum Purgationis Mariae Virginis,' or 
 ' Festum Luminum.' 
 
 ' Hypapanti ' is barbarous Greek, and unde- 
 clinable. 
 
 Hypos'tasis, in divinity, means 
 'person ' ; as the Trinity has one essence 
 or nature, but three hypostases or p6r- 
 Bons. 
 
 ' Person ' is not a good word, as it is so closely al- 
 lied to a phenomenon, -whereas hypostasis is mere 
 noumenon without phenomenon. The basis or sub- 
 Btratum of personality. The plural is ' hypostases.' 
 
 Hypostatic Union (An). A 
 
 union of two or more natures so inti- 
 mate as to constitute one person. Thus 
 the union of man and God in Christ is an 
 hypostatic union. 
 
 The Nestorians held that the union of humanity 
 and Deity in Christ was a mere moral union, and 
 not an hypostatic one. 
 
 Hypothetical Universalism. 
 
 A doctrine taught by Moise Amyraut 
 (1590-1664), professor of Saumur : that 
 the death of Jesus Christ was sufficient 
 for all men, but efficacious for the elect 
 only. 
 
 Iambic Poets of Greece [The). 
 
 The three principal were Archilochos of 
 Paros (B.C. 710-690), inventor of iambic 
 verse, and father of satire ; only a few 
 fragments are extant. Simonides of 
 Samos (flourished B.C. 660) ; the chief 
 fragment extant is a satire on women. 
 He says a slattern has something of the 
 swine in her composition ; a cunning 
 woman something of the fox ; a stupid 
 one shares her nature with the ass, the 
 headstrong with the weasel, the vain 
 with the horse, the malicious with the 
 monkey, &c. The third of this class of 
 poets was Hipponax of Ephesus (b.c. 566- 
 520), father of parody and burlesque. 
 
 The latter lanihic poets were Nican- 
 der (B.C. 200-120), and Meleager of 
 Gadara (b.c. 135-60), who wrote 130 ei^i- 
 grams and a collection of poems called 
 ' The Garland,' which no longer exists. 
 
 Simonides of Ceos (B.C. SGci 520), the great lyric 
 poet, was quite another person. 
 
 Ibe'ria. The Latin name of Spain, 
 the people dwelling about the river 
 Iberus [i.e. the Ebro). 
 
 Ica'rians. The colonists led by Ca- 
 bet, a French communist (1788-1856), to 
 Icaria, in Iowa, with a view of forming 
 theha into a model community. In this 
 community there is no money, no buying 
 and selling, but all work for the commu- 
 nity, and all are provided by the com- 
 munity with everything required. All 
 manufactures and industries are national 
 property, and the executive determines 
 what each individual is to do. In regard 
 to religion all worship the ' unluiown 
 God,' but there are no creeds, ceremonies, 
 or rites. 
 
 Edward Bellamy of America has a novel called 
 ' Looking Backward ' which embodies this idea. 
 
 Ich Dien (I serve). The motto 
 chosen by the Black Prince when he was 
 kniglited by his father after the battle of 
 Crecy. (1) It was the motto of the king 
 of Bohemia, who fell in battle by the 
 hand of the young prince, and served to 
 commemorate that achievement ; (2) the 
 prince had just been made his father's 
 ' man ' by knighthood, and no words 
 could better express his acknowledgment 
 of service and duty to his liege lord. 
 
 Pronounce Eck-deen. 
 
 Icil'ian Law (The), b.c. 454. A law 
 for the parcelling out the Aventine Hill 
 among the plebeians of old Rome, pro- 
 posed by Lucius Icilius the tribune. 
 
ICOGLANS 
 
 IGNATIAN 
 
 439 
 
 Here the people lived in flats without 
 any ground rent. 
 
 Icoglans. Children who attend the 
 sultan as pages. 
 
 leo'nia {The). A sacred ensign of 
 the emperors of Constantinople. It con- 
 sisted of a tall pole surmounted by a 
 cross, from which, attached to a cross-bar, 
 hung a large flag with a Latin cross. On 
 another cross-bar on one end hung the 
 Virgin Mary with several relics; to the op- 
 posite end a string was attached, and held 
 in the hand of some ecclesiastic. Amongst 
 the relics were apiece of the lance which 
 pierced the side of the Saviour, and a 
 tooth shed by him in childhood. It first 
 belonged to the Cistercians, fell into the 
 hands of the Venetians in 1204, and was 
 then deposited in the treasury of St. 
 Mark. 
 
 Icon'oclasts, or ' Image Breakers,' 
 A..D. 485. A religious sect which con- 
 sidered crucifixes, images of saints, 
 statues, and pictures in Christian churches 
 as idolatrous, and went about destroying 
 them. They became very active in the 
 8th cent, under Leo the Isaurian. Icono- 
 clasts were condemned by the Councils of 
 Constantinople held in 78G, 80(3, 809, 812, 
 
 814, but these judgments were reversed in 
 
 815. They were again condemned in the 
 Councils held in 842, 847, and 870. The 
 Lombards were strenuous opposers of 
 images and pictures in churches. 
 
 'Iconoclast' is elxc^v (image), xXi^ta (I break). 
 
 Iconodu'li {The). Those who advo- 
 cated and reverenced images and pictures 
 in churches. Those who broke them and 
 discarded them were called Iconoclasts 
 (6th and 7th cents.). See ' Iconolatrists.' 
 
 EJirtiv (image), SovXja (an inferior reverence paid 
 to samts, images, and relics, in opiiosition to 
 
 Iconolatrists. Worshippers of im- 
 ages. Applied to those Christians who 
 admit crucifixes, material symbols of 
 deity, and pictures into churches and 
 houses, either for direct adoration, as aids 
 to religion, or as ' outward visible signs of 
 an inward invisible faith.' Iconoclasts, 
 or image-breakers, were those Christians 
 who opposed iconol'atry, and broke to 
 pieces all such material symbols in 
 churches, &c. See ' Iconduli.' 
 
 Idaean Boy {The), or Idcpus Puer- 
 Ganymede is so called because it was 
 
 from Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, that Zeus 
 or Juj)iter seized on him and carried him 
 to Olympus to be his cup-bearer. 
 
 Idsean Dactyls {The). Mythical 
 priests and priestesses of Cybele, and said 
 to have been the original discoverers of 
 iron. Called Idcean from Mount Ida, in 
 Asia Minor, their hypothetical seat ; and 
 Dactyls, or fingers, because they were ten 
 in number (five males and five females). 
 
 Idaean Judge {The), or Idceus Ju- 
 dex. Paris, who decided from Mount 
 Gargarus, a part of Ida, between the rival 
 claims of Juno, Minerva, and Venus. All 
 the goddesses offered bribes to influence 
 the award, which the shepherd gave in 
 favour of Venus. Cicero calls Paris the 
 ' Idaean Shepherd ' {Idceus Pastor). 
 
 These 'dactyls,' like the ' Idoean Boy ' and ' Idseau 
 Judge,' belong more to mythology than to histoi-y, 
 as we now understand the word. 
 
 Idealism. Two different systems of 
 philosophy are so called : — 
 
 I. A system which considers absolutes 
 or universale as subjective realities. 
 Thus white, black, tree, &c., ^ere sup- 
 posed to have a subjective existence in- 
 dependent of any special object. Plato 
 is the exponent of this system, supported 
 in modern times by Malebranche, Kant, 
 Schelling, Hegel, and others. 
 
 II. Those who deny the reality of the 
 world, and maintain that everything is only 
 an idea ; or at any rate, so far as any in- 
 dividual is concerned, that his senses 
 make his world, and if he had no senses 
 tYieve. would be, to him at least, no ex- 
 ternal world. Bisho]3 Berkeley, Hume, 
 Fichte, &c. were exponents of this sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Idle Bible {The), 1809. In which 
 the ' idol shepherd ' (Zech. xi. 17) is trans- 
 lated ' idle shepherd,' in the new version 
 ' worthless shepherd,' which does not 
 mean the same thing. An idol is a 
 counterfeit, and an ' idol shepherd ' is a 
 counterfeit or false shepherd, who sets up 
 himself for his people's adoration, and not 
 God. The Pharisees of old, who did 
 their good deeds to be seen of men, were 
 ' idle shepherds.' See ' Bible.' 
 
 The Hebrew word is of ambiguous meaning. 
 
 Ignatian Controversy {The). 
 Whether the Epistles ascribed to Ignatius, 
 who died 115, are genuine and authen- 
 tic. This is very important, as these writ- 
 
440 
 
 IGNOEAMUS 
 
 ILLITERATE 
 
 ings are the battle-ground of Episco- 
 palians and Presbyterians. They favour 
 the hierarchical system, and therefore are 
 strenuously defended by Episcopalians, 
 but the present opinion of scholars such 
 as Daille, Semler, Hermann, Ernesti, 
 Neander, &c., is that much is spurious, 
 and the rest has been greatly tampered 
 with. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 The works of Ignatius are a Litiir/jij, a little book 
 callei Didnche (quoted by Chrysostom), and 15 
 epijtles (12 in Greek and 3 in Latin). The 7 follow- 
 ing epistles— to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Phila- 
 delphians, Trallians, Smyrnoeans, Romans, and 
 to Polycarp— were long accepted as genuine and 
 authentic, but are now suspected. Bunsen thinks 
 three may be accepted, but condemns the rest. 
 Probably all have been interpolated. It is a 
 very sad thing, but too true, that no church lite- 
 rature which passed through the hayds of the 
 monks can be relied on. 
 
 Ignora'mus Jury {An). A grand 
 jury was so called because they wrote 
 Ignoramus instead of ' no true bill,' when 
 sufficient evidence was wantmg to send 
 the case to the common jury. 
 
 If you find that anything proceeds from malice 
 . . . you may acquit the person that is so wrong- 
 fully prosecuted, and so ... an Ignoramus jury 
 may be of no use. — Judge Allibon's charge at the 
 Croydon Assizes in 1688. 
 
 Ignoran'tines (4 syl.). The ' Con- 
 gregation of the Ignorantines ' was founded 
 in 1724 in France by the Abbe de la Salle 
 (1 syl.). It was suppressed in 1789, but 
 re-established by Napoleon in 1806. 
 
 Ik'shidites (3 syl.), 933-968. A 
 dynasty of califs ruling in Syria and 
 Egypt founded by Abubekr Mohammed 
 Ikdiid, a Turkish slave. 
 
 II Hegno. The half-mocking name 
 of the kingdom of Naples. It was so 
 called for centuries by all the republics 
 of Italy. 
 
 Il'derim (lightning). So Bayazidl. 
 of Turkey was called from the extreme 
 rapidity with which he executed all his 
 designs. He reigned 1389-1403. 
 
 lie du Palais (i'). The larger of 
 the two little aits or islets in the river 
 Seine (Paris) ; the smaller one is called 
 L'lle St. Louis, the two are connected hj 
 the Pont de la Cite. The tie du Palais 
 for many centuries constituted the whole 
 city of Paris. Here a tribe of the Celtic 
 Gauls, called the Parisii, built their mud 
 huts of a circular form, and thatched 
 them with reeds from the river. Here 
 Clovis built his palace, and here the kings 
 of France resided up to the time of 
 
 Philippe II. Augusta (1180-1223), who 
 resided in the old Louvre. The palace of 
 Clovis was converted by Charles V. into 
 the Palais de Justice. Notre Dame de 
 Paris stands on the lie du Palais, or cite. 
 fie du Palais is so called because of the palace 
 built there by Clovis, and used by the early kings 
 of France. 
 
 Iliad [The French). The ' Roman de 
 la Rose ' [q.v.) by Guillaume de Lorvis 
 (1235-1265). A ' continuation ' was sub- 
 sequently added by Jehan de Meung 
 (1200-1318). 
 
 One might just as well call the ' Faery Queen 'an 
 Iliad. The ' Romance of the Rose ' is a love alle- 
 gory in verse : The Rose is the poet's lady-love, 
 and the subject matter is the course of true love 
 does not run smoothly. Fully described in the 
 ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 84'2. 
 
 The 'Chanson de Roland,' containing upwards 
 of 1,600 verses, is called the ' Iliad of France.' 
 
 Iliad [The German). The Nibel- 
 ungen Lied, 1210. 
 
 The plot and tale of this epic are fully described 
 in the • Reader s Handbook, p. (384. 
 
 Iliad [The Portuguese). The 'Lu- 
 siads ' by Camoens. Fully described in 
 the ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 580. 
 
 Iliad {Tlw Scotch). The Epigoniad, 
 by William Wilkie. Fully described in 
 the ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 297. 
 
 Ilkha'nian Tables [The), 13th 
 cent. The astronomical tables and ob- 
 servations of Nazir Eddin, the great 
 Persian astronomer, in the reign of 
 Houlagou Khan, son of Ghengis Khan, 
 who reigned 1259-1265. Nazir Eddia 
 lived 1201-1274. 
 
 Hassan Bouzruk Ilkani did not found the 
 Ilkanian dynasty till 1336, sixty-two years after 
 the death of Nazir Eddin. 
 
 Ilkha'nians {The). A Mogul dy- 
 nasty of Persia, founded by Hassan 
 Bouzruk, or Ilek-khan, who made Bagdad 
 his capital. His dynasty only lasted 65 
 years (1336-1401), when it was overthrown 
 by Tamerlane. 
 
 Illinois {TJ. S. America). So called, 
 in 1809, from an Indian tribe of that 
 name. The natives are nicknamed 
 ' Suckers.' Discovered by the French in 
 1070 ; ceded to England in 1763 ; and 
 admitted as a state of the Union in 1818. 
 
 Illiterate Parliament {The), 
 1404. From which all lawyers were ex- 
 cluded. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 It advised the king, Henry IV. to seize the re- 
 venues of the clergy, which were more than one- 
 third of all the land of England, and to repeal the 
 statute ' De Ha3retico Comburendo ; but the king 
 feared to ofleud the clergy. 
 
ILLUMINATED 
 
 IMMORTAL 
 
 441 
 
 IlluTninated Doctor (T7ie). 'Doc- 
 tor Illuminatus,' or ' Most Enlightened 
 Doctor.' Raymond Lully, born in Ma- 
 jorca (1234-1315). He entered the Fran- 
 ciscan order, and set himself to convert the 
 Moslems, was stoned at Bugia [in Algeria], 
 and supposed to be dead (30 June, 1315). 
 Some looked on him as a saint, others con- 
 sidered him 'un insense et un he'retique.' 
 He was the Dest chemist of his age, but spent his 
 time in searching for the philosopher's stone by 
 distillation. 
 
 Illuminati [The), ICth cent. A re- 
 ligious sect, founded by Jacob Boehmen, 
 or Boehm, a shoemaker of Lusatia. He 
 averred that he was often carried up to 
 heaven, like the Apostle Paul. Sweden- 
 borgians and Quietists were in a great 
 measure ' Illuminati ' ; that is, they pro- 
 fessed to have an inner light which illu- 
 minated them. See ' Martinists,' ' Gueri- 
 nets,' and ' Alombrados.' Also next article. 
 
 IllTimina'tists [The), or The 
 Society of Illuminatists,' 1776. A secret' 
 society founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, 
 professor of canon law at Ingolstadt, his 
 avowed aim being ' to illuminate the 
 world with a higher philosophy.' This 
 society was joined by Mesmer, Cagliostro, 
 Condorcet, the Due d'Orleans, Mirabeau, 
 and the Abbe Sieyes. The real objects 
 were to crush priestly intolerance and 
 superstition, to stamp out feudalism, and 
 to 'limit regal authority to the popular 
 will. In a word, the ' Illuminatists ' were 
 the midwives of the first French Revolu- 
 tion, though, without doubt, the re- 
 volution far outran their programme. 
 Suppressed in 1785. 
 
 Also called ' Illuminati.' 
 
 Ill3rr'ian Conservatives {The)^ 
 19th cent. The Croatian jDarty which 
 Bought the establishment of an indepen- 
 dent Slav nationality (about 1847). 
 
 Illyr'ian Provinces {The), 1809. 
 
 So named by Napoleon's decree. They 
 consisted of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, 
 Austrian Friuli, the Hungaj'ian littoral, 
 and Southern Croatia. In 1810 it was 
 augmented ; but after the battle of Water- 
 loo (1815) the provinces were restored to 
 Austria by the Congress of Vienna, and, 
 in 1849, were subdivided into duchies and 
 counties. 
 
 Image Worship, introduced into 
 Christian churches, was condemned by 
 tlie Council of Illiberis (Elvira in Gra- 
 
 nada) between 300 and 305. Calif Yezid 
 II. in 723 commanded the destruction of 
 all ' religious ' images. See ' Iconoclasts.' 
 
 Images were denounced in Germany 
 by Carlstadt in 1522. 
 
 In Switzerland by Zwingle in 1523, and 
 removed from the churches of Zurich. 
 
 In England by act of parliament 1549, 
 and removed from all churches in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 In Austria by Joseph II., 1782. See 
 ' Iconduli ' and ' Iconolatrists.' 
 
 In the Second Council of Nice, 7^7, a distinction 
 was drawn between latreia (worship) and doub-iit 
 (reverence). The adoration of God is latreia, the 
 reverence paid to images and saints is doiilnia. 
 
 Imam, or 'Imaum.' The 
 supreme of the Moslem faith. 
 
 chief 
 The 
 Sunnites, or orthodox Moslims, use the 
 title of ' Imam ' as a synonym of calif, 
 their spiritual and temporal head ; but 
 the Shiites maintain that the true Imam 
 was Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, and 
 his direct descendants: as Ali, Hassan, 
 Hussein [sons of Ali], Ali-Seinolabiddin, 
 Mohammed-Bakr, Giafar-el- Sadie, and 
 Ismael, who died 730, leaving an infant 
 son, named Mohammed, who was set asido 
 for his uncle Mousa. This departure 
 created a new schism. Those who fol- 
 lowed the direct line called themselves 
 Ismaelites, who separated from the Shi- 
 ites or followers of Mousa. The Isma,elites 
 maintain that Mohammed, one of these 
 days, will manifest himself, but till then 
 they will acknowledge no one as Imam. 
 
 The ordinary ministers of the Mosluns arecaJle I 
 'Imams.' In Arabia certain chiefs are entiLid 
 Imams, and their territory an Imamat. klce 
 ' Mahdi." 
 
 Imaum'ians (The). One of the 
 numerous Sliiite sects. They insist that 
 the chief point of religious observance is 
 to distinguish who is the true imaum or 
 head of the Mohammedan Church. The 
 people have no will in the matter. See 
 * Imam,' ' Khallabians,' ' Zeyds.' 
 
 Immaculate Conception {The 
 BeUgionists of the). Were a branch of 
 the Franciscans, founded in Toledo, in 
 1484, by the venerable Beatrice of Sylva. 
 They followed the rule of the Clarisses, 
 with certain mitigations. 
 
 Immaculate Conceptionists. 
 
 See under ' Franciscans.' 
 
 Immortal Principles of 1789 
 
 (The). So the French denominate the 
 principles enunciated by the Constituent 
 
442 
 
 IMPANNATION 
 
 IN 
 
 Assembly in their Declaration of Eights 
 iq.v.), ' Declaration des droits de rhonime 
 et du citoyen,' 1 Oct. 1789, The chief 
 were equal taxation for all classes ; equal 
 eligibility of all citizens to hold office in 
 the state ; unrestricted liberty to all. 
 
 As principles, these are anything but immortal. 
 A tax of 4s. in the pound to all alilie would bo any- 
 thing but equality of taxation. To a man who 
 earns a pound a week it is a fifth of his earnings, 
 to another who earns 40,s. a week, it is a tenth part. 
 To one who earns 4/. a week it is only a twentieth 
 part, and so on. Equal objection lies against the 
 other two 'immortal principles,' which would be 
 more correctly denominated 'mortal folly.' 
 
 Impannation, i.e. ' consubstantia- 
 tion.' Luther taught that the bread of 
 the eucharist remained bread after con- 
 secration ; but that by consecration the 
 body of Christ was imparted to the bread, 
 so that the communicants ate both bread 
 and Christ at one and the same time. 
 Catholics maintain that the bread is trans- 
 muted, and no longer remains bread at 
 all. Most Protestants believe that no 
 change takes place in the bread by con- 
 secration, but being devoted to God, like 
 a church, it cannot be used for secular or 
 ordinary purposes. 
 
 Krauth, in his 'Conservative Reformation," 
 affirms that Luther entertained the same views 
 as the High Anglican party. 
 
 Imperial Chamber (The), 1495. 
 The first law-court established m Ger- 
 many. Instead of settling differences by 
 the sword, the barons were commanded 
 by the Diet of Augsburg (1495) to submit 
 their grievances to the Imperial Chamber, 
 which consisted of a president named by 
 the crown, four judges, and fifty assessors. 
 
 The Aulic Council was instituted to prepare mat- 
 ters for the Council ; but in 1654 the Aulic Council 
 was recognised as equal to the Imperial Chamber. 
 
 Im.perial Federation League 
 
 (The), 28 July, 1884. For securing a 
 permanent unity of the United Kingdom 
 and its colonies. 
 
 Imperial Free Cities, in feudal 
 times, were those built on the royal 
 demesnes. In Germany they owed their 
 origin to Heinrich I. (the Fowler), who 
 gi'anted them sj)ecial privileges. See 
 ' Church Cities ' and ' Ducal Towns.' 
 
 No one could open a shop in these towns 
 ■without a. licence, which was never granted to 
 any except ' free burghers.' Those who were not 
 town-free could only have their shops beyond the 
 city walls. 
 
 Im.perial Parliam.ent (The), 22 
 Jan., 1801. George III. so called the 
 parliament after the union with Ireland. 
 See ' Parliament.' 
 
 Imperialists, or * Melchites,' 537. 
 A party of the Monoph'y sites (4 syl.) of 
 Alexandria, supported by Justinian and 
 favoured by the Empress Theodora. See 
 ' Corruptibles.' 
 
 They have ceased to be Monophysites, and are 
 now Orthodox Greeks. They are still found in 
 Egypt, but are very few. 
 
 ImportantS {Les), 1643. Apolitical 
 faction formed at the death of Louis 
 XIII., consisting of those who had been 
 ill-used by Richelieu, in the hope of ob- 
 taining justice under the new king. The 
 chiefs were Les Guises, Les Vendomes, the 
 Due d'Epernon, the Duchess de Chevreuse 
 and the Duchess de Montbazon. Besides 
 these there were Potior bishop of Beau- 
 vais, and the Due de Beaufort. To break 
 up this cabal many of them were sent 
 into exile, Beaufort was imprisoned, and 
 the bishop was sent to his diocese. Most 
 of the Importants took part in the Fronde 
 iq.v.). 
 
 In Cam'era. With closed doors, the 
 public not being permitted to be present. 
 
 It was directed that the inquiry should be con- 
 ducted in camei-a. — 2'lie Royal Liver Friendly Society, 
 Jan. 1886. 
 
 In Coena Dom'ini, 1568. The 
 famous Bull of Pivis V. anathematising 
 everyone who dared to question, limit, or 
 abjure the absolute authority of the Holy 
 See. It was specially directed against 
 the League of Schmalkalden, a Gernian 
 Protestant association. Next year (1569) 
 the pope excommunicated Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and absolved her subjects from 
 their allegiance. 
 
 Thomas Erastus wrote a book entitled ' De 
 Cocna Domini,' in which he contended for the 
 figurative interpretation of the words ' This is My 
 body,' &c. This Bull was read on Holy Thursday, 
 called ' The day of the Lord's Supper,' whence its 
 name. 
 
 In Eminenti (The Bull), 1642. By 
 Urban VIII. in condemnation of the 
 ' Augustlnus ' of Corneliiig Jansen. 
 
 The work was designed to prove that (judged by 
 the Jesuit s standard) St. Augustine was unsound 
 on the points of Grace, Free-will, and Predestma- 
 tion. 
 
 In Usum Sarum, 1078. The 
 Salisbury Missal, drawn up by Oswald or 
 Osmund bishop of Salisbury in the reign 
 of Rufus. It is in Latin, and based on 
 the Roman Missals. 
 
 There were numberless ' Uses ' or Missals em- 
 ployed before the introduction of the Book of 
 Common Prayer. Hence in the Introduction of 
 that book we read : ' There hath been great diver- 
 sity in saying and singing in churches within this 
 realm: some following SnUsbury Use, some Here- 
 ford Use, some the Use of Banyur, some of York, 
 
INA 
 
 INCORRUPTIBLE 
 
 443 
 
 and some of Lincoln. But from henceforth all the 
 ■whole realm shall have but one Use.' 
 
 Ina [Laivs of), a.d. 692. Ina was 
 king of Wessex, and promulgated a code 
 of laws which was received over the 
 whole heptarchy. By these laws the 
 British proprietors were' allowed to retain 
 their lands ; and alliances by marriage 
 were encouraged between the natives and 
 the Saxons. 
 
 Inearamina'ti {The). The school 
 of painting formed by the Carracci. The 
 word means ' progressive,' and the Car- 
 racci school was eclectic, seeking to stamp 
 out the exaggerations and mannerism of 
 contemporary artists. It directed art to 
 the study of nature and the best masters. 
 The good taste of the Carracci is pro- 
 verbial. 
 
 The Carracci were Ludovico (1554-lG19).and his 
 two cousins Annibale and Agostino ; the former 
 died in 1609 at the age of 48, and the latter in Hh)2 
 at the age of 45. Aunibale was the best artist of 
 the three. 
 
 Ineas. A Peruvian dynasty (1130- 
 1571) which succeeded the Aymara 
 dynasty, and was reigning when (in 1533) 
 Pizarro conquered Peru. The Incas 
 called themselves descendants of the 
 Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac 
 IICO, and his successors were Sinchi- 
 Roca, Lloqui-Yupanqui, Mayta-Capac, 
 Capac-Yupanqui, Roca, Yahuar-Huacac, 
 Viracocha, Pachacutec, Yapanqui, 
 Tupac-Yupanqui, Huayna-Capac, Huas- 
 car and Atahualpa (taken prisoners by 
 the Spaniards and put to death in 1533). 
 Tupac- Amaru was beheaded in 1571. 
 
 Incident (TAe), 1641. A supposed plot 
 of Charles I. to kill or kidnap the Marquis 
 of Hamilton and the Earl of Argyll, at 
 the instigation of James Graham earl of 
 Montrose. Charles I. contrived to win 
 over James Graham, Earl of Montrose ; 
 but when the Scotch Covenanters got 
 wind of this treachery they arrested the 
 earl and imprisoned him. While in 
 prison he revealed to the king certain 
 treasonable plots which he alleged were 
 set on foot by Hamilton and Argyll, and 
 he advised the king to summon the two 
 Scotch noblemen ostensibly ' to a con- 
 Bultation ' ; but when they entered the 
 ante-room armed men (headed by the 
 Earl of Crawford) were to kidnap them, 
 and carry them beyond the seas. If they 
 resisted they were to be slain. The two 
 noblemen escaped to their castles, and 
 the king: denied the scandal. The matter 
 
 was privately investigated, and it was 
 given out that the whole tale was a 
 mare's nest ; but instead of punishing the 
 supposed traitors the king created Hamil- 
 ton a duke and Argyll a marquis. This 
 strange ' Incident ' will be found in the 
 ' Hardwicke Papers.' 
 
 Income Tax {The). Proposed by 
 Pitt Dec. 1798, repealed 1802. Reim- 
 posed as a property tax 1803, abandoned 
 1816. Reimposed by Sir Robert Peel, 
 22 June, 1842, for three years, but con- 
 tinued at varying rates, from 2d. to 8<^. in 
 the pound, according to the exigencies of 
 government. 
 
 The triennial renewals from 1842 were 1845, 18-18, 
 and 1851. In 1853 it was renewed \.^r seven years 
 and extended to Ireland. It was doubled in 1854, 
 but in 1857 it was reduced, and incomes vinder 
 'l50L a year were relieved. 
 
 Incorporated Society for Pro- 
 moting English Protestant 
 Schools in Ireland {The), 1733. 
 Established by royal charter, for the 
 education of the poor in Ireland in the 
 principles of the Established Church. 
 Grant reduced in 1824, and wholly with- 
 drawn in 1832. 
 
 Incorruptible {The). I. Robes- 
 pierre (1759, 1793-1794). Bouillet says: 
 ' Robespierre etait un homme froid, cache, 
 tenace dans ses opinions, et dominant. 
 II affectait le plus pur patriotisme et 
 tous les dehors de la vertu, ce qui I'avait 
 sumomme par ses partisans Vlncor- 
 ruptible.' 
 
 Probably called the Incorruptible from his 
 denunciations against corruption at the outbreak 
 of the Kevolution. 
 
 II. Fabricius the Roman hero, of 
 whom Pyrrhus said : * It would be easier 
 to turn the sun from its course than Fab- 
 ricius from his path of duty.' 
 
 III. William Shippen, of whom Horace 
 Walpole said, ' he is the only man proof 
 against a bribe.' 
 
 IV. Andrew Marvell, who refused a 
 cheque for 1,000Z., slipped into his hand 
 by the Lord Treasurer Danby in 1673. 
 The anecdote is given on p. 43, under the 
 title of ' Aristides {The British).' 
 
 Incorruptible Lucas* {The). 
 Charles Lucas, who in 1746 (George II. 's 
 reign) tried to abrogate the law of 
 Charles II., which took the power of 
 choosing the city magistrates of Ii'eland 
 from the Irish commons, and vested it in 
 the aldeimen, thus virtually giving the 
 
444 
 
 INCORRUPTIBLES 
 
 INDEX 
 
 election to the crown, because the alder- 
 men were chosen by the privy council. 
 
 Incorruptibles {The), or 'In- 
 corruptibilists,' 537-568. A branch of 
 the Monoph'ysites of Alexandria which 
 fNrose on the death of the patriarch 
 'i^imothy. The leader was Gaian, a dis- 
 ciple of Julian — whence his followers were 
 called Gaianites — a party supported by 
 the monks and senators, the city and 
 provinces. The Incorruptibles were oj)- 
 iwsed to the Corruptibles {q.v.), and so 
 bitter the animosity between them that 
 Alexandria was filled with the dead 
 bodies of the factionists. Women from 
 housetops hurled missiles against their 
 religious opponents, and it is said that 
 200,000 Christians fell by the sword when . 
 ApoUinarius was installed patriarch of 
 Alexandria. 
 
 The Incorruptibles insisted that the body of 
 Christ was a celestial body, and not a body of 
 corruptible flesh like ours. The Corruptibles in- 
 sisted on the perfect manhood of Christ. 
 
 Incroy'ables (Les). A class of 
 young dandies during the time of the 
 Directory. They affected great care in 
 their dress, a refined manner of speech, 
 and elegance of deportment — the very 
 opposite of the sansculotte style of dress 
 and manner affected by the revolutionary 
 party. The Incroyables represented the 
 reactionary party. 
 
 Under the Regent ' un Incroyable ' was called 
 un talon roufia : under Louis XIV., un libertin ; 
 under Henri III., ttw mignon; under Charles IX., 
 xm raffine ; under FranQois I., un miu/uet. In 1886 
 he was called un becarre ; in 1887 un copurchic. 
 
 Indemnity (Bill or Act of). 12 
 Car. II. c. 11, 1660. A bill for the in- 
 demnity of all acts of treason and all 
 state offences committed between 1 Jan., 
 1637, and 24 June, 1660. 
 
 II. 2 William and Mary c. 10, 20 May, 
 1690. Indemnity for the adherents of 
 James II. 
 
 III. 7 Geo. III. c. 7, 16 Dec, 1766. 
 Indemnity for the advisers of the embargo 
 on the exportation of corn. 
 
 IV. 41 Geo. III. c. 66, 23 June, 1801. 
 Indemnity for protecting authorities from 
 penalties, in respect to proceedings during 
 the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. 
 
 V. 21 Vict. c. 1, 12 Dec, 1857. In- 
 demnity for the infringement of the 
 Currency Acts. 
 
 Independence [Declaration of), 
 4 July, 1776. See under 'Declaration.' 
 
 Independence Day, July. The 
 Great National Holiday in the U.S. of 
 North America. 
 
 Independent Methodists, 1810. 
 
 Separatists from the old Methodist con- 
 nection. Chiefly distinguished by their 
 rejection of a paid ministry. 
 
 Independent Order of G-ood 
 Templars {The), 1852. Seceders from 
 the ' Order of Good Templars,' whose 
 motto is ' Faith, Hoi)e, and Charity.' Ifc 
 is a total abstinence society. 
 
 Independents, 1580. Those Chris- 
 tians who, in the reign of Elizabeth, pro- 
 tested against a state church. They 
 maintain that each congregation is in- 
 dependent in the selection of its own 
 minister and the laws of church member- 
 ship and government ; in contradistinc- 
 tion to Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, 
 Presbyterians, and Methodists, who have 
 no such freedom. 
 
 They were at first called Brownists from Robert 
 Brown, a clergyman, 1580, and were not called 
 Independents till IHIO ; but they attracted very 
 little attention before the opening of the Long 
 Parliament, when Hugh Peters returned from 
 New England. The first Independent Synod was 
 held in the Savoy (Strand) -29 Sept., IG58. See 
 'Brownists' and ' Congregationalists.' 
 
 *j,* Besides Independents (who are more or less 
 Calvinistic), there are the Independent Metho- 
 dists, the Independent Religious Reformers, the 
 Independent Unionists, &c. In 1730 was formed 
 tiae association of the Three Denominations: Inde- 
 pendents, Presbyterians, and Baptists. 
 
 Independents and Presby- 
 terians, 1647. Two political parties in 
 English history which sprang up during 
 the Civil war. The Independents were 
 the parliamentarians, but the Presby- 
 terians were disposed to make terms with 
 the king and the royalists. In 1680 the 
 Independents were called Whigs and the 
 royalists Tories. Since the middle of 
 the 19th cent, the words Liberal and 
 Conservative have well-nigh superseded 
 those of Whig and Tory. 
 
 Independents' Declaration of 
 Faith {The). Their confession of faith, 
 contained in 33 articles, 12 Oct., 1658. 
 
 Index. The first index to a book 
 was by Valerius Soranus. Pliny says 
 that he himself gave an index to his 
 ' Natural History,' adding these words : 
 ' Valerius Soranus, one of our Latin 
 authors, had done the like before me.' 
 
 Index Expurgato'rius, or ' Index 
 Librorum Expurgandorum,' 1 "57. Issued 
 by Paul IV. A list of books forbidden to 
 
INDEX 
 
 INDULGENCE 
 
 445 
 
 be read by Catholics. The books of all 
 heresiarchs, whatever the subject, are 
 forbidden; all books of an heretical 
 tendency, and all versions of the Bible 
 by ' heretics.' The list was made out 
 originally by the Congi-egation of the 
 Inquisition of Rome, but Pius V. ap- 
 pointed a special ' Congregation of the 
 Index.' See next article. 
 
 Index Librorum Prohibito- 
 rum. In May 1B25 Sir Eobert Inglis, 
 speaking in the House of Commons, 
 said : ' I hold in my hand the " Index 
 Librorum Prohibiiorum " (a list of 
 books proscribed by the Catholic 
 Church under the penalties of the 
 Inquisition). It was printed at Eome 
 by authority in 1819, and I bought it 
 there in 1821.' The first book on the 
 list is ' Bacon, De Augmentis Scientia- 
 rum.' Then follow ' Locke, on the 
 Human Understanding,' Cudworth's ' In- 
 tellectual System,' Milton's ' Paradise 
 Lost ' . . . ' Algarotte On the Newtonian 
 System,' &c. This is also called the 
 ' Index of the Court of Rome,' or briefly 
 the ' Index.' Many of the books of Des- 
 cartes, Malebranche, Fleury, Fe'nelon, 
 with all Calvin's, Luther's, and Voltaire's, 
 are in the Index — Gibbon, Robertson, 
 Sismondi, Hallam, Goldsmith's ' History 
 of England,' Kant, T. S. Mill, Whately'a 
 * Logic,' Dante, Addison, &c. Some little 
 tales for children are banned in the 
 Index, as, for instance, ' Little Henry and 
 his Bearer.' 
 
 Sir Eobert says that Jacqnier, the editor of 
 Newton's ' Principia," v/rote on the fly-leaf 'New- 
 tonus, in tertio libro, Telluris motoe hypothesim 
 assumit . . . Caiterumlatia asunimis pontificlbus 
 contra telluris motum decretis nos obsequi pro- 
 fitemur. 1739." 
 
 Indian File {In). In single file; 
 one at a time ; as North American In- 
 dians go on an attack, the one behind 
 treading exactly in the footsteps of the 
 man before him, the last man carefully 
 obliterating the footprmts. 
 
 Indian Mutiny {The), 1857, 1858. 
 It began by mutinies of the Sepoys at 
 Barrackpore and Berhampore, between 
 24 Jan. and 6 May, 1857 ; the Meerut 
 massacre {g^.v.) occurred 10 May, the 
 mutiny at Delhi 11 May, the mutiny at 
 Lucknow 30 May, at Benares 4 June, at 
 Allahabad and Cawnpore 5 June. "War 
 over June 1858. Also called the 'Sepoy 
 War.' See ' Greased Cartridges.' 
 
 In tact, the mutiny was virtually crushed in 
 
 seven months, and by the close of 1857 the Bengal 
 Army and East Indian Company ceased to exist. 
 
 India'na (U.S. America). So called 
 in 1802 from the number of Indians 
 who had flocked thither. A French 
 settlement in 1702 ; a separate territory 
 in 1800 ; admitted to the Union in 181(3. 
 The nickname given to the inhabitants 
 o Indiana is Hoosiers. 
 
 Indiction. I. In chronologtj means 
 a period of fifteen years. The Indiction 
 of Constantinople begins 1 Sept., 312, the 
 date of Constantino's victory over Maxen- 
 tius. This epoch is still preserved in 
 papal bulls, because then Christianity 
 was first recognised by the state. But 
 the Papal Indiction begins on 1 Jan., 
 313. 
 
 Divide the date by 15 and it will give the num- 
 ber of indictions, the remainder being the years 
 over. Thus 181)0 -i- 15 gives 126 indictions exactly. 
 
 II. In political Jiistory it means the 
 recurrence of 15 years when the emperor 
 of the East revised and reimposed the 
 imposts of his empire. The word means 
 the unperial edict. 
 
 Indolent Dick. Richard Crom- 
 well, son of Oliver Cromwell (162G- 
 1712). 
 
 Induction— Institution. Induc- 
 tion is the investing of a clergpnan with 
 the temporalities of a benefice or living. 
 Listitution is the investing him with its 
 spiritualities. If a bishop is the patron 
 of a benefice the two ceremonies are 
 united in what is termed ' collation ' to 
 the living. 
 
 Inductive Philosophy {The 
 Father of). Francis Bacon lord Veru- 
 1am (1561-1626). 
 
 'Inductive philosophy' is inferring general 
 principles from data. Iii'ditctive philosophy goes 
 the other way about ; it begins with general prin- 
 ciples and then presumes what these principles 
 involve. One is the a jwsteriori process, and the 
 other is the d i>riori one. All 'science' follows 
 the iii,lurtir<- or Baconian plan. ' Theology ' still 
 adlieres to the deductive system. 
 
 Indulgence {An). A Papal Indul- 
 gence was a grace given or sold by the 
 pope, or someone authorised by him, 
 granting either partial or plenary immu- 
 nity of sin for some meritorious act, 
 on payment of a sum of money. The 
 price of these notes-of-hand varied from 
 20d. to 10^. In a captured vessel 500 
 bales of indulgences, each containing a 
 million, were found during the Reforma- 
 
446 
 
 INDULGENCE 
 
 INEXPIABLE 
 
 tion period in Germany. Tetzel, tbe 
 great hawker of indulgences, went about 
 like a cheap Jack, crying in the streets 
 of German towns : ' The very moment 
 the ring of the cash is heard in the basin 
 St. Peter will throw open the gates of 
 paradise to the buyer ; and if for the 
 dead, the soul will be instantly taken 
 from purgatory to Abraham's bosom.' 
 We first hear of indulgences in Nov., 
 1095, granted by the Council of Clermont 
 to crusaders. Next on 2 Feb., 1300, 
 granted by Pope Boniface VIII. to pil- 
 grims visiting Rome at the Jubilee. 
 Again 27 Jan., 1843, granted by Clement 
 VI. Again in 1411, granted by John 
 XXIII. to those who joined the crusade 
 against Ladislaus king of Naples. But 
 the sale of indulgences authorised by 
 Leo X. for raising money to complete the 
 cathedral of St. Peter at Rome was so 
 barefaced a traffic in sin that Luther made 
 capital out of it for his reformation plea ; 
 and no worse agent could have been em- 
 ployed than the charlatan Tetzel. The 
 Council of Trent in Dec. 1563 restricted 
 the grace by fijced laws. 
 
 Samson, a hawker of indulgences In Switzer- 
 land, roused the indignation of Zwingli the re- 
 former, just as Tetzel roused Luther. The 
 following is an exact translation of one of these 
 diplomas, a few words being omitted where the 
 dots are made for the sake of brevity : ' May the 
 Lord have mercy on thee, and absolve thee by 
 the merits of his most holy passion ! And I, by 
 God's authority, do hereby absolve thee from ail 
 ecclesiastical censures . . . and from all sins . . . 
 how enormous soever they may be . . . and I 
 remit to thee all the punishment which those sins 
 have deserved. I restore thee to the holy sacra- 
 ments of the church, to the communion of saints, 
 and to perfect innocence of life ; so that when 
 thou diest, the gates of hell shall be shut, and 
 those of paradise be thrown open to thee ... In 
 the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of 
 the Holy Ghost.' 
 
 The enormous impudence of this traffic almost 
 exceeds belief. Through the Netherlands the 
 price current of these indulgences was published 
 in every town and village. God's pardon for 
 crimes already committed, or about to be com- 
 mitted, was advertised according to a graduated 
 tariff. Poisoning was absolved for eleven ducats 
 (about 50s.).— Motley, Dutch Republic, vol. i. p. 73. 
 
 Indulgence to Scotch ministers, 
 16G8, whereby the ejected ministers were 
 readmitted to their livings if they accepted 
 collation from the bishop, and would 
 attend the presbyteries and synods. This 
 was the Earl of Tweeddale's Act. 
 
 1670. Lauderdale offered indulgence 
 to all ministers who would take the oath 
 of supremacy and acknowledge the 
 bishops. • 
 
 1673. Lauderdale named eighty ejected 
 ministers, and ordered them to oiiiciate 
 
 in their own churches, but nowhere else ; 
 but one-fourth of them refused the offer. 
 See under ' Declaration.' 
 
 Indulgences {Tariff of). From 
 ' The Tax of the Sacred Roman Chan- 
 cery ' : — 
 
 Adultery 40s. (joint pardon). 
 
 Arson, or setting fire to a house, lis. 
 
 Forgery 8s. 
 
 Fornication 8s. 
 
 Incest by a priest 40s. (joint pardon). 
 
 Keeping a concubine, a priest 9s. 
 
 Murder of a layman 4s. 
 
 Perjury or lying 8s. 
 
 Procuring abortion 6s. 
 
 Rape 40s. (joint pardon). 
 
 Robbery 12s. 
 
 Robbing a church 8s. 
 
 Striking a priest lis. 
 
 Of this list ' Robbery ' and ' Robbing a church ' 
 seem the most extraordinary. 
 
 Industrial Schools. Generally 
 means ' Ragged Schools,' in which writing, 
 reading, and arithmetic are taught, with 
 mechanical arts, and in which the children 
 are clothed and fed. They scarcely 
 existed till 1857, and were not finally 
 established till 18G6. 
 
 In Scotland they were established by 
 act of parliament in 1861. 
 
 In Ireland in 1868. 
 
 Private enterprise opened such schools before 
 these dates, but the first act of parliament bearing 
 on the subject was 20, 21 Vict. c. 48. 
 
 Indus'trialists [The), about 1800. 
 A school founded by St. Simon for the 
 amelioration of the people. He taught 
 that producers are the only aristocracy, 
 and if men would not work neither should 
 they eat. After the death of St. Simon 
 in 1825 the society became political and 
 communistic. In 1825 they called them- 
 selves ' St. Simonians,' and in 1833 were 
 abolished by law. 
 
 Inexpiable War {The), or 'The 
 War without Truce' (b.c. 240-236). A 
 war which sprang up immediately after 
 the First Punic War. It was headed by 
 Matho, a Libyan, who had been very 
 forward in urging the Carthaginian sol- 
 diers to demand their pay. The insur- 
 gents kept the Carthaginians at bay for 
 more than three years, when Hamilcar 
 reduced them to famine in Tunis; a 
 sortie was made, Matho was taken pri- 
 soner and put to death, and the war was 
 brought to a close. 
 
INFALLIBILITY 
 
 INFERNAL 
 
 U7 
 
 Infallibility of the Church of 
 Rome means the moral impossibihty of 
 the church ever sanctioning the intro- 
 duction of a false doctrine, as well as 
 perfect immunity of all errors at all times. 
 Our Lord said (Matt. xvi. 18), ' Thou art 
 Peter, and upon this rock will I build my 
 church ; and the gates of hell shall not 
 prevail against it.' Not only is the church 
 the fans et origo of doctrine, but it is 
 deputed to carry its teaching throughout 
 the world (Matt. Xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 
 Eph.iv. 11-16). 
 
 Of course the main question is what 
 is meant by the Catholic Church ? And 
 the answer is the consensus of the pope 
 and bishops cither expressly delivered 
 by ecumenical councils, or tacitly accepted 
 on questions of doctrine or "discipline, no 
 matter from whence they originally ema- 
 nated. 
 
 What is called the Infallibility of the 
 Pope, or, in other words, whether the 
 pope alone, as pope, is capable of pro- 
 nouncing an infallible judgment, was a 
 moot pomt for many hundreds of years 
 between Gallican and Ultramontane 
 divines. The right was first claimed in 
 750, but was not made an article of faith 
 till 1870, when it caused a rift in the 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 In the 19th Art. of the Church of England we 
 read : ' As the Church of Hierusalem, Alexandria, 
 and Antioch have erred, so also the Church of 
 Rome hath erred— not only in their living and 
 manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of 
 faith.' 
 
 *,* The Catholic Church distinctly repudiates 
 anyintallible judgment in historical and scientific 
 matters. 
 
 Infallibility of the Pope. This 
 dogma in 1870 was rejected by a party 
 which termed themselves ' Old Catholics.' 
 They also denied the ecumenical charac- 
 ter of the Vatican Council, and rejected 
 the Vatican decrees. 
 
 Infant Stockbroker {The). Sid- 
 ney Herbert Cronmire, aged twenty in 
 1886, when he was charged with mis- 
 appropriating cheques which had been 
 sent him for specified investments by 
 gentlemen residing at Bridgewater. The 
 ' Infant ' was arrested in Spain, and 
 pleaded guilty. 
 
 Infant of Ltibeck (T/^e). Christian 
 Heinrich Heineckeu (1721-1725). Tf what 
 is told us of this unhappy child is true, it 
 is the most pitiable instance of precocity 
 
 on record. His life was written by his 
 tutor Schoneich. 
 
 We are told that he spoke when only a month 
 old ; that at twelve months of age he knew the 
 chief events of the Pentateuch : at thirteen 
 months he knew the history of the whole Old 
 Testament ; at fourteen months the history of 
 the New Testament; at two and a half years he 
 could answer any general question of history or 
 geography ; at three years old he knew French 
 and Latin as familiarly as he knew German, 
 although he was not then weaned (!!). He died 
 between four and five. 
 
 *»* More marvellous still, the infant prodigy 
 John Philipp Baratier was born at Schwabach 
 near Niirnberg the same year {!!), 1721-1740. Of 
 this latter prodigy there is no doubt. 
 
 Infante (mas. 3 syl.), Infanta 
 (fem,). Titles given in Spain and Por- 
 tugal to all the princes and princesses of 
 the blood royal, except the heir or heiress 
 apparent. 
 
 The heir apparent of Spain is called the Prince 
 of Asturias. The heiress presumptive is entitled 
 Infanta. In Portugal the heir or heiress apparent 
 is called the ' Prince ' or " Princess Royal.' 
 
 Infantry. Foot soldiers. ' Infantry ' 
 originally meant a particular army of 
 foot soldiers, raised by the Infante or 
 heir-apparent of Spain to rescue his 
 father from the Moors, and is about equal 
 to our phrase 'the Prince of Wales's 
 Own.' The infantry was the Infante's 
 own. We have applied the particular 
 term to foot soldiers generally. Like 
 calling all foot soldiers 'the Prince of 
 W^ales's Own.' 
 
 Infernal Columns {The), 1793. 
 Republican detachments in the Vendean 
 war. So called from their diabolical 
 barbarity. They murdered all, even 
 children at the breasts, and as they 
 advanced set the houses and country on 
 fire. 
 
 Infernal Machines. 
 
 I. 21 Dec, 1800. A machine planted 
 by the Chouans in the Rue St. Nicaise to 
 blow up Napoleon Bonaparte on his re- 
 turn from Italy. As Bonaparte drew 
 near, the barrel hung fire ; but scarcely 
 had he passed the spot when it exploded, 
 shattered the windows of his carriage, 
 and injured several persons in the crowd. 
 
 II. 28 July, 1835. Discharged from a 
 window at Louis-Philippe king of the 
 French as he was riding on horseback 
 with his three sons down the Boulevard 
 du Temple (Paris). Marshal Mortier, 
 General de Virigny, and twelve others, 
 including a child, were killed, but Louis- 
 Philippe was uninjured. The assassin 
 was Fieschi. a Corsican. formerly a 
 
U9 
 
 INFEANCESADOS 
 
 INNOCENTS' 
 
 soldier and a police spy. Fieschi, Peppin, 
 and Moray were executed ; Boireau was 
 sentenced to imprisonment for twenty 
 years, but Besclier was acquitted. 
 
 The projectile of Orsini thrown at Napoleon III., 
 14 Jan., 1858, was a suecies of bombshell ; that 
 which assassinated Czar Alexander II., li! March, 
 1881, was a dynamite bomb, thrown at his carriage 
 by Nihilists. 
 
 Infrancesa'dos, 1808. Those Spa- 
 nish grandees who traitorously favoured 
 the French usurpation of the Spanish 
 crown and the appointment of Joseph 
 Bonaparte as his brother Napoleon's 
 viceroy king. Also called ' Josephi'nos ' 
 iq.v.). 
 
 Influenza. An epidemic catarrh. 
 Ai^peared in Europe in 1510, 1557, 1580. 
 
 Very fatal in London in 1729, and in 
 Eussia in 1781, 1782. 
 
 It has appeared in England in 1782, 
 1803, 1831, 1833, 1836, 1837, 1889. 
 
 The word means an epidemic due to the in- 
 fluence of the planets ; under the notion that it is 
 connected with volcanic action. 
 
 Ing'hamites (3 syl.). Christian fol- 
 lowers of Mr. Benjamin Ingham, son-in- 
 law of the CounteiLS of Huntingdon. 
 
 Injunctions {Royal), 1535. It was 
 commanded that no lectures should bo 
 given in the Universities on the ' Sen- 
 tences ' (q.v.), or on Canon Law; but 
 that Greek, Latin, and Divinity should 
 be taught in addition to the Trivium 
 {q.v.) a.nd Quadrivium {q.v.). 
 
 Injunctions of Edward VI. 
 
 {The), 1547. Commands issued to the 
 Commissioners appointed by Cranmer to 
 make a visitation of all England. They 
 enjoined that all images, shrines, candle- 
 sticks, pictures, representations of mira- 
 cles, &c., in windows and elsewhere., be 
 removed and destroyed ; that all proces- 
 sions and pilgrimages be discontinued ; 
 that the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the 
 Ten Commandments be repeated when 
 there is no sermon ; that the Epistle and 
 Gospel be read in English; that the 
 Litany be said or sung kneeling; that the 
 bidding prayer be used as prescribed. 
 Undei penalty of excommunication, se- 
 questration, or deprivation. 
 
 Injunctions of Elisabeth {The), 
 1559. They vv'ere fifty-three in numbei. 
 Most v/ere similar to those of Edward VI., 
 but some new regulations were added 
 respecting the marriage of the clergy ; 
 chanting and singing v/ere allowed in 
 
 divine services ; reverence was enjoined 
 at the name of Jesus ; all were required 
 tc kneel during the Litany and all col- 
 lects ; the wafer in the eucharist was to 
 be dispensed with ; and the oath of su- 
 premacy was to be explained as disavow- 
 ing all claim tc any authority in the 
 divine service or the sacred functions of 
 the church. 
 
 Injunctions of Mary {The), 1551- 
 Eestoring to the ecclesiastical courts 
 their jurisdictions ; enforcing the celibacy 
 of the clergy, and insisting that all mar- 
 ried clergymen should put away their 
 wives ; abolishing the oath of Eoyal su- 
 premacy ; restoring the Latin tongue in 
 all church services; forbidding Protes- 
 tants to be schoolmasters ; and com- 
 manding that a new set of hoiAilies be 
 at once prepared to secure uniformity 
 of doctrine and practice. 
 
 Injunctions of "William and 
 
 Mary {The), Feb. 1()95. Under the 
 advice of Archbishop Tenison, for the 
 maintenance of church discipline. They 
 were followed by ' Directions ' for unity 
 of opinion on the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 
 Innocent Papists. Those Catho- 
 lics of Ireland who could prove to the 
 satisfaction of the commissioners that 
 they had never acted with the confederates, 
 never adhered to the pope's nuncio, had 
 never been absolved for taking part 
 directly or indirectly in the Irish rebel- 
 lion {q.v.), that they did not derive their 
 title to the estates claimed from persons 
 who had been guilty of the offences men- 
 tioned above, that they had never held 
 any correspondence with any person who 
 had concurred in the rebellion, that they 
 never had taken any part in their coun- 
 cils, never employed any agent directly 
 or indirectly to treat with a foreign 
 power, never been a Tory, i.e. a marauder, 
 &c. It was almost impossible to find 
 such a papist in all Ireland. 
 
 Innocents. Those Irish who had 
 been transplanted by Cromwell merely 
 for their religion, and not for rebellion or 
 any political offence. These Irish at the 
 Eestoration were by the Act of Settle- 
 ment to be restored to their estates, and 
 the displaced tenant was to be indemnified 
 by some other tenement. 
 
 Innocents' Day, or ' Festum Inno- 
 centium.' 28 Dec. To commemorate the 
 
INNS 
 
 INQUISITOES 
 
 449 
 
 slaughter of the babes of Bethlehem by 
 Herod the Great, with the view of killing 
 thereby the infant Jesus. 
 
 Inns of Chancery. Ten schools 
 between the City of London and West- 
 minster, for law students, founded in the 
 reign of Edward III. Originally meant 
 for preparatory colleges for young stu- 
 dents, and each school was attended by 
 100 students at least. Now they are for 
 the most part occupied by solicitors, &c. 
 See ' London University.' 
 
 Inquisitio Eliensis. The dooms- 
 day of the lands of the monastery of Ely, 
 contained in the counties of Cambridge, 
 Herts, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
 Huntingdon. Published by Sir Henry 
 Ellis (1816) in the second of the two 
 supplementary volumes of ' Domesday 
 Book.' 
 
 Inquisition (The), or 'The Holy 
 Office,' 1232. A tribunal erected by the 
 popes for the examination and punish- 
 ment of heretics. The chief inquisitors 
 were the Dominicans. The Liquisition 
 tried the suspects, and when condemned 
 handed them over to the civil powers to 
 be punished. Introduced into Spain in 
 1248; estabhshed in Portugal in 1543. 
 Abolished in Portugal by the Cortes 
 between 1818 and 1826. Extinguished 
 by royal decree in Spain 1835. 
 
 strictly speaking it originated with Innocent 
 III., who (in 1203) granted a commission for the 
 conversion of the Albigcnses. The jurisdiction of 
 the courts of the Inquisition were defined and 
 regulated by Gregory IX. in 1232 or 1233. The 
 modern Spanish Intiuisition was constituted by 
 Ferdinand and Isabella in 1480, and suppressed in 
 1820. 
 
 Inquisition of Goa, in the Indies 
 (The). A very powerful Iribunal for the 
 trial of 'heretics.' Those sentenced to 
 die were clad in much the same way as in 
 Portugal. See ' Santo Benito.' Such as 
 are convicted of magic wear paper sugar- 
 loafed caps covered with flames and 
 devils. All the ' heretics ' go in proces- 
 sion to the church chosen for the cere- 
 mony ; they go barefooted, carrying 
 lighted tapers in their hands ; the least 
 guilty go first, then comes one carrying a 
 cross, and then those condemned to die. 
 The day after the execution the head of 
 each person burnt to death is exhibited 
 in a picture rud«ly executed, surrounded 
 with flames, and underneath is written 
 the name and quality of the person thus 
 represented. Abolished. 
 
 Inquisition of Rome (The), or 
 ' The Congregation of the Holy Office,' 
 1543. Founded by the Bull of Paul HI. 
 It consisted of twelve cardinals and some 
 inferior officers, but the pope himself 
 presided. Its standard is of red damask, 
 on which is delineated a cross, with an 
 olive branch on one side and a sword on 
 the other. The motto is ' Exurge, 
 Domine, et judica causam meam' (Ps. 
 Ixxiii.). 
 
 Inquisition of Venice (The). 
 Consisted of the resident nuncio, the 
 patriarch of Venice, the father inqui- 
 sitor, and two senators. This Inquisition 
 was nothing like so severe as the Inqui- 
 sitions of Spain and Portugal. It took 
 no notice of Greeks and Armenians, and 
 tolerated Jews, who wore a scarlet cap as 
 a badge. Heretics were allowed to take 
 their degrees in law and physic, and were 
 not interfered with by this tribunal. 
 Abolished by Napoleon in 1808. 
 
 Inquisitor of Atheists (The). 
 J. Andre' Naigeon (1738-1810), so called 
 from his intolerance. 
 
 Inquisitori del Doge Defunto 
 
 (The). Three magistrates of Venice 
 whose duty was to examine into the 
 administration of deceased doges, to 
 compare their acts with the provisions of 
 their oath, to inquire into charges brought 
 against them, and if the charges were 
 proved, to make their heirs responsible 
 for reparations. 
 
 Inquisitors (The State), 16 June, 
 1454. Three j)ersons chosen by the 
 Council of Ten in Venice, with dicta- 
 torial powers; two were of I Neri (the 
 Blacks, i.e. The Ten), and one was II 
 liosso (the Beds, or the Council of the 
 Doge). These inquisitors were invested 
 with i^lenary authority over every person 
 in tlie republic, noble or citizen, magis- 
 trate or ecclesiastic. The penalties tliey 
 might inflict were wholly optional, and 
 the trials of offenders were jDublic or 
 secret. They kept the keys of the 
 treasury, and were accountable to no one 
 for their expenditures. All commanders, 
 ambassadors, and governors addressed 
 themselves to the Three. They made 
 their own laws and rescinded them as they 
 liked; and to prevent the inviolability 
 of secrecy, no one who had an ecclesiastic 
 directly or indirectly among his connex- 
 ions v/as eligible to the oilice of inqui- 
 GG 
 
450 
 
 I. N. R. I. 
 
 INSTRUMENT 
 
 sitor. Tt is needless to add that the 
 history of this Inquisition exceeds in 
 infamy and cruelty any tribunal the 
 world ever established. 
 
 I. N. R. I. Jesus of Nazareth, King 
 of the Jews. Inscription over the cruci- 
 fix (Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum). 
 
 Insabbata'ti, or 'Insabbates' (4 
 syl.), 12th cent. The Waldenses are 
 over and over again called ' Inzabatati ' 
 in the council held at Tarragon in 1242. 
 Probably the word means ' shoeless.' 
 They are also called ' Sabbatati ' [q.v.]. 
 Eberhard de^ethune is the first authority 
 for the word. 
 
 In opposition to the 'shoeless' explanation, 
 Father Natalis says, they [the Waldenses] cele- 
 brate no sabbath or feast day, and do not abstain 
 from work even on days consecrated to the 
 Virgin and the blessed saints.— P. Natalis Alex- 
 ander, vol. vii. pp. 94, 95. 
 
 Inspection [An). In the Lutheran 
 communion means a synod of five con- 
 sistorial churches ; called a synod in the 
 Calvinist communion. See ' Consis- 
 torial.' 
 
 Instance, in French law, means 
 sta7'e in judicio, to be under judgment 
 (instantia) ; and a process is en instance 
 when it is brought before a jurisdiction. 
 
 Ftrst Instance is the jurisdiction ' qui 
 doit connaitre en premier ressort de la 
 decision d'une affaire ' ; whence the civil 
 tribunals before which processes are first 
 brought are called ' Courts of First In- 
 stance ' [trihunaux de premiere in- 
 stance). 
 
 Second Instance means the jurisdic- 
 tion of the appeal, or of the second 
 degree. 
 
 Beprise d'instatice is resuming a siait 
 which has been interrupted by the death 
 of one of the parties, the retirement or 
 withdrawal of the advocate, or some such 
 cause. 
 
 We also find the phrases L'insiance liee conlradic- 
 iiyiii'vii-ut (qui a lieu lorsque les dtux parties coni- 
 paraissent ensemble); and L'insiance par ih'/ant 
 (qui se poursuit lorstiuo le dt'/endcurne so prtisente 
 pas sur I'absignation qui lui a ete donnde). 
 
 Institute of France. Constituted 
 in 1795 as the * Institut National ' by 
 the union of the French Academy, the 
 Academy of Inscrijitions, and the 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences. The 
 constitution was revised in 1803 by 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis Philippe in 
 1832 added to it a class of moral and 
 political sciences. 
 
 Institutes (3 syl.). The elements 
 of Roman law, composed by Tribonian, 
 Theophilus, and Dorotheus, a.d. 533. 
 Divided into four books, each book sub- 
 divided into chapters, and each chapter 
 into paragraphs. 
 
 Institutes of G-hazan or Kasan 
 
 {The), 1295-1304. The ' commentary ' of 
 Ghazan, or Kasan, sultan of Persia, com- 
 piled from several sources. These Insti- 
 tutes are still held in honour in the 
 East. 
 Institution, Induction, and 
 
 Collation. Institution is investiture 
 of the spiritualities of a benefice. Induc- 
 tion is investiture of its temporalities. 
 Collation is the union of the two inves- 
 titures. Thus a person collated to a 
 living is both instituted and inducted. 
 
 Instrument of Government 
 
 (The), 1653. Spoken of generally as 
 ' The Instrument.' A new English con- 
 stitution drawn up by the Council of State 
 nominated by the Barebone Parliament 
 iq.v.), and acce^jted by the Council of 
 Officers. The house was to consist of 
 400 members from England, 30 from 
 Scotland, and 30 from Ireland. The 
 seats hitherto assigned to small and 
 rotten boroughs were transferred to larger 
 constituencies; all si^ecial rights of voting 
 for members were abolished, and the 
 franchise was given to holders of pro- 
 perty to the value of 200Z. and upwards. 
 Catholics and Malignnnts {q.v.) were ex- 
 cluded. Cromwell was made Lord Pro- 
 tector, but his power was strictly limited. 
 The members of the council were all 
 named by him, but no member could be 
 removed except by the consent of the 
 council itself. With the council rested 
 the power of peace and war, the choice 
 of all oftlcers civil and military, and the 
 election of protectors. Parliaments were 
 to last three years, and three years only. 
 All taxes were to be imposed by parlia- 
 ment only. 
 
 *^* The conditions which Cromwell 
 swore to observe when appointed the 
 Lord Protector were as follows : (1) The 
 legislative power to be vested in a lord 
 protector and parliament; (2) the exe- 
 cutive power to reside in the lord pro- 
 tector acting with the advice of his 
 council ; (3) no laws to be made or taxes 
 to be levied without consent of parlia- 
 ment; (4) the civil list to be fixed at 
 
INSULATED 
 
 INTERDICTION 
 
 451 
 
 200,000Z. a year, and the army to be 
 30,000 men, two-thirds of which to be 
 infantry ; (5) all religious persuasions to 
 'be protected except prelatists and papists ; 
 (6) the successor of Cromwell to be se- 
 lected by council. 
 
 They proceeded with the revision of 'the In- 
 Btriiment ' ; and their labours were embodied in 
 a bill, which was read a third time 1(»5. — Dr. 
 LiNGAED, History of England, viii. 6. 
 
 Insulated Abbots. Abbots of 
 independent or liberated abbeys, who 
 acknowledged no lord but the pope. In 
 the middle ages these abbots frequently 
 enjoyed episcopal titles, but very few had 
 dioceses. 
 
 Insurrection Act [The] of 1796. 
 Giving the lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
 power to proclaim any county or district 
 of Ireland, on the requisition of seven 
 magistrates ; and to seize, imprison, and 
 send on board His Majesty's fleet persons 
 found in an unlawful assembly or in any 
 way imperilling the public peace. 
 
 Insurrection of June {The), 
 23, 2vl, 25 June, 1848. This was a war 
 against society, against law, against pro- 
 perty ; and was produced by the closing 
 of the national workshops of Paris, the 
 expense of which cost the government 
 40,000Z. a week. Two million and eighty 
 thousand pounds annually to maintain 
 lazy, worthless operatives, who planned 
 rebellion and diffused discontent ! 
 
 Insurrection of La Vendue 
 
 {The), March 1793. The Vendeans, a 
 very primitive i^eople, had no sympathy 
 witla the French Revolution, so the gentry 
 and clergy organised an army to resist 
 the dangerous innovations. They de- 
 feated every army sent against them for 
 a time, but at length were obliged to 
 succumb. All who took part in the in- 
 surrection were outlawed, and their pro- 
 perty confiscated. M. Prudhommc in- 
 forms us that 937,000 persons perished 
 in this savage butchery. 
 
 Insurrection of Ragots'ki (T/ie), 
 1703-1713. He declared himself pro- 
 tector of Poland and prince of Transj'l- 
 vania ; but in 1713 the Austrians compelled 
 him to retire. He died 1735. 
 
 Insurrection of the Duchesse 
 de Berry ( The), 1832. The last Chouan 
 e)iieute made with a view of placing 
 Henri [Giiiq\ on the throne of France. 
 
 The duchess was the widow of the assas- 
 sinated Due de Bordeaux and mother 
 of Henri V. Her insurrection was very 
 romantic, and the duchess, being taken 
 prisoner, would have been put to death 
 had she not been enceinte. 
 
 Insurrection of the Yellow- 
 Caps [The), A.D. 220. Tchang-kio of 
 China persuaded the multitude that he 
 could cure them of a pestilential disease 
 which was then prevalent. He thereby 
 soon acquired a large following of some 
 500,000 men. These he persuaded to 
 adopt as a badge the yellow cap, and 
 then he assumed regal power. The 
 whole military strength of China was 
 sent against the rebels ; and though at 
 first the mob gained certain advantages, 
 ere long the regular troops prevailed, 
 and the insurgents were routed with 
 great slaughter. 
 
 Intellectual Artist {The). Nico- 
 las Poussin (1594-1665). Famous for 
 his classic costumes. 
 
 Intendants Militaires. A corps 
 charged with all things which concern 
 the administration and ' comptability ' of 
 war. They are named by the minister 
 of the war department. They were 
 established in France in 1817 in substi- 
 tution of the inspectors of revenue and 
 connnissioners of war. The corps con- 
 sists of 28 intendants (who rank next to 
 generals) and 140 sub-intendants. 
 
 Pronounce Akn-tuhn-dahn me-le-Utir. 
 
 Intendants of a Province {The). 
 Magistrates, administrative, judicial, and 
 financial, who exercise their functions in 
 each geiitralite {q.v.). The chamber in 
 which they meet is called tlie ' Intend- 
 ance. ' The first intendants of a province 
 were established by Henri II. in 1551. 
 They were suppressed in 1790. 
 
 A ' generality ' is the jurisdiction of an intendant- 
 general. 
 
 Intercursus Magnus. The treaty 
 made by Henry VII. with the Flemings. 
 In 1496 Henry made a less liberal treaty, 
 which was branded as the Intercursus 
 Mains. 
 
 Interdiction of Fire and 
 "Water. 'Aquas et ignis interdictio.' 
 The form used by the Romans in their 
 judicial sentence of banishment froni 
 Italy ; the person thus interdicted might 
 go anywhere he chose provided he left 
 Italy. 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 
 
 INTERIM 
 
 INVESTITURE 
 
 Interim {The), or ' Formula ad In- 
 terim,' 1548. When Charles V. saw that 
 the pope removed the Council of Trent 
 to Bologna, he believed that he only- 
 sought time to stave off a decision on the 
 knotty points of the day ; and, in order 
 to preserve peace in his kingdom, he 
 made a provisionary arrangement with 
 the Protestants appointed, which was to 
 be in force till the council was actually 
 summoned. By this ' Interim ' or provi- 
 sionary arrangement, the cup was allowed 
 to the laity in the Lord's Supper, and the 
 clergy were allowed to marry. This con- 
 cession j)leased neither party, and the 
 Interim fell through by the ' Treaty of 
 Passau,' which secured full and perfect 
 liberty to all in matters of religion (1552). 
 
 Passau, pronounce Pas-sow—' ow ' as in ' now.' 
 
 International La^w {Professor- 
 ship of), 18G7. Founded by Dr. Whewell, 
 master of Trinity College. Salary 500Z. 
 See ' Regius Professorship of Civil Law.' 
 
 Whewell, pronounce You'-el. 
 
 Interregnum {The English). From 
 23 Dec, 1688 (the abdication) to 13 Feb., 
 1689, when jiarliament assented to the 
 accession of Will", ini and Mary. 
 
 William III. was son-in-law and Mary was 
 daughter of James II. 
 
 Introit, or ' Introltus.' The psalm or 
 passage of scripture chanted in the 
 Catholic Church while the priest is enter- 
 ing the chancel to celebrate mass. Such 
 terms as Reminiscere Sunday, Oculi 
 Sunday, L(£tdre Sunday, Quasimodo 
 Sunday, &c. are so called from the begin- 
 ning words of the introitus. 
 
 Intrusionists and !N"on-Intru- 
 sionists, 1835. The two Scotch parties 
 called into existence by the ' Veto Act,' 
 passed by the G eneral Assembly, v/hereby 
 the nomina<-iion of a patron to a living 
 might be voided by veto. They were also 
 called ' Highiiiers,' and ' Moderates.' In- 
 trusionists are those who regarded the 
 veto as an illegal intrusion or interference 
 with the rights of a patron to present to 
 a living. See 'Veto Act.' 
 
 Invasion of England {Threat- 
 ened). 
 
 1386. Charles VI. of France was per- 
 suaded by his uncles to invade England, 
 and a formidable army of 40,000 men was 
 assembled in Flanders for the purpose. 
 Every knight provided himself with a 
 pillard, or man to collect pillage for him, 
 
 and an enormous tent called a cite was 
 constructed under the direction of Oliver 
 de Clisson, the lord high constable. This 
 monster tent, which took to pieces, would 
 enclose a space of 8,000 sq. ft. and required 
 72 vessels to convey it across the Channel. 
 When all was ready for sailing the king 
 was wasting his time in dissipation. When 
 the king arrived he had to wait for his 
 uncle the Due de Berry. And when the 
 duke arrived the king changed his mind 
 and gave up the expedition. The army 
 was disbanded, the stores were pillaged, 
 and the monster tent, having drifted to 
 the Thames, became the prey of English 
 mariners. 
 
 1803. Bonaparte, mad with England 
 for daring to beard him, and determined 
 to make a descent on the island, assem- 
 bled a formidable army on the northern 
 coast, where he formed his famous 
 * Camp de Boulogne,' constructed above 
 2,000 gun-boats and flat transports, 
 and increased his military stores and 
 munitions of war, but ultimately deferred 
 his descent till the next spring (1804). 
 When next spring arrived Bonajoarte had 
 changed his mind, and the invasion of 
 England was set aside for his coronation 
 as Emperor of the French. 
 
 The Column of Boulogne was erected to per- 
 petuate the memory of this grand preparation. 
 There is a wonderful resemblance in these two 
 threatened invasions, that of Charles VI. in 138(5, 
 and that of Bonanarte in 1803. Hee ' Armada.' 
 
 Invention of the Cross {The). 
 An annual fete (3 May) held in the 
 Catholic Church to celebrate the ' dis- 
 covery of the true cross ' in a cave by 
 Helena mother of Constantiue. She was 
 80 years of age at the time, and was told 
 where to find the three crosses by one 
 Judas, a monk of Jerusalem. The true 
 cross of the three was discovered because 
 when a sick woman was touched by the 
 other two the contact had no effect on 
 her, but immediately the true cross 
 touched her she was restored to perfect 
 health. This ' Invention ' dates from 
 326. 
 
 Investiture, 1052-1122. Kaiser 
 Heinrich III. was the first to give a ring 
 and crozier to a bishop on his consecra- 
 tion, as a symbol of investiture, or grant 
 of episcopal temporalities in Ills domin- 
 ions. The innovation was lilie a bomb- 
 shell, and for seventy years pope and 
 king contended about the prerogative. 
 No pope can give away lands and build- 
 
INVESTITURE 
 
 INVISIBLES 
 
 453 
 
 ings in another man's empire, and no king 
 can confer office in a ' kingdom not of this 
 world.' At last, in 1122, the moot point 
 was settled thus : the pope was to conse- 
 crate, and then the bishop was to do 
 homage to the king for the temjioralities 
 of his diocese. The pope invested with 
 rmg and crozier, and the king with a 
 sceptre. 
 Investiture in Carinthia. This 
 
 was a nominal purchase, and evidently 
 referred to a time when the land belonged 
 to the people. On the day of inauguration 
 the peasant appointed for the purpose 
 seated himself on a marble block beneath 
 a tree, and the new duke, dressed as a 
 countrpnan, bipproached on foot, carrying 
 a crook, a spade, and a wallet of bread 
 and cheese. Two noblemen on foot 
 attended as his sponsors. 'Who are 
 these ? ' asked the peasant of the crowd. 
 ' The prince of the country,' was the re- 
 ply. ' Is he a good man and true ? ' 
 demanded the peasant. ' He is,' was the 
 answer. ' Then, by what right will he 
 push me from my stool ? ' asked the 
 peasant. ' He will buy it of thee,' said 
 the crowd. ' For how much ? ' ' For 
 sixty ]?ence.' "Whereupon the jieasant rose, 
 and the duke took his place, paying sixty 
 pence into the hand of the peasant, who 
 also received as a perquisite the clothes 
 worn by the duke, and was exempt from 
 rent and taxes. Soon as the duke was 
 seated, his vassals paid him homage, and 
 the duke j)romised to deal even justice to 
 all. The duke then proceeded to church 
 to hear mass, and ended the day with a 
 banquet. 
 
 Investiture of Vassals {The). 
 
 The lord having received homage and the 
 oath of fealty {q.v.) invested liis ' man ' 
 with the fief by delivering to him the old 
 banners belonging thereto. There were 
 often several of these banners, because 
 every large fief contained several smaller 
 ones, each of which had its own banner. 
 The chief threw the old banners into the 
 crowd to be torn to pieces, and then pre- 
 sented his dependents with new ones em- 
 blazoned with arms of the new fief, by 
 accepting which the dependents acknow- 
 ledged the suzerainty of their new lord. 
 
 Invincible {The). Cosmo de' Medici 
 was called ' the Great and the Invincible ' 
 (1389-li04). He was also caUed the 
 'father of his country.' 
 
 Invincible {The). The Russian 
 general Suwarof or Suworof (1730-1800). 
 His full name, &c. was Alexander Vassi- 
 livich Suwarof- Rymnikski, count, pi'ince 
 Italinski, field-marshal, generalissimo of 
 the Russian army. 
 
 Invincible Doctor (T/ie). ' Doctor 
 Singularis et Invincibilis,' William of 
 Occam, in Surrey (1270-1317), Provincial 
 of the English Cordeliers. He was ex- 
 communicated by Pope John XXII. for 
 writing a book against the secular power 
 of the pope, ' Super potestate summi 
 pontificis.' See ' Doctors,' &c. 
 
 Peter Tome was also called ' Doctor Invincibilis.' 
 
 Invincibles {The). I. The French 
 legion, whose exploits in Italy under 
 Bonaparte were so astounding. This 
 legion was almost annihilated in Egypt 
 by Abercrombie in ISOl. 
 
 II. Irish sicarii. See 'Irish Invinci- 
 bles.' 
 
 Invisible Commander {The). 
 
 Lord Raglan commander-in-chief of the 
 British army in the Crimean war. The 
 sufferings of the soldiers in the winter of 
 1854-5 were very great, and the anger of 
 the nation was bitter against Lord Raglan, 
 but somewhat unjustly so. 
 
 Invisible Prince {The). William 
 John Cavendish Scott Bentinck 5th duke 
 of Portland (1800-1879), famous for his 
 enormous excavations and palatial build- 
 ings underground. At one time he 
 employed 1,000 artificers on his estate to 
 malce himself invisible. A tunnel was 
 made across the park for the workmen to 
 pass to and fro without intruding on his 
 seclusion. He also constructed tunnels 
 in the abbey, by which he could pass from 
 one building to another without being 
 seen, and a tunnel leads to the riding 
 school. 
 
 Invisible Three {The), or State 
 Inquisitors of Venice. See ' Inquisitors,' 
 &c. Called ' invisible ' because no in- 
 quisitor was publicly known. All its 
 citations and acts were done in the name 
 of the Ten. All its judgments were pro- 
 nounced by the mouths of the secretaries. 
 
 Invisibles {The). I. The Rosicru- 
 cians. So called because they never 
 showed themselves in public in open day. 
 
 II. The disciples of Illyricus, Flaccus, 
 Osiander, &c., who denied the perpetual 
 visibihty of the church. 
 
454 
 
 IONIAN 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 lo'nian Republic (T7ie). Founded 
 1815 ; consisting of the seven islands : 
 Cephalonia, Cerigo, Corfu, Paxo, Santa 
 Maura, Theaki, and Zantft ; all placed 
 under the protection of Great Britain by 
 treaty with Russia. Ceded to Greece 
 1864. 
 
 Cerigo, pronounce Cherry-go. Corfu, pronounce 
 Kor-/oo'. 
 
 lo'nian War (T7ie), B.C. 501-492. Be- 
 gan with the revolt of Aristagnras, who 
 obtained help from Athens and Eretria 
 in 500. Athens and Evetria left the con- 
 federacy B.C. 499. Aristagoras was slain 
 in Thrace b.c. 497. And in 492 Ionia 
 was completely subjugated by Persia. 
 
 lo'nians (The). Had twelve great 
 cities on the north coast of the Pelopon- 
 nesus and twelve colonies in Asia Minor, 
 with several islands. Ephesus, Smyrna, 
 Miletus, and Samos belonged to the 
 twelve confederated Ionian colonies. 
 
 lon'ic Letters. The four added 
 to the Greek alphabet by Simoni- 
 des of Cos (f, 0, *?>, x), and the four 
 added by Epicharmos the Sicilian (f, 17, 
 «^i to). Called Ionic, because the lonians 
 were the first to adopt all the 24 letters. 
 (N.B. The other 16 are called Cadmean 
 letters.) 
 
 Ionic Poets of G-reece {The). 
 Those poets who wrote in the Ionic 
 dialect or the Greek of Asia Minor. 
 Homer wrote Ionic Greek ; but of the 
 lyrists the two most eminent are Ana- 
 creon (b.c. 563-478) and Simonides (b.c. 
 556-467). The elegy of the latter on 
 Leonidas and his 300 has no superior in 
 the world ; and his ' Lament of Danae ' is 
 a model of pathos. As for Anacreon, his 
 odes are quite unrivalled. There never 
 were odes more inimitable than his 
 ' Cupid drii)ping wet ' (Ode 3), ' To my 
 dove ' (Ode 9), and ' The Rose ' (Ode 53) 
 (' Barnes's edition '). 
 
 The following is a literal translation of the 
 elegy. ' How glorious their fate who fell at 
 Thermopylse ! How beautiful their death ! Their 
 tomb an altar ! We give them not our tears, but 
 cherish them in immortal memory. The manner 
 of their death is their funeral song. Rust nor de- 
 stroying time shall efface the memorial of the 
 brave. This mound is the archi ve of Grecian glory. 
 Leonidas lies here ; Leonidas the king of Sparta ; 
 Leonidas who left behind him a monument of 
 praise, a trophy of glory which no time shall 
 destroy. 
 
 *,* Simonides the lyric poet must not be con- 
 founded with Simonides the satirist who wrote in 
 Iambic verse, and lived a century earlier. 
 
 Ionic Sect {The) of ancient Greek 
 philosophers. Founded by Thales, the 
 
 sage, and father of speculative philoso- 
 phy (B.C. 611-547). He taught that all 
 bodies are compounded of atoms; that the 
 earth is round; that the sun is a sphere 
 of fire ; and that the moon is lighted by 
 the sun. His most noted disciples were 
 Anaximander (b.c 611-547) ; Anax- 
 imenes (B.C. 558-460) ; Anaxagoras (b.c. 
 500-428); Heraclltos of Ephesus (b.c. 
 543-483) ; and Diogenes of Crete (b.c. 
 539-465). 
 
 Archelaos of Miletus joined together the two 
 systems of Anaximander and Anaxagoras. He 
 held with the former that the elements of all 
 things are eternal, and admitted with the latter 
 the existence of a Supreme intelligence, inde- 
 pendent of matter. 
 
 *,* Diogenes of Crete must not be confounded 
 with Diogenes of Sinope the cj'nic. 
 
 I'o^wa (U.S. America). So called 
 from an Indian tribe, and from a river of 
 the same name. The inhabitants are 
 nicknamed Haiokeyes. 
 
 Iphicra'tians. The mercenaries 
 of Iphicrates the Athenian general (b.c. 
 419-348). 
 
 Ills pedestria arma mutavit. Quum ante ilium 
 imperatorem maximis clypeis, brevibus hastis, 
 minutis gladiis uterentur ; ille, e contrario, peltam 
 pro parma fecit, vit ad motus concursusque 
 essent leviores. Hastte modum duplicavit, gladioa 
 longiores fecit. Idem genus loricarum mutavit, 
 et pro ferreis atque aeneis linteas dedit. — NfiPOS, 
 Iphicrates. 
 
 Ireland {King of). Edward Bruce, 
 brother of Robert Bruce, was crowned 
 king of Ireland at Dundalk in 1316, but 
 was slain by the English under Sir John 
 Bermingham at Faughart, near Dundalk, 
 5 Oct., 1318. Henry VIII. was the first 
 English sovereign who called himself 
 ' King of Ireland.' 
 
 Ireland {Samuel William Henry). 
 A literary impostor (1777-1835). He 
 published in folio, 1795, ' Miscellaneous 
 Papers and Instruments under the hand 
 and seal of William Shakespeare, includ- 
 ing the tragedy of " King Lear," and a 
 small fragment of " Hamlet," from the 
 original,' price 4Z. 4s. On 2 April, 1796, 
 he produced the play of ' Vortigern and 
 Rowena ' from the pen of Shakespeare. 
 It was actually represented, and drew a 
 most crowded house. Dr. Parr, Dr. Valpy, 
 James Boswell, Herbert Croft, and Pye 
 the poet-laureate, signed a document 
 certifying their conviction that Ireland's 
 productions were genuine ; but Malone 
 exposed the imposition of the tragedy, 
 and Ireland publicly confessed that all 
 his publications from beginning to end 
 
IRELAND 
 
 lEISH 
 
 455 
 
 were impositions. See ' Literary For- 
 geries,' &c. 
 
 For my own part I cannot imagine how anyone 
 could be deceived. 
 
 Ireland of Austria [The). Hun- 
 gary, which struggled long for home 
 rule, and obtained it in 18(37. In 1868 
 the empire of Austria was designated the 
 * Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.' 
 
 Irish American Land League 
 
 {The), 1879. Organised by C. S. Parnell 
 and affiliated with the Irish National Land 
 League [q-v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish. Array of Liberation 
 
 {The), 1818. The war party of Ireland, 
 who had both commissions and uniforms 
 to fight against soldiers of Great Britain 
 on behalf of the Irish rebels. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Irish Associations. See under 
 
 Agents of Captain Right. 
 
 Aggregate Bodies. 
 
 American Land League. 
 
 Anti-Tory Association. 
 
 Anti-Union Society. 
 
 Attacottic Rebellion. 
 
 Avengers. 
 
 Black Foot. 
 
 Boys(ry/f). 
 
 Brotherhood of St. Pa- 
 trick. 
 
 Captain Right. 
 
 Caravats. 
 
 Confederate Catholics. 
 
 Confederation. 
 
 Cork Boys. 
 
 Daisy League. 
 
 Defenders. 
 
 Democratic Labour As- 
 sociation. 
 
 Emerald Club. 
 
 Federalists. 
 
 Fenians. 
 
 Green Spectre. 
 
 Hearts of Steel. 
 
 Hillside Men. 
 
 Home Rule League. 
 
 Houghers. 
 
 I. N.B. 
 
 Invincibles. 
 
 I. R. B. 
 
 Irish American Land 
 League. 
 
 Irish Army of Libera- 
 tion. 
 
 Irish Confederation. 
 
 Irish Invincibles. 
 
 Irish Labour and Indus- 
 trial Union. 
 
 Irish Land League. 
 
 Irish Loyal and Patrio- 
 tic Union. 
 
 Irish Massacre. 
 
 Irish National Brother- 
 hood. 
 
 Irish National Land 
 League. 
 
 Irish Republican Bro- 
 therliood. 
 
 Irish Revolutionary 
 Brotherhood. 
 
 Irish Tenant League. 
 
 Irish Tenants' Defence 
 League. 
 
 Society of United Irish- 
 men. 
 
 Sons of Freedom. 
 
 Steel Boys. 
 
 Tenants' Defence Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Kilkenny Convention. 
 
 Lady Clares. 
 
 Ladies' Irish Land 
 League. 
 
 Ladies' Land League. 
 
 Ladies' Labour and In- 
 dustrial Union. 
 
 Land Grabbers. 
 
 Land Grabbers League. 
 
 Levellers. 
 
 Loyal Irish Brethren. 
 
 Loyal National Repeal 
 Association. 
 
 Martyrs' Meeting. 
 
 Massacre of Scullabogue 
 Barn. 
 
 Molly Maguires. 
 
 Moonlighters, Captain 
 Moonlight. 
 
 M. W. S. 
 
 National Association 
 for the Repeal of the 
 Union. 
 
 National Association of 
 Ireland. 
 
 National Land League. 
 
 National League. 
 
 Nationalists. 
 
 New Fenians. 
 
 Night Boys. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Oak Boys. 
 
 Our Boys. 
 
 Orangemen. 
 
 Peep o' Day Boys. 
 
 Phenicians. 
 
 Philadelphia Conven- 
 tion. 
 
 Phoenix Park Murder. 
 
 Phcenix Society. 
 
 Redpath Boys. 
 
 Remonstrants. 
 
 Repeal Agitation. 
 
 Repeal Association. 
 
 Repeal of the Union. 
 
 Repeal Year. 
 
 Revolver Boys. 
 
 Ribbon Men. 
 
 Right Boys. 
 
 Rockites and Captain 
 Rock. 
 
 Rory of the Hills. 
 
 Separatists. 
 
 Shanavests. 
 
 Tenants' 
 League. 
 Terryalts. 
 Threshers. 
 
 Defence 
 
 Tithe Agitators. 
 Tithe War. 
 United Brotherhood. 
 United Irishmen. 
 V. C. 
 
 "Vigilance Society. 
 White Boys. 
 Young Irelanders. 
 Young Ireland 8 Ris- 
 ing. 
 
 Irish Church {The). The papal 
 authority in Ireland was recognised by the 
 Synod of Kells in 1152. 
 
 The Catholic Church was abolished by Henry 
 Vlll. in 1539, and the English reformed liturgy 
 was introduced in 1550. 
 
 Catholic priests were expelled, under penalty of 
 death, by James I. in 1605 ; and the Articles of the 
 Church of England were introduced in Hi35. 
 
 Intermarriages between Catholics and Pro- 
 testants in Ireland were forbidden by William III. 
 in 1697. 
 
 Catholics were declared disqualified to sit on 
 the grand jury in 1705. 
 
 The disestablishment and disendowment of the 
 Anglican Church in Ireland date from 1871. 
 
 Irish Church Temporalities 
 Bill {The). A bill to abolish the col- 
 lection of tithes and firstfruits, and to 
 substitute a rent-charge, 30 July, 1833. 
 Amended in 1834, and again in 1836, A 
 Sustentation Fund was originated in 
 1870, and its union with the Protestant 
 Church of England was dissolved in 1871. 
 
 The Act of IS-Sa abolished the church-cess, 
 reduced the four archbishops and eighteen 
 bishops to two archbishops and ten bishops, and 
 appropriated the revenues thus obtained to 
 general church purposes. 
 
 Irish Confederation {The), 1845. 
 The Young Ireland party headed by 
 William Smith O'Brien, a split from the 
 great Repeal party of Daniel O'Connell. 
 The Young Irelanders were for enforcing 
 their charter at the sword's point, but 
 O'Connell was opposed to any such mad 
 measure. In 1848 they sent a deputation 
 to France craving aid for ' the oppressed 
 nationality of Ireland,' and organised an 
 insurrection, but just before the time of 
 uprising O'Brien was arrested, and, being 
 convicted, was exiled to Van Diemen's 
 Land for life. In 1856, having obtained 
 a free pardon, he returned home, and 
 died in 1864. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Crisis {The), 1846, 1847. 
 Dur.ing the potato famine. 
 
 Potato famines have not been uncommon in 
 Ireland : Thus in 18-2-2 Parliament voted 300,000f. for 
 relief purposes, and subscriptions to the amount 
 of 310,000/. were raised. In 1H31 the crop in the 
 West of Ireland failed, and so on. 
 
 Irish Invincibles {The). An or- 
 ganisation started in Dublin in Dec. 
 
456 
 
 IKISH 
 
 IRISH 
 
 1881 (organised fully in the spring of 
 1882), the members of which bound 
 themselves by oath to ' remove all tyrants 
 from the country,' — in other words, to 
 ' assassinate the executive council of Ire- 
 land, the chief secretary, and all govern- 
 ment officers.' McCafEerty, with others, 
 established the society. It was limited 
 to 250 members, and was under the con- 
 trol of a committee of five Fenians, viz. 
 James Mullett, Edward McCafferty, 
 Daniel and James Curley, and James 
 Carey, who were paid by the Land 
 League. The first person on the list for 
 removal was the Right Hon.W. E. Forster, 
 chief secretary for Ireland ; the second 
 was Earl Cowper, the lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland. These gentlemen resigned and 
 left the island. The first officials who 
 fell to the assassins were Mr. Thomas 
 Burke, perpetual under-secretary, and 
 Lord Frederick Cavendish, who suc- 
 ceeded Mr. Forster, 6 May, 1882. They 
 fell on a Saturday, in full daylight, in 
 Phoenix Park. The trial of these ' Invin- 
 cibles ' took place in Dublin, 1883. See 
 'Irish Republican Brotherhood' and 
 * Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Land Acts. 
 
 I. An Act was passed in 1858 (21, 22 
 Vict. c. 72) to facilitate the sale and trans- 
 fer of land in Ireland. 
 
 II. Deasy's Act, 1860, limiting the 
 power of a landlord to the terms of his 
 contract, but not giving a tenant any 
 compensation for improvements on 
 eviction. 
 
 III. The Act of 1870 remedied this, and 
 provided that a tenant on eviction might 
 demand of his landlord just compensation 
 for all improvements made by himself 
 [the tenant] during his term of tenancy. 
 
 IV. The Act 1881 set up a tribunal to 
 fix a ' fair rent ' ; and legalised the tenant's 
 interest in his holding, which was sale- 
 able in open market, so that virtually 
 the Irish tenant by this Act was a co- 
 partner in the soil. 
 
 V. The Ashbourne Act, 1885, placed 
 five million pounds sterling at the dis- 
 posal of Irish tenants who desired to 
 purchase the fee simj)le of their holdings, 
 the loan to be repaid by instalments in 
 forty-nine years. In 1888 another similar 
 sum was granted for the same object. 
 And in 18i)0 Mr. Balfour introduced a 
 bill for a much larger loan on very easy 
 terms enough by principal and interest 
 
 to buy up any number of farms which the 
 tenants would be likely to desire. 
 
 VI. The Act of 1887, subjecting the 
 rents judicially fixed in 1881-85 to 
 revision, by which rents were again 
 reduced about 10 per cent. ; and to give 
 county-court judges the power of stay- 
 ing eviction, and of spreading arrears 
 over a discretionary number of years. 
 These several Acts give to tenants in Ireland- 
 CD Compensation for improvements. 
 
 (2) „ disturbance. 
 
 (3) Security of tenure, subject to payment of 
 rent. 
 
 (4) A • fair rent ' tribunal. 
 
 (5) The right of selling their interest. 
 (G) The revision of judicial rents. 
 
 (7] The right of having eviction stayed on good 
 cause shown. 
 
 (8] Facilities for acquiring the fee simple of a 
 holding. 
 
 *,* Lower Beltoney, in far-off Gweedore, is now 
 (under the Purchase Act) a real garden, while 
 Keeldrum. on the other side of the road [under 
 the Plan of Campaign, q.v.], is a waste wilderness. 
 Again, the barony of Farney in Monaghan, once 
 the most blood stained spot in all Ireland, has, 
 with the sale of the Marquis of Bath's property, 
 become quite a model district (1890). 
 
 Irish Legion {The), 1803. An army 
 of Irish refugees in Paris raised by Bona- 
 parte, with the intention of invading 
 England through Ireland. 
 
 Irish Liberator {The). Daniel 
 O'Connell (1775-1817). 
 
 Irish Loan {The), 1885. Five 
 millions sterling set apart, to be lent to 
 Irish farmers by government at 3i per 
 cent., to enable them to buy their farms 
 of their landlords. See above, ' Irish 
 Land Acts,' No. V. 
 
 Irish Loyal and Patriotic 
 Union {The), 1885. To unite the 
 loyalist party into one body irrespective 
 of class, party, or creed. This union was 
 to counteract the ' National League ' 
 {q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Massacre {The), Oct. and 
 Nov., 1611. Not the massacre of Irish- 
 men, but the massacre of forty or fifty 
 thousand Englishmen by the Irish secret 
 society called ' The Confederate Catho- 
 lics.' In this massacre husbands were 
 cut to ijieces in presence of their wives, 
 children's brains were dashed out in the 
 face of their parents, women were brutally 
 violated, and driven naked into the 
 woods to perish. Some were burned to 
 death, others were drowned, and many 
 were buried alive. Nothing like it has 
 
IRI3H 
 
 IRISH 
 
 457 
 
 been known except the outrage of 
 Cawnpore. 
 
 The instigator of this massacre was Sir Phelim 
 O Neil Of Ulster. In July lti48 a Bull was re- 
 ceived from the pope granting a jubilee and 
 plenary absolution to all those who had taken up 
 arms in the cause of the Catholic faith. Horrible 
 and incredible as it may seem, Gregory XIII. 
 proclaimed the slaughter of St. Bartholomew as 
 the ' Year of Jubilee.' and went in full procession 
 to celebrate a public thanksgiving service for the 
 massacre. 
 
 Irish National Brotherhood 
 
 (The), 1881. 1. I.N.B. This was an offshoot 
 of the Clan-na-Gael, or United Brother- 
 hood. It began in 1880 under what was 
 called the New Departure {q-v.). A union 
 of the murderous violence of the Clan- 
 na-Gael, the constitutional craft of the 
 Land League, and the spohation of the 
 No Rent party. 
 
 II. I.N.B., '1886, at Chicago. An off- 
 shoot of the U.B. or ' United Brother- 
 hood.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish National Land League 
 
 (The), Oct. 1879-1881. The object of this 
 conspiracy was to establish the absolute 
 independence of Ireland as a separate 
 nation. To effect this object, agrarian agi- 
 tation against the payment of agricultural 
 rents was resorted to, in order to secure 
 the co-operation of the tenant farmers of 
 Ireland, and to impoverish and ultimately 
 drive from the country the Irish land- 
 lords, styled by the leaguers ' the English 
 garrison.' Suppressed 1881. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 The confederation was called the Land League, 
 the Irish National L md League, and the Labour 
 and Industrial Union. There were also Ladies' 
 Leagues, and affiliated societies in Great Britain 
 and America. 
 
 Irish Night (The), 13 Dec, 1688, 
 when a cry arose in London that the 
 Irish (disbanded on the flight of James 
 II.) were up, and were going to cut the 
 throats of all Protestants. At one in the 
 morning the drums collected the militia 
 and the train bands, and 100,000 men 
 kept the streets in a state of terror and 
 anarchy. It was called the ' Irish Night,' 
 though no Irish put in an appearance, 
 the panic being created by a false alarm, 
 Trenchard was brother-in law to the un- 
 principled agitator Hugh Spe'-e, who by his 
 trumped-up lies had occasioned the ' Irish Night. 
 — HowiTT, Hist, of Enyl. (Will, and Mary, p. G9). 
 
 Irish Parliament {The), or Grat- 
 tan's Parliament (1782-1800). Two in- 
 dependent parliaments in the same king- 
 dom being found pregnant with perpetual 
 danger both from within and from with- 
 20 
 
 out, the Dublin parliament, by the Act of 
 Union, in 1800, was abolished, and a large 
 number of Irish representatives, out of 
 all proportion to the rest of the kingdom, 
 were admitted to the Westminster parlia- 
 ment. In England and Wales it is one 
 in 6,000. In Ireland one in 5,000. 
 
 To the Irish parliament no Catholic was ad- 
 mitted. To the representatives admitted into the 
 Westminster house no such restriction exists. 
 
 The proximate cause of the abolition 
 of the Irish Parliament was this : In 1789 
 the Prince of Wales was made regent. 
 The English parliament restricted his 
 powers, but the Irish parliament granted 
 him the regency of Ireland without re- 
 strictions. This was a warning of the 
 mischief which might hereafter occur 
 from two legislatures, and convinced the 
 British cabinet that the Irish parliament, 
 like that of Scotland, must be united to 
 the one general house of legislature in 
 London. The Irish rebellion of 1798, in 
 which the French were invited over, 
 brought the matter to ahead, and in 1801 
 the union was effected. See 'Parlia- 
 ments.' 
 
 Grattan stated in 1793 that of the 300 members 
 of the Irish house, 200 were nominees of private 
 individuals, and 50 were returned by con- 
 stituencies of not more than ten electors in each, 
 and several boroughs had not more than one 
 elector. In 1890 about SO of the Irish deputies in 
 the House of Commons were, for the most part, 
 the nominees of C. S. Parnell. 
 
 Irish Rebellion. I. In 1565 
 occurred the rebellion of Shan O'Neal, 
 who applied to France for soldiers. 
 O'Neal was assassinated in 1567. 
 
 II. In 1594 occurred the rebellion of 
 Hugh O'Ncil, earl of Tyrone, who assumed 
 the title of The O'Neil. This ' patriot ' (!) 
 offered the crown of Ireland to the king of 
 Spain in 1597, and the Spaniards actually 
 sent an army into Ireland to obtain the 
 promised crown. O'Neil, with his Spanish 
 anny, was defeated at Kinsale ; he sur- 
 rendered to Mountjoy, was pardoned, and 
 went to Rome, where he died in 1616. 
 
 III. In 1608 occurred the rebellion of 
 O'Dogherty, in Ulster. James I. then 
 parcelled out the north of Ireland to 
 Scotch and English settlers. This confis- 
 cation is known as the ' Plantation of 
 Ulster' iq.v.). 
 
 TV. In 1641, while the English were in 
 civil war, the Irish rose in rebellion 
 under Roger More and Sir Phelim O'Neil, 
 and massacred the Protestants to the 
 number of 40,000. 
 
458 
 
 lEISH 
 
 IKISHMEN 
 
 Y, In 1649 Cromwell, having taken the 
 cities of Drogheda, Wexford, and Clon- 
 mel, left Ireton to carry on the war. 
 Ireton reduced place after place, and 
 soon after the death of Ireton the re- 
 bellion was quite stamped out (1652). 
 
 VI. In 1789 the Great Rebellion broke 
 out. It was caused by the creation of 
 numerous Irish societies hostile to 
 England, especially that called the 
 ' United Irishmen ' (q.v.). 
 
 VII. In 1796 the Irish concluded a 
 secret treaty with the French Directory, 
 but the treasonable plot was utteily 
 frustrated by the battles of Bantry Bay 
 in 1796, and the battle of Campei;down 
 in 1797. 
 
 1 Jan., 1801, the union of Great Britain and 
 Ireland was effected, and since then the Irish have 
 had no opportunity of offering ' their crown ' 
 either to France or Spain. 
 
 VIII. 1848. The nation was more or 
 less disturbed from April to the middle 
 of Sept. William Smith O'Brien was the 
 chief disturber, and his lieutenants were 
 Meagher and M'Manus. All three being 
 arrested were condemned to death, but 
 were transported to Van Diemen's Land. 
 Meagher and M'Manus escaped to 
 America, and O'Brien, in 1856, having 
 obtained a free pardon, returned home 
 and died at Bangor in 1864. 
 
 William Smith O'Brien was joint deputy from 
 the Irish Confederation to the French republic, 
 S April, 1848. 
 
 IX. The Home Rule faction, under the 
 leadership of Charles S. Parnell, began 
 in 1870, and disorganised Ireland with 
 numberless disorderly associations, some 
 of an anti-landlord character, others 
 more criminal still. Boycotting {q.v.) was 
 introduced. Shooting men through the 
 legs, pouring hot pitch on the heads of 
 women, maiming cattle, and the most 
 reckless destruction of property, intimi- 
 dated all who resisted the rebels. See 
 * Plan of Campaign,' ' Irish Associations,' 
 &c. &c. In 1890 the disturbance was not 
 wholly stamped out. 
 
 When Ireland had its own rulers the civil and 
 moral condition of the country was so bad that 
 Pope Adrian IV'. authorised Henry II. to under- 
 take the conquest of it, hoping that a strong arm 
 might do something to settle the country. 
 
 When Grattan had his parliament he passed 
 fifty-four coercion acts, 1782, &c. 
 
 Whatever may be said respecting 'the planta- 
 tion of Ireland ' by James I., one thing is certain : 
 Ko part of Ireland is so wealthy, and no part of 
 Ireland so loyal and industrious, as Ulster. 
 
 Irish. Reproductive Loan 
 Fund {The), 1822. Originated in the 
 
 excess of subscription to what was ex- 
 pended in the relief of sulierers from 
 the famine. The surplus was entrusted 
 to a committee in London, and called 
 the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund, 
 under which small sums are advanced to 
 industrious individuals of the working 
 classes, to be repaid by instalments, 
 with interest at Qd. in the pound, reduced 
 afterwards to Ad. 
 
 Irish Republican Brother- 
 hood {The), 1869. The Dublin con- 
 tingent of the ' Irish Invincibles ' {q.v.). 
 It consisted of fifty of the most desperate 
 of the gang. They were sworn ' to re- 
 move all tyrants from the country.' This 
 meant they were to murder or drive out 
 of Ireland all the constituted adminis- 
 trators and guardians of the law and of 
 order, together with all owners of land 
 The Phoenix Park murder {q.v.) was their 
 first and most notorious achievement. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Revolut'onary Brother- 
 hood {The), or T. R. B. The Irish branch 
 of the American V.C. {i.e. United Brocher- 
 hood), for the purpose of making Ireland 
 an independent republic by force of 
 arms. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Society {The), 1619. Certain 
 London merchants incorporated by 
 charter, who contracted for large tracts 
 of land in Tyrconnel {q.v.), when James 
 I. planted the territory with Scotch and 
 English tenants. See ' Plantation of 
 Ulster.' 
 
 Irish Tenant League {The), 1850, 
 Pledged to oppose all Governments which 
 did not recognise the principle of Tenant 
 Right {q.v.) for all Ireland. The league 
 broke up in 1858, and was replaced by 
 Fenians {q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irish Tenants' Defence League 
 
 {The), 1889. To supersede the ' Plan of 
 Campaign ' {q.v.), declared to be illegal. 
 The object of the ' Defence League ' is 
 to supply tenants with money and legal 
 advisers to fight their landlords and 
 weary them out with the infinite shifts 
 of law. During the process an evicted 
 tenant is to be furnished by the League 
 with a home and needful support. Mr. 
 C. S. Parnell was the p7-iniinn mobile of 
 the scheme. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Irishmen of Islam. {The). So 
 the Moors of Morocco have been called. 
 
IRMIN-SUL 
 
 IRON 
 
 459 
 
 Irmin-SUl. Herman's Column. 
 Erected to commemorate the victory of 
 Herman over Varus the Roman. It was 
 long considered a palladium of the Saxon 
 nation. Charlemagne destroyed the 
 temple of Eresburg, and transferred the 
 pillar to Corbey. 
 
 Iron Age {The). The era between 
 the death of Charlemagne, 814, and the 
 accession of Hugues Capet, 987, is so 
 called from its constant civil wars. Also 
 called the ' leaden age ' from its worth- 
 lessness, and the ' dark age ' from its 
 barrenness of learned men. 
 
 The present has often been called ' The age of 
 Bteel.' Hugues Capet, pronounce U Cap'-pay.^ 
 
 Iron Arm. 
 
 I. Guillaume Bras de fer (*-104G). 
 First of the twelve sons of Tancrede de 
 Hauteville. 
 
 II. Capt. Fran(;ois de Lanoue, a 
 Huguenot, who died at the siege of Lam- 
 balle (1531-1591). 
 
 Iron Calvinist of Rosny {The). 
 Maximilien de Bethune, due de Sully 
 (1560-1641), born at Rosny ; chief min- 
 ister of Henri IV., and the greatest of 
 all French statesmen. 
 
 Iron Chancellor {The). Prince 
 Otto von Bismarck of Prussia (1813), 
 Chancellor of the North German Con- 
 federation 14 July, 1867. He retired 
 from public Hfe in 1890. 
 
 Iron Chest {The). A secret closet 
 in the wall of the king's bedchamber in 
 the Tuileries. Made by Gamain, a lock- 
 smith who had been employed by Louis 
 XVI. to construct it. It was behind the 
 wainscot, and so well concealed that no 
 one could have discovered it without being 
 first shown it. Gamain betrayed it to 
 the Convention, and amongst other pajiers 
 wex'e several from Mirabeau which were 
 so damnatory that the Convention or- 
 dered his bust to be removed from the 
 hall and stamped to powder. 
 
 Iron-clad Oath {The). An act 
 passed, in 1867, by the United States of 
 North America, excluding from the fran- 
 chise all those who had borne arms 
 against the United States, and even all 
 who had directly or indirectly given aid 
 to the Southerners. It was practically 
 the temporary disfranchisement of the 
 Southern whites. 
 
 Iron Crown. Several examples 
 occur of traitors or aspirants to a crown 
 being put to death by a mockery red-hot 
 iron crown. Take the two following : — 
 
 1. Walter earl of Athol murdered 
 James I. of Scotland in Perth, hoping to 
 usurp the crown ; but he was crowned 
 only with a red-hot iron diadem which 
 ate to his brain and killed him (1437). 
 
 2. Doza or Dosa the Hungarian was 
 put to death by a similar torture, ioc 
 heading the peasant rebellion against 
 the nobles (1514). 
 
 Iron Crown of Lombardy (T/«). 
 
 Not an iron crown, but a magn^cent 
 gold' diadem, containing a narrow iron 
 band about |ths of an inch broad, and 
 yVjth of an inch in thickness. This band 
 was made out of a nail given to Constan- 
 tine by his mother, and said to be one 
 of the nails used in the crucifixion. The 
 outer circlet of the crown is of beaten 
 gold, set with large rubies, emeralds, and 
 sapphires, and the iron band is within 
 this circlet. The first Lombard king 
 crowned with it was Agilulph, at Milan, 
 in 591. Charlemagne was crowned 
 with it in 774; Friedrich IIL in 1452; 
 Karl V. in 1530; and Napoleon I., 23 
 May, 1805, crowned himself with it as 
 ' king of Italy ' in Milan Cathedral. It 
 was given up to Victor Emmanuel on 
 the conclusion of peace with Austria in 
 1866. The motto on the crown is ' God 
 has given it me ; beware who touches it.' 
 According to a tradition Gregory the Great gave 
 this crown to Queen Theodclinda. The first kaiser 
 ■who -wore it was Henry of Luxemburg in 1311. 
 
 Iron Duke {The). Arthur Wellesley 
 duke of Wellington (1769-1852). His 
 statue, made of bronze by M. C. Wyatt, 
 was mounted on the marble arch opposite 
 his house in 1846. This hideous deform- 
 ity, i-emoved in 1882, had a share in esta- 
 blishing the eponym of the ' Iron ' duke. 
 
 An Achilles in bronze, by AVestmacott, was 
 erected in Hyde Park from subscriptions contri- 
 buted by the ladles of England in honour of the 
 duke. 
 
 Iron Emperor {The). Nicholas of 
 Russia (1796,. 1826-1855). 
 
 Iron Hand. Gotz von Berlichingen, 
 immortalised by Goethe (16th cent.), is so 
 called from his iron hand. The hand 
 weighed 3 lbs., and was so constructed 
 as to grasp a sword or lance. It was 
 invented by a mechanic of Nuremberg, 
 and is preserved at Jaxthausen, near 
 
460 
 
 IRON 
 
 ISAURIAN 
 
 Heilbronn. A duplicate is in the Schloss 
 at Erbach, in the Odenwald. Gotz von 
 Berlichingen lost his right hand at the 
 siege of Landshut. See ' Duke with the 
 Silver Hand ' ; ' Golden Hand.' 
 
 The family of Clephane of Carslogle are in pos- 
 session of a steel hand conferred by one of the 
 kings of Scotland on a laird of Carslogie, who had 
 lost his hand in his country's service.— ScOTT, 
 Border Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 206. 
 
 Iron Mask {Man in the). A mys- 
 terious prisoner in the reign of Louis XIV., 
 condemned at all times to wear a black 
 velvet mask. He was confined in 1662 
 in the chateau of Pignerol ; and died in 
 the Bastille in 1703, at the age of 63. 
 He went by the name of L'Estang, but 
 •who he was nobody knows; and Louis 
 XIV., when the captive was dead, com- 
 manded that his face should be beaten 
 to a pulp and cut to pieces to prevent 
 recognition. 
 
 Iron Tooth. ' Dent de Fer.' Fried- 
 rich TI. elector of Brandenburg (1657, 
 1688-1713). 
 
 Iron Virgin {The). An instrument 
 of torture. It was a hollow wooden 
 figure representing a woman. The figure 
 opened like a cupboard, and the front of 
 it was studded with long sharp iron spikes. 
 The victim being placed in the figure, 
 the front or lid was gradually closed upon 
 him, and the spikes were so arranged as 
 to pierce the eyes and least vital parts. 
 When quite closed the victim was 
 crushed, and lingeied in horrible torture 
 till actual agony exhausted his vital 
 powers. See ' Nabis.' 
 
 Ironside. Edmund II. king of the 
 Anglo-Saxons was so called from his iron 
 armour (989, 1016-1017). 
 
 Sir Richard Steele signed himself ' Nestor Iron- 
 Bide ' in the ' Guardian ' (1G71-1729). 
 
 Ironsides {The). Cromwell's brigade 
 was so called for their irresistible ob- 
 stinacy in fight. 
 
 Sir Philip Warwick says : ' The regiment of 1,000 
 men which Cromwell raised for me Association of 
 the Eastern Counties, and which soon became 
 hnown as his Imiisiilcs, was formed strictly of reli- 
 gious fanatics, for Cromwell told Hampden that 
 the one weapon which could meet and turn the 
 chivalry of the cavalier was religious enthu- 
 siasm.' 
 
 Iroquois. A confederation of five 
 American-Indian States, partly in Canada 
 and partly in the United States. They 
 were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the 
 Ouondagas, the Senecas, and the Cayugas. 
 
 They were proud, brave, hospitable, 
 faithful, and melancholic. 
 
 When the Tuscaroras joined them they were in- 
 creased to six states. 
 
 Irrefragable Doctor {The). 
 ' Doctor Irrefragabilis,' Alexander of 
 Hales, of the Order of Friars Minor, 
 Paris (died 1245). He was an English- 
 man, and was called Hales from a monas- 
 tery in Gloucestershire where he was 
 brought up. He wrote a commentary on 
 the famous ' Sentences ' of Pierre Lom- 
 bard, and was the master of Duns 
 Scotus. See ' Doctors.' 
 
 There was a John Hales who was called ' The 
 Ever Memorable,' who was born at Bath (15St- 
 liiSG). Professor William Hales, the chronologist, 
 is quite another person. He died in 1831. 
 
 Irregulars {The). We have no 
 Irregulars in the British army ; but in 
 the Indian army we have Irregulars 
 among the black troops, such as Hodson's 
 Horse, Probyn's Central India Horse, 
 &c. 
 
 The Militia, the Yeomanry, and the Volunteers 
 are not regulars (q.v.), but yet they are not called 
 Irregulars. In France the ' troupes irregulieres' 
 are those who do not belong to the line {q.v.). 
 
 Ir'vingites (8 syl.), 1828. Follow- 
 ers of Edward Irving, a Scotch minister, 
 ■whose most striking peculiarity was the 
 expectation of the speedy advent of 
 Christ and the beginning of the mil- 
 lennium. His followers claimed the 
 miraculous gifts of tongues, prophecy, 
 healing, and raising of the dead, though 
 Irving himself never laid claim to such 
 powers. He died in 1834. 
 
 They call themselves the ' Apostolic Catholic 
 Ciiurch,' and have four ministries; (1) Apostles; 
 (•2) Prophets ; (3) Evangelists ; and (4) Pastors or 
 Angels. 
 
 Isau'rian War {The), 492-498. 
 
 Tarcalissaeus, or Zeno, invited over a 
 formidable band of Isaurians, but his 
 successor Anastasius suppressed their 
 pensions, banished them from Constanti- 
 nople, and prepared war for their exter- 
 mination. Some 150,000 barbarians, 
 headed by a fighting bishop, flew to 
 arms, and a war of six years' duration 
 ensued. The Isaurians retired to their 
 fastnesses in the mountains, but fort 
 after fort fell ; their communication with 
 the sea was cut off ; the bravest of their 
 leaders died in arms ; those who sur- 
 vived were dragged in chains to the 
 hippodrome, and those of their young 
 men who refused to submit to the 
 Romans were banished to Thrace. 
 
ISIAC 
 
 ISTHMIAN 
 
 ICl 
 
 Is'iac Table {The). A flat rect- 
 angular bronze plate, about 4 ft. 8 in. 
 long, containing three rows of figures of 
 Egyptian emblems and deities. It was 
 sold by a soldier to a locksmith, and the 
 locksmith sold it to Cardinal Bembo in 
 1527. It is now at Turin, but it is a 
 general opinion that the table is spu- 
 rious. See ' Literary Forgeries. '- 
 
 Isidore of Seville. One of the 
 doctors of the church (570-636) : his day 
 is 4 April. Author of ' Commentaries on 
 the Old and New Testament,' a ' Treatise 
 on the Ecclesiastical Writers,' 'A 
 Chronicle from Adam to 626,' &c. See 
 ' Doctors of the Church.' 
 
 Isido'rian Decretals (The), 
 820-836, or ' The False Decretals.' Fifty- 
 nine decretals palmed off as the work 
 of St. Isidore of Seville (570-036). They 
 aim at the exaltation of the Roman 
 pontiff and the depreciation of the civil 
 power, the infallibility of the pope, and 
 the justification of certain ' Catholic ' 
 practices, such as the rite of chrism, and 
 so on. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 The collection consists of three parts : (11 con- 
 tains Gl decretal epistles from popes of the first 
 three centuries, Clement to Sylvester (91-314) ; 
 (2) canons of the councils; (3) decretal epistles 
 from Sylvester to Deodatus (314-616). Of these 35 
 are certainly spurious, and yet for nearly 1,000 
 years they were appealed to by popes and councils 
 as authority. In 17^9 Pope Pius VI. admitted them 
 to bo iniquitous forgeries. 
 
 *,* Some attribute these decretals to Riculfe 
 archbishop of Mentz ; others to Isidore Mercator, 
 or ' Peccator,' as some surname him, a Cenobite ; 
 others again to Benedict Levita, aGallican monk. 
 
 Islam. The Mohammedan creed ; a 
 believer in the creed is a Moslem, Mus- 
 sulman, Islamite, or Mohammedan. 
 
 Isle des Chevaux {The). The 
 Isle of May, in the throat of the Firth of 
 Forth. It is about a mile in length and 
 encloses some 70 acres of pasture land 
 much prized for grazing horses. 
 
 Pronounce Eel' da' Sha-vo' . 
 
 Isle of Destiny (T7ie). Inisfail. 
 
 Isle of Mist {The). The Isle of 
 Skye, its high hills being almost always 
 shrouded in mist. 
 
 • Nor sleep thy hand by thy side, Chief of the 
 Isle of Mist.'— OSSIAN, Fingal, i. 
 
 Isle of Saints {The). Ireland was 
 so called after the conversion of the 
 people to Christianity ; before that time 
 it was called the Sacred Isle. It was as 
 distinguished for being the school of 
 
 Druidism or sun-worship as it was subse- 
 quently for being the school of Christian 
 scholars. 
 
 Isma'elites (4 syl.), or ' Ismael'ians.' 
 Separatists from the Shiites, a Moslem 
 sect. The Shiites believe that there 
 have been twelve true Imams. The 
 Ismaelites believe in only seven : Ali 
 (son-in-law of Mohammed) and his six 
 regular descendants. The seventh was 
 Ismael, who died 730, leaving an infant 
 son Mohamm'ed. This infant was set 
 aside, and his uncle Mousa was made 
 kalif or imam {q.v.). This caused a split 
 in the party, and those who followed the 
 infant Mohammed called themselves 
 Ismaelites. No one knows what became 
 of the infant, but the Ismaelites assert 
 that he will api^ear in the fulness of 
 time, and restore the true faith. These 
 Ismaelites were very influential from 730 
 to the 12th century, and from them 
 sprang the Karmathians who ravaged 
 Persia and Syria in the 8th century; 
 the Fatimite kalif s who reigned in Egypt 
 from 909 to 1174 ; the Assassins {q.v.) 
 1090-1258; the Druses, the Nosairis, 
 and the Wahabites (3 syl.). 
 
 The Ismaelites were materialists, and sym. 
 bolised away all those parts of the Koran opposed 
 to their own views. Their missionaries are 
 called ' dais,' and a good Ismaelite should pray 
 fifty times a day. 
 
 Ismaelites of the East {The). 
 The Assassins, an order of the Ismael'- 
 ians or Isma'elites {q.v.). Their great 
 aim was to stamp out the Sunnites and 
 assassinate the Sunnite kalif. 
 
 Isoc'rat^S {The French). Fle'chier 
 (1632-1710). A great pulpit orator. Noted 
 for his ' Funeral Orations,' especially one 
 pronounced over Marshal Turenne. 
 
 Israelites' Clubs. See note after 
 * Circumcellians,' p. 175, col. i. 
 
 Isth'mian Games {The). In an- 
 cient Greece held in the Isthmus of 
 Corinth every alternate spring, the 1st 
 and 3rd of each Olympiad. The games 
 began at sunrise with the foot-match, 
 anci the victor gave his name to the 
 Olympiad. Wrestling was the next 
 match, then boxing, then leaping, then 
 the cliariot race. The only prize was a 
 wreath of parsley or green pine-leaves. 
 
 The pancrat'ion was a combination of wrestling 
 and boxing. The combatants tried their strenych 
 first by squeezing each other's hands. Sostratos 
 of Sicyon gained twelve prizes for crushing his 
 opponent s hand in the preliminary grip. 
 
ITALIAN 
 
 ITALIAN 
 
 Italian Architecture. Renais- 
 sance, or ' Classical Revival.' It com- 
 menced in Italy at the beginning of the 
 15th cent., was introduced into France 
 about a century later, and into England 
 1560-70. 
 
 Italian Confederacy {The), 1526. 
 
 Consisting of the pope, the Italian 
 princes and states, and Francois I. of 
 France, against Zarl V. The allies en- 
 gaged to raise 30,000 foot soldiers, 3,000 
 horse, and a sufficient fleet. Henry VIII. 
 of England did not join the league, 
 but he favoured it, for Wolsey hated 
 Karl. 
 
 Italian Confederation or 
 League {The). The eight allied na- 
 tions in the Social War (b.c. 90-89). 
 
 Italian French School of Paint- 
 ing {The). Called the ' Sophocles of Art,' 
 because the exponents drew their human 
 beings models of perfection. This school 
 
 included Vouet (1582-1649), Mignard 
 (1610-1695), Lesueur (1617-1655), Lebrun 
 (1619-1690), Jouvenet (1647-1707), 
 Rigaud (1659-1743), and Lemoine (1688- 
 1737). 
 
 Italian League {The), 1511-1512. 
 Set on foot by Pope Julius II. against 
 Louis XII. of France. Henry VIII. of 
 England and his father-in-law Ferdinand 
 V. of Aragon joined the pope. Julius 
 laid the kingdom of France under an 
 interdict, and convened a general council 
 at Rome (the Fifth General Council of 
 the Lateran), chiefly for the reproof of 
 Louis XII. Pope Julius died in 1513, 
 and the league was dissolved. 
 
 Louis XII. and Maximilian had convened the 
 Council of Pisa to depose the pope. The real 
 cause of contention was this. The Pope, the 
 Kaiser of Germany, and the King of Aragon had 
 formed a league for seizing Venetia and parcel- 
 ling it out between them : but Louis contrived to 
 be in the field first, won the battle of Agnadello, 
 and Venice fell into his hazids. This was not 
 what the pope wanted, so he broke the lea gue 
 and formed a new one to drive the French out of 
 Italy. 
 
 Italian Painters of Lombardy. 
 
 Called 
 
 Correggio 
 
 Annibale Carraccl 
 
 Michel Angelo da Caravaggio 
 
 Guido 
 
 Albano 
 
 Domenichino 
 
 Lanfranco 
 
 Guercino 
 
 Name 
 
 Antonio Allegri 
 
 Annibale Carracci 
 Amcrighi or Meriyhi 
 
 Guido Reni 
 
 Francesco Albani 
 
 Domenico Zampieri 
 Giovanni Lavfrnnco 
 Giovanni Francesco Barhieri 
 
 Italian Painters, &c. of Borne. 
 
 Called 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 II Perugino 
 
 Michel Angelo 
 
 Sanzio Raphael 
 
 Andrea del Sarto 
 
 Francesco Primaticcio 
 
 Giulio Romano 
 
 Polidoro Caldara 
 
 IlParmigiano 
 
 Daniele Ricciarelli 
 
 Cecchino del Salviati 
 
 Berrettini . 
 
 II Lucchesino 
 
 Italian Painters of Venice. 
 
 Called 
 
 Giambelliui 
 
 Giorgione 
 
 Titian 
 
 Jacopo da Ponte 11 Bassano 
 
 II Tintoretto ». .^ «. ... 
 
 Paul Veronese 
 
 II Giovane 
 
 II Vecchio 
 
 Italian Republic {The), 1802. So 
 Napoleon called the Cisalpine Republic. 
 
 In 1801 Savoy and Piedmont were united to 
 France; Milan taken from Austria formed the 
 Cisalpine Republic. 
 
 Italian War {The), 1488-1549. Be- 
 gun in the rei^ai of Charles VIII. and 
 
 Name 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 Pietro Vanned 
 
 Michelagnolo Btwnarroti 
 
 Raphw'l, ov Raffaelo 
 
 Andrea Vannucchi 
 
 Francesco Primaticcio 
 
 Giulio Pippi .. .. 
 
 Polidoro da Carnraggio 
 
 Girolama Francesco Maria Mazzi 
 
 Daniele da Volterra 
 
 Francesco de' liossi . 
 
 Pietro dn Coriona 
 
 Pietro Testa 
 
 Name. 
 
 Giovanni Bellini , 
 
 Giorgio Barbarelli 
 
 Tiziimo Vecellio 
 
 Jacobo Robusti 
 
 Paolo CagliaH 
 
 Jacobo P'alma (of Venice) 
 
 Jacobo PainM 
 
 (1494-15.34) 
 (1560 1G09) 
 (1569 1609) 
 (1575 1642) 
 (1578 1660) 
 (1581-1641) 
 (1581-16-17) 
 (1590 1666) 
 
 (1445 1519) 
 (1446-1524) 
 (1474 1564) 
 (1488 1.520) 
 (148S 1530) 
 (1490 1570) 
 (1492-1546) 
 (1495-1543) 
 (1504-1540) 
 (1509 1566) 
 (1510-1563) 
 (1596-1669) 
 (1611 1648) 
 
 a426-1516) 
 (1477 1511, 
 (1477 1576) 
 (1510 1.592( 
 (1512-15 >4) 
 (1530-15«) 
 (1544-1628) 
 (1548-1588) 
 
 ended in the reign of Henri II. It was 
 an attempt of France to become master 
 of Italy. After sixty-five years of war, 
 Henri signed at Cateau Cambresis the 
 Paix Malheureuse, by which he renounced 
 Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 
 Though the Italian war brought no material 
 
ITALIAN 
 
 TACOBI 
 
 463 
 
 advantage to Franea, indirectly it was beneficial 
 and brou.!?ht about the renaissance, which made 
 itself conspicuous in the literature, architecture, 
 and taste of the nation. 
 
 ' Italian of Asia {The). Persian, 
 noted for its harmonious sound, its facility 
 of versification, and its adaptation to 
 music of the lighter forms. 
 
 Malay is " the Italian of the East ' ; and Telugu 
 ' the Italian of India.' 
 
 Italic School {The) of Philosophy. 
 The Pythagorean school, which arose in 
 Italy about 540 B.C. In this school almost 
 all things are explained by relative num- 
 bers. The chief of the disciples are 
 Ocellus, Timasus, Archytas, Alcmseon, 
 Philolaos, and, somewhat later, Apollo- 
 nius of Tyana. 
 
 Italics. Sloping type. Originally 
 called cursiveti, or ' cursive letters,' after- 
 wards ' Venetian letters,' because they 
 were used by the great Venetian printers, 
 Aldo Manuzio (1447-1515), Paolo Manu- 
 zio (1512-1574), and Aldo Manuzio the 
 younger (1547-1597). The classical 
 authors issued by these printers are 
 called the ' Aldine editions.' It was silly 
 to adopt the French word Italique in- 
 stead of Venetian type, but custom has 
 established the word too firmly to be 
 displaced. See ' Koman Type.' 
 
 Cursive letters are now employed to mark em- 
 phatic words or words of a foreign language. 
 
 Iva'rian Dynasty {The). Im- 
 properly called ' The Skiol dung Dynasty' 
 iq.v.), and sometimes ' The Eace of Lod- 
 brok.' The founder was Ivar Vidfadme, 
 who is said to have reigned from a.d. 647 
 to 735. The Ivarian dynasty gave four- 
 teen kings, and lasted from 647 to 1056 ; it 
 followed the Ynglings, and was succeeded 
 by the race of Stenkil. The Ivarian was 
 the second Swedish dynasty, and is some- 
 times called the ' Race of Sigurd,' from 
 Sigurd-Ring, the 3rd of the line. The 
 reason is this: Harald Hilde.and, the 
 grandson and successor of Ivar, lived in 
 Denmark, and sent his nephew Sigurd- 
 Ring to Upsa'la as his viceroy. Sigurd 
 rebelled against his uncle, who was slain 
 in battle, and succeeded him. Lodbrok 
 was the son of Sigurd-Ring. 
 
 JackBoot (^), 1763.. The mocking 
 emblem of John . . . Bute, the chief 
 minister of George III. A jack-boot was 
 carried in jarocession, and burnt in the 
 cider riots raised by Sir Francis Dash- 
 wood's unpopular tax on cider and perry. 
 
 When No. 45 of 'The North Briton 'was 
 condemned to be burnt by the common 
 hangman in 1763, the mob rescued the 
 paper and burnt a jack-boot instead. 
 
 The scandal was that the Earl of Bute was the 
 paramour of the Dowager Princess of Wales, and 
 the rioters therefore carried a petticoat on a 
 pole as well as a jack-boot, and both were burnt 
 together. John Stuart earl of Bute (1713-1792). 
 
 Jack Straw. A priest who, with 
 John Ball of Kent, took a leading part in 
 V/at the Tyler's rebellion of 1381. He 
 was executed the same year. 
 
 Jack the Ripper. An unknown 
 person who so called himself, and com- 
 mitted a series of murders in the east 
 end of London on coimnon prostitutes. 
 
 The first was 2 April, 1888, when he murdered 
 and mutilated a woman in a most barbarous 
 manner ; the next was 7 Aug. ; the third was 31 
 Aug. ; the fourth was 8 Sept. ; the fifth was 30 Sent., 
 when two women were murdered, one of whom 
 was brutally mutilated; the sixth was 9 Nov. ; the 
 seventh was 20 I>ec., in a builder s yard ; the eighth 
 was 17 July, 18.S9, at Whitechapel ; the ninth was 
 17 Sept., when the mutilated trunk of a woman was 
 found in Pinchin Street, Whitechapel. The per- 
 petrator of these murders fearlessly announced 
 that he was Jack the Ripper, and the series of 
 murders created quite a panic in Whitechapel. 
 For a parallel case, see ' Monster ' (The). 
 
 Jackmen. Military retainers dressed 
 in jacks or doublets quilted with iron. 
 These partisans in the middle ages con- 
 ducted themselves with great insolence 
 towards the industrious part of the com- 
 munity, lived by plunder, and were ready, 
 at the command of their master, for any 
 act of violence. 
 
 It is Christie of the Clinthili. the laird's chief 
 jackman ; ye know that little havings [behaviour] 
 can be expected from the like o' them. — Sir W. 
 Scott, The Monastenj, chap. ix. 
 
 Jacksonian Professor of Natural 
 and Experimetital Philosophy, in the 
 University of Cambridge. Stipend 500Z. 
 a year. Founded by the Rev. Richard 
 Jackson, 1783. 
 
 Jacob's Stone. The stone used in 
 our coronation service, brought from 
 Scotland by Edward I., and transferred 
 from Ireland to Scotland by one of the 
 Milesian kings. 
 
 The ' stone of destiny ' Is said to have been the 
 stone set up by the patriarch Jacob to commemo- 
 rate his dream, in which hesaw aladder reaching 
 from earth to heaven. The stone is historic, but 
 the tradition connecting it with Jacob is mythical. 
 
 Jaco'bi or Jacobe'ans, 1358. 
 
 French rebels under the leadership of 
 Guillaume Caillet, surnamed Jacques 
 Bonhomme. Their rebellion is known 
 in history as ' La Jacquerie ' {(J-v.), 
 (' Froissart,' vol.i. chapters 187,188,lb'J.) 
 
464 
 
 JACOBINS 
 
 JAGO 
 
 Jac'obins, 1207. I. In Church his- 
 tory. The Dominicans of Paris were 
 popularly so called from St. James's 
 Hospital for Strangers assigned to them in 
 1207 by Alberic. The street in which 
 the hospital stood was in 1219 called the 
 Rue St. Jacques. The Dominican convent 
 subsequently occupied by the Breton 
 Club was not the original hospital re- 
 ferred to above, but an affiliated convent 
 in the Rue St. Honore. See ' Jacobins, a 
 political club.' 
 
 II. A jjolitical club in the first French 
 Revolution formed at Versailles in 1789, 
 and at first called the Club Breton, be- 
 cause it was organised by the deputies of 
 Brittany. When the National Assembly 
 was moved to Paris the club followed, 
 and called itself La Societe des Amis de 
 la Constitution ; but the general public 
 called it the ' Jacobins' Club,' because it 
 held its meetings in the ancient convent 
 of the Jacobins in the Rue St. Honore. 
 The opinions of this club were very radical 
 and Robespierre was its chief leader. On 
 the fall of Robespierre the club was dis- 
 solved, 11 Nov., 1794. 
 
 The original platform of the Breton Club was to 
 dethrone Louis XVI. and place the Duke of Orleans 
 on the throne. 
 
 Jac'obites (3 syl.). I. Pilgrims to the 
 shrine of St. James of Compostella in 
 Spain (ad Jacobum Compostellanum). 
 
 II. In Church history, 541. An 
 oriental sect of Monoph'ysites called after 
 Jacob Zanzale, surnamed Baradasus {;i.e. 
 Al Baradas, the ragged) bishop of Edessa. 
 They prevailed especially in Egyjjt, Syria, 
 Mesopotamia, and Chaldsea. The chief of 
 the sect is called patriarch of Antioch, and 
 lives at Diarbekir, and the next in rank 
 is the maphrian. They recognise only 
 one nature in Jesus Christ, and they used 
 to brand their foreheads with a cross. 
 
 III. In British history. The partisans 
 of James II. after his abdication in 1688, 
 his son James called the Old Pretender, 
 and his grandson Charles Edward (the 
 Young Pretender). Many believed at 
 the time in the divine right of kings, and 
 that this right was inalienable. The un- 
 popularity of the first two Georges, whose 
 love was bound up with Hanover, con- 
 tributed to popularise the Jacobite party. 
 
 Jaco'byns. A word applied in news- 
 paj^ers to the ultra-radical party, first in 
 1889 when Mr. Jac5by was appointed 
 their ' whip.' 
 
 This v-ill, of course, have the support of the 
 Jacobyns, the Irish, and the poace-at-any-price 
 faction of the English radicals.— iVt'icsp«pfirit'ad<'c, 
 13 Feb., 1890. 
 
 Jacquerie {La), 1358. A faction of 
 the revolted peasants of Picardy, who 
 for about six weeks went about in 
 monster gangs attacking all the well- 
 to-do without distinction of sex. Their 
 leader was Guillaume Caillet, the 
 ' Jack Cade ' of France, and with 20,000 
 followers he destroyed thirty castles. 
 He led his gang to Meaux [Mo], where 
 the Duchess of Orleans with some fifty 
 ladies of rank had fled for security. 
 The rebels reached the city gates, and 
 prepared to break them down, when the 
 Cajitcil de Buch, with forty followers, 
 sallied out uiJon them. The insurgents 
 fled in all directions ; 7,000 of them 
 were slain or trampled to death, and 
 Caillet, falling into the hands of ChiJs-les 
 the Bad, v/as beheaded summarily with 
 a sword. 
 
 Wat Tyler's insurrection was in 1381. Jack 
 Cade's was 69 years later, in 1450. 
 Pronounce Zjah-he-re. Caillet, pronounce Ki-yea. 
 
 Jacques Bonhonime. The name 
 assumed by Guillaume Caillet, leader of 
 the revolt called after him ' La Jacquerie ' 
 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Pronounce Zjark Bun-num' ; Ghu'yum Ei'yea. 
 
 Jactitation of Marriage. A false 
 pretension to marriage. The person v/ho 
 utters the pretence is called in law the 
 ' boaster ' (jactator). This pretence is 
 now actionable at law. 
 
 Jaffa Massacre {The), 1799. Bona- 
 parte had taken about 2,000 prisoners in 
 his Egyptian campaign ; they were a 
 mixed body of Egyptians, Turks, and 
 others. Tlainking they would encumber 
 his army, he marched tliem out to the 
 sandhills, south-east of Jaffa (Joppa), had 
 them all shot, and piled the dead bodies 
 into a pyramid. 
 
 Jagello {Dynasty of the), 1386-1572. 
 Succeeded in Poland the House of Anjou. 
 Hedviga, the youngest daughter of Louis 
 the Great king of Hungary and Poland, 
 married Jagello of Lithuania, and thus 
 the dynasty was founded. It gave six 
 kings. 
 
 Jagello was the'thirteenth son of Gedymin duke 
 of Lithuania. 
 
 JagO {Knights of St.). A Spanish 
 military order instituted under Alex- 
 ander III., the grand-master. 
 
JAINAS 
 
 JANSENISM 
 
 4G5 
 
 Jain'as, a.d. 500. A very numerous 
 heterodox sect of Hindus. So called 
 from r/ina (deified saint). Like the Buddh- 
 , ists, they deny the divine authority of 
 the Veda; but, with the Brahmans, they 
 admit the institution of 'caste.' The 
 Jainas declined in numbers after 1200. 
 
 Sometimes they are called ' Arhatas.'fromnWia/, 
 another word for ' deified saint.' 
 
 Jales. A borough and chateau of 
 Languedoc. In Sept. 1790 was formed 
 the Camp de Jales, consisting of French 
 nobles whose object was to overthrow 
 the Constituent Assembly. The chateau 
 was burnt to the ground in 1792, and the 
 ' camp ' was scattered to the winds. 
 
 The camp, which was really2,000 strong, boasted 
 of being able to bring 70,000 men into the field 
 to put down the revolutionary party.— Caklyle, 
 French lie volution, vol. ii. bk. v. 
 
 James I. of Great Britain, first of the 
 Stuart dynasty (1566, 1608-1625). 
 
 Father, Henry Stuart lord Darnley. 
 Mother, Mary queen of Scots, daughter 
 of James V. of Scotland. James I. was 
 great-grandson of the Princess Margaret, 
 a daughter of Henry VII. Wife, Ann 
 daughter of Frederic II. of Denmark. 
 Court favourites, Kobert Carr, whom he 
 made duke of Somerset, and George Vil- 
 liers, whom he created duke of Bucking- 
 ham. 
 
 Henry VII. was the father of Henry VIII. and 
 Margaret. 
 
 Henry VIII. was the father of his three succes- 
 sors, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (all 
 without issue). 
 
 Margaret married James IV. of Scotland — the 
 parents of James V. And James V. was the father 
 of Mary queen of Scots. 
 
 *,* Charles I. succeeded his father James I. ; 
 and Elizabeth daughter of James I., who married 
 the Elector Palatine, was called ' queen of Bohe- 
 mia.' Their daughter Sophia was the mother of 
 George I. 
 
 Stijle and title : ' James D.G. of England. Scotland, 
 France, and Ireland king ; Defender of the Faith ; 
 and Supreme Head of the Anglican and Hibernian 
 Church.' 
 
 James II. (1633, began to reign 
 1685, abdicated 1688, died at St. Ger- 
 mains 1701). 
 
 Father, Ch^arles I. Mother, Henrietta 
 Maria of France. Wives (i.) Anne Hyde, 
 who died 1671 ; (ii.) Marie Beatrix d'Este, 
 who died 1718. 
 
 By Anne Hyde he had four sons and four 
 daughters, six of whom died young and two (viz. 
 Mary and Anne) were queens of England. 
 
 The Pretender, James Francis Edward, was the 
 only surviving son of the second v ife i Jii'^'!-i7(iG). 
 
 His stale and title was : ' James, D.G. of England, 
 Scotland, France, and Ireland king; Defender of 
 the Faith,' &c. 
 
 Mani uas born 1G62, married William prince of 
 Oranjje 1G77, died 1604. 
 
 A7ine tens born 16G4. married George of Denmark 
 l&-.;i. died 1714. 
 
 James III. (of England). So Louis 
 XIV. recognised the Old Pretender, 
 James son of James II., who had been 
 set aside by the nation over whom he 
 ruled. Louis XIV. insisted that kings 
 reigned 'by divine right,' and, being ap- 
 pointed by God, only God could rightfully 
 depose them. 
 
 James VIII., 6 Sept., 1714. James 
 the Pretender, son of James II. of 
 England, was proclaimed at Castleton 
 ' James VIII. of Scotland ' ; but he was 
 never crowned, and the battles of Preston 
 and Sheriffmuir in 1715 put an end to 
 his hopes of supplanting George I. 
 
 Jamos of the Iron Belt. 
 James IV. of Scotland, who fell at Flodden 
 Field (1473, 1488-1513). 
 
 James the Conqueror. James I. 
 of Aragon (1206, 1213-1276). So called 
 from his numerous victories over the 
 Moors. 
 
 James the Just. James II. of 
 Aragon (1261, 1285-1327). So called from 
 his just and strictly legal dealings with 
 his subjects. 
 
 James with the Fiery Face. 
 
 James II. of Scotland, son of James I. 
 So called from a fiery red stain on his 
 face (1430, 1437-1460). 
 
 Jane {Three Heroic Contemporaries 
 named), 1342, &c. Jane wife of De Clis- 
 son, Jane wife of De Montfort, and Jane 
 wife of Charles de Blois. Three of the 
 most heroic women that ever lived. All 
 antagonistic to the French and allies 
 of Edward III. The wife of De Blois 
 was called ' Jane the Lame.' 
 
 Jan'izary. A corruption of yengi- 
 cheri, new soldiers. Ottoman infantry, 
 who, in times of peace, acted as a police 
 force, but proved a most unruly lot, their 
 whole history abounding with conspira- 
 cies and the assassinations of sultans and 
 viziers. The force was dissolved in 1826, 
 but 15,000 of them were executed and 
 20,000 were exiled. 
 
 The new militia was consecrated and named by 
 a celebrated dervish, who said : ' Let them bo 
 called ijengi-cheri ; may their countenance be 
 ever bright; and, wherever they go. may they 
 return with white [joyous] faces.— Gibbon, Ixiv. 
 
 Jan'senism, 1640. The tenets of 
 Cornelius Jansen bishop of Ypres, op- 
 posed to those of the Jesuits. Jansen 
 was a disciple of St. Augustine, whose 
 religious views were very similar to those 
 H Ii 
 
466 
 
 JANSENISTS 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 of Calvin. He wrote a book called 
 'Augustmus,' published in 1640; and 
 from this book the following five points 
 were deduced : (1) It is not possible to 
 keep some of God's commandments ; (2) 
 Inward grace is irresistible ; (3) Man has 
 liberty free from restraint, but not free 
 from predestination, or there could be no 
 such things as sin and merit ; (4) The 
 Semi-Pelagians were heretical, because 
 they asserted the necessity of an inward 
 preventive grace ; (5) It is heresy to say 
 that Jesus died for all. The book w^s 
 very severe against the Jesuits, who 
 induced Urban VIII. to condemn it l'o42. 
 
 Jan'senists, 1640. Disciples of 
 Cornelius Jansen bishop of Ypres (1585- 
 1638). Condemned by Innocent X. in 
 1653. Blaise Pascal wrote his famous 
 'Lettres Provinciales' in 1656, in their 
 defence and against the Jesuits, whom he 
 charged with immorality, equivocation, 
 mental reservation, and simony. A for- 
 mulary was issued by Innocent X. which 
 the Jansenists were required to sign. 
 This they refused to do. Alexander VII. 
 in 1656 issued another bull of condemna- 
 tion, and again commanded the Jansen- 
 ists to sign the formulary. Still they 
 refused, and to prevent a split in the 
 church the next jiope compromised the 
 matter by withdrawing the formulary. 
 This is called ' The Peace of Clement IX.' 
 1668. Clement XI. in 1713 issued his bull 
 called ' Unigenitus ' in condemnation of 
 the JansenistSj who api^ealed to a gene- 
 ral council, and were therefore called 
 'Appellants.' In 1720 the Jansenists 
 were banished from France by the Re- 
 gent Orleans. 
 
 The Jansenists were Calvinistic Catholics who 
 maintained the doctrines of grace, predestination, 
 and non-freedom of the will. 
 
 Janua'rius's Blood {St.). Janu- 
 arius bishop of Benevento was beheaded 
 in the tenth and last Roman persecution, 
 about 303. It is said that a lady of Naples 
 caught about an ounce of his blood at 
 the moment of decapitation (!), and this 
 blood, preserved in a phial, from that 
 day to this has lost none of its weight. 
 Three times a year this phial in N aples 
 is brought near the head of the saint, 
 and the blood, which before was con- 
 gealed, liquefies. 
 
 It appears to me that catching the blood [in the 
 phial] was the greatest miracle. The liquefaction 
 ia i. suiall aiiair. A ly chemist could mana.ge Ui^t. 
 
 January 1. Made in England New 
 Year's Day in 1751. (24 Geo. II. c. 23.) 
 
 March indubitably is the proper beginning of 
 the year. And our calendar still recognises it as 
 such in the names of the last four months. 
 
 January {Edict of), 1562. Which 
 granted to the Huguenots of France full 
 liberty of conscience, provided they held 
 their meetings beyond the barriers of 
 Paris. See ' Edict of Amboise.' 
 
 The judge pleaded the Edict of January. ' The 
 Edict of January!' said Guise, laying his hand 
 upon his sword. ' This steel shall speedily cut 
 asunder that edict, however tightly bound.' — 
 G. DE Felice, History of the Protestants of France, v. 
 
 January 21 (1793). Memorable 
 for the decapitation of Louis XVI. The 
 place of execution was what is now called 
 the ' Place de la Concorde.' It is a fete 
 day with Napoleonists. 
 
 He gave a jovial supper to his companions on 
 the 21st of January, the anniversary of the execu- 
 tion of Louis XVI.— !/'/ie Czar, ch. xxxii. 
 
 Historical Coincidences:— 
 
 1. The number of letters in Charles I. and 
 Louis XVI. is in both cases 8. 
 
 2. The sum of the dates 1649 and 1793 is in both 
 cases 20. 
 
 3. The sum of the days 30 and 21 is in both 
 cases 3. 
 
 4. The month in both cases is January. 
 
 5. Both were Christian kings ; both were tried 
 by their subjects; and both were decapitated by 
 judicial sentence. 
 
 January 25 {The Manifesto of), 
 1655. By Gastaldo, ' conservator-general 
 of the holy faith.' ' It is enjoined and 
 commanded on all persons of the pre- 
 tended reformed religion of every state, 
 inhabitants of Lucerna, Lucernetta, San 
 Giovanni, La Torre, Bibbiana, Fenile, 
 Campiglione, Bricherasco, and San Se- 
 condo, to withdraw from the aforesaid 
 places within three days. . . . Those who 
 disobey this edict will incur the penalty 
 of death, and the confiscation of all their 
 property not disposed of to Catholics. 
 
 January 30, 1649. Memorable 
 for the decapitation of Charles I. at 
 Whitehall. See ' January 21 n.' 
 
 January 31 {Edict or Decree of), 
 1686. Abolishing the religious services 
 of the Vaudois, or any other form of 
 religious teacbing except the Roman 
 Catholic, under pain of death and confis- 
 cation of property. It commanded the 
 instant demolition of all houses of wor- 
 ship in which ' the reformed religion ' was 
 observed, the banishment of all Vaudois 
 ministers and schoolmasters, the compul- 
 sory baptism of all children by Catholic 
 
JANUS 
 
 JEANNE 
 
 467 
 
 priests, and their education in the 
 Catholic faith. 
 
 Janus. One of the gods of old 
 Rome, represented with two faces. 
 Numa Pompilius, according to Livy, 
 built a gate which was to be closed in 
 time of peace. It was closed four times : 
 once B.C. 235, in the consulship of Titus 
 Manlius ; again B.C. 29, by Augustus 
 Csesar ; a third time B.C. 25, also by 
 Augustus ; and finally A.D. 71 by Ves- 
 pasian. 
 
 St. Augustine says : — 
 
 The gates of Janus were not the gates of a 
 temple, but the gates of a passage called Janus, 
 ■which was used only for military purposes. 
 'Shut,' therefore, in peace; open in wa.x.—'l'lie 
 City of God, vol. i. p. 98. 
 
 Japan in 1889 received a new con- 
 stitution, two chambers being esta- 
 blished on the German model, 
 
 Japanese Martyrs, 5 Feb., 1597. 
 A number of Franciscan friars crucified 
 near Nagasa'ki. They were beatified in 
 1627, and canonised by Pius IX. in 1862. 
 
 Japanese Perry of the United 
 States, America, whose head is repre- 
 sented on the 90-cent stamps, is Com- 
 modore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1795- 
 1858), who made the treaty for the 
 United States with Japan. Both he 
 and his father were celebrated naval 
 officers. See ' American Postage Stamps.' 
 There was another of the name, also an Ameri- 
 can naval ofiQcer, viz. Oliver Hazard Perry (1785- 
 18-20). 
 
 Ja'redites (3 syl.). The first Ameri- 
 can colony, according to the Book of 
 Mormon. They were led from the 
 Tower of Babel, at the dispersion, by 
 Jared. The Jaredites were a wicked and 
 bloody people, who utterly extirpated 
 themselves by war. In B.C. 600 Nephi 
 brought over a new colony from Jerusa- 
 lem, and these new settlers were called 
 Nephites. 
 
 Jarvey {A). A hackney coachman 
 of the olden times. So called from 
 Jarvis, one of the fraternity, who was 
 hanged (B.\iiLANTiNE). 
 
 Jasher [The Book of). Quoted 
 twice in the Old Testament (Jos. x. IB, 
 and 2 Sam. i. 18). Nothing more is 
 known about it. See ' Literary For- 
 geries ' 
 
 In 1751 Jacob Hive published a forged book so 
 called, but the forgery was exposed in the 
 • I\;o;itlilv P.-vio V- Deo. 1751. It was republished 
 by Uoualdsuu in ItiOi. 
 
 Jasper. The first foundation of the 
 celestial city, represented the tribe of 
 Gad in the pectoral of the high priest, 
 and as a zodiacal sign it stands for 
 Pisces. Symbolically it means ' lucky,' 
 or ' win at last.' 
 
 Jassy {Treat!/ of), 9 Jan., 1792. A 
 treaty of peace between Russia and the 
 Porte, which fixed the Dniester as the 
 boundary between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Jaunot. The European Chinaman. 
 His real name is M. Lemaire. He was 
 consul-general of Shanghai, and in 1884 
 was appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary at Hue. Lemaire was nicknamed 
 Jaunot at school from his singularly 
 yellow complexion. He married a 
 Cochin-Chinese lady, and was appointed 
 interpreter of the French Consulate, 
 
 Pronounce Zjo7ie-o. 
 
 Jean I. Though enrolled among 
 the kings of France, like Napoleon II., is 
 a vox et prcBterea nihil. Jean I. was 
 the posthumous son of Louis X. by de- 
 mentia his wife ; but the child died three 
 weeks after its birth. 
 
 Jean le Bon or John the Good. 
 
 Jean ILof France (1319, 1350-1364). He 
 was brought captive to England after 
 the battle of Poitiers, and remained in 
 captivity from 1357 to 1361, when the 
 French agreed to pay a million and a 
 half sterling for his ransom. Jean re- 
 turned to Paris and sent his two sons as 
 hostages till the ransom was paid. The 
 two princes violated their parole and 
 escaped to France ; whereupon Jean 
 returned to his captivity, saying, ' Good 
 faith must never be violated by a king.' 
 It was this which gained for him the 
 name of ' Le Bon.' 
 
 Jeanne d'Are. The University of 
 Paris condemned her on twelve charges : 
 
 I. Her apparitions, inspired by Belial, Satan, 
 and Behemoth. 
 
 II. Her sign to the king, a lie. 
 
 III. The visits of St. Catherine, a rash belief 
 injurious to the faith. 
 
 IV. Her predictions, mere superstitious divina- 
 tion. 
 
 v. Her wearing male attire by commaitd of God, 
 blasphemy. 
 
 VI. The letters writteit to the English to depart 
 from France, traitorous, bloodthirsty, and blas- 
 phemous. 
 
 VII. Her leaving Chinon, filial impiety. 
 
 VIII. Her attempt to escape from the tower at 
 Beaurevoir, cowardice. 
 
 IX. Her confide twe in her saivntinn, -presxim-piiow. 
 
 X. Her asserlinti thai SI. Calhrriiie and SI. M.ir. 
 g'in-t do )i(it .s/d'.f/; i:,i ili^h. 1)1 is^jhemy, and viola, 
 tion of lo.e to oar nciaUijour. 
 
468 
 
 JEDBURGH 
 
 JEREMIE'S 
 
 XI. Paying honour to saints, idolatry. 
 
 XII. Reftisal to submit to the Church (i.e. her tri- 
 bunal), schism. 
 
 The judgment was reversed in 1246, and the 
 former record of the University of Paris torn out 
 of the register and destroyed. 
 
 Jedburgh Justice ; also called 
 ' Jeddart Justice ' and ' Jedwood Jus- 
 tice,' Jeddart and Jedwood being local 
 variations of Jedburgh, in Roxburghshire, 
 Scotland. A summary proceeding against 
 mosstroopers, who were punished with- 
 out trial if taken flagra?ite delicto. 
 
 Somewhat similar expressions are the follow- 
 ing: Cupar Justice. Bradford Law, Jedburgh 
 Law, Halifax Law, Abingdon Law (q.v.), Burslem 
 Club Law, Mob Law, Lynch Law, &c. 
 
 Jeddart Staff (A). A species of 
 battle-axe, especially used in the ancient 
 borough of Jeddart. The armorial bear- 
 ings of Jeddart are an armed horseman 
 brandishing a battle-axe. 
 
 The tongue of a tale-bearer breaketh bones as 
 well as a Jeddart staff.— Sir W. ScoTT, The Abbot, 
 chap. iv. 
 
 JefFreidos (4 syl.). A mock epic by 
 William Davenant, the subject of which 
 is the combat of Sir Jeffrey Hudson, the 
 dwarf, with a turkey-cock. 
 
 JeJBPreys' Bloodstone. So the 
 
 ring presented in 1684 by Charles II. to 
 Chief Justice Jeffreys was popularly 
 called, because he received it just after 
 the execution of Sir Thomas Armstrong. 
 
 Jeffreys' Campaign, 1685. So 
 James II. called the circuit of Judge 
 Jeffreys, through Dorchester, Exeter, 
 Taunton, and Wells, after Monmouth's 
 rebellion. As many as 251 persons were 
 condemned to death as partisans of 
 Monmouth. 
 
 Jefume, i.e. ' treading on the cruci- 
 fix.' The Dutch were allowed to traffic 
 in Japan provided they would trample 
 on the crucifix to show they were not 
 Roman Catholics. From 1586 to 1637 
 Spaniards and Portuguese freely traded 
 in Japan ; but at the latter date a Dutch- 
 man revealed to the Emperor of Japan 
 a conspiracy formed by the Spaniards 
 and Portuguese to murder him. Both of 
 these people were expelled, and no Roman 
 Catholic was allowed to trade in the 
 country. The Jefume was abolished in 
 1854, when the ports were thrown open. 
 
 Jellale'an Era (The), 1074. The 
 calendar of the Seleucides, reformed in 
 the reign of Malek Shah by an assembly 
 of sage astronomers. At this epoch the 
 
 Persian year was nearly 112 days before 
 the sun, and to make the Persian calendar 
 coincide with the Julian the assembly 
 commanded that the vernal equinox 
 should always be on the fourteenth day of 
 what we call March, and that the inter- 
 calary days should be six instead of five 
 every fourth year. 
 
 Sir Harris Nicholas calls the word Jelaledin, 
 and says he was a sultan. James B. Fraser calls 
 the word Jellalean, and says that the calendnr 
 was reformed, not by a sultan, but by saga 
 astronomers when Malek Shah was sultan. 
 
 Jemmy Twiteher. John earl of 
 Sandwich, one of the New Franciscans, 
 an obscene and impious club, of which 
 Wilkes was also a member. Sandwich 
 was especially forward in condeninin;^ 
 No. 45 of the ' North Briton,' and in 
 denouncing Wilkes the editor. As Sand- 
 wich was just as lewd and blasphemous 
 as Wilkes, this was like the pot calling 
 the kettle ' Black-face.' The ' Beggar's 
 Opera ' was running at the time at 
 Covent Garden, and when Macheath 
 uttered the words, ' That Jemmy Twiteher 
 should peach, I own surprises me,' 
 all the theaire applied the words to 
 Sandwich, amidst most tumultuous ap- 
 plause, and ever after the earl went by 
 the name of Jemmy Twiteher. 
 
 Jenner'ian Institution {The 
 Boyal). Founded in London 1803. In 
 1808 it merged in the National Vaccine 
 Establishment. 
 
 Dr. Edward Jenner in 1798 published his treatise 
 ' An Enquiry into the Causes and Effects of the 
 Variolse Vaccinfe,' after his first 'experiment of 
 vaccination in May 179fi; and in 1802 received a 
 grant of 10,000L from parliament. ' 
 
 Jenny Geddes (1 syl.). The name of 
 Robert Burns's mare. It was so called 
 after Jenny Geddes of Edinburgh, who 
 took up her stool to throw at the bishop's 
 head when trying in the High Church to 
 introduce the Anglican service. 
 
 Jenny mistook the meaning of collect for colic. 
 And wlien the bishop from the pulpit implored the 
 riotous congregation to hear the collect, she ex- 
 claimed, ' Colic, d' you say ? Deil colic the wame 
 o' thee ! '—i.e. the devil send the colic into thy 
 stomach. 
 
 Je'ofail {Statutes of). Statutes for 
 the remedy of slips or accidental errors 
 in a law proceeding. ' Jeofail ' is corrupt 
 for J'ai failli, 1 have made a mistake (in 
 Latin, Lapsus sum). 
 
 Jer'emie's Prizes {Dr.). For pro- 
 ficiency in the Septuagint version of 
 the Old Testament and other Helleni^jtic 
 
JEROME 
 
 JESUITS 
 
 4C9 
 
 literature. Two prizes annually in books 
 for undergraduates. Founded in the 
 University of Cambridge by the Very 
 Rev. James Amiraux Jeremie, D.D., 
 dean of Lincoln, in 1870. See ' Regius 
 Professor of Divinity.' 
 
 Jerome of Prague (1378-1416). 
 
 Jerome (2 syl.) was charged with heresy, 
 and, asking what heresj'^, was told that, 
 lecturing at Heidelberg, he had likened 
 the Holy Trmity to a liquid in three 
 states : water, vapour, and ice. ' Away 
 with him ! Away with him ! To the 
 stake ! To the stake ! ' roared the council 
 with one voice, and he was burnt to 
 death. See ' Huss.' 
 
 St. Patrick's illustration, a leaf of shamrock, 
 was quite as objectionable. Abelard and Jeremy 
 Taylor were equally unorthodox in their attempts 
 to illustrate the ' Three-in-One.' In all these 
 cases the fundamental error is the assumption 
 that the three hypostases are three personal ob- 
 jects or phenomena, which would necessitate 
 their creation. The whole of which supposition 
 is bad philosophy and bad theology. 
 
 Jerry-building. Worthless or in- 
 secure building; cheap contract work, 
 flimsy and showy. So called from the 
 firm of Jerry, Brothers, Liverpool, house 
 contractors, notorious for their un- 
 substantial edifices (19th cent., latter 
 half). 
 
 The falling-in of two villas at Chalk Farm, 
 while in course of erection, will, I hope, call 
 attention to the system of jerry-building so much 
 in \ogvie..— Truth, 29 Oct., 1885. 
 
 Jerusalem {The Destruction of). 
 This epoch began with the taking of 
 Jerusalem by Titus, Sept. a.d. 70. 
 
 Jerusalem Jump {The). A negro 
 religious service, or ' awakening.' While 
 the negro preacher is still ranting, two 
 concentric circles are formed round him. 
 The outer circle is of men, and the inner 
 one of women, facing the men. Each 
 man then takes hold of the opposite 
 woman, and the two jump together 
 violently, shaking hands and shouting at 
 the top of their voices. After about a 
 minute the two circles move, one one 
 way and one another, so that each brother 
 faces a different sister, and again the 
 jumping is repeated. See ' Jumpers.' 
 
 This really is not more absurd than the dancing 
 of dervishes. 
 
 Jerusalem, of Russia {The). 
 Moscow, the 'sacred city.' Close by is 
 the ' Mount of Salvation,' where the 
 natives, coming in full view of their 
 boloved city, kneel and cross themselve.s. 
 
 Jesids {The), or ' Devil Worshippers.' 
 I14 Russian and Turkish Armenia, the 
 valley of the Tigris, &c. Their holy city 
 is Ba-Hasani. It is said their name is 
 compounded of Jesu (their founder) and 
 Jesid a town. They pray to the rising 
 sun, worship Allah, reverence Mahomet, 
 and deem Christ a great angel (' the son 
 of light '). Their chief concern is to 
 conciliate Shaitan, the devil, whose name 
 they never utter. Thursday is their 
 Sabbath, and they fast forty days in the 
 spring of the year. Their children are 
 baptized, and their ecclesiastical orders 
 consist of sheikhs, fakirs, and djirs 
 {elders). They abhor the colour blue, 
 show the greatest respect to women, 
 widows dress in v/hite, and the dead are 
 buried with their faces turned to the 
 pole-star. 
 
 Jes'uates (3 syl.), 1355. A religious 
 order founded by St. John Colombine, 
 and confirmed by Urban V. in 13G7. 
 Suppressed in 16G8, when all their pos- 
 sessions were given to the Hospitallers 
 of Italy. The object of the order was to 
 administer to the sick and needy. They 
 were suppressed because they were 
 manufacturers of strong drinks. They 
 had popularly the name of ' Aqua Vitte 
 Fathers.' 
 
 Ainsi appele parce que ses fondateurs avaient 
 toujours le nom de Jesus a la bouche.— Bouillet. 
 
 Jesuits, founded 1538. A religious 
 society founded by Ignatius Loyola, and 
 confirmed by Paul III. in 1540. It was 
 monarchical in its constitution and secu- 
 lar, while all other Catholic societies are 
 more or less democratic and regular. 
 The head of the society is called the 
 General, or ' Praspositus Generalis,' and 
 holds his office for life. This General 
 has absolute command over the whole 
 society, and from his decisions there is 
 no appeal. 
 
 The four objects of the society are : 
 (1) the education of youth ; (2) the edu- 
 cation of others by preaching, &c. ; (3) 
 the defence of the Catholic faith against 
 all heretics and unbelievers, and (4) the 
 propagation of the Catholic faith among 
 the heathen. The Jesuits wear no 
 monastic garb, but dress like any other of 
 the ' secular clergy ' {q.v.), and live in no 
 religious house, but in private dwellings. 
 Banished from England by 27 Eliz. c. 2 
 A.D. 1584, banished from France in 1594, 
 expelled from Portugal in 1759, expelled 
 
470 
 
 JESUITS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 from Spain in 1767, expelled from Naples 
 1767, expelled from Parma 1768, ex- 
 pelled from Malta 1768, dissolved by- 
 Clement XIV. in 1773, expelled from 
 Kussia 1820, expelled fi-om Switzerland 
 1847, expelled from Genoa 1848, expelled 
 from Naples, the Papal States, Austria, 
 Sicily, 1848. Still they survive. 
 
 They are accused of being accessories to the 
 Gunpowder Plot, the Popish Plot, the Thirty 
 Years' War, and almost all the political troubles 
 of Europe. 
 
 Jesuits of the Revolution (r//e). 
 The Girondins^ are so called by Du- 
 niouriez, ' Memoires,' iii. 314. 
 
 Jesuitesses {The), 1534. An order 
 of religious women, founded by two Eng- 
 lishwomen, Warda and Tuittia, in imita- 
 tion of Loyola's foundation. Abolished 
 by Urban Vni. in 1631. 
 
 These women were street preachers. Surely 
 Warda and Tuittia are not English names, but so 
 is the record. 
 
 Jesus College. I. In Cambridge 
 University, founded by John Alcock 
 bishop of Ely, in 1496. 
 
 II. In Oxford, 1571. Founded by Queen 
 Elizabeth. The head-master is called the 
 principal. 
 
 Jesus Paper. Paper bearing the 
 letters I.H.S. for the water-mark. It is 
 of large size. 
 
 Jeu de Paume {Day of the), 
 20 June, 1789. When the States-General 
 assembled 5 May, 1789, to investigate 
 the wrongs of France and adjust the 
 finances, the nobles and clergy snubbed 
 the Tiers E tat ; whereupon the Tiers Etat 
 left the Salle de Menu, retired to the 
 tennis covirt, and constituted themselves 
 the ' National Assembly,' wholly ignoring 
 the nobles and clergy, who refused to join 
 them. They then took an oath not to 
 eeparate till they had given France a 
 constitution. Seven days afterwards the 
 Due d'Orleans, with forty-seven of the 
 noblesse and a large number of the clergy, 
 joined the Tiers Etat in the tennis court, 
 and declared themselves the national 
 parliament under the name of the ' Con- 
 stituent Assembly ' (Assemblee Consti- 
 tuante). 
 
 Jeu de Paulme (Jpwd pome), tennis. The Day of 
 the Jeu de Paumo (June 20) was the great holiday 
 during the Revolution. 
 
 Jeune {Le). Louis VII. was so 
 called, not for his youth, but for his 
 
 puerile policy, as Ethelred of England was 
 called the ' IJnready,' i.e. the impolitic. 
 
 1. Louis VII. began his reign with quarrelling 
 ■with his clergy, for which he was excommuni- 
 cated. 
 
 2. He interfered with the Count of Vermandois, 
 whereby he got into hot water with the Count of 
 Champagne, and setting fire to the count s castle 
 burnt down the whole town of Vitry. 
 
 3. He left his kingdom to conduct an absurd ex- 
 pedition to the Holy Land, which failed through- 
 out. 
 
 4. He divorced his wife Eleonore, who married 
 Henry II. of England, whereby France lost Poitou 
 and Aquitane. 
 
 5. He went to Palestine by land and not by sea, 
 contrary to the advice of his best counsellors. 
 
 C. His wars with England were perfidious and 
 most shortsighted in policy. 
 
 Though amiable enough, he failed in everything 
 from want of worldly wisdom, manly energy, and 
 state prudence. 
 
 JeunesseDor^e de Frdron {La), 
 1794. Those young men of the Thermi- 
 dorian faction who armed themselves 
 according to the advice of Fre'ron, given 
 in his journal 'L'Orateur du Peuple.' 
 These were violent against the Jacobin 
 Club, with whom they had frequent 
 skirmishes. 
 
 Jew of Tewkesbury {The). This 
 was Salomon, a Jew whom Richard earl 
 of Gloucester, in 1260, offered to pull out 
 of a cesspool into which he had fallen 
 one Saturday ; but the Jew refused the 
 proffered aid, saying : ' Sabbata nostra 
 colo ; de stercore surgere nolo.' Next 
 day [Sunday] the earl passed again, and 
 the Jew cried to him for help. ' No, 
 no, friend ! ' replied the earl, ' Sabbata 
 nostra quidem, Salomon, celebrabis ibi- 
 dem.' This story occurs twice in the 
 ' Chron. Monast. de Melsa,' ii. pp. 134, 137. 
 
 Eodem tempore apud Theokesbury, quidam 
 JudiBus cecidit in latrinam, sed quia tunc erat 
 sabbatum, non permisit se extrahi, nisi sequente 
 die Dominica, propter reverentiam sui sabbati, 
 quamobrem Judisum contigit mori in fcetore.— 
 Rolls Series. 
 
 Jews of Damascus {Persecution 
 of the), 1840. A Catholic priest named 
 Thomaso of Damascus, having disap- 
 peared suddenly in February, a Jew 
 barber at whose house he was seen v/as 
 examined by torture, when he accused 
 seven of the most wealthy Jewish mer- 
 chants of being concerned in the murder. 
 The seven merchants were apprehended ; 
 two died under torture, the other five 
 pleaded guilty. A dreadful persecution of 
 the Jews followed, and the absurd notion 
 was confirmed that human blood was 
 necessary for the paschal feast. The 
 Euj^ii.ih and French interfered, repro- 
 
JEWS' 
 
 J. J. 
 
 471 
 
 sen ted to Mehemet Ali the absurdity of 
 the notion, and the persecution ceased. 
 
 Jews' Parliament {The), 1243. 
 Six of the richest Jews from each large 
 town of England, and two from each small 
 town, sent by the county sheriffs to meet 
 Henry III. at Worcester, on Quinquage- 
 sima Sunday 1243, ' to treat with him for 
 their mutual benefit.' See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 The king informed his Jewish advisers that they 
 must raise without delay 20.000 marks (200,000^. of 
 money at its present value), one half to be ready by 
 Midsummer day, and the other moiety by Michael- 
 mas day. 
 
 Jewel of Europe [The). Sicily. 
 According to legend, God plucked a jewel 
 from his crown out of which he formed 
 Sicily. 
 
 Jewel of Seville {The). The 
 Giralda is so called. It is the most beau- 
 tiful and largest specimen of Oriental 
 architecture of its kind. 
 
 Jewish Disabilities Act {The). 
 21, 22 Vict. c. 49, 22 July, 1858. By this 
 act the oath administered to members of 
 parliament was modified to suit the re- 
 ligious faith of Jews. Baron Rothschild 
 was member for Hythe, and Alderman 
 Salomons for Greenock in 1858. 
 
 Jewish Eraancipation. Jews 
 emancipated in the United Kingdom from 
 disabilities of holding municipal offices 
 and voting as members of parliament. 
 
 1. Naturalised without being required to take 
 the sacrament 1753 (iti Geo. I. c. 26). 
 
 2. Admitted to the elective franchise 1832 (2 Will. 
 IV. c. 45). 
 
 3. Liberty of religious worship granted as to 
 dissenters, 1855(19 Vict. c. 8G). 
 
 4. Made eligible to seats in parliament 1858 (21, 
 22 Vict. c. 49). 
 
 5. All disabilities removed, and the oath ' On the 
 true faith of a Christian ' omitted 18G0. 
 
 Jewish Mundane Era {The), b.c. 
 Commences with the vernal equinox 
 3761. See ' Era.' 
 
 Jewish Plato {The). Philo-Judajus 
 of Alexandria, who endeavoured to weld 
 Platonism and the Mosaic institutions 
 together ; B.C. 20, died about a.d. 61. 
 
 Jewish Sects. See each in loco. 
 
 Chasidim 
 
 Beshters 
 
 Essenes (2 syl.) 
 
 Galileans 
 
 Gaulanites (3 syl.), pro- 
 bably Rabbinirits of 
 extreme views 
 
 Hellenians* 
 
 Hellenists 
 
 Hem'erobap'tists * 
 Nothing oc. ond th.? n^mc; 
 
 Boots to which a * is attached. 
 
 Hero'dians 
 Karaites * 
 Masboth'eans 
 Meristes * 
 Pharisees 
 Sad'ducees 
 Shebsen 
 Therapeutae 
 Zealots or Zelotes 
 
 is known of those 
 
 Jewish Soe'rates (3 syl.). Moses 
 Mendelssohn, the modern Jewish philo- 
 sopher (1729-1785). So called for his 
 ' Phsedon,' a dialogue on the immortality 
 of the soul in imitation of Plato. 
 
 One would think the better appellative would be 
 the ' Jewish Plato.' 
 
 Jewry (Statute of). Forbade usury 
 by Jews, and provided that . the Jews 
 should live in ' the king's own cities and 
 boroughs where the Chest of Chirographs 
 of Jewry are wont to be.' They were 
 permitted by this statute to buy houses 
 and farms, and to hold them for fifteen 
 years. 
 
 Jezebel, Aunt of Dido. See 
 ' Dido.' 
 
 Jezre'elites (4 syl.), 1884, or 'The 
 New and Latter House of Israel.' A 
 rehgious sect founded by James Jershom 
 White, a private of the lOtli regiment, 
 who compiled from the works of Joanna 
 Southcott and John Wroe a book which 
 he called • The Flying Roll.' He called 
 himself Jezreel, and gave himself out 
 to be the spiritual child of Joanna 
 Southcott, the Joshua of Christ, and 
 the Immortal Spirit who held the last 
 message of God to man. White erected a 
 temple 144 feet in length, breadth, and 
 height, at Gillingham, near Chatham. 
 The great hall would hold 5,000 persons. 
 He died 1885, but his wife gave her- 
 self out to be Esther the queen, the 
 virgin, and mother of Israel, sent to pre- 
 pare the people for Christ's second 
 advent in 1895. 
 
 Jingoes (2 syl.), 1877. Russo- 
 phobists. Those who su})posed that 
 Russia would take Constantinople and 
 then our Indian empire; but any Bobadil 
 or warlike blusterer was afterwards 
 called a Jingo. The word was adopted 
 from ' M'Dermott's War Song ' — that is, 
 the song sung in music halls by M'Der- 
 mott and very popular at the time. The 
 chorus runs thus : — 
 
 We don't want to fight, but, by Jingo ! if we do, 
 We ve got the ships, we've got the men, we've got 
 the money too. 
 
 Jin'goism, 1877. Warlike bluster 
 and Bobadilism. The French chauvin- 
 ism iq.v.) is now used in much the same 
 sense. See ' Jingoes.' 
 
 J. J. In Hognrth's ' Gin Lane,' 
 written on a gibbet, is Sir J[oseplij 
 
472 
 
 J. K. L. 
 
 JOHANNISTS 
 
 J[ekyll], obnoxious for his bill to increase 
 the duty on gin. 
 
 J. K. L. That is, Dr. Doyle, un- 
 questionably the most accomplished 
 polemical writer of his time, died 1834. 
 The letters stand for James Kildare 
 Leighlin — that is, his Christian name 
 and his see as Catholic bishop. 
 
 He [Mr. Stanley] made an exception in favour 
 of the then [183'2] celebrated J. K. L. He acknow- 
 ledged a letter from Dr. Doyle . . . with warm 
 expressions of thanks . . . and expressed a wish 
 to see him on his arrival in Dublin.— HowiTT, 
 History of Em/land (year 1832, p. 216). 
 
 Joan Makepeace, 1328. Joan 
 sister of Edward III., who at the age of 
 seven was affianced to David son of 
 Robert Bruce, aged five. This betrothal 
 was brought about by Mortimer (the 
 paramour of Isabella the queen doAvager), 
 to cement the" peace made between the 
 English and Scotch in the year 1328. 
 
 Joan of Are. Called 'La Pucelle,' 
 ' the Maid of Orleans ' (1412-1431). Her 
 sword was the mystic sw nd of St. 
 Catherine. 
 
 Joan of Kent. Joan Bocher, an 
 Anabaptist who was burnt at Smithfield 
 2 May, 1550. Some say she was con- 
 victed and sentenced by Archbishop 
 Cranmer, and others say when Edward VI. 
 was called on to sign the writ of her 
 execution his eyes were full of tears. 
 Others affirm that the writ was issued 
 by the Court of Chancery and that 
 Cranmer had no part in the matter. 
 ' Sir Thomas Browne, who wrote against 
 vulgar errors, influenced the jury to give 
 their verdict against the woman ' (' Parr's 
 Works,' iv. 181). See ' Van Paris.' 
 
 Blunt ('Reformation in England,' p. 260) says 
 Bhe was condemned, ' probably under the law 
 against Anabaptists, who advocated community 
 of goods.' 
 
 Juan the Fair Maid of Kent teas quite another per- 
 son. She married Edward the Black Prince, and died 
 1885. See ' Pope Joan.' 
 
 Joanna and Isabella, 14G8- 
 
 1479. Names which produced a civil 
 war in Castile. The question was, which 
 of these two should succeed Enrique on 
 the throne. Isabella was his sister (wife 
 of Don Ferdinand, who was son of 
 Juan II. king of Navarre), Joanna was 
 the natural daughter of Enrique. The 
 Archbishop of Toledo took the part of 
 Isabella, and undertook to detlirone 
 Enrique, but war for ten years desolated 
 the kingdom. Enrique died, his daugh- 
 ter Joanna retired to a convent, and 
 
 Isabella with Ferdinand became sove- 
 reigns of Aragon and Sicily, Leon and 
 Castile. 
 
 Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). 
 
 The mission of this ' prophetess ' began 
 in 1792, when she declared herself to be 
 ' the woman driven into the wilderness ' 
 of Rev. xii. Her prophecies are in prose 
 and wretched doggrel, and she gave her 
 followers her seals — that is, bits of paper 
 sealed to insure them against the wrath 
 of God. In 1814 she announced she was 
 about to be the mother of Shiloh the 
 Prince of Peace, but she died the same 
 year of dropsy. 
 
 Joanna Southcott was born in Devonshire of 
 humble parents, and was in youth a domestic 
 servant. 
 
 Joanna the Mad, Queen of Cas- 
 tile (1479, 1504-1555). She married 
 Philip archduke of Austria, and was the 
 mother of Kaiser Karl V., emperor of 
 the Romans, king of Castile, afterwards 
 of Spain, &c. 
 
 Joan'nites (3 syl.). The adherents 
 of John Chrysostom, who stood firmly on 
 his side when Theophilus of Alexandria 
 charged him with heresy and misde- 
 meanour. See below, ' Johannists.' 
 
 Jockey of TTorfolk. Sir John 
 Howard, a firm adherent of Richard III. 
 On the night before the battle of Bos- 
 worth field he found a warning couplet 
 in his tent, running thus : — 
 
 Jocky of Norfolk be not too bold. 
 For Dicon, thy master, is bought and sold. 
 *«* Dioon or Diclvon of course means Richard III., 
 and Jocky or Jacky = Jack, Jock, or John. 
 
 Jockies. Superior sort of vagrants, 
 perhaps a relic of the ancient bards or 
 minstrels. They were well versed in the 
 slogan or gathering-cries of Scotland, 
 and being full of observation, and very 
 entertaining, were admitted into the 
 houses of the well-to-do as guests. The 
 race is now extinct. 
 
 The well-remembered beggar was his guest. 
 
 Goldsmith, Deserted Village. 
 
 (Here ' well-remembered ' means having a good 
 memory.) 
 
 Johannists. A sect which refused 
 to acknowledge the successor of John 
 surnamed Chrysostom, who died in 407. 
 The Johannists refused to return to the 
 general communion till 438, when the 
 body of Chrysostom was brought back to 
 Constantinople and solemnly interred, 
 the emperor himself (Theodosius the 
 Younger) taking part in the service. 
 
JOHN 
 
 JOHN 
 
 473 
 
 John. The hated name of kings in 
 England, France, and Scotland. The 
 English king John was certa,inly as bad 
 a king as ever reigned. In France John I. 
 reigned only a few days, and John II., 
 having lost the battle of Poitiers, died in 
 captivity in London. In Scotland John 
 [Baliol] was a mere tool of Edward I. So 
 greatly was the name disliked in Scotland 
 that John son of Robert II. reigned 
 under the designation of Robert III. 
 
 Popes narmd John. There have been twenty- 
 three popes of this name. One abdicated (John 
 XVIII.) : four were d>-posed (John XII., XIII., 
 XIV., XIX.); two were expelled (John XVI., 
 XVII.) ; two were charged with heresy (John IV., 
 XXII.); four were imprisoned (John I., VIII.. X., 
 XI.) ; seven were nonentities (John II., III., V., VI., 
 VII., XV., XX.) ; one was killed accidentally (John 
 XXI.) ; and one had Sergius III. for a rival pojK 
 (John IX.). 
 
 John I. (523-526). Imprisoned at Eavenna by 
 Theodoric, and died in prison. 
 
 — II., III. Nonentities. 
 
 — IV. (("40 612). Accused of heresy. 
 
 — v., VI., VII. Nonentities. 
 
 — VIII. (872 882). Imprisoned by Lambert duke 
 
 of Spoleto ; made his escape to France, 
 and was poisoned. 
 
 — IX. (898-900). Had Sergius in. for a nval 
 
 pope. 
 
 — X. (914-928). Cast into prison and murdered 
 
 by order of Guido and Marozia. 
 
 — XI. (931-9:^6). Imprisoned with his mother 
 
 by Alberic, and died in the castle of St. 
 Angelo. 
 
 — XII. (956-964). A most profligate libertine. 
 * Was deposed and died suddenly, pro- 
 bably by assassination. 
 
 — Xin. (965-972). Imprisoned by his nobles and 
 
 deposed. 
 
 — XIV. (983-995). Deposed; imprisoned by Boni- 
 
 face VII., an antipope, and died in the 
 castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 — XV. A nonentity. 
 
 — XVI. (985-996). Driven from Rome by Crescen- 
 
 tius. 
 
 — XVII. (997-998). Antipope. Expelled by Otto 
 
 III., and barbarously treated by 
 Gregory. 
 
 — XVIII. (1003 1009). Abdicated. 
 
 — XIX. (1024-1033). Deposed and expelled by 
 
 Konrad. 
 
 — XX. A nonentity. 
 
 — XXI. (1270 -1277). Crushed to death by the falling 
 
 in of his palace at Viterbo. 
 
 — XXII. (131G-1334). Charged with heresy, and 
 
 recanted. 
 
 — XXIII. (1410-1419). Deposed, and afterwards im- 
 
 prisoned for three years. 
 ,*,• A very sad list indeed. 
 
 John Amend-all. John Cade, an 
 Irishman, who gave himself out to be the 
 son of Sir John Mortimer, and heir to the 
 English throne. In May 1450 he en- 
 camped on Blackheath with 20,000 fol- 
 lowers ; but he was captured and killed 
 on 1 July the same year. 
 
 John called Robert. John earl 
 of Carrick, eldest son of Robert II. of 
 Scotland, was crowned 1390 as Robert 
 III., because John had proved an ill- 
 
 omened name in England, France, and 
 Scotland. 
 
 John Company. The old East 
 India Company. Also called 'Mother 
 Company.' 
 
 in 1857 the 19th Native Infantry feasted the 11th 
 Irregulars, and told them that John Company 
 had sent out Lord Canning to convert India 
 to Christianity.— HowiTT, Hist, of Kng. (year 1657, 
 p. 407). 
 
 John Free-born. John Lilbume 
 (1618-1657). So called from his intrepid 
 defence, before the tribunal of the Star 
 Chamber, of his rights as a free-born 
 Englishman. 
 
 John-Jacob Christians. A 
 
 branch of the strict Mennonites, which 
 split from the general body in 155-i. So 
 called from their founder. See ' Menno- 
 nites ' (3 syl.). 
 
 John Knox's Liturgy. The 
 
 Book of Common Prayer used in the 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotland. 
 Extempore prayer is also used. 
 
 John ' Lackland ' king of England, 
 (1166, 1199-1216). FatJwr, Henry II.; 
 Mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine ; Wives 
 (1) Alice ; (2) Avisa daughter of William 
 earl of Gloucester, divorced; (3) Isabella 
 daughter of Aymer count of Angouleme, 
 by whom he had five children (none by 
 the other two) : — 
 
 1. Henry III., his successor. 
 
 2. Kichard earl of Cornwall, chosen King of the 
 Rem ins, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 12.>7. 
 
 3. Jane, married Ale.xander II. of Scotland in 
 1221. 
 
 4. Eleanor, married first William earl of Pem- 
 broke, then Simon de Montfort earl of Leicester, 
 by whom she had two sons, who with their mother 
 were banished for rebellion. 
 
 5. Isabella, who married Friedrich II. the Kaiser. 
 She died 1241. 
 
 His stale and tilU^.— John, D.G. rex Angliae, dominua 
 Hibernise [Ibernise or Ybernise], dux Xormannioe. 
 They addressed him 'Rex Anglorum.' This was 
 the first of our kings called ' Dominus Hibernife,' 
 which title continued till Henry VIII. changed 
 it into ' King of Ireland.' 
 
 John Lackland alone of all the sons of Henry II. 
 had no territory or land left him. Henry, the 
 eldest son, was associated with his father "in the 
 government, but died before him ; Richard Coeur 
 de Lion had Pcitou and Guyenne ; Geoffrey had 
 Brittany in right of his wife. 
 
 N.B. The first Henry, 'lord of Ireland,' wa3 
 Henry III. son of John, and in Rymer s ' Foedera ' 
 Dr. Clarke has erroneously ascribed to Henry II. 
 a document belonging to Henry dominus Hybernite. 
 
 John of Gaunt, fourth [not third] 
 son of Edward III. Was born at Ghent 
 in Flanders, whence he was called John 
 of Gaunt (Ghent). His first wife, Blanche, 
 was daughter of the Duke of Lancaster. 
 
474 
 
 JOHN 
 
 JONKOPING 
 
 John of Gaunt received his title of duke 
 of Lancaster from his father-in-law. 
 
 Henry VII. claimed his title of the crown 
 through John Beaufort, a natural son of John of 
 Gaunt. 
 
 John o' G-roat's to Land's End 
 
 {From). Through the entire length of 
 the kingdom. John o' Groat's is furthest 
 north and Land's End, Cornwall, is 
 furthest south of the mainland of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 John of Jerusalem {Knights of 
 St.), 1120. So called from John i)atriarch 
 of Alexandria and the place of their 
 abode. The knights subsequently re- 
 sided at Rhodes (1310-1520). When 
 driven from Rhodes by the Turks they 
 made their abode at Malta, and were 
 called ' Knights of Malta.' 
 
 John the Furious. A Norwegian 
 chieftain who went to Ireland (1170) to 
 restore Hascult to his throne of Dublin. 
 He was felled to the ground and slain by 
 Walter de Riddlesf ord, an Enghsh knight, 
 the same year. 
 
 John with the Leaden Sword. 
 
 John duke of Bedford (1421) was so 
 called by Archibald Douglas {Tineman). 
 
 John duke of Bedford sent a herald to the 
 Scottish chief [in France] to say he was coming to 
 drink wine and revel with him. The Earl of 
 iJouglas returned answer that the duke would be 
 most welcome, and that he had come from Scot- 
 land to France on purpose to carouse in his com- 
 pany. Under these terms a challenge to combat 
 was understood to be given and accepted.— Sir W. 
 Scott, History of Scotland, xviii. 
 
 Johnnie Cope's Salve, 1745. So 
 the Highlanders called the chocolate 
 taken from the tent of Sir John Cope 
 after the battle of Prestonpans. 
 
 Some of the luxuries which the Highlanders 
 found they did not comprehend the use of, and 
 chocolate was soon after cried in the streets of 
 Perth as "Johnnie Cope s Salve.'— HowiTT, History 
 of England (George II. p. 501). 
 
 John's College {St.). 
 
 I. In Cambridge University. Founded 
 by Lady Margaret countess of Richmond 
 and Derby, mother of Henry VII., in 
 151L 
 
 The founder of Christ's College also. 
 
 IL In Oxford, 1555. Founded by Sir 
 Thomas White, a London alderman. 
 The head-master is called the presi- 
 dent. 
 
 Johns {Sir). The poor clergy were 
 so called before the Reformation. ' Bab- 
 bling Sir Johns' (Wordsworth, 'Ecclesias- 
 
 tical Biography,' i. 265). 'Blind Sir 
 Johns ' (Jewel, Sermon on Haggai i. 2). 
 Strype speaks of ' Lack-Latin Sir Johns ' 
 (' Annals,' 177), and of ' Mumble-matins 
 Sir Johns ' (' Annals,' 181). 
 
 Johnson Scholarship for theo- 
 logy. Founded in the University of 
 Oxford by John Johnson, D.D., fellow of 
 Magdalen College. In 1878 this scholar- 
 ship was united to Mrs. Denyer's two 
 theological prizes, and formed into two 
 scholarships called the ' Denyer and 
 Johnson Scholarships ' {q.v.). 
 
 Johnso'nians, as a religious sect, 
 are the followers of the Rev. John John- 
 son (1662-1725), a nonjuring divine of 
 Liverpool, and author of ' The Unbloody 
 Sacrifice.' They deny the pre-existence 
 of Christ, the three Persons of the god- 
 head, original sin, and the natural immor- 
 tality of the soul. They baptize by immer- 
 sion, and believe in the perseverance of 
 the saints. 
 
 J o'h.il-'Willia,ica., or Jean- Guillaume, 
 the French Jack Ketch. Jean-Guillamne 
 was the executioner of Paris under 
 Louis XIIL, and numerous allusions are 
 made to him by French authors both in 
 prose and verse. 
 
 Et personne de mon royaume 
 Ne se fera pas Jean-Guillaume, 
 Pour etrangler a. belles mains 
 Ce larron des plus inhumains ? 
 
 I'irgile travesti, bk. iv. (Dido speaks). 
 *»* The French have the verb Jeanfjuillaume) , 
 to John-William [you]. 
 
 Jomsvikin gS {The). In Danish, 
 Jornsvikingr. The piratical republic of 
 Joms-borg, in the island of Woliin. It 
 was a nest of pirates founded by Danish 
 sea-rovers in the reign of Harald 
 Blaatand (991-1014). This piratical re- 
 public continued till the last quarter of 
 the 12th cent., when it was put an end 
 to by Valdemar I. of Demnark (1182- 
 1202). 
 
 Jongleurs. ' Joculatores,' instrumen- 
 talists who accompanied the troubadours 
 to fairs and gentlemen's houses in the 
 middle ages. After the crusade against 
 the Albigenses, the troubadours gradually 
 disappeared, and the jongleurs joined 
 singing to instrumental music, and many 
 danced, juggled, and made fun in all sorts 
 of ways. 
 
 Jonkoping {Treaty of), 10 Dec, 
 1809. A treaty of peace between Sweden 
 and Denmark. 
 
JORDAN 
 
 JOURNEE 
 
 475 
 
 Jordan {Mrs.). The actress to whom 
 the Duke of Clarence (William IV.) was 
 virtually married ; eight children survived 
 the king, four sons called Fitzclarence 
 and four daughters. The real name of 
 Mrs. Jordan was Dorothy Bland. Her 
 connection with William was suddenly 
 broken off in 1811 ; she returned to the 
 stage, but she subsequently retired to 
 France, and died at St. Cloud 3 July, 1816. 
 In 1830 William married Adelaide of 
 Saxe-Meiningen, but her two children died 
 before their father did, so the crown went 
 to his niece Victoria, daughter of Edward 
 duke of Kent. 
 
 Joseph. I. the Victorious. Son of 
 Leopold I. kaiser-king of Germany, of the 
 house of Austria (1676, 1705-1711). 
 
 In this reign three great victories were won by 
 Marl):oraugh over the French : 1706 the battle of 
 Hamillies, in 1708 the battle of Oudenarde, and in 
 1709 the battle of Malplaquet. 
 
 Joseph the Unfortunate, kaiser, 
 son of Maria Theresa, who always tried 
 to do right and was always disappointed 
 in all his plans. He wrote, half in jest and 
 half in earnest, what he termed his epi- 
 taph : ' Here lies Joseph, unfortunate in 
 aU his undertakings ' (1741, 1765-1790). 
 
 Josephs of Amida {The). One of 
 the three branches of the Nestorians. 
 The other two are the ' Elijahs of Mosul ' 
 and the ' Simeons of Oi'mia.' The Josephs 
 are now reconciled to the Church of 
 Rome, and are called ' Chaldean Chris- 
 tians.' 
 
 Josephinism. Oppression of the 
 Church by the State, so-called from 
 Joseph II. of Austria. 
 
 Josephi'nos, 1808. Those Spanish 
 grandees who had traitorously sided with 
 Napoleon in his scandalous usurpation of 
 the Spanish crown. So called because 
 they supported Joseph Bonaparte, his 
 brother's viceroy-king of Spain, and fled 
 with Joseph to Vittoria for safety on the 
 first reverse of the French arms, at the 
 battle of Baylen, on 16 July. In this 
 defeat Castaiios was the Spanish general 
 and Dupont the French. 
 
 Jo'sephins, 1885. Followers of Jo- 
 seph Chamberlain, an advanced Radical. 
 
 Jos'ephites (3 syl.). The Mormons 
 who disallow polygamy. So called from 
 Joseph Smith, son of Joseph Smith the 
 
 founder of Mormonism. These are called 
 the ' Reorganised Church of Jesus Christ 
 of Latter Day Saints.' 
 
 There are now one or two other non-polygamous 
 sects. 
 
 Joshua of Scotland {The). Robert 
 Bruce king of Scotland (born 1274, king 
 130()-1329, died 132'J). 
 
 Josiah of his Country {The), or 
 'The Josiah of England.' Edward VI. 
 was generally so called in his own day. 
 
 Joule's Equivalent. That if a 
 pound of waterfalls to the ground through 
 772 feet, and is then suddenly arrested, its 
 tempera,ture will be raised one degree ; 
 and, conversely, the heat that would raise 
 the temperature of a pound of water one 
 degree would (if applied to a steam 
 engine) raise 772 lbs. one foot high. 
 
 Jour de Rois (I^e). The Epiphany. 
 (Twelfth Day), meaning the hypothetical 
 ' Kings ' of Cologne. Voltaire has a satire 
 on the three kings — the Pretender (re- 
 jected by England, telling his beads in 
 Italy), Stanislaus (ex-king of Poland, 
 smoking his pipe in Austrasia), and the 
 emperor, or King Charles of Bavaria (liv- 
 ing at an inn in Franconia), while Maria 
 Theresa is laughing at this Epiphany. 
 
 Journal de Paris (the first French 
 daily paper), 1777. 
 
 Journal de Tr^voux {Le). Pub- 
 lished by Jesuits in 1701-1701. 
 
 Journal des Revolutions de 
 Paris {Le). A vile republican news- 
 paper in the French Revolution, con- 
 ducted by Prudhomme. If possible it 
 was even more inflammatory than the 
 ' Ami du Peuple ' by Marat. It advo- 
 cated the murder of Louis XVI., and 
 of all other crowned heads ; and recom- 
 mended the organisation of 100 young 
 men into a band, sworn to assassinate all 
 tyrants, in emulation of Harmodios and 
 Aristoglton of Greece, and of Scsevola 
 and the Brutuses of Rome. 
 
 Journal des Savants {Le). Com 
 menced 5 Jan., 1655. 
 
 Journals. Of the House of Lords 
 commenced 1509 ; that of the House of 
 Commons in 1547. 
 
 Journ^e des Dupes. See ' Day of 
 the Dupes.' 
 
476 
 
 JOURNEE 
 
 JUDGES 
 
 Journ^e des Eperons, 1302. The 
 
 bloody battle of Courtray, in which the 
 French left on the field about 4,000 
 knights' spurs. 
 
 Another Journee des Eperons was in 
 1513, the battle of Guinegate, in which the 
 French used their spurs in flight more 
 than their swords in fight. 
 
 Journee des Farines, 3 Jan. 1591. 
 
 When the besiegers attempted to surprise 
 St. Denis, occupied by the troops of 
 Henri IV. This was two days after the 
 Bearnais had attempted to surprise 
 Paris. It was called the ' Journee des 
 Farines ' because the officers disguised 
 themselves as millers leading horses, 
 asses, carts, and so on, and demanded en- 
 trance into the town. Their design was 
 to enter the gates and keep them open 
 till the arrival of the troops ; but entrance 
 was denied them, and the alarm given. 
 
 Journee des Maubrulds. ' The 
 
 day of the unburned,' 27 April, 15G2. 
 Faveau and Mallart, two Protestants of 
 Brussels, were condemned to be burnt 
 to death. As the executioner was binding 
 Simon Faveau to the stake a woman 
 threw her shoe into the funeral pile. 
 This was a preconcerted signal, and 
 immediately the mob rushed forward, 
 scattered the faggots in all directions, 
 rescued the two victims, and succeeded 
 in sending them out of the country. See 
 ' Rise of the Dutch Republic,' by Motley. 
 
 Journees de Juillet. See ' Days 
 of July.' 
 
 Journdes de Septembre {Les), 
 
 2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792. See ' Massacre of 
 September.' 
 
 Journees des Barricades. See 
 
 ' Barricades.* 
 
 Jovinian, 4th cent. A heresiarch, 
 and monk of Milan. He rejected fasts, 
 penance, and celibacy, denied the 
 virginity of Mary, and entertained other 
 ' heretical views.' He was condemned 
 by the Council of Milan in 390, and 
 banished by Theodosius. 
 
 Joyous Entry (TTie), 'La Joy euse 
 Entree,' 1430. The charter given by 
 Philip the Good to the states of Brabant 
 on his entry into Brussels. On this 
 charter nearly all their j^rivileges rested. 
 In 1789 Kaiser Joseph II. annulled this 
 charter, because the States refused to 
 
 grant a subsidy. On 20 Nov. Brabant 
 threw off allegiance to Austria, and 
 assumed the title of ' The High and 
 
 Mighty States.' 
 
 The emperor [Joseph II.] on 1 Jan., 1787 (?), pub- 
 lished several sweeping edicts, annihilating the 
 most ancient municipo,! privileges, remodelling 
 the courts of justice, and introducing a totally 
 new system of judicature, in direct violation of 
 the celebrated compact made by Charles V. (■"), 
 called ' The Joyous Entry. '—HowiTT, Hist, of Eiig. 
 (Geo. III. p. 387). 
 
 Joyous Science [The], or ' The 
 Gay Science.' Minstrelsy {Joyeuse 
 Science). 
 
 The Joyous Science, as the profession of 
 minstrelsy was called, had its various ranks, like 
 the degrees in the church and in chivalry.— Sir 
 Walter Scott, The Bctwtlied, chap. xix. 
 
 Jubilee {The), 21 June, 1887, when 
 the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's 
 accession to the crown was celebrated in 
 the United Kingdom. The colonies and 
 India, for convenience sake, celebrated 
 the anniversary some weeks before 21 
 June. 
 
 There was a Jubilee in the reign of George III., 
 25 Oct., 1809. He came to the crown as Oct., ITliO. 
 Q aeen Victoria succeeded to the throne 21 June, 
 1h37. Hence it will appear that George celebrated 
 his jubilee at the commencement, and Victoria 
 at the completion of the 50th regnal year. 
 
 *^,* There are scores of Jubilees of divers sorts, 
 as the Handel Jubilee, the Shakespeare Jubilee, 
 the Jubilee of the Reformation, and the Jubileea 
 of the Catholic Church first proclaimed by Boni- 
 face VIII. in 1300, &c. 
 
 Judaising Teachers. Compro- 
 mising Jews who mingled the observance 
 of the law with that of the Gospel. They 
 insisted on the rite of circumcision. 
 Peter and John were for a time at least 
 Judaising teachers. 
 
 Jujlaists. Those Christians who 
 insisted on the perpetual obligation of 
 the Jewish law. All the apostles who 
 were the companions of Jews were 
 Judaists. Paul insisted that the Gospel 
 was meant for all men, and those who 
 thought with him were called Paulinists 
 or Universalists. 
 
 Judas {The Irish). Colonel Blood 
 (1628-1680). 
 
 Judge- Advocate-General ( The). 
 The supreme judge, under the Mutiny 
 Act and Articles of War, of the proceed- 
 ings of courts-martial. He receives a 
 salary of 2,0001. a year, and is a member 
 of the ministry. 
 
 Judges. The ancient Carthaginians 
 were ruled by a senate of 300, out of 
 which thirty were selected for the 
 
JUDGES 
 
 JULY 
 
 477 
 
 council, and two of the council were 
 suffeies or judges. So the Hebrews, 
 before the appointment of Saul as king, 
 appointed shofetim (judges or bret- 
 waldas) in times of trouble, who were 
 Bometimes women. The judges or bret- 
 
 waldas were — 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Othniel 
 
 M. 
 
 .. 1554—1514 
 
 Ehud 
 
 ... 
 
 .. 1490-1416 
 
 Shnmgar 
 
 m! 
 
 .. 1416-1396 
 
 Deborah (a woman) 
 
 ~.' L 1396—1356 
 
 Gideon 
 
 
 .. 1349—1309 
 
 Abimelech(hisBon) .. 
 
 
 .. 1309—1306 
 
 Tola 
 
 
 .. 1306-1283 
 
 Jair 
 
 ".■. "... 1283-1261 
 
 Jephthah 
 
 
 . 1243—1237 
 
 Abesan or Ibzan 
 
 
 .. 1237—1230 
 
 Ahialon or Elon 
 
 .«. 
 
 .. 1230—1220 
 
 Abdon 
 
 ..'. 
 
 .. 1220-1212 
 
 Samson 
 
 
 .. 1172-1152 
 
 Ell (the high priest) 
 
 
 .. 1152—1112 
 
 Samuel (priest and prophet) 
 
 .. 1092-1080 
 
 Judges of Assize. In 1284 super- 
 seded justices in eyre {q.v.). Judges of 
 the superior courts commissioned to hold 
 courts or assizes in each county town 
 twice a year. 
 
 Judgment and Declaration (A), 
 
 1683. Passed in the Oxford Convocation, 
 maintaining the doctrine of non-resist- 
 ance, and enjoining: 'All and singular 
 the readers, tutors, and catechists, dili- 
 gently to instruct and ground their 
 scholars in that most necessary doctrine 
 ... of submitting to every ordinance of 
 man for the Lord's sake, teaching that 
 this submission and obedience is to be 
 clear, absolute, and without exception of 
 any state or order of men.' 
 
 Judgment of the Cross (The). 
 
 Introduced during the reign of Charle- 
 magne. The plaintiff and defendant of 
 a suit were required to cross their arms 
 upon their breast, and he who could hold 
 out the longest gained the suit. 
 
 AH ordeals and all oaths are appeals to the 
 judgment of God. Ordeals have been abolished 
 in England ever since 1219, but oaths are still 
 administered (1890i. The notion is that God will 
 supplement man's ignorance and idleness by a 
 miraculous interference on the side of what is 
 right. In regard to oaths, as the law stands, to 
 violate an oath is perjury, whereas to violate 
 one's word is only a lie. 
 
 Judicial Mass, ' Missa Judicii.' 
 An ordeal mass, in which a person 
 charged with an offence appealed to the 
 * Judgment of God ' in proof of his inno- 
 cence. See 
 
 Judicious (The). Richard Hooker, 
 author of the ' Laws of Ecclesiastical 
 Polity' (1554-1600). 
 
 Jugurtha {The Modern). Abd-el- 
 Kader, bey of Mascara, afterwards sultan 
 (1808-1883). He was no Jugurtha in 
 his moral character, although there 
 was some resemblance in his chivalry, 
 bravery, and misfortunes. Jugurtha, 
 taken captive by the Romans, was 
 thrown into a dungeon at Rome and 
 starved to death ; Abd-el-Kader, taken 
 captive by the French, was imprisoned 
 first in the castle of Pan, then in the 
 castle of Amboise ; but, instead of being 
 starved to death, he was released by 
 Napoleon III. in 1852, retired to 
 Damascus, and died in 1883 at the age 
 of 76. 
 
 Jugurthan War {The). War 
 between Jugurtha king of Numidia in 
 Africa and the Romans (b.c. 111-101). 
 Jugurtha, being taken prisoner, was sent 
 to Rome and starved to death in the 
 Mamertine prison, a horrible under- 
 ground dungeon. 
 
 Julian Period {The). Commenced 
 1 Jan., 4713 B.C. 
 
 Julian Year {The). Began 1 Jan., 
 B.C. 45. 
 
 Julien the Apostate. Simon 
 Julien, a French painter, puj^il of Carlo 
 Vanloo, at Paris. Called the ' Apostate ' 
 because he forsook the French school of 
 painting for the Italian. 
 
 The Emperor Julian is called the ' Apostate ' 
 because he abandoned Christianity for ' the old 
 religion ' (331, 861-303). 
 
 July Cross {The). ' Croix de Juillet,' 
 1830. Instituted to decorate those 
 Frenchmen who distinguished themselves 
 in chasing Charles X. from the throne. 
 It is a star of three rays, with the legend 
 '27, 28, 29 July, 1830,' and the motto 
 ' Patrie et Liberie.' The ribbon is blue 
 edged witk red. 
 
 July 4 (American history). Declara- 
 tion of Independence, 4 July, 1776. A 
 national holiday. 
 
 July 14. Called, in French history, 
 ' the great day,' in commemoration of 14 
 July, 1789, the day of the storming of the 
 Bastille. This and June 20 {q.v.), the 
 two great days of the Revolution, were 
 made annual festivals. 
 
 The disturbed state of Paris since that ' great 
 day,' the 14th of July, had suspended the activity 
 of the National Assembly.— Howitt, History oj 
 England (George III., p. 459). 
 
 *,* For 27, 28, 29 July, when Charles X. was 
 driven from his throne (1830), see ' Days ox July." 
 
478 
 
 JUMPERS 
 
 JUNTO 
 
 Jumpers, 1760. Welsh Methodists 
 who jump during religious worship. They 
 are the followers of Harris, Rowlands, 
 Williams, and others. The sermon being 
 over, the preacher begins to jump and 
 the congregation joins in — sometimes for 
 two or three hours. When quite ex- 
 hausted, they take hold of hands, kneel 
 down, and pray. See ' Jerusalem Jump.' 
 
 David danced before the ark, and the lame man, 
 on being cured, leaped and praised God. 
 
 Jump ing-eat School (TAe). Turn- 
 coats who run on the winning side. A. B. 
 is ' one of the most notorious examples 
 of the jumping-cat school . . . and is 
 always on the winning side.' (Newspaper 
 paragraph, March 1886). 
 
 June 1, 1774. I. In North American 
 history, the day on which the Boston 
 Port Bill [q.v.) was to take effect. Selected 
 by the Virginians, Patrick Henry and 
 Thomas Jefferson, as a day of fasting, 
 humiliation, and prayer, ' that the evils 
 of civil war might be averted, that the 
 American colonists might be inspired 
 with firmness in support of their rights, 
 and that the hearts of the British king 
 and parliament might be turned to mode- 
 ration and justice.' 
 
 II. ' The Glorious First of June ' is 
 1 June, 1794, when Lord Howe gained a 
 signal victory over the French off Brest. 
 
 June 3 {Victory of), 1665. A 
 great naval victory gained by James 
 duke of York over Van Tromp, the Dutch 
 admiral, near Lowestoft. The duke 
 commanded the red, Prince Rupert 
 commanded the white, and the Earl of 
 Sandwich the blue. This was the greatest 
 naval victory hitherto gained by the 
 English. The Dutch lost four admirals, 
 7,000 men, and eighteen sail. The 
 English only one ship and 60d men killed 
 or wounded. 
 
 June 5, 6,A.D. 1832. An e'meute in 
 Paris by the republican faction at the 
 funeral of General Lamarque, dei)uty of 
 the opposition. Barricades were thrown 
 up at St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis 
 {Sahn-dnee), and other parts of Paris. 
 The troops were called out, and the com- 
 bat was brought to a close on the 6th, 
 after taking the church of St. Merry (or 
 Me'deric). 
 
 June 20. The anniversary of the 
 foundation of the National Assembly. 
 
 This and the anniversary of 14 July {q.v.) 
 were the two great festivals of the French 
 Republic. 
 
 June 23, 24, 25, 26, a.d. 1848. A 
 bloody insurrection of the French re- 
 publican faction called ' Democratique 
 et Sociale' against the constitution of 
 24 Feb. the same year. It made for 
 its pretext the dissolution of the ateliers 
 nationaux, and was most rife in the fau- 
 bourgs St. Jacques, St. Marceau, and St. 
 Antoine. The garde nationale and 
 garde Tnobile were employed to sup- 
 press the insurrection under General Ca- 
 vaignac. Seven generals were slain, two 
 representatives, the Archbishop of Paris 
 (Mgr. Affre), and an enormous number of 
 citizens and soldiers. Those insurgents 
 who were taken prisoners were trans- 
 ported. 
 
 June 26, and 10 April, 1846. The 
 great Chartist festivals. On 10 April the 
 monster petition was presented, and on 
 26 June the Corn-laws were repealed. 
 
 Junius {Letters of), 1769. A series 
 of political letters signed ' Junius,' dis- 
 secting the conduct and characters of 
 public men — the Duke of Grafton, the 
 Duke of Bedford, Lord Mansfield, and 
 others, not excepting the King himself. 
 These letters caused the utmost con- 
 sternation amongst the ministry, and 
 were immensely popular for their caustic 
 satire, just censure, clear reasoning, their 
 great knowledge of the secret govern- 
 ment movements, and the brilliancy of 
 their style. It is not known who was the 
 author of these letters, but perhaps the 
 most weighty evidence points to Sir 
 Philip Francis. 
 
 The 'North Briton,' under the auspices of 
 Wilkes, and the commencement of the American 
 War, increased the ferment. The letter. 18 March, 
 1769, to the Duke of Grafton on the ' murderers ' 
 6t Clarke, and the 14th letter (against Blackstone) 
 aremost scathing. 
 
 Junto {The). T. 1694. A Whig minis- 
 try in the reign of William III., the 
 chief members of which were Admiral 
 Russell, the victor of the great battle of 
 La Hogue ; Somers, who successfully 
 defended the ' Seven Bishops ' ; Lord 
 Wharton; and Montague, the great 
 financier. This was the first ministry 
 ever made of one and the same party 
 politics. It was the suggestion of Ro- 
 bert earl of Sunderland to William III., 
 who shrewdly said, if all the ministers 
 
JUS 
 
 JUVENAL 
 
 479 
 
 were of one party tliey would pull toge- 
 ther, and if that party represented the 
 majority they would be able to pass their 
 measures. 
 
 II. 1727. A club formed by Benjamin 
 Franklin for mutual improvement. 
 Morals, polities, and natural philosophy, 
 as well as the social well-being of man, 
 were the main subjects discussed. It 
 continued for about thirty years. 
 
 Jus ^lia'num. The law books of 
 Sextus iEIius Catus. These law books 
 explained the meaning of the mystic 
 ciphers employed by the lawyers to con- 
 ceal the laws from the ignoble common 
 people. Much the same as medical pre- 
 scriptions are still written, sometimes 
 by symbols, sometimes by contractions, 
 sometimes by a single arbitrary letter, or 
 per siglas. iElius wrote them out in full, 
 so that all could read them. 
 
 Gibbon, chap, xliv., gives some of these symbols : 
 Fire andwater=married life; resignation of keys 
 =divorce ; casting a stone=prohibition ; clenched 
 fist=a deposit; broken straw=Lroken covenant, 
 &c. 
 
 Jus Cyp'rium, 431. That each 
 province is autoceplialous and each 
 diocese independent, no one except the 
 metropolitan having any right to inter- 
 fere. Called Jus Cyprium because the 
 canon was laid down in the Council of 
 Ephesus A.D. 431 in regard to the pro- 
 vince of Cyprus, which was declared free 
 and independent of the province of An- 
 tioch. 
 
 Jus Devolu'tum, 1712. An act 
 
 which provided ' if a patron neglected for 
 six months to fill up a vacant charge, the 
 presbytery should fill it up ' (Scotland). 
 
 Jus Honora'rium. The edicts of 
 the Roman preetors ; written in white 
 ink. The imperial rescripts were in 
 purple, and the Jus Civile in red ink. 
 
 Jus Itaricum. All Italian land 
 was tax free, all provincial land paid 
 land-tax. Hence the exemption of land 
 from taxation was called ' The Italian 
 Eight.' 
 
 Jus La'tii conferred on cities the 
 right of electing their own magistrates. 
 These magistrates took rank and enjoyed 
 privileges next in degree to Roman 
 citizens. 
 
 Jus Trium Liibero'rum. Grant- 
 ing to those who had three children 
 
 exemption from the trouble of guardian- 
 ship, priority in bearing offices, and a 
 treble proportion of corn. 
 
 Just {The). Louis XHI. was so 
 called, but no one knows why. He was 
 a good shot, and a wit said, ' II e'toit 
 juste a tirer de I'arquebuse ' (1601, 1610- 
 1643). 
 
 Louis XII. was with more reason called 
 ' Le Juste ' as well as the ' Father of his 
 People ' (1462, 1498-1515). 
 
 Justice-airs. In Scotch history, 
 were courts of justice held twice a year 
 in each county by the Justiciar-general. 
 
 Air is eyre, French for ite.r a journey. Justice- 
 airs are JusHciarrs itinerantes, i.e. judges to travel 
 from county to county. 
 
 Justices in eyre (air), 1176, i.e. in 
 itinere, ' on journey.' Henry II. divided 
 England into circuits, and justices went on 
 these circuits once in seven years. The 
 courts in which they sat were called 
 ' assizes,' from a law-Latin word assisa a 
 session, from the verb assideo to sit down 
 (supine assisum). Magna Charta j^ro- 
 vided for annual visits (1215). In 1284 
 justices in eyre were superseded by 
 judges of assize. 
 
 Justin-'an {The English). Ed- 
 ward I. (1239, 1272-1307). Sir Edward 
 Coke says, ' The statutes, passed in this 
 reign were so numerous and so excellent 
 that they deserve the name of establish- 
 ments, being more durable than any made 
 since.' And Sir Matthew Hale says, 
 they were so ' excellent as scarcely to 
 need revision or addition.' 
 
 Juvenal {The English). I. John 
 Oldham (1653-1683). 
 
 II. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich. 
 Pope affirms Hall's ' Satires ' to be ' the 
 best poetry and truest satires in the Eng- 
 lish language.' 
 
 Juvenal {The Young). Dr. Thomas 
 Lodge (1555-1625). So called by Robert 
 Green. 
 
 Juvenal des Ursins. A French 
 magistrate born at Troyes (1350-1431), 
 who enjoyed the confidence of Charles VI., 
 and was prevot de marchands of Paris 
 in 1388. He opposed the Due de Bourbon ; 
 and, having saved the king from falling 
 into the hands of the duke, was given 
 the Hotel des Ursins in reward of his ser- 
 
480 
 
 JUVENAL 
 
 KAIOMARIAN 
 
 Juvenal of Painters {The). 
 William Hogarth (1697-1794). 
 
 Juzail (Afghanistan). A very long 
 rifle; those armed with the juzail are 
 Juzailchees. 
 
 Jy-anian Dynasty (TJie). The 
 second fabulous dynasty of Persia. Jy 
 means pure, holy. The only two names 
 known are Jy-Affram and Jy-Abad his 
 son, who suddenly disappeared. It fol- 
 lowed the Mahabadean, and was suc- 
 ceeded by the Kuleev dynasty. 
 
 K. 'The Three bad K's.' TheKarians, 
 Kappadokians, and Kilikians ; generally 
 spelt Carians, Cappadocians, and Cili- 
 cians. 
 
 Kaaba, or ' Caaba.' "Was taken pos- 
 session of by Cossai about 455, and was 
 restored in 1630 by the sultan Mustapha. 
 The word means ' the square house,' and 
 it designates a stone building in the great 
 mosque at Mecca. Next the silver door 
 is the famous Black Stone, ' dropped 
 from Paradise.' It was originally quite 
 white, but the sin of the world has turned 
 it black. In pilgrimages the devotee 
 walks round the Kaaba seven times, and 
 each time he passes the stone either kisses 
 it or lays his hand thereon. 
 
 According to Arabian legend Adam, after his ex- 
 pulsion from the garden, worshipped Allah on this 
 spot. A tent was then sent down from heaven, but 
 Seth substituted a hut for the tent. After the 
 flood Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba. 
 
 Kabyles (2 syl.). Another name for 
 Berbers, a mountain tribe which dwell on 
 the Atlas range of Algeria and Morocco. 
 They are neither Arabs, Moors, nor Turks. 
 They live in villages which they call 
 'gourbis,' and several of these villages 
 would constitute a kabyle. Their govern- 
 ment, like that of Switzerland, is a demo- 
 cratic confederation. They are a sober 
 people, brave and hospitable, but vindic- 
 tive and sux^erstitious. As with the Swiss, 
 love of independence is their dominant 
 characteristic. 
 
 Kadjahs {Dynasty of the). A 
 Turkoman dynasty, which now occupies 
 the Persian throne. Founded in 1748 by 
 Mohammed Hassan, son of the governor 
 of Mazanderan. The word means ' fugi- 
 tives ' or ' deserters,' and was applied to 
 those deserters of the Ottoman army to 
 whom Abbas I. had in the 16th cent, given 
 asylum. 
 
 The shahs of this line have been Mohammed 
 
 Hassan, 1748 ; Futeh All Shah (his nephew), 1797; 
 Mohammed Shah, 1834 ; Nasser Eddin Shah. 1848 
 (who visited London in 187B) and again in Irfs:'. 
 
 The dynasty was interrupted by Kurem Khan 
 Zend, the Walik, and restored in 1794. 
 
 Kaianides ( The), or ' Kaianian dy- 
 nasty.' The second dynasty of the Per- 
 sians, called by the Greeks Achemenides. 
 It consisted of Kai-Kaous (Astyages); 
 Kai-Kosru (Cyrus), b.c. 536 ; Lohrasp 
 (Cambyses, or Ahasuerus of Scripture), 
 B.C. 530; Gouchtasp (Darivis), 521 ; Xerxes, 
 486 ; Ardechir Diraz Dest, or long-handed 
 (Artaxerxes Loiigimamis), b.c. 471 ; 
 Xerxes II. Sogdian and Darab (Darius 
 Nothos), B.C. 424 ; Artaxerxes Miiemon, 
 B.C. 404 ; Artaxerxes Ochos,B.c. 362 ; Arses, 
 B.C. 338 ; Darab II. (Darius Codomanus), 
 B.C. 336, dethroned by Alexander the 
 Great in 331 ; and thus the dynasty ended 
 after enduring 206 years. It succeeded 
 the Pishdadian dynasty. 
 
 Achsemenes was an ancestor of Cyrus. Zoro- 
 aster or Zerdusht, who wrote the Avesta in the 
 Zend tongue, lived in the reign of Cyrus (KiJyjof). 
 At the death of Alexander there was an interval 
 from B.C. 323 to A.D. 226 filled by the Seleucides and 
 the Arsacides. (Kaianides, 3 syl.) 
 
 Kaimacan. A deputy or governor 
 in the Ottoman empire. There are 
 generally two, one residing at Constanti- 
 nople, and the other attending the grand 
 vizier as his lieutenant. 
 
 Kainardji, or Kutehuk Kai- 
 nardji {Treaty of), 21 July, 1774. A 
 treaty of peace between Russia and 
 Turkey, in which Turkej^ opened to Russia 
 the Black Sea, ceded Azof and Tagan- 
 rog, and assured the independence of 
 the Crimea. In 1784 the sovereignty of 
 the Crimea was confirmed to Russia 
 (Catherine II). 
 
 The Treaty of Kutehuk Kainardji gave to Bus- 
 sia the protectorate of two cliapels in Turkey, one 
 in the Russian Legation, and one about to be 
 built in Galata. It was on this treaty that, in 
 1853, Russia claimed the protectorate of the holy 
 places in Turkey, against France, who rested her 
 right on a treaty as far back as 1740. This con- 
 tention was made the pretext of the Crimean 
 War iq.v.). 
 
 Kaioma'rian Dynasty {The). 
 Same as ' Pishdadian ' {q.v.). Succeeded 
 by the Kaianian dynasty. Kai-Omar was 
 the first of the Pishdadides, and the 
 Pishdadians were first of the mythic 
 period of Persia, placed by some as far 
 back as B.C. 2340, and by others as low 
 down as B.C. 940. (Pishdadides, 3 syl.) 
 
 Omar was the hypothetical founder of the 
 dynasty. Pishdad or Paishdad (just lawgiver) was 
 the title given to the third of the line, named 
 Huahung or Iran. 
 
KAFFIRS 
 
 KANT'S 
 
 481 
 
 KafB.rs. So Mussulmans call unbe- 
 lievers. 
 
 Kaiser = Caesar. Used as a title. The 
 Roman Empire in its decline was divided 
 into east and west. The popes of Rome 
 ignored the east, and assumed that the 
 title of the old Roman emperor belonged 
 exclusively to the west. 
 
 Charlemagne restored Leo III. to the 
 papal clis jr, and out of gratitude Leo gave 
 to Charlemagne the empty title of 
 ' Carolus Caesar Augustus,' or 'Karl 
 Kaiser Augustus of the Romans.' Keyser 
 is Low German for Csesar, and the title 
 given by Leo becomes in Low German 
 ' Karl, Keyser "Wehzen desz Reichs.' So 
 says Selden, ' Titles of Honour,' chap. v. 
 p. 47 (1673). 
 
 This title was continued in the German 
 successors of Charlemagne till the death 
 of Charles le Gros, when it fell into abey- 
 ance for 74 years. 
 
 In 962 Pope John XII. restored the title 
 with a slight alteration, and crowned 
 OLto I. the Great (king of Germany) 
 ' Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire ' ; and 
 till 1056 his successors went to Rome, after 
 their coronation as kings of Germany, to 
 receive the additional title of ' kaiser ' [of 
 the Holy Roman Empire, or of the West]. 
 
 Heinrich III., just before his death, 
 invented a new title, ' King of the Romans,' 
 to be borne by the kings elect oi Germany, 
 and then the reigning king was kaiser or 
 ' Emperor of the Romans,' aftd the king 
 elect was ' King of the Romans.' 
 
 In 1338 the electors decreed that it 
 was not needful for a king of Germany to 
 undergo a second coronation at Rome ; 
 But inasmuch as from the moment of his 
 election he was ' King of the Romans,' he 
 became ex officio ' Emperor of the Romans' 
 or kaiser the moment he was crowned. 
 From that time till 1508 the king regnant 
 was ex officio ' Emperor of the Romans,' 
 and the crown prince or king elect was 
 * King of the Romans.' 
 
 In 1508 Maximilian intended to go to 
 Rome to get crowned, but was prevented, 
 and he assumed a somewhat new depar- 
 ture. Being king, he called himself 
 ' Emperor-elect of the Romans,' and 
 henceforth the crown prince was ' King of 
 the Romans,' but after the death of his 
 father he became ' Emperor-elect of the 
 Romans,' and as soon as he was crowned 
 he became King of Germany and Emperor 
 of Rome. 
 21 
 
 In 1806 Napoleon, having mutilated the 
 German empire, Francis II. was obliged 
 to abandon the title of ' Emperor of the 
 West,' and assumed instead the title of 
 ' Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- 
 gary,' and that dominion is now styled 
 ' the Austro-Hungarian empire.' 
 
 Kalandos Society (The), 1518. 
 An Hungarian league which met on the 
 kalends or 1st of every month. The 
 object of the league was to depose John 
 Szapolyai from the office of treasurer, and 
 restore Stephen Verboczy. It succeeded, 
 and Szapolyai fled to Transylvania. 
 
 Kalapos King (The), the 'hatted 
 king.' Kaiser Joseph II., son of Maria 
 Theresa, was so called by the Hungarians 
 because he refused to be crowned. 
 
 James V. of Scotland, in his famous gold coin, 
 is represented as wearing a bonnet Instead of a 
 crown. 
 
 Kali'lah and Dimnah. A Sanscrit 
 book of fables, extant in 500. It was 
 translated intoPehlevi about 550. A copy 
 was discovered in 1870 by Dr. Socin 
 in the monastery at Mardin. See ' Aca- 
 demy,' 1 Aug., 1871. 
 
 Kali-yuga. The 4th and last of the 
 Yugas or ages of Hindu chronology, 
 corresponding to the ' Iron Age ' of the 
 Greeks and Romans. 
 
 It consists of 432,000 solar-sidereal years, and 
 began B.C. iJ102. 
 
 Kalpa. In Hindu chronology means 
 a day and nighfof Brahma, equal 4^. bil- 
 lions of solar-sidereal years. 
 
 Some geologists seem to think ' the evening and 
 the morning' of Genesis i. moan a ' Kalpa.' 
 
 Kant's Four Categories. Im- 
 
 manuel Kant generalises the fundamental 
 modes of conception into — 
 
 1. Quantity, including unity, multaity, 
 and totality ; 
 
 2. Quality, divided into reality, nega- 
 tion, and limitation ; 
 
 3. Relation, that is, substance and 
 accident, cause and effect, action and re- 
 action ; 
 
 4. Modality, subdivided into possi- 
 bility, existence, and necessity. 
 
 Regarding the outside world, he says 
 our perception thereof is merely repre- 
 sentative ; and it is not i^ossible for man 
 to know what any object really is. All 
 he can possibly know is what his senses 
 represent them to be. 
 
 Of deity, immortality, &c,, he says, 
 I I 
 
482 
 
 KAEAITES 
 
 KAYE 
 
 human reason can decide nothing, be- 
 cause these subjects are not cognisable 
 by the senses. 
 
 Revelation, or the exercise of man's moral 
 nature, can alone cope -with such subjects. 
 
 Ka'raites (3 syl.), a.d. 580. A sect of 
 the Jews who rejected the traditions of 
 the Tahnud and adhered to the Kara 
 (Aramaic word for ' Scripture ')• There 
 are many Karaites still in Poland, Crim 
 Tartary, Egypt, and Persia. The Jews 
 perform their public religious services in 
 Hebrew, but the Karaites use the lan- 
 guage of the state in which they live. The 
 sect was founded by Anan ben David. 
 
 Kardis {Treaty of), 1661. A treaty 
 of peace between Sweden and Russia, 
 based on the conditions of the treaty of 
 Stolbowa. 
 
 Karl III. the Fat of Germany is 
 the same as Charles le Gros of France. 
 He was the youngest of the sons of 
 Ludwig the German ; and as he survived 
 his two brothers, he united the three 
 kingdoms of Germany, Italy, and France 
 in his own person (832, 881-88S). 
 
 Charlemagne was the father of Louis I. le 
 Debonnaire. 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire was the father of Lothaire 
 (king of Italv), Ludwig (the German), and KARL II. 
 (called in French Charles le Chauve). 
 
 Karl II. was the father of Louis II. le Begue ; 
 and Ludwig the German was the father of 
 Karl III. 
 
 *,* Karl and Ludwig for German kings ; Charles 
 and Louis for French kings, 
 
 Contt'inporary with Alfred the Great. 
 
 Karl IV. of Luxemburg. One of the 
 promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany. 
 Nominated to the throne by Pope 
 Clement VI., without consulting the elec- 
 tors, and therefore called the ' Pope's 
 kaiser ' (1816, 1347-1378). He was son 
 of that John of Bohemia who fell at 
 Crecy in 1346, and grandson of Kaiser 
 Heinrich VII. 
 
 Father, John king of Bohemia. Wives, 
 (1) Anne princess palatine and (2) Anne 
 Schweidwitz. Contemporary with Ed- 
 ward III. 
 
 No reign ever embraced so many interesting 
 historical events in the same space of time. 
 
 1.347. Rienzi was tribune of Rome; assassinated 
 1354. 
 
 1348. The plague referred to by Boccaccio in his 
 •Decameron.' 
 
 1349. Edward III. of England instituted the 
 order of the Garter. 
 
 1351. The Great Helvetic Confederation was in- 
 stituted. 
 
 1354. Marino Falieri was elected doge of Venice 
 at the age of 80. 
 
 ia5C. Karl IV. submitted to the Diet of Nurnberg 
 He famous Golden Bull. 
 
 1356. Sept. 19 was fought the battle of Poitiers. 
 
 l."57. David Bruce was set at liberty. 
 1363. Timur the Tartar began his wonderful 
 career. 
 1,871. The Stuart dynasty began in Scotland. 
 1374. The poet Petrarch died. 
 
 1376. Edward the Black Prince died. 
 
 1377. Edward III. of England died. 
 
 Karl V. (Charles V.), called by the 
 French ' Charles Quint,' son of Philipp 
 and grandson of Kaiser Maximilian I, 
 the Pennyless. His son Philipp married 
 Mary queen of England (born 1500, 
 reigned 1519-1556, died 1558). 
 
 Father, Philipp. Mcther, Juana, daughter of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Aragon. 
 Wife, Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel king of 
 Portugal. He died at the convent of St. Juste in 
 Spain. Conteviporary with Henry VIII., Edward 
 VI., and Mary. 
 
 *,* In this reign the reform under Luther oc- 
 curred, and Magellan made the first voyage 
 round the world. 
 
 Karl VI., kaiser-king of Germany 
 (1683, 1711-1740). He was brother of 
 Joseph I. his predecessor, and son of 
 Leopold I. of the house of Austria. As 
 he had no son he drew up the ' Pragmatic 
 Sanction ' in favour of his daughter 
 Maria Theresa. The Duke of Bavaria 
 objected, but Maria Theresa succeeded 
 her father notwithstanding. 
 
 This was the last king of the house of Habsburg. 
 
 Father. Leopold I. Mother, Eleanor Anne. JVife, 
 Elizabeth Christina, daughteio f Rudolf of Bruns- 
 wick-Wolfenbiittel. Contemporary with George I. 
 and George II. 
 
 Karmathians. A Mohammedan 
 sect which arose in Irak during the 9th 
 cent. It took its name from Karmath, its 
 founder, a, poor labourer, who assumed 
 the rank of a prophet. The Karmathians, 
 who maintained bloody wars with the 
 kalifs for nearly a century, advocated 
 community of goods and wives, rejected 
 all revelation, fasts, prayer, alms, and 
 abstinence. Karmath died a.d. 900. The 
 sect was stamped out in 982. 
 
 Katerfelto. A celebrated quack, 
 and a generic name for a quack. He 
 practised on the people of London in 
 the influenza of 1782. In 1790 he visited 
 Durham, and sent his coach round the 
 town with trumpeters. His piece de re- 
 sistance was a solar microscope showing 
 the animalcules in water, &c. 
 
 Katerfelto with his hair on end 
 
 At his own wonders wondering. 
 
 COWPER, The Task, bk. iv. (Winter Evening.) 
 
 Kaye Pri25e {The). For an essay 
 connected with ecclesiastical history, 
 biblical criticism, or the canon of scrip- 
 ture. Given once in four years to a 
 graduate of the University of Cambrid.ra 
 
KEBLE 
 
 KENSINGTON 
 
 483 
 
 of not more than ten years' standing. 
 Value about 50Z. Founded by sub- 
 scribers to Bishop Kaye's memorial 1861. 
 See ' Regius Professor of Divinity.' 
 
 Keble College, Oxford, 1870. 
 Founded by subscription in memory of 
 John Keble, professor of poetry in the 
 university. The head-master is called 
 the warden. There are no fellowships 
 (1890). 
 
 Keel-hauling. A punishment prac- 
 tised at one time in the Dutch and English 
 navies, but now never resorted to. The 
 ofiender was let down by ropes on one 
 side of the ship, and after being dragged 
 under the keel, was hauled up on the 
 other side. 
 
 Keening (A). An Irish word for 
 that wild song of lamentation poured 
 forth over a dead body during the ' wake 
 ceremony ' by certain mourners employed 
 in Ireland for the purpose. 
 
 Keeper of the Forest {The). 
 Chief warden of the forest, who has the 
 superintendence over all the other forest 
 servants (Manwood, ' Forest Law, part i. 
 p. 156). 
 
 Keeper of the Great Seal {TJie). 
 
 A judicial officer, who used to be ap- 
 pointed (5 Ehz. c. 18) in lieu of the lord 
 chancellor. Abolished. 
 
 Keeper of the King's Consci- 
 ence {The). The lord chancellor. The 
 early chancellors being ecclesiastics were 
 probably the 'father confessors' of the 
 sovereign. The lord keeper is now the 
 officer who presides in the court of 
 chancery. 
 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal. Now 
 
 called ' the Lord Privy Seal,' through 
 whose hands all charters, &c., must pass 
 before they come to the ' Great Seal.' 
 
 Keeper of the Signet. An officer 
 in Scotland, appointed by the crown, who 
 appoints one of the Writers of the Signet 
 {q.v.), and presides at the meetings of the 
 society. 
 
 Keeper of the Touch. The 
 
 Master of the Assay in the Mint. 
 
 Keepers of the Liberties of 
 England {The). Custodians of the 
 new great seal after the abolition of 
 royalty 1648. The first three keepers 
 were Whitelock, Keble, and Lisle. 
 
 Kee-tan Dynasty ( The). A Tartar 
 dynasty which established a footing in 
 the north of China during the 14th im- 
 perial dynasty. It gave nine kings and 
 lasted 211 years (907-1118). Kao-tsu II. 
 purchased peace of this troublesome 
 horde by giving to it 16 cities in the pro- 
 vince of Pecheli'. 
 
 Also called the Leao dynasty. 
 
 Kellgrenism, 1889. Curing diseases 
 by manipulation. So called from J. 
 Henrik Kellgren. 
 
 The idea is that disease arises from a surcharge 
 of some gaseous matter, which passes into the 
 operator, and thus relieves the patient. Some- 
 times the operator himself suffers, but for the 
 most part the ' broach ' passes through the 
 operator, either into the air or into the earth. 
 Of course, the cure of diseases by the laying on of 
 hands is mentioned in the New Testament, but 
 whether this was a ' special gift ' pro tempore is 
 beyond the scope of this Dictionary. 
 
 Kempenfelt, 1782. The 'Royal 
 George ' was the finest ship in the British 
 service, carrying 108 guns, and was the 
 flag-ship of Admiral Kempenfelt. It was 
 lying off Portsmouth, crowded with its 
 own crew and a vast number of visitors, 
 before starting for Gibraltar. On 29 Aug. 
 the carpenters were busy caulking the 
 seams, and the ship was laid somewhat on 
 her side. Kempenfelt was writing in his 
 cabin, and the bulk of the people were 
 between decks. A sudden squall plunged 
 the open port-holes under water on the 
 lowered side, and the ship went down in 
 a minute. The admiral, the officers, and 
 all between decks, to the number of 1,000 
 persons, perished. Cowper has a jioem 
 on the subject. 
 
 Ken'lworth {Dictum of). See 
 under ' Dictum.' 
 
 Kennicott Scholarship. Two 
 
 for Hebrew. Value about 60Z., tenable 
 for one year. Founded (1831) in the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford by Anne Kennicott, 
 widow of Dr. Benjamin Kennicott, canon 
 of Christ Church. 
 
 Kensington Martyr (T/ie). Caro- 
 line, wife of George prince regent. 
 She was spoken of by the friends 
 of the regent as the ' Dreadful Woman.' 
 Married 1795, separated soon after the 
 birth of her child in 1796, died 1821. The 
 regent and his friends called her the 
 ' Kensington Megaara.' She resided at 
 Kensington, and was certainly persecuted 
 to death by her royal husband, but she 
 was no ' martyr.' 
 
 Ii2 
 
4?4 
 
 KENT 
 
 KEYS 
 
 Kent (Boly Maid of\ Sr^'Holv 
 Maid/ .<:c, 
 
 Kentish Fire. Veht?mont pro 
 tra<-t*»d olicHTinir. So CAlled from tlie 
 cheering in Kent in the * Xo jv^ix^rv ' 
 meetincrss got un to op^v^se the Catholic 
 Emancii^Ation Bill of ISii*. 
 
 Kentish Petition {ThrX 29 April. 
 1701. Signed *t Mj»idstone and pre- 
 sented to the Ho\i^ of Commons S May. 
 It prayed that the hoxise would not wast-e 
 their time in y^arty quarrel*, but att*->nd 
 to the public business. It vrss; signed by 
 grand j urors. mag-isiratos, and freeholders. 
 Thos^ who present-ed it were sent to the 
 G«t-e House, under the j^leA th^t the 
 petition w** ' scandalous, insolent, and 
 seditions.' Wlien ^v^irliament was pro- 
 rogued they were lilv?rat-ed. 
 
 The Tories . . . accossed Thoinas Bliss smd 
 Thorns* CiilpeppeT. two of the gemleiiifn ror.- 
 ©cmed in ihe Kentish petition, of having heon 
 gnilty of corra-pt M>d sc^ndaloos pra-otices in & 
 coiit*st<>d election at Majdstoa©.— HowiTI, Hv-i. 
 of Enff. iWilliam 111. p. 166». 
 
 Kepler's Laws. 
 
 1. The pl.<inet^ revolve about the sun in 
 
 -Aui „\ 
 
 ellipses, having the sun in one of the 
 foci. 
 
 2. If a line is drawn from the centre of 
 the sun to any planet, this line (a« it is 
 carried forward by the planet "i will sweep 
 over equal areAS in equal portions of 
 time. 
 
 S. The square of the periodic times of 
 the plaiiets are as the cubes of their mean 
 distances from the sun. 
 
 Tho second la-«r is ' the radios rector s-wecpsover 
 equal areas in equal times,' 
 
 Keri-Chetib [Keri what is read, 
 
 Chetih what is written]. Theie are some 
 1,000 psssftges in the Hebrew Bible 
 where the ' Keri ' differs from the ' Chetib.' 
 Kennicott tolls us in all these instAnoes 
 the false rendering is the one inserted 
 in tlie text^ or Arritten [chetib], and the 
 tru-e one is that given in the margin. It 
 is thought that Ezra made the marginal 
 readings. ' Dissertatio G-eneralis.' 
 
 Kesteven. The south-west part of 
 Lincolnshire. The north-east part is 
 
 called Ijindsey, .<»nd the south-eia«t l^aTt 
 is CAlled Holland. 
 
 Kett [B-ohrrt^. A tanner of "VTymond- 
 ham, noAT Norwich, and a man of sulv 
 stance, heade<l a rebellion in July 154i>. 
 His forces were di^^x^rsed by the Earl of 
 Warwick, and Kott was hanjro*! in Nov. 
 the same year [154i>j. See * Keionnation 
 Tree*.' 
 
 Wj-mondhara. proaonnc* Win'-d»m^ 
 
 Kett's Rebellion, 15*0, Tlie sup- 
 pression of monasteries had CAXised a 
 grcAt dcAl of temporary distress, and 
 given birth to many insurrections, by far 
 the most im]v>rt*^nt of which was that of 
 Xorwich. he^detiby RoWrt Kett., a tanner, 
 in the summer of 1549. who encAnn->ed on 
 Moxisehold He^th near tlie city. A 
 petition of grievances was first sent to 
 the king, praying that the bt^udmen 
 might be set free, that the rabbits might 
 be redijced in niiml>eT. aaid that auniforn\ 
 bushel mcA^iire might be established In- 
 law. Kett held his court under the * Oak 
 j of Reformation,' and here a chaplain duly 
 I reAd the liturgy. The king promised to 
 \ submit the -j^etition to jvirliament in 
 Octolx-'T. but the herald ordered Kett to 
 be arrested. This was the sigiial for war, 
 and Kett made himself master of Xorw-ich, 
 where he won several victories over the 
 king's tTiv^ps : but at length tlw Earl of 
 "VTarwick defeated the insurgents at Dits- 
 sinstlale. and Kett was hanged in chains 
 on Norwich Castle, 
 
 Sorwic.h, pi 
 porridge. Mo 
 
 rononno* Xr>rriA{>f^ to rhj-me -with 
 basehold. pronotiiice ArKssJ^-. 
 
 Key of Russia [Thc^. Smolensko, 
 Taken by Svatoshvs in 12o-2 ; t^kon by 
 the Lithuanitins in 141S ; taken by Vassili 
 in 1514 ; taken by the Poles in Kill ; 
 taken by the Russians in 1654 ; burnt by 
 Napoleon in his Moscow expedition in 
 1812. 
 
 Key of Spain ir;?A Ciudad R.xi- 
 ri'sro. taken bv LordWellington (the Duke 
 of Wellington^ 19 Jan.. isi2. 
 
 Key of the Mediterranean 
 
 {Th-e\ The fortress of Gibraltar, which 
 commands the entrance and exit of that 
 sea^ See ' Grates.' 
 
 Keys [The Ho74fe of). In the Isle of 
 Mijn. It consistsof twenty-fonrpersonsto 
 whom all doubtful and important matters 
 of law are referred. They are chosen 
 from the chief landed proprietors of the 
 
KEYS 
 
 KILEH-SHERGAT 
 
 485 
 
 iftland. If a vacancy occtirs two names 
 are went to the governor, who nominatefj 
 one of them. All freeholders, men and 
 women, elect. 
 
 Keys {The Tower of the), 'VoicHiM 
 Clavium WMatt. xvi. 19j. Tlie Knprerne 
 ix>wer of chnreh government ve»t*;d in 
 the pope of Rome as the profensed suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter. 
 
 Keystone State fTfe*). Pennsyl- 
 vania, one of the original thirteen states 
 of North America. Calle^l the Keystone 
 State from its position and importance. 
 
 Ehan. A noble, a gentleman ; abotit 
 eqnal to the Egyptian effendi and 
 English esquire (Afghanistan;. 
 
 Khariz'mians (The), 1215-1223. A 
 people of Wentem Tnrkestan, which from 
 994 U) 12.^1 formed an indej>endent prin- 
 cipality. In 119.^ they invaded Persia, 
 but their power was overthrown by 
 Ghengis Khan in 122.'>. 
 
 A branch of the Kharizmlans reigned ftt Delhi, 
 Hlndnstfin, from 121/5, after having chasKid out 
 the Ghcriana ; but In 1308 they were aoper3e<led by 
 the Patans. 
 
 KhattaTDians (The). One of the 
 numerons Shiite sects, disciples gf Abdfil 
 Khattib. They maintain that the prophet 
 meant by paradise ' the go^xl things of 
 this world.' So they indulge in wine, 
 music, and other things forbidden by 
 the imaums. They may be called the 
 Ej)icurean Moslems. See ' Imanmians,' 
 ' Zeyds.' 
 
 Khilji (The House of). The s^.cond 
 Gaurian dynasty of Delhi, founded by 
 Jelal-u-din in 1288. It continued to reign 
 till 1821, when it was overthrown by 
 T^glak. 
 
 Khyber Pass (The), 1842. Has ob- 
 tained great notoriety because a British 
 army of !(),()()() men was here annihilated 
 in the month of January, during the re- 
 treat from Kaubul. The only persons 
 who escaped were Dr. Brj'don (a regi- 
 mental surgeon) arid a private solrlier. 
 In 1838 Lord Auckland, governor- 
 general of India, declared war against 
 the Afghan istans because their ruler, 
 Dost Mohamrned, had unlawfully at- 
 tacked a British ally, and because Dost 
 Mohammed Lad usurj>ed the throne of 
 Shah Sujah, who was under British pro- 
 tection. On 21 July Shah Sujah was re- 
 
 stored to the throne of Kaubul, and t}»e 
 British thought the m&tUiT was ended. 
 This was a grand mistake, for at the k>e- 
 ginning of winter Akbah Khan, the iv>n 
 of Dost Mohamme<^l, attacked the British 
 army in Kaubul, and slew several of the 
 officers. A capitulation was made, and 
 when the British army were in the 
 Khyber Pass on their way home they 
 were cut to pieces. (With women, chil- 
 dren, and camp followers 20,000 were 
 slain in the Pass.; 
 
 Ki in Chinese history. There were 
 ten of these ra^;es [Ki] before even the 
 semi-historical period which began with 
 Hia, B.C. 2205. The first Ki or fal>ulou3 
 age embraces a period of 300,000 years. 
 The mythic f^enVxl is the tenth Ki ; the 
 three emperors were Fo-hi, Chin-nong, 
 and Hoangti. These were followed by 
 five kings. 
 
 The first Ki conainted of 1) Pnon-kn (hi^hurt **fr- 
 nity) ; 12) TiSnhoknn (emp^rcn- of h^yie^n) ; (X) Ti- 
 hoang (emperor of ^nrth.) ; and (i) Gine-ho4ng (frm^ 
 perw of nu^). Evidently ?i.\\k^(jr\cat.\. The hfetori- 
 cal period begtos B.C. 236 with the dynaaty ol 
 Tsin. 
 
 Kidnapping. Entrapping children, 
 either for reward or to serve some object 
 of the kidnapper. Also entrapping slaves 
 or men to serve aboard ship. It is now 
 a felonious act (24, 2.5 Vict. c. lOOj. 
 
 Kiel, in Holstein (Treaty of)^ 
 14 Jan., 1814, between Great Britain, 
 Sweden, and Denmark, for the transfer 
 of Norway from Denmark to Sweden. 
 The ' War of Liberation ' in Germany 
 ends with this treaty. 
 
 Kildare Insurrection (The\, 23 
 May, 1798. The commencement of the 
 great reV>ellion, not finally quelled till 
 the following year. 
 
 On 23 May Lieutenant GiiTord of I>abliii and a 
 nninber of other gentlemen were aaaaaalnated by 
 
 the inaurgenta. 
 
 Kildare Place Society ^rA«), 1833. 
 See ' SfXiiety for Promoting the Education 
 of the Poor.' In 1830 government with- 
 drew its grant to tin's society, and the 
 schools gradually decline^l. 
 
 Kileh-Shergat Cylinder (The). 
 The earliest historical document pertain- 
 ing to Assyria yet discovered in Meso- 
 potamia. The characters are cuneiform, 
 and the fifth king inscribed on the cylinder 
 Ls the well-known name of Tiglath-pileser 
 [Takulti-pal-zira], ' son of Asshur-rish-ili, 
 who reduced the Magian world, grandson 
 
48fi 
 
 KILHAMITES 
 
 KILMAINHAM 
 
 of Mutaggil-nebu, offspring of Asshur- 
 dapal-il, who held the sceptre of Bel.' 
 
 Kileh-Shergat is the modern name of Asshur. 
 
 Kirhamites (3 syl.), or 'New Con- 
 nection Methodists,' 1797. Seceders f rom 
 the Methodists, led by Alexander Kilham. 
 Their doctrinal views are those of "Wesley, 
 but their polity is Presbyterian. The 
 people choose their own officers, and send 
 representatives to all the synodical meet- 
 ings of the denomination. 
 
 K.ilk.e-niiy{TheCatholicConfederacy 
 of), 1641. Never to lay down their arms 
 till they had obtained an acknowledg- 
 ment of the independence of the Irish ; 
 the repeal of all degrading disqualifica- 
 tions on the ground of religion ; the 
 free exercise of the Catholic worship; 
 and the exclusion of all but natives from 
 civil and military offices within the king- 
 dom. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 If ' Home Eule ' is effected, what would the Irish 
 say if no office of Great Britain could be held by 
 an Irishman ? 
 
 Kilkenny {The Constitutions of). 
 Certain privileges granted by Edward III. 
 to the Irish in a parliament held at Kil- 
 kenny. 
 
 Kilkenny was the seat of several Irish parlia- 
 ments. 
 
 Kilkenny [Convention of), 1342. A 
 parliament held at Kilkenny to remon- 
 strate with Edward III. against his threat 
 of excluding in future from all share in 
 the government of Ireland those who 
 held estates in Ireland or had marrit d 
 Irish wives. It was thought that the 
 allegiance of such persons would be 
 weakened by their private interest in 
 Ireland. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 'Kilkenny {Statute of ), 40 Edw. III. 
 1366. For the abolition of the Brehon or 
 common law of Ireland. Lionel the 
 second son of Edward III., who married 
 the heiress of the Earl of Ulster, and 
 thus became entitled to the lordships of 
 Ulster and Connaught, was made by his 
 father lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 
 1366 he summoned a parliament at Kil- 
 kenny, in which this statute was passed. 
 
 The object of this statute, passed by Edward III., 
 •was to prevent the amalgamation of the English 
 and Irish chiefs, which would render them too for- 
 midable to be controlled. It forbade any English- 
 man, on pain of imiDrisonment and forfeiture of 
 his estates, to use an Irish name, to speak the 
 Irish language, to adopt the Irish dress, or to per- 
 mit the cattle of an Irishman to graze on his 
 lands ; and made it high treason to marry a native. 
 Brehon is the Irish for a judge. 
 
 Killala {Battle of), 23 Sept., 1798. 
 The French, being invited over by the 
 Irish insurgents, landed under General 
 Humbert (22 Aug., 1798) from three 
 frigates. Several battles were fought, as 
 those of Castlebar, Colooney, and Balli- 
 namuck, but at Killala the insurgents 
 were defeated with great slaughter. 
 
 General Humbert surrendered to General Lake 
 after the battle of Ballinamuck, 8 Sept. Some 
 French frigates on their way to aid the Irish v, ere 
 captured, 12 Oct., by Sir J. B. Warren, and Wolfe 
 Tone was among the prisoners. 
 
 * Killing no Murder,' 1657. A 
 pamphlet printed in Holland, which 
 caused an immense sensation at the 
 time. After an address to Cromwell and 
 another to the army, it divides itself 
 into three parts: (1) Is the lord pro- 
 tector a tyrant? (Yes, because he has 
 arrogated to himself regal power and 
 state.) (2) Is it lawful to kill a tyrant ? 
 (Yes. Examjile : Brutus killed Ctesar 
 and was deemed a patriot.) (3) Will the 
 removal of Cromwell be for the well- 
 being of the three nations ? (Yes. For 
 his misrule is full of mischief.) It then 
 concludes by warning Cromwell that his 
 life is not worth an hour's purchase. 
 This book created quite a furore, and 
 was distributed by thousands. Sexby 
 avouched that he was the author o'f it, 
 but Clarendon tells us that Sexby was an 
 illiterate man. Evelyn and others think 
 the author was Captain Titus, who re- 
 sided in Holland at the time (' Diary,' ii. 
 210). Some ascribe it to Willan, and 
 others to Allan. 
 
 There was a similar pamphlet pub- 
 lished in France in 1658 entitled ' Tuer 
 un tyran n'est pas un crime.' It was 
 issued by Carpentier de Marigny, the 
 avowed enemy of Mazarin. 
 
 Kilmainham Treaty {The), 1882. 
 A supposed compact made by Mr. Glad- 
 stone, the prime minister, with Dillon, 
 Parnell, and O'Kelly, when in April they 
 were unexpectedly released from Kil- 
 mainham jail, where they had been con- 
 fined for exciting the Irish to resist the 
 payment of rent, and to prevent new 
 tenants from taking the farms from 
 which persons had been evicted. The 
 tale is that the three gentlemen pro- 
 mised to exert themselves to pacify 
 Ireland if they were set free, and so they 
 were released; but most certainly they 
 have done nothing since to pacify Ire- 
 land, but quite the contrary (1890). 
 
KIN 
 
 KING-MAKER 
 
 487 
 
 Kin {The), or the Golden Race. So 
 the Niu-tchin Tartars of China called 
 themselves (1188-1235), 
 
 Kinconghish. A statute in Ire- 
 land which provides that every head of a 
 sept is to be charged with any treason, 
 felony, or heinous crime committed by 
 any one of the sept. 
 
 King [The Black). Heinrich III. of 
 Germany (1017, 1046-1056). 
 
 King {The Bed). I. The king of 
 Persia was so called from his red turban. 
 
 Credo ut Persam nunc propter rubea tegumenta 
 capitis R'ibeum Caput vccant, ita reges Moscoviae 
 propter alba tegumenta Albos lieges appellari.— 
 
 SIGISMUND. 
 
 II. William II. was called Bufus, or 
 the Red King, from the colour of his hair 
 (1057, 1087-ilOO). 
 
 III. Otto II. kaiser of Germany was 
 called the Red King for a similar reason 
 (955, 973-983). 
 
 IV. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy was 
 called ' The Red ' also (1360, 1383-1391). 
 
 Kaiser Friedrich I. was called 'Barbarossa' 
 from his red beard. 
 
 King {The Summer). Amadeus of 
 Spain. 
 
 King {The White). The king of 
 Muscovy was so called from his ' alba 
 tegumenta.' See ' King {The Bed)'. 
 
 Muscovy was called White liii.fsia, and probably 
 this was the reason v/hy the Muscovite king was 
 called the White king, or king of White Kussia. 
 Poland was Black Russia. See ' Russia.' 
 
 King {The Winter). Friedrich V., 
 the rival of Ferdinand II. of Germany, 
 He married Elizabeth daughter of James 
 I. of England, and was king of Bohemia 
 one winter, 1619-20. His wife was called 
 the ' Winter Queen.' 
 
 King Becold. John of Leyden 
 the tailor, who headed the Anabaptists 
 of. Germany, and arrogated to himself 
 the name and title of ' King John of 
 Leyden.' His name was John Becold 
 (1510-1536). 
 
 His name is sometimes written Boccold and 
 Bockholdt. 
 
 King Bomba. Nickname of Ferdi- 
 nand II. of Naples, who bombarded 
 Messina in 18-18. 
 
 ' Bomba ' is the noise made when the cheeks are 
 blown out and compresspd by the fingers 'and 
 thumb. Ferdinand II. of Naples was a great Pox 
 et p7(eterea fiihil, and his son Francis II. was only 
 a ' Bombalino,' or I'ocitula et nnctcrea nihil. 
 
 King Edward's Law. The laws 
 enforced by Edward the Confessor, and 
 the mode of government which then 
 prevailed. 
 
 When the people clamoured for King Edward's 
 laws, they meant that they wished to be governed 
 In the same manner as Edward the Confessor 
 governed the nation (1041-1065). 
 
 King Henri's King. Chicot the 
 jester (1553-1591), who ruled Henri III. ; 
 but, to his honour be it spoken, he loved 
 him and served him faithfully. It would 
 be well if some wise ones took counsel 
 from the ' fool.' 
 
 King Hob. Robert Bruce was so 
 called by Edward I., meaning 'king 
 churl.' Hob was a common name for a 
 villager or half-serf, as Hodge still is for 
 a farm-labourer. Du Cange (art. ' Huba ') 
 says Hovia means a village, German hof, 
 and the following from 'Chron. Mortis S. 
 Agnetis,' chap. xxvi. : — ' Damnum mag- 
 num habuimus in hovia nostra ex 
 inundatione aquarum.' 
 
 Perhaps 'Hob' is a mere variant of 'Rob,' or 
 
 'Bob,' i.e. Robert. 
 
 King Hulan. King Alfonso XII. 
 of Spain was called ' Roi Hulan ' in 
 1883, because he had recently accepted 
 a colonelcy of a Uhlan regiment in 
 Prussia. 
 
 King James's Bible. See ' King's 
 Bible ' and ' Bible.' 
 
 * King Jesus.' William Hacket, in 
 the early part of Elizabeth's reign, gave 
 himself out to be King Jesus. His two 
 ' prophets ' were Arthington and Cop- 
 pinger. Hacket was executed in 1592, 
 Coppinger starved himself to death in 
 prison, and Arthington was subsequently 
 pardoned. 
 
 King-Maker {The). Richard Ne- 
 ville earl of Warwick (1428-1471). 
 When Henry VI. was king he defeated 
 the Lancastrians, captured the king at 
 Northampton (10 July, 1460), and pro- 
 claimed Edward IV. king (4 March, 1461). 
 
 Subsequently he quarrelled with Ed- 
 ward, made a compact with Margaret 
 (wife of Henry VI.), married his daughter 
 Anne to Prince Edward (son of Henry 
 VI. and Margaret), landed at Dover (13 
 Sept., 1470), drove Edward IV. from the 
 throne, and restored Henry VI. See 
 next article. 
 
 Richard Neville was slain by Edward IV. at the 
 battle of Barnet 11 April, 1471, when Edward be 
 came king again. 
 
KING-MAKER 
 
 KING 
 
 King-Maker {The Boman). Rici- 
 mer (* — a.d. 472), In 456 he deposed 
 the Emperor Avitus, and made Majorian 
 emperor. As Majorian proved too inde- 
 pendent and virtuous for Ricimer's liking, 
 the Suevian put him to death (a.d. 461), 
 and raised Libius Severus to the purple. 
 On the death of Libius Severus in 465 
 Ricimer kept the government for sixteen 
 months in his own hands, but in 467 the 
 emperor of the east appointed the western 
 emperor, and Ricimer acquiesced in the 
 appointment. In 472 the new emperor 
 was slain in battle, and Ricimer appointed 
 Olybrius emperor. This was the third 
 emperor which the barbarian made. 
 
 King Matthias is dead. This 
 Hungarian proverb is the greatest com- 
 pliment ever paid to a crowned head. 
 It means ' justice no longer holds the 
 balance,' as it did when Matthias was king. 
 It appears that Matthias son of Hunyadi 
 was indeed a model king, who never had 
 his equal on any throne (1443, 1458-1490). 
 
 King Robert's Bo"wrl. Said to be 
 the bowl which the wife of Mark Sprotte 
 setbefore King Robert. It is still preserved 
 in the family of the Sprottes of Urr. One 
 day King Robert was attacked by a 
 Southron on the banks of the Urr, near 
 the cottage of Mark Sprotte a shepherd ; 
 the wife of the shepherd caught hold of 
 the Southron, pulled him to the ground, 
 and he was obliged to yield. She then 
 set before the king a bowl of porridge. 
 Bruce said he would give her for reward 
 all the land she could run round while lie 
 ate it, and she ran round Sheeling Hill. 
 The land was given her, she was called 
 the heroic dame of Galloway, the hill was 
 called the King's Mount, and the family 
 has been called the Sprottes of Urr for 
 about 500 years. 
 
 King Smith. Louis Philippe of 
 France, who escaped from France in 1848 
 lender the assumed name of Mr. Smith, 
 
 ' Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed tho king, " that is 
 curious indeed ; and it is very remarkable that the 
 first to welcome me should be a Mr. Smith, since 
 the assumed name by which I escaped from 
 France was Sviith. Look, this is my passport, 
 made out in the name of Smith.'— T/te Tivws, 
 6 March, 1848. 
 
 King Tom. Sir Thomas Maitland, 
 the first Lord High Commissioner of the 
 United States of the Ionian Islands, so 
 called from his arbitrary manners. He 
 was an excellent governor, but ruled the 
 
 islands as an autocrat, and left a full 
 exchequer at his death. 
 
 King of Arms. The title dates 
 from the reign of Henry IV., but Henry 
 V. created the Garter King in 1417, and 
 George IV. the Bath King in 1725. The 
 Garter King of Arms now serves the 
 Order of the Garter, and the Bath King 
 of Arms the Order of the Bath. The 
 two provincial kings for England are 
 Clarenceux (named after Thomas duke 
 of Clarence, brother of Henry V.), with 
 jurisdiction over all parts of England 
 south of the Trent ; and Norroy [North 
 roy], with jurisdiction over all parts 
 north of the Trent. 
 
 The King of Arms for Scotland is 
 called Lyon, and for Ireland Ulster. 
 
 King of Bath (The). King Richard 
 [of Bath], Beau Nash, master of the cere- 
 monies, or Social Premier of Bath (1674- 
 1701). 
 
 King of Bourges. Charles VII. 
 of France was so called by the English 
 in France because he returned to Bourges 
 when he fled from Paris. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI. the kingdom of 
 France descended to Henry V, of England. 
 Charles VII. refused to allow the claim, and for a 
 time took refuge in Bourges. Jeanne d Arc turned 
 the scale, and the King of Bourges became Charles 
 le Victorieux. 
 
 King of England. A title first 
 assumed by Richard I. See ' King of 
 the English.' 
 
 King of Fire {The),ov SultanKebir. 
 Napoleon was so called by the Orientals 
 (170'), 1804-1814, 1821). 
 
 King of France {The). So the 
 monarchs of France were called till Oct, 
 1789, when the National Assembly or- 
 dained that Louis XVI, should not be 
 styled ' King of France,' but ' King of the 
 French.' The royal title was abolished 
 in France in 1792, but was restored in 
 1814. When Louis Philippe was invited 
 in 1830 to take on himself the government 
 he was styled ' King of the French.' 
 
 King of Ireland, -1541. A title 
 assumed by Henry VIII. to combat a 
 notion that the regal dominion of Ireland 
 was vested ex officio in the pope, and that 
 the king of England hold from the pope 
 his lordship of Ireland. In the reign of 
 Mary and Philip, Paul IV, formally 
 
Kixa 
 
 KING 
 
 489 
 
 raised the lordship of Ireland into a 
 kingdom, 1557. 
 
 John was ' dominus Hibernife,' and from John to 
 15U the kings^of England were styled " lords of 
 Ireland.' The Irish Ard-n:iks v.ere undoubtedly 
 kings; and Henry VIII. had no effective sway 
 bejond the English pale. James I. of England 
 ■was in reality the first king of all Ireland, when 
 in KVjS Hugh O Neill submitted to Mountjoy. 
 
 King of Kent. Hengist, first of the 
 kings of the Heptarchy, was king of Kent, 
 A.D. 455. His dominion comprehended 
 Kent, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, 
 &c. In 526 the foundation of the king- 
 dom of Essex diminished that of Kent. 
 
 King of Paris {The), 1588. So 
 Henri due de Guise was called by Henri 
 III. after the day of the barricades I the 
 12th May), when the king fled disguised 
 as a rustic to Chartres. 
 
 After the murder of Balafre Henri III. left the 
 .room and visited his mother, who was ill in bed. 
 ' The King of Paris lives no longer, madam,' said 
 he ; ' henceforth I shall reign alone. I have now 
 no rival.' ' It is a clean cut my son,' replied Cithe- 
 rine, ' but it must be sewn up again.'— F£UCE, 
 Hist, of the Prot^-stanis of Fiance, xvii. 
 
 King of Prussia [The First). 
 FiUEDRicH I. son of the Great Elector 
 (1057, 1701-1713). See ' Prussia,' &c. 
 
 King of Rome, 1811. A title given 
 by Napoleon I. to his infant son at birth, 
 when ' he associated the child in his em- 
 pii'e.' Probably he meant to revive the 
 title invented by Kaiser Heinrich III. ; if 
 so the title was a blunder ; but if he 
 only meant to imitate the kaiser, he was 
 quite at liberty to adopt any title not 
 ahcady appropriated. 
 
 King of Sion (T/ie). John Becold, 
 Boccold, or Bockholdt, tailor, the Ana- 
 baptist (1510, 1531-1536). Better known 
 as John of Leyden, the name he took 
 after his ' coronation.' He •was sensual, 
 vain, and bloodthirsty, fond of regal 
 pomp, and introduced polygamy. John 
 ■was executed by lingering tortures in 
 1536, at the age of 26. 
 
 King ot Slops. Louis XVIII. of 
 France (1755, 1814-1824). 
 
 King of Suffolk. See ' Kings of 
 Norfolk and Suffolk.' 
 
 King of Terror (T/ie). Robespierre 
 was the ' King of Terror,' and the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety his executive for 
 420 days, from 31 May, 1793, to 27 July, 
 1794. 
 
 Death is poetically so called. 
 
 Kir«g of the Barricades (8 syl.). 
 Louis Philippe of France (1773, reigned 
 1830-18-18. died 1850;, so called because 
 he assisted in the revolution of 1830 to 
 barricade Paris and resist the royal troops. 
 
 Kmg of the Baso'cians (The). 
 
 President of the clerks of the Basoche or 
 Basilica of Paris — i.e. the judges, the 
 ban-isters, the proctors, and other officials 
 of the Palais de Justice. He had his 
 court, his great officers, his coin, and his 
 armorial bearings. Henri III. suppressed 
 the title, and transferred to the chancel- 
 lor all the rights and privileges of this 
 ' king of the lawyers.' 
 
 King of the Butchers (The). 
 The lad who at one time rode on the 
 Boeuf Gras through the streets of Paris 
 on Shrove Tuesday. He was a son of 
 one of the three great butcher families 
 (Gois, St. Yon, or Caboche), was dressed 
 as an eastern monarch, carried a naked 
 sword in one hand and a sceptre in the 
 other, and rode on the back of the prize ox. 
 He also enjoyed certain j)rivileges in his 
 year of office. The procession of Boeuf 
 Gras had no king in my time — i.e. the 
 middle of the 19th cent. 
 
 In New Orleans Hex is still (1890) the central 
 figure of the Mardi Gras festivities. 
 
 Boeuf gras, pronounce Uuhgrah'. 
 
 King of the English. A title 
 assumed in 828 by Egbert. 
 
 Every king from William to Henry II. called 
 himself 'king of the English' (n-x Anqhirum). 
 Richard I. was the first to call himself ' king of 
 Entiland ' (rex Angli'x). 
 
 King of the French. So Louis- 
 Philippe entitled himself in 1830. Simi- 
 larly, the two Najjoleons called them- 
 selves ' emperors of the French,' and not 
 ' emperors of France.' 
 
 Of course, the notion was that the latid called 
 France belonged to the people, and that the king 
 or emperor disavowed all right to it. There seems 
 now il8;i0) a radical notion that all the land of 
 the nation should be vested in the sovereign and 
 not be held by private landlords Strange hovr 
 radicals should wish to roll back the tide of his- 
 tory to the time of the Conquest ! Fvmny ad- 
 vancement this ! 
 
 King of the Hills. Vincent the 
 Chartist, 1839. The hill district of 
 Wales is about five miles from Newport, 
 and abounds in coal and iron. 
 
 King of the Markets {The), or 
 ' Le Roi des Halles.' Francois de Ven- 
 dOme due de Beaufort (1616-1669), 
 natural son of Henri IV. and Gabrielle 
 d'Estre'es. So called because he was 
 very popular with the French proletariat. 
 
490 
 
 KING 
 
 KING'S 
 
 Lagrange-Chancel asserted, in the ' Annee 
 Litteraire,' 1759, that the due was the 
 ' Iron Mask,' but this has been fully dis- 
 proved. He was slain in a sortie at the 
 siege of Candia. 
 
 King of the Peak {The), 1515. 
 Sir George Vernon of Haddon Hall was 
 twice cited to appear in London for the 
 murder of a pedlar hanged by his order on 
 a tree. When in the court he was sum- 
 moned as ' King of the Peak ' he vouch- 
 safed no reply, but on the third summons 
 as ' Sir George Vernon ' he instantly 
 presented himself. The pedlar had com- 
 mitted murder and Sir George ' lynched ' 
 him. The case was dismissed. 
 
 King of tlie Poor. William 
 Fitz-Osbert, called ' Longbeard,' from 
 the length of his beard. Executed with 
 great barbarity in 1199. 
 
 King of the Ribalds {The). 
 'Le Roi des Ribauds ' \Be-lo]. The 
 captain of the militia created by 
 Philippe II. Auguste' of France in 1189. 
 Charles V. united the captaincy of the 
 Ribalds to the ' provost of the hotel.' 
 
 King of the Romans, 1056. 
 
 Heinrich III. the Black King of Ger- 
 many invented this title for the heir-elect 
 of Germany, and the title was continued 
 till he was crowned. Till 1339 the king 
 of Germany went to Rome +o receive 
 from the pope the title of ' kal'^^er of the 
 Holy Roman Empire,' but after that date 
 the king at his coronation in Germany 
 assumed the title ex-officio. 
 
 It a father made his son joint-king, the father 
 V^as kaiser and the son King of the Rovians. The 
 successor of a kaiser was only ' King of the 
 Pvomans' till he -was actually crowned. In 1.308 
 Maximilian, who failed to get himself crowned 
 kaiser, called himself ' Emperor-elect of the 
 Bomans.' 
 
 King of the Sea. Edward III. 
 A title given him in 1353. 
 
 He won the great naval battle of Sluys (2 syl.) 
 over the French in 1340, and beat the Spanish 
 Bquadron off Winchelsea in 1350. 
 
 King's and Queen's Counties 
 
 (Ireland). The territory belonging to the 
 septs of Leix and Offaly, who resisted the 
 forfeiture of their lands and took up arms ; 
 but the septs were exterminated, and their 
 territory formed into two counties named 
 King's and Queen's, in honour of Philip 
 and Mary, and the assize towns of the 
 counties were called Philipstown and 
 Maryborough after the names of the king 
 and queen. 
 
 King's and Queen's Men, 1571. 
 
 The factions of James VI. of Scotland 
 and his mother Mary queen of Scots, a 
 prisoner at the time in England. In 1573 
 the queen's faction was stamped out and 
 the reign of Mary was virtually at an end. 
 
 King's [or Queen's] Bench. An 
 English law court where the sovereign is 
 supposed to occupy the lit de justice. It 
 was originally the Aula Regia which fol- 
 lowed the king in all his travels. By 
 1 Will. IV. c. 70 the number of judges 
 was raised from four to five, viz. the chief 
 justice andfour puisne or 3'^ounger judges. 
 This court has control over all other law 
 courts by a process technically called 
 certiorari, by virtue of which x^roceedings 
 may be removed to it from inferior courts. 
 It can also prohibit other courts from 
 proceeding when it is thought that they 
 are exceeding their jurisdiction. It has' 
 jurisdiction over every species of criminal 
 offence committed in Middlesex. 
 
 King's (or) Queen's Plates. Purses 
 of money for races, not all the gifts of the 
 reigning sovereign. In the reign of Queen 
 Anne a gentleman left 1300 guineas for 13 
 plates or purses to be run for at such 
 places as the crown should appoint ; the 
 condition being that each horse shall 
 carry 12 stone weight the best of three 
 heats over a four-mile course. 
 
 King's Bible {The), 1611. The 
 ' Authorised Version ' is so called because 
 it was undertaken by the command of 
 James I., to whom also it was dedicated. 
 King James disliked the ' Great Bible ' 
 {q^.v.) because of its annotations. He also 
 extremely disapproved of the Geneva 
 Bible {q.v.). See ' Bibles.' 
 
 King's Bishop {The), 1317. Wil- 
 liam Sinclair bishop of Dunkeld. Ed- 
 ward II. sent a fleet to the Frith of Forth ; 
 and the sheriff, with 500 Scottish horse, 
 seeing the fleet, retreated precipitately. 
 On their road the bishop met them, and 
 cried, ' Out on you for false knights, whose 
 spurs should be knocked from your heels ! 
 Who loves Scotland follow me ! ' The 
 bishop made a desperate charge against 
 the English, who were driven to their 
 ships with loss. When Bruce heard 
 thereof, he said Sinclair should be his 
 bishop, and the Bishop of Dunkeld was 
 called ' The king's bishop ' for many 
 years. 
 
KING'S 
 
 KING'S 
 
 491 
 
 King's Book (T^ie). I. 'LiberKegis,' 
 A.D. 1584. A schedule of the valuation 
 of all church property in England made 
 after the separation of the English Church 
 from the Church of Rome. 
 
 II. 1543. ' Necessary Doctrine and 
 Erudition for any Christian man,' a book 
 published by Henry VIII. as a substitute 
 for the Bible, which he forbade the general 
 public to read. Teachers of religion, 
 nobles, and those of gentle birth might 
 read it, but if any artificer, apprentice, 
 journeyman, labourer, or servant read it, 
 the punishment was a month's imprison- 
 ment. The ' King's Book ' was far more 
 Catholic than Protestant. Indeed Henry 
 was a Catholic in all things except his own 
 supremacy. See ' Bishops' Book.' 
 
 The 'Kings Book' is quoted in brief as the 
 'Erudition.' It is in great measure copied from the 
 'Bishops' Book 0].v.), but leans more to Roman- 
 ism. It explains the Creed, the Seven Sacraments 
 the Ten Commandments, the Lord s Prayer, tlie 
 Ave Maria, and finishes with an exposition of Free- 
 will, Justification Good W'orks, and Prayers for 
 the Dead. It accepts the Apocrypha, and the first 
 four ecumenical Councils. See p. 277. 
 
 King's Collection {The), 1823. 
 The Royal Library of George III. given 
 to the nation by George IV., and added to 
 the library of the British Museum. The 
 Royal Library consists of the library of 
 Mr. Joseph Smith, British consul at 
 Venice, bought by the king in 1762 for 
 10,000/. ; a collection of books bought up 
 when the order of Jesuits was suppressed ; 
 and the library of Charles II. The number 
 of volumes added to the library by this 
 royal gift is somewhat more than 50,000. 
 
 King's College. I. Aberdeen, 1491. 
 Founded by King James IV. 
 
 II. Cambridge, 1441. Founded by King 
 Henry VI. The chapel was finished in 
 1530. The head of the college is called 
 the provost. 
 
 III. London. Incorporated 1828. 
 
 King's Confession [The). The 
 Scotch Covenant of 1580. So called be- 
 cause signed by King James VI. (after- 
 ■wards James I. of England). It abjured 
 the tenets of the Church of Rome ; bound 
 the subscribers to defend the tenets of the 
 Reformed Church of Scotland, and to 
 guard with goods and lives the person and 
 authority of the king. 
 
 King's Evil {The). Scrofula, so 
 called because it was supposed to be cured 
 l)y the king's touch. Touching for scrofula 
 was practised by Edward the Confessor 
 
 (1043-1066) ; by Louis IX. of France in 
 1480 ; by the kaiser-king Karl VIII. at 
 Rome and Naples in 1495 ; by Francois I. 
 in 1527 ; by Charles II., and Queen Anne. 
 It was attempted by Prince Charles Edward the 
 Pretender, at Holyrood, in 174G; by Louis XVI. at 
 Reims in 1775. 
 
 King's Hall, Cambridge, 1337. 
 Founded by King Edward III. In 1546 
 this college was, with other foundations, 
 consolidated into Trinity College. 
 
 King's Lieutenants (TA.e). Noble- 
 men commissioned by the three Lancas- 
 trian kings to put into military order their 
 respective counties, and levy fines on 
 those incapable of bearing arms. These 
 gentlemen are now called 'Lords Lieu- 
 tenants of Counties.' 
 
 King's Wominees {The). Thirty- 
 six Irish noblemen and gentlemen, whose 
 estates had been confiscated by Cromwell, 
 named in the Declaration of Indulgence 
 (1602) to be restored to their estates with- 
 out further proof, by the special favour of 
 the king [Charles II.] 
 
 King's Pamphlets {The). 30,000 
 tracts and pamphlets relative to the history 
 of England during the civil wars, bound 
 in 2,000 volumes, of which 100 were printed 
 (but never published). The pamphlets 
 were commenced for the use of Charles I. 
 by a clergyman named Thomason, kept in 
 the collect'^ .'s warehouses, and at length 
 lodged at 'Oxford under the care of Dr. 
 Barlow. They were bought for Charles 
 
 II. by Samuel Mearke, stationer, but Mrs. 
 Mearke, the widow, tried to dispose of 
 them by the desire of Charles II. George 
 
 III. bought them, and in 1763 presented 
 the whole to the British Museum. 
 
 King's Preachers. Six able di- 
 vines appointed by Edward VI., four of 
 whom were itinerant, publicly to main- 
 tain the doctrines of the Reformation. 
 
 King's Primer {The), 1546. Pub- 
 lished by command of Henry VIII. It 
 contained the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Ten Commandments, the Litany, the 
 ' Venlte,' and the ' Te Deura,' w^ith some 
 few collects. It was twice revised in the 
 reign of Edward VI., and again in the 
 reigns of Elizabeth and James L, being 
 ultimately made into our present ' Book 
 of Common Prayer.' 
 
 King's Quair, i.e. King's Book. A 
 poom in six cantos (197 stanzas of seven 
 
492 
 
 KING'S 
 
 KINGS 
 
 lines eacli) by James I. of Scotland. It 
 is the story of his courtship of Jane 
 Beaufort, who became his wife. 
 
 King's Stone {The), 1513. An un- 
 hewn column erected on Flodden Field 
 to mark the spot where King James IV. 
 fell. 
 
 Kings. A Chinese word equivalent 
 to books, but emphatically applied to five, 
 as our word Bible (a book) is applied to 
 our Sacred Scriptures. The five sacred 
 books of the Chinese are : 1. Y-Kvng 
 (cosmogony) ; 2. Chi-Kinz (hymns) ; 3. 
 Chou-Eing (annals) ; 4. Li-Ki (religious 
 rites and ceremonies) ; and 5. Tchun- 
 Tsieou (chronology of the kingdoin of 
 Lou, the country of Confucius). To these 
 is sometimes added the Tao-te-Ktng. 
 
 Kings. The average length of the 
 reigns in the three countries of England, 
 France, and Germany. 
 
 England from the accession of the 
 Conquest 23/; years. 
 
 France from the accession of Hugues 
 Capet 20 years. 
 
 Germany from the accession of Charle- 
 magne 18 years. 
 
 The long reign of Qtieen Victoria will consider- 
 ably raise the average of the sovereigns of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The average length in Scotland from Malcolm I. 
 to James VI. was 21 years. 
 
 Kings and Popes. The era of im- 
 pious kings and impious popes. See 
 ' Popes and Kings.' 
 
 Kings and Queens of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Victoria, who was the niece of Wil- 
 liam IV., who was the brother^ of 
 George IV., who was the son of 
 George III., who was the grandson of 
 George II., who was the son of 
 George I., who was the cousin of Anne, 
 who was the sister-in-law of William 
 III., who was the son-in-law of James II., 
 who was the brother of Ch.o'vLes II., 
 who was the son of Charles I., who 
 was the so7i of James I., who was the 
 cousin of Elizabeth, who was the half- 
 sister of Mary, who was the half-sister 
 of Edward VI., who was the son of 
 Henry VIII., who was the son of 
 Henry VII., who was the cousin of 
 EiCHARD III., who was the tmcle of 
 Edward V., who was the son of Edward 
 IV., who was the cousin of Henry VI., 
 who was the son of Henrt V., who was 
 
 the son of Henry IV., who was the 
 cousin of Richard II., who was the 
 grandson of Edward III., who was the 
 S071 of Edward II., who was the son of 
 Edward I., who was the son of Henry 
 III., who v/as the son of John, who was 
 the brother of Richard I., who was the 
 son of Henry II., who was the cousin of 
 Stephen, who was the cousin of Henry I., 
 who was the brother of William Rufus, 
 who was the son of William the Con- 
 queror, who was the son of his mother. 
 
 Kings Combatant (The). The 
 kings of the Tsheu or Chou dynasty of 
 China. The third Imperial dynasty, and 
 the last of the semi-historic period. The 
 ' fighting kings ' were the feudatories who 
 ruled over petty neighbouring states, and 
 were continually at war with each other. 
 
 The most powerful of the kings combatant were 
 the founders of the following states : Yen, Gey, 
 Tchao, Han, Tsee, and Tsin. 
 
 Kings of Arms, 1483. There are 
 four in England : Clarenceux (who has 
 power over all parts of England south of 
 the Trent) ; Norroy, i.e. North-roy (who 
 has power over all parts north of the 
 Trent), and two other kings, called Garter 
 King of Arms and Bath King of Arms. 
 See ' Heralds.' 
 
 Garter is the principal King of Arms, higher in 
 rank than the others. He serves the Order of the 
 Garter. Bath King of Arms serves the Order of 
 the Bath. 
 
 Kings of France. Theirresidences. 
 
 Clovis resided in what is now called the Palais 
 de .Justice, which he built in the lie du Paris, in 
 the Seine. 
 
 Philippe II., Auguste, removed to the old 
 Louvre. 
 
 Louis IX. resided in the Bastille. 
 
 Philippe VI. de Valois lived at Vincennes. 
 
 Charles V. le Sage lived in the Hulel de St. 
 Paul. 
 
 Charles VI. le Bien Aime lived in the Palais des 
 Tournelles. 
 
 Charles IX. lived in the Tuileries. 
 
 Louis XIII. le Juste lived in the Palais de Luxem- 
 bourg. 
 
 Louis XIV. le Grand Monarque lived at Ver- 
 sailles. 
 
 Louis XVI. le Martyr lived at the Palais Royal. 
 
 Napoleon I. and III. lived in the Tuileries. 
 
 The Presidents of the Republic have lived in the 
 Palais de 1 Elysee. 
 
 Kings of Leire. So the old 
 Danish rulers were styled, because they 
 resided at Leire, in Seeland. 
 
 Kings of Norfolk and Suffolk, 
 
 1381. So Lester and Westbroom styled 
 themselves in the rebellion of Wat the 
 Tyler and Jack Straw. They were both 
 executed in June the same year. 
 
KINGDOM 
 
 KISLAR 
 
 493 
 
 Kingdom of Al Garb, or Algarve. 
 Founded by Shahpoor about 1008 ; set 
 aside in 1031 by the dynasty of the Af tas- 
 ides (3 syL), so called from Al Aftas. 
 
 Kingdom of Italy (T/ie). I. Lom- 
 bardy was so called in the I'eign of 
 Charlemagne, and when Charleinagne 
 and his successors are called ' kings of 
 Italy,' the meaning is Lombardy. 
 
 II, 1806 ; the union by Napoleon 
 Bonaparte of Lombardy and the Venetian 
 territories. Though the title was so pre- 
 tentious, the new state did not comprise 
 above a third of the peninsula. After 
 the battle of Waterloo (1815) this geo- 
 graphical arrangement was set aside. 
 
 The present kingdom of Italy was created in 
 1861, but Kome was not added till 1870. 
 
 Kingdom of Scone {The). Scot- 
 land was so called so long as the ' Liii 
 Fail ' iq.v.) remained in that city, and 
 Scone was the Sedes Principalis of 
 North Britain. 
 
 Kingdom of Sion (The), in Mun- 
 ster, set up by John of Leyden, and 
 meant to be a theocracy. John appointed 
 twelve judges over the ' tribes,' and 
 Matthiesen the baker had before him 
 sent out ' apostles ' to preach the Ana- 
 baptist doctrines (1534-1536). 
 
 Kingdom of 'Westphalia (The), 
 1807. Carved by Napoleon out of Hesse 
 Cassel and part of Hanover, and given 
 to Jerome Bona.parte, his youngest 
 brother. Abolished after the battle of 
 Waterloo in 1815. 
 
 Kingston, in Surrey. So called 
 because, in 901, Edward the Elder was 
 crowned there. 
 
 Kingstown (Ireland). So named 
 in honour of the visit made by George 
 IV. to Ireland soon after his coronation 
 in 18*21. The town had been pi-eviously 
 called Dunleary, then a mere fishing 
 village on the coast of Dublin Bay, about 
 seven miles from the city. Kingstown 
 is now a large and beautiful town, with 
 commodious quays, magnificent piers, 
 railway to Dublin, mail boats, &c., and 
 handsome villas all about the neighbour- 
 hood. 
 
 Kirillit'za. The Russian alphabet 
 is so called because it was arranged by 
 Bishop Cyril. 
 
 [The Bible] will soon be turned into Russ and put 
 into a printed book which any poor man will 
 be able to read if only he knows his kiiillitza. 
 2 he dar, chap. xL 
 
 Kirk ( The). The Presbyterian Church 
 of Scotland (1689). 
 
 Kirk of F'eld [The Tragedy of the). 
 The murder of Henry Darnley, husband 
 of Mary queen of Scots, who was blown 
 up with gunpowder in a mansion called 
 Kirk of Field, belonging to James Ken 
 nedy archbishop of St. Andrews. 
 
 On the Monday before his [Darnleys] murder 
 the queen passed the evening with him till it was 
 time to attend a masque which was to be given 
 in the palace. . . . About two in the morning of 
 Tuesday Both well, with a selected party of despe- 
 rate men, opened the under apartments of the 
 Kirk of Field by means of false keys, and laid a 
 lighted match to a quantity of gunpowder which 
 had been previously placed beneath the kings 
 apartment.— Sir W. Scott, ZJist. of Scotland, xxviii. 
 
 Kirk Session (T/te), 1689. The low- 
 est judicatory in the Presbyterian Church 
 of Scotland. It is composed of the 
 parish minister and ruling elders, to 
 assist in superintending the social, moral, 
 and religious condition of the parish, 
 judge of the fitness of those who wish to 
 become members of the church, to exer- 
 cise discipline on those guilty of scan- 
 dalous offences, and to grant certificates 
 to worthy members who remove to 
 another parish. The other three courts 
 are the Presbytery, the Synod, and the 
 General Assembly. See ' Presbytery.' 
 
 Kirkland's Plot [Moses), 1776. 
 Kirkland, a native of South Carolina, 
 was employed by Stuart and other 
 Royalists to concert measures with 
 General Gage for a joint attack, by sea 
 and land, on the southern states of N. 
 America, while the savages fell on their 
 rear. The plot was discovered, and the 
 Americans endeavoured to win over the 
 savages, but without success ; so the 
 Americans entered their country, laid 
 waste the cornfields, and ahno^t extir- 
 pated the Cherokees. 
 
 Kirkpatrick Crest and Motto. 
 A bloody hand holding a dagger, and 
 the motto ' I make sicker.' When Robert 
 Bruce had stabbed Com^Ti in the 
 cloisters of the Minorites, Dumfries 
 (1305), Sir Roger Kirkpatrick asked if he 
 was sure the traitor was slain. ' I doubt 
 so,' replied Bruce. ' Aye ? do you 
 doubt ? ' exclaimed Kirkpatrick, ' then 
 I'll make sicker.' So saying he thrust 
 his dagger into Com^m's heart. 
 
 Kislar Aga. Chief of the black 
 eunuchs. About equal in patronage to 
 our lord chancellor. The revenues, &c. 
 
idi 
 
 KISSING 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 of all religious foundations are at the 
 disposal of the Kislar Aga. 
 
 Kissing the Pope's Foot. Kiss- 
 ing the foot of a Roman eniperor was a 
 method of adoration paid to him as a 
 god, and" Diocletian (28i-305) had his 
 shoes studded with gems to render the 
 ceremony less obnoxious. 
 
 When popes assumed regal powers 
 they adopted the same custom, and some 
 had crucifixes wrought in their shoes as 
 a salve to tender consciences. It is not 
 possible to state with certainty when the 
 custom began, but in the ritual ascribed 
 to Pope Gelasius (492-496) mention is 
 made of deacons ' kissing the pope's feet 
 before they began reading the Gospel.' 
 
 Not only were the feet of the pope 
 kissed, but so were the feet of the mule 
 or ass on which he happened to be 
 riding. 
 
 The Romans certainly kissed the feet 
 of their idols, and thought it derogatory 
 to touch their mouths. The Persian 
 method of adoration, introduced by Cy- 
 rus, was falling on the face at a prince's 
 feet and kissing the ground on which 
 he stood. Conon refused to perform 
 this ceremony to Artaxerxes, and Callis- 
 thenes refused to prostrate himself be- 
 fore Alexander the Great. 
 
 Kissing the cheek was a Jewish, Greek, 
 and Roman custom of salutation, still 
 continued in France and some other 
 modern nations of Europe. Kissing the 
 hand of a liege lord was a ceremony of 
 homage, and subsequently was adopted 
 by sovereigns as a part of court etiquette. 
 
 ' Kissing hands ' or to ' Kiss-hands ' is a synonym 
 of being introduced to court in England, Spain, 
 llussia, and Turkey. In Catholic cathedrals and 
 other important churches on Holy Thursday the 
 officiant who celebrates the mass washes and 
 kisses the feet of thirteen old or thirteen young 
 persons, in commemoration of the act of Christ 
 mentioned in the Fourth Gospel. 
 
 Kitchen Cabinet ( The). The pri- 
 vate advisers of President Jackson, who 
 used to summon Francis P. Blair and 
 Amos Kendal (editor of the ' Globe ') and 
 others, to consultation by a back door, 
 or the kitchen door, to avoid observation. 
 
 The members of Jackson's Cabinet were not 
 high-caste statesmen, but they were too high- 
 caste to be congenial counsellors of Jackson. 
 Behind them he kept a 'Kitchen Cabinet,' of 
 creatures selected for their servile devotion to 
 his person, including a representative of the 
 domesticated press. — The Xitu'teenth Ceniiirj, 
 Aug. 1888 p. 272. 
 
 Kit-Kat Club {The), or ' Kit-cat 
 Club,' 1688-1720. Composed at first of 
 
 thirty members, originated chiefly by 
 Dr. Garth the poet, author of ' The 
 Dispensary,' in imitation of Boileau's 
 'Lutrin,' to ridicule the apothecaries, 
 who were at war with the physicians 
 about the establishment of dispensaries. 
 The apothecaries strenuously opposed 
 the design. Garth was a Whig and 
 Hanoverian, and the club, which was 
 held in King Street, Westminster, was 
 supplied with pastry by Christopher 
 Kat, a pastrycook near by. Its toasts 
 were engraved on the drinking- glasses, 
 that no Jacobite sentiment might be 
 insinuated. Dissolved in 1720. 
 Addison and Steele were members of the club. 
 
 Kit-Kat, or 'Kit-cat,' Pictures. 
 Oil paintings of the members of the Kit- 
 Kat Club, by Godfrey Kneller. They 
 were the natural size, but only down to 
 the knees. These and all similar ' three- 
 quarter likenesses ' are called Kit-Kat 
 pictures. 
 
 Klephtes (1 syl.). Brigands of 
 Thessaly, for a long time opposed to the 
 Armatoles (3 syl.), but in the insur- 
 rection of 1821 they united against the 
 Turks for the independence of Greece. 
 
 Knaerod {Treaty of). A treaty of 
 peace, after the war of Calmar, signed in 
 1613 at Knterod by Christian IV. king of 
 Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus king of 
 Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus consented 
 to ransom the provinces which the Danes 
 had taken, and to abandon his claim to 
 the island of Oesel, and to the coasts of 
 the Arctic Ocean as far as the Bay of 
 Waranger. 
 
 Knife for the Academic Knots 
 
 {The). Chrysippos the Stoic (b.c. 280- 
 297). He was the keenest disputant of 
 his age. It was said of him, ' If the gods 
 make use of dialectics, it must be the 
 logic of Chrysippos.' 
 
 Knight Bachelor {A). The lowest 
 grade of knighthood ; conferred on civilians 
 as well as on military and naval officers. 
 The recipient kneels before the sove- 
 reign, who says to him ' Sois chevalier 
 au nom de dieu,^ and then adds, ' Rise, 
 Sir ' (naming the Christian name). 
 
 Knight Baronet. An English 
 order instituted 22 May, 1611, by James 
 I. Instituted in Ireland 30 Sept., 1619; 
 and in Scotland by Charles I. in 1625. 
 
KNIGHT-EEKANTRY 
 
 KNIGHTS 
 
 495 
 
 Knight-errantry. The practice 
 of knights wandering from place to i:>lace 
 to redress wrongs, and especially to re- 
 lease young women taken captive by the 
 unruly barons of England, Spain, France, 
 and Germany. 
 
 They engaged themselves to redress those 
 \\Tongs which laws were too feeble to remedy, 
 and for redressing which honour, plunder, or rich 
 donations became usually their compensation. — 
 TUENEK, History of Eiujland during the Muiille Afjes, 
 chap. xiii. 
 
 Probably there is a basis of truth in this state- 
 ment ; but, without doubt, the rules of knight 
 errantry are gross exaggerations. 
 
 Knight Service, or ' Knights' Ser- 
 vice.' Serving the king on horseback in 
 his military expeditions. This service 
 was paid in consideration of lands held 
 under the crown, and was at one time 
 considered the most honourable of all 
 tenures. 
 
 Knight of Liddesdale {The 
 famous). William Douglas {* — 1353). 
 
 Knights. Anglo-Saxon oiiht, a 
 military attendant who paid service to 
 some chieftain as a rent for land. Called 
 in French ChevaHers, and in Gei'man 
 Bitters, because they served on horse- 
 back. It was common to create knights 
 before and after a battle. Thus 500 
 French knights were created befoi-e the 
 battle of Agincourt ; similar honours were 
 conferred on great festivals, such as a coro- 
 nation or royal marriage. The appi'entice 
 of a knight was called a squire, which 
 means a shield-bearer (French ecuyer). 
 Not onlj^ kings could create knights, but 
 knights themselves could dub others. 
 The chief ceremony was for the knight 
 to touch with his sword the neck of the 
 person as he knelt before him, saying 
 these words : ' Arise, Sir Knight.' 
 
 Alfred gave Athelstan a belt and robe, and 
 girded him with a sword, A.D. 900. 
 
 The women who distinguished themselves by 
 preserving Tortosa from the Moors in 1149 were 
 knigiited. 
 
 Knights Baronets of J^^'ova 
 Scotia, 1621. A title conferred by 
 James I. on a number of Scotch ad- 
 venturers whose object was to colonise 
 North America. 
 
 Knight's Fee, or 'Feodum Mili- 
 tare.' A portion of land held by a 
 knight for military service. William the 
 Conqueror had an army of 60,000 knights 
 in virtue of such fees. 
 
 Knights Hospitallers. 'Knights 
 of St. John of Jerusalem,' or ' Knights of 
 
 Malta,' 1048. Organised to guard and 
 entertain pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre 
 at Jerusalem, and hence called hospital- 
 lers. Their monastery at Jerusalem was 
 dedicated to St. John the Baptist, hence 
 their second name. When expelled from 
 Judaea they were allowed by Karl V. (1530) 
 to settle in Malta, and hence their third 
 title. Suppressed in England 1510, in 
 France 1792, and dispersed by Napoleon 
 in 1798. 
 
 Knights Sword - bearers. 
 
 Founded in 1201 by the bishop of 
 Livonia for the defence of that see. 
 They were originally called ' Knights 
 of Livonia,' but received the name 
 of sword-bearers from two cross-swords 
 embroidered in red on the breast of 
 their white mantles. These knights 
 were masters of Livonia and Esthonia. 
 Gothard Kettler, the 50th grand master, 
 became a Lutheran, and in 1561 the 
 sovereignty of the Knights Sword-bearers 
 was split up into five parts : (1) One part 
 went to Ivan Vassilievitch czar of 
 Eussia; (2) Esthonia and Kevel swore 
 fidelity to Eric XIV. king of Sweden ; 
 
 (3) Livonia was attached to Sigismund 
 II., called Sigismund Augustus of Poland ; 
 
 (4) Arensberg and the isle of Oesel went 
 to Magnus duke of Holstein ; and (5) 
 Gothard Kettler kept for himself the 
 provinces of Courland and Semigaglia 
 [Se)nigalia], of which he was created duke 
 by the king of Poland. 
 
 Knights Templars (The), ills. 
 A military order of monks organised to 
 protect pilgrims on their road to the 
 Holy Land. Subsequently their chief 
 office was to protect the Holy Sej)ulchre 
 at Jerusalem against the Saracens. They 
 followed the Benedictine rule and took 
 the vows of poverty, chastity, and obe- 
 dience ; but they became immensely 
 rich, worldly, and tyrannical. The order 
 was suppressed in 1311-1314, and in 
 England in 1322. 
 
 Called Knights Templars or Knights of the 
 Temple because Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem 
 gave them a house built on the site of Solomon s 
 Temple. Their costume was a long white robe 
 decorated with a red cross. 
 
 Knights of Grlyn and Kerry 
 
 (Ireland). The heads of two ancient 
 families named Fitzgerald. The titles 
 still continue. 
 
 Knights of Labour (The), 1834. 
 United States. The trades, union 
 
496 
 
 KNIGHTS 
 
 KNOT 
 
 committee which regulates the amount 
 of wages to be demanded by workmen, 
 the degree of skill to be exacted froni 
 them, and the length of time they shall 
 work for a master. It enjoins when a 
 strike shall be made and when workmen 
 of the union may resume labour. 
 
 The Knights of Labour. — Philadelphia, 17 
 Jan.— The 'Philadelphia Press' states that a 
 gigantic scheme of general reorganisation, by 
 which all coal miners and mine labourers in the 
 United States will be placed under one banner, is 
 being accomplished by the Knights of Labour, in 
 order to secure concerted action in their intereste. 
 — Renter, 
 
 Knights of our Lady of Mount 
 Sion [The). Aiiproved 1191 by Kaiser 
 Heinrich VI. and Pope Celestine III. All 
 of noble birth, bound to celibacy and to 
 the defence of the Chvistian church. 
 Their dress was a white mantle and 
 black cross ; their rule that of St. Au- 
 gustine. Their original number was 
 24 lay members and 7 priests ; subse- 
 quently increased to 40. Conrad regent 
 of Poland gave them the territory of 
 Culm and all the country between the 
 Vistula and the Druentsa. 
 
 Knights of Rhodes [The), 1314. 
 Villaret, grand-master of the Knights 
 Hospitallers, removed from Jerusalem to 
 Rhodes. Andronlcus urged the Saracens 
 to drive him out of the island, but Vil- 
 laret, by a succession of conquests, made 
 himself master of it, and then changed 
 the name of his order into that of the 
 ' Knights of Rhodes,' a title which was 
 retained till 1580. The order was called 
 that of 
 
 Knights Hospitallers 1048-1120. 
 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem 
 1120-1134 (driven, out). 
 
 Knights of Rhodes 1814-1530 (driven 
 out). 
 
 Knights of Malta 1530-1798. The order 
 still exists, and its flag still flies on some 
 Mediterranean vessels (1890). 
 
 Knights of St. George in Ire- 
 land (1472-1494), or 'Brotherhood of 
 St. George.' Thirteen gentlemen chosen 
 from the four counties of the Pale (Kil- 
 dare, Dublin, Meath, and Louth). They 
 met annually to choose a captain, and 
 maintained 120 mounted archers, 40 
 horsemen, and 40 j)ages for the protec- 
 tion of the English border (Walpole, 
 'Kingdom of Irela-nd,' 1882). 
 
 Knights of St. Margaret, 1786. 
 The mayors knighted for congratulating 
 
 George III. on his escape from assassina- 
 tion when Margaret Nicholson, a mad 
 woman, attacked him as he descended 
 from his carriage in St. James's Park. 
 
 Knights of the Dagger. See 
 
 ' Chevaliers du Poignard.' 
 
 Knights of the Garter, 1346. 
 An English military order founded by 
 Edward III. It is under the patron 
 saint of England, ' St. George,' an image 
 of whoan is attached to a blue ribbon, 
 and the ribbon is passed over the left 
 shoulder. Round the left leg is a blue 
 garter containing the motto ' Honi soit 
 qui mal y j^ense.' See ' Blue Thonge.' 
 
 Edward III. only ' perfyted substanegally what 
 kynge Pacharde had bcgunnc at the sage of tha 
 cyte of Acres, wher, in his great necessyte, there 
 were but 26 knyghtes that firmly and surely 
 abode with the king; when hs caused all them to 
 wear thonges of blew leyther about the legges; 
 and afterwarde they were called the knyghtes of 
 the blew-thonge. — llASTEL, Chronicle. 
 
 Knights of the Round Table. 
 
 Asser in his ' Life of Alfred ' says these 
 knights were created by Arthur a.d. 528. 
 The order was revived in 1344 by Exiward 
 III. at Windsor, on New Year's Day. 
 
 Knights of the Shire were gentle- 
 men chosen by the freeholders of each 
 county to represent them in parliament, 
 now called county members. They were 
 paid according to the Act 12 Rich. II. c. 
 12 (1888) ; but the payment of members 
 has long been discontinued. By Act 9 
 Anne c. 5 (1710) no member whose income 
 was under 600Z. a year was eligible for 
 election. This restriction was abolished 
 in 1858 (21, 22 Vict. c. 26). 
 
 Knights of the Virgin Mary 
 
 {The), 1190. The original name of the 
 ' Teutonic Knights ' [q.v.). 
 
 Knighten-gild {The). The chief 
 of the London gilds, dating back to the 
 reign of King Edgar. It stood at the 
 head of all the gilds, and its alderman or 
 master was the grand-master of all other 
 gilds. It consisted of 19 knights, to whom 
 the king gave a portion of void ground 
 lying within the walls of the city, after- 
 wards called Portsoken ward. 
 
 A soke is a lordship enfranchised by the king, 
 with liberty of holding a covert of the lord's soc- 
 men or socagers (i.e. tenints). ' Knightengiid ' 
 also written ' Cnihtena-gild.' 
 
 Knot {The Cromwell), 1659. This 
 term was given by the exiled Charles 
 Stuart to a secret council of RoyalisLa 
 who were working in his cause in Eng- 
 
KNOW-NOTHINGS 
 
 KONEAD 
 
 497 
 
 land against the government of Crom- 
 well. The head of the Knot was Sir 
 Eichard Wallis, who was proved to be a 
 traitor to both Charles and Cromwell. 
 
 Kno-W-nothingS {The), or 'Na- 
 tives,' 1853. A political society in the 
 United States of America who declared 
 that the right of citizenship should be 
 restricted to 'natives,' or those born 
 of American parents in America. They 
 were opposed to Catholicism, as incon- 
 sistent with the spirit of republicanism. 
 When asked any question respecting 
 their society, their only reply was ' I 
 know nothing.' They split on the slave 
 question and died out. 
 
 Knox's Blast. 'The First Blast 
 of the Trumpet against the monstrous 
 Eegiment of Women ' is the title of a 
 tract published by John Knox in 1558 
 against Mary queen of England and 
 Mary queen of Scots. The object was 
 ' against the political government of 
 women.' 
 
 The words ' Eegiment of Women ' we should 
 now call the ' Kegimen or Rule of Women.' 
 
 Knox's Liturgy, or ' The Book of 
 Common Order,' 1562. In 1564 its use 
 was enjoined on the Scotch Kirk by the 
 General Assembly. It was based on the 
 Genevan Formula {q.v.), but soon went 
 out of use when the living influence of 
 Knox declined. 
 
 Knoxians and Coxians {The), 
 1556. The followers of John Knox and 
 Dr. Coxe dean of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 who left England during the reign of 
 Mary and retired to the Continent. 
 Knox, backed by Calvin, objected to the 
 English Liturgy, and insisted on the use 
 of the Genevan service ; but Dr. Coxe 
 insisted on the English Liturgy, and 
 made a point of repeating the responses 
 aloud. The altercation became so noisy 
 that the magistrates had to interfere. 
 Knox retired to Geneva, and Coxe settled 
 in Strasburg. 
 
 Kockbunds {The). The Thugs of 
 Hyderabad. Also called 'Phanseegurs.' 
 
 Koh-i-noor {The), i.e. ' Mountain 
 of Light,' one of the largest diamonds in 
 the world. Came into the possession of 
 Ala-u-din soon after 1300. It fell to 
 Baber in 1526, and subsequently to 
 Mahommed Shah, great - grandson of 
 Aurengzebe, who kept it hidden in his 
 
 turban ; but when Nadir Shah took pos- 
 session of Delhi, Mahommed had to give 
 the diamond to the conqueror. It passed 
 in succession to Shah Shuja, and when 
 driven from Cabul he carried it to La- 
 hore, when Eunjeet Sing got possession 
 of it and had it set in a bracelet, 1813. 
 After the annexation of the Punjaub by 
 the English the crown jewels of Lahore 
 were confiscated, and the Koh-i-noor was 
 presented to Queen Victoria by the East 
 India Company and delivered into her 
 hands 3 June, 1850. In 1889, in a most 
 insolent letter, Eunjeet Sing demanded 
 its restitution. Its weight was 186^ 
 carats. It was exhibited in the Great 
 Exhibition of 1851, and valued at 140,000Z. 
 By order of the Queen it was cut into a 
 brilliant by Herr Voorsanger, whereby 
 the weight was reduced to lOOy'^ carats. 
 If this diamond is the ' Great Mogul ' its 
 previous history will be found under that 
 name. See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Konrad I. First king of Germany 
 after the Karlovingian race. He was 
 previously count of Franconia (911-918). 
 Contemporary with our Edward the 
 Elder. 
 
 Konrad II., founder of the second 
 line of kings in Germany, was duke of 
 Franconia. Heinrich III., IV., V. fol- 
 lowed in regular descent. Konrad II. 
 was crowned king of Germany 1024, and 
 kaiser of the Holy Eoman Emuii-e 1027 ; 
 he died 1039, at the age of 53. He was 
 a descendant of Konrad the Wise, son-in- 
 law of Otto I. the Great. However, the 
 kings of Germany were elected or chosen, 
 originally by the great nobles, and subse- 
 quently by a board called the ' Electors,' 
 and were not kings by hereditary descent. 
 Father, Heinrich duke of Franconia. Wife. 
 Gisela. a widow. Contemporary with Canute and 
 Harold Harefoot. 
 
 Konrad III., founder of the House 
 of Hohenstauflen, was grandson of Hein- 
 rich IV. (of the previous dynasty called 
 the ' house of Franconia'). He was king 
 of Germany from 1138 to 1152, but never 
 kaiser or emperor of the Holy Eoman 
 Empire (1093, 1138-1152). 
 
 Konrad in. was the first of the kings of Ger- 
 many who was elected by seven princes. In 1350 
 Karl IV. made seven the legal number of electors 
 by what is called the 'Golden EuU.' In 1048 the 
 number of electors was raised to eight ; in 1592 it 
 WMs nine ; but in 1777 the number was again re- 
 duced to eight. In 180G Napoleon swept away the 
 whole system and introduced the law of inherit- 
 ance. 
 
 Father, Friedrich Hohenstauften nepliew o* 
 
 K K 
 
498 
 
 KONRAD 
 
 KURUCZ-LABANCZ 
 
 Kaiser Heinrich V. Mother, Agnes daughter 
 of Kaiser Heinrich IV. Contemporary with 
 Henry I. and Stephen. 
 
 Konrad IV. Son of Friedrich II. 
 and great-grandson of Barbarossa. He 
 was king of Germany between 1250 and 
 1254, but never kaiser. Konrad IV. was 
 a roi faineant, and in him expired the 
 royal house of Hohenstauffen. 
 
 The next dynasty was the house of Giielf or 
 D'Este, which gives only one king, Otto IV., who 
 abdicated. 
 
 Ko'raicllites (3 syl.). An Arabian 
 tribe and the j)rincipal one of Mecca uj) 
 to the time of Mohammed. This tribe 
 in A.D. 460 acquired the custody of the 
 Kaaba, or Temple at Mecca, and, of 
 course, most violently opposed the pre- 
 tensions of Mohammed (613-G22). In 
 623 they were defeated by him at Bf dr 
 and Ohud, and again in the ' Expedition 
 of the Nations ' in 625. They then con- 
 cluded a truce, and in 629 surrendered to 
 him the holy city of Mecca. The Ko- 
 raichites professed to be the issue of 
 Ishmael. Mohammed and his first wife 
 (Kadi jail) were Koraichites. 
 
 Koran' (Al). The Mohammedan 
 Scriptures. The scattered leaves of it 
 were collected into a volume a.d. 634 by 
 Abubekr ; it was revised and sanctioned 
 by the calif Omar in 652; was first 
 printed at Rome in 1530 ; and was burnt 
 by order of Pope Clement VII. Sale's 
 English translation with numerous notes 
 was printed in 1734, and a French trans- 
 lation was made in 1783 by Savary. 
 
 The Koran is divided into 114 sections, and con- 
 tains 3,000 paragraphs or verses. 
 
 Koreish {The Tribe of). See 'Ko- 
 raichites.' 
 
 Korner of Italy (T7ie)— that is, 
 the Tyrtseus or war-poet, Godfredo 
 Mameli. His great song was composed 
 in 1848, the refrain of which is — 
 
 Together we stand, or together we fall ; 
 We are ready for either at Italy's call ! 
 The great war-song of Korner is ' The Sword 
 Song ' (1791-1813J. 
 
 Koscius'ko {Insurrection of), 1794. 
 He was leader of the Poles in revolt 
 against Russia, and won the battle of 
 Wraclawlce, near Cracovia ; but (2 Oct.) 
 four months later he was attacked at 
 Maciejowice (about 50 miles from "War- 
 saw) and Was taken prisoner, exclaiming, 
 ' Finis Poloniae.' He remained prisoner 
 at St. Petersburg for two years, when he 
 
 was liberated by the czar Paul I. and 
 died in Switzerland in 1817. 
 
 Kosciusko indignantly denied ever uttering the 
 words popularly ascribed to him. 
 
 Kremlin, i.e. citadel. The palace 
 and citadel of Moscow, at one time the 
 residence of the czars. It was originally 
 constructed of wood, but was rebuilt of 
 stone by Dmitri Donskoi'. In 1487 Pietro 
 Antonio, an Italian, built the towers 
 which flanked the enceinte. It was not 
 set on fire by Rostopchin in 1812, and 
 was occupied by the French. The Krem- 
 lin also contains the palace of the arch- 
 bishop, the Cathedral of the Assumption 
 where the czars were crowned, the belfry 
 of Ivan Veliki with 32 bells, one of which 
 is the biggest in Europe. 
 
 Kufic Coins. The earliest Moham- 
 medan coins inscribed with Kufic (or 
 ancient Arabic) characters. The first 
 was struck a.d. 638 under Calif Omar. 
 
 Kufa, in the pashalic of Bagdad, contained 
 the most expert writers of the Koran', and hence 
 the term ' Kufic writing,' to express ' old Arabic' 
 
 Ku-Klux Klan {The), 1868-1871. 
 A secret society of ex-Confederate sol- 
 diers in North America. ' Ku-Klux ' is 
 meant to represent the click in cocking 
 a rifle. The ' Klan ' was an offset of the 
 ' Loyal League,' and its ostensible object 
 was to ' repress crime and preserve law 
 in the disturbed Southern States.' In 
 1871 Congress, resolved to put down the 
 association, suspended the Habeas 
 Corpus Act (under what is generally 
 called ' The Ku-Klux Law ') in nine 
 counties of South Carolina. This law 
 and the employment of the military 
 brought the ' Klan ' to an end. 
 
 Kuleev Dynasty {The). The 
 third fabulous dynasty of Persia, the 
 second being the Jy-anian and the fourth 
 the Yassanian dynasty. The only three 
 names of the third dynasty known are 
 Shah Kuleev the founder, with Shah 
 Aboul and Shah Mah-aboul, the last two 
 of the line. 
 
 Ku'risers. Irish refugees formed 
 into two regiments, in the pay of the 
 Duke of Savoy, to put down the Vaudois 
 in Piedmont. The word is a corruption 
 of cuirassiers (1655). 
 
 Kuruez-Tjabancz Era {The), 
 1672-1C81. The period in Hungarian 
 history of the contest between the 
 Kuruczes {i.e. the insurgents) and the 
 Labanczes or Austrians. This was in a 
 
KUTHANS 
 
 LADDEE 
 
 499 
 
 measure a * religious war,' the insurgents 
 being the Protestant party and the Aus- 
 trians the CathoHc faction. 
 
 To cut tobacco on the bare back of the opposite 
 faction, or to cut strips from his quivering skin, 
 to drive iron spikes under the finger nails, and to 
 bury an adversary in the ground up to the head 
 and then fire at him, were everyday courtesies 
 exchanged between these two belligerents. — 
 VAMBfiRY, Hungary, ch. xiii. 
 
 Kuthans, or * Kuthe'ans.' The 
 Samaritans were so called by the Jews 
 because they were carried captive by 
 Salmanazar to Kutha, a town of Susiana, 
 not far from Babylon. It is said that 
 the inhabitants of Kutha went to Pales- 
 tine and colonised Samaria. 
 
 L. The three L's, Lords, Levites, 
 Lawyers. Hugh Peters said, It will never 
 be well with England till the three fifties 
 are abolished. L — 50. 
 
 Labourers {The Statute of). I. 
 In feudal times forbade a husbandman, 
 whose land had been bought by another, 
 leaving the estate. He was obliged to 
 remain with his family as a villein 
 regardant {q.v.) to cultivate the land. 
 
 II. 23 Edw. III. c. 1, A.D. 1319, for the 
 regulation of wages, consequent upon the 
 strife between labour and caijital which 
 resulted from the Black Death {q.v.). 
 The act ordained that the wages of 
 labourers shall be the same as they were 
 ' two years before the plague began ' ; 
 but, as the price of food had risen enor- 
 mously, this law was a gross injustice, 
 and led naturally to the ' Peasant Revolt ' 
 (q.v.). Repealed 1826. 
 
 III. Numerous acts of parliament 
 from the reign of Edward IV. have been 
 made to comjjel persons having no visible 
 means of livelihood to go out to service 
 either in husbandry or trade to gain an 
 honest living. 
 
 Labyrinth of Egypt(T7ie). This 
 most magnificent edifice liad 3,000 cham- 
 bers ; and the gallery containing the 
 statues of the gods was entered by a 
 flight of ninety marble steps. The porch 
 was of Parian marble. It was destroyed 
 by the people of Heracleopolis, who wor- 
 shipped the ichneumon or water-rat, the 
 natural enemy of the crocodile, the great 
 god of the Labyrinth. It was a theolo- 
 gical war — the god water-rat against the 
 god crocodile. The former prevailed, 
 and the beautiful Labyrinth was levelled 
 to the ground. It seems like a satire on 
 other religious wars. 
 
 The Cretan and Samian labyrinths are also 
 celebrated. 
 
 Laced Shoe (T/ie), 1502. In German 
 'Bundschuh,' the peasants' rebellion in 
 the Rhine countries. So called from its 
 cognizance. 
 
 Lacedasmonian League (T/ze), 
 
 B.C. 431. The Lacedaemonian league, at 
 the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, 
 comprised all the states of the peninsula 
 except Argos and Achaia (which were 
 neutral), and all northern Greece except 
 Thessaly and Acarnania (which sided 
 with Athens). See 'Athenian Confede- 
 racy.' 
 
 Lack-learning Parliament 
 
 {The), 1-404, from which all lawyers were 
 excluded. See ' Parliament.' 
 
 The Unready Parliament would be a better 
 phrase ; that is', the parliament lacking counsel or 
 advice (A.-S. ricd, counsel, advice, as in ' Etheh-ed 
 the Unready'). 
 
 Laco'nia, the country of the Lace- 
 dasmonians. The ancient inhabitants 
 were the Cynurians and Seleges, who 
 were expelled by the Achceaus. The 
 Dorians subsequently invaded Pelopon- 
 nesos, and became the ruling race. 
 
 Laeonisers, b.c. 458, &c. Those 
 Athenians who supported the power of 
 Sparta, after Athens by the confederacy 
 of Delos was declared the head of Greece. 
 
 Laconisms. When Philip of Mace- 
 don wrote to the Spartan magistrates, 
 ' If I enter Laco'nia I will level Lacedse- 
 mon to the ground,' the ephors wrote 
 back the single word ' If.' 
 
 In 1490 O'Neill wrote to O'Donnel, 
 ' Send me the tribute, or else — ; ' to 
 which O'Donnel returned answer, ' I owe 
 none, and if — .' 
 
 Lacustrian Period {The). An 
 extremely remote period when human 
 habitations, for the sake of security, were 
 built in the midst of lakes. Remains of 
 such habitations exist in certain lakes of 
 Switzerland, Scotland, Ireland, &c. 
 
 Ladan-Thora and Ladan Bareseid. 
 The two readers of the Pentateuch on 
 the eighth and last day of the Feast of 
 Tabernacles. One reads the first half 
 and the other the latter half. 
 
 Ladder of Acesius {The). Sec- 
 tarian exclusiveness. Acesius was bishop 
 of Constantinople and a Novatian. Con- 
 stantine the Great excepted him from the 
 UK 'A 
 
500 
 
 LADDER 
 
 LADT 
 
 tribe of 'heretics,' and invited him to 
 attend the Council of Nice. Novatian 
 taught that the lapsed {i.e. those who 
 denied the faith through fear of persecu- 
 tion) can never be received again into the 
 communion of the faithful. This exclu- 
 sion he afterwards extended to all guilty 
 of ' mortal sins.' Constantine said jo- 
 cosely to Acesius, ' Take a ladder, Acesius, 
 and climb to heaven by yourself.' 
 
 Ladder of St. John. Surnamed 
 Cllmacus, or rather Kllmakos, 526. 
 
 H 
 
 Paradise. 
 
 Faith, Hope, Charity. 
 
 Peace of God. 
 
 Prayer without ceasing. 
 
 Solitude. 
 
 Inner Light. 
 
 Death of the Natural Man. 
 f Single-mindedness, or only one 
 1 alfection, and that for God. 
 (■Abandonment of false humility 
 ( and doubt. 
 
 Pride utterly crushed out. 
 
 Self-glorification cast out. 
 Conquest of fear. 
 
 /Watchfulness; the lamp al- 
 \ ways burning. 
 
 Psalmody. 
 
 Death of the Carnal Mind. 
 /Poverty, or loss of the love of 
 \ accumulating. 
 
 Chastity. 
 
 Temperance. 
 
 (Conquest of indolence of mind 
 \ and body. 
 
 fEestraint of exaggeration and 
 \ false representation. 
 Silence. 
 
 Shunning slander and idle talk. 
 
 Forgiveness of injuries. 
 
 Equanimity. 
 
 Sorrow the seed of joy. 
 
 Constant thought of death. 
 
 Penitence. 
 
 Obedience. 
 
 Giving up father and mother. 
 
 (Giving up all earthly goods 
 I and hopes. 
 
 Renouncement of th vvotl 
 
 The World. 
 
 Ladislaus' Wagon {St). A two- 
 wheeled cart drawn by men. In the reign 
 of Ladislaus IV. of Hungary (1272-1290) 
 the country was so impoverished by do- 
 mestic wars 'that the two- wheeled cart 
 got the name of St. Ladislaus' wagon; 
 for, owing to the universal plundering of 
 draught-cattle, the people themselves 
 were compelled to draw the carts.' — 
 Vambeky, ' Hungary,' chap. vii. 
 
 Lady {The). Castlemaine nee Barbara 
 Villiers, wife of Mr. Pahner, and mistress 
 of Charles II., who created her duchess 
 of Cleveland. 
 
 The Duke of Buckingham had a quarrel with 
 'the Lady,' and the Lady prejudiced the king 
 against him ; and the duke was determined to have 
 his revenge by exposing 'the Lady.' — Howitt, iii«<. 
 of Engl., Charles XL, ch. xi. p. 442. 
 
 Lady Bountiful. So Joanna 
 Baillie the poetess was called (1702- 
 1851). 
 
 Lady Clares {The). An Irish asso- 
 ciation so called from the county of 
 Clare, the nucleus being formed of 
 Claresmen. They rose about the same 
 time as the Terryalts {q.v.), and were 
 especially conspicuous in the sanguinary 
 tithe war (1830-1832). See ' Irish Asso- 
 ciations.' 
 
 Lady Day. 25 March, the day of 
 the Amiunciation. 
 
 Lady Huntingdon's Con- 
 nexion, 1770. A split from the Cal- 
 vinistic Methodists, after the death of 
 George Whitefield. It preserved sub- 
 stantially the liturgy of the Church of 
 England. Half Presbyterian and half 
 Independent. 
 Lady Selina countess of Huntingdon (1707-1791). 
 
 Lady Jane Grey. Grand-daughter 
 of Mary youngest daughter of Henry VII. 
 The Princess Mary and the Princess 
 Elizabeth (though both illegitunated by 
 their father Henry VIII.) were by his last 
 will acknowledged, and would naturally 
 succeed in turn their brother Edward 
 VI., provided there was no issue to pre- 
 vent it. 
 
 Henry VII.— His son Henry VIII. succeeded 
 him. The youngest daughter was Mary. 
 
 Henry VIII.— Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- 
 beth (all children of Henry VIII.). 
 
 Mary, daughter of Henry VII.) had a daughter 
 named Frances, who married Henry Grey 
 marquis of Dorset and duke of Suffolk. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey was the daughter of Francos 
 and her husband Henry Grey. 
 
LADY 
 
 LAHORE 
 
 501 
 
 T?ie pedigree runs thus ;— 
 Henry VII. 
 I 
 Mary 
 
 Frances, -wife of Henry Grey 
 
 Lady Jane Grey 
 
 Lady Margaret Preacher {The) 
 in the University of Cambridge, 1504. 
 Founded by Lady Margaret, mother of 
 Henry VII., with a stipend of 8l. He 
 has to preach one sermon on the first 
 Sunday in Nov. in Great St. Mary's 
 Church. 
 
 Lady Margaret Professorship 
 of Divinity (The) in the University of 
 Cambridge, 1502. Founded by Lady 
 Margaret mother of Henry VII.. Original 
 stipend 20 marks a year. See ' Regius 
 Professorsliip of Divinity.' 
 
 Lady of Christ College (The). 
 
 John Milton, so called because he was 
 fair and his features effeminate ; his hair 
 was fine, light browai, and flowing, his 
 constitution delicate, and his health any- 
 thing but robust. (1608-1674.) 
 
 Lady of England. Matilda or 
 Maud, daughter of Henry I. cf England. 
 She married the kaiser-king Heinrich V. 
 of Germany in 1114, but was left a widow 
 1125 (aged 2o). She then married 
 Geoffrey of Anjou in 1127, but was 
 driven from Anjou by her husband in 
 1129. Her son Henry [II. of England] 
 was born in 1133. After the death of 
 her father, Matilda made war on Stephen 
 the usurper, and having obtained some 
 advantages was recognised as ' Lady of 
 England ' in 1141 ; but her imperious 
 arrogance so disgusted the English that 
 they drove her from London in five 
 months, and her adherents were ex- 
 communicated. She died at Rouen in 
 1165, aged 63. 
 
 Lady of Mercia [The). Ethel- 
 flaeda daughter of King Alfred. She 
 married Ethelred, and after his death 
 continued to reign (913-918). She con- 
 quered the ' Five Boroughs ' (q-v.). 
 
 Ladies' Irish Land League, 
 
 Ladies' Labour and Industrial Union (be- 
 tween 1879 and 1888), formed in affiliation 
 with the Irish Land League, the Land 
 League, and the Labour and Industrial 
 Union (q.v.). Its nominal object was ' the 
 relief and sustentation of Land League 
 prisoners.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Ladies of the Queen's House- 
 hold {The). They consist of the 
 Mistress of the Robes, the Ladies of the 
 Bedchamber, the Bedchamber Women, 
 and the Maids of Honour. The Mistress 
 of the Robes has the superintendence of 
 the personal attendants on the queen. 
 
 Lady's G-OWn [Scotland]. A present 
 made by the purchaser to the wife of 
 the man who has sold to him his estate. 
 
 L^tare Sunday. The fourth Sun- 
 day in Lent. So called from the first 
 \yord of the introi't of the Mass (Isa. Ixvi. 
 10), ' Rejoice ye with Jerusalem, and be 
 glad with her, all ye that love her ' 
 [Laetare Hierusalem . . .]. As on this 
 day the Pope blesses the golden rose, it 
 is also called ' Dominica de Rosa.' It is 
 a day of rejoicing in the middle of 
 mournful Lent. See ' Sundays.' 
 
 The intrnit [introitus] is the passage of Scripture 
 chanted while the priest is entering the chancel 
 to celebrate mass. 
 
 Lagenians. The people of Leinster 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Lagides (3 syl.). The Ptolemys of 
 Egypt. See ' Lagos.' 
 
 Lagoon {The), Venice, or rather the 
 marsh round the city. Strictly speaking, 
 the Gulf between the Piave and the 
 Adige. The lagunas are the canals, too 
 deep for cavalry and too shallow for 
 vessels. 
 
 In no place did the Inquisition obtain so little 
 footing as in the Lagune. 
 
 The Lagune, which cannot justly be considered 
 either sea or land, is navigable only by ssiifs 
 drawing a few inches of water. 
 
 The llialto is the very centre of the Lagune. 
 
 After the capture of 100 ships he returned to the 
 Lagune with his booty. 
 
 Petrarch had occasionally visited the Lagune, 
 and was profoundly impressed with the singu- 
 larity and beauty of Venice.— i/istori/ of Venice 
 (Murray, 1831). 
 
 Lagos. Ptolemy I. king of Egypt, 
 the adopted son of Lagos the Mace- 
 donian. All his descendants on the 
 Egyptian throne were called Lagides. 
 
 La Hire, i.e. the growler. So 
 Etienne Vignoles [Vin-yole] was called 
 on account of his deej) baying \oice 
 [1387-1442]. One of the knaves on a 
 pack of French cards is meant for La 
 Hire [Here]. 
 
 Lahore {Treaty of). (1) 26 June, 1838, 
 between Great Britain, Runjeet Singh, 
 and Shah Shuja. 
 
302 
 
 LAIRD 
 
 LAMMAS-DAY 
 
 (2) March 8, 1846, between Great 
 Britain and Dhuleep Singh. 
 
 Laird of Cockpen {The). The 
 Duke of Buccleuch. 
 
 Laish. While Othniel was judge (b.c. 
 1394-1354) the tribe of Dan, finding 
 their mountain territory too small, made 
 an incursion into the ijlain beyond Mount 
 Ephraim, and seized the city of Laish. 
 Here they established a priesthood of 
 their own, because Shiloh was so far 
 distant. This worship continued for 
 nearly 300 years, i.e. till the capture of 
 the ark by the Philistines in Samuel's 
 time. 
 
 Lake Dwellings. Human habita- 
 tions in the midst of lakes. Those in 
 Switzerland were discovered in 1854. See 
 ' Lacustrian Period.' 
 
 Lake Poets [The). Wordsworth, 
 Coleridge, and Southey, who resided in 
 the lake district of Cumberland and 
 Westmoreland. They were so named by 
 the ' Edinburgh Review.' 
 
 Lali'ta Vistara. One of the nine 
 chief works of the Buddhists. It contains 
 the life and doctrines of Sakyamuni {i.e. 
 St. Sak'ya). 
 
 Lamaism. Buddhism corrupted by 
 Sivanism {q.v.) or Shamaism or spirit 
 worship. It prevails in Thibet and 
 Mongolia. The essence of it is contained 
 in three jewels, called ' the Buddha 
 jewel,' 'the Doctrine jewel,' and the 
 ' Priesthood jewel.' The first person of 
 the triad is Buddha, the second is the 
 incarnation of Buddha, and the third is 
 the church. 
 
 Lambeth {Treaty of), 1217. By 
 which Louis the dauphin consented to 
 withdraw from England on payment of 
 a sum of money which he claimed for ex- 
 penses. He had been invited over by the 
 English barons to assist them in resisting 
 John ; but as John was just dead, the 
 services of Louis were no longer needed, 
 and the barons had no intention of 
 placing a Frenchman on the throne. 
 
 Lambeth Articles {The), 1594. 
 Proposed by Archbishop Whitgift ; sup- 
 pressed by Queen Elizabeth in 1595 ; 
 rejected in 1604 at the Hampton Court 
 Conferences; adopted by the Irish 
 Church in 1615. These articles were 
 
 nine in number, and were designed to be 
 added to the 39 Articles. 
 
 1. God hath from all eternity pre- 
 destined some to life and reprobated 
 others to damnation. 
 
 2. This election does not proceed from 
 God's foreknowledge of the faith and 
 good works of his elect, but solely from 
 his own good will. 
 
 3. The number of the elect is fixed, 
 and can be neither increased nor dimi- 
 nished. 
 
 4. Those notpredestined to everlasting 
 life will of necessity be damned. 
 
 5. True faith and holiness in the elect 
 will never fail. 
 
 6. Justifying faith is certain of remis- 
 sion of sms and eternal salvation through 
 Christ. 
 
 7. Saving grace is not conferred on all. 
 
 8. No man can come unto Christ ex- 
 cept God the Father draws him. 
 
 9. It is not in the will or power of every 
 man to be saved. See ' Nine Articles.' 
 
 Lambmas Brother and Sister 
 {A). A lad and his lass at St. Olla's Fair 
 at Kirkwall, associated together as long 
 as the fair lasted. 
 
 Ye gallaiity Lambmas lads appear, 
 And bring your Lambmas sisters here. 
 Sir Walter Scott, The Pirate, ch. xxxii. 
 
 Lame Peace {The), 20 March, 15G8. 
 The peace of Longjumeau between the 
 Huguenots and French Catholics. It 
 was called ' the lame and badly- seated 
 peace,' because one of the queen's nego- 
 tiators was lame, and the other was the 
 lord of Malassise. But it was otherwise 
 lame and badly seated, inasmuch as it 
 left the Huguenots at the mercy of their 
 enemies, with no surety except the word 
 of an unprincipled Italian woman. It 
 lasted only six months, and never existed 
 except on paper. See ' Paix Boiteux.' 
 
 Lamian ^War {The), b.c. 323-322. 
 The war between Antipater and the 
 allied Greeks after the death of Alex- 
 ander the Grea;t. So called because 
 Antipater threw himself into Lamia, a 
 strong fortress on the Malian Gulf, which 
 was besieged by the allies. Antipater 
 succeeded in breaking up the alliance, and 
 Athens was left completely at his mercy. 
 
 Lammas-day, 1. Aug. The feast 
 of St. Peter ad Vincula. The word is a 
 corruption of loaf-mass, referring to the 
 firstfruits of harvest offered on that day. 
 (Ang.-Sax. hlafmcesse). 
 
LAMOURETTE'S 
 
 LAND 
 
 503 
 
 Lamourette's Kiss, 1792. A mo- 
 mentary reconcilement followed by- 
 greater hostility than ever, in the French 
 revolution. When the Prussian army was 
 on the move towards Paris Condorcet 
 proposed to the Assembly a reconcilement 
 of the Jacobins and Girondists. Laniou- 
 rette (bishop of Lyons) seized on the idea 
 and exclaimed : ' He who succeeds in 
 reconciling you will be the real con- 
 queror of Austria and Coblentz ! ' His 
 words had a magic effect; the most 
 hostile members threw themselves into 
 each other's ai'ms and kissed each other 
 frantically ; but ere sunset the emotion 
 had effervesced, and Jacobins and Gi- 
 rondists were more bitter than ever 
 against each other. 
 
 This is sometimes called the Judas Kiss, but 
 most improperly so, as no betrayal was e»en 
 dreamt of by the excitable Frenchmen. 
 
 Lamp of Lothian {The). The 
 abbey church of Haddington was so 
 called from the extreme beauty of its 
 architectui^e. It was burnt down in 1356 
 on 'Burnt Candlemas' (q.v.). 
 
 Lamp of Wisdom (The). Aben 
 Ezra, called by the Jews ' Hechachan.' 
 They used to say, if knowledge had put 
 out her candle it might be lighted again 
 at the brain of Aben Ezra. 
 
 Lampeter {College of), 1S22. 
 Founded by Thomas Burgess bishop of 
 St. Dcivid's, for the better and inexpensive 
 education of Welsh candidates for ordi- 
 nation. 
 
 Lampeter Brethren {The), 1832. 
 A society of young men, members of St. 
 David's College, Lampeter, who met 
 together as a praying and revival order. 
 Henry James Prince was the most promi- 
 nent of them, and he afterwards founded 
 the Abode of Love, called Agapemone 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Lancaster {The Line of). Part of 
 the Plantagenet dynasty of England, con- 
 sisting of Henry fV., V., and VI. Henry 
 IV. dethroned Richard II., but was a 
 usurper, for (on the deposition of Richard) 
 the rightful heir was Edmund Mortimer. 
 See ' York.' 
 
 Edward III. His sons were (1) Edward the 
 Black Prince, (2) William, (.S) Lionel, (4) John ol 
 Gaunt. (5) Edmund Langley duke of York. 
 
 Son of Edward the Black Prince was Richard 
 II. (no issue, and deposed). 
 
 Next comes Lionel (the third son), whose 
 daughter Philippa married Edward Mortimer. 
 Their son was Roger Mortimer, and the children 
 of Roger were Edmund and Ann. Edmund was 
 heir on the death of Richard U. 
 
 From Ann Mortimer proceeds the House of York. 
 Her son Richard duke of York was the White Rose. 
 He had two sons, both of whom reigned, viz. 
 Edward IV. and Richard III. 
 
 The fourth son of EDWARD III. was John of 
 Gaunt duke of Lancaster, whose son was HENRY 
 IV., grandson Henry V., and great-grandson 
 Henry VI., the Red Rose. 
 
 Lancaster Gun The). A species of 
 rifled cannon invented by Mr. Lancaster, 
 who dispensed with grooves, and instead 
 of a strictly circular bore adopted an 
 elliptical one. 
 
 Lancaster Herald {The). One of 
 the six heralds of England, and the second 
 in point of seniority. See ' Heralds,' &c. 
 
 Lancasterian Schools, 1798. So 
 
 called from Joseph Lancaster. Not much 
 known in our islands till 1808, but in 1818 
 they became very numerous. The idea 
 was to save expense by means of mutual 
 instruction. Joseph Lancaster was in- 
 debted to Dr. Bell of Madras for the idea, 
 and for a time Bell and Lancaster were 
 rivals, the former being supported by 
 churchmen and the latter by dissenters. 
 Dr. Bell called his system ' Mutual In- 
 struction,' Lancaster called his the 
 ' Monitorial System.' See ' Mutual In- 
 struction.' 
 
 Lancasterism, 1844. Destroying 
 wheat-stacks in order to raise the price of 
 wages. So called from Joseph Lancaster, 
 who was arrested for firing corn-stacks, 
 and pleaded in excuse that his object was 
 to improve the rate of wages. 
 
 Land. 
 
 William the Conqueror nationalised 
 the land, himself being the sole owner. 
 
 TENANTS IN CHIEF; (oF THE CROWN) 
 
 i I i 1 
 
 MESNE TENAMTS 
 
 m 
 
 COM- 'jANOR] 
 MON (T?^1 
 AND [mouse I 
 WASTE LAND 
 
 MANOR AND 
 SUBTENANTS 
 
 He let it out to king's or chief tenants, 
 on certain conditions, and looked to these 
 tenants only for the fulfilment thereof. 
 
504 
 
 LAND 
 
 LANDWEHR 
 
 The cliief tenants subdivided their 
 holdings among mesne tenants on simi- 
 lar conditions. 
 
 The mesne tenants subdivided their 
 holdings into manors, and the manors 
 were parcelled into farms, with a certain 
 portion called common. 
 
 Land Bank {The), 27 April, 1696. A 
 bank of England chartered by Wil- 
 liam III. for the benefit of the landed 
 gentry, according to a scheme projected 
 by Hugh Chamberlayne. The Tonnage 
 Bank {q.v.) lent William only a million, 
 and that at 8 per cent. This new bank 
 lent him double the sum at 7 per cent., 
 but it proved to be a mere bubble. 
 
 Land -Grabber (A), between 1879 
 and 1890. In Irish history it means one 
 who takes a plot of land from which a 
 tenant has been evicted. See. ' Irish As- 
 sociations.' 
 
 Prior to the establishment of the Land League, 
 ' land-grabbing ' in Ireland was called ' Salntough ' 
 (covetousness). ' one of the seven deadly sins. — 
 Parnell Covimission (Father Hewson, 27 June, 1«89). 
 
 Land League {The), 1879-1881, Ire- 
 land. Michael Davitt's development of 
 Mr. Butt's Home Rule policy, after the 
 death of Mr. Butt, in May 1879. Osten- 
 sibly it aimed at 'the abolition of the 
 monopoly of land,' by giving to tenants as 
 a free gift part of the land belonging to 
 the Irish landlords. It tried to carry out 
 its object by defiance of the law and re- 
 sistance to its execution. Suppressed in 
 1881, when the National League was 
 established in its place. 
 
 The North American Land League 
 (Ireland) was organised 11 March, 1880. 
 The first meeting of the League was held 
 in Philadelphia 25 April, 1883. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 In August 1879 Michael Da vitt negotiated a small 
 loan from the Fenian war-chest to start the con- 
 stitutional movement. Patrick Ford was ' the 
 honest broker ' bet ween the Fenian trustee and the 
 Land League financier. That body held its first 
 meeting 31 Oct., 1879, and Mr. Parnell was ap- 
 pointed president. — Cashman's Life, pp. 218, 219 ; 
 ParnMismavd Crime, p. 8. 
 
 ' The objects of the Land League were to bring 
 about a reduction of rack-rents ; and to facilitate 
 the ownership of the soil by the occupiers of the 
 soil. — Alfred Henry Ruegg, counsel for O Don- 
 nell, in the ' Parnellism and Crime ' libel case, 2 
 July, 1888. 
 
 Land Purchase Bill {The), 1890. 
 A bill projected by Mr. Balfour, chief 
 secretary for Ireland, to enable Irish 
 tenants to purchase their farms at the 
 value of twenty years' rent, if they chose 
 so to do. To enable them to make the 
 
 purchase, thirty millions sterling was 
 lent by Government at 2h per cent, plus 
 a fiftieth part of the principle, so that the 
 purchase money and interest would all be 
 paid off in fifty years. As ten millions 
 had been hitherto advanced for the same 
 purpose, the whole loan amounted to forty 
 millions ; and, as the money paid by 
 tenants to the New Land Department was 
 made eligible for the same purpose, the 
 loan was virtually an 'endless band' 
 available till every farmer in all Ireland 
 had become his own landlord. 
 
 Land of Ireland {The). From 
 1280, for several centuries after, the dis- 
 trict occupied by the English, and known 
 at a later period as the Pale. 
 
 Edward I. in 1280 called upon the lords spiritual 
 and temporal ... in the ' Land of Ireland ' to 
 assemble and deliberate upon the prayer of the 
 natives praying to be admitted to the privileges of 
 English law.— Moore, Hist, of Ireland, chap. xxxv. 
 
 Land of Storms {The). Tierra del 
 Fuego, an island-group at the southern 
 point of South America. It is separated 
 by the Straits of Magellan. Few ships 
 have ever passed it without observing the 
 forked lightning playing on its cliffs, and 
 hearing the most terrific thunders roll. 
 
 Land o' the G-reen. Ireland, also 
 called the Emerald Isle, from the exqui- 
 site green colour of its meadows, &c. 
 
 Lands of the Sacred Cro^wn 
 
 {The). Hungary. Each of its nobles was 
 ' Membrum Sacrse Coronas.' The sacred 
 crown was the crown given by the Pope 
 to St. Stephen king of Hungary (979, 
 997-1038). 
 
 Landlord's Hypothec {The). In 
 Scotch law. A lien on the tenant's goods 
 as a security for his rent. 
 
 Landscape Gardening {Father 
 of). Lenotre (1613-1700). He laid out 
 the gardens of Versailles, the Tuileries, 
 St. Cloud, St. Germain, Fontainebleau, 
 Clagny, Chantilly, Meudon, and Sceaux. 
 
 Landseer {The Liverpool). William 
 Huggins, animal painter (1821-1844). 
 
 Landseer of Sculpture {The). 
 Alfred Gatley (1816-1863). 
 
 Landwehr and Landsturm, 
 1805. Land defence and land assault 
 levies. German militia, called into ser- 
 vice in times of war. The most com- 
 plete organisation was that of Prussia in 
 
LANE 
 
 LARS 
 
 605 
 
 1813. The landwehr consists of men 
 from 26 to 40 ; the landsturm of men from 
 40 to 60. The former is part of the regular 
 army, the latter is enrolled for home work. 
 
 Napoleon restricted the Prussian army to 42,000 
 men ; so as soon as 42,000 men were well disciplined 
 a new batch was brought to drill, and in this way 
 all the people were trained for war, and the re- 
 etriction was evaded. 
 
 Xiane {The). Drury Lane Theatre. 
 
 Whenever the Lane tried Shakespeare, 
 I was one of the leading men. 
 Sims, Ballads oJ Babylon (' Forgotten ' &o.). 
 
 L'ang, or Le-ang' Dynasty 
 
 {The). The tenth Imperial dynasty of 
 China. Like the eighth, ninth, and 
 eleventh dynasties, it had dominion only 
 over the south of China, the court being 
 at Nanking. It gave four kings, and lasted 
 65 years (502-557). 
 
 Language of Canaan {The). 
 Bible phrases learnt by rote by the gay 
 ladies in the suite of Catharine de 
 Medicis, to be used in talking with con- 
 sistorials, or Catholic malcontents who 
 had joined the Huguenots. See ' Consis- 
 torial Phrases.' 
 
 Languages, a.d. 1890. It is esti- 
 mated that there are 3,064 languages in 
 the world ; and above 1,000 different re- 
 ligions, including what are called ' sects.' 
 English is spoken by above 130 millions 
 of the human race ; German by 100 mil- 
 lions ; Russian by 70 millions ; French 
 by 45 millions ; Spanish by 40 millions ; 
 Italian by 30 miUions ; and Portuguese 
 by 13 millions. 
 
 Etiijlish is spoken by 4 million Canadians ; 3,700,000 
 West Indians; 3 million Australians; 1 million 
 East Indians ; £S millions in the Eritish Isles, and 
 67 millions in America : besides Africa, Jamaica, 
 &c. 
 
 German is spoken by 2 millions in the United 
 States and Canada ; 2 millions in Switzerland ; 
 40,000 Belgians ; 46 millions in the German empire, 
 and 10 millions in the Austro-Hungarian empire. 
 
 French is spoken by 2i million Belgians; 1 mil- 
 lion in the United States and Canada ; 1 ■. million 
 In Algiers, India, and Africa; 600,000 Swiss ; 600,000 
 in Hayti ; 200,000 in Alsace-Lorraine ; and 38 mil- 
 lions in France. 
 
 Langue d'oc and Langue d'oil. 
 When the Romans reduced Gaul to a pro- 
 vince, the native language became imbued 
 with Latin, and this mixed language was 
 called ' Romance.' When the Franks and 
 Germans poured into Gaul they also 
 corrupted the language, and this mixed 
 language was called ' Germanised Ro- 
 mance ' or ' Walloon.' As far the larger 
 number of Franks and other Germans 
 settled north of the Loire, Walloon pre- 
 22 
 
 vailed in the north, and was hardly known 
 in the south of France, where Romance 
 continued to prevail. Now the Romance 
 or southern word for yes is ' oc,' but the 
 Walloon or northern word was ' oil '-^ 
 {i.e. ' o-e ' now oui (pronounce we) ; 
 hence the Langue d'oc means that south 
 of the Loire, and the Langue d'oil that 
 used the the river. The Troubadours 
 north of Langue d'oc, and the Trouveres 
 the Langue d'oil. 
 
 Lansdowne Collection of 
 MSS. {The), 1807. Purchased by govern- 
 ment, and added to the library of the 
 British Museum. It is divided into two 
 parts : {a) 121 volumes of state papers 
 and correspondence of William lord 
 Burghley, during the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth ; {b) 50 volumes of the papers 
 and letters of Sir Julius Ceesar, judge of 
 the admiralty and master of the rolls ; 
 the correspondence of Henry Cromwell, as 
 chief governor of Ireland ; and numerous 
 other historical, genealogical, and topo- 
 graphical MSS. of great importance. 
 Collected by the first marquis of Lans- 
 downe. 
 
 Lantern of Demosthenes (4 
 
 syl.). A shrine built by Lysicrates, the 
 chorilgos, over the tripod which he re- 
 ceived as a musical prize. It stood in 
 the ' Street of Tripods ' {q.v,), in Athens. 
 
 Laodiceans {The). Those of no 
 party ; ' neither hot nor cold ' in religious 
 matters; the laisser-aller or indifferent 
 (Rev. iii. 16). 
 
 The rest were housed by Mr. Nesbitt and the 
 local Laodiceans.— E. LYNN Linton, Under Which 
 Lord, ch. xxi. 
 
 Lapsed {The). Those Chi-istians 
 who, to avoid persecution, made a com- 
 proneise with the heathen governors. 
 They are divided into 3 classes : (1) The 
 Sacrlficati, who sacrificed at heathen 
 altars; (2) the Thurificati, who burnt 
 incense to heathen gods ; and (3) the 
 LiBELLATici, who produced a libellus or 
 certificate from a heathen magistrate of 
 having abjured the Christian faith. 
 
 The number of the lapsed was immense, especi- 
 ally in Alexandria. 
 
 Larder Silver. A payment of 
 money in lieu of provisions by the tenant 
 farmer (14th cent.). 
 
 Lars. The leader or over-king of 
 the 12 confederate Etrurian states. The 
 
506 
 
 LASCARS 
 
 LATIN 
 
 under-king was called liiciimo. Thus 
 the sultan would be a Jars and the khe- 
 dive a lucumo. Similarly, the German 
 emperor is lars and the king of Bavaria 
 a lucumo (q.v.). 
 
 Lascars. Native East Indian and 
 Chinese sailors employed in European 
 ships. Also camp-followers. There are 
 pun-lascars in the British service at 
 Hong-Kong. 
 
 Lass of Richmond Hill (The). 
 Miss Jansen. The song is by Leonard 
 
 M'Nally. 
 
 Last of the Barons (The). Richard 
 Neville earl of Warwick, called ' the 
 kingmaker ' (1428-1471). 
 
 Last of the Fathers (The). St. 
 Bernard of Clairvaux in Champagne 
 (1091-1153). He was the great promoter 
 of the second crusade, as Peter the 
 Hermit was of the first. 
 
 Last of the Greeks (The). 
 Philopoemen, so called by Plutarch (b.c. 
 252-183). 
 
 Last of the Romans (The). 
 Caius Cassius. At the battle of Philippi, 
 B.C. 42, Cassius was defeated by Antony, 
 and was killed by his freedman Pindarus. 
 When Brutus was told of the death of 
 his friend, he exclaimed, ' There lies the 
 last of the Romans.' 
 
 This was preposterous praise. If Cassius was a 
 type of the Roman character, then may we say 
 with the Druid, in Cowper's ' Boadicea,' 
 
 Rome shall perihh, write that wora 
 In the blood that she hath spilt ; 
 Perish, hateful, and abhorred, 
 Deep in ruin as in guilt. 
 
 Last of the Romans (The). 
 
 Boethius (470-524). 
 
 Gibbon (ch. xxxix.) says, 'Boethius was the last 
 of the Romans whom Cicero would have acknow- 
 ledged as his countryman.' 
 
 Last of the Tribunes (The). 
 
 Cola di Rienzi (1313-1354). 
 Lord Lytton wrote a novel, in 1835, so entitled. 
 
 Last of the Troubadours (The). 
 
 Jacques Jasmin of Gascony (1798-18G4). 
 
 Last Poet of Rome (The). 
 
 Juvenal, the satirist, died a.d. 128, aged 
 80. 
 
 His Tenth Satire Bishop Burnet calls ' a store- 
 house of moral virtues.' 
 
 Later Fathers {The Fifteen), 4th 
 cent. See ' Greek Fathers,' and ' Latin 
 Fathers.' 
 
 Lateran {The). The palace of Plau- 
 tius Lateranus confiscated by the Em- 
 peror Constantine, and assigned for 
 Christian uses. The church of St. John 
 (Lateran) is styled ' the Mother and Head 
 of all the churches in the city and the 
 world ' ; and the first act of a new pope 
 is to take possession thereof. From the 
 portico, on certain days, the pope blesses 
 the entire world. The Church has been 
 the site of five general councils {see 
 below), and till the popes returned from 
 Avignon they resided m the Lateran 
 palace ; but in 1378 the Vatican was made 
 the pope's residence. In the piazza of 
 St. John Lateran stands the Scala Santa, 
 or staircase up which it is said that 
 Jesus passed to Pilate's judgment hall. 
 
 Lateran Councils {The). Five 
 general councils have been held at the 
 Lateran in Rome. 
 
 I. In 1123. This was the first general 
 council of the Western Church. Under 
 Calixtus 11. 
 
 II. In 1139. To restore the union of 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. 
 Under Innocent II. 
 
 III. In 1179. To vest the election of 
 popes in the cardinals. War against the 
 Albigenses authorised. Under Nicholas 
 III. 
 
 IV. In 1215. To sanction confession. 
 The Albigenses condemned. Under In- 
 nocent III. 
 
 V. In 1511-1517, convoked by Julius 
 ll., and continued by Leo X. Acts of 
 the Council of Pisa declared void. The 
 concordat with France confirmed. Dan- 
 gerous books forbidden. 
 
 Lathy'ros. Ptolemy VIII. king of 
 Egypt was so called from a wen on his 
 nose (B.C. 80-36). 
 
 It is said that the name of ' Cicero ' was given 
 to an ancestor of the great orator for the same 
 reason. 
 
 Latielavian. A Roman senator, 
 so called from the broad purple stripe 
 {clavus latus) which every senator was 
 permitted to wear on his toga. Eques- 
 trian knights wore a band of two narrow 
 stripes called clavus angitstus. 
 
 TjSitiil {The Pronunciation of). See 
 ' Ramists.' 
 
 Latin {Professorship of). In the 
 University of Cambridge, 1809, founded 
 by the pupils of Dr. Kennedy. It was 
 intended to call it the Kennedy Profes- 
 
LATIN 
 
 LAUGHING 
 
 507 
 
 sorship, but the doctor gave 500?. towards 
 the fund, on the condition that his name 
 was not attached to the foundation. 
 Salary 300Z. a year. 
 
 Latin Church (The). The 'West- 
 ern Church,' after its separation fioni 
 the Greek Church. 
 
 Latin Cross [The). 'Crux immissa.' 
 A cross with the lower limb considerably 
 longer than the other three. See ' Cross.' 
 
 Latin Empire {The). The name 
 given to that portion of the Byzantine 
 empire which, in 1204, was seized by the 
 crusaders, who made Constantinople 
 their capital. It was overthrown by the 
 Greeks in 12G1. 
 
 Latin Fathers {The Five). These 
 with the ten ' Greek Fathers ' {q.v.) con- 
 stitute the fifteen ' Later Fathers ' : viz. 
 Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, 
 and Augustine (ith. cent.). 
 
 Latin Ulysses {The). Bohemond 
 prince of Antioch, the crusader (died 
 1111). 
 
 The Latin Ulysses, the artful and ambitious 
 Bohemond, employed the arms of cunning and 
 deceit.— Gibbon, 58. 
 
 Latin Union {The), 1873, consist- 
 ing of France, Switzerland, Italy, Bel- 
 gium, and Greece, compelled by law to 
 coin, at a fixed legal weight and fineness, 
 all gold and silver brought to them. 
 
 Latin "War {The). The peasants' 
 rebellion in Salzburg, in 1523 ; it was 
 aimed against a very unpopular arch- 
 bishop. 
 
 Latin 'War {The Great), b.c. 340- 
 338, betv/een the Romans and Latins. 
 By this war all Latium was joined to 
 Roman territory. 
 
 Latitudinarians, lGGO-1670. Fol- 
 lowers of Jeremy Taylor, who insisted 
 that a good life was better than an ortho- 
 dox faith, and that a broad-hearted tole- 
 ration was the most likely means of pro- 
 ducing Christian unity. Far from be- 
 lieving that salvation was limited to the 
 Church of England, they inclined to 
 admit the equality of all professing Chris- 
 tians, and that even the heathen might 
 be saved. Hales, Chillingworth, Which- 
 cote, Tillotson, and Burnet were Latitu- 
 dinarians; so was Hoadly bishop of 
 Bangor. 
 
 Latrocinium. So the fourth coun- 
 cil of Ephesus held a.d. 449 was called. 
 It was packed by Eu'tyches the heresi- 
 arcli, and condemned Theodoret, one of 
 the Christian fathers, while it declared 
 in favour of Eutyches, who maintained 
 that the human nature of Christ was 
 absorbed in his divine nature. 
 
 Spelman calls the charta of Henry I. of England 
 ' Latrocinium ' U'l^'llndii). St. Dionysius calls the 
 charter of Louis VII., in 1144, ' Latronis Redditio.' 
 
 Latter-day Saints (T/^e), or ' Mor- 
 mons.' They have apostles, prophets, 
 pastors, teachers, and evangelists ; they 
 believe in the gilt of tongues, prophecy, 
 revelation, and visions, in healing and in 
 the interpretation of tongues. They be- 
 lieve the Bible to be the Word of God so 
 far as it is correctly rendered ; they also 
 believe the Book of Mormon to be the 
 Word of God. They believe in the literal 
 gathermg-in of Israel and restoration of 
 the ten tribes ; that Zion will be built on 
 the American continent ; that Christ will 
 reign personally upon the earth ; and that 
 the earth will be renewed and receive 
 paradisaic glory. 
 
 Lauder {William). A literary im- 
 postor, who published, in 1751, false 
 quotations from Masenius, a Jesuit of 
 Cologne, Tanbmann a German, Staphor- 
 stius a learned Dutchman, and others, to 
 ' prove Milton a gross plagiarist.' Dr. 
 Douglas demonstrated that the citations 
 were incorrect, and that often several 
 lines had been foisted in to make good 
 the parallelisms. Lauder confessed the 
 fact afterwards, ia 1754. See ' Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 Laudian Professorship of 
 Arabic, in Oxford University. Stipend 
 300/. a year. Founded by William Laud 
 archbislaop of Canterbury in 1G36. 
 
 Lauds. One of the eight daily ser- 
 vices of the Catholic Church, and first 
 of the four lesser ones. At dawn. See 
 'Canonical Hours.' 
 
 Laughing Philosopher {The). 
 Democritos (4G9-3G1) of MilGtus. He 
 laughed at the follies of man, whereby 
 they were for ever involving themselves 
 in difficulties. He was the originator of 
 the atomic theory, taught the theory of 
 gravitation, and that the milky way is a 
 cluster of stars. 
 
508 
 
 LAUEENTIAN 
 
 LAW 
 
 Laurentian System {The). A 
 
 series of highly metamorphosed rocks 
 (older than the Cambrian) covering the 
 whole country north of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 Law of Admonition {The), 1323, 
 in Florence, by means of which the 
 Ghibellines were excluded from the 
 government. 
 
 Law of G-erminal {The). 18 Ger- 
 minal Year X (7 April, 1802). The first 
 consul (in order to secure authority over 
 Protestants) suggested that Protestant 
 pastors should be salaried like the 
 Catholic clergy. This was made law, 
 and is known by the name of the Law of 
 Germinal. See ' Decree of 8 Ventose.' 
 
 Law of 22nd Prairial {The), 10 
 June, 1794. Couthon, the second day 
 after the Feast of the Supreme Being, 
 proposed that the Law of the Suspects 
 should be extended, and that there should 
 be four revolutionary tribunals instead 
 of one. Whereupon Robespierre with 
 autocratic authority declared ' The Law 
 of Prairial is law ' ; and 17 June a batch 
 of 54 at once were sentenced to death. 
 The guillotine was then shifted from the 
 Place de la Revolution to the south-east. 
 
 The Feast of the Supreme Being was 8 June, 1794 ; 
 t\e Law of Prairial was passed 10 June ; and Ko- 
 bespierre was guillotined 28 July (9 Thermidor, 
 An. II.). 
 
 Law of the Clan Macduff {The). 
 
 Immunity for homicide aiiciently enjoyed 
 by those who could claim kindred with 
 Macduff earl of Fife within the ninth 
 degree. Macduff's cross stood on the 
 boundary between Fife and Strathearn, 
 above Newburgh, and any homicide of 
 the clan who could reach this cross was 
 safe. He had, however, to give as a 
 deodand nine cows and a young cow-calf 
 to the lord of the clan. 
 
 Law of tlie Eric {The), in Ireland, 
 A.D. 164. Compounding for murder by a 
 money fine. Spenser gives this example : 
 Suppose a man commits murder and is 
 prosecuted ; the murderer shall pay a fine 
 to the friends of the murdered person, 
 and this recompense is called an ' Eriach ' 
 (' Views of the State of Ireland '). 
 
 Laws of the XII. Tables {The), 
 B.C. 451. A famous body of laws drawn 
 up by twelve Roman patricians at the 
 instigation of Terentius Harsa the tri- 
 bune. The commissioners were called 
 the ' Decemviri,' appointed for one year, 
 
 and during that year all other magis- 
 trates were suspended. The two consuls 
 (Appius Claudius and Titus Geniicius) 
 were at the head of the commission. The 
 original number of tables was only ten, 
 but two new tables (respecting marriage 
 and religious rites) were added by the 
 second Decemvirafce, and the whole, 
 being engraved on tables of brass, was 
 hung up in the Comitium or upper part 
 of the Forum. 
 
 Table I., lawsuits; II., theft; III., loans; IV., 
 rights of the paterfamilias ; V. , rights of guardians ; 
 VI., about property ; VII., trespasses and damages; 
 VIII., laws regarding estates; IX., the people's 
 rights; X., funeral rites. The two new laws were : 
 XI., religious duties ; and XII., marriages. Each 
 1m,w was most briefly expresP3d : as, A debtor shall 
 be dissected by his creditors ; No one shall be 
 interred or cremated within the city walls ; and 
 so on. 
 
 Law of the 40 Sous {The), 
 
 Aug. 1793. Danton induced the com- 
 mittee called the Salut Public to decree 
 that there should be held in Paris two 
 meetings of sections every week, and 
 that the poorer citizens should be paid 
 40 sous each day for attending them. 
 This was a great spur to sansculottism 
 and the extravagance of the Red Repub- 
 lican party. 
 
 Law of the Suspect {The), Aug. 
 
 1793. Introduced by Merlin of Douai, 
 subsequently called Merlin Suspect. 
 ' All are suspect (he says) who by their 
 actions, words, or writings, have become 
 so.' Chaumette, in his ' Municipal 
 Placards and Proclamations,' says a 
 ' Suspect ' may be recognised in the streets 
 and should be at once apprehended. 
 
 Law of the "White "Water- 
 lotus {The). A brotherhood in China, 
 associated at the close of the IBfch cent, 
 against the emperor Kea-King. It lasted 
 eight years, and spread disaffection in 
 Shan-tung and three adjoining provinces. 
 Kea-king reigned 1796-1820. 
 
 Law Terms {The). All the year 
 except term-time is called ' vacation.' By 
 canon law certain seasons are set apart 
 as holy — viz. Advent, Lent, Pentecost, 
 and Harvest — and these seasons were to 
 be kept free from forensic litigations. 
 The original term-times were : (1) Hilary, 
 from 23 Jan. to 12 Feb.; (2) Easter, 
 from Wednesday after Easter Day to 
 Monday three weeks afterwards; (3) 
 Trinity, beginning the Friday after 
 Trinity Sunday and ending Wednesday 
 fortnight; and (4) Michaelmas, which 
 
LAWS 
 
 LAZZAEONI 
 
 609 
 
 began 6 Nov. and ended the 58th of the 
 same month. Since 1873 the law ses- 
 sions have been : — 
 
 a. Hilary, beginning llJan. and end- 
 ing the Wednesday before Easter. 
 
 h. Easter, beginning the Tuesday 
 after Easter Week and ending the Friday 
 before Whitsunday. 
 
 c. Trinity, beginning the Tuesday 
 after Wliitsun Week and ending 8 Aug. 
 
 d. Michaelmas, beginning 2 Nov. and 
 ending 21 Dec. 
 
 Tjaws {Manx) up to 1417 were called 
 'breast laws,' because the Druids objected 
 to have their laws, customs, and tradi- 
 tions reduced to writing. 
 
 Something of this still exists in Freemasonry. 
 
 Laws of Blood, b.c. 618. So the 
 laws of Draco the Athenian legislator 
 were denominated, because the same 
 penalty — that of death — was awarded to 
 every offence. This is quite in accord- 
 ance with the Jewish axiom, ' AVliosoever 
 shall keep the whole law, and yet offend 
 in one point, he is guilty of all ' (James 
 ii. 10). 
 
 Laws of 1790-1791 {The), in 
 Hungarian history, mean those laws 
 which confirmed the independence of 
 Hungary and recognised it as a state. 
 They declared Hungary to be subject to 
 no other country, to possess her own 
 constitution, and secured the liberty of 
 the Greek and Protestant Churches. 
 
 Lawless Court {The). An ancient 
 court at Raley or Raleigh, in the parish 
 of Rochford, Ljld on the Wednesday 
 next after Michaelmas Day. It is ' law- 
 less ' because held at an unlawful hour 
 at the ' King's Head.' The court was 
 held at night and without any artificial 
 light. The records were kept with coal 
 and not in ink. Everything was carried 
 on in the feeblest possible whispers. 
 Philemon Holland states that the court 
 owes its customs to a conspiracy held at 
 the ' King's Head,' in the dark, and of 
 course with bated breath. (Camden ; 
 and Dodsworth MSS., Bodleian Library). 
 
 Lay Impropriators (of tithes) 
 date from the dissolution of monasteries 
 in the reign of Henry VIII., when church 
 property was given to laymen. The lay- 
 men retained the tithes and glebe land 
 m their own possession, and appointed a 
 clergyman to do the clerical duties at a 
 
 small stipend. The person who presents 
 is termed the patron, and the clergyman 
 who represents him is called a ' vicar ' 
 {vicarius). 
 
 Lay Titulars. Lay impropriators. 
 
 (Scotch history.) 
 
 Laybach, in Austria {Congress of), 
 from 17 Dec. 1820 to 6 May, 1821, of the 
 crowned heads of Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, for stamping out the revolu- 
 tionary movements. 
 
 Lazaretto {A). A hospital for 
 quarantine or for infectious diseases. 
 This word is not derived from Lazarus 
 the Bible beggar, but from the isle of St. 
 Lazarus in Venice, where such an hospi- 
 tal was first built in 1484. 
 
 La25arists, or ' Fathers of St. Laza- 
 rus,' 1624. Instituted by De Gondi; 
 placed under the direction of Vincent de 
 Paul in 1625, and confirmed by Urban 
 VIII. in 1631. They were called Lazar- 
 ists because their chief abode was the 
 priory of St. Lazarus in Paris, given to 
 Vincent de Paul by the canons regular of 
 St. Victor. Also called ' Priests of the 
 Mission.' 
 
 Lazarus {Knights of St.), 12th cent. 
 A religious and military order of Knights 
 Hospitallers. Confirmed by Pope Alex- 
 ander IV. in 1255. United with the 
 order of St. John in 1490. Their special 
 office was the defence of lej)ers, and their 
 title was derived from Lazarus the beggar. 
 Abolished in France in the first revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 In Italy It was united to the order of St. Blaurice 
 by Gregory XII. in 1572; and in France it was 
 united with the order of Our Lady of Mount Car- 
 mel in 1608. 
 
 Lazic War {The), 549-556. A con- 
 test of Rome and Persia on the Phasis. 
 It was a profitless war, but Colchis and 
 its dependencies were added to Justin- 
 ian's empire, while Rome agreed to pay 
 to Persia a small annual tribute. (Pro- 
 copius, 'Persic' ii. 15-30, and ' Gothic' iv. 
 7-16.) This war is also called the ' Col- 
 chian War.' 
 
 Called Lazic from the Lazi, a tribe which still 
 subsists. 
 
 Lazzaroni {pi. of Lazzarone). The 
 mob of Naples, like the Sansculottes of 
 Paris. They were proverbial for laziness, 
 poverty, and indifference ; very few had 
 a home ; they lounged on benches about 
 the streets all day, and slept on them at 
 
510 
 
 LAZZI 
 
 LEAGUE 
 
 night. Those who did not live by begging 
 were messengers, fishers, street-vendors 
 of melons and pumpkins ; they held horses, 
 carried burdens, and so on. Every year 
 one was chosen as their chief, called 
 Capo Lazzaro. Masaniello was Capo in 
 1647. In 1798, stimulated by Cardinal 
 Ruffo, and headed by Michele Sforza,they 
 long resisted the French General Cham- 
 pionnet. The race is now well-nigh ex- 
 tinct, but at the beginning of the 19th 
 cent, they numbered at least 60,000. 
 
 So called either from the beggar Lazarus, or be- 
 cause they dressed like the inmates of the hospice 
 of St. Lazare. 
 
 Liazzi. Those born to labour, those 
 of a servile condition who could not de- 
 part from their service without their 
 lord's leave. An old Saxon term. 
 
 The nobility were Edhilings ; the middle class 
 Frilings or free-born men. 
 
 Leaden Age (The), 814-987. Be- 
 tween the death of Charlemagne and the 
 accession of Hugues Capet [pron. You 
 Cap'-pay^ ; is so called from its worthless- 
 ness. Also called the ' Iron Age ' from 
 its incessant civil wars ; and the ' Dark 
 Age ' from its barrenness of learned men. 
 
 Leads ofVenice {The). A prison 
 under the leaden roof of the ducal palace 
 of St. Mark for political prisoners. Their 
 suiierings from the heat were excruci- 
 ating. 
 
 Leagh. Moglia, or Mogha's share. 
 In the reigii of Conn Keadcahagh [i.e. 
 Conn of the hundred fights) Ireland 
 was divided into two parts by a rampart 
 and fosse from Dublin to Galway. The 
 southern part was allotted to Mogha 
 Nuod king of Munster, and the northern 
 part, called Leagh Cuin or Conn, was 
 ruled over by Conn of the hundred fights. 
 
 League [The), and 'Leaguers,' i.e. 
 the Anti-Corn Law League and its advo- 
 cates (1838-1846). 
 
 League {The), or 'Sainte Union,' 
 1576. A union of the high Catholic 
 party in defence of the ' Holy Catholic 
 Church' against the encroachments of 
 the reformers. It proposed to itself three 
 objects : to exterminate the Calvinists ; 
 to shut up Henri III. in a monastery ; and 
 to crown the Due de Guise king of France. 
 It was projected by the Cardinal de Lor- 
 raine, and was sanctioned fully by the 
 pope and Philip II. of Spain. 
 They proposed first to exterminate the Hugue- 
 
 nots, then the Protestants of Holland, then to 
 invade England, then to overrun Germany. 
 
 League against Charles VIII., 
 
 31 March, 1495. Between the pope, the 
 kaiser, Venice, the duke of Milan, and 
 the king of Castile. This powerful com- 
 bination, which sent into the field 40,000 
 men, was dashed to pieces by Charles 
 VIII, in the battle of Fornovo. The 
 allies lost 15,000 men ; the French, by 
 their own account, not above 200. 
 
 League of Argos {The), b.c. 421. 
 Formed between Argos, Corinth, Elea, 
 P/Eantinea, and Chalcidice, immediately 
 after the peace of Niccas. This league 
 was meant to be a combination of Greek 
 states against Athens and Sparta. Athens 
 joined the league in 420. 
 
 League of Augsburg {The), 1637. 
 A confederation of Holland, Germany, 
 Spain, Sweden, and Savoy against France, 
 to compel Louis XIV. to abide by the 
 terms of the treaties of Westphalia and 
 Nimeguen. By the former the balance 
 of power in Europe was established, and 
 Protestants were placed on the same 
 platform as Catholics. By the latter 
 the boundaries of France were settled, 
 and the integrity of Holland assured. 
 England joined the league in 1688. 
 
 Nimeguen, pronounce Neem-yen, with g hard. 
 
 League of Cambray ( The), 10 Dec, 
 1508. Between the pope (Julius II.), the 
 kaiser Maximilian I., Louis XII., and 
 Ferdinand the Catholic (king of Aragon) 
 against the republic of Venice. The idea 
 was to parcel out the republic amongst 
 the allies; but when Louis won the 
 battle of Agnadello, and Venice fell into 
 his hands, the pope, seeing that he had 
 made a false move, broke from the league, 
 and formed the Holy Alliance, the object 
 of which was to dispossess Louis of every 
 inch of land in the peninsula of Italy, 
 
 League of G-od's House {The), 
 1401. First of the three leagues of the 
 canton of the Grisons to resist domestic 
 tyranny. 
 
 The other two were the Grisons League, or 
 Ligue Grise, formed in 1424 ; and the League of the 
 Ten Jurisdictions, formed in 1430. All three were 
 admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798. 
 
 League of Malines {The), 1513. 
 Between Leo X., England, Germany, 
 and Spain against Louis XII. of France. 
 After the ' Battle of the Spurs ' {q.v.) 
 Louis made a treaty of peace. 
 
LEAGUE 
 
 LEAGUE 
 
 511 
 
 League of Marbach [The), 1376. 
 
 Formed between Wiirtemberg, Baden, 
 and seventeen towns. It was a dead set 
 against the Suabian league [q.v.]. In 
 1404 the league was joined by France 
 and Poland, but in 1499 Wiirtemberg 
 joined the Suabian league. 
 
 League of Poor Conrad {The). 
 A peasants' rebellion in Wiirtemberg in 
 1514. 
 
 League of Ratisbon {The), 1524. 
 By the Catholic Powers of Germany to 
 oppose the progress of the Reformation. 
 
 League of Smalkald {The), or 
 ' The Smalkaldic League,' 1530. An 
 alliance of all the Protestants of Ger- 
 many after the imperial decree at the 
 Diet of Augsburg. By this league the 
 Protestants bound themselves not to 
 help the kaiser against the Turks, who 
 threatened invasion unless he revoked 
 the Augsburg decree. Charles V. had 
 gone back to Spain, and appointed his 
 bi'other Ferdinand regent of Germany. 
 There was no escape, so the decree was 
 withdrawn, and the Protestants were 
 allowed full liberty of worship till the 
 next imperial diet. This is called ' The 
 Peace of Niirnberg.' The League was 
 dissolved in 1547 by the victory of the 
 imperial army at Miihlberg. 
 
 League of Virtue {The), called 
 in German ' Der Tugend-Bund,' was 
 organised by German students in 1813, 
 and had for its object the total expulsion 
 of the French from German soil. It 
 was joined by students and professors, 
 patriots and fanatics, and embodied the 
 seething hatred of Germany for France. 
 
 League of the Armed IsTeu- 
 
 trality (r/ie). Between Russia, Den- 
 mark, and Sweden, ratified 16 Dec, 1800. 
 
 The first convention for this league was held 
 9 July, 1780; the next was held 1 Aug., 17H0. The 
 StiitesGeneral joined the LeMgue 24 Dec, 1780; 
 the king of Prussia, 8 May, 17H1 ; and the kaiser 
 9 Oct., 1781. 
 
 League of the Lombard Cities 
 {The), or 'Ligue Lombarde,' 1167, 
 formed to resist the German emperors. , 
 The league was successful against 
 Frederick Barbarossa (1175-1183), and 
 against Frederick II. in 1225 ; but in 
 the 14th cent, most of the cities sub- 
 mitted either to the dukes of Milan or to 
 Venice. 
 
 League of the Public Evil 
 
 {The), or ' Ligue du Mai Pubhc,' 1465. 
 Applied to the ' League of the Public 
 Good,' because the people for whose 
 benefit that league was ostensibly formed 
 were entirely ignored in the treaty. 
 
 League of the Public Good 
 
 {The), 'Ligue du Bien Public,' 1465. A 
 league of the high feudatories of France 
 against Louis XL In this league were 
 the dukes of Brittany, Burgundy, AlenQon, 
 and Nemours, St. Pol, Armagnac ; and at 
 the head was Charles duke of Berry, the 
 king's brother. A battle was fought at 
 Montlhery, and though the victory was 
 indecisive, it was sufficient to bring about 
 the treaty of Conflans (1465). In this 
 treaty Ponthieu was given as a bribe to 
 the Duke of Burgundy, of which he was 
 deprived by the States-General ; Alen^on 
 was confirmed in his duchy, but it was 
 confiscated from him by the States- 
 General ; St. Pol was made Constable of 
 France, but deposed by the same states, 
 and suffered death on the scaffold ; 
 Charles was made duke of Normandy, 
 but was obliged to flee, and died, it is 
 said of poison, at Guienne. 
 
 League of the Rhine {The), or 
 'Rhinbund,' 15 Aug., 1658. Between 
 France, the electors of Mentz, Treves, 
 and Cologne, the king of Sweden, &c., 
 for the maintenance of the peace of 
 Westphalia. 
 
 League of the 3 Cantons 
 
 {The), 14th cent. The Swiss cantons of 
 Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden. After 
 the battle of Morgarten in 1315 the 
 league Avas joined by Lucerne, Berne, and 
 other Helvetic cantons. 
 
 League of the 7 Catholic Can- 
 tons of Switzerland {The), called 
 the Sonderbund. Formed 1846, to resist 
 the federal diet, which had determined 
 on the expulsion of the Jesuits, the 
 Liguorians, and other religious congre- 
 gations. Dissolved in Nov. 1847. 
 
 League of the 10 Jurisdic- 
 tions {The), 1436. The third league of 
 the Grisons to secure independence. 
 
 The first league was the Cadean, 1401, and the 
 second was the Grisons League, 1424. All three 
 were admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 
 1798. 
 
 League of the 16 {The), or ' Conseil 
 des Seize.' A Protestant league formed 
 
512 
 
 LEAGUES 
 
 LEFT-HANDED 
 
 by Henri de Bourbon [Henri IV.] against 
 the Catholic League or ' Holy Union ' of 
 the Guise party. Henri III., who hated 
 the Guises, joined the League of the 
 Sixteen. Ultimately Henri de Bourbon 
 prevailed and the Due de Mayenne con- 
 cluded peace with him in January 159C. 
 
 Leagues. See also— 
 
 Achaean league. I Etolian league. 
 
 Cadean „ ( Hanseatic „ 
 
 Holy (Louis XII.) league. 
 
 Smalkaldic league. See 'League of 
 Smalkald.' 
 
 Sonderbund {The). 
 
 Leagues of the Grisons {The), 
 or ' Ligues Grises.' They were three in 
 number, viz. The Cadean League, formed 
 in 1401 ; the Grisons League (Ligue 
 Grise), formed in 1424 ; and the League 
 of the Ten Jurisdictions, formed in 14o6. 
 All three were admitted into the Helvetic 
 Confederation in 1798. 
 
 Leaguers {The). Adherents and par- 
 tisans of the Anti-Corn-law league {q.v.). 
 
 Learned Painter {The). Charles 
 Lebrun of Paris (1619-1090), noted for 
 the great accuracy of his costumes. His 
 masterpieces are the ' Five Battles of 
 Alexander.' 
 
 Learning, says Giordano Bruno : — 
 
 First it stood in Egypt ; then, under Zoroaster, 
 in Persia; then among tlie Gymnosophists of 
 India ; then under Urpheus, among the Thra- 
 kians : fifthly, among the Greeks at the time of 
 their Sages; then, under Archytas, Empedocles, 
 and Lucretius, in Italy ; and seventhly, in Ger- 
 many. . . . Who is comparable to Albertus Mag- 
 nus? Who can be likened to Nicolaus theCusan— 
 had not the priestly cowl hidden and hemmed his 
 [Cusan's] genius, I would acknowledge his having 
 been not similar to, but greater than, Pythagoras. 
 
 Learning {Father of English). So 
 Burke called the Venerable Bede (672- 
 735). He was the founder of mediaeval 
 history, and the first English historian. 
 
 Leather Apron {The). The tradi- 
 tion is that Kavah, an intrepid patriot, 
 headed a rebellion against Zohak, a cruel 
 and impious tyrant ; and that he displayed 
 his leather apron as a banner. The apron 
 set with jewels was adopted as the 
 national banner of Persia from that day, 
 till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. 
 Historically the tale is of no more value 
 than an incident from Homer's epics. It 
 is recorded in the historic romance (' Shah 
 Nameh') of Abul Casim Firdusi (950- 
 1039). See ' Homer of Khorasan.' 
 
 Le Bas Prize {The). For an essay 
 on English literature. For graduates of 
 the University of Cambridge, of not more 
 than three years' standing. Value annu- 
 ally about 60Z. Founded by subscribers 
 to the memorial of the Rev. Charles Webb 
 Le Bas of Trinity College in 1848. 
 
 Leetisternium. A religious cere- 
 mony observed by the ancient Romans. 
 It consisted of a sumptuous banquet 
 offered to certain gods, in which the 
 images or statues of the said gods were 
 placed on tricliniary couches {lecti), and 
 were bidden to ' eat, drink, and be merry.' 
 Livy speaks of these feasts, xxii. 10, v. 3. 
 
 In the terrible plague at Rome A.D. 3?0-333, the 
 gods were bribed by such a feast to abate the pest. 
 
 Leda Bible {The). The folio Bi- 
 shops' Bible of 1572 and 1685. See ' Bible.' 
 
 Lee {General Charles), 1731-1782. 
 Second in command under Washington. 
 He lived and died in all the honours of 
 patriotism ; but in 1860 came to light his 
 papers detailing his plan for betraying the 
 American army to General Howe. Tliese 
 historic papers were kept jjercZw for eighty 
 years among those of the secretary of Lord 
 Clive, who took an important part in the 
 negotiations which ended with the inde- 
 pendence of the United States of America. 
 
 Lee-Penny {The). A talisman, 
 still in possession of the Laird of Lee. 
 Sir Simon Lockhart of Lee brought it 
 to this country from the East, and 
 left it to his heirs. It is said to cure 
 murrain and hydropliobia. It is a 
 stone of a dark colour and triangular 
 shape, about ^ an inch each side, set in 
 silver like a coin of Edward I. This coin 
 is to be dipped in water, and the water 
 given to the diseased cattle or persons to 
 drink. The water is still ai^plied for. See 
 ' The Talisman,' by Sir W. Scott (Intro- 
 duction). 
 
 Left {Over the). In some parts of 
 Germany a person when he takes an oath 
 which he does not intend to keep puts his 
 left hand on his chest or side, and this is 
 supposed to neutralise the assertion made 
 by ijutting the rigid hand on his heart. 
 Similarly a left-handed marriage is a 
 base injustice to the woman so dis- 
 honoured. 
 
 Left-handed Marriage. See 
 
 ' Morcranatic Marriapre.' 
 
LEG 
 
 LEINSTER 
 
 513 
 
 Leg of Mutton Maniacs. The 
 
 founders of ' Punch,' the periodical, who 
 held their meetings at the ' Crown ' tavern. 
 So called from the frequency of a leg of 
 mutton being served for their repast. 
 
 The ' maniacs ' were Henry Mayhew, Horace 
 Mayhew, Gilbert A Beckett Albert Smith, John 
 Leech, Kenny Meadows, Ebenezer Landells, 
 George Smith, Frederick Tomlins. Charles Tom- 
 kyns, and Joseph Allan. See ' Notes and Queries,' 
 25 May, 1888, p. 401. 
 
 Legal Tender Act {The), United 
 States, 18G2, making Treasury notes a 
 legal tender. Proposed by Thaddeus 
 Stevens. 
 
 Legantine Constitutions {The). 
 
 In English history, 1237, 1268. Ecclesias- 
 tical laws enacted by the Council of 
 London, held under Cardinal Otho, legate 
 of Gregory IX. ; and Cardinal Othobon, 
 legate of Clement IV. in the reign of 
 Henry III. 
 
 Legem Pone, ready money. The 
 portion of Psalm cxix. for 25 March is 
 entitled ' Legem Pone ' (v. 33), and as 
 Lady Day is the great pay-day, the words 
 got applied to payment or ready cash, 
 pone lay down, legem the legal due. It 
 is, no doubt, a very free translation, but 
 we have several similar perversions or 
 adaptations. For example, 'Stir-up Sun- 
 day ' (the first two words of the collect 
 appointed for 25th Trinity) and applied 
 by schoolboys to the rapidly approaching 
 Christmas holidays. 
 
 In this there is nothing to be abated. All their 
 Bpeeeh is Ir^ifin pone (ready money, cash down). — 
 MiNSHULL, .Essat/e* inPri.toii, p. 26. 
 
 Legion, or ' The Legion Memorial,' 
 May 1701. A memorial signed Legion, 
 ' for we are many,' delivered by a poor 
 woman to Harley, speaker of the Com- 
 mons, to read to the House, and profess- 
 ing to be from 200,000 Englishmen, 
 demanding justice and complaining of 
 the Partition of Spain {q.v.), the ill-treat- 
 ment of the king (William III.) and the 
 Dutch by the House of Commons, and 
 threatening vengeance unless the Com- 
 mons behaved better. Of course the 
 memorial was voted scandalous and 
 seditious. 
 
 The memorial excited at first a panic in the 
 House, but when Legion did not appear . . . the 
 House began to recover its senses, and it began to 
 dawn upon them that they had been hoaxed by 
 some clever wag. This wag was universally be- 
 lieved to be Daniel Defoe . . . author of ' liobinson 
 Crusoe,' and oneof theshrev.dest political writers 
 of the time ... he must have luxuriated in the 
 terror into which he had thrown the Commons.— 
 HOAVITT, Hist, of Eng. (William III., p. 155). 
 
 Legion of Honour {The), 19 May, 
 
 1802. An order of merit, whether military, 
 literary, commercial, scientific, or bene- 
 volent, instituted by Bonaparte when 
 first consul. It contained 15 cohorts, 
 each of which had 7 grand officers, 20 
 commandants, 30 ordinary officers, and 
 850 legionaries (total 6512 members). The 
 decoration was a star of 5 rays, white 
 enamel, surrounded with oak and laurel 
 branches. In the centre of the star was 
 the figure of Napoleon Bonaparte. On 
 one side svas the legend Honneur et Patrie 
 and the device was an eagle holding 
 thundr-rbolts. It was suspended to a 
 red-v/atered ribbon. Remodelled by 
 Napoleon III. (22 Jan., 1853). 
 
 Badge for a Chevalier, a bow of red 
 ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with 
 medal attached. 
 
 Badge for an Officer, a rosette of red 
 ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with 
 medal attached. 
 
 Badge for a Comrnander, a collar- 
 ribbon. 
 
 Badge for a Grand Officer, a broad 
 ribbon under the waistcoat. 
 
 Badge for a Grand Cross, a broad 
 ribbon with a star on the breast, and jewel 
 cross pendant. 
 
 In the reign of Louis XVIII. the figure of Napo- 
 leon was changed for that of Henri IV., and tho 
 eagle for 3 fleurs delis. In ls:W the 3 fleursde-lis 
 were changed for 2 tricolour flags. In 184W the 
 original device was restored. 
 
 Napoleon III. instituted a lower order than 
 a c^ievalier, called a Medaille Militaire, distin 
 guished by a yellow ribbon. 
 
 Legislative Assembly {The), 
 1 Oct., 1791. ' L'Assemble'e Le'gislative.' 
 This assembly, consisting of 745 mem- 
 bers, followed the Constituent Assembly. 
 It sat till 21 Sept., 1792. It was specially 
 appointed to alter the laws of France 
 in conformity with the new constitution. 
 No member of the Constituent Assembly 
 was allowed to be appointed a member of 
 the Legislative Assembly. The Legisla- 
 tive Assembly was elected by the people. 
 
 The right was occupied by the monarchy men 
 chiefly Fi'uillaiit.t (i].v.). officers of the army, and 
 some National Guardsmen. The /('/( by Girondists 
 and Jacobins. The centre by middle men. 
 
 Leicester's Parliament, June 
 1265. When the Commons were first 
 summoned by him to parliament. This 
 was in the reign of Henry III. Edward I. 
 restored the practice. See ' Parliament.' 
 
 Leinster Declaration {The), 1828, 
 So called from the Duke of Leinster, at 
 LL 
 
514 
 
 LEINSTEB 
 
 L'i^TAT 
 
 that time the only duke of Ireland. It 
 was the declaration of a medium party 
 between the Catholic Association and the 
 Brunswick clubs {q.v.). The declaration 
 set forth that the ' disqualifying laws ' 
 were productive of endless mischief, and 
 were ruining Ireland ; and it prayed the 
 government without further delay to adopt 
 such measures as would restore peace, 
 and unite the strength of the British 
 Empire. 
 
 Leinster Tribute. See ' Borome.' 
 
 Leipzig Conference (The), 1519. 
 Between Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt. 
 This famous conference tended greatly 
 to the promotion of the Eeformation. 
 
 Leipzig Interim {The). A pro- 
 visionary arrangement made at Leipzig, 
 by order of Charles V., 22 Dec, 1548, 
 between the Lutherans and the Pvoman 
 Catholics, till the questions could be 
 definitely settled by a general council. 
 The ad interim compromise agreed to 
 in this diet caused a split in the Pro- 
 testant party. 
 
 Leix, Ireland, now called Queen's 
 County, and its chief town Maryborough, 
 in honour of Queen Mary. At the same 
 time Offaley was called King's County, 
 and its chief town Philipstown, in 
 honour of her husband Philip of Spain. 
 
 Leman's Act, 18G7. After the 
 great panic of 1866, to prevent gambling 
 in bank shares. Before this act bank 
 shares were mere names of speculative 
 stock, existing or non-existing, and 
 
 * bears ' by depressing the stock endan- 
 gered the credit of the bank. 
 
 Lenmria. The suppose'd submerged 
 equatorial continent which once covered 
 the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Lent. The 1st Friday is dedicated 
 to the spear and nails. 
 
 The 2nd to the holy winding-sheet. 
 The 3rd to the five wounds. 
 The 4th to the precious blood. 
 The 5th to the seven dolours. 
 The 6th is Good Friday. 
 
 ' The cro-WTi of thorns ' is the Friday after Quin- 
 quagesima. 
 
 Leonard's College (St.). See 
 
 * Andrews ( University of St.).' 
 
 Leonilas of Hungary {The). 
 Nicholas count Zriny. When Solyman 
 the Magnificent laid siege to Szigeth, 
 and had taken the outer circle., Zriny, 
 
 with 600 men, retired to the inner circle. 
 A mine was sprung and opened a gap 
 in this rampart. Zriny and his 600 stood 
 in the breach, and only two survived. 
 
 Leonine City {The). Leopolis in 
 Rome (on the right bank of the Tiber), 
 built by Leo IV. and named after him 
 A.D. 852. 
 
 It is after this pope that Pope Joan is placed. 
 
 Leonine Verses, hexameter and 
 pentameter. Verses which rhyme at 
 the middle and end ; invented by Leonine 
 or Leon, a canon of the church of St. 
 Victor, Paris, in middle of 12th cent. 
 His replicans eJare tres causas explico, quare 
 More Leonino dicere metra sino. 
 Let me explain to yoa, therefore, that there are 
 
 three reasons tcJuvi.' ore 
 Verses constructed like mine are to be called 
 
 Leonine. 
 
 Leonists. A branch of the Wal- 
 denses in Leon. See ' Waldenses.' 
 
 Leopold I. Son of the kaiser-king 
 Ferdinand III. of the house of Austria 
 (1640, 1658-1705); generally called 'the 
 Little Man in Red Stockings.' He also 
 wore a red feather. 
 
 Leper Kings of England. 
 
 Henry III and Henry IV. Leprosy wa3 
 in the Angevin family. Queen Marguerite 
 of Anjou died of the disease. 
 
 Eobert Bruce of Scotland was also a leper. 
 
 Lesbian or JEolian Poets {The). 
 Terx^ander, a native of Lesbos (b.c. 700- 
 650) ; only a few fragments now remain 
 of this poet. Alcseos of Lesbos (b.c. 624- 
 570) ; only a few fragments of his odes re- 
 main, but Horace has rendered several of 
 them into Latin verse. Arlon of Lesbos 
 (b.c. 640-600) ; no specimen of this poet 
 is extant. Sappho of Lesbos (b.c. 620- 
 570) ; a few fragments of her poetry re- 
 main. 
 
 Horace, Book 1. Ode ix., 'Videsut alta,' is a 
 translation of an ode by AIcseos ; so is Book i. 
 Ode xiv., ' O navis.'— Book i. Ode xxvii., 'Natis in 
 usum,' and Book i. Ode xxxvii., ' Nunc est biben- 
 dum,' are either translations or imitations, &c. 
 
 Called ^2olian poets because they wrote in the 
 ^olic dialect. The other Greek dialects were 
 Doric, Ionic, and Attic. Homer is in the Ionic 
 dialect, and the best tragedies are in Attic Greek. 
 
 * L'jiltat c'est moi.' So said Louis 
 XIV. when requested to convene the 
 States-General. This is the rule of an 
 autocrat, but the constitution of France 
 acknowledged at least three estates up 
 to 1789. 
 
 L'Etat de la Justice, 1558. A 
 fourth estate introduced in the States- 
 
LETTER 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 51f 
 
 General by Henri II. It consisted of the 
 chief magistracy of the country. 
 
 Letter of Attorney (A), or 
 ' Power of Attorney.' A deed authorising 
 the person named to act in your stead. 
 Whatever is done by your legal substi- 
 tute on your behalf has the same autho- 
 rity as if done by yourself personally. 
 Qui facit per alium facit per se. 
 
 Letter of Credit {A). An autho- 
 rity from one bank to another to credit 
 the person named to a stated amount. 
 In this case the person who gives the 
 letter is responsible up to the amount 
 stated in the letter. 
 
 Letter of Licence. An instru- 
 ment executed by creditors whereby one 
 who cannot pay his debts is permitted to 
 carry on his business under surveillance, 
 in the hope of obtaining thus a better 
 dividend. 
 
 Letters {Father of). I. * Pere des 
 Lettres,' Francois I. of France (1494, 
 1515-1547). 
 
 II. Lorenzo de' Medici the Magnifi- 
 cent (1448-1492). 
 
 Letters Conform. In Scotch law. 
 A writ issued by the supreme court en- 
 forcing the judgment of an inferior one. 
 
 Letters Missive. An order from 
 the lord chancellor to a peer to put in an 
 aiipearance to a bill filed in chancery. 
 
 Letters Patent. A writing under 
 the Great Seal, authorising the party 
 named to do some act or enjoy some 
 privilege, or create some office mentioned 
 in the letter. Inventors by letters patent 
 have a monopoly in their invention for a 
 stated term of years. 
 
 Letters of Administration. 
 
 The legal instrument granted by the 
 Probate Court to a person appointed 
 administrator to one who has died intes- 
 tate. 
 
 Letters of Exculpation. In 
 
 Scotch law. A warrant obtained by a 
 prisoner to subpoena witnesses in his 
 defence. 
 
 Letters of Ganganelli (Clement 
 XIV.). Though spurious, these letters are 
 certainly very interesting. They are said 
 to have been the productions of Caraccioli ; 
 but Caraccioli died protesting to the last 
 that he was only the translator of them. 
 
 (Ganganelli was barn 1705, became pope 
 in 17(J9, and died 1774.) See ' Literary 
 Forgeries,' &c. 
 
 Letters of Horning. Warrants 
 for charging a person in Scotland to pay or 
 perform certain debts and duties. Whar- 
 ton says they were so called because 
 these warrants were originally proclaimed 
 by sound of horn. 
 
 Letters of Intercommuning. 
 
 By an old law in England a man accused 
 of any crime, who did not appear to take 
 his trial, might be interconununed or 
 outlawed. 
 
 These letters ran thus: 'We command and 
 charge all our lieges and subjects that none pre- 
 sume to reset, supply, or intercommune with any 
 of the aforesaid, our rebels, nor furnish them with 
 meat, drink, house, harbour, or victuals, nor any 
 other thing useful or comfortable to them ; nor 
 have any intelligence with them by word, writing, 
 message, or otherwise, under pain of being repute 
 and esteemed art and part with them in the crime 
 foresaid.'— Laing, iv. 77. 
 
 This was like the old Roman .igwts et Ignis Inter- 
 dictio. 
 
 Letters of Junius (The). Author 
 
 unknown. In 1763 appeared No. 45 of 
 the ' North Briton,' conducted by Wilkes, 
 member for Aylesbury. In this number 
 the king (George III.) was charged with 
 uttering a deliberate lie in hffe speech 
 from the throne, and a ' general warrant ' 
 was issued by the home secretary for the 
 seizure of the author, printers, and pub- 
 lishers. Junius su]3ported Wilkes, and 
 maintained that general warrants — that 
 is, warrants in which no narnes are speci- 
 fied — are illegal ; and generally pleading 
 ' the people's cause ' against royal prero- 
 gatives and autocracy. 
 
 The letters bega n to appear in the ' Public Adver- ' 
 tiser,' 21 Jan., 1709, and continued to 21 Jan., 1772. 
 John Taylor ascribed the authorship to Sir Philip 
 Francis in iHlo, and in 1871 the handwriting was 
 investigated by Cabot, who confirmed the sugges- 
 tion. 
 
 Letters of Mark and Reprisal. 
 
 Commissions granted to individuals to fit 
 out privateers in time of war, and to seize 
 the bodies anl goods of antagonists. 
 Abandoned by the great powers at the 
 Congress of 1 ans in 1856. 
 
 * Letters of Percy Bysshe 
 Shelley' {The). Published m 1852. 
 These forgeries were exposed in the 
 ' Athenaeum ' in the months of February, 
 March, and April, 1852. See * Literary 
 Forgeries,' &c. 
 
 * Letters of Phal'aris {The),' 1718. 
 Published at Oxford. BenUey proved the 
 
 L L 2 
 
616 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 LEVIATHAN 
 
 letters to be forgeries. Plialaris was 
 tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily. Over- 
 thrown by Telemachus B.C. 550, and died 
 B.C. 549. He is well known by the story 
 of the brazen bull. It is said that 
 Perillos showed the tyrant a brazen bull 
 meant for the torture of criminals. It 
 was an oven in which victims might be 
 roasted alive, and tubes were so con- 
 structed as to render bellowing noises 
 to drown the shrieks of those enclosed. 
 Phalaris ordered the inventor to be en- 
 closed to test the truth of what he said. 
 See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Letters of Request. A writ which 
 commences a suit in the Court of Arches 
 against a clergjanan, instead of proceed- 
 ing, in the first instance, in the Consis- 
 tory Court. 
 
 Letters of Safe Conduct. A writ 
 
 under the Great Seal guaranteeing safety 
 to and fro to the person named in the 
 letter. In war, an enemy can travel to 
 and fro without fear of molestation under 
 such defence ; and persons charged with 
 crimes cannot legally be detained so long 
 as they act under such authority. 
 
 Letters of Uriah. Similar to the 
 classic ' Letters of Belleroi)hon ' — that is, 
 a treacherous letter of friendship, but in 
 reality a death-warrant. 
 
 * And it came to pass in the morning 
 that David wrote a letter to Joab, and 
 sent it by the hand of Uriah. And he 
 wrote in the letter, saying : Set ye Uriah 
 in the forefront of the hottest battle, 
 and retire ye from him, that he may be 
 smitten and die.' — 2 Sam. xi. 14, 15. 
 
 However, sir, here is a guarantee ; look at its 
 contents: I do not again carry the letters of 
 Uriah.— Sir W. ScoTT, Rcdijauntlet, ch. xvi. 
 
 Letters of the Sepulchre. Two 
 
 codes made by Godfrey and the patri- 
 archs of the court of Jerusalem : one re- 
 specting the rights and duties of burghers, 
 and the other respecting the privileges of 
 the nobles. These two codes were laid 
 up in a coffer with the treasures of the 
 church of the Holy Sepulclire. 
 
 Lettre de Cachet (Un). A sealed 
 letter, in virtue of which the obnoxious 
 person named therein might be arrested 
 and sent either to prison or into exile, 
 without trial, or even being infoi-med of 
 the nature of his offence. This infamous 
 tyranny was abolished by the revolution. 
 St. Florentin, a governor of the Bastille, used to 
 
 boast that he had received 50,000 lettres de cachet. 
 As the fortress would not hold above 70 or 80 at a 
 time, and few were ever released, the deeds of 
 death must have been pretty quick and numerous 
 within those walls. 
 
 Lettres Provinciales (Les), 1656 
 
 -1657. The famous letters of Blaise 
 Pascal against the Jesuits and in defence 
 of the Jansenists, written under the 
 assumed name of ' Louis de Montalte.' 
 The whole title is ' Lettres de Louis de 
 Montalte a un provincial de ses amis, et 
 aux RR. PP. Jesuites.' In these letters 
 Pascal lashes the loose morals of the 
 Jesuits v/ith wonderful humour, vigour, 
 and enthusiasm. Though condemned at 
 Rome, they are models of their kind. 
 
 There are eighteen complete letters ; the nine- 
 teenth is a fragment, and the twentieth is by 
 Lemaistre. The first three are in defence of 
 Arnauld, who had attacked the Jesuits in a work 
 entitled ' Moral Theology of the Jesuits ' ; but it is 
 on the subsequent fifteen letters that the fame of 
 Pascal rests. He charges the Jesuits with loose 
 morals, mental reservation, simony, equivocation, 
 and want of holiness. 
 
 Levellers. I. April 1649. A body of 
 men that first appeared in Surrey, and 
 went about pulling down park palings and 
 levelling hedges, especially those on crown 
 property. They gave out that ever since 
 William the Conqueror landed the native 
 English have been oppressed. Colonel 
 Lilburne was lodged in prison for favour- 
 ing the Levellers. 
 
 II. 1647. A political party which made 
 terms with Cromwell in November, and 
 demanded the king's death in the No- 
 vember following (1648). Their platform 
 was the perfect equality of man and the 
 abolition of all ranks and degrees. 
 Tlie French Quixotic conceit of 'liberty, 
 equality, and fraternity' well expresses 
 the levellers' charter. Levellers were 
 first called Rationalists. 
 
 III. In Irish history, 1760, Levellers 
 were agrarian rebels, afterwards called 
 "Whiteboys. They were called Levellers 
 from their levelling the hedges of enclosed 
 commons, and began their work in Tip- 
 perary. Subsequently they enlarged their 
 programme, and set up for the general 
 redress of agrarian grievances connected 
 with the letting, buying, and selling of 
 land, hiring and eviction, tithes and 
 rates. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 'Leviathan.' Hobbes's great work 
 is an ideal Commonwealth, called by 
 him ' the Matter, Form, and Power of a 
 Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.' 
 It fearlessly attacks early scripture au- 
 
LEX 
 
 LIA 
 
 517 
 
 tliorities, and has always been one of 
 the strongholds of sceptics. Hobbes 
 considered the philosopher Locke a sup- 
 porter of his principles. 
 
 Lex Emilia Sumptuaria. A 
 
 law by Marcus ^milius Lepidus, consul 
 B.C. 78, limiting both the quantity and 
 kind of foods to be used at banquets and 
 other entertainments. See ' Lex Licinia.' 
 
 Lex Carolina, 1532. A law of 
 the German Empiie j)assed in the reign 
 of Charles V., whence the name. It 
 regulated the criminal procedure, and 
 put an end to the arbitrary processes 
 which had hitherto prevailed. It fur- 
 thermore enjoined the publicity of 
 debates and the publication of all judi- 
 cial sentences. 
 
 Lex Fabia de Plagiariis. A 
 
 law against literary ' thieves ' or plagia- 
 rists. The punishment was either a fine 
 or being sent to the mines. 
 
 Lex Hortensia ordained that mar- 
 ket days {nundincE) should in future be 
 fasti or court days, that country people 
 might get their lawsuits determined when 
 they came to town for market. 
 
 Non-court days were called by the old Komans 
 nefasti ; i.e. not fasti or court days. 
 
 Lex Licinia Sumptuaria, B.C. 55. 
 
 A sumptuary law forbidding more than 
 3 lbs. of fresh meat and 1 lb. of salt meat 
 to be served up at table on any one day. 
 The Fannian law, B.C. IGS, forbade that more 
 than one fowl should be served at any one table, 
 and that not a fattened one, quic non altilis esset. — 
 Gel. ii. 24. See ' Lex yEmilia,' &c. 
 
 Lex non Seripta. Common law 
 in contradistinction to statute law. It 
 may be written or printed, but does not 
 derive its authority thus. The written 
 document is a mere description or 
 memorial of the customs which have 
 prevailed. 
 
 Lex Oppia, b.c. 213. That no 
 woman should wear more than half an 
 ounce of gold, nor wear a dress of two 
 colours, nor ride in a carriage within half 
 a mile of any city or town. 
 
 Lex Papia Poppaea, a.d. 9. To 
 promote population. It gave rewards to 
 marriage and imposed penalties on celi- 
 bacy. Those who had three children 
 had several privileges. See ' Jus Trium,' 
 &c. Those who were bachelors could 
 not succeed to any inheritance except of 
 
 their nearest relations, and even then a 
 part was forfeit to the state. 
 
 Lex Poreia prohibited the scourg- 
 ing of a Roman citizen. Paul refers to 
 this prohibition, Acts xxii. 25. 
 
 Lex Regia of Denmark, 1665. A 
 law to fix the order of succession in the 
 royal house. 
 
 Lex Talionis. The law of retalia- 
 tion, as an eye for an eye, and a tooth for 
 a tooth. See ' Vendetta,' ' Rimbecco.' 
 
 Lexington {The glorious Victory 
 in the Battle of), 19 April, 1775. This 
 was no battle, but a mere skirmish, in 
 which the Americans had the advantage. 
 Its sole importance is that it was the 
 first fight between the colonists and the 
 British soldiers. Governor Gage had 
 sent a detachment of 800 men to destroy 
 a depot of stores and arms at Concord, 
 about twenty miles from Boston in Mas- 
 sachusetts. The British reached Lex- 
 ington at five in the morning, but were 
 resisted there, and at one of the bridges 
 near Concord by the American minute- 
 men iq.v.). Some 20,000 Americans came 
 rushing to resist, and the Bi'itish had to 
 retire with the loss of 60 killed and 136 
 wounded. The Americans had 80 killed 
 and about as many more wounded. 
 
 Lia Fail (The) of Ireland. The 
 * Fatale Manner ' or ' Stone of Destiny.' 
 So called from the tradition that wher- 
 ever tliis stone was the jjeople would be 
 the dominant power. Hence the Latin 
 distich : 
 
 Ni fallat fatum, Scoti, quocunque locatum 
 Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. 
 
 It was brought to Ireland by the Tuatha 
 na Danaan {q.v.) and set up in Tara, 
 the capital of Bregia. Upon this stone 
 the ancient Irish kings were installed. 
 Fergus, the leader of the Dalraidic 
 colony {q.v.) in Argyllshire, brought it 
 over with him to Albany (West Scot- 
 land), but Kenneth II., the conqueror 
 of the Picts, removed it from Argyll to 
 Scone in 8i0, and Scotland was then 
 called ' the Kingdom of Scone.' In 1296 
 Edward I. carried it to London, where 
 ever since it has been in Westminster 
 Abbey. Over it is a rude chair on which 
 our monarchs sit to be crowned. 
 
 According to Keating (' History of Ire- 
 land '), ' Lia ' means a stone, and ' Fail' 
 is for Falias, the city whence the stone 
 
518 
 
 LIBELLATICI 
 
 LIBEET^S 
 
 was removed to Tara in Ireland. The 
 tradition is that this stone is the very- 
 one that Jacob used for his j)illow when 
 he had the vision about the ladder. 
 
 The Fatale Marmor does not seem to be the 
 same stone as the Lia Fail. The Lia Fail we are 
 told was a pillar nine feet high ; but the Fatale 
 Marmor was a syenite (like Pompey's pillar at 
 Alexandria), 20 inches long, 10 inches thick, and 
 about 17 broad. 
 
 Libellatici. Those Christians who 
 had a libellus or certificate from a hea- 
 then magistrate to show that they had 
 complied with the emperor's order in 
 sacrificing or offerirrg incense to idols* 
 
 Libellus Pacis, 3rd cent. A cer- 
 tificate of peace given by some con- 
 fessor to a lapsed Cliristian procuring 
 readmission into Christian communion. 
 The form was as follows . * Let * * be 
 received into church communion, with 
 all those who belong to him.' 
 
 Liber Albus, 1419. The White 
 Book of the city of London compiled by 
 John Carpenter, town clerk of the city 
 of London, and one of the four executors 
 of the famous * Dick Whittington.' It 
 contains the various ordinances regulat- 
 ing the internal trade of the city, its laws 
 and customs. The book was edited by 
 H. T. Kiley, and printed in 1859 (' Monu- 
 menta Gildhallse Loudoniensis '). 
 
 Liber Censualis AngliaB. The 
 
 ' Rate-book of England.' So Doomsday 
 Book [q.v.) was sometimes called. 
 
 Liber de "Wintonia. The Book 
 of Winchester. Doomsday Book was so 
 called because it was anciently pre- 
 served under three locks and keys in the 
 royal treasury of that city. 
 
 Liber Niger Seaccarii {The). 
 
 A roll of military tenants made in the 
 reign of Henry II. of England. The 
 tenants enrolled in this book held single 
 knight's fees of the crown. See p. 95. 
 
 Books of magic and necromancy were called 
 'Libri Nigri,' ' Libri sacra nigredine colorati ' ; or 
 rather, Books of the Black Art. 
 
 Liber Reg's. So Doomsday Book 
 {q.v.) was called. See ' King's Book.' 
 
 Liber Vitas, of the Middle Ages, 
 was the Martyrology. 
 
 Liber Viventium, of the Middle 
 Ages, was the book in which the allow- 
 ances or ' commons ' of the monks were 
 registered. 
 
 Liberal Union {The), 1887. An 
 association of Unionists of all shades of 
 ' Liberal opinion ' for the dissemination 
 of Unionist principles, i.e. against the 
 separation of Ireland from England by 
 giving to Ireland ' Home Eule.' From 
 1886 they acted with Lord Salisbury's 
 Conservative government and broke away 
 from Mr. Gladstone's party, which ad- 
 vocated ' Home Rule ' {q.v.). 
 
 Liberator {The). I. Daniel O'Con- 
 nell, also called ' The Agitator ' (1775- 
 1847). He began to take a leading part 
 in promoting the claims of Roman Ca- 
 tholics in 1803. Daniel O'Connell with 
 Sheil founded the New Catholic Asso- 
 ciation in 1823 ; set up the Repeal Asso- 
 ciation in 1840 ; and held monster meet- 
 ings in 1843. 
 
 IL Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). 
 The finest character for manly independ- 
 ence, self-renunciation, military re- 
 sources, and civil administration com- 
 bined that ever existed. He liberated 
 Sicily and Naples; and did much to 
 unify the thirteen Italian states under 
 the one sway of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 Liberator Clubs, 1828. Clubs 
 
 established by Daniel O'Connell in every 
 part of Ireland, in connection with the 
 Catholic Association {q.v.). Each branch 
 had its own organisation and internal 
 managem^ent ; and all the clubs were so 
 knit together as to insure at any time a 
 simultaneous movement. 
 
 Liberators, 1828. A faction esta- 
 blished in Ireland by Daniel O'Connell 
 to prevent the formation of secret 
 societies, and to conciliate all Ireland in 
 one brotherhood, having in view the two 
 great objects, Catholic Emancipation and 
 equal civil rights for all. The Liberators 
 were bound to prevent riots and faction 
 fights, to protect voters from the ven- 
 geance of their landlords, to promote ex- 
 clusive dealings with ' friends of religious 
 and civil liberty,' and to use every effort 
 to promote in Ireland the exclusive use 
 of Irish growth, 'breeding, and manufac- 
 ture. The force of O'Connell was moral 
 force only. 
 
 Libert^s G-allieanes. The Gallic 
 Church insists that there are two distinct 
 powers, one spiintual and the other tem- 
 poral; that infallibility does not reside 
 in the pope but in the church or whole 
 
LIBERTINES 
 
 LICINIAN 
 
 B19 
 
 body episcopal ; and that the judgments 
 of general councils are authoritative. In 
 1682 Bossuet reduced the Liberies Gal- 
 licanes into the following items : (1) The 
 church must be ruled by the canons ; (2) 
 the power of St. Peter and his successors 
 is only spiritual ; (3) the laws and con- 
 stitution of the kingdom are independent 
 of the church ; (4) the decrees and judg- 
 ments of the pope may be reformed. 
 Hincmar, Gerson, Bossuet, the Abbe 
 Fleury, Cardinal La Luzerne, Bausset, 
 Frayssinous, Guillon, Boyer, Affre, and 
 others were great sticklers for this liberty 
 of the Gallic Church. 
 
 Libertines. I. Acts vi. 9. Jews 
 manumitted by the Romans, to whom 
 probably were added those, like Paul,who 
 were admitted to the Roman franchise. 
 These Jews and proselytes had a syna- 
 gogue of their own. 
 
 II. 1525. A religious sect in the re- 
 formed church founded by Quintin, a 
 tailor of Picardy, and a man named Copin. 
 Their disciples were at liberty to be either 
 Calvinists or Lutherans. Their chief 
 tenets were (a) that whatever is done, 
 God is the doer of it ; and (b) that nothing 
 is sinful but what you think to be so. 
 
 III. Of J^/ore^ce were those who cared 
 neither for a republican form of govern- 
 ment, such as Savonarola wanted to esta- 
 blish ; nor yet an oligarchy ; nor yet for 
 a tyranny in the hands of one of the 
 Medici; but only for a laissez-aller go- 
 vernment where every one might do as 
 he liked. 
 
 These political quidnuncs had evidently gra- 
 duated in the Abbey of Theltme, over the door 
 of which institution was inscribed ' FAIS CE QUE 
 
 VOULDEAS.' 
 
 Liberty {The Feast of), b.c. 479. 
 An annual festival held on the site of the 
 battle of Platea, to commemorate the 
 victory won over the Persians in that 
 famous battle. 
 
 Liberty of December (T/ie). The 
 
 Feast of Fools, 28 Dec, in honour of the 
 slaughtered Innocents of Bethlehem. 
 Monks joined in the suj)reme foolery of 
 this festival (Du Tilliot, ' Me'moires pour 
 servir a I'histoire de la Fete des Fous). 
 
 Liberty Tree (The), 1765. A tree 
 in Boston, Massachusetts, on which the 
 Boston insurgents hung the effigy of Mr. 
 Oliver, the newly-appointed stamp-dis- 
 tributor of the British government. The 
 sffigy was subsequently burnt in a bonfire. 
 
 This was the commencement of the 
 American revolt for independence. 
 
 'Trees of Liberty" (q.v.) -were quite different 
 affairs. 
 
 Libiti'na. The Roman goddess in 
 whose temple was kept all the parapher- 
 nalia required for funerals ; whence the 
 word was used for funeral apparatus 
 generally, and Hhitinarius in Latin 
 means an undertaker. 
 
 Libitinse Ratio. The register of 
 deaths. The name of every one who died 
 was recorded by the Romans in a register 
 so called. See above. 
 
 Librarian of the Republic of 
 
 Letters. John Albert Fabricius of 
 Leipsic, who died 1736, aged 68. So called 
 from his intimate acquaintance with 
 books. 
 
 'Libri Symbolici Ecclesi89 
 
 Evangelicae.' Books of faith and 
 discipline were so called by the Lutherans. 
 Tliey consisted of the three Catholic 
 creeds (viz. the Apostles', the Nicene, and 
 the Athanasian), the Augsburg Confession, 
 the Aiiology for that confession by Me- 
 lanchthon, theArticles of Smalkald drawn 
 up by Luther, Luther's Catechisms, and 
 the Formula of Concord, called the Book 
 of Torgau. See each of these in loco. 
 
 Lichfield House Compact ( The), 
 
 1834. A caucus opposed to the govern- 
 ment of Sir Robert Peel and the toi'ies 
 generally. Lord John Russell met his 
 chief supporters at Lichfield House to 
 initiate them into his Reform measures ; 
 and, after the fall of the Whig ministry 
 on the resignation of Lord Grey, it is 
 there that he laid down the tactics which 
 the Whigs should adopt. 
 
 Lichtmesse, or ' Festum Candelae,' 
 The festival of a founder. 
 
 LicinianRogations (TMjB.c. 376. 
 
 Three bills brought in by Licinius the tri- 
 bune of the plebs, (1) authorising that tlie 
 interest paid on loans should be deducted 
 from the principal ; (2) limiting the 
 amount of public land held by any indi- 
 vidual to 500 jugera (320 acres) ; and (3) 
 ordaining that one of the two consuls 
 should be a plebeian. 
 
 By public lands was meant the lands of con- 
 quered people taken possession of by the con- 
 querors. Thus William the Conqueror parcelled 
 the land of England into fiefs among his barons. 
 
B20 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL 
 
 LIMERICK 
 
 Lieutenant-Genera,! of France. 
 
 A temporary dignity conferred on the Due 
 de Guise in 1558 and 1500 ; on Prince de 
 Conde in 1563 ; on the Due d'Anjou in 
 15G7 ; on the Due de Mayenne in 1589 ; on 
 the Due d'Orle'ans in 1643; on Comte 
 d'Artois in April 1814 ; and on Louis 
 Phihppe in July 1830. 
 
 L^* ght of Greece {The). Corinth is 
 called by Cicero ' lumen totius Greeiae,' 
 yet it is somewhat remarkable that 
 Corinth has not produced one single 
 author whose name has come down to our 
 knowledge. Boeotia, proverbially dull and 
 stupid, was the birthplace of Pindar. 
 
 Light of the World {The). Sieg- 
 mund {q.v.), or Sigismund, kaiser-king of 
 Germany (1368, 1410-1437), master of six 
 languages. 
 
 Jocosely called Supra Grammnticam, because on 
 one occasion -when he had blundered in his Latin 
 he replied, ' Ego sum Imperator Eomanorum, et 
 BUpra grammaticam.' 
 
 Light-armed Troops. The Bri- 
 tish cavalry is subdivided into light, 
 heavy, and mediuna. The Ught-arined 
 are the Hussars; the heavy-&vm.ed are 
 the 4th and 5th Dragoon Guards, and the 
 1st and 2nd Dragoons ; the medhtm in- 
 clude the Lancers, and the rest of the 
 Dragoon Guards and Dragoons. 
 
 Lightfoot Scholarship. For 
 
 history. One every year for undergraduates 
 of the University of Cambridge. Value 
 Ahl. a year, tenable for 3 years. Founded 
 by the Rev. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, D.D., 
 Hulsean Professor of Divinity 1870. 
 
 Lightning or Thunderbolt ( The). 
 
 I. Stephen II. of Hungary (1100, 1114- 
 1131). So called from his impetuosity. 
 
 II. Bajazet I. sultan of the Turks was 
 surnamed ' Ilderim ' (the Lightning) for 
 his fiery impetuosity (1347, 1389-1403). 
 
 Light-shot. A kind of Church 
 rate. 
 
 When the Danes were overthrown at Ethandune 
 Alfred allowed them to settle in a part of England 
 assigned to them, on condition of their paying 
 tithes, Rome-shot (Peter's pence), Light-shot, and 
 plough-alms (rent-charge). 
 
 Liguorists {The), or 'Liguorians, 
 1732. Disciples of Alphonso Maria de 
 Liguori of Naples. His followers are 
 called ' Redemptorists,' and his Institute 
 is the 'Very Holy Redeemer.' The object 
 of this foundation is to supply preachers 
 and teachers in rural districts. 
 
 St. Alphonso Maria Liguori (169G-1787). His In- 
 
 stitution received the sanction of Benedict XIV. 
 and Clement XII. 
 
 Ligurian Republic {The), 1797. 
 
 Established by Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 Genoa was the principal territory of that 
 part of Italy called by the Romans 
 ' Liguria.' 
 
 Ligyan, i.e. ' Ligurian.' 
 
 Lilacs and the Blues {The). Two 
 rival x^arties in the court of Francois I. 
 The lilacs were the partisans of Madame 
 d'Etampes ; the blues were the partisans 
 of Diane de Poitiers. Madame d'Etampes 
 was the mistress of the king ; Diane de 
 Poitiers was the mistress of the dauphin, 
 Henri II. Madame d'Etampes, to throw 
 a flimsy veil over her amours, was * mar- 
 ried ' to Jean de Brosse ; and Diane de 
 Poitiers was the young widow of Louis 
 de Breze. Both king and dauphin had 
 a wife living at the time. Madame 
 d'Etampes was 9 years the younger. She 
 died at the age of 67 ; her rival died at the 
 age of 68. 
 
 Lilburne Agreement {The), 
 1 May, 1049. Lilburne's reformed pro- 
 gramme of 'The Agreement of the 
 People ' {q.v.). (1) It protested against 
 the convocation of parliaments only for 
 six months every two years, the council 
 ruling without restraint the other eigh- 
 teen months ; (2) it insisted on an annual 
 parliament, with a committee during the 
 recess ; (3) no member to be eligible for 
 re-election ; (4) no officer to be eligible, 
 the term of every officer's commission in 
 the army to be limited ; (5) the high court 
 of justice and council of state to be 
 abolished ; (6) all proceedings in the law- 
 courts to be in English only ; (7) the fees 
 of lawyers to be reduced ; (8) excise and 
 customs to be abolished ; (9) the religion 
 to be reformed ; (10) tithes to be abolished, 
 and (11) the stipend of every minister 
 to be fixed at 150Z. a year, to be raised by 
 the parish rates. 
 
 What would Dissenters say now to No. 11 ? 
 
 Lily {Knights of the), 1048. A mili- 
 tary order of Navarre, founded by Garcia. 
 
 Limerick {Treaty of), 3 Oct., 1691. 
 Concluded with the Irish by General 
 Ginkell, in the reign of William III. By 
 this treaty the Catholics of Ireland were 
 granted freedom of worship; allowed 
 the use of arms ; the possession of their 
 estates ; the right to sit in parliament, to 
 
LIMITATION 
 
 LINGERER 
 
 521 
 
 vote at elections, to practise law and 
 medicine, and to engage in trade and com- 
 merce. Those of the Irish soldiery who 
 preferred it were allowed to accept service 
 under some friendly foreign power. 
 
 The alleged violation of the treaty by the go- 
 vernment has been the subject of frequent and 
 acrimonious controversy by Irish demagogues. 
 
 TiiinitSitioTi {The Statute of ). Came 
 into operation 1 Jan., 1879. By this act 
 twelve years' possession is a bar to any 
 action for the recovery of real estate, un- 
 less the i^laintiff during those years was 
 an infant, in which case eighteen years 
 is a bar. 
 
 For all ordinary debts the limitation is six years. 
 After which time they are ' statute run." 
 
 Limited Liabilities. In 1862 was 
 passed the ' Joint Stock Limited Com- 
 panies Act,' which authorised any seven 
 persons or more to incorporate themselves 
 with a stated nominal capital to carry on 
 their concern ; but limited the liability of 
 a shareholder to the nominal value of 
 the number of shares held by him. 
 
 Limited Liability. 18, 19 Vict. 
 c. 133 (1855). An Act of Parliament 
 limiting the liability of subscribers to a 
 joint-stock company to the number of 
 shares awarded to them by the dii'ectors 
 of the company. Before the passing of 
 this act each shareholder was liable to 
 an unlimited extent for all the debts of 
 the company, whether they held few or 
 many shares. 
 
 Lincoln. Impeachment of Dr. King 
 bishop of Lincoln, for ' ritualistic prac- 
 tices,' by the Church Evangelical Society 
 in 1889. The case was tried before the 
 Archbishop of Canterburj'', assisted bj^ 
 the Bishops of London, Oxford, Here- 
 ford, and Salisbury. The verdict was 
 not given in Aug. 1890, when this article 
 was passing through the press. 
 
 Lincoln College, Oxford, 1427. 
 Founded by Richard Fleming, bishop of 
 Lincoln. The head-master is called the 
 rector. 
 
 Lincoln Green. Lincoln at one 
 time dyed the best green in all England, 
 Coventry the best blue, and Yorkshire 
 the best greys. Kendal was also noted 
 for its green. 
 
 Lindsey. The north-east part of 
 Lincolnshire, forming an insular district, 
 
 and including the wolds or chalk hills. 
 The other two parts are called Holland 
 and Kesteven {q.v.). 
 
 Lindisfarne MS. {The). Other- 
 wise known as the Durham Book, now in 
 the Cottonian collection in the British 
 Museum. It contains the four Gospels, in 
 Latin, with various prefatory matter by 
 St. Jerome, and was written about the 
 year 700 A.D., in the island of Lindis- 
 farne, by Eadfrith, who was bishop from 
 A.D. 698 to 721. It is remarkable foi the 
 beauty of the characters in v/hich it is 
 written, the unusual stoutness of the 
 parchment, and for the coloured geo- 
 metrical patterns which adorn four of its 
 pages. Besides this it contains a gloss 
 in the old Northumbrian dialect, written 
 by a priest named Aldred, after a.d. 950. 
 The Lindisfarne MS. has been printed 
 (inaccurately) for the Surtees Society, also 
 (partially) by Bouterwek, and (fully) by 
 Professor Skeat for the Pitt Press. 
 
 Supplied by Professor Skeat. 
 
 Lines of Boiilair {The), 1854, in 
 Gallipoli. Entrenchments tlirown up by 
 the united French and English army, 
 extending from the Gulf of Saros to the 
 Sea of Marmora. 
 
 Lines of Torres Vedras, in 
 
 Portugal, 1809-1810. Lines of defence 
 within which Wellington took refuge in 
 1810, when he found it impossible to 
 defend the frontier of Portugal against 
 the French armies. From these lines he 
 issued in 1811, and drove the French out 
 of the peninsula. The first line ex- 
 tended from Alhandra to the mouth of 
 the Sizandro, and was twenty-nine miles 
 long. The second stretched from Quin- 
 tella to the mouth of the St. Lorenza, 
 and was twenty-four miles long. The 
 third line, at the mouth of the Tagus, 
 was very short, but the entire ground 
 thus fortified was 500 square miles. 
 
 Lingerer {The). Quintus Fabius 
 Maximus, who was sent against Hanni- 
 bal, refused battle, and harassed the 
 invader by cutting off his supplies, inter- 
 cepting his communications, falling on 
 foraging parties, and watching oppor- 
 tunities of minor attacks. Ennius snys 
 ' Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit 
 rem,' and the well-known English equiva- 
 lent is, ' Win, like Fabius, by delay.' 
 
B22 
 
 LINGUA 
 
 LION'S 
 
 Lingua Franca. A medley of 
 
 Italian, French, and Teutonic. 
 
 Lion (The). 1. Heinrich duke of 
 Bavaria and Saxony, son of Heinricli tlie 
 Proud (1129-1195). 
 
 II. Louis VIII. of France, who was 
 bom under the sign Leo (1187, 1223- 
 1226). 
 
 III. William of Scotland, who chose 
 a red lion rampant for his cognizance 
 (*, 1165-1214). 
 
 A] J Arslan, son of Togrul Bey, the Perso- 
 Turkish monarch, was called 'I'he Valiant Lion 
 (*, 1063-1072). 
 
 Arioch al J sscr was the ' Lion king of Assyria' 
 (B.C. 1927-1897). 
 
 Lion-liearted [The). Cceur-de-lion. 
 Richard I. of England was so called 
 (1157, 1189-1199). 
 
 It is said that a lyon was put to kynge Richarde, 
 beying in prison ... to devour him, and when 
 tlae lyon was gapynge he put his arme in his 
 mouth, and pulled the lyon by the harte so hard 
 that he slewe the lyon ; and therefore ... ho is 
 called Hicharde Cure de ii/o/i.— Rastall, Chronicle 
 (loo2). 
 
 Lion Rouge [Le). Marshal Ney, 
 famous for his large crop of red hair and 
 red whiskers (1769-1815). 
 
 Lion Sermon [The). Preached in 
 October at St. Katlierine Cree, London, 
 in memory of Sir John Gayor's deliver- 
 ance from a lion 'in the deserts of 
 Araby,' during the reign of James I. or 
 Charles I. 
 
 This was above 250 years ago. At present there 
 are no lions in Arabia. Sir John Gayor was a 
 London merchant, travelling about Asia, &c. He 
 bequeathed 200/. for the relief of the poor on 
 condition that a commemorative sermon on his 
 escape was preached at the time appointed. We 
 are told that Sir John was on his knees in prayer 
 when the lion came up, smelt about him, 
 prowled round and round him, and then ran oil. 
 
 Lion of Bohemia {The). A lion 
 with two tails. 
 
 Lion of England {The). Napo- 
 leon said, ' Let us chase these leopards 
 into the sea,' and Bertrand du Guesclin 
 said that men ' devoyent bien honorer la 
 noble Fleur-de-lis, plus qu'ils ne faisaient 
 le felon leoj)ard,' The English lion is 
 what is called a lion leoparde. The 
 leopard was the crest of the dukes of 
 Normandy — as Honore Caille du Fourni 
 (or Fourny) says, ' le leopard ayant ete 
 pris par ces princes et seigneurs normands 
 qui ctaient souvent sortis hors mariage 
 . . . pour repre'senter leur naissance par 
 le le'oiaard, bitard du lion '; and, continues 
 the great antiquary, both displayed alike 
 
 'Icur naturelle generosite, dont I'un et 
 I'autre de ces animaux est le symbole.' 
 
 Lion of God {The). I. Ah, the 
 cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed 
 ' the prophet ' (born 602, kalif 656-660). 
 He married Fatima, the prophet's daugh- 
 ter, and left two sons, Hassan and Hosein 
 i or Hussein. 
 
 II. Hamza. Gabriel told Mohammed 
 that his uncle Hamza was registered in 
 heaven as The Lion of God and his 
 prophet. 
 
 Lion of Janina {The). All Pasha, 
 overthrown by Ibrahim Pasha (1741, 
 
 1788-1822). 
 
 Lion of Justice {The). Henry I. 
 (Beauclerc), 1068, 1100-1135. So called 
 from his efforts to abolish rapine, and to 
 subject all to the government of law. 
 
 Afuer two dragons, the Lion of Justice shall 
 come, at whose roaring the Gallic towers and 
 island serpents shall tremble. — Merlin 's Prupliecics. 
 
 Lion of Lucerne {The). Hewn out 
 of the living sandstone rock ; is 28 feet 
 long and 18 high. It was designed by 
 Thorwaldsen, and stands outside the city 
 walls. This gigantic lion is in commemo- 
 ration of the Swiss guards who fell at 
 Paris in 1792, while defending the Tui- 
 leries. 
 
 Lion of St. Mark {The). A winged 
 lion over the entrance to the Arsenal of 
 Venice. Between its fore-paws is a book, 
 with the words Pax tibi Marce Evange- 
 lista mens. When Napoleon Bonaparte 
 took possession of Venice in 1797 he 
 changed the inscription over the arsenal 
 to these words : ' The Rights of Man and 
 of Citizenship.' 
 
 In 1797, when Venice fell to the French, Bona- 
 parte removed this lion to Paris. It was restored 
 in 1815, but was injured in the tranbit. It has 
 been carefully repaired. 
 
 Lion of Sweden (T^e). John von 
 Banier (Bannier, or Baner), a Swedish 
 general who distinguished himself in the 
 Thirty Years' War (1595-1641). 
 
 Lion of the Horth {The). Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus king of Sweden (1594, 
 1611-1632). 
 
 Lion's Den {The). The castle of 
 Dalkeith, about six miles from Edinburgh, 
 where Morton resided when deprived of 
 the regency. Morton was the old lion 
 much dreaded by the people of Scotland, 
 and though retired into private life, 
 everyone thought he was merely lurking 
 
LIONS' 
 
 LITANY 
 
 523 
 
 in his d-en, waiting for a favourable oppor- 
 tunity. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott says of Morton, 'his ambition 
 could hardly be gratified with power, nor his 
 avarice with money ; and he united a degree of sel- 
 fish profligacy with great pretensions of religion.' 
 
 Lions' Mouths {The), Venice. 
 Under the arcade at the top of the 
 Giant's Stairs {q.v.) are pillar boxes 
 formed like gaping lions, into the mouths 
 of which it was customary to deposit 
 anonymous charges. 
 
 Lions in Europe. Shakespeare 
 has been blamed for introducing a lion 
 into Greece in his ' Midsummer Night's 
 Dream,' but Buffon says there were lions 
 in Tlu-ace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, even 
 in the days of Aristotle. Herodotus says, 
 when Xerxes led his army through Peeonia 
 lions came and devoured his camels. 
 
 Lions of Venice (The), 1G84. The 
 two marble lions which sentinel the gates 
 of the Arsenal at Venice were trophies 
 found in the Piraeus when Athens was 
 bombarded by Francesco Moroceno, the 
 doge, surnamed ' Peloponnesiacus.' 
 
 The inscription runs thus : Franciscus Mauro- 
 cenus Peloponnesiacus expugnatis Athenis, mar- 
 morea leonum simulacra triumphal! manu e Pir ebo 
 direpta in patriam transtulit, futura Veneti 
 Leonis quae fuerant Minervae Atticje ornamenta.' 
 
 *,* In St. Mark's Square are two pillars of 
 oriental granite, one surmounted with a statue of 
 St. Theodore, and the other with the brazen lion 
 of St. Mark. The brazen lion must not be con- 
 founded with the two marble lions before the 
 arsenal. 
 
 Lions of the Punjab (TJie). The 
 Sikhs or Singhs {i.e. lions) ; unrivalled in 
 India for comeliness, courage, and the 
 powers of endurance. 
 
 Lionne {La). Mdlle. Paulet, the 
 lady whom Henri IV. (after he had called 
 on Sully) was going to visit. It was in 
 this visit that he was assassinated by 
 Kavaillac. 
 
 Liquidated Damage. A certain 
 fixed and ascertained sum, in contradis- 
 tinction to a penalty which is both un- 
 certain, dubious, and unascertained. 
 
 Lis {St.), or ' Liz,' is Simon Senlis, 
 son of Landry de Senlis lord of Chantilly 
 and Ermenonville. He v/as rewarded by 
 the Conqueror with the earldom of North- 
 ampton, and the hand of Maud daughter 
 of Judith and Waltheof. 
 
 Listerise. A verb derived from the 
 name of Sir Joseph Lister of Edinburgh, 
 and meaning ' to sterilise by antiseptics.' 
 
 All instruments used in any surgical 
 operation are bathed in a carbolised bath, 
 and so are the fingers of the operator, in 
 order to sterilise them — that is, to sterilise 
 any germs of disease which may happen 
 to be on them. This is done to prevent 
 pyaemia or blood-poisoning. See 'Pas- 
 teurise.' 
 
 Somewhere between 1880 and 1886. 
 Lit de Justice iLe). On de'signait 
 ainsi les seances solennelles du roi (of 
 France) au parlement. It originally 
 meant the throne on which the king sat 
 in these sessions. The first lit de justice 
 was held in 1318 under Philippe le Long, 
 and the last was held at Marseilles by 
 Louis XVI. in 1788. In a lit de justice 
 the king's word was enough to constitute 
 a law, and insist on its being registered 
 by the Paris parlement. 
 
 Any 'solemn seance' over which the king of 
 France presided was loosely called a lit dejusUce. 
 
 Litany. A prayer of supplication, 
 each petition of which is announced by 
 the officiating priest and then taken up 
 by the congregation. A ' liturgy ' is a 
 Common Prayer-book containing the 
 Litany and many other prayers. The 
 Litany of the Anglican Church is very 
 similar to that of the Catholic ritual, 
 omitting all invocations to saints and the 
 Virgin Mary. 
 
 The first litany is ascribed to St. Mamert bishop 
 of Vienne, 4fi9. 
 
 Litany {The Greater), ' Litania 
 Major,' was instituted in 590 by Gregory 
 the Great. Also called ' Litania Septi- 
 formis.' 
 
 Litany (T/i.e Minor), 'Litania Minor.' 
 The Gallic Litany is so called. 
 
 That part of the Anglican Litany which follows 
 ' O Christ, hear us ' is called the Lesser Litany. 
 
 Litany of the Blessed Virgin 
 {The), or the Litany of Our Lady of 
 Loretto. The prayers are, for the most 
 part, addressed to the Virgin Mary. The 
 Litany of Aquileia was sung at St. Mark's, 
 ' in officio hebdomadge ma j oris basilicas 
 S. Marci.' Both were specially sung on 
 Saturdays, Saturday being peculiarly 
 sacred to the Virgin Mary. Tliis litany 
 forms no part of the ordinary ritual of 
 the Church. 
 
 Every Dominican friar was ordered to say daily 
 after matins seven psalrns and litanies of the 
 Virgin.— Lea, History u/ the Inquisition, vol.i. p. 288 
 
 Litany of the Wame of Jesus 
 
 {The). One of the three litanies of the 
 Catholic Church. It consists of prayers 
 
524 
 
 LITANY 
 
 LITTLE 
 
 and Pvddresses to Jesus under his several 
 relations to men, with references to his 
 suiTerings. Date supposed to be the 15th 
 cent. 
 
 The litany forms no part of the ordinary ritual 
 of the Catholic Church. 
 
 Litany of the Saints {The). The 
 most ancient of the three Catholic litanies, 
 and the only one contained in the common 
 service books of the church. It is used 
 on Eogation days, in the ordination ser- 
 vice, the consecration services, and so on. 
 
 The other two were ' The Litany of the name ol 
 Jesus ' and the 'Litany of Our Lady of Loretto.' 
 
 Literary Club (T/ie). From 1764 
 a certain number of literary friends used 
 to meet together pretty constantly at the 
 Turk's Head, Garrick being one of the 
 party. On the death of Garrick in 1779, 
 nine of the party formed tliemselves into 
 a Literary Club. Dr. Johnson, Dr. 
 Oliver Goldsmith, Dr. Kobert Nugent, 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Sir John Hawkins, 
 Edmund Burke, Anthony Chamier, M.P., 
 Topham Beauclerk, and Mr. Langton. In 
 1791 the number of members was in- 
 creased to thirty-nine, and the club was 
 transferred to the Thatched House, St. 
 James's Street, and in 1845 it had 
 amongst its members the Earl of Aber- 
 deen, Lord Brougham, Bishop Copleston, 
 Bishop Blomfield, Dr. Burney, &c. 
 
 Boswell and Gibbon belonged to the club, but 
 •were not of the original nme. 
 
 Literary Forgeries and Impos- 
 tors. 
 
 Acts of Pilate {Acta Filati). 1. The 
 account said to have been written by 
 Pilate to the Emperor Tiberius about 
 the character and miracles of Jesus. 2. 
 An account full of slanders against Jesus, 
 accusing Him of ' blasi)hemy.' Mentioned 
 by ' Eusebius,' book ix. 5. 
 
 Neither of these acts can be depended on. 
 Origen tells us there were numberless other acts 
 'fabricated by Cliristiaus.' — Agdinst Celsus. 
 
 See under 
 
 Acta Pilati. 
 Amber Witch. 
 Annals of Tacitus. 
 Annius of Viterbo, 'An- 
 
 tiquitates Varisae.' 
 Apocryphal Scriptures. 
 Apostolic Constitutions. 
 Apostolical Canons. 
 Barnabas {Gospel of). 
 Bertram, ' De Situ Bri- 
 
 tannine.' 
 BoECE (Scotch Kings). 
 Book of Mormon. 
 Bracciolini. 
 
 Cagliostroof Literature. 
 Chasles Forgeries. 
 
 Chatterton, ' Rowley's 
 
 Poems.' 
 Christian Forgeries. 
 Chronicle of Richard of 
 
 Cirencester [.S't'c ' Monk 
 
 of Westminster]. 
 Church Forgeries. 
 Clementina. 
 Clementines. 
 Codex Diplomaticus. 
 Decretals. 
 Dionysius the Areopa- 
 
 gite. 
 Donation of Constan- 
 
 tine. 
 Eikon Basilike. 
 
 English Mercurie (a 
 newspaper). 
 
 False Decretals. 
 
 Gospels. 
 
 Hecataeus. 
 
 History of Formosa. 
 
 History of the Jews. 
 
 Ignatian Controversy. 
 
 Ireland (plays of Shake- 
 speare). 
 
 Isiac Table. 
 
 Isidorian Decretals. 
 
 Jasher (Book of). 
 
 Lauder (Plagiarisms of 
 Milton). 
 
 Letter of St. Peter to 
 
 Phoenecian Stone. 
 
 Pilati {Acta). 
 
 Porphyry, 'Oracles of 
 Philosophy.' 
 
 Protevangelium. 
 
 PSALMANAZAR, 'History 
 of Formosa.' 
 
 Riculfe archbishop of 
 Mayence. 
 
 Sanchoniatho and Sibyl- 
 line Prophecies. 
 
 Scriptures iSpurioiis). 
 
 Shapira MSS. 
 
 Sibylline Verses. 
 
 Simonides (Constavtine), 
 
 Siiuire Letters. 
 
 Pepin. Si'fi ' Peter,' &c. SCRTEES (Ballad). 
 
 Letters of Ganganelli 
 „ Percy Bysshe 
 
 SheUey. 
 ,, Phalaris. 
 Monk of Westminster, 
 same as Richard of 
 Cirencester (g.f .). 
 Orphica. 
 
 Theodosian Code (one cf 
 the edicts). 
 
 Travels of C. F. Damber- 
 ger [See Dambergcr in 
 Allibone's ' Diet. ]. 
 
 Vella, ' Codex Diplo- 
 maticus Sicilioe.' 
 
 Vrain Lucas Letters. 
 
 *,* Jean Hardouin, a French Jesuit (1506—1729), 
 says that not only all the writings of the Christian 
 Fathers, but nearly all the Greek and Latin 
 classics, are monkish forgeries. Adcensuram Scrip- 
 toriim veterum Prolegomena. This probably is a 
 gross exaggeration, but no doubt the text was 
 often interpolated in order to give colour to some 
 religious dogma or tradition. 
 
 The ' Squire Letters ' deceived Thomas Carlyle. 
 The ' Shapira MSS.' deceived several very clever 
 Egyptologists and other antiquaries. The ' Vrain 
 Lucas Letters ' deceived M. Michel Chasles, the 
 eminent French matheinaatician. The ' Shelley 
 Forgeries ' deceived Robert Browning. The stupid 
 ' Shakespearian Forgeries ' of Henry Ireland de- 
 ceived Dr. Parr the great scholar, Pye the Poet 
 Laureate, and a host of others. The ' Surtees 
 Ballad ' deceived Sir Walter Scott. The ' Amber 
 Witch ' deceived the ripest scholars of Germany. 
 The ' Inscription of the Phoenician Stone ' deceived 
 the learned Raoul Rochette, professor of archae- 
 ology, Paris. The ' Christian Forgeries of Brah- 
 manic Writings ' imposed on Voltaire, &c. So 
 that the verdict even of great scholars can in no 
 wise be depended on. 
 
 However, some nuthentic writings have been 
 pronounced spurious by scholars. Thus Henry 
 Hallam, when he reviewed Payne Knight's book 
 ('An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of 
 Taste') in the 'Edinburgh Review,' lashed most 
 unmercifullj' some Greek verses inserted therein. 
 But, alas for the critic, the verses were Pindar's ! 
 and the discovery was made too late to prevent 
 the publication of the learned criticism. 
 
 Literature {Father of Modern 
 French). Seyssel (14,50-1520), author of 
 ' The Singular History of Louis XII.' and 
 ' The Great Monarchy of France.' 
 
 Lithography {Inventor of). Sene- 
 felder (1771-1832). 
 
 Lithuania. Unclassical Latin for 
 a dependency of Poland, divided into 
 Wilna and eight other palatinates. 
 
 Litteree Humaniores. A phrase 
 introduced in the renaissance period to 
 signify the literature which mainly hu- 
 manises the world, or, as Ovid says, 
 ' Emollit mores nee sinit esse feros.' 
 
 Little Battle of Chalons {The), 
 May 1274. On the return of Edward I. 
 
LITTLE 
 
 LITTLE 
 
 525 
 
 from the Crusade the Count of Chalons 
 requested the honour of breaking a lance 
 with the crusader. Edward accepted the 
 challenge ; but, fearing treachery, he 
 took with him 1,000 men. The count 
 entered, accompanied with 2,000 men, 
 and Edward saw at once he was in a 
 trap. A furious fight ensued, in which 
 the count's party was put to flight, and 
 a large number of his men were left 
 dead. 
 
 Little Captain {The). George II. 
 He was at the battles of Oudenarde and 
 Dettingen, and when he came to the 
 throne delighted in a sort of military 
 precision. He was also very fond of 
 soldiers. It was the Jacobites who nick- 
 named him ' The Little Captain.' 
 
 Little Corporal {The). Napoleon 
 Bonaparte (1769, emp. 1804-1814, died 
 1821). 
 
 Little Daughter of St. Mark 
 
 [The). Brescia, which was the Vene- 
 tians' stronghold in Lombardy, ' His- 
 toire du Ch. Bayard,' xhdii. 
 
 Little Doomsday Book {The). 
 See the lesser of the two volumes. It 
 consists of 450 double pages of vellum, in 
 single column, and contains the counties 
 of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of Rut- 
 land, part of Lancashire, York, and 
 Chester. It seems to be a transcript of 
 the original rolls; and sets forth the 
 number of horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and 
 pigs in each manor, which details are 
 left out in the great volume. 
 
 Little Douglas. Cousin of George 
 Douglas, a lad of sixteen years of age, 
 who (2 May, 1568), while the family were 
 at supper, stole the keys of the castle 
 where Queen Mary of Scotland was con- 
 fined under the charge of Sir William 
 Douglas. The lad let Mary and her 
 attendant out of the tower when all the 
 household had gone to bed, locked the 
 gates to prevent pursuit, placed the 
 queen and her waiting-woman in a skiff, 
 and rowed them with muffled oars to the 
 opposite shore, throwing the keys into 
 the castle lake. Here Lord Seaton and 
 a party of the Hamiltons were in waiting, 
 who placed the queen on a swift horse, 
 hurried off to Niddry in West Lothian, 
 and next day to Hamilton. 
 
 Little Ease. I. A ceU in Newgate 
 into which prisoners were thrust who 
 either could not or would not pay extra 
 * garnish,' i.e. entrance money. 
 
 There is the Little Ease, for common fees of the 
 crown, rather dark, and the common sewer runs 
 below it. Some gentlemen object to the company, 
 chiefly padders [footpads] and michcrs [skulkers, 
 sneaks].— Sir W. SCOTT, I'cveiil of the Peak, chap, 
 xxxiii. 
 
 11. A kind of cage, too small for the 
 person confined therein to sit, stand, or 
 lie in. It is in the Tower of London. I 
 have seen a similar one in the Castle of 
 Loches, in which Cardinal Balue Was 
 confined for ten years by Louis XL 
 
 Little England beyond "Wales. 
 
 South Pembrokeshire, colonised by Fle- 
 mings in the reign of Henry I. Welsh 
 is not spoken in this district. 
 
 Little Gentleman in Black 
 Velvet {The). The mole which threw 
 up the hillock against which Sorrel, the 
 horse of William III., stumbled, an acci- 
 dent which ultimately caused the king's 
 death. This was a Jacobite toast in the 
 reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Little John. John Nailor was so 
 called by antiphrasis, because he was 
 above seven feet high. He was the chief 
 of Eobin Hood's band, and is said to 
 have hved between IIGO and 1220. 
 
 Little Man in Red Stockings 
 
 {The). Leopold I. kaiser-king of Ger- 
 many, of the house of Austria, son of 
 Ferdinand III. (1640, 1058-1705). 
 
 Little Parliament {The). From 
 14 July to 12 Dec, 1653, the same as the 
 Barebone Parliament {q.v.). It consisted 
 of 140 or (as some say) of 156 members, 
 six being for Wales, six for Ireland, and 
 five for Scotland, all selected by Crom- 
 well's privy council. Thi-ee months be- 
 fore its expiry, which was fixed for 3 
 Sept., 1654, they were to nominate their 
 successors ; but the house was dissolved 
 because its reforms were too rapid and 
 radical even for Cromwell and his friends. 
 See ' Parliament.' 
 
 Cromwell said : ' The Long Parliament broughfc 
 their dissolution upon themselves by despotism • 
 the Little Parliament by imbecility.'— LlNGAliD, 
 History of England, viii. 6. 
 
 Little Rome. Montague House, 
 Southwark. The cloisters of St. Mary 
 Overy fell to the llontagues at the Dis- 
 solution, and took the name of ' Monta- 
 I gue Close.' Their house became the 
 
526 
 
 LITUEGI 
 
 LITURGY 
 
 lefuge of persecuted Catholics, and 
 gained hence the name of Little Rome. 
 
 Liturgi, XetTovpyoi. According to Pa- 
 pias, Christian ministers -were so called. 
 St. Basil says they were the deacons, 
 but that priests and bishops were called 
 AeiTOvp-yot rov ©eoO. 
 
 Liturgies, Xetrovpylat. The duties 
 of the liturgi of Athens. These liturgi, 
 AeiTovpyoi, were public officers selected 
 from the most opulent citizens, who had 
 to bear, at their own cost, the chief 
 charges of public festivals, shows, and 
 banquets. Every state elected 120. The 
 expenses, B.C. 271, were transferred to 
 the state. 
 
 Liturgies {The Six Oriental). All 
 in the Syriac tongue. 
 
 1. The Liturgy of Jerusalem (q.v.). 
 
 2. „ of Antioch (q.v.). 
 
 S. „ of Alexandria (q.v.). 
 
 4. ,, of Constantinople (^.t>.). 
 
 5. The Armenian Liturgj' ((;.i;.). 
 
 6. The Nestorian Liturgy (q.v.). 
 
 Liturgies {Western). 
 
 I. Of the Catholic Church. 
 
 1. The Roman, traditionally attributed to St. 
 Peter. It received its final form from Gregory 
 the Great. 
 
 2. The Milanese or Ambrosian, attributed to St. 
 Ambrose. 
 
 3. The Galilean, supposed to have been derived 
 from the Oriental Church. 
 
 4. The Spanish or Mozarabic. derived from the 
 Greek liturgy by Isidore of Seville. 
 
 II. Of the English Protestant Church, 
 the ' Book of Common Prayer.' 
 
 Liturgies of the Greek Church 
 
 {The). The two chief are the liturgy of 
 St. Chrysostom, said to be apostolic ; 
 and the liturgy of St. Basil, used on 
 saints' days, Christmas Day, Epiphany, 
 the four Sundays of Lent, and Good 
 Friday. 
 
 Liturgy and 'Book of Common 
 Prayer.' 
 
 The first compilation of a liturgy was 
 by St. Basil in the 4th cent. 
 
 For many centuries each bishop had 
 the right of arranging a liturgy for his 
 own diocese. 
 
 The first liturgy of the Reformed 
 Anglican Church was entitled ' The 
 Godly and Pious Institution of a Chris- 
 tian Man.' It contained the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Ten Commandments, several 
 * Godly Lessons,' and Prayers for the 
 Dead. 
 
 1645. Appeared 'The King's Primer," containing 
 the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, the 
 Creed, the Ten Commandments, Graces, 
 Matins, Seven Psalms, Collects, &c. 
 
 1648. The second year of Edward VI. was intro- 
 duced ' The Order of Common Prayer,' 
 drawn up by Cranmer archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, Goodrich bishop of Ely, Holbech 
 bishop of Lincoln, Day bishop of Chiches- 
 ter, Skyp bishop of Hereford, Thirlby 
 bishop of \\'estminster, llidley then bishop 
 of Kochester, May dean of St. Paul s, Tay- 
 lor (afterwards bishop of Lincoln), Haynes 
 master of Queens' (Cambridge), Redman 
 master of Trinity (Cambridge), Cox dean of 
 Christ Church, and llobinson archdeacon 
 of Leicester (thirteen altogether). This 
 Prayer Book was based on the books 
 called the Use of Sannn, the Use of Here- 
 ford, the Use of Bangor, the Use of York, 
 and the ITse of Lincoln, and is known as 
 the First Book of Edward VI. 
 
 1549. All Antiphonals, Missals, Grails, Proces- 
 sionals, Manuals, Primers, Cowchers, .Jour- 
 nals or Diurnals, and Ordinals hitherto 
 in use were abolished. 
 
 1552. The SECOND Book of Edward VI. was in- 
 troduced, and ordered to be read in all 
 churches of the kingdom. It contained 
 the following additions : — The Exhorta- 
 tion, the Confession and Absolution, the 
 Morning and Evening Services, the Com- 
 munion Service, &c., and left out ' the 
 Mixing of Water ■with the Wine and the 
 Prayer of Oblation.' 
 The same year was published the Forty-two 
 Articles (reduced in the reign of Elizabeth 
 to thirtv-nine). 
 
 1559. (1 Eliz.). The Second Book of Edward VI. 
 (revised) was restored. The rubric against 
 the real presence was omitted, prayers 
 for the Queen and clergy were added, and 
 the vestments forbidden in 1652 were re- 
 stored (! !). 
 
 1604. (1 James I.). Some few alterations were in- 
 troduced, such as the Collects for Morning 
 and Evening, and intercession for the 
 Royal Family in the Litany. 
 
 1662. After the Restoration were added the Prayer 
 for all Sorts and Conditions of Blen, the 
 General Thanksgiving, the Prayers for 
 Ember Weeks, for Burial Service, the 
 Office of Baptism of those of Riper Years, 
 and the last translation of the Bible was 
 adopted in the Gospels and Epistles (the 
 old version of the Psalms, however, was 
 retained). The Collects for Easter Eve, 
 the Sixth Sunday after Epiphany, and the 
 Third Sunday in Advent were also in- 
 serted. 
 
 1887. Was introduced a Form of Prayer to be used 
 June 20, the day of Queen Victoria's ac- 
 cession to the crown. 
 
 1859. The services for 5 Nov. [Gunpowder Plot], 
 30 Jan. [the execution of Charles I.], and 
 29 May [the restoration of Charles II.J were 
 abolished. 
 
 Liturgy {The Ambrosian). A 
 Catholic missal, popularly ascribed to 
 St. Ambrose, and used in the diocese 
 of Milan. It is much like the Roman 
 liturgy {q-v.), but is especially interesting 
 for its allusions to ancient Christian 
 church customs. 
 
 Liturgy {The Armenian). Dates 
 from the introduction of Christianity into 
 Armenia under Gregory the Illuminator. 
 It is derived, for the most ptirt, from the 
 Liturgy of St. Chrysostom {q.v.). 
 
 Liturgy {The Gallic). Of Oriental 
 origin, probably introduced by the Greek 
 colony which settled in Marseilles, &c. 
 
LITURGY 
 
 LITURGY 
 
 527 
 
 It is not the missal now used in the 
 French dioceses, which is the Roman 
 missal, varied only in slight details. 
 
 Liturgy {The Gothic, or Mozarahic), 
 Used in the chapel of Toledo, founded 
 by Cardinal Ximenes. It is the old 
 liturgy of the Gothic church of Spain, 
 and is of Oriental origin. 
 
 Liturgy [The Nestorian). The 
 Nestorians have three liturgies: (1) the 
 Liturgy of the Apostles ; (2) the Liturgy 
 of Theodore of Mopsuestia ; and (3) the 
 Liturgy of Nestorius. The language of 
 all is Syriac, and the three are merely 
 parts of one liturgy used and adapted to 
 different occasions. 
 
 Liturgy [The Boman). The oldest 
 forms of this liturgy are to be found in 
 the three sacramentaries of Leo, Gela- 
 sius, and Gregory the Great. The last 
 of these is most conspicuous in the 
 modern missal shaped by the Council of 
 Trent (15th cent.). Revised under Pius 
 v., again under Urban VIIL, and a 
 third time under Clement VIIL 
 
 Liturgy of Alexandria {The). 
 Ascribed to St. Mark ; but the existing 
 htui'gy has received numberless addi- 
 tions and alterations, and has been 
 modified by both the great sects of the 
 Alexandrine patriarchate. 
 
 Liturgy of Antioch {The). Exists 
 in Syriac, but it is evidently a free 
 translation of the ' Liturgy of Jerusalem ' 
 [q.v.). 
 
 Liturgy of Constantinople 
 
 {The). On some occasions the Liturgy 
 of St. Basil is used in the Church of 
 Constantinople, and on other occasions 
 the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom ; but what 
 is called the ' Liturgy of Constantinople ' 
 is the Slavonic Liturgy used in the Rus- 
 sian and Russo- Greek Church. 
 
 Liturgy of Ireland {The). As- 
 similated to the Catholic liturgy of 
 England by the Council of Cashel in 
 1172. The reformed liturgy was intro- 
 duced on Easter Day 1550. 
 
 Liturgy of Jerusalem {The), 
 ascribed to St. James, is of uncertain 
 origin, and it is not known whether it 
 first appeared in the Syriac or Greek 
 language. It is now known only in the 
 Greek, and it closely resembles the text 
 
 of St. Cyril of Jerusalem in his ' Mysta- 
 gogical Lectures.' 
 
 Liturgy of Jesus Christ {The). 
 One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
 Coptic Christians, but not countenanced 
 by the patriarchs. 
 
 Liturgy of Osmund {The). The 
 Sarum Missal compiled by Osmund 
 bishop of Salisbury, and adopted generalFy 
 tln'oughout England. It is in Latin, and 
 our Book of Common Prayer is almost 
 a translation of it. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Bas'l {The), i.e. 
 Basil of Caesarea. One of the liturgies 
 of the Greek Church. It is the longest 
 and holds pre-eminence in solemnity 
 and antiquity. The Litvirgy of St. 
 •Basil is used on the gi-eat festivals, such 
 as Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, and 
 Good Friday. 
 
 The other chief liturgy of the Greek Church is 
 that of St. Clirysostom.' The ' Liturgy of St. Basil ' 
 is also one of the twelve used by the ancient 
 Coptic Christians. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Chrysostom 
 
 {The). One of the three liturgies of the 
 Greek Church. It bears the name of St. 
 Chrysostom, but is of much later date. It 
 is used on all days of the year except 
 Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, and 
 Good Friday, when St. Basil's Liturgy is 
 used. See note above. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Cyriac {The). 
 One of tlie twelve liturgies of the ancient 
 Cojitic Christians, but not countenanced 
 by the patriarchs. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Cyril {The). One 
 of the twelve liturgies used by the 
 ancient Coptic Christians ; but the only 
 three sanctioned by the patriarchs are 
 those of Basil, Cyril, and Gregory. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Epiphanius 
 
 {The). One of the twelve liturgies of the 
 ancient Coptic Christians, but not now 
 countenanced by the patriarch. 
 
 Liturgy of St. Gregory {The). 
 One of the three liturgies of the Coptic 
 Christians countenanced by the patri- 
 archs. The other two are the ' Liturgy 
 of St. Basil ' and the ' Liturgy of St. 
 Cyril.' 
 
 Liturgy of St. James {The). 
 One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
 Coptic Christians. 
 
528 
 
 LITUKGY 
 
 LLOYD'S 
 
 Liturgy of St. John the Evan- 
 gelist {The). One of the twelve litur- 
 gies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but 
 not sanctioned by the patriarchs. 
 
 Liturgy of Theodore of Mop- 
 
 suestia {The). One of the three Nes- 
 torian liturgies {gi-v.). 
 
 Liturgy of the Anglican 
 
 Church {The), 1548, in the reign of 
 Edward VI. The Common Prayer Book, 
 revised edition 1551. The introduction 
 of it into Scotland caused a riot in Edin- 
 burgh 23 July, 1637 ; withdrawn 9 Sept., 
 1638. See ' Liturgy.' 
 
 Liturgy of the Apostles {The). 
 One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
 Coptic Christians, but not countenanced 
 by the patriarchs. It is also one of the 
 three Nestorian liturgies {q.v.). 
 
 Liturgy of the Fathers of the 
 Council of ]^Tice {The). One of the 
 twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic 
 Christians, but not countenanced by the 
 patriarchs. 
 
 Liturgy of the K'estorians 
 
 {The). The Nestorians have three litur- 
 gies, viz. that of the Apostles, that of 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia, and that of 
 Nestorius. These, however, are com- 
 bined into the Liturgy of the Nestorians 
 and used on different occasions. They 
 are all in Syriac. 
 
 Liturgy of the Patriarch 
 Dioscorus {The). One of the twelve 
 liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, 
 but discountenanced by the patriarchs. 
 
 Liturgy of the Praesanctified. 
 
 {The), 7th or 8th cent. One of the three 
 liturgies of the Greek Church. It is 
 used on certain days in Lent. See ' Missa 
 Prassanctificatorum.' 
 
 The other two liturgies are the ' Liturgy of St. 
 Basil ' and the ' Liturgy of St. Chrysostoru.' 
 
 Livery {The Statute of). A statute 
 to regulate and restrict the wearing of 
 livery or the badge of the lord. In tlie 
 15th cent, these liveries became political 
 badges — different factions being known 
 by their livery. In 1377 the Commons 
 petitioned against ' the giving of hats by 
 way of livery for maintenance,' and it 
 was forbidden by 1 Rich. II. In 1389 a 
 royal ordinance forbade any servant to 
 wear the lord's badge. In 1 Hen. IV. c. 7, 
 A.D. 1399, it was enacted that only the 
 
 king should give either sign or livery to 
 a company. In 1401, 1406, 1411 con- 
 cessions were made to the Prince of 
 Wales, guilds, and fraternities. By 8 
 Hen. VI. c. 4, a.d. 1429, allowances were 
 accorded to the lord mayors and sheriffs 
 of London, the serjeant-at-law, and the 
 two Universities. In 1408 the giving of 
 liveries involved a penalty of 5Z. a month ; 
 but 3 Car. I. c. 4 repealed all the Statutes 
 of Livery. 
 
 Livy {The Greek). Flavius Josephus 
 the historian (37-95) is so called by St. 
 Jerome. 
 
 Livy {The Protestant). John Sleidan 
 of Cologne, who wrote a history of the 
 Reformation in Germany (1506-1556), 
 
 Livy {The Bussian). Nicholas 
 Michaelovitch Karamzin (1765-1826). 
 
 Livy of Portugal {The). Joao 
 de Barros (1496-1570j, author of 'Asia 
 Portugueza.' 
 
 Livy of Spain {The). 
 
 I. Juan Mariana, a Jesuit, bom at 
 Talavera (1537-1624). He wrote a ' His- 
 tory of Spain' in Latin, and a treatise 
 entitled ' I)e Rege et Regis Institutione,' 
 
 IL J, Ginez de Sepulveda (1490-1572), 
 who wrote the ' History of Charles Quint,* 
 the ' History of Felipe II.,' the ' History 
 of the War in India,' &c. 
 
 - Lloyd's, 1772. A set of rooms on 
 the first floor of the Royal Exchange, 
 London, frequented by merchants, ship- 
 owners, underwriters, &c., for the purpose 
 of obtaining shipping intelligence and 
 transacting marine insurances. Two 
 enormous ledgers lie constantly open, one 
 containing a list of vessels arrived, and 
 the other a record of disasters at sea. 
 
 Lloyd's {Austrian), 1833, Founded 
 in Trieste by Baron Bruck, to supply the 
 want felt by maritime insurance com- 
 panies of that port of a central admini- 
 stration to attend to their common in- 
 terests. Their ' list ' is called the 
 ' Giornale del Lloyd Austriaco.' 
 
 Lloyd's List. Shipping intelligence 
 published every afternoon at Lloyd's in 
 the Royal Excha,nge, London. First 
 published in 1716, and daily since 1800, 
 
 Lloyd's Register of British and 
 Foreign Shipping. A volume published 
 annually, and containing information re- 
 specting vessels — their age, their mate- 
 
LOCAL 
 
 LOI 
 
 529 
 
 rials, their repairs, their owners, captains, 
 and so on. This information is supphed 
 by salaried agents at the different ports. 
 The office of the ' Register ' is quite dis- 
 tinct from Lloyd's rooms in the Royal 
 Exchange. 
 
 Local Government Act {The), 
 1888. Prepared by Charles Thomson 
 Ritchie, president of the Local Govern- 
 ment Board, whereby London was con- 
 stituted a separate county. The council 
 hold office for three years, but the alder- 
 men for six years (half to retire every 
 third year). The County Council controls 
 the borrowing of money, pays the county 
 treasurer, and all the expenses of judges' 
 lodging, assize courts, and county halls ; 
 licenses music and dancing halls, race- 
 courses, lunatic asylums, reformatories, 
 and industrial schools ; has supreme power 
 over bridges and roads, the appointment 
 of coroners, &c. &c. 
 
 Local Taxation Bill, 1890. For 
 increasing the duties on beer and spirits. 
 
 Loehlans, or Lochlanders (lake- 
 dwellers). So the Irish called the Danes 
 ■who in 787 first invaded the island. 
 
 Locke Kind's Bill, 1859. See 
 
 'Qualification (Property).' 
 
 Loco-focos. Ultra-radicals in the 
 United States of America. So called 
 because in a grand meeting in Tammany 
 Hall, NcAv York, in 1834, the chairman 
 left his seat, and the lights were put out 
 under the hope of dispersing the dis- 
 orderly assembly. But no: some of 
 the radicals, expecting this movement, 
 drew candles from their pockets, and 
 lighted them by loco-focos [i.e. lucifer 
 matches), and the hall being relighted, 
 the business of the meeting went on. 
 
 ' Loco foco ' is said to be from the Latin loco-foci. 
 In lieu of fire. 
 
 Locus Poenitentise. The time 
 allowed in Scotch law for withdrawing 
 from a bargain. Till the conti'act is 
 finally settled either party may retract. 
 
 Lodbrog, i.e. ' Shaggy Breeches.' 
 So Regner of Denmark was called, * be- 
 cause, when he went foith to conquer an 
 enormous serpent, he arrayed himself in 
 lodbrogs.' 
 
 Spite of the terrors of a groaning world at the 
 Bonnd of 'Shaggy Breeches ' name, his kingdom 
 could hardly be called other than the harbouring- 
 
 23 
 
 place of freebooters and pirates.— Prince, Puralle 
 History, vol. i. p. 403. 
 
 Lodging-money. An allowance, 
 in the British army, granted to officers 
 and others for whom suitable quarters 
 cannot be provided in the barracks. It 
 is about 8s. a week. 
 
 Lodi {The House of). Founded in 
 Delhi by Behlol Lodi in 1450. Ala-eddyn, 
 last king of the 'government of the 
 Seiads,' abdicated in favour of Lodi. 
 
 Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan 
 (1479-1500), called ' II Moro ' because hp 
 adopted the mulberry tree for his device. 
 He prided himself on his prudence ; and 
 Pliny calls the mulberry the most prudent 
 of all trees, because it waits till winter is 
 well over before it puts forth its leaves. 
 
 Logos {The). According to the school 
 of Alexandria the Logos was a being be- 
 gotten by God, and intermediate between 
 Deity and man. This primary Logos 
 was the first-born (o Trp-Tcr/Surepo? vi6?) of 
 Deity, and from this first-born proceeded 
 a second Logos (Aoyos -rrpoiPopiKo^) which 
 acted at the creation of the w^orld. 
 
 Of course the Logos of the Fourth Gospel is not 
 suited to this dictionary. 
 
 Logothete {A). Akeeper of accounts 
 in the Eastern empire. He put in order 
 the despatches of the emperor, and was 
 keeper of the seals. There was an eccle- 
 siastical Logothete also, keeper of the 
 seals of the patriarch. Even to the pre- 
 sent day such an officer exists in the Greek 
 Church. Nicephorus I. emperor of the 
 East was ' Logotheta,' when he assumed 
 the purple in 802. 
 
 Loi Gombette {La), 502. The Bur- 
 gundian Code, published at Lyons by 
 Gundibald or Gombaud, the third king of 
 Burgundy. It was based on the Theo- 
 dosian Code {q.v.). In 519 a second part 
 was published by Sigismund, son and 
 successor of Gombaud. By this code one- 
 third of the conquered land was left to 
 the conquered people, and it accorded to 
 the Romans the saine rights as to the con- 
 quering people. 
 
 Loi Salique {La), 1340. The exclu- 
 sion of women from the throne because 
 they are unable to be the leaders of 
 armies in battle. 
 
 Edward III. by a pun called the ' gabelle ' or tax 
 on salt, the Salic law of France. 
 
 MM 
 
530 
 
 LOI 
 
 LONDON 
 
 Iioi des Suspects (La), 17 Sept., 
 
 1793. A law made by the Convention of 
 France enabling the committees to seize 
 and condemn anyone they suspected of 
 being averse to the republican constitu- 
 tion, or whose death would be beneficial 
 thereto. 
 
 liOi du Sacrilege, 20 April, 1825. 
 Public profanation of the consecrated ele- 
 ments, which was made a capital offence. 
 
 Lola Monte S (2 syl.). An Irish girl, 
 native of Wexford, brought home from 
 school to marry an old man whom she 
 detested. She mentioned the circum- 
 stances to Captain James, who ran away 
 with her and married her in India ; but 
 one morning Captain James eloped with 
 the young wife of an old gentleman in 
 whose house he and Mrs. James resided. 
 Mrs. James returned to Europe, changed 
 her name to Lola Montes, and went on 
 the stage. Here Charles Louis king of 
 Bavaria, an old man in his dotage, became 
 captivated with her, took her for his 
 mistress, and made her a countess of 
 Lansfeldt in 1848. He abdicated the 
 same year. Lola Montes went to the 
 United States in 1859, and died in New 
 York 17 Jan., 1861. 
 
 Lollard (Walter). Burnt to death 
 at Cologne 1322. He was born in Eng- 
 land, and was called the Morning Star of 
 the Refox'mation in Germany. Lollard 
 declaimed against the intercession of 
 saints, the seven sacraments, the church 
 ceremonies, and the evil lives of the 
 clergy. 
 
 Wyclif lived 1324 1384 ; and John Huss 1376-1415. 
 
 Lollards. Religious reformers. The 
 society was formed at Antwerp for minis- 
 tering to the sick, in 1300. The name was 
 probably taken from Walter Lollard the 
 reformer, who was burnt at Cologne in 
 1322. In England the preachers were 
 arrested by 5 Eieh. II. c. 5 (1381), and the 
 burning of them was enjoined by 
 2 Hen. IV. c. 15 (De hmretico combu- 
 rendo). A party of them were executed 
 by order of Henry V. in Jan. 1414. The 
 statutes against Lollardism were repealed 
 by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1547). Wyclif was 
 head of the Lollards in England (1324- 
 1384) and was protected and supported by 
 John of Gaunt. 
 
 Some derive the word from the Low German 
 loUcn, to sing slowly. Blunt, in his 'Reformation,' 
 p. 81, derives it from lolium, a tare, and reminds ua 
 
 that Eusebius calls heretics tares. — Ecc. Hist. iv. 
 c. 24, p. 137. 
 
 Lombard League (The). I. 1175- 
 1183. A league formed by several of the 
 petty republics of Lombardy, such as 
 Milan, Pavia, Cremona, and so on, under 
 the sanction of Pope Alexander III.), 
 against Frederick Barbarossa. The league 
 succeeded in driving Barbarossa out of 
 Italy, and making him recognise the in- 
 dependence of the cities of Lombardy. 
 
 II. A second league was formed in 
 1225 against Kaiser Friedrich 11. This 
 league also was supported by the popes 
 of the time being, and after many victories 
 and defeats was at length successful in 
 1249. Milan was the chief power and 
 strength in both these leagues. 
 
 The league defeated Barbarossa at Lcgnano in 
 1167. Friedrich II. defeated the league at Corte- 
 nuova in 1237. 
 
 London has several sobriquets, as 
 'The Little Village' (a lucus a non 
 lucendo) ; ' the Modern Babylon ' ; * the 
 City of Masts.' 
 
 Aberdeen is the Granitf. City ; Bath, the Queen of 
 the West ; Birmingham, the Midland Capital ; Brad- 
 ford is Woistedopdiis ; Brighton, the Quren of Water- 
 ing Plaees, ot LoT)don-super-Mer[msire]; Edinburgh, 
 the Modern Athens; Liverpool, the Modern Ti/rc; 
 Manchester, Cottonopolis; Worcester, the Faithful 
 City. 
 
 London {Treaties of). 1. 29 Oct., 
 1516. Between the kaiser elect and the 
 kings of England and Spain. 
 
 II. 6 July, 1829. Between England, 
 France, and Russia, regulating the govern- 
 ment of the kingdom of Greece. This 
 treaty really created the modern kingdom 
 of Greece. 
 
 III. 22 April, 1834. Between England , 
 France, Spain, and Portugal, for the 
 pacification of the peninsula, expulsion of 
 Don Carlos and Dom Miguel, &c. 
 
 rV. 15 July, 1840. Between England, 
 France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
 Turkey, for the settlement of the dispute 
 between the sultan and Mehemet Ali. 
 
 V. 8 May, 1852. Between Denmark 
 and the five Great Powers, respecting the 
 duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. 
 
 VI. 13 March, 1871. Between the five 
 Great Powers, for the deneutralisation of 
 the Black Sea. 
 
 London Adventurers, or ' South 
 Virginia Company.' By the charter of 
 James I. the London Adventurers were 
 empowered to plant the east from the 34th 
 to the 41st deg. This includes what we 
 
LONDON 
 
 LOOKING-GLASS 
 
 501 
 
 now call Maryland, Virginia, and the two 
 Caiolinas. 
 
 London Conference. 
 
 1st in 1826 ttc.for the regulation of the 
 affairs of Greece. 
 
 2nd in 1830 to arrange for the separa- 
 tion of Belgium and Holland. To this 
 the Dutch withheld their assent till 
 21 May, 1833. 
 
 3rd in 1840 on the Turko-Egyptian 
 question. France refused to join. 
 
 London County Council {The), 
 1889. London, having been erected into 
 a separate county, has its County Council, 
 which takes on itself the powers of the old 
 Board of Works, and certain magisterial 
 duties. To the County Council are con- 
 signed all questions relating to metro- 
 politan improvements, the price to be 
 paid for property bought or sold in the 
 metropolis, and compensation to be given 
 for injury during disturbances. Its magis- 
 terial work includes the three lunatic 
 asylums ; the Industrial School at 
 Feltham ; licences granted to music and 
 dancing halls ; appointment of coroners, 
 public analysts, inspectors of weights and 
 measures, &c., with all such miscellaneous 
 work as relates to the Sessions House at 
 Clerkenwell, the Guildhall at Westmin- 
 ster, the militia barracks at Dalston and 
 Bethnal Green, three county bridges, and 
 petty sessional courts. See ' Metropolitan 
 Board of Works.' 
 
 London University. In the reign 
 of Edward III., between the City and 
 Westminster, and called the ' Third Uni- 
 versity.' Edward III. built and founded 
 St. Stephen at Westminster for a divinity 
 college ; it was dissolved by Henry VIII. 
 Archbishop Bradwardine founded a theo- 
 logical lecture in St. Paul's Church. 
 John of Gaunt founded a divinity college 
 in St. Paul's Churchyard. Sir John For- 
 tescue tells us the Ihns of Court were law 
 colleges ; and that there were ten Ccxlled 
 at the time inns of chancery, in each of 
 which there were at least 100 students. 
 
 The present London University was incorpo- 
 rated by royal charter in ls.%. and the building was 
 openedin 1870 by Queen Victoria. 
 
 Long Brothers [The], i.e. 'tall,' viz. 
 Dioscorus, Ammonius, Eusebius, and 
 Euthymius (5th cent.). They were monks 
 supposed to be tainted with Origenism 
 (Robertson, ' Hist, of the Christian 
 Church,' vol. ii. p. 106). 
 
 Long Knives {The Plot or 
 Treachery of the). This was a treache- 
 rous conference to which Geoffrey of 
 Monmouth tells us the chief Britons were 
 invited by Hengist at Ambresbury ; others 
 say by Vortigern. Beside each Briton a 
 Saxon was seated, armed with a long 
 knife ; and, at a given signal, each Saxon 
 slew the Briton seated by his side. 
 Geoffrey tells us the signal was the utter- 
 ance of these words : Nemet oure Saxas, 
 and that the number massacred was 460 
 (book vi. 15). 
 
 Of course Geoffrey's Chronicle is only Geoffrey's 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Long Parliament {The). Met 
 3 Nov., 1640, and was dissolved by Crom- 
 well, 20 April, 1653, but it was not legally 
 dissolved till the Restoration in 1660. 
 This parliament, therefore, existed all 
 through the civil war, and all through the 
 protectorate ; but in 1659 only a fag end 
 remained, which was called ' the Rump.' 
 The Long Parliament voted the House of 
 Lords to be useless, and passed a bill that 
 even the king should be unable to dissolve 
 or prorogue a parliament without the 
 parliament's consent. ^See 'Parliaments.' 
 
 Long Parliament of France. 
 
 The Permanent Committee, 1789. 
 
 Longbeard. William Fitz-Osbert, 
 who assumed to be a Saxon, and was 
 popularly called ' The Saviour of the 
 People ' and ' King of the Poor.' He was 
 executed with great cruelty in 1196. 
 
 Long-haired Kings {The). The 
 successors of Clodion are called in French 
 history ' Les rois chevelures.' Clodion in- 
 troduced this fashion into Gaul from 
 Germany. See ' Hair.' 
 
 It will be remembered that Homer calls the 
 magnates of the confederate Greek army 'the 
 longhaired Greeks.' 
 
 Longiman'us. So Artaxerxes was 
 called, because his right arm was longer 
 than his left. His proper name was 
 Bahaman ; his regal name in Persia was 
 Kai-Ardeshir. 
 
 Kai means miqhty, ' Ard ' flour, and ' Shir ' mil'!;. 
 Bahaman was so CMlled from an oifering of flo'ir 
 and milk made to him in his cradle. Artaxerxes 
 is ' Arta-Ksathra,' honoured king. 
 
 Lonsdale's Ninepins {Lord)- 
 The nine members sent to parliament to 
 represent nine pocket boroughs in the ex- 
 tensive estates of Lord Lonsdale. 
 
 Looking-glass Drops {The). A 
 celebrated poison found hidden on remov- 
 M M 2 
 
532 
 
 LOOSE-GIRT 
 
 LORD 
 
 iiig the wooden lining of a looking-glass 
 which belonged to Lucrezia Borgia. 
 
 Loose-girt Boy {The). Julius 
 Caesar. {Supplied by A. Oldham.) 
 
 Lord Almoner's Professorship 
 
 of Arabic. Founded 1724, in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, by the lord al- 
 moner. Original stipend 50/. a year paid 
 out of the Almonry bounty. The professor 
 must give at least one lecture a year on 
 Arabic history or literature. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain {The). The 
 officer who has the management of the 
 chambers; the sixth high officer of the 
 crown. He has the government of the 
 palace at Westminster; disposes of the 
 sword of state in royal jirocessions, and 
 on such occasions sits on the sovereign's 
 right hand. The black rod and yeoman 
 usher are under him. 
 
 The Lord Chamberlain of the Housdwld is quite 
 another person. This cJticer has the direction of 
 all matters pertaining to the chambers of the 
 sovereign (except the queen's bed-chamber). 
 
 Lord Chancellor {The). The 
 highest temporal lord, but his office is 
 bound up with the ministry of the time 
 being. He reads theroj^al speech for the 
 prorogation of parliament and opening of 
 parliament when the sovereign is not pre- 
 sent, and stands on the right-hand side 
 of the throne. He appoints all justices 
 of the peace ; is patron of all crown liv- 
 ings ; is guardian of infants, idiot -, and 
 lunatics; and has a retiring pension of 
 5,OaO/. a year. 
 
 Lord G-awkey . Richard Grenville 
 lord Temple (1711-1779). 
 
 Lord High Admiral (r/te). First 
 appointed 1-105. 
 
 Lord-Lieutenants of Counties, 
 
 1545. The first permanent lord-lieu- 
 tenants were the Duke of Norfolk, for 
 arming the counties of Essex, &c. ; the 
 Duke of Suffolk, for arming Surrey, 
 Sussex, &c. ; and Lord Russell, for arming 
 Dorset, Szc. The commissions sent to 
 these nobles were to be acted upon, not 
 pro re nata, but perpetually for keeping 
 a due supply of militia in the several dis- 
 tricts named in the commission. The 
 main duty of lord-lieutenants is raising 
 and organising the militia. 
 
 Prior to 1545 the three Lancastrian kings sent 
 commissions occasionally to experienced nobles 
 to nut into military order their respective coun- 
 ties, and these noblemen were called ' The King's 
 Lieutenants.' 
 
 Lord-Lyon {The). Lyon king-of- 
 anns, Scotland, head of Lyon Court, the 
 Scotch office of arms. His appointment is 
 for life. The office of Lyon runs back into 
 very remote times, but the officer was not 
 called lord-lyon till 1663. One of his pur- 
 suivants is called Unicorn. 
 
 The lord-lion who brought her [the queen- 
 regent s] m.essage was requested to wait for an 
 answer.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. vol. ii. p. 407. 
 
 *,* As this was in 1559, it is an anachronism to 
 called him lord-lion Qord-lyon]. 
 
 Lord Mahon's Act, 1842 (5, 6 Vict. 
 c. 45). Gives to an author and his assigns 
 the copji-ight of his books during life and 
 for seven years afterwards. Whether 
 alive or dead, the author or his assigns 
 has a right for forty- two years from the 
 time of publication. If the author lives 
 for forty-two years after publication, then 
 his right continues during his life and 
 seven years after his death. If he dies 
 before the expiration of forty-two years, 
 his assigns may claim a right for the re- 
 sidue of forty- two years or for seven years, 
 whichever is the longer period. 
 
 A copy of the book must be sent gratuitously to 
 five libraries : viz. that of the British Museum, 
 the Public Library at Cambridge, the Bodleian 
 Lil-rary at O.xford, the Library of the Faculty of 
 Advocates at Edinburgh, and the Library of Tri- 
 nity College, Dublin. 
 
 Lord Mayors. There are three 
 lord mayors in the Bi'itish Isles, viz. the 
 mayors of London, York, and Dublin. 
 
 I. London. At the time of the Con- 
 quest the chief magistrate of London 
 was called port-reeve {i.e. governor of 
 the harbour). He is called Geoffrey, 
 port-reeve, in the charter granted by 
 William to the city. 
 
 In Stephens reign Gilbert Becket, father of the 
 archbishop, was port-reeve of London. 
 
 Li the reign of Henry II. the Norman 
 term maire was introduced. Anglicised 
 into mayor. The first mayor of London 
 was Henry Fitz-Ailwin [son of ^thel- 
 wine]. He was a descendant of ^thel- 
 wine, cousin of King Edgar, and one of 
 the hereditary aldermen. 
 
 Richard I. granted the citizens the 
 right of electing their own mayor, 1189. 
 
 John granted them the right of electing 
 a mayor annually. 
 
 Henry III. permitted the corporation 
 to use a common seal. 
 
 In the reign of Richard II. the mayor 
 of London took the raixk of an earl. 
 
 The prefix of ' lord,' and the style of 
 
LORD 
 
 LORDS 
 
 588 
 
 'right honourable,* was granted by 
 Edward III. in 1354. 
 
 Sir William Walworth (in the reign of Richard 
 II.) was the first mayor who had an official seal 
 (1*1). 
 
 Sir John Norman (1458) was the first lord mayor 
 who went in procession by water to be sworn in 
 at Westminster, and then began the Lord Mayor s 
 Show. 
 
 The original seal of the corporation had Thomas 
 Becket on the reverse, and St. Paul on the ob- 
 verse ; but at the Reformation (15iii>) the reverse 
 of the seal was changed for the present device, 
 the obverse remaining as before. 
 
 II. Yomc. York received its charter 
 from Richard 11., and the mayor was 
 made a ' lord ' in 13y9. The ex officio 
 title is ' the right honourable.' 
 
 III. Dublin. The mayor of Dublin 
 first appointed 1409. Styled 'lord 
 mayor' in 1665 by Charles II. 
 
 Lord Shaftesbury. Anthony Ash- 
 ley Cooper, 1st earl Shaftesbury, Lord 
 Chancellor of England (lG21-l(iS8j. He 
 began hfe an aristocrat; 1644 he went 
 over to the parliamentary side, was com- 
 mander-in-chief of their forces, and sat 
 in the Barebone parliament ; in 1054 he 
 severed himself from Cromwell's party, 
 joined the Remonstrants, and was ar- 
 rested as a royalist, but acquitted ; in 
 16G0 he was one of the commissioners 
 who sat on the trial of the regicides ; in 
 1670 he was a member of the Cabal ; in 
 16«0 he presented the Duke of York as a 
 popish recusant in the court of King's 
 Bench, was imprisoned for treason in 
 1082, and died at Amsterdam in 1083. 
 In friendship false, implacable in hate. 
 Resolved to ruin or to rale the state, 
 To compass this the triple bond he broke. 
 
 Dryden, Absalom and Acktiupfiel. 
 
 Lord of all under Heaven [The). 
 The Emperor of China. 
 
 One and all come to pay their respects and offer 
 their tribute to the ' Lord of all under Heaven.' — 
 J. N. Jordan, Modern China (' Nineteenth Century," 
 July 1686, p. 49). 
 
 Lord of Ireland, 1177. John, son 
 of Henry II. of England. On the death 
 of Strongbow the government of Ireland 
 was committed to William Fitz-Adelm, 
 alhed by blood to the king ; but his ad- 
 ministration was so bad that he was re- 
 called, and Henry made his yomigest 
 and favourite son John ' lord of Ireland,' 
 though only twelve years old at the tune. 
 The boy-governor was so insolent that he 
 was recalled, and the government en- 
 trusted to De Lacy ; but John retained 
 the title of lord of Ireland to his death. 
 Iloiiry VIII., in 1541, raised Ireland from 
 
 a lordship to a kingdom, styling himself 
 ' King of England, France, and Ireland, 
 Defender of the Faith.' The same style 
 was adopted by his son Edward VI. 
 
 Lord of Misrule {The). CaUed by 
 the Scotch ' The Master of Unreason,' 
 and by the French ' L'abbe de Liesse.' 
 A jierson elected to superintend the diver- 
 sions of Christmas. Discontinued since 
 1641. 
 
 In the feast of Christmas there was in the king s 
 house, wheresoever he lodged, a ' Lord of Misrule,' 
 or ' Master of Merry Disports ; and the like had 
 ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or 
 good worship, were he spiritual or temporal. The 
 Mayor of London and either of the sheriffs had 
 their several Lords of Misrule, ever contending, 
 without quarrel or offence, who should make the 
 rarest pastime to delight the beholders. These 
 lords, beginning the rule at Allhallows Eve, con- 
 tinued the same till the morrow after the Feast of 
 Puribcation, commonly called Candlemas Bay. — 
 Stow. 
 
 Lord of Regality {A). A noble- 
 man in Scotland who held a regality, or 
 sort of palatinate, where he exercised all 
 the rights of a sovereign. Abolished by 
 20 Geo. n. 0. 50. 
 
 Lord of his Age {The), or Sahibi 
 Kiran, Solyman I. the Magnificenii, 
 Ottoman sultan (1493, 1520-1500). 
 
 Lord of the Golden Foot. The 
 
 boa or king of Burmah. 
 
 In 1826 the state carriage of the boa, which fell 
 into the hands of the English, was valued at 12,500i. 
 
 Lord of the Manor {The). The 
 owner of a manor havmg copyhold 
 tenants. 
 
 Lord of the Taps. An officer at 
 
 Stourbridge fair appointed to taste the 
 ale in the booths. This officer was 
 characteristically dressed in a crimson 
 coat decorated with taps, and provided 
 at the time for the occasion. 
 
 Lords Appellants {The), 1386. 
 Partisans of the Duke of Gloucester, 
 whose object was to dethrone Richard 
 II. They a^jpealed of high treason a large 
 number of magnates who opposed their 
 autliority, and constituted themselves 
 into a permanent council to set in order 
 •the kingdom and the royal household. 
 In 1389 the king, who was twenty-two 
 yeais of age, took on his own shoulders 
 the government, and all the lords ap- 
 pellants, except Norfolk and Hereford, 
 either died or were cut off. Norfolk and 
 Hereford were banished in 1397. 
 
531 
 
 LORDS 
 
 LOST 
 
 Lords Justices of the Court of 
 Appeal in Chancery (The). Ap- 
 pointed by Act 14, 15 Vict. c. 83 (1871). 
 
 Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 
 The first, appointed in 1361, was Lionel 
 earl of Ulster. The second was Edmund 
 earl of March, 1379. Richard II. was 
 lord lieutenant in 1394, and again in 
 1399 ; Henry [VIII.], when duke of York, 
 1501 ; and OHver Cromwell in 1640. 
 
 Lords Marchers (The). The 
 knights and barons of the 140 lordships 
 of Wales ; the rest of Wales was subject 
 to the English crown. These lordships 
 were detached parcels which had been 
 conquered by certain knights and barons, 
 who ruled somewhat like county pala- 
 tines, each having his own laws, his own 
 courts, and his own judges. Henry VIII., 
 in 1536, abolished this separate juris- 
 diction, and placed all Wales under the 
 English crown. 
 
 Lords Ordainers, 1310, 1311. A 
 
 standing committee of 7 bishops, 8 earls, 
 and 13 barons (28 altogether), appointed 
 in full parliament in the reign of Edward 
 II. to reform the government and king's 
 household. They presented to the king 
 a list of what they called the ' Articles of 
 Reform,' amongst which were these : 
 Parliaments shall be held at least once a 
 year ; no war shall be declared without 
 the consent of the Lords Ordainers ; the 
 king shall never leave the realm without 
 the lords' consent ; the choice of all the 
 great officers of the crown and wardens 
 of the castles shall be made by the Lords 
 Ordainers ; the selection of sheriffs shall 
 be left to the Continual Council. The 
 Earl of Lancaster (a grandson of Henry 
 III.) and the Earls of Lincoln, Leicester, 
 Salisbury, and Derby were on the com- 
 mittee. The king's infatuation for Piers 
 Gaveston was the rock of offence. 
 
 Lords of Erection. Laymen of 
 Scotland, to whom the church lands 
 claimed at the Reformation by the crown 
 VI eve given. 
 
 These lords, who received a third part 
 of the benefices, were nominally charged' 
 with the support of the poor, and were 
 bound to provide competent stipends for 
 the reformed clergy. When James VI. 
 came to his majority the duties of these 
 lords were abolished, and the lands were 
 annexed to the crown. The Lords of 
 
 Erection were also called 'Titulars of 
 
 Tithes.' 
 
 As a Tulchan bishop was one who received only 
 a part of his revenue, the rest going to the person 
 who presented him, so tliese Scotch titulars were 
 only Tulchan lords, sharing their lands with the 
 crown. 
 
 Lords of the Articles {The). A 
 kind of caucus begun in Scotland in the 
 parliaments of 1368 and 1369. They were 
 a kind of parliamentary grand jury who 
 prepared and arranged in seci-et meetings 
 what measures should be submitted to 
 parliament and what should be abandoned. 
 Suppressed in 1690. 
 
 In Scotland there was only one house for the 
 three estates. 
 
 Lords of the Congregation 
 
 (The), Dec. 1557. The leading Protestants 
 of Scotland who pledged themselves to 
 carry out the ' Solemn League and 
 Covenant ' (q.v.) even to the knife. The 
 chief were the Earls of Glencairn, Argyll, 
 and Morton, Lord Lorn, and Erskine of 
 Dun. The reforn«ers were called the 
 * Congregation.' 
 
 They agreed that all matters In debate between 
 the government and Lords of the Congregation 
 should be left to the consideration of the parlia- 
 ment [of Scotland].— Sir W. Scott, History of Scot- 
 land, xxiv. 
 
 Lords of the Justiciary. The 
 
 judges of the court of justiciary, or 
 criminal court of Scotland. 
 
 Lords of the Masso'rah (The). 
 Learned Jews who decided what parts of 
 the vast pile of annotations called the 
 Massorah {q.v.) should be accepted. They 
 fixed by canon the verses, words, letters, 
 and vowel-points of the Jewish scriptures. 
 The scholia approved of by these rabbis 
 were printed (along with the Hebrew text) 
 in the year a.d. 1526. 
 
 There were two schools of Massoretic Lords from 
 the 11th cent. ; that of Tiberias and that of Baby- 
 lon. The principal of the former was Aaron ben 
 Asher and of the latter Jacob ben Naphthali. 
 
 *,* There were originally no vowels in Hebrew 
 writings. As the Massorites introduced vowel- 
 points, Hebrew vowels are called ' Massoretic 
 points.' 
 
 Lost Tribes (The). The ten tribes 
 which formed the kingdom of Israel. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Joseph Wolff (1831) says 
 they are in China. 
 
 The Rev. J. Samuels says they are in 
 the regions of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Dr. Grant says the Nestorians are the 
 lost tribes. 
 
 Sir William Jones says they are the 
 Afghans. 
 
LOSTIC 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 535 
 
 Mrs. Dixon thinks they are the Mexi- 
 cans and Peruvians. 
 
 Dr. Claudius Buchanan thinks they 
 are still where they were taken captive, 
 i.e. in 'Halak, Habo, Hara, and Gozan, 
 cities of the Medes.' 
 
 W. H. Poole, D.D., maintains that we 
 of Great Britain and Ireland are the lost 
 tribes. 
 
 And some think the North American 
 Indians, and others that the Gipsies, are 
 the lost tribes. 
 
 Lostic, or * Loktek ' (a cubit). So 
 Vladiskius III. of Poland was called on 
 account of his small stature (12G0, 1290- 
 1333). 
 
 Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was the 
 country over which Lothaire reigned. It 
 included the south of Holland, all Bel- 
 gium, and the north-east corner of France 
 up to the river Mouse. In 1044 this vast 
 province was divided into Lower and 
 Upper Lorraine, the former containing 
 half Belgium, and the provinces of Bra- 
 bant and Gelderland (in Holland) ; the 
 rest forming Upper Lorraine. 
 
 Louis {Knights of St.), 1693. A 
 French military order instituted by Louis 
 XIV. 
 
 Louis I. le Dehonnaire, emperor of 
 the West and king of France (778, 814- 
 840). 
 
 Father, Charlemagne ; Mother, Hilde- 
 garde ; Wives (1), Hermengarda, by 
 whom he had three sons — Lothaire, Pepin, 
 and Louis, to whom he gave parts of his 
 empire ; (2) Judith of Bavaria, the mother 
 of Charles le Chauve. Contemporary 
 with Egbert. 
 
 Louis I. was called le Piettx as well as le Debon- 
 mtiie. He was the last surviving son of Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Louis II. le Begiie, king of France 
 (840, 877-879) ; he was son of Charles II. 
 le Chauve, grandson of Louis I. le De- 
 bonnaire, and great-gi-andson of Charle- 
 magne. His sister Judith was the second 
 wife of Ethelwulf, Anglo-Saxon king of 
 England. Louis le Begue had three sons, 
 all of whom reigned, viz. Louis III., 
 Carloman, and Ch.vrles III. le Simple. 
 Conteviporary with Alfred the Great. 
 
 Louis III. (879-882). Son of Louis 
 II. le Begue [q.v.) ; his brother was joint 
 king with him, and died 884. He was 
 succeeded by Charles II. le Gros, who 
 
 acted as regent during the minority of 
 Charles III. le Simple, posthumous son 
 of Louis II. le Begue. Contemporary 
 with Alfred the Great. 
 
 Louis IV. (d'Outremer) of France 
 (921, 936-954). Son of Charles IIL le 
 Simple, who married a sister of Athel- 
 stan. On the dethronement of her 
 husband, in 922, she fled to England 
 with her infant son, and remained there 
 fourteen years. 
 
 He was the fifth remove from Charlemagne. 
 
 (1) Louis I. le Di'bonnaire, son of Charlemagne ; 
 
 (2) Charles II. le Chauve, son of Louis I. ; (3i Louis 
 II. le Begue, son of Charles II. ; (4i two brothers, 
 Louis III. and Charles III. le Simple, sous of 
 Louis II. ; (5) Louis IV., son of Charles III. 
 
 Louis V. le Faineant. Son of 
 Lothaire, and grandson of Louis IV. 
 d'Outremer (978, 986-987). The last of 
 the Carlovingiaii kings. 
 
 Lothaire, son of Louis IV. d'Outremer, died 986, 
 a little before his father. 
 
 Louis VI. le Gros, king of France 
 (1078, 1108-1137). 
 
 Father, Philippe I. I'Amoureux ; Mo- 
 ther, Bertha; Wives, (1) a sister of 
 Hugues de Cre^y, divorced ; (2) Adelaide 
 daughter of Hubert count of Savoy. Con- 
 temporary with Henry I. and Stephen. 
 
 His eldest son Philippe died before his father, 
 leaving his succession to Louis VII. his brother. 
 
 This was from the stem of HUGUES Capet, who 
 was succeeded regularly by (1) Robert, (2) Henri 
 I., (S) Philippe I., (4) Louis VI., (5), Louis VII., tO) 
 Pliilippe II. Auguste, (7) Louis VIII. All sons of 
 the respective preceding king. 
 
 Louis VII. le Jeune (1137-1180). 
 Not the young, but the impolitic or un- 
 ready (i.e. unwise) son of Louis VI. (1) 
 His leaving his kingdom to conduct an 
 expedition to the Holy Land was puerile ; 
 (2) his divorcing Eleonore and giving up 
 the two provinces of Poitou and Aqui- 
 taine was most impolitic ; (3) his going 
 to Palestine by land rather than by sea, 
 contrary to the advice of his best coun- 
 sellors, was most imprudent; (4) his 
 wars with Henry II. of England were 
 short-sighted, and he failed in every in- 
 stance. Louis VII. was amiable enough, 
 but ' what is mere good-nature but a 
 fool ' ? 
 
 Father, Louis VI. le Gros ; Mother, 
 Adelaide of Savoy ; Wives, (1) Eleonore 
 of Aquitaine, (2) Constance of Castile, (3) 
 Alice, daughter of Thibaud comte de 
 Champagne, another of his successor. 
 Contemporary with Stephen and Henry 
 
«M 
 
 LOUl$ 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 ItOUis VT' 
 
 
 I^ 
 
 
 
 Itouis X. ' -^ '- 
 
 IiOUis XII. V T^w *^w FV^na^v. 
 
 
 
 
 Ix- 
 
 x; 
 
 ,^ c^f 
 
 in»««ml> 3f3krvrs>oi ?,Av.^-..Wr 
 
 Is <^l $<««4*«KV i«t>Mt«<(k 
 
 WBrsr ^^ EiJ^iwgpi IV. 
 
 3%Mfe <ik« T«M««at«. *ii»i ^»» IjMixt«w 
 
 
 V^»l«fe kMUII^ 
 
 
 'i^ »» Skit fii« 
 
 Im«» Miti tmut. «»4l ir«e*t«^«A tiNwi 
 
 Mm In Sv« «mwOk $<«» ^«ws ^-MiliKX TW I 
 
 $««« »«j^d«<^^ l><M»> tikis WMWMHtl ijwfts >«nit»clt«>i 
 
 Juj^ * it wv«iVl W ^li^ouil ' v» 
 
 ^xv ntx All s1n>w oI iv^y^hx-^ *«d i>»urixl 
 
 till «fli«t 1m iMid Won >»AJT*?n\ txnMtty- 
 ttuKK j««r& CSi»«;?=«wrv>rwr:* with Jsuwt^s 
 I. jktHi ClkMlte I. S^ ' H<Miict IV/ f<« 
 
 Ills«*Mlwmtse»3lS<^ )«^^e$^ V»<««s» Im ^itks 
 
 .sxqnet 
 
 
LOUIS 
 
 UjCIH 
 
 0Z1 
 
 i)trfAi yttturn }>*^tir(i \titr iirnt chiW wft« 
 horti ; Wlv';>i, (I) MarJa^J/rii^a-7Vr<^<;t of 
 Ats-Xrin., infanta of Hj/siin, and (^2; h1<itni;. 
 lU: JAiKiitU-.udii ' Fratn/finf. 'J'A»jbij^n<-, mitr- 
 qijiwj 'l<j yiAiuUitioti \, wiiU/w (ft Hf-Mrron 
 Un', jMM'.t an'J cri//p)';; Mifiirf:«f,eg (1), 
 M'J))<;, *J/; la Va)Ji<rr«s [IjHUiMt-VrMn/nyAi 
 (U: Ja iisitufHi ]h Blanc '1^? Ja VaJ)i'<'r<;j, 
 H'Ai-JWl, (2) M'lm*!, ']<; yfonW-irtin 
 fAUi'-naJH iiiiiLri\tit>A', t\t; Mo/jUicj/an, 
 i\it.w/hU:r of Oaf/ri';) 'J<; Jv'/<;h'j';}<o>jart, 
 d u/; d«; M on t^^nart j, ] Cf^H- J «87. Hh/; hiaJ 
 H*',v4!rn.\ f.hiUirtut, an th<; J>>ti/; d<; Main*;, 
 th<; (U)UiU: »]<; 'V'liiU/iiat;, <kc. ('iird*'/rn^ 
 'litfrurif wit}) ('Aiitrlf..'. J., <'>o/nv/«;JI, 
 CJ.ar)«;i« Jl., Janiijii J I., WiJliarn J 11., and 
 Ann's. 
 
 IIU wjf*. M«irlA.LrjlM«. WHM ytnW tAiOi Srn^fA^U:, 
 >/ut wan trift iiiiMu'.T of /x/'/;--. './/' ;/;:.vr,r,./, y,>io 
 
 dU^ >^f//r«-. fii» 
 
 f;U.h..r,|.-.^; 
 
 ■ •' 'i» 
 
 (Axxkt: ijf i'.ttrU.ii 
 
 nOy/, ifi/-. ! 
 
 
 lAt VnIJi* f«-. / 
 
 i-tirtJt U, : 
 
 ..-,'1 
 
 <Jl/;/i Jn IVl'i 
 
 ,. ,., . ,. 
 
 ...... ...... .....iA 
 
 •H'^riir />/.;, 
 
 
 
 •,' />/'il^. 
 
 
 (irifAt ' on turn- 
 
 cI»j/l)/)« Ui' . 
 
 
 ■ASi/j,fA ijy Hoi 
 
 l*i/i/l )0 Auj/ - 
 
 ,-. :,, ■.■,1.1 
 
 . ., '-.j/l., Vn-^. '<n/i \iy 
 
 Oi.r«,.-iny .',*-<•,. 
 
 
 % ',r<;»l/ f<'jt an t:/»/J to 
 
 Ih'. K'j/-'>p<;afj war ikif^inul Vrti.uij'. f;y thix lf«:^ty 
 yriiif.iit; <A/i!iW-, txmi -A ir-xrX ot KJa./i/J<;r», wiut 
 H/iiUA Ut yr-Aui-A:. 'nil* i*;i* this ■■>.yj%''jK of th« 
 tortun'-.H o1 t)«: ijrii.iul rn/fii/i.riiiu\ 
 
 'J7i', j/rJn';'T»» ifxinl) lut Ut in;r ' O )rr'i%\/onAnTU-y*i ' 
 iMiy*: 'i ><av<- '.f >,<■,„ »..,/:„ ..>,<. ^..•;^ I/, jiv. v/v 
 
 KOHf/K. * V 
 
 j/)a.U: of >i^ . 
 
 rc/^At ari'J : , .' , , , . 
 
 fruit a/i'i hii/'J f/'>,i<.'J !;i;^. 
 
 LiOUiB XV. U; Bien Aim<?, the fourth 
 of th<; Fr':fi(:\t liouibon dynanty, gr';at 
 fs/iiiuli^m of LouiH XIV. HTIO, )71;>-1774;. 
 /low kijfrh a H/;nxtjal, h<;artl<;»H volup 
 tuary, who \x)H,f,\A-A that tlic ' craxy old 
 rruu;hin<; would laHt out hi» time, and lie 
 car*;d not what \nniiiuui of it txiUirwArila,' 
 wjnid bo well-beUjved, in i^f»t under- 
 Btandinj^. 
 
 Father, Louia the little dauj^hin, Hon 
 of ly^uiH ti;o jTreat'lauphrn, and grandwjn 
 of LouiH XIV.'; Mother, Ad<.-la7do ; Pf i/;.?*, 
 (Ij th<; Infanta of Sj/ain, arrang<^l Imt 
 broken off, ^^j ,Maria-Charlott<; f>jczJrj>4ka; 
 MiHlreHHeH, H) Mdrno. de Mailly, (2j the 
 ConxiUiWii de Vintinjille her sJHter, (3j the 
 DuchohH of h-Aura'/ixh, another Ki»ter, (4) 
 Mdnio. do la Tourncllo duchoHW; de 
 ('hat<;auroax, anot)»or WihUrr, I'j) Mdrne, 
 de J'ompa'lour, and /fij Mdrne Dubarry. 
 lieyent, P)iilip[^ duo d'Orloann, C'oti- 
 tem/joranj with G<--^jrge I., II., Ill, ; 
 DauyhterH, he nicknamed hiii three 
 daugliU.-rH lyjiiue, Cliifle, and Graillc. 
 
 LcrainXIV died 171A; his son Loala. the igreat 
 duufjJiin. dU^ hbtort lii» tilher, 1711 : and tbe koo 
 
 zv; , ;yy(.i» xviii,, a.A»4 c«4»;/,fc» X. ;*¥«'yiu*i 
 
 'i>/r**-, 
 /y/.^># XVJ/, *ort «yf /x/»jJ« XVI, '/utlir«4 fate 
 
 U, h« wsi# *//« «-< irK^:UrfH ui^M in kUi-^hiu- 
 
 IjOU'ih XVI. waii vu'i\hA\utix\ 21 Jan., 
 17^;;}, <'Atii.rU'.>, I. ■/.■■>.>. t'.x '.-J mU A ?Ai Jan., 
 lOiy, It ii* >!//n)ewhat v-tra/ij.'e — 
 
 1. lliat ly/MJH XVI. and Charl/^ L 
 l>^>th f/fuiixht iu'/\ii UiiU'^rn. 
 
 2, That tlie >-.fjm '// 21 + 17J« « tlie 
 >surn» '/f 5J(> f 1049 May r>£ tlie ifujnih 
 and fatal ytiSxr). 
 
 V,. That tlie nuftith in each ca)»e wa,* 
 January. 
 
 Faihtfr, \/iu'\% the 'laaphin, and s^rand- 
 H'/n of Umi/, X V, ; Mother, ,Mari<^Jo'/>;j>he 
 of Hazony ; VKi//?, Marie - An t/>i ;< c-t >j 
 archduch/^*('-4 '^ Austria, jfnill//tiried 171^3. 
 (yt/rUenrpt^rorif with '>e'/riife Iff. 
 
 HJ* ^-. • • 
 
 »/rf/t>)' • 
 
 '' -'.'Itttili Ol t t i)>l3i^*i , f/ui t/<«/ *fc/<5 /*0 
 
 Cha.rrj>/«;r of • 
 
 I fcjiKoif.i-yJ tt 
 
 .j-^uUrA him a 
 
 :utl/-.m. 
 
 IiOUiB XVII., K/^m of I»uiH XVL 
 and Mane-AriV>inetU;. According to a 
 irnAiivm, tlie irnucti was reh'ruerl by tlie 
 Cluivalier de I'f J-Iillet, and a ItaM-vfituA lad 
 (lx>th deaf and dumb, a relative of Mdrne. 
 Richard the gaoler'n v. ife^ wan hnlyrXituUA 
 in hih ]AiU:^. The, lad was of a fej;/,.;.ir 
 a^e and stature to tli'* dauphin, ar 
 ficiently like hirn n/>t to excite fcu . 
 Tliebril^eforthJh »ub»titntion wa>» ..m.-, y, 
 IrtLUCH (\%iHH)L.). It i» iiaid tliat tlie young 
 
533 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 LOUVESTEIN 
 
 prince made his escape in an English 
 cutter, and married Ida Caraccioh. 
 
 William Titt did not think the tradition of the 
 ' Lost Prince ' a mere romance ; and the Allied 
 Powers, when framing the Treaty of 1814, allowed 
 for the possibility of the prince s appearance. 
 Charette, Pichegru (2 syl.), and George Cadoudal 
 all firmly asserted that he escaped from the 
 Temple, and numerous proclamations refer to it. 
 In 1H12 a document was signed in which Louis 
 XVIII. calls himself regent, not king of France. 
 Certainly the document signed Drs. Pelletan, 
 iJumangin, and Lassas is most unsatisfactory. 
 It runs thus: 'We proceeded to examine the 
 corpse of a youth shown to us by the Commission, 
 and stated by them to be the son of Louis Capet.' 
 This document is preserved in the Imperial 
 Library of Paris. , ^^ . 
 
 *,* The general tale is much more sad. It is 
 this : The young prince, only eight, years old, was 
 sent by the Convention to be brought up by a 
 vulgar brute named Simon, a cobbler, whc stripped 
 him of his suit of mourning, and dressed him like 
 a pauper in coarse jacket and red cap, forced him 
 to drink intoxicating liquors, and repeat revolu- 
 tionary ballads. In a few months the delicate 
 boy became half -consumptive and half idiot. 
 January, 1794, the wretch locked him in an upper 
 room, and here, without fire, without candle, and 
 well-nigh without food, he lingered till June, 1795, 
 when he died. 
 
 Louis XVIII. le De'sire, sixth of 
 the French Bourbon kings, brother of 
 Louis XVI. and of Charles X. It is 
 absurd to call him Le Desire, seeing he 
 was thrust on the nation by the allies, 
 and was never ' the desired ' of the people 
 (1755, 1814-182-1). 
 
 Father, Louis the Dauphin, and grand- 
 son of Louis XV. ; Mother, Marie Josephe 
 of Saxony; Wife, Marie- Josephine of 
 Savoy ; no issue. Called Monsieur and 
 the Comte de Provence till 1795 ; in exile 
 he went as le Comte Delille. In England 
 he lived at Hartwell, a seat of the Duke 
 of Buckingham, where his wife died. 
 Contemporary with George III., IV. 
 
 The Bourbons : (1) Henri IV. ; (2) Louis XIII. ; 
 (3) Louis XIV. ; (4) Louis XV., great-grandson of 
 Louis XIV. ; (5) Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV. ; 
 Louis XVIII. brother of Louis XVI. 
 
 *,* Louis XVII. and Napoleon II. were regal fic- 
 tions, so called simply because they outlived their 
 respective fathers. Similarly the date of the reign 
 of Charles II. is absurdly thrown back to the 
 death of Charles I., ignoring the Cromwellian 
 interim, and implying a legal right of succession ; 
 but in England the succession has been most 
 irregular, and depends on the parliament. Thus 
 William I., William II., Henry I., Stephen, Henry 
 IV. V. VI., Richard UL, Henry VII., William III., 
 &c., had not the slightest legal right to the throne 
 of England, and their invalidity invalidates the 
 entire succession. The whole right is sufferance 
 or parliamentary sanction. 
 
 IiOUis-Ph.ilippe. Citizen-king of 
 the French (born 1773, reigned 1830-1848, 
 died 1850). 
 
 Father, Louis-Philippe, Mons. Egalite 
 [Due d'Orleans]; Mother, Adelaide de 
 Bourbon- Pen thievre; Wife, Marie- 
 Amelie, niece of Marie- Antoinette. As- 
 
 sumed names : 1793, M. Chabaud Latour, 
 under which name he was a teacher in 
 M. Jost's school in Switzerland ; in 1794 
 M. Corby; in 1795 Herr Miiller, under 
 which name he travelled in the north of 
 Europe ; 1848 Mr. William Smith, under 
 which name his passport to England was 
 made out at Honfleur ; but he and his 
 wife fled from Paris under the name of 
 M. and Mdme. Lebrun. 
 
 Louis XIII. had for sons Louis XIV. and Philippe 
 de France due d'Orleans. Philippe s son was Phi- 
 lippe the Regent, the Regent's son was Louis, 
 whose son was Louis-Philippe. Louis-I^hilippe s 
 son was Philippe Egalite, and Egalite s son was 
 King Louis-Philippe. 
 
 Louis de Male, Louis II. of Flan- 
 ders. So called from Male, Marie, or 
 Malain, in France, where he delighted to 
 dwell. He succeeded his father in 1846, 
 and died 1384. 
 
 Louis the German. See Ludwig, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Louisiana (U.S.America). So called 
 by M. de la Sale in 1G82, in honour of 
 Louis XIV. In the minority of Louis 
 XV. it was given to the Compagnie du 
 Mississijypi. The inhabitants are nick- 
 named Creoles. 
 
 Louisville, a city of Kentucky, in 
 the United States of North America, on 
 the Falls of Ohio. It was named, in 
 1780, in honour of Louis XVI. of France, 
 whose troops were at the time assisting 
 the Americans in the War of Indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 Loup-GarOU, a lyc'anthrope. A 
 sort of liypochondriac who fancies himself 
 to be a wolf, and under this impression 
 goes about howling and attacking cliildren. 
 This mania occurred in Germany in the 
 early part of the 17th cent. 
 
 The celebrated Nicolle tells us of a convent where 
 all the nuns fancied they were cats, and at a 
 certain hour every day ran about mewing and 
 caterwauling. It was cured by threatening to 
 quarter a regiment of soldiers in the nunnery. 
 Nebuchadnezzar's madness, in which he fancied 
 himself to be an ox, is supposed to have been a 
 I species of lycanthropy. 
 
 Louvestein {Dutch, Loevestein ; 
 pronounce ' Loovestine,' 3 syl.). A poli- 
 tical or state prison during the time of the 
 Dutch Republic. It is a castle at the con- 
 fluence of the Meuse (Du tch, Maas) and the 
 Waal (Rhine), and is opposite the town of • 
 Gorkura (Gorichem), about ten miles above 
 Dort [Dutch, Dortrecht). Here Grotius 
 
LOUVESTEIN 
 
 LUCANIAN 
 
 539 
 
 was kept ; he made his escape in a box 
 which had been employed to bring him 
 books. Here, too, De Witt and some other 
 repubHcan leaders had been imprisoned, 
 
 and hence the republican party was called 
 the ' Louvestein.' They wex-e discharged 
 from the castle at the death of William II. 
 the stadtholder. 
 
 Louvestein Faction {The). The 
 republican party of Holland, led by Jan 
 and Cornelius de Witt, in opposition to 
 the Orange policy, which was to uphold 
 the office of stadtholder. The Louvestein 
 faction succeeded for several years in ex- 
 cluding the house of Orange from the 
 stadtholdership in the person of William 
 III. (afterwards king of England), but in 
 1672 both the brothers De Witt were 
 murdered by an infuriated crowd. 
 
 Louis [XIV.] sent Caillieres to Holland to tamper 
 •with the Louvestein faction, which had always 
 been hostile to William [III. of Holland and of 
 England].— HowiTT, HUt. of Eng. (William and 
 Mary, 105). 
 
 Love-feasts, or Agapse. Held in 
 the early ages of Christianity after re- 
 ceiving the eucharist. The rich brought 
 provisions, but the poor were not exj)ected 
 to contribute. They continued to be held 
 for three centuries, and were ultimately 
 forbidden by the Council of Carthage, 
 A.D. 397. 
 
 The 'kiss of peace' was changed for a sym- 
 bolical ceremony. An ivory tablet was first kissed 
 by the minister and then circulated through the 
 congregation for each one to kiss. 
 
 Low Mass, ' Missa bassa.' A mass 
 without singing, ' quae submissa voce cele- 
 bratur.' See ' Mass.' 
 
 Low St. James. 'From low St. 
 James's up to high St. Paul's ' (Pope, 
 * Satires '). The allusion is to the Bangor- 
 ian controversy {q.v.). Bishop Hoadly, 
 the favourite of Queen Anne, was the 
 exponent of the low church party at St. 
 James, but his opponent, Dr. Francis 
 Hare, dean of St. Paul's, was the leader 
 of the high church party. We should 
 now say ' from Charles Simeon to Dr. 
 Pusey,' or (1890) from 'John Charles Ryle 
 of Liverpool to Edward King of Lincoln.' 
 
 Lowndean Professor of Astro- 
 nomy and Geometry. Value 450Z. a year. 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge 
 by Thomas Lowndes, 1749. 
 
 If the professor superintends the observatory he 
 recei%-es an extra '250J. a year. 
 
 Loyal Association {The), 1792. 
 Formed in London by John Reeves, 
 favouring the British constitution, in 
 opposition to the favourers of the French 
 revolutionary spirit. 
 
 Loyal Irish Brotherhood {The), 
 1880. A group of the Land League or- 
 ganisation. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Loyal N'ational Repeal Asso- 
 ciation {The), 18S9. Organised by 
 Daniel O'Connell to procure for Ireland 
 ' pei'fect equality with England,' and bring 
 about the repeal of the union. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Loyalty Loan {The), 1796. Sub- 
 scribed in December to prepare against 
 the threatened invasion of the French. 
 
 Lubbock's Day (iS^.). The August 
 Bank-holiday. So called from Sir Jolin 
 Lubbock, who brought it about. 
 
 A Bank holiday is called 'A feast of St. Lub- 
 bock.' 
 
 Ltibeck {Peace of). May 22, 1629. 
 Between Kaiser Ferdinand II. and Chris- 
 tian IV. of Denmark. This treaty brought 
 to a close the first part of the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 Lucanian Oxen. Elephants. The 
 Romans had never seen elephants till 
 Pyrrhus invaded Rome. In their ignor- 
 ance they called them ' Lucanian oxen,' 
 supposing them to be herds from the 
 fertile meadows of Lucania. The swine 
 of Lucania were also famous, and the 
 
540 
 
 LUCASIAN 
 
 LUDWIG 
 
 Romans delighted in the sausages, which 
 they called Lucanica. 
 
 Lucasian Professor of mathe- 
 matics. Stipend 850Z. Founded in the 
 University of Cambridge by Henry 
 Lucas, M.P. fcfr the university, 1G63. 
 See ' Mathematics,' &c. 
 
 Luciferians, 4th cent. An 'here- 
 tical ' religious sect founded by Lucifer 
 bishop of Cagliari. They taught that the 
 soul is transmitted to the children from 
 their parents. 
 
 Lucilius {The French). Beranger 
 the poet. Lucilius was either the first or 
 one of the first Roman satirists, followed 
 by Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. Be'- 
 ranger is the French Horace rather than 
 the French Lucilius. 
 
 Lu'cumo and Lars. A Lucumo 
 
 was an independent king of any one of 
 the twelve confederate states of ancient 
 Etruria. His kingdom was called a 
 ' Lucumy.' In time of war one of these 
 Lucumos was appointed leader, and was 
 called Lars (generally the over-king), as 
 Lars Porsena. Similarly, the leader of 
 the Gauls was called Brenn [Latin 
 Brennus], and the leader of the Britons 
 was called Dragon, or Pendragon. 
 
 And plainly and more plainly 
 Now might the burghers know, 
 
 By port and vest, by horse and crest. 
 Each warlike Lucumo. 
 
 Lars Pors6na of Clusium 
 Sat in his ivory car. 
 MACAULAY, Lays of Ancient Rome (Horatius). 
 
 Luddites, 1811-1813, and again 1816. 
 Rioters, so named from their leader, who 
 called himself * General Lud.' The great 
 year of riots was 1812-1813. There had 
 been recently introduced machines for 
 finishing woollen goods, formerly done 
 by men called ' Croppers.' By these 
 machines the croppers were thrown out 
 of work, and formed themselves into 
 rioters, who went about Derbyshire, Lan- 
 cashire, Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, and 
 the south-western districts of Yorkshire, 
 breaking the machines, and threatening 
 the owners of them. Sixty-four of the 
 rioters were executed in 1812, and nine 
 in the following January. 
 
 Miss Martineau says the Luddites were so called 
 from Edward or Ned Lud of Leicestershire, who, 
 being chased by some boys, took refuge in a fac- 
 tory, where he broke two stocking-frames. The 
 ciiiof of the Luddites was a man named Mellor. 
 
 Ludgate. Ludgate was originally 
 built in 121.5 by the barons, who entered 
 London, destroyed the houses of the 
 Jews, and erected this gate with the 
 ruins thereof. It was first used as a 
 prison in 1373, being then a free prison, 
 but it soon lost that privilege. Sir 
 Stephen Forster, who was lord mayor iii 
 1454, had been a prisoner at Ludgate, 
 and begged at the grate, where he was 
 seen by a rich widow, who bought h s 
 liberty, took him into her service, and 
 ultimately married him. To commemo- 
 rate this eventful incident, Sir Stephen 
 enlarged the accommo(^.ation for the 
 prisoners, and added a chapel. The old 
 gate was taken down and rebuilt in loSH. 
 This new gate was destroyed in the Great 
 Fire. Another gate was subsequently 
 built and also used as a prison for debtors, 
 but was pulled down in 1760, and the 
 prisoners removed, first to the workhouse, 
 and afterwards to the Giltspur Street 
 Compter (Professor Morley, note to No. 
 82 of the ' Spectator ' ). 
 
 Ludi-magister. A schoolmaster. 
 Ludus means a school as well as a game 
 of sports. Hence,' ducere filium in ludum,' 
 to take one's son to school. ' Noluit in 
 . . . ludum me mittere ' (Horace, " Sat." 
 I. vi. 72). 
 
 Sir Walter Scott makes Erasmus 
 Holiday say, ' He was inclined to think 
 he bore the name of Holiday. . . because 
 be gave such a few holidays to his school. 
 Hence, the schoolmaster is termed clas- 
 sically ludi-viagister, because he deprives 
 boys of their play ' (' Kenilworth,' chap. ix.). 
 
 Ludovico Sforza, the More, 
 
 duke of Milan (died 1510). Ludovico 
 adopted as his bearing a white mulberry 
 tree {moro), the ' wisest of all plants,' in 
 that it buds late, and does not flower till 
 all hazard from winter frosts and winds 
 has passed away. He was not named 
 the Moor as most people write the name. 
 (Paulus Jovius, * Vitee lUustrorum 
 Virorum,' iv.). 
 
 Ludwig I. The same as Louis le 
 De'bonnaire (778, 814-840). He was son 
 of Charlemagne, and king both of France 
 and Germany. 
 
 Ludwig, Clovis, and Louis are mere varieties of 
 the same name. Clovis='lovis=louis; and Lud- 
 wig— Luwig=Louis. 
 
 Ludwig II. the Young, i.e. the 
 Greenhorn (822, 855-874), son of Lothaire. 
 
LUDWia 
 
 LUTATIUS 
 
 541 
 
 He was 33 when he succeeded his father, 
 and 54 when he died, so he was not called 
 the young on account of youthful age ; but 
 like Louis le Jeune of France (1120-1180), 
 he was ' gi'een ' as a politician. Ludwig 
 II. ceded part of his dominion to his 
 brother Karl, and at the death of Kail, 
 in 8G3, gave up part of Provence to his 
 brother Lothaire. 
 
 So Louis VII. le Jeune by repudiating his wife 
 Elt'onore lost several provinces of France, which 
 fell into the hands of Henry II. of England, who 
 married her. 
 
 Ludwig III. the Blind (880, 890-903, 
 died 923). He was grandson of Ludwig 
 II., and had his eyes put out by Berenger, 
 on whom he made war unsuccessfully, 
 and by whom he was deposed in 903. 
 
 Ludwig IV. the Infant (893, 899- 
 911). Not recognised by some. Last of the 
 Karlovingian race in Germany. He was 
 son of Arnulf of Cariiithia. Too feeble 
 to resist the Huns and oppose Otto (duke 
 of Saxony), he fled to Ratisbon, and the 
 throne was given to Konrad I. duke or 
 count of Franconia. 
 
 Ludwig V. (of Bavaria). One of 
 the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany 
 (1314-1347). In 1338 the pragmatic 
 sanction of Rense decreed that the 
 elected king of Germany was ex officio 
 kaiser, or emperor of the Holy Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 Ludwig V. placed two black eagles on the impe- 
 rial seal, but Karl IV. changed the device into a 
 black eagle with two he.^ds. He was the last of 
 the emperors of Germany excommunicated by a 
 pope. 
 
 Ludwig, called * Louis the German,' 
 third son of Louis I. le De'bonnaire, and 
 grandson of Charlemagne. On the divi- 
 sion of Charlemagne's empire, by the 
 Treaty of Verdun (843), Bavaria and the 
 whole country to the east of France 
 (called Germany) ffell to his lot. 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire had four sons : Lothaire, 
 Pepin, Ludwig, and Charles. Pepin died before 
 
 Ludwig the Child. 
 ' Louis the Infant.' 
 
 See above, 
 
 Ludwig the Saxon, second son of 
 Ludwig the German. He died 882. 
 
 Charlemagne, Karl I., or Charles I. 
 
 Louis I. le De'bonnaire, son of Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Ludwig the German, third son of 
 Louis I. le De'bonnaire. (His two brothers 
 were Lothaire of Italy and Pepin, who 
 died before he did.) 
 
 Kahl III. the Fat, third son of Ludwig 
 the German. (His two brothers were 
 Karlman of Italy and Ludwig the Saxon.) 
 
 Arnulf (who reigned 888-899) was son of Karlman 
 or Carloman of Italy, and nephew of Karl III. the 
 Fat. As he died before his uncle, his kingdom wa3 
 joined to the dominions of Karl III. the Fat. 
 
 Arnulf s son was Ludwig the Cliild or Infant. 
 
 Lugdunensis. That part of Gaul 
 which lay between the Loire and the 
 Seine. 
 
 Luke's Iron Crown, referred to 
 
 by Goldsmith in ' The Traveller,' should 
 be ' Zeck's iron crown,' as it was not Luke 
 but George Dosza who was tormented in 
 the way described a.d. 1514. He was a 
 Szekler, or peasant of Szekelyfiild, a dis- 
 trict of Transylvania. The Jack Cade 
 of Hungary was punished by being seated 
 on an iron throne with a fire under it, 
 crowned with a red-hot crown, and having 
 his flesh torn off his bones by hot pin- 
 cers. 
 
 Hujusmodi libertatem propter seditionem et 
 tumultuariam adversus universam nobilitatem, 
 sub nomine cruciatse, ductu cujusdam scelerati 
 Georgii Szekelii, insurrectionem, amiserunt. — 
 Verboczi, Jus Conswtudinaiium Regni Hungario', 
 1014. 
 
 Lumley Exhibition, in the Uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge, 1657. 
 The Right Hon. Elizabeth viscountess 
 Lumley founded ten scholarships of 4Z. 
 per annum each for poor scholars. In 
 1820 the number of scholars was reduced 
 to five, and the value of the exhibition 
 increased to 15/. a year, to be held till 
 they become graduates. 
 
 Luneville {Treaty of), 9 Feb., 1801. 
 Between France and Austria. By this 
 treaty Belgium and the Rhenish pro- 
 vinces were ceded to France, and the 
 states of Venice were given to Austria ; 
 the pope was re-established, and the 
 Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetian, and Bata- 
 vian republics were duly recognised. 
 
 Lurdane. A rich idle man ; a cor- 
 ruption of ' Lord-Dane.' So the Danes 
 who remained in England after the re- 
 storation of Danegeld by Etheh-ed the 
 Unready were called by the servile 
 English, who stood in awe of them. 
 
 More likely to be old French loiudan, modern 
 French louidatid, a loggerhead. 
 
 Lusitania, Portugal. The country 
 of the Lusitiini. 
 
 It included Portugal and Estreraadura. 
 
 Lutatius says so, and 'therefore 
 it must be true.' Hoc verum est; dixit 
 
542 
 
 LUTESTRING 
 
 LYONISTS 
 
 enhn Lutatius (Cicero, 'De Oratore,' ii. 
 40). Quiiitus Lutatius Catulus was the 
 colleague of Marius in his fourth consu- 
 late. The character of Catulus stood so 
 high in Rome that no one disputed or 
 doubted what he said. 
 
 Lutestring Administration 
 
 [The), 1765, That of Lord Rockingham, 
 which followed the Grenville administra- 
 tion. Marquis of Rockingham premier 
 and lord of the treasury ; Grafton and 
 General Conway secretaries of state ; Earl 
 of Northington chancellor ; the old Duke 
 of Newcastle privy seal ; the old Lord 
 Winchilsea president of the council ; and 
 Charles Townshend paymaster of the 
 forces. As the ministry could not last, 
 Charles Townshend himself said, ' It is a 
 mere lutestring administration.' (Lute- 
 string is a summer silk, unfit for winter 
 wear.) 
 
 'Lutestring,' a corruption of Imttrin, from the 
 Italian lustiino, Frencli Zus^ce, a shining silli fabric, 
 much worn at the time by ladies. 
 
 Luther (Martin). Born at Eisleben 
 in Saxony 10 Nov., 1483; entered the 
 Augustine monastery at Erfurt in 1505 ; 
 professor of philosophy at Wittenberg in 
 1508 ; Leo X. issued a bull against him 
 24 June, 1520 ; Luther burnt the bull at 
 Wittenberg 10 Dec, 1520; he appeared 
 before the Diet of Worms April 1521 ; 
 was seized on his journey and carried to 
 Wartburg, where he began his version of 
 the Bible; he returned to Wittenberg in 
 March 1522 ; discarded the dress of a 
 monk in 1524 ; married Catherine de 
 Bora, an ex-nun, 27 June, 1525 [he was 
 42 years old at the time] ; and died at 
 Eisleben 18 Feb., 1546. 
 
 A monument was erected to him at Wittenberg 
 in 1821, and one at Worms in 1808. 
 
 Luther [The Danish). Hans Tausen. 
 There is a stone in Viborg called ' Tau- 
 sensminde,' with this inscription : ' Upon 
 this stone, in 1528, Hans Tausen first 
 preached Luther's doctrine in Viborg.' 
 
 Luther of England (TZ/e). Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer (1489-1556). He did 
 the work of Luther, but was very unlike 
 the rough German in character. 
 
 Luther's Catechisms. Luther 
 published two catechisms, the shorter 
 one in 1520 and the larger one in 1529. 
 These religious catechisms found a place 
 iiiiong the symbolical books of the 
 Lutheran churches. 
 
 Lutheranism.. The platform of 
 those Protestants who, like Luther, 
 believe in consubstantiation, the use of 
 images as aids to devotion, private con- 
 fession, the form of exorcism in baptism, 
 and some other semi-Catholic doctrines 
 and practices. 
 
 Luther said that Christ, in the sacrament, is 
 present with the broad and wine, as fire is present 
 with iron when the metal is red-hot. 
 
 Luxemburg {House of). Fur- 
 nished Germany with four kaisers, but 
 other rulers intervened ; as Heinrich VII. 
 (1308-1313); Karl IV. (1347-1373); Wen- 
 ceslaus (1378-1400) ; and Siegmund or 
 Sigismund (1411-1437). 
 
 Lydford Law. Lydford is a village 
 of Devonshire where we are told offend- 
 ers were summarily punished. 
 First hang and draw, 
 Tlien hear the cause by Lydford law. 
 There are many similar expressions ; as ' Brad- 
 ford law,' ' Halifax law,' 'Cupar justice, 'Jed- 
 burgh justice,' 'Burslem club-law,' 'Mob law,' 
 ' Abingdon law,' &c. 
 
 Lydian Stone. So touchstone was 
 called by the Romans, because it was 
 found in Lydia of Asia Minor. 
 
 Lying Dick Talbot. Richard 
 Talbot duke of Tyrconnel, lord lieutenant 
 of Ireland (*-1691). 
 
 Lynch Law. The law of self-con- 
 stituted magistrates. James Lynch was 
 a Virginian farmer who in 1688 took 
 upon himself to enforce better order by 
 trying thieves, vagabonds, and other dis- 
 orderly persons. This he did because 
 there were then no magistrates or law 
 courts in the neighbourhood. Lynch 
 seems to have acted pretty fairly in his 
 self-constituted office, insomuch that he 
 was supported by his neighbours. 
 
 Lyonists. The followers of Peter 
 Waldo of Lyons, who died 1197. Peter 
 Waldo had the four gospels translated 
 into French, and found the prevailing 
 religion so different to that taught in the 
 gospels that he became a preacher, and 
 soon gathered round him a large fol- 
 lowing. The Lyonists rejected the dog- 
 ma of apostolic succession ; accepted 
 only two sacraments; maintained the 
 sufficiency of scripture ; believed in only 
 one Mediator, and therefore rejected 
 the advocacy of Virgin Mary and the 
 saints ; denied papal supremacy and 
 purgatory; rejected masses for the dead, 
 
LYRIC 
 
 MACCABEES 
 
 543 
 
 the adoration of images and relics, in- 
 dulgences, and other innovations. 
 
 The Lyonists, Waldenses, Cathari, and Albi- 
 genses had so much in common, they are very 
 frequently confounded one with another. 
 
 Lyric Poets {The Prince of). 
 Pindar (b.c. 529-435), a Boeotian. 
 
 Franz Peter Schubert, the musical composer, is 
 called ■ the Prince of Lyrists ' (1797-1828). 
 
 Lysippus {The English). G-rinling 
 Gibbons, the carver and sculptor in the 
 reign of Charles II. (1648-1721). His 
 favourite wood was lime or linden. 
 Lysippus was a Greek sculptor in the 
 time of Alexander the Great, whose most 
 famous works were statues of Alexander, 
 the chariot of the sun at Rhodes, and the 
 colossus of Tarentum. 
 
 Mabinogion {The). Welsh fairy 
 tales. The MS. is of the 14th cent., and 
 is included in the ' Red Book of liergest ' 
 {q.v.). Lady Charlotte Guest published 
 a translation of it in 1838-1849. ' Ma- 
 binogi means 'instruction for youth,' 
 from Mahan, a young child. 
 
 Macabre {La Danse). An allegory 
 representing all ages and conditions of 
 men engaged in dancing, with Death pre- 
 siding. Very popular from the 13th to 
 the 15th cent., and found in a large num- 
 ber of churches and cemeteries. The 
 most ancient goes back to the year 1485, 
 and the most famous are those of Min- 
 den. Lucerne, Liibeck, Dresden, and 
 Basle. The painting in the convent of 
 the Dominicans is attributed to Holbein. 
 
 Macadam {John Loiulon) intro- 
 duced two improvements in roads : (1) 
 Instead of making the centre of the road 
 the lowest part, he made it the highest, 
 so that the centre is the crown from 
 which the road on both sides gradually 
 lowers ; (2) his other improvement was 
 to employ stones broken small instead of 
 entire stones of various sizes. By the 
 first improvement the roads are better 
 drained ; by the second they are smoother 
 and more firm (1756-1836). 
 
 Macaroni Club {The), 1770. A 
 club of dandies, first in Paris and then in 
 London, in the latter half of the 17th 
 cent. Their hair was dressed in an 
 enormous toupee, with huge curls at the 
 sides, and tied behind into a pigtail with 
 a knot. A very small hat was perched 
 on the top, and was lifted from the head 
 by a small cane. Round the neck was a 
 
 full white cravat tied in an enormous 
 bow. Frills from the shirt-front pro- 
 jected from the top of the waistcoat. 
 The coat and waistcoat were both short, 
 reaching only to the hips. The breeches 
 were tight, of spotted or striped silk, 
 with enormous bunches of strings at the 
 knees. A watch was carried in two 
 breeches pockets, from which dangled 
 huge bunches of seals. The shoes were 
 small, with diamond buckles ; and a 
 walking-stick with long tassels completed 
 the costume. It was the delight of the 
 exquisites to be as rude as possible to 
 modest women, and to bully all the weak 
 and timid. 
 
 Macaroni is an Italian cake. The slang expres- 
 sion ' What a cake (oaf) you are ! ' may have risen 
 from these empty-headed fops, or 'toffs,' called 
 in 1888 ' mashers ' or ' dudes,' which -words are still 
 (1890) in vogue : indeed have been appropriated by 
 the lighter order of f eminines, who talk of ' mash- 
 ing ' the male sex when they are persuaded their 
 appearance is particularly effective. 
 
 A kind of animal, neither male nor female, 
 lately started up amongst us. It is called a 
 Macaroni. It talks without meaning, it smiles 
 without pleasantry, it eats without appetite, it 
 rides without exercise.— Oa/ord Magazine (June 
 1770, vol. iv. p. 228). 
 
 Macbeth. Lady Macbeth's maiden 
 name was Graoch. Macbeth did not 
 murder Duncan in his castle of Inverness, 
 but attacked and slew him at a place 
 called Bothgowan or the Smith's House, 
 near Elgin, in 1040. The claim of Mac- 
 beth, as grandson of Malcolm II., was 
 (according to the rule of Scottish succes- 
 sion) much better than that of Duncan. 
 
 Lady Macbeth was the granddaughter of Ken- 
 neth IV., killed in 1003 fighting against Malcolm II. 
 
 MacBriar (Ephraim), introduced 
 by Sir Walter Scott in ' Old Mortality,' is 
 the young preacher Maccail, so hideously 
 tortured in the reign of Charles II. He 
 died in a rapture. See Howitt, ' Hist, of 
 Eng.' (Charles 11. p. 442). 
 
 Maccabaaan Martyrs {Feast of 
 
 the), 1 Aug. A mother and her seven 
 sons were put to death by Antiochus 
 Epiphiines. These were not Christian 
 martyrs, but the festival was instituted 
 by Cliristians. 
 
 Maccabaeus {The French). Simon 
 de Montfort, entrusted by Philippe 11. 
 Auguste with the first crusade against 
 the Albigenses. He cut down 20,000 of 
 them with the sword and burnt 450 to 
 death (1150-1218). 
 
 Maccabees [The). The Asmonjcan 
 princes of Judcea were so called from 
 
544 
 
 MACCULLOCH 
 
 MACEDONIANS 
 
 Jehu'dah or Judah, surnamed ' Maccaby,' 
 who succeeded his father Mattatlilas 
 as leader of the Jews who revolted from 
 Antiochos Epiphanes. See 'Asmo- 
 nreans.' 
 
 The Maccabees continued to be rulers 
 of the Jews till the ai^pointment of 
 Herod the Great. Mattathias had five 
 sons, and was succeeded by Judah ' Mac- 
 caby,' his third son ; after whom followed 
 Jonathan, the youngest of the five ; and 
 then came Simon, who transmitted the 
 succession. 
 
 Mattathias (B.C. 167-166) was father of Jochanan, 
 Simon (142-1,%), .Tudah ' Maccaby ' (166-161), Kleazar, 
 and Jonathan the high priest (;61-142). 
 
 Simon was the fatlier of Joannes Hyreanus (B.C. 
 136-107), the third son. 
 
 Joannes Hyrcfmus wasthe father of Aristobukis 
 (who assumed the title of ' king' B.C. 107-106), and 
 Alexander Jannceus (also called ' king,' 106 79). 
 
 Alexander Jannseus was the father of Hyreanus 
 II. (B.C. 79, deposed B.C. 40, and put to death by 
 Herod B^c. .SO),— and of Aristobulus II. (dethroned 
 by HjTcanus II.). 
 
 Aristobulus was the father of Mariamne, who 
 married Herod the Great. 
 
 *,* Maccaby is probably the Inscription of the 
 Maccabsean banner, BI.C.C.B.Y. iUli L'mtu>-Co Be- 
 elohim Yehovah — i.e. 'Who is like unto thee, 
 O Lord, among the gods'?' Exod. xv. 11). After 
 the same manner the Romans inscribed on their 
 banners the acrostic S.P.Q.R. (i.e. Senatus Populus- 
 que Komanus). See the Austrian A.E.I.O.U. 
 
 MaeCulloeh {Cutlar). A corsair 
 who made repeated incursions on the 
 northern shores of the Isle of Man, 
 carrying off all that was not ' too hot or 
 too heavy ' (ICth cent.). 
 
 God keep the good corn, the sheep, and the 
 
 bullock, 
 From Satan, from sin, and from Guitar BlacCul- 
 
 loch. 
 
 MacDonald {Half -hanged), 1772. 
 MacDonald, a lad of 19 years, in the 
 42nd Royal Highlanders, being irritated 
 in a public-house in Bigg Market, seized 
 one Parker and slapped his face soundly. 
 Parker and one or two others rushed 
 from the public, and MacDonald, rushing 
 after the fugitives, caught the wrong 
 man, struck him, and he died. Being 
 tried, he was condemned and executed. 
 The body was handed over for dissection, 
 and left on the table while the students 
 went to dinner. A young surgeon came 
 into the dissecting-room and saw 
 MacDonald sitting up. He begged for 
 life, but the surgeon struck him with a 
 heavy mallet and effectually dispatched 
 the half-hanged man. 
 
 Macedonian War {The). The 
 First, B.C. 211-205 Between Rome and 
 Macedonia. Philip V. king of Macedon 
 not Alexander's father), thinking the 
 
 disastrous battle of Cannae had esta- 
 blished the Carthaginian supremacy, 
 formed in B.C. 213 an alliance with Han- 
 nibal ; but both Rome and Carthage were 
 for the time being too busy with their 
 own affairs to attend to other matters, 
 and left the war to allies. In this war 
 Philip had the advantage. 
 
 In the first Macedonian war the ffitolians, 
 Athenians, Khodians, and Egyptians, together 
 with Attains king of Pergamus, took part with 
 the Romans. 
 
 The Macedonians, Carthaginians, Acarnanians, 
 with Antiochus king of Syria, sided with Philip of 
 Macedon. 
 
 The Second Macedonian war, B.C. 
 200-197. Also between Rome and Mace- 
 donia. Philip of Macedon laid siege to 
 Athens B.C. 200 ; but as Athens was an 
 ally of the Romans, the Romans declared 
 war against him, and entrusted the con- 
 duct of the war to Quintus Flaminlnus, 
 who met the army of Pliilip in Thessaly, 
 and gained a signal victory at Kynos- 
 keph'alae (the Dogshead Hills) in 197. The 
 terms of peace were these : (1) Philip 
 was to restore all the Greek towns to 
 independence ; (2) he was to give up his 
 fleet, and pay a tribute to Rome for ten 
 years; and (3) he was to give his son 
 among the hostages for the fulfilment of 
 these terms. 
 
 The Third Macedonian war, B.C. 172- 
 168, was between the son of Philip, named 
 Perseus, and the Romans. About twenty- 
 six years after the second war, Philip 
 being dead, his son Perseus (2 syl.), hoping 
 to throw off the Roman yoke, made war 
 with partial success for three years, but 
 was at length utterly defeated by ^milius 
 Paullus, at Pydna in Macedonia, B.C. 168. 
 Perseus was led captive to Rome, and 
 the kingdom of Macedonia was converted 
 into a Roman province. 
 
 The avarice of Perseus estranged from him all 
 his allies, and though he behaved in the most 
 abject manner to yl'.milius Paullus, he was cast 
 into a dungeon at Home, and died of starvation 
 and grief. His son .Alexander gained his bread in 
 Alba Longa as a turner. 
 
 Macedon'ians, or ' Pneumat'ics,' 
 4th cent. The followers of Macedon'ius 
 patriarch of Constantinople (843-360), 
 who denied the divinity of the Holy 
 Ghost. He was condemned by the Second 
 General Council, held at Constantinople 
 in 381. 
 
 The First General Council- that of Nice, 325— 
 condemned Arius, who denied the divinity of 
 Christ ; and the Second General Council con- 
 demned Macedoriius, who denied the divinity ol 
 the Holy Ghost. 
 
MACFARLANE'S 
 
 MACROBIOTS 
 
 54& 
 
 MacFarlane's Lantern. The 
 
 moon. Tlieclau of MacFarlane occupied 
 the fastnesses of the western side of 
 Loch Lomond, and were great depre- 
 dators on the low countiy. As their ex- 
 cursions were made by night, the moon 
 was proverbially called their lantern. 
 
 Machiavelism. Crooked, per- 
 fidious policy, in which expediency is the 
 ruling principle and chicanery the chief 
 instrument. So called from Niccolb 
 Machiavelli of Florence, whose system is 
 set forth in his 'Del Principe.' Cesare 
 Borgia is his model of a perfect ruler 
 (14G9-1527). 
 
 Both Tiberius of Rome and Louis XI. of France 
 are credited with the maxim, ' He wlio knows not 
 how to deceive, knows not how to rule.' 
 
 Maclean's People. 
 
 tists. 
 
 Scotch Bap- 
 
 Macmillanites (4 syl.). Members 
 of the ' Reformed Presbyterian Church ' 
 ((/.?'.) ; so called from Mr. Macmillan, one 
 of their most distinguished preachers. 
 
 Macrea {Jenny), 1777. Abducted and 
 murdered by Lidians in the army of 
 General Burgoyne. Miss Macrea was re- 
 siding with Mrs. Macneil, a widow, close 
 to Fort Edward, and her lover, Jones, 
 was in Burgoyne's army. She was about 
 20 years of age, intelligent and charming. 
 On 27th July a party of Indians assailed 
 Mrs. Macneil's house, and carried her off 
 with Miss Macrea. Being pursued by some 
 American soldiers. Miss Macrea was fas- 
 tened to a tree, tomahawked, and scalped. 
 The elder lady seems to have escaped. 
 
 The burning houses, the scalped and murdered 
 Americans, and the innocent blood of Miss Macrea 
 made the names of the Six Nations terrible in 
 Europe.— HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Geo. III.), p. 190. 
 
 Macrobiots. Exceeding 100 years. [Greek ju.a*cp6s /Si'otos.] 
 
 Age Year of 
 
 death 
 
 102. Hastings (ffe«n/) 1639 Forester to Charles I. 
 
 Chevreul (3f.£.), French chemist 1889 aged nearly 103. 
 
 107. Laugher {Thomas) 1807 of Markley, Worcestershire. 
 
 Macklin (C/iaricf) ... ... 1797 the actor. 
 
 108. The mntlwr of Thomas Laugher. 
 
 116. AUce of PhUadelphia 1802 
 
 Up to 120 the names are too numerous for insertion. TJiere are above 1,200 of them. 
 
 he lectured at Rome when 120 years old. 
 
 a physician of Paris. Died 5 Oct. 
 
 a surgeon and famous anatomist of Paris. 
 
 an Englishman. 
 
 died at Neuchatel in Switzerland. 
 
 an Augustine, who had been a priest for 91 years. Died in thg^ 
 
 abbey of Claire-Fontaine, 
 lived at Blexapao near Coimbra, on the road to Porto, 
 having lost all his teeth, he cut a new set at the age of 116. 
 
 The Prussian doctor Ufland is the authority for this state- 
 ment. 
 in the Serra da Estrella of Portugal, 
 of Nice, died at Marseilles. He was a great eater and drinker 
 
 His likeness, by J. Vernet, is in the Louvre, 
 an Englishwoman, 
 of Hampre, in Luxemburg. A little before death he could 
 
 walk 6 or 7 miles. He was a labourer, 
 died at Accomack, in Virginia. Button says she never touched 
 
 alcoholic drinks, 
 an agricultural labourer of the Jura. He presented himself 
 
 to the Constituent Assembly in 1791. 
 a labourer of Usquiole, in Berne. He never had a day's illness. 
 a schoolmaster of Paris, 
 died at Charleston, in South Carolina. She spoke fluently 
 
 English, French, Spanish, Italian and Moorish; and knew 
 
 both Arabic and Hebrew. 
 — in the reign of Charles I. 
 1760 of Luche, in the Maine. In 1757 her white hair turned to a 
 
 blond or golden yellow. 
 1753 a Spanish officer, died at Badajoz. 
 17^3 died at Teschen, in Upper Silesia. 
 1714 born at Shiffnal, and buried at Adbaston. He lived in the 
 
 reign of eight sovereigns. 
 1759 a Scotchman. 
 
 120. Dragonetti, the Jesuit 
 
 Fournelle (Pierre de) 
 
 Grou (./('««) 
 
 Ha.rp (Frederick) 
 
 Jacot (Jacques) 
 
 Levezier (Nicolas) 
 
 1626 
 1819 
 1668 
 1792 
 1529 
 1645 
 
 Piedrede (Joanna Francesca de) 
 120. A man of Eechingen 
 
 1790 
 1791 
 
 A priest of Linhares 
 121. Camoux (Annibal) 
 
 1820 
 1769 
 
 MsilcoTason (Sarah) ... 
 Ponce le Page 
 
 1810 
 1760 
 
 Spicer (Eleonore, sic.) 
 
 1773 
 
 122. Jacob (Jean) 
 
 1791 
 
 LaPiole ^ 
 
 Munier 
 
 123. Barnet (dame) 
 
 1739 
 1708 
 1620 
 
 Countess of Arundel 
 Guignard (Denis) ... 
 
 124. T.ueno (Andre) 
 Schrait (Andre) 
 W&kley (William) ... 
 
 Wish&tt (Thomas) ... 
 
 It is said that A ttila king of the Huns died at the age of 124, on the night of his second m/irriage, a.D. 453. 
 
 120. Barnesley (William) 
 Grandez 
 
 Martha Hannah 
 
 1636 an Englishman. At the age of 100 he married a second wife. 
 
 1754 of Pradez d'.\ubrac, in Languedoc, a silversmith. He never 
 touched wine, and worked at his trade within twelve days 
 of his death. Till then he had never suffered a day's illness. 
 
 1808 an Irishwoman. 
 
 NN 
 
546 
 
 MACROBIOTS 
 
 Year ol 
 
 death 
 . ICftS a Scotchman by birth, but lived chiefly at Skipton, in Eng. 
 
 land. Latterly he lived by begging. 
 ... 17C4 an Irish labourer of Meafch. He had 6 Angers on each hand 
 
 and 6 toes on each foot. Was never ill. 
 ... 17(!9 of Tadcaster, in Yorkshire. 
 ... 181-4 of the Isle of Skye. 
 ... 1701 grandson of old Parr. An ostler, who died at Michaelstown, 
 
 and at death no faculty had failed. 
 ... 1711 she lived in the reign of 8 sovereigns. 
 ... 1776 she walked from Shiffnal to London when she was 120, and 
 
 married at the age of 92 her third husband. 
 ... 1771 a Welshman. 
 ... im.S an Englishwoman. 
 .. 1710 of Bize, in the diocese of Comminges. 
 4April, 170G of Northampton. Keill made the post-mortem, which is 
 
 entered in our 'Philosophical Transactions.' He was a 
 
 sheep-drover, and continued his occupation to the last. He 
 
 was a thin and sinewy meui. 
 ... 1778 
 ... 179.5 
 
 ... 17^0 of Liverpool. 
 ... 17156 
 ... 176G 
 
 ... 1753 dean of Worcester. 
 ... 1786 
 
 ... 1748 of Vemil, in Murcia, Spain. 
 ... 1707 
 ... 177H 
 ... 1775 
 ... 17(i4 
 
 ... 17o7 of Aberdeen. He served as a private in Monk's army. 
 ... 17i'l 
 ... 1767 
 ... 1777 
 
 ... 1C41 died in Paris aged 184 years and 10 months. 
 ... 1772 of Newnham, in Gloucestershire. Her youngest daughter 
 
 was 109 at the time. So says the German historian John 
 
 M tiller. 
 ... 1744 
 ... 1739 of Killevan, in Monaghan. A day or two before her death she 
 
 walked 3 miles out and back again. 
 We are told that when Vespasiaii was emperor there were 45 persons in his empire of the age of 135. 
 
 126. Montgomery (i?o5<?r<) 
 
 127. CaroUan (Owen) 
 
 Hughes (William) ... 
 
 Innes (Marii) ... 
 
 Neuwel (John) ... „. 
 
 Scrimshaw (Jane) 
 
 Yates (Mary) 
 
 129. Evans (Hem-y) 
 Meigham (Mrs. Mary) 
 Roger (Jean) ... 
 
 130. B&yles (John)... 
 
 Seattle ( William) ... 
 Cameron (David) ... 
 Ellis (William) 
 
 King (George) 
 
 Lasomel (Jeande) ... 
 Lilley (Samuel) 
 Macbride (Robert) ... 
 Mestauza (Pierre) ... 
 
 Taylor (John) 
 
 Watson (John) 
 
 131. Garden (Pt'ter) 
 Taylor (Elizabeth) .. 
 
 132. Msiccnlloch (Alexander) 
 
 133. Merchant (Elir, sic.) 
 
 134. Ague (Frarwis) 
 Bvookey (John) 
 Grappin (Anne Oudet) 
 Kelt (Mrs.) 
 
 135. Harrison (John) 
 Lawler (Margaret) 
 
 1759 
 
 12 Dec, 1761 
 
 136. For&ter (Margaret) . 
 Lafitte (Jean) 
 
 Morriat (John) 
 Noon (Catherine) . 
 Patter (Margaret) . 
 
 Sheile (James) 
 
 136. Wunder (George) . 
 
 137. Causeur (Jean) 
 
 Bichardson (./rt/jn) 1772 
 
 Robertson (Jo;t)J) 1793 
 
 188. Chim (Mrs.) 1772 
 
 Fairbrother (John) 1770 
 
 M'Donough (John) 1708 
 
 Sharpley ( William) 1757 
 
 A Pole 1803 
 
 189. Cameron (Marie) 1785 
 
 Vohson (Thomas) ... 1766 
 
 140. Desmond (Catherine countess of) 1752 
 
 Laland (IFiHiam) 1752 
 
 Polotiman 
 
 1771 
 
 15 Dec, 1766 he was called Liaroux. 
 always thrice a week. 
 
 1770 
 
 1768 
 
 ... 1739 
 
 He died at Rouillao. He bathed 
 
 buried at St. Margaret's, Westminster; and a portrait of her 
 
 is in St. Margaret's Workhouse, 
 an Irish farmer. 
 
 at Salzburg. Doctor Uf^and of Prussia vouches for this fact. 
 10, July, 1775 at St. Blathieu, near Brest. He was a provision merchant. 
 
 He drank little, but washed often. Born at Lanfeust. 
 
 of Hopton Hall, near Edinburgh. 
 
 who received an annual pension of 36 rix-dollars from the 
 king ol Prussia. He married for the first time at the age ol 
 80, and two years afterwards his wife had twins. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Bam (Joseph) .. 
 (James) 
 
 Sury (Rebecca) 
 
 142. Iv/arling 
 
 143. M'Findlay (Charles) 
 Hilario Pari .. 
 
 144. Effingham (John) 
 
 145. Williams (Eva7i) 
 A soldier 
 
 18'25 surgeon, of Vaudemont, in Lorraine. He never left his native 
 
 place, never took any sort of medicine, and never went to 
 
 bed sober. The day before his death he performed with 
 
 perfect success an operation on an old woman for cancer. 
 
 ... 1808 a negro of Jamaica. He walked 4 miles a little before his 
 
 death. 
 ... 1770 a Stalfordshire farmer. His wife died at the age of 120, and 
 the two lived out five leases of 21 years on the same farm. 
 7 April, 1827 of Falmouth, in Jamaica, a negress. Testified by her master. 
 1773 a monk. 
 1773 
 — an Indian. Alex, de Humboldt conversed with him at Chi- 
 guata when he was 143 years old. His wife was 117. Up to 
 the age of 180 Pari walked daily 4 miles. 
 . 6 Feb., 1757 of Cornwall. He was a teetotaller, rose every day it 6 A.M., 
 and very rarely ate meat. 
 ... 1702 
 ... 1803 died at Stazatmer, in Germany. 
 
MACEOBIOTS 
 
 MAD 
 
 547 
 
 Age 
 
 Year of 
 death 
 
 146. Drah^kemberg {Christien James) 1772 of Aarhuus, in Jutland. He was taken captive in his youth 
 
 by corsairs, and was a sailor for 91 years. He never covered 
 his head with hat or cap ; married a woman of GO when ho 
 ■was 113 years of age ; and a little before his death walked 
 4 miles. 
 Mattathias died by misadventure at the age of 146, according to the Apocrypha. 
 
 Outegro (Jean d') 1726 a day labourer of Galicia. He lived chiefly on Turkish wheat 
 
 and cabbage ; and very rarely drank wine. 
 Winsloe (Tliomas) 1766 
 
 148. Mead (IT't^iam) ... 1752 
 
 149. II is said that Antiochos Epiphanes king ofSyria died at the age o/149. 
 
 150. Arganthonius 
 Consir (Francis) 
 
 152. Bowles (James) 
 Newman (Thomas) 
 Parr (Thomas) 
 
 West (Hcni-y) ... 
 
 154. Damme (Tliomas) 
 
 155. Obst 
 
 — a Spaniard 
 
 1768 of Bury thorpe. Ma Iton, in Yorkshire. From the age of 60 he 
 
 was on the parish. 
 
 16-''6 of Killingworth, Waru-ickshire. 
 
 1.542 
 
 16 Dec, 1(335 of Alberbury, in Shropshire. He was an agricultural labourer, 
 and worked at his calling up to tlie age of 130, even as a 
 thresher. At the age of 1'22 he married his second wife. His 
 food was chiefly bread and cheese, and he drank mUk. He 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. Old Parr lived in the 
 reign of ten sovereigns. 
 
 r. r. 1648 
 18i5 
 
 a villager of Zwronegoschutz, in Silesia. She worked in the 
 fields to the day of her death. She was a large eater, and 
 drank daily two glasses of brandy. 
 157. Some say Epimenidcs tlie Cretan poet died at the age of 157, B.C. 450. 
 
 160. Surrington (Joseph) 
 
 168. Edwards (William).. 
 
 169. Jenkins (Henry) ., 
 
 1797 of Bergen, in Norway. He left a son of I 
 behind him. 
 
 and one of 103 
 
 172. Rowin (John) .. 
 
 175. Tuisco 
 
 179. Truxo (Louisa.) 
 185. Zorten (Peter) 
 
 207. Carh (Thomas) ^ 
 
 1740 
 
 17S5 
 1724 
 
 Ufland, Professor of Medicine in the University of Jena, 
 searched into this, and tells us that Jenkins lived chiefly on 
 charity, but sometimes went out to sea fishing. 
 of Temeswar. His wife at his death was 164, and his youngest 
 
 son was 90. 
 a German prince, mentioned by Tacitus. 
 a negress, who died at Tucuman, in South .\merica. 
 he was a vegetarian, and his portrait used to hang in the 
 library of Prince Charles, Brussels. Claude Nicolas le Ca,t 
 mentions him. 
 1588 according to the parish register of St. Leonard's, Shoreditch, 
 he was born in the reign of Richard II., and died in the 
 reign of Elizabeth. 
 These are the most noted of the Macrobiots. Some of the names are not worthy of credit, such as 
 Rowin, whose wife was 164 ; Surrington, whose son was 108 ; Kelt, whose youngest daughter was 109. 
 However, the list is a long one, and it is well to have it handy. 
 
 *,* Of the antediluvian Macrobiots two solutions have been suggested : (1) that the years were not 
 Bolar but lunar years ; thus inEcclesIasticus (xliii. 6, 7,) we read : ' He [God] made the moon to serve in 
 her season for a declaration of times, and from the moon is the sign of feasts.' It is also quite certain 
 that six months is sometimes called a year ; but neither of these suggestions relieves the main ditfi- 
 culty. Another solution is this : the first date (Genesis, chap, v.) gives the age of the sheik himself, and 
 the next the duration of his dynasty or race. Thus : Adam lived 100 years and he begat Seth. He died 
 aged 100, but his dynasty continued altogether 930 years. Seth was also a sheik, who lived 105 years, 
 but his race continued sheiks for 807 years. Enoa lived 90 years, but his race continued 815 years ; 
 and BO on. 
 
 Mc William (A). An Irish dress, the 
 dress of an Irishman, significant of being 
 thorough Irish, and therefore hating the 
 Enghsh. In 1586 the Burkes said, 'they 
 would have a McWilham or else go to 
 Spain ' — i.e. they would assume the Irish- 
 man and throw off their English manners 
 and allegiance, or else leave the country. 
 In the 1-ith cent, the Burkes adopted the 
 Irish dress and assumed the name of 
 McWiUiam. 
 
 Mad King of Lacedaeraoii (The). 
 Cleomenes, who killed himself in a fit of 
 madness, B.C. 494. 
 
 Mad Parliament (The). The par- 
 liament assembled at Oxford in 1258, 
 
 which provided three things : (1) The 
 confirmation of Magna Charta; (2) the 
 virtual deposition of Henry III. ; and (3) 
 the appointment of twenty-four coun- 
 cillors, with Simon de Montfort at the 
 head, in whom the government of the 
 nation was to be vested. See ' Chambre 
 Introuvable,' ' Parliaments.' 
 
 This parliament ordered that three parliaments 
 a year should in future be called in the months of 
 Feb., June, and Oct. ; that a new sheriff should be 
 annually chosen by the votes of the freeholders 
 in each county ; that no English heirs shall be 
 under the wardship of a foreigner ; that no new 
 warrens or forests shall be created in the nation ; 
 and that the revenues of no county shall be let to 
 farm. 
 
 Mad Parson 
 
 1667—1783 
 
 {The). Dean Swift, 
 
 N N 2 
 
548 
 
 MAD 
 
 MADMAN 
 
 Mad Priest of Kent {The). John 
 Ball, aWyclifite, executed in 1381. He 
 was a leader in the ' peasant revolt,' and 
 preached to the people the equality of 
 man. ' If (said he) we be all come from 
 Adam and Eve, how can our oppressors 
 show they are better than we ? When 
 Adam delved and Eve span, who was then 
 the gentleman ? ' 
 
 Let Mr. Ball first tell us what is meant by ' bet- 
 ter ' before we answer. Abel was better than 
 Cain in one sense. 
 
 Mad Queen [The). Juana, the wife 
 and afterwards the widow of Philip of 
 Flanders, generally called Philip the Fair 
 of Austria. As she was queen of Castile 
 and very rich, Henry VII. proposed to 
 niarry her in 1506, but this proposal was 
 rejected, and Henry died in 1509. 
 
 The wife of Henry VII. died in Feb. 15C3 ; there- 
 fore he was free to marry again. 
 
 Madame (without a name following) 
 meant, in the reign of Louis XIV., the 
 wife of Philippe due d'Orleans, the king's 
 brother (who was entitled Monsieur). 
 The son of Philippe was entitled Petit- 
 fils cle la France, and their daughter 
 Mademoiselle. 
 
 Amazing as the affectation may now appear, it 
 is well known that in the reign of the Grand 
 Monarque the title of Madame was limited to cer- 
 tain duly qualified bourgeoises, such as.the wives of 
 provosts, magistrates, sheritt's, and so on. Hence 
 we read of the ' widow Mademoiselle Molitre,' &c. 
 
 Madame I'Ange. Madame Du 
 
 Barry, mistress of Louis XV., was so 
 called from her extreme beauty. She 
 succeeded Madame de Pompadour. 
 
 Madam.e la Ducliesse (without 
 a proper name) meant, in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., the wife of Henri Jules de 
 Bourbon, eldest son of the Prince de 
 Conde. Mdme. la Duchesse was grand- 
 child of the king by his natural daughter 
 from La Valliere. Henri Jules de Bour- 
 bon was entitled Monsieur le Due. 
 
 Madame la Princesse (without 
 
 a proper name) meant, in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., the wife of the Prince de 
 Conde (a natural daughter of the king 
 by La Valliere). The Prince de Conde 
 was entitled Monsieur le Prince. Their 
 eldest son was entitled Monsieur le Due, 
 and their eldest daughter Maclavie la 
 Duchesse. 
 
 Madame Solidite. The pet name 
 given by Louis XIV. to Madame de Main- 
 tenon (1G35-1719). 
 
 Madame Veto. Marie Antoinette, 
 wife of Louis XVI. (1755-1793). The 
 constitution of 1791 accorded to the king 
 of France the right of veto, but this veto 
 was merely suspensive. Louis XVI. 
 availed himself of this right from the 17 
 to the 29 Nov., and was nicknamed Mon- 
 sieur Veto, his wife being Madame Veto. 
 
 Madame Veto avait promis 
 De faire egorger tout Paris; 
 Mais son coup a manque, 
 Grace a nos canonnie. 
 
 Revolutionary Song. 
 Madam Veto swore one day 
 All Parisians she would slay ; 
 But the cannoneers of France, 
 Never gave her tl re t the chance. 
 
 Madeleine (La), Paris. Napoleon I. 
 in 1815 commenced this beautiful build- 
 ing over the spot where the body of 
 Louis XVI. was buried. It was 
 founded after the battle of Jena, and its 
 name was to be the Temple of Glory. 
 The Bourbons finished it, and called it 
 ' The Madeleine.' It is a truly splendid 
 shrine for a most ill-used king. 
 Louis XVI. was the C6th of the kmgs of France. 
 
 Madelonnettes {Les), 1618. A re- 
 ligious house in Paris in the Rue des Fon- 
 taines designed for repentant women, and 
 founded by Robert de Montry. The 
 direction of this penitentiary is .under 
 the Soeurs de la Visitation de St. Antoine. 
 In the revolution it was turned into a 
 political prison, and at the present day it 
 is a house of detention for les filles de 
 mauvaise vie. 
 
 Mademoiselle (without a proper 
 name), the title of the eldest daughter of 
 the king of France. Thus, in the reign 
 of Louis XIII., the Duchesse de Montpen- 
 sier, the eldest daughter of Gaston due 
 d'Orleans (the king's brother) was Made- 
 moiselle ; but in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 she became la grande Mademoiselle, 
 because the king's brother Philippe due 
 d'Orleans had a daughter who was Made- 
 moiselle. 
 
 In the reign of Louis XIV. the king's son was 
 Monselgnenr ; his brother (Philippe) was Monsieur, 
 his wife Madame, and their daughter Mademoiselle. 
 
 Madman (The). Apollodorus the 
 Athenian painter, who was so irascible 
 that he destroyed his own pictures upon 
 the slightest provocation (died B.C. 440). 
 
 Shelley (in his preface to the transla- 
 tion of Plato's ' Symposium ') says, ' To 
 borrow an image from Italian painters, 
 he [Apollodorus] seems to have been the 
 St. John of the Socratic group,' in allu- 
 
MADMAN 
 
 MAGIANS 
 
 549 
 
 sion to his impassioned and enthusiastic 
 disposition. 
 
 Madman of the Worth {The). 
 Carl XII. of Sweden (1682, 1697-1718). 
 In 1700, with 8,000 men lie overthrew 
 80,000 Kussians at Nar\'a, a success which 
 made him madder than he was before. 
 
 Madonna Bianca. The Italian 
 'White Lady ' (Rogers, ' Italy '). 
 
 Madras College. See 'Andrews 
 
 [University of St.).' 
 
 Madras System of Education 
 
 (The), 1795. On the mutual instruction 
 system. In 1807 Dr. Andrew Bell intro- 
 duced his system among the i^oor in Lon- 
 don. By this plan the more advanced 
 pupils instruct the less advanced. The 
 system was very popular for a time, and 
 pupil teachers are still employed in our 
 parish schools. 
 
 Madrid {Treaty of), 1526. Conse- 
 quent on the battle of IPavia in the year 
 previous. By this treaty Francois agreed 
 to renounce all claim to the duchy of 
 Milan ; to yield to the Emperor Karl V. 
 Flanders, Artois, and Burgundy ; to re- 
 store Bourbon to all his titles and pos- 
 sessions ; and to send his two sons as 
 hostages till these several conditions 
 were fulfilled. 
 
 Maecenas of France {The). 
 
 Francois I. (1494, 1515-1547). Also 
 called Fere des Lettrcs, being a most 
 munificent patron of literature and art. 
 
 Maenad {A). A bacchant. From 
 the Greek jaatVo/nat, to be mad or furious ; 
 because the gestures and shouts of these 
 worshippers of Bacchus were like the 
 ravings of mad women (pi. Maenades). 
 
 Turning the current of her youth from the sweet 
 modesty of maidenhood to the self-destroying 
 violence of a Maenad.— E. Lynn Linton, Undar 
 whirh Lord! chap, xxiii. 
 
 Magazine, 1731. The name first 
 applied in England to a periodical (' The 
 Gentleman's Magazine'). 
 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, 1458. 
 
 Founded by William Patten bishop of 
 Winchester. The headmaster is called 
 the president. [Pronounce Maudlen.'] 
 
 William Patten is generally called William of 
 Waynfiete, from the place of his birth. 
 
 Magdalen Hall, Oxford, 145G. 
 Founded as a preparatory school to the 
 college, but in 1602 it became indepen- 
 
 dent, and in 1822 was removed to the 
 seat of the former Hertford College. In 
 1874 Magdalen Hall was dissolved, and 
 the college was incorporated, under the 
 title of ' the Principal, Fellows, and 
 Scholars of Hertford College,' in the 
 University of Oxford. 
 
 Magdalene College, in Cambridge 
 University. Founded by Thomas baron 
 Audley of Walden in 1519. Familiarly 
 called Maudlen. 
 
 Magdeburg Hemispheres (T/ie), 
 
 1650. Two small brass cups (about two 
 inches in diameter), each furnished with 
 a brass handle. The two cups fit each 
 other, and form a sphere. Tiie object of 
 this pneumatic toy is to show the pressure 
 of air, for when the air has been pumped 
 out of them two strong men cannot pull 
 them asunder, but the moment air is 
 admitted they can be parted without the 
 slightest effort. Invented by Otto von 
 Guericke of Magdebui'g. 
 
 Maggy Lauder. This is a scur- 
 rilous song, in the time of the reforma- 
 tion, on the Catholic Church. 
 
 MagiofCappadocia(r72e). These 
 were accounted heretics by the Parsees. 
 They worshipped in temples, and had 
 many material symbols of their fire-god. 
 They also offered up human victims. 
 The high priest of the Cappadocian Magi 
 wore a mitre. Unlike the Parsees, they 
 bury their dead. 
 
 The Parsees neither burn nor bury their 
 dead, but place them in circular towers where 
 birds of prey may devour them. 
 
 Ma'gianism. The religious system 
 of the Magi. The Magi believed in one 
 god, or rather that the sky was all one 
 god. No temples were built to this god, 
 but those who wished to worship him 
 went to the top of a mountain and pi*os- 
 trated themselves. The seven planets 
 were supposed to be his seven chief 
 ministers. At death the soul had to pass 
 through seven gates before it reached 
 the heaven of heavens. Brotherly love 
 was a moral law of the Magi, and so was 
 tenderness to dumb animals. Zoroaster 
 reformed Magianism (b.c. 589-513). 
 
 Mag-ans {The), or ' Magi.' Part of 
 the old Persian empire. Herodotus calls 
 them ' one of the six Median tribes.' 
 * The Wise Men of the East ' spoken of 
 in St Matthew's Gospel were Magians. 
 
550 
 
 MAGICIAN 
 
 MAGNA 
 
 Simon who deceived the people of Sv 
 maria (Acts viii.) and Elymas the sorcerer 
 were both Magians. As a rehgious order 
 they were organised by Zoroaster, who 
 divided them into (1) learners, (2) masters, 
 and (3) perfect scholars. They had three 
 methods of divination, (1) by calling up 
 the dead, (2) by cups and dishes, and (8) 
 by water. Their learning was so great, 
 and their ' tricks ' so wonderful, that 
 magic or Magianism became a synonym 
 of sorcery. 
 
 Magician of the North {The). 
 
 So Hamann (1730-1788) called himself. 
 He was a Prussian philosopher who de- 
 fended revelation against the attacks of 
 the Rationalists. 
 
 Magister ad Faculta'tes (4 syl.). 
 The chief officer of the Court of Faculties 
 iq.v.). 
 
 Magister Glomerise. A non- 
 academic functionary in the University 
 of Cambridge, the superintendent of the 
 masters of grammar, of which there were 
 a dozen or more attached to different 
 schools where youths were taught the 
 elements of the Latin language. These 
 schools were nurseries for the university. 
 Glomeria, a corruption of Gramery, skill 
 in grammar. 
 
 There ■were probably a dozen or more separate 
 schools, each presided over by a master of gram- 
 mar, while the Blagister Glomeriae represented 
 the supreme authority.— Mullingsr, University of 
 Cambridge, 1873, pp. 139, 340. 
 
 Magna Charta, 15 June, 1215. 
 Based on the laws of Henry I., which 
 embraced those of Edward the Confessor 
 and the ' ancient customs of England,' 
 derived mainly from the free institutions 
 of the Saxons and Danes. Drawn up at 
 Edmundsbury bj^ Stej)hen Langton (arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury) and the barons or 
 free tenants of the king, 20 Nov., 1214, 
 and signed by King John at Runnymede 
 in the seventeenth year of his reign. It 
 contains sixty-one clauses. Twenty-five 
 of the barons were elected to see it carried 
 out, and if any article was infringed four 
 of the number were to lodge a complaint ; 
 and if immediate redress was not granted, 
 the twenty- five barons were empowered 
 to take possession of the royal castles till 
 redress was fully obtained. A copy of 
 the charter was sent to every cathedral. 
 The facsimile engraved by the Board of 
 Commissions on the public records was 
 from the copy in Lincoln Cathedral, sup- | 
 
 posed to be the most accurate. The 
 following clauses will show the nature of 
 the charter : — 
 
 The English Church is to enjoy all its rights and 
 liberties, and all elections to benefices are to bo 
 free. 
 
 General Provisions : — 
 
 All towns to enjoy their charters. 
 
 All forests afforested in the present reign [i.e. 
 John's] to be disafforested. 
 
 No officer of the crown to take corn, timber, or 
 other goods without payment, or to borrow any 
 man's horse or cart without the owner's consent. 
 
 No scutage to be exacted except by order of 
 the national council. 
 
 Assizes to be held by justices in eyre four times 
 a year, and the Court of Common Pleas to be fixed 
 at Westminster. 
 
 No man to be condemned on suspicion, but only 
 after a fair trial on the evidence of witnesses. 
 
 No freeman to be outlawed, except according to 
 law. 
 
 All men to have equal justice. 
 
 Guardians to keep up the estate of their re- 
 spective wards, and to deliver it over well stocked 
 and provided. 
 
 Chattels to be seized for debt before lands or 
 rents. 
 
 If a minor has borrowed money, and dies before 
 he comes of age, onlj' the principal (without 
 interest) shall be paid to the lender. 
 
 All weights and measures in the realm shall be 
 uniform. 
 
 Personal Provisions :_ 
 
 No one to be distrained to perform more service 
 to his lord than is due. 
 
 No vil or person but those bound to do so to be 
 distrained for making bridges, i"tc. 
 
 No lord, except to ransom his person, shall levy 
 aid on his freemen, either under pretence of mak- 
 ing his heir a knight, or of dowering his eldest 
 daughter at marriage. 
 
 Foreign merchants to be free to trade in the 
 land, and all natives to go and come as they 
 choose. 
 
 Widows to remain widows if they like, but if 
 they marry they must give legal notice of their 
 intention. 
 
 Every man to be at liberty to bequeath his per- 
 sonal property as he likes, but his real estates to 
 descend to his widow and children. 
 
 The Four new Clauses added by Edicard I., 5 Nov., 
 1297 :— 
 
 1. No taxes to be levied without consent of par- 
 liament. 
 
 2. No provisions to be taken for the king's ser- 
 vice without the owner s consent. 
 
 3. No levy, under the name of custom, to be 
 levied on wool. 
 
 4. All liberties, laws, and customs hitherto en- 
 joyed to remain in force. 
 
 See also the ' Dictum of Kenilworth, ' 15 Oct., 12C6. 
 
 Magna Charta of Hungary. 
 
 See ' Golden Bull of Hungary.' 
 
 Magna Charta of Manx (The), 
 1704. The Act of Settlement is so called. 
 By this act the purchaser of a farm or 
 other real property is allowed to sell, 
 alienate, or devise his estate ; and as 
 soon as it passes into the new hands, the 
 former possessor loses all rights therein 
 for ever. The land not revertable, as it 
 was among the Jews in the year of jubilee. 
 
 Magna Charta of Ottoman 
 Liberty {The), or Imperial Edict of 
 
MAGNA 
 
 MAHDI 
 
 551 
 
 Gulhaneh, granted by Abdul Med j id sul- 
 tan of Turkey (1823, 1839-18G1). This 
 edict equalised taxation and regulated 
 the administration of justice in Turkey. 
 
 Magna Charta of Turkey {The), 
 
 21 Feb., 1856. A firman gi-anted by the 
 Sultan after the Crimean war. It con- 
 firmed to Christians in the sultanate full 
 civil and religious liberty; it abolished 
 all class distinctions, leaving every office 
 open to every subject irrespective of 
 birth, race, religion, or language ; all 
 subjects admissible to the civil or mili- 
 tary schools ; flogging and torture made 
 penal; all classes to pay their proper 
 ratio of taxes according to a money scale ; 
 the items of national expenditure to be 
 published ; a council of delegates to 
 meet annually ; all subjects to have an 
 equal right of holding land ; trade to be 
 free. 
 
 Magna Charta of the Galilean 
 Church {The), 1438. The Pragmatic 
 Sanction of Bourges enacted by Charles 
 VII. It declared a general council of 
 superior authority to the pope ; it freed 
 all elections to church preferments from 
 the control of the pope ; it abolished 
 mandats and first-fruits; and, in fact, 
 did for France what the Constitutions of 
 Clarendon had done for England ; that 
 is, reserved the ecclesiastical preferments 
 of the nation to natives, and prevented 
 the im-periuni in imperio or collision of 
 Italian interests with those of the kings 
 and his subjects. 
 
 Magna Charta of the Pro- 
 testants of Ireland {The), 1662. 
 The Act of Settlement and the Act of 
 Explanation, The two together form 
 the tenure under which most of the land 
 of Ireland is held. The act was framed 
 by the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant 
 of Ireland, to confirm Protestants in the 
 estates confiscated from Irish Catholics 
 after the ' Great Rebellion.' 
 
 By the Act of Explanation some few altera- 
 tions were made in the most obnoxious of the 
 clauses of the Act of Settlement {<;.?'.). Before the 
 outbreak of the civil war the estates of Ormond 
 brought him in an income of 7,000;. a year. After 
 the Magna Charta they brought him in an income 
 Of 80,OOOi. a year. 
 
 Magna Q-raecia. Modem Calabria. 
 
 Magnanimous {The). Philippe 
 II. Align ste of France (1105, 1180-1223). 
 Called ' Auguste ' because he was born in 
 the month of August (21st of the month). 
 
 Magnum Decreto'rum, seu 
 Canonum,Volumen. A famous col- 
 lection of canons by Burchard bishop of 
 Worms, a Benedictine, who died 1027 at 
 the age of 72. 
 
 Magnus Saga {The). The history 
 and miracles of Earl Magnus, patron 
 saint of Kirkwall Cathedral. It was 
 printed for the Master of the Rolls in 
 1887, with other Sagas. It is in Icelandic 
 and not translated. 
 
 Mag'ophon'ia, b.c. 522. An annual 
 ceremony observed by the Magi in re- 
 membrance of the massacre of their 
 tribe by Darius Hystaspes, because a 
 pretender usurped the throne of Persia 
 while Cainbyses was absent in Egypt. 
 Canibyses heard of the plot, but died on 
 his way back, and Darius, his successor, 
 made a general massacre of the Magi. 
 During the Magophonia no Magian ap- 
 peared in public. 
 
 Magyarised (pron. Mard'-yer-ised), 
 1830. Made to use the language of the 
 Magyars [Mard-yers] or native Hun- 
 garians, instead of the Latin tongue as 
 hitherto. The Croats and Sclaves said 
 Nolumus Magyarizari when the Hun- 
 garian diet proposed this change. 
 
 Mahabad'ian Dynasty {The). 
 An antediluvian and fabulous Persian 
 dynasty, so called from Mah'ab'ad, said 
 to be the first king that ever reigned. 
 He divided the people into four classes, 
 viz. the religious, the military, the com- 
 mercial, and the servile. 
 
 According to Sir W. Jones, this dynasty was 
 established ages before the accession of Cayiimers 
 or Kayomurz, great-grandson of Noah, some nine 
 centuries B.C. The I'ishdadian dyn^isty (ij.v.) is 
 called the first Persian dynasty by those who 
 fear to extend the chronology of history much 
 above 2,000 years B.C. The Mahabad-ian dynasty 
 was followed by the Jy-anian or Holy Dynasty. 
 Of course Mahabad means Great King. All the 
 fourteen hypothetical kings of this dynasty are 
 called Abad, and all were said to be prophets. 
 
 Mah'di {The). Supreme pontiff of 
 the Shiites. Only twelve of these 
 imams have really appeared, viz. Ali, Has- 
 san, Hosein, and the nine lineal descend- 
 ants of Hosein. Mahommed, the last 
 Mah'di, we are told, is not really dead, 
 but sleeps in a cavern near Bagdad, and 
 will return to active life before the 
 Judgment-day to overthrow Dejal or 
 Antichrist. In the royal stables of 
 Persia two horses are always kept sad- 
 dled, in readiness for the Mah'di and his 
 
552 
 
 MAHOMETANISM 
 
 MAIDS 
 
 lieutenant Jesus the son of Mary. The 
 Sunnites or ' orthodox ' Moslems called 
 the sultan the true imam [e-maum']. 
 
 Mahomed Achmet or Mohammed Ahmed of 
 Dongola was born about 1840. He was a car- 
 penter, and became Mahdi in 1888. The Mahdi of 
 the Soudan in 1881 was only a ' false prophet,' who 
 pretended to be the sleeping imam come back to 
 active life to overthrow the enemies of the faith 
 and restore all things. Mahdi means the guidedone. 
 
 *^* It must be remembered that the Sunnites 
 arc the ' orthodox ' Moslems, and the Sultan ol 
 Turkey is the calif or head thereof. The Shiites 
 are the Persian Moslems, hated by the orthodox 
 party. The Mahdi and his party which are now 
 (1890) disturbing Egypt are hated by the official 
 Egyptians, who are Sunnites (2 syljlike the Turks. 
 Latterly even the Sunnites have been expecting 
 a Mahdi, who is to stamp out ' the infidels.' In 
 fact, the expectation is almost universal among 
 Moslems. 
 
 Mahometanism. The belief that 
 Mahomet was a prophet sent by God, 
 and that the Koran is a revelation made 
 to him by Gabriel in the cave Hoia. 
 Mahomet or Mohammed lived 571-631. 
 
 Of course Mahometans are deists. The sultan 
 Is the calif of the orthodox Moslems or SunniU's 
 (2 syl.), and the Mahdi is the head of the unortho- 
 dox Moslems or Shiites (2 syl.). The Turks and 
 Egyptians are Sininites (or 'orthodox'), the Per- 
 sians and some Indians are SIdites (2 syl.) or hete- 
 rodox Moslems. 
 
 Mah-Oii's Act. See * Lord Mahon's 
 Act.' 
 
 Mahratta War (The), 1804-1818. 
 
 The British declared war against Holkar 
 16 April, 1804 ; won the battle of Deig 13 
 Nov., 1804 ; of Bhurtpoor 2 April, 1805 ; 
 of Mehudpoor 21 Dec; and concluded 
 peace with Holkar 6 Jan., 1818. 
 
 Mai {A), or 'Arbre de Mai.' A tree, 
 bush, or branch planted before a house 
 on May-day by those who wish to pay a 
 compliment to the inmates thereof. In 
 some villages of France the custom still 
 lingers, and sometimes the 'tree' is 
 decorated with ribbons and flowers. The 
 clercs de la basoche used always to plant 
 and dress such a tree every May-day in 
 the grand cour du Palais. In the revo- 
 lution trees of liberty were called Mais. 
 
 Meanwhile the 20th June is nigh, anniversary 
 of that world-famous oath of the Tennis-court, 
 on which day certain citizens have in view to 
 plant a Mai or Tree of Liberty on the Tuileries 
 Terrace of the FeuiUants. — Caelyle, French Revo- 
 lution, vol. ii. book v. 12. 
 
 Mai'atae {The). An'ancient Scottish 
 tribe. 
 
 The Caledonians and Maiatte, resuming cour- 
 age, took up arms to recover the possessions they 
 had lost. The enraged emperor (Severus), com- 
 manded his army to march into their country 
 and to destroy it with fire and sword.— ^ra of 
 Okiian, 
 
 Maid {The). Joan of Arc (1412-1431). 
 Also called ' The Holy Maid.' In French 
 * La Pucelle.' 
 
 Maid of Brittany (TTie). Eleanor 
 sister of Prince Arthur, and niece of 
 Richard Coeur-de-Lion. 
 
 Maid of Kent (T/ie). Joan Bocher, 
 who maintained that Jesus Christ was 
 not truly incarnate of the Virgin Mary, or 
 he would have been born in sin. For 
 this opinion Cranmer condemned her to 
 be burnt to death, but Edward VI. abso- 
 lutely refused to sign the warrant for her 
 execution. Cranmer insisted, and the 
 young king reluctantly gave way. She 
 was martyred in 1549. 
 
 Some time after a Dutchman was burnt to death 
 by Cranmer for holding incorrect views of the 
 divinity of Christ. 
 
 Maid of Wor"Way (T7ie). Margaret 
 daughter of Eric and Margaret of Nor- 
 way, and grandchild of Alexander III. of 
 Scotland. At the death of her grand- 
 father she was the acknowledged queen 
 of Scotland, and had been betrothed to 
 Edward, son and heir of Edward I. king 
 of England. Margaret died on her pass- 
 age from Norway, and consequently was 
 neither wedded nor crowned. At her death 
 thirteen claimants to the crown arose, but 
 John Balliol was ultimately elected as 
 the king. 
 
 The claim was really between Robert Bruce and 
 John Balliol, and according to English law that of 
 Balliol was undoubtedly the superior. He was 
 great-grandson of David earl of Huntingdon by 
 Slargaret, the rider daughter ; whereas Bruce was 
 the son of David s younger daughter Isabella. It 
 was the grandson of this Bruce who was the great 
 Scotch hero. 
 
 Maid of Orleans {The). ' La Pu- 
 celle d'Orle'ans.' Joan of Arc [Jeanne 
 d'Arc], born at Domre'my 1412. Accord- 
 ing to one account she was burnt as a 
 witch at Rouen 30 May, 1431. According 
 to M. Octave Delepierre she was married 
 to Robert des Ai-moises in 1438, and died 
 in 1444. Called the Maid of Orleans be- 
 cause she compelled the English to raise 
 the siege of Orleans. 
 
 In regard to the burning of Jeanne d' Arc it must 
 be remembered that the French had every motive 
 to represent the English in France in the blackest 
 colours. So Kichard III. was represented as de- 
 formed in body and mind to flatter Elizabeth. 
 
 *,* M. Delepierre cites a document discovered 
 in the archives of Metz by Father Vignier in the 
 17th cent, in proof of the marriage of Kobertsieur 
 des Armoises with Jeanne d'Arcy, surnamed the 
 Maid of Orleans. 
 
 Maids of the Cross, 1265. A com- 
 munity of young women wlao made vows 
 of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 
 
MAIDEN 
 
 MAIEES 
 
 653 
 
 Maiden {The). A rude sort of guillo- 
 tine, introduced into Scotland from Hali- 
 fax by Morton the regent. Morton him- 
 self was beheaded by this machine as an 
 accessory to the murder of Henry Darnley , 
 husband of Mary queen of Scots (1566- 
 1681). 
 
 Maiden Castle (The). Edinburgh 
 or Dunedin. 
 
 In the engagement which ensued at Camelon 
 (now Abernethy) in Perthshire, Druskenus the 
 Pictish king was slain with the flower of his 
 nobilitj'. His chief fortress, the Maiden Castle, 
 now that of Edinburgh, surrendered, and the 
 main body of the Pictish people fled beyond sea 
 (A.D. 824).— Prince, Parallel History, vol. i. p. 401. 
 
 Maiden Violin {The). A Stradi- 
 varius (1709) called La Pucelle. It was 
 exhibited at the South Kensington Exhi- 
 bition in 1872 among ' antique musical 
 instruments.' 
 
 Maillotins {Les), 1382. Insurgents 
 of Paris to resist the new tax on bread 
 levied by the Due d'Anjou, regent of 
 France in the minority of Charles VI. 
 So called because they armed themselves 
 with maillets de fer when they attacked 
 the arsenal, jiut to death the officers, and 
 set at large the prisoners. After the 
 battle of Rosebecque, the same year, this 
 sedition was put down. See ' French 
 Brigands.' 
 
 Pronounce Lay May-o-tah'n. 
 
 Mails. Mail coaches began to run 
 8 Aug., 1784 ; but 14 Aug., 1838 provision 
 was made for the conveyance of mails, 
 &c. by railways (2 Vict. c. 98). 
 
 Main Conspiracy {The), 1603. 
 Set on foot by Sir Walter Raleigh out of 
 hatred to Lord Cecil, the chief minister 
 of James I. The object was to depose 
 Cecil, and induce James to ally himself 
 with Spain instead of with France. Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, with Lord Cobham and 
 Lord Grey, were brought to trial and con- 
 demned to death, but they were all re- 
 prieved. It was called the ' Main ' con- 
 spiracy because it was simultaneous with 
 another conspiracy called the ' Bye ' {q.v.). 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, Grey, and Cobham 
 wei'e charged with participation in the 
 ' Bye,' but they utterly denied that they 
 ever contemplated the elevation of Ara- 
 bella Stuart to the throne and the de- 
 position of James. See ' Bye Plot.' 
 
 Grey, after his reprieve, was kept in the Tower 
 ele V jn years, Cobham was sent back to prison, and 
 Eulj igJi was sent back for twelve years. 
 
 24 
 
 Maine (U.S. America). Said to have 
 been so called from Maine, in France 
 (1638), of which Henrietta Maria, wife of 
 Charles I., was the proprietor. The in- 
 habitants are nicknamed Foxes. 
 
 Maine Law {The), 1846. United 
 States of N. America. The prohibition 
 of the sale of intoxicating liquors in 
 Maine. The original law was made more 
 stringent in 1851, and is still in force as 
 then amended. 
 
 Maintainors. Bands of banditti 
 in the reign of Richard II. who subsisted 
 or maintained themselves by robbery. 
 They assembled in great bands, seized 
 people for their ransoms, and carried 
 off the daughters of men of property. 
 They abounded in Cheshire and Lanca- 
 shire in about 1380. 
 
 Maintenance. I. In History. The 
 association of numbers of persons under 
 some chief, whose badge or livery they 
 wore, and to whom they were bound by 
 oath to support him in his private quarrels 
 against all other noblemen. Henry VII., 
 after the conspiracy of Simnel (1487), 
 insisted that the law against maintenance 
 should be rigorously enforced. 
 
 II. In Law. Intermeddling in suits of 
 law, prohibited in 1540 (32 Hen. VIII. 
 c. 9). 
 
 Intermeddling by assisting either party with 
 money, or otherwise, to prosecute or defend a 
 suit. If such intermeddling is to assist another 
 to obtain or retain land it is called Kuidlis ; if it is 
 to assist a suit in any law-court it is called Ciiridlis. 
 
 Maires du Palais. 'Majdres 
 domus,' officers of the crown who had 
 at one time charge of the administration 
 of the priA'y purse of the king and the 
 general government of the palace. Sub- 
 sequently they became a very great poli- 
 tical power. From 575 Gogon maire of 
 Austrasia was charged with the govern- 
 ment of the country. In 614 Wama- 
 chaire maire of Burgundy compelled 
 Clotaire II. to grant that the maires 
 should no longer be nominated by the 
 crown at pleasure, but by the great vassals 
 for life. From 677 there were no longer 
 any kings in Austrasia, but the maires 
 under the title of dukes or princes of 
 France reigned supreme. After the 
 triumph of Pepin d'He'ristal over the 
 Neustrians, at Testry, in 687, the maires 
 became hereditary. And in 752 Pepin le 
 Bref deposed Childeric III., and pro- 
 claimed himself king of the whole king- 
 
554 
 
 MAISON 
 
 MALEFAMMI 
 
 dom, with the sanction of Pope Zacha- 
 rias I. The office was abolished by 
 Hugues Capet [U Cap-pay\ 
 
 Maison de Dieu means a mon- 
 astic hospital or almshouse. The second 
 league of the Grisons was called La Ligne 
 de la Maison de Dieu or La Ligue Cadde'e, 
 1401. 
 
 Maitland Prize [The). For an 
 essay connected with the propagation 
 of the gospel in India. Given once in 
 three years to graduates of not more than 
 ten years' standing. Value about 80Z. 
 Founded by the friends of Sir Peregrine 
 Maitland, commander of the forces in 
 South India, 1844. 
 
 Majesty, as a royal title, was as- 
 sumed in England in 1527 by Henry VIIL, 
 and in France in 1559 by Henri II. Be- 
 fore then the king or queen was addressed 
 as 'Your Grace' or 'Your Highness.' 
 Louis XI. and his successors were styled 
 
 * Most Christian Majesty ' by a papal bull. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were 
 entitled by Pope Alexander VI., in 1491, 
 ' Most Catholic Majesty.' 
 
 The King of Portugal is entitled his 
 
 * Most Faithful Majesty,' a style of ad- 
 dress bestowed by Benedict XIV., in 1748. 
 
 Stephen duke of Hungary and Maria 
 Theresa were styled 'Apostolic Majesty.' 
 
 The Emperor of Austria is now styled 
 'His Imperial Royal Majesty' ('K. K. 
 Majestat,' i.e. Kaiserliche. KonigUche). 
 
 The Sultan of Turkey is still ' Your 
 Highness.' 
 
 Henry IV. addressed as Your ' Grace.' 
 Henry VI. „ „ Your ' Excellent Grace.' 
 
 Edward IV. „ „ ' High and Mighty Prince.' 
 
 Henry VII. „ „ Your ' Grace ' or ' High- 
 
 ness." 
 
 Henry VIII Your ' Highness ' till 1527. 
 
 The Stuarts „ „ Your ' Most Sacred Ma- 
 
 jesty.' 
 
 Majorats [Mah-zjo-rah:], 1806. En- 
 tail of property created by Napoleon. A 
 majorat was annexed to the title of nobi- 
 lity and passed with it to the next heir. 
 
 Major's or Major Oak (The), in 
 
 Birkland. A part of Sherwood Forest 
 near Edwinstowe in the possession of 
 the Earl Manvers. So called from Major 
 Rooke the antiquary. It was formerly 
 called the ' Cock-pen Tree ' (q.v.). An 
 effort has been made by Lady Manvers 
 to call it the ' Queen Oak,' but it is called 
 generally 'The Major Oak' still. Its 
 branches cover a space of 240 feet in cir- 
 cumference. It has an opening into its 
 
 hollow trunk through which a man can 
 pass and fifteen persons can be packed 
 inside the trunk. 
 
 Inside the trunk are the letters J. R., and it is a 
 fond belief of some that they stand for John Rex. 
 
 Mai de Siam, or 'La Maladie de 
 Siam.' The yellow fever was so called 
 when from 1(594 to 1705 it desolated the 
 Antilles (2 syl.). 
 
 Maladie Diplomatique (La). A 
 
 feigned or exaggerated illness from 
 motives of policy — as when a member of 
 the existing cabinet is invited to address 
 a public meeting on a subject which the 
 cabinet does not v/ish to be ventilated, 
 he sends word that he is bidden by his 
 medical advisers to eschew speaking for 
 the present. 
 
 Malakoff {The). MalakofE was the 
 name of a man who once kept a tavern 
 on the memorable spot which bears his 
 name. He was a purser in the Russian 
 navy, but, being kicked out of the sei^'ice 
 for drunkenness, swindling, and smug- 
 gling, he started a drinkshiip outside 
 Sebastopol. As he sold drink cheaper than 
 other men, his place was greatly fre- 
 quented by Russian sailors, and, after a 
 while, the stony hill where his shebeen 
 stood became the Malakoff Redoubt. 
 
 Mal'andrins (The), or ' The Grand 
 Companies,' a band of 40,000 adventurers 
 who, towards the end of the 14th cent., 
 pillaged Altkirch and other parts of 
 Alsatia. The English word is ' Mallen- 
 ders ' (' Acta Sanctorum,' Life of St. 
 Morandus). 
 
 Malcontents (The), or ' Politiques ' 
 of French history in the reigns of Charles 
 IX. and Henri III., when the nation was 
 divided into Catholics, Protestants, and 
 a third party called Malcontents who 
 were in accord with neither of the other 
 two. They advocated mutual tolerance, 
 and tried to find means of uniting the 
 two communions. On the death of Henri 
 III. they sided with Henri IV. against 
 Philip II., a claimant of the throne of 
 France. 
 
 The chief of the Malcontents were FranQois 
 d' Alengon (the king's brother), the King of Navarre 
 (afterwards Henri IV.), the Prince de Conde, and 
 the Montmorencys. 
 
 Malefammi (TJie Baron). Corso 
 Donati was so nicknamed. 
 
 The Baron Malefammi, or Do-me-harm, -was 
 Corso's nickname among the populace.— Mks. 
 Oliphant, Makers oj Florence, p. 37. 
 
MALHEEBE'S 
 
 MAN 
 
 B55 
 
 Malherbe's Canons, i.e. of French 
 
 poetry. (1) Every word employed must 
 be French ; (2) a word ending with a 
 vowel must be followed by a consonant ; 
 
 (3) no one line may run into another ; 
 
 (4) the rhjTnes must be alternately male 
 and female ; and the cassura of every line 
 must be rigidly maintained. 
 
 Malignants. In English history 
 a royalist, or adherent of Charles I., so 
 called by the Roundheads or opponents 
 of the king. 
 
 Cromwell retorted on them [the Scotch] that, 
 though they pretended to covenant and fight 
 against malignants. they had entered into agree- 
 ment with the head and centre of the malignants 
 himself [Charles II.].— HowiTT, Hist, of England 
 (Commonwealth, p. 317). 
 
 Malignity. The political tenets of 
 the malignants or cavaliers in the time of 
 Charles I. and II. Namely, the divine 
 right of kings, the supremacy of royal 
 prerogatives, the obligation of jmssive 
 obedience, and the sinfulness of treason. 
 
 Malleteers, 1381. See Maillotins. 
 
 No doubt the terrors of the democrats of Flan- 
 ders now again in full action, of the horrible Jac- 
 querie and the ruthless Malleteers, at this time 
 paralysing Paris, were present to the minds of the 
 royal party.— Howitt, Hist, of England (vol. i. p. 
 412). 
 
 Malleus Ariano'rum. St. Hilary, 
 bishop of Poitiers from 350 to 367. 
 
 Malleus Hseretico'rum. I.Pierre 
 d'Ailly ; in Latin Pe fries de Alliaco 
 (1350-1425). 
 
 II. John Faber (1470-1541), so called 
 from the title of one of his works. 
 
 St. .\ugustine is called by Hakewell ' that re- 
 no^v■ned pillar of truth and hammer of heresies ' 
 
 (395-430). 
 
 Malleus Scoto'rum. Edward I. 
 
 On his tomb in Westminster Abbey is the 
 inscription : Edwardus longus Scotorwm 
 inalleus hie est. 
 
 Malt Silver. A payment of money 
 instead of malt by the tenant farmer 
 (14th cent.). 
 
 Malta {Knights of), 1523. See 'John 
 of Jerusalem.* 
 
 Malthu'sianism. The doctrine of 
 the Rev. Thomas Robert Malthus : That 
 as population rapidly increases, but land 
 is a fixed quantity, the time must come 
 when the population will outgrow the 
 
 means of food supply, and therefore 
 government should make laws to restrict 
 marriages and check the inci'ease of man 
 (1766-1834). 
 
 Mam'ertine Prison {The). So 
 
 called from Mamers, the Oscan god of war. 
 It was constructed of unhewn stone, 
 underground, and had no door. It con- 
 sisted of two chambers, the lower one 27 ft. 
 by 20 ft. and 14 ft. high ; the upper one 
 20 ft. by 10 ft. and 7 ft. high. The lower one 
 was entered by a small hole in the ceiling, 
 and the other one by a similar hole in the 
 roof. Here Jugurtha was confined, and 
 perisiied with cold and hunger ; and here, 
 according to church chroniclers, both 
 Peter and Paul were confined, a.d. 68, the 
 last year of the reign of Nero. 
 
 The Tiillidmim, in which Catiline was 
 confined and put to death, was probably 
 the lower dungeon of the Career Mam'er- 
 tlnus. 
 
 Mam'ertines (3 syl.) A sort of 
 free-lances or condottieri about 300 years 
 B.C. These sons of Mamers or Mars were 
 Campanian adventurers of Samnite ori- 
 gin, who took military service with any 
 government wluch would pay them. 
 
 Man in the Iron Mask {The), 
 ' Masque de Fer.' A state prisoner who 
 went by the name of L'Estang. In 1662 
 he was confined in the Chateau Pignerol. 
 In 1686 he was removed to the He Saint 
 Marguerite, and in 1698 to the Bastille, 
 where he died in 1703. So that he was a 
 state prisoner above 40 years. He was 
 buried under the name of Marchiali. 
 
 Voltaire says he was a twin brother of 
 Louis XIV. ; some think he was the 
 Comte de Vermandois, a natural son of 
 Louis XIV. and Mdlle. de la Valliere, who 
 was thus punished for boxing the ears of 
 the dauphin ; others think he was the 
 Duke of Beaufort, who disappeared in 
 1669 at the siege of Candia; or the Duke 
 of Monmouth, nephew of James II. ; or 
 the Count Girolamo Matthioli, minister 
 of the Duke of Mantua, who overreached 
 Louis in a treaty for the purchase of 
 Casal ; or John of Gonzaque, Matthioli's 
 secretary; or an adulterous son of Anne 
 of Austria (the king's mother) either by 
 the Duke of Buckingham or the Cardinal 
 Mazarin. 
 
 Man of Blood {The). Charles I 
 was so called by the puritans because he 
 
556 
 
 MAN 
 
 MANCHESTER 
 
 made war on his parliament. The allusion 
 is to 2 Sam. xvi. 7. 
 
 Prince Bismarck of Prussia, born 1815, is some- 
 times called the ' Man of Blood and Iron.' 
 
 Man of Chios (The). Homer. 
 Chios [Ki-oss] was one of the seven cities 
 which claimed to be the place of his birth 
 (10th cent. B.C.). 
 
 Smyrna, Ehodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, 
 Argos, Athene.— Varro. 
 
 Man of December (The). Napo- 
 leon III. So called because he was made 
 president 11 Dec, 1848 ; he made his coup 
 d'etat 2 Dec, 1851 ; and he was made 
 emperor 2 Dec, 1852. 
 
 Man of Destiny (The). Napo- 
 leon I., who looked on himself as an 
 instrument in the hands of destiny, and 
 that all his acts were predestined. 
 
 The Man of Destiny . . . had power for a time to 
 bind liings with chains, and nobles with fetters of 
 iron.— Sir W. Scott. 
 
 Man of Ghent (The). M. Guizot, 
 who joined Louis XVIII. at Ghent in 
 May 1815. This was looked on by the 
 Liberals as political treason, and called 
 forth much controversy. 
 
 John of Gaunt was John of Ghent. The pro- 
 nunciation is nearly Gakn'. 
 
 Man of Ross {The). John Kyrle,of 
 Ross, in Herefordshire, noted for his 
 benevolence and public spirit (1637-175-4). 
 
 Man of Sedan' (The). Napoleon IIL 
 who, after his defeat at Sedan, 2 Sept., 
 1870, surrendered his sword to William 
 king of Prussia, and was sent to Wilhelms- 
 hohe. 
 
 Also called ' The Man of Silence,' and ' The Man 
 of December.' No man was honoured with more 
 nicknames than Napoleon III. 
 
 Man of Sedition (T/ie). So Madame 
 de Maintenon called Jean Claude, the last 
 of the eminent pastors of Charenton, who 
 was born in 1619. At the Revocation he 
 was ordered to leave France within 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 Man of Silence (The). Napo- 
 leon III. (born 1808, reigned 1852-1870, 
 died at Chislehurst 1873). 
 
 France ? You must know better than I your 
 position with the Man of Silence.— For Sceptre and 
 Crown, chap. i. 
 
 Man of the People {The). Charles 
 James Fox, the Whig statesman (1705- 
 
 1774). 
 
 Man without a Skin {The). 
 Richard Cumberland (1732-1811) so 
 
 called by Garrick from his irritable 
 temper and dread of criticism. Sheridan 
 satirised him as * Sir Fretful Plagiary.' 
 
 Manchester {The American). 
 Lowell, in Massachusetts, is so called 
 from its numerous cotton-mills. 
 
 Manchester Martyrs {The). An 
 utterly absurd political term applied to 
 a man named Larkin a tailor, Allen, and 
 O'Brien, who murdered a policeman, 
 named Brett, and after trial were duly 
 hanged, 22 Nov., 1867. It was the Irish 
 Fenians who canonised these three 
 felons. 
 
 Manchester Massacre {The), 16 
 Aug., 1819. A most extravagant phrase 
 to express the injuries received by the 
 crowd which met in St. Peter's Field, 
 Manchester, in defiance of the magis- 
 trate's orders, to hear ' Orator ' Hunt, on 
 parliamentary reform. About 80,000 
 persons assembled, and the military was 
 sent to disperse them. They used the 
 flat of their swords, but about 100 per- 
 sons were injured, either being knocked 
 down in their flight or cut accidentally. 
 It is said that six persons died or were 
 killed — a very small number indeed in 
 such a stampede. See ' Peterloo.' 
 
 Hunt was arrested, tried, and imprisoned for 
 three years. After his liberation he started in the 
 blacking trade. Hunt wore a white beaver hat, 
 and his admirers followed the fashion. 
 
 Manchester Begiment {The), 
 1745. A miserable squad which joined 
 Charles Edward in his halt at Man- 
 chester. ' The mere scum and ragamuf- 
 finism of the place.' The Duke of Perth 
 said of them ' If the devil would offer a 
 shilling more than the prince, they would 
 desert at once.' 
 
 Manchester of Austria {The). 
 Briinn. 
 
 Manchester of Belgium {The). 
 Ghent. 
 
 Ma,nchester of France {The). 
 Rouen. It is said to have contained 
 200,000 inhabitants when it was besieged 
 by Henry V. in 1418. It does not now 
 contain above 89,000. 
 
 Manchester of K'egroland 
 
 {The). Kano, which exports annually 
 1,500 camel-loads of blue cotton cloth. 
 
 Manchester of Prussia {The). 
 Elberfeld in Westphalia, one of the 
 
MANCHU 
 
 MAP 
 
 657 
 
 greatest centres of industry in all Ger- 
 many. Velvets, lace, silk fabrics, rib- 
 bons, bed-ticking, cotton-goods, &c., are 
 here manufactured in large quantities. 
 Krupp's enormous works are at Essen. 
 
 Manchii Dynasty (The). The 
 
 22nd imperial dynasty of China, also 
 called Tae-tsing. Began to reign 1644, 
 deposing the Ming sovereign (Tsang- 
 ching), and placing Shun-chi on the 
 Chinese throne, with Peking for the 
 capital. This dynasty still rules. 
 
 Mandarins. From the Latin man- 
 ddre, to command ; a Portuguese word 
 given in Europe to the governors of pro- 
 vinces in China and chief magistrates. 
 The Chinese call them ko-hans. There 
 are civil mandarins and military man- 
 darins. 
 
 Man'dates (2 syl.) or * Expectatives.' 
 Letters of request from the pope praying 
 that the benefices named in the letters 
 may be conferred on the persons nomin- 
 ated therein. 
 
 Mandats, 1796. A sort of paper 
 money issued by the French Directory 
 for the redemption of their ' Assignats,' 
 q.v. An assignat of the nominal value 
 of 300 francs could be redeemed for a 
 mandat of the value of 100 francs. A 
 mandat, like an assignat, was a ' promise 
 to pay ' in land, with this difference : an 
 assignat was a jjromise to pay, but a 
 mandat enabled the holder to tcike pos- 
 session at once of public lands to the 
 value of his mandat or mandats. As 
 these mandats soon fell to a seventieth 
 part of their nominal value, but might 
 be given to government in payment of 
 taxes, they were called in. They were 
 called ' Mandats Territoriaux.' 
 
 Mandrites (2 syl.) or Hegumeni. 
 Superiors of convents in the Greek 
 Church. General abbots are archiman- 
 drites. 
 
 ManichaBans (The), 3rd cent. Fol- 
 lowers of Manes or Mani (215-276), who 
 gave himself out to be the Paraclete or 
 Comforter that Christ promised to send ; 
 and maintained there were two souls or 
 siiirits in man, one good and the other 
 bad. He taught that the soul at death 
 went first to the moon, then to the sun, 
 and then to God. His creed was a mix- 
 ture of the Persian Parseeism and Chris- 
 
 tianity. The Manichseans took for food 
 neither eggs, cheese, milk, nor wine. 
 Mani was put to death by Varanes or 
 Baharam. 
 
 In fact Manes or Mani tried to weld together the 
 doctrines of Zoroaster, the metempsychosis of the 
 Hindus, and the tenets of Christi unity. He was 
 put to death by Daharam I., CH.lled by the Greeks 
 Varanes. Manichseism is also called dualism. A 
 vast number of sects which believe in the two 
 principles, one good and one evil, are called 
 Manichaeans. 
 
 Manifestation (The Writ of). 
 The Habeas Corpus writ of Aragon 
 (13th cent.), which provided that no per- 
 son should be secretly incarcerated, as in 
 France, nor smuggled out of the way, 
 but that the body of every prisoner 
 should be ' manifested ' and publicly de- 
 tained, till brought to trial publicly in a 
 court free to all. 
 
 Man'ikin (The). The man so mer- 
 cilessly satirised by ' Junius,' under the 
 name of Manikin and Grildig, was 
 Welbore Ellis, * a pigmy in mind and 
 body ' who succeeded George Germaine, 
 in 1782, in Lord North's ministry. 
 
 Man-rent (Scotch history). A bond 
 between chief and vassal, in which the 
 lord stipulated to give protection, and the 
 vassal agreed to give personal service 
 and fidelity. 
 
 The lords Sanquhar, Drumlanrigg, and others, 
 finding him [Maxwell] thus inditferent, proposed 
 to him that they should agree to grant him bonds 
 of man-rent, and engage to follow him in his 
 quarrels, provided he would effectually protect 
 them by discharging his duty as warden.— Sir W. 
 Scott, History of Scotland, xxxviii. 
 
 Mansard Ornament (T/ie). Stone 
 fretted like coral. So called from Fran- 
 cois Mansard, the French architect 
 (1598-1666). 
 
 Mansard Roof {The). The roof 
 broken into an elbow on each side, like 
 the Tuileries, and not thus A. 
 
 Mansfield College, Oxford 1889. 
 The first Nonconformist college at Oxford ; 
 for the education of young men for the 
 Presbyterian ministry. 
 
 Manx Bible {The). Translated by 
 Dr. John Kelly in 1772. 
 
 Map of Religion. A Christian 
 society has published a map divided into 
 squares, and the squares coloured diifer- 
 ently so as to catch the eye. It calculates 
 the present number of the earth's inhabi- 
 tants at 1,500 millions. The heatlien are 
 
558 
 
 MARABUTS 
 
 MARCHES 
 
 represented by hlacTc squares, Christians 
 by white ones, and each square repre- 
 sents a million people. Of the 1,500 
 squares, only one and less than a quarter 
 [ = 1,200,000] represents the entire Pro- 
 testant community, including all its 
 multitudinous * sects ' (1890). 
 
 Mar'abuts {The). A corruption of 
 marbuth (a Cenobite), of the Musuhnan 
 faith. They still exercise spiritual power 
 in Barbary and Guinea, in some parts of 
 which ' The Great Marabut ' ranks next 
 to the king. 
 
 Marais {The Marsh), 1794. So the 
 ' Plain,' or floor of the Convention, occu- 
 pied by the Moderate party, was called in 
 the ' Reign of Terror,' and its occupants 
 were nicknamed Grenouilles and Cra- 
 pauds, or frogs and toads. The Red 
 Republicans occupied the elevated seats, 
 and were called the Mountain party 
 {Montagnards) ; the Girondists sat on 
 the right hand of the ministerial benches. 
 
 Pronounce Mah'ray, Gi-uh-noo'-yee, Kra'-po. 
 
 Mar'athon of Switzerland 
 
 {T}ie). The battle of Morgarten, 1315, in 
 which a few Swiss utterly discomfited 
 their Austrian assailants, and confirmed 
 the independence of the three cantons of 
 Schwytz, Uri, and Unterwalden. 
 
 Marave'di {The). See 'Almora- 
 vides ' (4 syl.). 
 
 Marbacli {The League of), 1404. 
 Formed by the electors of Mentz and 
 Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, and the 
 markgraf of Meissen, against the kaiser 
 Rupert. Later on the king of France 
 and the king of Poland joined the league. 
 
 Marcel's Revolt. French history, 
 1357-1358. When Jean was in captivity, 
 his son Charles acted as regent, and 
 wanting money convoked a States- 
 General. Etienne Marcel, the city pro- 
 vost, said supplies should be granted 
 if the regent promised to use them 
 only for state purposes, and neither gave 
 office nor pardoned crime for money. 
 The regent made the promise, but re- 
 fused to fulfil the conditions as soon as 
 he received the subsidy. Civil war was 
 the consequence, and the partisans of 
 Marcel wore as their badge a chaperon 
 or hood half red and half green. The 
 revolters seized the regent, who escaped 
 
 injury by adopting the provost's badge. 
 No sooner, however, did he feel himself 
 free than he collected an army together 
 to avenge himself on the provost. Marcel 
 proclaimed the king of Navarre ' king of 
 Fi'ance,' and when the regent, at the 
 head of an army, came to the city gates 
 and promised to come to terms, Marcel 
 went to ojjen the gates, and was trea- 
 cherously struck dead with a battle-axe 
 by one of the regent's immediate suite. 
 This ended the revolt ; and the dauphin, 
 entering the city on horseback, signalised 
 his victory by a host of executions. 
 
 Marcellus of Spain (T7?e). Jolm 
 son of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 March and June Bills. Ex- 
 chequer bills were so called till 1861, 
 because they were payable, together with 
 principal, in March and June; but in 
 1861 the method of payment was changed, 
 interest being calculated half-yearly, and 
 paid on March bills on 10 March and 
 10 Sept., and on June bills on 10 June 
 and 10 Dec. 
 
 March-treason. The treason of 
 passing the marches or boundaries of a 
 country as freebooters or for loot. 
 
 March, pronounce Marsh, not like the month 
 of March. 
 
 He knew how many of his ancestors had fallen 
 by the sword of the English, how many in do- 
 mestic brawl, how many by the hand of the 
 executioner for march-treason. — Sir W. ScOTT, 
 The Monastery (Int.). • 
 
 Marchess Rebellion, 1242. The 
 
 Cointe de la Marche refused to pay 
 homage to Louis IX. (St. Louis), and 
 Louis declared war against him. He 
 routed the insurgents in two battles on 
 one day, one at the bridge of Taille- 
 bourg in the Lower Charente, and the 
 other near the city of Saintes (1 syL), 
 The count was pardoned. 
 
 Marches. Boundaries between two 
 neighbouring kingdoms. The Sjpanuh 
 Marches were from the Pyrenees to the 
 Ebro. The boundaries between England 
 and Wales, as well as those between 
 England and Scotland, were called 
 marches from the Saxon viearc, a 
 boundary. 'Beating the bounds' of a 
 parish is called in Scotland * riding the 
 marches.' 
 
 Our Marchion-ess, the wife of a marchion (mar- 
 quis), preserves the word. The marchion or 
 marquis was the officer set to guard a march or 
 
MAKCHETTA 
 
 MARGAEET'S 
 
 559 
 
 Marehetta, or ' Marcliet.' A money 
 tribute paid to a feudal lord by a tenant 
 on the marriage of his daughter. It 
 prevailed in England, Wales and Scot- 
 land. Sometimes called gwalar-merched 
 (maid's fee). Earl Brant, one of the 
 earls of Crawford, was the last who 
 claimed the droit de jamhage (16th 
 cent.). 
 
 Marching Watch. ' In 1547 Sir 
 John Gresham, being lord mayor of 
 London,' revived this picturesque and 
 splendid pageant on Midsummer's Eve. 
 It had been put down by proclamation 
 in 1528 on account of the sw"eating sick- 
 ness ; and again in 15o9. Henry VIII. 
 took his wife Jane Seymour to Mercers' 
 Hall to see the pageant. Stow says it was 
 finally discontinued in 1549. The march- 
 ing watch in London consisted of 2,000 
 men decorated with flowers, wreaths, 
 and ribbons. Kings, peers, and knights 
 on horseback joined the procession. 
 Cresset lights and bonfires turned night 
 'into day, and banquets in the streets 
 were liberally suj^plied. The march 
 began at sunset and continued till sun- 
 tise next morning. 
 
 Mar'eionites (4 syl.), 2nd cent. An 
 heretical sect founded by Marcion of 
 Sinope, in Paphlagonia, son of the bishop 
 of that city. His system is very imper- 
 fectly known, but he taught that there 
 are two principles, one the author of good 
 and the other the author of evil. The 
 soul, he said, emanates from the former, 
 and the body from the latter. He re- 
 jected the Old Testament, and retained 
 only a few of the Epistles and a part of 
 the third gospel in the New. Marcion 
 had a large following, which subsisted as 
 a distinct party till the 7th cent. 
 
 Origen affirms that Marcion postulated three 
 gods, viz. a God of the Jews, a God of Christians, 
 and a God of the Gentiles. TertuUian makes him 
 to have postulated Jii Iff Gods, and adds that the 
 heresiarch denied the resurrection of the body, 
 condemned marriage, and maintained that the 
 living might be baptized for the dead. 
 
 *,' What is said by the Fathers about ' heretics ' 
 must be received with great caution. I/ike the 
 Church historians, they much distorted their lives 
 and doctrines, looking at them only from their 
 own standpoint. 
 
 Marcus Aure'lius of the Base 
 
 Empire (27ie). John II. (Comnenus), 
 also called Calojoan'nes, i.e. John the 
 handsome. Reigned 1118-1143. 
 
 The Base Empire, i.e. the Eastern Empire after 
 Theodosius. 
 
 Mardi Gras [Mah' -de-grah'^, or ' Fat 
 Tuesday.' The last day of the carnival, 
 when the prize ox of Paris is paraded in 
 mock procession through the principal 
 streets, and stops at the chief houses to 
 gather contributions. The horns and 
 hoofs of the ox are gilt, and the beast is 
 decorated with ribbons ; beside it walk on 
 each side men in mockery imitation of the 
 Romish priests, and a long procession, 
 representing in similar caricature a Roman 
 triumph, follow with bands of music, the 
 more grotesque the better. We are told 
 that tiie procession represents a Roman 
 saturnalia, but it seems very like those 
 semi-religious processions of the middle 
 ages, the Feast of Fools, the Fete of the 
 Ass, the Fete of the Bottle, and the Ft- te 
 of the Cornards or Cuckolds. In Venice 
 for many centuries there was a similar 
 procession of a fat ox and twelve hogs 
 on the last Thursday of Carnival ; and 
 there is still such a celebration at New 
 Orleans, U.S.A. See ' Zobia-grassa.' 
 
 Marfo'rio. An antique marble statue 
 of colossal size, found in the Martis foro, 
 and at one time jjlaced near the Braschi 
 palace. As all sorts of placards, hand- 
 bills, squibs, and satires used to be 
 affixed to the statue, it was removed in 
 1784 to the Capitoline museum. 
 
 Margaret Professorship of 
 Divinity {Lady), 1502. Founded in 
 each of our two universities by Margaret 
 countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 
 VII. The professor must be a graduate 
 in divinity, or an M.A. of at least seven 
 years' standing in priest's orders. In 
 Oxford all graduates in divinity and a'l 
 members of the congregation (in deacon's 
 orders) are electors. In Cambridge the 
 office is nominally for two years, but as 
 the professor is eligible for re-election, it 
 is virtually for life. The electors (in 
 Cambridge) are the vice-chancellor, all 
 doctors, inceptors, and bachelors in 
 divinity who have been regents in arts. 
 
 Margaret's Kn^'ghts {The), 2 Aug. 
 178G. An attempt was made by a mad 
 woman, Margaret Nicholson, to assas- 
 sinate Geoi'ge III. as he was alighting 
 from his carriage at St. James's Palace. 
 Addresses of congi-atulation on his escape 
 came from all parts of the kingdom, and 
 a very large number of mayors and other 
 functionaries, deputed to present the 
 addresses, were knighted. These were 
 
560 
 
 MAEGARET'S 
 
 MARONITES 
 
 called ' Margaret's knights,' or * Peg 
 Nicholson's knights.' 
 
 Margaret's Shift. The main 
 standard of Margaret's army in the battle 
 of Falkoping, 1397, in which Albert king 
 of Sweden was defeated by Margaret 
 queen-regent of Denmark and Norway. 
 There is still preserved in the cathedral 
 of Upsala a ragged strip of linen fastened 
 to a staff which tradition says was car- 
 ried at this battle, to animate the troops 
 by reminding them of the martial spirit 
 of their leader. 
 
 Margaret of Calais, 1347. The 
 daughter of Edward III. and Philippa, 
 born in Calais, just after the termination 
 of the siege. 
 
 Margit^S. Demosthenes called 
 Alexander the Great ' another Mar- 
 gitcs,' meaning a conceited superficial 
 dolt. Margites was a man against whom 
 Homer wrote a satire to ridicule his 
 superficial knowledge and affectations. 
 
 I'll take to writing poetry, a mock epic in 72 
 books . . . and take Homer's ' Margites ' for my 
 model.— KiNGSLEY, Hypatia, oh. xiii. 
 
 Mar'grave or ' Mark-graf.' A Ger- 
 man reeve or chief officer of a mark or 
 march, i.e. a frontier ; like our marquis. 
 The original function of this reeve was 
 to defend a borderland from incursions. 
 See ' Graf,' ' Pfalz-graf.' 
 
 Marguerite des Marguerites 
 
 (pearl of pearls). Marguerite de Valois 
 queen of Navarre, sister of Francois I., 
 born 1492, died 1549. It was her brother 
 FranQois who called her La Marguerite 
 des Marguerites. 
 
 It was not Marguerite the wife of Henri IV. who 
 was 60 called. 
 
 Maria There'sa, 'mother of her 
 
 country,' married Francis Stephan duke 
 of Lorraine in 1736. Born 1717, suc- 
 ceeded her father Kaiser Karl VI. in 
 1740 ; her husband was crowned Kaiser 
 Franz I. 1745, and died 1765 ; the widow 
 died 1780, aged 63, mother of three sons 
 and six daughters. On the death of 
 Franz I. the eldest son Joseph II. was 
 made ' king of the Romans,' and associ- 
 ated with his mother as ruler of Germany; 
 and at her death became kaiser-king. 
 
 It was the daughter of Maria Theresa (named 
 Marie Antoinette) who married Louis XVI. of 
 France, and was guillotined. 
 
 Marian Persecutions of the 
 
 Protestants began in January 1555. 
 
 Instigated chiefly by Philip, the Spanish 
 husband of Mary. In this persecution 
 fell the Archbishop Cranmer, Hooper 
 (bishop of Gloucester), Latimer (bishop 
 of "Worcester), Ridley (bishop of London), 
 Ferrar (bishop of St. David's), and about 
 300 more. Hundreds of others were 
 banished, imprisoned, and heavily fined. 
 It is much to be feared that religion and politics 
 were so mixed up together that it was often 
 morally impossible to separate ' heresy ' from 
 treason. 
 
 Marie-Jeanne {Mah'-re Zjahn'). A 
 12-pounder of fine workmanship which 
 the republican party (the blues) took in 
 the Vendean war fiom the Chateau de 
 Richelieu, where it had been placed by 
 the famous cardinal. It was heroically 
 retaken by the Vendeans (1794). 
 
 Mariotte's Law. The elastic force 
 of gases and vapours increase directly 
 with the pressure. 
 
 Maristes (2 syl.), 1818. A religious 
 congregation at Bordeaux founded by 
 the Abbe Cheminade, docteur de Sor- 
 bonne, the object being the education of 
 the young. It has ramified into all parts 
 of France, and into Switzerland, Ger- 
 many, and the United States. 
 
 Maris chal College (New Aber- 
 deen), 1593. Founded by George Keith, 
 Earl Marischal, and united in 1858 to 
 the University of Aberdeen. The motto 
 of the college — ' They say. Qvhat say 
 they ? Let them say ' — is that of the 
 founder. 
 
 Market Crosses. Places under 
 
 cover for the sale of country produce on 
 market days. Chichester Market Cross 
 stands at the point where North and 
 South streets. East and West streets meet. 
 There are several mai'ket crosses still 
 standing besides that of Chichester, such 
 as "Winchester Market Cross, Malmes- 
 bury Market Cross, Aberdeen Market 
 Cross, &c. 
 
 Marlbridge {Statute of), 52 Hen. 
 III. c. 10 (1267), whereby all prelates, 
 clergymen, peers, and women are dis- 
 charged from attending court leets. 
 The statute incorporated many of the 
 'Provisions of Oxford ' (g.v.). 
 
 Mar'onites (3 syl.) of Syria, 5th 
 cent. Disciples of Jolan Maron. A very 
 large number of tliem live a monastic 
 life. Since 1445 they have been united 
 
MAEOON 
 
 MARROW 
 
 5C,1 
 
 to the Church of Rome, but have some 
 peculiar doctrines and church customs. 
 The patriarch is always called Peter. 
 Married men may become priests, but 
 no priest may marry after he is in orders. 
 The priests wear a blue scarf about their 
 caps, but no surplice. They were mas- 
 sacred by the Druses in June 1860, but 
 their present number is about 100,000. 
 Since 1588 the Maronites have been 
 tributary to the Porte. 
 
 Maroon Insurrection (The), 
 
 1795. The Maroons were the runaway 
 slaves of Jamaica and Cuba, who con- 
 gregated in the woods on the north side 
 of Jamaica, and lived a predatoi'y life. 
 In 1795 two of them were punished with 
 thirty-nine lashes for stealing pigs, and 
 this drove the Maroons into insurrection. 
 A bloody and successful war was waged 
 by them, till the Assembly sent to Cuba 
 for 100 bloodhounds. The Maroons then 
 craved mercy, and all of them who 
 would not promise to abandon their pre- 
 datory habits were banished to Halifax, 
 m Nova Scotia, whence in 1800 they were 
 deported to Sierra Leone. The descen- 
 dants of others have been peaceful occu- 
 pants of a few towns built by themselves 
 in the forests of Jamaica. 
 
 There are also many Maroons in Guiana. 
 
 Marprelate Tracts (The), 1588. 
 Tracts written by one who signed him- 
 self ' Martin Marprelate and his sons.' 
 The object of these tracts was to vilify 
 the Established Church. Penry, one of 
 the five Independents put to death by 
 Queen Elizabeth, was supposed to have 
 been the author of some of these tracts. 
 See ' Martin Marprelate.' 
 
 The Anglican Church is called ' old rotten stuff 
 . . . abstracted of [from] the pope's blasphemous 
 mass book ' . . . the liturgy is ' stinking patch- 
 ery.' Churchmen are 'blasphemous wretches, 
 the subjects of the kingdom of the Beast ' ; while 
 the Puritans are called 'the great learned preach- 
 ers,' the good men, but with counterfeit discipline 
 and perjured elders, in fact, ' Pharisees.' 
 
 Marquis. From the Saxon and 
 Norman marchio, a military officer whose 
 duty was to protect the frontier where 
 he was placed, and prevent inroads and 
 invasions. A march means a frontier. 
 
 Marquis Duke of Cadiz (The). 
 Ponce de Leon, marquis of Cadiz, was 
 created by Isabella a duke ; but, unwill- 
 ing to resign the title under which he had 
 won his laurels, he ever afterwards sub- 
 
 scribed himself and was called by others 
 the ' Marquis Duke.' 
 
 Marrani. Renegade Moors. 
 
 Marriage of the Adriatic (The). 
 Instituted in commemoration of a naval 
 victory won by Sebastian Ziani, doge of 
 Venice, over Otto son of Frederick "Bar- 
 barossa, 1174. In consequence of this 
 victory Pope Alexander III., who had 
 been driven to take refuge in Venice, 
 gave to the doge the sovereignty of the 
 sea, and every year the doge used to go in 
 grand procession in his state barge, and 
 threw a gold ring into the Adriatic, say- 
 ing ' With this ring I thee wed.' 
 
 The Signoria leaves the palace amid a countless 
 throng and ascends the Bucentaur. The rowers 
 of this state barge sit below the deck. The doge 
 sits on the deck under a magnificent canop-" 
 having the pope s nuncio on his right hand, and 
 the French ambassador on his left. All the mag- 
 nates of Venice sit according to their rank and 
 arrayed in their official costumes. The great 
 banner of St. Mark and the standard proper of the 
 barge are displayed, and a band of trumpeters and 
 hautboy players assist in the ceremony. When 
 the Bucentaur reaches the mouth of the sea. the 
 musicians begin a certain motet, and the doge 
 drops into the sea a gold wedding-ring, saying: 
 'Desponsamus te Mare nostrum in signum veri 
 perpetuique dominii.' Flowers are then thrown 
 into the sea, and the procession returns.— Villa- 
 MO.N'T, Peregrinatio Sacra, ch. xxxiv. d. 3. 
 
 Marriages {Close Times of). 1. ' Ab 
 Adventu usque ad Epiphaniam ; (2) a 
 Septuagesima usque ad octavas Pasche 
 inclusive ; (3) a se cunda feria in Roga- 
 tionibus usque ad primam dominicam 
 post Pentecosten exclusive.' — Liber Sa- 
 cerdotalis . . . secundum Bitum Sanctce 
 Romance et Aj)ostolicce Ecclesice (15.S7). 
 
 Married "Women's Property 
 Act. Came into operation 1 Jan., 1883, 
 enabling married women to acquire, hold, 
 and dispose of property as their own 
 separate estate, just as if they were 
 single. They may also enter into con- 
 tracts to the extent of their own separate 
 property. By this act, a wife who robs 
 her husband, or a husband who robs his 
 wife, may be proceeded against as if they 
 were strangers. 
 
 The first Act was 3, 4 Will. IV. c. 74 (l.'«3)- the 
 next was 20. 21 Vict. c. 57 (1857), amended in 1870. 
 
 Marrow Controversy {The), in 
 the Church of Scotland, 1614. So called 
 from a book entitled ' The Marrow of 
 Modern Divinity,' written by a Puritan 
 soldier in the time of the Connnonwealth. 
 The book was highly ' evangelical,' espe- 
 cially on the subject of free grace. The 
 General Assembly condemned the bor k 
 OO 
 
562 
 
 MARROW-MEN 
 
 MARSHALSEA 
 
 in 1720, and forbade the Scotch to read 
 it. Twelve of the Evangelical clergy re- 
 monstrated, but. being called before the 
 Assembly, were severely rebuked. Here 
 the matter ended ; but eleven years after- 
 wards the Evangelical party seceded. 
 
 Marrow-men (The), 1721. The 
 
 twelve Evangelical ministers who pro- 
 tested against the condemnation of the 
 book entitled 'The Marrow of Modern 
 Divinity.' Their names are James Hog 
 or Hogg, Thomas Boston, John Bonner, 
 James Kid or Kidd, Gabriel Wilson, 
 Ebenezer Erskine, Ralph Erskine, James 
 Wardlaw, James Bathgate, Henry David- 
 son, William Hunter, and John William- 
 son. They were called * The Twelve 
 Brethren,' and were held by the Evan- 
 gelical party of Scotland in great vener- 
 ation. See above. 
 
 Mars and Mahomet of Scan- 
 dinavia {The). Odin. His true name 
 was Sigge, son of Fridulph, but he 
 assumed the name of Odin, chief god of 
 the Scythians, of whom he was chief 
 priest (B.C. 70-40). 
 
 Mars of China {The). Quang-yoo, 
 general of the Emperor Heou-tchao (who 
 reigned 223-265). Quang-yoo died a.d. 
 265, and Heou-tchao was compelled to 
 abdicate. 
 
 Marseillais {Les), 30 July, 1792. 
 So the battalion of federates from Mar- 
 seilles, invited by the Jacobins to Paris, 
 was called. They went chanting a revo- 
 lutionary song composed by Rouget de 
 Lisle, a young officer at Strasburg. The 
 song was called ' La Marseillaise,' mean- 
 ing the song of the battalion from 
 Marseilles. 
 
 Marseilles {Plagtie o/), 1720-1726. 
 A dreadful plague brought from Syria in 
 a merchant ship. It first appeared in 
 Marseilles, whence it spread to Aries, 
 Aix, and Toulon. More than 80,000 
 persons fell victims to it. See below. 
 
 Marseilles' Good Bishop. Henri 
 Francois Xavier de Belsunce (1671- 
 1755). Immortalised by the eminent 
 services whicii he rendered to the city of 
 Marseilles during the plague of 1720. 
 He is commemorated in the town-hall of 
 Marseilles hy a painting in which he is 
 represented in his episcopal robes, at- 
 tended by his almoners, giving relief and 
 
 benediction to those stricken with the 
 plague — 
 
 Intrepido vadens per strata cadavera passu. 
 
 Marsh {The), 1792. The 'Centre' 
 of the Convention which assembled in 
 the Hall of the Hundred Swiss. The 
 Girondins occupied the Right, the Left 
 was nicknamed the Mountain, and the 
 Centre (nicknamed the Plain or Marsh) 
 was composed of the peaceably inclined 
 and moderate party. 
 
 Marshal {Earl) of England. Heredi- 
 tary in the duke of Norfolk, the sole 
 judge in questions of honour and arms. 
 He is president of the English College of 
 Arms, and appoints the kings-of-arms, 
 the heralds, and the pursuivants. 
 
 There is also a knight-marshal or marshal of 
 the royal household, and a marshal (or provost- 
 marshal) of the Admiralty, who acts under the 
 Court of Admiralty. The Marshal of the King s 
 Bench was abolished in 1849. 
 
 Marshal Forwards. 'Marschall 
 Vorwiirts,' Gebhard Lebrecht von 
 Blucher (1742-1819). So called from his 
 familiar exhortation to his hussars, 
 Vorwdrts. ' Forwards ! my children, 
 forwards ! ' in the famous campaign of 
 1814. So again 18 June, 1815, the war- 
 cry was ' Vorwiirts ! ' always ' Vorwiirts ! ' 
 
 He crossed the Rhine 1-3 Jan., 1814; defeated 
 Napoleon at Laon, 9-10 March : commanded the 
 centre of the allies in the attack on Paris 30 
 March ; entered Paris .31 March : resigned 2 April, 
 but resumed command the following April, and 
 contributed to the victory of Waterloo. 
 
 Marshal of France, 1185. A 
 dignity which originated with Philippe 
 II. Auguste ; in 1627, when the office of 
 constable was suppressed, 'marshal' 
 was the highest dignity in the state. 
 Suppressed in 1752, but revived by Na- 
 poleon in 1804. 
 
 Marshal of the Army of G-od 
 and Holy Church. So was Robert 
 Fitz-Walter called when he led the 
 English barons to demand of Jolm the 
 Great Charter. 
 
 Marshall Prize for political eco- 
 nomy, value 15?., to be spent in books. 
 Founded for five years in the University 
 of Cambridge by A. Marshall, M.A., of 
 St. John's College. First awarded in 
 1887. 
 
 Marshaisea {The). I. The Knight 
 Marshal's Court, commonly called the 
 ' Palace Court,' created by Charles I., 
 with jurisdiction within twelve miles 
 round Whitehall. Abolished in 1849. 
 
MARSHALSEA 
 
 MARTYR 
 
 563 
 
 II. King's Bench Prison, in South- 
 wark, where the marshal of the king's 
 house was wont to sit, or keep his prison. 
 Also abolished in 1849. 
 
 'Little Dorrif was born in the Marshalsea 
 prison, and the tale so called gives a full and 
 graphic account of the prison and its inmates.— 
 Charles Dickens. 
 
 Marshalsea Court {The), or 
 ' Board of Green Cloth ' [q.v.), abolished 
 with the Marshalsea Prison in 1849 (12, 
 13 Vict. c. 101). 
 
 Marshal is the German marschalk through the 
 French, and means Master ol the Horse. 
 
 M artel. A surname given to Karl 
 or Charles, natural son of Pepin d'He- 
 ristal, after his great victory over Abd-el- 
 Rahman, the Saracen invader, on the 
 plains of Poitiers, a.d. 732. 
 
 Des lors tous commencerent a le surnommcr 
 'Martol,' parce que, comme le martel [a hainnwr] 
 brise toute esptce de fer, ainsi Karle, avec I'aide 
 du Seigneur, brisait ses ennemis dans toutes les 
 batailles.— MolSSAC, Clironique. 
 
 Similarly Judas Asmonseus was called ' Macca- 
 baeus' (the hammerer). 
 
 Martello Towers. ' Torri da 
 Martello,' erected on the coasts of Sar- 
 dinia and Corsica, 1530-1550, to defend 
 the coast. "Warning was given by striking 
 a bell with a martello or hammer. Similar 
 towers were erected on the Kent and 
 Sussex coasts in 1795-1800 ; but coast- 
 guardsmen have superseded their utility. 
 Similar towers, not now in use, have been 
 found m Canada and in the United States. 
 
 Martin Marprelate Contro- 
 versy {The), 1585. A controversy con- 
 sequent on the dogmatism and tyranny 
 of the Ecclesiastical Commission ap- 
 pointed by Queen Elizabeth to settle all 
 disputes of doctrine and practice in the 
 Church of England. Archbishop Whit- 
 gift tried to gag the press. Printing was 
 restricted to London, and the two Uni- 
 versities, and all candidates for a license 
 to print were placed under the super- 
 vision of the Company of Stationers. A 
 series of anonymous pamphlets, signed 
 'Martin Marprelate,' had an enormous 
 sale ; but the press was seized, JohnPenry 
 (a young Welshman) died in prison, and 
 Udal, a minister, was put to death on 
 the scaffold. But the mischief was done, 
 synods and classes were organised, spread 
 into the reign of James I., and. led to the 
 Civil War. See ' Marprelate Tracts.' 
 
 Martin's Act, for the ' better treat- 
 ment of poor horses, dogs, and donkeys.' 
 Iixtroduced by Richard Martin, M.P., of 
 
 Ireland. See ' Humanity 
 
 Cro Martin, 
 Martin.' 
 
 Martinalia. A goose-feast. After 
 the Gauls were foiled in their attack on 
 the Capitol by the cackling of the sacred 
 geese, B.C. 390, they annually sacrificed 
 a goose to their war-god. They were 
 converted by St. Martin, and the goose- 
 feast was changed to honour the saint. 
 Hence Naorgeorgus — 
 Altera Martinus dein Bacchanalia praebet : 
 Quern eolit auseribus populus, multoque Lyceo. 
 
 In regard to Queen Elizabeth, it is 
 said she was dining on 9 Aug., I.'i88, 
 with Sir Nevile Umfreville at Tilbury 
 Fort when the news was brought her of 
 the discomfiture of the Spanish Armada. 
 There happened to be a roast goose on 
 the table, and the queen resolved, as long 
 as she lived, to commemorate the day 
 with a roast goose. St. Martin's day is 
 11 Nov., the Armada day was 9 Aug., 
 but the great goose-feast is on Michael- 
 mas day, 29 Sept. 
 
 Martinidre {La). There are three 
 schools so called — one in Calcutta, one 
 in Lucknow, and one at Lyons in France. 
 They were built and endowed by money 
 left for the purpose by Major- General 
 Claude Martin (1732-1800). He was the 
 son of a Lyons manufacturer, and en- 
 tered the English army of the Indian 
 Company, where he rose from a private 
 to become a major-general, and accumu- 
 lated 396,000Z. sterling. He died in 
 Lucknow. 
 
 Martinists. I. Calvinists were so 
 called from M. Martin, president of the 
 consistory of Geneva. 
 
 II. Disciples of Martinez Pasqualis 
 (1710-1779). He was a Portuguese Jew, 
 and established a cabalistic rite called 
 Cohens, which he introduced into certain 
 masonic lodges of Marseilles, Toulouse, 
 and Bordeaux. 
 
 Cohen is a Hebrew word meaning priest. 
 
 Martyr City {The). Moscow, burnt 
 in 1812 (15-18 Sept.) by the mhabitants 
 to prevent its giving harbourage and 
 spoil to the invading army of Napoleon. 
 It was a magnificent holocaust, the 
 grandest the world has ever seen. 
 
 Martyr King (T/ie). L Henry VL 
 of England (1421, 1422-1461, died 1471). 
 The crown was claimed by Edward duke 
 of York 16 Oct., 1460, and he was de- 
 
564 
 
 MAETYRS 
 
 MART 
 
 clared king 3 March, 1461. Henry was 
 declared a usurper by 1 Edw. IV. c. 1 
 (1461) ; placed in Hardlough Castle, 
 Merionethshire, 1462-1464 ; taken to the 
 Tower 1466; released by Warwick, and 
 again imprisoned by Edward IV. in 
 April 1471 ; and found dead 22 May, 1471. 
 
 Here o'er the Martyr King [Hen. VI.} the marble 
 
 weeps, 
 And fast beside him once-feared Edward [IV.] 
 
 Sleeps ; 
 The grave unites where e'en the grave finds rest, 
 And mingled lie th' oppressor and oppressed. 
 
 Pope. • 
 
 II. Charles I. of England (1600, 1625- 
 1649). 
 
 After the Restoration January 30 was observed 
 in the Church of England with a special religious 
 service, ' Being the day of the Martyrdom of the 
 Blessed King Charles I.,' Ac. This service, with 
 one or two others equally objectionable, were 
 abolished by Act of Parliament in 1859. 
 
 III. Louis XVI. of France (1754, 1774- 
 1793). He has as great a right to be 
 called a ' Martyr ' as Charles I., and in 
 both cases the word is a misnomer. 
 Both were executed by their indignant 
 subjects, who believed that kings were 
 made for the people, and not the people 
 for kings. And in both cases the bolt of 
 vengeance fell on the heads of amiable 
 men. 
 
 Martyr means one who suffers death for the 
 sincerity of his belief. Henry VI. believed he was 
 lawful king ; Charles I. believed he bad a right 
 divine to the cro^vn : and Louis XVI. believed that 
 he was right and the republicans wrong. They 
 died ' martyrs ' to their creed. Whether that creed 
 was right or wrong is beside the question. The 
 orthodoxy of one age may be the heterodoxy of 
 another, and v. v. The Bollandists call Edwin king 
 of Northumbria ' Saint and Martyr.' 
 
 Martyrs. See ' Manchester Martyrs.' 
 Martyrs' Era (The), a.d. 803, &c. 
 
 The tenth and last persecution. It began 
 in February, at the Roman Terminalia, 
 or festival of the god Terminus. In this 
 persecution fell, as it is said, St. George of 
 Cappadocia, St. Januarius (patron saint 
 of Naples), Quirlnus bishop of Siscia, &c. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether these names, and 
 those of many other 'martyrs,' are not apocry- 
 phal. 
 
 Martyrs' Fund (The), 1883. This 
 was a fund organised in New York at the 
 suggestion of Patrick Egan, ' for the 
 families of such convicted assassins as 
 neither pleaded guilty nor confessed 
 their crime.' 
 
 The relatives of Caflrey, 'who apologised' for 
 what ho had done knd tried to explain it away, 
 were excluded from its benefits by the lady distri- 
 butors. Miss Ellen Ford and Miss M. Doherty, 10 
 Nov., 181,3. 
 
 Martyrs' Meeting (The), 2 July, 
 1883. Held at New York to do homage 
 to the twenty-one assassins who took part 
 in the Phoenix Park (Ireland) murders of 
 Mr. Burke and Lord Frederick Cavendish. 
 
 Of all perversions of the word martyr this is the 
 very worst. But Ireland has done no little to 
 degrade the term ' martyr ' into a byword and a 
 hisbing. 
 
 Marvellous Boy {The). Thomas 
 Chatterton (1752-1770). So called by 
 the poet Wordsworth. 
 
 Marvellous Year (T7ie), 1588. The 
 
 year of the Spanish Armada's destruction. 
 
 The first number of the ' English Mercurie ' (q.v.) 
 is supposed to have appeared ;his yefu- (10 Aug.) 
 to announce the destruction of the Armada. 
 
 Mary Queen of England, born at 
 Greenwich (1516, 1553-1558). 
 
 Father, Henry VIII. ; Mother, Ka- 
 tharine of Aragon ; Husband, Don Pi- 
 lippo [Philip IL] son of Karl V. of Spain. 
 He was a widower, aged 27, and had a son 
 named Don Carlos. Mary was eleven 
 years his senior. 
 
 Her style and iitle : ' Mary, D.G. of England, 
 France, and Ireland, queen ; Defender of the Faith, 
 and Supreme Head of the Anglican and Hibernian 
 Church.' After her marriage her husband was 
 associated with her and called King Philip. 
 
 After the death of Mary Philip married Isabella 
 of France in 1559. She died in 1568, and he mar- 
 ried the Archduchess Anna Maria in 1570. 
 
 Philip left England in 1555, his father abdicated 
 5 Oct. the same year ; Mary died in 15i>s, his 
 father Karl V. in Sept. 1559 ; he married his third 
 wife in 15.59, sent the Armada against England 
 in 1588 ; his ministers tried to assassinate Eliza, 
 beth in 1594, and he died in Sept. 1598. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots. Married 
 Francois [IL] of France ; and, on the 
 death of Mary queen of England in 
 1558, they assumed the title of king and 
 queen of Scotland, England, and Ireland. 
 The arms of England were also em- 
 broidered or painted on their equipage, 
 furniture, and plate. 
 
 Father, James V. of Scotland; Mo- 
 ther, Mary of Lorraine ; Husbands, 
 (1) Francois [IL] of France ; (2) Henry 
 Lord Darnley, her cousin ; (3) Bothwell. 
 
 Issue by Darnley, James VI. of Scotland and I. of 
 England. Executed by Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 The claim of Mary Stuart was through her grand- 
 mother, a daughter of Henry VII. Elizabeth, the 
 queen of England de facto, was daughter of Henry 
 VIII., but had been bastardised by him. 
 
 Mary and Darnley. 
 
 Henry VII. (Tudor) was the father of Henry 
 VIII., and Margaret Tudor, who married twice, 
 first James IV., and then Archibald Douglas. 
 
 Henry VIII. was the father of Elizabeth ; his 
 sister Margaret (as wife of James IV.) was the 
 mother of James V. Thus Elizabeth and James V. 
 were coutins. James V. was the father of Mary 
 
MARY 
 
 MASS 
 
 565 
 
 queen of Scots, who was second cousin to Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 Bj' her second husband, Archibald Douglas, 
 Margaret was the mother of Margaret Douglas, 
 who married Lord Lennox, and their son was Lord 
 Darnley (the husband of Jiary queen of Scots). 
 So Darnley was half cousin to Mary his wife. 
 
 *.* Both Mary and Darnley were second cousins 
 of Elizabeth. 
 
 Mary Hall (St.), Oxford, 1333. 
 Founded by Oriel College, to which St. 
 Mary's Church belonged. The head of 
 the hall is called the principal. 
 
 Maryland (U.S. America). So 
 called in 1633 by Lord Baltimore in 
 compliment to Henrietta Maria wife of 
 Charles I. of England. The nickname 
 of the Marylanders is Craw- thumpers. 
 
 Masaniello [Ma-san-yeV-l6\. A 
 contraction of Tommaso Aniello, a fish 
 salesman of Amalfi who in 164 7 raised 
 a revolt in Naples against the Spanish 
 viceroy, the Duke of Ai'cos, in consequence 
 of a tax levied by him on fruits and 
 vegetables. The insurgents were success- 
 ful, and for seven days Masaniello was 
 master of Naples, when he was assas- 
 sinated and his body thrown into a ditch. 
 The seven-days' king held Naples from 
 10 July to 17 July, 1647. 
 
 Mason Prize for Biblical Hebrew. 
 Value about 24^ a year, given to the best 
 of the Tyrwhitt Scholars. Founded in 
 the University of Cambridge by the 
 friends of the Rev. Peter Hamnett Mason, 
 M.A., Fellow of St. John's, 1883. See 
 ' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' 
 
 Maso'rah {The). A collection of 
 traditionary observations (orthographi- 
 cal, critical, grammatical, and exegetical) 
 which had been made by Jewish rabbins 
 during a period of 300 years, on the Old 
 Testament. They began to be made by 
 a college of Jews at Tiberias, in Pales- 
 tine, and were originallj' written on the 
 margins of manuscripts, but were ulti- 
 mately collected into separate books. 
 Constant additions were made from the 
 6th to 11th cent. a.d. 
 
 There was the Great and the Little Masorah. 
 The Great Masorah means the entire mass given 
 in full ; also called /trtaZ, because these annota- 
 tions were added to the end of the Scriptures as 
 a supplement. The Little Masorah is an abridg- 
 ment, called the manjiiud Masorah, because it 
 was inserted on the margins of the MSS. 
 
 Masque de Fer {Le). The Man in 
 the Iron Mask. In the MS. memoirs of 
 M. de la Reinterie we are told that while 
 he was in command of the fortress of Pi- 
 
 gnerol, the Masque de Fer attemj^ted to 
 escape, but was recaptured. The officer 
 wlio conducted him back drew his sword, 
 when the Mask cried out in a very com- 
 manding voice ; ' Songez a ce que vous 
 faites, Monsieur ! Respectez le sang de 
 vos souverains.' M. de la Reinterie adds 
 that he told this to several persons about 
 the court, and gives a list of the names 
 to whom he told it. 
 
 ' Detenu prisonnier en France plus de 40 ans, il 
 portait sans cesse sur la figure un masque noir, 
 qui etait en fer selon les uns. en velours noir selon 
 les autres. Mis sous la garde de St. Mars, il fut 
 conduit au chateau de Pignerol en KjCG, puis trans- 
 fere en 1686 a 1 lie Ste-Marguerite, et en 1608 a la 
 Bastille, oii il mourut en 1703. II fut enterre sous 
 le nom de Marchiali. Onadit quec'etait un frrie 
 jumeau de Louis A'/f (qui est I'opinionde Voltaire, 
 et la plus vraisemblable), qu'on aurait fait dis- 
 paraitre pour prevenir la rivalite des deux freres. 
 
 2. Le comU' di' Vervwndois, fils naturel de Louis 
 XIV et de MUe de Valliere, qui fut enferme pour 
 avoir donne un soufflet au grand dauphin ; 
 
 3. Le due de Beaufort, quidisparut au siege de 
 Candle en 1669 ; 
 
 4. Le ditcde Monmouth, neveu de Jacques II, que 
 la France aurait soustrait au supplice ; 
 
 5. Le comte Girotamo Matlkioli, ministre du due 
 do Mantoue, qui aurait ete enleve de Turin pour 
 avoir empeche son maitre de vendre Casal au roi 
 de France ; ou (6) Jean de Gonzague, secretaire do 
 Matthioli ; ou (7) unfilsadaUerin d'Anne d' AuiricM 
 [the king's mother] et de Buckingham ou de Ma- 
 zarin. La le hypothese est la plus vraisemblal>le ; 
 mais il y a aussi des probabilites pour la '2e hypo- 
 these.— BOUILLET, Diet. Universel (p. 1205 col. 2). 
 
 Mass. See also- 
 
 Ambrosian mass. 
 Annual mass. 
 Aurora mass. 
 Cardinal's mass. 
 Christmas Eve mass. 
 Dry mass. 
 Golden mass. 
 Gregorian mass. 
 High mass. 
 Hunter's mass. 
 
 Judicial mass. 
 Low mass. 
 Midiii{,ht mass. 
 Missa. 
 Naval mass. 
 Nuptial mass. 
 Paschal mass. 
 Peregrine mass. 
 Sacrificial mass. 
 Votive mass. 
 
 Mass. The celebration of the eucha- 
 rist in the Catholic Church. The service- 
 book, called a 'missal,' contains four 
 parts : the Introitus, the Consecration, 
 the Communion, and the Post-Com- 
 munio. The Canon of the Mass was 
 compiled by Gregory the Great in 599. 
 
 The prayers of the mass are not generally in 
 the vulgar tongue. In tlie Koman Church they 
 are in Latin ; in the Greek Church they are in 
 ancient Greek ; among the Maronites and Jaco- 
 bites they are in Svriac. In some Eastern 
 churches, however, and even in some Roman 
 Catholic churches of tlie Eastern rites, the vulgar 
 tongue is now used. Thus the Roumanians use 
 the Roumanian language, and the (Roman Catho- 
 lic) Melchites of Syria use the Arabic. This, how- 
 ever, is by a kind of toleration, and not by ofQcial 
 sanction. 
 
 *,* Prohibited in England in 1548 (2. 3 Edw. VI. 
 c. 1) ; in Scotland it was prohibited In 1560 under 
 penalty of death ! ! 
 
 Low mass is when a single priest simply reads 
 the service in a low voice ; high mass is <7(fl)(/('(f, 
 and several ministers assist the officiating priest. 
 In the celebration of the mass the priest wears 
 five special garments, two of linen and three of 
 
566 
 
 MASS 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 Bilk. The colour varies accordingto the occasions. 
 They are white, red, green, purple, and black. 
 •»* Pope Celestine introduced the Intro'it and the 
 Gloria in exct-lsis ; 
 Gregory the Great ordained to say the 
 
 Kyrie Ekisoii nine times ; 
 Gelasius ordained the Kpistle and the 
 
 Gospel ; 
 Damasus ordained the Credo ; 
 Alexander introduced this clause into the 
 
 canon, qui pridio quam pateretur ; 
 Sixtus introduced the Sanvtus ; 
 Innocent introduced the Pax ; 
 Leo introduced the Orate Fratres, and the 
 words in the canon. Sanctum Hacriji- 
 ciuni etlmnuiculatam Hostiam. 
 Edward KinesMan, Lives of the Saints, 1623, 
 .p. 187 (an extremely rare old book). 
 
 Derivation of the word. Du Cange 
 says (vol. iv. p. 698) : — 
 
 De vocabuli origine [Mass] varise sunt scriptorum 
 sententicB. Hanc enim quidam, ut idem Baronius, 
 ab Hebrffo Missali, i.e. ' oblatio,' arcessunt; 
 
 Alii a viittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deum, ut est 
 apud Alcuinum de Divinis Offieiis. . . . Bk i. c. 2 ; 
 
 Alii rursum a rnissa, quae vox est sacrificiorum, 
 ut scholiastes Bedanse Historiis Saxonicae, p. 4 ; 
 
 Verum missis ejusmodiet similibus conjecturis, 
 constans est et recepta ab omnibus viris eruditis 
 sententia scribentium viissam dictam a misso cai4>- 
 chumenorum, ea scilicet parte sacraj Liturgise, in 
 qua flnita concione, et Epistolae ac Evangelii lec- 
 tione, catechumeni exire jubebantur, diacono 
 dicente, Ite, MUsa est. 
 
 Mass for the Dead. ' Missa Ani- 
 marum.' High mass for the repose of 
 departed souls. See ' Missa.' 
 
 Mass of Lances (The). So Igor 
 (913-945) son of Rurik called his mas- 
 sacre of the priests in Paphlagonia, Pon- 
 tus, and Bithynia. He compelled them to 
 don their richest robes, and then pierced 
 them to death in their churches with 
 long lances. 
 
 Mass of the Catechumens (The). 
 
 'Missa Cat'echumeno'rum.' All the Com- 
 tounion service up to the introitus, at 
 ivhich j)oint of the service the catechu- 
 mens were dismissed by the deacon with 
 these words, ' Si quis non communiat, 
 det locum.' See ' Mass of the Faithful.' 
 
 Mass of the Faithful (TZ/e). The 
 
 communion service, from the consecration 
 of the elements to the close. See ' Mass 
 of the Catechumens.' 
 
 Mass of the Presanctified (T/ie), 
 
 * Missa Praesanc'tificato'rum,' celebrated 
 on Good Friday. No consecration of the 
 elements takes place on that day, but 
 the priest distributes to communicants 
 the ' host ' which was consecrated on the 
 previous day. See ' Missa.' 
 
 In the Greek Church all through Lent a ' Pre- 
 Bancfcified Muss is administered every day except 
 ou Sditordays and Sundays. 
 
 Massachusetts (U.S. America). An 
 Indian word meaning the ' Blue Hills.' 
 The ' Blue Hills ' referred to are those 
 at Milton, near Boston. 
 
 Massachusetts was the name of one of the 
 Indian tribes. 
 
 Massacre. See also — 
 
 Bartholomew's Slaugh- i Irish Massacre. 
 
 ter (St.) I Jalfa Massacre. 
 
 Bartholomew's Slaugh- j Manchester Massacre 
 
 ter (St.) of the Ottoman Meerut Massacre. 
 
 Empire. Michelade. 
 Dragonnades. Shibboleth. 
 
 Day of Ferdinand. Sicilian Vespers. 
 
 Hango Massacre. I Vendean Massacre. 
 
 Massacre of Amboyna (one of 
 the Moluccas), 17 Feb., 1623. The British 
 establishment was destroyed, and the 
 English of the island massacred, several 
 of them being tortured first and executed 
 afterwards. Satisfaction for this outrage 
 was obtained by treaty between Cromwell 
 and the United Provinces, Aug. 30, 1G54. 
 
 Massacre of Antwerp {The), 
 4 Aug., 1788. Troops were drawn up and 
 cannon planted in the public square of 
 Antwerp to keep down the populace, 
 which had risen in insurrection because 
 Kaiser Joseph II. had resolved to break 
 up the university of Antwerp as that 
 of Louvain had been broken up. The 
 professors were turned out of doors, and 
 the doors of the college locked. An 
 assault was made on the soldiery ; Dalton 
 ordered the soldiers to fire on the people, 
 and thirty or forty persons were killed, 
 many more being wounded. All Nether- 
 lands was indignant, and Europe heard 
 with horror of this wanton massacre. 
 
 Massacre of Athenry, in Ireland, 
 1599. In which the Irish put to the sword 
 all the inhabitants because they were 
 adopting English customs. 
 
 Massacre of Avignon, 30 Aug., 
 1792. Jourdan Coupe-tete and his accom- 
 plices closed the gates of Avignon, broke 
 into the houses of the citizens, and mas- 
 sacred men, women, and children, on the 
 pretence of taking vengeance on the 
 enemies of the revolution. 
 
 Avignon, pronounce A-vi-nyon, with final n nasal. 
 
 Massacre of Belgrade (The), 
 1095. When Peter the Hermit with his 
 rabble rout of crusaders reached Hungary 
 a rumour was circulated that the Hun- 
 garians intended to attack them on one 
 side of the river and the Bulgarians on 
 the other. Some clothes belonging to 
 crusaders were found suspended on the 
 
MASSACRE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 567 
 
 walls of Semlin. Peter instantly com- 
 manded the crusaders under him to 
 attack Belgrade, and above 4,000 of the 
 inhabitants were barbarously massacred. 
 The dead bodies floating down the river 
 brought the first intelligence of this 
 shameful outrage. 
 
 Massacre of Berwick {The), 
 Good Friday, 1296. When Edward I. 
 entered the town of Berwick he mowed 
 down 8,000 of the inhabitants, and burnt 
 alive the Flemish traders who held the 
 town-hall against him. Berwick was 
 then the chief merchant city of the north, 
 but sank into a petty seaport. 
 
 Some say the number massacred was 17,000. 
 
 Massacre of Chataigneraie 
 
 \_Shah-tai)i-ye-rai/], 1595. This was a 
 repetition of the massacre at Vassy. The 
 Due de Mercoeur fell suddenly on a con- 
 gregation of Huguenots, and butchered 
 200 men, women, and children, wholly 
 defenceless, and guilty of no offence'. 
 
 Massacre of Corcy'ra {The), b.c. 
 425. In the Corcyrean sedition {q.i>.) 
 about 500 fugitives fortified themselves 
 on the hill Itone, and made a compact 
 that ' they would abide the arbitration of 
 the Athenians.' The terms were accepted, 
 with this proviso, ' if any one of them 
 attempted to escape, the compact should 
 be void.' Now follows the villanous 
 part. The men of Corcyra sent messages 
 to these appellants advising them to 
 flee, as the Athenians were ill-disposed 
 towards them. They took the bait, and 
 fled. The truce being thus broken, the 
 fugitives were delivered up to the Corcy- 
 reans, who imprisoned them in a large 
 edifice. Some 60 were marched out and 
 slain; the rest refused to quit the build- 
 uig, so the Corcyi-eans unroofed it, and 
 massacred them all with arrows and other 
 missiles. 
 
 Massacre of Crowland {The), 
 
 A.D. 870. When the Danes marched to 
 Crowland, the old abbot, with all the 
 inmates of the abbey either too old or 
 too young to save themselves by flight, 
 assembled in the choir, with the hope 
 of disarming by their feebleness the 
 cruelty of the invaders. Soon a furious 
 swarm of the barbarians rushed howling 
 into the choir, and massacred all with- 
 out mercy, except only a child of ten, 
 which Jarl Sidroc took a fancy to and 
 saved from death. Having put all others to 
 
 the sword, the spoilers broke down the 
 tombs and monuments, and then com- 
 mitted the abbey to the flames. 
 
 Massacre of Drogheda [Dro'- 
 e-dah], 13 Aug., 1649. One of the most 
 savage butcheries ever perpetrated. 
 Cromwell gave orders to his soldiers 
 to give no quarter and to spare no one. 
 At least 2,000 men, women, and children 
 were butchered. Some 1,000 of the 
 people took refuge in the church, but it 
 was set fire to, and all the inmates wei'e 
 burnt alive. Those who escaped both 
 fire and sword were shipped off to 
 Barbadoes. 
 
 Massacre of Glencoe (2 syl.), 13 
 
 Feb., 1692 — i.e. the Massacre of the 
 McDonalds of Gleneoe in Argyllshire. 
 The English government issued a pro- 
 clamation that every Scotch rebel who 
 did not come in and take the oaths of 
 allegiance to William and Mary before 
 1 Jan., 1692, should be deemed a traitor 
 and be treated accordingly. Maclan 
 deferred doing so till 31 Dec, 1691, 
 when he presented himself at Fort 
 William to take the oaths. Colonel Hill 
 said he was not a magistrate, and 
 that Maclan must go to Inverary and 
 swear before the sheriff. This was 
 wholly, impossible before the days of 
 grace expired, and Maclan did not reach 
 Inverary before 6 Jan., 1692. William 
 signed a warrant for the extirpation of 
 the ' rebels,' and an order was sent to 
 Governor Hill to ' kill every man, woman, 
 and child in the whole glen.' Colonel 
 Hamilton was sent on the errand, 
 and ordered Captain Campbell (better 
 known as Glenlyon) to reconnoitre the 
 place. Glenlyon and his men lived at 
 Gleneoe on apparently friendly terms for 
 about a fortnight, and Lieutenant Lind- 
 sn y used to play cards every night with 
 Maclan and his sons. Having made 
 himself fully acquainted with the glen 
 and its inliabitants, a total slaughter 
 was to be made on 13 Feb., early in the 
 morning. Fortunately the treachery was 
 discovered, and many of the glenmen 
 escaped ; but above thirty were but- 
 chered, and many of those who fled per- 
 ished in the snow. In all history nothing 
 more treacherous and brutal than this 
 slaughter is recorded, and the names of 
 Breadalbane, Stair, and Glenlyon are 
 held in abhorrence for the part tliey took 
 in the massacre. 
 
568 
 
 MASSACEE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 Massacre of Ispalian' {The), 
 
 1721, by Mahmoud the Afghan invader. 
 Mahmoud, having made himself master 
 of Ispahan, resolved to reduce the whole 
 male population to an insignificant num- 
 ber, and for fifteen days slaughter fol- 
 lowed slaughter. He began with the 
 massacre of 300 nobles and their children ; 
 then followed the slaughter of 3,000 of 
 the shah's guard taken into his pay ; 
 then every person in the pay of the late 
 shah, and then an indiscriminate butchery 
 of the meaner sort. 
 
 Massacre of Magdeburg {The), 
 1631. In the Thirty Years' "War. As 
 many as 30,000 were killed, and upwards 
 of 6,400 corpses were thrown into the 
 Elbe. Tilly, by a stratagem, succeeded 
 in forcing his way into Magdeburg, when 
 his soldiers committed outrages which 
 have no i^arallel in history except in the 
 Sepoy insurrection in India. 
 
 Massacre of Magh-Cru, in Con- 
 naught, A.D. 90. The lower orders and 
 old Celtic population of Ireland con- 
 certed together to cut off all the i)rinces 
 and chiefs while assembled at Magh-Cru 
 for public business. The massacre suc- 
 ceeded, and the legitimate monarchy was 
 overthrown. The insurgents put Carbre 
 Catcan on the throne. He reigned five 
 years, during all which time there was 
 ' no grain on the stalk, no fruitf ulness in 
 the waters, the herds were barren, and 
 but one acorn on the oak.* 
 
 Massacre of Mahmoud {The). 
 This is the Massacre of Ispahan' {q.v.). 
 
 This Mahmoud usurped the throne of Persia, 
 where he reighed for three years (1722-1725), when 
 he died raving mad. 
 
 Massacre of M^rindol {The). 
 Me'rindol, in Vaucluse, was laid in ruins 
 by the President d'Oppede because it 
 was the abode of Vaudois. The entire 
 population was exterminated. It has 
 since recovered, and is still a stronghold 
 of Protestants. 
 
 Massacre of Mithrida'tes {The), 
 B.C. 88. During the marriage festival of 
 Mithridiites VI. king of Pontus with a 
 young Greek woman of Stratonicea, he 
 sent forth an edict to every city in the 
 province of Asia to massacre every 
 Italian within its borders. In one day 
 as many as 80,000 Italians were slaugh- 
 tered in compliance with this edict. 
 
 This cannot but call to mind the Massa,cre of 
 
 St. Bartholomew's Eve, during the marriage fes- 
 tivities of Henri [Henri IV.] and the Princess 
 Blarguerite. 
 
 Massacre of Muscovites by 
 the Poles {The), 1611. While Vla- 
 dislaus son of Sigismund III. was fight- 
 ing his way to the throne of Russia, the 
 Poles fell upon Moscow and massacred 
 above 100,000 defenceless women, old 
 men, and children. 
 
 Massacre of 'NB^ncj [Nahn-see'\ 
 Aug. 1790. The inhabitants of Nancy, 
 having risen in rebellion, were attacked 
 by Bouille, commander of the royal 
 army, who marched from Metz upon the 
 insurgents. A fearful slaughter of rebels 
 ensued, known in French history as the 
 Massacre of Nancy. This was only a 
 month after the supposed settlement of 
 the differences between king and people 
 by the famous ' civil oath ' taken in 
 the Champ de Mars 13 July, 1790. 
 Champ de Mars, pronounce Shanid Mar. 
 
 Massacre of Wishapiir {The), 
 1269. We are told by several historians 
 that the slaughter at Nishapur by Gengis 
 Khan was 1,747,000 human beings, and 
 that it took twelve days to count the 
 dead (Petit la Croix and Habeeb al 
 Seyer). 
 
 Massacre of Wismes [Neeiyi], l 
 
 April, 1703 (Palm Sunday). Marshal de 
 Montreuil, being informed that some 300 
 Camisards were assembled in a mill near 
 Nismes for religious worship, hastened 
 with a troop of soldiers to the place, 
 burst open the doors, and put to the 
 sword those assembled. The process 
 being too slow, he set fire to the mill, 
 and only one, a young girl, escaped, and 
 she was hanged the next day. 
 
 In 1791 and 1815 were bloody religious and 
 political massacres at Nismes. 
 
 Massacre of Otranto {The),U80. 
 The slaughter of 800 ecclesiastics by 
 Mahomet II., when he took Otranto. 
 We are told that the corpses of these 
 martyrs, though left unburied for thirteen 
 months, showed no signs of corruption, 
 and were never violated by bird or beast. 
 They were ultimately interred at Naples ; 
 but when Solyman the Magnificent, in 
 1537, threatened Otranto with assault, 
 the ghosts of these ecclesiastics, with a 
 host of angels, appeared on the ramparts 
 and saved the city. Again, in 1(544, the 
 same ghostly army averted another 
 
MASSACEE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 569 
 
 Turkish assault, and those who pro- 
 fessed that they could not see the army 
 of martyrs were put to death. 
 
 Massacre of Pa'via [The), Aug., 
 A.D. 408. As the Emperor Honorius was 
 passing through Bologna, a mutiny of 
 the guards gave Olympius a pretext for 
 cutting off the friends of Stilieho, whom 
 he sought to supplant. Accordingly, 
 two praetorian prefects of Gaul and Itixly, 
 two generals of cavalry and infantry, the 
 master of offices, the quaestor, the trea- 
 surer, and the count of the domestics 
 were massacred. The lives of many 
 others were lost also ; many houses were 
 plundered, and on the '23rd Stilieho him- 
 self was basely put to death. 
 
 The death of Eucherius the son of Stilieho 
 followed; the Emperor Honorius had divorced 
 his wife Thermantia daughter of Stilieho, and 
 all the friends of Stilieho who had escaped 
 the massacre were persecuted with roleiit'ess 
 acrimony by Olympius. Even his wife Serena 
 (niece of Theodosius the Great and foster-mother 
 of Honoriusi did not escape, being absurdly ac- 
 cused of purloining the magnificent necklace of 
 the statue of Vesta. \NTien Alaric invested Rome 
 Bhe was strangled. 
 
 Massacre of Peterborough 
 
 {The), A.D. 870. The monastery of Peter- 
 borough was the glory of the age, and its 
 library unequalled; but the Danes, 
 having destroyed Crowland Abbey, 
 marched to Peterborough bent on its 
 destruction also. They assailed the 
 monastery gates, they attacked the walls, 
 they forced their way in, slew the old abbot 
 and all the monks. Every other inmate 
 of the place was massacred. The much- 
 admired monastery and its valuable 
 treasures were ruthlessly set on fire, and 
 the conflagration continued for fifteen 
 days. 
 
 Massacre of Rathlin {The), 22, 
 23 July, 1575. The island being taken 
 by Essex, the Scotch were massacred. 
 
 Massacre of St. George's 
 Fields [The), 1708. Six men shot and 
 fifteen wounded by the soldiers in the 
 Wilkes riots. Wilkes had been cast 
 into the King's Bench, and the mob, 
 demanding his release, assembled tu- 
 multuously in St. George's Fields. The 
 soldiers being called out were violently 
 assailed, and gave chase to a man with a 
 red waistcoat. They shot a man with a 
 red waistcoat, but it was not the right 
 man. The mob became frantic, and the 
 soldiers, being ordered to fire on them, 
 killed six and wounded fifteen. 
 
 Massacre of Savenay [Sahve. 
 nay], 22 Dec, 1793. Here the Vendeans 
 were massacred by the republicans under 
 Kle'ber and Marceau. The Vende'ans 
 had fled to Brittany, but most of them 
 returned, and on their route were at- 
 tacked by the republicans. They re- 
 treated to Mons, where they were defeated, 
 and they then crossed the Loire ; but 
 the republicans wedged them in at 
 Savenay, between the Loire, the Vilaine, 
 and the sea, overwhelmed them with 
 artillery, and literally cut to pieces 
 every man, woman, and child with merci- 
 less fury. Kle'ber wrote to the Conven- 
 tion, ' The Vendeans are not only quieted, 
 they are no more.' 
 
 This dispatch was an exagjreration, for they 
 were in arms up to 19 Feb., 17jo, when thev sub- 
 mitted. 
 
 Massacre of Scullabogue Barn 
 
 {The), 1798. In the Great Irish Rebel- 
 lion. This massacre by the rebels, and 
 that at Wexford Bridge, were the most 
 fearful of all the outrages in this terrible 
 msurrection. 
 Wexford was the head-quarters of the rebels. 
 
 Massacre of September {The). 
 2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792, when 300 assassins 
 were sent by Danton, the ' minister of 
 justice ' in Paris, to the different prisons 
 to massacre all the prisoners 'suspected 
 of being averse to the revolution.' The 
 prisons they were sent to were Les 
 Carmes, the Abbaye, the Force, the Ber- 
 nardins, and Bicetre ; and the number of 
 persons massacred was about 10,000, 
 chiefly ecclesiastics or gentry. Amongst 
 the assassinated was the Princesse 'de 
 Lamballe, the queen's friend, and super- 
 intendent of her household. 
 
 Ecclesiastics were confined in Les Carmes (a 
 Carmelite convent), .\ristocrats were confined In 
 L' Abbaye. Among the ecclesiastics who fell were 
 the Archbishop of Aries and the Bishop of Saintes. 
 If the 'judge' said to the warder 'Convey thp 
 prisoner hence to some other prison,' which he 
 named, it was a sentence of death. 
 
 Massacre of Siniga'glia {The), 
 1502. Paolo Orsini, Francesco Orsini, 
 Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, 
 and some other of the great magnates 
 of Italy conspired to assassinate Cesare 
 Borgia ; but Cesare by craft contrived to 
 assemble them, apart from their troops, 
 in the castle of Sinigaglia, and there 
 every one of them was strangled. 
 
 Massacre of Smerwick {The), 
 1579. In the reign of Queen Elizabet]i 
 Felipe of Spain sent an army of 700 men 
 
570 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 to Kerry, tliinking that all Ireland would 
 flock to his standard. They entrenched 
 themselves in -the fort of Smenvick ; but 
 the fort was obliged to surrender to the 
 queen's troops, and Lord Grey, the lord 
 deputy, ordered the whole garrison to be 
 massacred. 
 
 Massacre of Stockholm (The). 
 
 Sten Sture, the administrator of Sweden, 
 consented to the elevation of Gustavus 
 Trolle to the see of Upsala. Gustavus 
 was a tool of Christian II. king of Den- 
 mark, and promised to do his best to 
 betray Sweden into his hands. His trea- 
 son being found out, he was compelled to 
 resign, and his castle was razed to the 
 ground. Leo X. placed Sweden under an 
 interdict, and confided to Christian king 
 of Denmark the task of punishing the 
 schismatics. Accordingly, the Danish 
 king invaded Sweden and, having effected 
 a landing, was publicly crowned at Stock- 
 holm. During the coronation festival, 
 Gustavus Trolle demanded of the king 
 'justice and revenge'; and on 8 Nov., 
 1520, at dawn, all the gates of the city 
 being closed, 94 of the leading men of the 
 city opposed to the invader were massa- 
 cred. The victims consisted of ecclesi- 
 astics, senators, knights, and burgo- 
 masters. In this slaughter fell the father 
 of Gustavus Vasa. 
 
 Massacre of Thessaloni'ca 
 
 {The), A.D. 390. The Thessalonians, 
 being goaded into insurrection by being 
 deprived of their favourite charioteer. 
 Circus, slew Botheric, the Roman go- 
 vernor, and several of his officers. Theo- 
 dosius sent word to his ministers to avenge 
 the death of his lieutenant, and they pro- 
 claimed a grand show in the circus, given 
 by the emperor. When the amphitheatre 
 was full, and the trumpet sounded for the 
 sports to begin, a number of soldiers 
 rushed on the assembly, and put them 
 indiscriminately to death. The massacre 
 was estimated to be between 7,000 and 
 15,000 persons (Gibbon, chap, xxvii.). 
 
 Massacre of Vassy (T/ie), l March, 
 1562. A massacre of the Huguenots by 
 the Guises. This was the beginning of 
 that religious war which desolated France 
 in the latter half of the 16th cent. 
 
 About l,'2O0 Huguenots had assembled in a large 
 barn, and were celebrating tiieir worship un ler 
 the protection of the edict of January iq.v.), when 
 the Duke de GuiSe with a large escort rode by 
 Bhouling ' Huguenots ! dogs ! rebels ! ' Some ol 
 
 the Huguenots shut the doors, when the Duke's 
 escort cried aloud, ■ Kill ! kill ! mort dieu ! Kill the 
 rebels ! ' Stones wire thrown, and Guise received 
 a blow on his forehead. The fray became serious, 
 60 were slain and '200 wounded. Morel the minister 
 was seized, but subsequently escaped. (See FELICE, 
 ' Hist, of the Protestants of France,' v.) 
 
 Massacre of Wyo'ming (The). 
 
 In Pennsylvania, June and July 1778. 
 The whole colony was either butchered 
 or driven into exile by the British and 
 Indians under Colonel John Butler, 
 during the American War of Independ- 
 ence. Campbell has a poem on the sub- 
 ject, entitled ' Gertrude of Wyoming.' 
 
 Massacre of 1641 (T7ie). Ireland. 
 The Catholics of Ulster whose estates 
 had been confiscated entered into a 
 general conspiracy to extirpate the 
 English settled in Ireland. Roger More 
 headed the insurgents, and Richelieu 
 promised him a supi)ly of French troops. 
 The plot was discovered and frustrated, 
 but O'Neale and his confederates were in 
 arms and seized the houses, cattle, and 
 goods of the English in Ulster. A general 
 massacre followed ; public; buildings were 
 burnt to the ground, private houses 
 destroyed, the rebellion spread, and 
 40,000 persons perished before the 
 onslaught could be stayed. It was ten 
 years before the rebellion was stamped 
 out; because Charles I. was too much 
 occupied with his own affairs to attend 
 to those of Ireland. 
 
 Massacre of the Albigenses 
 
 (The). 1208-1224 (Philippe II. Auguste) ; 
 1227 (Louis VIIL le Lion); 1545-1547 
 (Francois I.). The Albigenses were re- 
 ligious reformers, and the first massacre 
 was entrusted by Philippe Auguste to 
 Simon de Montfort, ' the French Macca- 
 baBUs.' He massacred 20,000 of them at 
 Beziers, and burnt 450 to death at Car- 
 cassone (3 syl.). The second massacre 
 was urged on by Pope Honorius III., who 
 commanded Louis le Lion to ' purge his 
 land of heretics.' The third massacre 
 was in the reign of Francois I., who com- 
 missioned John of Oppido to root out the 
 accursed heretics, and the baron but too 
 faithfully executed this horrible commis- 
 sion. All the inhabitants of 22 towns 
 and villages Avere put to the sword or 
 burnt to death at midnight in their own 
 houses. 
 
 How Catholics can declaim against the perspci- 
 tions of th'' lloTnan emperors is p :st undersbaaJ- 
 iug. Oh ! for the beam and the mote ! 
 
MASSACRE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 571 
 
 Massacre of the Arabian Bri- 
 gands, 1802. The emirs, the kadis, 
 and fakirs' contrived a plot to extirpate 
 the Arabian brigands. Having got to- 
 gether four companies of men, they fell 
 on the brigands north, south, east, and 
 west simultaneously. * And,' we are told, 
 ' from the province of Djized on the west 
 to that of Atfih on the east, every Arab, 
 old or young, male or female, was ruth- 
 lessly massacred. Of these 16,000 were 
 ripped up ; and if a fugitive Arab took 
 refuge in a town, the word dakik was 
 put to him as a shibboleth, and if the 
 Arabic word kafwas heard, instant death 
 followed ' (Taki-Eddin Ahmad Makrizi, 
 ' History of the Mamlook Sultans,' trans- 
 lated by M. Quatremere). 
 
 Massacre of the Armagnacs 
 [Ar-!)ui-ni/ak], 11, 12, 13 June, 1418, by 
 the Paris mob. "The Parisians had been 
 driven to madness by the Burgundian and 
 Armagnac factions, increased by the in- 
 vasions of Henry V., the scandalous con- 
 duct of Queen Isabella, and the imbecility 
 of the king. In their fury they fell on 
 the Orleanists and Armagnacs, hoping to 
 extirpate them, under the belief that they 
 were in alliance with the English. We 
 are told that 14,000 were slaughtered 
 in three days, beginning with Sunday, 
 12 June. The constable, the chancellor, 
 six bishops, 3,500 persons of rank, besides 
 the common people, fell in this dreadful 
 massacre at Paris. 
 
 Massacre of the Benjamites 
 
 (3 syl.). Judges xx. A Levite having 
 lodged a complaint against the Benja- 
 mites respecting a concubine, 400,000 
 Israelites took up arms to jDunish the 
 offending tribe. The Benjamites in self- 
 defence flew to arms, and brought to the 
 field 26,000 men of war, and 700 men of 
 Gibeah (v. 15). In the first day's conflict 
 the Benjamites slew 22,000 Israelites, and 
 on the second day 18,000 more (a total of 
 40,000). Finding they had no chance in 
 open fight, the Israelites laid an ambush 
 in the meadows of Gibeah, and pretend- 
 ing to flee, inveigled the Benjamites to 
 the meadow, when the ambush fell on 
 them and slew 25,100 of them (v. 35). 
 
 It is quite beyond the scope of this dictionary 
 to reconcile these statements, which seem to re- 
 quire some amendment. All that is here set down 
 is tlie fact that the Benjamites were almost extir- 
 pated in this massacre. 
 
 Massacre of the Bsn-OufSas, 
 
 by the French, 6 April, 1833. The whole 
 
 subjugation of Algeria by the French is 
 marked by treachery ; but none of their 
 acts was more disgraceful than the mas- 
 saci'e of the Ben-Ouffias by General 
 Savary due de Rovigo. On G Ajiril, 1833, 
 he sent a battalion of the foreign legion 
 and a squadron of chasseurs to fall on 
 these unsuspecting victims in the dark 
 hours of the night, and at daybreak they 
 were all dead men, who had been mas- 
 sacred in their sleep. Savary returned 
 to Paris death-stricken, and died the June 
 following. 
 
 This calls to mind the narrative of Lactantius in 
 his ' De MortibusPersecutorum.' 
 
 Massacre of the Blues. All 
 
 Constantinople in the 6th cent, was 
 divided into two factions, the Greens and 
 the Blues. Anastiisius the emperor was 
 a Green (491-518), and the Greens, hav- 
 ing concealed daggers, entered the liij)po- 
 drome, and massacred 3000 of the Blues. 
 Justinian the Great was a blue (527-560), and 
 then the Blues were the nuisance of the streets, 
 molesting, robbing, brawling, and even murdering 
 those found in the streets alter sunset. 
 
 Massacre of the Burgundians 
 in Soissons [SwossOng], 1414. When 
 the Armagnacs drove the Burgundians out 
 of Paris they marched to Compiegne and 
 laid siege to Soissons. When the gates were 
 opened the Armagnacs rushed in and 
 perpetrated one of the most frightful 
 massacres in history. Men, women, and 
 children were slaughtered without mercy ; 
 the churches and monasteries were 
 pillaged ; the sacred vestments and orna- 
 ments were scattered; the relics and 
 images demolished; the heads of the 
 governor and his chief officers were cut 
 off, and 200 Englishmen were hanged. 
 
 Massacre of the Champ de 
 Mars, 17 July, 1791. When La Fayette 
 and the mayor Bailly dispersed the mob 
 assembled in the Champ de Mars to peti- 
 tion for the abolition of royalty. Brissot 
 had prepared the petition, and the people 
 were called upon to sign it on Sunday 
 17 July, at the wooden altar in the Chamj) 
 de Mars. Brissot did not put in an 
 appearance, and the mob, tired of waiting, 
 drew up their own petition, still preserved 
 in the archives of Paris. At 6 p.m. 
 Bailly the mayor and La Fayette with his 
 national guards arrived to disperse the 
 crowd. The mob assailed them, and La 
 Fayette commanded the guards to tire. 
 Several were killed and more wounded ; 
 some say thousands; Desmoulinsput tlio 
 
572 
 
 MASSACEE 
 
 MASSACRE 
 
 number at 400, but probably between 30 
 and 40 was the real number. A terrible 
 panic ensued, and all the ' patriots ' hid 
 themselves till the panic had passed away. 
 
 Massacre of the Danes {The). 
 St. Bryce's day, 13 Nov., 1002. On this 
 night Ethelred the Unready caused all 
 the Danes in the kingdom to be secretly 
 murdered. This massacre was accom- 
 panied with circumstances of shocking 
 barbarity. Among other cruelties, the 
 Danish women were placed in holes in 
 the earth as deep as their waists, and 
 then mastiff dogs were set on them. The 
 sister of Sweyn was not spared. Her 
 name was Gunilda, and she is said to 
 have been married to a noble Dane settled 
 in England, and named Paleng. Her 
 children were first murdered in her pre- 
 sence, and she herself afterwards. 
 
 Her brother Swej^n (or Sueno) Fork-Beard (q.v.) 
 in revenge subjugated all England, and was 
 crowned king in 1013. 
 
 Massacre of the Gothic Youths 
 
 {The), A.D. 378. After the battle of 
 Hadrianople, so disastrous to the Romans, 
 and the death of Valens, Julius master- 
 general of the troops proposed to the 
 senate a general massacre of all the 
 Gothic youths distributed for purposes of 
 education through the different cities of 
 the East. Having concerted his plans, 
 the Gothic youths were invited to assemble 
 on a given day in the forum ' for the pur- 
 pose of receiving a grant of land.' They 
 assembled according to the proclamation, 
 and being assembled were all indiscrimi- 
 nately slaughtered. 
 
 Massacre of the Greens, a.d. S32. 
 
 Justinian (527-5G5) was a Blue, his pre- 
 decessor Anastasius (491-518) had been a 
 Green. The two factions united for a 
 few days in the ' Nika Sedition ' {q.v.), 
 but the Blues separated again, and tlie 
 two factions were as fierce as ever. The 
 place of general assembly was the hippo- 
 drome ; and one day Belisarius with his 
 veteran troops entered the place to quell 
 a disturbance. The Blues left in a body, 
 and ' more than 30,000 Greens were mas- 
 sacred.' 
 
 Massacre of the Helots, b.c. 424. 
 The eiglith year of the Peloponnesian 
 War was notorious for the massacre of 
 2,000 Helots by the Lacedaemonians. 
 Alarmed lest these slaves should turn 
 against them, the ephors proclaimed that 
 
 all Helots who had distinguished them- 
 selves during the war should come for- 
 ward and claim their liberty. A large 
 body appeared, out of whom 2,000 were 
 selected as worthy of emancipation. 
 Crowned with garlands, these unhappy 
 Helots were secretly massacred by the 
 ephors, to rid the state of what might 
 prove a future danger. 
 
 Massacre of the Innocents 
 
 {The). At the birth of Jesus, Herod the 
 Great, in order to destroy 'the future 
 king of the Jews,' massacred all the 
 infant children of Bethlehem from two 
 years old and under. 
 
 Micah V. 2 tells us that Bethlehem was a little 
 place ; it was a suburban village. Suppose it con- 
 t lined a thousand inhabitants, the male infants 
 under two years of age would be about half a 
 dozen. 
 
 Massacre of the Italians {The), 
 by Mithridates, B.C. 88. MithridatOs 
 king of Pontus, during the solemnities of 
 his marriage with a Greek v/oman of 
 Stratonicea, sent forth an edict to every 
 city in the province of Asia to put to 
 death every Italian within its borders. 
 In one day as m.any as 80,000 Italians 
 were massacred in compliance with this 
 edict. 
 
 This reminds us of the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholow's Eve, which was also executed during 
 the marriage festivities of Henri [Henri IV.] and 
 the Princess Blarguerite. 
 
 Massacre of the Jan'iaaries 
 
 {The), 15 June, 1826. The janizaries 
 were organised (1326-1359) into the 
 sultan's body-guard by Orchan sultan of 
 Turkey. In 1800 they were increased to 
 115,000 men, but became, like the Roman 
 praetorian guard, too powerful, and 
 Mahmoud II., who owed his throne to 
 them, resolved to suppress such a dan- 
 gerous power. A mutiny being excited, 
 the sultan unfurled the sacred standard, 
 and the soldiers cut down the janizaries 
 with grapesliot in the narrow streets of 
 Constantinople. At least 20,000 fell, and 
 the rest were disbanded. 
 
 The Janizaries deposed Bajazet II. in 1.512, and 
 raised Selim to the throne; in 1595 they compassed 
 the death of Amurath 11. ; in 1(52-2 they deposed 
 and slew Othman II. ; the same year they elevated 
 and deposed Mustapha ; in 1G49 they deposed 
 Ibrahim ; in 1703 they deposed Mustapha II. ; in 
 1730 they procured the death of the grand vizier, 
 imprisoned Achmet III., and elevated Mohammed; 
 in 18J6 they slew Selim III. ; and in 1826 they re- 
 belled against Mahmoud, and were stamped out. 
 
 Massacre of the Ma'gians {The), 
 B.C. 522. On the death of Cambyses 
 king of Persia, the Magians, one of the 
 
MASSACKE 
 
 MASTER 
 
 573 
 
 six tribes of the Medes, put forward one 
 of their number, named PatizIthCs, to 
 assume the name of Smerdis son of 
 Cyrus, who had been put to death by 
 his brother Cambyses. Darius HystaspOs 
 discovered the conspiracy and made a 
 general massacre of the Magi. 
 
 Massacre of the Mameluke 
 
 Beys, 1811. At Cairo Egypt was 
 governed by 800 Mameluke beys, but 
 Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, supplanted 
 these 300, and kept the government in 
 his own hands. Fearful of a rising, the 
 pacha invited all the beys to a splendid 
 procession in honour of his son Tossun 
 being created general-in-chief. They 
 came in all their pomp, but being within 
 the palace court, were fired on by the 
 pacha's soldiery and killed. Mehemet 
 then sent to the governors of his several 
 provinces to send the respective beys in 
 chains to Cairo, where they were put to 
 death. The entire number of beys thus 
 massacred was from 600 to 700. 
 
 Massacre of the Mar'onites 
 
 (3 syl.) or Christians of Syria by the 
 Druses. It began 28 May, 1800; mas- 
 sacre at Hasbeyd 5 June, 1800 ; massacre 
 at Deir-el-Kammer, 21 June ; massacre 
 at Damasus 9 and 10 July, 18G0. 
 
 The Druses inhabit the range of Mount Lebanon, 
 and divide possession of some 200 towns with the 
 Maronites. Their religion is a mixture of the 
 Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan. The Maro- 
 nites, since 1445, have been united to the Ch»irch 
 of Home. See ' Druses.' 
 
 Massacre of the Mitylenaeans 
 
 (The), B.C. 427. A large number of pri- 
 soners fell into the hands of the Athenians 
 in the Mitylenasan war. It was discussed 
 by the conquerors how these prisoners 
 should be disposed of, and Cleon advo- 
 cated their instant massacre. After 
 more than 2,000 had been put to death, 
 the Athenians sickened with the whole- 
 sale slaughter, and the massacre was 
 stopped. 
 
 Massacre of the Monks of 
 Bangor, a.d. 607. Ethelfrith king of 
 Northumbria attacked Chester. Hard 
 by the city 2,000 monks assembled in the 
 monastery of Bangor, and after a three 
 days' fast, followed the British army 
 to the field. Ethelfrith watched the wild 
 gestures and outstretched arms of these 
 monks as they stood apart invoking the 
 vengeance of heaven on the foe. He took 
 them for enchanters, and cried aloud, 
 
 ' Bear they arms or no aiTns, they cry 
 against us to their gods,' and as he spoke 
 his soldiers rushed upon them, and put 
 them all to the sword. 
 
 These monks were praying for the success of 
 Brocmail king of Powys, but when his army saw 
 the massacre, it fled, and the victory of Ethelfrith 
 was complete. 
 
 Massacre of the Paulicians 
 
 {The). The Paulicians were the Hu- 
 guenots of the 8th and 9th cents., and 
 Theodora was the Catharine de Medicis 
 who ' hated them with a perfect hatred.' 
 In a few years this zealous empress put 
 to death by gibbet, stake, or sword 
 100,000 of these Christians. See ' Slaugh- 
 ter,' ' Persecutions,' &c. 
 
 This is a long and sickening list, but by no means 
 exhaustive. No mention, for example, is here 
 made of the many massacres of the Jews, in which 
 Russia of modern states stands sadly pre-eminent. 
 
 Massil'ianism. The same as 
 ' Semi-pela'gianism ' (q.v.) : so called 
 from Massilia, the Latin for Marseille, 
 whence the ' heresy ' arose. 
 
 The doctrine was this : Man can go to the palace 
 door, but must be ushered into the presence- 
 chamber. In other words, man can repent, for- 
 sake sin, and wish to be a Christian, but having 
 thus come to the door, God's grace must then lead 
 him all the rest of the way till he enters into the 
 presence-chamber of God. 
 
 Massoretes (3 syl.). Jews who 
 helped to fix the vowel points of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures on the authority of 
 tradition {massOra). The vowels added 
 by these doctors are called the Massoretic 
 jwints. 
 
 The main authority for these points is the 
 school of Tiberius in the 5th cent. 
 
 Master. In Oxford University, the 
 title held by the head of three of the 
 colleges, Balliol, Pembroke, and Uni- 
 versity College. In Cambridge University 
 the head of King's College is called the 
 provost and of Queen's president, but of 
 all the other colleges he is called the 
 master. 
 
 Master of Gray (The). Son of 
 Lord Gray, employed by Queen Elizabeth 
 to undermine the influence of Stuart earl 
 of Arran in Scotland. In 1585 Arran 
 was driven from the royal presence and 
 his estates were confiscated. 
 
 Master of Sentences (The), 
 'Magister Sententiarum.' Peter Lombard 
 the Schoolman, who died llGi. So called 
 from his book entitled ' Sententiarum 
 Libri IV.,' a collection of quotations or 
 sentences from St. Augustine and other 
 
574 
 
 MASTER 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 Fathers on sundry points of Christian 
 doctrine, with objections and replies. 
 It was a manual for the scholastic dis- 
 putants of the middle ages. 
 
 Master of the Buckhounds. 
 
 Who has control of all matters relating 
 to the royal hunts, with a salary of 1,1001. 
 a year, but he goes out of office with a 
 change of ministry. 
 
 Master of the Ceremonies, 1603. 
 Instituted for the more ceremonious 
 reception of ambassadors and persons of 
 distinction. 
 
 Beau Nash was called ' Master of the Cere- 
 monies,' but all that this designation signified was 
 that he arranged dictatorially the amusements at 
 Bath, or was president of the Bath entertainments. 
 
 Master of the Horse. The third 
 great officer of the court, having the 
 superintendence of the royal stables. 
 He is master of the equerries, pages, 
 grooms, coachmen, saddlers, farriers, and 
 all artificers working in the royal stables. 
 He is responsible for the disbursements 
 in his department, but his accounts are 
 audited. On state occasions he rides 
 next to the sovereign. The salary is 
 2,500Z. a year. 
 
 Master of the Household. An 
 
 officer in the lord steward's department 
 whose duty it is to superintend the choice 
 of servants. Salary 1,158Z. a year. 
 
 Master of the Rolls, in Chancery, 
 128G. A judge of the Court of Chancery, 
 who ranks next to the lord chancellor. 
 Since 1838 he has been keeper of the 
 public records ; his salary is 7,000Z. a year. 
 He has a deputy-keeper, with several assistants 
 and senior clerks. 
 
 Master-singers, 1350-1570. The 
 highest degree of the Guild of Rhetoric 
 in Germany. The three degrees were 
 apprentices, companions, and masters. 
 The guild consisted of poets and musi- 
 cians ; the former were, strictly si^eaking, 
 master-poets, and the latter master- 
 singers. These literary guilds were first 
 established in Mainz, Niirnberg, and 
 Strasburg. They held their guild every 
 Sunday in the cathedral of the city, and 
 Karl IV. gave them corporate rights and 
 a corporate seal. By far the most eminent 
 of these master-singers was Hans Sachs 
 (1494-1578), a cobbler by trade, but a 
 true genius, and j)rince of satirists. 
 Sachs, pronounce Sax. 
 
 Master's Side (The), for murderers 
 and other capital offenders. 
 
 When Newgate was used as the chief convict pri- 
 son, the 'Master's side' was the part so appro- 
 priated. 
 
 Masters {The Four) : 1. Michael 
 O'Clerighe, who died 1643; 2. Cucoi- 
 righe O'Clerighe; 3. Maurice Conry ; 4. 
 Fearfeassa Conry ; authors of ' Annals of 
 Donegal.' 
 
 O'Clerighe is sometimes Anglicised into CUrk- 
 son and Cucoirighe into Perrqrine. 
 
 Masters and Fraternity of the 
 Passion and Resurrection {The), 
 
 13th to 15th cents. A company of 
 monks incorporated by Charles VI. of 
 France to represent dramatically in 
 churches religious mysteries. The most 
 famous of their dramas were ' The 
 Passion,' ' The Resurrection,' ' The In- 
 carnation,' and ' St. Catherine.' The 
 first two were performed before the king 
 on his marriage with Isabeau of Bavaria. 
 See ' Ober-Ammergau.' 
 
 Masters in Chancery. Chief 
 officers under the judges in the Court of 
 Chancery, whose duty it was to take 
 minutes of the j)roceedings, and tax the 
 bills of cost. Abolished 1852. 
 
 Masters of Court. The chief 
 officers under the judges. Their duties 
 are to attend the sittings of the courts 
 during term, make minutes of the pro- 
 ceedings, and to tax bills of costs. 
 
 Matemans. So the Lollards were 
 called from their frugal lives and the 
 poverty of their appearance. Also called 
 ' Alexians ' {q.v.), ' Brethren and Sisters 
 of Alexius,' and ' Cellites ' {q.v.). They 
 rose in Antwerp about 1300, and were 
 admitted by Sixtus IV. amongst the 
 religious orders in 1472. 
 
 Materialists. Those who believe 
 that man has only a material nature, and 
 that thought, conscience, intelligence, 
 &c. are works of the brain. They deny 
 the existence of soul or spirit, and deny 
 also all that is supernatural, as the spirit 
 god, miracles, and the resurrection. 
 
 Mathematicians (2nd cent.). As- 
 trologers, magicians, and diviners. In 
 Justinian's code is a chapter headed 
 De Maleficis et Mathematicis ; and the 
 Theodosian code enjoins the banishment 
 of mathematicians from all Roman cities 
 and the burning of their books. 
 
 Mathematics {Professorship of). 
 In the University of Cambridge, 1663, 
 
MATHIAS 
 
 MAXIMILIAN 
 
 575 
 
 founded by Henry Lucas, and endowed 
 with an estate in Bedfordshire worth 
 150^. ; but the present stipend is 8501. 
 See ' Sadlerian Professorship, &c.,' 
 * Smith's Prizes,' ' Lucasian Professor,' 
 'Adams' Prize.' 
 
 Matlli'as, brother of Kudolf II., and 
 son of MaximiUan II. ; kaiser-king qf 
 Germany of the House of Austria (1556, 
 l(il2-1619). Having no chikl, he adopted 
 his cousin Ferdinand, in whose reign was 
 the Thirty Years' War against the Pro- 
 testants. Contemporary with James I. 
 
 Father, Maximilian' II. [his brother 
 Rudolf II. preceded him on the throne] ; 
 Mother, Mary, daujrhter of Kaiser Karl 
 V. ; Wife, Anne of Austria, no issue. 
 Conteniporary witli James I. 
 
 Mathurins {The), or ' Maturins,' 
 1199. A rehgious order instituted by St. 
 Jean de Matha and Felix de Valois for 
 the redemption of Christian slaves in 
 Barbary. They were originally called 
 Trinitaires, or Les Beligieux de la 
 Saints Tri)iite. The name ' Mathurins ' 
 was given to them in France, because in 
 1226 they occupied a church built in 
 Paris in honour of St. Mathurin. The 
 order was suppressed in 1790. 
 
 St. Mathurin (Maturimix) lived in the 4th and 
 6th cent. He was a confessor born in Sens and 
 buried at Larchant, in the Gatinais. where a 
 church was erected to his honour. Another was 
 built in Paris, which was given to the Trinitarians. 
 His relics are preserved in the parish church of 
 Moncontour, in Brittany, and many pilgrims 
 during Pentecost flock to the church every year. 
 
 Matilda tlie G-OOd, cousin and first 
 wife of Henry I. of England, daughter of 
 Malcolm king of Scotland, Married 1100. 
 died 1118. 
 
 Matins, or ' Nocturns.' One of the 
 eight daily services of the Catholic 
 Church, and the first of the four great 
 ones at daybreak. See ' Canonical Hours. ' 
 
 Matronalia, 1 March. The festival 
 of the Roman matrons to commemorate 
 tlie reconciliation of the Sabine women 
 with their fathers and brothers after the 
 •Rape of the Sabines.' 
 
 Matthew Parker's Bible, 1572. 
 The second folio edition of the ' Great 
 Bible ' iq.v.), with corrections and several 
 prolegomena under the supervision of 
 Archbishop Parker. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Matthews' Bible, 1537. A version 
 of the Bible in English edite.d by John 
 
 Rogers, superintendent of an English 
 church in Germany, and published by 
 him under the fictitious name of Thomas 
 Matthews. It was based on the transla- 
 tions of Tyndale and Miles Coverdale. 
 ' Cranmer's Great Bible ' was a corrected 
 edition of Matthews' Bible. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Mat'urins (The). See ' Mathurins.' 
 
 Matutinal Mass. ' Missa Matu- 
 tinalis,' a mass ' qua^ post exactas matuti- 
 nas dicitur.' The matutlnse follow the 
 nocturns. See ' Mass.' 
 
 MatutintB in profestis et dominicis, quibus tar- 
 dius nocturnae preces persolvebantur. — Du 
 Cange, vol. iv. p. 607, col. 1. 
 
 Matuti'nus Pater, i.e. ' Father of 
 the Morning ' ; so Janus was called by 
 the ancient Romans, and prayers were 
 addressed to him by pious Romans every 
 morning. 
 
 Our word January is derived from this mytho- 
 logical deity. 
 
 Mausole'um (The), b.c. 351, or 
 Sepulchre of Mausolus of Caria, built by 
 his widow Artemis'ia, and considered 
 one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 A.D. 1500 the sculptures of this marvellous 
 mausoleum were actually employed by 
 the knights of Rhodes in fortifying Hali- 
 carnassos ! Some of the sculptures have 
 been rescued, and in 1846 were placed 
 in the British Museum, as the ' Budrum 
 Marbles.' 
 
 Max O'Rell. The pen-name of 
 Paul Blouet, author of ' John Bull and 
 his Island,' &c. His grandfather was 
 Max Blouet, an officer in the French 
 army. Being taken prisoner he was sent 
 to England, and fell in love with an Irish 
 girl, named O'Rell, whom he married. 
 
 Maxima Csesariensis. One of 
 
 tlie five provinces into which Britain was 
 divided in the reign of the Emperor 
 Severus. It included the northern part 
 of England extending to the Wall of 
 Severus, between the Tj^ne and the Sol- 
 way. It had its own ruler, but that 
 ruler was subject to the prtefect or 
 governor-general of the island. 
 
 Maximilian I., ' the Pennyless ' 
 and ' Taciturn.' Second monarch of the 
 house of Austria (or Habsbuvg). Like 
 his father, he died from a surfeit of 
 melons (1459, 1486-1519). 
 
 Father, Kaiser Friedrich III. the 
 Pacific; Mother, Elenore of Portugal; 
 Wives, (1) Mary of Burgundy, only child 
 
576 
 
 MAXIMILIAN 
 
 MAYOR 
 
 of Charles le Temeraire, and heiress of 
 17 provinces; (2) Bianca Maria [Sforza] 
 niece of Ludovico Sforza II Moro. Con- 
 tetnporarij with Henry VII. and VIII. 
 
 His eldest son was Philippe the Handsome, who 
 married the Infanta .Tuana of Spain (daughter of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella), by which marriage 
 Spain became united to the house of Austria. 
 Philippe died leaving issue the famous Karl V. 
 (Charles-quint) afterwards King of Spain, Austria, 
 and America (the Golden Age of Spain). It was 
 the son of Karl V. who married Mary queen of 
 England. 
 
 *,* It was a magnificent period of European his- 
 tory -the period of Luther, the Humanists, print- 
 ing, and Columbus. The popes were Alexander VI., 
 Pius III., Julius II., and Leo X. The first of these 
 was the patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael. In 
 Spain were Ferdinand and Isabella ; in Portugal 
 Emmanuel the Great, founder of the Portuguese 
 navy, the Miecenas of Arts and Sciences, and the 
 friend of Vasco da Gama. In England were Henry 
 VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey; and in Turkey was 
 Bajazet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. 
 
 Maximilian II. Kaiser-king of 
 Germany (1525, 1564-1576), nephew of 
 Kad V. (Charles-quint), and of the house 
 of Austria. He had fifteen children. 
 
 Father, Ferdinand I. ; Mother, Anne ; Wife, Mary 
 his cousin, daughter of Karl V. Contemporary with 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 May {The Maids^). There were four 
 historic Mays in the eventful life of ' the 
 Maid ' (Jeanne d'Arc). 
 
 1. At Vaucouleurs the Maid announced 
 her mission to De Baudricourt, governor 
 of Vaucouleurs, in May 1428. 
 
 2. At Orleans she compelled the Eng- 
 lish to raise the siege, 8 May, 1429. 
 
 3. At Compiegne she was besieged by 
 the Duke of Burgundy and the English, 
 May 1430; captured in a sortie against 
 the Burgundian quarters, 24 May ; given 
 uji to the English ; and condemned to 
 be burnt as a heretic by the University 
 of Paris, 24 May, 1431. 
 
 4. At Kouen she was burned to death, 
 80 May, 1431. 
 
 Some say she was not burnt, but married to 
 Robert des Armoises about 1438 ; that she was 
 living in 1444 ; and that her sentence was reversed 
 by the pope 7 July, 1456. 
 
 May Meetings [The). The great 
 annual religious meetings held in Exeter 
 Hall, Strand, London, during the month 
 of May. 
 
 May 31 {TJie Day of), 1793. In the 
 French Revolution, the commencement 
 of the Reign of Terror, when the people 
 of Paris, conducted by Henriot, invaded 
 the Convention, compelled them to set 
 Hebert at liberty, and to arrest the 
 Girondins (q.v.). 
 
 The Reign of Terror was from 31 May, 1793, to 
 27 July, ITJi (the fall of Robespierre). 
 
 Maynooth [The Boyal College of 
 St. Patrick], in Ireland, 1795. Founded 
 by Act of the Irish Parliament for the 
 education of students designed for the 
 Catholic priesthood. It was incorporated 
 and endowed in 1845 by Acts 8, 9 Vict. 
 c. XXV. ; but in 1809 these acts were I'e- 
 pealed, and the college received a large 
 endowment in lieu of its previous annual 
 subvention. 
 
 Mayor {In England). The title of 
 Bailiff was changed to that of ' Mayor of 
 London ' in the reign of Henry II. Rich- 
 ard I., in 1189, granted the citizens the 
 right of choosing their own mayor ; and 
 the title was changed to Lord Mayor in 
 1354 by Edward III. 
 
 The chief magistrate of York was made 
 Lord Mayor in 1389. 
 
 The first mayor of Dublin was ap- 
 pointed in 1409, and he was styled Lord 
 Mayor in 1665 by Charles II. 
 
 The Mayor of the Palace, in France, 
 existed as far back as 560, but merged 
 into royalty on the accession of Pepin le 
 Bref in 752. 
 
 The title of ' Right Honourable ' was conferred 
 on the Lord Mayor of London by Edward III. Hia 
 salary is 8,0iT0?. for the year of office. 
 
 The first Lord Mayor's Show was in 1454, when 
 Sir John Norman went by water to be sworn in 
 at Westminster. 
 
 Mayor {The). Elected since the 
 ' Municipal Corporations Act ' {q.v.) in 
 1835, from the councillors. If any coun- 
 cillor so elected does not choose to serve, 
 he must pay a fine of lOOl. The qualifi- 
 cation of a mayor is the fact that he is a 
 councillor, and if any other person serves 
 in the office the fine is 501. The mayor 
 presides at all meetings of the council, 
 and lias (during his year of office) preced- 
 ence in all places within the borough. 
 He revises, with his two assessors, the 
 burgess list, which he must sign in open 
 court. He presides at the election of 
 councillors, and is magistrate for the 
 borough both during his official year and 
 for the year following, when he is deputy 
 mayor. He is also the returning officer 
 at the election of members of Parliament. 
 
 Mayor of Garrett {The), 1741. 
 Garrett is a hamlet between Tooting and 
 Wandsworth in Surrey. Tlie first mayor 
 was the chairman of a club organised to 
 prevent encroachments on the common. 
 An encroachment took i)lace not long 
 afterwards, and the villagers won their 
 suit, with costs, during a general election 
 
MAYOR 
 
 MEAL-TUB 
 
 577 
 
 after Walpole's resignation. The event 
 was celebrated by the election of a 
 'Mayor of Garrett,' who held office so 
 long as the parliament sat, and with 
 every new parliament a new mayor was 
 elected, whose inauguration was cele- 
 brated with a village feast. Foote wrote 
 a farce entitled ' The Mayor of Garrett.' 
 There have been several such' mockery mayors. ' 
 As the Seaside Mayor of Newcastle-under Lyme ; 
 the mock mayor of Kandwick in Gloucestershire ; 
 the mock mayor of Weston near Bath, <i;c. 
 
 Mayor of the Palace (The). 
 ' Major domus ' ; in French ' Maire du 
 Palais,' keejjer of the privy purse and 
 superintendent of the royal household ia 
 France. The Mayor of the Palace be- 
 came the head of the aristocracy, and 
 was the virtual ruler of France during 
 the reigns of the Bois Faineants (638- 
 742). The office was curtailed by the 
 Carlovingian kings and abolished by 
 Hugues Capet. 
 
 Mazarin of Letters {The). 
 D'Alembert (1717-1783), French mathe- 
 matician, philosopher, and encyclopaedist. 
 
 Maz'arinades (4 syl.), 1649-1652. 
 Political squibs during the Fronde war. 
 * Pres de quatre miile ecrits satiriques, 
 la plupart diriges centre Mazavin, et 
 dicta's par la haine la plus acre,' Motte- 
 ville says, ' Never man of equal authority 
 pardoned so many of his enemies, and 
 never man committed so few to prison.* 
 
 Mazarine Bible {The). The Guten- 
 berg (? Schbffer) Bible, the earliest book 
 printed in movalale metal type. It con- 
 tains no date, but a cojty in the ' Biblio- 
 theque Mazarine,' formed in 1648 for the 
 Cardinal Mazarin by G. Naude, and 
 given to the public in 1688, contains the 
 date of the illuminator Cremer, 1456, so 
 that the Bible must have been printed 
 before that date. Only seven copies in 
 vellum exist, but there are Iniown to be 
 twenty-two copies on paper, some of 
 them very imperfect. In 1855 Mr. 
 Quaritch, bookseller, of Piccadilly (ac- 
 cording to the ' Methodist Recorder '), gave 
 8,900Z. for a copy at Sir J. Thorold's ; 
 certainly in 1887 he gave 2,650Z. for the 
 copy in the library of the late Earl of 
 Crawford. One was sold in 1873 for 
 8,400^., and a copy was sold in 1889 for 
 2,000Z. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 A good vellum copy is worth 4,000i. 
 
 Of course it was called the Mazarine Bible 
 because the copy in the Mazarine Library, Paris, 
 gives the approximate date. There is another 
 25 
 
 Bible called the Mazarine Bible, printed before 
 1466 by Eggestein. 
 
 *,* A Psalmorum Codex (Sir J. Thorold's sale) 
 was sold for the unprecedented sum of 4,500i. 
 
 Mazarin, a proper name ; Mazarine, the adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 Mazarin'ians. Those who sided 
 with Cardinal Mazarin in the Fronde 
 War (1648-1653). The opponents were 
 called the Frondeurs. The cause of 
 this contention was Mazarin's prohibi- 
 tion of the Act of Union {q.v.), the 27 
 articles of demand by the Paris lawyers. 
 
 Such as the abolition of monopolies ; the reduc- 
 tion of imposts; the prohibition to levy taxes 
 without the authority of the States General, or of 
 arrest without assigning the cause; the obliga- 
 tion of bringing prisoners to trial within a given 
 time, &c. Mazarin and the court party pro- 
 nounced these demands an encroachment on 
 
 Maz'daas'nanism or 'Mazdaism.' 
 The ancient Persian religion. So called 
 from Ahura Mazdao, the all-wise spirit 
 or supreme god of the Persians. This 
 supreme god was supposed to be creator 
 of the world, god of light and truth, 
 without beginning of days or end of 
 years. Mazdaism was reformed by Zoro- 
 aster or Zerdusht, whose disciples were 
 called Guebres or Parsees. 
 
 Mazdaasnan means worshippers of Ormuzd. 
 Parsees mean people of Pars or Fars (i.e. 
 of Persia) ; and Guebre is a proper name = Cheber 
 or Jebah. The Persian gawr means an infidel. 
 
 Mazzulo, 1503. A plague which 
 desolated Italy. It carried oS Philip of 
 Burgos in 1506. Machiavel tells us in 
 his ' Political Correspondences ' that it 
 especially attacked the head and chest, 
 and was accompanied by a cough. It 
 appeared in Padua in 1558, 1568, and 
 1580, and was most disastrous. See 
 ' Plagues,' &c. 
 
 It appeared in France, and went there by the 
 name of Coqui'lxwhc. 
 
 M.C. Master of the ceremonies [in 
 court] ; in the U.S.A. it means ' Member 
 of Congress.' 
 
 Meagher of the S-word. Thomas 
 Meagher, son of a Waterford merchant, 
 the orator of the Young Irelanders. He 
 emigrated to America, and became 
 General Meagher. He obtained his 
 sobriquet because his speeches were 
 warlike harangues, and he himself was a 
 dashing cavalier. 
 
 Meal-tub Plot {The), 1680. A sup- 
 posed Presbyterian plot to seize the 
 crown and prevent a popish succession. 
 Revealed first to the Duke of York by a 
 PP 
 
578 
 
 MEDIATOE 
 
 MEGALESIAN 
 
 young man named Dangerfield. When 
 the whole affair was proved to be false, 
 and Dangerfield was committed to New- 
 gate, he said with great seeming penitence 
 that what he had told the duke was un- 
 doubtedly a forgery to cover a real plot. 
 The real plot he said was a popish one, 
 and the notes of the sham one would be 
 found in a meal tub in the house of Mrs. 
 Cellier, a Eoman Catholic midwife. The 
 papers were found there, and the plot 
 was called the Meal-tub Plot. 
 
 This was the second of three plots. The first 
 ■was the popish plot revealed by Titus Gates, and 
 the third was the Byehouse plot. 
 
 Mediator of the Helvet'ic 
 League, 1803. A title and ofifice as- 
 sumed by Napoleon. By the treaty of 
 Luneville it was stipulated that the in- 
 dependence of Switzerland should be 
 respected; but the French troops not 
 being withdrawn, perpetual feuds were 
 fomented by their instigation between one 
 canton and another. Napoleon declared 
 that this state of things must cease ; and 
 assuming to himself the right of arbitra- 
 tion, he reduced Switzerland to a kind 
 of dep ndency under the military yoke 
 of France. For this ' service ' the Swiss 
 were ordered to supply 16,000 men to 
 the French army. 
 
 Medical Rose {The), or 'Rosa 
 Anglica,' about 1492, The medical work 
 of John Gaddesden. Gaddesden was 
 educa^ted at Merton College^ Oxford, and 
 was thought to be the grand luminary 
 of physic ; but his prescriptions are a 
 wonderful compound of superstitions, 
 theological injunctions, charms, and 
 quackery. 
 
 Medice'an Stars [The). Jupiter's 
 satellites were so called by Galileo, who 
 discovered them, but the term has not 
 come into general use. Galileo's cele- 
 brated work, ' The Sidereal Messenger,' is 
 dedicated to Cosmo de' Medici II. fourth 
 duke of Tuscany. 
 
 Med'icis {A). A huge standing 
 collar propped up by a wire frame, and 
 inclosing the whole back of the head. 
 This ugliness superseded the ruff, and 
 was introduced by Marie de Medicis, wife 
 of Henri IV. of France. 
 
 Mediaeval History closes with the 
 
 invention of printing and the discovery 
 of America, and modern history begins 
 
 with the Lutheran reformation. All 
 these three events occurred about 1500. 
 So that mediaeval history closes with the 
 15th cent., and modern history begins 
 with the 16th cent. 
 
 Printing made generally known 14S0 
 
 Columbus set sail for America . 1492 
 
 Keformation begun in Germany by Lnther 1617 
 
 Mediaeval Schoolmen. For those 
 bearing complementary titles see p. 261. 
 
 Medjidie, 1852. An order of honour 
 instituted in Turkey by the Sultan Abdul- 
 Medjid for foreigners as well as natives. 
 
 Medmenham Club {The), 18th 
 cent. It was held in Medmenham Abbey. 
 The club consisted of wild spirits, called 
 eui^hemistically ' wits and humourists,' 
 who assumed the name of ' Monks of St. 
 Francis.' The inscription over the door 
 was ' Fais ce que tu voudras.' Langley 
 gives an account of it, and significantly 
 suggests that it is wise to draw a curtain 
 over it. 
 
 Rabelais savs the motto over the door of the 
 Abbey of Theleme was FAIS CE QUE vouLDKAS.— 
 Grtif/aiiiKai. 52-57. 
 
 Medon'tidae. The thirteen archons 
 of Athens, so called from Medon son of 
 Kodros the first archon. 
 
 Meerut Massacre {The), 10 May, 
 1857. The native troops or Sepoys re- 
 volted, shooting their European officers, 
 firing the bungalows, and massacring 
 the European inmates without respect 
 to age or sex. See ' Indian Mutiny ' and 
 ' Massacre.' 
 
 Megaelean {A). A pertinacious 
 and obnoxious political opponent, so 
 called from Megacles the Athenian ar- 
 chon. In the time of Cylon and Pittacos 
 Megacles and his adherents were for ever 
 striving to upset the government, and 
 restore it to an archonate. 
 
 Megale'sian Games ( The),B.c. 206. 
 In honour of Cybele, the great [megale] 
 goddess. They commenced 4 April, and 
 lasted a week. During the Second Punic 
 War an oracle had declared that the 
 Romans would conquer the Carthagini- 
 ans if they carried off their palladium, a 
 great aerolith, sacred to Idea or Cybgle. 
 The senate sent an ambassador to de- 
 mand it, and it was transported to Rome 
 in grand procession. A temple was 
 erected and games instituted in its 
 honour. 
 
MEISTER-SANGEE 
 
 MELLIFLUOUS 
 
 579 
 
 Meister-sanger, 14th cent. A 
 corporation of German poets and mu- 
 sicians which succeeded the Minne- 
 sangers. They were for the most part 
 artisans, by far the most celebrated being 
 Hans Sachs [Sax]. In 1378 Karl IV. 
 gave them a charter and a seal. See 
 ' Master singers.' 
 
 Mek'hitarists. So called from 
 Peter Mekhitar (1G76-1749) of Cappa- 
 docia. While in Constantinople (1700) 
 he joined the Armenians, and afterwards 
 the Catholics. Being driven from Con- 
 stantinople by religious persecution, 
 Mekhitar took refuge in Smyrna, then 
 in the Morea. To Mekhitar we owe an 
 Armenian Bible (1733), an Armenian 
 grammar, and an Armenian dictionary. 
 
 His disciples, the Mekhitarists of St. Lazzaro 
 (degli Armeni) are learned Benedictines whose 
 publications have a European reputation. 
 
 Melancholy Isle (The). Tobago, 
 in which an English colony was i^lanted 
 in 1737. So called because, viewed from 
 the north, it seems only a mass of lofty 
 and gloomy mountains, with black preci- 
 pices descending abruptly to the sea. It 
 is under a lieutenant-governor, a council 
 of nine, and a house of assembly of 
 sixteen members. 
 
 Melancholy Jacques (The). Jean 
 Jacques Rousseau (1712-1777). He was 
 a misanthrope and a recluse, of morbid 
 sensibilities and unhappy spirit. The 
 phrase is from Shakespeare's 'As You 
 Like It.' 
 
 Melancholy Magyars (The), «55. 
 
 The Hungarian fugitives in the great 
 battle of Augsburg, on the river Lech. 
 They were condemned by their country- 
 men to servitude. 
 
 Magyars, pronounce Mard'-yars. 
 
 Melbourne Ministry (r/?^), 1835- 
 1841. Called by Sir George Trevelyan 
 ' that melancholy period.' Mr. Torrens 
 says that Lord Melbourne was neither 
 an orator, nor jurist, nor financier, nor 
 great legislator, nor gi-eat leader, nor 
 consistent politician. This is true, but 
 he was a man of most wonderful tact. 
 Of the Melbourne Ministry Praed says 
 their policy was 
 
 To promise, pause, prepare, postpone, 
 And end by letting things alone ; 
 In short, to earn the people s pay 
 By doing nothing every day. 
 
 Melbourne's Six Acts, 1835- 
 
 1841. 
 
 Corporation Reform (England), 1835. 
 
 Corporation Reform (Scotland), 1836. 
 
 New Marriage Law (by registration, 
 &c.), 1836, 1837, 1840. 
 
 Tithe Commutation, 1836, 1837, 1839. 
 
 Poor Law Reform (Ireland), 1838. 
 
 Municipal Corporation Reform (Ire- 
 land), 1840. 
 
 Melchites (2 syl.), or ' Imperialists.' 
 Syriac, Egyptian, and Levantine Chris- 
 tians generally so called in reproach on 
 account of their implicit submission to 
 the edict of the Emperor Marcian for the 
 publication and reception of the doctrines 
 and ceremonies of the Greek Church, and 
 for submission to the decisions of the 
 Council of Chalcedon. Their head is 
 called the Patriarch of Antioch, and 
 dwells at Damascus. 
 
 They are Roman Catholics of the Eastern rite, 
 and have a service in Arabic. The Copts of the 
 Greek Church are called Melchites by their mo- 
 nophysitic brethren. 
 
 Mele'tian Schism (The), 4th cent. 
 Caused by Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, 
 who had been deposed for offering sacri- 
 fice to idols to avoid persecution. When 
 Peter of Alexandra died Meletius took 
 on himself the power of ordination, and 
 was most relentless in rejecting the 
 lapsed. The Council of Nice, a.d. 325, 
 decreed him to be schismatic. 
 
 Mele'tians, 300-400. Followers of 
 Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt. 
 
 See above. 
 
 Melitine (The). A legion, also 
 called the Thundering or Fulminant 
 Legion from its dash and courage. It 
 was composed of Christians, and it is 
 said that the army of Marcus Aurelius 
 was saved by its prayers in 174, when on 
 the point of perishing in the desert. 
 
 Mellifluous Doctor (The). St. 
 Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1153, 
 canonised by Alexander III. in 1174). It 
 was this St. Bernard who preached up 
 the second crusade in 1146, and was the 
 founder of the Bernardins {q.v.). Called 
 the ' Last of the Fathers ' and the 
 ' Oracle of the Church.' 
 
 St. Bernard procured the condemnation ot 
 Abelard at the Council of Sens, in 1140; was 
 mainly instrumental in the death at the stake of 
 Pierre de Bruys and Arnaud de Brescia, two 
 religious reformers, who declaimed against the 
 ill lives of the clergy, and vehemently opposed 
 Gilbert de la Porree. bishop of Poitiers, who had 
 attacked the Nominalists (q.v.). However, when 
 
 P p 2 
 
580 
 
 MELON 
 
 MENANDRIANS 
 
 the monk Raoul proposed to massacre all the Jews, 
 St. Bernard rerfolutely opposed the suggestion. 
 
 *,* The St. Bernard who founded the hospice 
 ■was St. Bernard of Menthon, and lived about a 
 century earlier c930-1008). 
 
 Melon Colic. The first three 
 kaiser-kings of the house of Austria or 
 Habsburg died from dysentery brought 
 on by eating melons : Albert [Albrecht] 
 II., Friedrich III., and Maximilian I. 
 
 Melton Mowbray Hunt {The), 
 established 1759. The four chief mem- 
 bers used to form a sort of authorised 
 court in all matters connected with the 
 chase in England. The three original 
 packs were (1) the Duke of Eutland's ; (2) 
 Mr. Osbaldeston's, or the Quorn hounds, 
 Leicester ; and (4) the Earl of Lonsdale's, 
 or the Cottesmore hounds, of Rutland- 
 shire. There has been no such ' hunt ' 
 for many years, but the Leicestershire 
 hounds are still celebrated, and the Duke 
 of Rutland's hounds, the Quorn, and the 
 Cottesmore hounds are well known 
 (1890). 
 
 Member of the Sacred Orow^n 
 
 (A). A nobleman of Hungary. Hungary 
 was the Land of the Sacred Crown. The 
 Sacred Crown was the crown given by 
 the pope to St. Stephen, king of Hungary 
 (979, 997-1038). 
 
 Members' Prizes {The). Of the 
 University of Cambridge. Two prizes of 
 thirty guineas each, one for a Latin 
 essay and one for an English essay, on a 
 subject connected with English history. 
 Founded 1752, when there were four 
 prizes, which in 1870 were reduced to 
 two. Any student below the degree of 
 M.A. may be a candidate. 
 
 Memmia or Remmia {Lex), or- 
 dained that an accusation should not be 
 admitted against those who were absent 
 on the public service ; and if anyone 
 was convicted of false accusation, he 
 was to be branded on the forehead with 
 the letter K {kaluninia). 
 
 As for those who have calumniated you by 
 leasing-making, I protest to heaven I think they 
 have justly incurred the penalty of the Memnonia 
 Lex, also called Lex Bhcvuiia.— Sir W. ScOTT, 
 Wavertey, chap. xli. (Abbotsford edition). 
 
 Memnon. The same as Proteus, 
 and either of these is the same as Rameses 
 V. Proteus is not a proper name at all, 
 but a Greek word equivalent to ' Egyp- 
 tian king,' or Pharaoh. Rameses V. 
 died B.C. 1165. 
 
 Memorable 2,000 {The), 1661. 
 The 2,000 ministers who refused to com- 
 ply with the Uniformity Act passed in 
 the reign of Charles II., and threw up 
 their preferments. See ' Seven Bishops.' 
 
 The health of 'the Protestant dissenting 
 ministers, the worthy successors of the memorable 
 2,Li00,' was proposed by the Chairman, the Duke of 
 Essex. 
 
 Dinner given at the Freemasons' Hall to com- 
 memorate the Kepeal of the Test Act, 1828. 
 
 Memorial Crosses. Raised some- 
 times where the bier of an eminent 
 person stopped for a time, on its way to 
 the place of burial, as the memorial 
 crosses of Eleanor of Castile, called 
 ' Eleanor Crosses,' as those of Waltham, 
 Northampton, and Geddington. Charing 
 cross was destroyed in 1647, but a model 
 of it stands in front of the South-Eastern 
 Railway station, Strand, London. 
 
 Memphitic Version of the Scrip- 
 tures in the dialect of Lower Egypt. 
 Also called the ' Coptic' Supposed to 
 be of the 3rd cent. See ' Scriptures.' 
 
 The version in the dialect of Upper Egypt, 
 called the ' Sahidic ' or ' Thebaidic,' is supposed 
 to be the older of the two. 
 
 Men of '89 {The). The leaders of 
 the French revolution, such as Mirabeau, 
 Danton, Robespierre, Marat, St. Just, &c. 
 
 Men of the 14th of July. Red 
 
 republicans of France. The reference is 
 to the ^taking of the Bastille, 14 July, 
 1789. 
 
 A letter was handed in by Santerre to the 
 president, stating that the petitioners wanted to 
 be admitted to . . . prove themselves still the 
 Men of the 14th July.— Ho WITT, Hist. o/Eng. (Geo. 
 III. p. 617). 
 
 Menageries {Les). The reunions 
 of Mme. de Tencin in the regency of 
 Louis XV. In these reunions one met 
 with Montesquieu, author of the ' Persian 
 Letters '; Helvetius, author of ' L'Esprit '; 
 Fontenelle and Lamotte, Rollin, Vertot, 
 the two Daciers, Voltaire, and Lord 
 Bolingbroke. They were the nursery of 
 the encyclopaedists. 
 
 Menander, the Samaritan, who suc- 
 ceeded Simon Magus, gave himself out to 
 be one of the ^ons, and that no one could 
 be saved who was not of his baptism; 
 but that all who were so baptized should 
 be subject neither to death nor to the 
 infirmities of old age (Eusebius, bk. lii. 
 chap. 26). 
 
 Menandrians. Followers of Me- 
 nander. See above. 
 
MENDICANTS 
 
 MERCHANTS 
 
 581 
 
 Mendicants or Begging Friars 
 
 {The). Numerous orders which truly- 
 infested the church in the 13th cent. 
 They broke in everj'where upon the 
 parochial clergy, usurped their office, set 
 up altars of their own, withdrew the 
 people from communion with their parish 
 priests, and became so rich that they 
 raised stately palaces, and became the 
 most famous and most contemptible of 
 all the clere^y. In 1274 the Council of 
 Lyons restricted them to the four orders 
 of Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, 
 and Augustines. 
 
 Menippean Satire {The). A poli- 
 tical pamphlet, partly in verse and partly 
 in prose. The object of the satire was 
 to show up the perfidious intentions of 
 Spain in regard to France, and the 
 criminal ambition of the Guise family. 
 The chief writers were Leroy (died 1593), 
 Pithou (1544-1596), Rapin the poet 
 (1540-1609), andPasserat (1534-1602). 
 
 Called Menippean from Menippus, a cynic 
 philosopher of the 1st cent. 
 
 Men'nonites (3 syl.). Followers of 
 Menno (called Simonis, i.e. ' Son of 
 Simon') of Holland (1496-1561). He 
 was the founder of the reformed 
 Anabaptist school, after the death of 
 John of Leyden. Menno was a man of 
 most gentle, earnest, modest, and 
 spiritual nature, wholly unlike the wild 
 fanatics kno^vn as Anabaptists. Like 
 the Quakers the Mennonites will take no 
 oath, nor will they hold office, employ 
 force, or sanction capital punishment. 
 They baptize by sprinkling, but only 
 after a confession of faith. The New 
 Testament is their only rule of faith ; 
 they object to the word ' person ' as 
 applied to the Father, Son, and Holy 
 Ghost, and disbelieve in original sin. 
 
 In 1683 a following was established in 
 America, where they number at least 
 250,000, and they are abundant in 
 Southern Russia. They are divided into 
 Mild and Strict Mennonites. 
 
 Mensal Lands {The). A grant of 
 land from each of the pro\ances of Ireland 
 to enlarge the county of Meath. Exacted 
 by Tuathal, son of Feredach the Just, 
 A.D. 136. 
 
 Merca'tor {Isidore). A Cenobite of 
 the 8th cent, for many years supposed to 
 be the author of the ' False Decretals ' 
 iq.v.), now generally assigned to Bene- 
 
 dict Levita of Mentz, or to Riculfe arch- 
 bishop of Mentz, who introduced them 
 into France in 811. 
 
 Mercator's Projection. Maps 
 so constructed that the lines of longitude 
 are straight and not curved. This de- 
 vice of representing a globe La perspec- 
 tive on a flat surface is due to Edward 
 Wright, an Englishman ; but the chart 
 so arranged by Wright was printed and 
 published by Gerard Mercator, a printer 
 of maps in Flanders, who died at the 
 age of 82, in 1594. 
 
 Mercator's real name was Kauffmann, but a 
 foolish fashion prevailed of adopting Greek or 
 Latin names, generally translations of the Ger- 
 man. Thus Melanchthon's real name was Schwarz- 
 erdt ; Desiderius Erasmus is a classical form of 
 Gheraerd Gheraerd; (Ecolampadius is a Greek 
 form of Hausschein. Nostradamus is a Latinised 
 form of Notre-Dame (Michel de Notre-Dame) ; 
 Joannes Stobseus is John Stubbs. 
 
 Other names not classical are Jacopo Robusti, 
 known as Jacopo Tintoretto ; Francois-Marie 
 Arouet, known as Voltaire ; Moliere was the as- 
 sumed name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, &c. 
 
 Merchant Adventurers ( The), or 
 * Brotherhood of Sir Thomas a Becket,' 
 1296. A society established by John 
 duke of Brabant, and sanctioned by 
 Edward I., to promote woollen manufac- 
 tures. Foreign mercho.nts were allowed 
 trial by jury, half the jury being foreign- 
 ers, and they had a justiciary [consul] 
 in London for their protection. See 
 ' Merchants of the Steelyard.' 
 
 It received a patent in l.'SOS from Henry VII., 
 and was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1564. 
 
 The clergj' were called Sir, and addressed aa 
 ' Sir-reverence,' in the ' good old times.' 
 
 Merchant Queen {The). Venice. 
 
 The Merchant Queen, in order to preserve in- 
 violate the Levantine commerce, humbled her- 
 self at the footstool of the Sultan. — History of 
 Venice, vol. ii. p. 81 (Murray, 1838). 
 
 Merchant Taylors' School, 1568. 
 Founded by the Merchant Taylors' 
 Guild. 
 
 Merchants {The Statute of) 
 ' Statutum de Mercatoribus,' 1283. The 
 statute of Acton Bumel is so called. It 
 was passed at Acton Burnel, in Shrop- 
 shire, in the reign of Edward I., and its 
 object was the speedy recovery of debts 
 due to merchants and traders. The 
 security which the merchant obtained in 
 1285 by a seisin of the debtor's lands, 
 &c., was called a ' Statute Merchant.' 
 See ' Statute of Acton Burnel.' 
 
 Merchants of the Steelyard. 
 
 London Hanse Town merchants, formed 
 into a company early in the 13th cent. 
 
MERCHANTS' 
 
 MESSENIAN 
 
 In 1235 they obtained privileges from 
 Henry HI., and received a charter in 
 1280 from Edward T., with further pri- 
 vileges from Edward IV. and Henry 
 VII. Finally abolished by Elizabeth in 
 1578. This company in 1505 was opposed 
 by the ' Merchant Adventurers ' {q.v.). 
 
 Merchants' Petition The), 1820. 
 Drawn up by Mr. Tooke for free trade, 
 especially in com. Being signed by 
 more than half the court of directors of 
 the Bank of England, and a large num- 
 ber of the chief London merchants, it 
 was presented to the House by Alex- 
 ander Baring [Lord Ashburton]. 
 
 Mercia. The last formed and largest 
 of the kingdoms, since called the Hept- 
 archy. It was founded a.d. 582 by 
 Crida or Creda, and included 17 counties 
 and most of Herts. 
 
 The counties were— Staffordshire, Worcester- 
 shire, and Warwickshire ; Cheshire, Derby and 
 Kotts ; Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and Bucks ; 
 Shropshire and Herefordshire ; Leicestershire 
 and Rutlandshu-e ; Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Hunts, 
 Bedfordsliire, and mosD of Herts. 
 
 Mercian Province. So called 
 from the river Mersey. 
 
 Merciless Parliament (The), or 
 ' The Unmerciful Parliament,' 3 Feb. to 
 3 June, 1388. A junto or council of 14, 
 the tools of Thomas [Plantagenet] duke 
 of Gloucester, which assumed royal pre- 
 rogatives, and attempted to depose the 
 king [Richard II.], then nearly 21 years 
 of age. Sir Nicholas Brembre, thrice 
 Lord Mayor of London, was condemned 
 for siding with the king ; the Archbishop 
 of York fled for his life ; the king's con- 
 fessor was driven from the kingdom; 
 several of the judges were condemned to 
 death ; Blake the secretary, and Usk the 
 under-sheriff, were put to death. Sir 
 John Beauchamp, Sir James Berners, 
 Sir John Salisbury, and Sir Simon Bur- 
 ley were all executed. In May 1399 
 the young king took the reins of go- 
 vernment into his own hands, and Glou- 
 cester's power was shattered into dust. 
 See ' Parliaments.' 
 Sometimes called ' The Wonderful Parliament.' 
 
 Mercu'rius Au'licus. A court 
 journal published in the reign of Charles 
 J I. under the court's own direction. 
 
 M6re des Peuples (La). Mar- 
 guerite de France duchesse de Berry, 
 daughter of Francois I. (1523-1574). 
 
 Mer'inides or Merinites (3 syl.). A 
 Saracen dynasty in Morocco which suc- 
 ceeded the Almohades in 1270, in 
 Morocco, and were overthrown by the 
 sheriffs or cherifs in 1516. 
 
 Descendants of Merin Abdallah king of Fez. 
 
 Mermnades (2 syl.). The third 
 dynasty of the kings of Lydia. So named 
 from Mermnas son of Gj^ges, the first 
 king, B.C. 708-545. Croesus was the 
 last of this dynasty. 
 
 Merovin'gians {The), or the Mero- 
 vingian dynasty (420-737). The first 
 race of French kings, called Merovingian 
 from Mer-wig or Meroveus, the third of 
 the line, presuming Pharamond and 
 Clodion to have preceded him. After 
 an interregnum the second race, called 
 the Carlovingian, succeeded. 
 
 Merwig is ini'r, great ; wi^i, warrior. If Phara- 
 mond ever existed, he was only Duke of the 
 Francs. He is said to have been the son of Mar- 
 comir, and to have died 428. His son Clodion is 
 said to have died 448, and Meroveus was his son. 
 Then followed Chilperic (448 481), and then his 
 son Clovis [=Louis]. 
 
 Merry Monarch. [The). Charles 
 II. of England (born 1630, crowned 1661, 
 died 1685). 
 Called by Rochester ' The Mutton-eating King." 
 
 Mersen {Treaty of), a.d. 870. By 
 which the eastern part of Lotharingia 
 (Lorraine), between the Maas and Rhine, 
 was added to Germany. 
 
 Merton College, Oxford. Founded 
 in 12u4, by Walter de Merton bishop of 
 Rochester, at Maiden, Surrey, but re- 
 moved to Oxford in 1274. The head- 
 master is called the warden. 
 
 Mesne Lords or Barons, i.e. 
 middle or intermediate lords ; who hold 
 their lands, not from the king, but from 
 some subject, who in this case was the 
 mesne lord's overlord. The vassal of a 
 mesne lord is called an arriL>re vassal, the 
 vassal of a vassal. Lands which owed 
 no allegiance to a lord were called 
 allodia (sing, allodiu-m). See ' Land.' 
 
 Messali'na of the North {The). 
 
 Catherine H. of Russia (1729, 1762- 
 1796). 
 
 Messe'nian War {The First), b.c. 
 743-724. Between the Messenians and 
 Spartans. By the terms of peace the 
 Messenians were reduced to the condi- 
 tion of helots, had to pay Sparta half the 
 produce of their land in tribute, and to 
 
METHODISM 
 
 METTEENICH'S 
 
 588 
 
 send a deputation of women to the 
 obsequies of Spartan kings. 
 
 The Second, b.c. 685-t5G2. The Spar- 
 tans were again the victors. Aristo- 
 menes was the Messenian hero. 
 
 The Third, B.C. 490. The Spartans 
 were again victorious, and banished the 
 Messenians from the soiL Tyrtceus the 
 Athenian poet inspired the Spartans 
 with his lays. 
 
 The Fourth, B.C. 465-455. The helots 
 revolted, and found refuge in Naupactos. 
 
 Methodism, 1729. Sprang up at 
 Oxford under Mr. Morgan and Mr. 
 Wesley. Whitfield joined the party in 
 1735. In 1738 Wesley and Whitfield 
 separated on the ' five points.' Wesley 
 took the Arminian views and Whitfield 
 the Calvinistic. Wesley taught that, 
 through the merits of Christ, man's sins 
 are forgiven, and that conversion is a 
 gift of God conveyed instantaneously, 
 so that the converted know when the 
 change takes place. The first Methodist 
 societies were established in 1739. When 
 in 1752 Whitfield separated from the 
 Methodists, those who followed Wesley 
 were called ' Wesleyan Methodists ' or 
 'Wesleyans,' and those who followed 
 Whitfield were called ' Calvinistic Metho- 
 dists.' 
 
 Called Methodists because the societies were 
 governed by certain rules, and the members were 
 required 'to walk orderly and methodically 
 under their respective leaders.' There was a 
 college of physicians in ancient liome called 
 MethoclhUe, from the strict regime which they 
 enforced on their patients ; probnbly this may 
 have suggested the name to the Oxford scholars. 
 
 Methodist Episcopal Church 
 
 {The), 1784. A society of Wesleyan 
 Methodists in the United States of 
 America, first formed in 1766 by immi- 
 grants from Ireland. Like Wesley, they 
 regarded themselves as members of the 
 English episcopal church. Wesley or- 
 dained Dr. Thomas Coke, the first Metho- 
 dist bishop. They accept Wesley's 
 abstract of the ' Thirty-nine Articles,' 
 and use his abridgment of the Common 
 Prayer-book. The bishops are itinerant, 
 and ordain bishops, elders, and deacons. 
 
 Methodist Protestant Church 
 in the U.S. of America {The), 1830. 
 Seceders from the ' Methodist Episcopal 
 Church ' iq.v.). They objected to ej)isco- 
 pacy, and desired a popular and inde- 
 pendent form of church governipent. 
 
 Meth'uen [Treaty of), 6 May, 1703. 
 A treaty of commerce between England 
 and Portugal. By this treaty the duty 
 on all Portuguese wines was one-third 
 less than on French wines. Modified in 
 1810, and abolished in 1835. 
 
 John Methuen was the English ambassador to 
 the court of Portugal. The king of Portugal at 
 the time was Pedro II. 
 
 Metiers de Paris [Statuts des). 
 From the ' Documents ine'dits sur I'His- 
 toire de France,' I'ecently published. 
 These statutes are supposed to belong 
 to the period of St. Louis (1226-1270). 
 
 Meton'ic Cycle {The), 19 years. 
 About B.C. 432 Meton discovered that 
 235 lunar months very nearly corre- 
 sponded with 19 solar years ; but about a 
 century later Callippus discovered that 
 in a hundred years the Metonic cycle 
 would be a day too long, as a solar year 
 contains 365;^ days, and not 365. So 
 Callii^pus suggested that a cycle should 
 consist of (19 x 4) 76 years, instead of 19. 
 See • Callii^pic Cycle.' 
 
 Metropolitan Board ofWorks 
 
 {The), transferred in 1889 to the London 
 County Council {q.v.), had its standing 
 committees and sub-committees. The 
 former included the Bridges' Cormnittee, 
 the Building Acts' Committee {q.v.), the 
 Fire Brigade Committee {q.v.), the Parks, 
 Commons, and Open Spaces Committee 
 {q.v.), and the Special Purposes and 
 Sanitary Committee {q.v.), including gas 
 and gas-meters, the Contagious Diseases 
 Act Committee, and so on. 
 
 The nine sub-committees were (1) the 
 Artisans' Dwellings' Act ; (2) the coal 
 and wine dues, (3) the examination of 
 accounts, (4) the municipal government 
 of the metropolis, (5) officers, (6) over- 
 head wires, (7) sewer emanations, (8) 
 supplementary main drainage, and (9) 
 tramways. 
 
 Metternich's Maxim. 'All for, 
 but not thro^igh, the people.' In other 
 words, the king and his government, 
 not the popular wish, judge what is best 
 for the general welfare, and the people's 
 interest. Of course, the king and his 
 council must be absolute ; popular con- 
 stitutions could in no wise be conceded 
 according to Metternich's political 
 maxim. 
 
 In schools and private families Metternich's 
 maxim is acted on ; but nations are cliibi, not 
 
584 
 
 MEVELAVITES 
 
 MICHELADE 
 
 schools or families ; and in clubs the members, 
 not the elected chairman, make the laws. 
 
 Mevela'vites (4 syl.). Dancing 
 dervishes, so called from Mevela'va, their 
 founder, who whirled round and round 
 for four continuous days, without rest, 
 food, or refreshment. While Mevelava 
 spun round like a top, Hamsa played on 
 a flute. After the fourth day the dervish 
 fell into a trance, in which marvellous 
 revelations were made to him. 
 
 Mexican Revolution (T7ie), 1822, 
 by which the republic was converted 
 into an empire. Augustino Iturbide, the 
 leader of the coup d'etat, was proclaimed 
 emperor under the name of Augustin I. 
 of Mexico. He abdicated in March 1823, 
 and retired to Leghorn in Italy; but 
 returned to Mexico in March 1824, was 
 arrested and shot. 
 
 Mezentian Thraldom, i.e. being 
 fastened to a dead body. Mezentius was 
 a king of the Tyrrhenians when iEneas 
 invaded Italy. He was notorious for his 
 cruelty, especially for tying an offender 
 face to face with a dead man, and leaving 
 him to die in his thraldom. 
 
 Divorce frees a man from that loathsome 
 Mezentian thraldom — the chaining of a man for 
 life to a cold putrefying corpse.— Mids Robinson, 
 Whitehall, chap. xix. 
 
 *,* Paul seems to refer to this sort of punish- 
 ment in Bom. vii. 24 : ' Who shall deliver me from 
 this [dead body] ? ' 
 
 Mezuz'ah, pi. Mezuzoth. A piece 
 of parchment fixed by the ancient Jews 
 to the doorposts of a house, according to 
 Deut. vi. 9 ; xi. 13. The parchment was 
 rolled up, put in a case, and labelled 
 Shadcn, one of the names of God. A 
 mezuzah was fixed not only on doorposts, 
 but to door knockers on the right side. 
 
 The Tephelim which these pedants wore on 
 their left wrists, and the Mezuzah which they 
 fixed on the right side of their doors to keep ofl 
 devils.— King SLEY, Hiipatia, chap. v. 
 
 Micare Digitis [Mi-cd-re didg-i- 
 tis\. A game played by the ancient 
 Romans, and still common in Italy. Two 
 players sit opposite to each other, and 
 each one holds out a certain number of 
 fingers, and he who guesses right the 
 soonest is the winner. Thus, if A holds 
 out all the fingers of one hand and 
 three of the other, and B holds out two 
 of one hand and three of the other, the 
 number is 13. If done very quickly it is 
 by no means easy to guess the right 
 number. Our talking with the fingers is " I 
 
 sometimes called mication, from * micare 
 
 digitis.' 
 
 This game is called morro; it is often seen 
 among Italian immigrants in America. 
 
 Mlcel Synod {The). The greai 
 council or Witenagemot of the Anglo- 
 Saxons. 
 
 Michael {Order of St.), 1469. Insti- 
 tuted in France by Louis XI. ; reor- 
 ganised in 1661 by Louis XIV. Extinct 
 since 1830. 
 
 Michael {Order of the Wing of St.). 
 Instituted in Portugal by King Alfonso, 
 1172. 
 
 Michael and St. George {Knights 
 of St.), 1818. A British order founded 
 chiefly for Malta and the colonies. 
 
 Michael Angelo of Battles 
 
 {The). M. A. Cerquozzi of Rome (1600- 
 1660). Battles and shipwrecks were his 
 favourite subjects. Also called Michel- 
 Ange des Bamboches. 
 
 Michael Angelo of France 
 
 {The). Jean Cousin (1500-1590). His 
 great picture is the ' Last Judgment,' or 
 Le Jugement Universel. Michael Angelo 
 has a grand fresco on the same subject 
 called the ' Last Judgment.' 
 
 Michael Angelo of Music {The). 
 Gluck (1714-1787) is so called by Dr. 
 Burney, and also father of modern opera. 
 
 Michael Angelo of Opera {The). 
 
 Richard Wagner (1805-1864). 
 
 Michael Angelo of Sculptors 
 
 {The). I. Pierre Puget (1623-1694). 
 IL Rene' Michel Slodtz (1705-1764). 
 
 Michael Angelo of the Lyre 
 
 {The). Palestrlna (1529-1594). 
 
 Michael Angelo of the Refor- 
 mation {The). Martin Luther (1483- 
 1546). 
 
 Michael College (St.), or 'St. 
 
 Michael House,' 1324. The second foun- 
 dation in the University of Cambridge, 
 founded by Harvey de Stanton chancellor 
 of the exchequer to Edward II. This 
 college in 1546 was with other foundations 
 consolidated in Trinity College. 
 
 Michelade [Mi' -kel-aid], 1567. The 
 massacre of 48 French Catholics at 
 Nismes by Huguenots on St. Michael's 
 Day. The day before they had murdered 
 72 of their prisoners (Felice). 
 
MICHIGAN 
 
 MILAN 
 
 585 
 
 Michigan [Mish'-e-ga7i]. In the 
 United States of America, so called, in 
 1805, from the lake of the same name 
 (Indian). The inhabitants are usually 
 nicknamed Wolverines. 
 
 Miehing Mallecho, Esq. The 
 
 pen-name of Shelley in ' Peter Bell the 
 Third.' 
 
 Microcosm. An epitome of all 
 things in one. Paracelsus taught that the 
 human body was such an epitome, con- 
 taining in itself a part of all visible 
 nature, including the sun, moon, stars, 
 and even the poles of heaven. 
 
 Mid Lent. The Fourth Sunday in 
 Lent, called Lcetare Sunday, ' Eefresh- 
 ment Sunday,' ' Mothering Sunday,' and 
 Dominica de Bosa. See each of the 
 phrases and ' Boeuf-gras.' 
 
 Middle Ages (The). About 1000 
 years. Hallam in his ' Middle Ages ' be- 
 gins this period with the conquest of Gaul 
 by the Franks, about a.d. 500, and ter- 
 minates it with the invasion of Italy by 
 Charles VIII. about 1500. Perhaps the 
 most convenient landmarks would be 
 from the fall of the Roman Empire to 
 the Reformation, which would practically 
 be the same thing ; for Augustulus Ro- 
 ■ mulus, the last of the Roman emperors, 
 was deposed a.d. 475, and the Reforma- 
 tion was between 1516 and 1540. See 
 ' Mediaeval History,' 
 
 Middle Passage (The). The sea 
 passage of kidnapped African slaves. The 
 first i^assage is from their African homes 
 to the ship, and their third passage is 
 from the slave market to the cotton or 
 sugar plantations. 
 
 Middle Persian Empire {The 
 First), 226-642. Founded by Artaxares, 
 or rather Ardisheer Babigan Sassane, a 
 conmion soldier of Persia who killed 
 Artaban king of Parthia, a.d. 226, and 
 founded the dynasty of the Sassanides 
 (3 syl.), which lasted for 416 years. 
 
 Midnight Mass {The). Missa de 
 nocte. On Christmas Day there are three 
 masses : the midnight mass, the mass at 
 daybreak, or in aurora, and high mass. 
 There is also the vigil of Christmas Day. 
 See ' Mass.' 
 
 On Christmas Eve the mass was sung. 
 
 Sir W. Scott. 
 When the clock strikes midnight all the bells 
 ring merrily, mass commencea at the principal 
 
 churches, and at San Lulgi del Francesci and the 
 Gesu there is a great illumination . . . and very 
 good music— W. W. Story, Roba di lioma, vol. i. 
 p. 63. 
 
 . . . Get shut up, as I have been, after midnight 
 mass on a Christmas night.— R. H. BuSK, Notes and 
 Queries, 6 July, ias9, p. 10. 
 
 Midrash Rabboth. A compila- 
 tion of legends, allegories, and tales, 
 commenced about a.d. 700, to explain or 
 elucidate the Hebrew Scriptures. 
 
 Mignon ( Un). A dandy or fop was 
 so called in Paris under Henri III. ; under 
 Louis XIV. he was called un libertin ; 
 under the Regent tin beau or tin talon 
 rouge ; under the Directory U7i incroy- 
 ahle ; later on un petit maitre, merveil- 
 leux, elegant, creve, . gonimeux (sing. 
 and pi.), becarre. 
 
 a libertin in Moliere's time meant a freethinker. 
 Mignon, pronounce Min'yo'iie. 
 
 Mignon {Le). Henri III. of France 
 (1551, 1574-1589), a man-milliner, 'weaker 
 than woman, and worse than harlot.' See 
 above. 
 
 Chicot the Jester had a seat at the council board 
 of the Mhiion king. — Hist, of France. 
 
 Migration of Nations {The). 
 The migration of the northern and eastern 
 hordes towards the civilised west and 
 south, which brought about the fall of the 
 Roman power. 
 
 Milan {Edict of). March a.d. 813. 
 Made by Constantine the Great in favour 
 of Christians. By this edict, the perse- 
 cutions of the Roman governors against 
 Christians ceased, and every Roman sub- 
 ject was free to choose his own religious 
 faith. N.B. What were called heretics 
 soon fell into the exception. 
 
 Much has been said about the Roman persecu- 
 tions, but Buckle tells us ' It is estimated 1,000,000 
 persons perished during the Ariau schism ; 
 1,000,000 in the Carthaginian struggles; 7,000,000 
 during the Saracen slaughters in Spain ; 5,000,000 
 during the Crusades ; 2,000 000 of Saxons and 
 Scandinavians ; 1,000,000 in the wars against the 
 Netherlands, Albigenses, Waldenses, and Hugue- 
 nots ; 100,000,000 during the Justinian wars ; about 
 25,000,000 Peruvians and Mexicans ; to say nothing 
 of the dragonades, minor conflicts, secret murders, 
 and so on ; 140 millions ! What were the twelve 
 persecutions compared with this ? 
 
 Milan {The League of), 1575. A 
 French Protestant league, the object of 
 which was to place the Due d'Alen^on on 
 the throne. This league was aided and 
 abetted by Queen Elizabeth, who was 
 attached to the duke personally. In 
 1577 King Henri III. put himself at the 
 head of a Catholic league, and another 
 religious war broke out. 
 
586 
 
 MILAN 
 
 MILLEEISM 
 
 Milan Decree {The\ 17 Dec, 1807. 
 The counterpart of the Berlin decree {q.v.). 
 extending the ' continental system ' to 
 all Italy, except the pope's dominions, 
 which followed soon afterwards. This 
 decree ordained that ' any vessel which 
 had been searched by an English ship, or 
 which had submitted to be sent on a 
 voyage to England, or had paid any duty 
 to the English Government, should be 
 declared denationalised, and be treated 
 as if English.' 
 
 Most certainly Napoleon was no politician. 
 
 Milanese Liturgy {The), or Am- 
 brosian Liturgy {q.v.). 
 
 Mile'sian Sect, B.C. 557. Originated 
 with Anaximander, who taught that man 
 was concocted of earth and water baked 
 in the sun's rays ; and that heaven is a 
 solid concave in which the stars are fixed 
 as nails to prevent its falling. However, 
 he taught that the earth is spherical. 
 See Gen. i. 24, and compare with i. 20. 
 
 Milesians {The). A Scotic [i.e. 
 Gothic] colony which came to Ire- 
 land with Milesius and his eight sons. 
 They landed in the south-west of the 
 island, and dispossessed the dynasties 
 of Tuatha-na-Danaan {q.v.). Five of the 
 sons perished, and ultimately the entire 
 island fell into the hands of Heremon or 
 Erimhon, who furnished twenty succes- 
 sors, all of whom resided at Tara in 
 Meath. About B.C. 900 Ollav Folia 
 [Ollamh Fodhla], of the family of Ir, a 
 collateral branch, became king. The 
 Milesian race is the glory of Ireland, 
 Every Irishman loves to trace his line to 
 the Milesians, and the chroniclers strive 
 to outvie each other in heaping glory, 
 honour, and antiquity on the race. The 
 Milesian kings are called the Scotic — a 
 list of 136 is given before the advent of 
 St. Patrick - and the race lasted 2,000 
 years, according to tradition ; probably 
 half that time would be more historically 
 correct. 
 
 Anastasius, the Sinaite, says: 'Those called by 
 the ancients Scythians or Scoti are Goths and 
 Danes. Many Irish chroniclers tell us that the 
 Milesians came from Spain. The Celto-ScythsB 
 formed a part of the people of Spain.' 
 
 Military Colours. Each British 
 regiment has a pair of colours, the Boyal 
 and the Begimental. The latter contains 
 the names of the most important engage- 
 ments in which the regiment has taken 
 part. 
 
 Military Knights {The). The 
 title given by William IV. to the ' Poor 
 Knights ' {q.v.). He also allowed naval 
 officers to share in the benefits of the 
 brotherhood. 
 
 Military Orders. See under 
 ' Monks and Monastic Houses,' 
 
 Milk-woman of Bristol {The). 
 Ann Yearsley, a poetess, died 8 May, 1806. 
 Hannah More took an interest in her, and 
 raised 600Z, on her behalf ; but Ann 
 Yearsley proved very ungrateful to her 
 benefactress, 
 
 Mill-boyof the Slashes. Henry 
 Clay (1777-1852). So called from ' The 
 Slashes,' a swampy country in the 
 neighbourhood of a place in Hanover 
 County, Virginia, where he was born, and 
 where he worked as a mill-boy. 
 
 M illena'rians, 2nd cent. Believers 
 in the millennium. God worked six days 
 and rested on the seventh. Psalm xc, 4 
 says, a thousand years are in God's sight as 
 one day, and therefore the working world 
 will last 6,000 years, and then will follow 
 the millennial rest for 1,000 years, which 
 will be ushered in by a general resurrec- 
 tion. Fifth-monarchy men, 
 
 Papias, IrenoBus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, 
 Lactantius, Nepos, and others were believers in 
 the millennium. 
 
 Millenary Petition {The), 1603. 
 Presented to James I. of England on his 
 accession by 800 clergymen, praying for 
 a reform in the church courts, the provi- 
 sion and training of godly ministers, and 
 the suppression of ' popish usages ' in 
 the Book of Common Prayer. James 
 paid no heed to the petition, but con- 
 vened the Hampton Court Conference 
 {q.v.). 
 
 The petition was presented by a full tenth of all 
 the clergy of the realm, and was called Millenary 
 because, roughly speaking, it was signed by a 
 thousand clergymen. The chief objections were 
 the use of the cross in baptism, the interrogatories 
 to infants answered by sponsors, contirmation, 
 and a few minor particulars. 
 
 Miller {A Joe). A pun, so called from 
 Joseph MiUer (1684-1738), an actor, noted 
 for his suppers in which wit and pun 
 sparkled. John Mottley compiled a col- 
 lection of jests which he attributed to 
 Joe Miller, and since then any jest is 
 called a Joe Miller, especially those 
 anonymous and somewhat stale. 
 
 Millerism, or ' Second Adventism,' 
 derives its name from William Miller, 
 
MILLIONI 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 587 
 
 'the American Prophet ' (1781-1819), who 
 fixed by minute calculation the end of 
 the world 10 Oct., 1843 or 1844, Before 
 his death he 'demonstrated from pro- 
 phecy ' that, as 1844 had failed, the years 
 1857, 18G7, 1873, and 1889 were indubit- 
 ably fatal years between 15 and 25 Oct. 
 
 In 1857 was the financial panic of America, and 
 in 1873 the great financial crash. Between 1857 and 
 lSf>7 occurred the 'great rebellion.' These, how- 
 ever, were not the end of the world, nor did tliey 
 bring on the millennial advent, and yet Miller had 
 a following of at least 10,000 in the Western States, 
 Kew England, Middle States, and Canada. 
 
 Millioni, the millionnaire. Marco 
 Polo was called by the Venetians ' Messer 
 Marco Millioni ' (1256-1323), and his 
 house is still called ' La Corte del Mil- 
 lioni.' It is on the canal of St. Giovanni 
 Crisostomo. 
 
 Milioni, with one ' 1,' is now the more common 
 spelling. 
 
 Milton of Germany {The). Fried- 
 rich Gottlieb Klopstock, author of ' The 
 Messiah' (1724-1803). 
 
 A very German Milton indeed.— Coleridge. 
 
 Milton of Painting (T7ie). Fuseli 
 (1706-1781) not only because, like Milton, 
 he united terrihiles visu formcB with the 
 molle atque facetum, but also painted 
 and exhibited a ' Gallery of Milton.' 
 
 Mind Ether, or ' Mind Atmosphere,' 
 An ether which produces by its undula- 
 tions on the nervous tissue the sensation 
 of light and thought. A concentration 
 of this nervous tissue forms ganglia, and 
 the union of ganglia forms brain. This 
 hypothesis is made to explain ' Thought 
 Heading ' : thus : Nervous surface, it is 
 said, transmits sensation faster than the 
 undulations of mind ether, and there- 
 fore the thought of the tliinker is com- 
 municated to the reader, who is further 
 off from the brain, simultaneously with 
 the impression made on the brain, which 
 is much nearer. 
 
 Mind of the School [The). Aris- 
 totle was so called by Plato (b.c. 384-322), 
 
 Ming Dynasty [The). The twenty- 
 first Imperial dynasty of China, preceded 
 by the Yuen or Y'en and followed by the 
 Manchoo dynasty. It gave seventeen 
 emperors, and lasted 276 years (1368- 
 •1644). The seat of government was Nan- 
 kin, This dynasty is celebrated for its 
 princes, especially Hong-voo and Tchin- 
 Tsu-wen-tee, 
 
 Minims {The), 1431, Founded by 
 
 St. Francis de Paula. Often called 
 
 ' Hermits of St. Francis ' [i.e. of PaulaJ. 
 
 These are not the Blinorites (3 syl.) or Frtrea 
 
 Mineurs of St. Francis [of Assisi] founded in 1221. 
 
 Ministerial Whitebait Dinner 
 
 {The). A dinner given to the cabinet 
 ministers at Greenwich soon after Trinity 
 Monday, that is, a short time before the 
 close of the session. These dinners began 
 with Sir Robert Preston, M.P. for Dover, 
 who invited his friend Old George Rose, 
 secretary of the Treasury, to dine with 
 him at Dagenham Lake, where he had a 
 'fishing cottage.' After a year or two 
 Pitt was asked to join, and subsequently 
 Greenwich was selected as a more con- 
 venient place of tryst. Lord Camden 
 was next asked to join the trio, and then 
 Mr. Long [Lord Farnborough]. The 
 private dinner next became a ministerial 
 dinner, in which each of the guests paid 
 his quota, and the invitations were sent 
 out by the private secretary of Lord 
 Farnborough, 
 
 Ministers' Bill (T/ie), 1660. Passed 
 by the convention parliament {q.v.). By 
 this bill all ministers installed within a 
 stated time were to be expelled from the 
 pulpits of the Anglican Church. This 
 bill did not give satisfaction, because it 
 did not go back far enough, and many 
 pulpits remained in the occupation of 
 Presbyterians, 
 
 Ministers' Money. A tax imposed 
 on the householders of Dublin, Cork, 
 &c. for the support of the Estabhshed 
 Church, Abolished in 1857, 
 
 Minnesingers {The). Minne 
 means love ; the Minnesingers were love- 
 poets, contemporary in Germany with 
 the House of Hohenstauffen {q.v.), be- 
 cause these kings spoke Suabian, the 
 richest, smoothest, and most musical of 
 the German dialects. Though called 
 love- singers, some of their poems were 
 national ballads, and some were extended 
 romances. Walter of Vogelweide was 
 by far the best of the lyrists ; Heinrich 
 of Veldig was the most naive and in- 
 genious ; Hartmann the most classical ; 
 Wolfram the most sublime; and Gott- 
 fried the most licentious. See ' Wartburg 
 Contests.' 
 
 Minnesota (U.S. America). An 
 Indian word meaning ' Sky-tinted Water.' 
 
588 
 
 MINNING 
 
 MISE 
 
 The state receives its name from the 
 river. The nickname of the inhabitants 
 is Gophers. 
 
 Minning Day, i.e. 'Reminding day.' 
 The anniversary of a person's death, when 
 a mass is offered up for the repose of the 
 
 BOUl. 
 
 Mi'nors, Min'orites (3 syl.), or 
 'Grey Friars,' 1209. Founded by St. 
 Francis d'Assisi ; confirmed 1210 ; and 
 settled in England 1224. 
 
 Minute Men, 1775. The miHtia of 
 12,000 men enrolled by the American 
 congress adjourned from Concord to Cam- 
 bridge. So called because they were to 
 turn out at a minute's notice with musket 
 and rifle. Soon augmented to 20,000, 
 
 Miquelets, 1675. Spanish guerillas 
 in the Pyrenees, on the frontiers of Cata- 
 lonia and Aragon, who armed themselves 
 to push back the French invaders led by 
 Schomberg. So called from their leader 
 Miquelet de Prats. To combat them 
 Louis XIV. created 100 companies of 
 fusiliers de 7nontagnes, also called 
 Miquelets. 
 
 The mountain guides in the Pyrenees 
 are called Miquelets. In 1808 Napoleon 
 I. organised them to put down the 
 Spanish guerillas. 
 
 The country swarmed with Miquelets, a sort of 
 lawless Catalans, who declared for the Austrians. 
 — HowiTT, Hist. o/Eiig. (Anne, p. 212). 
 
 Mirabeau of the Gironde {The). 
 Vergniaud, the most eloquent man of the 
 Second Assembly. 
 
 Mirabeau of the Sans Culottes 
 
 {The). George J. Danton 1759-1794. 
 Also called the ' Mirabeau of the Mar- 
 kets,' and the ' Mirabeau of the Mob.' 
 He was Mirabeau cast in a more vulgar 
 mould. 
 
 Pronounce Me'-rah-bo ; Sahii [nasal] ku-lot.' 
 
 Miracle of the A^e {The). So 
 Eoger Bacon is called by Dr. Freind, in his 
 ' History of Physic' 
 
 Miracles at St. M^dard, 1690- 
 1727. Referred to by Paley in his 
 'Evidences' as sufficiently grave to be 
 worthy of his consideration. The Abbe 
 de Paris, a very charitable man, was 
 bu'ried in the cemetery of St. Me'dard, 
 and miracles were said to be performed 
 at his tomb. The crowd so increased 
 tltat government found it necessary to 
 
 forbid anyone visiting the tomb. The 
 abbe was a Jansenist, and all Jan- 
 senists insisted that the cures were 
 miraculous; but their opponents attri- 
 buted the cures to excitement operating 
 on the nervous system. Convulsions 
 were the general malady. 
 
 A wag wrote over the gates a doggerel to this 
 effect : 
 
 The king henceforth forbids God's grace 
 To show his wonders in this place. 
 
 Miraculous Campaign {The), 
 1670. That of John Sobieski the Polisa 
 general, who triumphed over the allied 
 Cossacks and Tartars, instigated to war 
 by Louis XIV. of France. 
 
 Mirror of all Martial lion 
 
 {The). Thomas earl of Salisbury (died 
 1428). 
 
 Mirror of Courtesy {The). Sir 
 Philip Sidney, author of the ' Arcadia ' 
 
 (1554-1586). 
 
 Mirror of Justice {The). Queen 
 Victoria. In 1882 prayers were offered 
 in the mosques of Cairo and the pro- 
 vinces for Queen Victoria under that 
 appellation. 
 
 Mirror of Salvation {The). A 
 
 sacred picture book with Bible stories 
 and sacred legends in rhymes, with illus- 
 trative pictures. This book and the 
 ' Biblia Pauperum ' {q.v.) were immensely 
 popular before the Reformation. 
 
 Mise of Amiens {The), 23 Jan., 
 1264. Louis IX. undertook to mediate 
 between Henry III. of England and his 
 barons, and gave his verdict wholly in 
 favour of the king, cancelling the ' Pro- 
 visions of Oxford ' {q.v.) passed by the 
 Mad Parliament. Tlie verdict adjudged 
 that the great officers of state should be 
 appointed by the crown ; and that aliens 
 should be allowed to hold castles in Eng- 
 land, and state offices if the king pleased, 
 &c. The decision of King Louis was in- 
 dignantly rejected by the Londoners, and 
 led to the battle of Lewes, in which Simon 
 de Montfort and the Londoners proved 
 the victors. 
 
 Mise, pronounce Tneez. 
 
 Mise of Lewes {The), 14 May, 
 1264. A truce after the battle of Lewes. 
 By this mise {_meez] it was provided that 
 the king was to be supreme, but was to ' 
 be assisted by a council nominated by the 
 Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Gloucester, 
 and the Bishop of Chichester. It was 
 
MISHNA 
 
 MISSA 
 
 589 
 
 at this crisis that Simon de Montfort 
 summoned for the first time two citizens 
 from every borough to take their seats 
 with the laiights of the shires m the par- 
 liamentary assembly. 
 
 Mishna (The). A collection of the 
 civil laws and traditions of the Hebrews. 
 The Jews say that Moses on Mount Sinai 
 received, besides the decalogue, many 
 other laws which he taught the 70 elders. 
 Judas, a learned rabbi, collected these 
 floating traditions, and codified them. 
 The Mishna was written in the 2nd cent. 
 A.D. at Tiberias, and forms the first part 
 of the Talmud (q.v.) 
 
 The rabbi Judas was called 'the saint.' 
 
 Missa Adventi'tia. A votive 
 mass. 
 
 Missa Ambrosia'na. Instituted 
 by St. Ambrose (374-397), and used in 
 Milan Cathedral. 
 
 Missa Anima'rum. High mass 
 for the dead. 
 
 Missa Annua'lis. Daily mass. 
 
 Missa Audi'ta. Mentioned by 
 Robert of Gloucester. 
 
 Hora sexta pro grammatistis parva lectio fiat, 
 ■ut aptius congregentur in sacello. et hora septinia 
 prsecise celebretur Missa, ut loquuntur, ' Audita.' 
 
 Missa Au'rea. An unusually grand 
 mass celebrated in mediaeval times once 
 a year in honour of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 Missa Cardina'lis. Mass cele- 
 brated by a cardinal. 
 
 Missa Cat'ecliumeno'ruin. The 
 mass up to the introTtus, when all cate- 
 chumens are dismissed by the deacon 
 with these words, ' Si quis non communi- 
 cat, det locum.' 
 
 Missa Copeta'ta. A mass accom- 
 panied by the striking of a bell on one 
 side with several distinct strokes. ' Cam- 
 panae alteram latus divisis et distinctis 
 ictibus pulsare.' 
 
 Missa Die'i. The mass celebrated 
 after the usual early mass, ' orto jam die.' 
 
 Missa Familia'ris. A private 
 
 mass. 
 
 Missa de Jeju'niis. The mass 
 which is celebrated on fast days. 
 
 Missa Judicii. A mass which is 
 an appeal to God of a man's innocence of 
 
 some charge brought against him. This 
 is of the nature of an ordeal. 
 
 Missa Lu'rainum, or ' Chande- 
 leur.' In German ' Lichtmesse ' for the 
 Feast of Purification (Candlemas), 2 Feb., 
 in commemoration of the ' churching ' of 
 the Virgin Mary after the birth of Jesus. 
 Said to have been instituted by Justinian 
 in 542. 
 
 Missa Lunat'ica. Mass celebrated 
 on the day of the new moon. 
 
 Missa Matutina'lis, or 'Missa 
 Minor,' 'quae post exactas matutinas 
 dicitur.' 
 
 Missa Wava'lis, or ' Missa Nau- 
 tica.' Mass celebrated aboard ship. It 
 is a missa sicca [q-v.), because the roll- 
 ing of the ship might cause the wine to 
 be spilt. 
 
 Missa Nova. A celebrant's maiden 
 mass. 
 
 Missa !N"uptia'lis. A mass cele- 
 brated at a wedding. 
 
 Missa Pascha'lis. Tlie seven 
 m.asses during the Easter festival. 
 
 Missa Peregrino'rum. A mass 
 for all except the ordained clergy. After 
 the chapter the jDoor are summoned by a 
 bell to the ' Missa Matutinalis,' and the 
 celebrant for the week sings the Greater 
 Mass. The alms being then distributed, 
 he proceeds with the 'Missa Peregrino- 
 rum,' which is said, not sung. 
 
 Peregrin! dicuntiir omnes qui non sunt de epl- 
 Bcopatu ordinatis, sive sint clerici, sive laici. 
 
 Du Cange, vol. V. p. 246, col. 1. 
 
 Missa Perfecta. A mass where 
 both bread and wine are administered to 
 the communicants. 
 
 Missa Prassan'ctificato'runi. 
 
 A mass without consecration, as on Good 
 Friday, when there is no consecration of 
 the elements. They are consecrated the 
 previous day. The Greek Church cele- 
 brates such masses in Lent, except on 
 Saturdays and Sundays. See ' Mass of 
 the Presanctified.' 
 
 Missa Sicca. A mass without the 
 elements. This may occur when a priest 
 has already administered a previous sa- 
 crament. ' Sacerdos non potest conficere 
 quia forte jam celebravit, vel ob aliam 
 causam potest accepta stola Epistolam 
 et Evangelium legere, et docere Oratio- 
 
590 
 
 MISSA 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 nem dominicam, et dare benedictionem,' 
 &c. DuRANDUS, ' Rationale divinorum 
 officiorum libris viii. distinctum ' (Book 
 iv. chap. 1, n 23). 
 
 Sacerdote agente quae sunt celebrantis, cum In- 
 troitu, CoUecta, Epistola, Evangelio, et Canticis ; 
 qui tamen, quia non vult communicare, non con- 
 Becrat ita ut Missa sit sine corpore et Sanguine 
 Domini.— EcKius. 
 
 Missa Venat'ica. A short mass 
 celebrated very early in the morning for 
 persons about to follow the chase. 
 
 Missa Voti'va. A mass * quae ex 
 
 proprio voto, seu motu, peragitur et dici- 
 
 tur, ad differentiam Missas quae a Kalen- 
 
 dario praecipitur (Monachus Milstatensis, 
 
 in Miraculis B. Domitiani,' n 20). 
 
 Missa de A^uinaldo. Aguinaldo 
 is Spanish for ' New Year's gift.' Latin, 
 strena. French, etrennes (2 syl.) This 
 mass is offered before daybreak. 
 
 Missse vero quas Hispanice ' de Aguinaldo ' 
 vocant, antequam dies illuxerit, ne celebrentur. 
 
 —Concilium Mexicanum, 1585. 
 
 Missa de Excepta'to. In the Am- 
 
 brosian Missal, is a mass celebrated the 
 day preceding Christmas Day. ' Prsepa- 
 ratio ad vesperam Natalis Domini.' 
 
 Missse BifaciatsB, TrifaciatsB, 
 
 &C. When the celebrant joins together 
 two or more masses having different 
 objects. 
 
 MisS83 Feria'les. Seven masses 
 celebrated at the Festival of the Holy 
 Trinity. First day in honour of the 
 Trinity; second day in honour of the 
 Logos ; third day in honour of the Holy 
 Ghost ; fourth day in honour of Charity ; 
 fifth day in honour of the Holy Angels ; 
 sixth day in honour of the Cross ; and 
 seventh day in honour of the Virgin 
 Mary. 
 
 Missal {The), 5th cent. A book 
 which serves for the celebration of the 
 Roman Catholic mass. It contains the 
 text of all the different masses used 
 during the year. Pope Gelasius, who 
 died A.D. 496, composed the first missal ; 
 it was in 2 vols., which Gregory the 
 Great reduced to one (died G04). Each 
 diocese and each religious order has its 
 own missal. There are also the Greek, 
 Spanish, Coptic, Ambrosian, and other 
 Missals. 
 
 The daily service book is called the ' Breviary ' 
 (q.c). 
 
 Missi Domin'ici. Eight commis- 
 sioners sent into the provinces to inspect 
 the conduct of dukes and counts. They 
 were first organised by Charlemagne, 
 who divided the empire into ten Mlssa- 
 tica. Charles le Chauve increased the 
 Missatica to twelve. Each was visited 
 in January, April, July, and October by 
 two Missi (a count and an abbot). The 
 custom was discontinued at the close of 
 the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 
 Missing Link (The). The link 
 between man and the ape. According to 
 the theory of evolution, the lower animals 
 develop into the higher animals, so that the 
 larvaa of Ascidians (a marine moUuscoid) 
 developed gradually into apes, and pro- 
 bably apes are only one link from man ; 
 but hitherto no trace of that link has 
 been discovered, unless, indeed, it be in 
 the Neanderthal skull found in the Rhine 
 province of Prussia, which seems to be 
 between the skull of an ape and the skull 
 of a human being. See ' Alali.' 
 
 Evolution goes much further back than this. 
 The condensation of nebulous vapour may be 
 called the first step. 
 
 Mission {Pretres de la), 1632. 
 Established by St. Vincent de Paul. 
 Also called ' Lazarists.' 
 
 Mississippi (U.S. America). So 
 called (1800) from the river. It is an 
 Indian word meaning the ' long and great 
 waters.' The inhabitants are nicknamed 
 Tadpoles. 
 
 Mississippi Scheme [The), 1716- 
 1720. A financial scheme proposed by 
 John Law to the French government, 
 whereby he himself was to be the sole 
 creditor of the nation, and was to be 
 allowed to issue paper-money to ten 
 times the value of the national debt — 
 that is, he relieved the nation of 208 
 millions sterling on the right of issuing 
 paper-money to the value of 2,080 
 million pounds. The regent was so 
 charmed with the scheme that he gave 
 Law permission to open at once The 
 Boyal Bank of France, and to issue his 
 notes. The bank received deposits, dis- 
 counted bills, gave promissory notes, all 
 in paper. It was a prodigious success, 
 and the regent gave ' the Royal Bank ' 
 the exclusive right of coining money, 
 transferred to it the old East India 
 Company, and granted it the exclusive 
 trade of Louisiana on the banks of the 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 MOHAMMEDAN 
 
 591 
 
 Mississippi. A 500Z. share was now 
 worth 18,000Z., and John Law was made 
 Comptroller-General of France. In 1720 
 the scheme exploded, and 20s. would 
 have purchased 160,000 pounds' worth 
 of Law's notes. The nation was well 
 nigh ruined. See ' South Sea Scheme.' 
 
 Missouri (U.S. America). So called 
 (1821) from the river of the same name 
 (Indian) . The inhabitants are nicknamed 
 Pukes, or more commonly Pikes. 
 
 Mr. Speaker. The office of Speaker 
 dates back to the reign of Edward III. 
 Sir Walter Hungerford, however, was 
 the first to receive the title of ' Mr. 
 Speaker,' 1414. The Speaker is addressed 
 by members as ' Sir ' or ' Mr. Speaker.' 
 
 Mithridat'ic "Wars (The). Be- 
 tween the Romans and Mithridates king 
 of Pontus. 
 
 1 (B.C. 89-85). Fimbria defeated Mi- 
 thridates at Pergamos. 
 
 2 (B.C. 83-81). Sulla took from Mithri- 
 dates all the Ionian cities in Asia Minor. 
 
 3 (B.C. 74-68). Pompey defeated Mi- 
 thridates VI., and the king of Pontus 
 killed himself. 
 
 A ' mithridate,' or antidote to all poisons, is 
 named from Mithridates the Great, who knew the 
 secret of such an antidote. 
 
 Mitred Abbots. Lord abbots who 
 sat and voted in the House of Lords. 
 So called because they wore mitres. 
 
 Moal'lakats {The Seven). The 
 seven most ancient sacred poems of the 
 Arabians, a copy of which (according to 
 Caussin de Perceval's ' History of the 
 Arabs ') is always suspended in the Kaaba 
 of Mecca. 
 
 The authors are: Imroulcays. Tarafa, Labid, 
 Zohair-AbuSelma. Antara, Amribn-Kolthoum, 
 and Harith. Armand Caussin has translated his 
 father's book into French. 
 
 Mob Monday, 8 Feb., 1886. So 
 called from the riots of the unemploj'ed 
 which took place in Trafalgar Square, 
 London. 
 
 Model Prison (The). Pentonville, 
 Caledonian Road, London. 
 
 Moderates (Th^). The Russell, 
 Sydney, and Hampden factions, in the 
 great republican plot headed by Lord 
 Shaftesbury, in the latter part of the 
 reign of Charles II. The more violent, 
 such as Lord Howard, Rumbold, and 
 Colonel Rumsey, were more ' thorough,' 
 
 and would have assassinated both 
 Charles and his brother James in order 
 to establish a Commonwealth. 
 
 Moderates and Highfliers. 
 
 1835, in the Scotch Presbyterian Church. 
 The Moderates were also called ' Intru- 
 sionists.' That is, they did not consider 
 the Veto Law {q.v.) an arrogant intru- 
 sion of the patron's right of presentation, 
 but only a moderate check on that right. 
 A presentee could not be rejected from 
 causeless])rejudice,hnt only for adequate 
 reasons. See ' Intrusionists.' 
 
 The leaders of the Moderates were Dr. Bryce, 
 Dr. Cooke, and Dr. Kobertson. 
 
 Modern Charlemagne {The). 
 Napoleon I. (1769-1821). 
 
 Modern History begins with the 
 16th cent. About which time occurred 
 the invention of printing, the discovery 
 of America, and the Lutiieran Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Printing made generally known 1460 
 
 Columbus set sail for America 14J3 
 
 Kelormation begun in Germany by Luther... 1517 
 
 Modern History {Professorship 
 of). In the University of Cambridge, 
 1724, instituted by George I. Present 
 stipend 'dill, a year. See ' Prince Con- 
 sort Prize.' 
 
 Modern Wimrod {The). Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte (1769-1821). 
 
 Modern Scepticism {Father of). 
 Bayle (1647-1706). Famous for his ' His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary.' 
 
 Modhafferians {The). A petty 
 dynasty of Turkomans, which reigned 
 over Farsistan (1335-1394), when it was 
 overthrown by Tamerlane. It gave four 
 princes, the founder being Modhafier. 
 They were contemporary with the II- 
 khanians, and were always at war with 
 other princes in Persia. 
 
 Modus {The), i.e. ' Modus deci- 
 mandi.' A composition for tithes. It 
 may either be perpetual or for the lives 
 of the contracting parties. 
 
 Mogh's Half of Ireland. The 
 
 southern half; the other moiety was 
 called Conn's half, from the sons of a 
 king who divided the island into two 
 parts. This was about half a century 
 after the death of Tuathal. 
 
 Mohammedan {A). This word is 
 an insulting misnomer. Tiie system of 
 
592 
 
 MOHOCKS 
 
 MONAD 
 
 the prophet is Islam (submission to and 
 faith in God), and a single adherent of 
 that faith is a Moslem, a word from the 
 same root as Islam. As well call a Jew 
 a Mosaist as call a Moslem a Moham- 
 medan. 
 
 God is most great, and there is nothing else 
 great, is the Moslem's creed. Man must submit to 
 God, and find in him his only true and greatest 
 happiness in the Moslem's life. Almsgiving, fast- 
 ing, prayer, and pilgrimage are his four chief 
 duties. 
 
 Mohocks, or Mohawks, 1711- 
 
 1714. A set of disorderly people who 
 infested the streets of London at night 
 and toi k pleasure in wounding and dis- 
 figuring those whom they met. In 1711 
 the government offered lOOZ. reward for 
 the apprehension of any one of the gang. 
 The Coxe MSS. (in the British Museum) 
 inform us that Marlborough was advised 
 to suborn these ruffians in 1712, ' to scour 
 the streets by night and strike terror 
 into the population.' This seems to be 
 a blunder, as the scourers who scoured 
 the streets of the Mohocks were another 
 set of street brawlers. 
 
 These Mohawks were bands of young men, 
 many of them of good families, who issued into 
 the streets at night and committed all sorts of 
 riots and brutalities, even on women and children 
 . . . whom they met with in the badly lighted 
 streets.— HowiTT, Histori/ of Eve/land (Anne, 292). 
 
 In 1712 Sir Mark Cole and three other gentlemen 
 •were tried at Old Bailey for attacking the 
 watch in Devereux Street. They slit two per- 
 sons' noses, cut a woman in the arm with a knife 
 so as to disable her for life, and rolled another in 
 a tub down Snow Hill. Gay, in his ' Trivia," 
 mentions these atrocities committed by the 
 Mohocks. Mohocks or Mohawks were one of the 
 five confederated nations of the Iroquois. 
 
 Moidart. See ' Seven Men of,' &c. 
 
 Moiley, i.e. Assassination, 1798. A 
 word adopted by the ' United Irishmen.' 
 A person obnoxious to the secret society 
 was 'consigned to the Moiley' — that is, 
 was doomed to assassination. When a 
 murder became known, it was said that 
 ' Moiley had had him,' or ' Moiley had 
 eaten him.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Captain Moonlight and Kory of the Hill were 
 the phrases used in the last quarter of the 19th 
 cent. 
 
 Mo'linism. The doctrine of Louis 
 Molina the Spanish Jesuit. See ' Moli- 
 
 nists.' 
 
 Mo'linists. Disciples of Louis 
 Molina (1535-1600), a Spanish Jesuit, 
 who attempted to reconcile Free Grace 
 with Free Will. He taught that God's 
 reprobation and election were conse- 
 quent on God's foreknowledge ; that 
 
 God -gives to all sufficient grace for their 
 salvation if they would but accept it ; 
 but to the elect He does more — with this 
 general grace He gives also co-operative 
 grace. It is a shade of Pelagianism, from 
 which, however, it differs in this : Molina 
 distinctly presupposes the inability of 
 man to turn to God without a super- 
 natural act of grace. 
 
 Molinists, or the disciples of Molina, must not 
 be confounded with Mollnosites (QuietisU), the 
 disciples of Mollnos. See below. 
 
 Moli'nosites (4 syl.). Disciples 
 of Michael Mollnos (1627-1696) of Spain, 
 author of ' Perfect Contemplation ' or 
 Quietism, for which he was imprisoned by 
 the Inquisition in 1685. See ' Quietism.' 
 
 Molly MagfU-ires. Irish Eibbon- 
 men, named Maguire from Cornelius 
 Maguire, baron of Inniskillen, who in 1641 
 took part with Sir Phelim O'Neil in the 
 project of the Irish rebellion. Called 
 Molly because the banded marauders 
 conducted their forays in the guise of 
 women's dresses. The association was 
 planted also in Pennsylvania, where a 
 charter was granted them under the 
 name of ' The Ancient Order of Hiber- 
 nians.' The Molly Maguires made them- 
 selves conspicuous in the sanguinary 
 Tithe War {q.v.), 1830-1835. They also 
 perpetrated many dreadful crimes in the 
 U.S., where numbers of them were exe- 
 cuted. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Molly Maguires were generally stout active 
 young men, dressed up in women's clothes, with 
 faces blackened or otherwise disguised ... In 
 this state they used suddenly to surprise the un- 
 fortunate grippers, keepers, and process-servers, 
 and either duck them in bog-holes, or beat them 
 in the most merciless manner, so that Molly 
 Maguires became the terror of our officials. — 
 Tbench, Realities of Irish Life, p. 82. 
 
 Momonians. Natives of Munster, 
 in Ireland. The Irish for Munster is 
 Murnha (pronounce Mooa). Cf. Estho- 
 nian, Muhuma, ' rich land ' ; muhu- 
 nestd, ' [men] from the rich land.' (De 
 Kay.) 
 
 His claims were admitted after a desperate 
 battle was fought, in which 7,000 Momonians fell, 
 1151.— O Conor, History of the Irish People, p. 47. 
 
 Monad. According to Pythagoras, is 
 the impartible, a mathematical point 
 without parts. Length is a duad, breadth 
 a triad, depth a tetrad. Physically, he 
 says, intellectual capacity which is im- 
 partible is a monad; scientific knowledge 
 is a duad ; opinion is a triad ; and sense is 
 a tetrad, because it is apprehended by the 
 senses. 
 
MONADS 
 
 MONITOEIAIi 
 
 593 
 
 Monads [The Theory of). By Wil- 
 helm Leibnitz of Germany (1646-1716). 
 He says there are two kinds of proto- 
 plasms — spiritual monads and material 
 monads. The former make mind, and 
 the latter body. Spirit monads, he says, 
 possess innate consciousness, — material 
 monads possess innate sensibility. Spirit 
 monads are the protoplasms of the soul, 
 material monads are the protoplasms of 
 the body. 
 
 A moimdis the indivisible element of an element. 
 
 An atom is the indivisible element of a simple 
 substance. 
 
 A molecule is the indivisible element of a com- 
 pound substance. 
 
 A microbe is a minute livinq organism. 
 
 Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. 
 
 *,* An atom of gold is gold, but a monad is the 
 indivisible basis of the element of gold. Zeno, 
 Leucippos, Democritos, and Epicuros preceded 
 Leibnitz in this theory of created things. 
 
 Monarcllians, ' Monarchiani.' Those 
 who maintained the monarchy of God 
 {q.v.). Tertullian refers to them. 
 
 Monarchy of G-od(T7ie;). A phrase 
 used by anti-Trinitarians to express the 
 one and only supremacy of the one God, 
 the one Ruler of the universe. 
 
 It is difficult to find words to express this one- 
 ness, but it means that God has only one person- 
 ality, not three personalities, according to the 
 Athanasian Creed. 
 
 Monarchy of the Barricades 
 
 {The). Louis-Philippe of France, called 
 'Le Roi Citoyen' (1733, reigned 1830- 
 18-48, died 1850). Made king after the 
 Grande Semaine, when Charles X. was 
 driven from the throne of France. Louis- 
 Philippe was ' King of the French,' not 
 
 * King of France.' 
 
 Monastery of the Curses of 
 Ireland [TJce). The monastery of St. 
 Ruan was so called because in 554 the 
 abbots and monks cursed those who 
 dragged therefrom to Tara a fugitive 
 criminal who had fled to it for sanctuary. 
 The criminal was put to death, and the 
 abbot and monks went in procession to 
 Tara and cursed it. ' From that day no 
 king ever sat again in Tara.' 
 
 Monastic Orders. See under 
 
 * Monks and Monastic Houses.' 
 
 Monatti. A class of men, professed 
 attendants on the plague, ever ready for 
 the most dangerous and disgusting ser- 
 vices. It was their duty to convey those 
 sick of the plague to the hospitals, and 
 attend them there ; to watch over those 
 who remained at home while the plague 
 
 lasted, and to carry away the dead for in- 
 terment. 
 
 Mondays (Unluchj). There are 
 three unlucky Mondays in the year : (1) 
 the first Monday in April, on which day 
 Cain was born and Abel slain ; (2) the 
 first Monday in August, on which day 
 Sodom and Gomorrah were overthrown ; 
 and (3) the last Monday in December, the 
 day on which Judas was born. See 
 ' Egyptian Days.' 
 
 Money. 
 
 Roman 
 
 
 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Xeruneius 
 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 Sestertius or Nummus, 
 
 marked H 
 
 s.'. 
 
 
 a corruption of LL.S. 
 
 .e. 2.> lbs. 
 
 
 (sevUs) 
 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 7i 
 
 Silver denarivs 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Aureus 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 16 
 
 Great Roman talent 
 
 .*.*.* 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1125 
 
 Ordinary talent ... 
 
 v.*. 
 
 
 
 'M 
 
 Small talent 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 GO 
 
 Gkeek 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brass obolos 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 li 
 
 Silver draclnna ... 
 
 !!! 
 
 
 
 7? 
 
 Golden statej- 
 
 
 
 
 10 Ij 
 
 Mina 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Talent ^ 
 
 •M 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 Jewish 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gcrah (silver) 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 Shekel (sUver) 
 
 ... 
 
 •M 
 
 ^. 
 
 2 6 
 
 Mina 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 5 14 
 
 TaUnt of silver ... 
 
 
 
 
 842 
 
 Talent of gold 
 
 
 
 
 5475 
 
 Persian 
 
 
 
 
 
 Daric, worth 25s., was 
 
 used In Athens 
 
 and some- 
 
 times called a stater. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Money-bote. A commutation of 
 punishment by a money fine. All offences 
 except parricide, sacrilege, and the mur- 
 der of a master by his slave, could be so 
 commuted. 
 
 Mong-koo (The). So the Mogul 
 Tartars are called by the Chinese. ' Koo ' 
 means dominion, power, &c., and ' Mong- 
 koo ' means ' Tiie Mogul power or 
 dominion,' founded by Ginghis Khan in 
 1206. 
 
 Mongolian Bonaparte (The). 
 Tamerlane or Timur the Tartar (1336- 
 1405). 
 
 Mongrel Parliament (The), 1681. 
 Held at Oxford, consisting of Whigs and 
 Tories, by whom the Exclusion Bill was 
 passed, and all Catholics having an in- 
 come exceeding lOOZ. a year were 
 banished and their children taken from 
 them to be educated in the Protestant 
 faith. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Monitorial System {T7ie). Mu- 
 tual Listruction {q.v.), whereby the 
 cleverer pupils are made to teach the 
 less advanced, the pupil teachers being 
 called ' the Monitors.' There are many 
 QQ 
 
594 
 
 MONK 
 
 MONKS 
 
 objections against it : (1) a pupil so em- 
 ployed cannot himself make the same 
 progress as if his time were devoted 
 to iiis own advancement; (2) the under 
 pupils are not so well instructed as 
 they would be by an experienced master ; 
 (3) the respect of children to older chil- 
 dren is very different from that which they 
 feel to a full-grown person; (4) unless there 
 is some official to keep order, to watch 
 closely what is done, and to inspire both 
 teachers and learners with a right spirit, 
 but little progress can be expected. The 
 only one recommendation is economy. 
 
 Monk Lewis. Matthew Gregory 
 Lewis, born in London, died 1818, at the 
 age of 45. He received his sobriquet 
 from his novel of ' The Monk,' which at 
 the time of publication was immensely 
 popular. 
 
 Monk of Bury {The). John Lyd- 
 gate, poet (1375-14G0). 
 
 I am expertein poetry 
 
 As the monke of Bury.floure of eloquence. 
 Stephen Hawes, The Pussr-tijnu; of Pleasure (1515). 
 
 Monk of Eis'leben {The). Martin 
 Luther (1483-1546). He was born at 
 Eisleben in Saxony. 
 
 Monk of Westminster {The). 
 Richard of Cirencester, chronicler (14th 
 cent.). See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 It is generally supposed that this chronicle is a 
 forgery bv Dr. Charles Julius Bertram, professor of 
 English in Copenhagen. He brought it to light in 
 1747, but never produced any ' original.' 
 
 Monk of Wittenberg {The). 
 Martin Luther the reformer (1483-1546). 
 He was professor of philosophy at Wit- 
 tenberg in 1508, and preacher at the city 
 church of Wittenberg in 1516. It was at 
 Wittenberg that he burnt the Pope's 
 bull in 1520, and at Wittenberg he 
 preached against the Zwickau prophets 
 in 1522. A monument was erected to 
 him at Wittenberg in 1821. 
 
 Monks and Monastic Houses. 
 
 I. Originated (320-333) in the land of 
 Egypt by Pachomius. 
 
 Introduced into Palestine by Hilarion, 
 A.D. 828. 
 
 Home by Athanasius, 340. 
 
 Gaul by St. Martin of Tours, 370. 
 
 England in 592 by Gregory the 
 
 Great. 
 
 II. Suppressed 1524-1534 in the Pro- 
 testant states of Germany. 
 
 Dissolution 1536 of the lesser monas- 
 teries by Henry VIII. in England, and in 
 
 1539 of the rest. Altogether 190 were 
 suppi'essed in England. They contained 
 50,000 inmates, and their united incomes 
 amounted to 2,853,000Z. At the time the 
 wages of a master workman was id. a 
 day and of an ordinary artisan 3fZ. Beef 
 and mutton were hd. a pound. 
 
 Supi^ressed 1790 by the Constituent 
 Assembly in France. 
 
 (1765-1790) in Austria by Joseph 
 
 II. 
 
 1855 in Sardinia by Victor Em- 
 
 manuel. 
 Partly suppressed 1861 in Italy. 
 Suppressed 1868 in Spain. 
 
 MONASTIC ORDERS. 
 
 The chief orders are the Augustines, 
 the Basilians, the Benedictines, the Car- 
 melites, and the Franciscans, each of 
 which has its special rule or system of 
 observances. See ' Rule.' 
 
 I. Augustines, those who follow the 
 rule of St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430). 
 
 Augustinians, Barefooted Augustinians, founded 
 by Thomas of Jesus, Portugal, in 1574. 
 
 Brhjettines (3 syl.), or Nuns of St. Saviour, founded 
 by St. Brigett, in 1344. 
 
 Dominicans, or Preaching Friars, founded by 
 St. Dominic of Calahorra in 1215. 
 
 Jacobins, the French Dominicans. 
 
 Order of Mercy, oi 'of Redemption,' founded by 
 Pierre Nblasque, for the redemption of Christian 
 slaves, 1223. 
 
 Order of St. John of God, or ' Brothers of Charity,' 
 founded in 1495. 
 
 P), r,i>iistraiensian.?, or Norbertines (3 syl.), re- 
 formed canons regular of Augustine, founded by 
 St. Norbert, in 1120. 
 
 II. Basilians, those who follow the 
 rule of St. Basil. They belong to the 
 Greek Church and the Eastern rites. 
 
 The so called Basilians of the Latin church are 
 not of this rule. 
 
 Calniiers, a very strict branch of the order found 
 on Mount Athos, in the Morea, and in Patmos. 
 
 III. Benedictines, those who follow 
 the rule of St. Benedict of Nursia, 
 A.D. 529. 
 
 Bernardines, reformed Benedictines, founded by 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux in 1115. 
 
 Cnmaldidians, so called from the monastery of 
 Camaldoli, 80 miles from Florence. Founded by 
 St. Romuald in 1012. 
 
 Carthusians, founded by Bruno in 1084. 
 
 Celestines (3 syl.), founded by Pietro of Moron 
 [Pope Celestine IV.] in 1254. 
 
 Cistercians, founded by Robert abbot of Molesme 
 in 1098. 
 
 Cluniacs, founded by Bernon first abbot of Cluny, 
 and reformed by Odo in S42. 
 
 Feuillants, founded by Jean de la Barriere in 
 1577. 
 
 Feuillantines (4 syl.), reformed Feuillant nuns, I'OO. 
 
 Trnpiiists, the most severe of the Cistercian order, 
 founded by Rotrou comte du Perche, in 1140. 
 
 IV. Carmelites (3 syl.), those wlio 
 follow the rule of Albert patriarch of 
 
MONMOUTH 
 
 MONSEIGNEUR 
 
 595 
 
 Jerusalem, who founded a monastery on 
 Mount Carmel in 1209. 
 
 The reformed order of Barefooted Carmelites 
 was founded by St. Theresa iii 1502. 
 
 V. Fkanciscans, those who follow the 
 rule of St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1228). 
 
 Beguins, founded by Lambert Begg or Lambert 
 le B6gue,inll70. Of the Third Order of St. Francis. 
 
 Capucim, or 'Capuchins,' so called from their 
 capuclion pointit, founded by Matthew Baschi in 
 lo25. 
 
 Ciarisses, or ' Poor Clares ' (1 syl.), a barefooted 
 order of women, founded by St. Francis in lt2i. 
 
 Cordeliers, bound round tlie waist by a cord. 
 Founded by Bernardoni in 1'210. 
 
 Fraticelli, founded by Father Maurato and 
 Father de Fossombroni. 
 
 Fratres Minores, or ' Minorites,' a general name 
 for the Franciscans. 
 
 Greu Sisters oi Flanders. 
 
 Minhns, or ' Hermits of St. Francis,' founded by 
 St. Francis of Paula, in 1431. 
 
 UbserviDits, or 'Fathers of the Observance,' 
 barefooted Franciscans, founded by Paul of 
 Foligno in 1363. There were other Observants. 
 
 Picpus. reformed Franciscans, so called from the 
 monastery of Picpus, near Paris, founded in loOl. 
 
 liecoUeUi, reformed Franciscans, founded in 1484. 
 
 Urbcwists, founded for women at Longchamps by 
 Isabelle in 1200. Named in honour of Urban II. 
 
 *^* Other religious orders. 
 Annunciades in honour of the Annunciation. 
 
 1. The Aniinncirnies of Savotj, founded by Ama- 
 deus VI. count of Savoy in V6{>-2. 
 
 '2. The Annunciades of BouryesH syl.), founded by 
 Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI., in 15J0. 
 
 3. The Anmmciad4;s of Celestes {-2 syl.), or ' Filles 
 Bleues,' founded by Maria Vittoria Fornari in 
 1(!04. 
 
 MILITABY ORBEKS. 
 
 St. John of Jerusalem, or ' Knights Hospitallers' 
 (11th cent.). Same as ' Knights of Rhodes ' and 
 'Knights of Malta.' 
 
 Knights Templars, founded in 1118. 
 
 Teutonic Knights, who established themselves in 
 Germany, conquered and converted Prussia and 
 I'omerania, organised by Frederick duke of Suabia 
 In 1190. 
 
 Jesuits, or 'Clerks of the Order of Jesus,' 
 founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534. 
 
 *,* For Orders, dx. of less note see under each name. 
 
 Monmouth. [DuTce of). Son of Lucy 
 "Walters or Barlow. His father, some 
 say, was Charles II., but Macpherson 
 ('Papers,' i. 77) says, 'All the knowing 
 world, as weU as myself, had many con- 
 vincing reasons to believe he was not the 
 king's son, but [Colonel] Kobert Sydney's.' 
 *Lucy was previously the mistress of 
 Colonel Robert Sydney ; and her son bore 
 so strong a resemblance to that officer, 
 that the Duke of York always looked 
 upon Sydney as the father ' (' Life of 
 James,' i. 491). Lingard calls Lucy a 
 vile worthless woman, and Evelyn de- 
 scribes her as ' a browne, beautiful, bold, 
 but insipid creature ' (' Diary,' ii. 11). 
 
 Monopli'ysite Controversy 
 
 {The), 5th and 6th cents. Respecting the 
 nature of Christ. Arius in the 4th cent. 
 
 had insisted that Christ had but one na- 
 ture, the human, but in the 5th cent. 
 Eutyches and others maintained that 
 his humanity was merged in his divinity 
 as a drop of rain is lost in mid-ocean. 
 Eutyches, who published his views on 
 the subject in 447, was condemned by 
 the Council of Constantinople in 488 — 
 the sentence was reversed by the Council 
 of Ephesus in 449, but he was con- 
 demned again by the Council of Chalce- 
 don in 451. A schism was made between 
 the eastern and western churches on the 
 subject in 484 ; the Monophysites were 
 condemned by the Council of Constan- 
 tinople in 53G, and again in 553 ; and the 
 sect revived under Jacob Baradseus 
 about 570. 
 
 The word monophysite is equivocal, for tha 
 Arians believed that Christ had only one nature, 
 viz. the human; but the word is usually restricted 
 to the Eutycheans, who denied the humanity and 
 maintained that it was swallowed up in the 
 divinity. The Copts and Jacobites (3 syl.) are 
 Monophysites (4 syl.). 
 
 Monoth'elites (4 syl.), 7th cent. 
 Those who believed that, although Jesus 
 Christ had two natures, He had but 
 one will, the human being absorbed in 
 his divine will. The first person who 
 taught this dogma was Theodore bishop 
 of Pharan, in Arabia. The doctrine was 
 condemned as a heresy by the Third 
 Council of Constantinople in 680, and 
 the sect died out. Their descendants are 
 the Maronites {q.v.). 
 
 Greek, /ioi/o?, BcX^fj-a, one will. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine [The), 1823. 
 Against European interference or inter- 
 vention in American affairs. Monroe 
 [2 syl.] was the fifth president (1816- 
 1824). He enunciated a firm opinion 
 that Americans should never entangle 
 themselves in European broils, nor ever 
 permit any state of the Old World to 
 interfere with the affairs of the New 
 World. 
 
 Mons Meg. An old gun of great 
 size made of bars of hammered u"on 
 hooped together. It is still to be seen in 
 Edinburgli Castle. 
 
 Monseigneur {tvith a name after 
 
 it). A title given in the time of Cardinal 
 
 Richelieu to French bishops, previously 
 
 entitled ' tres-saint ' and ' bien-heureux.' 
 
 Pronounce Moi'n]-sen-ure. 
 
 Monseigneur {without a name 
 after it) meant the king's son in the reign 
 of Louis XIV. See above. 
 
 qq2 
 
596 
 
 MONSIEUR 
 
 MONT 
 
 Monsieur (without a proper name 
 after it) the French king's eldest brother. 
 The Due d'Alen^-on in the 16th cent., only- 
 surviving brother of Henri III., was 
 ' Monsieur,' and hence the phrase La 
 Paix de Monsieur given to the treaty- 
 signed at Loches in 1576. In the reign 
 of Louis XIII. Gaston due d'Orleans was 
 Monsieur; in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 Philippe due d'Orle'ans was Monsieur, 
 and his wife Madame; in the reign of 
 Louis XVI. Louis conite de Provence 
 [afterwards Louis XVIII.] was Monsieur, 
 and in the reign of Louis XVIII. Charles 
 comte d'Artois [afterwards Charles X.] 
 was Monsieur. 
 
 The last two princes so called "were the Comte 
 
 de Provence (.i.e. Louis XVIII.) in the reign of hia 
 
 brother Louis XVI., and the Comte d'Artois 
 
 (Charks X.) in the reign of Louis XVIII. 
 
 Pronounce Mo-ss u. 
 
 Monsieur de Paris. The execu- 
 tioner. 
 
 Prononnce Mo-se'u de Parri. 
 
 Death arrives, like ' Monsieur de Paris,' to strip 
 
 ■the criminal, to clip liis collar and hair, and lop 
 
 away from him life and love and delight. — E. 
 
 Arnold, Death and Afterwards, p. 12. 
 
 Monsieur le Coad'juteur 
 
 (without a proper name) meant, in the 
 reign of Louis XIV., Paul de Gondi, who 
 was afterwards Cardinal de Retz. 
 
 Monsieur le Due (without a 
 proper name) meant, in the reign of Louis 
 XIV., Henri Jules de Bourbon, eldest 
 son of the Prince de Conde and his wife 
 (Mile, de Nantes, eldest daughter of La 
 Valliere, the king's mistress). The wife 
 of Henri Jules de Bourbon was entitled 
 Madame la Duchesse. 
 
 Monsieur le G-rand (without a 
 proper name) meant, in the reigu of Louis 
 XIV., the Grand Equerry. 
 
 Monsieur le Prince (without a 
 name after it) meant, in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., the Prince de Conde', ' pre- 
 mier prince du sang ' (who married Mile. 
 de Nantes, a natural daughter of Louis 
 XIV. by La Valliere). His wife was en- 
 titled Madame la Frincesse, their eldest 
 son Mo7ideur le Due, and their eldest 
 daughter Madame la Duchesse (1621- 
 1G86). 
 
 Monsieur Veto. Louis XVI. In 1789 
 the National Assembly resolved that there 
 should be no second chamber, but that 
 the king should have a ' suspensive ' veto 
 on decrees sent up to him from the As- 
 sembly. The king availed himself of this 
 
 right on 17 and 29 Nov., and was nick- 
 named Monsieur Veto. The veto of 17 
 Nov. was in favour of the emigrants, that 
 of 29 Nov. in favour of the ecclesiastics. 
 
 Many believed the veto to be a tax, others 
 thought it was an enemy that ought to be hanged 
 on a lamp-post. 'Don't you know what a veto 
 is ? ' said one countryman to another. ' Well, I 11 
 tell you. Suppose your pot is full of good broth, 
 and the king bids you empty it out to the dogs, 
 you would be forced to do it.' 
 
 Monster [The), 1790. Renwick 
 Williams, who prowled the streets of 
 London at night-time armed with a 
 double-edged knife with which he shock- 
 ingly wounded women in their breasts 
 and tliighs, and sometimes in lonely 
 places mutilated them horribly. He 
 was tried and convicted. Other street 
 rowdies have occasionally ' delighted ' in 
 wounding and disfiguring women, espe- 
 cially the Mohocks or Mohawks in Queen 
 Anne's reign. See ' Jack the Ripper.' 
 
 Monster Grievance [The). So 
 O'Connell called the Established Church 
 in Ireland, 1832. O'Connell said the 
 500,000 Lutherans in Ireland cost but 
 little less than nine million Lutherans in 
 England, and that while England had 
 twenty-six bishops, Ireland had twenty- 
 two. 
 
 Monster Petition {The), 10 April, 
 1818, for the repeal of the corn laws. 
 This petition was three miles long. 
 
 Monsters [Human). Incredible as 
 it may seem, St. Augustine bishop of 
 Hippo says that he himself had seen in 
 Ethiopia ' many men and women without 
 heads, who had their two eyes in their 
 breasts.' And furthermore, that in 
 countries further south he met with a 
 people ' who had but one eye, and that iji 
 the forehead.' ' Notes and Queries,' 3 
 May, 1890, p. 357. 
 
 Sir John Mandeville's accounts (A.D. 1356) of 
 human monsters are equally incredible. The eye 
 in the forehead (reported also by him) is a personal 
 feature of the giant's wife in the story of Jack and 
 the Beanstalk. Halliwell's edition of Mandevi le 
 (or Maundevile) has an engraving of a man with 
 the eye in the forehead. 
 
 Mont de Piet^. A pawnbroker's 
 shop, or rather a loan bank for the poor, 
 where money is advanced on pawns. 
 The loan is for a year, and if not then 
 redeemed or renewed the pawn is sold by 
 auction, and whatever remains over and 
 above the interest and expenses is 
 handed to the pawner. In Paris the 
 interest required is 9 per cent., but in 
 some departments as much as 15 j)el 
 
MONTAGNAEDS 
 
 MONTEAGLE 
 
 597 
 
 cent. Introduced 1778 ; abolished 1789 ; 
 re-established by the Directory in 1797 ; 
 and reorganised in 1804. 
 
 There are forty-five monts de piete in 
 France, and all are under the authority 
 of the ministre de I'inte'rieur. 
 
 Monts de piete were introduced into 
 France from Italy, where they are called 
 * Monti di Pieta,' and were established 
 as far back as 1450. 
 
 Monts de piete were introduced into Germany 
 In 17(i(i, the interest being fixed at from 8 to 12 per 
 cent. Belgium and Holland have their monts de 
 piete also, but England has no such institution, 
 The needy in the British Isles are handed over to 
 the mercies of pawnbrokers and money-lenders. 
 Pronounce Mont-d' pe-cy-tey. 
 
 Montagnards. The party in the 
 first French Revolution under the leader- 
 ship of Robespierre. They occupied in 
 the Convention the most elevated seats 
 called La Montague, in opposition to 
 the Plaine or the lowest seats occupied 
 by the moderate party called the Giron- 
 diiis. The Mountain party overthrew 
 the Girondists on May 31, 1793, but was 
 in turn overthrown ' le 9 Thermidor An II ' 
 when Robespierre met with his downfall 
 (1794). Both the Mountain and the Plain 
 were left of the Speaker. 
 
 Montalto {Louis de). The pen- 
 name of Pascal in the famous ' Provincial 
 Letters ' in defence of Antoine Arnauld 
 the Jansenist. 
 
 Monta'ni (Mountaineers). * Heretics ' 
 similar to the Waldenses {q.v.), and pro- 
 bably a branch thereof. So called, says 
 Eberard of Bethune, ' because, in time 
 of persecution, they concealed themselves 
 in the mountains.' 
 
 Another derivation Is that they were Waldenses 
 of Liguria, the inhabitants of which were called 
 Montani. 
 
 Mon'tanists, a.d. 171. Followers 
 of Montanus, a Phrygian who called him- 
 self the Paraclete, and said that the two 
 ladies who went about with him (Priscilla 
 and Maximilla) were prophetesses. The 
 Montanists looked on marriage as a 
 spiritual union which would continue 
 after life, and utterly condemned second 
 marriages. They observed rigid fasts, 
 advocated celibacy, encouraged martyr- 
 dom, and observed three Lents every year. 
 
 Monte G-ibello, or Mongibello. 
 Mount Etna is so called by the Sicilians. 
 Monte, 2 syl. 
 
 Monte de' Dodici (The), or 
 Oligarchy of the Twelve. The Nine 
 
 Oligarchs, or Monte de' Nove, having 
 greatly abused their trust, were deposed, 
 and the government of Siena was then 
 committed to twelve men, also elected 
 from plebeian families. 
 
 Monte (2 syl.), Do'-dee-che. Nove (2 syl.). 
 
 Monte de' K'obili {The). One of 
 the five oligarchies which successively 
 ruled in Siena. This v.'as first of the 
 five oligarchies, for Siena had originally 
 been controlled by certain noble families 
 to the exclusion of all other citizens 
 from state offices. 
 
 Monte (2 syl.), No-be'-le. 
 
 Monte de' Nove {The), or Nine. 
 One of the five governing bodies which 
 ruled Siena in succession. When the 
 Monte de' Nobili split into parties 
 among themselves, they agreed to re- 
 linquish the government to nine plebeian 
 families chosen from the most wealtliy 
 and influential of the non-privileged 
 class. Nove, pronounce No'vy. 
 
 Monte del Popolo {The). The 
 last of the five governing bodies of Siena. 
 These five were elected from all Avho 
 were eligible to a seat in the great 
 council of the State. In the IGth cent. 
 Pandolfo Petrucci made himself what 
 the Greeks would call Tyrant of Siena. 
 
 Monte de' Sedici {The), or the 
 ' Monte de' Riformatori.' Being tired of 
 the twelve oligarchs, the Sienese next 
 committed the government to sixteen 
 men chosen from the very dregs of the 
 people, who assumed the name of the 
 Riformatori. Like all red republicans, 
 they were too fond of bloodshed, and all 
 parties joined together to depose them. 
 
 Monte (2 syl.) Sey'-dee-cJie. 
 
 Monteagle {Lord). Sir Edward 
 Stanley, 5th son of Thomas first Earl of 
 Derby, was at Flodden Field. By a 
 sudden feint he induced the Scots to 
 descend a hill, which was their strong 
 position, and thus very greatly contri- 
 buted to their overthrow. About a 
 year after the battle, as Henry VIII. was 
 keeping Whitsuntide at Eltham, in 
 Kent, he spoke of Sir Edward's exploits, 
 and especially his ruse which drew the 
 Scots from the hill. Sir Edward's crest 
 was an eagle, and the king created him 
 Lord Mont-Eagle or Baron Stanley, Lord 
 Monteagle. 
 
598 
 
 MONTHS 
 
 MOONLIGHTEES 
 
 Months {Anglo-Saxon). 
 
 January. — Se seftera Geola (the latter 
 yule), 
 
 February. — Sol-monath (the soil or 
 mud month). 
 
 March. — Hreth-monath (the fierce 
 month ?). 
 
 April. — Easter-monath. 
 
 May. — Thri-mylce (the three-milkings 
 month). 
 
 June. — Se aerra Litha (the former 
 Litha, or warm month. Litha = mild). 
 
 July. — Se seftera Litha (the latter 
 Litha, or warrn month), 
 
 August. — Weod-monath (weed month). 
 
 September. — Halig-monath (holy- 
 month or time of sacrifice). 
 
 October. — Winter-fylleth (winter fall). 
 
 November. — Blot-monath (sacrifice 
 month). 
 
 December. — Se aerra Geola (the former 
 yule). 
 
 (' Notes and Queries,' 20 April, 1889, 
 page 301.) 
 
 ' Blot month ' probably refers to the custom of 
 slaving animals for the winter store. Hence ' Slay 
 Fair ' in Chichester and other places in this month. 
 
 Month -with no New Moon 
 
 {The), Sept. 1752. This month, in con- 
 sequence of the change of style, con- 
 tained only nineteen days. The New 
 Style began on 3 Sept., which was called 
 the 14th. The first quarter of the 
 moon was 15' Sept., at one o'clock in the 
 afternoon, and the full moon was on the 
 23rd. All days from 2 to 14 (neither 
 included) were annihilated, consequently 
 there was no new moon in that month. 
 The month ran 1, 2, 14, 15, 16, and so on 
 up to 30. 
 
 Montijoyeux, or 'Montijocrisses.' 
 The party of the Empress Eugenie, wife 
 of Napoleon III. of France. Before her 
 marriage she was Eugenia de Montijo 
 {Mon-te'-ho\ of Spain. 
 
 Monument {The London). Begun 
 1671, and finished 1677, to memorialise 
 the Great Fire of 1666. Pope says : — 
 
 Where London's column pointing to the skies, 
 Like a tall bully, lifts its head and lies. 
 
 The following ill-worded inscription was 
 written by Dr. Thomas Gale, afterwards 
 dean of York. ' The burning of this Pro- 
 testant city was begun and carried on 
 by the treachery and malice of the Popish 
 faction, in order to the effecting their 
 horrid plot for the extirpating the Pro- 
 testant religion and English liberties, and 
 
 to introduce Popery and heresy.' And the 
 Latin inscription contained this sentence : 
 ' Sed furor papisticus, qui tarn dira patra- 
 vit, nondum restinguitur.' All this was 
 erased by order of the city on 6 Dec, 1830. 
 Not a vestige of proof was ever fouiid to 
 justify Dr. Gale's calumny. {See Howell, 
 ' State Trials,' vi. 807-866.) 
 
 Monumental Figures. 
 
 Those in armour represent knights. 
 
 Those with crosier, mitre, and pon- 
 tificals represent bishops. 
 
 Those with hands on the breast and a 
 chalice represent priests. 
 
 Those built into the church wall 
 represent founders. 
 
 Those east of the altar and elevated 
 represent saints ; those not elevated 
 represent holy men not canonised. 
 
 Moollah. A Turkish scribe, a kind 
 of D.D. and LL.D. ; for Turkish law is 
 based on the Koran, and therein differs 
 from Christian law, wliich is wholly in- 
 dependent of the Bible. 
 
 A defendant would be laughed at who justified 
 himself by a quotation from the Bible ; but a text 
 from the Koran would be indisputable law. 
 
 Moonlight (Copit.), 1878. The name 
 assumed by some unknown Irish chief of 
 the Land League and Fenians. He used 
 to write warning letters to those who 
 refused to join the league, and these 
 letters were followed up by horrible 
 mutilation of the person's cattle, or his 
 being shot through the legs, or murdered, 
 or boycotted. For several years Ireland 
 was dominated by Capt. Moonlight, and 
 every one was in terror of a visitation 
 of the villain's gang. See ' Irish Asso- 
 ciations.' 
 
 Daniel Connell was 'Lieutenant Moonlight' in 
 1882, and was offered a Parnell medal for bravery. 
 
 Moonlighters. Adherents of the 
 Moonlight gang. There were Moon- 
 lighters in Scotland in the rebellion of 
 1745. In ' Redgauntlet ' Sir W. Scott 
 makes Maxwell say to Fairford (chap, 
 xii.) that the passport at that moment 
 was ' What is the age of the moon ? ' If 
 the interrogator was answered ' Not light 
 enough to land a cargo,' he was answered, 
 'Then plague on Aberdeen almanacs,' 
 upon which the person would hold free 
 intercourse with the stranger. But, he 
 adds, these moonlight lads do not take 
 freely to lawyers. 
 
 The Moonlighters of Ireland (1879) 
 seem to have grown out of and succeeded 
 
MOBA-STONE 
 
 MOKGANATIC 
 
 599 
 
 the White Boys. Their chief was called 
 ' Capt. Moonlight.' There was an inner 
 circle of Moonlighters called ' Our Boys.' 
 See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Mora-stone {The). In Swedish 
 Morasteen (the stone on the moor), on 
 which the kings of Sweden were crowned. 
 It was, in fact, a circular range of stones 
 in the plain of Mora, near Upsa'Ja. The 
 coronation stone itself was a large round 
 stone, but it was surrounded by twelve 
 others of smaller size with wedge-shaped 
 blocks. When Mr. Coxe visited Mora in 
 1782 he found ten of the stones, but the 
 largest was only six spans long. Probably 
 Sfconelienge on Salisbury Plain was used 
 for a similar purpose. The Lia Fail of 
 Tara, in Ireland, was used as a coronation 
 stone. It was removed to Scone in 
 Scotland, and used as the coronation 
 stone of Scotch kings. Ed .vard I. brought 
 it to London, and it is inclosed in our 
 own coronation chair still. 
 
 Moral Grower [The). So John 
 Gower, the poet, is called by Chaucer, 
 from his ' Speculum Meditantis ' and 
 * Confessio Amantis,' the former ' treat- 
 ing of the Vices and the Virtues, and of 
 the vario.us degrees of this age,' and 
 seeking ' to teach by a right path the way 
 whereby a transgressed sinner ought to 
 return to the knowledge of his Creator.' 
 No copy of this work is known to exist. 
 The latter is a grave discussion of the 
 morals and metaphysics of love. Pro- 
 bably Chaucer referred to the solemn 
 sententiousness of the ' Confessio ' more 
 than to the ' Speculum.' 
 
 Moral Philosophy {Professorship 
 of), in the University of Cambridge, 
 1683. Founded by John Knightbridge, 
 D.D., Fellow of St. Peter's. Stipend 
 1001., exclusive of fees. 
 
 Moral Science Tripos {The). 
 Three classes into which students in the 
 University of Cambridge are classified 
 who have passed with credit their final 
 examinations in the Moral Sciences. The 
 five Moral Sciences are : 1. Psychology 
 (consciousness, feelings and movements, 
 reflex action, instinct, sensation and per- 
 ception, dreams, thought, desires and 
 volition). 2. Logic and Methodology 
 (as the laws of thought, syllogisms, induc- 
 tion and deduction, &c.). 3. Metaphysics 
 (as what is Being, Reality, Finity and 
 Infinity, the Ego and Non-ego, &c.). 
 
 4. Moral and Political Philosophy 
 (pleasure and pain, desire and aversion, 
 conscience, judgment, happiness the end 
 of rational action, politics, jurisprudence, 
 forms of government, &c.). 5. Political 
 Economy (as capital and labour, rate of 
 increase, land-rent, profit and wages, 
 currency, monopolies, banking, &c.). See 
 ' Natural Sciences.' 
 
 Moralities. Dramas of an allego- 
 rical character to encourage good morals. 
 They succeeded the Mystery plays {q.v.), 
 the subjects of which were the Religious 
 Mysteries, interdicted in the 16th cent. 
 The dramatis person ce of tliC Morality 
 plays were such as Mr. Carnal-minded, 
 Mr." Great-heart, Faithful, Hopeful, 
 Despair, Youth, Age, and so on. 
 
 Moran's Collar. A collar worn by 
 ancient Irish judges, which gave warning 
 by tightening round the neck when the 
 wearer was about to give an unjust 
 judgment. Hence the proverb ' I swear 
 to it by Moran's collar.' Moran was the 
 son of the usurper Carbre Catcan; on 
 the death of his father he refused the 
 crown and restored to the throne the 
 royal race in the person of Feredach, 
 who appointed Moran judge. It is the 
 justice of Moran which gave rise to the 
 fable of the lodhan Moran. 
 
 Moravians, or 'The United 
 Brethren.' Said to have exir.ted in the 
 9th cent., when the kings of Bulgaria 
 and Moravia were converted, and united 
 in communion with the Greek Church. 
 They are episcopal in constitution, and 
 are attached to the Augsburg Confession 
 of Faith. They still exist in large num- 
 bers, and have exercised considerable 
 influence on the Christian religion. 
 
 It was in 1457 that Michel Bradacz, of Bohemia, 
 united them under the name of ' The United 
 Brethren.' In 1721, after the Thirty Ye irs' War, 
 they found an asylum at Hernhutt, under Count 
 Zinzendorf, and changed their name to HcrnkUUer. 
 
 Morbus Anglicus. The sweating 
 sickness. 
 
 Morden College, Blackheath, 1695. 
 Founded by Sir John Morden, a Turkey 
 merchant, for decayed Levant merchants. 
 There are 40 pensioners, allowed 40/. 
 per annum each, and a treasurer. The 
 pensioners have apartments, coals, 
 candles, washing, and service found ; 
 and dine in a common hall. 
 
 Morganatic Marriage. Legal- 
 ised concubinage. It is a German fiction. 
 
600 
 
 MOKLEY 
 
 MOEVEN 
 
 A person of rank ' marries ' a woman of 
 inferior social position, and gives her a 
 dowry on the wedding day, called mor- 
 gangina, Saxon for a 'morning-gift.' 
 Tlie offspring of this woman are not 
 heirs, though legitimate, and the bride- 
 groom gives her his left hand instead of 
 his right, whence the phrase ' left-handed 
 marriage.' 
 
 A disgrace to common honesty, to say nothing 
 of Christianity. 
 
 Morley {Mr. and Mrs.). The Prin- 
 cess Anne and Duchess of Marlborough 
 mutually agreed to abandon all formality 
 and court etiquette in their intercourse 
 with each other. To this end, Anne vfas 
 to be called ' Mrs. Morley,' her husband 
 * Mr. Morley,' and the Duke and Duchess 
 of Marlborough 'Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' 
 
 Mormons, or 'The Church of Jesus 
 Christ of Latter-day Saints,' 1830. A 
 religious sect founded by Joseph Smith, 
 of Vermont, who declares that he received 
 his mission from an angel in 1823. This 
 angel told him where to find certain 
 pliites containing the records of the ancient 
 Anieiican prophets. These plates were 
 about as thick as tin, and held together 
 by three rings running through them all. 
 The character employed was ' Reformed 
 Egyptian,' and with the plates were 
 deposited the ' Urim and Thummim,' or 
 spectacles for deciphering them. The 
 plates say that the Americans were a 
 colony from the Tower of Babel at the 
 confusion of tongues. The Mormonites 
 receive their name from the prophet 
 Mormon who wrote the plates called 
 ' The Book of Mormon.' 
 
 Their written Scriptures are called the books 
 of Enos, Jarom, Zeniff, Ether, &c. 
 
 Morning Star of Reformation 
 
 {The). 1. In England, John Wycliff 
 (1324-1384). 
 
 II. In France, Pierre Waldo (1120- 
 1170) of Lyons. 
 
 He taught that the laity might conduct the 
 offices of religion as well as the clergy ; that the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation has no warrant 
 from Scripture ; that it is wrong to invoke saints ; 
 that there is no such place as purgatory ; that 
 there are only two sacraments ; that the Pope of 
 Rome does not hold the keys of heaven, and that 
 he never received them from St. Peter. 
 
 Mortar Boards. See' Square caps.' 
 
 Mortification, in Scotch law, means 
 what the English call ' Mortmain.' 
 
 Infeftments of mortified lands are those which 
 are granted to the kirk or other incorporation 
 having no other reddendo than prayer and sup- 
 plicatioDB. Such were the mortifications of the 
 
 kirk-lands granted by the king to kirkraen, or by 
 private men to provosts and prebendars.— SXAIR, 
 book ii. title 3, 39. 
 
 Mortimer's Hole. A subterra- 
 nean passage through the soft sand rock 
 on which Nottingham Castle stands, and 
 leading from the castle-court to the 
 river Leen. Through this passage Ed- 
 ward III. and his conspirators found 
 access to the castle, broke open the door, 
 seized Mortimer, and brought him before 
 the parliament, by whom he was con- 
 demned to death. He was hanged at 
 the Elms, near London, 29 Nov., 1330, 
 with three others, and the queen-mother 
 was shut up in her own house of Risings, 
 where she lived for 27 years. 
 
 Mortmain {The Statute of). 7 
 Edw. I. c. 2, 15 Nov., 1279, forbidding 
 the alienation in mortmain of real pro- 
 perty to religious houses or other cor-' 
 porations. This statute was based on 
 the ' constitutions of Clarendon ' {q.v.). 
 
 Lands held by the clergy and corporate bodies 
 were in dead hands Onortiiis manibus) so far as 
 the overlord was concerned, because corpora- 
 tions can neither fight for their overlord, nor do 
 they die, like individuals ; consequently the lord 
 of the fee lost the fitie which accrued to him on 
 change of tenants. As Coke says, ' the lords lost 
 their escheats, and the services for the defence 
 of the realm, wards, reliefs, marriages, and so 
 on.' As a dead hand yields the lord »o service, so 
 lands held by corporate bodies yielded the lord 
 no services. 
 
 Morton's Fork. The wealthy can 
 pay because they can spare something 
 out of their superfluity. The thrifty can 
 pay because they do not squander their 
 money in self-indulgence. The tale is 
 that Henry VII. in 1507 wanted money — 
 no unusual thing — and levied a ' benevo- 
 lence ' on the whole realm. Cardinal John 
 Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 appointed chief commissioner to extort 
 money from the clergy. The rich clergy, 
 who tried to get exempt, he said could 
 afford to give because they had abun- 
 dance, and the poor frugal clergy could 
 afford to give because they were thrifty. 
 Bacon, ' Life of Henry VIII.,' p. 436. 
 
 Erasmus tells a similar tale of Richard Fox 
 bishop of Exeter (1487-1491). Ecclesiastes ii. 
 
 Morven {Kings of). The following 
 are said to have rule over the north-west 
 of Scotland, called Morven. 
 Trenmor began to rule . a.d. 32 
 Fingal (father of Ossian) . . 210-246 
 Ossian I. (the poet) . . . 246-287 
 
 Oscar 287-300 
 
 Ossian II. (Picts and Scots first 
 
 BO named) .... 300 
 
MOSCOW 
 
 MOST 
 
 601 
 
 Mosco"W Expedition {The), 15 
 Sept. to 19 Oct., 1812. The disastrous 
 invasion of Moscow by Napoleon. The 
 loss of the French in the expedition and 
 retreat is set down at the enormous total 
 of 200,000 human beings. Some estimate 
 the loss of life as very much greater. 
 
 It was Rostopchin who set fire to the city. On 
 the retreat Napoleon left his army at the Beresina, 
 took his route towards Zemlin, and reached Paris 
 18 JDec. 
 
 Moses of Mesopota'mia [The). 
 Jacobus or St. Jacobus, a bishop who 
 prayed that God would protect Nisibis 
 when the city was besieged by Sapor II. 
 (a.d. 350). Whereupon a swarm of 
 gnats attacked the Persian elephants 
 so fiercely that they ran away, and the 
 city was saved. [See Gibbon, ' Decline 
 and Fall,' xviii., and Theodoret, ' Eccle- 
 siastical History,' ii. 26.) 
 
 Moslim (vulgarly ' Mussulman,' 
 plu. ' Mussulmans '). A true believer in 
 Mahomet's mission ; but Moslem or 
 Moslemin means ' belonging to Islam or 
 the creed issued by the prophet.' 
 
 The adjective is Moslem. 
 
 Moss {Treaty of), 16 Aug., 1814. A 
 treaty of peace between Norway, Sweden, 
 and Denmark. Prince Christian Frede- 
 rick had been proclaimed king of Nor- 
 way, 19 May, 1814 ; but Russia, Prussia, 
 Austria, and Great Britain interfered, 
 and induced the prince to abdicate. As 
 resistance would have been madness, he 
 had no choice left, and Norway was con- 
 firmed to Sweden according to the terms 
 of the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814. 
 
 Moss Backs. The Victorians, or 
 people of Victoria, are so called by the 
 Vancouverites, ' because they move so 
 slowly that moss is apt to grow on their 
 backs.' 
 
 Most Catholic King {The). The 
 ruling king of Spain. The king of 
 France was the ' Most Christian.' 
 
 Most Christian Doctor, 'Doc- 
 tor Christianissimus.' Jean Charlier de 
 Gerson, chancellor of the University of 
 Paris, born at Gerson (Reims) (1363- 
 1429). It is to this Gerson that many 
 attribute ' The Imitation of Christ,' 
 usually ascribed to a-Kempis, and cer- 
 tainly Gerson's ' Consolation Internelle ' 
 resembles it in an extraordinary degree. 
 
 Most Christian King, or ' Chris- 
 tianissimus,' was first applied to the 
 26 
 
 kings of France by Paul II. in 1469. It 
 is very strange that Louis XI. should 
 have been the king so honoured. Henry 
 VIII. was called ' Defender of the Faith,' 
 for his book against Luther; but the 
 retention of the title after the Reforma- 
 tion was a mere perversion of its original 
 meaning. 
 
 Some say that Pope Anastasius conferred the 
 title on Clovis at his baptism, because he was nob 
 an Arian as all or almost all the Christian princes 
 of Europe were at the time. The Spanish king 
 received the title of ' Catholic ' for expelling the 
 Moors ; the Portuguese kings were entitled ' Most 
 Faithful.' 
 
 Most Enlightened Doctor 
 
 {The). Doctor Illuminatus, or Illu- 
 minatissimus, Raymond Lully (1234- 
 1315). 
 
 Most Methodical Doctor. John 
 Bassol, a Scotch savant, who died in 
 1347. 
 
 Most Profound Doctor, 'Doctor 
 Fundatissimus ' and ' Theologorum Prin- 
 ceps.' iEgidius de Colonna, i.e. Giles of 
 Cologne (1247-1316), a disciple of Thomas 
 Aquinas, and archbishoj) of Bourges. He 
 was a zealous Realist {q.v.). It is said of 
 this scholastic, ' Lux in lucem reducit 
 dubia.' (He was the luminary who 
 brought dark (or abstruse] things to 
 light.) 
 
 Probably modern scholars would say he argued 
 so abstrusely that he did not himself understand 
 his own expositions. 
 
 Most Resolute Doctor {The). 
 ' Doctor Resolutissimus.' Guillaume Du- 
 rand de St. Pour^ain bishop of Meaux 
 (1267-1332). He was at first a follower 
 of Thomas Aquinas, and a Nominalist, 
 but afterwards became a Scotist and 
 defended Realism. This gave great 
 offence to the Thomists, and one of 
 them wrote this epitaph : 
 Durus Burandus jacet hie sub marmore duro, 
 An sit salvandus ego nescio, nee quoque euro. 
 Harder than stone, hard by, lies Hardy here 
 If saved or not I neither know nor care. 
 
 John Bacon thorpe, who died 1333, a 
 provincial of the Carmelite Order, was 
 called ' The Resolute Doctor.' See p. 
 261, ' Doctors, &c.' 
 
 Most Subtile Doctor, 'Doctor 
 Subtilissimus.' John Duns Scotus (1265- 
 1308), the great opponent of Thomas 
 Aquinas and defender of the Immaculate 
 Conception. He was a Dominican, the 
 great opponent of the Franciscans, and 
 was born at Duns. 
 
602 
 
 MOTAZALITES 
 
 MOUNTAIN 
 
 Mota'zalites (4 syl.). Mohamme- 
 dan sectaries of the sect of Ah. They 
 mamtain that God has no attribute 
 separable from his essence, and that the 
 Koran was neither the work of God nor 
 yet perpetual. They reject the dogma 
 of fatalism. 
 
 Mother. Anne Lee (1736-1784). 
 The chosen of God to reveal the mystery 
 of iniquity, and the true mother of all 
 living in the new creation. She was 
 born in Toad Lane, Manchester, and her 
 father was a blacksmith. She married 
 Abraham Standley, also a blacksmith, 
 and joined the Shakers, by whom she 
 was called ' Mother,' but she called her- 
 self ' Anne the Word.' In 1774 she went 
 to America, and settled in New York, 
 where she was received as the ' Morning 
 Star of Christ's Second Coming.' 
 
 Mother Duehesse. So Carlyle 
 calls the Tricoteuse of the French re- 
 volution. 
 
 Citoyennes who bring their seams with them, or 
 their knitting-needles, and shriek or knit as the 
 case needs. Famed Tricotcusrf:, patriot knitters. 
 Mere Duehesse . . . giving the key note.— Car- 
 lyle, French Revolution, vol. iii. book ii. 5. 
 
 Bull- voiced St. Huruge is heard, and the hys- 
 teric eloquence of Mother Duehesse, chap. 6. 
 
 Mother Guilford. So Mary the 
 sister of Henry VIII. called Lady Guil- 
 ford, her governess, to whom she was 
 greatly attached. 
 
 Mother Ludlam's Cauldron. 
 
 Deposited in Waverley Abbey, whence 
 (at the dissolution of the monasteries) 
 it was removed to Frensham Church. 
 Mother Ludlam was a white witch who 
 assisted her neighbours by lending them 
 such culinary utensils and household 
 articles as they wanted for special occa- 
 sions. The petitioner went to Mother 
 Ludlam's cave at midnight, and pro- 
 mised to return the loan in three days. 
 On one occasion a cauldron was bor- 
 rowed, but Qot returned at the stipulated 
 time, and Mother Ludlam refused to 
 take it back, and discontinued her loans. 
 
 Mother Shipton, the prophetess 
 of South Wales, was T. Evan Preece. 
 She predicted the death of Wolsey, Lord 
 Percy, and others, in the reign of Henry 
 VIII. 
 
 She predicted that ' the end of the world would 
 come in 1882.' This prophecy was safe enough for 
 300 years. The ' Prophecies ' of Mother Shipton 
 are still extant. 
 
 Mother of Universities. Bo- 
 logna, 1088. A medal was struck m 1888 
 to commemorate its eight hundredth an- 
 niversary. 
 
 Mother of her Country {The). 
 Maria-Theresa of Austria (1717, 1740- 
 1780). 
 
 Mother of the Gracchi (The), 
 ' Mater Gracchorum.' Cornelia daughter 
 of Scipio Africanus. 
 
 When Queen Victoria, in her childhood, read 
 the story about Corneli-i showing her sons as 
 hsr jewels, the princess said to her tutor, ' Not 
 jewels, but Cornelians.' 
 
 Mother of the People {The). 
 ' La Mere des Peuples.' Marguerite of 
 France, daughter of Francois 1. (1523- 
 
 1574). 
 
 Mothering Sunday. Mid-Lent, 
 when children go home to their mothers 
 and eat ' mothering cakes.' See ' Sun- 
 days.' 
 
 Motu Proprio, 1816. An impor- 
 tant measure introduced by Cardinal 
 Ercole Consalvi, for the reform of abuses 
 in the papal states. It suppressed all 
 monopolies, feudal taxes, and exclusive 
 rights. 
 
 Mount of Corruption {The). 
 The Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem. 
 So called because thereon Solomon built 
 temples to the gods of the Ammonites 
 and Moabites, out of complaisance to 
 his wives (1 Kings xi. ; 2 Kings xxiii. 13). 
 
 Mountain {The), Sept. 1791. In 
 the National Convention of France the 
 cote droit was the constitutional party, 
 the cote gauche was the democratio 
 party. This latter party soon divided 
 itself into two, viz. the Mountain and 
 the Gironde. The former seated them- 
 selves on the most elevated benches of 
 the hall, hence their name ; the Giron- 
 dists occupied what was called the plaine 
 or the floor. At first, all the cote gauche 
 worked together ; but 31 May, 1793, the 
 Mountain overthrew the more moderate 
 Gironde ; and 1794 the Mountain fell to 
 pieces with Robespierre their chief. 
 
 Several young men of Hungary entered into 
 correspondence with the chiefs of the Mountain. 
 — GoDKiN, Hist, of Hungary, p. 209. 
 
 Mountain Brutus {The). Wil- 
 liam Tell (1282-1350). 
 
 Mountain Tiger of K'epaul 
 {The). Runjeet Singh, who died 1839. 
 
MOUSQUETAIEES 
 
 MUNDANE 
 
 Mousquetaires (3 syl.). A com- 
 pany of horse-soldiers armed with mus- 
 kets, created in 1022 in the service of the 
 king of France. In 1661 they formed 
 two companies — the Grey and the Black 
 Mousquetaires, so called from the colour 
 of their horses. Their uniform was 
 scarlet-red, and hence that part of the 
 palace appropriated to them was called 
 the ' Maison Eouge.' In times of peace 
 they followed the king d. la chasse, but 
 in war they fought both on horse and 
 foot, like the French dragoons. The 
 Mousquetaires were suppressed in 1791 ; 
 they were re-established in 1814, but 
 disappeared on the second return of 
 Louis XVIII. See ' Gauts Glaces.' 
 
 Mozarabic or Gothic Liturgy 
 
 {The). Consisted of the liturgy of Rome 
 inixed with the oriental liturgies of-*the 
 Arian Goths. Its use was suspended by 
 the Council of Braga, a.d. 772. It was 
 reprinted in 1500 by Cardinal Ximenes. 
 The Gothic Liturgy is used only in 
 Toledo. See ' Spanish Liturgy.' 
 
 Mud-Cabin Votes, 1884. The 
 Irish franchise extended to one-pound 
 householders and under, the number of 
 which was 32,829 in the county Mayo 
 alone. 
 
 Making every allowance for thedisquolification 
 of occupiers on account of parochial relief, the 
 ' Mud-cabin ' voters in county Mayo would out- 
 number the existing voters at least ten to one.— 
 Standard, 9 Ma.y,lt<tii. 
 
 Mufti. A * doctor of the law ' in the 
 Mussulman religion. He interprets both 
 the text and ideas of the Koran. The 
 Grand Mufti, called the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' 
 resides at Constantinople, and is head of 
 the lawyers and priests or ulemas. His 
 ordinances, called, fetf as, must be blindly 
 obeyed. It is the Grand Mufti who girds 
 on the sultan's sword at his coronation. 
 Every town has its mufti. 
 
 Muggleton^ans. A religious sect 
 which arose in England about the year 
 1651, and so called from Ludovic Muggle- 
 ton (1609-1697), a journeyman tailor, 
 who professed to be the mouthpiece of 
 one Jolin Reeve. The two gave them- 
 selves out to be the ' two witnesses ' of 
 Rev. xi., and assumed the right of ' curs- 
 ing' all who opposed them. They de- 
 nied the doctrine of the Trinity, held 
 anthropomorphic opinions of deity, and 
 believed that the devil became incarnate 
 in Eve. They existed as a sect in the 
 
 first half of the 19th cent., but the census 
 of 1851 showed no trace of them. 
 
 Mules of Ma'rius {The). When 
 Marius, in his second consulate, raised 
 an army to march against the Cimbrians, 
 he found considerable difficulty in enlist- 
 ing men. His sternness repelled them, 
 his arbitrary habits were offensive, and 
 those who submitted patiently were 
 called ' the mules of Marius ' ; but the 
 term of reproach soon became a term to 
 be proud of. 
 
 Multipliers. Alchemists who pre- 
 tended to multiply the precious metals. 
 
 Mul'vian Bridge {The). Outside 
 the city, about two miles from Rome. 
 The most northerly of the eight bridges 
 over the Tiber. Built by Scaurus. 
 
 Mumping Day. The 21st Dec. 
 (St. Thomas's Day). ' To mump ' is to 
 beg, and on St. Thomas's Day the poor 
 used to go about the country begging 
 corn for the Christmas feast. 
 
 Munce'rians. A sect of Anabaptists 
 in Germany, so called from Muncerus 
 their ringleader, who died 1525. 
 
 Mundane Era {The). This era 
 
 begins Oct. B.C. 4008. 
 
 According to the modern Greek Calendar B.C. 1SS8 
 
 „ Josephus , 7282 
 
 „ Scaligcr... „ 5829 
 
 „ Professor William Hale ... ,, 54X1 
 
 „ ' L art de Verifier les Dates ' „ 4963 
 
 „ Usher „ 4004 
 
 „ Calmet , 4000 
 
 %* Of course, all such speculations, in the light 
 
 of modern science, are wholly worthless, except 
 
 as historical landmarks, and even then they are 
 
 most misleading. 
 
 Mundane ^ra {The Alexandrine), 
 29 Aug., B.C. 5502. 
 
 Mundane Era {The Ecclesiastical) 
 of Constantinople, 1 April, B.C. 5508. 
 
 {The Civil) of Constantinople, 1 Sept., 
 B.C. 5508. 
 
 Mundane Era {The Grecian), 1 
 Sept., B.C. 5598. 
 
 Mundane Era {The Jewish). Ver- 
 nal equinox, B.C. 3761. But the civil 
 Jewish era is Oct. 3701. 
 
 Mundane Era {The Julian), 1 
 Jan., B.C. 4713. 
 
 Mundane Era of Abyssinia 
 
 {The). Begins 29 Aug., B.C. 5493. 
 
 Mundane Era of Antioch {The). 
 1 Sept., B.C. 4592. 
 
604 
 
 MUNICIPAL 
 
 MUSICAL 
 
 Municipal Corporation Act 
 
 {The), 5, 6 Will. IV. c. 76, 9 Sept., 1835. 
 For the regulation of municipal corpora- 
 tions in England and Wales. This act 
 abolished the ' freemen,' as they were 
 called ; the prohibition of any but free- 
 men keeping a shop or following a trade 
 in a corporate borough ; and the power 
 of purchasing one's freedom. Instead of 
 freemen the burgesses were endowed 
 with municipal powers ; a burgess being 
 any male of full age who has been an 
 occupierfor two years within the borough 
 or within seven miles of it, and has paid 
 poor rates, provided his name has been 
 duly inscribed on the burgess-roll. The 
 mayor and aldermen are to be elected 
 annually by the council ; the councillors 
 by the burgesses ; and the council from 
 the aldermen and councillors. See 
 ' County Covmcil.' 
 
 The ' Irish Municipal Corporation Bill,' altering 
 the entire structure of the cornorations of Ireland, 
 is S, 4 Vict. c. 108, 10 Aug., 1H40. The Municipal 
 Corporation Act does not apply to London. 
 
 Municipal Reform Acts (The), 
 1835. The passing of a Bill which gave 
 the right of voting to all ratepayers in 
 towns and boroughs, besides allowing 
 the freemen to retain their former privi- 
 leges. The lists of voters were as follows : 
 Freemen's KoU, Burgess List, and Ward 
 List. 
 
 Muns. A name assumed soon after 
 the Restoration by a clique of young 
 blades in London, whose delight was to 
 break windows, upset the night watchers, 
 kiss the pretty girls, molest sober citizens, 
 render the streets somewhat dangerous, 
 and get themselves talked about as 
 ' impudent young dogs,' ' sowing their 
 wild oats.' See ' Street Bullies.' 
 
 ' Muns ' means the face or mouth, and these 
 simpletons so called themselves because they 
 kissed the pretty young women and made mouths 
 at the coarse and older ones. It would seem 
 more likely to be a contraction of the French 
 'Muscadins,' only the Muns existed many years 
 before the Paris Muscadins. 
 
 Miinster [Truce of), closing the 
 Thirty Years' War. It led to the ' Peace 
 of WestphaHa,' 24 Oct., 1648. 
 
 Murab'itins {The), i.e. devoted to 
 religion. So the followers of Abdallah 
 ben Yassim (1046) were called. Some say 
 • Al-Moravides ' {q.v.) is a variant of the 
 same word. * Moravides ' (3 syl.). 
 
 Murat of the Magyar Army 
 (r/ie). Paul Kiuisi (15th cent.). Like 
 
 him in ostentation, like him in brilliancy, 
 like him as a hemi sabreur, and he was 
 raised, like him, for his valour, from the 
 ranks. 
 Murato'rian Canon {The). A 
 
 list of the books of the New Testament, 
 said to have been compiled about a.d. 
 150, discovered in the Ambrosian library, 
 Milan, and published by Lodovico An- 
 tonio Muratori in 1740. Its genuineness 
 is very doubtful. 
 
 The author of the Muratorian Canon appears 
 to take for granted that the apostle [Paul] went 
 into Spain.— Wordsworth, New TcsUiment (Pau- 
 line Epistles, p. 429). 
 
 Muscadins of Paris (1705). Paris 
 dandies or exquisites, who aped London 
 cockneys after the Reign of Terror. 
 Their dress was top-boots with thick 
 soles, knee-breeches, a dress-coat with 
 lon^ tails and high stiff collar, and a 
 thick cudgel called a ' constitution.' 
 They affected a huskiness of voice, 
 bearish manners, and vulgarity both of 
 speech and behaviour. 
 
 Littre says the affectation came into 
 use during the Revolution, and he derives 
 the word from muscarde, which he de- 
 duces from muse. He says : ' Petit- 
 maitre, homme qui affecte une grande 
 recherche dans son costume. Ainsi dit 
 du parfum des muscadins,' See ' Partis 
 en France.' 
 
 Cockneys of London, muscadins of Paris. 
 
 Bykon, Don Juan, viii. 124. 
 
 Muse of Tragedy {The). Mrs. 
 Siddons the great actress (1755-1831). 
 
 Mushroom Cities. Chicago, St. 
 Louis. 
 
 Music of the Spheres {The). 
 The music produced by the seven planets 
 rolling in their orbits. Pythagoras 
 noticed that different lengths of string, 
 stretched like those of a harp, produce 
 different sounds, and as the seven planets 
 revolve in seven orbits of different cir- 
 cumferences, they must, like an ..^olian 
 harp, produce different sounds as they 
 whiz through space. These seven sounds 
 or musical notes Pythagoras called the 
 ' Music of the Spheres.' 
 
 Musical Scale {The Greek). 
 
 Called 
 
 1 Ut Hypate = Principal \ 
 
 2 Re ... Par-hypate = Post-principal { A Diatcs- 
 
 3 Mi .. Lichanos = Index ( saron. 
 
 4 Fa ... Mese = Medium J 
 
 5 Sol ... Para-mese = Post-medium \ 
 
 6 Ke ... Trite = Third I A Diates- 
 
 7 Mi ... Para-nete = Ante-penult i saron. 
 
 8 Fa ... Nete = UltimMte J 
 
MUSICAL 
 
 M.W.S. 
 
 605 
 
 The ' DiapentG ' is from Ut to Sol, and from Sal 
 to Fa is tlie ' Diatessaron.' The ' Diapason ' = the 
 Diapente plus the Diatessaron. Similarly, from 
 Fa to Fa is a Diapente. In both cases there are 
 three tones and one semitone m a Diatessaron. 
 
 Musical Small-eoal Man {The). 
 Thomas Britton (1(350-1714). An amateur 
 musician and antiquary, dealer in small 
 coals in Aylesbury Street, Clerkenwell. 
 The room of his gatherings, says Dr. 
 John Hawkins, ' was over the coal-shop, 
 and his weekly concerts were attended 
 by the highest order of nobility.' Dr. 
 Pepusch and, later on, even Handel 
 played the harpsichord at these concerts. 
 Here used to assemble Mr. Needier, 
 accountant-general of the excise, the 
 poet Hughes, Woolaston the painter, and 
 many others. Walpole says that Britton 
 took money from his visitors. 
 
 Musketeers {The). ' Les Mousfc[ue- 
 taires,' 1622. A company of gentils- 
 hommes a clieval who formed the garde 
 da roi created by Louis XIII. There 
 were two companies — the Grey and the 
 Black — so called from the colour of their 
 horses. Being dressed in scarlet, the 
 part of the palace where they lodged was 
 called the Maison-Eouge. Suppressed 
 in 1791 ; restored in 1814, but not organ- 
 ised again by Louis XVIII. on his second 
 restoration. 
 
 Mutiny Bill (T/ie), or 'Mutiny Act,' 
 1689 (1 WilUam & Mary, c. 5). It enacted 
 that any military offenders might be 
 arrested by military authority, and tried 
 and condemned by court-martial, in per- 
 fect independence of the civil courts. 
 
 This bill also provided for the better payment 
 of the army, and for better quarters. 
 
 Mutiny of the * Bounty' {The), 
 1789. H.M. ship ' Bounty,' commanded 
 by Capt. Bligh, was sent to Otaheite for 
 bread-fruit, and on the return voyage 
 the crew rebelled, led by Fletcher Chris- 
 tian, the master's mate. The rebels 
 forced Capt. Bligh and 18 of the men 
 into a boat and set them adrift, but they 
 landed in time at a Dutch settlement, 
 and reached England. The British 
 government sent Capt. Edward Edwards 
 to seize and bring home the rebels, when 
 fourteen were apprehended, but nine 
 were missing. The captives were tried 
 by court-martial, and three were sen- 
 tenced to death. Twenty years after- 
 wards the nine missing were heard of at 
 Pitcairn's Island (1800) ; but only one — 
 
 viz. Alexander Smith {alias John Adams) 
 — was alive. He had become a religious 
 man, and was farmer, schoolmaster, phy- 
 sician, and pastor in the island, in which 
 were 170 inhabitants, 88 being males and 
 82 females. He died in 1829. 
 
 Mutiny of the Kore {The), 22 
 
 May, 1797. Suppressed in June. This 
 mutiny was preceded by a rebellious 
 dissatisfaction of the seamen of the 
 channel fleet at Spithead, who deprived 
 their officers of command and threatened 
 their lives. This uprising was quelled 
 by an increase of pay ; but it was suc- 
 ceeded by a mutiny of the fleet at the 
 Nore, led by one Parker, and very ex- 
 travagant terms were demanded. After 
 a few weeks the men surrendered at dis- 
 cretion, and Parker was executed. 
 
 It was to encourage loyalty among our sailors 
 that, at this period, Charles Dibdin wrote his 
 sea-songs, and was rewarded with a pension. 
 
 Mutton-eating King {The). 
 Charles II. of England (1630, 1659-1685). 
 Here lies our mutton-eating king, 
 
 Whose word no man relies on 
 He never naid a foolish thing, 
 And never did a wise on'. 
 
 Eakl of Rochester. 
 
 Mutual Admiration Society 
 
 {The). In French, 'La Societe' d'Ad- 
 miration Mutuelle.' A jocose appellative 
 applied in Paris to the ' Societe d'Ob- 
 servation Medicale.' 
 
 In England it has been applied to 
 several sets ; as Shakespeare, Ben Jon- 
 son, Beaumont and Fletcher, itc. 
 
 Another consisted of contributors to 
 the ' Spectator,' such as Addison, Steele, 
 &c. 
 
 A third was the famous ' club ' of 
 Jolinson, Goldsmith, Burke, Reynolds, 
 Beauclerc, and Boswell. 
 
 Mutual Instruction, 1795. A 
 system of education introduced by Dr. 
 Bell in the Madras schools, where the 
 more advanced pupils were set to teach 
 the less advanced, whereby the number 
 of the staff of j)aid teachers was very 
 greatly reduced. Joseph Lancaster in 
 1798 caught the idea, and for a time the 
 mutual instruction plan was largely 
 adopted in our charity and parish 
 schools. The only remnant now left is 
 that of pupil teachers. 
 
 M.W.S., 1798. The legend on the 
 black flags of the Irish rebels in the 
 
608 
 
 MYRMILLONS 
 
 NAG'S 
 
 United Irislimen's sedition. The initials 
 of Murder Without Sin. 
 
 Myrmillons ( The), or ' Mirmillones ' 
 (4 syl.). Gladiators on foot who combated 
 with the retiarii. So named from a fish, 
 called by the Greeks /Aop/xvpo?, which 
 surmounted their helmets. 
 
 Mysteries, 13th, 14th, 15th cents. 
 Dramatic representations of the ' reli- 
 gious mysteries,' such as the Incarnation, 
 the Crucifixion, the Holy Trinity, and 
 the Real Presence. They were acted by 
 monks, generally in a cathedral. At 
 their decline they were replaced by the 
 Moralities {q.v.). 
 
 The four best Mystery plays were the ' Passion,' 
 the 'Resurrection.' the 'Incarnation,' and 'St. 
 Catherine.' Tlie ' Mystery of the Passion ' is still 
 (1890) performed in the Tyrol during 'Passion 
 Week." 
 
 Mystics. Those Christians who 
 believe there is a natural and mystical 
 meaning in Scripture, the latter to be 
 gleaned only by particular inspiration 
 and ' converse with heavenly habitants.' 
 They are great in visions, dream revela- 
 tions, and inward lights. 
 
 ' Let there be light ' means, in a natural sense, 
 ' Let there be the light of day ' — the light which 
 now proceeds from the sun— but mystically it 
 means ' Let there be divine inspiration and the 
 light of glory ; let light illumine the soul ; let 
 light be diffused in the heart, that it may know 
 the divine mysteries, and see what is hid from 
 the natural understanding." 
 
 Mythical School {The) of Theo- 
 logy in Germany was founded by Strauss, 
 who tried to prove that the gospels are 
 not real history, but beaux-ideals of 
 ancient prophecies personified. His 
 'Life of Jesus,' in 1840, produced an 
 immense sensation. His ' Christian 
 Doctrine and Faith' enters on the 
 struggle between science and the Bible 
 (1808-1874), 
 
 Naamans. A religious party founded 
 by Alexander Knox and Rowland Hill, 
 half churchmen and half dissenters. 
 They were like Naaman in the house of 
 Rimmon, 
 
 N"ab. To seize unexpectedly. Nabis 
 king of Sparta (b.c. 206-191) made a 
 statue resembling his wife, and clothed 
 it in magnificent apparel. When any- 
 one refused to deliver up his riches to 
 * the tyrant, he was led up to the statue, 
 and the statvie by secret springs seized 
 the victim in her arms and squeezed him 
 to death against iron spikes secreted by 
 
 her dress. If this is not philologically 
 tenable, it is at any rate an historical 
 curiosity. See ' Bullies.' 
 
 Similarly, to Burke, to Boycott, &c. The Nor- 
 wegian ' nappe ' (to seize) is a cognate word. It 
 may possibly be a contraction of apprehend (seize) 
 with an initial »i. 
 
 Wabathaean Kingdoms {The). 
 
 The kingdoms of the east. Arabia Felix 
 is called Nabathaea from Nebajoth the son 
 of Ishmael (Gen. xxxvi. 3). The people 
 of Arabia Petraea are called the Naba- 
 thasans, but the term is very widely ap- 
 plied. 
 
 Eurus ad Auroram Nabathseaque regna recessit 
 Persidaque, et radiis juga subdita matutinis. 
 Vesper et oeciduo quse littora Sole tepescunt, 
 Proxima sunt Zephyro; Scythiana septemque 
 
 triones 
 Horrifer invasit Boreas ; co itraria telUis 
 Nubibus assiduis pluvioque madescit ab .\ustro. 
 Ovid, Meiamo)yhoses, bk. i. 61, &c. 
 
 ITabonassar. See ' Era of.' 
 
 Naboth's Vineyard. A posses- 
 sion coveted by others. Thus in 1885, 
 when half the nations of Europe were 
 swooping down upon places for colonies 
 or annexation, it was said that ' Gei-many, 
 France, and Italy were looking about for 
 a Naboth's vineyard,' that is, a part of the 
 world which they could appropriate. Of 
 course the allusion is to King Ahab in 
 1 Kings xxi. 
 
 Nag's Head Ordination {The). 
 In 1.559, 17 Dec, Matthew Parker was 
 consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Pennant says the ceremony was to have 
 been performed by Anthony Kitchen 
 bishop of Llandaif , but Bonner interfered ; 
 whereupon fourteen ecclesiastics deter- 
 mined to consecrate each other to the 
 vacant' sees. Scory, a deposed bishop, 
 met the party at the Nag's Head Tavern, 
 Cheapside, and consecrated Parker arch- 
 bishop ; this being done, Parker proceeded 
 to consecrate the rest. Strype refutes this 
 tale in his ' Life of Archbishop Parker,' 
 and in Bennet College library is an in- 
 strument said to have been used on the 
 occasion, and being the consecration in 
 Lambeth chapel by William Barlow (late 
 bishop of Bath and V/ells), John Scory 
 (late bishop of Chichester), Miles Cover- 
 dale (bishop of Exeter), and John Hodg- 
 kins (suffragan bishop of Bedford), of 
 Parker and others. The Nag's Head tale 
 is attributed to Father Talbot and an- 
 other Jesuit named Holy wood. Dr. Doyle 
 in 1824-25, before a committee of the 
 
NAILS 
 
 NANEKISM 
 
 607 
 
 House of Commons, revived the Nag's 
 Head tale. 
 
 The story is this : the Nag's Head is the tavern 
 •where the dean of the arches and the civilians 
 •went to refresh themselves after the contirma- 
 tion of a bishop, and wliile the ecclesiastics 
 ■were there, one Neale (Bonner's chaplain) peeped 
 through the keyhole to see what was going on. 
 He saw Kitchen bishop of Llandaff solicited to 
 assist in the consecration service, but he stoutly 
 refused to take any part therein. Scory (late 
 bishop of Chicliester) then made all kneel down, 
 and said to Parker, ' Take thou authority to 
 preach the "word of God sincerely.' This tale was 
 accepted as an historic fact for at least forty 
 years : but we are told that the Earl of Nottingham 
 was present and contradicted it, and that Arch- 
 bishop Abbot produced the register of Canterbury 
 to disprove it. Of course Neale's tale, as well as 
 that of the earl and archbishop, are so doubtful 
 that no reliance can be placed on either of them. 
 
 Trails {The), used at the crucifixion. 
 Gregory Nazianzen asserts that there 
 •were only three nails used, but Cyprian 
 maintains that there •were four. The 
 number of those said to have been found 
 in the cave where the three crosses were 
 buried is equally uncertain. One was 
 sent to Rome, and is deposited in what 
 was afterwards the Santa Croce ; two 
 others v,'ere sent by the Empress Helc^na 
 to her son Constantine, one of which was 
 welded as an amulet to his helmet that 
 he might not be slain in battle, and the 
 other was set in his horse's headstall ; a 
 fourth the empress threw into the Gulf 
 of Venice to allay a storm ; a fifth was 
 beaten out into a thin band, and is set 
 in the famous ' iron crown of Lombardy,' 
 with which Charlemagne and Napoleon 
 were crowned. So that the find of the 
 empress did not settle the disputed point, 
 but only made it more doubtful. See 
 ' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' 
 
 Similarly the dispute about the wood of the 
 cross was not settled by the discovery of the ' true 
 cross.' Was it o-ak, pine, cedar, gopher wood, or 
 what ? Some affirm it was made of three or more 
 different kinds of wood. Certainly the relics 
 which profess to be parts of the cross vary, so 
 that the question is still undecided. 
 
 Calvin enumerates fourteen nails : one in the 
 Sant-a Croce at Rome, another in Siena, a third in 
 Venice, a fourth in the church of the Carmelites 
 in Paris, a fifth in the Holy Chapel, a sixth at 
 iJraguignan, a seventh at Trenaille, an eighth at 
 Treves, a ninth at Monza, a tenth in the crown of 
 Lombardy, one was thrown into the Gulf of 
 Venice, one was welded into the helmet of Con- 
 Btantine, one was set in the headstall of the em- 
 peror s horse (Gregory of Tours says two of the 
 nails were set in the headstall). This would make 
 fourteen. Not the slightest reliance can oe placed 
 on the genuineness of any of the relics of the cru- 
 cifixion, or of the ' saints.' 
 
 Nails found in Coffins. A nail 
 was at one time placed in a coffin for 
 luck, much as a horseshoe is nailed to a 
 stable door. The Romans drove annually 
 on the ides of September a nail into the 
 
 side wall of the temple of Jupiter Capito- 
 llnus (Livy, vii. 3). 
 
 It is supposed that the nails were originally a 
 sort of tally for marking the number of years, and 
 were continued out of reverence to an old custom 
 (Festus). The nail driven into the temple was 
 technically called ' Clavus annalis.' 
 
 Thames Classicised. It was much 
 
 the fashion, especially with German and 
 Dutch authors who wrote in Latin, to 
 convert their names into a Greek or Latin 
 equivalent, or to give them a classic turn, 
 as : — 
 
 Agricola (1492-1566) the reformer, and 
 friend of Luther, whose real name was 
 Schneider (a tailor). This wcs assuming 
 another name. 
 
 Bucer (1491-1551), a Dominican and 
 friend of Luther, whose real name was 
 Kuhhorn (cow-horn), of which bucer is 
 the Greek. 
 
 Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536), a 
 Dutchman whose real name was Gheraerd 
 Gheraerd, of which Desiderius is the 
 Latin, and Erasmos the Greek. 
 
 Melanchthon (1497-1560), one of Lu- 
 ther's friends, whose real name was 
 Schwartzerde (black earth). Melanchthon 
 is the Greek for a ' heap of black earth.' 
 
 CEcolampadius, the Latinised name of 
 Johann Hausschein, the reformer (1482- 
 1531). 
 
 Paracelsus (1493-1541), Graeco-Latin 
 for bombast, the real name being A. T. 
 Bombast. 
 
 Porphyry, the Grecised name of Malk, 
 the retal name of the disci j)le of Plot in 
 (233-304). 
 
 Regiomontanus, a Latinised form of 
 Kbnigsberger. So Johann M tiller called 
 himself (1436-1475). He was born at 
 Kbnigsberg in Franconia. 
 
 StobfEus is Stubbs Latinised (5th cent.). 
 
 Till after the reign of Friedrich II. the Great 
 (1740-1786) the Germans were ashamed of their 
 language, and all their standard works -were 
 written in Latin or Greek. Of course this does 
 not apply to Porphyry, though probably he dis- 
 liked the name of Malk. 
 
 Nameless Finger {The). The 3rd 
 finger of the right hand. The right- 
 hand fingers are the pointer, long finger, 
 nameless finger, little finger ; of the left 
 hand they are the pointer, long finger, 
 ring finger, and little finger. 
 
 nSTanekism. The religious system 
 of Nanek, founder of the religion of the 
 Sikhs, which is a fusion of Islamism 
 and Buddhism. The Sikhs recognise 
 both the Vedas and the Koran. 11 y 
 
608 
 
 NANTES 
 
 NAPOLEON 
 
 code is called the Adi-granth. Lahore 
 is the centre of Nanekism. 
 
 Nanek was born 1469, and died 1539. 
 N j3__' Sikh ' is one of a Hindu sect, and means 
 disciple. ' Sheik ' is an Arab chief. 
 
 Nantes {Edict of), July 1591, 
 granted by Henri IV. to the Protestants 
 of Prance, was only a revival of the Edict 
 of Poitiers conceded by Henri in 1577. 
 The difference was this: the Edict of 
 Nantes was enforced, that of Poitiers was 
 a dead letter. In 1597 the edict was 
 extended, and the Huguenots were al- 
 lowed the public exercise of their religion 
 in all places in which it had obtained a 
 footing in 1597, and in the suburbs of 
 towns. Permission was given to lords of 
 high rank to hold religious services in 
 their castles, and to noblemen of second 
 rank to admit thirty co-religionists to 
 their private chapels ; the reformed were 
 admitted to public offices, their children 
 to schools, and the poor to a share of 
 alms ; the right of printing books in cer- 
 tain towns was conceded, equal represen- 
 tation in some of the palements, four 
 academies of scientific and theological 
 instruction, and a certain number of places 
 of security. 
 
 Napier's Bones, 1617. A contri- 
 vance by John Napier baron of Merchis- 
 ton for saving the tedious processes of 
 multiplication and division by shifting 
 about slips of ivory or bone, and, after 
 the slips have been arranged, merely 
 adding or subtracting the figures on the 
 slips. 
 
 Thus a sum of multiplication by five figures 
 •would (after the bones are arranged) be per- 
 formed by simply adding five lines of figures. 
 
 Napoleon {The Code of), 1803-1804. 
 The ' Code Civil,' consisting of three 
 books, the first of persons, under 11 
 titles ; the second of goods, under 4 
 titles; and the third of the ways of 
 acquiring property, under 20 titles. 
 The whole code contains 2,281 articles. 
 Tronchet was ' the soul of the code,' but 
 he was assisted by Roederer, Portalis, 
 Thibaudeau, Cambaceres, and Lebrun. 
 
 Though the Napoleon Code means the Code Ci- 
 vil, yet there are several other codes for different 
 branches of the law, as the ' Code Penal,' the ' Code 
 des Delits et des Peines,' the ' Code d'Instruction 
 Criminelle,' &c. 
 
 Napoleon le Grand. Napoleon I. 
 (17(59, 1804-1814, died 1821). Banished 
 to Elba 1814 (he was deposed 4 April, 
 and arrived at Elba 4 May). Fhght 
 
 from Elba 26 Feb., 1815 ; reached Paris 
 20 March ; defeated at Waterloo 18 June. 
 He gave himself up to Caj)t. Maitland of 
 the ' Belleroxihon,' 15 July ; was banished 
 to St. Helena, and arrived there in the 
 ' Northumberland,' commanded by Ad- 
 miral Sir George Cockburn, 16 Oct. He 
 died 5 May, 1821. His remains were re- 
 moved to Paris in 1840, and were de- 
 posited in the Hotel des Invalides 15 Dec, 
 1840. 
 
 His ' day of the Violets * is 1 March, the day when 
 he reached Cannes after his escape from Elba. 
 See ' Violets.' 
 
 Father, Carlo Buonaparte of Corsica; Mother, 
 Maria Letizia Ramolina ; Wives (1) Josephine, 
 widow of Beauharnais, divorced ; (2) Maria Louisa 
 archduchess of Austria; Son, Francois Joseph Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte. Cont.'mporary with George III. 
 
 Memoranda. Napoleon Bonaparte was sublieu- 
 tenant of artillery 1785, captain 1792, commander 
 of the National Guards 1792, brigadier-general 1791, 
 commander-in-chief of the army in Italy 1796, First 
 Consul 24 Dec, 1799, First Consul for life 2 Aug., 
 1802,. Emperor 18 May, 1804. He won flfty-two vic- 
 tories. His life was attempted in Dec. 1800 by an 
 ' infernal machine ' planted in the Piue St. Nicasse. 
 The intention was to kill him on his way to the 
 opera. He was once wounded slightly in battle, 
 and was excommunicated by Pius VII. in 1809. 
 
 His abdications : I. Deposed by the 
 senate, and abdicated at Fontainebleau 
 4 April, 1814. Sent to Elba in the British 
 frigate called the ' Undaunted,' under 
 the command of Caj)t. Usher ; went on 
 board 28 April, and arrived at Elba 4 May, 
 1814. 
 
 II. After the battle of Waterloo he 
 abdicated a second time, 22 June, 1815. 
 He gave himself up at Rochefort to Cap- 
 tain Maitland, commander of the ' Belie- 
 rophon.' Accompanied by Count Ber- 
 trand. Count Montholon, Count Lascases, 
 Baron Gourgaud, a surgeon, and twelve 
 domestics, he was then sent to St. Helena 
 in the ' Northumberland,' under the com- 
 mand of Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 
 and arrived there 16 Oct., 1815, Sir Hud- 
 son Lowe being governor of the island. 
 He lived in Long wood House, and died 5 
 May, 1821, amidst a phenomenal tempest. 
 
 His crack regiments were the 30th, 
 43rd, and 96th. To belong to one of these 
 infantry corps was a warrant of reckless 
 courage and undaunted bravery. Napo- 
 leon and all his staff uncovered and 
 bowed low as any one of their tattered 
 colours filed in review before them. 
 
 Napoleon II. Son of Napoleon I. 
 and his second wife Maria Louisa arch- 
 duchess of Austria. He was created 
 ' King of Rome ' from the moment of his 
 birth (20 March, 1811), and, when his 
 
NAPOLEON 
 
 NATIONS 
 
 600 
 
 father abdicated in 1814, the Senate pro- 
 claimed him Napoleon II., a title which 
 the powers of Europe would not allow. 
 On the fall of his father in 1815, the lad 
 retu-ed to the court of his maternal grand- 
 father, the emperor of Austria, and re- 
 ceived the title of ' Duke of Reichstadt.' 
 He died of consumption at Schonbrunn 
 in 1832. 
 
 Napoleon III., Emperor of the 
 French (1808, reigned 1852-1870; de- 
 posed, and died 1873). 
 
 Father, Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I : 
 Mother, Hortense de Beauharnais, daughter of 
 Josephine by her first husband (her second hus- 
 l)and was Napoleon I.) ; Wife, Marie-Eugenie de 
 Guzman, comtesse de Teba. Contemporary with 
 Queen Victoria. 
 
 *^* His life was attempted six times. 
 
 1852, 24 Sept. An infernal machine 
 was found at Marseilles designed to kill 
 him. 
 
 1853, 5 July. His assassination was 
 attempted as he was leaving the Ope'ra 
 Comique. 
 
 1855, 28 April. Giovanni Pianori fired 
 at him in the Champs Elysees. 
 
 1857, 7 Aug. Barcolotti, Gibaldi, and 
 Grillo came to London to assassinate him 
 while he was on a visit to Queen Victoria. 
 
 1858, 14 Jan. Orsi'ni [q-v.) attempted 
 his life. 
 
 1863, 24 Dec. Greco attempted his 
 life. 
 
 Orsini organised his infernal plot in London, 
 Pianori did the same ; Mazzini, Ledru-Kollin, and 
 Campanello in London supplied plotters with 
 arms, itc. The French ambassador complained to 
 the British government ; and these plotters again t 
 the French emperor nearly dragged us into a war 
 with France. 
 
 Special Constable in London, 10 April, 
 1848. Louis Napoleon, with 170,000 
 noblemen, gentlemen, merchants, and 
 tradesmen, volunteered to be sworn in as 
 special constables to prevent disturbance 
 of the peace by the Chartists when they 
 presented their monster petition {q.v.). 
 Louis Napoleon acted under the Earl of 
 Eglinton. 
 
 *»• Nicknam>'x : — 
 
 COMTE D'ARENSBERG. So he called himself 
 after his escape from the fortress of Ham. 
 
 Bauingiet. The name of the mui he shot in 
 his Boulogne escapade. 
 
 BousTRAPA. A compound of Bou[logne], Stra- 
 [sbourg], and Pa[ris], the places of his no-ed esca- 
 pades. 
 
 Grosbec. So called from the rather unusual 
 size of his nose. 
 
 Man of December. So called because December 
 was his month of glory. Thus he was elected 
 president 11 Dec, luirf: he made his coup d elnt 
 2 Dec, 1851 ; was chosen president for life by 
 plebiscite 21 Dec, 18ol ; and was created emperor 
 2 Dec, l«o2. 
 
 Man of Sedan. So called because at Sedan he 
 surrendered his sword to William king of Prussia, 
 Sept. 1870. 
 
 Man of Silence. .Sfce p. 548. 
 
 Oui-Oui was thepetname given him by Hortense 
 in his childhood. He was a quick, intelligent boy, 
 beautiful as a girl. 
 
 Ratipole (3 syl.). The same as the West of 
 England word rantipole. meaning a harum-scarum 
 fellow, half idiot and half madcap. 
 
 Sedantaire. a pun on Sedan. See above. 
 
 SOULOUQUE (q.v.). 
 
 The Little. Victor Hugo gave him this title, but 
 the hatred of Hugo for Napoleon was a mono- 
 mania. 
 
 Verhuel. The name of his supposed father. 
 He was born while his mother was separated from 
 her husband. Scandal says she had been sepa- 
 rated thirteen months. 
 
 *»* Whatever maybe said of Napoleon III., two 
 things deserve mention: (1) He was the only 
 crowned head of France who' visited England as a 
 friend : and ('2) all through his reign he knew his 
 best policy was to remain friendly to England. 
 From this wi e policy he never swerved, although 
 sometimes goaded to animosity by his military ad- 
 visers. Our relations with France have certainly 
 not improved by the substitution of a republ c 
 
 ITapoleon of Peace (T/ie). Louis- 
 Philippe king of the French (1773-1850, 
 reigned 1830-1848). Also called 'The 
 Citizen King.' 
 
 Napoleon of the East (Thf^). 
 
 Mehemet AH pacha of Egypt (17C9- 
 1848). 
 
 War>oleon of the Turf {The). 
 Lord George Bentinck (1802-1848). 
 
 Ifassae Diamond (The). For- 
 merly in the possession of the East 
 India Company ; weighed 89f carats, but 
 since the Duke of Westminster had it 
 cut anew it weighs only 78,4 carats. Its 
 value is about 30,000Z. See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Nation of Shopkeepers {A). So 
 Louis XIV. called Holland. Napoleon 
 Bonaparte applied the phrase to Eng- 
 land; but whether England or France is 
 the more given to trade would be hard 
 to determine. Probably the pi'oportion 
 of men independent of trade would be in 
 favour of England ; and without the least 
 doubt the money-grabbing or commer- 
 cial spirit in Frenchmen is very much 
 stronger than it is in Englishmen. I 
 lived eight or nine years in France, and 
 mixed with all classes — the court, the 
 military, the medical profession, the 
 literati, the bourgeois, and the proletariat. 
 
 Nations {Expedition of the), a.d. 
 G25. When the Koreish were defeated 
 by Mohammed. They had been defeated 
 by him in 623 at Bedr and Ohud. See 
 ' Ditch.' 
 
 Rll 
 
610 
 
 NATIONAL 
 
 NATIONAL 
 
 National Anthem (The) of Hun- 
 gary is ' Rakotski's March.' See ' God 
 save the King.' 
 
 Prince Franz Leopold Rakotski, a Transylvanian 
 prince, protector of Protestantism (died 1676). 
 
 Wational Assembly {The). 
 
 I. Of France, 17 June, 1789. ' L'As- 
 semblee Nationale,' the tiers etat, which 
 withdrew from the States-General, while 
 the nobles and clergy were debating how 
 the votes were to be counted, and whether 
 they should sit in the same house with 
 the deputies. 
 
 The nobles and clergy wanted to have three 
 houses and to vote by houses. This, of course, 
 ■would be simply to ignore the tiers etat. The 
 deputies, v.'ho numbered 584 members, while the 
 two other estates numbered both together only 
 561, insisted on voting pt-r capita. 
 
 II. Of Germany, 1848. It superseded 
 the old German ' Diet ' {q.v.), which held 
 its meetings at Frankfort. The National 
 Assembly met at Berlin, and offered 
 the imperial crown to William king of 
 Prussia, but he declined the honour. It 
 formed a constitution with two chambers ; 
 the upper one was to contain 200 members 
 and the lower one to consist of repre- 
 sentatives of the people, one-third of the 
 members to retire every two years. The 
 kaiser was to have the absolute right of 
 declaring peace and war, and of making 
 treaties. Free municipal institutions 
 were to be established ; and perfect free- 
 dom in religion, education, science, and 
 the press to be conceded. All this fell 
 through in 1849, when a new legislative 
 body was constituted, consisting of two 
 chambers, which met at Brandenburg. 
 
 The National Assembly of Berlin proved so 
 refractory that the city was deserted, trade was 
 paralysed, and Prussia was reduced to the verge 
 ol civil war. 
 
 National Association for the 
 
 Repeal of the Union {The), i.e. the union 
 between Great Britain and Ireland. Or- 
 ganised in Ireland 1840, and monster 
 meetings were held on the Hill of Tara 
 to promote the object 15 Aug., 1843. The 
 subject of repeal has agitated Ireland 
 ever since 1810, and in 1886 Mr. W. E. 
 Gladstone brought in a bill with a view 
 of putting an end to the ever-recurring 
 agitation. In 1840 Daniel O'Connell was 
 the great agitator; and from 1881 to 1890, 
 under the name of ' Home Rule ' and the 
 leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell, 
 the question of repeal obstructed almost 
 all parliamentary business. See 'Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 National Association of Ire- 
 land {The), 1864. Fomied to dis- 
 establish the Irish Church, and to alter 
 the land laws. The church was disesta- 
 blished in 1869. See 'Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 National Board {The), Ireland. 
 The ' Commissioners of National Educa- 
 tion ' {q.v.). 
 
 National Confederacy of Po- 
 land {The). The dissident^ under 
 Prince Radzivil. They amounted to 
 72,000 noblemen and gentlemen, and 
 were ojoposed by a Catholic association 
 called the 'Confederacy of Bar' {q.v.), 
 which in 1774 conspired to assassinate 
 the king (Stanislaus Augustus Ponia- 
 towski), suspected of favouring the 
 dissidents. The king escaped in a 
 miraculous manner, lived through the 
 two partitions of Poland, was compelled 
 by Catharine of Russia to abdicate in 
 1795, and died in obscurity in 1798, 
 
 National Convention {The). 
 
 I. Of Chartists, 1838. Up to 12 Aug. 
 the delegates met at the Arundel Coffee 
 House, in the Strand, London. It was 
 declared illegal by the Convention Act 
 Dec. 1839, but meetings continued to be 
 held for ten years longer. 
 
 The Chartists were strongly averse to the Anti- 
 Corn-Law League, because, they said, it would 
 reduce the labouring man's wages, which were 
 virtually regulated by the price of corn. 
 
 II. Of France. ' La Convention Na- 
 tionale ' (from 21 Sept., 1792 to 26 Oct., 
 1795). The French legislature which 
 succeeded the Legislative Assembly {q.v.). 
 On the very first day of meeting it 
 abolished royalty and proclaimed France 
 to be a republic. On 17 Jan., 1793, it 
 pronounced sentence of death on Louis 
 XVI. On 5 Oct., 1793, it declared that 
 all dates should be computed from the 
 foundation of the republic (22 Sept., 
 1792). On 16 Oct., 1793, it brought 
 Marie-Antoinette to the guillotine. On 
 21 Oct. it condemned to death twenty- 
 one of the Girondists. On 5 April, 1794, 
 it condemned to death Danton, Camille 
 Desmoulins, and many others of the 
 Cordeliers {q.v.). On 27 July, 1794, it 
 condemned to death Robespierre. On 
 26 Oct., 1795, it declared itself dissolved. 
 
 On the ri(iht sat the Girondists, on the left the 
 Montagnards, in the centre the middle-men. The 
 number of members was originally 721 ; reduced 
 
NATIONAL 
 
 NATIONALISTS 
 
 611 
 
 to 500 in Year III. and to 300 in Year VIII. (21 Sept., 
 
 1792). 
 
 National Covenant {The), 1638. 
 
 A bond of union drawn up at Edinburgh 
 by the leading Presbyterian ministers, 
 embodying the Confession of 1580, and 
 binding all who signed it to spare nothing 
 in the endeavour to preserve their na- 
 tional religion. The proximate cause of 
 this bond was the attempt of Charles I. 
 to enforce on Scotland episcopacy and 
 the Common Prayer Book. 
 
 National Debt {The), 1664. The 
 national debt began in the reign of 
 Charles II., to make up the deficiencies 
 of the revenue. In 1672 he declared 
 that the interest could not be paid, but 
 in 1684 the payment of interest was re- 
 sumed. In 1699 the rate of interest was 
 fixed at 3 per cent. Future sovereigns 
 increased the debt chiefly for war ex- 
 penses. The debt was highest in 1817, 
 when it was almost 811 millions. In 1888 
 the interest was reduced to 2| per cent. 
 
 National Defects. The special 
 plague of China is leprosy, so was it of 
 the ancient Jews; of Japan and India 
 smallpox and cholera ; of Southekn Italy 
 physical deformities ; of Holland spinal 
 diseases ; of Germany defective eyesight ; 
 of Switzerland goitre and rotten teeth ; 
 of North America rotten teeth and early 
 baldness ; of France ' the French disease ' ; 
 of England consumption, especially 
 among girls. 
 
 National Gallery {The), 1824. 
 The National Picture Gallery in Trafal- 
 gar Square, London. The foundation was 
 the collection of Mr. Angerstein, pur- 
 chased by government ; enriched by the 
 gifts of Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
 Mr. 'J. W. M. Turner, and others. 
 
 The buildin() in Trafalgar Square by Wilkins was 
 opened 9 April, 18.S8, enlarged by Pennethorne in 
 18(50. The caateni wing was granted to the lioyal 
 Academy of Arts for their annual exhibition of 
 pictures, &c., formerly shown at Somerset House ; 
 and the wesU'ni wing was set apart for national 
 pictures of ancient and modern deceased artists, 
 formerly exhibited in Pall Mall. In 18G8 the Royal 
 Academicians removed their exhibition to Bur- 
 lington House, and left the whole of the National 
 Gallery for the exhibition of national works. 
 
 National Land League of 
 G-reat Britain, March 1881. To 
 abolish rent altogether in Ireland ; and 
 to make Ireland an independent nation, 
 ' with its own flag among the nations of 
 the world.' This league was in substitu- 
 tion of Michael Davitt's Land League 
 
 {q.v.), which was suppressed in 1882. 
 Proclaimed as unlawful Aug. 1887. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 In 1885 there sprang up, in the U.S. of North 
 America, the ' Irish National League of America." 
 
 National League {The), 1882, 
 Ireland, had for its objects : — 
 
 1. National self-government. 
 
 2. Land law refoura. 
 
 3. Local self-government. 
 
 4. Extension of parliamentary and 
 municipal franchise. 
 
 5. The development and encourage- 
 ment of. native industries and manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 The Land League, instituted in 1881, was sup 
 pressed in 1882. Hee ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 National School Society {The) 
 of England, 11 Nov., 1811. Parochial 
 schools in connection with the Church of 
 England, supported by voluntary contri- 
 butions, school pence, and government 
 grants. The schools are examined by 
 government inspectors and are under 
 diocesan inspection also. See ' Board 
 Schools.' 
 
 National Schools {The), of Ire- 
 land, 1833. Introduced by Mr. Stanley, 
 chief secretary. These schools are under 
 a board called the ' Commissioners of 
 National Education in Ireland ' {q.v.). 
 The schools are strictly undenomina- 
 tional, and no pupil need attend any 
 religious instruction which the parents 
 or guardians do not approve ; but any 
 pupil may receive special religious 
 instruction at a fixed appointed time. 
 No book to be introduced without the 
 express approval of the commissioners. 
 
 National Subsidy {The English), 
 1770. The interest of the large subscrip- 
 tions made in Great Britain for the aug- 
 mentation of the pastors' salaries in the 
 Piedmontese valleys. This was in addi- 
 tion to the ' Royal Subsidy ' {q.v.). ' 
 
 Nationalists (1886). An Irish 
 party led by C. S. Parnell, M.P., which 
 wanted to secure for Ireland a separate 
 parliament, with the ulterior view of 
 separating Ireland from England, and 
 making it an independent kingdom. In 
 1886 Mr. Gladstone brought in a bill for 
 Home Rule in Ireland. Those Whigs who 
 favoured this bill were called Separatists, 
 and those who opposed it were called 
 Unionists. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 BR 2 
 
612 
 
 NATURA 
 
 NAZOREANS 
 
 Natura Naturans. ' Nature ope- 
 rating is Nature's creator.' Bruno's 
 phrase (1550-1600), by which he meant 
 that it was not God who created all 
 things out of nothing, but that ' energising 
 Nature ' was the true creative force. Not 
 ' Deus creavit omnia ex nihilo,' but 
 ' Natura naturans naturavit naturam,' 
 
 Si^inoza taught that God and Nature 
 are identical ; and Stahl taught that God 
 is the anima mundi, or its vital prin- 
 ciple, as the soul is of the body. 
 
 Natura ISTaturata. Nature made 
 Nature ; or Nature is the outcome of 
 natu al en n-gy . 
 
 K"atural Experimental Philo- 
 sophy. See ' Jacksonian Professor.' 
 
 K'atural Science Tripos. Three 
 classes into which students in the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge are divided who have 
 passed with credit their final examina- 
 tions in the Natural Sciences. The Na- 
 tural Sciences include (1) Chemistky 
 (the laws of heat, and the laws of metallic 
 and non-metallic bodies) ; (2) Botany 
 (the structure, &c. of vegetable cells, the 
 vessels of plants, the functions of their 
 organs, their means of reproduction, and 
 their classification); (3) Zoology (the 
 genera of animals, their special forms and 
 skeletons, nervous system, digestive 
 system, circulatory system, organs of 
 respiration, ova, and embryo); (4) Geo- 
 logy (the leading facts of Physical 
 Geography, the order of the stratified 
 rocks and their general character). ' And 
 these six other subjects : Biology, Physics, 
 Mineralogy, Comparative Anatomy, Hu- 
 man Anatomy, and Physiology. Of 
 course, no examination includes all these 
 nine subjects. See ' Moral Sciences.' 
 
 Nauteh Girls {The). See under 
 ' Bayaderes ' (3 syl.). 
 
 IN" aval Mass. The mass celebrated 
 on board ship, when the rolling of the 
 vessel might cause the wine to be spilt 
 or the ' bread ' to be scattered. In this 
 mass the oblation, the consecration of the 
 elements, and the communion are all 
 omitted. 
 
 3S"avarrais(T;ie), 1357-1364. Charles 
 the Bad of Navarre, son-in-law of Louis 
 X. of France, who conspired with the 
 dauj)hin against Jean II. le Bon. He was 
 in; prisoned, but made his escape after the 
 
 battle of Poitiers. In 1357 he joined the 
 English, and while Jean was in captivity 
 in London, laid claim to the crown of 
 France (1358). At the death of Jean, his 
 son and successor Charles V. sent Ber- 
 trand du Guesclin against these invaders 
 and marauders. He encountered thena in 
 Normandy, routed them utterly, and slew 
 their leader the Captal de Buch. 
 
 Charles the Bad met with a very singular death. 
 He was advised by his medical attendant to sleep 
 in a nightdress steeped in spirits of wine. He did 
 so, his dress caught tire, and he was burnt to death. 
 
 l^avigation Act {The\ 1651. Pro- 
 mulgated by Cromwell. Its object was 
 to exclude all foreigners from English 
 ports, and to secure to England and its 
 colonies all the carrying trade. Hitherto 
 Holland had been the great carrying 
 state, but by this act it was ordained 
 that no goods from Asia, Africa, or 
 America should be imported to Great 
 Britain except in ships belonging to Eng- 
 land or its colonies. Abolished in 1849. 
 See ' Reciprocity Act.' 
 
 Nazarenes(3syl.),orKazar8earis. 
 
 A sect mentioned by Tertullus in 
 Acts xxiv. 5. The Christians were so 
 called insultingly ; but the word was sub- 
 sequently applied to Judaizing Christians, 
 who demanded exact conformity to the 
 Mosaic ritual. The only gospel they 
 accepted was ' an heretical gospel ' ascribed 
 to Matthew. 
 
 In Evangelio juxta Hebraeos, quod Chaldaico 
 quidem Syronue sermone, sed Hebraicis Uteris 
 conscriptum est, quo utuntur usque hodie Naza- 
 reni. — Jerome, hialotj. adv. Pelagiaiws, book iii. 2. 
 
 Nazarites (3 syl.). Persons sepa- 
 rated or consecrated to God (Numb. vi.). 
 (1) They abstained not only from wine, but 
 even from the grapes of which wine is 
 made ; (2) they were never allowed to 
 cut their hair ; (3) they were never 
 allowed to defile themselves by contact 
 with a dead body, not even if that body was 
 the nearest and dearest, as husband or 
 wife, father or mother, son or daughter, 
 brother or sister. 
 
 Nazoreans. ' Nazireans,' ' Naza- 
 reans,' or ' Nousaieriens,' a sect (men- 
 tioned by St. Epiphanius), and said to 
 have been in existence before the Chris- 
 tian era. They had a scripture called the 
 ' Book of Adam,' containing most of our 
 ' Book of Genesis.' When Christ came, 
 they abjured his mission, and called their 
 own founder the real Messiah (' Anaca- 
 lypsis,' p. 657). 
 
NEBRASKA 
 
 NEOLOGIANS 
 
 613 
 
 Nebraska (U. S. America). So 
 called from the river Nebraska (Indian), 
 now the River Platte. The inhabitants 
 are nicknamed Bug -eaters ; they are 
 said to have once eaten locusts during a 
 visitation of those insects. 
 
 Necessary Doctrine or Erudi- 
 tion {The), 1543. A book of directions 
 drawn up in convocation by the bishops 
 inclined to the reformation. This book 
 was of authority in the English Church 
 during the remainder of Henry VIII.'s 
 reign. 
 
 Necessitarians. Those who deny 
 the freedom of the will, such as Augustine 
 and Calvin. Thus Augustine insisted 
 that conversion is solely by free grace, 
 independent of the human will ; and Cal- 
 vin insisted that those saved were pre- 
 destined to be saved. Pelagius and 
 Arminius insisted that man is free to 
 accept or reject the gospel. 
 
 Negative Elements of our 
 Balief {The). The Unitarian Confes- 
 sion of Faith, contained in four articles 
 (Martineau, ' Studies,' p. 77). 
 
 The Positive Ones, as described by Dr. Beard, are 
 about eight or nine. 
 
 Negative Oath {The\ 1641. An 
 oath imposed on the clergy in the reign 
 of Charles I., that they ' would not con- 
 sent to alter the government of the 
 Church.' The University of Oxford pro- 
 tested against this oath. 
 
 Neill of the Showers {King), 
 795- . So called because on the night 
 he was born three showers fell in Ireland : 
 a shower of honey, a shower of silver, and 
 a shower of blood. 
 
 Nelson {The Danish). Peter Torden- 
 skiold (1691-1720). He was a tailor's ap- 
 prentice in Trondhjem, and raised him- 
 self to the rank of vice-admiral. 
 
 Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem. 
 
 Nelson's Column, in Trafalgar 
 Square, was erected in 1843 ; the lour 
 lions by Landseer were added in 1867. 
 
 The design of the column was furnished by 
 W. Railton, who took for his model a column of 
 the Temple of Mars Ultor at Rome. The order is 
 Corinthian, and the material Devonshire granite. 
 
 Nelson's Eye. August 1794, at the 
 siege of Calvi, a very strongly situated 
 and fortified place in Corsica, Nelson lost 
 the sight of one of his eyes by gravel 
 
 driven into it by a shot which fell near 
 
 him (age 36). 
 
 He lost his arm in July 1797, in an attack on 
 Santa Cruz, Teneritte (age 39). 
 
 Neme'an G-ames. Held in Neme'a, 
 in Argolis. Instituted by the seven heroes 
 on their return from Thebes ; but histori- 
 cally B.C. 575. Philip of Macedon pre- 
 sided at the opening games. They were 
 held four times a year, and the original 
 prize was an olive wreath. Eleven of 
 the Odes of Pindar are in celebration of 
 victors in these games. 
 
 Nemedians {The). Invaders of 
 Ireland under Nemedius, who compelled 
 the subjugated Fomorians {q.v.) to build 
 forts for them, and afterwards put the 
 architects to death. They were driven 
 out of the island by the natives, but a few 
 left behind had a district awarded them 
 (Keating, p. 121). 
 
 Moore, in his 'History of Ireland,' says the 
 Fomorians were African pirates who overcame 
 the Nemedians, dispersed them, and destroyed 
 them.— Chap. v. 76. 
 
 Nemours {The Treaty of), 1585, in 
 which Henri ill. of France engaged to 
 deprive the Huguenots, not only of the 
 public exercise of their religion, but also 
 of liberty of conscience. It was ordered 
 by this treaty that all the Calvinistic 
 clergy should quit the kingdom within 
 a month, and that all Huguenots, who 
 would not abjure, should emigrate before 
 six months under penalty of confiscation 
 of goods and death. This term of six 
 months was afterwards reduced to fifteen 
 days. 
 
 Nao-Fenians, 1878-79. Founded 
 by John Devoy. His ' new departure ' 
 had for its object the ' uniting of the 
 forces of revolution and constitutional 
 agitation, with a view of advancing the 
 aims of the separatist party.' See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Neolo'gians, Neol'ogy. A ra- 
 tionalistic form of Christianity introduced 
 in the 18th cent, by Eichlaorn and Paulus, 
 who denied the divine origin of the Scrip- 
 ture ; maintained that the Old Testament 
 is like any other history ; that clergy- 
 men are mere professors of theology, 
 as lawyers and medical men are profes- 
 sors of their respective professions ; and 
 that miracles, if worthy of any credit, 
 are only natural occurrences. 
 
614 
 
 NEOPLATONISM 
 
 NETHEELANDS 
 
 Neoplat'onism. This philosophy 
 developed itself in Alexandria, and its 
 object was an amalgamation of Plato's 
 philosophy with Eastern mysticism. The 
 Neoplatonists gave objective reality to 
 abstract ideas. Thus Wisdom was made 
 a person, and it is thought by some that 
 ' The Word ' referred to in the gospel of 
 St. John is an instance in point. The 
 Trinity of the Neoplatonists consists of 
 Unity, Wisdom or the Word, and the 
 Mundane Soul. The chief exponents 
 are Ammonius Saccas, Plotlnus, Por- 
 phyry, Jamblichus, Proclus, and Julian 
 the Apostate. 
 
 Ncoplatonism, in Alexandria, originated with 
 Phiilo about A.D. 35 or 40 ; but was more definitely 
 constituted by Ammonius Saccas about lt)0-240. 
 
 !N'eph'ites (2 syl.). The second 
 American race according to the Book of 
 Mormon. The first were Jaredites, so 
 called from Jared, who led a colony to 
 America at the dispersion when God con- 
 founded the tongues of the builders of 
 the Tower of Babel. The first colony 
 were all slain by internecine war. The 
 Nephites were so called from Nephi 
 (youngest of the four sons of Lehi), who 
 led the second colony, and was appointed 
 by God to rule over the colony settled in 
 Chili. 
 
 As the brothers of Nephi opposed this decree ot 
 God their sl^ins were blackened, and they became 
 the founders of the American Indian tribes. Nephi 
 heard the earthquake at the crucifixion, and 
 Christ himself appeared to him forty days and 
 revealed to him the truths of Christianity. In 
 A.D. 384 the race of Nephi was annihilated. See 
 ' Book of Mormon." 
 
 Neri (The),^ 1294. A political faction 
 in Pistoia, similar to the Donati of Flor- 
 ence, and favourers of the Guelf s. Their 
 opponents were the Bianchi (q.v.). 
 
 The names were derived from two 
 powerful families ; the Neri represented 
 the high aristocratic class, and the 
 Bianchi the rich merchant class. See 
 the ' Blacks and Whites.' 
 
 ISTero of Persia (The). Sefi or 
 Sophi, grandson of Abbas the Great 
 (1628-1642). This tyrant had not one 
 redeeming quality. 
 
 Nero of the North {The). Chris- 
 
 tiern II. of Denmark (1480, 1513-1523). 
 
 Nero's Torches. Christians 
 smeared with oil or tar, stuck in the 
 ground, and set alight. It is said that 
 the Emperor Nero threw on the Chris- 
 tians the charge of setting fire to Rome, 
 
 and thus tortured some of them in public 
 thoroughfares a.d. 64. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that religion and poli- 
 tics were united in the Roman empire, and that 
 the persecution of Cliristians was in all cases more 
 a matter of civil policy than of aversion to Chris- 
 tian dogmas. 
 
 Nertschinsk {Treahj of), 1689. 
 Between Russia and China, fixing the 
 boundary line between the two countries. 
 Tlie river Kerbeschi (the Gorbitza) was 
 made the line of separation. 
 
 Nestor of Europe {The). Leopold 
 king of Belgium (1790, 1831-1865). 
 
 Nestor of German Poesy {The). 
 Christoph August Tiedge (1752-1841). 
 
 Nestor of German Sculptors 
 
 {The). John Heinrich Dannecker (1758- 
 1841). 
 
 Nestorian Liturgy {The). No 
 
 Nestorian liturgy has been printed, but 
 probably the Anglican missionaries sent 
 to the Assyrian Church in 1887 will make 
 it a part of their duty to print these ser- 
 vice-books. The Nestorians teach that 
 there are two persons, not two natures, in 
 Christ. Their chief bishop used to be 
 called the Catholicos, but is now called 
 the Patriarch. They do not accept the 
 canon of Scripture as authorised in the 
 Council of Rome 494. They have seven 
 sacraments, but these are not identical 
 with the sacraments of the Western 
 Church. They are rigid Sabbatarians, and 
 acknowledge three orders of the ministry. 
 
 Nestorians, a.d. 428. The followers 
 of Nestorius patriarch of Constantinople 
 (died 439). He maintained that Jesus 
 Christ was the union of two persons, the 
 Divine Word and the man Christ Jesus. 
 The former dwelt in the latter as in a 
 temple, and Mary was not the mother of 
 God, but only the mother of the man 
 Christ Jesus, for ' God ' could not be 
 born, neither could He die. This heresy 
 was condemned by the General Council 
 of Ephesus in 431. There is a Nestorian 
 Liturgy. See ' Theophoron,' &c. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia first broached this 
 heresy, which still subsists in Persia and Turkey. 
 
 One party insisted that the Virgin Mary was 
 ' Theotocos ' (mother of God), another insisted 
 that she was ' Anthropotocos ' (mother of man); 
 Nestorius devised a middle term, ' Christotocos ' 
 (mother of Christ), and thus offended both sects. 
 
 Netherlands {The), 1548. The 
 seventeen provinces which under Charles 
 V. formed the ' circle of Burgundy.' They 
 passed to Spain in 1556. Seven of the 
 
NEUSTRIA 
 
 NEW 
 
 615 
 
 northern provinces in 1579 lea.^ed to- 
 gether in what is called the ' Union of 
 Utrecht,' threw off the Sj)anisli yoke, and 
 became in 1594 'the Republic of the 
 Seven Provinces.' 
 
 Under Louis XIV. of France Artois, 
 with parts of Flanders, Hainaut, and 
 Namur were united to France, and the 
 rest was called the ' Spanish (or Catholic) 
 Netherlands.' By the peace of Rastadt, 
 in 1714, these provinces were ceded to 
 Austria, and received the name of the 
 * Austrian Netherlands.' In the French 
 Revolution, France took these provinces 
 from Austria ; and in 1814 sixteen French 
 departments were formed into the ' king- 
 dom of the Netherlands,' and given to 
 William I. of the house of Nassau. In 
 1830 the kingdom was divided into ' the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands ' (Holland) 
 (north), and the ' kingdom of Belgium ' 
 (south). 
 
 The king of Holland still calls himself the ' king 
 Of the Netherlands.' Hee 'Holland.' 
 
 Neustria. The ancient name of 
 Normandy. 
 
 Neva'da (U.S. America). So called 
 from the Sierra Nevada, or ' snowy moun- 
 tain chain,' which traverses the state. 
 The nickname of the inhabitants is Sage- 
 hens. 
 
 Neuters. Presbyierians to be added 
 to the Rump. They would have no power 
 and no influence against the satellites of 
 Cromwell, who would form an overwhelm- 
 ing majority. 
 
 Scarcely had they met the next morning, when 
 Colonel Ingoldsby hastened in and informed them 
 that the Commons were hard at work pushing 
 forward their bill for increasing their own num- 
 bers by the introduction of the neuters.— HOWITT, 
 Hist, of England (Commonwealth), p. 329. 
 
 Neutralisation of the Black 
 
 Sea (The), 30 March, 1856. All ships of 
 ■war (with recognised exceptions) pro- 
 hibited from entering the waters of the 
 Black Sea, but it was free to the mercan- 
 tile marine of every nation. 
 
 The exceptions were that Russia and Turkey 
 might each have six steamships of 600 tons and 
 four light vessels of 200 tons each. 
 
 New and Latter House of 
 
 Israel (T7te). /See ' Jezreelites.' 
 
 New Church (The). The Sweden- 
 borgians. 
 
 New College, Oxford, 138G. Foun- 
 ded by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
 
 Winchester. The head-master is called 
 the warden. 
 
 New Connection {The), 1797. 
 Seceders from the Methodist Connection 
 led by Alexander Kilham. In doctrine 
 they follow Wesley, but in discipline they 
 resemble the Presbyterians. The people 
 choose their own officers, and send rei^re- 
 sentatives to all the synodical meetings 
 of the denomination. They seceded be- 
 cause they thought the conference is not 
 sufficiently representative ; and they gi\ e 
 an equal share in all administrative affair.^ 
 to laymen and ministers. 
 
 New Departure (The), 1880. lu 
 Irish history, commented on the visit of 
 Mr. Paruell to North America. It com- 
 bined the murderous violence of the Clan- 
 na-Gael or United Brotlierhood with the 
 craft of the 'constitutional agitation in 
 Ireland,' and the craze of the peasantry 
 (stirred up by the Land League at the 
 suggestion of Michael Davitt) of paying 
 no rent for their farms. See ' Irish Na- 
 tional Brotherhood.' 
 
 New Franciscans (The), 1768. A 
 club of twelve profligates who met in an 
 old Cistercian abbey at Medmenham on the 
 banks of the Thames, and there carica- 
 tured the rites and processions of the 
 Catholic brotherhood by obscene rites and 
 profane imitations. Over the portal they 
 inscribed the motto which Rabelais says 
 was placed over the gate of Theleme 
 Abbey: fay ce que voudras. They 
 rivalled in licentiousness and profanity 
 the Hell Fire Club. 
 
 Amongst the members were Wilkes (editor of the 
 ' North Briton '), Sir Francis Dash wood (chancellor 
 of the exchequer), Paul \\Tiitehead, Lord Sand- 
 wich, Ac. Called ' Franciscans from Francis (the 
 Christim name of Dashwood, who had his likeness 
 taken in the habit of a Franciscan friar. 
 
 New General Baptist Associa- 
 tion (The), 1770. Seceders on the 
 question of the divinity of Christ. 
 
 New Hampshire, in N. America, 
 previously called ' Laconia,' received its 
 present name from Captain John Mason 
 of Hampshire, to whom it was conceded 
 in 1029 by the Plymouth Company. It 
 is a state of mountains and lakes, and 
 called ' the Granite State ' and the 
 ' Switzerland of America.' The inhabi- 
 tants are nicknamed ' Granite Boys.' 
 
 New Inn Hall, Oxford, 1383. 
 Founded by Dr. Cramer dean of Carlisle. 
 The head of the hull is called the principal. 
 
616 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEW 
 
 Ne'W Jersey (U. S. America). So 
 called, 1664, in compliment to Sir John 
 Carteret, who had defended Jersey (in the 
 British Channel) against the Parliamen- 
 tarians in 1642. Charles II. gave the 
 territory to his brother James, and James 
 gave it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
 Carteret. Lord Berkeley resigned his 
 right to Penn and others, but Philip 
 Carteret tlie governor divided the territory 
 v^ith them by a straight line from north- 
 w^est to south-east. Carteret took the 
 east side and Penn the west. The in- 
 habitants are nicknamed Jersey Blues, 
 S'paniards, Crows, and Clam-catchers. 
 
 T^ew Jerusalem Church {The). 
 The Swedenborgians {q.v.). 
 
 Wew Method (T/ie), 1720-1724. The 
 work of John Wesley was so called at 
 Oxford. His ' method' was to visit the 
 sick, and go from place to place preach- 
 ing. Methodism as a system arose in 
 December 1739. 
 
 ]Srew Model [The), 1645. The re- 
 organised army according to Cromwell's 
 plan. Essex, the leader of the parliamen- 
 tary army, ' who was afraid to conquer 
 his king,' was replaced by Sir Thomas 
 Fairfax. Cromwell said, ' If I met the 
 king in battle, I would as soon fire my 
 pistol at him as at any other man.' No 
 officer of either House was to command 
 the new-modelled army, for the tenure 
 of military and civil offices in the same 
 person is incompatible. The army must 
 be wholly severed from the parliament. 
 The soldiers must be i^icked men, honest 
 and God-fearing. Young men are to be 
 preferred. In a word, the aristocratic 
 element was to be eliminated, and the 
 whole army to be constructed on the 
 model of Cromwell's ' Ironsides.' They 
 were volunteers, not pressed men, men 
 who left their farms and shops for a pur- 
 pose, and would return to them when that 
 purpose was accomplished. 
 
 ISTew Moral World {The). The 
 ' model parallelogram ' of Robert Owen ; 
 established at Orbiston, in Lanarkshire, 
 1825. Only one corner of the parallelogram 
 was ever built, and only 200 inmates were 
 ever collected together at any one time. 
 It was treated as a great moral nuisance, 
 and the building was soon levelled to 
 the ground. Owen's next scheme was in 
 * Harmony Hall,' Hampshire, 1844, where 
 
 he was president. This, like the Orbiston 
 parallelogram, was an utter failure, and 
 Owen was deposed by his own disciples. 
 He went to Paris in 1848, but made no 
 mark, and died in 1858. 
 
 Beside the Orbiston paralleloffram and the Har- 
 mony Hall, he had a place in Indiana (Amerioa) 
 which he called New Harmony, also an utter 
 failure. 
 
 ITew Republic [The). The follow- 
 ing names in Roman letters are supposed 
 to be the academy figures of the charac- 
 ters in italics, introduced into the novel 
 entitled ' The New Republic ' by Wil- 
 liam Hurrell Mallock. Donald Gordon, 
 Thomas Carlyle; Lady Grace, Mrs. 
 Mark Pattison (Lady Charles Dilke) ; 
 Herbert, Professor Ruskin; Dr. Jen- 
 kinson. Professor Jowett ; Leslie, Mr. 
 Hardinge ; Luke, Matthew Arnold ; 
 Bose, W. Pater; Saunders, Professor 
 Kingdon Clifford, or else F. Harrison ; 
 Seydon, Dr. Pusey; Mrs. Sinclair, 
 Mrs. [Violet Fane] Singleton ; Stockton, 
 Professor Tyndall ; Storks, Professor 
 Huxley. The ' Historian,' chap, ii. bk. 3, 
 is Professor Freeman. 
 
 New River {The). The united 
 streams of two rivulets in the parishes 
 of Ware and Amwell (Hertfordshire), 
 brought by Hugh Myddelton through a 
 course of twenty miles, to supply London 
 with water. Begun 1609, completed and 
 opened in 1613. 
 
 !N"ew Style. The reformed calendar 
 introduced by Gregory XIII. in 1582. It 
 was at once adopted in Italy, Spain, and 
 Portugal by abridging October eleven 
 days, and calling 5 Oct. the 15th. Fnince 
 adopted the reform the same year 
 by calling 10 Dec. the 20th. Catholic 
 Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- 
 lands adopted the new style in 1583 ; 
 Poland in 1586 ; Hungary in 1587 ; 
 Protestant Germany, Holland and Den- 
 mark in 1700 ; Protestant Switzerland in 
 1701 ; England in the reign of George II., 
 1752, when Wednesday 2 Sept. was 
 followed by Thursday 14 Sept. ; that is, 
 3 Sept. was called 14 Sept. (Holy-rood 
 day). In Sweden the new style was 
 adopted in 1753 ; Russia alone of Euro- 
 pean nations retains the old style. 
 
 In all cases such rules have been adopted as to 
 prevent the recurrence of any appreciable error ; 
 but the change is observable in our quarter- 
 days : thus new Midsummer day is 24 June, but old 
 Midsummer day is (> July; new Christmas day 
 is 25 Dec , but old Christmas day is G Jan. ; now 
 Lady day is 25 March, bat old Lady day is G April ; 
 
 I 
 
NEW 
 
 NEWTON 
 
 017 
 
 so new Michaelmas day is 29 Sept., but old Michael- 
 mab day is 11 Oct. 
 
 !N"ew Testament {The), was origi- 
 nally written on Egyptian papyrus ; but 
 in the 12th cent, it was written on silk 
 paper. 
 
 From the 5th to the 8th cent, it was 
 written in uncial letters {i.e. inch-large 
 letters), but from the 9th cent, cursive 
 letters were employed. 
 
 At first there were no divisions of 
 words. Euthalius (a deacon at Alexan- 
 dria), in the 5th cent., divided the words 
 into stichs (o-Tixa), that is, paragraphs. 
 In the 6th cent, the text was divided into 
 breves. In the 13th cent. Hugo de Santo 
 Caro (a French cardinal, Hugues de St. 
 Cher) divided the gospels into chapters 
 and verses, and Robert Stephens in the 
 16th cent, extended the division and in- 
 troduced the chapters and verses still in 
 general use. 
 
 The earliest MSS. of the New Testa- 
 ment are in uncial letters. And the 
 oldest known MS. is the ' Codex Vati- 
 canus ' {q.v.). 
 
 TTew Yoar's Day. The Franks 
 began the day on 1 March, the day 
 of their Champ de Mars or national 
 assembly. In the reign of Charlemagne 
 it was shifted to Christmas day, and con- 
 tinued so till the 16th cent., when 1 Jan. 
 was constituted New Year's day. There 
 are numerous relics of the custom of 
 beginning the year on 1 March. 
 
 Jlarch is a repetition of January. The moon 
 repeats itself, thus if it is new on 1 Jan. it will be 
 new on 1 March, &,c. 
 
 ITew York (U. S. America). Re- 
 ceived its present name in 1661, in com- 
 pliment to James (afterwards James II. 
 of Great Britain and Ireland) duke of 
 York, to whom the territory was given by 
 his brother Charles II. The inhabitants 
 are nicknamed Knickerbockers. 
 
 It had previously been called New Amsterdam. 
 
 Newdig^te {The). A prize for Eng- 
 lish verse given in the University of 
 Oxford annually, value 211, Founded 
 by Sir Roger Newdigate in 1808. In 
 Cambridge a medal is given called ' The 
 Chancellor's English Medal ' {q.v.). 
 
 Newmanism. The proper adjust- 
 ment of Christianity and the world accord- 
 ing to the opinions of the Oxford Trac- 
 tarians. 
 
 The Oxford Tractarians (ia33 1841) were 'A,' i.e. 
 Rev. John Keble, professor of poetry ; ' B,' the Rev. 
 Isaac Williams ; ' C the Rev. E. B. Pusey, D.D., re- 
 gius professor of Hebrew; 'D,' the Rev. John 
 Henry Newman, author of ' Tract No. 90 ' (ho 
 subsequently joined the Catholic Church, and was 
 made a cardinal ; died in 1890) ; ' E,' the Rev.Thomas 
 Keble ; ' F,' Sir John Provost, Bart. ; ' G,' the Rev. 
 R. F. WUson. 
 
 The Rev. John Henry Newman, born in London 
 1831 ; seceded from the Established Cliurch in lb45 ; 
 was made a cardinal in 1879 ; and died in 1890. 
 
 I^ewmarket Oracle {The). Og- 
 den, a professional betting-man, who rose 
 from nothing (18th cent.). 
 
 Ne-wnham College, 1880 (Cam- 
 bridge), for the residence and instruction 
 of ladies. Miss Fawcett's position in 
 the Mathematical Tripos of 1890, ' above 
 the senior wrangler ' of Cambridge, put 
 this college in the first rank. 
 
 Newspapers. 
 
 In ancient Rome an offlcial gazette, called ' Acta 
 Diurna ' ('7.r.).was issued under the management 
 and authority of the government, and posted 
 up daily in some prominent place in tlie city. 
 In Venice a paper of public intelligence, 
 
 called ' Gazzetta,' was published in 1620 
 
 In England the first weddii newspaper 
 was published by Nathaniel 
 
 Butler in 1622 
 
 ,, the first (irtiZi/ newspaper in ... 1709 
 
 In France the first icpekly newspaper was 
 
 published in 1C31 
 
 ,, the first (/(7(ii/ in ... 1777 
 
 In America, at Boston, a newspaper was 
 
 published in 1C90 
 
 In IjRELAND the first newspaper, called 
 ' Pue's Occurrences,' ap- 
 peared in 1700 
 
 ,, the oldest Dublin newspaper, 
 
 'The Freeman s Journal,' in 1755 
 In GERM.4.NY the first newsx^aper was pub- 
 lished in 1715 
 In Holland the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in ... .. 178-2 
 
 In Australia the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in .... 18 .'5 
 *,* For particular newspapers see each under 
 
 its own title. 
 
 IN'ewton {The American). David 
 Rittenhouse (1732-1792) of Pennsyl- 
 
 ISTewton and the Apple, 1666. 
 It is Voltaire who states that Mrs. Con- 
 duit, Newton's niece, told him the story. 
 Newton, she said, was at Woolsthorpe, 
 and, seeing an aj)ple fall, was led into a 
 train of thought which resulted in his 
 discovery of gravitation. 
 
 The story is discredited by Martin Folkes, 
 Hegel. Gause, and many others. And certainly 
 neither Whiston nor Pemberton mentions it. 
 
 Newton of Harmony {The). 
 Rameau (1683-1764), the most philoso- 
 phical musician of France. His great 
 
618 
 
 NEWTOWNBAERT 
 
 NIHILISM 
 
 work is a ' Dissertation on the Principles 
 of Harmony.' 
 
 IQ"ewtownbarry Kiot {The), 18 
 June, 1S31. On the occasion of a seizure 
 of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
 between the yeomen and people, in 
 which 35 persons were wounded or 
 killed. The jury could not agree, and 
 was discharged without coming to a 
 v&rdict. 
 
 T^iaar'ara Falls Association 
 
 {The), 1888. To promote legislation and 
 other measures for the restoration and 
 preservation of the natural scenery at 
 Niagara Falls in accordance with the 
 plan proposed by the Commissioners of 
 the State Survey in their special report 
 on the subject. The State of New York 
 gave a million and a half (dollars) for 
 the purpose, and the ' Falls ' were made 
 free to all mankind for all time to come. 
 The bill was signed in 1885 for the pay- 
 ment of the ' Fails ' in state bonds, and 
 on 15 July, 1885, the Niagara Falls, in- 
 cluding Goat Island and the lands con- 
 tiguous (on the American side), were 
 declared free to the world for ever. 
 
 IN'iesean Barks. The ships of Alex- 
 ander the Great. They were under the 
 command of Nearchos, and sailed from 
 the Indies to the Persian Gulf and to 
 Susa, They were called Nicasan barks 
 because they were built at Nicaea. 
 
 ISTicene Creed, or * Symbolum 
 Nicasnum,' 325, concocted at the First 
 General Council of Nicaea, but com- 
 pleted by the Council of Constantinople 
 in 381. This is the creed in the Com- 
 munion Service. 
 
 The Apostles' Creed in its present form was 
 adopted in the Church in the 11th cent. ; but a 
 formula containing some of the articles existed 
 in the 2nd cent. 
 
 Tlie Athanasian Creed was adopted in the 
 Latin Church in 673 ; in France in 850: in Spain 
 and Gc.rvuvny a century later ; in England about 
 1000. It was not the work of Athanasius, who 
 lived 296- -372, but was supposed to incorporate 
 what he taught on the subjects contained in tlie 
 Creed. 
 
 Nicholites (3 syl,), or ' New Quak- 
 ers.' An extinct sect of liberal Quakers, 
 once found in Maryland, but long since 
 united with the Hicksites (2 syl.). 
 
 ISTicias {Peace of), b.c. 421. A peace 
 for 50 years, in the eleventh year of 
 the Peloponnesian war, between Sparta 
 and Athens. By this treaty each party 
 agreed to restore all the prisoners and 
 
 places mutually taken during the war. 
 The signatories were the Athenian Nicias 
 and the Spartan king Pleistoanax. 
 
 Nickers. London night-larkers 6f 
 the 17th and 18th cent., whose delight 
 was to nick or hit a pane of glass and 
 break it, by flinging a copper at it. He 
 was the best nicker who nicked the 
 highest panes. See ' Street Bullies.' 
 His scattered pence the flying Nicker flings. 
 And with the copper shower the casement rings. 
 Gay, Trivia, iii. 
 
 M'icode'niUS [Gospel of), or 'Acta 
 Pilati.' An apocryphal gospel supposed 
 to have been forged somewhere between 
 320-376. See ' Spurious Gospels.' 
 
 By ' Acta Pilati ' is generally meant an apocry- 
 phal account of the Crucifixion, said to be the des- 
 patch of Pilateto the Emperor Tiberius. Eusebius, 
 book ix. chap. 5, speaks of another ' Acta Pilati ' 
 ' full of every kind of blasphemy against Christ, 
 which, with the consent of the emperor, was cir- 
 culated throughout the whole Roman empire.' 
 In these Acts Christians are charged with the most 
 revolting crimes. • 
 
 K"icola'itans (5 syl.). Condemned 
 in Eev. ii. 6, 15. They taught the law- 
 fulness of a community of wives; that 
 Christians might partake of the heathen 
 feasts ; and maintained that God dwelt 
 in the body of Jesus as in a temple, but 
 was not united like body and soul. 
 
 Nicolas was one of the first seven deacons. — 
 Acts vi. 5. Peter is supposed to refer to this heresy 
 in 2 Epis. ii. 15-20. 
 
 l^ight of Al Kadr {The), 24 
 Ramadan. The night when Mohammed 
 received his first revelation from Gabriel. 
 
 Verily we sent down the Koriin in the Night of . 
 Al Kadr. — The Koran, chap, xcvii. 
 
 !N'igllt - boys. Same as Moon- 
 lighters {q_.v.). See ' Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 TTightingale of Twickenham 
 
 {The). Alexander Pope, who lived at 
 Twickenham (1688-1744). 
 
 i'or my own part I abhor your irregular ge- 
 niuses, and I love to listen to the little nightin- 
 gale of Twickenham.— Disraeli, Vcnetia, bk. vi. 
 0. 8 (Cadurcis). 
 
 Nightingale of Wittenberg 
 
 {The). So Hans Sachs [Sax] the master- 
 singer {q.v.) in 1523 calls Luther in a 
 poem addressed to the reformer. It 
 seems a strange comparison, but Sachs 
 means that Luther was a bird which 
 sang in moral darkness, as a nightingale 
 sings at night. 
 
 Nihilism started into existence in 
 1848 under Herzen, a radical philoso- 
 pher of the Hegel school. He was 
 
NIKA 
 
 NINE 
 
 619 
 
 joined by Bakunin, and the two became 
 joint editors of a commnnistic journal 
 called the ' Bell ' (Kolokol), published in 
 London, but widely circulated in Russia. 
 In 18G6 the emperor was shot at by a 
 young man, and the danger of Nihilistic 
 teaching roused the serious attention of 
 the Russian authorities. Soon after the 
 death of Bakunin the secret Nihilistic 
 societies greatly multiplied till 1881, 
 •when the Emperor Alexander II. was 
 horribly assassinated. Since then the 
 dogmas of the Niliilists have been 
 gradually spreading, especially among 
 the common people. 
 
 In 18C8 the following manifesto was circulated : 
 (1) Tear out of your hearts the belief in the exist- 
 ence of God, or you can never know what free- 
 dom is ; (2) the second lie to get rid of is liighl, 
 ■which is only the bastard of Might. Might makes 
 Right. Without Might there is no such thing. 
 Away with it ! (3) having got rid of these two lies, 
 civilization, property, marriage, morality, and 
 justice will snap like pack-thread; (4) let your 
 own happiness be youf only law ; but, in order to 
 enjoy this law, you must destroy everything that 
 exists in the shape of government and social 
 organisation. Annihilate everything as it now 
 exists — the good with the bad — make a clean 
 sweep of all ; lor if but one atom of the old leaven 
 is suffered to remain, it will corrupt the new 
 order, and all the work will have to be done 
 again. 
 
 It is said that this manifesto was drawn up by 
 Bakunin, who died between l87ti and 1878. 
 
 Nika Sedition {The), Jan. a.d. 
 532. A sedition between the Greens 
 and the Blues {q.v.), which lasted five 
 days, and almost laid Constantinople in 
 ruins. It occurred in the 5th year of 
 Justinian on the ides of January. The 
 Greens appealed to the emperor for pro- 
 tection, when the Blues rose up against 
 them like raging lions. Seven of the 
 ringleaders were condemned to death, 
 but, being rescued by the mob, were 
 carried in triumph through the streets, 
 and as they were Greens and Blues, the 
 two factions united for the nonce against 
 the magistrates, and used for their 
 watchword Niica, that is Victory. The 
 military were called out, and, hurling 
 firebrands against the insurgents, set 
 fire to the city, burning down the cathe- 
 dral of St. Sophia, the baths of Zeuxip- 
 pus, a part of the imperial palace, a 
 hospital, and many churches, edifices, 
 and private houses. Some 30,000 Greens 
 fell in this sedition. 
 
 Nimbus in Christian Art {The). 
 The representation of a glory round the 
 head. 
 
 For Angels, the nimbus consists of rays, sur- 
 rounded by a circle of quatrefoils, like 
 pearls and roses. 
 
 For Apostles, Martyrs, and Confessors, the 
 nimbus is golden. 
 
 „ Christ, the. nimbus is more or less cruci- 
 form. Sometimes the glory, called aureola, 
 envelops the whole figure. 
 
 „ God the Father, the nimbus is triangular, 
 or a circle with hand in the act of blessing. 
 Sometimes the glory, called aureola, en- 
 velops the whole figure. 
 
 ,, Penitents, the nimbus is yellow, more or 
 less shaded. 
 
 „ Prophets and Patriarchs, the nimbus is 
 white or silver. 
 
 „ Saints d) liciiui, a square nimbus. 
 
 ,, ,, (2) married, the nimbus is green. 
 
 „ ,, (3) who have stni(i;iled hard icUhtcmpta- 
 Hon, the nimbus is red. 
 
 " Virgin Mary, the nimbus consists of small 
 stars. Like God the Father and God the 
 Son, her whole body is sometimes inclosed 
 in an aureola. 
 
 5th to 12th cent., a disc over the head. 
 14th cent., the triangular nimbus was 
 introduced. 
 
 15th cent., a broad band behind the 
 head, and the inscription of the na.me of 
 the saint in the nimbus was introduced. 
 17th cent., the nimbus was discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 19th cent., it was introduced again. 
 
 A Square Nimbus indicates that the person was 
 living, a square being the symbol of the earth. 
 
 A Circular Nimbus indicates that the person 
 is gone to heaven, a circle being the symbol of 
 eternity. 
 
 A Black Nimbus is given to the traitor Judas. 
 
 Gold Nimbus, awarded to samts of the highest 
 order. 
 
 Green Nimbus, assigned to married persons 
 (Hope, not Certainty). 
 
 Red Nimbus, awarded to those who were tried 
 as by fire, fighting against sin. 
 
 Silver Nimbus, next in honour to the golden 
 nimbus. 
 
 Yellow Nimbus, given to sinners who by 
 prayers and penance had become saints. 
 
 Nimeguen, in Holland {Treaty 
 of), 1678, 1679. This was a great peace 
 congress of the European powers, to put 
 an end to the wars which had embroiled 
 France, Germany, Spain, Holland, and 
 Sweden. The treaty was first agreed on 
 between France and Holland, 10 Aug. ; 
 then between France and Spain, 17 
 Sept. ; then between France and Ger- 
 many, 5 Feb., 1679. Next, Denmark, 
 Sweden, and the Elector of Branden- 
 burg agreed to the peace. By this 
 treaty Sweden was put into possession 
 of all it had at the commencement of the 
 war. 
 
 Pronounce Neem-gen, -with g hard. 
 
 Wine Articles of the Evan- 
 gelical Alliance {The). To be held 
 by those who belcing to the society. 
 
 1. The divine inspiration, authority, and suf- 
 ficiency of the Holy Scriptures, 
 
 2. The right ancf duty of private judgment in 
 the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 .S. The unity of the Godhead and the Trinity of 
 persons therein. 
 
620 
 
 NINE 
 
 NO. 45 
 
 4. The utter depravity of human nature In con- 
 sequence of the fall. 
 
 5. The mcarnation of the Son of God, his work 
 of atonement for sinners, and his mediatorial 
 intercession and reign. 
 
 6. The justification of the sinner by faith alone. 
 
 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the conver- 
 sion and sanctification of the sinner. 
 
 8. The immortality of the soul, the resurrection 
 of the body, the judt(ment of the world by Christ, 
 the eternal blessedness of the righteous and 
 eternal punishment of the wicked. 
 
 9. The divine institution of the Christian minis- 
 try, and the obligation and perpetuity of the 
 ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper. 
 
 Our creeds are: the Apostles', the Nicene, and 
 the Nine Articles of Faith adopted by the Evan- 
 gelical Alliance.— M. McLean, Echoes from Japan 
 (1889, p. '24). 
 
 See ' Lambeth Articles.' 
 
 ITine Days' Queen {Tlie). Jane 
 Dudley, better known as Lady Jane 
 Grey ; but she ■was married to Lord 
 Guilford Dudley, son of John [Dudley] 
 duke of Northumberland (1537-1554), 
 Proclaimed queen 10 July, and Mary 
 was proclaimed queen by the Earl of 
 Arundel 19 July, 1553. 
 
 I^ine European Heroes of 
 Delhi {The), 11 May, 1857. Lieu- 
 tenants George Willoughby, Forrest, 
 andRaynor ; Conductors Buckley, Sha'w, 
 and Scully ; Sub-conductor Crow ; and 
 Sergeants Edwards and Stewart. These 
 nine men defended the magazine against 
 a swarm of Sepoy mutineers. * Edwards 
 and Crow were killed, then Scully fired 
 the mine, and, as the building blew up, 
 the surviving seven effected their escape. 
 A trooper cut down Scully and a ma- 
 rauder slew Willoughby on the road to 
 Meerut. Forrest, Raynor, Stewart, and 
 Buckley escaped, and lived to receive the 
 Victoria Cross. 
 
 We are not told what became of Conductor 
 Shaw. 
 
 ITlne Gems [The). The nine wise 
 or learned men of Hindostan in the 
 reign of Vikramaditya, B.C. 56, &c. 
 
 'Nine Kingdoms of the Latin 
 "World {The). (1) England, France, 
 and Scotland (more ancient than the 
 reign of Charlemagne) ; (2) Castile, Ara- 
 gon, and Navarre (created by the sword) ; 
 (3) Sweden, Denmark, and Hungary 
 (created by their baptism). 
 
 The Nine Kingdoms of the Latin World dis- 
 claimed their new associate (Sicily).— GIBBON, 
 chap. Ivi. 
 
 ETine Orders of Angels {The). 
 Disposed in three circles. Three x 
 three = nine, the most sacred number. 
 
 Novem vero angelorum ordines dicimus . . . 
 BCimus (1) Angelos, (2) Archangelos, (3) Virtutes, 
 
 (4) Potestates, (5) Principatus, (6) Dominationes, 
 (7) Thronos, (8) Cherubim, et (£) Seraphim.— 
 GreguRY, Homily 34 (a.d. 381). 
 
 K"ine Worthies {The). Hector 
 of Troy, Alexander the Great of Mace- 
 don, Julius Caesar emperor of Rome, 
 Joshua leader of the Israelites, David 
 king of the Jews, Judas Maccabasus, 
 Charlemagne, Arthur king of the Britons, 
 and Godfrey baron of Jerusalem. 
 
 One naturally looks for the name of Moses. 
 
 ITisi Prius. A trial by jury in 
 some civil action. A judge sitting at 
 wm^?-M(s means a judge presiding at a 
 jury trial in a civil cause. The phrase 
 is borrowed from the first two words of 
 the old writ for summoning juries. 
 
 By 13 Edw. I. c. 80, juries were sum- 
 moned to appear at the courts of West- 
 minster 'in Octabis Sancti Michaelis 
 Nisi Prius ' the judge on circuit came 
 to hold his court in the assize town where 
 the jury lived. This 7iisi prius provisio 
 has been disused (in England) since 1852, 
 and all trials, as a matter of course, take 
 place on circuit. 
 
 ITizam'-gedittes' (2 syl.), 1807. 
 An army of 10,000 Turks raised by the 
 Sultan Selim, clad in European costume, 
 and officered by European soldiers, 
 chiefly French. The old Turkish janis- 
 saries, jealous of these new troops, de- 
 posed the sultan and placed his cousin 
 Mustapha on the throne. 
 
 No. 1, organiser of the Irish In- 
 vincibles, 1881, was a man named P. J. 
 Tynan. He was a handsome man, about 
 five and a half feet higii, and wore spec- 
 tacles. He went about in various dis- 
 guises. All Invincibles were Fenians 
 of the better class. See ' Lrish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 No. 45 {of the North Briton), 1763, 
 in which Wilkes said the words in the 
 king's speech that the peace of Paris ' is 
 honourable to the crown and beneficial 
 to the nation ' are false. This being 
 deemed an iiisult to the king (George 
 III.), Wilkes was arrested 30 April, and 
 coimnitted to the Tower. When brought 
 to trial the bench declared that the 
 arrest could not be sustained on account 
 of Wilkes's privilege as a member of par- 
 liament, for nothing short of treason 
 could interfere with that privilege. 
 Wilkes was accordingly at once dis- 
 charged. His release was celebrated, 
 
NO. 61 
 
 NOLAN 
 
 621 
 
 especially in the cider counties, with 
 processions, in which a jack boot, a 
 petticoat, and the king led by the nose 
 by Bute, were carried. See ' Jack Boot.' 
 
 In 1772 George prince of Wales, having been 
 chid for some boyish fault, stole into the king s 
 apartment and shouted, ' Wilkes and No. 45 for 
 ever ! George III. only laughed at the boy's 
 Imijudence. 
 
 'No. 61. The 'Secret Select' [q.v.) 
 of the Glasgow Trades Union, 1837. 
 
 No. 00 [Tract). One of the ' Tracts 
 for the Times,' written by John Henry 
 Newman, D.D., Fellow of Oriel, Oxford. 
 This was the last of these famous religious 
 tracts issued 1833-1841. Dr. Newman 
 subsequently joined the Church of Rome, 
 was made a cardinal, and died in 1890. 
 
 ISo. 290. The ' Alabama ' {q.v.). 
 
 'No Popery' Riots. In Edin- 
 burgh and Glasgow, January 1779. 
 
 In London, June 1780, called the 
 ' Gordon Riots ' [q.v.). 
 
 K"oach.'id.ae. Those proselytes who 
 refused to be circumcised. They bound 
 themselves to observe the precepts of 
 Noah, but not the law of Moses. 
 
 ]Sroble Lesson [The), 1100. A 
 metrical production consisting of 479 lines 
 in the Romance or Vaudois language. It 
 is chiefly an abstract of the Old and New 
 Testament history. It refers to the 
 corruptions introduced into the church 
 since the days of the Apostles. It begins 
 thus : — 
 
 O brethren, give ear to a noble lesson : (nohla 
 
 leyczun) 
 We ought often to watch and pray, 
 For we see this world is near its end ; . . . 
 Eleven hundred yo.^rs are fully accomplished, 
 Hence it was written ' We are in the last times.* 
 
 ]^oble Proclamation [The), 980. 
 The proclamation of Malachy monarch 
 of Ireland after his conquest of the Danes. 
 It was ill substance as follows : ' Let all 
 the Irish who arts now in servitude 
 return to their respective homes, and 
 enjoy themselves in peace and gladness.' 
 The number released by the Northmen 
 was upwards of 2,000. 
 
 ]^obles of the Genoese War 
 
 (T/z.e),1381. Wlien Venice was threatened 
 with utter destruction by the Genoese, 
 the Venetian Grand Council announced 
 that, at the termination of the war, The 
 Forty [q.v.) would elect thirty of the 
 citizens by ballot into their own council. 
 These new nobles were to enjoy all the 
 
 rights, privileges, and immunities of 
 the original nobles. At the close of the 
 war the promise was fulfilled, and among 
 those aggrandised was 1 banker, 5 trades- 
 men, 6 simple citizens, 1 merchant, 5 of 
 the lower order, and 8 operatives. Four 
 centuries later only eight of ' I Nobili 
 della Guerra di Genoa ' had representa- 
 tive survivors. 
 
 K"obody's Club, 1800. A club con- 
 sisting of the friends of William Stevens 
 (1732-1807), who assumed the pseudonym 
 of ' Oudeis ' (nobody). They met at the 
 Freemasons' Tavern, London, once a 
 year. The original number was fifteen. 
 
 Nobs \In the Glasgow Trades 
 Union], 1837, were employers who had 
 made themselves obnoxious to the work- 
 men, and were appointed to be dealt 
 with by the 'Secret Select' [q.v.). Tlie 
 names of these ' Nobs ' were enrolled in 
 a book, and every sort of annoyance was 
 offered to them. 
 
 Noeturns. Same as Matins. One 
 of the eight daily services of the Catholic 
 Church, and the first of the four great 
 ones at break of day. See ' Canonical 
 Hours.' 
 
 Noel's Catechism, or 'Nowel's,' 
 &c. 1563. Mexander Nowel or Noel, 
 dean of St. Paul's, at the recommenda- 
 tion of Cecil revised the ' Larger 
 Catechism,' but his book was not pub- 
 lished till 1570. 
 
 Noetians. Heretics of the 2nd cent., 
 also called Patripassians, whose doctrines 
 resembled those of the Sabellians. 
 Founded by Praxeas, who was succeeded 
 by Noetus. If Jesus was verily the 
 ' Everlasting Father,' then when Jesus 
 suffered on the cross God the Father 
 was crucified. (Pa ^er-j?assMS, the Father 
 suffered.) 
 
 I consider that he had Noetian tendencies.— FFc 
 Two, xxiv. 
 
 No-flint General [The). Major- 
 General Grey, afterwards Lord Grey of 
 Howick, and finally Earl Grey, who in 
 the American war, 1778, ordered his men 
 to take the flints out of their guns and 
 trust wholly to their bayonets; also called 
 ' No-flint Grey.' 
 
 Nolan [The). Giordano Bruno 
 (1550-1600), born at Nola in Naples. Ke 
 was burnt to death as a heretic. 
 
C22 
 
 NOLUMUS 
 
 NON-INTRUSION 
 
 !N"oruinus leges Anglise mut'- 
 
 ari. This celebrated answer was made 
 by the Uiy lords in the famous parlia- 
 ment held at Merton the day after the 
 coronation of Henry III., and was given 
 in answer to a motion of the bishops for 
 legitimatising natural children provided, 
 after the child was born, the father and 
 mother married (1216). 
 
 Nominalism and Realism.. 
 
 Terms used in scholastic divinity during 
 the Middle Ages to express the nature of 
 abstract ideas, such as circle, beauti/, 
 god, &c. The question was this : is 
 there such a thing as abstract beauty, or 
 must not our idea of beauty be allied to 
 some object ? Nominalism is the system 
 adopted by nominalists, and realism is 
 the system adopted by realists. Ari- 
 stotle was a nominalist, and Plato a 
 realist. See next article. 
 
 Nominalists. Those who believed 
 in nominalism. They were the disciples 
 of Eoscelin (1040-1120), canon of Com- 
 piegne, and denied the existence of 
 universals. Take a tree in the abstract ; 
 this is a universal, and a nominalist 
 would say such has no existence. Take 
 an oak tree, an elm tree, a fir tree, &c. ; 
 these are particular objects which stimu- 
 late in us certain ideas. Well, say the 
 nominalists, our idea of a tree must be 
 limited to particular trees, and our con- 
 cept of tree in the abstract must be 
 derived from such particuhu* objects. It 
 is unlversalia post rem, tree in the 
 abstract formed p^^^i rent, after the 
 concrete has been formed. It is al- 
 together a posteriori, an inference of a 
 universal or abstract idea from particular 
 objects cognised beforehand. Of course, 
 according to nominalism, the abstract 
 idea of God is impossible; all we can 
 know of God is from his works, &c. 
 
 In theology there is another sort of 
 nominalism. We are taught that Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. Well, 
 as three persons cannot really be one, 
 the nominalist contends that these 
 ' three persons ' are only different names 
 {nomina) of the same being, just as 
 father, son, and husband may be three 
 distinct names of the same individual. 
 
 Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes, 
 Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillac, and Dugald 
 Btewart were nominalists. 
 
 St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertus Magnus, 
 Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus were realists 
 
 Eoscelin seems to have raised the question 
 whether the personal distinctions of the Deity are 
 real or nominal only. 
 
 Nominees {The King's), 1GC2. 
 Thirty-six of the Irish nobility and 
 gentry specially nominated by Charles 
 II., after his restoration, to be restored 
 to their Irish estates, from which they 
 had been banished by Cromwell. / 
 
 About n.OOO of the rostorablo Irish were never 
 restored to their estates. There were four classes, 
 viz. Innocents, .Vrlicloinon. Ensignmon (ly.r.), and 
 tlie King's Noniinoes. Of the 7,77K,0OO acres for- 
 feited in the Comuiou%vo;illh, ds.iJGO statute acres 
 were awarded to tlae Noiuiuoes. 
 
 Non-Catholics, i.e. Protestants. 
 Sec ' Edict of Toleration.' 
 
 Nonconformists, 15G5. Those 
 who refused to conform to the 'Book of 
 Advertisements ' drawn up by order of 
 Queen Elizabeth by the Court of Eccle- 
 siastical Commission for the sake of 
 securing uniformity of doctrine and disci- 
 pline in the kingdom. 
 
 Now nonconformist is a synonvm of dimtenter, 
 one who does not conform to the State Church. 
 
 Non-importation Act {The), 
 2(5 March, liSO(i. Passed by Congi-ess to 
 prohibit the importation of British 
 manufactures into the United States. 
 The immediate cause of this prohibition 
 was the annoyance caused by the British 
 ship ' Leander ' cruising' off New York 
 and insisting on searching American 
 vessels under pretence of looking for 
 deserters. In one of these searches an 
 American sailor, named Pearce, was 
 killed, and the hostility of the States, 
 which had long been smouldering, burst 
 into a blaze. 
 
 Non-intercourse Act [The), U.S. 
 Passed Congress 27 Feb., 1809, suspend- 
 ing all trade between the U.S. and 
 either France or England. The offence 
 of England was its claim of the right of 
 search, which compelled American vessels 
 to surrender any British subjects who 
 formed part of their crew. The offence of 
 France was the Continental system {q.v.). 
 Napoleon, having removed all obstruc- 
 tions to American trade. Congress re- 
 newed intercourse with France 2 Nov., 
 1810 ; but the breaking out of the second 
 American war with Great Britain in 
 May 1812 continued the non-intercourse 
 till after the battle of Waterloo, when 
 friendly relations were restored. 
 
 Non-intrusion Controver'^y 
 {The), 1838-18^3. A controversy in tha 
 
NON-INTRUSIONISTS 
 
 NON-RESISTANCE 
 
 G23 
 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotlanrl re- 
 specting the right of the State to inter- 
 fere in ecclesiastical matters. It began 
 with the question, Have patrons the right 
 of presenting to livings or does the choice 
 rest witVi the congregation ? In 1833 Dr. 
 Thomas Chalmers suggested that a patron 
 should nominate, but the people should 
 have the right of veto. This was ar-cepted 
 by the Assembly in 1834. In 1838 the 
 Veto Act was ruled to be illegal, and tlie 
 Assembly declared that the Church is 
 wholly free and independent. Several 
 appointments by patrons were made and 
 disputed, and the result was a split in 
 1843, which gave birth to the ' Free 
 Church.' 
 
 N'on-Intrusionists(r/ie). Those 
 who separated from the Presbyterian 
 Church of Scotland at the Non-Intrusion 
 controversy. The split consisted of 470 
 ministers, with their office-bearers, elders, 
 and communicants, and in 1843 the se- 
 paratists formed the ' Free Church of 
 Scotland.' They did not consider the 
 veto proposed by Dr. Chalmers any in- 
 trusion or illegal interference with the 
 right of a patron. 
 
 The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chand- 
 ler, Candlish, and Gordon, with Messrs. Guthrie, 
 Cunninf;hani, and Dunlop. Dr. Thomas Chil mors 
 was elected president of the new ' Free Church.' 
 
 *.* The law was that a congregation ha*-; the 
 power of rejecting a presentee for ' adequate 
 reasons.' 
 
 Non-juring Clergy of France, 
 28 Jan., 1791. Those clergymen who re- 
 fused to take the ' civil oath ' to accept 
 the new constitution concocted by the 
 Assemblee Constituante. See ' Pretre 
 Insermente.' 
 
 The constitutional members of the late assembly 
 . . . . drew up an address to the king [Louis XVI. J, 
 urging him to refuse his sanction to the decree 
 against the non-juring priests. — HowiTT, HM.of 
 Emjlaiid (Geo. III. p. i^>). 
 
 Won-jurors {The), 5 March, 1689. 
 Those episcopal clergymen who refused 
 to take the oath of allegiance to William 
 and Mary, according to a clause in 
 the Convention parliament that ' after 
 1 March no person shall sit or vote in 
 either house till he has taken the new 
 oath of allegiance to their majesties 
 "William and Mary.' The non-jurors 
 comprised the Archbishop Sancroft, seven 
 bishops, and about 400 of the inferior 
 clergy. As they believed in ' the right 
 divine,' and that the king was ' the Lord's 
 anointed,' they could not possibly believe 
 
 that James was justly and lawfully set 
 aside. 
 
 The six bishops were Ken bishop of Bath ai)ci 
 Wells ; Turner bishop of Ely; Framnton bishop of 
 Gloucester ; Lloyd bishop of -Nor A-ich : White 
 bishop of Peterborough. The IJishop of Worcester 
 .and Bishop of Chichester died before the Act took 
 effect. 
 
 Dr. Tillotson was made primate of All England 
 in place of Dr. Sancroft. 
 
 Won Obstante {The Bull), l^^, 
 Innocent IV. sent to Robert Grosted or 
 Grosteste commanding him to bestow a 
 valuable benefice on an infant and that 
 infant an Italian. The honest bishop 
 tore up the bull, and wrote back to the 
 pope that such practices were ' shaking 
 the very foundations of the church.' 
 
 At this time the money paid to Itali^m priests in 
 England was m,m) marks per annum, a greater 
 revenue than that of the crown. The barons re- 
 monstrated, and to that the words of the bull 
 refer. Non obstante, i.i>.. notwithstanding [this 
 remonstrance I require you to do what is set forth 
 in the bull]. 
 
 Won Possumus {A). Something 
 not possible to be done, either because 
 the person is unwilling to do it or thinks 
 it inexpedient. Your prayer or petition 
 cannot possibly l>e granted. The words 
 used by the pope when he negatives a 
 suit or request. 
 
 Thpy opposed a non pogxumus to the Irish d&- 
 
 Tn-dund.— Newspaper paragraph, Jan. 18«J. 
 
 K"on-Regents. Masters of arts and 
 doctors in a university no longer bound to 
 give lectures. Regents were at one time 
 tlie lecturers or professors. The terms 
 regent and non-regent were retained in 
 the University of Cambridge till 1858, 
 though tlie duty of lecturing had long 
 before passed to professors. 
 
 Non-Regent's House {The). The 
 Lower or Blackhood House of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, consisting of mas- 
 ters of arts of more than five years' 
 standing and doctors of more than two. 
 Abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' 
 
 Non-resistanee {The Doctrine of ). 
 That is, passive obedience to every ordin- 
 ance of man and to the king— for those 
 ' wlio resist the j)Ower shall bring to them- 
 selves damnation.' When the divine 
 right of kings was maintained in the 
 Stuart dynasty, those who took this view, 
 of course, insisted on the doctrine of 
 non-resistance. It was most clearly set 
 forth in 1(583 by Oxford, in what is called 
 a ' Judgment and Declaration ' {q-v.). 
 
 Enforced by the Homilies loi/J ; by the Canons 
 of Convocation In IGOD : the Oath of Mon-rcBist 
 
624 
 
 NON-EESISTINa 
 
 NOETH 
 
 ance was imposed in 16G1 (13 Car. II. s. 2, c. 1). The 
 act was repealed 1718 (5 Geo. I. c. 6). 
 
 Non-resisting Test (The), 1675. 
 To be taken by all members of parlia- 
 ment, privy councillors, magistrates, and 
 persons holding office under the crown > 
 ' I [A. B.J do declare that it is not lawful 
 on any pretence whatever to take up 
 arms against the king ; and I do abhor 
 the traitorous position of taking arms 
 against his person, or against those that 
 are commissioned by him according to 
 law, in time of rebellion or war, and 
 acting in pursuance of such commission. 
 I [A. B.] do swear that I will not en- 
 deavour any alteration of the Protes- 
 tant religion now established by law 
 in the Church of England ; nor will I 
 endeavour any alteration in the govern- 
 ment in church and state as it is by law 
 established.' 
 
 ITones (1 syl.). One of the eight 
 daily services of the Catholic Church, 
 and one of the four lesser ones. At 3 
 o'clock in the afternoon, the ninth hour 
 of the day. See ' Canonical Hours.' 
 
 liTorbertines (3 syl.), 1119. An 
 order of Canons Regular founded by St. 
 Norbert. See ' Premonstratensians.' 
 
 Wore {The Mutiny of the), 22 May, 
 1797. A mutiny of the fleet ; suppressed 
 in June ; Parker, the ringleader, was exe- 
 cuted at Sheerness 30 June, 1797. 
 
 K'orfolk Commotion {The), 1549. 
 So Ket's or Kett's Rebellion {q_.v.) is 
 called by the old chroniclers. 
 
 ISTormal or Training Schools. 
 
 To train teachers in the principles and 
 art of teaching. First organised in 
 Prussia. The following dates give the 
 order in which they have been esta- 
 bhshed : at Stettin, in Prussia, 1735 ; at 
 Berlin by Frederick the Great 1748 ; at 
 Hanover 1757 ; the Borough Road school 
 for teachers founded by Josei^h Lancaster 
 1805 ; French training schools for teachers 
 1810 ; in Holland 1816 ; Normal Schools 
 for England and Wales 1838 ; at Framing- 
 ham and Westfield, in Massachusetts, 
 North America, 1839 ; Battersea training 
 school for teachers, 1840. See ' Ecoles.' 
 
 Norris'ian Prize {The). For an 
 essay on some sacred subject. Prize 
 given once in five years to any graduate 
 of the University of Cambridge of not 
 
 more than thirteen years' standing. 
 Value 60Z., a part of which is to be ex- 
 pended on a gold medal worth seven 
 guineas. Founded, in 1777, by John 
 Norris, who also founded the Divinity 
 professorship, when 12Z. was given an- 
 nually, altered in 1858. See ' Regius 
 Professorship of Divinity.' 
 
 Worris'ian Professorship of 
 
 Divinity. Founded 1777 in the University 
 of Cambridge, by John Norris, of Witton, 
 Norfolk. Original stipend 150Z. a year, 
 but now considerably augmented. See 
 * Regius Professorship of Divinity.' 
 
 IQ'orroy King-of-arms. English 
 herald of the northern provinces, first 
 appointed by Edward IV. The herald 
 of the southern provinces is called Cla- 
 renceux (formerly Surroij) King-of-arms 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Norroy, of course, is Norrth]roy. We still speak 
 of a Nor' West wind or Nor' AVester. Surroy is 
 South roy. 
 
 iN'orth Briton {The), a newspaper 
 edited by John Wilkes ; was started in 
 1762. The printers and publishers were 
 l^rosecuted for No. 45 in 1763 ; Wilkes was 
 sent to the Tower in April, but discharged 
 in May. The paper (15 Nov., 1763) was 
 ordered by the House of Commons to be 
 burnt by the hangman. 
 
 19 January, 1764, Wilkes was expelled from the 
 House of Commons ; but in March 1768 was elected 
 M.P. for Middlesex. He was again arrested in the 
 spring of 17(J8, and his imprisonment occasioned a 
 riot in St. George s Fields. He was again expelled 
 the House in 1769, but was again re-elected for 
 Middlesex. He was made Lord Mayor of London 
 in 1774, and Chamberlain of the City of London in 
 1779. 
 
 ]^orth German Confederation 
 
 {The), 1866. After the famous ' Seven 
 Weeks' War ' and the ' Peace of Prague,' 
 when Austria was entirely excluded from 
 Germany. The confederation included 
 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
 Frankfort (all incorporated with Prussia), 
 and the states north of the Main united 
 to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, 
 therefore, the confederation was Prussia 
 and the states north of the Main. In 
 1870, during the Franco-German war, 
 the ' North German Confederation,' being 
 joined by Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, 
 and Hesse-Darmstadt, became the ' Ger- 
 man Confederation,' and two months 
 afterwards (18 Jan., 1871) the King of 
 Prussia had the title of ' German Em- 
 peror ' given him. 
 
 Austria with Bohemia and Hungary form no 
 part of the modern German empire. 
 
NOKTH-WEST 
 
 NOTTINGHAM 
 
 625 
 
 N"orth-"West Company [The), 
 1783. The North-West Company of 
 Montreal was formed in opposition to a 
 French company confirmed in 1697 by 
 the treaty of Eyswick, abandoned in 171B 
 by the treaty of Utrecht, but still con- 
 tinued by adventurers, till the formation 
 of the North-West Company. This com- 
 pany in 1821 coalesced with the Hudson's 
 Bay Company. Its great traffic was furs 
 or peltry. 
 
 Worth-West Passage [The). 
 That is, a passage from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific by way of the Polar Sea, to the 
 north of America. Above 200 voyages 
 have been made in search of such a pas- 
 sage. Sir John Franklin reached N. Lat. 
 77° in 1847. Although much has been 
 added to our geographical knowledge 
 by these expeditions, tliey have clearly 
 proved that such a passage is useless for 
 mercantile purposes. 
 
 IsTorthampton {The Treaty of), 
 4 May, 1328, between Edward III. and 
 Hobert Bruce, whereby the independ- 
 ence of Scotland was formally recognised, 
 and Bruce was acknowledged to be its 
 king. 
 
 A marriage was agreed upon between the 
 Princess Joanna (sister of Edward III.) and David 
 Bon of Robert Bruce (both infants). Bruce re- 
 nounced all intentions of aiding the rebels of 
 England, and Edward of abetting the rebels of the 
 isles of Scotland. All charters and documents 
 carried from Scotlandby Edwardl. tobe restored. 
 Scotland to pay 20,000i. to the King of England. 
 
 Northern Tdldmaque {The). 
 Alexander I. of Russia, 1777 (1801-1825). 
 
 Northmen (T^e). Came from Scan- 
 dinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark). 
 Karl III. the Fat bribed them to peace ; 
 but his nephew Arnulf attacked them 
 boldly and drove them back. 
 
 Norwich Rentys. The London 
 house or place of the bishop of Norwich, 
 known subsequently as York House. In 
 1535 Norwich House Y)assed by a special 
 act of parliament into the hands of 
 Charles Brandon earl of Suffolk. The 
 lands ran westward as far as Hungerford 
 Market. 
 
 No'sarites (3 syl.). A people of 
 Syria so called from the town of Nosar. 
 Their religious creed, like that of the 
 Druses, is a mixture of Paganism, 
 Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Chris- 
 tianity. Their chiefs are entitled ' Me- 
 kwddem.' 
 27 
 
 Nose-tax {The). A tax of one ounce 
 of gold from every householder of Ire- 
 land, exacted by the Danes in the 9t]i 
 cent., the non-payment of which was 
 punished by slitting up the nose. This 
 continued for thirteen years, when a 
 general massacre of the Danes in Ire- 
 land put an end to the tax. 
 
 Probably the nose-tax was merely a poll-tav. 
 We still retain the phrase to ' count noses,' and i:i 
 Sweden the people paid Odin a 'scot-penny for 
 each nose.' 
 
 Nosey. Wellington was so called 
 lovingly by his soldiers. 
 
 * Notes and Queries.' A London 
 weekly journal chiefly to furnish en- 
 quirers with information by corre- 
 spondents on literary, biographical, and 
 heraldic difficulties. Commenced 8 Nov., 
 1849. 
 
 Nothing from Nothing. 'Ex 
 
 nihilo nihil fit.' The axiom of Xeno- 
 phanes, founder of the Eleatic school 
 (B.C. 619, died after 476). 
 
 Notre Dame. In the * Petits Bol- 
 landistes,' by Mgr. Paul Guerin, chamber- 
 lain of Leo XIII., there are 2,011 arti- 
 cles headed ' Notre Dame,' one headed 
 ' Jesus,' and one headed ' Christ,' and not 
 a single one ' Notre Seigneur.' Notre 
 Dame is called the ' Mother of Grod,' and 
 Joseph the carpenter is called the ' Hus- 
 band of God's Mother ' {epoux de la 
 Mere de Dieu). This may be logical, 
 but it looks more like Mariolatry than 
 Christianity. 
 
 Under the words ' Passion de Notre Seigneur 
 Jesus Christ ' will be found the whole of ' Passion 
 Week.' 
 
 Nottingham {Peace of), 868. Be- 
 tween Alfred and his brother Ethelred 
 on one side, and the Danes on the 
 other. By this treaty England was 
 divided into two parts, one of which re- 
 mained to Alfred and the other was 
 assigned to the Danes. The Danish 
 portion was Northumbria, East Anglia, 
 and the bulk of Mercia, called ' Dane- 
 lagh,' because this part was subject to 
 Danish law. The Danish portion was 
 the larger of the two, but Alfred kept 
 London. 
 
 Nottingham Captain {The), 
 
 1817. Jeremiah Brandreth, a frame- 
 work knitter of Nottingham and fiery 
 agitator, who collected some three hun- 
 dred people, whom he persuaded to 
 S S 
 
626 
 
 NOUMENON 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 * march from Derby to London and over- 
 turn the government.' At Eastwood, 
 about three miles from Nottingham, they 
 were stopped by a troop of horse from 
 Nottingham, and fled in all directions, 
 but many were made prisoners, and 
 three executed, viz. Brandreth, Ludlam, 
 and Turner, 7 Nov., 1817. 
 
 Wou'menon. What Aristotle called 
 the hypoklmenon {vwoKeCfievov), an ima- 
 ginary something which underlies all 
 visible phenomena — the ghost of a thing, 
 immutable and unaffected by those 
 logical accidents, colour, odour, growth 
 and decay, shape, size, &c. We can 
 gain some idea of this hypostasis if we 
 fix our thought on ' identity.' The 
 infant man and decrepit eld have an 
 identity, though no part of the man is 
 common with that of the child or eld. 
 That identity is the noumcnon or hrjpo- 
 Tiimenon. Again, no two persons see 
 the same tree ; no individual sees the 
 same tree twice. It grows and decays, 
 shoots out leaves and sheds them — 
 is for ever changing, but remains the 
 same. It is the phenomenon which 
 changes; the noumenon is changeless. 
 Kant introduced the word to express the 
 real object, or the essence of an object, 
 divested of its substance or phenomenon. 
 
 ]SroUBhir'"wan[T/ie Magnanimous]. 
 So Chosroes the Great was called (a.d. 
 531-579). The Arabs called him Al 
 Malek. 
 
 NOV9B Tab'ulee (New Tables). 
 ' Turning over a new leaf ' — that is, 
 abolishing old debts and beginning 
 afresh. 
 
 Wova'lis. The pseudonym of Fried- 
 rich von Hardenberg (1772-1801). 
 
 Wovatians [The), 3rd cent. Fol- 
 lowers of Novatus, who insisted that no 
 lapsed Christian should be received 
 again into communion with the church. 
 He denied the power of the church of 
 absolving ' mortal sin,' and his followers 
 opposed the lawfulness of second mar- 
 riages. They called themselves Cathdri, 
 or Puritans. 
 
 Novels {The), or 'Novelise.'^ The 
 fourth part of the ' Corpus Juris Civllis,' 
 compiled a.d. 534, and containing the 
 new constitutions made by Justinian 
 himself, with the emendations of the 
 
 errors detected in the other three parts. 
 Extracts made from these novels were 
 called ' Authentics.' See * Corpus Juris 
 Civilis.' 
 
 The novels are cited by number and chapter, 
 thus: Nov. as, 3, or Nov. //t, c. ■?. If the chapter 
 referred to is subdivided into paragraphs, then a 
 third figure is added. 
 
 !N"oyades, 1793. A method of whole- 
 sale drowning adopted by Carrier to 
 purge Nantes of anti-revolutionists. He 
 murdered about 30,000 men, women, and 
 children in a few months in Nantes 
 alone. The boats employed had movable 
 bottoms, so constructed as to let the 
 victims through without admitting suffi- 
 cient water to sink the boats. This 
 method of wholesale murder was a 14th 
 cent, invention. See ' Purgers.' 
 
 Also called 'Carrier's Vertical Deportation.' 
 Noyades, pronounce Nwoi-yahd. 
 
 Woyon {Treaty of), 13 Aug., 1516. 
 A treaty of peace between Charles V., 
 Pope Leo X., and Francois I., after the 
 brilliant victory at Marignano, the 
 'combat of the giants.' Charles V. en- 
 gaged to marry the daughter of the king, 
 whose dowry was to be Naples ; and he 
 engaged to restore Navarre to the house 
 of Albret. Neither of these stipulations 
 was carried out. 
 
 Nullity Bilson (-S»r). A nickname 
 given to the son of Thomas Bilson bishop 
 of Winchester, knighted by James I. for 
 his scandalous sycophancy in the matter 
 of Sir Thomas Overbury, or (more strictly 
 speaking) the divorce of the Earl and 
 Countess of Essex in consequence of a 
 liaison with Eobert Carr, the king's 
 favourite. 
 
 Kobert Carr was at that time Viscount Boches- 
 ter, and subsequently Earl of Essex. The famous 
 Rochester was John Wihnot, quite another person. 
 
 Nullum Tempus Act {The) 
 1769. An act to abolish the custom of 
 Nullum tempus occurrit regi — that is, 
 no length of tenancy can bar lands which 
 once belonged to the crown. The 
 ' Nullum Tempus ' Act limited the time 
 to sixty years of adverse possession, i.e. 
 if a person has been in possession of 
 crown land for sixty years, the crown 
 cannot reclaim it. 
 
 In 1772 Mr. Henry Seymour introduced a ' Nul- 
 lum Tempus ' Bill to apply to church property, 
 but it was thrown out. 
 
 Number of Members in the 
 House of Commons. The present num- 
 ber (1890) is 670 members. Of these 485 
 
NUMBERS 
 
 OAK 
 
 627 
 
 are for England, 30 for Wales, 72 for 
 Scotland, and 103 for Ireland. 
 
 Of the 670 members 86 are ' Nationalists," and 
 about 74 or 75 are ' Liberal Unionists.' 
 
 Wumbers. Symbolism of the 
 first 13. 
 
 1 the unity of deity ; 2 the hypostatic 
 union of Christ ; 3 the Trinity ; 4 the 
 Evangelists and great Prophets; 5 books 
 of Moses and wounds of Christ ; 6 the 
 creative week; 7 times Christ spoke 
 on the cross; 8 beatitudes; 9 orders of 
 angels; 10 commandments; 11 apostles 
 after the apostasy of Judas ; 12 minor 
 prophets and the original apostolic col- 
 lege ; 13 the complete college including 
 Matthias and Paul. 
 
 Numerical Coincidence. I. 
 
 1794 Climax of the French Ke volution. 
 1 
 7 
 9 
 
 1815 Battle of Waterloo. 
 1 
 
 1830 Revolution of July. 
 
 1842 Death of the Due dOrleans. 
 II. A still more remarkable coinci- 
 dence is 1869, the last year of the third 
 Napoleon's glory. This is obtained by 
 adding either his birth or his marriage 
 to the year of his coronation, or the birth 
 of Eugenie, or the capitulation of Paris. 
 Thus 1852 he was crowned ; he was born 
 1808; he was married 1853; Eugenie 
 was born 1826; Paris capitulated 1871. 
 
 Then 1852 1852 1852 1852 
 
 1111 
 
 Nuptial Mass. * Missa Nuptialis.' 
 The mass celebrated in the marriage 
 service. See ' Mass.' 
 
 Wuremberg Nimbus {The). A 
 cruciform nimbus with finials resembling 
 the fleur-de-lis. See 'Numberg.' 
 
 Numbers {Peace of). See under 
 'Peace.' 
 
 Ntirnberg Eggs, i.e. watches. 
 * Dans cette ville les montres furent in- 
 rente'es vers 1500, ce qui les fit d'abord 
 
 nommer ceufs de Nuremberg ' (Bouillet, 
 * Diet. Hist.' &c. p. 1365). They were like 
 eggs in shape. 
 
 Nystadt, in Finland {Treaty of), 
 13 Sept., 1721. A treaty of peace between 
 Russia and Sweden, after the death of 
 Charles XII. ' the Brilliant Madman.' 
 By this treaty Sweden lost Livonia, 
 Esthonia, Ingermania, and Carelia. 
 
 O. Before the time of Brian king of 
 Munster (978-1014), every Irishman took 
 the name of his father or grandfather as 
 a surname. The prefix Mac stood for 
 ' son of ' and the prefix for ' grandson 
 of.' Brian established the arrangement 
 that the patronymics thus formed should 
 be permanent in families. 
 
 Of course nowadays O means a descendant of 
 some chief whose name is appended to the patro- 
 nymic, as O'Brien or O Brian, a descendant of 
 Brien king of Munster ; O Neills, descendants of 
 the king of Ulster ; O'Connors, descendants of the 
 kings of Connaught. 
 
 O's {The Great). Thirty-one anti- 
 phons for the ' Magnificat ' and ' Bene- 
 dictus ' from the ' Proper ' of Advent and 
 of St. Thomas, all beginning with ' O,' as 
 ' O admirabile connnercium ' ; ' O Adonai ' ; 
 ' O beata Infantia,' &c. See ' Notes and 
 Queries,' 31 Dec, 1887, p. 527. 
 
 Oak {The Parliainent). An oak still 
 standing in ' Clypston ' (Clipstone) in 
 Sherwood Forest, Notts, under which 
 Edward I. in 1282 held a parliament. 
 He was hunting in the forest, and, being 
 told of the revolt of the Welsh, hastily 
 convened his nobles under the tree, 
 and resolved to march at once against 
 Llewellyn, who was defeated and slain 
 the same year. 
 
 Oak Boys {The). 1. 1549, the insur- 
 gents in Ket's rebellion. See ' Oak of 
 the Reformation.' 
 
 n. 1757. Protestants in the North of 
 Ireland who rose in insurrection against 
 the Road Act, which threw the burden of 
 making roads and keeping them in repair 
 on the payers of poor-rates, instead of 
 on the landed proprietors. Called ' Oak 
 Boys ' from a sprig of oak stuck in their 
 hats. 
 
 III. In 1760. This association was a 
 revival of the preceding, with a small 
 difference. In 1757 the grievance was 
 that the burden of keeping the roads in 
 repair was thrown on the ratepayers ; the 
 new grievance was that those who com- 
 plained of want of work were set to make 
 S s2 
 
628 
 
 OAK 
 
 OBEDIENCE 
 
 a road through a part of Armagh. It did 
 not please them to be miade to work, and 
 they vowed that they would not work like 
 slaves to please anyone. See ' Irish Asso- 
 ciations.' 
 Oak of Reformation {The). The 
 
 oak on Household Heath, near Norwich, 
 under which Ket, the Norfolk farmer, held 
 his court, and administered justice, 1549. 
 When the rebellion was crushed out by 
 the Earl of Warwick nine of the ring- 
 leaders were hanged on this tree. 
 
 One of the Kets was hanged on the top of Warwick 
 Castle, and the other on the top of Wymondham 
 church, near Norwich. (Wyinondha.m= Wi»'-du7n..) 
 
 Oath of Abjuration (The), 1701 
 (13 Will. III. c. 6). Aimed against Papal 
 aggression. Abolished 1858 (21, 22 Vict. 
 c. 48). 
 
 This oath abjured the pope and the pretender, 
 denying the autliority of the former a,nd the claims 
 of the latter to the British throne. On the death 
 of Cardinal York there remained no descendant of 
 James II., and the oath so far as the pretender was 
 concerned was a dead letter. 
 
 Oath of Allegiance {The). From 
 feudal times. Like the oath of a vassal 
 to his lord : ' I (A. B.) do promise to be 
 true and faithful to the king and his heirs, 
 and truth and faith to bear of life and 
 limb and terrene honour, and not to know 
 or hear of any ill or damage intended him 
 without defending him therefrom.' 
 
 The oath remained in force above 600 
 years. The Convention Parliament {q.v.) 
 changed the oath to the following 
 words : ' I (A. B.) do sincerely promise and 
 swear that I will be faithful, and bear 
 true allegiance to H. M. * *.' 1 Will. & 
 Mary, c. 1 & 8, A.D. 1689. It was again 
 altered by 1 Geo. I., stat. 2, c. 13, a.d. 
 1714-15, and modified by 1 Vict. c. 24, 
 A.D. 1838. 
 
 Oath of Supremacy {The), 1 Eliz. 
 c. 1, A.D. 1559 ; abolished in 1858. This 
 was not an oath acknowledging the king's 
 supremacy, as it was wholly silent on that 
 point, but an oath against the non-supre- 
 macy of the pope in England. The form 
 established by William and Mary 1694 is 
 as follows: 'I, * *, do swear that I do 
 from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure 
 .... that damnable doctrine .... that 
 princes excommunicated by the pope may 
 be deposed or murdered by their subjects. 
 . . . And I declared that no foreign. . . 
 potentate hath or ought to have any juris- 
 diction .... ecclesiastical or spiritual 
 within this reahn.' 
 
 Oath of the Jeu de Paume 
 
 {The), 20 June, 1789. Three days after 
 the Tiers Etat formed themselves into the 
 National Assembly {q.v.), several mem- 
 bers of the two other estates joined them, 
 and they all met in the tennis court, at 
 Versailles. Having sent an invitation 
 to the nobles and clergy to join them 
 there, Bailly rose, bade the whole assem- 
 bly follow his example, and then, raising 
 their right hands, the entire assembly 
 joined in the oath never to part till they 
 had given France a constitution. 
 
 Jeu de pavime (the hand game) means tennis, and 
 the oath of the Jeu de paume [ pome] means ' the 
 oath taken in the tennis court.' 
 
 Oath of the Vehmgerichte 
 
 (4 syl.). Every person brought before the 
 secret tribunal was sworn to profound 
 secresy .... * Not to divulge to wife or 
 child, father or mother, friend or con- 
 fessor, not to tell in words, or express in 
 writing, or signify by symbols, or dress 
 in i)arable, or hint at by sign, or commu- 
 nicate by look, anything done or heard or 
 seen in the tribunal, if he would sleep in 
 an unbloody grave.' 
 
 Obedience {An). The instrument 
 containing the written precept of the 
 superior in any religious order to the 
 persons in subjection, to undertake a 
 specific office, to proceed on a stated 
 mission, to relinquish a certain appoint- 
 ment, and so on. 
 
 Obedience in canon law means the 
 duty by which the various grades in 
 the ecclesiastical system are held subject. 
 
 Avignon Obedience during the great 
 schism of the West meant the acknow- 
 ledgment of the popes of Avignon. 
 
 lioman Obedience, during the same 
 period, meant allegiance to the Eoman 
 pontiff. 
 
 Obedience {Pays d'). The territory 
 where the pope nominates to vacant bene- 
 fices. During the great schism of the 
 West, each contemporary pope had his 
 own ' pays d'obedience.' Thus, in the 
 14th cent, we had ' The Obedience of 
 Urban VI. ' (comprehending North Italy, 
 Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, 
 Prussia., Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and 
 England), and the ' Obedience of Cle- 
 ment VII.,' comprehending all the rest of 
 Europe. 
 
 Obedience of Benedict XIII. 
 
 {The). Means, in the great schism of the 
 
OBEDIENCE 
 
 0BLATE3 
 
 629 
 
 West, obedience given to Benodict XIII. 
 by the supporters of the French pope, in 
 opposition to the contemporary Roman 
 pope(fir8t Boniface IX. , then Gregory XII. , 
 then the double popes Gregory XII. and 
 Alexander V.). 
 
 At the death of Gregory XI. the Italians insisted 
 that an Italian only could be pope, but as most of 
 the cardinals were Frenchmen, they stoutly re- 
 sisted this dogma. Neither would give way, so the 
 Italians elected Urban VI., who resided at Rome, 
 and the French elected Clement VII., who resided 
 at Avignon (1878). As death occurred in either 
 chair, the respective partisans elected a succes- 
 sor ; thus Urban was succeeded in Kome by Boni- 
 face IX. and Gregory XII.; while Clement, the 
 Avignon pope, was succeeded by Benedict XIII. 
 See ' Great Schism of the West." 
 
 Obedience of Gregory XII. 
 
 {The). Means the acknowledgment of 
 the authority of Gregory XII., the Roman 
 pope, in opposition to Benedict XIII., the 
 Avignon pope, in the great schism of the 
 West (q.v.). 
 
 Obelisk of Constantius (The), 
 i.e. the Egyptian obelisk which Constan- 
 tius II. presented to the city of Rome 
 when he went to visit that ancient capital. 
 It was 115 feet in length and had been 
 transported from Heliopolis by Constan- 
 tine the Great to adorn his new city of 
 Constantinople, a.d. 354. 
 
 Obelisk of Heliop'olis (The), or 
 ' Matarieh,' erected by Osortesen I. about 
 B.C. 1900. The oldest of the large obe- 
 lisks. 
 
 An obelisk which Ramgses II. erected at Helio- 
 polis was removed to Alexandria. The ' Flaminian 
 Obelisk ' begun by Sethos I. and finished by 
 Rameses II. was removed to Rome by Constantius. 
 In the pontificate of Gregory XIII. this obelisk was 
 found buried 16 feet under the surface, and was set 
 up by Fontana, the architect. 
 
 Obelisk of Karnac (The), or large 
 obelisk erected by Thothmes I. before the 
 granite sanctuary of Karnac. 
 
 His daughter Hatasu erected two obelisks before 
 the second propylseon of the same sanctuary. 
 
 Obelisk of London {The), or Cleo- 
 patra's Needle on the Thames Embank- 
 ment. See ' Cleopatra's Needle.' 
 
 The Arabs call obelisks ' Pharaoh's needles ' ; 
 the Egyptian priests called them ' Sun fingers,' 
 because they acted as gnomons to mark the hour 
 on the ground. 
 
 Obelisk of Paris {The). In the 
 Place de la Concorde is one of the obe- 
 lisks of Rameses II., originally erected at 
 Luxor (Thebes). Removed to France in 
 1833, and called I'Obelisque de Louqsor. 
 
 Obelisk of St. John Lateran 
 
 {The). The highest in the world. It 
 
 was removed from Thebes, and was 
 erected by Thothmes IV., some 35 years 
 after the death of Thothmes III. 
 
 Obelisk of the Atmeidan {The), 
 or of the Hippodrome of Constanti- 
 nople. The oldest of the obelisks of 
 Thothmes III., erected to record his con- 
 quest of Naharania or Mesopotamia. 
 
 Obelisk of the Upper Alps 
 
 {The). Felix Neff, also called 'The 
 Apostle of the Upper Alps ' (1798-1829). 
 
 Ober - Ammergau {Ammergow), 
 in Upper Bavaria. Rendered specially 
 famous of late for its Passion Play, repre- 
 senting in 18 acts the last days of Jesus 
 Christ. Act i. Entry of Christ into 
 Jerusalem, and his purging of the Temple ; 
 Act ii. The Sanhedrim ; Act iii. The Leave- 
 taking at Bethany ; Act iv. The Last 
 Journey to Jerusalem ; Act v. The Last 
 Supper; Act vi. Judas receiving the 
 Blood-money; Act vii. Jesus in the Gar- 
 den of Gethsemane ; Act viii. Jesus be- 
 fore Annas ; Act ix. Jesus before Caiaphas ; 
 Act X. The Despair of Judas; Act xi. 
 Jesus before Pilate ; Act xii. Jesus before 
 Herod; Act xiii. Jesus scourged and 
 mocked ; Act xiv. Jesus condemned to 
 Death ; Act xv. The Via Dolorosa ; Act 
 xvi. The Crucifixion ; Act xvii. The Re- 
 surrection ; Act xviii. The Ascension. 
 
 History of the Play. — As far back as 
 the 12th cent, there had been a Passion 
 Play performed in the little village, but 
 in the 16th cent, a plague carried off 80 of 
 the inhabitants, and the survivors made 
 a vow, if the plague was stayed, to perform 
 the Passion Play evei-y ten years. Daisen- 
 berger, a priest, converted the 'miracle 
 play,' which was a farce, into the present 
 drama. In 1890 it attracted great at- 
 tention, and throngs from America and 
 Europe went to the Tyrolean Alps to 
 witness the performance. 
 
 Obi, or Obe (2 syl.). Witchcraft or 
 sorcery. An O'beah man is a wizard, an 
 O'beah woman a witch, among the negroes 
 of the West Indies. 
 
 O'bit. In the Latin church means 
 the service for the dead. One de die 
 obltus, one on the day of the funeral, and 
 a third on the 30tli day. It consists of 
 the matins and lauds of the OfficTum 
 Defunctorum, and a mass for the dead. 
 
 Oblates, ' Oblati.' I. Those who, on 
 entering a monastic order, abandon their 
 
630 
 
 OBLATE S 
 
 OBSTRUCTIONISTS 
 
 worldly goods for the benefit of the 
 society, or who offer themselves for any 
 work that may be put upon them. 
 
 II. Those offered to God from birth, 
 or consecrated from birth to a ' religious 
 life.' 
 
 III. Those laics who pay to live in an 
 abbey. 
 
 IV. Invalid soldiers who, before the 
 foundation of the Hotel des Invalides, 
 were quartered by the kings of France 
 on religious houses. 
 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate 
 
 (O. M. I,), 1815. A congregation of priests 
 established by the Abbe Mazenod, whose 
 special mission is the supervision of 
 schools and prisons ; many are mission- 
 ary priests. America, more especially 
 Canada, is full of them. 
 
 Oblates of St. Ambrose, 1578. 
 A congregation of secular priests estab- 
 lished at Milan by Charles Borromeo, 
 their special mission being the super- 
 vision of schools and coUeges. 
 
 Oblivion {Bill or Act of), 12 Car. II. 
 c. 11, 1660. An act of indemnity for 
 treason and state offences committed 
 between January 1, 1637 and June 24, 
 1660. 
 
 Oblivion {The Committee of). 
 When the American trouble began, in 
 1775, petitions from trading companies 
 in the United Kingdoms poured into the 
 House of Commons, urging the ministers 
 to abstain from coercive measures against 
 America. A committee was appointed 
 to report on these petitions, but so long 
 was the report delayed that the mer- 
 chants thought their petitions were for- 
 gotten, and the committee appointed to 
 consider them was facetiously called 
 ' The Committee of Oblivion.' 
 
 Obregons. Nurses of hospitals, &c., 
 were so called in Spain from Bernardin 
 Obregon (1540-1599). Called in France 
 * L'ordre des Freres-infirmiers Minimes.' 
 See ' Franciscans {Third Order of).' 
 
 Obscurantism, Obscurants. 
 
 The word obscurant was in Germany 
 applied to those writers who endeavoured 
 to stem the tide of the French Revolu- 
 tion. Obscurantism means the doctrine, 
 orpolicy, of non-progressive conservatives, 
 fossil politicians. It also means opposition 
 to popular enlightenment, or the progress 
 
 of knowledge. Matthew Arnold expressed 
 this idea by the words ' Philistines ' and 
 ' Philistinism.' 
 
 Cimmerian obscurantism and this thrice- 
 glorious revolution shall wrestle for it then.— 
 Carlylk, French Revolution, vol. ii. bk. v. 9. 
 
 Obscure Philosopher {The). 
 Heraclltos the Ephesian, who died B.C. 
 495, aged 60. Called ' obscure ' because 
 he was vir obscurus, a very reserved 
 man. Also called the 'weeping philo- 
 scpher ' {q.v.). 
 
 Observance {The Beligionists of 
 the) . Persons who imposed on themselves 
 the obligation to observe rigorously every 
 item of the rule of the order to which 
 they belonged. They are : 
 
 1. ' Les Peres de I'Observance,' or the 
 ' Observantins ' {q.v.), Reformed Fran- 
 ciscans. 
 
 2. Those who followed the ' Strict 
 Observance ' of the Cistercian Order. 
 
 3. Those who foUov/ed the 'Great 
 Observance ' of the Order of Mercy. 
 
 4. Preaching Friars of the ' Primitive 
 Observance.' They were Reformed Do- 
 minicans. The other congregations of 
 Observants are Franciscans, Cistercians, 
 Carmelites, and Observants of the Order 
 of Mercy. 
 
 Observantins {Les), or 'Les Peres 
 de I'Observance reguliere,' 1363. Re- 
 formed Franciscans, of which St. Ber- 
 nardin of Sienne was the author. In 
 1517 they were called Reformed Fran- 
 ciscans by order of Leo X. The Obser- 
 vantins of France were called ' Cordeliers,' 
 from the cord which they used for belt. 
 The Strict Observantins were barefooted 
 Franciscans. 
 
 Observer {The). A London weekly 
 journal, commenced 1792. 
 
 Obstructionists, 1879. Obstruc- 
 tion to the business of the House of 
 Commons began with the Home Rule 
 party soon after the death of Mr. Butt in 
 May 1879. Their object was to prevent 
 legislation by the dog-and-manger pro- 
 cess. In October 1882 Mr. Parnell was 
 elected president of the National League, 
 which arose on the suppression of the 
 Land League, and the obstructionists 
 were also called ParneUites. A reign of 
 terror was then established in Ireland. 
 
 Obstructionists (ParZmwew^ar//), 
 1889, 1890. A parliamentary junto, 
 
OCCAMISTS 
 
 OCTAVIAN 
 
 6S1 
 
 chiefly of the Irish Home Rule party 
 (q.v.), who set themselves to block or 
 talk down every measure of importance 
 introduced by the ministers of the day, 
 regardless of the merit thereof. Night 
 after night was wasted by the dreary 
 drip of dilatory debate, which degene- 
 rated into absolute rudeness and unman- 
 nerly behaviour. See ' Kentish Petition.' 
 
 In six months, 1890, twenty opponents of the 
 Government asked 1,7(B questions, and made 1,326 
 speeches. There were 669 members, and just 66t> 
 hours available for public business. 
 
 Oecamists. Followers of William 
 Occam, who revived Nominalism, which 
 was violently opjiosed by the Scotists. 
 Roscelin (who died 1106) fofmded the 
 sect of the Nominalists, who maintained 
 that universals have no real existence 
 except in the thought. There is no such 
 thing as tree in the abstract, though 
 there are such things as special trees, 
 as oaks, firs, birches, and so on. The 
 Realists denied this. The disciples of 
 Duns Scotus were Realists, and Occam 
 was a pupil of Scotus, but became a 
 Nominalist, and the revived sect were 
 called Oecamists. 
 
 Occam was called the ' Invincible Doctor ' and 
 the ' Prince of Nominalists.' 
 
 Occasional Conformity Bill 
 
 (The), 1711. A bill to evade or revoke 
 the act of toleration granted by William 
 III. Three times in Anne's reign was 
 the Bill introduced, and though passed 
 by the Commons was rejected by the 
 Lords, Bishop Burnet resisted it. Dr. 
 Sacheverel (1709) created riots in London 
 against the Act of Toleration. When 
 the Tories succeeded the Whigs, under 
 the administration of Harley, they 
 passed the Conformity BiU and the 
 Schism Bill (q.v.), both of which were 
 repealed in 1718 (5 Geo. I. c. 4). 
 
 The Occasional Conformity Bill was an attempt 
 to crush opinion instead of influencing under- 
 standing ; to convict when they could not prose- 
 lytise ; to swell the nominal numbers of church- 
 men with slaves and hypocrites.— HOWITT, Hist. 
 of Eny. vol. iv. p. SHU. 
 
 Occasionalism, or 'The Doctrine 
 of Occasional Causes.' A doctrine which 
 sprang from a dogma of Descartes (2 syl.), 
 that spirit cannot act on matter without 
 the concursus of God. By this theory 
 the action of the mind cannot be the 
 cause of the action of the body, and 
 therefore whenever the action of the 
 body follows that of the mind, God must 
 interfere to produce the effect. This is 
 
 called the Cartesian system, from 
 Descartes, the French philosopher. 
 
 Occupation of Moscow {The), 
 September 1812. The occupation by 
 Naj)oleon and his army. Moscow was 
 set on fire 15 Sept., and was burn- 
 ing a whole week. When Napoleon 
 quitted the citj% a month afterwards, 
 19 Oct., he had the Kremlin under- 
 mined and blown up with gunpowder, 
 though hundreds of the French sick and 
 wounded soldiers had been carried there 
 as to an hospital. 
 
 Ocean's Queen {The). England. 
 So called for the daring and valour of her 
 navy, more than for the number and 
 tonnage of her ships. 
 
 Oekhamists. The disciples of 
 William of Ockham or Occam, who in 
 the 14th cent, revived Nominalism {q.v.), 
 i.e. that abstract ideas are obtained only 
 by comparing a number of real pheno- 
 mena or real facts. Thus the abstract 
 idea of tree could not exist at all unless 
 we knew real trees. 
 
 O'Connell's Tail. His henchmen 
 or parliamentary following. So called 
 because they had no opinions of their 
 own, but followed O'Connell's dicta as a 
 tail follows its o\vner. 
 
 O'Connor of the Bloody Hand. 
 
 Cathal O'Connor was so called from the 
 number of battles which he fought (12th 
 and 13th cents.). 
 
 Octaeteris. A space of eight years 
 added to the cycle of Calippus, making 
 that cycle to consist of 84 years, instead 
 of 76. When Dionysius of Alexandria 
 calculated his Easter he made use of the 
 Octaeteris, or cycle of 84 years, which 
 continued in use till Gregory XIII. 
 reformed the calendar. 
 
 Octavian War {The), or ' Bellum 
 
 Octavianum,' B.C. 87. Part of the social 
 
 war of Rome, so called from Cneius 
 
 Octavius, the consul. It was caused by 
 
 the opposition of Cornelius Cinna liis 
 
 colleague. A battle ensued between the 
 
 partisans of the two consuls, in which 
 
 10,000 men were slain. Cinna was 
 
 driven from the forum, deprived of his 
 
 { consular office, quitted Rome, put himself 
 
 I at the head of an army of insurgents, and 
 
 i was joined by Caius Marius. 
 
OCTAVIANS 
 
 ODOUR 
 
 Octavians [The), 12 Jan., 1595 to 
 1596. The eight commissioners to whom 
 James VI. of Scotland committed the 
 care of his finances. They were all 
 lawyers, and were responsible for the 
 receipts and expenditure of the govern- 
 ment. On them devolved the settling of 
 accounts, making grants, and, in short, 
 every national expense. Five made a 
 quorum. 
 
 The Octavians used the trust reposed in them 
 with as much moderation, perhaps, as could pos- 
 sibly have been expected ; and by their knowledge 
 of business, and the exercise of a rigid economy, 
 they brought the affairs into much better order 
 than they had ever been during James's reign.— Sir 
 W. Scott, History of Scotland, xxxviii. 
 
 October 5, 6, 1789. Noted for the 
 great insurrection of Paris, when a mob 
 of men and women made their way to 
 Versailles, massacred the guard, and 
 compelled Louis XVI. with his wife and 
 family to go to Paris. 
 
 October Diploma (The), 1860. 
 Introducing a constitutional form of 
 government for Hungary, and vesting 
 the power in the provincial Diets of 
 Austria and the National Diet of Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 Octonary {The). A name given to 
 the Calif Motassem. He was the 8th 
 of the Abbasside califs; he reigned 8 
 years, 8 montlis, and 8 days ; won 8 
 battles; left 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8 
 thousand slaves, and 8 millions of gold. 
 (Gibbon, with notes, ch. 52.) 
 
 Oculi. The third Sunday in Lent. 
 So called from the introit which begins 
 thus : ' Oculi mei semper.' See ' Sunday.' 
 
 The ' Introit ' is the psalm or passage of Scrip- 
 ture chanted in Catholic churches while the priest 
 enters the chancel. 
 
 Od Force. -An all-pervading force. 
 A term introduced by Baron Reichenbach 
 to express that luminosity which is said 
 to be manifested at the poles of magnets, 
 and wherever chemical action is going on. 
 It has negative and positive poles. 
 
 In animal magnetism it is said that od force is 
 transmitted from the magnetiser to the mag- 
 netised. 
 
 Odal Tenure. In the Orkney and 
 Shetland Islands. The right to land 
 without any written deed, based solely 
 on possession. Absolute possession 
 before the introduction of feudalism. 
 
 Odalisks. Female slaves of the 
 Turkish harem attached to the service 
 
 of the women. They are ordinarily either 
 Circassians or Georgians, and are gene- 
 rally selected for their beauty. 
 
 Odcomb'ianL8gstretcher(rAe). 
 
 Thomas Coryat of Odcombe, Somerset- 
 shire, traveller, and author of ' Coryat's 
 Crudities ' (1577-1617). 
 
 O'Donnell Rebellion {The), in 
 Spain, 1841. The object was to restore 
 the queen-mother, Maria Louisa, who 
 had been compelled by Espartero to 
 abdicate, that he himself might be 
 regent. The revolt failed in its object, 
 and in 1854 Espartero joined O'Donnell, 
 who was made minister of war. O'Don- 
 nell now effected Espartero's dismissal 
 and was named president of the council. 
 He resigned in 1866, and died the follow- 
 ing year (5 Nov., 1867). 
 
 Odour of Sanctity {The). To 
 die in the odour of sanctity. It was 
 and perhaps still is a prevalent notion 
 among Roman Catholics that when the 
 body of a good man dies, God will not 
 suffer his holy one to see corruption, 
 and that it exhales a sweet odour; 
 but that the body of the wicked gives 
 forth at death a stench increasing in 
 foulness in proportion to the scale of 
 crime. Of course, there is a sort of 
 truth in this notion, for the bodies of 
 holy men were embalmed, and the swing- 
 ing censers filled the room with sweet 
 odour. Besides, monks and nuns lived 
 so in the odour of the censers that their 
 clothes and skin got impregnated with 
 the perfume. Bad men, on the other 
 hand, were neither embalmed nor in- 
 censed. Shakespeare speaks of the 
 stench exhaled by Antiochus and his 
 daughter, who were killed for their wick- 
 edness by lightning : 
 
 A fire from heaven came, and shrivelled up 
 Their bodies, e'en to loathing: for they so stunk 
 That all those eyes adored them ere their fall 
 Scorned now the hand which gave them burial. 
 Pericles Prince of Tyre. 
 
 Odour of Nations {The). Maxima 
 du Camp says : — • 
 
 Chaque pays a une odeur speciale qui le fait 
 reconnaitre : I'Egypte sent la fleur des feves, 
 I'ltalie sent la cire et I'encens, I'Angleterre sent 
 la fumee de houille, la Grece sent I'araki, la 
 France sent le pain de munition, la Hollande a 
 aussi son parfum a elle et tout a fait distinct— elle 
 Bent la tourbe humide. 
 
 Certainly, a French crowd ' a une odeur 
 speciale,' unlike any crowd that I ever 
 mixed in. 
 
ODYSSEY 
 
 OIL 
 
 633 
 
 Odyssey [The German). «The 
 Kudrun,' in three parts : (1) ' The 
 Hagen ' ; (2) * The Hilde ' ; and (3) * The 
 HedeL' 
 
 CEIcumenical Councils. Only 
 seven are recognised by Russia. 
 
 1. The Council of Nice, ajd. 325, in 
 which the Arian heresy was condemned. 
 
 2. The First Council of Constantinople 
 in 381. 
 
 3. The Council of Ephesus in 481. 
 
 4. The Council of Chalcedon in 451. 
 
 5. The Second Council of Constanti- 
 nople in 553. 
 
 6. The Third Council of Constanti- 
 nople, in 680, against the Monoth'elites 
 {q.v.), who recognize in Christ but one 
 will in his two natures, the human will 
 being merged in his divine nature. 
 
 7. The Second Council of Nice in 787. 
 
 An (Ecumenical Covincil should be called by 
 the pope, presided over by the pope, and attended 
 by bishops from all parts of Christendom. 
 
 CBdipus. ^ Caracalla was so called 
 because, like Oedipus, he married his 
 own mother. The people of Alexandria 
 gave him this sobriquet, and the emperor 
 in revenge slaughtered many thousands 
 of them. 
 
 (Eil de Boeuf {L% 17th and 18th 
 cents. A large reception room [salle] 
 in the palace of Versailles, lighted by a 
 round window [ceil de hoeuf] from the 
 king's bedroom. The ceiling had been 
 decorated by Van der Meulen, and on 
 the walls were represented the children 
 of Louis XIV. 
 
 Three short years ago there was still Versailles 
 and an (Eil-de-Boeuf.— CABLYLE,F(<;nc/iKe»oii(<ton, 
 vol. iii. bk. i. 1. 
 
 CEillet [Chevaliers de V), or ' Knights 
 of the Pink,' 1793. A society organised 
 to rescue the queen Marie Antoinette 
 and her young son (Louis the Dauphin) 
 from the hands of the revolutionists. It 
 had its ramifications in Austria and 
 Prussia, but its headquarters were in 
 Paris. Their attempt to save the queen 
 failed, and the failure was announced to 
 the Parisian conspirators by one of the 
 members pulling a pink to pieces and 
 flinging the stalk on the ground. 
 
 OfFa's Dyke. An immense trench 
 and rampart extending from the estuary 
 of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye. It 
 was carried through marshes and over 
 mountains and rivers for 100 miles. Its 
 
 remains are still visible. It was used 
 for the boundary which determined the 
 confines of England and "Wales. Every 
 Briton found with a weapon on this side 
 of the dyke was to have his hand cut off 
 (Sharon Turner, ' Hist, of the Anglo- 
 Saxons,' p. 171). 
 
 This dyke was made by Offa king of Mercia 
 A.D. 777. 
 
 Offaley, Ireland, was called ' King's 
 County,' and its chief town ' Philipstown,' 
 in honour of Philip of Spain, the husband 
 of Queen Mary. At the same time Leix 
 was called ' Queen's County,' and its 
 chief town ' Maryborough,' in honour of 
 Queen Mary. 
 
 Ogdoad, or Combination of Eight. 
 Meaning the Good Principle and his 7 
 seons (Mind, the Word, the Understand- 
 ing, Power, Excellencies, Princes, and 
 Angels), from each of which sprang 
 other aeons amounting to 365, the mystic 
 number of the Gnostics. The Greek 
 expression for the 7 ceons is Abraxas (7 
 letters), each aeon being supposed to 
 govern a world. See ' Basilides.' 
 
 O'^ham Character [The). A 
 species of old Irish writing. It seems to 
 have been either a cipher or shorthand, 
 consisting of certain lines and marks 
 bearing a relative value to a principal 
 horizontal line. The word is Irish. 
 
 I shall certainly find you exerting your poetical 
 talents in elegiacs upon a prison, or your anti- 
 quarian researches in detecting the Ogham 
 character. — Sir W. Scott, Waverley, eh. xxviii. 
 
 Ogy'gian Flood [The], b.c. 1759. 
 A great flood said to have taken place in 
 the reign of Og^ges, a mythical king of 
 Attica and Boe5tia. 
 
 Bceotia was called Ogygia. 
 
 Ohio (U.S. America), So called, in 
 1802, from its river of the same name 
 (Indian) . The inhabitants are nicknamed 
 Buck-eyes. 
 
 Oil [The Sacred). For anointing the 
 kings of France. Kept in a phial of 
 antique form, about an inch and a half 
 high. The oil is reddish, not unlike thin 
 liquid glue, and the phial is kept in the 
 tomb of St. Remi at Reims. When a king 
 of France was to be anointed, the tomb 
 was opened and the phial taken out. We 
 are told that it shrinks visibly in quantity 
 when a dying king is to be anointed, but 
 assumes its normal volume when a new 
 king is to be anointed with it. According 
 
634 
 
 OLD 
 
 OLD 
 
 to legend it was brought to St. Remi by 
 a pigeon when Clovis was baptized. 
 
 Trained pigeons played a very prominent part 
 both at the death and baptism of those whom the 
 Catholic Church delighted to honour. 
 
 Old and New Irish {The). The 
 descendants of the Milesians and the 
 Anglo-Irish settled in the Pale {q.v.). 
 
 Old and Ne-w Learning {Men of 
 the). So Catholics and the Reformers 
 were called in England after Henry VIII. 
 broke from the pope. 
 
 The leaders of the Old Learning -were Lee, arch- 
 bishop of York ; Stokosley, bishop of London ; 
 Tunstall, bishop of Durham : Gardiner, bishop of 
 Winchester ; Sherbourne, bishop of Chichester ; 
 Nix, bishop of Norwich ; and Kite, bishop of Car- 
 lisle. These prelates were countenanced by the 
 Duke of Norfolk, and by Wriothesley, the chief 
 secretary. 
 
 The leaders of the New Learning were Cranmer, 
 archbishop of Canterbury ; Latimer, bishop of 
 Worcester ; Shaxton, bishop of Salisbury ; Hilsey, 
 bishop of Rochester ; Fox, bishop of Hereford ; and 
 Barlow, bishop of St. David s. These prelates 
 were supported by Cromwell, the vicar-general. 
 
 Old Bags. I. A nickname given to 
 Nicholas Vansittart by William Hone in 
 one of his political squibs, called ' The 
 Political Showman,' published in 1821. In 
 this satire Lord Sidmouth figures as the 
 Doctor, his father having been a medical 
 man. 
 
 II. John Scott lord Eldon was so called 
 because he carried home with him in 
 sundry bags the cases pending his judg- 
 ment (1751-1838). 
 
 Old Bullion. Colonel Thomas Hart 
 Benton, advocate of the gold and silver 
 currency in the U.S. of N. America (1783- 
 1858). 
 
 Old Catholics, 1870. Those Ro- 
 manists who deny the ecumenical 
 character of the Vatican Council of ISGD, 
 and reject the Vatican decrees, especially 
 those concerning the pope's infallibility. 
 
 Old Fox {The). Marshal Soult was 
 so called from his strategic abilities and 
 never-failing resources (1769-1851). 
 
 Old Glory. Sir Francis Burdett 
 (1770-1844). At one time the glory of the 
 radicals, but subsequently he became a 
 Tory. 
 
 Old Gravity. Lord Chancellor 
 
 Thurlow (1732-1806). 
 
 So much for Old Gravity. 
 Petek Pindar, Gmd Cry and Little Wool, epist. 11. 
 
 Old Grog. Edward Vernon the 
 admiral (1684-1757). So called by B.itisli 
 
 sailors from his grogram cloak, which he 
 wore in foul weather. 
 
 Old Hickory. President Jackson of 
 U.S. of America. So called because in his 
 contest with the Creek Indians (1813) on 
 one occasion he was so destitute of pro- 
 visions that he and his men fed on hickorv 
 nuts. 
 
 There can be no doubt that ' Old Hickory ' pos- 
 sessed animal force and courage in a high degree 
 . . . [but] it is not surprising to learn that his 
 reign was a period of general lawlessness and 
 rowdyism, outrages being committed in the streets 
 of the capital of which Jackson refused to take 
 notice.— Nineteenth Century , August 1888, pp. 272, 
 273. 
 
 Old Ireland Party {The). The 
 followers of Daniel O'Connell, as opposed 
 to ' Young Ireland ' led by Smith O'Brien. 
 Both sought repeal, but the old party was 
 Catholic, and the young party wanted to 
 unite all Irishmen, irrespective of creed, 
 into one union. The two parties hated 
 each other. 
 
 Old Learning {The). The Catholic 
 faith, in contradistinction to the Re- 
 formed faith. 
 
 Old Man Eloquent. President 
 John Quincy Adams (1767-1848). Presi- 
 dent 1825-1829. 
 
 Isocrates, the Athenian orator, is generally 
 meant by ' The Old Man Eloquent ' (B.C. 436-338). 
 It is to him that Milton refers 
 
 .... that dishonest victory 
 
 At Cheronaea, fatal to liberty, 
 
 Killed with report that Old Man Eloquent. 
 When Isocrates heard of the defeat of the Athe- 
 nians at Cheronaea, it had such an effect on hia 
 spirits that he drooped and died within four days. 
 He was nearly 91) years of age. 
 
 Old Man of the Mountain {The). 
 King of the Assassins, whose name was 
 Hussun Subah sheik ul Gebel (1090-1258). 
 He was a convert to the doctrines of the 
 Ismaelians {q.v.). He ruled over a tribe 
 called the Aschischi in the northern moun- 
 tains of Persia. The word Aschischi is 
 from haschish, an intoxicating substance 
 that produced delirium, in which the 
 imagination had very enthusiastic views 
 of eternal happiness. Hussun reared his 
 young diaciples into absolute obedience, 
 so that they were fearless of man of any 
 rank, and the greatest princes trembled 
 at his name. Houlagou or Houlaku ex- 
 tirpated the order in Persia in 1258, but 
 it lingered in Syria till 1280, when the 
 Mamelukes stamped it out. 
 
 Old Man of the Worth {The). 
 Christian Jacques Drahakemberg, of 
 
OLD 
 
 OLD 
 
 685 
 
 Aarh-uua, in Jutland. Died 1772, aged 146. 
 See ' Macrobiots.' 
 
 Old Noll. Oliver Cromwell (1599- 
 1658). 
 
 Old Patch.. A great banknote 
 forger. Li 1784, by making his own paper 
 and ink, and working off the notes on his 
 own private press, he managed to get into 
 circulation false notes to the value of 
 200,000Z. 
 
 other great forgers of Bank of England notes 
 have been ]\rathison, 178H; Vincent Alessi (the 
 Italian) ; and the Duke of Rovigoand Desnouettes 
 (of Hamburg). Vincent Alessi was betrayed by 
 a confederate ; the Duke of Kovigo and Desnou- 
 ettes made their notes in Hamburg, and employed 
 agents to circulate them in England. 
 
 The name of Old Patch was Charles Price, but 
 he had many aliases, as Wigmore, Wilmott, Brank, 
 Bond, Parks, Powel, Schutz, &c. 
 
 Old Pretender {The). Francis 
 Edward James [Stuart] son of James II, 
 He claimed the British throne by right of 
 birth, but as his father had abdicated the 
 right fell through (1688-1765). 
 
 Old Public Functionary, or 
 
 O. P. F. President James Buchanan 
 (1791-1868). So called from the following 
 words in his message to Congress in 1859 : 
 ' This advice proceeds from an old public 
 functionary.' 
 
 Old Rowley. Charles II. was so- 
 called fiom his favourite racehorse (1630, 
 1660-1685). 
 
 A part of Newmarket racecourse is still called 
 •the Rowley mile.' 
 
 Old Sarum. Marchioness of Salis- 
 bury, grandmother of the prime minister, 
 burnt to death in 1835, at the age of 86. 
 She used to drive in the park in a low 
 phaeton with four black ponies and out- 
 riders in splendid liveries ; always went 
 to court in a sedan-chair, her footmen 
 carrying flambeaux at night ; she hunted 
 till she was past 70, wearing a sky-blue 
 habit with black velvet collar, and a 
 jockey-cap ; was a bold rider, and no fence 
 ever stopped her. 
 
 Old Style and New Style {The). 
 Old Style, computing according to the 
 old calendar. New Style, computing 
 according to the reformed calendar. 
 Hence we have Lady Day 25 March, 
 and Old Lady Day, 6 April. Midsummer 
 Day, 24 June, and Old Midsummer Day, 
 6 July. Michaelmas Day, 29 Sept., and 
 Old Michaelmas Day, 11 Oct. Christmas 
 Day, 25 Dec, and Old Christmas Day, 
 6 Jan. 
 
 Old Testament {The). The langu- 
 age of the Old Testament is a composite 
 of Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew. Ezra 
 (who died B.C. 459) declared what books 
 were to be considered canonical. 
 
 The following portions are in Chaldaic, viz. : — 
 Ezra iv. 8, vi. 18, and vii. 12-26. 
 Jer. X. 11. 
 Dan. ii. 4 and vii. 28. 
 
 The Hebrew Scriiitures 'were translated into 
 Greek in the Srd cent. B.C. ; but parts seem to be as 
 late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, who died 
 B.C. 161. 
 
 It was first printed in 1488, at Sonclno. In 1526 
 the Rabbinical Bible was printed at Venice. 
 
 Esdras, i.e. Ezra, says : ' Behold, Lord, . . . thy 
 law is burnt, therefore no man knoweth the things 
 that are done of thee .... but if I have found 
 favour before thee, send the Holy Ghost to me, 
 and I will write all that hath been done in the 
 world since the beginning, [all] that was written 
 in thy Law. . . . And I took five men, as the Lord 
 commanded me, and we went into a field and re- 
 mained there. And the next day, behold a voice 
 called me, saying. " Esdras, open thy mouth, and 
 drink what I give thee." . . . So I opened my mouth, 
 and, behold, he reached me a full cup, which was 
 full as it were with water, but the colour of it was 
 like fire. And I took and drank it. And when I 
 had drunk of it, my heart uttered understanding, 
 and wisdom grew in my breast, for my spirit 
 strengthened my memory. . . . And the Highest 
 gave understanding to the five men, and ihey 
 wrote the wonderful visions of the night which 
 were told [and] which they knew not. And they 
 sat forty days, they wrote in the day, and at night 
 they ate [their] bread. In the forty days they 
 wrote 204 [manjin says 904] books. And it came to 
 pass when the forty days were fulfilled, that the 
 Highest said to me, "The first [book] which thou 
 hast written publish openly, that the worthy and 
 the unworthy may read it ; but keep [back] the 70 
 last [books], and deliver them only to such as be 
 wise among the people, for in them [i.e. the 70 
 books] is the spring of understanding, the fountain 
 of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge." And 
 I did so.'— 2 Esdras xiv. 21, 22, 87-48. 
 
 *,* It is very difficult to understand what is 
 meant by ' the first book ' ; still more what is 
 meant by the ' 70 books ' ; and why should these 
 books, in which were ' the fountain of wisdom and 
 the stream of knowledge,' be kept back from the 
 public eye ? 
 
 Old Testament. Booka referred 
 to, but not in the canon. 
 
 The Book of the Wars of the Lord {Niiynbers xxi, 
 14). 
 
 The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7). 
 
 The Book of Jasher (Joshua x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. IB). 
 
 The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kinua xi. 41). 
 
 The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of 
 Israel (1 A'(»f(sxiv. 19 ;2 Chron. xx.34, xxxiii.l8; and 
 18 other places). 
 
 The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings xiv. 
 29 ; and 12 other places). 
 
 The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel 
 (2 Chron. xvi. 11 ; and other places). 
 
 The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29, 
 and2C;t)i)H. ix.2'J). 
 
 The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chron. xxix. 
 29). 
 
 The Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29). 
 
 The Chronicles of King David (1 Chron. xxvii.24). 
 
 The Prophecy of Ahijahthe Shilomite (2 Chron. 
 ix. 29). 
 
 The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam 
 (2 Chron. ix.29). 
 
 The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealo- 
 gies i^Chron. xii. 15). 
 
 The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22). 
 
 The Book of Shcmaiah the Prophet (2 Chroti. 
 xh. 15). 
 
OLD 
 
 OLMUTZ 
 
 The Book of Jehu (2 Chrnn. xx. 34). 
 
 The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioned in 2 Mac- 
 cabecs ii.). 
 
 The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Maccabees H). 
 
 The Acts of Uriah (2 Chron. xxvi. ii). 
 
 The Three Thousand Proverbs of Solomon 
 {\ Kmgs iw.Sii. 
 
 A Thousand and Five Songs of Solomon (1 Kings 
 iv. 32). 
 
 The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by 
 Jehoiakim (.Jcnnninh Ii.). 
 
 The Prophecy about the city of Babylon (Jere- 
 miahli.). 
 
 The Memoirs of Jeremiah (mentioned in 1 Mac- 
 cabees ii.). 
 
 The Prophecy of Jonah (Jonah). 
 
 Old Testament. Books supposed 
 to be lost. 
 The Generation of Adam. 
 The Kevelation of Adam. " 
 The Genealogy of the Sons and Daughters of 
 
 Adam. 
 Cham's Book of Magic. 
 A Treatise called ' Seth.' 
 The Assumption of Abraham. 
 The Jetsira, ascribed to Abraham. 
 The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs. 
 The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph. 
 A Prophecy of Habakkuk, and soinoby Ezekiel. 
 The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad. 
 The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. 
 The Book of Og. 
 Jacob's Ladder, and several others. 
 
 See ' Apocryphal Scriptures ' (New 
 Testament). 
 
 Oldenburg {The House of). The 
 present reigning house of Denmark, 
 founded in 1448 by Christian I. of the 
 house of Oldenburg. 
 
 Ol'eron [Laivs of). Maritime laws 
 chiefly borrowed from the ' Consolato del 
 Mare,' compiled in the middle of the 13th 
 cent. The story runs that the Laws of 
 Oleron were enacted by Bichard I. while 
 his fleet lay at anchor there on his ex- 
 pedition to the Holy Land. The Ordi- 
 nances of Wisby in Gothland were com- 
 piled from the Laws of Oleron before 
 1400. 
 
 other traditions ascribe these laws to the Flem- 
 ings, to Otto the Saxon, to the Seigneur of 
 Oleron in 1196, to Eleonore of Guyenne, and some 
 others. 
 
 Olim. The most ancient registers of 
 the Parlement de Paris, from 1254 to 
 1318, comprehending the reigns of St. 
 Louis, Philippe le Hardi, Philippe le 
 Bel, Louis le Hutin, and Philippe le 
 Long. These valuable registers contain, 
 not only reports of the administration 
 of justice in that period, but also the 
 organisation of the parlement and con- 
 temporary events of all sorts. They 
 were published in 1840. 
 
 Oliva [Peace of), 3 May, 1G60, 
 between Sweden, Poland, the kaiser, and 
 
 the elector of Brandenburg ; signed soon 
 after the death of Charles X. of Sweden. 
 This treaty, and that of Kardis (with the 
 Czar of Russia), put an end to the wars 
 in which Charles X.' had involved the 
 Swedes. The Peace of Oliva ensured the 
 integrity of Poland, but in 1773 the first 
 partition of Poland between Russia, 
 Prussia, and Austria was effected. 
 
 Olive Branch {The), 8 July, 1775. 
 The petition of the American Congress 
 to King George III. after the battle of 
 Bunker's Hill, expressive of an earnest 
 desire for an honourable peace. The 
 petitioners vowed that this petition if 
 not successful should be the last. 
 
 Oliver Optic. The pen-name of 
 William Taylor Adams, an American 
 novelist. 
 
 Oliver's Fiddler. Sir Roger 
 L'Estrange (1616-1704). So called be- 
 cause at one time he was playing a fiddle 
 with others, in the house of John 
 Kingston, when Oliver Cromwell was 
 for a time one of the guests. 
 
 Roger L'Estrange, who used to be called 
 'Oliver's Fiddler,' formerly in danger of being 
 hanged for a spy, and about this time the admired 
 bulioon of High Church.— Calamy. 
 
 Olive'tans (4 syl.), or ' Brethren of 
 Our Lady of Mount Olivet,' 1272. A 
 religious order in the Catholic Church, 
 an offshoot of the Benedictines {q.v.), 
 founded by Bernard Tolomei and others 
 on Monte Oliveto in Tuscany, whence, 
 the name. 
 
 Olmtitz {The CamjJ at), Sept., 1850. 
 A military political display for the sake 
 of averting the Crimean War. Austria 
 assembled at Olmiitz 50,000 men 'for 
 field exercise.' The Emperor of Russia, 
 the Emj)eror of Austria, the King of 
 Prussia, Count Buol chief minister of 
 Austria, the British and French minis- 
 ters, all met and conferred on the war. 
 Russia suggested that the 'Vienna Note' 
 {q.v.) drawn up by Count Buol should be 
 accepted, and that the Four Powers 
 should guarantee the good faith of 
 Russia. Austria and Prussia agreed, but 
 England scouted such sponsorship after 
 the deception of Russia during many 
 months, and France stood firm beside 
 England. It really was most unsatisfac- 
 tory and unbusiness-like, but Prussia and 
 
OLYMPIAD 
 
 0. P. 
 
 637 
 
 Austria separated from the Western 
 Powers. 
 
 Eussia has always adopted that vile maxim of 
 Prince Metternich : ' He who knows not how to 
 deceive, knows not how to rule.' As if lying was 
 the divine right of kings, instead of being the pre- 
 rogative of ■ the father of lies.' 
 
 Olympiad. In ancient Greece 
 meant the space of four years between 
 one celebration of the Olympic games 
 and another. As a system of chronology 
 it began from B.C. 776. 
 
 The games were held at Olympia, in Elis, dedi- 
 cated to Zeus, called by the Romans Jupiter 
 Olympus. 
 
 Olympic Games {The). Said to 
 have been instituted by Herakles. They 
 w«re held on the plains of Olympia every 
 fifth year, and constituted the most 
 splendid national festival of the ancient 
 Greeks. Dates were reckoned from these 
 games, and the five intervening years 
 made an Olympiad. 
 
 Olyn'thiac Orations {The), b.c. 
 
 350. The three orations of Demosthenes 
 against Philip king of Macedon, who had 
 captured a town of Chalcidice in the 
 sacred war. Olynthus, the head of 32 
 Greek towns, trembled for its own safety. 
 Demosthenes tried to arouse the Athe- 
 nians to take part with the Olynthians 
 against Philip ; but the Athenians made 
 no great stir, and in 347 Olynthus fell 
 into the hands of Philij^. 
 
 Olyn'thian War {The). 1. b.c. 
 382-379, between Sparta and the Olyn- 
 thians. 
 
 II. B.C. 349-346, between Philip of 
 Macedon and the Olynthians. The 
 Olynthians were defeated in two battles, 
 and their city taken. 
 
 Ommi'ades (3 syl.), 661-750. An 
 Arabian dynasty, so called from Ommiah 
 grandfather of Abou Sofyan, chief of the 
 temple of Mecca before Islamism was 
 known. This Ommiah the Koreishite 
 was father of Moaviah, who founded the 
 dynasty. The seat of empire was 
 Damascus. The Ommiades were de- 
 throned by the Abbassides in 749 or 750. 
 
 The Ommiade califs were Moaviah I. (6r.l), 
 Yezi.l I. (GriO), Moaviah II. (G83>, .Merwan I. (<>!li, 
 Abdel Malek (68.5), Walid I. (705), Soliman (715i, 
 OniMr II. (717), Yezid II. (720), Hescham (724), 
 Walid II. (743), Yezid HI. (744), Ibrahim (744), 
 Merwan II. (744). 
 
 Omnibus, 1829. Introduced into 
 London by Mr. J. Shillibeer. The first 
 omnibus ran from the ' Yorkshire Stingo,' 
 
 in the New Eoad, to the Bank of Eng- 
 land, the fare being one shilling. In 
 1830 the fare was reduced to sixpence, 
 and since then other reductions have 
 been made. 
 
 Omnibus Bill {An). A general 
 bill in parliament promoted by some 
 public body (such as the Ecclesiastical 
 or Charity Commissioners, the Board of 
 Works, &c.), who for economy sake in- 
 clude in one application to the legislature 
 several schemes or projects, mostly by 
 way of schedule. 
 
 Omnibus Order {An), in law. A 
 sinc;le order made by a judge for dealing 
 with several applications pending before 
 the court. All the applications are put 
 in one omnibus or order. 
 
 Omnibus Section of the Eussian 
 Penal Code. Revised in 1885. Section 
 249 is so called from its wide scope and 
 sweeping applicability. It drags into 
 its clutches all revolutionists of every 
 shade and degree ; even thoughts are not 
 free ; and as to words, paragraphs in 
 newspapers, advice, hints and expres- 
 sions of discontent, they are all trea- 
 sonable, and render the offender liable 
 to exile for life and the forfeiture of all 
 his goods, 
 
 Omri {Statutes of), b.c. 920. King of 
 Israel, founder of Samaria. He com- 
 pelled by severe laws the worship of the 
 Israelitish idols, and these laws are still 
 called by the Jews ' The Statutes of 
 Omri.' 
 
 One-Sandalled Man (T/ie). Jason 
 was so called because on his way back to 
 lolcus he lost one of his sandals in cross- 
 ing the river Anaurus. 
 
 One Thousand Eight Hun- 
 dred and Sixty-seven (18G7). A 
 
 Fenian toast and catchword : as ' Three 
 cheers for 1867 ! ' This was the date of 
 the Fenian rising. 
 
 Onion Pennies. Certain Roman 
 coins found pretty abundantly at Sil- 
 chester in Hampshire. So called from 
 one ' Onion,' said to be a giant who dwelt 
 in this city. 
 
 On'kalos. The supposed author of 
 an Aramaic version of the Pentateuch. 
 
 O. P. Riots, 1809. Covent Garden 
 having been destroyed by fire during tho 
 
OPEN 
 
 OKACLE 
 
 management of John Kemble, a new 
 house was erected in the course of a 
 year, and the prices of admission raised. 
 The theatre-going pubHc took this in 
 dudgeon, and night after night crowded 
 the house with cries of ' O. P.' (old j)rices). 
 They danced on the pit-benches and 
 sometimes on the cushions of the boxes 
 to the harsh music of cat-calls, and to 
 tunes written for the occasion. O. P. 
 music and dances were to be seen in 
 every music shop. When at last the 
 benches began to be torn up, the 
 cushions demolished, and the decora- 
 tions destroyed, the magistracy inter- 
 fered. 
 
 Sir Vicary Gibbs, being employed to conduct 
 the prosecution, convulsed the court -with a 
 happy quotation : 'Opes [O.Ps.] Irritamenta malo- 
 rum.' 
 
 Open Sea of Kane {The). A sea 
 supposed by Elisha Kane the traveller 
 (1822-1857) to surround the North Pole. 
 
 Oph'ites (2 syl,), 2nd cent. A 
 Christian sect. So called from the 
 Greek word 6<^ts (a serpent). They 
 maintained that the serpent (Gen. iii.) 
 was the Logos or Christ, who came into 
 Eden to deliver man from that ignorance 
 to which the Creator or Demiurge had 
 doomed him, and to make him ' wise 
 unto salvation.' (From 2nd to 6th 
 cent.) 
 
 Oppian Law {The). ' Oppia Lex,' 
 a law by C. Oppius, the tribune, forbid- 
 ding any woman to wear more than half 
 an ounce of gold, to have parti- coloured 
 garments, or to be carried more than a 
 mile except for the purpose of cele- 
 brating some religious festival or solem- 
 nity. 
 
 Optime (3 syl.). The second class 
 of the Mathematical Tripos is called 
 ' The Senior Optinies,' and the third 
 class is called the 'Junior Optimes.' 
 These phrases are derived from the 
 ' Acts ' which used to be held in the 
 schools before degrees were conferred. 
 The compliment of the moderator paid 
 to an opponent who had answered very 
 well was Optivie quidem disputasti, or 
 Doniine opponens, opthne disputasti, 
 and to the respondent who had disputed 
 pretty well, Domine respondens, satis 
 et optime quidem et in thesi et in dis- 
 putatio?iibus tuo officio functus es. 
 Set 'Wrangler.' 
 
 Optimism. The doctrine that 
 whatever is is in its best possible state, 
 for God would not have made anything 
 otherwise. What we call evils are need- 
 ful for our conservation, and all odds 
 will be made even in the life hereafter. 
 Malebranche taught optimism, and Leib- 
 nitz in his ' Essais de Theodice'e ' ; Boling- 
 broke adopted the same theory, and 
 Pope in his ' Essay on Man ' says, ' What- 
 ever is, is right.' See ' Pessimism.' 
 
 Opus Majus [not' Opus Magnum']. 
 The title of the great work of Roger 
 Bacon the Franciscan. It contains the 
 results of his researches, and he tells us 
 that he spent above 2,000^. in twenty 
 years on apparatus for his experiments 
 [equal to 30,000^. of our money at pre- 
 sent]. His discoveries were in geometry, 
 astronomy, physics, optics, mechanics, 
 and chemistry. 
 
 Opus Operan'tis, in theology, 
 means that the effect is due not to the 
 ojyus or act itself, but to the disposition 
 of the operans or operator. See next 
 article. 
 
 There is no virtue jn kissing the crucifix per se, 
 but the mind of the devotee may by its fervour 
 and devotion bring grace to the person who 
 kisses it. Of course the Catholics never apply 
 the term to sacraments, but the Anglican Church 
 seems to imply it in the words ' feed on Him in 
 thy heart by faith," 
 
 Opus Opera'tum, in theology, 
 means that the rite or sacrament itself 
 conveys grace independently of the mind 
 of the recipient. The opus is the effi- 
 cient cause of grace. 
 
 Thus when the sacrament is administered in 
 articulo viortis, though the recipient is moribund, 
 yet it conveys grace. 
 
 Opus Triparti'tum (1514). The 
 ancient customs and royal decrees of Hun- 
 gary compiled by Verboczi, and divided 
 into three parts. A second volume was 
 added, and the whole was entitled 'Jus 
 Consuetudinarium Regni Hungariae.' 
 
 Or (gold). One of the colours in 
 heraldry of the escutcheon, expressed by 
 dots. 
 
 There are seven colours employed in Englaiid, 
 and nine by foreign heralds. See 'Heralds.' 
 
 Oracle of Delft {The). Hugo 
 Grotius was called the ' Oracle of Delft, 
 the Phoenix of his Country ' (1583-1645). 
 
 Oracle of Delphi {The). On the 
 south slope of Parnassos ; founded in 
 
OEACLE 
 
 OEANGEMEN 
 
 honour of Apollo, sumamed PythTos, 
 because he slew the serpent python. 
 The ravings of the priestess were due to a 
 n^ephitic gas which issued from a hole in 
 the earth over which the tripod was placed. 
 Men held the woman down till the gas 
 had intoxicated her, and her ravings were 
 then taken down by priests and turned 
 into verse. The priestess was called the 
 Pythia. 
 
 Certainly some of the Delphic responses ■were 
 most witty equivokes. Thus : 
 
 1. When Pyrrhos consulted the oracle respect- 
 ing his war with the Romans, he received for 
 answer : ' Credo te, .?%acide, Romanos vincere 
 posse,' i.e. 'The Romans, I believe, you will con- 
 quer.' Which may mean either you will conquer 
 the Romans, or the Romans will coiiquer you. 
 
 2. Another response was ' Ibis, redibis nunquam 
 per bella peribis.' [You shall return never by war 
 Bhall you perish.] Whether the comma is placed 
 before or after iiecer makes all the difference. 
 
 3. When the allied Greeks demanded of the 
 oracle what would be the isaue of the battle of 
 Salamis, they received for answer — 
 
 Seed-time and harvest, weeping sires shill Le'.l 
 How thousands fought at Sa'amis and fell ; 
 
 but whether the weeping sires were to be Greeks 
 or Persians was not stated. 
 
 4. When Croesos demanded what would be the 
 issue of the battle against the Persians headed 
 by Cyrus, the oracle replied : ' Croesos will bo- 
 hold a mighty empire overthrown ' ; but which 
 empire is left doubtful. 
 
 5. When Philip of Macedonsent to inquire it his 
 Persian expedition would prove successful, he 
 received for reply: ' The ready victim crov ned 
 for sacrifice stands before the altar.' PhiliiJ took 
 it for granted that the ' ready victim ' was the 
 King of Persia, but it was he himself. 
 
 When Maxentius was about to encounter Con- 
 stantine he consulted the guardians of the Sibyl- 
 line Books as to the fate of the battle, and the 
 prophetess told him : ' Illo diehostem Romanorum 
 esse periturum ' ; but whether Maxentius or Con- 
 stantine was ' the enemy of the Roman people ' 
 the oracle left undecided. 
 
 In the Bible we have a similar equivoke : When 
 Ahab king of Israel was about to wage war on the 
 king of Syria, and asked Micaiah if Ramoth Gilead 
 would fall into his hands, the prophet replied, 
 ' Go ! for the Lord will deliver the city into the 
 hands of the king ' (1 Kings xxii. 15, 35). Ahab 
 thought that he wis the king referred to, but the 
 king into whose hands the city fell was the king 
 of Syria. See p. 650, n. to ' Orleton's Message." 
 
 Oracle of Dodo'na (The), in 
 Epiros. The most ancient oracle of 
 Greece, dedicated to Zeus (1 syL). Its 
 responses were made by women called 
 pigeons [q.v.), who derived their re- 
 sponses from four sources : (1) The 
 cooing of doves ; (2) the bubbling of a 
 spring of water which rose at the foot of 
 the sacred oak ; (3) the rustling of the 
 leaves of the oak ; and (4) the tinkling of 
 a gong hung in the branches of a tree. 
 The gong was struck by knotted cords 
 hung on the branches of the tree. In 
 B.C. 219 the ^toHans destroyed the tem- 
 ple and cut down the sacred grove. See 
 • Pigeons.' 
 
 Oracle of France {The). St. 
 Bernard of Clairvaux. See ' Oracle of 
 the Church.' 
 
 Oracle of the Churcli {The). 
 
 St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091- 
 1153), also called the ' Melhfluous Doc- 
 tor,' the ' Eiver of Paradise,' and the 
 'Last of the Fathers.' He was the 
 founder of the Order of Bernardines, but 
 not of the Hospice. The founder of the 
 Hospice was St. Bernard of Menthon, 
 who lived about a century earlier (923- 
 1008). 
 
 Orange {Prince of). Orange, a cor- 
 ruption of Arausio, in the department of 
 Vaucluse, some sixteen miles from Avi- 
 gnon. The town was the capital of a 
 principality from the 11th to the IGth 
 century ; its last sovereign being Phili- 
 bert de Chalons, whose sister married 
 William count of Nassau. This count 
 was the father of William I. the stadt- 
 holder of the United Provinces, and 
 grandfather of William II. stadtholder. 
 This William II. married Mary eldest 
 daughter of Charles I., whose eldest son 
 was our William III., who married Mary 
 eldest daughter of James II. while he 
 was Duke of York. 
 
 William count of Nassau married Philibert's 
 sister, and was the father of William I. stadt- 
 holder. 
 
 William I. the stadtholder was the father of 
 William II. the stadtholder, who married Mary 
 daughter of Charles I. 
 
 William II. was the father of William III. of 
 Great Britain, who married Mary daughter of 
 James II. 
 
 Or'angeists (3 syl.), 1785. The 
 Orange faction of Holland opposed to 
 the French faction. The former stood 
 by the stadtholder, and accused their 
 opponents of democratic principles and 
 a tendency to French influence. The 
 democrats accused the Orange party of 
 aiming at monarchy or oligarchy, and 
 trampling on the ancient liberties of the 
 people. The French faction prevailed, 
 and the country was laid at the feet of 
 France. 
 
 Or'angemen (3 syl.). A develop- 
 ment of the Peep-of-day Boys in Ire- 
 land, consisting of rich and influential 
 Irish Protestants in defence of Pro- 
 testant ascendency in Ireland. So called 
 from William of Orange, whose name 
 and reign are associated with the Pro- 
 testant ascendency in the island. The 
 first Orange lodge was founded in the 
 
640 
 
 ORATEUR 
 
 ORDEAL 
 
 village of Loughgall, county Armagh, 21 
 Sept., 1795. As many as twelve or four- 
 teen Roman Catholics would be ejected 
 in a single night by these Orangemen. 
 By 1798 the Orangemen were a very 
 powerful society, having a ' grand lodge,' 
 extending over the entire province of 
 Ulster, and ramified through all the 
 centres of Protestantism in Ireland. In 
 1808 a grand lodge of Orangemen was 
 opened in Manchester, in 1821 it was 
 transferred to London, and in 1827 the 
 Duke of Cumberland was elected Grand 
 Master. In 1835 the number of members 
 was 200,000. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 There are Orange lodges in Canada and the 
 Colonies also. 
 
 Orateur du Genre Humain. 
 
 See below, ' Orator of the Human Race.' 
 
 Orator Henley (1692-1756). Called 
 by Pope ' the Zany of his age ' (' Dunciad'), 
 and introduced by Hogarth into two 
 of his humorous pieces. In one he is 
 christening a child, and in the other he 
 is represented on a scaffold with a mon- 
 key at his side, and the motto ' Amen.' 
 His periodical called the ' Hip Doctor ' 
 is a farrago of nonsense. 
 
 Orator of Wature (T/ie). Patrick 
 Henry of Studley, Hanover, in Virginia, 
 who advocated the cause of the people 
 against the claims of the clergy of Vir- 
 ginia. He was highly distinguished in 
 the war of independence, and contributed 
 greatly to the carrying of the Declaration 
 of Independence. ' If we would be free,' he 
 said over and over again, ' we must fight. 
 Yea, I repeat it ; we must fight ! we 
 must fight ! ' (1736-1799). 
 
 Orator of the Human Race 
 
 {The). The not very modest title assumed 
 by Anacharsis Cloots [Baron Jean 
 Baptiste ClootsJ, a Prussian by birth, 
 brought up in Paris, where he adopted 
 the revolutionary principles (1755-1791). 
 So called because he appeared at the bar 
 of the National Assembly accompanied 
 by deputies from all the nations of the 
 civilised world who had chosen him for 
 speaker. He was guillotined by the 
 French republicans. 
 
 The next day this deputation of all nations was 
 found to be a hoax, and the deputies were merely 
 vagabonds hired for the nonce at 12 livres apipce. 
 One of the rascals went to the Marquis de iJian- 
 court tor the money, and said he had been the 
 Chaldean. ' Mr. Chaldean,' said the Marquis, 
 'you have come to the wrong person.' M. de 
 
 Biancourt made no secret of the visit, and next 
 day it was duly reported in the daily papers. 
 Hunt was called Orator Hunt (1773-1835). 
 
 Orators {The). Mark Antony and 
 Licinius Crassus. Cicero says, ' Crassus 
 is the greatest orator Rome had ever 
 seen except Antony, and Antony the 
 greatest except Crassus.' 
 
 Mark Antony the ' Orator ' was not the triumvir, 
 but the grandfather. Thus: Mark Antony the 
 'Orator,' whose eldest son was Mark Antony sur- 
 namod Creticus, and the triumvir was the son of 
 Creticus. 
 
 Oratorians. See helow. 
 
 Oratory [Congregation of the), 
 1550. Founded by Philip de Neri, at 
 Rome, under the name of the ' Confra- 
 ternity of the Trinity.' Introduced into 
 Paris in 1611 ; and into England by 
 Cardinal Newman in 1817. The fathers 
 of the Oratory live in community with- 
 out any special vows. Oratorians are 
 so called ' parce qu'ils se placaient devant 
 I'eglise pour appeler le peuple a la 
 priere.' 
 
 Suppressed in France in 1790, but restored in 
 1853 by tha Abbe Petetot, under the title of the 
 ' Oratory of the Immaculate Conception.' 
 
 OrbisSensualiumPietus, 1651. 
 The first picture-book or illustrated 
 manual for the young by J. Amos Co- 
 mentus, and published at Niirnberg. 
 Object lessons in infant schools are of a 
 similar character. 
 
 Ordainers, 1310, 1311. A council 
 of 28 noblemen appointed to reform the 
 government and the king's [Edward II.] 
 household. These lords were empowered 
 to enact ordinances which should have 
 the force of laws. The cause of this 
 junto was the infatuation of the king for 
 Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, on whom he 
 lavished lands and honours witli most 
 wanton profusion. The ordainers revoked 
 all the grants of the king to his favourite, 
 demanded the removal of all foreigners 
 from high offices, and took from the king 
 the power of making war or peace with- 
 out the consent of his barons. 
 
 OrdeaL An appeal to the judgment 
 of God made known by the success or 
 failure of certain acts performed by the 
 accused. Hebrew women accused of 
 adultery appealed to the ' water of jea- 
 lousy.' There are nine different ordeals 
 in use among the Hindus. In Africa a 
 men who fancies himself bewitched by 
 his wife sends for the o'beah woman, who 
 administers to her a drink made of 
 
ORDEAL 
 
 ORDER 
 
 641 
 
 * goho ' ; if she vomits it, she is pro- 
 nounced innocent; if not, she is put to 
 death. In Europe the ordinary ordeals 
 were those of fire, water, and wager of 
 battle iq.v.). 
 
 Ordeal by Fire. In this ordeal the 
 accused was required to carry a piece of 
 red-hot iron in his hand a given distance, 
 or to tread blindfold and barefoot 
 amongst nine red-hot plouglishares with- 
 out setting his foot on any one of them. 
 If the accused escaped unhurt he was 
 pronounced innocent. This ordeal was 
 reserved for the wealthy, and as priests 
 were the adjudicators, they could easily 
 instruct those they wished to befriend 
 how to escape unhurt. 
 
 Ordeal by Water. Chiefly for the 
 lower orders. There was the ordeal of 
 hot water and the ordeal of cold water. 
 Athelstane's law was for the accused to 
 pick a stone out of a tub of boiling water, 
 the arm being quite bare, and water up 
 to the wrist, in some cases up to the 
 elbow. The ordeal of cold water was to 
 be flung into a pond or river; if the 
 accused sank he was pronounced inno- 
 cent, if he floated he was pronounced 
 guilty. See ' Wager of Battle.' 
 
 Order 14. The Judicature Act 
 which provides that when a writ has 
 been served and duly appeared to, if the 
 creditor makes an affidavit that his claim 
 is for a definite sum of money of which 
 there is no dispute, and respecting which 
 the debtor makes no defence, then the 
 creditor may issue a summons calling the 
 debtor at two days' notice to appear 
 before a Master in Chambers, and, if all 
 is satisfactory, the creditor is allowed to 
 obtain immediate execution, saving thus 
 the delay and expense of going to trial in 
 the ordinaiy way. A summary process 
 of exacting payment of a debt. 
 
 Order in Council (A^i) is an order 
 by the sovereign under the advice of the 
 privy council. 
 
 Order in Council (The), 7 Jan. 
 1807. Ordained that all neutral vessels 
 shall be prohibited from entering any 
 port belonging to France, or her allies, 
 or under her control. If any vessel 
 violates this order, both the vessel and 
 its cargo may be confiscated to the Eng- 
 lish Government. 
 11 Kov. 1807 another order was issued, by -which 
 
 all harbours and places of France, her allies, and 
 colonies were placed under the same restrictions 
 as if they were strictly blockaded. 
 
 Order of Alcan'tara (The), 115(5. 
 Instituted by Don Suarez and Don 
 Gomez, entrusted with the defence of 
 Alcantara, in Spain. They were first 
 called ' Knights of the Pear Tree,' then 
 ' Knights of St. Julian,' from San Julian 
 del Pereyro. 
 
 Order of Argonauts (The), 1382. 
 Instituted by Charles III. of Naples. 
 
 Order of Assassins (The). See 
 * Assassins.' 
 
 Order of Aviz. An order of knight- 
 hood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho 
 the first king, in imitation of the order 
 of Calatra'va, and having for its object 
 the subjugation of the Moors (1146). 
 
 Order of Bernar'dines (3 syl.), 
 1115. Reformed Benedictines, founded 
 by St. Bernard of Clairvaux. 
 
 Order of Calatra'va (The), 1158. 
 Instituted in Spain by Sancho III. of 
 Castile. When Sancho took from the 
 Moors the strong castle of Calatrava he 
 committed its defence to the Knights 
 Templars, who declined to undertake 
 it. Whereupon Don Raymond of the 
 Cistercian order, with several caballeros 
 of quality, volunteered to defend it, and 
 were created * Knights of Calatrava.' 
 
 Order of Celes'tines (3 syl.), 1274. 
 Founded by Celestine V. (Pierre de 
 Moron), but suppressed in 1776 by 
 Pius VI. 
 
 Order of Christ (The), 1205. In- 
 stituted in Livonia by Albert bishop of 
 Riga, and incorporated with the Order of 
 Teutonic Knights in 1237. Also called 
 ' The Short Swords of Livonia.' 
 
 Not to be mistaken for ' The Order of the 
 Knights of Christ ' (.q.v.). 
 
 Order of Christ (The), 1318. A 
 religico-military order instituted by 
 Dionysius I. of Portugal to guard the 
 frontiers of Algarve from invasions of 
 the Moors. It is now only an order of 
 honour. See ' Chevaliers Porte-glaive.' 
 
 This order was simply that of the Templars ex- 
 pelled from France by Philippe le l!el [IV.], and 
 received into Portugal under a new name. A. 
 branch of the same was admitted by John XXII. 
 into the Papal States. Another branch subsisted 
 in Brazil until the revolution of 181)0. 
 
 Order of Christian Charity 
 {The), 1578. Instituted by Henri III. of 
 TT 
 
642 
 
 ORDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 France for the benefit of poor military 
 officers and maimed soldiers. It was in- 
 stituted at the same time as the Order 
 of the Holy Ghost, meant for princes and 
 men of distinction. 
 
 Order of Civil Merit {The), 
 
 1815. Founded in Saxony by Frederick I. 
 [Augustus] on his being allowed by 
 Alexander of Russia (who had taken him 
 prisoner at Leipsic) to return to Dresden. 
 He died in 1827, at the age of 76. 
 
 He celebrated the fiftieth year of his accession 
 in 1818, and the fiftieth year of his marriage in 
 1819. 
 
 Order of Fidelity (The). 
 
 I. 1701. A Prussian order instituted 
 by Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg, 
 and better known as ' The Order of the 
 Black Eagle.' 
 
 II. In 1715. Instituted by Charles 
 William margraf of Baden Durlach, on 
 his founding Carlsruhe. 
 
 Order of Fontevrault (T;<e), 1100. 
 A religious order founded by Robert 
 d'Arbrissel. The abbey of Fontevrault 
 was transformed into a prison in 1804. 
 
 Order of Fools {The). Instituted 
 12 Nov., 1381, by Adolphus count of 
 Cleves, under the title of De Order 
 van't Gelikengezelscluvp, and composed 
 of noblemen and gentlemen of rank and 
 renown for humane and charitable ob- 
 jects. Their insignia was the figure of 
 a court fool on the left side of their 
 mantles, cap and bells, yellow stockings, 
 a cup of fruit in the right hand, and a 
 gold key in the left. A grand court was 
 held on the first Sunday after Michael- 
 mas Day. It is alluded to in Brand's 
 •Navis Stultifera,' 1520. See ' Respub- 
 lica Binepsis.' 
 
 Order of Grandmontines, or 
 
 •Grammontines' (3 syl.), 1026, founded 
 in Limousin by Etienne de Grammont. 
 Suppressed in 1769. 
 
 Order of Hieron'ymites (5 syl.), 
 1373, approved by Gregory XI. 
 
 Order of Isabella the Catholic 
 
 {The), 24 March, 1815. Founded in 
 Spain by Ferdinand VII. as a reward 
 for loyalty and for the defence of the 
 possessions of Spanish America. 
 
 Order of Jesuits {The), or ' Order 
 of the Society of Jesus,' 1534. Founded 
 by Ignatius Loyola. Sanctioned in 1540 
 by a bull of Paul III. Established in 
 
 France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany in 
 1556. Missionaries were sent to England 
 by Gregory XIII. in 1580, but banished 
 from the kingdom in 1584 (27 Eliz. c. 2). 
 Banished from France in 1594 ; from 
 Venice in 1606; from Turkey in 1628; 
 from Abyssinia in 1632 ; from Spain in 
 1767 ; from Naples in 1767 ; from Parma 
 in 1768 ; from Malta in 1768 ; from Russia 
 in 1817 ; from Genoa in 1848 ; from Aus- 
 tria in 1848. 
 
 Order of Jesuates (3 syl.), 1367. 
 Founded in Italy by Urban V. Sup- 
 pressed in 1668, and their possessions 
 given to the Hos'pitallers of Italy. 
 
 This Order must not be confounded with the 
 ' Order ' or ' Society of Jesuits ' founded by Loyola 
 in 1534. Hee p. 409. 
 
 Order of Jesus and Mary {The), 
 1615. Instituted in Italy by Paul V. 
 
 Order of Lazarists {The), or 
 'Fathers of St. Lazarus,' 1625. Insti- 
 tuted by De Gondi, and placed under 
 the direction of Vincent de Paul. 
 
 Order of Leopold {The), 1808. 
 Created by Francis I, of Austria in 
 honour of his father Leopold II., for 
 civil or military merit, without regard to 
 birth. Tlie decoration is a cross with 
 eight points. The motto is ' Integritati 
 et merito.' The legend on the reverse is 
 ' Opes regum, corda subditorum.' 
 
 Order of Louisa {The), 1814. In- 
 stituted in Prussia. 
 
 Order of Maria Theresa {The), 
 1757. A military order instituted by 
 Maria Theresa of Austria in memory of 
 her victory over the Prussians at Kollin 
 the same year. All the brave, without 
 distinction of birth, were eligible. The 
 decoration is a cross of gold and the 
 motto ' Fortitudini.' The ribbon is 
 white and red. 
 
 Order of Mercy {The), or 'The 
 Religious Order of Mercy,' 1218. An 
 order under the rule of St. Augustine, 
 founded for the redemption of captives. 
 Confirmed by Gregory IX. in 1235. 
 
 Oi'der of Monte'sa {The), 1317. 
 A Spanish order instituted by James II. 
 of Aragon. 
 
 Order of !N"ova Scotia. An order 
 of baronets created by James I. of Eng- 
 land. These baronets wore a ribbon of 
 an orange tawny colour. There are still 
 
OEDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 643 
 
 a few surviving Nova Scotia baronetcies, 
 all or nearly all being Scottish. 
 
 Order of Our Lady of Mercy 
 
 (The), 1218. Founded by Jayme I. of 
 Aragon. Women were admitted to this 
 order in 1281. 
 
 Order of Our Lady of Montesa 
 {The), 1317. Founded by Jayme 11. of 
 Aragon. 
 
 Order of Our Lady of Mount 
 
 Carmel {The), 1607. Instituted by 
 Henri IV. of France, and consisting of 
 100 French gentlemen. 
 
 Quite a different order to the Cnr'melites (3 Byl.) 
 or Ordie des Cacnies. Founded in 115G. 
 
 Order of Preachers {The), or 
 
 ' Fratres Predicatores,' 1216. Eanctioned 
 by Innocent III., who gave instructions 
 to the people utterly to extinguish heresy ; 
 and by an official bull allowed the Do- 
 minican Order to be founded under the 
 direction of Dominic de Guzman, a 
 Spanish presbyter. 
 
 Called Bl.ick Fnars in England from the colour 
 of their dress ; and Jai'ohi>Ti in France from their 
 establishment in the Hue de Jaques, Paris. 
 
 Order of Rougemont {The), 1400. 
 A military order of Burgundy founded by 
 Philibert de Miolans. Extinct. 
 
 Order of St. Alexander 
 Newsky {The), 1714. Instituted by 
 Peter the Great, the insignia being a 
 red cross with golden eagles. In the 
 midst of the cross is St. Alexander on 
 horseback slaying a dragon at his feet. 
 
 St. Alexander Newskywas grand-duke of Russia 
 and son of Jaroslav II. (l'218-121t;), called Newsky 
 from a battle which he gained over the Swedes, 
 Danes, and Teutonic knights in 1210. Newsky 
 is a title derived from the name of the river Neva, 
 near which the battle was gained. 
 
 Order of St. Andrew {The), 1698. 
 A Russian order founded by Peter the 
 Great, and given only for high merit. 
 The ribbon is blue, and the legend is 
 ' Pour la Foi et la Fidelite.' 
 For the Scotch order see ' Order of the Thistle.' 
 
 Order of St. Anne {The), 1735. A 
 Russian order first instituted in Holstein 
 by Duke Frederick in honour of his wife, 
 who was daughter of Peter the Great. 
 It was established in Russia by Paul I. 
 in 1756. The ribbon is red edged with 
 yellow, and in the centre of the cross is 
 an image of St. Anne. 
 
 Order of St. Basil {The), 358. 
 Founded by St. Basil in Pontus ; intro- 
 duced into the Western Church in 1057. 
 
 Order of St. Caroline {The), 1816. 
 Instituted by Caroline, the separated 
 wife of George prince regent, afterwards 
 George IV. It was founded for the sake 
 of decorating Bartolomeo Bergami, an 
 Italian, first her footman and afterwards 
 her chief adviser. The Emperor of 
 Austria objected to the cross of Malta 
 which was the badge of the order. Of 
 course the order was never recognised. 
 
 Order of St. Christopher {The), 
 1517. Founded in Austria for the pur- 
 pose of checking intemperance and pro- 
 fane swearing. 
 
 Order of St. Genette (2 syl.), 782. 
 Instituted by Charles Martel after his 
 victory over the Saracens, where a vast 
 number of gennets, like Spanish cats, 
 were found in the enemy's camp. The 
 most ancient order of knighthood in 
 France. Extinct. 
 
 Order of St. George {.The). 
 
 Bavari.\. Instituted during the cru- 
 sades, but refounded by Charles VII., 
 24 April, 1729. 
 
 England. See tinder ' Garter.' 
 
 Hanover, 1 January, 1840, founded by 
 Ernest Augustus. 
 
 Lucca, 1 June, 1833, founded by Duke 
 Charles Louis. 
 
 Russia, 26 Nov., 1769, founded by 
 Catharine II. Similar to the ' Poor 
 Knights of Windsor.' The cordon is 
 yellow and black. 
 
 SicUiY, 1 January, 1819, founded by- 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 The following are extinct : The order of St. 
 George in Burgundy, Carinthia, Constantinople, 
 Germany, Ravenna, and Rome. See these under 
 the national name. 
 
 Order of St. Jago {The). A Spanish 
 
 order instituted under Pope Alexander 
 
 III. in 1175, tiie graud-master of which 
 
 is next in rank to the sovereign. 
 
 Santiago or St. James the Greater is the patron 
 saint of Spain. 
 
 Order of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 
 1120. Called 'John' from John the 
 patriarch of Alexandria, and ' Jerusalem ' 
 from the place of their abode. They 
 subsequently resided at Rhodes (1310- 
 1523), when, being driven out by the 
 Turks, they took up their abode in Malta, 
 and were called ' Knights of Malta.' 
 
 Order of St. Lazare, or St. 
 
 Lazarus. The knights driven from 
 Palestine who followed St. Louis to 
 T x 2 
 
644 
 
 OEDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 France. Suppressed by Innocent VIII. 
 and united with other orders : to the 
 order of St. John in 1490, and in France 
 to the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
 in 1608. Abohshed in 1795. 
 
 Order of St. Louis {The), in 
 France, 1693. Founded by Louis XIV. 
 
 Order of St. Magdalene (3 syl.). 
 A French order instituted by St. Louis 
 to suppress duels, 1270. Extinct. 
 
 Order of St. Maria de Mereede 
 
 (3 syl.). A Spanish order for the redemp- 
 tion of captives. Extinct. 
 
 Order of St. Maurice {The),UBi. 
 Created by Amadeus VIII. of Savoy. 
 Having lost his wife, Maria Beatrix of 
 Burgundy, he retired to the hermitage 
 of Ripaille, on the Lake of Geneva, with 
 six of his nobles, whom he created knights 
 of St. Maurice. In 1572 the order was 
 united to that of St. Lazarus. 
 
 Order of St. Michael the Arch- 
 angel {The). 'Ordre de St. Michel,' 
 14G9, instituted by Louis XI. of Prance. 
 ' St. Michel est regarde comme le protec- 
 teur et I'ange tutelaire de la France.' — 
 
 BOULLLET. 
 
 Order of St. Patrick {The), 1783. 
 Instituted by George III. The ruling 
 sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland 
 and also the lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
 are ex-officio members. 
 
 Order of St. Stephen {The), 1764. 
 Instituted by Maria Theresa of Austria 
 for civil merit, but only nobles are eli- 
 gible. The decoration is the Hungarian 
 crown surmounted with a white cross. 
 The motto is Fublicum meritorum prce- 
 miuyn. 
 
 Order of San Salvador' {The), 
 1118. Instituted in Aragon by Alfonso I. 
 
 Order of the Amaranth {The), 
 1653. Instituted by Christina of Sweden. 
 
 Order of the Annunciation. 
 
 I. A religious order, 1500, instituted at 
 Bourges by Jeanne de Valois, daughter 
 of Louis XL, in honour of ' the Ten Joys 
 of the Virgin Mary ' ; confirmed by Pope 
 Alexander VI. and Pope Leo X. 
 
 II. A religious order, 1604, instituted 
 at Genoa by Maria Victoria Fornari, 
 called the ' Celestial Annunciades,' or 
 
 Blue Nuns, from the colour of their 
 dresses. 
 
 There was an order of knighthood called ' An- 
 nunciada ' instituted in 1302 by Amadeus VI. ; 
 reformed in 1434 by Amadeus VIII. 
 
 Order of the Augustines. See 
 
 p. 60, ' Augustines.' 
 
 Order of the Bath. See ' Bath.' 
 
 Order of the Bel q:! an Lion {The), 
 1815. Pounded by William I. 
 
 Order of the Benedictines 
 
 {The). See p. 67, ' Benedictines.' 
 
 Order of the Black Eagle (T/je), 
 
 1701. A Prussian order instituted by 
 Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg. 
 Also called * The Order of Fidehty.' 
 
 Order of the Blood of Our 
 Saviour {The), 1608. Instituted in 
 Mantua by Duke Vincent Goncjaga. The 
 name originated in the belief that in St. 
 Andrew's Church, Mantua, drops of our 
 Saviour's blood are preserved. 
 
 Order of the Burgundian 
 Cross {The), 22 July, 1535. Instituted 
 by Charles V. 
 
 Order of the Capueins {The). 
 See p. 144, ' Capueins.' 
 
 Order of the Carmelites {The). 
 See p. 147, ' Carmelites.' 
 
 Order of the Carthusians {The). 
 See p. 149, ' Carthusians.' 
 
 Order of the Cincinna'ti {The), 
 1783. Established in the United States of 
 North America, it was originally designed 
 as an order for American officers in the 
 War of Independence {q.v.), and for their 
 eldest sons, the title to descend by pri- 
 mogeniture. Another purpose was the 
 relief of the widows and orphans of those 
 who fell in the war. The decoration is a 
 medal representing the old Roman leav- 
 ing his plough to serve the State. The 
 order still exists. 
 
 Order of the Cistercians {The). 
 See p. 175, ' Cistercians.' 
 
 Order of the Cordeliers {The). 
 See p. 207, ' Cordeliers.' 
 
 Order of the Crescent. I. 1448. 
 Instituted by Renatus of Anjou, king of 
 Sicily. 
 
 The device of Benatvis was a crescent. 
 
ORDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 645 
 
 II. Instituted 1799 by the sultan after 
 the battle of the Nile. Rear-Admiral 
 Nelson was the first knight-companion of 
 the order. 
 
 Order of the Dannebrog {The), 
 1219. Founded by Waldemar II.; re- 
 stored in 1671 by Christian V. ; recon- 
 structed 28 June, 1808, by Frederick VI. 
 
 Order of the Day {The). In par- 
 liamentary usage is a method of supersed- 
 ing a question before the house by 
 moving that its attention be directed to 
 the questions in the same order as they 
 stand. Thus if the order is A, B, C, D, 
 and the question before the house is C, 
 a member who wants to burke the ques- 
 tion moves that A and B be taken before 
 C, or that the questions be taken accord- 
 ing to ' the order of the day.' Of course, 
 obstructionists can debate on A and B 
 without committing themselves on C, 
 and push C on one side. 
 
 Order of the Dominicans {The). 
 See p. 265, ' Dominicans.' 
 
 Order of the Dove {The\ 1379. 
 Instituted by John I. of Castile. 
 
 Order of the Dragon {The), 1410. 
 Established by Sigismond of Hungary on 
 his marriage with Barbara his second 
 wife. The insignia was a red cross and 
 a gold dragon with its tail twisted round 
 its neck. 
 
 Order of the Eagle {The), 1433. 
 Founded by Kaiser Albrecht {Albert) II. 
 See ' Order of the Black Eagle, Golden 
 Eagle, and White Eagle.' 
 
 Order of the Elephant {The), 
 
 12th cent. Instituted in Denmark by 
 Knute IV. in honour of a crusader who 
 in a battle against the Saracens slew an 
 elephant (1189). The order was restored 
 in 1478 by Christian I. The decoration 
 is an elephant carrying a tower, and the 
 ribbon is blue moire, passing from the 
 right shoulder to the left side. It is 
 reserved for princes and others of regal 
 rank. 
 
 Order of the Franciscans {The). 
 See p. 343, ' Franciscans.' 
 
 Order of the Garter. See 
 
 p. 496, ' Knights of the Garter.' 
 
 Order of the Golden Angel 
 {The), 312. A military order of Con- 
 
 stantinople, instituted by Constantine. 
 Extinct. 
 
 Order of the Golden Eagle 
 
 {The), 1702. Instituted by Duke Eber- 
 hard Ludwig at Wiirtemberg. United 
 with the Order of the Crown of Wiir- 
 temberg in 1818. 
 
 Order of the Golden Fleece 
 
 {The). Founded by Philippe III. duke of 
 Burgundy, 10 Jan., 1429. The gi-and- 
 mastership of the order was disputed for 
 twenty-four years (1700-1724) between 
 Kaiser Karl VI. and Felipe king of 
 Spain; but when Louis XV. of France 
 sent back the infanta, to whom he was 
 betrothed, the Spaniards were so indig- 
 nant that they broke off their French 
 alliance and joined Austria, and Felipe 
 yielded to Karl the moot point. When 
 the house of Burgundy became extinct, 
 the grand-mastership of the order pasf^ei 
 to the house of Austria — Karl V. trans- 
 mitted it to his successors in Spain. 
 When the dynasty failed, Philipi)e of 
 Bourbon, king of Spain, with a disputed 
 title, claimed the mastership, but the 
 kaiser refused to renounce his prior right. 
 This was the sore point which was healed 
 by the alliance of Spain with Austria. 
 
 Order of the Golden Shield 
 
 {The). Instituted by Louis II. of France 
 (about 878) in defence of the country. 
 Th*^ motto was Allons ! (a call to arms). 
 Extinct. 
 
 Order of the Golden Spur {The), 
 1534. A Roman order established by 
 Paul III. ; or, as some say, restored by 
 him, but founded in 312 by Constan- 
 tine in honour of his victory over Maxen- 
 tius. Gregory XVI. reformed the order 
 in 1841 and called it ' The Order of St. 
 Sylvester,' or the ' Golden Spur Reformed.' 
 The decoration is a cross of eight points, 
 suspended on a black and red ribbon, 
 and between the arms of the cross is a 
 little golden spur. 
 
 Order of the Guelfs {The), or 
 ' The Guelfic Order,' in Hanover, 1815. 
 Instituted by George prince of Wales, the 
 prince regent of England. Extinct. 
 
 Order of the Hare {The). Insti- 
 tuted by Edward III. The French raised 
 a tremendous shout, and Edward thought 
 it was the shout of onset, but it was oc- 
 casioned by a hare running between the 
 two annies. Extinct. 
 
646 
 
 OEDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 Order of tlie Holy Faith of 
 Jesus Christ {The), 1221. A military 
 order for a crusade against the Albi- 
 genses. Extinct. 
 
 Order of the Holy Ghost (The). 
 
 I. Neapolitan, 25 May, 1352, instituted 
 by Louis of Anjou, king of Naples. 
 
 II. Fbench, 1198, instituted by Count 
 Guy at Montpellier. 
 
 Another, 1578, instituted by Henry III. 
 Abolished 1789 ; re-established in 1815, 
 and again abolished in 1830. 
 
 Order of the Holy Phial (The), 
 or ' Sainte Ampoule,' in the province of 
 Champagne. The four barons of this 
 order were entrusted with the care of the 
 holy phial, in which the coronation oil 
 of the kings of France was preserved. 
 According to legend this phial was 
 brought from heaven by the Holy Ghost 
 in the form of a dove, and placed in the 
 hands of St.- Remy at the coronation of 
 Clovis. The phial was smashed to pieces 
 by Ruhl in 1793. 
 
 Order of the Holy Sepulchre 
 
 (The). I. In a.d. 328. Instituted by 
 St. Helena on her visit to Jerusalem at 
 the age of 80, when the three crosses of 
 Calvary were said to have been discovered 
 in a cave under the temple of Venus. 
 
 II. 17 July, 1099, instituted by Godfrey 
 of Bouillon. 
 
 Order of the Iron Crown {The), 
 1805. Instituted by Napoleon when 
 crowned with the iron crown of Lom- 
 bardy, in Milan Cathedral, king of Italy. 
 This order in Italy corresponded with 
 the Legion of Honour in France, also 
 instituted by Naj)oleon. The number of 
 members was at first 620, increased after- 
 wards to 985. The badge was the iron 
 crown {q-v.), in the middle the French 
 eagle. The motto was Dio me la diede, 
 guai a chi la tocca (God gave it me, woe 
 to him who touches it). 
 
 Order of the Jacobins {The). 
 See p. 464, * Jacobins.' 
 
 Order of the Jesuits (T/fce). See 
 
 p. 469, 'Jesuits.' 
 
 Order of the Knights of Christ 
 
 {The), 1317. Instituted by Dionysius 
 king of Portugal. It acquired the posses- 
 sions of the Templars in 1319, and the 
 Grand-master was vested with the crown 
 
 by Juhus III. in 1551. See p. 641, ' Order 
 of Christ.* 
 
 Order of the Legion of Honour 
 
 {The). See p. 513, ' Legion,' &c. 
 
 Order of the Lily {The), 1048. 
 Founded in Navarre by Garcia. 
 
 Order of the Lion and the Sun 
 
 {The), 1808. In Persia, founded by Feth 
 Ali Shah. 
 
 Order of the Lion of ZS-hr- 
 ingen {The), 1812. Founded in Baden 
 by the Grand Duke Karl. 
 
 Order of the Mathurins {The). 
 See p. 566, ' Mathurins.' 
 
 Order of the Polar Star {The). 
 A Swedish order designed for cabinet 
 ministers, ambassadors, magisti'ates, and 
 literary celebrities. The decoration is a 
 golden cross of eight points, with a blue 
 pole star in the centre of a medallion. 
 The motto is Nescit occasum. The 
 origin of the order is not known, but it 
 was reorganised in 1748 by Frederick I. 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Order of the Porcupine {The). 
 A French order of knighthood. The 
 original motto was Co^nimis et eminus, 
 which was changed by Louis XII. into 
 Ultus avos TrojcB. 
 
 Order of the Premonstraten- 
 sians {The). See 'Premonstratensians.' 
 
 Order of the Red Eagle {The), 
 1705. Instituted as the ' Ordre de la 
 Sincerite ' by the margraf of Baireuth. 
 Reconstructed as the ' Brandenburg Red 
 Eagle '.in 1734. Made the second Prus- 
 sian order in 1791. 
 
 Order of the Red Staff {The), 
 1330. Instituted by Alphonso XI. of 
 Castile and Leon. 
 
 Order of the Seraphim {The). 
 
 Sweden, 1334. An order of chivalry in- 
 stituted by Magnus II., and renewed in 
 1748. It is the highest order in Sweden. 
 The badge consists of the anagram I.H.S. 
 and a cross decorated with the winged 
 heads of seraphs. 
 
 Order of the Servites {The). See 
 ' Servites.' 
 
 Order of the Ship {The). Founded 
 by St. Louis (IX.) on his expedition to 
 Egypt. 
 
OEDER 
 
 ORDINANCE 
 
 647 
 
 Order of the Southern Cross 
 
 (The), 1 Dec, 1822. Created by Pedro 
 I., first emperor of Brazil, to commemo- 
 rate the independence of Brazil and the 
 coronation of Pedro. The ribbon is light 
 blue, and the legend Benemerentiiim 
 pretnium. On the reverse is the por- 
 trait of Pedro in a cross, enamelled in 
 white, with the southern constellation 
 in its centre figured by 19 stars. 
 
 Order of the Star {The), ' Ordre 
 de I'Etoile,' 1350. Founded in France 
 by Jean II. le Bon for those wounded in 
 battle or tournaments. These knights 
 made a vow never to retreat more than a 
 mile before an enemy, when they were 
 to turn at bay and either conquer or die. 
 It was well nigh extinct in 1460. 
 
 Order of the Star of India 
 
 {The), 1861. Instituted by Queen Vic- 
 toria for conspicuous merit and loyalty. 
 The Viceroy of India is ex officio grand- 
 master, and several native princes are 
 knights of the order. 
 
 Order of the Swan {The), 1443. 
 Instituted by the elector Friedrich II. 
 of Brandenburg, and restored in 1843 by 
 Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia. 
 
 Order of the Sword. I. Created 
 in Sweden, 1522, by Gustavus I., and re- 
 constructed in 1748 by Frederick I., 
 for fidelity to the king and the Lutheran 
 faith. The decoration is a St. Andrew's 
 cross formed by two swords, and an azure 
 globe with three crowns. 
 
 II. An order of chivalry instituted in 
 1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. 
 
 Order of the Theatins {The). 
 See ' Theatins.' 
 
 Order of the Thistle {The), 809. 
 Said to have been instituted by Archai- 
 cus king of the Scots. It was renewed 
 in 1540 by James V. of Scotland ; again 
 in 1687 by James II. of Great Britain ; 
 and again by Queen Anne. 
 
 The rue mixed with the thistles is a pun on the 
 vord Andrew. That is : ' Thistles and Kue." 
 
 Order of the Trappists {The). 
 
 See ' Trappists.' 
 
 Order of the Virgin's Look- 
 ing aiass {The), 1419. Instituted by 
 Ferdinand of Castile. 
 
 Order of the 'White Eagle 
 
 {The), 1325. Instituted by Ladislaus V. 
 
 in Poland. Suppressed in 1638. Re- 
 stored by Augustus II. in 1705. Included 
 in the Russian orders 1832. 
 
 Order of the White Falcon, 
 
 1732. Instituted by Ernest Augustus of 
 Saxe-Weimar. The idea is expressed in 
 the motto Vigilando ascendiynus. 
 See under ' Obdbe.' 
 
 Orders {Holy). The profession of a 
 clergjonan. Every clergyman, after ordi- 
 dation, is said to be in holy orders. In the 
 Scotch and other Presbyterian churches 
 ministers ' licensed to preach the gospel ' 
 are called licentiates or probationers^ till 
 they are ordained over some pastorate. 
 
 Orders {Social), or * Castes.' At one 
 time it was well nigh impossible to rise 
 out of the social order in which one was 
 born, and marriages were, of course, re- 
 stricted to castes also. 
 
 In ancient Egypt there were four social orders • 
 priests, the military, the merchant class, and the 
 artisans. 
 
 In France [ancient rigime'itheie -were only three 
 recognised orders : the clergy, the noblesse, and 
 the tiers etat. 
 
 In India the four great castes are : (1) the 
 Brahmans or the sacerdotal order ; (2) the Clmtria 
 or the military order ; (3) the Vaisya or the mer- 
 cantile class ; and (4) the Stidras or working class. 
 
 In ancient Rome we find only three recognised 
 social orders : senators, the equestrian order, and 
 the plebeians. 
 
 In Sweden the four social orders are: the 
 nobles, the clergy, tradesmen, and peasantry. 
 
 Orders in Council are acts of the 
 Privy Council made by the sovereign 
 (who is personally present) by advice of 
 the privy council. If the sovereign is 
 not present, they are called ' Acts of the 
 Lords of the Council.' 
 
 Orders of Mendicants {The). 
 See p. 571, ' Mendicant.' 
 
 Orders of the Church. See 
 
 under ' Church ' and ' Monastic Orders.' 
 
 Ordinaires {Les). The French 
 royal bodyguard which, in the reign of 
 Henri III. (1574-1589), supplanted the 
 Scottish Archers, and were by Louis XIII. 
 (1622) changed into the celebrated Mus- 
 keteers {q.v.). 
 
 Of course the word has other meanings, as the 
 ecclesiastical superior who has ordinary jurisdic- 
 tion ; the book which indicates the church service 
 for each day in the year ; the ordinaire de la messe, 
 and so on. ' Ordinaires (3 syl.). 
 
 Ordinance for the State of Ire- 
 land {The), 1289. Vindicates the right 
 of the English Parliament to bind Ireland 
 (17 Edw. I.). 
 
C18 
 
 OKDINANCE 
 
 OEDBE 
 
 Ordinance for the Suppres- 
 sion of Blasphemies and Here- 
 sies, 1647. A statute passed with 
 triumpliaxit majorities after King 
 Charles I. was made prisoner by Colonel 
 Hamilton, governor of the Isle of Wight. 
 It was aimed at Cromwell and his fa- 
 vourers, and provided that any one who 
 denied the doctrine of the Trinity, the 
 divinity of Christ, or that the Bible is 
 the word of God, or anyone who denies 
 the resurrection of the body, or a future 
 day of judgment, shall suffer death. Any- 
 one who denies man's free will to turn to 
 God, anyone who affirms that there is a 
 purgatory, that images are lawful, or that 
 infant baptism is unlawful, shall be com- 
 mitted to prison. Anyone who denies 
 the obligation of observing the Lord's 
 Day, or that church government by pres- 
 bytery is unlawful, shall be committed to 
 prison. 
 
 Ordinance of the 5th Septem- 
 ber, 1815. Reducing the number of 
 French deputies from 459 to 260, and 
 declaring that no article of the ' Charte 
 Constitutionelle ' (q.v.) should be revised. 
 
 Ordinanze della Giustizia, 
 
 1282. A law of Florence excluding all 
 nobles from the government. 
 
 Ordinary (The), in church matters 
 means the bishop of the diocese ; but in 
 emergency a rector or vicar of a parish 
 may act as ordinary. It means one who 
 in ecclesiastical matters has chief autho- 
 rity in a parish. 
 
 The word has several other meanings : as the 
 soldier who waits on an officer ; a daily meal at a 
 fixed price, or the place where it is given; part of 
 an escutcheon, &c. 
 
 Ordnance. A name given to what- 
 ever concerns artillery. 
 
 Board of Ordnance. In 1683 the board 
 consisted of five principal officers, besides 
 the master-general, a lieutenant-general, 
 the surveyor-general, clerk of the ord- 
 nance, storekeeper, and clerk of deliveries. 
 It deliberates, regulates, and orders every- 
 thing relating to the artillery and garrison. 
 
 Master-General of the Ordnance. 
 Commander-in-chief of the artillery corps. 
 He used to have the sole command of 
 the Royal Regiment of Artillery, but was 
 assisted by a lieutenant-general. The 
 office was abolished 25 May, 1855, and the 
 duties transferred to the secretary of 
 Btate for war. 
 
 Ordnance Select Committee 
 
 {The). A committee of officers who advise 
 the secretary of state for war on all inven- 
 tions submitted to them. Their office is 
 at Woolwich, near the headquarters of 
 the Royal Artillery. The committee con- 
 tains 2 artillery officers, 1 officer of the 
 engineers, and 1 officer of the line, with 
 secretary and assistant secretary both in 
 the artillery. 
 
 Ordnance Survey. The survey of 
 the British dominions by the Ordnance 
 Department, who also prepare maps and 
 plans both of the whole kingdom and also 
 of its parts. 
 
 Of Great Britain'. England com- 
 menced by Roy in 1784 ; Scotland in 1809 ; 
 England and Wales completed January 
 1870. 
 
 Of Ireland: commenced 1824, and 
 completed in 1840. 
 
 Of India, commenced by Lambton in 
 1801. 
 
 Ordonnances. Laws made by the 
 French king, beginning with the words, 
 Au nom du roi, and ending with the 
 clause car tel est notreplaisir. The three 
 famous ordinances of Clrarles X. led to the 
 revolution of 1830: (1) Abohshed the 
 liberty of the i^ress ; no journal might 
 be issued before being submitted to 
 government inspection ; (2) the chamber 
 of deputies was dissolved; and (3) two- 
 thirds of the electors were disfranchised; 
 and the number of deputies was reduced 
 nearly one-half. 
 
 Ordre de Leopold (i')- 1832. A 
 Belgian order created by King Leopold 
 for patriotic services. The decoration is 
 a white cross. The motto is L' union, 
 fait la force. The ribbon is red moire. 
 
 Ordre de I'Epic (i'), 1450. In- 
 stituted by Francois I. due de Bretagne. 
 The collar was of gold braid representing 
 ears of corn in saltire, at the end of 
 which hung an ermine, with the legend 
 A ma vie. The order expired when 
 Britanny was annexed to the crown of 
 France. See ' Ordre de I'Hermine.' 
 
 ' Epic ' here means a spike or ear of corn. Old 
 French epic =spica. 
 
 Ordre de la G-eneste (2 syl.), 
 1234. Instituted by St. Louis (IX.) on 
 his marriage with Marguerite of Provence. 
 The collar was decorated with broom 
 
OKDRE 
 
 ORLEANS 
 
 649 
 
 flowers and fleurs de lis in gold. See 
 p. 643, ' Order of St. Genette.' 
 
 Ordre de I'Hermine, 1381. In- 
 etituted by Jean V. due de Bretagne, on 
 his reconciliation with the French and 
 with Clisson. The insignia was a collar 
 of gold charged with ermines, and the 
 motto A ma vie. 
 
 Ordre de la Toison d'Or. See 
 
 p. 636, ' Order of the Golden Fleece.' 
 
 Ordre de St. Michel (-L'), 1 Aug., 
 1469. A military order instituted by 
 Louis XI. at Amboise, in honour of St. 
 Michael, the patron saint of France. At 
 first the chevaliers were limited to 36, biit 
 they were subsequently increased to 100, 
 the reigning king being the grand-master. 
 It ceased to exist in 1830. 
 
 Ordre des Huraili^s, 1134. A 
 
 religious confraternityof Milan, instituted 
 by St. John de Me'da, of the rule of St. 
 Benedict. Suppressed in 1571. 
 
 Ordre du M^rite Militaire 
 
 (J/), 1759. Instituted by Louis XV. to 
 honour Protestants of the Fx'ench army 
 disqualified by their religious tenets 
 for being ' Chevaliers de St. Louis.' 
 Their decoration was a star of eight 
 points cantonnee de fieurs de lis. The 
 motto was Pro virtute bellica. It was 
 abolished in 1830. 
 
 Ordre du St. Esprit (i'), 1578. An 
 order of chivalry instituted by Henri III. 
 in memory of his being elected King of 
 Poland on the day of Pentecost. The 
 chevaliers were limited to 100, of which 9 
 were ecclesiastics. The cross bore the 
 image of the Holy Spirit, and was sus- 
 pended on a blue ribbon. Every member 
 must be a Catholic, and a Knight of St. 
 Michael. Suppressed in 1789. Revived 
 at the Restoration, but again sui)j)ressed 
 in 1830. 
 
 Orebro, in Sweden {Treaty of), 
 6 July, 1812, between Great Britain and 
 Sweden. Its object was to circumvent 
 Napoleon, who had invaded Russia with 
 450,000 men. 
 
 Oregon (U.S. America). So called, 
 in 1846, from its river of the same name. 
 The inhabitants are nicknamed Webfeet 
 and Hard-cases. 
 
 Oriel College {Oxford), 1826. 
 Founded by Edward II. The head of the 
 college is called the provost 
 28 
 
 Oriental France. So Germany 
 was called in the time of Charlemagne, 
 still preserved in the name Franconia, a 
 circle of Germany containing nearly 9,000 
 square miles. 
 
 Orientation, in churches, means 
 their position more or less correctly due 
 east and west. Very few churches stand 
 due east and west, but the deviation seems 
 owing to the carelessness of the builders 
 or to some local cause. 
 
 It cannot be due to the position of the sun on 
 the day of the patron and saint, as churches dedi- 
 cated to the same saint do not occupy the same 
 p sition. 
 
 Similarly it cannot typify the bending head of 
 the crucified Saviour, because no uniform rule is 
 observed in church orientation. 
 
 Oriflamme {The). The flag of St. 
 Denis, made by Philippe I. in 1082 the 
 standard of France. A phonetic form 
 of the Latin Auri-fiamma, or flame of 
 gold. The oriflamme was a large red 
 banner mounted on a gilt staff, the loose 
 end of the flag being cut into three 
 tongues resembling flames, between each 
 of which was a green silk tassel. When 
 the counts of Vexin became possessed of 
 th.e abbey of St. Denis, the oriflamme 
 passed into their hands, but in 1082 
 Philippe I. united Vexin to the crown, 
 and the oriflamme became a royal ban- 
 ner. (St. Denis = Sahn Dnee.) 
 
 The first time it was displayed in a battlefield 
 was in 1119, when war was declarpd with England ; 
 and the last time was at the battle of AgincourL 
 in 1415. On both occasions the French were com- 
 pelled to sue for peace. It was made of red taffeta, 
 and was without device. Called golden from the 
 gilt staff. 
 
 Orkney Islands {The). The Or- 
 kejar or Orkeyjar, the Northern Islands 
 of the Norwegians, as distinguished from 
 the Sudrejar or Southern Islands, now 
 called Sodor {q.v.), and the Western, or 
 Hebrides. 
 
 Orkney, Latin Orcmies, is probably connected 
 with the Norwegian orcaii or orken, a hurricane. 
 
 Orkneyinga Saga {The). History 
 of the men of Orkney. This saga was 
 printed among the Icelandic Sagas for 
 the Master of the Rolls in 1887. It is in 
 Icelandic and not translated. 
 
 Orleanists {The). See ' Armagnacs.' 
 
 Orleans {House of). A younger 
 branch of the Bourbons rei^resented in 
 France by Louis-Phihppe (1830-1848). 
 
 The Orleans-Orleans was Louis XII. (1498-151.5\ 
 and the Orleans-.\ngouleme consisted of Frani;ois 
 I., Henri II., Franijois II., Charles IX., and Hen 
 III. (1515-1589). 
 
650 
 
 ORLEANS 
 
 ORRY 
 
 Orleans. The Plot of Gaston chic 
 cV Orleans, 163'2. This was a plot to 
 murder Richelieu, the obnoxious minister 
 of Louis XIII. The duke induced Henri 
 de Montmorency to join it, and they suc- 
 ceeded in raising a revolt in Languedoc. 
 The cardinal sent troops to quell the 
 revolt ; a battle was fought ; the insur- 
 gents were defeated ; and Montmorency, 
 being taken prisoner, was beheaded. 
 
 Orleton's Message. Adam Orle- 
 ton, bishop of Hereford, sent this am- 
 biguous message to the keeper of Berke- 
 ley Castle, 21 Sept., 1327: 'Edwardxim 
 occidere nolite timere bonum est.' This 
 may be either a command to murder the 
 king, or not to murder hun, according to 
 the way the words are pointed. Thus : 
 ' Edwardum occidere nolite timere, — 
 bonum est ' (to kill Edward fear not, it 
 is right) ; or, ' Edwardum occidere nolite, 
 — timere bonum est' (do not kill Ed- 
 ward; it is right to dread doing so). See 
 p. 638, ' Oracle of Delphi.' 
 
 Wolsey, in early life, was cautioned to ' beware 
 of Kingston." The warning made a great impres- 
 Bion on his superstitious mind, and he would 
 never enter the town of Kingston (on the Thames). 
 When he was confined to his cell by order" of 
 Henry VIII. a blare of trumpets announced the 
 approach of armed officials, and Sir William 
 Kingston entered. Then the warning of his 
 younger days flashed across him in a new light, 
 and, bowing his head, he uttered those memorable 
 words, ' If I had served my God as faithfully as I 
 have served my king. He would not have forsaken 
 me in my grey hairs.' 
 
 Henry IV. of England was told he should ' die in 
 Jerusalem,' which he took for granted meant 
 the Holy Land ; but he died in the Jerusalem 
 Chamber, London, the chapter-house of West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Cambyses. son of Cyrus, was told that he should 
 die in Ecbatana, which he supposed meant the 
 capital of Media. Being wounded accidentally 
 in Syria he asked the name of the place, and being 
 told it was called Ecbatana, he replied, ' Here, 
 then, I am destined to end my life.' 
 
 When in 1568 the Countess of Egmont implored 
 Alva to spare the life of her husband, he replied, 
 ' Certainly, madam, he shall be released to-morrow 
 morning.' The countess thought the duke meant 
 her husband would be released from prison, but 
 Alva meant that he would be executed and re- 
 leased from life. 
 
 Jourdain the wizard told Somerset, if he wished 
 to live, to ' avoid where castles mounted stand.' 
 The duke died in an alehouse called ' the Castle,' 
 •which stood in St. Albans. 
 
 *,* These punning prophecies are very numer- 
 ous, and somewhat amusing. 
 
 OrlofF Diamond {The). Weighs 
 19-lf carats, and is set on the top of the 
 imperial sceptre of Russia. It is of pure 
 water, and about the size of a pigeon's 
 egg. It is said to have been one of the 
 eyes of an idol in a temple in India. Sub- 
 sequently it came into the possession of 
 Shah Nadir of Persia ; and, when the Shah 
 
 was murdered, it was stolen by a French 
 grenadier, who sold it to an English sea- 
 captain for 2,000Z. The captain brought 
 it to England, and sold it to a Jew mer- 
 chant for 12,000?, The Jew sold it to 
 Shafras, an Armenian merchant, and in 
 1775 Catharine 11. of Russia bought it of 
 Shafras for 90,000?., and a pension for life 
 of 4,000Z. per annum. See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Ormond Crown [The). A silver 
 5s. piece coined in Dublin 1643 for circu- 
 lation in Ireland. Called Ormond from 
 the proclamation of the Duke of Ormond, 
 then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, establish- 
 ing its currency. 
 
 Orphanites (3 syl.). A sect of 
 Hussites (2 syl.) who professed unbounded 
 admiration of Ziska, their chief, and after 
 his death, thinking no one worthy to suc- 
 ceed him, wanted to place the government 
 of affairs in the hands of a council. They 
 were annihilated in 1434 by the Calixtines 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Orphica. An enormous mass of 
 literature which in the 3rd and 4th cen- 
 turies grew out of the old Orphic myths 
 and songs, not dissimilar to the Ossian 
 of Macpherson, based, it maybe, on some 
 threads of older litei-ature. Not only the 
 Hellenists but the church fathers referred 
 to those forgeries as to primitive and 
 authentic sources of Greek religion, from 
 which Pythagoras, Heraclltos, and Plato 
 had drawn their theological philosophy. 
 Wesseling and Lobeck have demonstrated 
 that these writings are forgeries of the 
 3rd and 4th cents. ; and that, so far from 
 being the soip-'ces of the G-reek mytho- 
 logy, they are wholly deduced from Hesiod 
 and Homer. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Orry King, or 'Ree Gorree,' of 
 Manx. There was in the island at one 
 time a ' King Orry's Tower,' now the re- 
 sidence of the lord bishop. It is sup- 
 posed that Orry was a Norwegian who 
 fled to Man during the desolating wars 
 of Harold Harfaga; that he succeeded 
 in establishing his sway over the island, 
 and was a wise, vigorous, and politic 
 ruler. To him Man is indebted for its 
 legislative government. He held his 
 court at Tynwald Hill, and his descendants 
 continued to rule the island till 1077, 
 when Godred IV. routed the islanders, 
 and established a new dynasty. 
 
OKSINI 
 
 OTTAVA 
 
 65f 
 
 Orsini Conspiracy {The), 14 Jan., 
 
 1858. A most infamous attempt was 
 made to assassinate Napoleon III., as, 
 with the Empress, he was driven to the 
 French opera. The carriage (8 •30) had 
 just arrived at the door of the Itahan 
 Opera, in the Rue Lepelletier, when a 
 bomb was thrown at it which exploded 
 and killed twenty persons. A second 
 was then thrown which killed one of the 
 imperial horses. A third burst under 
 the carriage ; but, though the carriage 
 was shattered, one of the horses was 
 killed, and the aide-de-camp in the same 
 carriage, ^le Emperor and Empress 
 escaped with very slight injuries. Count 
 Felix Orsini, Colonel Pierri, Gomez a 
 domestic, and Rudio were arrested. The 
 first three were executed, and Rudio was 
 transported for life. The French ambas- 
 sador remonstrated with the British 
 Government for harbouring such villains, 
 and Lord Palmerston brought in a bill 
 for the punishment of conspiracy to 
 murder. In the meantime the French 
 colonels demanded to be allowed to extir- 
 pate the English nation. This, of course, 
 roused a strong feeling, and the bill was 
 lost by a majority of 19. 
 
 The life of Napoleon III. was attempted six 
 times. Ser, ' Napoleon III.' The silly bluster of 
 the French colonels was called at the time ' Cock- 
 a-doodle-do.' 
 
 Ortliebians (4 syl.), 1212. A branch 
 of the ' Brethren of the Free Spirit ' 
 iq.v.) in Alsace, whose leader was a fanatic 
 named Ortlieb. They spread into Thur- 
 gau and the Upper and Lower Rhine. 
 They were pantheists, and in France 
 were popularly called Turlupins. 
 
 Osmanlee, 1300. A Turk, or fol- 
 lower of Othman, founder of the Turkish 
 empire. Othman interpreted Islam (the 
 Mohammedan creed) in his own way. To 
 call an Osmanlee a Turk is considered an 
 insult. 
 
 Osman or Othman is a contraction of Al Tliaman 
 (the Cone-breaker). That is O'thaman, O th'man, 
 Osman. 
 
 Ossorian Wolves. Giraldus Cam- 
 brensis tells us of a certain race in Ossory 
 who were transformed every seven years 
 into wolves. This is not given as history, 
 but as the statement of an historian. 
 
 De quodam hominum genere .... Ossyrien- 
 Biuni, unde quolibet septennio per imprecationem 
 Baucti cujusdam Natalis .... formam .... hu- 
 manam prorsus exuentes, induunt lupinam.— 
 
 Gir.ALDOS. 
 
 Osso'rians {The). The inhabitants 
 of Ossory, which comprised the present 
 county of Kilkenny, with parts of Tip- 
 perary and Queen's County. 
 
 Os'suary of Morat, Switzerland 
 {The), 1416. Made of the bones of the 
 Burgundians slain by the Swiss in the 
 battle of Morat, 22 June, 1476. It was 
 destroyed by the French in 1798, and in 
 1822 a stone obelisk was erected on the 
 spot. 
 
 Ostiarius. St. Ignatius in his letter 
 to the faithful of Antioch mentions this 
 church officer. His duties were to open 
 the book for the officiating priest ; to keep 
 the keys of the church, and to be respon- 
 sible for the cleanliness and good order 
 of the church and its furniture ; to open 
 and close the doors at the right time ; to 
 maintain good order in the congregation ; 
 and to prevent the entrance of any Jew 
 or heathen. They were always elderly 
 men. 
 
 Our beadle has many of the duties of the more 
 ancient ostiarius. 
 
 Ostrogoths. Goths of the East, in 
 opposition to the Visigoths or Goths of 
 the West. They disappear from history 
 in 553. 
 
 Oswald's Law, a.d, 962. The law 
 of Oswald archbishop of York that all 
 collegiate chapters be turned into Bene- 
 dictine fraternities, and if any chapter 
 refused to make this change, then was an 
 opposition church, under the special 
 patronage of the Virgin, to be set up. 
 
 OtrepiefF the Pretender. Gre- 
 gory Otrepieff, a runaway monk of 
 Ischoudoff, in Russia, was the first of the 
 impostors who impersonated Dmitri V. 
 son of Ivan the Terrible, put to death in 
 his infancy by Boris Godounoflf, in 1591. 
 Sui)ported by Sigismund II. king of 
 Poland, he overthrew Boris and reigned 
 at Moscow in 1605. His marriage to a 
 Pole and a Catholic led to his massacre 
 by the multitude in 1606. See * Pougat- 
 cheff.' 
 
 Ottanta {The). See ' Eighty.' 
 
 Otta'va Rima. The stanza of the 
 later Italian writers Hke Boccaccio. 
 Byron's ' Don Juan ' is an English ex- 
 ample. Lines 1, 3, 5 rhyme, and lines 
 2, 4, 6 rhyme, while 7, 8. rhyme inde- 
 
652 
 
 OTTIMATI 
 
 OUTBURGERS 
 
 pendently. Called ottava because it is 
 an eight-line stanza. See ' Terza Rima.' 
 
 Ottima'ti {The). The aristocracy 
 of Florence, 
 
 Otto I. the Lion, and * the Great 
 King ' of Germany. The second of the 
 Saxon dynasty (912, king of Germany 
 936-973, emperor of the Romans 961- 
 973). 
 
 Father, Heiiirlch I. the Fowler ; Mother, Mech- 
 tildis ; Wives, (1) Eadgyth daughter of Edward the 
 Elder, and granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; (2) 
 Adelheid widow of Lothaire king of Lombardy. 
 Contemporary with Athelstan, Edmund, Edred, 
 Edwy, and Edgar the Peaceful. 
 
 Otto II. of Germany. «The Red,' 
 ' the Bloody,' ' the Pale Death of the Sara- 
 cens ' (955, 973-983). 
 
 Father, Otto I. the Great ; Mother, Eadgyth 
 granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; Wife, Theo- 
 phania daughter of Bomanus II. emperor of the 
 East. Contemporary with Edgar, Edward the 
 Martyr, and Ethelred the Unready. 
 
 *,* Called ' the Bloody ' from the Bloody Ban- 
 quet. See ' Otto's Bloody Banquet.' 
 
 Otto III. the Wonder of the World. 
 Bom 980; king of Germany 983-1002; 
 kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire 996- 
 1002. 
 
 Father, Otto II. ; Mother, Theophania ; Wife, 
 Mary daughter of the king of Aragon, burnt to 
 death for adultery. Contemporary with Ethelred. 
 
 Otto's Bloody Banquet, 981. 
 The Romans, desirous of freeing them- 
 selves from the German yoke, formed a 
 conspiracy to make Rome a republic. 
 This conspiracy was revealed to Otto II. 
 of Germany, and the kaiser, pretending 
 to know nothing about it, invited the 
 chief of the conspirators to a banquet. 
 When the guests were seated, Otto 
 stamped with his foot, and the hall was 
 filled with armed men. The kaiser then 
 deliberately unrolled a paper, and as he 
 read aloud the names the victims were 
 dragged from table and strangled. 
 
 Ottoman Empire (The). The 
 * empire of the Osmanlis,' i.e. all those 
 countries under the Turkish sultan. So 
 called from Ottoman or Othman (1289- 
 1326), who had laid the foundation of the 
 independent sovereignty of the Turks. 
 
 Ot'Way the poet, we are told, being 
 in a starving condition, had a guinea 
 given him. He went immediately and 
 bought a loaf of bread, but died swallow- 
 ing the first mouthful. Allusion to this 
 tale is often made. 
 
 Ouida. The pen-name of Miss 
 Louise de la Rame. The name was 
 suggested by a little girl who said Weeda 
 for Louisa. 
 
 Our Boys. An inner circle of Moon- 
 lighters iq.v.), who had their own cap- 
 tains, subservient to Captain Moonlight. 
 They were armed, some with revolvers, 
 and some with other weapons. Their 
 objects were to compel men to belong to 
 the Land or National League, to terror- 
 ise those who took evicted farms or who 
 dealt with persons boycotted. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Our Lady of Mercy. Mme. 
 
 TaUien (1774-1831), daughter of Cabar- 
 rus, a Spanish banker. Called ' Our Lady 
 of Mercy ' because she was always plead- 
 ing for the life of some one condemned 
 to death by the revolutionary tribunal. 
 
 Our Lady of Walsingham. 
 
 An image of the Virgin Mary in the 
 abbey of Little Walsingham, Norfolk. 
 This was the most famous image in all 
 England. Persons of all degrees paid 
 their vows and made offerings to it, 
 and the most extravagant miracles were 
 ascribed to it. It was burnt at Chelsea 
 in 1538. 
 
 In the last age, whoever had not made a visit 
 and an offering to the Blessed Virgin of this place 
 [Walsingham] was looked upon as impious.— 
 Camden. 
 
 Henry VIII., when a boy, walked from Bar ham 
 barefoot to the shrine, and presented 'to the 
 image a necklace of great value. Its secret 
 springs were exposed to the public before it waa 
 destroyed. 
 
 Out in the '15, i.e. in the rebel 
 army of the Pretender in 1715 (Geo. I.). 
 
 See below. 
 
 Anderson of Whitburgh, a gentleman whoso 
 father had been out in the '15.— HowiTT, Hist, of 
 Eng. iGeo. I., p. 500). 
 
 Out in the '45, i.e. in the rebel 
 army of the Young Pretender in 1745. 
 See above. 
 
 Outburgers. Called in German 
 * Ausburgers.' Aliens who had been ad- 
 mitted to privileges of citizenship, though 
 resident at a distance from the city. In 
 consequence of this ' privilege ' they 
 claimed exemption from all dues to their 
 feudal lord ; and if the lord resisted this 
 unreasonable claim, he had to do battle 
 with the city which threw its shield over 
 the Outburger. 
 
OUTED 
 
 OXFORD 
 
 653 
 
 Outed Prelates {The). The Scotch 
 episcopate disestablished in 1689. 
 
 Alexander Rose, the last survivor of the outed 
 prelates.— KoBEKT Chambers, The Threiplands of 
 Fingask. 
 
 Ovate. A kind of Druidical curate 
 or deacon. The heads of the hierarchy- 
 were Druids, the next in rank the 
 Bards, and the third order was that of 
 Ovates. Old English ofydd, a sapling or 
 young shoot. 
 
 Overthro-w of the Geraldines 
 
 (8 syl.) in Ireland {The), 1535. The Geral- 
 dines were great Norman lords in the south 
 of Ii-eland. They had been suffered by 
 Henry VII. to govern Ireland in the 
 name of the English crown ; but when 
 Henry VIII. was king, he resolved to be 
 supreme in Ireland, and Lord Thomas 
 Fitzgerald revolted. Skeffington, the 
 new lord deputy, levelled to the ground 
 Maynooth, the stronghold of the Geral- 
 dines, and wholly extirpated the family, 
 leaving only a single boy to preserve the 
 name. 
 
 Ovid {The French). Du BeUay (1524- 
 1560). Also called the ' Father of Grace 
 and Elegance.' 
 
 Ovid of the English Nation 
 
 {The). Michael Drayton (1563-1631). 
 So called by Dr. Heylin in his ' Cosmo- 
 graphia,' p. 303 (1637). 
 
 Ovid's Tower. About two leagues 
 from Karansebes, upon a steep hill, 
 stands a small square tower so called ; 
 and tradition asserts that the Roman 
 poet was confined there by Augustus for 
 having written his ' Art of Love.' This 
 is most improbable. No doubt the poet 
 was banished from Rome for some 
 offence, but not for writing shaky poetry, 
 and the place of his banisliment was 
 most likely Tomi in Thrace. 
 
 Owen Meredith. A pen-name 
 assumed by Lord Lytton, British ambas- 
 sador in Paris; under which name he 
 published a number of poems. One of 
 the windows in Knebworth Church is 
 that of Owen Tudor, and the other is 
 that of Ann Meredith. These windows 
 are memorials of Lord Lytton' s family 
 on the paternal side. 
 
 Lord Lytton, i.e. the Kight Hon. Edward Robert 
 Buhver-Lytton, created earl in laso ; son of Edward 
 L> iton Bulwer '2nd Baron Lytton, the novelist, 
 •Who died 1«73. Owen Meredith was born 1831. 
 
 Owlglass the Jester, 1493 ; but the 
 earliest copy now known is dated 1540. 
 Thyl Owlglass was the son of a poor Bruns- 
 wick peasant who lived by his wits, and was 
 cramfulof practical jokes — half knavery 
 and half fun. He was servant, charla- 
 tan, lansquenet, artist, disputant, monk, 
 blacksmith, cook, miller, and so on. He 
 died 1350. Thyl was a little squat figure, 
 with sharp keen eyes, red beard and hair. 
 The American Clockmaker is not unlike 
 Thyl Owlglass. Called in Germany ' Eu- 
 lenspiegel.' 
 
 Ox {The). Domenichi'no (1581-1641). 
 When so called by his fellow-students on 
 account of his plodding slowness, Anni- 
 bal Carracci remarked that the ' Ox will 
 plough a fruitful field.' See below. 
 
 Ox {The Dumb). Thomas Aquinas 
 the 'Angelic Doctor' (1224-1274), So 
 called by his fellow-students at Cologne 
 on account of his taciturnity and dulness ; 
 but Albertus said, ' We call him the 
 Dumb Ox, but he will one day give such 
 a bellow as shall be heard from one end 
 of the world to the other.' 
 
 Also called ' the Great Sicilian Ox.' The family- 
 was allied to the kings of Sicily. He was also of 
 unusual size, very tall and stout in proportion. 
 
 Oxford Act of 1665 {The). The 
 act of parliament more usually called 
 ' The Five-mile Act,' which banished non- 
 conforming ministers five miles from any 
 parliamentary town. 
 
 Oxford Colleges. (Those in itaHcs 
 are halls.) 
 
 
 Head When founded 
 
 Alban-s{St.)Hall ... 
 
 
 1550 
 
 All Souls 
 
 Warden '.'.'. 
 
 1437 
 
 Balliol 
 
 Masi^;r 
 
 12G3 
 
 Brasenose 
 
 Principal ... 
 
 1509 
 
 Christ Church 
 
 Dean 
 
 1525 
 
 Corpus Christi ... 
 
 President ... 
 
 1516 
 
 Ed7numi (tit.) Hall 
 
 
 1559 
 
 Exeter 
 
 Rector" '.".! 
 
 1314 
 
 Hertford 
 
 Principal ... 
 
 1282 
 
 Jesus 
 
 Principal ... 
 
 1671 
 
 Johns (St.) 
 
 President ... 
 
 1557 
 
 Keble 
 
 Warden 
 
 1870 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Rector 
 
 1427 
 
 Magdalen ... 
 
 President ... 
 
 1458 
 
 Magdixlen Hall (dissolved 1874) 
 
 1487 
 
 Mary {St.) Hall ... 
 
 «•• 
 
 1289 
 
 Merton 
 
 Warden 
 
 1261 
 
 New CoUege 
 AVif Inn Hall 
 
 Warden ... 
 
 13)r;6 
 
 M. 
 
 1438 
 
 Oriel 
 
 Provost 
 
 1326 
 
 Pembroke ... 
 
 Master 
 
 1624 
 
 Queens 
 
 Provost 
 
 1340 
 
 Trinity 
 
 President ... 
 
 1554 
 
 University „. ... 
 
 Master 
 
 872 
 
 
 restored l-iio 
 
 Wadham 
 
 Warden ... 
 
 1613 
 
 Worcester 
 
 Provost 
 
 1714 
 
 And two private halls : Charsley and Turrell. 
 *,* Magdalen Hall was iucorpcrated with Hal 
 ford CoUege in 1874. 
 
654 
 
 OXFORD'S 
 
 PACIFICATION 
 
 Mansfield College, 1889. The first Nonconformist 
 college at Oxford, The chief object of the college 
 is the education of young men for the congrega- 
 tional ministry ; the first ' Principal ' being Dr. 
 Fairbairn. 
 
 To these may be added Lady Margaret Hall and 
 Somerville Hall for ladies. 
 
 Oxford's Masterpiece [The Earl 
 of). The monopoly of trade to the 
 South Seas granted to a company of 
 merchants incorporated as the South Sea 
 Company. 
 
 Oxford's Miss [Lord). Elizabeth 
 Davenport, actress, called by Pepys 
 'Roxalana,' from a favourite character in 
 ' The Siege of Rhodes.' 
 
 Oxford of Belgium [The). The 
 University of Louvain founded 1834 at 
 Malines for the union of divine and 
 secular knowledge. The following year 
 it was transferred to Louvain. 
 
 Oxford of Holland (T/ie). Leyden. 
 
 Oxford Tract Movement, 1833- 
 
 1841. A religious revival which originated 
 at Oxford by the publication of certain 
 pamphlets called ' Tracts for the Times,' 
 chiefly by Pusey, Newman, and Keble. 
 These tracts taught the dogmas of 
 the divine origin of the church, 
 the apostolic order of the clergy, and 
 the high church doctrines. Church 
 architecture, church renovation, clerical 
 dresses, and all externals of rehgion were 
 more carefully attended to ; but, at the 
 same time, it must be confessed that an 
 enormous accession to the Roman Catho- 
 lic Church was the result, and a long 
 disputation about such things as vest- 
 ments, candles, genuflexions, and so on. 
 
 Oxford University. The heads 
 of the several colleges have the following 
 titles . — 
 
 Of 1 he is called the Dean, viz. the 
 head of Christ Church. 
 
 Of 3 he is called the Master, viz. of 
 Biilliol, Pembroke, and University Col- 
 lege. 
 
 Of 4 he is called the President, viz. 
 of Corpus, Magdalen, St. John's, and 
 Trinity. 
 
 Of 3 he is called the Principal, viz. 
 of Brasenose, Jesus, and Hertford ; and 
 of the 4 halls (New Inn, St. Alban's, St. 
 Edmund, and St. Mary). To these add 
 Mansfield. 
 
 Of 3 he is called the Provost, viz. of 
 Oriel, Queen's, and Wo'rcester. 
 
 Of 2 he is called the Rector, viz. of 
 Exeter and Lincoln. 
 
 Of 5 he is called the Warden, viz. of 
 All Souls, Keble, Merton, New College, 
 and Wadham. 
 
 In Cambridge University the head of every 
 college except two is called the Master, that of 
 King s is called the Provost, and that of Queens' is 
 called the President. 
 
 Oyer and Terminer, to hear and 
 
 determine. A commission gi-anted by 
 the crown to judges of assize, &c., to 
 ' hear and determine ' all cases of treason, 
 felony, and trespass brought before 
 them on their respective circuits. 
 
 Pacata, or Pezade (2 syl.). Un 
 impot de lapaix, 1040. Levied during the 
 ' Truce of Ood ' for the establishment of 
 a militia to enforce obedience to the truce. 
 
 Paccanarists, followers of Pacca- 
 nari. Paccanari was a Tyrolean priest 
 who died about 1802. He founded the 
 order called ' Les Peres de la Foi ' after 
 that of the Jesuits was abohshed by 
 Clement XIV. in 1773. 
 
 Pacha of Egypt [The). A diamond 
 cut on eight sides. It weighs 40 carats, 
 and cost 700,000 francs [28,000^.]. See 
 ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Pacifferes (3 syl.), 14th cent. Armed 
 peasantry of France, associated together 
 to resist the Grand Companies which 
 plundered and oppressed the people. 
 
 Pacific Parliament [The). A 
 
 triennial parliament dissolved 8 Aug., 
 1713. A Tory parliament noted for the 
 treaty of peace signed at Utrecht after a 
 war of eleven years. Bolingbroke and 
 Oxford were its chief members. See ' Par- 
 liaments.' 
 
 No assembly but one composed as this -was 
 could have sat quiet under such apeace.— BUBNET, 
 Own Tivie. 
 
 Paciflcateur de la "Vendee (I^e). 
 
 Lazarus Hoche (1768-1797). So called 
 because in 1796 he brought the Vendeaa 
 war to an end. 
 
 Pacification {Edict of). The same 
 as the ' Edict of Amboise ' {q.v.). Called 
 the 'Edict of Pacification' because it 
 closed the first religious war of France 
 (19 March, 1563). 
 
 Pacification of Dunse {The), 
 18 June, 1639. The arran^^ement made 
 with the Covenanters who had encamped 
 on a hill called Dunse Law, when 
 
PACIFICATION 
 
 PAINS 
 
 659 
 
 Charles I. tried to enforce episcopacy 
 and the English Prayer Book on the 
 people. Charles, fearing the result of 
 a battle, proposed terms of peace, and 
 agreed to leave to a convocation all 
 church matters. By this convocation 
 presbytery was restored, episcopacy in 
 Scotland was abolished, and the existing 
 bishops were deprived of their titles and 
 sees. 
 
 Dunse Law is an elevated spot some 630 feet 
 high, north of the town. 
 
 Pacification of G-hent {The). 
 Signed 8 Nov., 1576. An accommodation 
 between Holland cuin Zealand and the 
 Catholic states of the Netherlands, pro- 
 viding that no foreign soldiers should be 
 permitted in the states, and that all the 
 signatories should help each other against 
 all opponents. This treaty was known 
 as ' The Perpetual Peace.' 
 
 Pacification of Passau, * in 
 
 Bavaria {The), 7 Aug., 1552. Securing 
 freedom of religion to Protestants. This 
 * pacification ' led to the ' Religious 
 Peace of Augsburg,' 26 Sept., 1555. 
 Passau pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in ' now '). 
 
 Pacification of Vienna {The), 
 23 June, 1606. Concluded between the 
 Archduke Mathias of Austria and the 
 ministers of Botskai of Hungary. By 
 this treaty Hungary was split into three 
 parts, of which Turkey possessed 1,859 
 square miles, Botskai in Hungary and 
 Transylvania 2,082 square miles, and 
 Austria 1,222 square miles. 
 
 Pacificator of Europe {The). 
 Benedict XIII. (1721-1700). He pacified 
 the angry antagonists of the bull Uni- 
 genitus {q.v.) by his bull Pretiosus(5.v.). 
 He pacified the Sicilians, who wei'e in 
 contention about the ' Tribunal de 
 Monarchia.' He settled the controversy 
 with the king of Sardinia respecting the 
 right of nomination to certain abbacies 
 and benefices in Piedmont And he 
 brought about the treaty of Seville in 
 1729 between England, France, Spain, 
 and Holland, thereby settling the succes- 
 sion of Tuscany and Parma. 
 
 Pack-Monday Fair. Held the 
 
 first Monday after 10 Oct. at Sherborne. 
 It was held in the churchyard, and blow- 
 ing cows' horns was a distinguishing 
 feature of it. Said to be in commemora- 
 tion of the completion of the church. 
 
 Pacta Conv ©nta. Polish covenants 
 between the nobles and tl e person 
 nominated for the crown. Tl e first was 
 in 1355, between the Polish i.ojles and 
 Louis I. of Hungary, who was invited to 
 accept the crown of Poland. These 
 pacts made Poland virtually an oligai'chy, 
 and were the real cause of its downfall. 
 
 Of 1573. Passed by Henry of Valois, 
 securing freedom of worship and equality 
 of rights to all Poles. Formally abolished 
 in 1736. These covenants were signed 
 by every king of Poland at his corona- 
 tion. They not only disavowed all re- 
 ligious distinctions, but also strictly 
 limited and defined the powers and pre- 
 rogatives of the crown. 
 
 Pacte de Famille {La), 15 Aug., 
 1761. Signed at the instigation of the 
 Due de Ciioiseul by the king of France, 
 the king of Spain, and the duke of 
 Parma, all of whom were of the Bourbon 
 family. Its object was to break down 
 the marit'me su):eriority of England, but 
 it was an utter failure. The king of the 
 Two Sicilies refused to subscribe the 
 treaty, and in 1789 other affairs super- 
 seded it in interest. 
 
 Pacte de Famine (ia), 1765-1789. 
 Monopolists of corn who brought great 
 misery on France, especially in the years 
 1767-1769, 1775-1778, 1788-1789. The 
 events of 1789 put an end to this abomin- 
 able traffic. 
 
 Teedsigogy {The). ,See p. 27, ' An- 
 drews {University of St.).' 
 
 Paedobaptists. Those Protestant 
 dissenters who practise infant baptism, in 
 contradistinction to the Baptists, who 
 allow adult baptism alone, and that after 
 a personal confession of faith. 
 
 The Church of England and the Presbyterians 
 are Paedobaptists, but applied to these churclies 
 the word only denotes a practical doctrine carried 
 out by these Christians. As a distinctive title it 
 is opposed to Baptists, and applies chiefly, if not 
 entirely, to the Independents or Congregation 
 alists (q.v.). 
 
 Pains and Penalties. Acts of 
 parliament to attaint particular persons 
 of treason or felony, or to inflict pains 
 and penalties beyond or contrary to 
 common law, to serve a special purpose. 
 They are new laws p'7'o re nata. When 
 Queen Caroline wife of George IV. was 
 tried, she was proceeded against by a 
 'Bill of Pains and Penalties,' but was 
 acquitted. 
 
656 
 
 PAINTED 
 
 PAIX 
 
 Painted Chamber (!r/?e). Chconbre 
 peinte. Anciently St. Edward's Cham- 
 ber. It was destroyed by fire with the 
 houses of Parhament in 1834. When, 
 at the beginning of this cent., the tapes- 
 try and wainscoting were taken down, it 
 was discovered that the interior had 
 been originally painted with single figures 
 and historical subjects, arranged round 
 the chamber in six bands, somewhat like 
 the Bayeux tapestry. Careful drawings 
 were made at the time by J. T. Smith, 
 and drawings by Charles Stothard were 
 engraved in 1819 for the ' Vetusta Monu- 
 menta.' 
 
 Painter of ]S"ature {The). So 
 the French called Belleau, one of their 
 Pleiad poets (1528-1577). His chief 
 poem is entitled ' Loves and Transforma- 
 tions of the Precious Stones.' 
 
 VaXlltevs (Father of Modern). John 
 Cimabue of Florence (1240-1300). 
 
 Paire de G-ants. Donnez-nous 
 notre i^aire de gants. Famous royalist 
 song during the ' Hundred Days ' in the 
 mouths of all the dames des halles of 
 Paris. It was a pun on ' Donnez-nous 
 notre pere de Ghent,' referring to Louis 
 XVIIL, who was residing at Ghent. 
 
 Pairs de Prance {Les). Philippe 
 Auguste fixed the number at twelve, 
 half of whom were seculars and half 
 ecclesiastics. The secular peers were 
 the due de Normandie, the due de Bour- 
 gogne, the due de Guyenne, the comte 
 de Flandre, the comte de Toulouse, and 
 the comte de Champagne ; the eccle- 
 siastical peers were the archbishop of 
 Eeims, and the bishops of Laon, Langres, 
 Beauvais, Chalons, and Noyon. Subse- 
 quently, the number was unlimited. All 
 princes of the blood were pairs-nes. 
 Peers were abolished in 1798, but were 
 re-established in 1814 at the Restora- 
 tion. In 1831 the heredity of peerage 
 was abolished, and all peers were nomi- 
 nated by the crown. The Chamber of 
 Peers was called the Cour des pairs, and 
 at the Restoration formed a corps le'gis- 
 latif with the House of Deputies, but in 
 1848 the House of Peers was superseded 
 by the Senate. 
 
 Paishdadians. 
 
 Dynasty.' 
 
 See ' Pishdadian 
 
 Paix Boiteuse (La), 1570. There 
 was signed at St. Germain in 1562 an 
 edict which forbade the Calvinists to levy 
 troops and preach against the Roman 
 Catholic religion, but it authorised their 
 holding religious services in country 
 places. In 1570 a peace was signed 
 between the Catholics and Protestants; 
 but it was neither sincere nor durable. 
 It was called ' La Paix Boiteuse et Mal- 
 assise,' because its terms were drawn 
 up by H. Mesmes and signed by Biron. 
 Biron was boiteux, and Mesmes was 
 seigneur de Malassise, but the insincerity 
 of the affair gave point to the puns 
 boiteux and mal assise (lame and 
 unstable). 
 
 Paix Fourr^e {La), 9 May, 1409. 
 Between the children of the Due d'Or- 
 le'ans (recently assassinated) and Jean- 
 sans-Peur due de Bourgogne. 
 
 Paix Malheureuse {La), 1559, 
 which closed the Italian war between 
 France and Italy (1483-1559). By this 
 treaty Henri II. renounced all claim to 
 Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 
 
 Paix de Dieu {La), 1035. A sus- 
 pension of arms brought about by th« 
 clergy to put a stop to the depredations 
 of the barons. From every pulpit in 
 France was read this command and 
 malediction : — 
 
 ' May they who refuse to obey be accursed, and 
 have their portion with Cain the first murderer, 
 with Judas the arch-traitor, and with Dathanand 
 Abiram wlio went down alive into the pit. May 
 they be accursed in the lite which now is ; and 
 may their hope of salvation be put out, as the light 
 of these candles is extinguished from their sight.' 
 
 At the last words the priests extin- 
 guished their tapers, and the people 
 responded, ' So may God extinguish the 
 joy of those who violate this peace. 
 Amen.' See ' Treve de Dieu.' 
 
 Paix de Longjumeau (La), 1568. 
 Between the Catholics and the Calvinists, 
 prox:)aratory to the Paix de St. Germain. 
 This peace is called ' La Paix Fourre'e ' 
 {q.: .), and sometimes ' La Petite Paix.' 
 
 Paix de Monsieur {La), 1575. 
 Monsieur, the title of the king's eldest 
 brother. This peace was signed at Loclies 
 in Touraine by Francjois due d'AleuQon, 
 the only surviving brother of Henri III. 
 
 By this treaty tlie aijpanage of ' Monsieur ' was 
 tripled, and he assumed the title of ' due d'Anjou,' 
 heretofore borne by his brother the king. 
 
PAIX 
 
 PALATINE 
 
 657 
 
 Paix des Dames {La), or * La Paix 
 de Cambray,' 1529. The pope, jealous of 
 the power of Charles V., formed a league 
 with France, England, Venice, and 
 Milan ; but Charles at once laid siege to 
 Rome ; 8,000 Romans perished, and the 
 pope fled for safety to the castle of St. 
 Angelo. A capitulation followed which 
 was signed at Cambray 5 Aug., 1529, and 
 was called ' La Paix des Dames,' because 
 it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria 
 (aunt of Charles V.) and Louise de 
 Savoie (mother of Francois I. of France). 
 The hollow peace was broken in 1536. 
 
 Palace of Ice {The), 1739. Built 
 by the direction of Anne empress of 
 Russia, to honour the nuptials of Prince 
 Galitzin with a peasant girl. The bride 
 and bridegroom had to j)ass their wed- 
 ding night in a room the walls of which, 
 all the furniture, and even the bed itself, 
 were wholly of ice. 
 
 Palais Bourbon. Now called the 
 Palais du Corps Legislatif, hetween the 
 Quai d'Orsay and the Rue de Bourgogne, 
 and opposite the Pont de la Concorde. 
 It was at one time the residence of the 
 Bourbon princes, but was confiscated at 
 the revolution. Under the Directory it 
 was the Chamber of the Conseil des 
 Anciens ; under the first empire it was 
 the house of the Corps Legislatif ; at the 
 restoration it was the Chambre des 
 Deputes ; under the republic of 1848 it 
 was the seat of the Assemblee Nationale ; 
 since 1852 it has been the seat of the 
 Corps Legislatif. The Salle das Seances 
 was reconstructed by M. de Joly (1828- 
 1832). 
 
 Palais Cardinal {Le). Now called 
 *Le Palais Royal' of Paris. It was built 
 by and for the Cardinal Richelieu in the 
 reign of Louis XIIL, and was divided 
 into an outer and inner court. The 
 gardens extended over several acres and 
 were the wonder of Europe. 
 
 Palais Royal {Le). See above, 
 * Palais Cardinal.' 
 
 Palais de Justice {Le). In the 
 cite de Paris. Here, at one time, dwelt 
 the kings of France, up to the reign of 
 Charles VII. (1422-1461), who resided at 
 the Palais des Tournelles. It has often 
 been reconstructed ; the last time was in 
 1787. The Salic des Pas-Ferdas, origi- 
 
 nally called the Grande Salle, was con- 
 structed by J. de Brosse in 1622. 
 
 Pal'amites (3 syl.). The followers 
 of Gregory Palamas, who maintained 
 that there were two sorts of light, one 
 increate and one create. The former the 
 light of Deity, who said, ' I am the Light 
 of the world,' the latter the light of 
 the Sun. This distinction from 1341- 
 1351 caused a schism in the Greek 
 Church. The monks of Mount Athos 
 insisted that the light seen on the mount 
 of Transfiguration was the increate light 
 of Deity ; but Barlaam insisted, in that 
 case that there must be both a visible 
 and an invisible God. The upshot of the 
 matter was this — the synod presided over 
 by the Greek emperor determined the 
 opinion of the monks of Mount Athos to 
 be an article of faith, and Barlaam was 
 obliged to quit the country. 
 
 Palatinate. ' Pfalz,' Germany. 
 The ancient empire had two palatinates, 
 the upper and the lower. The Upper 
 or Bavarian Palatinate, in the circle of 
 Bavaria; and the Lower Palatinate or 
 Palatinate of the Rhine. At the Peace 
 of Westphalia Karl Ludwig was made 
 elector, which increased the number of 
 electors from seven to eight. 
 
 Palatinate (TFar of the), 1688-1697. 
 It was occasioned by Louis XIV. in favour 
 of the Duchess of Orleans, sister of the 
 last elector-palatine, against Philipp 
 Wilhelm prince palatine of Neuburg. 
 The dauphin conquered the palatine in 
 less than two months. In 1689 Marshal 
 Duras made such brutal ravages in this 
 country as called forth the indignation 
 of all Europe, and caused a new coali- 
 tion to be formed against Louis XIV. In 
 1697 the Peace of Ryswick gave posses- 
 sion of the palatinate to Johann Wilhelm 
 son of Philipp Wilhelm. 
 
 Palatine. So the governor of 
 Poland was formerly called, and his 
 dominion was a palatinate or vayvody. 
 The crown was not hereditary, but elec- 
 tive. 
 
 Palatine {Count). 'Comes Pala- 
 tlnus,' a high judicial officer, generally 
 near a frontier, with jura regalia. The 
 district over which he had jurisdiction 
 was called & palatinate or county pala- 
 tine. 
 
 I. In England there were three such 
 •UU 
 
658 
 
 PALATINE 
 
 PALLIKAES 
 
 counties: Lancaster, Chester, and Dur- 
 ham, frontif c-i jf Wales. Lancaster was 
 made a palatinate by Edward III., but 
 the crown is now ' palatine of Lancaster.' 
 Chester was made a palatinate by- 
 William the Conqueror, but was annexed 
 to the crown in the reign of Henry III., 
 and is now vested in the prince of Wales. 
 Durham was also made a palatinate by 
 William the Conqueror, but in 1836 this 
 also was vested in the crown. 
 
 II. In Fra7ice, under the Merovingian 
 kings. 
 
 III. In Gertnany the ' Pfalz-graf ' was 
 far more powerful than a simple graf. 
 He superintended the royal revenue, and 
 took part in the government. Originally 
 the palatine was named by the kaiser, 
 but in time the title ar d office became 
 hereditary. The chief palatines were 
 the counts of Lotharingia, Saxony, 
 Bavaria, Swabia, and later on Burgundy. 
 Of these the palatine of Lotharingia was 
 the chief, being the first prince of Ger- 
 many, and afterwards called the Pala- 
 tine of the Bhine. In 1315 this noble- 
 man was called the Elector-Palatine. 
 
 Palatine (Princesses). Anna di 
 Gonzaga (1616-1684); Elizabeth grand- 
 daughter of James I. of England (1618- 
 1680) ; and Charlotte Elizabeth of Ba- 
 varia (1652-1722), 
 
 Palatine [TJie Great). Foremost of 
 the Hungarian magnates ; he was first 
 minister of the crown, head of the army, 
 lord chief justice, and regent when a 
 regency was required. He was elected 
 by the National Assembly, who sent up 
 four names, from which the king selected 
 one. 
 
 Palatine of Heidelberg (The). 
 A large library, museum, and botanical 
 garden. 
 
 Palatines of the County of 
 Limerick (The), 1709. Some 3,000 
 Protestants, driven from their homes, 
 and sent by the English government to 
 Limerick in the reign of Queen Anne. 
 They are generally called Methodists, 
 and are supposed to have been driven 
 from the palatinates by the remorseless 
 persecutions of Louis XIV. Many emi- 
 grated to America, and were called 
 the American Palatines. Many Pala- 
 tines and other continental Protestants 
 
 had, before this, joined the army of 
 William III. 
 
 The Kev. Matthew Henry in his ' Commen- 
 tary ' refers to them (pp. 88, 89). ' When many of 
 the poor Palatines, driven from their country by 
 persecution, visited Chester in the year 1709, to 
 the discontent of tlie High Church party, though 
 only going to Ireland, I lent them my stable to 
 sleep in.' The editor adds this note: 'The num- 
 ber who arrived in Chester within three weeks 
 was about 3,140. The women and children and 
 goods travelled in 109 waggons, for which Mr. 
 Henry was informed by the mayor that the queen 
 paid carriage, besides two shillings per week sub- 
 sistence for each head.' — Henky, Diary. 
 
 Pale (The). In Irish history means 
 that portion of the island over which 
 the English rule and English law wtre 
 acknowledged. It was an ever-varying 
 quantity. In Henry II. 's reign it meant 
 Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and the 
 chief part of Leinster. John distributed 
 the Pale into twelve counties palatine, 
 viz. Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, 
 Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, 
 Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Limerick. 
 In Edward III.'s reign, after the statute 
 of Kilkenny, the Pale was limited to four 
 counties (Dublin, Carlow, Meath, and 
 Louth). Richard II. increased the pala- 
 tinate to nine. In Henry VI. 's reign it 
 was again contracted. Roughly the 
 Pale means Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kil- 
 kenny, and Louth. Except in the Pale 
 the king's power was only nominal. 
 
 Palestro (TJie Hero of). Victor 
 Emmanuel II. king of Sardinia and after- 
 wards of Italy (1820-1878). The Sardi- 
 nians and French defeated the Austrians 
 at Palestro 31 May, 1859. 
 
 Come, one and all, cluster closely round the hero 
 of Palestro. — Garibaldi to his soldiers, 18(50. 
 
 Pali. A trans-Gangetic idiom from 
 the Sanskrit in Burmah, Siam, and Ceylon. 
 In this idiom the sacred writings of the 
 Buddhists are written. Like Sanskrit, 
 Hebrew, Latin, and several otlier sacred 
 languages, Pali is not now spoken. 
 
 Pall Mall Gazette (The). A 
 London daily newspaper commenced 7 
 Feb., 1865. 
 
 Palles'ehi (The). The Medicean 
 party devoted to the ruling house of 
 Florence, or desirous of establishing in 
 that city an oligarchy or tyranny. 
 
 Pallikars. A national militia of 
 Greece organised to stamp out the 
 Klephts (1 syl.) or brigands. The Ar- 
 matolcs formed a principal part of the 
 militia. 
 
PALM 
 
 PANDECTS 
 
 659 
 
 Palm the Bookseller, shot by 
 court-martial 26 Aug., 1806. This was a 
 most unjustifiable murder. Napoleon 
 wanted to overrun Prussia, and Palm 
 published a pamplilet entitled ' L'Alle- 
 magne dans son profond abaissement,' for 
 which he was tried by court-martial, and, 
 as he refused to give up the author, was 
 ordered to be shot. England, Russia, 
 and other free countries were loudly in- 
 dignant ; and in 1813 when the Germans 
 rose against Napoleon, many regiments 
 emblazoned on their banners the bloody 
 figure of Palm the Bookseller. 
 
 Palm Sunday. 'Festum Bron- 
 cheriae,' or ' Festum Palmarum,' * Domi- 
 nica in Palmis.' The Sunday next before 
 Easter Day, in conrmemoration of Christ's 
 triumphal entry into Jerusalem, when 
 the people strewed palm branches in the 
 way. Instituted in 1106. In the Catholic 
 Church palms, being blessed and sprinkled 
 thrice with holy water,, are distributed 
 first to the clergy present and then to the 
 laity, who receive them kneeling. A pro- 
 cession is then made, and at the mass all 
 the communicants hold pahns in their 
 hands during the ' Passion ' and the 
 Gospel. See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Dies palmarum, sive florum atque ramoram 
 appellatur.— Rupert, De Dicin. Ojfic, chap. vii. 
 
 Palm.ers. Pilgrims who brought 
 home a branch of palm in proof of their 
 having been to Palestine. This palm- 
 branch was deposited in the church of 
 the pilgrims' town. Sometimes the palm- 
 branch was wreathed round the pilgrim's 
 staflE. 
 
 Palm.yra's Queen, or 'Queen of 
 
 Palmyra.' So Lady Hester Stanhope was 
 called (1770-1839). She took up her re- 
 sidence at Djouni, in Syria. The last 
 and one of the most noted queens of 
 Palmyra was Zenobia. 
 
 Palsgrave [Pfalzgraf J. The reeve or 
 president of the pfalz or palace-co irt, the 
 highest court of the realm, \\h :h ori- 
 ginally moved from place to piace with 
 the monarch. In France called ' Le Maire 
 du Palais.' When the court became 
 stationary, the presidency was given to a 
 ' judge ' ; but the king could, if he chose, 
 confer the judicial honour on a ' man of 
 a fief or province, who then became a 
 pfalzgraf or vice-roi. 
 
 There were two German reeves pos- 
 sessed of this judicial power, and their 
 
 districts or provinces were called ' pala- 
 tinates.' There was the Upper Palatinate 
 (which was Bavaria), and the Lower Pala- 
 tinate on the Rhine ; but the word pfalz- 
 graf, unqualified, always means the count- 
 palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 The pfalzgraf of the Rhine was one of 
 the seven original electors of the German 
 kings ; but in the tenth year of the Thirty 
 Years' War he was deposed from the 
 college of electors, and his place given to 
 the duke of Bavaria. 
 
 At the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, it 
 was settled that the dignity of elector 
 could not be alienated, so the pfalzgraf 
 was restored, and the number of electors 
 raised to eight. When, in 1692, the elec- 
 torate was conferred on Ernest duke of 
 Hanover the electoral college contained 
 nine members ; but in 1777 the number^ 
 was again reduced to eight by the amal- 
 gamation of the two palatinates of Ba- 
 varia and the Rhine ; the duke of Bavaria 
 being also pfalzgraf of the Rhine. The 
 title was abolished (except ior Hessen- 
 Cassel) by Napoleon in 1806. 
 
 Panard of the 19 th century. 
 
 Armand Gouffe, born at Paris (1775- 
 1845), founder of the Caveau Moderne. 
 
 Panare'ton. The book of Ecclesia- 
 sticus, by Jesus son of Sirach, an Alex- 
 andrian, was so called because it was a 
 complete breviary of all the moral vir- 
 tues. It lays down rules for the daily re- 
 gulation of life. Jesus died b.c. 150. 
 
 Pan'athenaB'a, b.c. 1495. A great 
 Athenian fete in honour of Athene 
 [Minerva], instituted by Erichthonios. 
 Athene was goddess of aU [pan] Attica. 
 Tiie Great Pan-Athenoea was celebrated 
 every fifth year, and the grand ceremony 
 was carrying the peplum or veil of Athene 
 to the citadel. The prize in the games 
 was a wreath of oUves and cruse of oil. 
 
 PandaVas (The). The descendants 
 of Pandil. Five princes whose contest 
 for regal supremacy with their cousins, 
 the Kurds, forms the subject of the great 
 Indian epic poem entitled the ' Maha- 
 bharata.' 
 
 Pandu means 'white.' The elder of the two 
 princes was excluded from the throne for his 
 whiteness, probably some disease, but his five 
 sons were the Pandavas. 
 
 Pandects {The). The Greek word 
 for the Roman Digest compiled in the 
 reign of the Emperor Justinian a.d. 533. 
 U2 
 
660 
 
 PANDOURS 
 
 PAPA 
 
 The entire Corpus Juris Civilis contained 
 (1) the Code in twelve tables; (2) the 
 Digest or Pandects in fifty books ; (3) 
 the Institutes, a summary of the Digest 
 to teach the elements of Roman law, in 
 four books; and (4) the Novels or new 
 laws, containing sixteen edicts and 168 
 laws published by Justinian. 
 
 The Pandects or Digest are in fifty books; each 
 book is subdivided into Titles ; each title into Laus ; 
 and sometimes a law is subdivided into para- 
 graphs. Thus D 50. 17. 30 means Digest Book 50, 
 Title 17, Law 30. D 12. 2. 5. 3 means Digest Book 12, 
 Title 2, Law 5, Paragraph 3. The symbol S for 
 Pandects is a corrupt form of the Greek n (i.e. P. 
 initial of Pandect). 
 
 Pandours (The). The ferocious 
 hordes of irregular troops by which 
 Austria for a long time spread terror 
 among her neighbours, and which, even 
 so late as 1849, played an important part 
 in the army of the Ban Jellachich. 
 
 When leagued oppression poured to northern 
 
 wars 
 Her whiskered pandours and her fierce hussars, 
 Campbell, Pleasures of Hope. 
 
 Panic Sunday, 10 May, 1857. The 
 day of the Sepoys' outbreak. It was 
 about five o'clock in the evening when a 
 rocket gave the signal of uprising. The 
 Sepoys seized their arms and set upon 
 their officers, released the convicts, and 
 killed all the Europeans they chanced to 
 meet. The bungalows were set on fire, 
 the European dwellings were plundered. 
 Ladies and children were brutally treated. 
 The mutiny began at Barrackpore, spread 
 to Delhi, Oude, Lahore, Lucknow, Jhansi, 
 and Cawnpore. See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Pan-ionia, B.C. 777. Fetes in honour 
 of the patron god of the Ionian cities, 
 the object being to bind together the 
 twelve confederate cities. See below. 
 
 Pan-ionium. A confederation of 
 twelve Ionian cities : — Ejphesus, Meletos, 
 Smyrna, Phocsea, Colophon, Teos, Ery- 
 thrse, Clazomense, Priene, Lebedos, 
 Samos, and Chios. The place of muster 
 was a building on Mount Mykale. 
 
 Panno'nia. Latin name for Hun- 
 gary, the country of the Pannonii. 
 
 Ancient Panonnia included, besides Hungary, 
 the eastern part of Austria, a part of Croatia and 
 Bosnia, with Styria, Carinthia, Caruiola, and 
 Slavonia. 
 
 P annus ITebula'tus. The veil 
 used to cover the pyx containing the 
 consecrated host. 
 
 Panontism. The deification of 
 instinct. It teaches that instinct is the 
 
 force of nature, and that creation was 
 the work of irresistible instinct and not 
 of all-wisdom and all-iDower. All wisdom, 
 power, and love would have provided 
 against the evils which abound, but 
 instinct is blind, and shnply follows a 
 masterless impulse. 
 
 Panslav'ism, 1831. The confedera- 
 tion or union of all the Slavic branches 
 into one gi'eat nation, including Russia, 
 Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, &c. This 
 scheme was advocated by the Hungarian 
 poet Kollar (1793-1852). 
 
 Eastern Slavs : The Eussi i ns, the Serbs and 
 Hungarian Serbs, Bosnians, Herz-^govinians, 
 Montenegrins, Slavonians, Dalmatians, Croats, 
 Winds, and Bulgarians. 
 
 Weaterii Stairs: Poles, Silesians, Boher, i .ns, 
 Moravians, Slovaks (of Hungary), and the Wends 
 or Slavs of N. Germany. 
 
 Pantheism. Either the ultimate 
 absorption of all things in deity, when 
 ' God will be all in all ' ; or else the 
 identification of deity with the pheno- 
 menal world, in which case God is 
 simply the force behind everything, that 
 which glows in the sun and blossoms on 
 the trees. In India the Brahmins and 
 Buddhists are Pantheists — the latter 
 teach the ultimate absorption of every- 
 thing in God. In Greece the Stoics 
 and Eleatics, and in Italy the Pytha- 
 goreans, were Pantheists. In Alexandria 
 the Neo-Platonists and Gnostics. In the 
 7th cent. John Scotus Erigena taught 
 that ' God is everything and everything is 
 God.' In the 12th cent. Amalric de Bena 
 and David de Dinante taught the same 
 system. Giordano Bruno was burnt to 
 death in 1600 for Pantheistic notions; 
 Spinoza of Holland followed in his foot- 
 steps. In modern Germany Fichte, 
 Hegel, and Schelling were Pantheists. 
 
 If God is everything, and everything is God, then 
 all-worship is simply God worshipping himself. 
 
 Pantisoc'racy. A visionary scheme 
 of Coleridge of a society where all the 
 virtues were to thrive, and all the vices 
 to be rooted out. 
 
 Papa Angel'ico. An ideal pope, 
 emblem and impersonation of all virtues. 
 Dante not only advocated a Papa An- 
 gelico, but also a Universal Overlord, 
 who was to reign over the whole world, 
 to redress grievances, punish offenders, 
 administer justice, defend the weak, 
 redeem all wrongs, be the father of the 
 fatherless, and an ideal God on earth. 
 
PAPAL 
 
 PAKADISE 
 
 661 
 
 Papal Aggression, Sept. 1850. 
 The establishment by Pope Pius IX. in 
 England of a papal hierarchy. Dr. Vv^ise- 
 man was appointed vicar apostolic of 
 the London district and lord archbishop 
 of Westminster, with the title of cardinal. 
 Dr. Ullathorne was appointed Roman 
 Catholic bishop of Birmingham. In 1851 
 Dr. Briggs was enthroned bishop of 
 Beverley, Dr. Brown of Clifton, and Dr. 
 Burgess of Shrewsbury. Lord John 
 Russell fumed furiously, and brought in 
 a bill to prohibit the aggression. His 
 bill was pared down to a line of lOOl. to 
 any one who assumed such titles in 
 England, but the fine was never en- 
 forced. 
 
 Pap'alins. Those of a papistic bias, 
 little papists. Strype calls the two parties 
 in England at the accession of Queen 
 Elizabeth ' Evangelics and Papalins,' 
 those who would drive i^ost speed to 
 Protestant doctrines and discipline, and 
 those who would retain a spice of Ro- 
 manism. 
 
 Paper Duty. The paper duty re- 
 pealed in 181)1 was the tax imposed in 
 the reign of Queen Anne (1711) to meet 
 the expenses of Marlborough's wars. 
 There was, however, a duty on paper so 
 far back as 1691. 
 
 Paper King {The). John Law 
 (1671-1729), the projector of the Mis- 
 sissippi Bubble (1716^1720). 
 
 Papy'ri. RoUs made of the papy'rus 
 plant. The Egyptian papyri are of very 
 great antiquity, some of them running 
 back to B.C. 2000 or more. Some have 
 been found deposited with mummies ; 
 others, of a civil nature, have been found 
 in jars or boxes. 
 
 1. The Hi' ero glyph' ical papyri, ac- 
 companied with pictures, are solar 
 litanies, books ' of the empyreal gate,' or 
 rituals. 
 
 2. The Hieratic papj'ri, written in 
 the cursive Egyptian hand, are mixed 
 civil and religious writings. 
 
 3. The Demotic papyri, in enchorial 
 character, consist of rituals, contracts, 
 and miscellaneous documents. 
 
 The papyri of Pompeii and Herculaneum are 
 nuuiorous. They are rolled on a stick and placed 
 in a cj'linder. 
 
 Papy'rus Prisse. The most an- 
 cient MS. in existence, said to be before 
 
 Abraham's time. It is occupied with a 
 plaint on the degeneracy of the manners 
 and rueful decadence of man since thg 
 good old times. The MS. derives its 
 name from M. Prisse d'Avennes, by 
 whom it was procured at Thebes and 
 given to the Bibliotheque Nationale, 
 Paris. It consists of eighteen pages, was 
 published in 18'47, and is the most per- 
 fect specimen extant of the Hieratic 
 writing. (' Notes and Queries,' 12 Feb., 
 1887, p. 127.) 
 
 Paques Veronaises {Les), 17 
 
 April, 1797. For political ends compared 
 by Bonaparte to the ' Sicilian Vespers,' 
 {q.v.). A considerable number of Italian 
 and Slavonian troops, and mere armed 
 peasants, made an attack on the French 
 under the charge of Junot, sent by Bona- 
 parte into Verona. As many as 500 
 French, scattered in different forts or 
 lying in hospitals, were put to death, 
 while the citadel fired red-hot balls upon 
 the town. A powerful reinforcement 
 from the French head-quarters in Italy 
 put an end to tb.e fray, and Verona sub- 
 mitted with humility to the French. 
 Pronounce Lay Park Ver'ro-iMze'. 
 
 Parabola'ni {The), 5th cent. A 
 charitable corporation of Alexandria 
 instituted during the j)lague of Gallienus. 
 Their duty was to visit the sick and bury 
 the dead, but they were so mercenary 
 under St. Cyril the patriarch that the 
 emperor restricted the number to five or 
 six hundred; even then they were a 
 canker in the empire. 
 
 Paracelsus. The knob of his staff 
 was said to inclose the four elemental 
 spirits — Kobold {earth), Salamander 
 {fire), Undine {water), and Sylph {air). 
 See p. 607, ' Names Classicised.' 
 
 Paraclete. The oratory erected at 
 Troyes by Abelard after his condemna- 
 tion by the Council of Sens. He made 
 his paramour He'loise (3 syl.) head of the 
 oratory, and there, at death, his ashes 
 were deposited. 
 
 In 1817 the remains of both Abelard and HeloTse 
 ■were removed to Perela-Chaise, in Paris, and 
 interred in one sepulchre. 
 
 Paradise of Bohemia (T/ie). The 
 
 district round Leitmeritz. 
 
 Paradise of Central Africa 
 
 (The), Fatiko. (Sir S. Baker, 'Explo- 
 ration of the Nile Sources,' 1866.) 
 
662 
 
 PAEADISE 
 
 PARIS 
 
 Paradise of Europe (The). The 
 valley of the Arno in Tuscany. 
 
 Paradise of Holland {The), or 
 * The Dutch Paradise.' The province of 
 Gelderland. 
 
 Paradise of Portugal (The), or 
 ' The Portuguese Paradise.' Cintra, 
 north-west of Lisbon. 
 
 Paradise of the Indies (The). 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Paradise of the Jews. Poland 
 was so called before its partitions. 
 
 Paraschistes. One of a low class 
 employed in embalming, and, singularly 
 enough, held in abhorrence by the 
 Egyptians. They lived in the cemeteries 
 or their neighbourhood. A scribe marked 
 a line with a reed pen on the left side of 
 the body of the corpse, beneath the ribs, 
 down which line the paraschistes made a 
 deep incision with a rude knife or Ethi- 
 opian stone, probably flint. He was then 
 pelted by those around with stones, and 
 pursued with curses. The taricheiites or 
 preparer removed the entrails and lungs, 
 with the exception of the heart and 
 kidneys. The cholchytce were the custo- 
 dians of the mummies. As all classes were 
 embalmed, including malefactors, the 
 paraschistes, in spite of the disgust he 
 inspired, was probably in as good case 
 as the public executioners in Europe. 
 Embalming cost from about 750Z. to a 
 mere trifle. See ' Chambers's Encyclo- 
 paedia,' and Rawlinson's ' Herodotus.' 
 
 Paravail, or ' Tenants' Paravail.' 
 The lowest tenant. The tenants of the 
 king were the highest tenants. If these 
 tenants let out their tenements they were 
 overlords ; and if these overlords let out 
 their tenements their tenants were mesne 
 lords ; and the tenants of mesne lords 
 were par avails (French per, avayler). 
 
 The tenants of kings were overlords to their own 
 tenants ; and these tenants were mesne lords to 
 the tenants under them ; and the tenants of 
 mesne lords were ' tenants paravail.' 
 
 Parian Chronicle {The), e.g. 264. 
 
 Certain pieces of marble containing in- 
 scriptions in Greek capitals. These in- 
 scriptions are chronological lists of 
 Grecian events from Cecrops down to 
 the archonship of Diognetos (e.g. 155(5- 
 26 i), and supposed to have been exe- 
 cuted about the year e.g. 264. They are 
 the principal part of the Arundelian 
 
 marbles {q.v.), and are preserved in Ox- 
 ford University. Called Parian because 
 they were made in the Isle of Paros about 
 A.D. 250. 
 
 Paris {Francois de). A celebrated 
 deacon born at Chatillon in France 
 (1690-1727), and celebratsd for the num- 
 berless ' miracles ' sam to have occurred 
 at his tomb at St. Me'dard, Paris. This 
 cemetery was so crowded day after day, 
 and the scenes of the convulsionists there 
 were so scandalous, that in 1732 the 
 government closed the cemetery, and 
 this epigram was by some wag attached 
 to the gates : — 
 
 De par le roi defense a Dieu 
 De faire miracle en ce lieu. 
 It is forbidden to God's Grace 
 To work more wonders in this place. 
 
 Paris {Little). Brussels. So called 
 from its brilliant shops, its numerous 
 cafe's, and its general gaiety. 
 
 Paris {Patron Saint of). Ste. Gene- 
 vieve (423-512). Born at Nanterre. 
 
 Paris {Treaties of). 
 
 1. 12 April, 1229. Between Raymond VII. count 
 of Toulouse, St. Louis, and the Pope, for the ces- 
 sion of Provence. 
 
 2. 10 May, 1303. Between France and England, 
 for the restoration of Aquitaine to Edward I. 
 
 3. 24 May, 1515. Between Karl of Austria (sove- 
 reign of the Netherlands) and Francois I. of 
 France. 
 
 4. 15 Aug., 1761. (Called the FAMILY Compact.) 
 Between the diflerent branches of the House of 
 Bourbon. 
 
 5. 10 Feb., 1763. Peace between Franca, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Great Britain. By this treaty 
 Canada was ceded to England. 
 
 6. 6 Feb., 1778. Between France and the United 
 States of North America, recognising their inde- 
 pendence after the British overthrow at Sara- 
 toga. 
 
 7. 20 June, 1784. Between Great Britain and 
 Holland. 
 
 8. 15 May, 1796. Between the French Republic 
 and the King of Savoy, for the cession of Savoy 
 and Nice to France. 
 
 9. 10 Oct., 17)6. Between Ferdinand IV. king of 
 Naples and France. 
 
 10. 8 Oct., 1801. Between France and Russia. 
 
 11. 99 July, 1HU6. Between France and Russia ; 
 signed but not ratified. 
 
 12. 10 Nov., 1807. Between France and Holland, 
 by which Flushing was ceded to France. 
 
 13. 6 Jan., 1810. Between France and Sweden. 
 
 14. 14 March, 1812. Alliance between Franca 
 and Austria, 
 
 15. 11 April, 1814, Between Napoleon I. and the 
 allies. Napoleon was deposed and banished to 
 Elba. 
 
 16. 23 April, 1814. Convention between the Comta 
 d'Artois and the allies for the cessation of hos- 
 tilities and evacuation of French territory. 
 
 17. 30 May, 1814. Between France and the 
 allies, whereby it was stipulated that Franca 
 should return to its ancient boundaries with the 
 exception of Avignon, the Conitat Venaissin, Mul- 
 house, and a small part of Savoy. Malta was con- 
 firmed to England, and the three French colonies 
 (viz. the Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago) were 
 ceded to our dominion. The French troops were 
 
PAKIS 
 
 PARLEMENT 
 
 663 
 
 recalled from fifty-three garrisons, and all for- 
 tresses were restored to their respective claim- 
 ants. 
 
 IS. 20 July, 1814. Between France and Spain, 
 confirming previous treaties. 
 
 19. 2 Aug., 1815. Convention between Great 
 Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, charging 
 the British government with the safeguard of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 20. 26 Sept., 1815. The Holy Alliance. Between 
 Kussia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 
 21. 20 Nov., 1815. Between Great Britain, Rus- 
 Bia, Austria, and Prussia, defining the boun- 
 daries of France, &c. 
 
 22. 10 June, 1817. Between Great Britain, 
 France, Spain, Russia, and Prussia, to fulfil the 
 articles of the Congress of Vienna. 
 
 23. 28 Aug., 1817. Between France and Portugal, 
 for the cession of Guiana to France. 
 
 24. 25 Aug., 1818. Convention between France and 
 the allies. 
 
 25. 25 April, 1818. Convention between Great 
 Britain and France respecting debts to British 
 subjects. 
 
 26. 1 Feb., 1856. Peace, after the Crimean -war, 
 between Russia on one part, and Great Britain, 
 France, Austria, and Turkey on the other. It 
 stipulated for the independence of the Ottoman 
 empire ; the neutralisation of the Black Sea, 
 that no arsenal was to be maintained on the 
 Black Sea coast, and that neither Russia nor 
 Turkey should maintain more than six steam- 
 ships of 800 tons. 
 
 27. 3 March, 1857. Peace between Great Britain 
 and Persia. 
 
 28. 26 May, 1857. Between the Great Powers of 
 Europe, respecting Neuchatel. 
 
 29. 19 Aug., 18.J8. Convention between the Great 
 Powers of Europe, to constitute the Danubian 
 principalities. 
 
 30. 25 March to 16 April, 1865. Congress to ar- 
 range terms of peace between Russia and the 
 allies. 
 
 31. Jan., 1868. Conferences between the Great 
 Powers respecting the Turkish difficulty. 
 
 Paris Club {The). Called the 
 sociele mere or mother society of the 
 Jacobin clubs. The Jacobin clubs con- 
 tained 400,000 members, and their plat- 
 form was ' anarchy and revolution.' As 
 Michelet (' Hist. Fr. Rev.' pp. 476, 485) 
 says, the Jacobin clubs ' soon became a 
 vast committee of revolutionary police.' 
 
 Paris Garden. A bear-garden on 
 the bank of the Thames. Blount in his 
 * Glossographia ' says that Richard de 
 Paris had a house and garden there in 
 the time of Richard II., and he quotes as 
 his authority the Close Roll 16 Rich. II. ; 
 but the words of the Roll are ' domum 
 Roberti de Parys.' 
 
 It was originally a copyhold manor which fell 
 to Robert Marmion, after the Conquest, and was 
 given by his son to the monks of Bermondsey 
 Priory. 
 
 Paris of Japan {The). Osaka. 
 
 Parishes. In England and Wales 
 14,610, of which 550 are in two counties. 
 Benefices 11,728 ; of these 9,669 are in 
 the province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in 
 the province of York. 
 
 In Ireland 2,500. 
 
 is merely an 
 
 In Scotland a parish 
 ecclesiastical division. 
 
 By the Poor-law Amendment Act, 13,964 of the 
 parishes were amalgamated into 585 unions, but 
 besides these there are 21 unions by Local Acts 12 
 by Gilbert's Act (<;.i;.), and the 89 parishes of the 
 Scilly Isles- united. 
 
 Parisian Wedding {The). The 
 massacre in Paris begun on St. Bartho- 
 lomew's Eve during the wedding festivi- 
 ties of Henri of Navarre and Marguerite 
 of France. 
 
 Charles IX., although it was not possible for 
 him to recall to life the countless victims of the 
 ' Parisian Wedding,' was ready to explain those 
 murders to the unprejudiced mind.— Motley, 
 Dutch Bepublic, iii. 9. 
 
 Parker {Admiral). Richard Parker, 
 an able seaman, was called by his com- 
 rades ' Admiral ' because he was the ring- 
 leader of the mutiny of the fleet in the 
 Nore. He was hanged at the yard-arm 
 of a man-of-war off Sheerness in June 
 1797. 
 
 Parker Society {TJie), Cambridge. 
 Established in 1840 for reprinting the 
 works of the early English Reformers. 
 Dissolved 1853 or 1854. Fifty-three 
 works were published under its auspices, 
 equal to four every year. 
 
 Parker's Bible {The), 1572. The 
 second folio edition of the ' Great Bible ' 
 {q.v.), with corrections and several pro- 
 legomena, under the supervision of Arch- 
 bishop Parker. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Parks, Commons, and Open 
 Spaces Committee {The Metropo- 
 litan) has under its charge about 3,000 
 acres or 4 square miles of the metropoli- 
 tan area. Some 300 bailiffs, gardeners, 
 and labourers are constantly employed. 
 
 Parlamento is a meeting of the 
 Florentine people on the piazza of the 
 
 Signory. 
 
 Parlement de St. Louis {Le), 
 18th cent. A law court where causes 
 were tried by evidence. It had no fixed 
 locality, but followed the king wherever 
 he went. The staff consisted of 3 high 
 barons, 3 prelates, 19 knights, and 18 
 councillors. Its chief business was to 
 register the royal decrees; it had no 
 legislative power of its own. 
 
 These parlements had no point of resemblanca 
 to our parliament, but though they did not make 
 laws, they had to register the royal edicts and 
 ordinances before they became law. The Paris 
 parlement was formally abolithod in 1790. See 
 ' Oliin.' 
 
664 
 
 PARLEMENT 
 
 PARLIAMENTS 
 
 Parlement of France. Origin- 
 ally an ambulatory court of justice 
 which followed the king and administered 
 justice in his name. Philippe le Bel 
 in 1302 was the first to fix a ' parlement ' 
 in Paris. It held sessions, at first, 
 only twice a year; but in 1380 it was 
 made permanent. There were 13 other 
 parlements in France. That of Toulouse 
 was established in 1302 ; of Grenoble in 
 1451 ; of Bordeaux in 14G2 ; of Dijon in 
 1477 ; of Rouen in 1499; of Aix in 1501; 
 of Rennes in 1553 ; of Pau in 1620 ; of 
 Metz in 1633 ; of Besan^on in 1676 ; of 
 Trevoux in 1696 ; of Douay in 1713 ; and 
 of Nancy in 1775. 
 
 Parlement of Paris (The), 28 
 Jan., 1226. Was called to excommuni- 
 cate Raymond VII. count of Toulouse. 
 Another was called on 29 March, 1226, 
 to arrange a crusade against the Albi- 
 genses. 
 
 Parliament. See 
 
 Addle parliament 
 
 Barebone ,, 
 (of) Bats 
 
 Black parliament 
 
 Club 
 
 Convention „ 
 
 Devils 
 
 Drunken „ 
 (of) Dunces 
 
 Good parliament 
 
 Grattan's „ 
 
 Illiterate 
 
 Imperial ,, 
 
 Irish „ 
 
 Jews' ,, 
 
 Lack-learning par- 
 liament 
 
 Leicester's parlia- 
 ment 
 
 Little parliament 
 
 Long 
 
 Longest „(p.664) 
 
 Mad 
 
 Merciless „ 
 
 Mongrel „ 
 
 Obstructive 
 Pacific parliament 
 Parliament (longest) 
 ,, (shortest) 
 Parliament oak 
 Pensionary parlia- 
 ment 
 Pride s purge 
 Rowdy parliament 
 Bump ,, 
 
 Running „ 
 Septennial „ 
 Session of 41 hours, 
 
 st'i' p. (i65 
 Shortest parlia- 
 
 ment, sec p. f;t>4 
 Triennial parliamt 
 Unlearned ,, 
 Unmerciful ,, 
 Useless „ 
 
 Wonderful or Won- 
 der-making par- 
 liament 
 (of) 16.)4 
 See ' Parliamentary, '&C. 
 
 Parliament. Edward the Confessor 
 called his witenagemots j^arZemewi^s. 
 
 1164. Henry II. called together at Claren- 
 don, in Wiltshire, the prelates 
 and nobles to pass the famous 16 
 ordinances to limit the power of 
 the church. 
 
 1265. Simon de Montfort, summoned, in 
 the king's [Hen. III.'s] name, two 
 knights for each county, two 
 citizens for each city, and two 
 burgesses for each borough, to a 
 national council. 
 
 1274. The national council was first 
 called a parlianieut (Edw. L). 
 
 1330. (4 Edw. III. 0. 14 ) Parliaments 
 were ordered to be held annually. 
 
 1377. (Rich. II.) The first Speaker 
 elected. It was Peter Delamere. 
 
 1694. The Triennial Act was passed (6, 7 
 Will. & Mary). Similar acts had 
 been passed by Charles I. & II. 
 
 1716. The Sej)tennial Act was passed 
 (1 Geo. I. c. 38). 
 
 Bills in the form of acts were first introduced in 
 the reign of Henry VI. In the reign of Edward V. 
 there was no parliament. 
 
 Parliament (Irish). The first regu- 
 lar parliament of Ireland was held 1295, 
 and the great officials of the Pale [q.v.) 
 were summoned to England to consult 
 on the crisis. In 1459 the Irish parha- 
 ment insisted on complete legislative 
 independence and sovereignty. In 1780 
 Henry Grattan moved that 'the king, 
 lords, and conunons of Ireland are alone 
 competent to enact laws to bind Ireland.' 
 In 1782 Poyning's Act [q.v.) was repealed 
 in the Irish parliament and Ireland was 
 declared free. In 1800 the Irish parlia- 
 ments were united with those of Great 
 Britain. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Mr. Gladstone and his party have pleaded for 
 an ' Irish parliament for purely Irish affairs,' but 
 Grattan honestly confessed that the Irish alone 
 should make laws for Ireland, and that the Irish 
 ought not to be subject to tiie laws of England. 
 This is the true Irish doctrine for better or for 
 ■worse. 
 
 Parliaments [The Four Longest 
 
 1575-1586 (Q. Eliz.) ; by 18 proroga- 
 tions it lasted 11 years. 
 
 The ' Long parliament,' including the 
 ' Rump,' 19 years 132 days, from 3 Nov., 
 1640 to 16 March, 1660. The Rump 
 began 1653, so that the original long par- 
 liament was 12 years 168 days, from 
 3 Nov., 1640 to 20 April, 1653 (Charles I. 
 and Cromwell). 
 
 The ' Pensionary parliament,' 16 years 
 260 days, from 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 
 1678 (Charles II.). 
 
 The fourth Long parliament lasted 13 
 years 252 days, from 14 Nov., 1816 to 24 
 July, 1830 (George IV.). 
 
 The Pension or Pensionary parliament was fol- 
 lowed by the Ten-week parliament, from 6 March 
 to 24 May, 1(379. 
 
 The longest parliament up to the reign of Ed- 
 ward IV. was convened in 1472 and lasted 2 years. 
 
 Parliaments {The Eight Shortest). 
 
 Days A.D. King From 
 
 7 1681 Chas. IL 21to28Mar.* (Oxfd.) 
 
 12 1625 Chas. I. 1 to 13 Aug. (Oxfd.) 
 
 14 1658 Cromwell 21 Jan. to 4 Feb.f 
 
 20 1640 Chas. I. 13 Apr, to 3 May.J 
 
PAKLIAMENT 
 
 PARLIAMENTAEY 
 
 665 
 
 30 1536 Hen. VIII. 8 June to 18 July. 
 
 30 1553 Edw. VI. 1 to 31 Mar. 
 
 33 1510 Hen.VIIL21 Jan. to 23 Feb. 
 
 33 1554 Mary 2 Apr. to 5 May. 
 
 * The fifth and last convened by Charles II. 
 
 t The last convened by Cromwell. 
 
 t Called the ' Short Parliament.' It •was the 
 last dissolved by Charles I. and was followed by 
 the ' Long Parliament.' 
 
 *^* The following may be added : — 
 1806. 4 months 5 days. From 25 Dec, 
 
 1806 to 29 April, 1807 (Geo. III.). 
 1830. 5 months 27 days. From 26 Oct. 
 
 1830 to 20 April, 1831 (Will. IV.). 
 1886. 5 months 14 days. From 12 Jan., 
 
 1886 to 26 June, 1886 (Victoria). 
 
 This was the Gladstone ministry, 
 
 broken up by his Home Rule 
 
 Bill (Ireland). 
 
 Parliament of Bats [The], 1426. 
 During the regency in the reign of Henry 
 VI. In consequence of the litigious 
 character of the Duke of Gloucester the 
 citizens were forbidden to carry arms; 
 so when parliament assembled the mem- 
 bers of the House of Commons came 
 armed with bats or clubs. See ' Parlia- 
 ments.' 
 
 Parliament of Dunces {The), 
 1404. Convened by Henry IV. at Coven- 
 try. So called because all lawyers were 
 excluded from it. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Parliament of 1654. One of the 
 
 most memorable pai'liaments in English 
 history. It was the first in which Scotch 
 and Irish members took part. There 
 were no members for rotten and pocket 
 boroughs. It was the freest of all elec- 
 tions hitherto known. The ' Instrument * 
 {q.v.) or New Constitution was carried 
 through, and Cromwell was acknowledged 
 Lord Protector. It was dissolved by 
 Cromwell in Jan. 1655. See 'Parlia- 
 ments.' 
 
 Parliament Oak. Within the 
 ancient park of Clipstone Palace. As 
 Edward I. with his retinue, in 1294, was 
 chasing the deer in Sherwood Forest, a 
 messenger arrived in breathless haste to 
 announce that the Welsh were in revolt. 
 The king instantly summoned his knights 
 around him under this oak, and the 
 unanimous voice was for war. The oak 
 ia still standing (1890). 
 
 Parliamentary Candidate So- 
 ciety {The), 1831. To supply informa- 
 
 tion to electors of the political opinions 
 of candidates, by extracts from their 
 speeches, their votes, and their public 
 conduct. If new candidates, their charac- 
 ters and connections were given. 
 
 Parliamentary Reform. The 
 Bill passed 7 June, 1832, for the adjust- 
 ment of the inequalities of the representa- 
 tive system and an extended franchise. 
 Fifty-six boroughs in England and Wales 
 were entirely disfranchised; 30 which 
 had previously returned two members 
 were restricted to 1 ; 42 new boroughs 
 were created, of which 22 boroughs re- 
 turned 2 each, and 20 boroughs returned 
 1 each. Four members were assigned to 
 the city of London, 2 to each of the Uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge, and 
 1 to each of 133 cities or boroughs. Lan- 
 cashire was allotted 5 members ; the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire 4 members ; 25 coun- 
 ties 4 members each ; 7 counties 3 mem- 
 bers each ; 9 counties and the East and 
 North Ridings of Yorkshire 2 members 
 each ; and 10 counties 1 member each. 
 Total 658 for the United Parliament. 
 
 The numbers for Scotland were Increased from 
 45 to 53, and for Ireland from 100 to 105. The 
 qualifications of electors were made to be 40s. 
 freeholders, 10?. general leases, and 50/. annual 
 rent. The old freemen were wholly set aside. 
 
 Parliamentary Reform Agita- 
 tion. 
 
 1776. (20 March.) The motion of John Wilkes for 
 parliamentary reform negatived without 
 division. 
 
 1782. (7 May.) 7 May, 1783, and 18 April, 1785, 
 motions by W. Pitt negatived. 
 
 1784. Home Tooke and Mr. Hardy tried for high 
 treason and acquitted. 
 
 1810. (21 May.) Brand s motion for parliamentary 
 reform negatived. The same year Cobbett 
 was fined 1,000/. and sent to Newgate. 
 
 1817. As many as 600 petitions were presented to 
 
 the house in favour of reform. 20 May Sir 
 Francis Burdett's motion in favour of re- 
 form was negatived. 
 
 1818. (3 June.) Sir Francis Burdett was sent to 
 
 the Tower for exciting to agitation. 
 
 1819. Hunt, a Wiltshire farmer, was sentenced to 
 
 imprisonment for haranguing multitudes 
 
 at Birmingham. 
 1822. (29 April.) Lord John Russell's motion for 
 
 parliamentary reform was negatived. 
 1826. Major Cartwright was fined for inciting to 
 
 agitation. 
 1829. (3 June.) The Marquis of Blandford's motion 
 
 for reform was negatived. 
 
 Parliamentary Session of 41 
 
 Hours. The longest session was in 
 1881, when on one occasion the house 
 sat continuously for 41 hours. The ses- 
 sion began on JM[onday afternoon, 31 Jan., 
 at four o'clock, and went on without a 
 break till Wednesday morning, 2 Feb., 
 
PAELIAMENTARY 
 
 PARNELLITES 
 
 after the clock had struck nine. Mr. 
 Gladstone was prime minister. 
 
 The subject was leave to bring In a bill for the 
 ' Protection to Person and Property ' in Ireland, 
 against the Land League (q.v.), and Mr. Forster, 
 the secretary for Ireland, moved for the petition. 
 It was the Irish members who cried to weary out 
 the house by obstructing business. The obstruc- 
 tion was closed by the Speaker forbidding any 
 more speaking on the subject, and the Bill was 
 carried by 164 against 19. 
 
 Parliamentary Trains. Trains 
 
 established by Act of Parliament for the 
 benefit of third-class passengers, at the 
 rate of one penny a mile. In France the 
 traine parlementaire means a train re- 
 served for the use of members of both 
 the houses of legislature (1840). 
 
 Parliamentary Undertakers. 
 
 The little group of nobles who, till 
 "William Pitt's administration, returned 
 fully half the members of the House of 
 Commons. More than sixty seats were 
 in the hands of Lord Downshirc, the Pon- 
 sonbys, and the Beresfords alone. ' They 
 undertook to manage parliament in their 
 own way and on their own terms.' 
 
 Parnassus of G-ermany. Blocks- 
 berg. 
 
 On Blocksberg we'll find room enough ; 
 The wide Parnassus 'tis of Germany. 
 
 Goethe, Faust (Dr. Anster). 
 
 Parnassus of Japan. Fusiyama. 
 (Gibson, ' Gallery of Geography,' p. 921 ; 
 
 1872.) 
 
 Parnell Commission (T/ie). Sat 
 
 for 200 days in 1889, and its report was 
 issued 13 Feb., 1890, consisting of 121 
 closely printed pages of the Blue Book. 
 The Commissioners were Sir- James 
 Hannen and Justices Day and Smith, 
 and the object of inquiry was whether 
 and how far Charles Stewart Parnell 
 and his Irish party were connected with 
 the crimes of the Irish Land League, 
 which Mr. Gladstone asserted ' dogged 
 it throughout.' The report was divided 
 into nine charges, and the general tenour 
 was that Mr. Parnell and his ' lieutenants ' 
 were at least morally responsible for 
 much of the mischief, inasmuch as they 
 did nothing to repress it, much to foment 
 it, but adroitly avoided mixing up them- 
 selves with the misdemeanants. 
 
 Lord Selborne says the Irish members as indi- 
 viduals and politicians are cleared of charges 
 against them, but as a political body they are 
 proved beyond a doubt of being agents of disturb- 
 ance and centres of disaffection. 
 
 The ' Standard ' acknowledges that the de- 
 fendants are exonerated from direct complicity 
 with crime, but ' the report sliows Mr. Parnell to 
 
 have been the leader of men devoted to the trea- 
 sonable design of separating Ireland from Eng- 
 land ; to have been implicated in the whole 
 system of crime, outrage, and lawlessness which 
 has so long prevailed in Ireland ; and to have 
 been closely connected with foreign mercenaries 
 who made no secret of their being the enemies of 
 the Queen [Victoria].'— 14 Feb.. 1890. 
 
 Parnellism and Crime, 1888. A 
 pamphlet published by the editor of the 
 ' Times ' newpaper to show that the 
 Home Rule and Land League Irish party, 
 of which Charles S. Parnell was the 
 head, was, as Mr. Gladstone stated, 
 'dogged by crime in all its steps.' It 
 appeared anonymously, but was written 
 by Woulfe Flanagan, son of the Right 
 Hon. Judge Flanagan, who had been 
 judge of the Irish Land Estates Court. 
 This pamphlet was made the basis of a 
 trial before three commissioners in 1889. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone, 11 July, 1882, says of 
 tlie Parnellite policy, ' It means the 
 destruction of the peace of life ; it means 
 the placing in abeyance of the most 
 sacred duties, of tire most cherished 
 duties; it means the servitude of good 
 men, and the supremacy of bad men ' ; 
 and on 28 Jan., 1882, he said, ' With fatal 
 and painful precision the steps of crime 
 have dogged the steps of the Land 
 League.' 
 
 Sir William Harcourt said of the Land 
 League, ' The doctrine so expounded is 
 the doctrine of treason and assassination. 
 To-morrow the civilised world will pro- 
 nounce its judgment on this vile con- 
 spiracy.' 
 
 Those who read the Report of the Commissioners 
 will see clearly that the extreme party— the party 
 ruled by the Clan-na-Gael — has been the real 
 motive power, in the hands of which the Irish 
 Land League and Mr. Parnell and his friends 
 have been nothing but tools and puppets. 
 Wherever the Land League has been most active 
 in its operations, whenever what is called coercion 
 has fallen into abeyance, the increase of crime in 
 Ireland has been something fearful. This has 
 been proved to demonstration by the report of the 
 Commissioners. While, therefore, it must be 
 deplored that, in the matter of the forged letters, 
 the authorities of the ' Times ' did not exercise 
 more care and greater vigilance, and therefore 
 are open to grave censure : yet, in unearthing 
 this great conspiracy which has prevailed so long 
 in Ireland, they deserve the sincere thanks of 
 all good and all honest men in the United 
 Kingdom. — Newspaper leach'r, 14 Feb., 1890. 
 
 Parnellites. The followers of 
 Charles Stewart Pa.rnell, M.P., who in 
 the election of 1885 contrived to bring to 
 the English House of Commons eighty- 
 five Irisli members, who agreed to vote 
 solidly with Mr. Parnell, member for 
 Cork. This large contingent, thrown 
 into either the Tory or Liberal side, was 
 
PAROCHIAL 
 
 PARTIS 
 
 667 
 
 sufficient to secure a majo'rity, conse- 
 quently the Irish party ruled the British 
 parliament. The object of Mr. Parnell 
 was to secure to Ireland ' Home Rule,' or 
 the right of controlling the legislature 
 of Ireland. The weak point was this : 
 they wanted to establish a Dublin i^ar- 
 liament, and yet to sit in the British 
 house at Westminster. 
 
 Parochial Charities [The City), 
 i.e. of London. In 1887 an act, passed 
 in 1883, came into operation, which in- 
 vested the money of these charities in 
 the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 
 behoof of the more populous districts of 
 ' Greater London ' for the following pur- 
 poses : — 
 
 The education of the poorer inhabitants of the 
 metropolis. 
 
 The establishment of libraries, museums, and 
 art collections. 
 
 The preservation, &c., of open spaces for recrea- 
 tion, &.C. 
 
 Provident institutions and convalescent 
 hospitals. 
 
 *,* A permanent Board of 21 Trustees was added 
 to the Charity Coniniisfcioners. The charities 
 •were, in 1887, worth 118,000/. a year, of which sum 
 S5,459i. was applicable to ecclesiastical purposes. 
 
 Parsee. A disciple of Zoroaster. A 
 fire-worshipper is so called in the West 
 Indies ; in Persia the Mohammedans call 
 fire- worshippers gnebres (Persian ghebr, 
 infidel). In Bombay they are wealthy and 
 influential. In 1852 an association was 
 formed for the restoration of the creed 
 of Zoroaster, which had been much cor- 
 rupted. The Zend Avesta is the book 
 containing the sacred writing of Zoroas- 
 ter. The original, ' received from heaven,' 
 is lost ; but copies exist. 
 
 Parson Garlic. Joseph Tucker, 
 D.D., dean of Gloucester (1711-1799), so 
 called in the eftigy burnt near his own 
 door by a mob enraged against him for 
 his essay in support of the Hessians 
 who had come to settle in England. 
 
 Par'tholan Race (The). A fabulous 
 race of people said by the bards to have 
 taken possession of Ireland at the be- 
 ginning of the 4th century after the flood. 
 Fartholan was of the race of Japhet. He 
 landed on Wednesday, 14 May, at Imber- 
 sceine, in Kerry, and fixed his residence 
 in the province of Ulster, on the island 
 of Inis-Samer, in the river Erne. After 
 holding possession of the island for 300 
 years his race was extirpated by a plague. 
 
 Parthola'nians (T/ie). The second 
 colony of Ireland, who came to the 
 
 island some 2,200 years before Christ, 
 and found it inhabited by the Fomorians. 
 The chroniclers inform us that the Fomo- 
 rians were a Basque or Iberian colony, 
 and the Partholanians an Aryan colony, 
 so named from Partholan, who came to 
 Ireland with his four sons and a number 
 of followers. The tradition is of small 
 historic value, but the Irish boast of 
 their Iberian descent, and scorn the 
 notion of being Scotic. 
 
 No doubt the dark complexion, the short 
 stature, and gracefulness of manners give colour 
 to their Iberian descent. 
 
 Particular Baptists. Those Bap- 
 tist Dissenters who hold the Calvinistic 
 views of election, predestination, and re- 
 probation, in contradistinction to the 
 General Baptists, who maintain the doc- 
 trine of universal redemption. See ' Free 
 Communionists,' ' Close Communionists.' 
 
 Partidas (Las). A code of laws 
 established by Alfonso X. ' The Wise,' 
 of Leon (1203, 1252-1285). 
 
 Partis en France, between 1793- 
 1795. 
 
 Alannhtes. 
 
 Apitoyeurs, those who sympathised with the royal 
 
 family. 
 Brissotin^ (q.v.). 
 Buveurs de Sang, those who revelled in blood and 
 
 slaughter. 
 Chevaliers du Poigvard (q.v.). 
 Chouans (q.v.). 
 Compagnons de Jehu (q.v.). 
 Contre-Kevolutionnaiies, the anti-revolutionary 
 
 party. 
 Crapauds du Marais. See ' Marais.' 
 Egorgi'urs, those who were for death and slaughter 
 
 without end. 
 Emissains df Ccboiirg, the ' Suspects ' supposed to 
 be influenced by emissaries of i'riedrich 
 prince of SaxeCohurg. 
 de Pitt, those who attributed the anti-revo- 
 lutionary movement to bribes given by 
 ■\Villiam Pitt. This silly notion was very 
 general. 
 Endorvi' ui:<:, poisoners. In ancient jurisprudence 
 
 an Eiidornieur was one ' qui pour depouiller 
 
 see victiraes, mele dans leurs aliments une 
 
 diogue somnifere.' 
 Federalistes. See 'Federalism.' 
 Gironditis (q.v). 
 Habitants de la Crete. 
 Hebertistes, partisans of Hebert surnamed 'La 
 
 Pere Duchene ' (q.v.). 
 Homnw.s d'Etat. 
 
 de la Plaine, the Yea-nay party or Trimmers. 
 
 du 10 A oUt. See ' August 10.' 
 
 d« 81 Mai, those who took an active part in 
 
 ' the Reign of Terror. 
 Jeunesse doiee de Freron (q.v.). 
 Maratistes, partisans of Marat. 
 Ministeriels. 
 Mnderes. 
 
 Montagnards (q.v.). 
 Mtiscadins (q.v.). 
 Partisans de la vie civile. 
 Patriotes de 1789, those who had taken part in tha 
 
 storming of the Bastille. 
 Sans-ailottes (q.v.). 
 Septembriseurs (q.v.). 
 S'Hspecte {q.v.). 
 
668 
 
 PARTITION 
 
 PASCHITES 
 
 
 Terroristes(q.v.). 
 Tfiermidoriens (q.v.). 
 
 *,* Veut on savoir, pendant ces denx ans, c'est- 
 a-dire de '93 k '96, combien 11 y a eu de partis en 
 France? II y en a eu trente-trois.— Dumas, Les 
 Blancs et les Bleus. 
 
 Partition {Treaty of). I. Signed at 
 the Hague by France, England, and 
 Holland, 11 Oct., 1698. It stipulated 
 three things: (a.) That at the death of 
 Carlos II. the kingdom of Spain should 
 not be absorbed by Germany, but should 
 be given to the electoral prince of Ba- 
 varia, son of the elector ; (6) that Naples, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, the province of Guipuz- 
 coa, Fontarabia, St. Sebastian, Ferrol, 
 and certain towns on the Tuscan coast 
 owned by Spain, should be settled on the 
 Dauphin ; (c) that Milan should be settled 
 on Karl the second son of the kaiser. 
 Frustrated by the death of the electoral 
 prince of Bavaria in 1699, aged eight 
 years. 
 
 II. The same contracting parties agreed 
 to confer the crown of Spain, when 
 vacant, on the Archduke Karl, son of the 
 kaiser ; the Italian States were to be 
 the dauphin's portion. Signed 13 March, 
 1700. Set aside by the will of Carlos 
 II. of Spain in 1701, in which the whole 
 Spanish monarchy was bequeathed to 
 the duke of Anjou, second son of the 
 dauphin. 
 
 Partition of Poland {The). First 
 Partition, 1772, planned by Frederick 
 II., was between Russia, Austria, and 
 Prussia. Russia took 42,000 square miles, 
 Austria took 27,000, and Prussia 13,000. 
 
 The Second Partition, 1790, was be- 
 tween Russia and Prussia ; Russia took 
 96,000 square miles and gave Prussia 
 22,000 as a sop, but left Austria in the 
 cold. 
 
 The Third Partition, 1795. Austria 
 thought the Second Partition unfair, and 
 a third spoliation was agreed upon, in 
 which Russia took 43,000 square miles, 
 Prussia 21,000, and Austria 18,000. 
 
 In 1847 Austria occupied Cracow, and thus seized 
 the last remainder of Independent Poland. 
 
 Altogether, Russia took 181,000 square 
 miles, Prussia 56,000, and Austria 45,000. 
 The nominal cause of this spoliation was 
 a religious difference, the reigning powers 
 being Protestants and the ' patriots ' 
 being Cathohcs. 
 
 Party Volant {The). Those who, 
 in the reign of Charles I., fluctuated in 
 political principles from parliament to 
 
 king. Nominally parliamentarians, they 
 hankered after the court. The heads of 
 the Party Volant were the Earl of 
 Northumberland, the Earl of Holland, 
 the Earl of Clare, the Earl of Portland, 
 Waller the poet, and the widowed 
 Countess of Carlisle (daughter of North- 
 umberland). 
 
 Parvula Evangel'ia. Extracts 
 from the Gospels worn as an amulet. 
 
 Quo loco [Jerome] comparat pharisseos certis 
 superstitiosismullerculis, qufeinaniflde inductee, 
 circumferebant turn temporis Parvula Evangelia, 
 hoc est, excerptas ex evangelio sententias. . . . 
 Eadem superstitio apud multos ultimls sseculis 
 invaluit, qui cello appendebant Initium Evangelii 
 Johannis. — Scaligeb. 
 
 Pascal of Germany (T/ie). No- 
 valis, i.e. Friedrich von Hardenberg of 
 Saxony, a lyric poet, and chief of the 
 Romantic school {q.v.). He is so called 
 by Carlyle, but ' the Keats of Germany ' 
 would have been more appropriate 
 (1772-1801). 
 
 Paschal Canon {The). A table of 
 the movable feasts, showing the day of 
 Easter, and all other feasts depending 
 on Easter, for a cycle of nineteen years. 
 
 Paschal Controversy {The), or 
 * Easter Controversy ' (162-673). A con- 
 troversy about the time of keeping 
 Easter — whether the right time is the 
 fourteenth day of the moon, or the Sun- 
 day following the fourteenth day. The 
 former is the practice of the Eastern 
 Church, the latter of the Western 
 Church. Victor bishop of Rome ex- 
 communicated the churche's of Asia in 
 190 for keeping Easter as they did. The 
 two churches, however, continued to 
 disagree upon the question. 
 
 The Council of Nice (325) determined that 
 Easter day should be the Sunday following the 
 Jewish feast of the Passover, which was kept the 
 fourteenth day (or full moon) of the month 
 Nisan ; that is the full moon on or next after 
 21 March. In 532 Dionysius Exiguus proposed a 
 new method of reckoning the least. The British 
 Church did not conform till 673, at the Council of 
 Hertford. lona later still. 
 
 Paschal Mass. ' Missa Paschalis.* 
 The Mass 'qu83 in singulis septimanse 
 Paschalis feriis agitur.' See ' Mass.' 
 
 Pas'chites (2 syl.),2nd cent. Those 
 Christians who celebrate Easter on 
 Jewish paschal day, which was the 14th 
 of the moon. In 196 Pope Victor ex- 
 communicated those who kept Easter 
 on any day but Sunday. The contro- 
 versy was not finally settled till the 
 Council of Nice, a.d. 325. 
 
PASHA 
 
 PASTEUKIENNE 
 
 669 
 
 Pasha is a ruler of a province in the 
 Turkish empire. A three-tailed pasha 
 is of the highest rank; his standard is 
 decorated with three tails, which are its 
 pennons. 
 
 Pass of Brander (The). The 
 famous dark gorge which narrows into 
 the Pass of Awe, the scene of the deside- 
 rate engagements between Wallace and 
 the caterans of Macfarlane, and Bruce 
 and the Macdougalls of Lorn. 
 
 Pass of Plumes {The), 1599. A 
 pass in Leinster, where the Earl of Essex 
 was attacked by the O'Moores ; so called 
 from the number of plumes of which the 
 soldiers of Essex were despoiled. 
 
 Pass under the Yoke (To). The 
 yoke under which the Eomans made a 
 vanquished army pass, in sign of subju- 
 gation, consisted of two upright spears 
 stuck in the ground, with a third spear 
 fastened transversely atop, thus n (Livy, 
 iii. 28 ; Floras, i. 11, 13.) 
 
 The custom was adopted by other nations with 
 ■whom the llomans made war. Thus Pontius the 
 Samnite, the Numantians, and Jugurtha the 
 African, made the Roman army pass under a 
 yoke. Of course the men laid down their arms 
 before they passed sub jiiga. 
 
 Passagins. So the Waldenses (q.v.) 
 were sometimes nicknamed, meaning 
 men of passage, or missionary vagrants. 
 
 Passar'owitz, in Servia {Peace of), 
 21 July, 1718. Between the kaiser, the 
 Porte, and Venice. By this treaty the 
 Morea was confirmed to Turkey. 
 
 Passau, in Bavaria {Treaty of), 22 
 May to 7 Aug., 1552. Moritz, the new 
 elector of Saxony, rebelled against 
 Charles V., drove him from place to 
 place, till at length he signed the treaty 
 of Passau, granting full liberty to all 
 Protestants to worsliip in any way they 
 chose, free of all interference and 
 restraint. This is called ' The Religious 
 Peace.' 
 
 Passau, pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in now). 
 
 Passion Sunday. The 5th Sun- 
 day of Lent, ' Dominica in Passione 
 Domini.' This Sunday began ' Passion 
 Week ' {q.v.). See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Passion "Week, or the Great 
 
 Week, was originally a parson's week — 
 that is, as many days as can be mussed 
 together with only one Sunday ; of course, 
 this may be thirteen days. It began the 
 
 Monday following the 5th of Lent, and 
 ended on Holy Saturday (the day pre- 
 ceding Easter Sunday). The last seven 
 days of this period constitute Holy 
 Week. The first day of Holy Week is 
 Palm Sunday, the fourth day is Spy 
 Wednesday, the fifth Maundy Thurs- 
 day, the sixth Good Friday, and the last 
 Holy Saturday or the Great Sabbath. 
 When the Great Week is reduced to 
 seven days, as it usually is by Protes- 
 tants, then Passion Week and Holy 
 Week are commensurate terms ; but 
 those who seek to restore the ancient 
 ritual call Passion Week the period 
 between the 5th of Lent and Palm Sun- 
 day (not included), and Holy Week from 
 Palm Sunday to Holy Saturday. Strictly 
 speaking. Passion .Week covers thirteen 
 days, the last seven of which constitute 
 Holy Week. 
 
 Passionists, 1741. A religious 
 order founded by Paul de la Croix. 
 They dress in black and go about bare- 
 headed and barefooted, but wear sandals. 
 
 Passive Obedience, or 'Non- 
 resistance,' is the political doctrine that 
 subjects are bound to obey those in au- 
 thority, whether right or wrong, good or 
 bad. Applied to kings it includes also 
 the dogma that the king, being the 
 Lord's anointed, must not only be 
 obeyed, but that he cannot be deposed. 
 The doctrine is based on Romans xiii. 
 1,2:' Let every soul be subject unto the 
 higher powers. For there is no power 
 but of God ; the powers that be are or- 
 dained of God. Whosoever therefore 
 resisteth the power, resisteth the ordi- 
 nance of God. And they that resist shall 
 receive to themselves damnation.' 
 
 It is hard to see how those who allow the 
 authority of these words can resist the dogma of 
 ' passive obedience.' Of course those who seb 
 aside the autliority of St. Paul assert that ' the 
 powers,' being civil rulers, are the servants of 
 the state, and like other servants can be dis- 
 missed if they neglect their duty or are incompe- 
 tent to perform it. This, however, is setting 
 aside the dictum of St. Paul for the doctrine of 
 expediency. 
 
 Pasteurienne Inoculation, 
 
 1885. Inoculation first suggested by M. 
 Pasteur of Paris, to cure persons bitten 
 by mad dogs or wolves, or to prevent their 
 becoming rabid. In 1887, out of 3,020 
 patients treated by M. Pasteur, only 34 
 died, and out of 3,852 treated by M. Pas- 
 teur and nine others, 54 died ; a littlo 
 over 4 per cent. 
 
670 
 
 PASTEUEISE 
 
 PATKES 
 
 Pas'teurise (3 syl.). A verb de- 
 rived from the name of M. Pasteur, the 
 Parisian chemist, who introduced the 
 process of and art of sealing up wines and 
 beers in air-tight casks, to prevent the 
 entrance of ferment or germs to deterio- 
 rate the liquors. See ' Listerise.' 
 
 Somewhere between 1880 and 1886. 
 
 Paston Letters {The). A series 
 of letters and other documents collected 
 by members of the Paston family, to 
 whom most of them are addressed (1564- 
 1700). The Pastons hved in Norfolk 
 during the time of the Wars of the 
 Koses, and these letters throw mnch 
 light on the customs and incidents of the 
 period. Four vols, were published be- 
 tween 1787 and 1789 by Mr. [Sir John] 
 Fenn of Norfolk, but the originals have 
 not been discovered. A fifth vol. was 
 published in 1823 by Mr. Serjeant Frere, 
 the originals of which were presented to 
 the Antiquarian Society, and 95 were 
 discovered in Eoydon Hall in 1875. 
 
 These letters reveal to U6 various modes by 
 •which the strong man was enabled to turn the 
 Bcale against the weak one at law , but the most 
 extraordinary relation concerning the family it- 
 self is one which occupies more than a volume, 
 and details the actual war made upon them by 
 the Duke of Norfolk. The celebrated general Sir 
 John Fastolf left Sir John Paston the estate of 
 Caistor in 1459 ; but the duke declared that Sir 
 John had given it to him . . . and he laid siege to it 
 . . . and took it.— Howitt, Hist, of England (vol ii. 
 p. 44). 
 
 Pastoral Poets of Greece {The). 
 Theocritos of Syracuse, the father of 
 pastoral poetry. Thirty of his idyls and 
 several of his epigrams are still extant 
 (B.C. 300-230). Bion of Smyrna (b.c. 
 295-238), author of a poem on the ' Death 
 of Adonis,' and Moschos of Syracuse 
 (B.C. 289-200), the friend of Bicn. 
 
 Pastoral Romance {Father of). 
 Honore d'Urfe (1567-1025), author of 
 ' Astrea.' 
 
 Pastoreaux {Les), 1250. Politico- 
 religious insurgents in Flanders during 
 the captivity of St. Louis in Egypt. 
 From Flanders the insurrection spread 
 through France, and soon swelled to a 
 mass of 100,000 men, divided into com- 
 panies, with banners bearing a cross and 
 a lamb. Their leader was a Cistercian 
 monk named Job or Jacob, from Hun- 
 gary, who gave out that he was commis- 
 sioned by the Virgin Mary to preach a 
 crusade to the poor against their oppres- 
 sors. This Job was received at .Amiens, 
 
 Bourges, Orleans, and Paris as a prophet. 
 His wrath was mainly directed against 
 the idleness and corruption of the clergy, 
 some monasteries were plundered by him 
 and their inmates put to the sword. In 
 1251 government interfered, and the 
 rabble was dispersed or cut to pieces at 
 Berry and Beaucaire. See ' French 
 Brigands.' 
 
 Seventy years afterwards another insurrection 
 broke out, and these insurgents called themselves 
 by the same name. The object of this second 
 ' crusade ' was the general massacre of the Jews. 
 They were called Shepherds because they as- 
 sumed to be the Shepherds of the Lord who pro- 
 tected the ' lambs ' from the ' wolves,' 
 
 Du Cange says :— ' Pastoureaux, quod pastorem 
 infimseque plebis hominem significat, cujusmodi 
 erant plerique ex Pastorellis, ut testatur con- 
 tinuator Nangii vernaculus sub 1251.' 
 
 Pastoreaux, pronounce Pastor-o. 
 
 Patans {The). So the Afghans were 
 called in the middle ages. A dynasty of 
 Patans reigned in India from 1205 to 
 1398, and succeeded the Gaurides (2 syl.). 
 Delhi was their capital. Tamerlane over- 
 threw the Patans, and established the 
 dynasty of the Timorides (3 syl.). 
 
 Pat'erins, or Patarins {The). A 
 branch of Paulicians who said that crea- 
 tion was the work of the Spirit of Evil. 
 They were pretty abundant in lUyria 
 and Bosnia in the 12th cent. Called 
 Paterins because they taught that prayer 
 should be addressed to the Father only. 
 The Waldenses were sometimes called 
 Paterins or Paterini, as well as Cathari 
 and Gazari (in Italy). In France they 
 were called Albigenses and Vaudois. 
 Condemned by the Council of Lateran in 
 1179. 
 
 Du Cange says: 'A loco urbis Mediolani, qui 
 Patarca vel Pataria vocabatur.' 
 
 Apollo was called ' Paterlnus,' from Patara, 
 now Patera, a town of Lycia, which had an 
 oracle of Apollo. 
 
 Patre de Montalte {Le). The 
 swineherd of Montalte, Sixtus V., the 
 ' second founder of Eome.' Born at 
 Montalte (1521, 1585-1590). 
 
 Patres Conseripti [Fathers and 
 Conscripts]. The Patres of Borne were 
 the patrician senators ; but when some 
 of these were slain at the expulsion of 
 Tarquin, Junius Brutus selected others 
 to fill the vacant seats; and as these 
 names were enrolled in the senate with 
 the patres or previous senators, they 
 were called the Cotiscripts, and the 
 house was addressed as 'Patres [et] 
 Conseripti.' 
 
PATKES 
 
 PATKON 
 
 671 
 
 Pat'res Pat'riae, 1774. The dele- 
 gates to the first American Congress wlaich 
 met at Pliiladelphia on 14 Sept. repre- 
 senting twelve different states : The four 
 New England states, with those of Vir- 
 ginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New 
 York, New Jersey, Delaware, and the two 
 Carolinas. They assembled for business 
 in Carpenters' Hall. The congress sat till 
 26 Oct., and then adjourned till 10 May, 
 1775. 
 
 Patrician of Rome. A title con- 
 feired by Pope Adrian I. on Pepin le 
 Bref, vvhich made him the representative 
 of the imperial power in the West. 
 Charlemagne continued the title. 
 
 Patrimony of St. Peter {The), 
 'Estates of the Church,' 1077. The 
 dotation of the Countess Matilda of Tus- 
 cany to the Holy See of Modena, Parma, 
 and Mantua. It was united to the new 
 kingdom of Italy in 1870. 
 
 Between Orvieto in the north, Umbria in the 
 east, the champaign of Rome and the Tyrrhenian 
 Sea. 
 
 This dotation was only a part of the Papal 
 States. The Exarchate of Ravenna was given to 
 the Holy Church by Pepin king of the Franks; 
 Benevento was given to it by Heinrich III. ; Forli 
 and the Romagna were added in 1297 ; Bologna in 
 1364 ; Ferrara in 1598 ; Urbino in 1626 ; Orvieto [Or- 
 vee-a'-to] in 1649. 
 
 Patriot King (The). George III. 
 was so styled by Bolingbroke. 
 
 Patriot Party {The\ 1692. The 
 * Ins ' or ' Let-alones,' formerly called the 
 Court party. They were in opposition to 
 the Country party or ' Outs,' called the 
 ' Grumbletonians,' in Walpole's ministry. 
 See next article. 
 
 Patriots (The), 1724. A political 
 party organised by Bolingbroke and Pul- 
 teney against Sir Robert Walpole, chief 
 minister of state in the reigns of George 
 1. and George II. Their organ was ' The 
 Craftsman,' a journal which they started 
 to air their opinions in. 
 
 George II. hated ' the rogue ' (Walpole), but being 
 henpecked he was a nonentity; and Walpole, who 
 had gained the queen, remained in office for ten 
 years after the accession of George 11. 
 
 Patriots of '89 {The). Those 
 Frenchmen who assisted in storming the 
 Bastille. 
 
 Patriotic Brotherhood {The), 
 
 1881. A ' gang of murderous conspira- 
 tors ' in Ireland, some of whom were 
 brought to trial at the Antrim assizes in 
 March. P. J. Sheridan was the chief 
 
 organiser in Mayo, and took a leading 
 part in forming the association. 
 
 Patripassionists, or 'Patripas- 
 sians.' Certain Monoph'ysites (4 syl.) 
 who admit the divinity of Christ, but 
 maintain that He was the indivisible God 
 the Father, and that it was this God, the 
 one and only God, who was crucified on 
 Calvary, St. Augustine refers to them. 
 They were also called Deipassionists. 
 
 Patrius Sermo. The language of 
 the fathers and of fatherland. 
 
 Patron Saints of— 
 
 Aberdeen, St. Nicholas fdied 342) 
 Abyssinia, St. Frumentius (died 360) 
 Alexandria, St. Mark, who founded 
 
 a church there (died 52) 
 Ai,PS(r;(('). Felix Neff (1798-1829). 
 Antioch, St. Margaret (died 275) 
 Ardennes (The). St. Hubert (died 730) 
 Armenia, St. Gregory of Armenia 
 
 (died;i32) 
 Bath, St. David, fronj whose bene- 
 diction the waters of Bath received 
 their warmth and medicinal quali- 
 ties (died 544) 
 
 Beauvais, St. Lucian (died 290) 
 Belgium, St. Boniface (died 755) 
 Bohemia, St. ,Iohn von Pomuk (d. 1393) 
 Brussels, St. Gudule (died 712) 
 Cagliari, in Sardinia, St. Eflcio (died 
 
 286) ... 
 
 Cappadocia. St. Matthias (died 62) ... 
 Carthage, St. Perpetua (died 203) ... 
 
 Cologne. St Ursula (died 452) 
 
 Corfu, St. Spiridion (4th cent.) 
 Cremo'na, St. Margaret (died 275) 
 Denmark, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 
 
 And St. Canute (died 1086) 
 
 Edinburgh, St. Giles (died 550) 
 England, St. George (died 290) 
 Ethiopia, St. Frumentius (died 360) ... 
 
 Flanders, St. Peter (died 66) 
 
 Florence, St. Jonn the Baptist (d. 32) 
 
 France, St. Denis (died 272) 
 Franconia, St. Kilian (died 689) 
 Friesland, St. Wilbrod (died 738) 
 Gaul, St. Irenaeus (died 200) 
 
 And St. Martin (died ;397) 
 Genoa, St. George of Cappadocia (died 
 
 361) 
 
 Georgia, St. Ninian (4th cent.) 
 Germany, St. Martin (died 397) 
 
 And St. Boniface (died 755) 
 Glasgow, St. Kentigern (died 601) ... 
 Highlanders ( Tlir), St. Columb (d. 597) 
 Holland, the Virgin Mary :— For 
 
 The Nativity 
 
 ,, Visitation 
 
 „ Conception 
 
 ,, Purification 
 
 ,, Assumption 
 
 Hungary, St. Anastasius (died 628) ... 
 India, Francis Xavier (died 1552) 
 Ireland, St. Patrick (died 493) . 
 Italy, St. Antony (died 356) 
 Lapland, St. Nicholas (died 342) 
 Lichfield, St. Chad (died 672) 
 
 LiKGK, St. Albert (died 1195) 
 
 Lisbon, St. Vincent (died 304) 
 
 London, St. Paul (died 04) 
 
 Milan, St. Ambrose (died 397) 
 
 Moscow, St. Nicholas (died .342) 
 Naples, St. Januarius (died 291) 
 Netherlands, St. Amand (died 679) .. 
 
 Fete day 
 6 Dec. 
 27 Oct. 
 
 25 April 
 
 20 July 
 '30 May 
 .and 3 Nov. 
 
 30 Sept. 
 
 1 March 
 8 Jan. 
 5 June 
 16 May 
 
 8 Jan. 
 
 15 Jan. 
 
 24 Feb. 
 
 7 March 
 21 Oct. 
 
 14 Dec. 
 20 July 
 3 Feb. 
 19 Jan. 
 
 1 Sept. 
 23AprU 
 
 27 Oct. 
 29 June. 
 
 f24 June 
 land 29 Aug. 
 
 9 Oct. 
 
 8 July 
 
 7 Nov. 
 
 28 June 
 11 Nov. 
 
 23 April 
 
 16 Sept. 
 11 Nov. 
 
 5 June 
 13 Jan. 
 
 9 June 
 
 21 Nov. 
 
 2 July 
 
 8 Dec. 
 
 2 Feb. 
 
 15 Aug. 
 
 22 Jan. 
 
 3 Dec. 
 
 17 March 
 17 Jan. 
 
 6 Dec. 
 
 2 March 
 21 Nov. 
 15 Sept. 
 
 25 Jan. 
 
 7 Dec. 
 6 Dec. 
 19 Sept. 
 6 Feb. 
 
672 
 
 PAUL 
 
 PAULINISTS 
 
 Fete day 
 
 Norway, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 3 Feb. 
 
 Oxford, St. Frideswide (died 760) ... 16 Oct. 
 
 Padua, St. Justina (died 304) 7 Oct. 
 
 Paris, St. Genevieve (died 512) ... 8 Jan. 
 
 Peak (The), Derbyshire. W. Bagshaw 
 
 (died 1702) 
 
 PiCTS (The), St. Ninian (4th cent.) ... 16 Sept. 
 Pisa, San llanieri. 
 
 Poitiers, St. Hilary (died. ^67) 14 Jan. 
 
 Poland, St. Hedviga (died 1243) ... 15 Oct. 
 
 Portugal, St. Sebastian (died 288 ^. 20 Jan. 
 
 Prussia, St. Andrew (1st cent.) ... SO Nov. 
 
 KOCHESTER, St. Pauhnus (died 431) 22 June 
 
 Rome, St. Peter and St. Paul (1st cent.) 29 June 
 
 Russia, St. Nicholas (died 342) ... 6 Dec. 
 
 Saragossa, St. Vincent (died 304) ... 22 Jan. 
 Sardinia, the Virgin Mary. See 
 
 ' Holland.' 
 
 Scotland, St. Andrew (1st cent.) 80 Nov. 
 Sebastia, in Armenia, St. Blaise (died 
 
 316) .. .. . 3 Feb. 
 
 Sicily, St. Agatha (died 261) 6 Feb. 
 
 Silesia, St. Hedviga (died 1243) ... 15 Oct. 
 
 Slavi (The), St. Cyril (died 868) ... 14 Feb. 
 
 Spain, St. James the Greater (died 44) 24 July 
 
 Sweden, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 8 Feb. 
 
 Switzerland, St. Gall (died 646) ... 16 Oct. 
 United States, the Virgin Mary. 
 
 Venice, St. Mark (died 52) 25 April 
 
 Vienna, St. Stephen (died 34) 26 Dec. 
 
 Wales, St. David (died 544) 1 March 
 
 (He teas the inick of King Arthur) 
 
 Yorkshire, St. Paulinus (died 431) ... 22 June 
 
 Paul {The German). Martin Luther 
 (1483-1546). 
 
 Paul {The Second St.). St. Eemi or 
 Bemigius, ' the Great Apostle of the 
 French ' (439-535). 
 
 Paul Lorrain's Saints. Convicts 
 said to have died penitent. Paul Lorrain 
 was ordinary of Newgate, and died in 
 1719. He always represented his convicts 
 as dying penitent. ' The Tatler,' No. 63. 
 See also Note to ' Spectator,' No. 338 
 (Morley's edit.). 
 
 Paul Veronese of France {The), 
 Delacroix (1799-1863). Sometimes called 
 the Btibens of France from his rich 
 colouring. 
 
 Paul's School {St.), 1509. Founded 
 by Dean Colet for the gratuitous instruc- 
 tion of 158 boys in humane letters. This 
 number was selected in accordance with 
 that of the miraculous draught of fishes 
 mentioned in the Gospel of St. John. 
 This was the first public school in Eng- 
 land in which Greek was taught. William 
 Lilly was master of St. Paul's. 
 
 Paul's "Walkers. Loungers in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral in the Commonwealth 
 and afterwards. 
 
 The young gallants .... used to meet at the 
 centri 1 point, St. Paul's; and from this circum- 
 stance obtained the appellation of ' Paul's 
 AValkers,' as we now say 'Bond Street Loungers." 
 —European Magazine (July 1807). 
 
 Paulette, 1604. A tax imposed by 
 Henri IV. of France to supply him with 
 ready money. It granted to members of 
 parlement the right of transmitting their 
 office to their heirs on payment of an 
 annual fee ' au 60'"*" de la valeur presumde 
 de la charge.' It received its name from 
 Henri's secretary the Chevalier Paulet, 
 who suggested the impost. 
 
 Paulianists {The). 260 disciples of 
 Paul bishop of Samisat, and afterwards 
 patriarch of Antioch. He denied the 
 doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of 
 Jesus Christ. Condemned by the Council 
 of Antioch in 270. 
 
 Paulicians. The 'Waldenses' of 
 the Greek Church (660-845), so called 
 because they formed their religious views 
 from the Pauline epistles. They rejected 
 the worship of the Virgin, disbelieved 
 the intercession of saints, the sanctity of 
 relics, and the material presence in the 
 Eucharist. 
 
 One Constantino of Mananalis, near Samosata, 
 had a Greek New Testament given him by one who 
 had been a captive among the Mahometans. He 
 studied it, and formed his own religious views 
 therefrom. The sect was almost stamped out by 
 the persecutions of Theodora, who massacred 
 100,000 of them, if Porphyry is to be believed. 
 
 Paulicians {The). 'Heretics' of 
 the 10th and 11th cents. A branch of 
 the Manicheans, who believed in two 
 principles, a good one and an evil one. 
 So called from Paul of Armenia (bom 
 844). 
 
 Petrus Siculus says the Paulicians believed in 
 an evil and a good (jod ; the former they say was 
 the Creator of the world, the latter is the author 
 
 of that which is to come, -rra-rrjp inovpavtOi, 
 
 Pauli'na Potio (Pauhnus's 
 draught). A deadly poison concocted by 
 Paulinus, a Dominican monk, by which 
 Kaiser Heinrich VII. was poisoned. 
 
 In grandi stat tristitia 
 Exercitus militia, 
 
 De principis ruina, 
 Quam feritas damnabilis 
 Manusque dctestabilis 
 
 Coagulat Paulina. 
 
 Rythmi in obitum Henrici VII. 
 
 Paulinists, or * Universalists.' 
 Those who believe that the gos]iel sys- 
 tem is meant for all, both Jew and Gen- 
 tile. Those who insisted that it was 
 meant for the Jews and Jewish prose- 
 lytes only are called by Dr. Baur 
 ' Judaites ' or * Apostolites.' By the latter 
 word he means that the ajiostles were 
 Judaites. The theory of the universality 
 of the Gospel system is called *Pau- 
 
PAUPERES 
 
 PEACE 
 
 673 
 
 linism' by the Tubingen school of theo- 
 logians. ' I am of Paul [a universalist], 
 and I of Apollos[a Judaist],' a distinction 
 which lasted till the close of the 2nd 
 cent. 
 
 When Christ told his Apostles to go into all the 
 ■world and preach the gospel to every creature, the 
 Tilbingenists tell us he meant the Jews and the 
 Jewisli proselytes scattered abroad. 
 
 Pau'peres Com'milito'nes. 
 
 Pauper soldiers of the Holy City, i.e. the 
 'Knights Templars' (q.v.), or Red Cross 
 Knights. 
 
 Pauvres de la M^re de Dieu 
 
 (Les). See ' Piaristes.' 
 
 Pawnees. A nation of North 
 American warriors (Nebraska; now re- 
 moved to the Indian territory). Their 
 divinity is the planet Venus, which they 
 call the Great Star ; but they are rapidly 
 dying out. 
 
 Pays de Franc-sal^ (ies). Pro- 
 vinces exempt from the salt tax in 
 France. See ' Gabelle.' Some were re- 
 deemed provinces, having given Henri II. 
 a large sum of money for the redemp- 
 tion; others were maritime, in which it 
 was not possible to prevent the smuggling 
 of salt. The redeemed provinces were 
 Angoumois, parts of Poitou, Aunis, and 
 Saintonge, Limousin, parts of Auvergne, 
 Quercy, Pe'rigord, Guyenne, and the 
 counties of Foix, BigoiTe, and Corainges. 
 The free provinces were Flanders, 
 Artois, Hainaut, Calaisis, Boulonnaise, 
 principalities of Sedan, Aries, Ranijon, 
 and Brittany, and the isles of Oleron 
 and Re, with parts of Poitou, Saintonge, 
 and Aunis. In the redeemed provinces 
 salt was sold from 6s. to 12s the cwt. In 
 the free provinces it was sold from 2s. to 
 9s. per. cwt. 
 
 Pronounce Pay'e d' Frahnk sah'-ley. 
 
 Pays de Grande Gabelle {Les). 
 Gabelle {q.v.) was the salt tax in France 
 before the revolution. There were the 
 provinces of Grande Gabelle, the pro- 
 vinces of Petite Gabelle, the provinces of 
 Quart-bouillon, and the free provinces or 
 Pays de Franc-sale. The Pays de Grande 
 Gabelle paid the maximum impost. The 
 capitation was 9 lbs. per head yearly, and 
 the price was 62 francs the cwi. or quintal. 
 These were the He de France, Orleans, 
 Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Berri, Bourbon- 
 nai^ Burgundy, Picardy, Champagne, 
 29 
 
 Perche, and part of Normandy. See 
 * Pays de Petite Gabelle.' 
 
 Pronounce Lay pay' -e d' grahnd' GahbeW. 
 
 Pays de Petite Gabelle {Les). 
 Gabelle {q.v.) was the salt tax in France 
 before the revolution. All France was 
 sub-divided into four parts, those called 
 the provinces of the Grand Gabelle, the 
 provinces of the Petite Gabelle, the pro- 
 vinces of Quart-bouillon, and the free 
 provinces. The Pays de Petite Gabelle 
 paid the minimum impost. The capita- 
 tion was 11 or 12 lbs. per head yearly, 
 and the price was 33s. the cwt. or quintal. 
 These pays were Lyonnais, Maconnais, 
 Forez, Beaujolais, Bugey, Bresse, Dau- 
 phine, Gevaudan, Languedoc, Provence, 
 Roussillon, Rouergue, and parts of 
 Auvergne. 
 
 Les pays de Grande Gabelle qui payaient le ma- 
 ximum de I'impot ; les families etaient dans ces 
 pays taxees a 9 livres de sel par tete, et le prix du 
 quintal s'elevait a 62 liv. (or francs). 
 
 Les pays de Petite Gabelle, qui payaient le mini- 
 mum : le prix du quintal y etait de as livres 10 
 sous (about 33 shillings), mais la consommation 
 etait reglee a 11 ou 12 livres par tete. 
 
 Pronounce Lay pay'-e duh teet Gah-beW. 
 
 Pays de Quart-bouillon {Les). 
 Lower Normanday was so called in refer- 
 ence to the gabeUe or salt tax. There 
 were salt-works here, 'oil Ton faisait 
 bouillir un sable mouille d'eaux salines, 
 et versaient le quart du produit de leur 
 fabrication [in return for this privilege] 
 dans les greniers du roi.' The capitation 
 was 2,5 lbs. of salt per head yearly, and 
 the price was 16s. a cwt. or quintal. See 
 ' Pays de Grande Gabelle,' and ' Pays de 
 Petite Gabelle.' 
 
 Pronounce Lay pay'-e d'kar' boo'-yone'. 
 
 Peace {The Perpetual), 24 Jan., 
 1502. Concluded between England and 
 Scotland, a few years after the battle of 
 Flodden Field {q.v.). 
 
 Peace of Antal'cidas {The), b.c. 
 387. Concluded by Antalcidas the Spar- 
 tan and Artaxerxes. 
 
 Peace of Clement IX. {The), 
 1669. An attempt to reconcile the Jan- 
 senists and Jesuits by virtually abolishing 
 the formulary {q.v.). 
 
 Peace of Durham {The), 1139. 
 After the battle of Caton Moor or North- 
 allerton, in which the Scots imder Prince 
 Henry were routed by Stephen. In this 
 peace Stephen surrendered to Prince 
 Henry the whole ea 'Idom of Northum- 
 XX 
 
674 
 
 PEACE 
 
 PEARLS 
 
 berland, with the exception of the two 
 castles of Newcastle and Bamborough, 
 as a bribe that he might use his influence 
 with his niece Maude, who was in arms 
 against Stephen. 
 
 Peace of God {The), 1035. A com- 
 mand by papal bull for aU men to lay 
 down their arms, under the expectation 
 of the second advent of Christ, ' the 
 Prince of Peace.' Five years later, 1040, 
 the prohibition was modified by the ' Truce 
 of God,' which did not forbid all military 
 contentions, but commanded all men to 
 cease from hostilities on Thursday, Friday, 
 Saturday, and Sunday. 
 
 After the Gospel of the day the officiating priest 
 read from the pulpit these words : ' May they who 
 refuse to obey be accursed, and have their portion 
 •with Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- 
 traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram, who went 
 down alive into the pit. May they be accursed in 
 the life which now is ; and may their hope of 
 salvation be put out, as the light of these candles 
 is extinguished from their sight.' At which words 
 the priests extinguished their tapers. 
 
 Peace of Monsieur {The), 6 May, 
 1576. So-called because it was signed at 
 Chastenoy by Monsieur, i.e. the brother 
 of Henri III. It granted to the Hugue- 
 nots the free exercise of their religion 
 throughout the kingdom of France, Paris 
 only excepted ; admission to all public 
 offices ; equal numbers with the Catholics 
 in the various parlements ; eight places 
 of surety ; the right to open schools and 
 to convoke synods ; and restoration of 
 their estates, appanages, and govern- 
 ments. The terms of this treaty were 
 never carried out. 
 
 Peace of Nicias {The), b.c. 421. 
 The fifty years' truce in which the Lace- 
 daemonians engaged to give up Amphi- 
 polis. 
 
 Peace of Niirnberg {The), 1532. 
 By the Diet of Augsburg, held in 1530, the 
 Emperor Charles V. pronounced the Pro- 
 testants contumacious heretics, and 
 commanded them to return to mother 
 church on pain of his great displeasure. 
 At the time Solyman II., at the head of a 
 large army, was in Hungary, and threat- 
 ened Vienna. The princes of Germany 
 were asked to assist in driving back the 
 Turkish invaders, but the Protestant 
 princes united in a league (called the 
 Smalkaidic league) not to stir unless the 
 decree of Augsburg was revoked. In this 
 dilemma there was no choice left, so the 
 decree was withdrawn, and the Protes- 
 tants were allowed full liberty of worship 
 
 till the next imperial diet. This ad interim 
 concession was called the 'Peace of 
 Niirnberg,' because it was signed in that 
 city. 
 
 Peace of Religion {The), 1555. 
 The treaty of Passau confirmed by the 
 Diet of Augsburg the foundation of re- 
 ligious freedom in Germany. Protestants 
 were allowed the free exercise of their 
 religion in their respective dominions 
 (Karl v.). 
 
 Passau, pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in now). 
 For others see under the special name, because 
 most of these treaties are differently called by 
 dififerent writers. Sometimes they are called 
 Trrnties, sometimes Treaties of Peace, sometimes 
 only Tru<;es, &c. 
 
 Peacock of the Worth {The). 
 Robert Neville,who beautified Middleham 
 Castle in ' a very peacocky style.' 
 
 Peacock's Feather. The badge 
 of the Chinese general. 
 
 Let the peacock s feather be plucked from the 
 cap of Yihshan for his imbecility and tardiness in 
 bringing up his forces . . . and let every officer in 
 the province of Canton ... be deprived of his 
 official button.— r/se Emperor's despaUhes in the first 
 Chinese war. 
 
 Pearl of Brittany {The). The 
 Princess Eleanor, daughter of Geoffrey 
 duke of Brittany, granddaughter of 
 Henry II. and niece of King John ; con- 
 fined in Bristol Castle because she was 
 next heir to Arthur to the crown of Eng- 
 land (1184-1241). She was starved to 
 death. 
 
 Pearl of Irelan d {The). St. Bridget, 
 born in Ulster, lived in a cell in an oak 
 called Kill-dara, or the ' cell of the oak,' 
 6th cent. 
 
 Pearl of Normandy (TAe). Emma, 
 sister of Richard II. duke of Normandy, 
 and wife of Ethelred the Unready (died 
 1046). 
 
 Pearls are next in value to diamonds. 
 The following are historic : — 
 
 ' La Peregrina ' weighed 126 carats, and 
 was pear-shaped. Gongibus of Calais 
 brought it from India in 1620. When 
 laid before Felipe II. of Spain, he said : 
 * How could you concentrate all your for- 
 tune on so small a thing ? ' To which the 
 merchant replied : ' Because I knew the 
 world contained a king who would buy it 
 of me.' This gem came into the posses- 
 sion of Princess Youssopoff, and is valued 
 at 37,000Z. 
 
 Felipe II. had another pearl, about the 
 
PEASANT 
 
 PECULIUM 
 
 675 
 
 size of a pigeon's egg, and weighing 184 
 grains. It came from Panama, and was 
 valued at 28,000Z. 
 
 The Kaiser Rudolf II. possessed a pearl 
 of 180 grains ; and Napoleon I. had one 
 about the same size. 
 
 The pearl which Louis XIV. gave to Ma- 
 dame de Maintenon, and which was offered 
 for sale in 1819, weighed 27^ carats. 
 
 The Shah of Persia has a pearl an inch 
 in diameter. In 1633 it was valued at 
 64,000Z. 
 
 The pearl in the possession of the 
 Arabian imam of Muscat is valued at 
 32,000Z. 
 
 The Crown Prince of Prussia gave to 
 the Princess Royal of England a necklace 
 of thirty-two pearls valued at 20,000Z. 
 
 The pearl which Cleopatra melted and drank in 
 health to Antony was valued at 80,000t. 
 
 The Romans called the large bell-shaped pearls 
 Vniones.the pear-shaped pearls they called Elenchi, 
 the half-ball-shaped Tympania, and the whitest 
 ExaluminaUc Margarike. 
 
 i:'easantBard(T^e). Robert Burns 
 (1759-1796). 
 
 Peasant Painter of Sweden 
 
 (The). Peter Horberg, who died in 1814. 
 
 Peasant Poet of Northampton 
 
 {The). John Clare (1793-1864). 
 
 Peasant Poet of Suffolk (The). 
 Robert Bloomfield, author of ' The 
 Farmer's Boy ' (1766-1823). 
 
 Peasant Revolt (T/te), 1381. Under 
 Wat Tyler, who had been a soldier in the 
 French wars. A spirit of discontent had 
 long been seething ; it was aggravated by 
 the Statute of Labour, which most un- 
 justly fixed the price of labour to what it 
 was two years before the Black Death, 
 although the price of food had risen 
 greatly. The discontent came to a head 
 by a poll-tax for the prosecution of the 
 French war, and this poll-tax was the 
 same to the poor as to the rich. All the 
 eastern counties rose in revolt, but Kent 
 took the lead. Wat Tyler being stabbed 
 to death by William Walworth the lord 
 mayor, the young King Richard 11. by a 
 happy address promised to be the new 
 leader, and the revolt was easily put 
 down 
 
 Peasant of Cotignola (The). 
 Sforza, whose name was Giacomuzo 
 d'Attendolo, born at Cotignola, a village 
 of Romagna. He was an agricultural 
 labourer, but at the age of 12 entered the 
 
 army as groom to Count Alberic, who gave 
 him the pseudonym of Sforza, because he 
 ' gained his own way by force.' His grand- 
 son, Francesco Sforza, married the only 
 child of Francesco Maria Visconti duke of 
 Milan, and succeeded to that dukedom, 
 thus transferring its crown to the line of 
 ' The Peasant of Cotignola ' ICo-tin'-yo- 
 lah]. 
 
 Peasant of the Danube (The). 
 ' Le Paysan du Danube,' Louis Legendre, 
 a member of the French National Con- 
 vention, famous for his 'eloquence 
 sauvage ' (1755-1797). 
 
 Peasants* War {The),m Germany, 
 or 'War of the Rustauds,' 1524-1525. 
 The grievances were these; (1) The 
 people demanded the free election of their 
 parish clergy ; (2) the appropriation of the 
 tithes of grain, after deducting therefrom 
 the suitable maintenance of the parish 
 clergy — this ' appropriation ' was to be set 
 aside for the support of the poor ; (3) the 
 total abolition of serfdom, hunting and 
 fishing rights, and game laws ; (4) throw- 
 ing open of forests and other lands tied 
 up to secular and ecclesiastical nobles ; 
 
 (5) equal administration of justice ; and 
 
 (6) the abolition of certain odious exac- 
 tions made by the clergy. In 1525 the 
 rising was stamped out with terrible 
 cruelty, and more than 150,000 of the in- 
 surgents perished. 
 
 Pecquigny (Treaty of), 1475. Louis 
 by bribes induced Edward IV. to sign this 
 treaty, and withdraw his army from 
 France. 
 
 Pronounce Pe-keen'-ye. 
 
 Peculiar Church, or Parish (A). 
 
 Church or parish having special jurisdic- 
 tion of its own, and exempt from the 
 ordinary. There are royal peculiars, 
 archbishops' peculiars, bishops' peculiars, 
 and the peculiars of deans and chapters. 
 
 Peculiar People (The). A Protes- 
 tant religious sect who trust in Providence 
 to cure their sick of all diseases. They 
 anoint the sick with oil and pray over 
 them, but give no medicine and call in no 
 medical adviser. 
 
 Pecu'lium. The plot of land given 
 in feudal times to a slave, the produce 
 of which helped to supply him and his 
 family with food. When the peculium 
 was more than the man could manage, 
 xx2 
 
676 
 
 PEDOBAPTISTS 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN 
 
 he might employ a drudge, who was 
 called Servus servi. 
 
 Pedobaptists. See ' Paedobaptists.' 
 
 Pedro the Cruel, King of Cas- 
 tile (1319, 1350-1369). He began his 
 reign by murdering his father's mistress, 
 Leonora de Gusman ; daily his nobles 
 fell his victims; he put to death his 
 cousin and one of his natural brothers ; 
 he caused his queen (Blanche de Bour- 
 bon) to be cast into prison and there 
 poisoned. A second queen suffered in 
 the same way. 
 
 Pedro, pronounce Pay-dro. 
 
 Peel's Hundred Days. Sir 
 
 Robert Peel held the seals of office from 
 Nov. 1834 to May 1835, between the first 
 and second administrations of Lord Mel- 
 bourne. 
 
 Peel's Velveteens, 1842. Vel- 
 veteens containing as design wheat-ears 
 on a scroll on which was the word ' Free.' 
 A specimen was sent to Sir Robert Peel 
 and accepted by him, but afterwards 
 returned. See ' Velveteen Plot.' 
 
 Peep-o'-day Boys. An L:ish 
 Presbyterian party, organised in 1790. 
 In 1688 the whole Catholic property of 
 Ireland was confiscated; and when in 
 the 18th cent. William Pitt made some 
 attempts to mitigate this injustice, the 
 Irish Protestants took alarm, regarding 
 ' Protestant ascendency ' endangered. 
 Acts of violence against the Roman 
 Catholics were organised, and as they 
 were perpetrated at the peep of day, the 
 party was called ' The Peep-o'-day Boys.' 
 See ' Defenders ' and ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 The Peep-o'-day Boys in 1795 became the 
 Orangemen, and the Boman Catholics the ' De> 
 fenders.' 
 
 Peers of Prance {The Twelve). 
 There were six lay and six ecclesiastical 
 peers. The lay peers were the duke of 
 Normandy, the duke of Burgundy, the 
 duke of Aquitaine, and the three counts 
 of Flanders, Toulouse, and Champagne ; 
 the ecclesiastics were the archbishop of 
 Reims, the archbishop of Sens, and the 
 four bishops of Noyon, Langres, Beauvais, 
 and Chalons. 
 
 All Brittany, for a time, did homage to the 
 Duke of Normandy. 
 
 Aquitaine included Poitou, Limousin, most of 
 Guienne, and the feudal superiority of Angou- 
 mois. 
 
 The feof of Flanders stretched from the Scheldt 
 to the Somme. 
 
 The Count of Flanders possessed Languedoc, 
 with Quercy and Rouergue, and feudal superi- 
 ority over Auvergne. 
 
 Peg Nicholson's Knights. See 
 
 * Margaret's Knights.' 
 
 Pegas'ians. In Latin Pegasiani. 
 A law school so called from Pegasus, a 
 jurist, and follower of the Procu'lians {q.v.) 
 of the republican or popular party. 
 
 Pehle'vi Dynasty. See *Pish- 
 dadian dynasty.' 
 
 Peine Porte et Dure. Being 
 pressed to death. Remanded to a low, 
 dark chamber in a prison, the victim 
 was laid on his back on the bare floor, 
 naked ; then on his body was placed 
 a great weight of iron. On the first day 
 he received three morsels of the coarsest 
 bread : on the second day three draughts 
 of stagnant water ; and so on alternately 
 till he died. Abolished. 
 
 Pronounce Pain fort a dure. 
 
 Pela'gian Heresy (The), or ' Pela- 
 gianism,' 5th cent. The doctrines of 
 Pelagius, whose religious views were op- 
 posed to those of St. Augustine. He 
 denied the dogma of original sin, and de- 
 clared man to be a free agent capable of 
 himself, without the aid of the Holy 
 Ghost, of receiving or rejecting the prof- 
 fered salvation, and of performing good 
 works. His doctrines were condemned 
 by the two councils of Carthage and 
 Milevium or Milevia, in Numidia, a.d. 
 416. Pelagius was anathematised by 
 Innocentius in 417, and expelled from 
 Jerusalem in 424. 
 
 It is said that Pelagius is a Greek translation of 
 the Welsh name Morgan (sea-born). He was a 
 man of rank, and his life was most exemplary. 
 It is generally supposed that he was a monk of 
 Bangor in Wales, but it is far more likely the 
 monastery was Bangor or Banchor, in Carrick* 
 fergus, Ireland. 
 
 Pells {Clerk of the). From the 
 Jj&tin pellis, a skin [i.e. of parchment]. 
 An officer of the exchequer whose duty it 
 is to enter on the pells or parchment rolls 
 every bill sent in for payment, with the 
 receipt thereof when discharged, and all 
 disbursements. Hence there are pells 
 or rolls of receipts, and pells or rolls of 
 disbursements. 
 
 Peloponnesian War {The), b.c. 
 431-404. A war for supremacy between 
 Athens and Sparta, which lasted 27 
 years. It may be divided into three 
 parts: (1) From the commencement of 
 the Nician truce ; (2) from the truce to 
 
PEMBEOKE 
 
 PENINSULAE 
 
 677 
 
 the Sicilian expedition ; and (3) from 
 that catastrophe to the surrender of 
 Athens. The proximate cause of the 
 war was this : The repubUcan party of 
 Epidaninus rose in rebellion against 
 the rulers, drove them from the town, 
 and then applied to Corinth for protec- 
 tion. The exiled rulers applied to Cor- 
 cyra. Whereupon the Corcyraeans laid 
 siege to Corinth, and obtained aid from 
 Athens. The Corinthians applied to 
 Sparta for assistance, and thus Athena 
 and Sparta were drawn into the quarrel, 
 which ended in the ruin of Athens. 
 
 Pembroke College. I. Cam- 
 bridge, 1347. Founded by Mary de St. 
 Paul, widow of Aymer de Valence earl 
 of Pembroke, in honour of her husband, 
 who was killed, in a tournament soon 
 after his marriage. It was originally 
 called the ' Hall of Valence and Mary.' 
 Subsequently Pembroke Hall ; and now 
 Pembroke College. 
 
 II. Oxford, 1624. Founded by James 
 I. It was originally called Broadgates 
 Hall, but was renamed after the Earl of 
 Pembroke, chancellor of the university. 
 The head of the college is called the 
 master. 
 
 Penal LaAVS (against Catholics). 
 These existed before the Treaty of 
 Limerick, 1691. 
 
 An act subjecting all who maintain 
 the supremacy of the Church of Rome 
 to the penalties of prcsTnunire, and re- 
 quiring the oath of supremacy as a 
 qualification for office of any kind. 
 
 An act imposing fines on absence 
 from the parish church on Sundays. 
 
 An act authorising the chancellor to 
 appoint a guardian to the child of a 
 Catholic. 
 
 An act to prevent Catholics from 
 being private tutors without a bishop's 
 licence. 
 
 These were added in 1695 (Will. III.):— 
 
 An act to disarm Catholics ; to banish 
 Catholic priests and prelates ; to prevent 
 the intermarriages of Protestants and 
 Catholics ; to prevent Catholics from 
 being either solicitors or gamekeepers. 
 
 These were added in Queen Anne's 
 reign, 1703 : — 
 
 The father of a papist who conformed 
 to the established religion was incapaci- 
 tated from disposing of his property by 
 Bale, mortgage, or bequest. 
 
 A papist was prohibited from being 
 guardian even to his own child. The 
 child on conforming was to be given in 
 charge to a Protestant. 
 
 Papists were incapacitated for holding 
 land for more than 31 years ; and if at 
 any time the profit of the land exceeded 
 one-third of the rent, the lease was to be 
 transferred to the Protestant who made 
 the discovery. 
 
 Papists were not allowed to inherit 
 the lands of Protestant relatives, nor to 
 keep any horses above the value of hi. 
 each. 
 
 In 1709 an Act was passed prohibiting 
 Catholics from holding life annuities ; to 
 assist in schools ; to act as sheriffs ; to 
 sit on grand juries. 
 
 Repealed 1861 (24, 25 Vict. cc. 95, 101). 
 Some mitigation had been made in 1778 
 (18 Geo. III. c. 60). 
 
 Peninsular War {The\ 1809- 
 1813. Against the French in the pen- 
 insula of Portugal and Spain. Art'.iur 
 Wellesley [duke of Wellington] was the 
 British commander-in-chief who landed 
 in Portugal 12 July, 1808, and by April 
 1814 had expelled the French from the 
 peninsula. The following year he won 
 the great battle of Waterloo. 
 
 The battle of Vime'iba (Portugal), 21 
 Aug., 1808. Marshal Junot was defeated. 
 For this victory Wellington was highly 
 censured by Sir Hew Dalrymple, the 
 commander-in-chief, for fighting without 
 orders. 
 
 The battle of DouRO, 12 May, 1809, 
 in which Wellington defeated Marshal 
 Soult. 
 
 The battle of Talave'ra (Spain), 27, 
 28 July, 1809. Joseph Bonaparte and 
 Marshal Victor were defeated by Wel- 
 lington, who was made in April com- 
 mander-in-chief of the British forces in 
 the Peninsula. 
 
 Battle of BusA'co (Portugal), 27 Sept., 
 
 1810. Marshal Massena was repulsed 
 by Wellington, and on 3 and 5 May, 
 
 1811. the French marshal was utterly 
 foiled at Fuentes de Onobo (Spain). 
 
 1812. Wellington invested Ciudad 
 Rodri'go (Spain), and on 19 Jan. took 
 it from the French by storm, and 6 April 
 he took Ba'dajoz by storm. 
 
 Battle of Salamanca (Spain), 22 July, 
 
 1812. Marshal Marmont was defeated 
 by Wellington. 
 
 The battle of Vittobia (Spain), 21 
 
678 
 
 PENITENT 
 
 PENSIONERS 
 
 June, 1813. Joseph Bonaparte and Mar- 
 shal Jourdan were defeated by Welhngton. 
 
 Battles of thePYBENEES, 27 to 31 July, 
 1813. Marshal Soult was defeated by 
 Wellington; and San Sebastian was 
 stormed 31 Aug., 1813. 
 
 The battle of Obthez (Pyrenees), 27 
 Feb., 1814. Marshal Soult again defeated 
 by Wellington ; and again, 10 April, at 
 Toulouse. 
 
 General Graham defeated Marshal Victor (5 
 March, 1811) at Barossa in Spain ; and Marshal 
 Beresford defeated Soult at Albuera 16 May, 1811. 
 And 11 Jan., 1809, Sir John Moore fell at Corunna. 
 In Nov. 1813 Sir John Murray defeated Soult's 
 army on the Nivelle. 
 
 *»* Between 21 Aug., 1808, and 10 April, 1814 
 (less than five and a-half years), Wellington had 
 defeated six French marshals : Jourdan, Junot, 
 Marmont, Massena, Soult, and Victor, together 
 with Joseph Bonaparte. He had won the battles 
 of Vimeira, Douro, TalavSra, Busaco, Fuentes de 
 Onoro, Salamanca, Vittoria, the battles of the 
 Pyrenees, Orthez, and Toulouse, besides the 
 sieges of Ciudad Bodrigo, Badajoz, and Sau 
 Sebastian. 
 
 *,* After the victory at the Douro, Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley was created ' Baron Douro ' ; after the 
 battle of Talavera, he was made ' Viscount Wel- 
 lington ' ; after the siege of Ciudad Rodrlyo, he was 
 made ' Earl of Wellington ' ; after the battle of 
 Salamanca, he was made ' Marquis of Wellington' ; 
 and for his victory at Vittoria he was created 
 ' Duke of Wellington." We had no honour left for 
 his victory at Waterloo. 
 
 Penitent (J.). A man whose duty 
 it was (before the introduction of safety 
 lamps) to descend into a coal mine, 
 early every morning, to explode the fire- 
 damp which had accumulated during the 
 night. So called because he was dressed 
 like a religious * penitent,' in a woollen 
 dress, which covered his face and body. 
 
 Penitents of Love {The), 13th 
 cent. A fraternity established in Lan- 
 guedoc consisting of knights and esquires, 
 dames and damsels, whose object was to 
 prove their love by bearing the extremes 
 of heat and cold. Many perished, but 
 what matter ? ' They received the crown 
 of martyrdom.' 
 
 Penitentes. Fanatics of New 
 Mexico, who, during Lent, not only fast, 
 but subject their bodies to the most hor- 
 rible tortures. On Good Friday they go 
 in procession from their lodge to a cross, 
 with their skin cut into furrows, and as 
 they march scourge themselves or each 
 other over the shoulders till their bodies 
 are completely covered with blood. 
 Sometimes one or more wiU then volun- 
 teer to be crucified. They may be seen 
 even in the streets on Good Friday with 
 a huge wooden cross strapped on their 
 back, their arms drawn up and fastened 
 
 to the cross-bar, and a spear fastened to 
 their body, so that the point touches the 
 arm, and if in walking over the road 
 strewed with potsherds, sharp stones, 
 and thorny plants the foot flinches or 
 stumbles, the spear point wounds the 
 flesh of the arms. 
 
 Penitential Week. Hehdomada 
 Poenitentialis. The same as * Hebdo- 
 mada Poenalis ' {q.v.). 
 
 Penitentiary of England. A 
 
 lucrative of&ce for granting papal dis- 
 pensations. 
 
 Pennsylvania (U.S. America). 
 The 'Penn Forest.' So called from 
 William Penn, who in 1681 founded the 
 colony. The inhabitants are sometimes 
 called Penna.mUes, and were once locally 
 nicknamed Leather-heads. 
 
 Pennsylvanian Bonds. Kites, 
 or waste-paper bonds. In 1843 Pennsyl- 
 vania, the richest state in America, repu- 
 diated its debt, having borrowed money 
 for the construction of roads and canals. 
 No transaction in history is more dis- 
 graceful than this, as the state was well 
 able to pay, but would not. 
 
 Pennyless {The). Kaiser Maxi- 
 milian I. (1459, 1493-1519). Called in 
 Italian ' Massimiliano Pochidanario.' 
 
 Pensionary Parliament {The). 
 From 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 1678, i.e. 
 16 years and 260 days. It was convened 
 by Charles II., and was so called because 
 it had so many pensions to grant to 
 Koyalists impoverished by the late 
 troubles. See ' ParUaments.' 
 
 Pensioners {The). All the or- 
 dinary students of the University of 
 Cambridge who are *w statu pupillari. 
 There are a few fellow commoners, 
 either sons of the nobility, sons of men 
 of fortune, or married men, who dine at 
 the fellows' table (whence their name). 
 These students wear a special costume, 
 and have certain exemptions ; and there 
 are a few sizars, sons of men of small 
 means, most of them clergymen's sons. 
 The sizars have their commons free, and 
 have other emoluments which vary in 
 different colleges. Like the fellow 
 commoners, they are not called 'pen- 
 sioners.' In Oxford the ordinary students 
 are called * commoners.' 
 
 Pensioners are those who pay a pension. Com- 
 moners are those who 'common' or dine at a 
 general table. 
 
PENTAPOLIS 
 
 PERFECTISTS 
 
 679 
 
 Pentap'olis. 
 
 1. The Five Cities of Cyrenaica, near 
 Egypt: Apollonia, Arsinoe, Berenice, 
 Cyrene, and Ptolemais. 
 
 2. The Dorian Pentapolis : Camlros, 
 Cnidos, Cos, lal^sos, and Lindos. 
 
 8. The Five "Cities of Italy in the 
 exarchate of Ravenna : Ancona, Fano, 
 Pesaro, Rimini, and Sinigaglia. 
 
 4. The Five Cities of the Phihstines : 
 Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. 
 
 5. The Five Cities of the Plain : Admah, 
 Gomorrah, Sodom, Zoar, and Zeboim. 
 
 Pentarchs {The). The French 
 Directory, composed of five members. 
 
 The astonishing man whom the ISth Brumaire 
 had placed alone on the tottering throne of the 
 Pentarchs, conceived the idea of detaching the 
 emperor of Russia from the cause of his allies. — 
 Duncan, History of Russia, vol.i. p. 263. 
 
 People of the Book {The)— i.e. 
 the Koran. The four ' people ' are Chris- 
 tians, Jews, Magians, and Sabians, who 
 are more tolerantly treated by Mahome- 
 tans than idolaters. 
 
 The People of the Book were permitted to re- 
 deem their adherence to their ancient law by the 
 payment of tribute.— Hallam, Middle Ages, yol. ii. 
 p. 167. 
 
 People's Charter {The), 1838. 
 Consisting of these six demands : (!)• 
 Universal suffrage ; (2) annual parlia- 
 ments ; (3) stipendiary members ; (4) 
 vote by ballot ; (5) equal electoral dis- 
 tricts ; and (6) abolition of monetary 
 qualification. 
 
 The Ballot Bill passed in 1872. 
 
 People's Friend {The). Marat. So 
 called from his journal ' L'Ami du Peuple.' 
 
 The People's Friend is evidently rising in im- 
 portance as his befriended people rises. — CaR- 
 LYLE, French Revolution , vol. iii. bk. ill. 8. 
 
 People's 'William (T/ie). William 
 Ewart Gladstone (1809- ). He began 
 his political career as a Tory, but turned 
 Whig, and became a Radical towards the 
 close of his life. 
 
 Between 1885 and 1886, being nearly 80 years old 
 at the time, his political views, especially in regard 
 to the Irish Land League, the Plan of Campaign, 
 Boycotting, and other revolutionary subjects, 
 underwent a complete change. In 1^85 he said 
 that ' Crime do^'ged the Irish Land League in all 
 its steps,' and Sir William Harcourt spoke still 
 more strongly against the League; but in 1886 
 both Mr. Gladstone and Sir William Harcourt 
 defended the Parnellltes through thick and thin, 
 and found excuses for boycotting, the refusal to 
 pay rent, and even for open resistance of the law. 
 Thev blamed the Irish Constabulary, which a few 
 months before they most highly praised, and 
 seemed politically to have made a volte face. 
 
 Peppercorn Rent {A). A mere 
 nominal rent, like the delivery of a grain 
 
 of wheat or com of pepper, in acknow- 
 ledgment of the rights of the landlord. 
 
 Perceval (Mr.) Assassinated. 
 Spencer Perceval, second son of Lord 
 Egmont, prime minister of England, was 
 shot in the lobby of the House of Com- 
 mons 11 May, 1812, by Bellingham, who 
 mistook him for Lord Leveson Gower, 
 late ambassador to the court of St. 
 Petersburg, who (he said) had refused 
 him redress after acting in a diplomatic 
 matter. He was executed for murder. 
 Mr. Perceval was fifty years of age. 
 
 P^re Duchene [Dtt-shane]. 
 
 I. James Rene Hebert, the French 
 revolutionist, was so called from his 
 obscene journal of that name (1755-1794). 
 
 n. A journal during the French Revo- 
 lution conducted by HeTiert. This scan- 
 dalous red republican newspaper con- 
 tained the most exaggerated democratic 
 sentiments, and circulated the most hor- 
 rible innuendos against the queen. 
 
 Pere des Lettres {Le). Francois I. 
 of France (1494, 1515-1547). 
 
 Peres de la Foi {Les). The French 
 Jesuits, readmitted at the Restoration, 
 so called themselves. They had flourish- 
 ing colleges at Montrouge and St. Acheul ; 
 but these were closed in 1828, and de- 
 clared to be in violation of the law. 
 Since 1848 there has been a slight revival 
 of Jesuitism in France. See 'Paccan- 
 arists.' 
 
 Peregrine Mass. ' Missa Pere- 
 gi-inorum.' After the chaj)ter the bell 
 announces the Matutinal Mass for the 
 approach of paupers, and the priest, who 
 had celebrated high mass for the last 
 seven days, says the 'Missa Pere- 
 grinorum.' See ' Mass.' 
 
 Perfect! (The Perfect Men). So the 
 Waldenses {q.v.) were sometimes nick- 
 named, from their professed puritanism. 
 
 Perfectibilists {The), 1776. An 
 order created by Adam Weishaupt, after- 
 wards called the ' Order of the Illuminati.' 
 A secret society, organised on the plan of 
 the Order of the Jesuits. Persons of any 
 religious creed were admitted members, 
 but passive obedience was a sine qua non. 
 It greatly flourished, but became political, 
 and was interdicted in Bavaria in 1784. 
 
 Perfeetists {The). A sect of tho 
 Independents which rose up during the 
 
680 
 
 PERFIDIOUS 
 
 PERSECUTION 
 
 civil war between Charles I. and his par- 
 liament. The Franciscans, Jesuits, and 
 Molinists believed in the perfectibility of 
 man ; and the "Wesleyan Methodists teach 
 that Christian perfection is attainable, 
 according to the exhortation contained in 
 Heb. vi. 1. : ' Let us go on to perfection ' ; 
 and our Lord himself says : ' Be ye per- 
 fect, as your Father in heaven is perfect.' 
 
 Under the head of Independents . . . were the 
 Arminians. Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
 Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectists, Socin- 
 ians, Arians, and others.— HowiTT, History of 
 England (Charles I., ch. vi. p. 278). 
 
 Perfidious Albion. A favourite 
 expression of Xai^oleon I., but not of his 
 invention. Probably it referred originally 
 to the homage paid by Edward III. to 
 Philippe VI. of France in 1829 {see | 
 Rj-mer, 'Foedera,' i. p. 260). Edward ! 
 paid the homage exacted of him, but re- j 
 solved upon vengeance, and executed it 
 to the bitter end. Napoleon talking of 
 ' perfidy ' is like the pot calling the kettle 
 ' black-face.' 
 
 ' L'Angleterre, ah ! la perfide Angleterre, que 
 le rempart de ses naers rendoit inaccessible 
 aux Roniains, la foi du Sauveur y est abordee.' — 
 
 BossCET, A Seniwn preached at ilet:. 
 
 Peripatetics (^7^e). A sect of philo- 
 sophers of ancient Greece, founded by 
 Aristotle of Stagira in Macedonia, a pupil 
 of Plato (B.C. 384-322). He used to lec- 
 ture in a covered walk of the Lycean 
 gjTnnasium in Athens, and hence his 
 disciples were called the ' Walking Sect,' 
 or ' Sect of the Walk.' His favourite 
 pupil was Theoi^hrastus (b.c. 394-287). 
 
 Aristotle was called the Staglrite (3 syl.) from 
 Stagira, his native place. 
 
 The proper name of Theophrastns (the dirine 
 speaker) was Tyrtamos, but Aristotle called him 
 ' the divine speaker ' from his grace and fluency of 
 speech. 
 
 Peronne (Treaf?/o/), 1468. Between 
 Louis XI. and Charles le Te'me'raire of 
 Burgundy. Louis agreed by this treaty 
 to abandon his suzerainty over the fief of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Perpetual Council of the 
 Gallic Nation {The). The Sorbonne 
 
 {q.V.). 
 
 Perpetual Edict {The). I. Edic- 
 tum Perpetuu7}i, a.d. 132. The various 
 edicts of Roman prtetors, compiled and 
 arranged by Salvius Julian, a lawyer, by 
 order of the Emperor Hadrian. Previous 
 to this C. Cornelius got a law passed to pre- 
 vent praetors from altering their edicts. 
 ' Ut Prsetores in Edictis suis Perpetuis 
 jus dicerent.' A.u. G86 (b.c. 69). 
 
 This was the first general code of Roman law 
 published by authority. 
 
 II. The ' Pacification of Ghent ' (g-.v.), 
 12 Feb., 1577. By which William prince 
 of Orange gained nearly all he asked for. 
 See above. 
 
 Perpetual Peace (Ti^). I. 31 May, 
 1419. Between the French and Henry V. 
 of England. It was signed at Troyes, and 
 ratified by Isabella (wife of Charles VI.) 
 and Philip the Good of Burgundy. It 
 made Henry the successor of Charles VI. 
 at death, and regent of France till then. 
 It also gave him the Princess Catherine 
 for his wife. 
 
 II. ' La Paix Perpetuelle,' Sept. 1515, 
 after the battle of Marignano, or ' Combat 
 of the Giants.' Between Francois and 
 the Swiss, signed at Freyburg. It formed 
 the basis of all subsequent relations be- 
 tween Fi-ance and Switzerland till 1789. 
 
 Perse Free G-rammar School. 
 
 For 100 scholars, now enlarged to admit 
 190 boys. Founded by Stephen Perse, M.D. 
 Fellow of Caius College, 1615, reorganised 
 in 1873 (Trumpington Road, Cambridge). 
 Fees for the junior department 51. a year, and 141. 
 a year for the senior department. 
 
 Persecution in Lyons {The)^ 
 A.D. 177. Under Marcus Aurelius the 
 Christians were hunted from their houses, 
 expelled from the public baths and 
 markets, insulted, stoned, and plundered. 
 No distinction of nationality, sex, or age 
 was made. Marcus Aurelius being applied 
 to, gave instruction that all ' who con- 
 fessed themselves to be Christians should 
 be put to death.' 
 
 Persecution of the Jews, in 
 
 1348-1349. I. During the prevalence of 
 the Black Death {q.v.) the tfews were the 
 scapegoats in Germany, and their treat- 
 ment was revolting. The notion got 
 abroad that the wells were poisoned, and 
 that the Jews had poisoned them to extir- 
 pate the Christians. Men bound them- 
 selves by oaths to stamp out the cursed 
 race which had crucified Jesus Christ. 
 Some were torn to pieces ; some were burnt 
 alive. At Speyer the Jews in despair set 
 fire to their own houses rather than fall 
 into the hands of the mob. In Mainz 
 10,000 Jews were massacred. At Eslingen 
 the whole Jewish population burnt them- 
 selves in their synagogue. At Strasburg 
 2,000 were burnt in their cemetery. Any- 
 one who protected a Jew was put to the 
 
PERSECUTIONS 
 
 PERSIAN 
 
 681 
 
 rack and executed without mercy. See 
 also under ' Milan, Edict of.' 
 
 The report was that the Jews obtained the 
 poison from some remote parts of the earth and 
 mixed it with the venom of spiders, owls, adders, 
 and toads. No doubt the Flagellants ((/.f.) were the 
 chief instigators of this horrible persecution. 
 
 II. By banishment. 
 
 From ALEXANDRIA, by Cyril, in 415. 
 
 From England, by Edward I., in 1290. 
 
 From France, by Philippe Auguste, 1183 ; by 
 Philippe le Bel in 1301, 1306 ; by Charles VU. In 1894 ; 
 by Louis XIII. in 1615. 
 
 From Medi'na, by Mohammed, 623. 
 
 From Naples and SICILY in 1504. 
 
 From the Papal States, by Pius V., In 1.569. 
 
 From Portugal, by Emmanuel the Fortunate, 
 1496. 
 
 From Prague in 1.520. 
 
 From Rome, B.C. 16. 
 
 From Russia, by the Czarina Elizabeth, 1795, and 
 often since. 
 
 From Spain, by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1492. 
 
 III. By massacre. 
 
 In England, pillaged and massacred in 1264. 
 
 In FULDA in 1236. 
 
 In Germany, pillaged and massacred by the 
 Crusaders in 1096 : as authors of the Black Death 
 in 1348, 1349. 
 
 In Jerusalem, by Florus, B.C. 16. 
 
 In London in 1189. 
 
 In Spain, at the instigation of the Archbishop of 
 Seville, in 1391. 
 
 In York and other places 1190. 
 
 Persecutions by Christians 
 
 {The). 
 
 I. Against the Albigenses, 1179-1235; 
 most bitter, bloody, and relentless. 
 
 n. Against the Moslems, in eight cru- 
 sades, 1095-1274. These wars cost the 
 lives of 5 millions of human beings. 
 
 III. Against the Huguenots, in the 
 Dragonnades, under Louis XIV., in 1685. 
 
 IV. Against the Protestants of Ger- 
 many, in the Thirty Years' War, 1618- 
 1648. 
 
 V. Against the Waldenses, or Vaudois, 
 1179-1848. See Fe'lice, 'History of 
 Protestants,' &c. 
 
 VI. Against the Jews by Christians 
 generally. 
 
 VII. The Inquisition, 1203-1814, was a 
 series of persecutions against ' unorthodox 
 Christians.' 
 
 VIII. The Reformation introduced a 
 series of persecutions by Protestants 
 against Catholics, and Catholics against 
 Protestants. 
 
 IX. St. Bartholomew massacre of the 
 French Huguenots, in 1572, was a frightful 
 affair. 
 
 X. The Smithfield fires. Speed says, 
 ' More bloud was spilt in that short time 
 of [Mary's] raigne, than had been shed for 
 case of Christianity in any kings time 
 Bince Lucius the first establisher of the 
 
 Gospel! in this realme.' ' Hist, of Great 
 Britaine,' p. 1151 (1623). 
 
 To these may be added the general persecutions 
 of different sects, whether that between the 
 Eastern and Western Churches, that between 
 Catholic sects, or that between Protestant sects. 
 All who think differently to the established or 
 ' orthodox ' system being held ' heretics.' Buckle 
 estimates the loss of life by these Christian perse- 
 cutions at 140 millions of human beings. That 
 would be about a tenth part of the entire present 
 inhabitants of the earth, and most frightful to 
 think of. See p. 5><5, ' Milan, Edict of: 
 
 Orthodoxy means simply the doxy of might. In 
 one country it is Brahmanism, in another Buddh- 
 ism, in a third Zoroasterianism, in a fourth Druid- 
 ism, in another Paganism ; in the Eastern Church 
 it differs from the Western; in England it is Protes- 
 tantism, with the Jews Mosaicism, and so on. It 
 is then divided into sects, and only that sect sanc- 
 tioned by the state is orthodox. Hence the mutual 
 persecutions of Arians and Trinitarians, the 
 Jesuits against the Jansenists, the Church of 
 England and Church of Scotland, the Sadducees 
 and Pharisees, and so on throughout. There is no 
 such thing as absolute orthodoxy, it is simply 
 the power to enforce certain religious views. 
 
 Persecutions of Christians 
 
 ( The), by Roman emperors. Called ' The 
 Ten Persecutions.' 
 
 (I.) under Nero, 64-68; (11.) under 
 Domitian, 95 ; (III.) under Trajan, 106 ; 
 (IV.) under Marcus Aurelius, 166-177; 
 (V.) under Septimus Severus, 199-204; 
 (VI.) under Maximinus, 235-238; (VII.) 
 under Decius, 250-252; (VIII.) under 
 Valerian, 258-260 ; (IX.) under Aurelian, 
 275 ; and (X.) under Dioclesian, 303-318. 
 The last is called 'The Era of the 
 Martyrs.' 
 
 Christians were not persecuted by the Roman 
 emperors for their faith in Christ, but for their 
 ' laiclessness ' or infidelity to the state religion and 
 national law. Of the religious creed, as Paley said, 
 the Roman emperors and Roman senate were 
 supremely indifferent, but the religion of the 
 country was an integral part of the law of the 
 land, which it is not in Protestant England, Prus- 
 sia, or America. 
 
 Persia {Goldeyi Age of), 1253-1335. 
 From Hulaku to Abu Seyd, distinguished 
 for those celebrated names Naser-ud-din, 
 Jelal-ud-din, Sadi, and Hafiz. 
 
 Persian Punishment {The), 
 Flaying alive. See Rawlinson's note to 
 ' Herodotus,' v. c. 25 (vol. iii. p. 191). 
 
 Persian War {The). L a.d. 837- 
 360. In the reign of Constantius II., son 
 of Constantine the Great. In this war the 
 armies of Rome and Persia encountered 
 each other in nine bloody fields, in two of 
 which Constantius commanded in person. 
 In all these battles the Persians were the 
 superiors. 
 
 II. A.D. 502-505, between Cabades or 
 K )bad the Persian and Anastasius 
 emperor of the East. The Huns and 
 Arabs marched under the Persian stan- 
 
682 
 
 PERSIC 
 
 PETER-PENCE 
 
 dard. Amida stood a siege of three 
 months, in which the Persian general lost 
 50,000 men ; but Persia expiated her loss 
 with the slaughter of 80,000 of the adver- 
 sary, and peace was concluded in 505 
 (Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' chap. xl.). 
 
 Persic Version {The) of the Scrip- 
 tures. A version of the Pentateuch by 
 Jacob ben Joseph, 9th cent. See ' Scrip- 
 tures.' 
 
 Perspicuous Doctor {The). 
 Walter Burley, born 1275, died 1338. 
 Flourished 1320. He was preceptor to 
 Edward III. Burley attacked the dogmas 
 of Duns Scotus. 
 
 Perth {Convention or Treaty of), 
 18 Aug., 1305. Between Edward I. and 
 the regents of Scotland. This con- 
 vention, which apparently settled the 
 affairs of Scotland, was scarcely signed 
 when Robert Bruce threw the two 
 countries into war again by the murder 
 of Comyn lord of Badenoch. 
 
 Peschit'o {The), or ' Peshitto,' mean- 
 ing literal or simple. An old Syriac ver- 
 sion of the Bible, supposed to have been 
 made in the 2nd and 3rd cents, a.d. by 
 Jewish Christians. It omits the Book of 
 Revelation and four of the Epistles. 
 
 Ephrem Syrus (who died 378), is sup- 
 posed to refer to this book when he 
 speaks of ' Our Version.' See ' Bible.' 
 
 Pessimism. The doctrine that 
 nothing can be worse than things now 
 are. The chiefs of this school are 
 Schopenhauer, Lucretius in his poem 
 'DeNatura,' and^Voltaire in his ' Can- 
 dide.* See ' Optimism.' 
 
 Pet'alism. Writing the name of a 
 person on an olive-leaf. If 600 signa- 
 tures were thus obtained in Athens the 
 person was banished. Ostracism was 
 exile by writing the name on a tile or 
 oyster-shell. 
 
 Peter {Letter of St.) to Pepin. Forged 
 by Pope Stephen III., rendered desperate 
 by the siege of Rome by Astolph the 
 Lombard king. See Milman, 'Latin 
 Christianity,' vol. iii. book iv. chap xi. 
 pp. 21-23. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Peter ad Vincula {Saint), or 
 ' Festum S. Betri ad Vincula,' 1 Aug. 
 (liammas), the day when, it is said, St. 
 Balbina found St. Peter's Neronian 
 chains. 
 
 Peter Porcupine, 1784. A pen- 
 name adopted by William Cobbett after 
 his flight from England to avoid ap- 
 pearing before a court-martial for 
 charging four of his officers with pecula- 
 tion. He died 1835 at the age of seventy. 
 
 Peter the Thaumatur'gus. 
 
 Bishop of Argos (date unknown). 
 
 Peter the "Wild Boy. Discovered 
 in the fields near Hameln in July, 1724, 
 and supposed to be eleven or twelve 
 years of age. He was placed by George 
 III. under the charge of Dr. Arbuthnot. 
 All the words he could utter were Ke 
 Sho {King George), Que Kaa {Queen 
 Caroline), and Hom Hen {Thomas Fen), 
 the name of the farmer, at Northchurch, 
 Hertfordshire, under whose charge he 
 was placed. He went about with a collar 
 on his neck, bearing his name and ad- 
 dress. Government allowed Mr. Fen 
 35 Z. a year for his maintenance. Peter 
 died 1785, being, it is supposed, about 
 seventy-two years old. 
 
 Peter's College {St.). Cambridge 
 University, founded by Hugh de Bal- 
 sham bishop of Ely, 1257. 
 
 This Is the oldest foundation in the University. 
 It used to be called Peter House. 
 
 Peterloo, 16 Aug., 1819. The area 
 before St. Peter's Church (called St. 
 Peter's Field), Manchester, was so called 
 from the monster meeting held there on 
 that day, and presided over by * Orator ' 
 Hunt, against the strict prohibition of 
 the magistrates. The ostensible reason 
 of the meeting was to favour parlia- 
 mentary reform. Hunt had scarcely 
 begun his speech when several troops of 
 soldiers, with 400 special constables, 
 and the Cheshire and Manchester 
 Yeomanry, appeared. The crowd fled 
 in disorder, many were thrown down, 
 100 were more or less injured, and six 
 persons were accidentally killed. Hunt 
 and nine others were brought to trial, 
 and charged with treasonable conspiracy. 
 Called ' Peterloo ' from the words of 
 Hunt, who said, ' The magistrates desired 
 nothing so much as an opportunity of 
 letting loose the bloody butchers of Water- 
 loo upon them.' 
 
 Peter-pence, or 'Rome-scot,' 720. 
 First paid by Ina king of Wessex, dis- 
 continued by Edward III. in 1365, and 
 prohibited by act of parliament in 1534 
 
PETIT 
 
 PETITIONERS 
 
 683 
 
 (25 Henry VIII. c. 21). It was one 
 penny per family collected for the pope 
 of Rome. An enormous tax, if we con- 
 sider the value of money at the time, and 
 to the poor almost crushing. Half-a- 
 crown would have bought a horse or 
 cow, and about Is. would have bought a 
 sheep. Wages for a labourer Id. a day. 
 
 At present Peter-pence is a voluntary contribu- 
 tion to the pope. 
 
 Petit Fils de la France. Son of 
 
 Philippe due d'Orleans, brother of Louis 
 XIV. Philippe himself was entitled 
 Monsieur, his wife Madatne, and their 
 daughter Mademoiselle (all without a 
 proper name). 
 
 Petit Manteau Bleu (Le). Edme 
 Champion (1764-1853). A man of un- 
 bounded benevolence, called Le Petit 
 Manteau Bleu by the poor, from his 
 habit of wearing a short cloak of blue 
 cloth, fastened at the neck by a clasp, 
 and reaching to the loins. 
 
 Petit Roi de Bourges (Le). 
 Charles VII. of France (1403, 1422-1461). 
 Called afterwards ' The Victorious,' be- 
 cause he reconquered Franqe from the 
 English. When he succeeded to the 
 crown Bourges was about all that acknow- 
 ledged his sovereignty. 
 
 Petite Paix (La), also called ' La 
 paix fourree,' and sometimes ' La paix de 
 Longjumeau,' 1568, between the Roman 
 Catholics and the Calvinists. This peace 
 was preparatory to the ' Paix de St. 
 Germain ' {q.v.). 
 
 Petits Maitres, 1649. The party 
 of Conde was so called 'parce qu'ils 
 voulaient etre maitres de I'e'tat ' (' Siecle 
 de Louis XIV.'). 
 
 Petition {The Monster), 10 April, 
 1848. Said to have been signed by six 
 million Chartists. Some 50,000 Char- 
 tists, led by Feargus O'Connor and 
 Ernest Jones, intended to march to the 
 House of Commons to present it. About 
 170,000 special constables were sworn in 
 to prevent a disturbance. When the 
 petition was examined it was found that 
 it did not contain two million names. 
 Many of these names were palpably for- 
 geries, many were mere nicknames, and 
 thousands were copied in the same hand 
 from a directory. The petition altogether 
 was a monster swindle. 
 
 Petition and Advice {The), or 
 
 * The Humble Petition and Advice,' 1657. 
 Presented by the parliament to Cromwell, 
 praying him to assume a higher title 
 than that of Lord Protector, to govern, 
 as had been done in times past, with 
 the advice of two houses of parliament, 
 and to abolish the odious existing insti- 
 tution of majors-general. Cromwell re- 
 fused to take the title of king, but 
 consented to establish a second estate, 
 the members of which he addressed as 
 ' My lords,* although only two real peers 
 attended the summons. The petition was 
 first entitled *A Humble Address and 
 Remonstrance.* 
 
 On former occasions he [Cromwell] had relieved 
 himself from [money] embarrassments by the 
 imposition of taxes by his own authority, but 
 this practice was strongly reprobated in ' The 
 Petition and Advice.'— Dr. Lingard, Hist. ofEng., 
 viii. 7. 
 
 Petition de Droit. One of the 
 
 common law methods of obtaining pos- 
 session or restitution from the crown of 
 either real or personal property. It owes 
 its origin to Edward I. 
 
 Petition of Right {The), 28 May, 
 1628, made law by 3 Car. I. c. 1, 7 June, 
 1628. It prayed that no man hereafter 
 be compelled to give any gift, benevo- 
 lence, or tax without consent of parlia- 
 ment. That the commissions for pro- 
 ceeding by martial law be annulled. 
 That the king will in future declare his 
 will and pleasure to be that all his officers 
 and ministers obey the laws and statutes 
 of the realm. That no freeman be im- 
 prisoned by the king's arbitrary will, but 
 only according to established law. That 
 no householder be compelled to receive 
 any soldier or mariner into his house. 
 See ' BiU of Rights.* 
 
 Petitioners. By 13 Charles II. it 
 was enacted that not more than ten per- 
 sons should be allowed to approach the 
 sovereign or either House of Parliament 
 for delivering a petition, making a com- 
 plaint, or suing for redress of grievances. 
 
 Petitioners and Abhorrers, 
 
 1679-1680. Two political parties in the 
 reign of Charles 11., the germs of the 
 Whigs and Tories. Lord Shaftesburj-, 
 by intrigue, procured from the counties 
 a host of petitions to set aside not only 
 James the brother of Charles II., but 
 also his daughter Mary, who was a Pro- 
 testant, married to William prince of 
 
684 
 
 PETKOBEUSIANS 
 
 PHAKAOHS 
 
 Orange ; and to fix the succession on the 
 Duke of Monmouth, a bastard son of the 
 king (?) A strong party revolted at this 
 injustice, and obtained a host of counter 
 petitions declaring their ' abhorrence ' of 
 Shaftesbury's scheme. So that the ' Peti- 
 tioners ' were for setting aside the Prince 
 of Orange, and the ' Abhorrers ' were in 
 favour of the prince. 
 
 Petrobrusians. The disciples of 
 Pierre de Bruys (2 syl.), who was burnt 
 alive as a heretic at St. Gilles in 1147. 
 They denied the doctrine of transubstan- 
 tiation, rejected crucifixes, baptized 
 adults who had been already baptized in 
 infancy, and forbade prayers for the dead. 
 The Henricians {q.v.) joined this sect in 
 1127. 
 
 Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby. 
 A pen-name of D. R. Locke. ' Nasby ' 
 refers to the battle of that name ; ' Petro- 
 leum ' to the rock-oil fever raging in 
 Pennsylvania at the time when the 
 * Nasby Letters ' were begun ; and ' Vesu- 
 vius ' to the outburst of the petroleum 
 fever. 
 
 Pe-tse Dynasty (The). The 2nd 
 dynasty of the Goli Tartars in Eastern 
 China. It gave five kings, and lasted 28 
 years (550-578), when both the Eastern 
 and Western kingdoms were again united 
 in the imperial line. 
 
 Petticoat (A). Carried in the cider 
 riots, 1763. See ' Jack Boot.' 
 
 Petty Bag Office {The). In the 
 common law jurisdiction of the Court 
 of Chancery. So called because all ori- 
 ginal writs relating to the business of the 
 crown were, at one time, kept in a little 
 sack {inparva haga). 
 
 Peu'tinger'ian Table {The). 
 
 ' Tabula Peutingeriana.' A map of the 
 Roman world constructed about a.d. 226, 
 some say as early as 161. It was dis- 
 covered at Spii'es (1500) in an old library 
 by Conrad Celtes, who sent it to Conrad 
 Peutinger the antiquary to publish ; but 
 his death occurred before this was done. 
 It was ultimately published in 1598 at 
 Venice under the care of Marcus Welsen. 
 The original is in the Imperial Library of 
 Vienna. See ' Antonine's Itinerary,' 
 
 Pezade (2 syl.). See ' Pacata.' 
 
 Phalansterians. Disciples of 
 Charles Fourier (1768-1837), who 
 
 grouped all men in phalanxes. Each 
 phalanstery was to consist of 400 families 
 or 1800 persons, to live under one roof in 
 the centre of workshops, studios, places 
 of amusement, and so on. The whole 
 earth being grouped in phalansteries, the 
 phalansteries themselves are to be united 
 in larger groups under a unitary govern- 
 ment. There is to be only one language 
 and one government, and the only army 
 is to be a great industrial army. 
 
 Bellamy's 'Looking Backward,' or state of 
 society in 2000, is a slight modification of Fourier- 
 ism. See ' Communism.' 
 
 Phal'aris. The famous controversy 
 between Richard Bentley and Robert 
 Boyle began thus: Mr. Boyle borrowed 
 a MS. from St. James's Library, where 
 Bentley was librarian. It was borrowed 
 that Mr. Boyle might complete his 
 ' Epistles of Phalaris.' Bentley was 
 angry because it was kept so long, and 
 Boyle taking offence, a paper war arose, 
 noted for wit and satire. In 1699 Bentley 
 published a book to prove that Phalaris 
 was not the author of these epistles, to 
 which Boyle replied ; but all scholars side 
 with Bentley, who was appointed Master 
 of Trinity for his admirable criticisms. 
 See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Phantastic System (T/ie). Taught 
 by the Docetes (3 syl.). It was this : that 
 Christ was only a phantom, and not a real 
 human being. Like the God which ap- 
 peared to Adam and Eve, like the Moses 
 and Elijah on the mount, the man 
 Christ was palpable to the eyes, but not 
 to the touch, and his words, like those of 
 the beings referred to, were only ' airy 
 words.' 
 
 Pharaoh. Another spelling of 
 Phra, Egyptian for the sun. 
 
 Pharaohs of the Bible {The). 
 Josephus ('Jewish Antiquities,' viii. 
 chap. 6) says : * The title of Pharaoh was 
 applied to the kings of Egypt from 
 Menes to Solomon, but not afterwards.' 
 This does not correspond with the Bible ; 
 for Jeremiah, xliv. 30, speaks of Pharaoh 
 Hophra, and Pharaoh Necho invaded 
 Judea in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 
 xxiii.). 
 
 According to the tablets discovered 
 in different parts of Egypt, the following 
 seem to illustrate the Bible narratives : 
 
 1. The Good Pharaoh seems to be 
 
PHARAOHS 
 
 PHILACTERIANS 
 
 685 
 
 SutapeperNubti, one of the Hyksos, or 
 shepherd kings ; but some Egyptologists 
 think it was Osirtesen II., and say there 
 is a tablet in the sixth year of his reign 
 which records the advent of several Se- 
 mitics resembling J ews both in dress and 
 physiognomy. Supposed to be Jacob and 
 his household. 
 
 2. The Bad Pharaoh seems to be 
 Amen'ophis III. of the nineteenth dy- 
 nasty, who introduced the heretical 
 worship of Typhor; but after Rameses 
 II. the Great came a period of confusion, 
 and the Exodus is supposed by many to 
 have occurred in the reign of Arisu, a 
 usurper and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. 
 No hint of the Exodus, however, can be 
 traced by Egyptologists. 
 
 tJ. Solomon married Abra, the daughter 
 of Pfusenes [Pisham] last of the twenty- 
 first dynasty (1 Kings iii. 1). 
 
 4. Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25), who came 
 against Jerusalem in the reign of Re- 
 hoboam, was obviously Shashank I., or 
 Sheshouk, who with 12,000 chariots and 
 60,000 horse-soldiers invaded Judea. The 
 record may still be seen on the portico of 
 the Bubastis at Kai'nak. 
 
 5. 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15 and xvi. 8, &c., it 
 is supposed, refer to Zerah, fourth of the 
 twenty-second dynasty. 
 
 6. Hosea paid tribute to Shabak, 
 founder of the twenty-fifth dynasty, B.C. 
 716. 
 
 7. Shabakok, called ' So ' in 2 Kings 
 xvii. 4, was the successor of Shabak. 
 With this king Hezekiah formed a con- 
 federacy against Sennacherib, king of 
 Assyria, 2 Kings xviii. xix. ' So ' was 
 succeeded by Tarach or Tirshatha. 
 
 8. Pharaoh Necho who invaded Judea 
 in the reign of Josiah was Nechos II. 
 He defeated Josiah, but was himself 
 defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (617-601), 
 2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c. 
 
 9. Pharaoh Hophra is supposed to be 
 Apries, which without the vowel points 
 is PR or PhR (Jer. xliv. 30). 
 
 The Sphinx was carved in the third dynasty, 
 foynded by Necherophes. The great pyramid was 
 built by Khufu {Huphis or Cheopx] who founded the 
 fourth dynasty ; his successor Khafra or Khafren 
 [Cephren] built tho second pyramid ; and his suc- 
 cessor Menkara [Mycerinux] built the third great 
 pyramid. 
 
 Ramses 11. the Great was the Sesostris of 
 Egjrt whose reign is fixed by the calendars repre- 
 senting the heliacal rising of the dog-stars, B.C. 
 1322. 
 
 *,* Goshen was in Lower Egypt, nearer Pales- 
 tine than Upper Egypt. There was much marsh- 
 land there, and both grass and corn would 
 grow. 
 
 Pharisees (The), b.c. 160. An 
 ancient Jewish sect who by their verbal 
 criticisms, mystical interpretations and 
 traditions, engrafted on the Mosaic law 
 a host of precepts and observances. 
 They believed in a resurrection, in 
 angels, and spirits ; placed great reliance 
 on fastings, ablutions, and long prayers ; 
 and paid great attention to their gar- 
 ments, especially affecting very large 
 borders, fringes, or hems. Their chief 
 was Hillel. 
 
 ' Pharisee ' from pharash, to separate. 
 
 Phenicians {The), about 1863. An 
 Irish secret society, a branch of the 
 Ribbon Societies (q.v.), their platform 
 being similar to that of the Fenians. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Phenomenon, Noumenon (plu. 
 
 Phenomena, Noumena). Kant used the 
 two words to express object and subject. 
 The Greek word ifiaivofiai means to 
 appear, and phenomenon is what our 
 senses cognise. Noumenon is from the 
 Greek word I'ou?, ' pure intelligence ' ; 
 and a noumenon is an object pure and 
 unbodied, that is divested of everything 
 cognisable by the senses. 
 
 Fichte used the words ego and non-ego for sub- 
 ject and object. What the senses cognise as part 
 of ourselves is, of course, part of ourselves ; but 
 what exists uidependent of our senses is no part 
 of ourselves, and this he called non-ego. 
 
 Phe'si, <|>Tj<»'i (It says). An ecclesiastical 
 school. Hippolytus speaks of Basilides, 
 and Isidore, with jtoLs 6 tovtioc x^po?, as 
 ' Phesi ' ; and again he speaks in the 
 same manner of Valentlnus, Heracleon, 
 Ptolemy, and nava ■}) tovhou crxoAij. The 
 term is used as significant of the scrip- 
 ture interpretation of a certain school. 
 The Phesi say so and so = the Ipse-dixit 
 school. 
 
 Phid'ias {The French). Pigalle, 
 died 1796. His best pieces are ' Venus,' 
 ' Mercury,' and the tomb of Marshal 
 Saxe. 
 
 Phid'ias {The Northern). Albert 
 Thorvaldsen the Danish sculptor (1770- 
 
 1844). 
 
 Philacte'rians or Phylae- 
 
 terians. Necromancers, condemned 
 by the Church a.d. 692. The phylac- 
 teria were ancient amulets for keeping 
 off or curing diseases. 'Philacteria, id 
 est, X verba legis, aut scriptura vana, 
 quod ligat homo super caballum aut 
 
PHILADELPHES 
 
 PHILIPPE 
 
 super caput suum ' (Du Cange ; article 
 'Phylacteria'). 
 
 Phiradelphes (3 syL). An associa- 
 tion of old republicans to which Talley- 
 rand and Fouche belonged, even while 
 they were in the service of the Emperor 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Philadelphia Convention {The) 
 
 1883, consisting of dynamitards, Fenians, 
 murderers, and all sorts of disturbers of 
 the public peace. Paid agents were con- 
 tinually sent to England to terrorise the 
 British Parliament into granting * Home 
 Rule ' iq.v.) to Ireland for peace sake. 
 See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Philadel'phians {The), 1821. A 
 branch of the Carbonari in Calabria, also 
 called the ' Reformed European Patriots.' 
 
 Philadel'phic Society {The). A 
 literary and philosophic association at 
 Besan^on at the close of the 18th cent. 
 One of its members. General Mallet, 
 made this society a political instrument 
 for the restoration of the Bourbons. 
 Lieut.-Colonel Oudet, another member, 
 classified the Philadelphians into three 
 ranks, each of which was profoundly 
 ignorant of the functions of the other 
 two ; then introduced the scheme into the 
 army, and established affiliated societies 
 called ' Les Freres Bleus.' The first move- 
 ment was the conspiracy of Adjutant- 
 General Arena. This was crushed, but 
 without Bonaparte being able to trace 
 out the instigators of it. Now Moreau, 
 Lahorie, Cadoudal, and Pichegru joined, 
 and the last two concocted a plan to assas- 
 sinate the first consul. Several persons 
 were arrested, and Cadoudal, with some 
 few subordinates, was executed. In 1813 
 the Philadelphians were no longer 
 wanted, and the society lost its political 
 power. 
 
 Philadel'phos (Brother-lover). 
 
 Ptolemy II. of Egypt, so called, murdered 
 all his brothers in order to secure the 
 throne (b.c. 284-246). See ' Philopater.' 
 
 Phil'anthrop'ic Society {The), 
 1788. For the reformation of young 
 criminals. It originated with Robert 
 Young and was incorporated in 1806. 
 Reformatory schools were established at 
 Redhill, in Surrey, in 1849. 
 
 Philipp king of Germany (1178, 
 1197-1208). Brother of Heinrich VI.; 
 
 succeeded by Otto IV. (son of Heinrich 
 the Lion) who abdicated. 
 
 Father, Friedrich I. Barbarossa; Mother, Bea- 
 trice daughter of Benaut III. of Burgundy ; Wife, 
 Irene Angela, widow of Roger of Sicily. No son. 
 Co7itemporary with John. 
 
 Philippe I. I'Amoureux, of 
 
 France (1052, 1060-1108). Fourth king 
 of the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 Father, Henri I. ; Mother, Anne of 
 Muscovy; Wives, Bertha daughter of 
 the count of Holland (mother of Louis 
 VI.), and Bertrade of Montford. Con- 
 temporary with Edward the Confessor, 
 Harold, and William the Conqueror. 
 
 Hugues Capet was the father of Robert lo 
 Pieux ; Robert was the father of Henri I. ; and 
 Henri I. was the father of Philippe I. 
 
 Philippe II. Auguste, of France 
 (1165, 1180-1223). So called because he 
 was the real founder of the French 
 monarchy, as Augustus Caesar was the 
 real founder of the Roman empire. When 
 Philippe ascended the throne, his whole 
 kingdom was not larger than the county 
 of Yorkshire ; but ere he died he had 
 extended its frontiers from the Scheldt to 
 the Mediterranean and from the Rhine 
 to the Atlantic. 
 
 Father, Louis VI. ; Mother, Alice 
 daughter of Thibaud comte de Cham- 
 pagne ; Wives, Isabelle daughter of the 
 Duke of Hainault (mother of Louis IX.), 
 Ingelburge, who was divorced, and Agnes 
 de Meranie. Contemporary with Henry 
 II., Richard, John, and Henry III. 
 
 *,* When Philippe Auguste began to reign all the 
 West of France belonged to England or to Prince 
 Arthur; the Sonth belonged to Aragon ; and the 
 Ea^t to Germany. All that pertained to France 
 was the Ile-de-France, with portions of Picardy 
 and Orleannois. 
 
 Philippe Auguste was the 7th king of the Capetian 
 dynasty : 1. Hugues Capet ; 2. Robert le Pieux 
 his son ; 3. Henri I. his son ; 4. Philippe I. I'Aniour. 
 eux his son ; 5, Louis VI. le Gros his son ; 6. 
 Louis Vll. le Jeune his son; 7. Philippe II. Au- 
 guste his son. 
 
 Philippe III. le Hardi, ol 
 
 France (1245, 1270-1285). See ' PhiMppe 
 le Bel.' 
 
 Le flls de S. Louis que, par un caprice inexplic- 
 able, ses contemporains surnommerent le Hardi 
 [the bold], n avait des qualites de son pere que*la 
 douceur et la piete. II pratiquait le jeune et I'ab- 
 stinence, et vivait en moine plutot qu'en cheva- 
 lier.— Bordier ET Oharton, Histoire de France, 
 vol. i. p. 879. 
 
 Father, St. Louis (Louis IX.); 
 Mother, Marguerite daughter of the comte 
 de Provence ; Wives, Isabel daughter of 
 the king of Navarre, who bore him four 
 sons, and Marie daughter of the Comte 
 
PHILIPPE 
 
 PHILOSOPHER 
 
 687 
 
 de Brabant, who bore him two daughters. 
 Contemporary with Edward I. 
 
 Philippe IV. le Bel, of France 
 (1268, 1286-1314). Eleventh king of the 
 Capetian dynasty, in direct descent. 
 
 Father, Phihppe III. ; Mother, Isa- 
 bel daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
 Wife, Jeanne countess of Champagne 
 and queen of Navarre. Contemporary 
 with Edward I., Edward 11. 
 
 1. Hugues Capet ; 2. Robert le Pieux ; 3. Henri I. ; 
 4. Philippe I. I'Amoureux ; 6. Louis VI. le Gros ; 6. 
 Louis VII. le Jeune; 7. Philippe II. .\uguste; 8. 
 Louis VIII. le Lion; 9. Louis IX. (St. Louis); 10. 
 Philippe III. le Hardi ; 11. Philippe IV. le J3el. 
 
 All the three sons of Philippe IV. reigned in 
 succession, as Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles 
 IV., when the elder branch died out. See ' Three 
 Fatal to France.' 
 
 Philippe V.leLong (1294, 1316- 
 1322). Brother of his predecessor Louis 
 X. and of his successor Charles IV. 
 
 He -was the last Capetian king of the direct line, 
 and his reign -was a wretched failure. 
 
 Father, Philippe IV. ; Mother, Jeanne 
 countess of Champagne ; Wife, Jeanne 
 de Bourgogne. No son. Contemporary 
 with Edward II. 
 
 Philippe VI. de Valois, of 
 
 France (1293, 1328-1350). Succeeded his 
 cousin Charles IV. le Bel. 
 
 Father, Charles comte de Valois, 
 second son of Philippe IV. le Bel ; 
 Mother, Jeanne countess of Navarre ; 
 Wives, Jeanne of Burgundy (mother of 
 Jean), Blanche. Contemporary with 
 Edward III. 
 
 *,* Phillipe III. le Hardi had three sons, viz. 
 Phillipe IV. le Bel who succeeded him, Charles 
 comte de Valois, and Louis. Philippe VI. de Valois 
 was the son of Charles de Valois, the second son 
 of Philippe III. 
 
 Philippe :6galite (1747-1793), due 
 d'Orleans, guillotined by the Committee 
 of Public Safety. Though a royal duke, 
 he had sided with the Jacobins ; though 
 a relative of Louis XVL, he had voted 
 for his execution ; and though professing 
 republican principles, he aimed at the 
 
 PhilippsBan Era (The). This era 
 began in June B.C. 323. 
 
 Philip'pics. Three orations of De- 
 mosthenes the Athenian against Philip 
 king of Macedonia. The first was spoken 
 during the sacred war, when Philip took 
 on himself to be the champion of the 
 Delphic god. Demosthenes wanted the 
 Athenians to side with the Locrians 
 
 against Philip, but he produced no prac- 
 tical effect. 
 
 The second Philippic was soon after 
 the Sacred War, when Philip had become 
 the head of Greece. Demosthenes charged 
 him with perfidy. Philip sent an em- 
 bassy to complain of this insult, and then 
 it was that Demosthenes delivered his 
 second Philippic directed against the 
 supporters of the Macedonian king (b.c. 
 344). 
 
 The third Philippic was delivered B.C. 
 341, and was to show the best means of 
 resisting the encroachments of Philip. 
 
 Philistines. The inhabitants of the 
 sea-coast of Palestine from Phoenicia to 
 Egypt are always meant when this word 
 is used in Scripture. 
 
 Philop'ator (Father-lover). Pto- 
 lemy IV. of Egypt, so called, assassinated 
 his father ; just as Ptolemy II., called 
 Philadelphos, or Brother- lover, murdered 
 his brothers in order to secure the throne. 
 Philopator reigned B.C. 221-204. 
 
 This madman not only assassinated his father, 
 he also murdered his mother, sister-wife (Arsinoe), 
 and brother. 
 
 Philosopher {The). I. Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus the Roman is so 
 called by Justin Martyr (121, 161- 180). 
 
 n. Porphyry the neoplatonist (223- 
 304). 
 
 III. Leo VI. emperor of the East (866, 
 886-911). 
 
 IV. Alured Anglicanus (died 1270). 
 
 Philosopher of Chelsea [The). 
 Thomas Carlyle, who lived at Chelsea 
 (1795-1881). 
 
 Philosopher of China {The). 
 Confucius (B.C. 551-479). 
 
 Philosopher of Ferney {The). 
 
 Voltaire, who lived at Ferney, near 
 Geneva, for the last twenty years of his 
 life (1694-1778). 
 
 Philosopher of Malmesbury 
 
 {The). Thomas Hobbes, author of 'Le- 
 viathan,' who was born at Malmesbury 
 
 (1588-1679). 
 
 Philosopher of Persia {The). 
 Abii-ebn-Sina of Shiraz (died 1037). 
 
 Philosopher of Sans Souci 
 
 {The). Frederick the Great of Prussia 
 (1712, 1740-1786). 
 
 Voltaire calls him over and over again the 
 philosopher prince. 
 
638 
 
 PHILOSOPHER 
 
 PHILOXENIAN 
 
 Philosopher of Wimbledon 
 
 {The). John Home Tooke, author of 
 the ' Diversions of Parley,' who lived at 
 Wimbledon, near London (1736-1812). 
 
 Philosophers {The Five English). 
 
 (1) Eoger Bacon, author of ' Opus 
 Majus ' (1214-1292). 
 
 (2) Sir Francis Bacon, author of * No- 
 vum Organum ' (1561-1626). 
 
 (3) The Hon. Robert Boyle (1627- 
 1691). 
 
 (4) John Locke, author of a treatise 
 on the ' Human Understanding and In- 
 nate Ideas ' (1632-1704). 
 
 (5) Sir Isaac Newton, author of ' Prin- 
 eipia ' (1642-1727). 
 
 Philosophers {The French). ' At 
 the close of the 18th cent, were mere ex- 
 ponents of public opinion, which they 
 popularised and vitalised. They were 
 preceded by Descartes (2 syl.) the French- 
 man, and Leibnitz the German, who 
 taught that all which is real is spirit, 
 soul, or self, and that matter (or the 
 external world) is either a succession 
 of notions impressed on the mind by 
 deity, or unsubstantial images due to 
 the five senses. Locke taught the latter. 
 Early in the 18th cent, the French taught 
 the doctrine of materialism, making the 
 soul a mere function of matter, as light is 
 an effect of fuel in combustion. Helvetius 
 showed the moral tendency and practical 
 bearing of materialism. Still later the 
 existence of the soul was discarded, with 
 the notion of a future state ; and the 
 pleasure arising from the practice ., of 
 virtue was looked on as the great end of 
 man. The name of God was changed 
 into Nature, and the equality of man 
 was made ' an immortal principle.' 
 
 The chief ' Philosophers ' were Malebranche 
 (1638—1715), whose great work is ' The Search after 
 Truth.' He denied that matter could produce 
 i(U;as, and taught that intelligence is the function 
 of deity uithUi us. 
 
 Condlllac (1715—1780) abbe de Mureaux, chief of 
 the Sensational School of philosophy ; that is, that 
 intelligence is admitted through the five doors 
 of knowledge called the senses. His chief works 
 are an ' Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge,' 
 a treatise on ' Sensations,' and another on 
 'Animals.' 
 
 Helvetius (1715—1771) maintained that 'self- 
 Interest is the spring of all our actions.' D'Alem- 
 bert, Diderot, &c., were Encyclopcedists. 
 
 Philosophic Schools of Greece 
 
 {The). The Academic, the Cynic, the 
 Cyrenaic, the Eleatic, and the ISlew Elea- 
 tic, the Epicurean, the Ionic, the Hera- 
 clitian, the Megaric, the Peripatetic, the 
 
 Pythagorean, the Sceptic, the Socratic, 
 the Stoic, and the New Stoic. The Old 
 Eleatic school consisted of speculative 
 philosophers, the New of natural philo- 
 soj)hers ; the New Stoic school consisted 
 of Christian philosophers. See each in 
 loco. 
 
 Philosophical College {The). 
 Wadham, Oxford, was so called when 
 John Wilkins was warden, not only be- 
 cause he himself was a philosopher, but 
 because he invited to it men of a similar 
 turn of mind as Wallis, Wren, Boyle, 
 &c., who met together in his rooms. 
 
 Philosophical Radicals {The). 
 The political economists who advocated 
 free trade. Jeremy Bentham was at the 
 head of this school, which was supported 
 by Adam Smith, General Perronet 
 Thompson, C. P. Villiers, John Stuart 
 Mill, Richard Cobden, Sir William Moles- 
 worth, the Rev. T. R. Malthus, Dr. Chal- 
 mers, John Bright, [Lord] Brougham, &c. 
 
 Adam Smith, author of ' The Wealth of Nations ' ; 
 General Thompson, author of the ' Catechism of 
 the Corn Laws ' ; Malthus, a writer on ' Popula- 
 tion.' 
 
 Philosophical Transactions 
 
 {The). Published by the Royal Society 
 of London. First started Monday, 9 
 March, 16G5, and ordered to be continued 
 the first Monday of every month. The 
 volumes contain memoirs of scientific 
 men, reports of the ' progress of science,' 
 and of ' new discoveries,' &c. The first 
 number was by Oldenburg, and, up to the 
 47th volume, the publications were left 
 to the secretaries of the society, but since 
 then they have been under the super- 
 intendence of a committee of the council. 
 The society's rooms were first in Crane's 
 Court ; in 1780 they were removed to 
 Somerset House; and in 1857 to Bur- 
 lington House. 
 
 Philosophy {The Father of). 
 
 I. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). 
 
 II. Albrecht von Haller of Berne 
 (1708-1777). 
 
 The Father of Boman Philosophy, 
 Cicero the orator (b.c. 106-43). 
 
 Philoxen'ian Version {The). A 
 Syriac version of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments by Philoxenus bishop of Hierapolis, 
 A.D. 508. About a century afterwards 
 the New Testament portion was revised 
 by Thomas of Harkel [Heraclea], and is 
 called the Harklen'sian version. 
 
PHCEBUS 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY 
 
 Phoebus. Gaston III. comte de 
 Foix (1331-1391). So called for his 
 beautiful face and profusion of golden 
 hair. 
 
 Phoenician Stone {The). A hoax. 
 In 1824 the learned Raoul Rochette, pro- 
 fessor of archaeology and keeper of the 
 Cabinet of Antiquities in Paris, received 
 from Malta, ' for the Academy of France,' 
 a stone with a bilingual inscription in 
 Greek, and in what purported to be 
 Phoenician. The stone was dated in ' the 
 85th Olympiad' {i.e. b.c. 436). Professor 
 Rochette gave the inscription credit for 
 the antiquity it pretended to, and sent a 
 copy thereof to every savant in Europe 
 for decipherment and translation. The 
 giant scholar Gesenius of Halle, and the 
 hardly less learned Hamaker of Leyden, 
 agreed with Rochette, and published 
 comments upon the stone. Yet it turned 
 out to be an impudent hoax and modern 
 forgery. See ' Literary Forgeries,' &c. 
 
 Phoenix of Spain {TJie). Lope 
 de Vega, ' whom no one could pass or 
 equal in verse or rhyme ' (1562-1635). 
 
 Phoenix Park Murder {The), 
 6 May, 1882. Lord Frederick Cavendish, 
 the newly-appointed Secretary for Ii-eland, 
 and Mr. Thomas A. Burke, the Under- 
 Secretary, were stabbed to death while 
 walking in Phoenix Park, Dublin, by 
 assassins in the employ of the Irish Land 
 League. Carey, one of the gang, gave 
 queen's evidence, and it was found that 
 there were twenty-one persons implicated 
 in the cowardly murder. 10,000Z. was 
 offered for the arrest of the assassins. 
 
 C. S. Parnell, Dillon, and O'Kelly were released 
 from Kilmainham Gaol only four days before this 
 murder. They had been imprisoned by order of 
 Mr. Gladstone for seditious speeches and con- 
 spiracy. 
 
 Phoenix Society {The), or ' The 
 Phoenix National and Literary Society,' 
 1858, established in Skibbereen by 
 O'Donovan Rossa to insure the separa- 
 tion of Ireland from the crown of 
 England. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 The oath was : ' I do solemnly declare in the 
 presence of God that I renounce all allegiance to 
 the Queen of England, and will do my utmost, at 
 every risk, to make Ireland an independent demo- 
 cratic republic. . . .' 
 
 Photin'ians. Heretics of the 4th 
 cent. So denominated from Photlnus 
 bishop of Sirmich, who taught that Jesus 
 was born a mere human being, but began 
 to be the Messiah or Christ when the 
 
 Holy Ghost descended on Him irw the 
 Jordan. 
 
 Phrenology {Founder of). Gall 
 (1758-1828); with whom Spurzheim 
 (1766-1833) is inseparably 
 connected. 
 
 Phrygian Cap {The). 
 See ' Cap of Liberty in 
 France.' 
 
 Physcon (Big-belly), 
 Ptolemy VII. king of Egypt (b.c. 145- 
 116). Aged 74. 
 
 Physical Club {The). An associa- 
 tion in Moscow organised in the reign of 
 Catherine II. (1762-1796). Physical ex- 
 cellence was essential for membership. 
 The club consisted of men and women 
 in the prime of life. * Husbands intro- 
 duced their wives, brothers their sisters. 
 The requisites of men were health and 
 vigour, of women youth and beauty.' 
 The members belonged to the best 
 families of Russia. This club was dis- 
 solved in the French Revolution, when 
 the police had orders to ferret out all 
 secret societies. 
 
 Physical Geography {Father of). 
 Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859). 
 
 Physicians {College of). London, 
 1510, founded by Dr. Thomas Linacre of 
 Canterbury. 
 
 Physico-Historical Society 
 
 {The), 1745. Afterwards merged into the 
 Royal Dublin Society for the improve- 
 ment of agriculture, husbandry, and the 
 useful arts. 
 
 Phys'iocrates (4 syl.), 18th cent. 
 French political economists who advo- 
 cated perfect freedom of trade, and 
 insisted that land ought to bear all the 
 taxes of a nation, as land only is natu- 
 rally productive. The head of this school 
 was Quesnay, but it was supported by 
 Beaudeau, Lariviere, Mercier, Mirabeau, 
 Turgot, &c. See ' Economists.' 
 
 The term ' real property ' applied to land is a 
 phase of the same delusion. All other property 
 may take to itself wings and fly away, not so 
 land; but 1887 and some preceding years have 
 taught us that land does not always pay the ex- 
 penses of the landlord. Sahara is land, but cer- 
 tainly it would not pay for cultivation. 
 
 Physiognomy {Founder of). 
 Lavater (1741-1801) of Zurich, who 
 taught the art of reading character by 
 the expression and marks of the face. 
 
 y Y 
 
PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 PICPUS 
 
 Physiology {Father of). Albert 
 von Haller (1708-1777). 
 
 Piagno'ni {The), or 'The Weepers.' 
 The party of Savonarola were so called 
 from the penitential character which they 
 professed. The party of the Medici was 
 called the Arrahhiati or the Enraged. 
 
 Piagno'ni Painters {The). 
 Painters of Florence, friends of Savona- 
 rola. They were Botticelli, Lorenzo di 
 Credi, Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della 
 Porta), and his friend Mariotto. 
 
 Piano Regolatore {The), 1889. A 
 system introduced by the Italian Govern- 
 ment by which the seven hills of old 
 Kome are to be levelled and the valleys 
 between them filled up, to facilitate the 
 construction of squares and rectangular 
 streets. 
 
 Piano'ri {Giovanni), 28 April, 1855. 
 Shot at the Emperor Napoleon III. in 
 the Champs Ely sees. See 'Napoleon 
 III.' 
 
 Piaristes. Called by the French 
 ' Pauvres de la mere' de Dieu.' A con- 
 gregation devoted to the gratuitous edu- 
 cation of poor children. Their houses 
 were called * Ecoles Pieuses.' Joseph 
 Calasanzio started the idea in 1621, by 
 assembling at his own house street arabs. 
 The order of Piaristes was sanctioned by 
 the Pope in 1624. Austria and Hun- 
 gary are the chief countries where they 
 exist. 
 
 Dr. Barnardo with his homes is a familiar ex- 
 ample of the same benevolent zeal in our own 
 land. In Dr.Barnardo's homes the waifs and strays 
 are not only educated, but taught to earn their 
 living, and placed out. 
 
 Piasts {Dynasty of the), 842-1370. 
 The first dynasty of Poland ; so called 
 from Piast, a wheelwright of Cruswitz, 
 chosen duke of Poland, its founder. It 
 gave eight sovereigns, the first five of 
 which were styled dukes ; Boleslaus I. 
 assumed the title of king in 1000, and 
 his predecessor Miecislaus I. introduced 
 Christianity into Poland. In 1037 a 
 period of anarchy succeeded, and Silesia 
 was severed from Poland. The descen- 
 dants of Piast continued to reign in 
 Poland thus mutilated till 1370, giving 
 seventeen more monarchs : and a branch 
 subsisted in Silesia till 1675. 
 
 The house of Piast was succeeded by the dynasty 
 Of Anjou. 
 
 Pica {A), or ' Pie.' A directory of the 
 order to be observed in reciting the daily 
 service. 
 
 Incipit ordo Brevlarii seu portiforli secundum 
 morem et consuetudlnem ecclesiae Sarum Angli- 
 canae una cumordinali, seu quod usitato vocabulo 
 dicitur Pica, sive directorium sacerdotum : Pica 
 de dominica prima Adventus.— Du Cange, voL V. 
 p. 288, col. 1. 
 
 Picards {The), 15th cent. A Chris- 
 tian sect founded by Picard, who called 
 himself the Son of God and the New 
 Adam. He taught like the Adamites that 
 men and women ought to go about naked, 
 and that God had sent him to restore the 
 ' law of nature.' He also taught the rule 
 of the community of women as wives. 
 
 Picares'co Romance. The ro- 
 mance of knavery, like ' The Adventures 
 of Gil Bias.' Begun in Germany in the 
 17th cent. The romance called ' Simpli- 
 cius Simplicissimus,' by Christopher von 
 Grimmelshausen, is the best. It gives us 
 a grajphic picture of society in the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 Pichegru's Conspiracy, 1804. 
 This was a Chouan or royalist conspiracy 
 headed byPichegru and George Cadoudal. 
 It was discovered. Pichegru strangled 
 himself in prison ; Cadoudal and twelve 
 others were guillotined. 
 
 Pici'nists, 1774-1780. A French 
 musico-political faction, who contended 
 that pure Italian music is higher art than 
 the mixed German school. In other 
 words, that music is the alpha and omega 
 of opera, and the dramatic part of very 
 minor account. This is the most cele- 
 brated of all the contests in musical 
 annals. Niccolo Piccini was the great ex- 
 ponent of the Italian school, and Christo- 
 pher Gluck of the German school, his 
 adherents being called Gluckists. 
 
 Niccolo Piccini of Naples, 1728-1801 ; Christopher 
 Gluck of Bohemia, 1712 1787. In this paper contest 
 of the two parties at Paris, the ordinary question 
 asked of everyone was ' Etes-vous Picciniste ou 
 Gluckiste ? ' Arnaud and Suard were Gluckists, but 
 Marmontel and Laharpe were Piccinists. The con- 
 test extended to England and raged with undimin- 
 ished fury. Marie Antoinette, being a German by 
 birth, patronised Gluck, and this was quite suffi- 
 cient to raise up a host of opponents. Wagner 
 renewed the contention of Gluck, insisting that the 
 dramatic part of opera is quite as important as the 
 musical part. 
 
 Picpus {The), or ' Order of Picpus,' 
 1601. A religious society of the Third 
 order of St. Francis ; so called from Picpus, 
 anciently a part of • the Faubourg St. An- 
 toine. The order was suppressed in 1790, 
 but was re-established at the restoratiou 
 
PICTS 
 
 PILLAR 
 
 691 
 
 in 1814. The members are largely mis- 
 sionaries in heathen lands. 
 
 Picts. Ancient inhabitants of the 
 north-east of Scotland. They were a 
 Celtic race. Probably the word means 
 much the same as Caledonians (dwellers 
 in woods). The Scots were a Celtic 
 colony from Ulster, in Ireland, which 
 (about B.C. 400) settled in the south- 
 western parts of Scotland, then called 
 Caledonia. If so, the Picts were the more 
 ancient inhabitants. 
 
 As the people were called Picts before the Ro- 
 mans called them Picti (painted people), the Latin 
 ■word is merely a coincidence of sound, and is 
 wholly without etymological value. The language 
 of the Scoti was Earish (Erse), i.e. Irish or Western, 
 still preserved in the Wescern Islands and High- 
 lands. These Highlanders bear the same relation 
 to Scotlajid generally as the Welsh do to the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Pietists {The), or * Separatists,' 1689. 
 A Lutheran sect who preferred private to 
 public worship. Spener of Leipsic was 
 the founder, whose house was Collegia 
 Pietatis, because his disciples met there. 
 Ordained clergymen had no marked pre- 
 cedence, but anyone was allowed to ad- 
 dress the assembly, as among the Quakers. 
 Among the Jews the Chasidim {.q.v.) were called 
 ' Pietists.' 
 
 Pigeons. The priestesses of the 
 oracle of Dodona {q.v.), so called by a play 
 on the words peleiai (Tre'Aeiai), ' pigeons,' 
 and palaiai (TraAaiai) old, aged [women]. 
 
 It is said that Zeus (1 syl.) presented to his 
 daughter Th6be two black pigeons endowed with 
 the gift of human speech ; that one of them flew 
 into Libya, in Africa, and the other to Dodona in 
 Epirus; and that he commanded the inhabitants 
 of both places to raise a temple to his honour. 
 Hence the temple of ' Jupiter Ammon ' in Libya, 
 and that of Dodona in Epiros. The two black 
 pigeons may have been two gipsies or Egyptian 
 fortune-tellers. 
 
 Pigeon's Blood. The poor nobility 
 of Venice were called IBarna hoti from the 
 quarter San Barnabo, where they dwelt. 
 The wealthy nobles were called Blue 
 Blood {Sangue Colombin and Sangue 
 Bid). 
 
 Pigott Diamond {The). Brought 
 from India by Lord Pigott, weighs 82^ 
 carats. In 1801 it was sold in a lottery 
 for 750,000 francs (30,000Z.) ; and in 1818 
 it passed into the possession of Messrs. 
 Rundell and Bridge. See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 Pilate {Mount), in Switzerland, has no 
 connection whatever with Pontius Pilate. 
 It is a corruption of ' Mons Pileatus,' the 
 hatted mountain^ or mountain with a cap 
 of snow. 
 
 Pilati {Acta). I. Said to be Pilate's 
 despatch sent to the Emperor Tiberiup 
 of the crucifixion of Jesus. It is a mere 
 forgery. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 II. Eusebius (book ix. 5) speaks of 
 another Acta Pilati ' full of blasphemy 
 against Christ,' and sent by the emperor 
 to every part of his dominion. Certain 
 women who had once been Christians de- 
 clared they had themselves been privy 
 to criminal acts. These declarations 
 (says Eusebius) were appended by order 
 of the emperor to the ' Acts ' of the pro- 
 curator. 
 
 No doubt Pilate sent a despatch to Rome, but 
 whether either of these ' Acts ' is genuine is quite 
 another matter. 
 
 Pilgrim Fathers {The). 102 
 
 Puritans who went, in 1620, to North 
 America, in a ship called the ' Mayflower,' 
 and colonised what are now the North- 
 Eastern States, called New England, and 
 consisting of (1) Maine, (2) New Hamp- 
 shire, (3) Vermont, (4) Massachusetts, 
 (5) Rhode Island, and (6) Connecticut. 
 This was the second English settlement 
 in the New World, and was planted at New 
 Plymouth near Boston. The tyranny of 
 the Ecclesiastical Commission raised up 
 a host of dissenters, and in 1580 they 
 chose John Robinson for their leader. 
 Their independence soon drew upon them 
 the heavy hand of the law, and they left 
 the kingdom. The larger part settled at 
 Leyden, whence 102 of them went to 
 America, and many others followed later. 
 
 Pilgrimage of G-raee {The). The 
 insurrection of 1537 against the ' King's 
 Supremacy,' headed by Lord Darcy and 
 ' Captain ' Aske. Some 30,000 men, ' tall 
 and well horsed,' demanded the redress of 
 wrongs, reunion with Rome, the restora- 
 tion of the Princess Mary to her rights as 
 heiress of the crown, dismissal of Thomas 
 Cromwell the lord chancellor, and restora- 
 tion of all confiscated church property. 
 The leaders of this rebellion wore for a 
 badge ' the Five Wounds.' The king, 
 Henry VIII., sent an army of 10,000 men 
 against the rebels, and quelled the insur- 
 rection. Aske, Darcy, and a large number 
 of others, both priests, nobles, and gentle- 
 men, were executed as traitors. 
 
 This rising was supported by the Archbishop ot 
 York, and hundreds of priests who marched in the 
 van with crosses.bajiners, and other ecclesiastical 
 insignia. 
 
 Pillar of Northern History 
 
 {The). ' Rei historicaa columen.' Snorr© 
 Y y 2 
 
PILLAR 
 
 PIPE 
 
 son of Sturla, or Snorre-Sturleson (1178- 
 1241). His history begins with Odin and 
 continues to his own times. 
 
 Pillar of the Doctors (The). 'La 
 Colonne des docteurs,' William de Cham- 
 peaux (died 1121). 
 
 Pillars of Hercules {The). Calp^ 
 (now Gibraltar rock), and Abyla, opposite 
 to it in Africa, which Greek story says 
 were torn asunder and separated by 
 Hercules about B.C. 1220 (while Gideon 
 was Judge of Israel). Before Hercules 
 tore these rocks or mountains asunder the 
 Mediterranean was an inland sea, like the 
 Caspian [hence the name Mediterraneum 
 Mare]. 
 
 Pilnitz {The Convention of), 27 Aug., 
 1791. To put down the French revolution 
 by force of arms, restore the king, and 
 dissolve the Constituent Assembly. The 
 Kaiser-King of Germany, the King of 
 Prussia, the Comte d'Artois, the Marquis 
 de Bouille, and the ex-minister Calonne 
 signed the convention, and threatened 
 France with invasion, unless the demands 
 were at once conceded. Of course the 
 convention was mere waste paper. 
 
 Pilot -who "weathered the 
 Storm {The), 1801. William Pitt was 
 so called on his retirement from office. 
 The nation in 1797 was almost reduced to 
 bankruptcy by war, when Pitt introduced 
 paper payment for the nonce, whereby 
 the nation soon righted itself again. 
 
 Pindar {Peter). The pen-name of 
 Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819). 
 
 Pindar {The 
 Gray (1716-1771). 
 
 British). Thomas 
 
 No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; 
 
 To Britain let the nations homage pay : 
 She felt a Homer's fire in Milton s strains, 
 
 A Pindar's raptxire in the lyre of Gray. 
 
 Westminster Abbey (on the monument of Gray). 
 
 Pindar {The Italian). Gabriello 
 Chiabrera (1552-1637). 
 
 Pindar of England (TTie). Abra- 
 ham Cowley (1618-1667). 
 
 The Duke of Buckingham preposterously called 
 him ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil of England.' 
 
 Pindar of France {The). 
 
 I. Jean Dorat (1507-1588). 
 
 n. Ponce Denis Lebrun (1719-1807). 
 This title bestowed on Lebrun is simply 
 absurd, but the French are not happy in 
 tlieir eponyms, of which they are especi- 
 
 ally fond. Also called 'The Poet of 
 Liberty.' 
 
 Pindari War {The), 1817-18. The 
 Pindaris attacked Madras 1817, the 
 Marquis of Hastings marched against 
 them, and a treaty of peace was concluded 
 5 Nov., 1818. 
 
 Pinda'ris (T^e) of India were exactly 
 like the Grand Companies of Europe. 
 They were bodies of mercenary horse 
 who served any prince for hire, and in 
 times of peace lived by plunder. In the 
 early part of the 19th cent, the Pindaris 
 aided Holkar, the Mahratta prince, 
 against the British, but wholly without 
 success. See * Great Company,' 1353. 
 
 Pinerolo, or Pignerolo {The 
 Charter or Treaty of), Aug. 1656. A 
 charter granted by Charles Emmanuel II. 
 the duke of Savoy to his Vaudois subjects 
 after the savage attack of the Marquis 
 of Pianezza. The treaty defined where 
 the Vaudois might exercise their worship 
 without being molested, but reserved to 
 the duke himself the right of celebrating 
 mass where he chose. It also confirmed 
 the prerogatives and privileges pre- 
 viously granted, but in 1685 the Duke 
 Victor Ainadeus was made by Louis XIV. 
 of France to extirpate, as far as possible, 
 the ' heretics ' in his dominions. 
 
 Pink {Knights of the), or ' Chevaliers 
 de rCEillet,' 1793. A society organised 
 to save the queen and the young dauphin 
 son of Louis XVI. It had its ramifica- 
 tions in Germany and Prussia, but its 
 headquarters, of course, were Paris. The 
 attempt to save the queen failed, and 
 the failure was communicated to the 
 conspirators by one of them pulling a pink 
 to pieces and casting the stalk on the 
 ground. See ' Louis XVIL' 
 
 Piombi ( The) . The terrific dungeons 
 of Venice under the leaden roofs. Those 
 under the canals were called I Pozzi 
 
 {q.v.). 
 
 If he relapsed he was to be imprisoned for at 
 least three years in the Piombi.— if ist. of Venice, 
 vol. ii. p. 107 (Murray, 1838). 
 
 Pipe Office {The). An EngUsh law 
 office in which a person called the ' Clerk 
 of the Pipe ' makes out leases of crown- 
 lands and enters all debts to the crown 
 in the * Great Boll ' made of parchment 
 and kept in the exchequer. Abolished 
 by 8, 4 Will. IV. c. 99. 
 
PIPHLES 
 
 PLACE 
 
 Piphles (2 syl.). So the Waldenses 
 iq.v.) of Flanders were called. Ety- 
 mology unknown, but probably connected 
 with the Greek nLvriKoi and the Latin 
 pistis, meaning ' the faithful ' or ' true 
 believers.' Sometimes called ' Pisti.' 
 
 Pisa, G-enoa. Those who want to 
 see Pisa must go to Genoa. (An Italian 
 saying.) In 1282 began the fourth war 
 between Pisa and Genoa. The Pisans 
 were almost extirpated. 3 000 were slain 
 or drowned, and 13,000 were carried pri- 
 soners to Genoa, so that there were 
 more Pisan captives in Genoa than 
 there were left in the city itself. 
 
 Piscine Baptism. 'La piscine 
 baptismale.' A term derived from piscis, 
 the Latin word for ix^v^, a fish, an ana- 
 gram of ' lesous Christos Theou Uios, 
 Soter ' [I-Ch-Th- U-SJ. A notarica used 
 by the early Christians under persecu- 
 tion. It is a secret way of saying ' Chris- 
 tian baptism.' 
 
 Pishdad'ian Dynasty [The), or 
 *Paishdadians.' The first dynasty of the 
 Parsees. Firdusi tells us it lasted 2,450 
 years, and was founded by Kayomurz, 
 who was succeeded by his son Hoshung ; 
 Hoshung was succeeded by Tahmuras, 
 who was succeeded by his son Djemshid, 
 who reigned 500 years. After Djemshid 
 came his son Feridoun. Those who seek 
 to reduce mythical history within Bible 
 limits place these kings thus : Kayomurz 
 B.C. 1990; Hoshung B.C. 1960; Tahmuras 
 B.C. 1920; and Djemshid B.C. 1890. 
 Djemshid was dethroned by Zohak, an 
 Arabian described as a most merciless 
 tyrant, who was slain in a rebellion led 
 by Kawan the blacksmith, who raised 
 Feridoun to the throne. The Pishdadian 
 kings were succeeded B.C. by the Kaianian 
 dynasty, called by the Greeks the Achi- 
 menides. It was preceded by the Maha- 
 badian dynasty {q.v.). The Pishdads 
 were mythical kings. Capital : first 
 Balk, then Istakar, and then Segestan. 
 
 Pisis'tratos of Rome {The). 
 JuHus Caesar (b.c. 100-44). 
 
 Pitt Diamond {The\ or 'The 
 Eegent Diamond,' found in Golconda, 
 the most perfect brilliant in existence, 
 about the size of a pigeon's egg. It was 
 bought in 1702 by Thomas Pitt (grand- 
 father of the great Earl of Chatham) for 
 20,400Z., and sold by him in 1717 to the 
 
 Duke of Orleans regent of France for 
 135,000Z. It weighed originally 410 carats, 
 but was reduced by cutting to lS6g 
 carats. This diamond decorated the hilt 
 of Napoleon's sword of state, but now 
 belongs to the king of Prussia. It was 
 stolen by * an honest factor,' and pawned 
 to Thomas Pitt, who refused to give it 
 back again, and the thief did not dare to 
 vindicate his claim. It came from the 
 mines of Parteal, near Golconda. 
 
 Asleep and naked as an Indian lay, 
 An honest factor stole a gem away ; 
 He pledged it to the knight, the knight had wit 
 So kept the diamond, and the rogue was bit. 
 Pope, Sir Balaam. 
 
 Pitt Scholarship for Classics, in 
 the University of Cambridge. Founded 
 out of a fund raised by subscribers to 
 the statue of William Pitt, 1813. See 
 ' Regius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Pitt's Bridge. Blackfriars Bridge, 
 the foundation of which was laid in 1770, 
 was so called originally, in honour of 
 Pitt earl of Chatham. 
 
 Pittsburg, when taken from the 
 French by Brigadier Forbes in 1758, was 
 called by him Fort Pitt, in honour of 
 William Pitt (Earl of Chatham), but when 
 it grew populous it was called Pittsburg, 
 and is now the Birmingham of the 
 United States. 
 
 Placards, 1534. So the protestations 
 of the reformers against the mass were 
 called. They were disseminated by 
 thousands by one Fe'ret from Switzerland, 
 and on 18 Oct. the inhabitants of Paris 
 found them attached to every public 
 place, in all crossways, on the doors of 
 churches, and even on the palace walls. 
 Francois I. was furious, and many re- 
 formers were put to death. 
 
 Place de Gr^ve [La). The place 
 formerly used in Paris for executions, 
 like our Tyburn ; it is in the vicinity of 
 the Hotel de Ville. Greve means the 
 bank of a river or shore of the sea where 
 
 * les eaux sont converts de gravier et de 
 cailloux roules.' 
 
 Place de Louis Quinze. See 
 
 * Place de la Concorde.' 
 
 Place de la Concorde. The spot 
 where Louis XVI. was executed, then 
 called the ' Place de la Revolution,' and 
 prior to the revolution called the ' Place 
 de Louis Quinze.' 
 
PLACE 
 
 PLAN 
 
 Place du Carrousel (ia). Apart 
 of Paris where carrousels or mock tourna- 
 ments were held, between the reign of 
 Henri IV. and the 18th cent. 
 
 Place of Oak-trees [The), in 
 Preussen {i.e. ancient Prussia). The 
 Holy of Holies of the Druids, into which 
 none might enter but the Druid priests. 
 When Adalbert of Prague, a zealous 
 Christian missionary, forced his way into 
 this sanctuary he was instantly put to 
 death. 
 
 Placemakers' Bilale, or 'The 
 Whig Bible,' so called because Matt. v. 9 
 is printed ' Blessed are the placemakers 
 [peacemakers], for they shall be called 
 the children of God.' See ' Bibles.' 
 
 Placita, A.D. 598. The first French 
 parlements, convened by Clotaire III., 
 were so called. They were ambulatory ; 
 that is, held sometimes in one town and 
 sometimes in another. 
 
 From ' Placita ' come our words plead, plead- 
 ings, &c. 
 
 Plague of Florence [The). See 
 'Black Vomit.' 
 
 Plague of London {The), 1665. 
 Introduced by some Dutch merchants. It 
 had been off and on in Holland ever since 
 1654 ; in Leyden 13,000 died ; in 1655, in 
 Amsterdam, 13,287 died of it. It was 
 carried to London in bales of cotton, and 
 100,000 died in one year. Its symptoms 
 were sudden delirium, when those attacked 
 rolled about as if intoxicated, then fol- 
 lowed profuse perspiration. In 1666 it 
 spread to France, but died out in the 
 winter. 
 
 The Plague was followed in 1666 fey the Great 
 Fire, and when London was rebuilt the streets 
 were made wider, the drainage improved, and 
 thatch for the roofs of houses was forbidden. 
 Before then the Plague was constantly cropping 
 tip in London every few years. 
 
 Plague of Marseilles {The\ 1720- 
 1726. Brought from Syria in a merchant 
 vessel. It spread to Aries, Aix, and 
 Toulon, and above 80,000 fell victims to 
 it. Henri Francois Xavier de Belsunce, 
 bishop of Marseilles, exerted himself 
 day and night to comfort the afflicted and 
 take them spiritual consolation. By his 
 devotion he gained the appellation of 
 the Good Bishop. After the plague pro- 
 motion was offered to him, but he re- 
 solved to remain bishop of Marseilles. 
 He died in 1755, but it was not till 1853 
 
 that the inhabitants of Marseilles erected 
 a statue to his memory. 
 
 Plagues, Epidemics, &c. See under 
 
 Antony's Fire (St.) 
 Belsunce 
 Black Death 
 
 „ Vomit 
 Borromeo 
 Burning Fever (FeZ- 
 
 low Fever) 
 Coccoluccio {see 
 
 ' Coqueluche ') 
 Coqueluche 
 Cholera Morbus 
 Convulsion! sts 
 Dance of St. Guy 
 Dancing Mania 
 English Sweat 
 Febris Flamma 
 
 {Yellow Fever) 
 
 Feu Ardent 
 Great Plague 
 Influenza {Russian) 
 Loup-garou 
 Mazzuolo 
 Plague of London 
 Plique 
 Poitou Colio 
 Scurvy 
 Small-pox 
 Sweating Sickness 
 Tabardillo 
 Tac 
 
 Trousse-galant 
 Vomito Prieto 
 ( Yellow Fever) 
 YeUow Fever 
 
 There have been thirty-three different pests 
 in Europe since the founding of Home, but a pest 
 of some kind has visited Europe ninety-seven 
 times since the birth of Christ. There were four- 
 teen visitations in the 17th cent., and only eight 
 in the 18th cent. Since then the visitations have 
 greatly declined. 
 
 Plaine {La), 1791. The floor of the 
 hall occupied by the National Convention 
 of France. From the floor benches were 
 raised on grades. These grades were 
 called the Mountain. The red-hot Jaco- 
 bins seated themselves on the raised 
 benches and were called the Montagnards 
 or Mountaineers, and the Girondists 
 occupied the seat below them, called the 
 Plaine. Both these parties formed the 
 cote gauche ; the cote droit was appro- 
 priated by the Constitutionalists. In 
 1794 the ' Plaine ' was called the Marais 
 {q.v.), or the Marsh. 
 
 Plaine des Vertus {The). This 
 plain, which is in France," not far from 
 Chalons-sur-Marne, is notorious for the 
 review held there 10 Sept., 1814, of 
 160,000 Russian soldiers, before the diplo- 
 matic corps of Europe. ' Vertus ' is the 
 name of a town. It was taken by the 
 English in 1422. 
 
 Plan of Campaign {The), Oct., 
 1886-1889. A device adopted by the 
 Irish ' National party ' for compelling 
 Irish landlords to reduce their rents. 
 The tenants were to offer what they 
 thought proper for the rent of their 
 holdings, and if the agents refused to 
 accept their offer, the tenants were to 
 lodge the money in the hands of trustees 
 
PLANETS 
 
 PLATONISTS 
 
 695 
 
 of the Land League. If evicted, they were, 
 by boycotting, to prevent any other tenant 
 from taking the farm. The plan was 
 devised by Messrs. Dillon and W. O'Brien. 
 It gave place in July, 1889, to the 
 •Temmts' Defence League' {q-v.). 
 
 The Solicitor-General said, ' One of the principal 
 objects of the Plan was to get wealthy tenants, 
 who could pay their rents, to lodge their money 
 under the Plan, and once having done so they 
 would not afterwards expose themselves to the 
 risk which would follow its withdrawal. The 
 meaning was this : The tehants were to fix their 
 own rents, having first agreed among themselves 
 the amount of reduction they intended to de- 
 mand. If the landlord refused to grant the 
 reduction, the tenants were to lodge the money 
 as the Plan advised. If evicted, they were by 
 boycotting to prevent anyone taking the farm.' 
 16 Feb., 1887. Forbidden by the Pope April, 1888. 
 
 No greater swindle was ever openly propounded, 
 and, strange as it may seem, there were gentlemen 
 and landlords of England who coquetted with it 
 to gain the Irish vote. 
 
 Planets. See ' Bode's Law.' 
 
 Plantagenet. Geoffrey son of Fulk 
 earl of Anjou was so surnamed, it is said, 
 because he bore in his helmet a sprig of 
 yellow broom instead of a feather (Lat. 
 planta-genistce) ; and this we are told was 
 from penitential humility. Some say he 
 was scourged with a rod of broom for his 
 sins, as Henry II. is represented being 
 scourged with birch-broom for the murder 
 of Thomas Becket. 
 
 This Geoffrey married Maud daughter of 
 Henry I., and their son was Henry Plantagenet, 
 who succeeded the Norman dynasty in England. 
 The Plantagenet race was succeeded by the Tudor 
 dynasty. Fulk was son-in-law of Baldwin 11. king 
 Of Jerusalem, whom he succeeded in 1131. 
 
 Plantation ofUlster {The), 1610. 
 The colonising of the six counties of 
 Ulster with Englishmen and Scotchmen. 
 At the death of Queen Elizabeth, Sir 
 Cahir O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, 
 broke out into rebellion, but the rebellion 
 was crushed in June 1608, when O'Do- 
 gherty fell in battle. Almost all Ulster 
 now lay at the disposal of the crown. The 
 lands of O'Dogherty were given to the 
 deputy, and all the rest was divided into 3 
 lots. Lot 1 contained 2,000 acres; lot 2 
 contained 1,500 acres ; and lot 3 contained 
 1000 acres. The parcels of lot 1 were sold 
 to Englishmen and Scotchmen only ; the 
 parcels of lot 2 were distributed among 
 servants of the crown. Neither of these 
 could be alienated to the Irish. The 
 parcels of lot 3 were held by Irishmen. 
 The lands of Tyrone and O'Donnell were 
 given by the crown to the corporation of 
 London to be sold to Englishmen and 
 Scotchmen. Husbandry and the arts being 
 
 introduced, Ulster, from being the most 
 wild and disorderly province of Ireland, 
 became the most civilised, the best culti- 
 vated, and the most prosperous. 
 
 The chief seat of this enforced colonisation was 
 Londonderry, from the lands given to the Corpora- 
 tion of London. This land is still managed by 
 twenty-six of the Common Council. The charter 
 dates from 1619. 
 
 Tyrone [i.e. O'Neill], the largest chieftain of Ire- 
 land, wanted to be made king of the whole island, 
 and promised to give all Ireland to Philip II. of 
 Spain, and hold under him as a tributary prince, 
 if Philip would help him to drive out the'English. 
 Philip sent money, arms, and men, under Don 
 Juan d'Aguila, but the allied Spanish and Irish 
 array was completely routed. Tyrone and Tyr- 
 connell (O'Donell) soon quitted Ireland. Tyrone 
 (O Neill) settled in Rome, where the Pope and King 
 of Spain allowed him a pension. O Neill died there, 
 and his son being assassinated, the race became 
 extinct. Sir Cahir O Dogherty the young chief of 
 Inishowen now rose in insurrection, and was slain 
 in battle. Thus the lands of O Neill, O'DoneU, and 
 O'Dogherty all lapsed to the crown. 
 
 Planters {The). The colonists sent 
 in the reign of James for ' the plantation 
 of Ulster ' {q.v.). 
 
 Plantin Polyglot Bible {The), 
 1569-1572. So called because it was 
 printed by Christopher Plantin of Ant- 
 werp. It was edited by Arius Montanus. 
 See ' Polyglot.' 
 
 Plato {The English). The Rev. John 
 Norris (1657-1711). 
 
 Plato {The German). Friedrich 
 Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819). 
 
 Plato {The Jewish). Philo-Judaeus 
 (flo. 20-40). 
 
 Plato (T^e Scottish). Dugald Stewart, 
 born at Edinburgh 1753, died 1828. 
 
 Plato of the 18th cent. Voltaire 
 
 (1694-1778). 
 
 The sage Plato of the 18th cent.— Cakltlk, 
 Friednch II. of Prussia (vol. ii. p. 597). 
 
 Platonic Puritan {The). John 
 Howe (1630-1706). Author of ' The Good 
 Man the Living Temple of God,' which 
 occupies one of the highest places in 
 Puritan Uterature. 
 
 Platonists. Dr. Joseph Priestley, in 
 his ' Corruptions of Christianity,' main- 
 tains that the doctrine of the Trinity is 
 due to Platonism, and it is certain that 
 the Platonists taught a sort of Trinity. 
 There was first the Unity, that abstract 
 existence without form or personality of 
 any kind. From this ens proceeded what 
 St. John calls Logos, and the author of 
 ' Proverbs ' calls Wisdom, * By Wisdom 
 God established the heavens and founded 
 
PLATONISTS 
 
 PLUG-DRAWERS 
 
 the earth ' (iii. 19) ; and from these two 
 proceeded the Word- Soul, which consti- 
 tute the Triad. So in Gen. i. we have first 
 God in Unity, then the Word ' God said 
 Let there be ' so and so, and then the Spirit 
 which moved on the face of chaos to 
 reduce matter into order. Certainly the 
 Christians of Alexandria were correct in 
 tracing a striking resemblance between 
 the language of Moses, the Christian 
 Trinity, and the Platonic Triad. 
 
 Platonists and Cartesians. The 
 new departure in the Church of England 
 in 1666, led by Henry More, and supported 
 by Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson, Stilling- 
 fieet, Patrick, and others, who extended 
 the principles of philosophy and divinity, 
 and were the fathers of the Latitudinarian 
 school of theology. 
 
 Cartesians were followers of the French philo- 
 sopher Descartes. 
 
 Platonop'olis. The city of Plotin 
 the neoplatonic philosopher, in Cam- 
 pania, where he intended to carry out his 
 socialistic ideas and philosophical system. 
 It does not appear that he was able to 
 complete his project, for we hear nothing 
 more about it except that the Emperor 
 Galen granted him permission to build 
 the city. 
 
 Plautus {The Portuguese). Gil 
 Vicente (1480-1557). 
 
 Plea {The Army^s), 1659, was a paper 
 drawn up by the officers of the army 
 left by Cromwell to vindicate their con- 
 duct in driving the Rump Parliament 
 from power for a time, and endeavouring 
 to place England under a military go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Pleas of the Crown {The Four). 
 Murder, fire, rape, and robbery. 
 
 Pleasant Willy. William Shake- 
 speare (1564-1616). 
 
 Pleiades, sing. Pleiad. Seven con- 
 temporaneous poets. The Alexandrine 
 Pleiades consisted of Lycophron, Theo- 
 crites, Aratos, Nicander, Apollonios, Cal- 
 limachos, and Philiscos (called Homer 
 the Younger). 
 
 The first French Pleiade in the reign 
 of Henri III. was composed of Ronsard, 
 Dubellay, Remi Belleau, Jodelle, Baif, 
 Pontus de Thiard, and Amadis Jamyn 
 (or else Dorat). 
 
 The second French Pleiade, in the 
 
 reign of Louis XIIL, was composed of 
 Rapin, Commire, Larue, Santeuil, 
 Menage, Duperier, and Petit. 
 
 The Pleiades of Greek mythology were the seven 
 sisters named Electra, Maia, TaygSte (4 syl.), 
 Alcyone, Celseno, Sterope, and Merope, who died 
 of grief, and were afterwards placed as stars in 
 the back of Taurus. 
 
 Pliny {The German). Konrad von 
 Gesner, styled by Boerhaave that ' Mon- 
 strum Eruditionis.' He wrote the ' His- 
 toria Animalium,' &c. (1516-1565). 
 
 Pliny of the East. Zakarija-ibn- 
 Muhammed, called Kazwini, from Kaz- 
 win, the place of his birth (1200-1283). 
 
 Plique (Z/e), or Plica Polonica, 1599. 
 An endemic very common in Poland. ' Les 
 medecins pretendent que le siege du mal 
 est dans les cheveux, qui se melent d'abord 
 sans causer beaucoup de douleur; mais 
 ensuite la suppuration s'etablit, et fait 
 sortir une innombrable vermine qui 
 cause des tii-aillements et de picotements 
 insupportables. La chevelure ne forme 
 plus alors qu'une masse compacte.' It 
 was called by the Poles Gozdziec, and it 
 is said to have been caused by drinking 
 the water of the Borysthenes. This dis- 
 ease is common in India. See ' Plagues,' 
 &c. 
 
 Plogpenning, * Plough-penny.' So 
 Eric VI. of Denmark was called because 
 he laid a tax on ploughs (1274, 1286- 
 1319). 
 
 Plon-Plon. The sobriquet of 
 Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Bona- 
 parte, son of Jerome Bonaparte. It is a 
 euphonic corruption of Craint-plomb 
 (Fear-bullet), given to the prince in the 
 Crimean war (1854-1856). 
 
 Plots {The Three). In the reign of 
 Charles II. called Oates'sPlot {q-v^, the 
 Meal-tub Plot {q.v.), and the Rye-house 
 Plot {q-v.), or Gates, Meal, and Rye. 
 Gates's Plot 1678, Meal-tub Plot 1679, the 
 Rye-house Plot 1683. 
 
 Ploughgates in demesne. 
 Lands reserved in the lord's own hand, 
 in contradistinction to lands held by 
 homagers, villeins, oottars, and serfs in 
 the manor. 
 
 Plug-dra"wers. A term invented 
 by Peel, applied to stump-orators who 
 drew the plug of their declamation, and 
 let loose the waters of ' radical humanity,' 
 ad captandum vulgus. There are plenty 
 
PLUMEAN 
 
 POETS' 
 
 697 
 
 of such plug-drawers still, who let loose 
 their ' humanity ' in sympathy witli 
 rebels, like the French jury who acquitted 
 the murderer of his father and mother, 
 poor man, ' because he was an orphan.' 
 The Luddite orators, 1811, the Chartist 
 orators, 1848, &c., and the Home Rule 
 orators, 1890, &c., are your plug-drawers 
 who waste their sympathy * in one weak, 
 washy, everlasting flood.' 
 
 Plu'mean Professor of Astronomy 
 and Experimental Philosophy. Stipend 
 8001. a year. Founded in the University 
 of Cambridge by Dr. Plume, archdeacon 
 of Rochester, 1704. 
 
 Plymouth Adventurers (The). 
 
 A company chartered by James I. author- 
 ising them to plant all North America 
 from 41° to 45° N.- lat., which includes 
 what we now call Pennsylvania, New 
 Jersey, New York, and New England. 
 
 Plymouth Brethren (The), 1828. 
 • Brethrenism ' began in Dublin, where 
 certain Christians met together to partake 
 of the Lord's Supper without a minister. 
 In 1832 John H. Darby, a curate of the 
 Anglican Church, joined the society, and 
 afterwards became its head, but in time 
 removed to Switzerland. The members 
 call themselves merely ' Brethren,' but 
 they are sometimes called Darbyites. 
 They have no written creed, but believe 
 Christianity is on its decline. 
 
 The religious system of the society is called 
 'Brethrenism.' They reject clericalism, insist on 
 the equal standing and privilege of every member 
 of Christ's Church, believe in the doctrine of elec- 
 tion, and deem church-membership necessary for 
 salvation. Called Plymouth because at Plymouth 
 the society was first developed. 
 
 Plymouth Sound. James Wliite, 
 member for Plymouth, who spoke with a 
 very loud voice. 
 
 Pneumatics, or ' Macedonians,' 4th 
 cent. Those who denied the divinity of 
 the Holy Ghost. Ilj/eC/xo, the spirit. 
 
 Pocket Borough {A). A borough 
 in which the freemen were all controlled 
 by the pocket of the candidate. This 
 was in the ' good old days ' before par- 
 liamentary reform abolished the free- 
 men's absurd privilege of election. 
 
 Pocket Judgment. Statute- 
 merchant is so called. It was a bond of 
 record under the hand and seal of a 
 debtor, authenticated by the king's seal. 
 30 
 
 On failure of payment, execution was at 
 once awarded without further charge or 
 trouble. This process is no longer in 
 use. 
 
 Po'codena'rio, or Lack Penny. 
 Maximilian L (1493-1519); he failed 
 well nigh in all his projects for want 
 of money. 
 
 Poet-laureate. Petrarch appears 
 to have been the first of modern poets 
 crowned with laurels, 1341. Warton 
 shows there were royal poets about our 
 English kings before the time of Richard 
 I., whose court poet Blondel is said to 
 have discovered the place of the king's 
 captivity and to have been the means of 
 his release. Chaucer as royal poet was 
 allowed a gallon of wine a day, and before 
 that time a harper to Henry III. had an 
 allowance of wine. Charles I. in 1630 
 made the office patent and settled both a 
 stipend and wine on the laureate. Till 
 Tennyson was made poet the stipend was 
 1271. plus 271. for the purchase of a cask 
 of canary. 
 
 The term arose thus : the king chose a laureated 
 student of Oxford or Cambridge, that is a student 
 to whom a laurel crown had been presented for 
 the best Latin ode in praise of Alma Mater. In 
 France crowning with laurels is continued still. 
 
 Poets' Corner (The), in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey, the South Corner. This is 
 merely a popular name. As a Valhalla 
 of British poets, one would be ashamed 
 of the list. The poets represented are : 
 Addison, Beaumont, S. Butler, Campbell, 
 Cowley, Davenant, Drayton, Dryden, 
 Gay, Goldsmith, Gray, Dr. Johnson, Ben 
 Jonson, Longfellow of America, Macaulay, 
 Mason, Milton, Philips, Prior, Rowe, 
 Shakespeare, Shadwell, Sheridan, Spen- 
 ser, and Thomson. 
 
 But there is no memorial to such poets 
 as the following : Akenside, Mrs. Brown- 
 ing, Byron, Burns, Carew, Cartwright, 
 Chaucer, Churchill, Coleridge, Collins, 
 Cotton, CowpER,Crabbe, Denham, Donne, 
 Fletcher, Mrs. Hemans, Herbert, Herrick, 
 Hogg, Hood, Keats, Miss Landon, Lee, 
 Lovelace, Marlowe, Marston, Massinger, 
 MooRE, Parnell, Pollok, Pope, Raleigh, 
 Ramsay, Rossetti, Scott, Shelley, 
 Shenstone, Southern, Southey, Waller, 
 Wither, Wolfe, Wordsworth, Young, 
 and several others. 
 
 *^* Why not place the name in a car- 
 touch with date of birth and death ? Let 
 first-class men, like Chaucer, Shake- 
 
698 
 
 POETICAL 
 
 POLICE 
 
 speare, and Milton have a statue ; second- 
 class poets, like Dryden, Byron, Words- 
 worth, &c., have a cameo profile; the 
 rest a simple cartouch with name. And 
 no name inscribed till twenty-five years 
 after death. The cloisters might be 
 utilised for the purpose. 
 
 Poetical Milkmaid (The), or ' The 
 
 Poetical Milkmaid of Bristol,' Ann 
 Yearsley (1756-1806). 
 
 Pogon'atUS, t.e. the bearded. The 
 agnomen of Constantine IV. emperor of 
 the East (648-685). Greek Trcoycauaros. 
 
 Poinding. Taking an inventory of 
 the effects of a debtor ; taking goods by 
 way of distress ; the act of transferring 
 a debtor's goods to his creditors in default 
 or in payment of debt. The same was 
 ' pounding ' or putting stray cattle into 
 the parish pound. Ang.-Sax. pynd-an, 
 to confine, to pound, our word ' impound- 
 ing.' 
 
 The retainers of the law went from place to 
 place, making an inventory of the goods and 
 chattels falling under their warrant of distress, 
 or poinding, as it is called in the law of Scotland. 
 —Sir W. Scott, The Antiquary, chap. xlii. 
 
 'Pointed Arro'W.' So General 
 Jackson was called by the Indians against 
 whom he fought in 1813 (1767-1845). 
 
 Toissy {The Colloqmj of), 1561 (Sept. 
 9 to Oct. 9). A disputation between 
 Catholics and reformers held at Poissy, 
 under the expectation of proving which 
 was right — Catholic faith or that of the 
 reformers. Theodore de Beze was the 
 chief of the reform representatives, which 
 consisted of twelve pastors and twenty- 
 two laymen. The Catholic disputants 
 were the cardinals of Tournon, Lorraine, 
 Chatillon, Bourbon, Guise, and Arma- 
 gnac, with about forty bishops and 
 doctors. On the first day Beze stated 
 the reformers' creed of the eucharist, 
 whereupon Cardinal de Tournon prayed 
 that the blasphemer might be silenced, 
 but no notice was taken of the cardinal's 
 request. On the IGth Sept. Cardinal de 
 Lorraine answered that the church could 
 not err, and the church had decided that 
 the real presence was the right faith. 
 Beze craved leave to reply, but the pre- 
 lates rose and the conference was ad- 
 journed. Other meetings were held, but 
 on 9 Oct. the conference was broken off, 
 each party being more embittered against 
 
 the other and more self-opinionated than 
 before. 
 
 Generally called ' Beza ' In English. 
 
 Poitiers {The Edict of), 8 Oct., 1577, 
 granting to the Huguenots of France the 
 exercise of the reformed religion, but 
 only in the places where it was professed 
 at the time of signing this treaty. Henri 
 in. used to boast of this edict as ' My 
 edict, my treaty.' It never was observed, 
 and never would have been granted ex- 
 cept out of spite to the Guises. 
 
 Poitou Colic {The), 1572-1606, 
 appeared in France. It is said to have 
 been caused by ergot (a sort of fungus) 
 in the wheat ; but some regard it as lead- 
 poisoning. See ' Plagues,' &c. 
 
 Poland {Father of). Boleslas I. 
 (960,992-1025) called the Great, certainly 
 the greatest sovereign of the age. 
 
 Poland {The Golden Age of). The 
 reign of Casimir IV. (1444-1492). 
 
 Others call the reign of Sigismund I. 
 (1506-1548) the ' golden age of Poland.' 
 Perhaps it would be more correct to join 
 the two and say 1444 to 1548 was the 
 golden age. Lithuania, Smolensk, and 
 the vast territories beyond the Euxine 
 and the Baltic obeyed Sigismund ; while 
 his nephew Louis possessed Hungary, 
 Bohemia, and Silesia. 
 
 Pole Star {Knights of the), 1741. A 
 military order of Sweden instituted by 
 King Frederick. The decoration is a 
 Latin cross with four crowns ; the le- 
 gend being ' Nescit Occasum,' in allusion 
 to the pole star, which never sets. 
 
 Police Strike {The London), 5 
 July, 1890. The constables at Bow Street 
 and the Metropolitan Police refused to 
 go on duty. They complained of insuffi- 
 cient pay (22s. a week), and demanded 
 two-thirds of their pay as a superannua- 
 tion pension after 25 years' service. The 
 chief commissioner, Sir Edward Brad- 
 ford, dismissed or removed above 400 of 
 the force, and the strike collapsed. 
 
 At the same time the 2nd Grenadier Guards, 
 some of the London postmen, and telegraph clerks 
 struck for less work and more wages. Probably 
 the insubordination of the Irish Home Rule party 
 was responsible for these disturbances. The 
 Grenadier Guards were relieved of the extra duty 
 which they complained of, but were sent off im- 
 mediately on colonial service to the islands of 
 Bermuda for ' change of air ' ; and the telegraph 
 clerks were told that they were free to go wfth 
 proper notice. 
 
POLICE 
 
 POOR 
 
 Police System [The), 1814. Ori- 
 ginated by Sir Eobert Peel, chief secre- 
 tary for Ireland ; perfected in 1836. Pro- 
 viding a complete and efficient consta- 
 bulary force both day and night for the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Poliorce'tes (5 syl.), * Besieger of 
 cities.' Demetrius the Phalerean, his- 
 torian, philosopher, poet, and king of 
 Macedonia (b.c. 337, 294-287, died 283). 
 
 Political Handkerchief {Bert- 
 hold's), 1831, price 'id. Printed and 
 published by H. Berthold, No. 1 Bouverie 
 Street, Fleet Street, and 14 Duke Street, 
 Lincoln's Inn Fields. ' It was a pocket- 
 handkerchief or book printed on cotton 
 to avoid the paper tax. It contained 
 various political articles, as the prophecy 
 of Napoleon on various European States, 
 &c.' 
 
 In 1832 an untaxed almanac, price Id., 
 was printed on linen by John Smith, No. 
 1 Bouverie Street, &c. 
 
 Politiques {Les). ' The Politicans,' 
 the ' malcontents in the religious wars in 
 the reign of Charles IX. and Henri III. 
 The leaders were Francois d' Aleu^on (the 
 king's brother), Henri king of Navarre, 
 the Prince de Conde, and the Mont- 
 morencys. They were part Catholics, 
 part Huguenots, recommended mutual 
 tolerance, and proposed tenns of peace 
 between the Catholics and Protestants. 
 In 1574 some of the Politiques conspired 
 against Charles IX., and two of the con- 
 pirators (La Mole and Coconas) were be- 
 headed. At the death of Charles IX. 
 they took up arms, but were defeated by 
 Henri de Guise at Dormans in 1575. 
 The party melted away after the treaty 
 of Beaulieu in 1576. 
 
 Called Politicians, because they advocated new 
 maxims of politics and political liberty, such as 
 the lawfulness of deposing bad kings. And called 
 Malcontents, because they were not content with 
 either the Catholic or Protestant party of France. 
 
 Polyglot Bibles. 1. The Hexapla, 
 attempted by Origen (220-250) ; and pro- 
 jected by Aldus 1501. 
 
 2. The Complutensian (q.v.), under 
 the patronage and at the expense of 
 Cardinal Ximenes (1502-1517). 
 
 S. The Plantin, or Antwerp, printed 
 by Christopher Plantin, and edited by 
 Arius Montanus (15G9-1572). 
 
 4. The Pans, by Le Jay (1628-1645). 
 
 5. The London, edited by Walton 
 
 (1654-1657), in nine languages — Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Ethiopic, 
 Arabic, Persian, Greek, and Latin. 
 
 6. Hutter's, published at Niirnberg 
 (1599). 
 
 7. -Baxter's, London, 1831. See 'Bible.' 
 
 Complutum is Alcaic de Henares (3 syl.), a town 
 near Madrid in New Castile. 
 
 Pomfret Marbles {The). A part 
 of the Arundel collection, given to Oxford 
 University in 1755. 
 
 Pons Subli'cius. The first Roman 
 bridge. It was built over the Tiber by 
 Ancus Martins on wooden piles {suhlicce), 
 whence its name. 
 
 Pontifical {The). The service-book 
 of the Romish bishops, embracing all 
 that pertains to their several functions, 
 as the ' Ceremonial ' describes the 
 various functions of the pope. It is 
 attributed to Pope Gelasius (492-496) 
 and Gregory the Great (590-604). See 
 ' Ceremonial ' and ' Ritual.' 
 
 Pontifical Indiction {The). 
 Begins 25 Dec, B.C. 8. 
 
 Poor Brothers of St. John 
 
 {The), 1048. Some Italian merchants 
 obtained permission of the Kalif to 
 build a hospital at Jerusalem for the 
 protection of pilgrims. The hospital 
 was dedicated to St. John the Ahnoner. 
 During the first crusade many of the 
 wounded were taken to this hospital, and 
 after restoration to health dedicated 
 themselves to a life of charity, under the 
 designation of the Poor Brothers of St. 
 John, consisting of knights, clergy, and 
 serving brothers. Their dress was a 
 black robe, on which was embroidered a 
 white cross with eight points. These 
 Poor Brothers were called 'Knighta 
 Hospitallers,' from the ' Hospital of St. 
 John the Almoner.' They are also called 
 'White Cross Knights,' in contradistinc- 
 tion to the Knights Templars, who were 
 Red Cross Knights. 
 
 Poor Clares, or Clarisses, 1224. 
 Founded by St. Francis of Assisi, and 
 placed under the charge of Clare or 
 Clarisse of Assisi, his favourite nun. 
 
 Poor Knights {The), 1348. Insti- 
 tuted by Edward III. Twenty- four in 
 number, maintained in St. George's 
 chapel. The charity was instituted to 
 provide a comfortable home for valiant 
 
700 
 
 POOE 
 
 POPE 
 
 soldiers fallen into poverty and decay. 
 The number was increased by James I. 
 to twenty-six, and each knight had a 
 pension of 181. 5s., paid quarterly. 
 
 Now called 'Military Knights,' and no longer 
 limited to soldiers who have fallen into poverty 
 and decay, but, like college sizars, often awarded 
 to poor gentlemen still in the service. There are 
 two foundations, the Koyal and the Lower. The 
 Lower Foundation consists of five knights, added 
 by Sir Peter Lemaire and Sir Francis Crane. 
 
 Poor "Larw Amendment Act 
 
 {The), 1834 (4, 5 Will. IV. c. 76). Com- 
 missioners appointed for the better ad- 
 ministration of the ' Poor Laws.' It re- 
 pealed the law of settlement, united 
 parishes into unions, each union being 
 placed under a Board of Guardians 
 elected annvially by the ratepayers. It 
 created 585 unions, including 13,964 
 parishes, in England and Wales. Be- 
 sides these there are 21 unions by 
 Local Acts, 12 by Gilbert's Act (q.v.), 
 and the 89 parishes of the Scilly Isles 
 included in a union. These, with 37 
 single parishes, make up the whole 
 number of 14,610 parishes. Each union 
 has a clerk, an auditor, a chaplain, a 
 medical officer, relieving officers, a master 
 and matron, schoolmaster and school- 
 mistress. 
 
 The principle embodied in the Act was to make 
 the parish the hardest taskmaster, so as to drive 
 able-bodied men to seek honest work elsewhere, 
 and not hang in laziness on parish relief. The 
 effects have been to reduce parochial expenditure, 
 to diminish crime, and to encourage thrift. 
 
 Poor Men of Lyons (The), 12th 
 cent. Religious reformers of the Ceven- 
 nes, or Mont de Lyonnais, who probably 
 were organised by Peter Waldo, a rich 
 merchant of Lyons. Though they held 
 similar religious views to those of the 
 Waldenses, they must not be confounded 
 with them, seeing the Waldenses existed 
 350 years before the Lyonists. The Poor 
 Men of Lyons dressed in mean attire, 
 made a vow of voluntary poverty, and 
 during the persecutions of the Waldenses 
 and Albigenses also were involved in 
 the same massacres. Those who escaped 
 the fire and the sword hid themselves in 
 the mountains of Provence and Pied- 
 mont, where they lived in concealment 
 till 1545, when those of Provence were 
 extirpated. In 1686-7 the survivors lurk- 
 ing about Piedmont were driven into 
 Switzerland, and there still exist from 
 sixteen to twenty thousand of these re- 
 formers. 
 
 Poor Priests {The). The preach- 
 ing disciples of Wyclif, who went about 
 barefoot, in plain frieze gowns. 
 
 Pope {The Huguenot). Philippe de 
 Mornay, sieur du Plessis, so called from 
 his ' Treatise on the Sacrament of the 
 Eucharist,' published in 1598. He died 
 in 1623, at the age of 74. 
 
 Pope {The Worst). Alexander VI., 
 father of Cesare Borgia, his sister 
 Lucrezia, and several other sons and 
 daughters of inferior notoriety. Simony, 
 treason, murder, poisoning, are amongst 
 the crimes attributed to him (1431, 1492- 
 1503). 
 
 Pope Joan {Papissa Joanna). ' John 
 VIII.,' said to have held the chair of St. 
 Peter from 853 to 855, between Leo IV. 
 and Benedict III. To make this state- 
 ment good the death of Leo IV. is 
 placed in the year 853 (not 855). The 
 tale is that she was an English girl, edu- 
 cated at Cologne, who assumed man's 
 clothes in order to elope with a monk of 
 Fulda. While at Rome she earned such 
 high reputation for her learning that she 
 was chosen to succeed Pope Leo IV., 
 and assumed the name of John VIII. 
 Her sex was discovered by the birth 
 of a child as she was going from the 
 Coliseum to the church of St. Clement. 
 Being strangled, the time of her pontifi- 
 cate was added to that of her predecessor. 
 
 Anastatius (886), in his ' Liber Pontificalis," men- 
 tions the story, and as this was only thirty years 
 after the death of Leo, if the passage is genuine, 
 it is proof positive of the fact. 
 
 Marianus Scotus (1083), in his ' Universal Chro« 
 nicle,' repeats the story. 
 
 Sigebert of Gemblours (1030-1113), in his ' Chro- 
 nicles,' does the same. 
 
 In the ' Augustan Annals ' (11.S5) we are told that 
 this papissa in 855 consecrated Louis II. of France. 
 
 Etienne de Bourbon (1225) states the tale as an 
 historic fact. 
 
 Otto of Freisingen, and Godefroid of Viterbo, 
 both mention her in their histories. 
 
 Martinus Polonus (1278), in his 'Chronicles of 
 the Popes and Emperors,' tells us that John, an 
 Englishman, succeeded Leo IV., and that this 
 pope was said to be a woman, whose sex was 
 discovered by the birth of a child on her way 
 from the Coliseum to St. Clement's Church. 
 
 Thomas de Elmham repeats the story in 1422. 
 
 Platina (1479), in his ' Lives of the Popes,' repeats 
 the story. 
 
 WiUiam Occam alludes to the story. 
 
 John Huss tells us her baptismal name was not 
 Joan, but Agnes. Others say her baptismal name 
 was (jilberta. 
 
 Spanheim (1600-1649) tells the same tale in his 
 ' Exercit. de Papa Fsemina.' ii. 577. 
 
 Lenfant (1661-1728) wiote a 'History of the 
 Female Pope.' He was the author of a ' History 
 of the Council of Constance,' a ' History of Pisa/ 
 a ' History of the Hussite Wars,' &o. 
 
POPE 
 
 POPES 
 
 701 
 
 Prof. Kist of Leyden believed the tale to be true. 
 
 Mosheim (1G94-1755), in his ' Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory,' seems inclined to credit the story, though 
 he aclcnowledges that it is doubtful. 
 
 Indubitably a statue of Pope Joan occupied 
 a place among the accredited popes in the 
 cathedral church of Sienna. See Pagi, * Critica,' 
 vol. iii. p. r.24. 
 
 At least 150 authors, on every variety of subject, 
 in the 13th, 14th, loth, 16th cents, repeat the tale 
 as an accredited fact. 
 
 Till the time of the Reformation it was un- 
 doubtedly considered to be a gentiine historic 
 fact. 
 
 CON. 
 
 Allatins, or Allatus, contradicts the story in his 
 'Confutatio Fabulse de Johanna Papissa ' (17th 
 cent.). 
 
 Lequien does the same in his 'Oriens Chris- 
 tianus,' iii. 777 (18th cent.). 
 
 Blondel, a Calvinist divine (1649), wrote a book 
 in confutation of the story. 
 
 Gibbon (1737-17ii4), in his ' Decline,' &c., chap, 
 xlix., calls the story a ' fable,' and thinks that the 
 appointment of popes by such prostitutes as 
 Marozia and Theodora may have suggested the 
 tale. 
 
 Bayle (1760-1815), In his 'Dictionnaire Critique,' 
 article 'Papisse,' gives arguments pro and con, 
 but decides against the story. 
 
 It is said that the clause in Anastatius ( ' Liber 
 Pontificalis ') is a forgery. 
 
 Pagi, Muratori, and Leibnitz fix the date of the 
 death of Leo IV. in the year 857. 
 
 Photius (9th cent.) and Luitprand, or Liutprand, 
 omit all mention of Papissa Joanna (10th cent.). 
 
 *,* Arguments on both sides of the question are 
 given in Cunningham's translation of ' Geiseler 
 Lehrbuch,' ii. 21, 22. 
 
 The last person who critically examined the 
 question was Dollinger in ltM>3. 
 
 It is strange that no Catholic of note has written 
 to confute the story, but that the contra has been 
 left to a Calvinist minister, an atheist, and a line 
 or two of Gibbon, an infidel. 
 
 After all, it would be well indeed if the worst 
 thing that could be said against the popes of 
 Eome is that once a woman in male attire was 
 mistaken for a man. Undoubtedly for a century, 
 about the same period, there was a succession of 
 popes of most infamous reputation (see ' Popes of 
 the Tenth Cent.'). There was more than one boy 
 pope, and a host of antipopes. 
 
 N.B.— I cannot think that Blondel's book has 
 settled this vexed question, or anything like it. 
 Of course the supposed date of Leo's death is 
 wholly worthless unless it can be proved by in- 
 dependent testimony. 
 
 Pope of Rome {The). In 597 John 
 rV., the Jejunator, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, assumed the title of (Ecu- 
 menical Patriarch, or Universal Bishop. 
 This excited the indignation of the 
 bishop of Eome against both the patriarch 
 and the emperor. Soon after this, Mauri- 
 cius the emperor ■was murdered and his 
 successor (Phocas), in 602, ■was induced 
 by Boniface III. to confer on the pope of 
 Rome the title of the ' Universal Bishop,' 
 which occurred in 666. 
 
 There seems something ominous in the strange 
 date 660, connecting it with the 6C(i of Revelation 
 xiii. 18. ' Here is wisdom. Let him that hath un- 
 derstanding count the number of the beast, for it 
 is the number of a man, and the number is six 
 hundred three score and six ' (i.e. 6661. 
 
 *,* Before this the episcopal titles of Papa, 
 Apostolicus, Vicaritta Christi, Hummus Pontifex, and 
 
 Patriarcha were very loosely applied to all sorts of 
 bishops, &c. 
 
 Popes. Presuming that Peter ■was 
 in Rome, and that he was the first of the 
 popes, there have been 297 popes, 24 of 
 whom were anti-popes and one female (if 
 indeed ' Pope Joan ' was not wholly a 
 myth). Of the rest, 19 quitted Rome, 
 and 35 reigned elsewhere. 
 
 Eight of the reigns did not exceed a 
 month in duration, 40 extended over one 
 year, 22 over two years, 54 over five 
 years, 51 over fifteen years, 18 over 
 twenty years, and 9 have exceeded that 
 duration. 
 
 Of the 297 popes, 31 were declared 
 usurpers and heretics, 2 were young boys, 
 64 met with violent deaths (18 being 
 poisoned and 4 strangled). 
 
 Independently of the Avignon popes, 
 26 of the Roman popes were deposed, 
 expelled from Rome, or banished ; and 28 
 maintained their power only by foreign aid. 
 
 Very sad indeed is the history of the Popes as 
 Vicars of Christ on earth. 
 
 Popes and Kings. The 10th cent, 
 was the era of impious popes and pious 
 kings. 
 
 Good Kmgs, the last quarter of the 
 10th to the last quarter of the 11th 
 cent. : — 
 963-969. Nicephorus II., emperor of the 
 east, who united the hero 
 with the saint. 
 996-1031. Robert the Pious of France. 
 997-1038. St. Stephen of Hungary. 
 1000-1030. St. Olaus II. of Norway. 
 1002-1024. Heinrich II., called the Saint 
 and the Lame of Germany. 
 1012-1052, St. Boniface II. duke of 
 
 Tuscany. 
 1016-1035. Canute the Great of England, 
 
 a deeply religious man. 
 1024-1039. Konrad U. the Sage of Ger- 
 many. 
 1039-1056. Heinrich III. the Black King 
 of Germany. A model 
 prince. 
 1041-1066. Edward the Confessor. 
 1080-1086. St. Knut IV. the Great of 
 Denmark. 
 
 Popes of the 10th cent., the darkest 
 period of the papacy. There were twentj'- 
 five popes in the century, which gives the 
 average of four years to a pope. 
 
 Benedict IV. (900-903). II ne put eorrlger la de- 
 pravation des moeurs. 
 
 Leo V. i9(/3, 40 days), imprisoned by his chaplaii) 
 
702 
 
 POPES 
 
 POPISH 
 
 Christophorus, who usurped the office for nine 
 months, and was then deposed. 
 
 Sergius III. (904-yil), the 'pioteqi of Marozia, a 
 Jicentious woman of Borne. He lived criminally 
 with Theodora. 
 
 Anastasius 111.(911-913). Kome was BtiU under 
 the influence of infamous women. 
 
 Lando (913-914), appointed by the intrigues of 
 Theodora. He died in six months. 
 
 John X. (914-928), appointed by the intrigues of 
 Theodora, his courtesan, and cast into prison by 
 the harlot Marozia, daughter of Theodora. John 
 X. died in prison, probably by poison. 
 
 Leo VI. (928 929, seven months), probably 
 poisoned by Marozia. 
 
 Stephen VII. (929-931). A nonentity. ^ , ^ 
 
 John XI. (931-936), son of Marozia the harlot. 
 Cast into prison by another son of Marozia, and 
 left to die there. 
 
 Leo VII. (93G-939). Not a bad pope. 
 
 Stephen VIII. (989 942), father of Otho. 
 
 Martin HI. (942-94G). A nonentity. 
 
 Agapetus (946-956). Not a bad pope. 
 
 John XII. (956-963), grandson of the infamous 
 Marozia, was only eighteen when made pope. His 
 life was so licentious that he was deposed, and 
 probably assassinated. Leo was anti-pope 963-964. 
 
 Benedict V. (964-905) was elected pope 964, but 
 was detained at Hambvirg by the emperor, and 
 died there. 
 
 John XIII. (965-972). He was imprisoned in an 
 insurrection. 
 
 Benedict VI. (972-974), strangled in the Castle of 
 Angelo by Boniface VII., who usurped the pcm- 
 tifical office, but was driven from Kome in two 
 months. 
 
 Domnus or Donus II. (974-975), died suddenly, 
 probably by foul means. 
 
 Benedict VII. (975-983). His dead body was 
 dragged by the heels about the streets, and then 
 flung into the Tiber. 
 
 John XIV. (983-985), murdered in prison. 
 
 Boniface VII. (984-985), called anti-pope, mur- 
 dered his rivals Benedict VI. and John XIV. 
 
 John XV. (985), died before he was inaugurated. 
 
 John XVI. (985-996). A nonentity. 
 
 Gregory V. (996-999), driven from Rome by the 
 soldiers of hla uncle, John XVII., who usurped the 
 office. 
 
 Sylvester (999-l(X)3). A Frenchman of consider- 
 able mechanical genius, and accused of magic. 
 
 John XVII. (1003), anti-pope, the mere tool of 
 Crescentius the Roman demagogue. 
 
 A blaclier century cannot be shown than this 
 tenth century of the Roman popes. Of three or 
 four of the names nothing whatever is known. 
 These popes were names and nothing else. See 
 'Vopea (The Boy).' 
 
 *^* Yet was the doctrine of apostolic 
 succession first maintained in this bad 
 
 Popes {The Boy). John XII. (956- 
 963) was only 18 when he was made pope. 
 Benedict IX. was made pope in 1033 at 
 the age of 10. Both were profligate, ex- 
 travagant, and licentious. Jolm XII. 
 was probably assassinated ; and Benedict 
 IX. was deposed in 1044. 
 
 In the Greek Church Theophylactos, a son of 
 Eomanus (Emperor of the East), was made patri- 
 arch when a mere lad, but it would be hard to 
 find a more infamous character (933-956). 
 
 Giovanni de' Medici, son of Lorenzo (afterwards 
 Leo X.), was made a cardinal at the age of 14. 
 
 Popes {The Two). "Wliile there were 
 two popes, France, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, 
 and Cyprus supported the French pope, 
 
 who resided at Avignon ; but the Italians, 
 with England, Flanders, and the rest of 
 Europe, supported the Italian pope, who 
 resided at Rome. The former were called 
 Clementines and the latter Urbanists, 
 from Clement VII. and Urban VI., the 
 first of the two contemporaneous popes. 
 
 Pope's Cap. See under * Tiara.' 
 
 Pope's Kaiser {The), 'Pfaffen 
 Kaiser.' Karl IV. {q-v.), nominated to 
 the crown by Pope Clement VI. without 
 consulting the electors (1347-1378). 
 
 Popelitans, ' Populicans,' or*Pop- 
 licans ' {q.v.). 
 
 Popish Tlot {The). 1. 1678. A plot 
 which Titus Oates affirmed the Roman 
 Catholics had devised to murder the king 
 (Charles II.), to restore the United King- 
 dom to the pope, and to massacre the 
 Protestants as they were massacred in 
 France in the St. Bartholomew slaughter. 
 Oates said 20,000 Catholics were in the 
 league. The king believed the whole story 
 to be a hoax, but many strange discoveries 
 were brought to light which gave some 
 colour to a secret plot, and the whole 
 nation was in a panic. 
 
 There was a scandalous rumour which charged 
 the king himself, the Duke of York, and Louis XIV. 
 of France with being the secret conspirators. 
 They were quite capable of being so. 
 
 II. May 1798. An Irish insurrection in 
 which Wolfe Tone induced the French 
 to lend a hand under golden promises to 
 the Directory, Some 14,000 Irish under 
 the lead of Father Murphy attacked 
 Wexford, and put to death a number of 
 prisoners. They then took Enniscorthy, 
 but being attacked by General Lake, both 
 Wexford and Enniscorthy were retaken. 
 At Scullabogue the insurgents massacred 
 100 Protestants in cold blood. The mas- 
 sacre of Protestants by the insurgents 
 obtained for the rebellion the name of 
 the Popish Plot, but the leading Catholics 
 protested against the name, and offered 
 their aid to government to put it down. 
 When all seemed over, General Humbert 
 landed from France with 900 men in three 
 French frigates, but was defeated by Lord 
 Cornwallis and surrendered. A few days 
 afterwards Sir John Warren fell in with a 
 French line-of-battle ship and 8 frigates. 
 He captured the ship and 3 of the frigates. 
 Wolfe Tone was executed, and so ended 
 this absurd revolt. 
 
 Wolfe Tone was a mere unprincipled adven- 
 tui-cr, who oHered his services, as a buccaneer, 
 
POPISH 
 
 PORTE 
 
 703 
 
 both to Pitt and to the Duke of Richmond. 
 Pitt did not condescend even to answer him, 
 and Tone, out of spite, turned ' patriot ' (or 
 rebel). Incredible as it may seem, Mr. Gladstone, 
 in 18t?9, w-rote a letter, published in tiie Scotch 
 newspapers, containing this sentence : ' I am 
 glad an effort has been made to do justice (!) to 
 Wolfe Tone. It is one of the most grievous facts 
 of Irish history that, at the close of the last cen- 
 tury, her reb.^ls were in many cases the very 
 flower of her children ' (!!). Only read the ' Me- 
 moirs ' of Wolfe Tone, written by himself, and see 
 if there is one single redeeming feature in his 
 whole life. He was an idle scamp, who deserted 
 his wife, and turned rebel, as he would have 
 turned buccaneer, from the grossest motives. 
 Bead ' Nineteenth Century," May 1890, pp. 733-756. 
 
 Popish. Wind {A). A west wind. 
 See * Protestant,' &c. 
 
 31 Oct. I was present when James received 
 letters from Newport, informing him, with extra- 
 vagant exaggeration, of the dispersion of the 
 Prince of Oranges fleet. At dinner he said to the 
 French ambassador, ' At last the wind has declared 
 itself popish. You must know ' (he added ' for these 
 three days I have caused the Holy Sacrament to 
 be carried in procession.'— Misson. 
 
 Pop'licans, 1160. So the Waldenses 
 (q.v.) who passed over to England from 
 Aquitaine were called. The word is a 
 contraction of Populicani, a corrupt form 
 of Publicaui, so called because they 
 imitated the publican more than the 
 pharisee who went to the temple to pray, 
 
 Popola'ri ( The) . The Venetian ple- 
 beians, exercising small industries. 
 
 Porch (The). Zeno's school was so 
 called because the disciples of this Greek 
 philosopher met in the porch Poecile. 
 The Stoics were meant {a-rod^ a porch). 
 
 Similarly we have the Garden sect, and so on. 
 
 Por'cian Law {The). That no Ro- 
 man citizen shall be scourged (Acts xvi. 
 22, 25-30, 37). 
 
 Por'phyrogen'itus. So Constan- 
 tine VII. was called. Gibbon (chap, 
 xlviii.) says the word means ' born to the 
 purple ' ; but this etymology is by no 
 means certain. 
 
 There was an island called Porphyria between 
 Crete and Peloponnesus ; if he was born there the 
 word would mean 'born in Porphyris,' but is it 
 certain he was born there ? 
 
 Porphyry's ' Oracles of Philosophy ' 
 proved by Dr. Lardner to be a literary 
 imposition. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Porson Prize (T/ie). For the best 
 translation into Greek verse of a given 
 passage from Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, 
 Massinger, or Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 Given in Greek books to an undergraduate 
 of the University of Cambridge. Value 
 about 121. Founded by the trustees of 
 
 a fund raised for the benefit of Richard 
 Porson, professor of Greek, 1816. See 
 ' Regius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 Porson Scholarship for Classics. 
 Value 65Z. a year, and tenable for 4 years. 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge 
 out of a fund raised for the benefit of 
 Richard Porson, professor of Greek, 1855. 
 
 Porson died in 1808, but the fund was left to 
 accumulate. 
 
 Port Act (The), mi. 
 Boston Port Bill.' 
 
 See p. 115, 
 
 Port Royal. An abbey founded in 
 1204 of the rule of St. Benedict ; it had 
 for its object the education of youths. In 
 1625, the abbey being too small, the semi- 
 nary was transferred to Paris, and on the 
 publication of Jansen's ' Augustlnus ' (g.v.) 
 became fervent supporters of Jansenism 
 iq.v.) against the Sorbonne (q.v.). From 
 1636 the monastery of Port Royal was the 
 retreat of scholars who worked with their 
 hands and taught youths. In 1790 the 
 monastery was suppressed with most 
 others, and was converted into the prison 
 called Port Libre. 
 
 The most illustrious members were Arnauld, 
 Andilly (two brothers), Lemaistre de Sacy, Nicole, 
 Lancelot, Fontaine, and Lenain de Tillemont! 
 Pascal visited it often, and was a Jansenist. It 
 produced some first-class educational books, and 
 the Bible de Sacy. 
 
 Port Royal (Doctrines of the). 
 These doctrines were in accordance with 
 those of the Jansenists. The chief 
 authors of Port Royal in defence of the 
 ' Augustlnus ' of Cornelius Jansen were 
 the brothers Arnauld, Lemaistre de Sacy 
 and his two brothers, Nicole, Lancelot, 
 Fontaine, Lenain de Tillemont, and 
 Pascal. 
 
 Portcullis. One of the four pursui- 
 vants of England. See ' Heralds.' 
 
 Porte (The). Originally meant Bag- 
 dad or its caliphate. Mostasem, last of the 
 Abbasside califs, set in the threshold of 
 the principal gate of his palace at Bagdad 
 a small piece of the famous Black Stone, 
 
 * given to Ishmael by the angel Gabriel,' 
 and built into the shrine of Mecca, called 
 the 'Caaba.' This gate was called La 
 Porte by excellence. Mostasem was calif 
 1243-1258. See next article. 
 
 Porte (The), or 'The Sublime Porte,' 
 1324. The court of the sultan of the 
 Ottoman empire. Orchan, called the 
 
 * Padishah ' {i.e. the ' Shah defender). 
 
704 
 
 POETE 
 
 POST 
 
 succeeded his father Othman in 1824, and 
 built offices for the transaction of public 
 business at the great gate of the palace. In 
 the language of diplomacy ambassadors 
 are distinguished by the court or locality 
 where they perform their functions, and 
 those in Turkey are ambassadors to * La 
 Porte,' for French was for many years 
 the language of diplomacy. The ' Sub- 
 lime Porte ' means the ' lofty gate.' 
 Bagdad had been called 'The Porte' 
 nearly a hundred years before the reign 
 of Orchan. 
 
 Porte Libre, 1790. A prison in 
 Paris, formerly the famous Port Koyal 
 monastery. 
 
 Porteous Kiot {The), 1736. Two 
 smugglers from Fife (Wilson and Robert- 
 son) were condemned to death, and con- 
 fined in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh, 
 popularly styled ' The Heart of Mid- 
 lothian.' They tried to escape, but 
 "Wilson, a strong stout man, got wedged 
 in the gap they had made, and the two 
 prisoners were secured. When they 
 attended service in the Tolbooth church 
 they were guarded by four soldiers. 
 Wilson seized two in his hands and one 
 with his teeth, calling to Robertson to 
 escape. Robertson shook ofE the remain- 
 ing soldier, escaped, and was never 
 again captured. When Wilson was exe- 
 cuted Captain Porteous was ordered with 
 his city guard to attend, and being 
 assailed by stones he fired on the mob. 
 His men also fired, killing four and 
 wounding eleven of the mob. Porteous 
 was tried for his life and found guilty, 
 but received a reprieve On 7 Sept.. 
 the day on which the reprieve expired, 
 the mob broke into the Tolbooth, seized 
 Porteous, and hanged him in the Grass 
 Market, the place where Wilson was 
 executed, on a dyer's pole, to which a 
 new rope was suspended. This being 
 done, the mob quietly dispersed, and did 
 no mischief to any other person nor 
 injury to any property. {See Sir Walter 
 Scott, 'Heart of Midlothian.') 
 
 Portiforium {A). ' Liber vocatus 
 Portiforium antiquiim, secundum usum 
 Sarum,' &c. That is, a breviary with 
 running annotations ; a portable manual. 
 
 Portland Vase (T/ie). The famous 
 Barberi'ni vase purchased from Sir 
 William Hamilton by the Duchess of 
 
 Portland for 1,000 guineas, and presented 
 in 1810 to the British Museum by the 
 Duke of Portland. 
 
 This Greek vase was for more than two centuries 
 the principal ornament of the Barberini palace. 
 The material is glass. It was a cinerary urn, but 
 neither the maiier nor date is known. 
 
 In 184.5 it was wantonly smashed by William 
 Lloyd, but has been very carefully repaired. It 
 is ton inches high, and six in diameter at the 
 broadest part. 
 
 Portugal {The Golden Age of). 
 The reign of Emanuel (1495-1521). 
 Vasco da Gama lived in this reign. 
 
 Portuguese Livy {The). Joao 
 da Barros (1496-1570), author of 'Asia 
 Portugueza.' 
 
 Positivism. The system of Au- 
 guste Comte (1799-1857). Discarding 
 the possibility of knowing the beginning 
 and the end of anytlring, it concerns 
 itself only with what lies between. It 
 accepts neither atheism, theism, nor 
 pantheism. It may be divided into two 
 parts : the historic conception and the 
 co-ordination of the sciences. The 
 former is this: that the human mind 
 passes through three states, viz. the 
 theological, the metaphysical, and the 
 positive. In all subjects capable of 
 experiment it passes from metaphysics 
 to experimental verification or exact 
 science. In regard to the co-ordination 
 of the sciences the basis is mathematics ; 
 then follow astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
 biology, and sociology. Take the last : 
 The science of society is impossible 
 without the science of life. The science 
 of life is impossible without chemistry. 
 Chemistry presupposes physics, physics 
 astronomy, and astronomy mathematics. 
 
 Posse Comita'tus, i.e. the power 
 of the county, meaning the persons 
 whom a sheriff is empowered to raise in 
 his county in case of rebellion, riot, or 
 invasion. They are all the able-bodied 
 men between fifteen and seventy years 
 of age. Any peace officer can raise a 
 posse to assist in quieting a rebellion or 
 opposing an invasion. 
 
 It used to be customary lor the high sheriff to 
 meet the judge or judges a mile from the assize 
 town, accompanied by a train of servants, 
 yeomen, or others on horseback, called his 
 ' posse-men.' After the assize the judges were 
 similarly escorted out of the town ; but since the 
 introduction of railways these pageants have 
 been discontinued 
 
 Post Office. (TM, London. Esta- 
 blished by ordinance of parliament 1656. 
 
POST 
 
 POUCH 
 
 705 
 
 Remodelled in Queen Anne's reign 1710 
 by the Act of Settlement. Cross- 
 posts projected by Ralph Allen, post- 
 master of Bath, who obtained a licence 
 to establish them, for which he paid the 
 government 6,000Z, a year, and made a 
 profit of 10,000/. annually. At his death 
 the government added the cross-posts to 
 the general post. Rowland Hill's reform 
 was carried into effect in 1839, and the 
 ' penny post ' system was introduced. 
 
 This Kalph AUen is the ' AUworthy ' of Fielding's 
 •Tom Jones.' A most benevolent man, of whom 
 Pope says : 
 
 Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame, 
 Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame. 
 
 Post Office Orders for the trans- 
 mission of money were introduced in 
 1840. These orders require the names of 
 sender and recipient, so a departure has 
 been permitted in Postal Orders, which 
 circulate like small notes. 
 
 Post Office Savings Bank, 1861. 
 
 For investing small sums of money, from 
 Is. to 30Z., for which Government pays 
 6^. in the pound interest. Not more than 
 sol. can be deposited in any one year, 
 and interest is not allowed for more than 
 1501. 
 
 Postage Stamp (The), 6 May, 1840. 
 Invented by James Chalmers of Dundee 
 [1782-1853]. His tablet records the event : 
 ' To the memory of Ja>ees Chalmers, 
 Bookseller, Dundee. Bom 1782. Died 
 1853. Originator of the Adhesive Postage 
 Stamp, which saved the Penny Postage 
 Scheme of 1840 from collapse, rendering 
 it an unqualified success, and which has 
 since been adopted throughojit the 
 postal systems of the world. This me- 
 morial was erected by his son Patrick 
 Chalmers, Wimbledon, 1888.' 
 
 Adopted in America in 1847. 
 
 Postmaster. A 'scholar' is so 
 called at Merton College, Oxford. 
 
 Postmastership, 1370. The tenure 
 of the rights and privileges of a post- 
 master ; a kind of scholarship in Merton 
 College, Oxford, founded by Dr. Wyllyott 
 for poor students called ' portionistfe,' 
 but called ' postmasters ' since 1380. The 
 institution is peculiar to Merton. 
 
 Potato Disease (The), 1845. First 
 a brown spot was observable on the 
 skin of the potato ; then the spot became 
 darker, the leaves and flowers of the 
 
 ptlant shrivelled up, and then in a short 
 time the potato and stalk became putrid. 
 
 Potato Famine (The), 1846. The 
 
 Irish famine produced by the almost 
 utter failure of the potato crop from what 
 was called ' potato-rot.' It is generally 
 admitted that 200,000 persons died of 
 famine in Ireland in the year of the 
 potato-rot. 
 
 This fearful calamity has proved one of the 
 greatest blessings to Ireland. ' It hurried on the 
 introduction of free-trade. It indirectly brought 
 about the arterial drainage of many of the main 
 rivers of Ireland. It created the Land Improve- 
 ment Act. It brought into existence the Incum- 
 bered Estates Court, one of the most important 
 acts ever passed in Ireland. It drove some mil- 
 lions of Irish to the other side of the Atlantic. It 
 broke up to a great extent the very small farms 
 of Ireland. It relieved the plethora of the labour 
 market. It removed the needy country gentle- 
 men, and forced them to sell their estates to 
 capitalists. It brought over hundreds of Scotch- 
 men and Englishmen, who have introduced 
 more scientific farming than had been hitherto 
 practised in Ireland. And, in short, it has pro- 
 duced a revolution in the country which has 
 continued to the present day.— W. S. Tkench, 
 EeaUties of Irish Lije, p. 105. 
 
 Potato SnuflP-boxeS. Snuff-boxes 
 made of mashed potatoes ; the material 
 resembled papier tndche. They were 
 adorned with paintings and designs. 
 Such snuff-boxes were common enough 
 in the first half of the 19th cent. 
 
 Pothi (The). The Bible of the Sikhs 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Potsdam, in Prussia (Treaty of), 
 Oct. 1805. A treaty of alliance solemn- 
 ised by Czar Alexander I. and Frederick 
 WilUam III. of Prussia by an oath 
 sworn on the tomb of Frederick the 
 Great. The object of this alliance was 
 directed against Napoleon. The result 
 was the battle of Austerlitz on 2 Dec. 
 Russia lost 30,000 warriors, buried under 
 the ice of a lake which broke beneath 
 their feet, and 15 of her generals were 
 taken prisoners, or slain on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 Potteries (The). North Stafford- 
 shire is so called from the numerous 
 pottery manufactories established there. 
 
 Potteries (The Father of the) 
 Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795). 
 
 Pouch (Captain). The assumed 
 name of John Reynolds, head of the 
 Levellers in the Midland counties in the 
 May of 1607. Being captured, he was 
 executed the same year. 
 
 ZZ 
 
706 
 
 POUGATCHEFF 
 
 PK^TOE 
 
 Pougatcheif the Pretender. 
 
 Emilian Pougatclieff, a Cossack of the 
 Don, who had served during the Seven 
 Years' war in the armies of Russia, 
 Prussia, and Austria. On his return to 
 his own country he incited a rebelhon in 
 1773, and assumed to be Peter III., who 
 had been assassinated in 1762. Defeated 
 in 1774 on the banks of the Volga, he 
 was captured, and beheaded at Moscow 
 in 1775. See ' Otrepieff .' 
 
 PoAATis Medal. See under * Cam- 
 den and Powis Medals.' 
 
 Po^wys Land. One of the three 
 divisions of Wales made by Roderick 
 Mawr among his sons. Powys Land 
 fell to the lot of Mawr's youngest son, 
 Mervyn. (Powys, in Welsh, means ' the 
 state of being at rest or peace.') 
 
 Poyning's Act, or 'Poyning's 
 Law,' or ' Statute of Drogheda,' 10 Hen. 
 VII. c. 22, A.D. 1495, which declared that 
 all general statutes before then made in 
 England shall be of force in Ireland 
 also; and that no Irish act shall be 
 valid unless first submitted to the king 
 and council of England. The Irish par- 
 liament might reject a bill so approved, 
 but could not alter it. Repealed 1782. 
 
 (Sir Edward Poyning was lord deputy ol Ireland 
 at the time.) , , . 
 
 He [Charles I.] therefore authorised him to 
 grant the suspension of Poyning's act, and to 
 remove all the penal acts against the Catholics.— 
 HowiTT, History of England, Charles I., p. 253. 
 
 Pozzi {The). Venetian dungeons 
 beneath the level of the canals, in the 
 hollow walls of the doge's palace. See 
 ' Piombi.' 
 
 Praefectus Praeto'rio. In the 
 
 old Roman Empire. Augustus created 
 two ; but Tiberius reduced them to one : 
 Commodus re-established the original 
 number; but Diocletian created four, 
 one for each quarter of his empire. The 
 praetorian prefect was the commanding 
 officer of the praetorian guard. In the 
 second and third centuries they gradually 
 usurped all authority and became virtu- 
 ally the masters even of the emperors. 
 Constantine reduced their civil power, 
 but gave each prsefect authority in his 
 own quarter, called his preefecture. The 
 four were then called ' Praefectus praetorio 
 per Gallias,' 'Praefectus praetorio per 
 Illyricum,' 'Praefectus praetorio per 
 
 Italiam,' and 'Praefectus praetorio per 
 Orientem.' 
 There were many other officers called praefects : 
 
 as preefectws annomc, pjcefcctus classi, pya-feclus 
 legionibus, pnefectus csrarto, &c. 
 
 Praemunire {Statute of), 27 Edw. 
 III. s. 1, c. 1, A.D. 1353. An act of 
 Parliament specifying what things are to 
 be denounced as marks of contempt of 
 the king's kingship, such as the pope 
 presuming to appoint church dignitaries 
 instead of the sovereign; holding a royal 
 court in the realm — it was for holding 
 such a court as the pope's legate that 
 Cardinal Wolsey was prosecuted — main- 
 taining that the sovereign has no right to 
 the crown, or that someone else has a 
 better claim to it ; to assist at the mar- 
 riage of a royal prince or princess, con- 
 tracted in violation of the established 
 laws. The offences are short of treason, 
 but show directly or indirectly a con- 
 tempt for the king or queen. Martin V. 
 called this statute ' execrabile illud 
 statutum.' 
 
 ' Praemunire ' is dog Latin for pramoneri. The 
 ■writ begins thus : Praemunire facias M or N ... 
 (i.e. you shall cause "^r or N to be forewarned that 
 . . . &c.) The sta ut^4 are 35 Edw. I. 1306; -25 
 Edw. III. 13G4; IG lUch. II. 1393; 2 Hen. IV. 1401; 
 26 Hen. VIII. 1532; 5 Kliz. 1563, and many others. 
 Some were repealed in 1846. 
 
 The most important points of these 
 statutes besides those stated above are 
 these prohibitions : 
 
 1. To prohibit the introduction into 
 England of papal provisions. 
 
 2. To prohibit the intervention of the 
 pope in ecclesiastical elections. 
 
 3. To prohibit English subjects being 
 called to Rome on points which may be 
 settled in the royal courts of our own 
 land. 
 
 4. To prohibit foreigners being pre- 
 sented to English livings. 
 
 Gregory XI. convened a conference at 
 Bruges in 1375 to discuss these statutes. 
 
 Praetor. A Roman magistrate with 
 the function of a supreme judge in one 
 of the provinces. He was the chief 
 military, civil, legislative, and financial 
 functionary. His legislative manifesto 
 was called edictuni prcetoris. There 
 were always at Rome two praetors, the 
 prcBtor urhanus and the prcetor pere- 
 grmus, elected by the centuries. They 
 were seated on a curule chair and arrayed 
 with the toga prcetexta. 
 
 The ' sella curulis ' was like a camp stool, used 
 by kings, consuls, praetors, and curule eediles, who 
 
PEiETORIAN 
 
 PRAGUE 
 
 707 
 
 carried their chair about with them. Originally 
 tney were made of ivory, but latterly tliey were 
 inlaid with gold. 
 
 The ' toga prsetexta ' was a bordered robe worn 
 by aristocratic children, chief magistrates, dicta- 
 tors, consuls, preetors, and eediles. 
 
 PrSBtorian G-uard (The). Ori- 
 ginally the cohorts of the praetor, then 
 the imperial guard. They received 
 higher pay than other soldiers, and en- 
 joyed several important privileges. There 
 were originally nine praetorian cohorts; 
 Vitellius increased the number to sixteen ; 
 Septimus Severus still further increased 
 the number. For many years they acted 
 as dictators, and their insolence, want of 
 discipline, avidity, and insubordination 
 became proverbial. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction. 'Sanc+io 
 
 Pragniatica.' An ordinance relating to 
 the State or to the Church. The Latin 
 word sanctio means a decree or ordi- 
 nance with a penalty attached, in other 
 words ' a penal statute.' The word j;ra.^- 
 maticus means relating to the state. 
 Hence a pragmatic sanction is a ' penal 
 statute relating to the state.' 
 
 In civil law a 'pragmatic sanction' 
 means the response of the king to his 
 council ; the response to an individual 
 was called a ' rescript.' 
 
 Historically a pragmatic sanction 
 means a statute limiting or defining the 
 power of the pope in foreign countries ; 
 or a statute fixing the succession of the 
 crown in a certain line. What is gene- 
 rally meant by the term is the arrange- 
 ment made by Karl VI. in 1713, whereby 
 the crown of Germany was made heredi- 
 tary in the house of Austria. 
 
 The most important pragmatic sanc- 
 tions are the following : — 
 
 I. That of St. Louis in 1268, forbid- 
 ding the pope to levy taxes in France, 
 or to interfere in the appointment of the 
 clergy. 
 
 This important ordinance did for 
 France what the ' Constitutions of Cla- 
 rendon ' did for England. 
 
 The authenticity of this ordinance is doubtful^ 
 and certainly it is wholly out of harmony with the 
 sainted king, who was canonised by Boniface III. 
 only twenty seven years after his decease. It is 
 mentioned for the first time in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury in the ' Bibliotheque des Conciles, and is gene- 
 rally supposed to be a forgery. 
 
 II. Of Bense, in 1338, by which instru- 
 ment an elected king of Germany was 
 made ex officio kaiser or emperor of the 
 holy Roman empire, independent of the 
 pope's sanction, and without the neces- 
 
 sity of going to Rome to be crowned by 
 him. 
 
 Kens or Rense will not be found in ordinary 
 maps. It is on the Uhine, five miles from Cob- 
 lentz, and close by is tlie very famous Thronus 
 Regaiis iq.v.). 
 
 III. Of Bourges, called the ' Palladium 
 of France,' 7 July, 1438, published by 
 Charles VII. of France. This also had 
 for its scope the limitation of the power 
 of the i^apal authority in France. It 
 forbade the pope to present to any dig- 
 nity or any church living in the kingdom. 
 It is called the Magna Charta of the 
 Galilean Church. 
 
 It declares the authority of councils to be supe- 
 rior to that of the popes. Insists on the free elec- 
 tion of abbots and bishops by the chapters and 
 monks. It suppresses annates or first fruits and 
 o uher taxes claimed by Kome. It greatly restricted 
 the ellects of excommunication and interdicts. 
 Francois 1. in ir)16 suppressed this pragmatic 
 sanction, and substituted ' The Concordat of 
 Bologna ' instead (q.v.), 1516. 
 
 IV. Of the Emjjeror Earl VI. (17 
 Apr. 1713), to secure the hereditary suc- 
 cession of the states of Austria in the 
 female line. This was in order to trans- 
 mit the crown to his eldest daughter, 
 Maria Theresa. It was guaranteed by 
 most of the great powers of Europe, but 
 not by Spain till 1731. Karl VI. died in 
 1740. 
 
 This is the pr vgraatic sanction of historic emi- 
 nence, and is meant unless some qualifying date 
 or word is added to restrict it to some other in- 
 striunent. 
 
 V. 1723, whereby Hungary and the 
 Austrian provinces were declared insepa- 
 rable, and the ruler of both was always to 
 be one and the same person and of the 
 Habsburg dynasty, in the regular order 
 of succession in the male and female 
 lines; but, otherwise, Hungary was to 
 remain perfectly independent, and was to 
 be governed by its own laws. 
 
 VI. Of Carlos III. of Spain (1759), to 
 regulate the succession to the throne of 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Vn. Of Don Ferdinand, 2 April, 1767, 
 declaring all papal bulls and briefs to be 
 null and void in the duchy of Parma 
 and Piacenza, unless sanctioned by a 
 ducal exequatur. Declared void by papal 
 brief 1 Feb., 1768. 
 
 Our Constitutions of Clarendon, 1164, compellin(» 
 the clergy to submit to the civil laws, were virtu- 
 ally a. proijnuitic sanction. 
 
 Prague {Peace of). 
 
 I. 1635, between Kaiser Ferdinand 11. 
 and the electors of Saxony and Branden- 
 burg. 
 
 z z 2 
 
703 
 
 PKAGUERIE 
 
 PREACHING 
 
 II, 23 Aug., 1866. At the close of the 
 Seven Weeks' "War, Austria was entirely 
 excluded from Germany, and in 1870 the 
 King of Prussia was declared German 
 Emperor in addition to his other titles. 
 
 Praguerie {La), 1440. A revolt and 
 conspiracy in France to dethrone Charles 
 VII. and place Louis the Dauphin 
 (Louis XL) on the throne. The con- 
 spirators were Alexander, the natural 
 son of Bourbon, Charles and Louis de 
 Bourbon, Jean d'AleuQon, La Tre'moille, 
 Dunois, La Hire, and Xaintrailles. 
 Their head-quarters were Prague in 
 Bohemia, whence the name; but the 
 enterprise was badly conducted, and 
 Charles, marching to Prague, crushed 
 out the revolt before the end of six 
 months. The conspirators tendered 
 their submission, and were graciously 
 pardoned. 
 
 Prairial 1, 2, 3, An. III. i.e. 20, 
 21, 22 May, 1795. Noted for the insur- 
 rection against the Convention, the last 
 effort of the Jacobins against the Ther- 
 midorian reaction. The populace of 
 the faubourg seized the Salle de la 
 Convention, presided over by Boissy 
 d'Anglas, and assassinated the deputy 
 Feraud. The troops being called out 
 dispersed the mob. The convention 
 ordered the arrest of, thirteen deputies 
 who had taken part in the plot, six of 
 whom were executed. 
 
 Prairial 30 An. VII. «.e. 18 June 
 1799. When the directors La Reveilliere- 
 Lepeaux and Merlin were turned out of 
 office in favour of Roger Ducos and 
 Moulins. 
 
 Pras'inaPactio. The Green Coats, 
 a faction of Byzantium ; so called from 
 the green-coated charioteers in the circus. 
 They were opposed to the Emperor Jus- 
 tinian, who was a Blue Coat, or favourer 
 of the Veneta Factio [q.v.]. 
 
 Prason is the Greek for a ' leek,' and Prasmus 
 means green as a leek. 
 
 Prayer Book of Edward VI. 
 
 {The First), published 1549. Compiled 
 by Cranmer and Ridley, assisted by other 
 divines. The Communion Service was 
 drawn uj) for administration to the laity 
 in both kinds ; offices for holidays as well 
 as for Sundays, for baptism and confirma- 
 tion, were included ; and the marriage and 
 
 burial services were considerably altered. 
 See ' King's Primer.' 
 
 It began with the Lord's Prayer; it retained 
 prayers for the dead ; it enjoined anointing of the 
 sick. In 1550 the Ordination Service w^s added. 
 
 The Second, 1552. The First Prayer 
 Book, revised by Cranmer, Martin Bucer, 
 and Peter Martyr. The opening sentences, 
 exhortation, confession, and absolution 
 were added. The use of oil in baptism 
 was discontinued, so was anointing the 
 sick, and the prayers for the dead were 
 struck out. In 1559 the book was revised, 
 and the Elizabethan version is sometimes 
 called ' The Third Common Prayer Book.' 
 After the Hampton Court Conference 
 {q.v.) in the reign of James I. the book 
 was again revised, and some pvayera for 
 special occasions were introduced. In 
 1662, after the Restoration, when the 
 new authorised version of the Scriptures 
 was adopted, except in the Psalms, where 
 Coverdale's version was followed, the 
 sentences in the Communion Service, 
 the General Thanksgiving, the Form of 
 Prayer to be Used at Sea, the State 
 Services (viz. for Gunpowder Treason, 
 5 Nov. ; King Charles's Martyrdom, 
 30 Jan.; for the Restoration, 29 May; 
 and the King's Accession) were annexed. 
 The first three of these State Services 
 were omitted by an order in council given 
 by Queen Victoria in 1859. 
 
 Preacher {The). Juan Grande of 
 Andalusia (1546-1600). 
 
 Preaching Crosses. Generally 
 
 either quadrangular or hexagonal, open 
 on one or more sides, and raised on steps. 
 They were used for the delivery of sermons 
 in the open air. St. Paul's Cross was 
 very celebrated, and the collection of 
 sermons preached there is still known 
 and highly appreciated. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth, we are told, once went in state 
 to St. Mary's Cross to hear one of the Reformers 
 preach. Besides a vast train of lords and ladies, 
 she was ' accompanied by 1,000 soldiers, ten great 
 cannons, hundreds of drums and trumpets, a 
 party of morris-dancers, and two white bears.' 
 She delighted in loud music, for even when she 
 A'ent to dinner twelve trumpets, two kettle- 
 drums, and various other noisy instruments 
 amused her with thundering uproar. 
 
 Preaching Friars, 1215. The idea 
 of this order was suggested by Dominic 
 at the Council of Lateran, with a view of 
 stamping out the Vaudois and other 
 enemies of ' the Church.' At a later 
 period these preaching friars were called 
 Dominicans, from Dominic their founder. 
 
PRE-ADAMITE 
 
 PREGADI 
 
 709 
 
 St, Francis of Assisi about the same 
 time founded the order of Franciscans or 
 Minor Friars, worthy rivals of the Domi- 
 nicans. 
 
 Pre-Adamite Sovereign {The). 
 So the bankers of England nicknamed 
 the Georgian sovereigns called in by Mr. 
 Goschen in April 1890. 
 
 The pre Adamite sovereign is nowvery much In 
 evidence, for everywhere there are notices posted 
 up to the effect that they cannot be received. Tlie 
 Georgian gold is, in fact, as carefully avoided as 
 •were French coppers a couple of years ago.— 
 newspaper paruiirapk in April I8y0. 
 
 Prebend, Prebendary. A prebend 
 is a provision in land or money given to 
 a church iyiprcebeyidani, i.e. for the sup- 
 port of a clergyman whose title is either 
 prebendary or canon. There are nume- 
 rous honorary prebendaries and canons 
 without any stipend at all, but they are 
 provided with a prebendal stall in the 
 cathedral church of the diocese, and are 
 expected to preach in the cathedral occa- 
 sionally, or to supply a substitute. 
 
 Preceptor. The master of a pre- 
 ceptory, that is, a manor of the Knights 
 Templars. His duty was to take care of 
 the lands and collect the rents. Some- 
 times the word preceptor is applied to 
 the ' Magni Priores cujusque provincise, 
 penes quos erat summa potestas.' Du 
 Cange makes the word equivalent to 
 • Dominus Princeps, Supremus Magistra- 
 tus,' and in a.d. 950 to ' Abbas.' 
 
 Praeceptories were benefices . . . possessed by 
 the more eminent sort of the Templers [sicl whom 
 the Chief Master by his authority created and 
 called ' PrsBceptores Templi.' — Stephen, Jje 
 Jwisdictio)ie, bk. iv. chap. x. No. 27. 
 
 Precious Blood {The Feast of 
 the). The 1st Sunday in July. There are 
 other days dedicated to the Precious 
 Blood — for example, the fourth Friday in 
 Lent. Sometimes Corpus Christi (the 
 Thursday after Trinity Sunday) is so 
 called. Hence the hymn of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas. See ' Sunday.' 
 Pange lingua gloriosi Corporis mysterium 
 Sanguinisque pretiosi, quem in mundi protium 
 Fructus ventris generosi Rex effudit gentium. 
 
 Precis'ian {A), 1572. One of that 
 section of the Puritan party who con- 
 sidered obedience to the civil government 
 a matter of indifEerence. Or one who 
 professes a precise or thorough puritan 
 code of faith and conduct. 
 
 Since that [the burning of Latimer and Ridley] 
 Tony married a pure Precisian, and is as good a 
 Protestant as the best.— Sir W. ScoTT, Kenilicortli, 
 eh. ii. 
 
 Here is what neither Papist nor Puritan, Latitu- 
 
 dinarian nor Precisian, ever . . . makes mouths 
 SLt.—Ibid. chap. vi. 
 
 Precursor Association {O'Con- 
 nelVs), or ' Precursor Society,' 1838. So 
 called because it was designed to be the 
 precursor of the Repeal of the Unicn. 
 O'Connell said he had 2,000,000 ' Pre- 
 cursors ' to second his efforts. 
 
 Predestinarian Controversy 
 
 {The), 1594-lGOO. The question was, which 
 was correct, Calvin or Arminius. Calvin 
 asserted that God from all eternity pre- 
 destinated certain men unto eternal life, 
 wholly iri'espective of the works or faith 
 of those individuals. Arminius asserted 
 that God predestinated certain persons to 
 eternal life because by His foreknowledge 
 He foresaw they would be meet for salva- 
 tion. The matter was debated at Lambeth 
 Palace, and the result was the nine Lam- 
 beth Articles {q.v.), which are doubtlessly 
 Calvinistic, 
 
 Those who wish to know what view the Church 
 of England takes on this question, must consult 
 Article XVII. of the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 Predestinarians. A religious sect, 
 headed by John Calvin. They held that 
 the elect are predestined to be saved, 
 and cannot sin away grace. 
 
 The Predestinarians preached that the elect 
 could not sin, nor the regenerate fall from grace. 
 —Blunt, Reformation in England, p. 158. 
 
 Pre-established Harmony. A 
 
 term used by Leibnitz (164:6-1716) to ex- 
 plain the dual n;Jture of man. He sup- 
 posed there are in man two sorts of 
 monads or protoplasms, one spiritual and 
 the other material, and that they act 
 together by ' pre-established harmony.' 
 He compared man to two clocks, one the 
 mind clock and the other the body clock. 
 The mind clock determines, and the body 
 clock by simultaneous action does the 
 very thing that the mind determined on. 
 Not because soul and body are one, but 
 only because they work together in per- 
 fect harmony. Locke denied the fact of 
 ' innate ideas ' ; Leibnitz maintained that 
 the seeds of ideas are in the mind, as 
 the seeds of plants are in the plants. 
 
 Prefet. A French administrator of 
 a department called his ^^re/ec^i^re. Each 
 prefet has his sous-prefets with authority 
 in an arrondissement. 
 
 Prega'di {The). The Venetian se- 
 nate, between the Forty and the Grand 
 Council. To this senate was assigned all 
 deliberations upon peace and war, the 
 
10 
 
 PRELATISTS 
 
 PRESERVER 
 
 voting of supplies, and the confirmation 
 of laws. Both the Forty and the Pregadi 
 were elected by the Grand Council {Con- 
 siglio Grande). 
 
 Pre'latists. So the Scotch, in 1643, 
 &c., called the royalists in contempt, be- 
 cause they tried to force Episcopacj^ on 
 the people. In 1647 'Presbyte. ianism 
 was declared to be the established religion 
 of Scotland.' 
 
 Premonstratensian Order 
 
 (The), or ' Norbertiues,' 1119. Instituted 
 by St, Norberfc in the diocese of Laon, 
 during the reign of Louis le Gros. The 
 spot, which was a meadow, was pointed 
 out to him in a vision, and was therefore 
 called Pratuin Monsirdtum, in French 
 Pre Montre. They are White Canons of 
 the rule of St. Augustine, wear a white 
 soutane and scapular, and wholly abstain 
 from animal food. 
 
 Pre-Raphaelitism, 1849. A school 
 
 of painting which originated in England 
 with W. Holman Hunt, D. G. Rossetti, 
 Ahna Tadema, and J. E. Millais. So 
 called because it was supposed to be the 
 style of painting anterior to Raphael. 
 Raphael painted as he thought persons 
 and things ought to be. The pre-Raphael- 
 ites are supposed to copy nature exactly. 
 
 Prerogative Court (The). A 
 court in which wills were proved and 
 administrations taken out. So called be- 
 cause it belonged to the prerogative of 
 the archbishop to take charge of these 
 matters. There was one in the province 
 of Canterbury, and another in the pro- 
 vince of York. This jurisdiction was 
 transferred to the Probate Court in 1858. 
 
 Presburg {Diet of), 1687. Declared 
 the crown of Hungary no longer elective, 
 but hereditary in the Austrian male line. 
 
 Presburg, in Hungary {Treaty of), 
 26 Dec, 1805. A treaty of peace between 
 France and Austria, soon after the battle 
 of Austerlitz, and breaking up the third 
 coalition against Napoleon. By this treaty 
 Austria ceded Venice to France, and the 
 Tyrol to Bavaria, the ally of France. 
 
 Presbyterian Synod of Mun- 
 Ster {The). Formed about 1600. See 
 ' Synod of Munster.' 
 
 Presbyterians. Christians who 
 disavow the office of bishop and acknow- 
 
 ledge instead certain delegated elders or 
 presbyters, of whom the * minister ' of 
 each of the Presbyterian congregations 
 is one. The affairs of each of their con- 
 gregations are administered by a court, 
 styled in Scotland the ' kirk session,' and 
 consisting of the minister or ministers, 
 and the other elders. The appeal from 
 this coui't is to the presbytery, which is 
 constituted of the ministers of a certain 
 number of congregations and one ' ruling 
 elder ' from each congregation. Further 
 appeal may be made to the General 
 Assembly. Presbyterianism prevails 
 chiefly in Scotland. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church of England Vf&s 
 founded by the Puritans. There are also Presby- 
 terian Baptists, Reformed Presbyterians or Cove- 
 nanters, the United Presbyterians, the Welsh 
 Presbyterians, Free Church Presbyterians, and 
 Unitarian Presbyterians. 
 
 Presbytery {A). A synod in the 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotland, com- 
 posed of all the ministers in a given dis- 
 trict, the professors of divinity, and an 
 elder from each ' kirk session ' {q.v,). The 
 chairman is called the 'moderator.' See 
 ' Provincial Synod.' 
 
 Presbytery (T/ie), 1689. The second 
 of the four ecclesiastical governing bodies 
 of the Kirk of Scotland. It is composed 
 of the ministers of several contiguous 
 parishes, who sit in it ex officio, and of an 
 elder from each of the kirk sessions {q.v.) 
 in the district, who is chosen for six 
 months. It licenses and inducts ministers, 
 and has a veto on those presented by 
 patrons. Manses and churches are under 
 their supervision, and an appeal may be 
 made to this body from the judgment of 
 the kirk session. See also ' Synod,' and 
 * General Assembly,' 
 
 Presbytery of Antrim {The). A 
 body of Presbyterians who separated 
 from the ' Synod of Ulster ' in 1727, and 
 from the * Remonstrant Synod ' {q.v.) in 
 1827. 
 
 Presentment of Englishry 
 
 {The). In the case of murder the hun- 
 dred was fined by the Danes and Normans 
 unless it could be proved that the mur- 
 dered person was an Englishman. 
 
 A presentment is a presumption from observa- 
 tion, as the presentment of a nuisance, the pre- 
 sentment of a libel, upon which the officer of the 
 court frames an indictment. Englishry means 
 the law respecting the English, or the state of being 
 English-born. 
 
 Preserver of his Country (T/i-e). 
 The Due de Guise, called ' Le Balafre,' had 
 
PRESIDENT 
 
 PRIESTS 
 
 711 
 
 this title conferred upon him by the Par- 
 lement of Paris in 1540. 
 
 President. In Oxford University 
 the title of the head of four of the col- 
 leges : Corpus, Magdalen, St. John's, and 
 Trinity. In Cambridge University the 
 head of Queens' College is called the 
 president, of King's College the provost, 
 and of all the other colleges the master. 
 
 President and Council of the 
 North {Court of). 31 Henry VIII. 
 To try rioters against the suppression of 
 the lesser monasteries. It also included 
 all the powers vested in the king's own 
 council, and had power to arraign all 
 offenders against the king's prerogatives. 
 
 Prestation. Road rate. Nominally 
 every ratepayer in France is bound to 
 give three days' labour to keep the parish 
 roads in repair ; these are called ' jom-ne'es 
 de prestation,' and for the most part 
 are compounded for by a money payment. 
 The ' agents voyers cantonaux,' or road 
 surveyors, in each parish determine what 
 must be done. 
 
 In Saxon times one of the three exactions of 
 Trinoda Neres.iitas was ' Bryge-bot,' for keeping 
 roads as well as bridges in repair. 
 
 Prester John. Togrul Wang Khan, 
 chief of the Mongol tribe of the Keraites, 
 who held his court at Karakorum and 
 established a sovereignty over those pas- 
 toral regions. He was slain in battle by 
 his son-in-law Ghengis Khan (12th cent.). 
 
 Called Prester because he tolerated and perhaps 
 favoured the Nestorian Christians. Ghengis Khan 
 ■was called at the time Timurghen, but after the 
 death of Togrul Wang his father-in-law he called 
 himself the 'Great Kha.n.'— History of Ghengis 
 Kluui, chap. i. p. 24-26. 
 
 Preston Affair {The). The sur- 
 render of Preston, in Lancashire, 13 Nov., 
 1715, when 1,700 Jacobite insm-gents 
 yielded to General Carpenter. Amongst 
 them were Thomas Forster (the com- 
 mander). Brigadier Mackintosh of Bore- 
 land, Lord Derwentwater, Lord Kenmure, 
 and Lord Widdrington with his two 
 brothers (Charles and Peregrine). 
 
 The Hon. Peregrin[e] Widdrington, died 4 Feb., 
 1748-9. ... he was with his brother in the Preston 
 affair. 
 
 A mural monument in the Slierhurne Chapel. 
 
 Pretender {The), in English history. 
 The Old Pretender was the Chevalier de 
 St. George, son of James II., who ' pre- 
 tended ' that he had a right to be king of 
 Great Britain after the death of his father. 
 
 The Young Pretender was Charles Ed- 
 ward son of the Chevalier de St. George. 
 
 Of course these two princes were rightful heirs 
 to the crown if the crown went by inheritance, 
 but in England it is the people or parliament 
 who appoint the king or queen, and the lino from 
 William I. has been broken over and over again • 
 for example, John ; Henry IV., V., VI. ; Henry VII.! 
 and aU the Tudors : Richard III. ; WilUam III., 
 and all the Hanoverians. 
 
 Pretio'sus {The Bull), by Bene- 
 dict XIII., to explain that of Unigenitus 
 {q.v.), and the doctrine of grace. So called 
 from the first word in the bull. Benedict 
 was pope 1724-1730. 
 
 Pretre Insermente(U'?i). A priest 
 during the French Revolution who re- 
 fused to take the oath ' a la constitution 
 civile du clerge ' decreed in 1790. Hun- 
 dreds of these priests were put to death, 
 and their names have been duly canon- 
 ised. 
 
 Those who agreed to take the oath were called 
 
 pretres assermeiites. 
 
 Pride's Purge, 2 Dec, 1648. Purg- 
 ing the House of Commons of all mem- 
 bers favourable to the king and willing to 
 abet his return to power. This was done 
 by Colonel Pride, who blockaded the 
 house with Rich's regiment of cavalry, 
 and his own regiment of foot. He impri- 
 soned 41 (some say 47) of the leading 
 Presbyterian members in a sort of cellar 
 belonging to the house and called ' Hell ' ; 
 and next day other members were re- 
 moved, leaving only 60 to form the 
 house. These 60, being the fag-end of 
 the Long Parliament, went by the name 
 of the ' Rump.' The emasculated parlia- 
 ment complied with the Remonstrance 
 {q.v.), removed the king (Charles I.) to 
 Windsor, resolved on his immediate trial 
 for 'treason against his people,' and 
 nominated a court of 150 commissioners 
 with Bradshaw at their head to conduct 
 the trial. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Priest of Nature {The). Sir Isaac 
 Newton (1642-1727). 
 
 Priests. ' Primi ordinis sacerdotes,' 
 bishops. ' Secundi ordinis sacerdotes,' 
 ordinary priests ('Pontificale Ro- 
 manum *). 
 
 Priests 
 
 Of the Buddhists are called Bonzes. 
 Of the Gauls, Bbitons, &c., were 
 
 called Druids. 
 Of the Jews, Cohenim (singular 
 
 cohen). All of the tribe of Levi. 
 
712 
 
 PRIESTS 
 
 PRIMITIVE 
 
 Pbiests 
 
 Of the HiNDf^s, Brahmans. 
 
 Of the Moslems, Imams, Dervishes, 
 &c. In Taetaky, Mullas. N.B. 
 Mollahs are not priests, but Turk- 
 ish, jit dges. 
 
 In Japan there is a spiritual emperor, called the 
 Mikado, who is also at present (1890) the temporal 
 one. 
 
 Priests (Ch-eeh). Neokoroi. The 
 Eumolpides of Athens were hereditary- 
 priests. Each separate divinity had its 
 special priests, as the Idean Daktuloi, 
 the Korybantos, the Bacchantes (priest- 
 esses of Bacchus or Dionysos), the priests 
 of Zeus, &c. &c. 
 
 The pontiff who presided over the 
 priests of Herakles was called Da- 
 douchos. 
 
 The pontiff who presided over the 
 priests of Pallas was called Stejjhan- 
 oph'oros. 
 
 ' Parasites ' were priests who gathered 
 in the com and wine for the temple ser- 
 vices. 
 
 The Korybantes were priests of Rhea. Called 
 at Rome Galli. or priests of Cybele. 
 
 The Daktuloi of Ida were so called because they 
 were ten in number. 
 The Technlies were sorcerers. 
 
 Priests {Roman) were chosen only 
 from the most distinguished citizens, 
 and were divided into three classes : — 
 
 {a) The four great colleges, called 
 Pontiffs, Augurs, Epulones (4 syl.), and 
 Quindecemviri. 
 
 {h) The three inferior colleges, called 
 Arvales Fratres, Curiones (4 syl.), Feci- 
 ales (4 syl.). 
 
 (c) The priests of special deities, as 
 the Flamens, the Salii, the Luperci, the 
 Galli, the Pinarii, the Politians, and 
 some few others. 
 
 I. The four great colleges : 
 
 The Pontiffs, originally four, but subsequently 
 nine. They had the supreme supervision of all 
 the priests, and of all religious rites. The head 
 of the college was entitled ' Pontifex Maximus. 
 
 Auqurs included Auspices and Haruspices. 
 ' Augurs • were those who foretold future events 
 from any sort of prodigj' or omen. 'Auspices' 
 ■were those who foretold future events from the 
 Inspection of birds. ' Haruspices ' were those 
 who foretold future events by inspecting the en- 
 trails of beasts sacrificed, or from the smoke and 
 flame of sacrifices, as in the sacrifices of Cam and 
 Abel. 
 
 Epulort£s (4 syl.), a college of seven priests, whose 
 duty it was to superintend the sacred feasts 
 iepiilct), and more especially the ' epulum .Jovis.' 
 
 Quindecemvhi, a college of fifteen priests, who 
 had charge of the Sibylline books (q.v.). 
 
 II. The three inferior colleges ; 
 
 Amlhs Fnttirs, a college of twelve priests, who 
 offered sacrifice to secure the fertility of the 
 
 Curiones (4 syl.), a college of thirty priests, one 
 for each curia or district of Rome. Each curio 
 was expected to perform the sacred rites of hia 
 own special curia or district. 
 
 Fecidles (4 syl.), a college of twenty priests, 
 whose duty it was to see to the honour of Rome 
 in all dealings with foreign states. They declared 
 war, and dictated terms of peace. 
 
 III. Special priests : 
 
 Flamens, priests devoted to the ser- 
 vice of some particular deity. 
 
 Salii, priests of Mars, who had charge 
 of the twelve sacred shields. They were 
 always patricians of high rank, and on 
 the 1st March every year carried the 
 sacred shields through the city in grand 
 procession. 
 
 The Luperci were priests of Pan. 
 The great festival was called the Lu'per- 
 cal. Shakespeare makes Antony say : 
 
 You all do know that on the Lu'percal 
 
 1 thrice presented him [Caesar] a kingly crown, 
 
 Which he did thrice refuse. Was that ambition ? 
 
 Julius Ccesar. 
 The Galli, or priests of Cybele (3 syl.). 
 The Pinarii, or priests of Hercules, and some 
 few others. 
 
 Priest's Hole {The). A secret 
 contrivance in old Catholic mansions 
 for the concealment of the priest in times 
 of persecution. Several stiU exist as 
 curiosities. 
 
 Priests of -the Mission. Same 
 as Lazarists, Instituted 1625 by Vin- 
 cent de Paul; organised for training 
 young missionaries. See ' Lazarus.' 
 
 Priests of the Saviours {The), 
 B.C. 307-287, and nominally till a.d. 264. 
 Officers of Athens who superseded the 
 archons eponymic. 
 
 Primate of All England {The), 
 The Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Primate of England {The). Tho 
 Archbishop of York. 
 
 Prime. One of the eight daily ser- 
 vices of the Catholic Church, and second 
 of the four lesser ones, at six in the 
 morning. The first hour of the day. 
 See ' Canonical Hours.' 
 
 Primer Seizin. A whole year's 
 profits of an estate paid by a king's 
 tenant on first coming to his new tene- 
 ment. Introduced by William the Con- 
 queror, and abolished by 12 Car. II. c. 24. 
 
 Primitive Fathers of the Chris- 
 tian Church. Those who succeeded 
 the Apostolic Fathers. The latter were 
 born in the first cent., and were more or 
 
PRIMITIVE 
 
 PRINCE 
 
 713 
 
 less contemporary with the apostles. 
 The Primitive Fathers were not born till 
 after the 1st cent., and were not contem- 
 porary with the apostles. These nine are 
 the Primitive Fathers, and with Clemens, 
 Hennas, Ignatius, Polycarp (and Bar- 
 nabas) make up the Fathers of the first 
 two cents. : — 
 
 Died 
 
 167. Justin Martyr. 
 
 190. Theophiliis of An- 
 tioch. 
 
 200. Irenteus. 
 
 220. Clement of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 240. Tertullian. 
 
 Died 
 
 253. Origen. 
 
 258. Cyprian bishop of 
 Carthage. 
 
 265. Dionysius of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 270. Gregory Thauma- 
 turgus. 
 
 Primitive Methodists, 1810. 
 
 Reformed Methodists originated in Staf- 
 fordshire and led by Hugh and J. Bourne, 
 W. Clowes, and others, who thought the 
 Connection too rigid in not allowing 
 camp-meetings and women to preach. 
 They advocate field preaching and street 
 preaching of an emotional character. 
 Sometimes called ' Ranters ' by way of 
 disrespect. 
 
 Primitive Wesleyans of Ire- 
 land (The), 1816. They seceded because 
 they did not approve of the administra- 
 tion of the Lord's Supper by their 
 preachers, but considered that they should 
 receive the holy communion from the 
 hands of a clergyman of the Church of 
 England. 
 
 Trimrose (The). The flower-emblem 
 of the political adherents of Benjamin 
 Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), 1805-1881. 
 The tale is that when young he made a 
 bet of a x^air of gloves respecting a wreath 
 of primroses. The point in doubt was 
 whether the primroses were real or arti- 
 ficial. Mr. Disraeli staked that they 
 were real, and won the bet. The lady 
 competitor presented the successful 
 guesser with one of the primroses, and 
 Disraeli, with the gallantry of a young 
 man, vowed he would preserve the flower 
 faithfully and adopt it as his badge. For 
 another derivation see note to ' Primrose 
 League.' 
 
 Primrose Day, 19 April. The 
 anniversary of the death of the Earl of 
 Beaconsfield, founded by Sir George 
 Birdwood in memory of the great Con- 
 servative leader, who died 19 April, 1881. 
 He suggested to the St. Stephen's Club 
 that the dining-tables of the club should 
 be decorated with primroses on 19 April. 
 Ne-\t year it was suggested that an 
 
 annual festival should be adopted, and 
 Sir George Birdwood made arrangements 
 with a large firm of Covent Garden florists 
 to advertise largely at his expense the 
 supply of primroses to any extent for 
 19 April. It was a complete success, 
 and was soon followed by the establish- 
 ment of Primrose Leagues throughout 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 Primrose League (The), 1883. 
 An association of men and women to 
 carry out the policy of Benjamin Dis- 
 raeli, Lord Beaconsfield : ' The mainten- 
 ance of true religion, of the three estates 
 of the realm, and of the imperial ascend- 
 ency of Great Britain.' The lodges are 
 called 'habitations,' and a habitation 
 consists of thirteen or more knights com- 
 panions, knights harbingers, or knights 
 almoners, and each knight has his squire. 
 The chief ladies are called ' dames ' (lady 
 patronesses). A certain number of dis- 
 trict habitations form a central habita- 
 tion, by which the ruling council is 
 elected. The Marquis of Abergavenny 
 was the first 'grand councillor of the 
 league.' See ' Primrose Day.' 
 
 The league was first organised in 1884, and in- 
 augurated with a banquet 19 April, under the 
 expectation of a general election, which took 
 place between Nov. and Dec, 1885. The primrose 
 is Beaconsfleld's flower, as the violet is the Napo- 
 leonic flower. 
 
 *,* A Primrose Order of Knights existed in Spain 
 at the beginning of the 18th cent, (before 1717). 
 
 A rumour was very current for two or three 
 years that the Queen, on the day of Lord Beacons- 
 fields funeral, sent a primrose wreath on which 
 was written 'His favourite flower,' meaning the 
 favourite flower of the late Prince Consort. 
 Happily this error has been stamped out by the 
 following letter :_ 
 
 ' Windsor Castle, 1 May, 1888. 
 
 ' Sir,— The Queen did not send a wreath of 
 primroses to Lord Beaconsfleld's funeral, and 
 consequently there could have been no inscription 
 of the nature you describe. — I have the honour to 
 be, sir, your obedient servant. 
 
 ' Henry Ponsonby. 
 
 ' To John Churchill Sikes (50 Agate Road, The 
 Grove, Hammersmith, W.).' 
 
 Primrose Pilgrimage [The), 19 
 April. A visit to the statue of Lord 
 Beaconsfield in Parliament Square in 
 order to decorate it with primrose wreaths. 
 Of course it is a Conservative demonstra- 
 tion. 
 
 Prince [The). ' Del Principe.' The 
 great work of Niccolb Machiavelli of 
 Florence (1469-1527), setting forth his 
 political principles. 
 
 The student of Machiavelli had not studied ' The 
 Prince ' in vain.— GREEN, Hist, of the English People, 
 D. .S3d. 
 
714 
 
 PBINCE 
 
 PEINCIPIA 
 
 Prince Consort Prize (TM- '^or 
 original historic research. Given every 
 alternate year to graduates of not more 
 than four years' standing. Value about 
 lOOZ. Founded from the surplus of a 
 memorial fund of Prince Albert, chan- 
 cellor of the University of Cambridge, 
 1888. See ' Modern History,' &c. 
 
 Prince Florizel. George IV. 
 Also called * Fum the Fourth,' ' The Fat 
 Adonis of Fifty.' But the bitterest satire 
 of all was 'The First Gentleman of 
 Europe.' 
 
 Prince Tite. The nickname of 
 George II. 
 
 Prince of Fools {The). The 
 manager of the ' Enfans sans Souci.' 
 iq.V.). 
 
 Prince of German Poets (The). 
 
 Goethe (1749-1832). 
 
 Prince of Lyric Poets (The). 
 Charles Dup^rier, born at Aix (1620- 
 1692). So called by Menage. One of 
 the French Pleiade poets. 
 
 Prince of Music (The). J. Pier- 
 luigi Palestrlna (1529-1594). 
 
 Prince of Peace (The). A pun or 
 abbreviation of 'Prince of the Peace.' 
 Manuel de Godoy, duke of Alcudia, the 
 cavalier of Maria Luiza, wife of Carlos 
 IV. of Spain, was so called because he 
 effected the pacification of Bale, 22 July, 
 1795 (4 Thermidor, Year III.). 
 
 In one year this obscure garde-decorps received 
 the titles of lieutenant-general, admiral of the 
 Spanish fleet,, duke of Alcudia, knight of the 
 Golden Fleece ; and on his marriat/e with the 
 king's niece he was created ' Prince of the Peace.' 
 Born at Badajos 1767, died at Paris 1823. 
 
 Prince of Priests (The), 1420. 
 
 Henry V. of England, who on his wed- 
 ding tour visited the shrine of every 
 saint on his way. He was most assiduous 
 in his devotions, most profusely liberal 
 in his contributions, and most severe in 
 repressing Lollardism. 
 
 Prince of Quarrellers {The). 
 Beaumarchais (1732-1799). A first-rate 
 duellist and universal genius. Now best 
 known by his two comedies, the ' Barber 
 of Seville,' in four acts, and the ' Marriage 
 of Figaro,' in five acts. 
 
 Prince of the Youth {The). 
 Gonzalvo di Cordova, the great captain 
 (1453-1515). 
 
 Prince's Metal. A metal like gold 
 invented by Prince Rupert of Bavaria, 
 nephew of Charles I. It is a mixture of 
 copper and zinc. 
 
 Prince's Peers {The), 1456. 
 Tradesmen, farmers, and even mechanics, 
 ennobled for money by Louis the 
 Dauphin (Louis XI.), when he revolted 
 against his father, Charles VII. 
 
 Prince'ites (2 syl.). The members of 
 the Agapemone, in Somersetshire, estab- 
 lished by Henry James Prince. Letters 
 to Prince are addressed ' The Lord.' He 
 said to Mr. Hepworth Dixon, ' You see 
 in me Christ in the flesh, Christ in my 
 flesh.' He calls his wife 'the bride of 
 his soul.' He says ' Christ came to 
 redeem the soul, I am come to redeem 
 the body.' Mr. Prince in 1851 took a 
 party to the Great Exhibition, He drove 
 about like a prince, with outriders bare- 
 headed. Prince was born in 1811. 
 
 Principal. In Oxford University; 
 the title of the head of three colleges 
 (Brasenose, Jesus, and Hertford), and of 
 the four halls (New Inn, St. Alban's, St. 
 Edmund, and St. Mary). 
 
 Principality {The). In Roman 
 history means the first three centuries of 
 the empire, from Augustus to Diocletian 
 (B.C. 29 to A.D. 287), when the emperor 
 had no other title except princejJS. 
 Diocletian introduced the title of Augus- 
 tus, which had been occasionally loosely 
 applied before his time, but not defi- 
 nitely. 
 
 Principia of Newton {The). 
 
 ' Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathe- 
 matica,' in three books, by Isaac Newton. 
 
 Book I. (1686). The motion of bodies 
 in free space. Every particle of matter 
 attracts every other particle with a force 
 which varies directly as the masses, and 
 inversely as the square of the distance 
 between them. 
 
 Book II. (3 months later). Of motion 
 in a resisting medium. Hydrostatics and 
 hydrodynamics. With a confutation of 
 the Cartesian theory of vortices. 
 
 Book III. (1687). The solar system. 
 The motion of the moon, the theory of 
 the tides, the proof that comets belong 
 to the solar system. 
 
 It is an inquiry into the truth of Kepler's ' Lawa 
 of Motion.' 
 
PRINTER'S 
 
 PRISON 
 
 715 
 
 Printer's Bible {The). Makes 
 David pathetically complain that the 
 'printers [princes] have persecuted me 
 without a cause.' See ' Bible.' 
 
 Prior {A), or ' Prior of the Arts.' A 
 magistrate in the republic of Florence 
 who superseded the Anziani or seniors 
 in 1282. At first there were three priors, 
 then six, and finally eight. 
 
 Priori {Six), 1293. The executive 
 government of Florence placed in the 
 hands of six presidents. Dante the 
 poet was one of the six priori in 1300. 
 
 Prisage of Wine {The). The 
 right of taking two casks out of each 
 vessel for the crown. 
 
 Priscil'lianists {The). Followers 
 of Priscillian (4th cent.). A learned 
 Spaniard, bishop of Avila in Spain. 
 Their doctrines were substantially those 
 of the ManichcTeaus, who taught that there 
 were two principles, one of good and the 
 other of evil. Priscillian said that the 
 good principle in its descent from God 
 to Earth fell into the power of the evil 
 principle, and got corrupted. He also 
 taught what is called Docetism ; that 
 is, that the actions and sufferings of 
 Christ were not real, but only phenomenal. 
 
 Prison Authors and Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Bacon (Roger) Imprisoned in 1278 in France by 
 order of Pope Nicholas IV. During conlineinent 
 he wrote his treatise ' On the Means of Avoiding 
 the Infirmities of Old Age.' 
 
 BOETHIUS (Anicius Maiilius Torqudliis SeverTiiiis) 
 •wrote his ' De Consolatione Philosophite ' in his 
 prison at Pa via, about 522 ; he was beheaded in 
 524. 
 
 Brienne (Le Comte de) -wrote his 'Memoirs' 
 during his eighteen years' incarceration at St. 
 Lazare. He died 16^8. 
 
 BUNYAN wrote his ' Grace Abounding ' (16fi6) and 
 Part I. of his ' Pilgrim's Progress' while confined 
 In Bedford Gaol aGGO-1672). 
 
 *,* Part I. of • Pilgrims Progress ' was printed 1678, 
 and Pact //.in 1684. 
 
 Carlile (Richard), during his ten years' imprl- 
 Bonment, edited various journals, and won the 
 right of a free press. 
 
 COBBETT (Willidm) carried on his 'Political 
 Kegister ' while in prison (1810-1812). 
 
 Combe (IViUiam) wrote his ' Tour of Dr. Syntax' 
 during his twenty years' imprisonment in the 
 King's Bench (1743-1823). 
 
 Cooper (Thomas), born 1805, wrote in Stafford 
 Gaol the ' Purgatory of Suicides ' (1845) in Spenser- 
 ian verse ; published under the patronage of 
 Benjamin Disraeli ; and ' Wise Saws and Modern 
 Instances.' 
 
 Davitt (Michael) while confined in Portland 
 Wrote ' Leaves from a Prison Diary, or Lectures to 
 a Solitary Audience,' which was published in 1884. 
 
 Defoe wrote his celebrated ' Keview ' in prison 
 a704), and again (1713). 
 
 Diderot was imprisoned at Vincennes in 1749, 
 when he began his famous ' Memoires.' 
 
 Hall (IViomajs) wrote in the Debtors' Ward, Win- 
 chester, a volume of 'Poems' towards the close 
 of the 18th cent. 
 
 Harpsfield (Nicholas), Kegius Professor of 
 Greek, Oxford, was imprisoned in the Tower in 
 1562, and died there in 15«3. Rewrote in the Tower 
 his bulky controversial work entitled ' Dialogi sex 
 contra summi pontificatus, &c., oppugnatores, 
 &c.,' published 1566 ; and a 'History of the Angli- 
 can Church,' published after his death in 1622. 
 
 Hetherington in prison composed political and 
 poetical ephemera. 
 
 Jones iKmfst) composed in gaol his political 
 novel in which he attacked FeargusO Connor, and 
 parodied the Chartist agitation (1848-1850). 
 
 Lovelace (Richard) wrote some beautiful ditties 
 to his ■ Divine Althea ' (Lucy Sacheverell) while in 
 prison for presenting front Ivent a petition to the 
 Long Parliament in behalf of the king (Charles II.). 
 
 LovETT composed in prison poetical and poli- 
 tical ephemera. 
 
 Mirabeau was imprisoned in Vincennes three 
 years and a half (beginning 7 June, 1777) ; during 
 which cojifinement he wrote his ' Lettres a Sophie,' 
 and ' Les Lettres de Cachet et les Prisons d'Etat.' 
 He also translated in prison part of ' The Elegies 
 of Tibullus,' ' Boccaccio's Decameron,' his ' Me- 
 moires du Ministere du Due d'Aiguillon,' and 
 several other works. 
 
 OASTL,KR(Richard) kept up a fusillade of pamph- 
 lets in favour of the Ten Hours' Bill while in tlie 
 Fleet Prison (born 1789, died 1861). 
 
 O'Brien (William) wrote the main part of his 
 novel ' When We Were Boys ' while imprisoned for 
 inciting to Irish disturbances. It was published in 
 April 1890. 
 
 ORl.£.A.SH (Charles d') comte d'Angouleme during 
 his twenty-five years' captivity in the 15th cent, 
 wrote, among other poetry, his charming ode to 
 Spring, beginning ' Le terns a laissie son man- 
 teau.' 
 
 Pagano (Mario) wrote his ' Saggi Politici ' in 
 prison (1783-1792). He was executed at Naples in 
 1800. 
 
 Paine (Thomas) wrote the second part of his 
 ' Age of Reason ' while imprisoned in Paris by com- 
 mand of Robespierre, 1794-5. 
 
 Pamphilus bishop of CiBsarea composed his 
 ' Five Books in Defence of Origen ' during the two 
 years of his imprisonment. Eusebius completed 
 the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. 
 
 Pelhson wrote his two ' DiscoursauRoi ' and a 
 ' Memoire ' of his friend Fouquet while a priaouer 
 in the Bastille (1661-1666). 
 
 Penn (IVilliam), 1644-1718, while in the Tower, 
 where he was confined at the instigation of the 
 Bishop of London, wrote his famous ' No Cross, no 
 Crown (1668-9). 
 
 Raleigh (Sir Waller) wrote his ' History of the 
 World ' (down to B.C. 170) during his thirteen years' 
 imprisonment in the Tower (1552-1618). He was 
 beheaded 1618. 
 
 Sacy s Bible, the Port Royal translation into 
 French, was made by Isaac Lemaistre [Sacy] (1666- 
 1670) during his imprisonment in the Bastille. 
 
 Taylor (Robert) composed his ' Devil s Pulpit* 
 while in Oakham Gaol. 
 
 Thomas (F.) of .Jesus, while confined in a dun- 
 geon in Morocco composed his 'Sufferings of 
 Christ • (16th cent.). 
 
 Vincent composed in prison poetical and poli- 
 tical ephemera. 
 
 WOLLETT composed his ' Black Dwarf ' in prison. 
 
 Voltaire in 1717 spent eleven months in the 
 Bastille, during which time lie wrote two cantos 
 of his ' Henriade,' and revised his tragedy of 
 ' (Edipe.' 
 
 *.* Luther translated the Bible into German 
 while he was lying perdu in the old castle of 
 Wartburg. This was not strictly speaking a prison, 
 but it was virtually so. 
 
 Similarly : The crypt under the church of St. 
 Maria, in Via Lata, is said to have been the place 
 where Paul was held in captivity when he wrote 
 his ' Epistles ' to the Hebrews, Ephesians, Philip- 
 pians, Philemon, and 2 Timothy. 
 
 There is also a tradition that St. Peter dictated 
 
716 
 
 PRISON 
 
 PEOCONSUL 
 
 the ' Gospel of Mark ' ■while a prisoner at Rome ; 
 and some say that Luke wrote his ' Acts ' in Borne. 
 
 Prison Dress. A third-class man, 
 that is, a man who has completed his first 
 year satisfactorily, has i^o-cA; facing to his 
 jacket, and begins to earn something. In 
 twelve months more he is promoted to the 
 second class, and his jacket is faced with 
 yelloio. In twelve months more, if still 
 on the good-conduct list, his jacket is faced 
 with blue. If still under prison discipline 
 at the end of four and a half years, he 
 may receive a distinctive blue dress which 
 will entitle him to a bonus of 3Z. at his 
 discharge. See * Breeches Martyrs.' 
 
 A black facing may earn Id. for 20 good marks ; a 
 yellow facing lid. ; and a blue facing 2 d., credited 
 to him, and given him at his discharge. Twenty 
 good marks may be earned in about two days and 
 a half. This allowance continues till it reaches 
 the sum of U. 
 
 Private "Wars. Those everlasting 
 and wretched contests of the middle ages, 
 between different barons, such as our war 
 of the Two Roses, those of the Capulets 
 and Montagues of Italy, the Armagnacs 
 and Burgundians of France, the Guelfs 
 and the Ghibellines, and so on. Charle- 
 magne introduced a law to put a stop to 
 these feuds, but it was powerless. The 
 Church introduced the Paix de Dieu 
 {q. v.), which, suspended hostilities on cer- 
 tain days ; but St. Louis established the 
 Quarantaine-le-Roi {q.v.), and punished 
 with death those who violated it. See 
 ' Vendetta.' 
 
 Privilege of Union in Aragon. 
 
 A brotherhood or confederacy for obtain- 
 ing redress of grievances by armed force, 
 as the barons of England obtained Magna 
 Charta from King John. This privilege 
 was granted by Alfonso III. in 1287, and 
 confirmed by Alfonso X. as a right of the 
 nobility. 
 
 The law runs thus : ' The duty of subjects to- 
 wards their king enjoins them not to suffer him 
 knowingly to endanger his salvation ... or pro- 
 duce mischief to his kingdom. This may be done 
 in two ways : one by good advice . . . and the 
 other by preventing him from running to his own 
 ruin.' 
 
 Privy Council {The). The ' Curia 
 Regis' existed under Henry III.; the 
 Concilium Privatum or Privy Council 
 arose in the reign of Henry VI., but it was 
 Charles II. who first appointed a cabinet 
 of fifty members because he found the 
 council unworkable. Its number now is 
 indefinite, the members are ' Right Hon.' 
 for life. It works by committees, except 
 
 when the sovereign issues 'orders in 
 council.' 
 
 In the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the ' Star 
 Chamber ' was formed from the Privy Council. 
 The chief committees of the Privy Council are the 
 ' Committee of Trade and Plantations, 1688 ' ; the 
 ' Judicial Committee ' ; the ' Committee of Educa- 
 tion, 1839'; the 'Local Government Board, 1871," &c. 
 
 Privy Council of Ireland {The) 
 consists of some fifty or sixty members. 
 Almost all the judges are members. 
 
 Processio Plenaria. 
 
 stent in ordine suo singuli in ecclesiam expec- 
 tantes donee veniat poutifex cum processione 
 plenaria ad Missam, sicut diebus solemnibus solet 
 cum septem diaconibus, totidemque subdia- 
 conibus et ceroferariis, et duobus thuribuiis cum 
 incenso.— Quoted by Dv Cange, vol. v. p. 467, 
 col. 1. 
 
 Procession of the Black 
 Breeches {The), 20 June, 1792. Car- 
 lyle says in the procession led by San- 
 terre to the Tuileries were ' tricolour 
 ribands streaming from pike-head ; iron- 
 shod batons ; a bull's heart transfixed, 
 and with this inscription, " Heart of an 
 Aristocrat"; and, more striking still, a 
 pair of old black silk breeches, extended 
 on a cross-staff, with this inscription, 
 " Tremble, tyrants ; here are the Sans- 
 culottes." ' The chapter is headed ' Pro- 
 cession of the Black Breeches ' (Caelyle, 
 ' French Revolution,' last chap, of 
 book v.). 
 
 One of the standards consists of a pair of black 
 silk breeches on a pole with the motto, ' Without 
 breeches, but free.'— HowiTT, Hist, of England 
 (Geo. III. p. G17). 
 
 They shut their gates after the day of the Black 
 Breeches.— Cari.yle, French Revolution, vol. ii. 
 book vi. 4. 
 
 Procession to Hernals {The). 
 The estate of the Jorgers, 'where the 
 Catholic doctrine had been first profaned 
 by a Lutheran sermon,' established by 
 the Jesuits in the reign of Elaiser Ferdi- 
 nand II. (1619-1637). 
 
 Processional {A). A book contain- 
 ing all that pertains to ecclesiastical pro- 
 cessions (1600). 
 
 Proc'lida3 {Dynasty of the), b.c. 
 1100-219. One of the two contempo- 
 raneous dynasties of Sparta. The other 
 was the dynasty of the Agidye. The 
 former received its name from Procles, 
 son of Aristodemus, and the latter from 
 Agis son of Eurysthenes. 
 
 Proconsul. In the Roman empire 
 was the quasi-consul of a province. The 
 first was Titus Quintius Barbatus (b.c. 
 
PKOCONSULS 
 
 PEOPHECY 
 
 717 
 
 464). Pompey was for three years pro- 
 consul of the sea. Julius Cassar was for 
 five years proconsul of Gaul. As a rule 
 they were avaricious, tyrannical, and 
 inunoral. The name is a hissing and a 
 byword. 
 
 Proconsuls, 1793. French com- 
 missioners appointed by the Convention, 
 with uncontrolled power to arrest persons 
 suspected of being counter-revolutionists, 
 or those who murmured at the new state 
 of things. They had the power of taxing 
 the rich, making compositions with them, 
 and of seizing private horses for the use 
 of the army. These commissioners were 
 most arbitrary and insolent. 
 
 Proctors {The), 1629, of our univer- 
 sities. Two annually, elected in Oxford 
 by the House of Convocation, and in 
 Cambridge by the Senate. .Their duties 
 are to act as peace officers to maintain 
 good behaviour of all persons in statu 
 pupillari. Each proctor names a pro- 
 proctor, who (in Oxford) must be an M.A. 
 of three years' standing. The proctors are 
 chosen by cycles. In Oxford from 1620 
 to 1859 tiae cycle was 23 years ; in 1859 
 it was extended to 30 years. In Cam- 
 bridge the cycle is 50 years. (Trinity 
 and St. John's have eleven turns each ; 
 Christ's, Clare, Caius, Pembroke, 
 Queen's, and Peter House six turns each ; 
 Emmanuel, Magdalene, Jesus, Sidney 
 Sussex, Corpus and St. Catharine's five 
 turns each ; Trinity Hall three turns, with 
 the right of nomination if a vacancy 
 occurs within the year ; and Downing two 
 turns. 
 
 In Oxford the stipend of proctor is 350i. and of 
 pro-proctor 801. In Cambridge there are two 
 assistant pro-proctors. 
 
 PrOCUlians. In Latin ' Proculiani.' 
 A law school so called from Proculus, a 
 jurist; opposed to the Sabinians {q.v.). 
 Proculus is often cited, and there are 
 thirty-seven extracts from him in the 
 Digest. The Proculians were ' radicals,' 
 but interpreted law literatim and ver- 
 batim. The Sabinians were courtiers 
 and equity lawyers. 
 
 Procura'tor. A functionary in the 
 Roman empire created by Augustus. 
 Procurators were of two classes ; those 
 in the senatorial provinces, who were 
 proxies of the senate ; and those in the 
 great imperial provinces, who were ap- 
 pointed by the emperor. The former 
 
 were viceroys; the latter were fiscal 
 officers. 
 
 Procura'tors of St. Mark. Nine 
 magistrates in the repubhc of Venice 
 who administered the effects of orphans 
 and of those who died intestate. 
 
 Prodigy of Prance (The). Bude 
 was so called by Erasmus (1467-1540). 
 He introduced into France the study of 
 Greek, and was learned in all the 
 sciences. 
 
 Prodigy of Learning (The). 
 Samuel Hahnemann, the German, is so 
 caUed by J. P. Richter (1755-1843). 
 
 Profound Doctor (T^e). 'Doctor 
 Profundus,' Thomas Bradwardine arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (1848-1349). 
 
 Egidlus de Colonna [Giles of Cologne] is called 
 ' The Most Profound Doctor ' (died 1316). 
 
 Progresses. Royal visits were so 
 called in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 Elizabeth was in the habit of making visits to 
 the houses of her nobles. . . . These visits were 
 called progresses.— Prince, Parallel History, vol. 
 ii. p. 106. 
 
 Progressives. So the Home Rule 
 party began to call themselves in the 
 December of 1889. 
 
 Projector [The). John Law of 
 Edinburgh (1681-1729), the projector of 
 the Mississippi Scheme or French bubble 
 company. 
 
 Propaganda Fide [The College of 
 the Congregation de), 1622. Established 
 by Urban VIII. A great nursery of 
 missionaries of all sorts and for all parts 
 of the world : Gregorian s, Persians, 
 Nestorians, Jacobites, Melchites, Copts, 
 Abyssinians, and Armenians. 
 
 Propaganda Fide {The Congre- 
 gation de), 1572. Originated by Gregory 
 Xin., and instituted at Rome by bull of 
 Gregory XV. in 1622. It has the direction 
 of missions, and consists of thirteen car- 
 dinals, three prelates, and a secretary, 
 
 Propagation of the Faith 
 
 {Society for the). Established at Lyons 
 in 1829. 
 
 Propagators of the Faith. 
 
 Same as ' Converters ' {q.v.). 
 
 Prophecy of St. Laser'ian {The). 
 * The Church of Rome will surely fall 
 when the Catholic faith is overthrown in 
 Lreland.' St. Laserian was an ancient 
 archbishop of Cashel. 
 
718 
 
 PEOPHESYINGS 
 
 PEOTESTANT 
 
 Prophesyings suppressed, 
 
 1577. Prophesyings, in 1569, Avere meet- 
 ings held once a fortnight by the puri- 
 tans, under the guidance of Cartwright 
 and Travers, and supported by several 
 of the bishops, nominally for the edifica- 
 tion of the clergy. They were under a 
 moderator appointed by the bishop of 
 the diocese or his deputy 'to discuss 
 theological subjects and expound scrip- 
 ture.' They were called prophesyings 
 from the text, ' Ye may all prophesy one 
 by one, that all may learn, and all may 
 be comforted' (1 Cor. xiv. 31). Queen 
 Elizabeth, feeling convinced that this 
 platform was a mere pretence, and that 
 the true object of the meetings was 
 poHtical, commanded them to be sup- 
 pressed. As Edmund Grindal, recently 
 elevated to the see of Canterbury, fa- 
 voured the ' prophesyings,' he was ordered 
 to ' keep his house,' and never regained 
 the queen's favour. 
 
 Prophetess of Exeter {The). 
 Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). 
 
 Propraetor. A Roman officer who 
 discharged in a province the functions of 
 a praetor. Like a prsetor he was attended 
 by six lictors. 
 
 Propre, in English A Proper, is 
 either a ' propre du temps,' a * propre des 
 saints,' or a ' propre d'une eglise.' The- 
 first is a clause in a liturgy introduced 
 for special days and religious festivals ; 
 the second for special saints; and the 
 third for special churches. 
 
 In the English Prayer Book there are ' Propers ' 
 in the ' Communion Service ' for the great festi- 
 vals, just before the canticle 'Therefore with 
 Angels and Archangels we ..." In bidding 
 prayers the clause beginning ' and as in duty 
 bound . . .' is a ' proper ' of the third sort. 
 
 Pro-proctors. Instituted in the 
 Cambridge University by a grace of the 
 senate 29 April, 1818. They are nomi- 
 nated by the colleges according to the 
 cycle of ' Proctors ' (g.v.), but appointed 
 by the senate. 
 
 6 June, 1878, two ' additional pro-proctors ' were 
 added by a grace of the senate. They must be 
 masters of arts of not less than three years' stand- 
 ing, and are in ofiQce for one year. 
 
 Proscription. In Roman history, 
 a list of persons proscribed stuck up in 
 places of public resort. Sulla was the 
 first to publish ' Tables of Proscription.' 
 The triumvirs (Octavius, Antony, and Le- 
 pidus) followed his example. Informers 
 received a part of the confiscated pro- 
 
 perty, so that avarice and private ven- 
 geance were rewarded and encouraged. 
 
 Proselytes of the Covenant. 
 
 Such Gentiles as received the covenant 
 or law of Moses. 
 
 Proselytes of the Gate. Those 
 Gentiles who worshipped the true God, 
 but received not the law of Moses. The 
 proselytes were only allowed to enter the 
 outer court of the temple. In Solomon's 
 time there were 153,000 of these pro- 
 selytes who were compelled to hew wood, 
 to draw water, to cut stones, and to carry 
 burdens for the building of the temple 
 (2 Chron. ii. 17, 18). These men were 
 Canaanites who had continued in the 
 country since the time of Joshua. They 
 were proselytes of the gate because they 
 were allowed to dwell ' within the gates ' 
 of Jerusalem. 
 
 Naaman the Syrian, Nebuzaradan (general of 
 Nebuchadnezzar's army), Cornelius the centurion, 
 the eunuch of Queen Candace (3 syl.), the Kenites 
 and Kechabites were proselytes of the gate. 
 
 Protection of British In- 
 dustry. Acts of Parliament to compel 
 people to purchase only home produce. 
 This was done by laying a tax on all 
 foreign commodities to make them dearer 
 than similar commodities produced at 
 home. Free trade in corn was intro- 
 duced in 184:6 by the abolition of the 
 Corn Laws {q.v.), and in most other 
 articles since. 
 
 In Oct. 1890 came into operation in the United 
 States of North America the ' McKinley Tariff Bill," 
 which imposed a tax on imported articles of 
 enormous magnitude, ' to protect native industry 
 against foreign competition.' This battle with 
 England will determine once for all whether Free 
 Trade or Protection is the sounder policy. 
 
 Protector. In English history a 
 kind of regent. The Duke of Bedford 
 was protector of England under Henry 
 VI.; the Duke of Gloucester [Richard 
 in.] was protector under Edward V. 
 See next article. 
 
 Protector of the Commonwealth of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. Oliver 
 Cromwell, 16 Dec, 1653. Reinaugurated 
 with all the pomp of a coronation 26 June, 
 1656 ; died 3 Sept., 1658, aged 59. 
 
 His son Richard succeeded him, but retired into 
 private life in 16(30. 
 
 Protestant and Popish Wind. 
 
 In court and city, says Misson, in the 
 reign of James II., an east wind was called 
 Protestant, and a west wind a Popish one. 
 October 23. James II., being extremely re.ptless 
 aaid uneasy, ordered a weathercock to be placed 
 
PROTESTANT 
 
 PROTO-SYNCELL 
 
 719 
 
 •where he might see it from his apartment, that he 
 might learn with his own eyes whether the wind 
 is I'rotestant or Popish. This weathercoclj, at one 
 end of the Banqueting House, is still to be seen 
 there (1719).— MISSON. 
 
 Protestant Duke {The). James 
 duke of Monmouth, said to be a love-child 
 of Charles II. So called because he re- 
 nounced the Catholic faith in which he 
 had been brought up, and became a Pro- 
 testant (1619-1685). See ' Monmouth.' 
 
 Protestant Flail (A). A kind of 
 life-preserver, worn by timid magistrates 
 in the reign of Charles II. The handle 
 resembled a farrier's blood-stick, and the 
 flail was joined to the end by a strong 
 ligature, so short as to avoid the hand. 
 It was made of lignum vitae wood. 
 
 It [the Protestant flail] was for street and crowd 
 work; and the instrument lurking perdu in a 
 coat pocket, might readily sally out to execution, 
 and by clearing a great hall . . . carry an election, 
 by a choice way of polling, called ' knocking 
 down. —Roger North. 
 
 Protestant Joiner (The). Col- 
 ledge, in whose defence Titus Gates 
 appeared in 1681. He was accused of 
 treason, but there was not the slightest 
 proof of the charge. ' State Trials,' vol. 
 viii. p. 628. 
 
 Protestant Livy (The). John 
 Sleidan of Cologne (1506-1556). His 
 great work is ' The State of Religion in 
 the reign of Kaiser Karl V.' 
 
 Protestant Patent {The), 1859. 
 It granted to the communes of Hungary 
 the free administration of their religious 
 and educational matters. 
 
 Protestant Pope {The). Gian Vin- 
 cenzo Ganganelli, Pope Clement XIV. : 
 so called from his enlightened policy, 
 and more especially for his bull sup- 
 pressing the Jesuits (1705, 1769-1774). 
 
 Protestant Religion {The), 1675. 
 
 Wlien the Earl of Shaftesbury asked in 
 the House of Lords, ' What is the Pro- 
 testant religion [of England] ? ' The 
 Bishop of Winchester replied, 'The 39 
 articles, the liturgy, the catechism, the 
 canons, and the homilies.' 
 
 Not very logical, nor very orthodox. A better 
 answer would have been, ' the Bible, the whole 
 Bible, and nothing but the Bible.' The bishop's 
 response at best can only apply to the Anglican 
 Church, but the Anglican Church is not Protes- 
 tantism. 
 
 Protestants, 1592. Those Chris- 
 tians who belonged to the reformed 
 Church, as Episcopalians, Presbyterians, 
 
 Huguenots, Lutherans, Calvinists, and 
 all dissenters of every denomination. 
 Called Protestants from those who pro- 
 tested against the decree of the second 
 diet of Speyer, which pronounced 
 Lutheranism to be heretical, and revoked 
 the decree of the previous diet, which 
 conceded liberty of conscience. 
 
 The second diet was presided over by Ferdi- 
 nand, the brother of Karl V., and the dissen- 
 tients appealed to Karl V. 
 
 Protesters. One of the ' religious ' 
 parties into which Scotland was divided 
 after the death of Charles I. The other 
 party was called the Resolutioners {q.v.). 
 The Resolutioners adhered to Charles II., 
 but the Protesters were inclined to a 
 union with the republicans. See Sir W. 
 Scott, ' Gld Mortality,' ch. v. 
 
 Proteus {The German). Melanch- 
 thon (1497-1560). So called because he 
 so often changed his religious views. He 
 was a disciple of Luther, but followed 
 Zwinglius in some points and Calvin in 
 others. 
 
 Protevangelion {The), or'Prote- 
 vangelium.' A gospel falsely ascribed to 
 St. James the Less, first bishop of Jeru- 
 salem. It is noted for its minute details 
 of the Virgin and Jesus. Some ascribe 
 it to L. Carinas, who died 362. 
 
 First of all we shall rehearse . ^ 
 The nativity of our Lord, 
 As written in the old record 
 Of the protevangelion. 
 
 Longfellow, The Golden Legeitd. 
 
 Proto-Martyr {The). 
 
 I. St. Stephen. The first Christian 
 martyr. Stoned to death about nine 
 months after the Crucifixion. 
 
 II. Gf the British Isles. [St.] Alban, 
 A.D. 285. Condemned to death by Con- 
 stantius for refusing to offer sacrifice to 
 the gods of Rome, according to the edict 
 of the'Emperor Diocletian. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that these executions, 
 called ' persecutions, were political, not religious, 
 except so far as state religion can be so called. 
 Christian persecutions, on the other hand, are 
 religious, not political, except, perhaps, in Eng- 
 land, where churchmanship and dissent have a 
 special political bias. 
 
 Protonotaries Apostolic. A 
 
 college of twelve notaries, secretaries 
 of the Roman chancellery instituted by 
 Clement I. to write the lives of martyrs 
 and assist at canonisations. 
 
 Proto-Syncell. The first syncell 
 or domestic of the patriarchal palace of 
 
720 
 
 PROUD 
 
 PROVISIONS 
 
 Constantinople. He was one of the first 
 ecclesiastipal dignitaries of Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Proud Duke {The). Charles Sey- 
 mour duke of Somerset (1662-1748). 
 
 Prout {Father). The pen-name of 
 the Rev. Francis Mahoney, a writer in 
 ' Fraser's Magazine,' in the ' Globe ' 
 newspaper, &c. (1805-1866). 
 
 Provant Rapier. A sword sup- 
 plied by the provant master, or officer 
 who provided for the soldiers. Such a 
 sword was very inferior to a Toledo blade. 
 In ' Kenilworth ' Wayland Smith speaks of 
 his sword as a ' poor provant rapier,' and 
 contrasts it with Varney's special Toledo. 
 Similarly we read of ' provant apparel,' 
 that is, ajjparel provided to soldiers by 
 the provant-master ; ' provant-breeches,' 
 &c. Provant also means ' common ' or 
 * ordinary,' as ' provant rogue.' We see 
 also the expressions ' provant breeches,' 
 ' provant swords,' (fee, and the person em- 
 ployed to provide soldiers with their kit 
 is called the ' provant master.' 
 
 Provedito're (5 syl.). The governor 
 of a province in the ancient republic of 
 Venice. There was the ordinary prove- 
 ditore, charged with the supervision of 
 streets, buildings, and police; and the 
 marine proveditore, who was to provide 
 for the payment, <fec., of the fleet. 
 
 Providence. Alexanderl. of Russia 
 considered himself ^ La Providence 
 Uberale of Europe, and the protector of 
 the independence of the peoples ' ; but 
 his good intentions for mankind took the 
 form of the Holy Alliance, which stifled 
 freedom all over Europe, re-established 
 the old despotisms, and put back the 
 world a generation at least (' Nineteenth 
 Century,' June 1889, p. 834). 
 
 Provincial {A). The superior of 
 all the religious houses in a province, 
 subordinate to the general of the order. 
 
 By a ' province ' is meant a ' division of the 
 order,' containing all the houses of a certain 
 district, or all those which speak the same lan- 
 
 Provincial Letters or Provin- 
 ciales, 1656-1657. The famous letters 
 of Blaise Pascal under the pseudonym 
 of ' Louis de Montalte,' in defence of the 
 Jansenists and against the Jesuits, whom 
 he accuses of lax morals, want of piety, 
 equivocation, mental reservation, simony, 
 
 and so on. The letters are eighteen in 
 number, and one fragment. Lemaistre 
 added a twentieth. They are full of 
 irony, very vigorous, and models of their 
 kind. They were censured at Rome and 
 condemned in France. 
 
 The objection that his necessity did not leave 
 him the power to contract freely would apply 
 equally to the discontented servant of the ' fro- 
 vincial Letters.'— r/it- World (2 May, 1888). 
 
 Provincial Synod {A) in the Pres- 
 byterian Church of Scotland consists of 
 three or more presbyteries {q.v.) The 
 chairman is called the ' moderator.' 
 
 Provincials of Ijyndwood(T^e), 
 1444. A collection of papal constitutions 
 drawn from the canon law by fourteen 
 archbishops (from Langton 1206 to 
 Chichele 1443). Lyndwood, or Lyndwode, 
 was an ecclesiastical la'wyer and bishop 
 of St. David's. 
 
 Provisions. Reversionary grants 
 of benefices during the lifetime of present 
 incumbents. This followed as a conse- 
 quent on the maxim of Clement V. that 
 the pope has the free right of disposing 
 of all ecclesiastical benefices. In conse- 
 quence of this claim all the best livings 
 of Europe were held by Italians wholly 
 ignorant of the language of the people 
 over whom they had charge. In 1350 
 Edward III. caused the Statute of Pro- 
 visors {q.v.) to be passed, which enacted 
 that, if the pope made a reversionary 
 grant to anyone, the king should have 
 the collation of such benefice. Sub- 
 sequently it was enacted that no alien 
 should be capable of holding any eccle- 
 siastical preferment in England. 
 
 Provisions of Merton {The), 
 the day after the coronation of Henry III. 
 This is the first enactment on the English 
 statute-book. ' Provisions ' are acts of 
 parliament to curb the arbitrary power 
 of the crown. Merton, in Surrey, is 
 the place where the parliament was held. 
 These provisions are the most ancient 
 body of laws after Magna Charta, and 
 consist of eleven articles. 
 
 Provisions of Oxford {The), 11 
 June, 1258, Sworn to by Henry III. and 
 his son Edward on one side, and by the 
 citizens of London on the other. They 
 provided that a council of twelve ' honest 
 men' shall assist the king as his privy 
 council; that the great officers and 
 treasurer shall give in their accounts at 
 
PEOVISORS 
 
 PROXENUS 
 
 721 
 
 the close of every year; that sheriffs 
 shall be appointed from the chief tenants 
 of each county ; that no fee shall be given 
 directly or indirectly for the administra- 
 tion of justice ; that three parliaments 
 shall assemble every year. 
 
 A 'provision is an act of parliament to curb 
 the arbitrary power of the crown. These pro- 
 visions are further noteworthy in that the royal 
 proclamation which ordered their observance 
 was in the English tongue, and this, as far as we 
 know, is the first instance of the use of the English 
 language for such a purpose. 
 
 Provisors. Persons in whose favour 
 provisos had been made in the Acts for 
 the Settlement of Ireland after the Re- 
 storation. To the English provisors 
 477,873 acres were awarded, and to the 
 Irish provisors 491,001 statute acres, out 
 of the 7,778,037 acres forfeited under the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 Provisors [Statute of), 25 Edward 
 III., s. 6, A.D. 1350, &c. To prohibit 
 anyone from making a reversionary gi'ant 
 of a benefice, or from receiving any fee 
 or reward out of a living ' as a provision ' 
 for foreign cardinals. This act was fol- 
 lowed by others of a like character, and 
 the pope of Rome was deprived of pre- 
 senting to any bishopric or living in Eng- 
 land, or of receiving directly or indirectly 
 any portion of the church revenues. 
 
 In the 14th cent, in England the imposts and 
 taxes received by the pope were fivefold the 
 amount of those received by the crowu. 
 
 Provost. In Oxford University ; the 
 title of the head of three of the colleges, 
 Oriel, Queen's, and Worcester. In Cam- 
 bridge University the master of King's 
 College only is called the Provost, the 
 principal of Queen's College is called the 
 President, but of all the other colleges 
 the Master. 
 
 Provost and Bailies (TJte) in Scot- 
 land correspond to our English mayor 
 and aldermen. They are chosen by the 
 councilmen, and invested with the powers 
 of magistrates in the burgh. The Scotch 
 Municipal Reform Act passed in 1840 
 (18 August). 
 
 Provost of Paris (TM; 'LePre'- 
 vot de Paris,' magistrat d'epee, chef du 
 Chatelet. Cha.rgedwiih.ih.e gouverneme7it 
 politique, and also with the finances of 
 Paris. He is the Viscount of Paris. This 
 officer dates from the reign of Hugues 
 Capet [You Cap-jiay']. 
 
 Provost of the Army. ' Le Pre- 
 v6t de I'Armee,' a French officer charged 
 
 31 
 
 to administer justice between military 
 men, to adjust diffei-ences between officers 
 and privates, military men and civilians. 
 Also called ' Les Pre'vots des Bandes.' 
 
 Provost of the Constabulary, 
 or G-rand Provost of France [The). 
 
 * Le Prevotde la Connetablie.' This office 
 was in 1572 united to that of the ' Provost 
 of the Hotel ' [q.v.). 
 
 Provost of the Hotel [The). ' Le 
 Pre'vot de I'HOtel, 1572.' A French officer 
 who joined to his functions that of Pro- 
 vost of France, the chief military com- 
 mander. The King of the Ribalds was 
 also absorbed in the same office. 
 
 Provost of the King's Hotel 
 [The). 'Le Prevot de I'HOtel du Roi,' 
 judge in all crown cases. He moved from 
 place to place with the court. The duties 
 subsequently passed to the tribunal of 
 the Maitres cVHutel du Boi, and in 1573 
 the office was submerged in that of the 
 Provost of France. 
 
 Provost of the Marshals {The). 
 ' Le Prevot des Marechaux.' The Marshals' 
 Provost adjucated only between the upper 
 officers. Under Charles VI. and VII. this 
 provost was attached to the court. 
 
 Provost of the Merchants 
 
 {The). 'Le Prevot des Marchands.' 
 Elected every three years. At first these 
 provosts were only excise officers, who 
 visited and taxed ships exporting or im- 
 porting goods ; but subsequently they had 
 the jurisdiction of all mercantile affairs, 
 were charged with public ceremonies, 
 and capitation imposts. 
 
 Provvedito'ri {The). Officers ap- 
 pointed for the guardianship of St. Mark, 
 at Venice. 
 
 Prox'enus (pi. Frox'eni). The host 
 of a stranger or ambassador. Before 
 public houses of entertainment were 
 known travellers had to depend on tlie 
 hospitality of strangers, who expected in 
 return similar civiUties if required. That 
 the obligation might be recognised, the 
 host and guest parted a white stone, and 
 writing their name on the two halves, 
 the host gave his portion to the guest, 
 and vice versa {see Rev. ii. 17). In time, 
 certain houses were selected for the en- 
 tertainment of ambassadors. These pub- 
 lic entertainers were called ' Proxeni,' 
 3 A 
 
722 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 PSALTER 
 
 and voluntary entertainers were called 
 ' Ethelo-proxeni.' 
 
 To him that overcometh I , . . will give a white 
 stone, and on the stone a new name written, 
 •which no man linoweth saving he that receiveth 
 it.-Rev. 11. 17. 
 
 Prussia. The Elector Friedrich III. 
 raised his electorate to a kingdom in 1701. 
 From this date it has been constantly- 
 increasing in power and extent, till in 
 1866, in a war of seven weeks, it over- 
 mastered Austria, and in 1870 in the seven 
 months' war it triumphed over France, 
 when the King of Prussia added to his 
 other titles that of * German Emperor.' 
 
 In 1878 the Queen of England, by the advice of 
 Lord Beaconsfield, then premier, added the title 
 ' Empress of India ' to her other titular designa- 
 tions. 
 
 Prussia [Titles of the King of) 
 [German Emperor], since 1888. 
 
 His Imperial and Royal Majesty * * King of 
 Prussia and German Emperor, Margrave of Bran- 
 denburg, Burgrave of Nuremburg, Count of 
 Hohenzollern, Premier Duke and Sovereign of 
 Silesia and of the County of Glatz, Grand Duke 
 of the Lower Rhine and of Posen, Duke of Saxony, 
 of Westphalia, of Engern, of Pomerania, of Lune- 
 berg, of Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, of 
 Bremen, of Gelderland, of Cleves, of Juliers, and 
 of Berg, Duke of the Wends and of the Cassubes, 
 Duke of Crossen, of Lauenberg, and of Mecklen- 
 burg, Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Mar- 
 grave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of 
 Orange, Lord of Rtigen, of Eastern Frisia, of Pader- 
 born and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Miinster, 
 Minden, Osnabruck and Hildeshelm, of Verdun, 
 Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers, Princely 
 Count of Henneherg, Count of the Marches, and 
 of Ravensberg, Hohenstein, Tecklenburg, Lingen, 
 Mansfeld, Sigmaringen andVeringen, and Lord of 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Prussian Boot (T/ie). Prince Bis- 
 marck, chancellor of Prussia (1813- ), 
 or more correctly the imperious domina- 
 tion and insolent arrogance of the prince 
 chancellor. 
 
 In the course of these unfortunate discussions 
 . . . Prince Bismarck himself has revealed a doubt 
 whether all the states of Germany rejoice in the 
 domination of Prussia. The truth is ... a vast 
 number of Germans do not share the Berlinese 
 idolatry of the Prussian Boot. They know the 
 Boot ; they are aware that it has been a service- 
 able aid to diplomacy ; but they do not like it. — 
 Nineteenth Century (Feb. 1889, p. 263). 
 
 Prussian Evangelical Churcli 
 
 (The), 1828. A union of Calvinism and 
 Lutheraiiism. Frederick William III., 
 assisted by Bunsen his minister, compiled 
 a new liturgy for Prussia and a new 
 church organisation. The Calvinistic and 
 Lutheran ministers were then invited to 
 conform on a given day, and so many 
 agreed to do so, that the few dissentients 
 were compelled either to conform or to 
 abandon their pastorates. 
 
 Prussian Orders. The highest is 
 the ' Black Eagle.' 
 
 Pruth [Treat?/ of the), 23 July, 1711. 
 A treaty of peace between Russia and 
 Turkey, in which Czar Peter the Great 
 was obliged to restore Azof and all of his 
 other dominions on the Black Sea to 
 Turkey, 
 
 Pryt'anes (3syl.). Officers in ancient 
 Greece entrusted with the chief magis- 
 tacy in Corcvra, Corinth, Rhodes, and 
 Mitylene. At Athens they were of second 
 rank, next to the archons, and acted with 
 them as judges, sitting in the prytaneum 
 or hall of the prytanes. Their number 
 was fifty, and all lived at the public 
 expense. 
 
 Prytane'um. I. A common hall in 
 a Greek state for a given district, con- 
 taining (1) a law court for the prytanes ; 
 (2) granaries ; and (3) restaurants for 
 citizens and strangers also. 
 
 II. The Prytante Fran^aise was the 
 college of Louis le Grand set apart by 
 the republic for a treasury office. In 1803 
 it was transferred to St. Cyr ; and since 
 1852 to the military college of La Fleche. 
 
 Psalmanazar [George). A literary 
 impostor born in France in 1679. He 
 pretended to be a Japanese, born in the 
 island of Formosa ; and he wrote for the 
 'Universal History' what he called a 
 * History of Formosa,' altogether fabu- 
 lous, but which thoroughly imposed on 
 the learned world. The man died in Lon- 
 don in 1763, but what was his real name 
 nobody knows. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Psalmc'rum Codex, 1457. The 
 first book printed in movable metal type 
 bearing a date', the printing firm was 
 Fust and his son-in-law Peter Schaeffer. 
 See ' Biblia Sacra Latlna.' 
 
 Psalter naRann (r^e),by ^ngus, 
 is a hagiography of the saints of all nations 
 including British, "Welsh, Irish, and even 
 Egyptian (9th cent.). See p. 7, ' Acta 
 Sanctorum.' 
 
 Psalter of Cashel(r^e). A psalter 
 is a provincial register of events, &c., 
 briefly recorded for a national history. 
 The oldest is the Psalter of Tara, which 
 is lost. The Psalter of Cashel (in verse) 
 was the work of MacCulinan bishop of 
 Cashel and king of Munster, who died in 
 the beginning of the 10th cent. 
 
PSALTER 
 
 PUBLIC 
 
 723 
 
 Psalter of Mainz (The), 1457. 
 The first book ever printed. 
 
 Psalter of Tar a (r/ze). The great 
 national register of the ancient Irisli 
 in which was briefly entered provincial 
 annals as materials for national history. 
 The Psalter of Tara has been long lost, 
 but parts of the Psalter of Cashel (com- 
 piled in the 10th cent.) are supposed to 
 have been transcribed from it. 
 
 It began B.C. 900 ia the reign of 011am Fodlah 
 Ot the family of la. 
 
 Their tribe, they said, their high degree, 
 
 Was sung in Tara's Ps iltery. 
 
 Campbell, O'Connor's Child. 
 
 Psaltery {A). ' Sacbut, harp, and 
 psaltei'y.' The sacbut is a corruption of 
 sambuc, a stringed instrument, ' genus 
 citharae rusticas.' The psaltery is a tra- 
 pezium with ten or thirteen strings, run 
 over two bi'idges, struck' with a plectrum. 
 
 The nablium or psaltery ... is called in Psalm 
 XXXIII. 2, and CXLI V. 9, a ten stringed instrument 
 . . . Josephus . . . assigns to it twelve strings. . . . 
 There was another Instrument of this kind used 
 In Babylon. It was triangular in form. In Greek 
 
 It Is called <Ta^/3vKti, in Hebrew fc5D2D. It had 
 
 originally only four strings, but subsequently 
 twenty (Dan. iii. 7, 10, 15j.— Jahn, Arcliieologia 
 Biblica, No. 94. 
 
 Psylli. Jugglers of Egypt and 
 Libya who pretended to neutralise the 
 poison of serpents, and even to kill them, 
 merely by fixing their eyes on them. 
 
 Ptolemaic System (T7ie). Ptolemy 
 
 of Alexandria about a.d. 160 published 
 his ' Great System,' called 
 by the Arabians 'Alma- 
 gest.' It presumed that 
 
 . , our earth was stationary 
 
 \ / in the midst of the system, 
 
 and that the heavenly 
 
 bodies revolved round it. He adopted 
 
 the theory of the epicycles. 
 
 Here E is the earth. The planets, including sun 
 and moon, moved first round the little circle, and 
 the centre of that little circle described in its 
 revolution the large circle round E. The large 
 circle was called the ' deferent.' Epicycle means 
 'upon the circle.' 
 
 Public GrOOd (The), about 1820- 
 1825. A Muscovite secret league, osten- 
 sibly for improving the education of the 
 Kussian empire by introducing the Eng- 
 lish Lancastrian plan, but really a poli- 
 tical organisation to republicanise Russia, 
 and introduce a ' constitution.' Colonel 
 Pestel was head of the league, but was 
 aided and abetted by 122 men of rank, 
 
 a\ 
 
 among whom were several princes. On 
 the death of Alexander in 1825 the 
 Grand-duke Constantine relinqu shed the 
 crown to his brother Nicholas, and when 
 the troops were drawn up to administer 
 to them the oath of fidelity, the cry was 
 raised of ' Constantine and the Constitu- 
 tion ! ' Instantly the leaguers were 
 seized; Pestel and four others were 
 hanged, and 118 were banished to Siberia. 
 
 Public GrOOd {League of the). 
 ' Ligue du Bien Public,' 1465. An alli- 
 ance against Louis XL It consisted of 
 the Due de Bretagne, the Due de 
 Bourbon, the Due de Calabre, the Due 
 de Nemours, Charles the king's brother, 
 the Comte de Dunois, the Comte 
 d'Armagnac, and the Comte Dammartin. 
 At the head of the league was Charles le 
 Te'meraire. The nominal object of this 
 formidable league was the relief of the 
 people, but the real object was vengeance 
 on the king for taking away from the 
 aristocracy certam privileges. An inde- 
 cisive battle was fought at Montlhery in 
 July 1465, after which Louis XL contrived 
 to break up the league by fair promises, 
 which he never intended to fulfil, and the 
 league was nicknamed La Ligue du Mai 
 Public. 
 
 Public Health Act {The), 1875. 
 This act embodies all the sanitary acts 
 passed since 1848, and provides for the 
 removal of all things injurious to health : 
 the overcrowding of houses ; the ventila- 
 tion of factories ; and either the con- 
 sumption of smoke or its being carried 
 high into the air by long chimneys. 
 
 Public Orator (The), of our univer- 
 sities. Elected in Cambridge by the 
 senate from one of two persons nomi- 
 nated by the council. In Oxford he is 
 elected by the House of Convocation 
 {q.v.), and he must be either an M.A. or 
 a B.C.L. He writes official letters, de- 
 livers in Latin an oration on great public 
 festivals, presents to the vice-chancellor 
 those on whom an honorary degree is to 
 be conferred, and (in Oxford) delivers the 
 Creweian Oration alternately with the 
 professor of poetry. The Public Orator 
 is the official voice of the legislative body. 
 
 The first Public Orator of Oxford was appointed 
 in 1584 when Queen Elizabeth visited the univer- 
 sity, and his salary was 20 nobles i6L 13.v. id.). This 
 has been increased by Lord Crewe's benefaction 
 by 201., and 1301. from the luxiversity chest. Total 
 ISOi. 13s. id. 
 
 3 a2 
 
m 
 
 PUBLIC 
 
 PURGERS 
 
 Public Safety {The Committee of), 
 1642. A committee appointed by the 
 Long Parliament as its administrative 
 organ. Its guiding spirits were Hamp- 
 den, Hollis, and Pym. English and 
 Scotch officers were drawn from the Low 
 Countries, and Lord Essex was appointed 
 commander-in-chief, with an army of 
 20,000 foot and 4,000 horse. 
 
 Pucelle (La), or 'La Pucelle 
 d'Orleans.' * The Maid,' that is, Jeanne 
 d'Arc (1412-1431). 
 
 Puck. The nickname of William 
 Ryan, an Irish rufl&an of detestable cha- 
 racter. Brought to trial in January 
 1848 for the murder of John Kelly, whom 
 he shot deliberately in the presence of 
 his family and in his own house. He 
 was executed 8 Feb., 1848. 
 
 Pudsha Be'gum (East Indies). 
 Queen-mother. 
 
 Pueri Regis. King's-men, or vassals 
 of a king, who owed him homage and 
 service. The service was help in time 
 of war. King's-men had their vassals, 
 who were called grafs. The lands held 
 of a lord were called fiefs. The fiefs of 
 king's-men were called immediate, be- 
 cause held immediately under the king. 
 
 Every kings-man was expected to furnish the 
 king with a certain number of men in time of 
 •war, and every man was to be furnished by the 
 vassal with ' a shield, spear, bow, 12 arrows, and 
 a breast-plate.' 
 
 Pugilistic Club in Bond Street 
 
 {The). In the time of the regency. Of 
 this club not only the chief nobility, but 
 even the Prince Regent and the Duke 
 of York, were members. The ceaseless 
 question was which school of boxing was 
 the better, the Bristolian or the Hebrew. 
 The Prince Regent was a Bristolian, 
 but Frederick duke of York was for 
 the Hebrews. Mendoza was the crack 
 Hebrew prize-fighter; Jem Belcher, 
 Thomas Cribb, and Molineux were the 
 crack Bristolians. The members of the 
 club were called Corinthians. Thomas 
 Cribb was most unwisely attached to the 
 household of the Prince Regent. 
 
 The following names are famous in the ring : 
 Jim Belcher (Bristolian) champion (he had but 
 one eye), and his brother Tom, Bendigo, Ben 
 Burns, Cohen, Tom Cribb, champion, Dick Curtis, 
 Figg, Fuller, Gardolio (of the Hebrew school). Bob 
 Gregson (the Pot of Pork), Gully, John C. Heenan 
 (the Benicia Boy), Hudson, Humphries, Gentleman 
 Jackson (Lord Byron was his pupil), Jim Mace, 
 Jack Martin, Daniel Mendoza the Jew, Molineux 
 the Negro, Oliver, Painter, Randal (the Nonpareil) 
 
 noted for his pink cheeks, Caleb Rann(Mendoza'a 
 crack pupil, and called T/te Pink [of Bow]i, Alec ^^ 
 Reed, Richmond, Scroggins (a sailor), TomSayers 
 (who fought the 'Benicia Boy' in 1860), Slack, 
 Cyrus Smalley (Vic Sprig of Myrtle), Cribb's-crack 
 pupil, Spring (so called by Cribb, but whose real 
 name was Tom Winter), Sutton, Tomkins, Jim 
 Ward (the Nestor of the Ring), &c. The era of box- 
 ing was 171&-18C0. 
 
 Punic "SATars {The). Three wars 
 carried on between the Carthaginians 
 and the Romans, in all of which the 
 Romans had the mastery. The first 
 B.C. 263-241 ; the second 218-216, 215- 
 211, 210-207, 206-202 ; the third 150-146, 
 which ended in the fall of Carthage. 
 
 From Pani (Carthaginians) comes the adjective 
 punlc-us; so from maenia comes muniie, sund from 
 pcBiia comes punire. 
 
 Punjab. Persian for five rivers. 
 The five rivers are the Sutlej, the Beeas, 
 the Ravee, the Chenab, and the Jhelum. 
 These five rivers, uniting in succession, 
 form ultimately a single stream called 
 the Punjnud, which carries the collected 
 water into the Indus. 
 
 The united Sutlej and Beeas form the Gharra; 
 and the three rivers Chenab, Ravee, and Jhelum 
 form the Trinab (three rivers). Ultimately the 
 Gharra unites with the Trinab, and flows into the 
 Indus. 
 
 Pura'nas, or ' Purani.' Eighteen 
 poems in Sanskrit containing the Hindu 
 traditions of ci'eation, mythology, and 
 the stories of Indian heroes. These 
 poems serve as a commentary on the 
 Vedas {q.v.). 
 
 Purchase {The Abolition of), 20 
 July, 1871. To prevent persons obtaining 
 commissions or grades in the army by 
 money payments. Before this law was 
 passed the price of promotion was : 
 
 £ £ 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel . 4,500 price 1,300 difference 
 Major .... 3,200 „ 1,400 „ 
 
 Captain .... 1,800 „ 1,100 
 Lieutenant ... 700 „ 250 „ 
 
 Cornet or Ensign . . 450 
 
 Suppose a lieutenant-colonel wished to retire* 
 the senior major might purchase the rank for 
 1,300L ; the senior captain might purchase the 
 majority for 1,400;., and so on, the cornet paying 
 250f. for his lieutenancy, and a new man giving 
 4501. for the vacant cornetcy or ensigncy. Fancy 
 prices were often given as bribes, but always sub 
 
 Purgers, 1793. In the French Re- 
 volution the great purgers conunissioned 
 by the Convention were — 
 
 Babras. See ' Fre'ron.' 
 
 Carrier was sent to extirpate the anti- 
 revolutionists of Nantes, and murdered 
 32,000 men, women, and children {Frud- 
 hom,me). 
 
PURIFICATION 
 
 PUSEYISM 
 
 725 
 
 CoLLOT d'Herbois was sent to extir- 
 pate the anti-revolutionists of Lyons, and 
 murdered 31,000 men, women, and child- 
 ren [Prudhomme). 
 
 Fk^ron and Barras were sent to extir- 
 pate the anti-revolutionists of Toulon. 
 
 KiiEBER, Westermann, Moreau, &c. 
 were sent to extirpate the anti-revolu- 
 tionists of Vendee, and murdered 337,000 
 men, women, and children ( Prudhomme). 
 
 Lebon was sent to extirpate the anti- 
 revolutionists of Arras, St. Pol, and St. 
 Omer. 
 
 Maignet was sent to extirpate the 
 anti-revolutionists of Orange in Vaucluse. 
 
 TAiiLiEN was sent to extirpate the 
 anti-revolutionists of Bordeaux. 
 
 Victor Hugues was sent to extirpate 
 the anti-revolutionists of St. Domingo. 
 
 Purification of the Virgin 
 Mary, 2 Feb. Instituted in 542. 
 
 Purists. An English translation of 
 Cathari {q.v.). 
 
 Puritans, 1565. First applied by 
 way of reproach to the Nonconformists, 
 but subsequently adopted by them. 
 They maintained that they adopted the 
 pure Word of God as their guide, and 
 desired the church to be purified or rid 
 of all things else. They maintained that 
 the Church of England still retained 
 many things not to be found in the Word 
 of God : i.e. the clerical dresses, the 
 book of common prayer, kneeling at the 
 sacrament, the cross in baptism, sponsors, 
 lay baptism, the ring in marriage, bowing 
 at the name of Jesus, episcopacy, forms 
 of prayer, church organs, chanting, and 
 intoning. 
 
 The CathSji of the 3rd cent, were 'Puritani.' 
 
 Purple {The). ' To be raised to the 
 purple,' in the Catholic Church, means 
 to be made a cardinal ; but purple was 
 the colour of the imperial robe of the 
 Romans, and to be raised to the purple 
 or to wear the purple signified to be made 
 emperor or to be emperor. Hence such 
 terms as purpuram adordre, purpura- 
 tOrum socius, and so on. 
 
 Purple Cap. In primitive times 
 young women who professed a state of 
 virginity as a religious function had a 
 purple cap, somewhat like a small mitre, 
 given them at their consecration. See 
 'Cap.' 
 
 Purple Laws {The). The Roman 
 rescripts {q.v.), grants, and pragmatic 
 sanctions written in purple ink. 
 
 A compound of vermilion and cinnabar. White 
 laws were the edicts of preetors, and red laws the 
 
 jus civile. 
 
 Pursuivants. The four English 
 pursuivants are Rouge-dragon, Portcullis, 
 Blue-mantle, and Rouge-croix. 
 
 The four Irish are Athlone the chief, 
 and the other three are pursuivants of 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 The chief Scotch pursuivant is entitled 
 Unicorn. See ' Heralds.' 
 
 Purveyor, Purveyance. A pur- 
 veyor was one who provided for the royal 
 household. Purveyance was the provid- 
 ing of necessaries for the sovereign; 
 sometimes they were bought at a valua- 
 tion, and sometimes they were taken 
 without the consent of the owner and 
 without compensation. Thus, in war, 
 horses, wagons, and food were purveyed. 
 
 Eadmer says : ' Those who attended the court 
 plundered and destroyed the whole country 
 through which the king passed without any con- 
 trol. Some .... when they could not consume 
 all the provisions which they had taken, either 
 sold or burnt what was left. After having washed 
 their horses' feet with the liquors they could not 
 drink, they threw it in the streets.' Time : Rufus. 
 
 Pusey and Ellerton Scholar- 
 ships. Three for Hebrew. Value 50Z. 
 a year, and tenable for three years, in 
 the University of Oxford. Founded by 
 Philip Pusey, of Pusey, Berkshire ; Dr. 
 Pusey, regius professor of Hebrew ; and 
 Dr. Ellerton, fellow of Magdalen, in 
 1822. 
 
 Puseyism, 1833. The doctrinal and 
 ritual tenets of Dr. Pusey of Oxford. 
 This party of the Anglican Church was 
 started by Mr. Perceval, who with some 
 others met at the house of the Rev. Hugh 
 James Rose, domestic chaplain to the 
 archbishop of Canterbury. Probably the 
 views of Charles Simeon, fellow of King's 
 College, Cambridge, instigated the move- 
 ment. The Pusey party was soon joined 
 by many men of great learning, who in- 
 troduced stricter ritual observances, more 
 frequent services, and enforced the doc- 
 trines of apostolic succession, priestly 
 absolution, and church sanctity, in oppo- 
 sition to Calvinism and the ' evangelical ' 
 party called Simeonites. A very large 
 number of the Puseyites have joined the 
 Roman communion. 
 
726 
 
 PUSHTU 
 
 QUADRIVIUM 
 
 Pushtii. The Afghan language, a 
 dialect of the Persian, but very much 
 changed by copious foreign elements. 
 
 Putrid Plain {The). The plain or 
 field in Provence where the battle of Aix 
 was fought B.C. 102. In this battle Caius 
 Marius, the Roman general, almost extir- 
 pated the Teuton army led by Teutobod, 
 and the people of Marseilles (we are told) 
 employed the bones of the slain * to make 
 fences for their vineyards.' 
 
 Tjrenees {Peace of the). I. 7 Nov. 
 1659, between France and Spain. By 
 this treaty it was stipulated that the 
 crowns of France and Spain should never 
 be united under one family. This stipu- 
 lation was the pretext of the War of the 
 Spanish Succession {q.v.), 1701-1714. 
 
 II. 1660. A peace made after the 
 united armies of Mazarin and Cromwell 
 had defeated the Great Conde in the 
 Dunes. This peace stipulated that Eng- 
 land should retain Dunkirk ; that Spain 
 should cede Roussillon and Artois to 
 France ; and that France should restore 
 Catalonia to Italy. 
 
 Pyrrhonists. The disciples of 
 Pyrrho of Elis, who died B.C. 280, aged 
 90. He taught that nothing is what it 
 seems to be, and therefore we know 
 nothing as matter of fact. Pyrrhonism 
 now means religious scepticism. 
 
 Pyrrhonists have of late revived in Germany 
 and England. 
 
 Pythagore'anDiet {The). Veget- 
 able diet. Pythagoras taught that it is 
 cruel and unjust to put any animal to 
 death for food. And the only animal 
 foods that he would sanction are milk, 
 butter, cheese, and eggs. 
 
 Pythagore'an League {The). 
 B.C.* overthrown B.C. 504. The only 
 secret political society of ancient times 
 known of. The ultras of the Carbonari 
 of Naples, in the 19th cent., called them- 
 selves Pythagoreans. The object of the 
 Pythagorean league was to introduce 
 the aristocratic element, but at the same 
 time to make it an aristocracy of talent 
 and not of birth only. 
 
 Pythagorean Philosophers 
 
 {The). Of ancient Greece, so called 
 from Pythagoras (e.c. 481-411), a native 
 of Samos, and often called the Samian 
 Sage. His disciples were divided into 
 
 two classes, the exoterics and esoterics. ; 
 The latter must have attended his lec- 
 tures for five years at least. The ' exo- 
 terics ' were also divided into two classes 
 — those who lived in the college, who 
 were called ccBnoMtce — and those who 
 merely attended his lectures, who were 
 called acusmatici. The average number 
 of the former was about 600 and of the 
 latter about 2,000. See ' Golden Verses.' 
 
 Quaderno de las Leyes nuevas de la 
 Hermandad. The laws of the Her 'man- 
 dad {q.v.) compiled in 1485. 
 
 Quadragesima of St. Martin 
 
 {The). At Milan, in Spain, and in Gaul, 
 the number of Advent Sundays used to be 
 six, beginning on the Sunday after Mar- 
 tinmas, from which it was styled the 
 ' Quadragesima of St. Martin,' or ' Little 
 Lent.' 
 
 At Rome the number was originally 5, in the East 
 it was 40 days. 
 
 Quadrages'ima Sunday (1st Sun- 
 day in Lent), the Sunday next to Ash 
 Wednesday. Quadragesima originally 
 meant the day on which the forty hours' 
 fast is to commence. Gregory I. ex- 
 tended the forty hours to forty days, and, 
 including the four days from Ash Wed- 
 nesday, the Sunday is forty days before 
 Easter. See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Quadrilateral {The). The four 
 fortresses of Italy : namely, Peschiera 
 and Mantua on the Mincio, Verona and 
 Legnano on the Adige. Here the Aus- 
 trians entrenched themselves after the 
 battle of Solferino, 24 June, 1859 ; but 
 hostilities were suddenly put an end toby 
 a treaty of peace. 
 
 Quadril'ogUS. A biography of 
 Thomas Becket, so-called because drawn 
 up from his four contemporary biogra- 
 phers (bk. i. chap. ii.). 
 
 Quadrivium. In the 12th and 
 part of the 13th cent, what we now call 
 university students spent four years in the 
 study of the ' Trivium ' {q.v.), when they 
 took their degree of Baclieler. The next 
 three years were given to the Quadrivium, 
 which included— 
 
 1. Numbers absolute, or arithmetic, 
 chiefly confined to the abacus. 
 
 2. Numbers applied to music, chiefly 
 church music. 
 
 3. Magnitudes at rest, or geometry, 
 some five or six propositions of Euclid. 
 
QUADEUPLB 
 
 QUALIFICATION 
 
 727 
 
 4. Magnitudes in motion, or astronomy, 
 which was only astrology, and the way of 
 finding out the movable church festivals. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance. 
 
 1G06. 28 Oct., between the States-General 
 of Holland, Denmark, the Grand 
 Elector, and the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick-Luneburg, for mutual de- 
 fence. 
 
 1G74. Between Denmark, Holland, Ger- 
 many, and Spain against France ; 
 because Louis XIV. had laid 
 claim to Flanders and Franche- 
 Comte. Finding the allies too 
 strong, Louis then abandoned his 
 claim on Flanders, but seized on 
 Franche-Comte, which has ever 
 since remained an integral part 
 of the kingdom, empire, or repub- 
 lic of France. 
 
 1718. 2 August, between England, Aus- 
 tria, France, and the IJnited Pro- 
 vinces, against Spain. It was a 
 continuance of the Triple Alliance 
 (q.v.), only with the addition of 
 Austria, the fourth power. The 
 immediate cause of this alliance 
 was the effort made by Cardinal 
 Alber5ni of Spain to bring about 
 the union of Spain and France, 
 contrary to the terms of the 
 Treaty of Utrecht, and subversive 
 of the balance of power in Europe. 
 This alliance guaranteed the suc- 
 cession of England in the house 
 of Hanover, and that of France 
 in the house of Bourbon ; and it 
 furthermore guaranteed that 
 Spain and France should not be 
 united under one crown. Sixain 
 accepted the conditions in 1720, 
 when she resigned Sicily to Aus- 
 tria, and Sardinia was settled on 
 the Duke of Savoy. 
 
 1745. Between England, Austria, Holland, 
 and Saxony, in support of Maria 
 Theresa queen of Austria, who was 
 attacked by the King of Bavaria 
 and the King of Prussia (Frede- 
 rick II. the Great). 
 
 1834. Between England, Belgium, France, 
 and Spain ; to put down the Car- 
 lists in Spain, and mauitain 
 Isabella on the Spanish throne. 
 1840. Between England, France, Por- 
 tugal and Spain , to support 
 Maria da Gloria on the throne of 
 Portugal, Queen Isabella on the 
 
 throne of Spain, and to compel 
 
 Mehemet Ali pasha of Egypt to 
 withdraw from an attack on Tur- 
 key by the bombardment of Acre. 
 
 Quaesto'res Classiei. Roman ma- 
 gistrates who had the charge of the public 
 treasury. Called classics because they 
 were originally elected by the centuries. 
 Their number at first was two ; increased 
 to four in B.C. 421 ; to eight soon after the 
 Panic war; to twentjj in the time of 
 Sulla; and to forty in the time of Julius 
 Csesar. 
 
 Quaesto'res Parricidii, i.e. track- 
 ers of murder. The most ancient of the 
 qusestorial magistrates of Rome. They 
 were, later on, made public assessors, and 
 ceased to exist in B.C. 366, when their 
 duties were transferred to the ' Triumviri 
 Cajjitales.' 
 
 Quaker Poet (The). Bernard Bar- 
 ton (1784-1849). 
 
 Quakers, 1650. A religious sect 
 founded by George Fox. Their great 
 doctrine is that all religion consists in 
 the inward operation of the Holy Spirit. 
 They have no sacraments, no ordained 
 ministers, are very serious in deportment, 
 sober in dress, reject oaths, refuse the 
 payment of tithes, use thou and thee in- 
 stead of you, and call the days of the 
 week and the months 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, 
 &c. instead of Monday, Tuesday, &c., 
 January, February, March, &c. They call 
 themselves ' Friends.' The word ' Quaker ' 
 is used as a term of disrespect. See 
 ' Nicolites.' 
 
 It is said that they were called Quakers because 
 Fox, who had been imprisoned by the Puritans, 
 ■when brought before Gervas Bennet, bade his 
 Judge 'quaki^ and tremble nt the judgmenta of 
 God.' Be this as it may, no body of Christians 
 even approach them in morality. 
 
 Quakers' * Confession of 
 Faith' {The) contains twenty-three 
 articles by Robert Barclay (Evans, ' Ex- 
 position,' p. 67). 
 
 Quakers of Germany {The). The 
 Moravians {q.v.). 
 
 Qualification {Property). Before 
 Locke King's bill in 1859 all members of 
 parliament were obliged to swear that 
 they possessed a clear estate in perpetuity 
 of 5011. a year (if a county member), and 
 of 300?. a year (if a borough member), un- 
 less the son of a peer. 
 
 The argument that tlie abolition of theqaaliflca- 
 tion test would encourage men of straw to set up 
 
728 
 
 QUALIFICATION 
 
 QUAET0DECIMAN3 
 
 as candidates at elections was met by the fact 
 that this did not happen in Scotland, where no 
 qualification was required. — HowiTT, History of 
 England (1859), p. 526. 
 
 Qualification Act {The). A biU 
 
 passed in the reign of Queen Anne, oblig- 
 ing every candidate for a seat in the 
 House of Commons to show that he is 
 worth 501Z. a year in land if for a county, 
 300Z. a year if for a borough. Abolished 
 by 29 Vict. c. 22 (1866). 
 
 There is another Qualification Act, but that is 
 for killiiig game, 22, 23 Car. II. c. 25. Abolished by 
 1, 2 Will. iV. c. 32. 
 
 Qualifiers. OfiBcials in the * Con- 
 gregation of the Holy Office ' (q.v.), whose 
 duty it is to report on each case of sus- 
 pected heresy for the information of the 
 cardinals. 
 
 Quarantaine-le-Roi (La), 1245. 
 An ordinance by St. Louis which ren- 
 dered it a capital offence for an ' avenger 
 of blood ' to seek the death of the offender 
 till full forty days had elapsed. In other 
 words, there was to be a truce of forty 
 days between the offence and the license 
 of the kinsmen of the murdered person 
 to avenge the death. This ordinance 
 put an end to the guerres privees of 
 France. 
 
 Quaranti. The forty. Three tri- 
 bunals of Venice were composed of forty 
 members: (1) The tribunal of appeal 
 from the judgment of the city magistrates ; 
 (2) the tribunal of appeal from the sen- 
 tences of the magistrates extra muros ; 
 and (3) the criminal tribunal for all 
 crimes except high treason. 
 
 Quare Impedit. A writ to inquire 
 why a bishop has refused to institute to 
 a living a legal presentee. 
 
 Pronounce Quair'-re im'-pe-dit. 
 
 Quarrel of Friars {The), 1518. 
 So the Lutheran controversy was con- 
 temptuously termed at Kome. 
 
 Quarta Luna Nati. Born to ill- 
 luck, like Hercules, who was so born. 
 According to tradition Abel was born on 
 the fourth day of the moon, and was 
 slain by his brother on the seventh day 
 of the moon. 
 
 Quarter Licence {A). A marriage 
 licence after banns, limited to three 
 calendar months. After the expiration 
 of three months new banns must be 
 asked if marriage has not been solemn- 
 ized. 
 
 Quarter Sessions. A court of 
 justices of the peace held every three 
 months in each county or borough for 
 judicial and other business. The meet- 
 ings are fixed by statute for the first full 
 week after 28 Dec. (Epiphany), the first 
 full week after 31 March (Easter), the 
 first full week after 24 June (Trinity), 
 and the first full week after 11 Oct. 
 (Michaelmas) Sessions. 
 
 The jurisdiction of the Court of Quarter Ses- ' 
 sions is confined to criminal business, not in- 
 cluding treason, murder, capital felony, blas- 
 phemy, perjury, forgery, arson, bigamy, abduction, 
 bribery, sedition, &c. 
 
 QjUarteringS. Subdividing an ar- 
 morial shield so that the son of an 
 heiress or co-heiress at her death may 
 marshal the coat of their mother or their 
 own paternal coat. 
 
 Besides the maternal arms the arms of all those 
 to which the mother was entitled may be quar- 
 tered according to seniority. 
 
 Quartermaster {The). An officer 
 on the staff of each regiment, in which he 
 ranks as lieutenant. His duties are to 
 superintend the quarters, barracks, and 
 kits of the regiment ; to assign to each 
 officer his rooms, and act as regimental 
 storekeeper. After ten years' service he 
 may retire with the honorary rank of 
 captain. 
 
 In the navy the quartermaster is appointed by 
 the captain, and his duties are to take charge of 
 the stowage of ballast and provisions, coiling of 
 ropes, keeping time by the sand-glasses, &c. The 
 ship's quartermaster receives 411. Is. 3ci. a year. 
 
 Quartermaster-General {The). 
 A staff-officer whose duty it is to arrange 
 the marches, quarters, and internal ar- 
 rangements of the army to which he 
 belongs. His salary is 173Z. 7s. 6d. 
 besides his pay. 
 
 Quartermaster - Sergeant. A 
 
 non-commissioned officer whose duty it 
 is to assist the quartermaster. He 
 receives daily 2s. 8^. in the infantry of 
 the line, 3s. 2d. in the cavalry, and 3s. 9^^. 
 in the artillery. 
 
 Quartodec'iman Pasch. The 
 
 Easter of the Quartodecimans {q.v.). 
 
 Quartodec'imanism. The heresy 
 of the Quartodecimans {q.v.). 
 
 Quartodec'imans {The), or ' Pasch- 
 ites' (2 syl.) 2nd cent. Christians who 
 celebrated Easter on the fourteenth day 
 of the first moon, whether Sunday or 
 not, in imitation of the Jews. In 196 
 
QUASIMODO 
 
 QUEEN 
 
 729 
 
 Pope Victor excommunicated all those 
 who held Easter on any day but Sunday. 
 The dispute was not finally settled till 
 825 in the Council of Nice, which pre- 
 scribed the rule that ' the festival of 
 Easter shall be held on the Sunday next 
 after the fourteenth day of the first lunar 
 month.' 
 
 The Asiatic churches followed the quartodecu- 
 man practice, which they traced to the apostles 
 John and Philip. 
 
 The Western churches supported their views on 
 the authority of Peter and Paul. 
 
 Reperimus quosdam . . . quartodecima luna 
 cum Hebrseis celebrare nitentes [i,e. celebrate ilie 
 'immolation of Christ'].— Bede, ii. ch. li). 
 
 Quasimo'do Sunday. The first 
 Sunday after Easter. The introitus (or 
 beginning of the mass) commences with 
 the word ' Quasimodo.' See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Sometimes called 'Dominica in albis,' because 
 the neophytes who had been baptized at Easter 
 wore their white dresses for the last time on 
 Quasimodo Sunday, the octave of Easter Day. 
 
 Quatre Nations {Les), 1661. An 
 ancient college of Paris founded by 
 Mazarin for the gratuitous education and 
 bringing up of sixty sons of poor gentle- 
 men of Spain, Italy, Germany, or Flan- 
 ders. It is now ' Le Palais de I'lnstitut.' 
 
 Quatre Premieres Filles de 
 Citeaux {Les). The four chief Cister- 
 cian abbeys of France, viz. La Ferte, 
 Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond. 
 
 Quatre Temps {Les). The three 
 days' fast (Wednesday, Friday, and 
 Saturday) at the beginning of each of 
 the four seasons. These are ordination 
 times. These fasts were introduced into 
 France in 769, and Gregory VII. fixed 
 the weeks in which the four fasts were to 
 be held ; called also Ember-days. 
 
 The Greek Church does not keep the Quatre 
 Temps. 
 
 Queen {The White). 'La Reine 
 Blanche.' Mary queen of Scots was so 
 called by the French because she dressed 
 in white mourning for her husband, 
 Francois II. king of France. 
 
 Queen Anne's Bounty, 2, 3 
 
 Anne, c. 11, 7 Feb., 1704. An act of par- 
 liament by order of the queen to appro- 
 priate her revenue arising from the tenths 
 and first-fruits to the augmentation of 
 small livings and to aid the poor of the 
 clergy. The income was 17,000Z. a year, to 
 which parliament added an annual grant 
 of 100,OOOZ., and private individuals have 
 still further increased the fund. 
 
 These first-fruits and tenths were originally 
 sent to Rome. Henry VIII. added them to the 
 crown revenue. They are calculated according 
 to the value set down in the ' Liber Regis.' 
 
 Queen Anne's Dead. Addison 
 announced this in the ' Spectator ' long 
 after it was public property, and in 1889 
 his letter containing the announcement 
 was sold by Sotheby & Wilkinson at a 
 literary sale. 
 
 Queen Bess's Day, 18 Nov., when 
 the pope and the devil were burnt in 
 effigy. In Queen Anne's reign the ' Pre- 
 tender ' was added. 
 
 Queen Dick. Richard Cromwell 
 was so called from his want of spirit and 
 manliness (1626, 1658-1660, died 1712). 
 
 Queen Eleanor Crosses. Nine 
 crosses erected by the executors of Queen 
 Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. (1) Lin- 
 coln, (2) Northampton, (3) Stony Strat- 
 ford, (4) Woburn, (5) Dunstable, (6) St. 
 Albans, (7) Waltham, (8) Cheap in Lon- 
 don, and (9) Charing Cross in London. 
 Of these the crosses at Northampton and 
 Waltham have been restored, and the 
 cross of Charing Cross, pulled down by 
 the Long Parliament 1647, has been 
 built in facsimile in Charing Cross 
 Station. There are two other Queen 
 Eleanor crosses not included in the nine, 
 one at Geddington and one at Newark. 
 
 Holinshed's story is ccatradicted by the MS. 
 discovered in 1841. See p. 287, ' Eleanor Crosses.' 
 
 Queen Henry. Henrietta Maria, 
 wife of Charles I., was so prayed for in 
 the royal chapel, her French name Hen- 
 riette being distasteful to English ears. 
 
 Queen Margaret's Cave, 
 
 Northumberland. After the battle of 
 Hexham in 1464, Queen Margaret and 
 her son Prince Edward were concealed 
 in a cave on the south bank of a little 
 stream which runs at the foot of Block- 
 hill. Here they lay concealed till they 
 escaped to Scotland. 
 
 Queen Sarah. The imperious 
 Sarah Jennings duchess of Marlborough, 
 the queen of Queen Anne (1660-1744). 
 
 Queen Anne only reigned, while Queen Sarah 
 governed.— I'cjnpic' Bar, 208. 
 
 Queen Square Hermit {The). 
 Jeremy Bentham, who lived at No. 1 
 Queen Square, London (1748-1832). 
 
 Queen Victoria. Her name ac- 
 cording to Lodge's ' Peerage ' is Alexan- 
 
730 
 
 QUEEN 
 
 QUEEN'S 
 
 drina- Victoria, but according to * Men of 
 the Time,' Victoria-Alexandrina [Guelf]. 
 Her husband's name was Francis Albert 
 Augustus Charles Emanuel [Wetter]; 
 whence the queen is sometimes jocosely 
 called ' Mrs. Wetter.' 
 
 Some add Busiri to the prince's name. 
 
 Queen of Beauty (The). The 
 
 Duchess of Somerset, grandmother of 
 Lady Houghton, who died 1887. 
 
 Queen of Hearts {The). Elizabeth 
 Stuart, daughter of James I. of England, 
 was so called by her friends, but her 
 enemies called her the Snow Queen (q.v.). 
 She was not only lovely, but of a most 
 kindly disposition, and was by her own 
 mother called the ' Good Palatine.' She 
 married Friedrich, the elector palatine 
 [king of Bohemia], by whom she had 
 eight sons and five daughters. One of 
 her sons was the famous Prince Maurice, 
 and her youngest daughter was Sophia, 
 mother of George I. (1596-1662). 
 
 Queen of Heaven {The). 
 
 I. So Kao-tsong emperor of China 
 called his wife (Voo-chee). Kao-tsong 
 reigned in China 650-684. 
 
 VooChee was a most infamous ■woman, the 
 Catharine de' Medici of China. 
 
 II. The Virgin Mary is so called by 
 Catholics, but not by Protestants. 
 
 Queen of Sheba (The). ' Nicauhs ' 
 is the name given in the church of All- 
 hallows, London, where is a large paint- 
 ing on cloth, with the effigy of Queen 
 Elizabeth lying on her tomb. The first 
 two lines of the inscription are : — 
 Read but her reign, this princess might have been 
 For wisdom called Nicaulis, Sheba's queen. 
 
 *,* The Arabs call her ' Balkis ' or ' Belkis ' ; the 
 Abysslnians call her ' Macqueda ' ; others call her 
 'Aazis.' It is said, on her return to Sheba [or 
 Azal], that she changed her son's name ' Menilek ' 
 into ' David.' 
 
 Queen of Tears {The). Mary of 
 Mof^ena, second wife of James II. of 
 England, who was for ever weeping for 
 the crown which her own ill policy con- 
 tributed to lose (1658-1718). 
 
 Queen of the Adriatic {The). 
 Venice. 
 
 Queen of the ^gean. Lesbos. 
 
 Queen of the Antilles [An-teelj. 
 Cuba. 
 
 Queen of the Desert. The foolish 
 title which Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope 
 tried to assume (1776-1839). 
 
 Queen of the East. Zenobia 
 queen of Palmyra (reigned 266-273). 
 
 Queen of the Eastern Arehi- 
 pel'ago. Java. 
 
 Queen of the Euxine {The). 
 Sebastopol. 
 
 Queen of the Lakes {The). 
 Windermere, partly in Lancaster and 
 partly in Westmoreland. The largest 
 lake in England. 
 
 Queen of the Mediterranean 
 
 {The). Carthage, during her maritime 
 supremacy — that is, before the Punic 
 Wars had discrowned her. 
 
 Queen of the Mississippi 
 Valley. St. Louis, Missouri. 
 
 Queen of the North. Edinburgh. 
 
 Queen of the Northern Seas. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth was so called because 
 of her powerful navy (1533, 1558-1603). 
 
 Great Britain, for a similar reason, is called 
 * Queen of the Ocean ' or ' Queen of the Seas.' 
 Hence the pun ' If Britannia rules the waves, I 
 wish she'd rule them a little straiKhter." 
 
 Tyre was also called ' Queen of the Sea.' 
 
 Queen of the South. Queen 
 of Sheba or Saba {q.v.). 
 
 The queen of the south .... came from the 
 uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom 
 of Solomon.— Matthew xii. 42; 1 Kings x. 1. 
 
 Queens' College. I. In Cam- 
 bridge University, founded by Queen 
 Margaret of Anjou, consort of Henry VI., 
 in 1448, and refounded in 1465 by Eliza- 
 beth Woodville, consort of Edward VI. 
 The head of Queens' College is called the 
 president. 
 
 II. Oxford, 1340, founded by Kobert 
 de Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa, 
 wife of Edward III. The headmaster is 
 called the provost. 
 
 Queen's Day, 17 Nov. The day of 
 the accession of Queen Elizabeth (1533, 
 1558-1603). 
 
 Queen's Evidence, or 'King's 
 Evidence.' The disclosure of a guilty 
 transaction by one of the guilty party on 
 the assurance of freedom from punish- 
 ment. Such an impeacher of his accom- 
 plices is said ' to turn queen's evidence.' 
 
 Queen's Gap {The) at Hampden. 
 So called because Griffith Hampden, Esq., 
 cvit this passage through his 'wood when 
 Queen Elizabeth went to visit him. 
 
 Evelyn did the same when Peter the Great 
 visited his seat at Wotton, in Surrey. 
 
QUEEN'S 
 
 QUINI-SEXT 
 
 731 
 
 Queen's Herb {The). SnuflE was 
 BO called, at least in France, in the 16th 
 cent, in compliment of Catherine de' 
 Medici, who was passionately fond of it. 
 
 Queen's Men (Scotch history). 
 See p. 490, ' King's and Queen's Men,' 
 
 Queen's Poisoner {The). Master 
 Rene, employed by Catherine de' Medici, 
 the queen-mother of Charles IX. He 
 poisoned Jeanne d'Albret, mother of 
 Henri [IV.] of France, on her visit to the 
 court to be present at the marriage of her 
 son Henri to the Princess Marguerite, 
 the sister of Charles IX. Jeanne d'Al- 
 bret arrived at the court on 15 May; fell 
 ill 4 June, died 9 June, being poisoned 
 by a pair of gloves sent to her by the 
 Florentine perfumer. 
 
 Queen's University (Ireland), 
 1850, founded by Queen Victoria. 
 
 Queen's Ware, 1763. A durable 
 earthenware first manufactured by Wedg- 
 wood, and patronised by Queen Charlotte. 
 
 Queenstown (Ireland), 1848. 
 ' Cove ' was so named from the visit of 
 Queen Victoria accompanied by Prince 
 Albert, the Prince of Wales, Prince 
 Alfred, the Princess Royal, and the 
 Princess Alice. Just as ' Dunleary ' was 
 christened Kingstown in honour of the 
 visit of George IV. m 1821. 
 
 Queries {Constitutional), 1750. 
 Papers aimed against the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, and distributed through the 
 penny post to each member of both 
 houses of parliament. These papers are 
 generally attributed to Lord Egmont. 
 Burnt by the common hangman. 
 
 Horace Walpole says the imputations made in 
 the ■ Queries were : (a) that the l»uke of Cumber- 
 land had disgraced or dismissed old officers, men 
 of family and property, to make way for slaves, 
 boys, and beggars ; (b) that he had acquired abso- 
 lute power over the army, and was trying to make 
 himself master of the fleet ; (c) that he had shown 
 in Scotland an army superior to law ; (d) that the 
 right of succession was endangered by him. 
 
 Queries (the second paper), 1751, 
 respecting the imprisonment in Newgate 
 of Mr. Murray, M.P., who was accused 
 by the bailiff of threatening his life 
 during the election. Murray refused to 
 receive on his knees the judgment of the 
 house, saying he would kneel to no mortal 
 man or set of men, and was committed 
 to Newgate for contempt, where he re- 
 mained till the close of the sessions. The 
 
 * Queries ' condemned the Commons for 
 acting ultra vires. 
 
 Qui tam. An action partly at the 
 suit of the crown and partly at that of 
 an informer. So called from the first two 
 words, ' Qui tam pro domina reglna, quam 
 pro se ipso, sequitur.' 
 
 Quia Empto'res {The Statute of), 
 18 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 1, A.D. 1290. Making 
 it lawful for every freeman to sell at 
 pleasure his lands and tenements, or any 
 part of them, under the proviso that the 
 new feofee shall hold them of the chief 
 lord thereof by the same service as the 
 previous one held them. In other words, 
 the sub-tenant was to hold of the lord or 
 proprietor, not of the tenant. Emptores 
 (3 syl.). 
 
 Qui'etists. Those Christians who 
 consider the highest state of man is 
 stoical indifference to all temporal 
 matters, and an unremitted contempla- 
 tion of religious subjects. Like the 
 Buddhists they place perfection in divine 
 repose. Mine. Guyon, the mystic, was 
 the founder of Quietism in France in the 
 reign of Louis XIV. See ' Molinos.' 
 
 The Hesychasts or monks of Mount Athos 
 would pass whole days looking at their own 
 navels. Mme. Guyon of France was a very cele- 
 brated Quietist, and so was Molinos in Spain. 
 
 Quindecemviri. A college of 
 priests instituted by Tarquinius Superbus 
 to take charge of the Sibylline books, 
 and they alone could consult them. It 
 was Sylla who increased the number to 
 15 ; originally there were only 2, and the 
 intermediate number was 10 ; they wore 
 the toga praetexta, and were elected for 
 life. This college continued to the time 
 of Theodosius. 
 
 Quini-sext. A supplemental coun- 
 cil to the fifth and sixth general councils. 
 The fifth was held in 553 on the subject 
 of the ' Three Chapters ' ; and the sixth 
 held in 660 to condemn the Monoth'elites 
 (4 syl.) {q.v.). In 692 some 211 bishops 
 met in a hall (called Trullus) of the im- 
 perial palace at Constantinople. It laid 
 down a law respecting celibacy which 
 greatly displeased the Western Church, 
 and prohibited fasting on Saturday even 
 in Lent. The Pope of Rome reprobated 
 the acts of the Quinisext Council, which 
 pronounced the ' Apostolic Constitutions ' 
 to be apocryphal. 
 Quiiiqiie five, sex six. The council is by the 
 
732 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA 
 
 QUORUM 
 
 Greeks called the ncvecicn}, from 7r«/Te five, and €kto« 
 sixth. 
 
 Quinquagesi'ma Sunday. The 
 
 fiftieth day before Easter Sunday, or 
 rather the period when fifty special ser- 
 vices will be held before Easter. In all 
 such ecclesiastical terms as Septuagesima, 
 Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, andQuadri- 
 gesima, the week is reckoned as a ten-day 
 week, because its octave and two eves are 
 reckoned in. Quinquagesima Sunday 
 precedes Ash Wednesday. See ' Sundays.' 
 
 1 Eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 3 Monday, 4 Tuesday, 
 5 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Saturday, 
 9 Octave eve, 10 Octave. So in music 7 notes with 
 the octave of the 1st -we call an ' octave,' and the 
 3 days of the entombment were 1 eve of Saturday, 
 2 Saturday, 3 eve of Sunday. 
 
 Quin'quartic'ular Controversy 
 
 {The), 1618-1619. The controversy of the 
 five points of dispute between Calvin and 
 Arminius. The Synod of Dort was con- 
 vened to settle this controversy, but, as it 
 excluded all Ai miaians, it was a one-sided 
 synod of no authority. 
 
 Quin'quartic'ular G-raee, con- 
 sisting of five articles. That is the five 
 articles representing justification and 
 grace, and in which reformers did not 
 ^gi-ee, but which the Synod of Dort met 
 to settle. 
 
 The door was thrown wide by a lackey in lace. 
 Saying, ' What may you please to want with his 
 
 Grace ? ' 
 ' His Grace ! ' quoth Jerome, for posed was he 
 To guess of what kind this Grace could be— 
 Whether Grace preventice, or Gr&ce particular. 
 Or Grace of that sort called quiiiquurticular. 
 
 Thomas Moore, St. Jerome's Visit to Earth. 
 
 Quinquatria. A Roman festival of 
 five days in honour of Minerva, opened on 
 the 14th of the calends of April {i.e. 
 19th March), the birthday of the goddess. 
 On the first day all went to the temple of 
 Minerva to pay their adorations, the 
 next three days were given to games and 
 gladiatorial exhibitions, and the fifth day 
 was devoted to the purification of the 
 sacred trumpets. The festival was a 
 school holiday time. 
 
 Quinta'na, or ' Quadrages'ima Sun- 
 day,' the 1st in Lent, ' quinta a paschate.' 
 This is the ' Dominica Brandonum," or ' Domi- 
 nica Bar arum. ' See ' Sunday. ' 
 
 Quintus Cur'tius {The Modern). 
 Rene de Vertot (1655-1735), author of the 
 histories of the ' Revolution of Rome,' the 
 ' Revolution of Portugal,' the ' Revolution 
 of Sweden,' 'History of the Bretons,' 
 ' History of Malta,' &c. 
 
 Quinze-Vingts. A hospital founded 
 in Paris in 1254 by St. Louis for 300 
 ' gentilhommes a qui les Sarrasins avaient 
 ere ve les yeux,' and whom the kingbrought 
 home with him from the Holy Land. It 
 stood between the Louvre and the Palais 
 Royal. 
 
 Quinze-vingts means 15 twenties, i.e. 300. The 
 French numerals are the very acme of absurdity. 
 Can anything exceed the folly of such a number 
 as ' Four-twenty sixteen,' &c. ? 
 
 Quiri'tes (3 syl.). So the Sabines 
 were called ; but when the Sabines became 
 fused with the Romans, the civilians of 
 the united people were called Quirites. 
 The soldiers never by any chance were 
 addressed as Quirites except by way of 
 reproach. A general always addressed his 
 troops as milites (3 syl.) ; hence Caesar 
 gieatly mortified his rebellious legions on 
 one occasion by calling them Quirites in- 
 stead of milites. 
 
 In 1890 the Duke of Cambridge snubbed the re. 
 bellious 2nd Grenadier Guards in a similar way. " 
 
 Quit Rent. A small rent paid by 
 tenants of old manors to acquit them ' of 
 service.' Also called ' White Rent ' {q.v.). 
 
 Quo Warranto. A writ demanding 
 to be shown by -what right a person holds 
 an office, estate, &c. Regulated by Ed- 
 ward I. Charles II. made great use of 
 these writs to evict Nonconformists, that 
 the old Church livings might return to 
 the Anglican clergy. Corporations were 
 served by quo warrantos, and received 
 back their charters shorn of their privi- 
 leges. 
 
 Quoad Sacra. A term appHed in 
 Scotland to auxiliary churches built in 
 large parishes, which already contain 
 parish kirks. These chapels of ease have 
 no territorial jurisdiction, and are usually 
 supported by private or voluntary sub- 
 scriptions. 
 
 Quorndon Pack. Mr. Osbaldes- 
 ton's pack of hounds, one of the three 
 packs of the old Melton Mowbray Hunt, 
 established in 1759. The other two were 
 the Duke of Rutland's hounds, and the 
 Earl of Lonsdale's pack called the Cottes- 
 more. The Melton Mowbray Hunt is a 
 thing of the past, but the Rutland hounds, 
 the Quorn and the Cottesmore hounds are 
 still celebrated (1890). 
 
 Quorndon is in Leicestershire, and Cottesmore 
 Park in Rutlandshire. Quorndon is always short- 
 ened into Quorn. 
 
 Quorum {A). The minimum legal 
 number of a board, sufficient to discharge 
 
R 
 
 RA.GMANS 
 
 733 
 
 the business. Sometimes those who are 
 to form the quorum are selected out of 
 the general number. Thus if the general 
 numlaer is represented by the letters 
 of the alphabet, a statute might direct 
 that the five vowels should constitute the 
 quorum or acting members. 
 
 E,. Placed against a sailor's name in 
 the muster-book of a man-of-war, stood 
 for ' run ' [away] or deserter. Technically 
 they were said to be prickt run, and so 
 long as the letter remained uncrossed, 
 the man was not entitled to bounty- 
 money or promotion. See ' C. P.' 
 
 R. The Pope ^narTted with 3 R^s. 
 Silvester II. who held the sees of Reims, 
 Ravenna, and Rome. 
 
 Race of Stenkil {The). The third 
 line of Swedish kings, so called from 
 Stenkil, who reigned from 1056-1066. 
 This race, which furnished five kings, 
 succeeded that of Ivar, and was followed 
 by the race of Sverker. It continued 
 from 1056-1129. 
 
 Race of Sverker {The). In 
 Sweden ; so called from Sverker the 
 founder (1129-1155). It succeeded the 
 race of Stenkil, and continued alter- 
 nating with it from 1129-1250, when 
 the ' Folkungs ' or Jarls succeeded. 
 
 Racine's Monkey. ' Le Smge de 
 Racine.' So J. G. de Campistron was 
 called (1636-1723). 
 
 Radcliffe Library {The). In the 
 
 University of Oxford, 1717, founded by 
 Dr. John Radcliffe, Fellow of Lincoln. 
 The building is now used as a reading- 
 room in connection with the Bodleian 
 Library {q.v.), and the books on natural 
 science have been removed to the Uni- 
 versity museum. The librarian has a 
 salary of 150^. a year. 
 
 Radcliffe Travelling Fellow- 
 ships. Three of the annual value of 
 200Z. eacii, tenable for three years. Can- 
 didates must have passed their B.A. 
 degree, and must travel abroad with a 
 view of studying medicine. Founded in 
 the University of Oxford by Dr. Radcliffe, 
 1858. 
 
 Radical. Apohticalparty. The word 
 came into use in England about 1816 ; 
 the general character of radicalism is 
 democratic and republican. 
 
 Radom {The Confederation of), 
 1767. A confederation of the dissidents 
 of Poland, Avho applied to Russia for aid 
 against the patriots, called the Confede- 
 ration of Bar {q.v.). This interference of 
 Russia led to the partition of Poland. 
 See ' Dissidents.' 
 
 Russia, glad to have a pretence for getting a 
 footing in Poland, supported the Confederation of 
 Eadom. She pressed on the whole line of the 
 Polish frontier with her armies, inundated the 
 kingdom with her troops, and levied contributions 
 for their support, as if she had been in a con- 
 quered country. France supported the con- 
 federates of Bar.— HowiTT, Hist, of E)igland (Geo 
 III. chap. iv. p. 96). 
 
 Radstadt {Peace of), 1714. Between 
 Germany and France. It preserved to 
 France its frontiers, and gave to Germany, 
 Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and the Nether- 
 lands all taken from Spain. This treaty 
 ended the war of the Spanish Succession, 
 which had lasted twelve years. 
 
 Raffael. See ' Raphael.' 
 
 Rag {The). Episcopacy was so called 
 in the 17th cent, by the Presbyterians. 
 The term is a contracted form of 'the 
 rag of the woman of Babylon.' 
 
 Though Leighton restored many of the Scotch 
 ministers to vacant parishes, the most violent 
 gloried in the name of Covenanters, and persisted 
 in preaching in conventicles against 'the rag.' — 
 Pkince, Parallel History, vol. ii. p. 303. 
 
 Rag {The). A familiar name of the 
 Army and Navy Club. The rag, of course, 
 is the flag. 
 
 Ragged Schools. Opened in 
 
 London 1838; in Aberdeen 1811. The 
 Union established in ISli. 
 
 Ragman Roll {The), 1296. A list 
 of all the Scotch barons and men of 
 note who subscribed the Submission to 
 Edward I. It contains the largest and 
 most authentic enumeration extant of 
 the nobility, barons, landholders, bur- 
 gesses, and clei-gy of Scotland prior to 
 the 14th cent., and only genuine statis- 
 tical notices of Scotland of the period. 
 There are four rolls consisting of thirty- 
 five pieces sewn together. A copy is 
 preserved in the Rolls House, Chancery 
 Lane, but the original no longer exists. 
 
 Ragman is a corruption of Ragtmund, the 
 name of a legate of Scotland who compelled the 
 clergy of Scotland to give a true account of their 
 benefices, that they might be duly taxed. 
 
 Ragmans. Long written documents, 
 such as bulls, charters, patents, lists of 
 names, &c. Rymer, in the 'Fcedera.' 
 speaks of liter as patentes, vocata ragge- 
 
i3i 
 
 RAID 
 
 RAJAH 
 
 mans, sive blank chartres. Piers Plow- 
 man says ' Rede on this ragman, and 
 rewle you theraftur.' 
 
 Henry IV. issued a proclamation commanding 
 all the blank bonds, called ragmans, which had 
 been extorted from the people by Richard and his 
 courtiers, to be made null and committed to the 
 names.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eugland, vol. I. p. 481. 
 
 Raid [The], 1468. In Scotch history 
 means the removal to Edinburgh of 
 James III. at the age of fourteen by 
 Robert lord Boyd and his two sons. 
 His guardian Kennedy archbishop of St. 
 Andrews being dead, the estates of Scot- 
 land appointed a new regency. The 
 king wished to act for himself, and the 
 Boyds helped him. The parliament sanc- 
 tioned the raid. 
 
 According to Prof. Skeat. raid is from ride. Its 
 usual meaning is a foray, or predatory excur- 
 sion in border warfare. 
 
 Raid of Carlisle {The), 1596, 
 
 This was the seizure of Kinmont Willie, 
 a noted depredator upon the English 
 border, during a day of truce. Sir 
 Walter Scott of Buccleuch, warden of 
 the Scottish border, held a day of truce 
 for meeting the deputy of Lord Scroope, 
 governor of Carlisle Castle. When the 
 meeting broke up, the English on their 
 return home saw Willie, and took him 
 prisoner. Buccleuch sent a challenge to 
 Lord Scroope, which was insolently 
 declined. Whereupon he assembled his 
 clansmen, forced his way into the castle, 
 and set Willie free. Elizabeth demanded 
 that Buccleuch should be delivered into 
 her hands ; this the Scotch parliament 
 refused to do, but Buccleuch consented 
 to appear before the queen to explain 
 the whole m*tter. The queen was so 
 pleased with his manly bearing and bold 
 spirit, that she dismissed him with 
 tokens of honour and regard. 
 
 Raid of Leith {The), 2 April, 1594. 
 An attack of the Earl of Bothwell to get 
 possession of the king's person on his 
 return from church at Leith, on Sunday 
 morning 2 April, 1594. Bothwell failed 
 in this attempt. 
 
 In his proclamation, distributed at the raid of 
 Leith, the Catholic lords were designated 'ene- 
 mies of the true religion, and the practisers for 
 bringing in of strangers ; a company of lewd per- 
 sons crept into the state to the high contempt of 
 God and dishonour of the king.'— Sir W. ScOTT, 
 Hist, of ScoUand, xxxviii. 
 
 Raid of Rutliven {The), 1582. 
 The forcible detention of James VI. at 
 Ruthven Castle, to which he had been 
 
 invited in a hunting expedition, by 
 Alexander Ruthven earl of Gowrie. The 
 object of this detention was to compel 
 the king to dismiss his favourites, the 
 Duke of Lennox and Stewart earl of 
 Arran. See p. 380, ' Gowrie Conspiracy.' 
 
 Raid, in Scotland, was applied to any assembly 
 met together in arms to enforce their will. Thus 
 the barons who forced from John the Magna 
 Charta would be called in Scotland the Raid of 
 Runnymede. 
 
 Raid of Stirling; {The), 1585. An 
 armed attack on Stirling Castle, where 
 James Stewart earl of Arran and chief 
 minister of James VI. was cooped up. 
 He defended the castle for a time, but 
 had neither men, arms, nor provisions 
 for a siege. Arran, therefore, fled, and 
 having the key of Stirling Bridge, made 
 good his escape by locking the gates 
 behind him to prevent pursuit. Arran 
 was dismissed the public councils, and 
 lived in private as James Stewart. 
 
 Rail Splitter {The). President 
 Abraham Lincoln. So called because at 
 one time he earned his bread by sphtting 
 rails (1809-1865). 
 
 Railway King {The). 
 Hudson (1800-1871). 
 
 George 
 
 Railway Mania {The), 1845, when 
 all the country went mad on railway 
 speculations. The advertisements of 
 projected railways in the ' Times ' news- 
 paper were from 3,000Z. to 6,000Z. weekly 
 in the months of September, October, 
 and November. Railways proper (with 
 Robert Stephenson's locomotives) were 
 first opened in England and America 
 in 1830, between Manchester and Liver- 
 pool. Brunei introduced the broad 
 gauge in 1833. Railways were not prac- 
 tically introduced into France till 1845, 
 when the Chemin de fer du Nord was 
 opened. The Chemin de fer de I'Ouest 
 was opened in 1846 ; and that between 
 Paris and Lyons in 1851. 
 
 ' Chemin de fer ' pronounce Sli'fhand fair. 
 ' Shmand ' to rhyme with darned (silent). 
 
 Rajah of Mattan {The). If the 
 Braganza is not a diamond, the Rajah of 
 Mattan is the largest diamond known. 
 Its original weight was 787 carats; but 
 being given to Borgis, a Venetian, to cut, 
 it was reduced to 379^ carats. Borgis 
 was fined 10,000 rupees for his waste, and 
 received nothing for his cutting. See 
 ' Diamonds.' 
 
RALEIGH 
 
 RAMPAETS 
 
 785 
 
 Raleigh Conspiracy {The), 1603. 
 
 This was the ' Main Plot ' {q.v.) to seize 
 James I. and set Arabella Stuart on the 
 throne. Raleigh and others were arrested. 
 Clarke and Watson were hanged ; Brooke 
 was beheaded ; Cobham, Grey, and 
 Markham were pardoned; and Raleigh 
 was reprieved and released from the 
 Tower 30 Jan., 1616. He then sailed for 
 Guiana, returned in 1618, was again 
 arrested for complicity in the ' Main 
 Plot,' and beheaded 29 Oct., 1618. 
 
 Ramadan. The ninth month in the 
 Moslem year. It is a kind of Lent or 
 fast in commemoration of the first revela- 
 tion received by Mohammed. A strict 
 Moslem must not eat or drink, smoke or 
 bathe, smell any perfume, or even swallow 
 his own spittle till after sunset. This 
 fast is followed by the festival called 
 ' Bairam ' {q.v.). 
 
 The word "Ramadan ' means the 'hot month,' 
 from the Arabic rainiddh, or ramaddh, ' to be hot.' 
 
 Rambam. A sonant of ' R. M. B. M.,' 
 
 that is. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, born 
 at Cordova in 1135. He wrote com- 
 mentaries on the Talmuds (Babylonian 
 and Jerusalem), and a work on the 
 Calendar. He is generally called ' Mai- 
 monides,' ' the doctor, the great sage, the 
 glory of the West and light of the East, 
 second only to Moses.' 
 
 RambouiUet {L'Hotel de), 1600. 
 The society which met in the mansion of 
 the Marquis de RambouiUet, Rue St. 
 Thomas, near the Louvre, Paris. The 
 society consisted of the most distinguished 
 persons in the city. The palmy days of 
 these reunions were from 1635 to 1665. 
 Cardinal Richelieu, Prince Conde, and 
 Montausier were among the magnates, 
 while Racan, Voiture, Benserade, Balzac, 
 Menage, Chapel ain, La Calprenede, 
 Scude'ry, D'Urfe', Sarrasin, Desmarets, 
 St. Sorlin, and the Abbe Cottin repre- 
 sented the beaux esprits. The ladies 
 who usually attended were the Duchess 
 of Longueville, the Marchioness of La- 
 fayette, Madame de Sevigne, Madame 
 Deshoulieres, and the Duchess Montau- 
 sier (the life and soul of the society). 
 Each guest was nicknamed by some 
 Greek or Roman celebrity, and the ladies 
 •were called Les Precieuses. At first this 
 society was the arbiter of taste and 
 literature, but it lapsed into prudery and 
 
 affectation, gibbeted by the 'Precieuses 
 Ridicules ' of Moliere. 
 
 Ramillies Wg {A). Introduced 
 in the reign of George I., and so named 
 from the famous battle of Ramillies. It 
 had a long, gradually diminishing, plaited 
 tail, called the ' Ramillie tail,' which was 
 tied with a great bow at the top and a 
 smaller one at the bottom. In 1736 the 
 officers of the horse and foot guards were 
 commanded to wear Ramillie periwigs. 
 
 This [the buzz wig] was the paragon of the three 
 yet remaining wigs of the parish, which differed, 
 as Monkbarns used to remark. Uke the three 
 degrees of comparison— Sir Arthur's Ramillies 
 being the positive, his own bob-wig the compara- 
 tive, and the overwhelming grizzle [i.f. buzz wig] 
 of the clergyman figuring as the superlative. — Sir 
 \V. Scott, The Antiquary, ch. xvii. 
 
 Ramists. Those who followed Pierre 
 
 Ramus in his new pronunciation of Latin. 
 
 This novelty especially affected such 
 
 words as contained qu, pronounced k ; 
 
 as 'quisquis,' pronounced kiskis. This 
 
 innovation produced riots in Paris, just 
 
 as Sir John Cheke's innovation in the 
 
 pronunciation of Greek produced riots 
 
 in Cambridge a few years before. See 
 
 ' Greeks and Trojans.' 
 
 Sir John Cheke died 1557 ; Pierre Ramus fell in 
 the massacre of Barthelemi in 1572. 
 
 Ramnes. A Roman gentfeman, 
 {See Propertius, iv. 1, 31.) A con- 
 traction of ' Ramnenses.' Livy (i. 13) 
 says ' a Romulo,' and tells us it was one 
 of the three tribes or centuries into which 
 Romulus divided his people. If ' Roma ' 
 is from ' Romulus,' as we are told by 
 Varro, then, with a little shuffling of the 
 cards, we can get ' Romanenses ' (natives 
 of Rome), contracted into ' Rom'nenses,' 
 and corrupted into ' Ramnes.' 
 
 'Tatienses, the Sabine tribe, from Tatius the 
 Sabine king (Ovid, ' Fast.' iii. 131). The third cen- 
 tury or tribe was called ' Luceres ' (strangers). 
 Plutarch says ' a luco, ubi Romuli asylum fuit, 
 ut sint advense in hac tribu.' 
 
 Ramorantin {The Edict of), 1560. 
 Issued by Francois II. after the con- 
 spiracy of Amboise, constituting the 
 bishops judges of heresy, and depriving 
 Huguenots of the right of holding religious 
 assemblies. 
 
 Ramparts. Those great masses of 
 earth, about 7r, feet in height, which are 
 thrown up from the ditch inwards in for- 
 tification, in order to give the defenders 
 in a siege a commanding surface for their 
 cannon and musketry. The first range 
 of ramparts is called the body of the place 
 (or enceinte) ; and all the works between 
 
736 
 
 KAMSDEN 
 
 EAPPAREES 
 
 the enceinte and the covered way are 
 called outworks. Those constructed 
 beyond the covered way and the glacis, 
 but within the range of the musketry of 
 the main-works, are termed advanced 
 works ; and those beyond that range are 
 called detached works. In the outline 
 or ' tracing of a fortress,' if the angle 
 points outwards towards the country 
 it is called a salient angle ; if inwards 
 towards the place fortified, it is a re-enter- 
 ing angle. 
 
 Ramsden Sermon (The). On 
 Church Extension. To be preached in 
 full term in St. Mary's Church, Cam- 
 bridge. Fee, five guineas. A fund was 
 left for the purpose by Mrs. Charlotte 
 Ramsden, of Bath, 1848. 
 
 Ranche'ros {The). The half-Indian 
 and half-Spanish breed in Mexico. They 
 form by far the best part of the Mexican 
 army. They are a thin muscular. race, 
 temperate, daring, and hardy. 
 
 Rank and File. The technical 
 phrase for privates and corporals of in- 
 fantry, often spoken of as ' Bayonets,' 
 from the instrument which they carry. 
 
 Rails tadt (Treaties o/). I. 24 Sept., 
 1706. A treaty of peace between Charles 
 XII. of Sweden and Frederick Augustus 
 of Poland. 
 
 II. 22 Aug., 1707, a Convention signed 
 at Alt Eanstadt between Charles XII. of 
 Sweden and the kaiser Joseph I. 
 
 Ranters. The Primitive Methodists 
 are sometimes so called. They seceded 
 from the Methodists because, in their 
 opinion, the true spirit of Methodism 
 was no longer jDreserved in the body. By 
 this they meant that too much attention 
 was paid to formality, and that not suffi- 
 cient fervour was manifested. Field- 
 preaching and street-preaching of an 
 emotional character was strongly advo- 
 cated. Hugh and J. Bourne, with "W. 
 Clowes, were the chief instruments of 
 this separation. 
 
 Ranz desVaches {The). Simple 
 melodies played on the Alphorn in the 
 Swiss Alps, or sung by the herdsmen, or 
 both, when they drive their cattle to and 
 from the pasture. 
 
 Ranzelman {A). A petty magis- 
 trate in the Zetland islands, whose office 
 
 it is to divide the spoil of wrecks cast on 
 the coast. 
 
 The Ranzelman was dividing with all due im- 
 partiality the spoils of the wrecked vessel . . . 
 and, if the matter in hand had not been, from 
 beginning to end, utterly unjust and indefensible, 
 discharging the part of a wise and prudent magis- 
 trate.— Sir W. Scott, The Pirate, chap. viii. 
 
 Rape of the Sabines, 8th cent. 
 
 B.C. Romulus, wishing to find wives for 
 his new city, invited the Sabines and 
 other neighbouring towns to come and 
 see his consualia, or public games, in 
 honour of the god Census, and when the 
 spectators were intent on the show, a 
 number of Roman youths rushed in 
 among them, and seized all the marriage- 
 able maidens on whom they could lay 
 hands. 
 
 A very similar incident is recorded in Judges 
 xxi. 19-23. 
 
 Raphael {The Flemish). Frans 
 Floris. His chief works are ' St. Luke at 
 his Easel,' and the ' Descent of the 
 Fallen Angels,' both in Antwerp Cathe- 
 dral (1520-1570). 
 
 Raphael {The French). Eustace 
 Lesueur (1617-1655). 
 
 Raphael the Divine. Raffaello 
 Sanzio il Divino (1483-1520), the greatest 
 of all painters. His first works were 
 under the influence of Peruglno, such as 
 the 'Coronation of the Virgin,' in the 
 Vatican, and the ' Marriage of the Virgin,' 
 at Milan. His second class of paintings 
 (1504-1508) were of the Florentine 
 school, of which class is 'St. Catharine,' 
 in the National Gallery, London. The 
 cartoons in Hampton Court are of the 
 third or Roman class. 
 
 Raphael of Cats {The). Godefroi 
 Mind, a Swiss painter (1768-1814). 
 
 Raphael of Holland {The). 
 Martin van Hemskerck (1498-1574). 
 
 Raphael of Opera or of Music 
 
 {The). J. C. Wolfgang Mozart (1756- 
 1791). 
 
 Raphael's Sketch Book ought to 
 be called the ' Venice Sketch Book,' as 
 Morelli has proved them to be sketches 
 by Pinturicchio, the Umbrian artist, 
 before Raphael was bom. It is pre- 
 served in the Accademia deile Belle 
 Arti, in Venice. 
 
 Rapparees, 17th cent. Wild Irish 
 plunderers, so called from their being 
 
RASKOLNIKS 
 
 RAVEN 
 
 737 
 
 armed with a rapary, or half-pike. They 
 were especially numerous in the Bog of 
 Allan, if we may trust Lord Macaulay, 
 who, speaking of newspaper leaders, 
 refers to the ' Rapparees of the Bog of 
 Allan ' as one of the items which helped 
 to furnish journals in their early days. 
 
 They commonly wear little woollen jackets, 
 breeches close to their thighs, and over them a . . . 
 shag rugg, deeply fringed. They go, for the most 
 - part, bareheaded, wear their hair long, and count 
 it the greatest ornament. . . . They count it no 
 infamy to commit robberies, and when they go to 
 rob they make prayers to God that they may 
 obtain booty. . . . Tliey also suppose that violence 
 and murder are in no wise displeasing to God.— 
 Gay Miege, Nclc state 0/ England (second edition, 
 1711 ; Ireland added). 
 
 Raskolniks {The), 1654. Russian 
 schismatics who opposed the revised 
 translation of the Bible and Liturgies. 
 
 Rat, Cat, and the Dog. William 
 Collingham was author of the rhyme 
 (1483) 
 
 The rat, the cat, and Lovel the dog, 
 Rule all England under the hog. 
 
 The rat was Rat-cliffe, the cat was 
 Cat-esby, Lovel was Francis viscount 
 Lovel the king's ' spaniel,' and the hog 
 was the blue boar, the crest of Richard 
 III. Collingham was put to death for 
 his too pregnant wit. 
 
 Rats. When the Assyrians, B.C. 692, 
 invaded Egypt, Sethos the king raised 
 an army of artisans and labourers. But 
 no battle was fought; for during the 
 night a swarm of rats gnawed to pieces 
 the quivers, bowstrings, and shield-straps 
 of the Assyrians, who at once fled. In 
 honour of this event Sethos had a statue 
 of himself, holding a rat in one hand, 
 erected in the temple of Memnon. 
 
 Was not the rat in the band of Sethos the 
 •water-rat, or ichneumon, the god of the people of 
 Heracleopolis ? 
 
 Rate in Aid (A), 1849. Sixpence in 
 the pound to be levied in every county 
 of Ireland towards a general fund for 
 the relief of the poor of that country. 
 The potato disease had reappeared, and 
 this rate more equally divided the burden 
 of supporting the poor by placing a 
 portion of it on shoulders better able to 
 bear it. 
 
 Rath (A). A hill-fortress, the dwell- 
 ing of an old Irish chief, built on a 
 natural elevation and surrounded by a 
 rampart. The whole enclosure was the 
 rath, and the chief's dwelling stood within 
 
 the area. It was made of wood, mud, and 
 hurdles. 
 
 Rational School (The), in theology, 
 
 revived in Germany by Paulus, who 
 produced his 'Commentary of the New 
 Testament ' (1800-1804). His object is to 
 show that miracles and all that is beyond 
 man's reason and experience must be 
 discarded. 
 
 Rationalism, in theology, is the re- 
 jection of everything in religion which 
 cannot be supported by reason, as mira- 
 cles ; and the explaining away of miracles 
 by ascribing the phenomena to natural 
 causes. Thus, in the passage of the Red 
 Sea, the Rationalists maintain that Moses 
 and his host passed when the tide was 
 out, but that Pharaoh and his host were 
 overwhelmed by the returning tide. 
 
 Like King John and Lynn Wash. 
 
 Rationalists. A fanatical party 
 which arose during the civil war, after- 
 wards called 'Levellers' (1647). John 
 Lilburne (afterwards Colonel Lilburne) 
 was a leading spirit of these republicans. 
 They said the election of Saul by the Jews 
 plainly teaches that kings usurp the place 
 of God, and that lords and princes are 
 denounced in scripture, which teaches the 
 equality of man. Their platform was 
 rehgious equality ; biennial parliaments ; 
 six-monthly sessions ; a widely extended 
 franchise ; and a more equally distributed 
 representation. These Rationalists or 
 Levellers were pretty well the same as 
 the Agitators. See Rom. xiii. 
 
 Ratisbon, in Bavaria {Truce of), 
 15 Aug., 1684. Between France and Spain 
 on the one hand and the kaiser on the 
 other. 
 
 Ratisbon Interim {The), in 1541* 
 A provisionary arrangement between the 
 Roman Catholic and Lutheran ad in- 
 terim — that is, till the matters in dispute 
 could be laid before a general council. In 
 the Ratisbon Interim 3 Roman Catholics 
 and 3 Lutherans were appointed to make 
 provisionary measures of agreement. The 
 Roman Catholic deputies were Eck, Pflug, 
 and Gropper ; the Lutheran deputies were 
 Melanchthon, Bucer, and Pistorius. They 
 agreed on all points except the sacraments 
 and the power of the Church. 
 
 Raven Knight {The). John Hun- 
 yadi, whose shield had a black raven 
 8B 
 
738 
 
 RAWANDIANS 
 
 REALISTS 
 
 holding a gold ring in his beak painted 
 on it (1400-1456). 
 
 Never before had they witnessed fighting as gal- 
 lant as that of the Raven Knight at the head of 
 his small troop.— Vambery, Hungary, chap. ix. 
 
 Rawandians (The), a.d. 759. A 
 Saracenic sect believing in metempsy- 
 chosis. 
 
 Rawlinsonian Professorship 
 
 (The) of Anglo-Saxon, in Oxford Univer- 
 sity. Stipend 300Z. a year. Founded by 
 Richard Rawlinson, D.C.L., of St. John's 
 College, in 1750. 
 
 Rayleigh d'lsgustin {Sir). A 
 punning toast {Really disgusting, Sir), 
 by way of reproof. 
 
 Re G-alantuomo, Victor Emmanuel 
 II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia 1849, king 
 of Italy 1861. 
 
 ' Here ' (said Garibaldi), ' in the presence of our 
 Re Galantuomo, I must be permitted to speak ray 
 mind.'— HowiTT, History of England (year 1859), 
 p. 539. 
 
 Readers = ' Lectores ' in the Greek 
 and Latin Churches, were young men 
 studying for the priesthood. They served 
 as secretaries to the bishops, and were 
 promoted according to merit ; some, how- 
 ever, never graduated to any higher 
 degree. Tertullian is the first who men- 
 tions this office. The readers had charge 
 of all the sacred books, and acted as 
 messengers. By the Fourth Council of 
 Carthage the bishop, on ordaining a 
 reader, had to place a Bible in the hand of 
 the candidate, and say : ' Receive this 
 book, and be a reader of the Word of God. 
 If thou exercise thy ministry faithfully, 
 thou wilt have part with those who ad- 
 minister God's word.' 
 
 The lectors used to read the Epistles till Inno- 
 cent III. appointed the office of sub-deacon in the 
 10th cent. ; but after that the lector only read the 
 lessons at matins. 
 
 Reading {The Council of), 1279. It 
 enacted that two representatives chosen 
 by the clergy of each diocese shall attend 
 the national synod, to consult respecting 
 the redress of grievances, granting subsi- 
 dies, and whatever else relates to the well- 
 being of the Church. This is called the 
 nucleus of ' Convocation.' 
 
 Pronounce Red'-ding, 
 
 Real Estate. Land and houses, in 
 opposition to personal property, such as 
 cash, jewels, and furniture. The Romans 
 divided property into immovable (real) 
 and movable (personal). Lands and 
 
 houses are real because they cannot be 
 carried away ; personal property can be 
 moved by the possessor from place to 
 place. 
 
 Real Laws. Laws for the regulation 
 of property without interfering with the 
 state of persons. 
 
 Les lols reelles n'ont point d'extension directs ni 
 indirecte hors la juridiction et la domination du 
 leglslateur.— Story, Conflict of Laws, 610. 
 
 Real Presence. The dogma that 
 the bread and wine in the eucharist, after 
 consecration, become the veritable and 
 real body and soul, humanity and divinity 
 of Christ. This is called the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation, and is held by the 
 Roman and Eastern Churches. Luther 
 taught the same doctrine with a difference. 
 By transubstantiation is meant that the 
 wine is no longer wine, and the bread 
 is no longer bread after consecration ; 
 Luther taught that the bread and wine 
 remained bread and wine, but that the 
 body and soul, humanity and divinity of 
 Christ were incorporated with those ele- 
 ments. This is called the doctrine of 
 con-substantiation. Calvin taught that 
 the body and soul of Christ were taken 
 only by faith, and not substantially by 
 communicants in the eucharist. 
 
 Luther's word was impanation. As God was 
 incarnate in Christ, so Christ was impanated, or 
 introduced into the elements of bread and wine, 
 and incorporated with them. 
 
 Real Right. A jus in re or right 
 in the thing itself, and not its equivalent ; 
 in opposition to jus ad rem, or a right to 
 enforce an obligation or the performance 
 of something. 
 
 A servant has a jus in re, a master a jus ad rem. 
 A master must pay his servant watjes, and cannot 
 instead of wages substitute work. A servant, on 
 the other hand, must give his master work, and 
 cannot be allowed to pay money instead. Thus a 
 master, by paying a month's wages in advance, 
 can dismiss a servant ; but a servant cannot, by 
 forfeiting a month's wages, quit a master's service. 
 The master's obligation to a servant is tnoney ; a 
 servant 8 obligation to a master is work. 
 
 Realists. Thosewho believe in real- 
 ism, or the independent existence of 
 universals. Tree in the abstract is a 
 universal ; an oak-tree, an elm, a fir-tree, 
 are particular trees. Now realists main- 
 tain that tree exists in the abstract, and 
 is not the hypothetical creature inferred 
 from particular objects. Nominalists say 
 universalia post rem, universals are 
 a posteriori, and particulars come first. 
 Realists say universalia ante rem, that 
 universals precede sensible objects. 
 
EEALM 
 
 REBELLION 
 
 739 
 
 In theology we are told that Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. There 
 were certain divines who insisted that 
 these three persons were only three 
 names {nomina) of the same Being, as 
 father, son, and husband are three names 
 of the same person. Other theologians 
 insisted that they are not only three 
 names, but three real persons. Guillaume 
 de Champeaux (1053-1120) was the 
 founder of the realistic school. 
 
 There is yet a third sort of realism, or 
 belief — viz. that the phenomenal world has 
 an objective existence, quite independent 
 of our perception thereof. To me or you 
 the phenomenal world is what our senses 
 cognise ; but even if we were deprived of 
 our senses, and there was no phenomenal 
 world to us, still (say the realists) the 
 phenomena would exist. This realism is 
 opposed to Berkeley's ' Idealism.' 
 
 Traced to its origin we come to Plato 
 and Aristotle. Plato insisted that the 
 divine idea is a real something, a mould 
 or matrix in which creation was fashioned. 
 Aristotle contended that the Divine word 
 was enough ; ' he commanded, and it was 
 done.' 
 
 *«* We also speak of realism in art and letters, 
 meaning an imitation of nature, not a fanciful 
 ideal. 
 
 Rosceline seems to have raised the question 
 ■whether the personal distinctions of the Deity are 
 real or only nominal. 
 
 St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertus Magnus, 
 Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus were Realists. 
 
 Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes, 
 Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillac, and Dugald 
 Stewart were Nominalists. 
 
 The Realist (as opposed to the Idealist) holds 
 that the phenomenal world has an objective ex- 
 istence. The Idealist contends that it has only a 
 subjective existence. The whole contest may be 
 settled thus: To an individual every phenomenon 
 is only subjective to him ; that is, his perception of 
 a phenomenon depends upon his senses, but inde- 
 pendent of himself the phenomenon is real, or 
 there is a real phenomenon. 
 
 Realm of St. Stephen {The). 
 Hungary. 
 
 Croatia is still a member of the realm of St. 
 Stephen.— Vambery. Hungary, chap. vii. 
 
 Rebecca Riots {The), 1843. A 
 crusade against toll-gates begun in Wales. 
 See next article. 
 
 Rebeccaites, or ' Children of Ee- 
 becca,' 1839. Welsh rioters who went 
 about destroying turnpike gates. So 
 called from Rebekah, the bride of Isaac. 
 When she left home her father and 
 friends said to her (Gen. xxiv. 60), ' Let 
 thy seed possess the gate of those which 
 hate thee.' See ' Rebecca Riots.' 
 Also called ' Rebecca's Daughters,' and ' Re- 
 
 beccas.' The word has been revived of late in 
 reference to illegal fishing. 
 
 * Rebekah's Camels ' Bible 
 
 {The), 1823. So called because in Gen. 
 xxiv. 61 the word ' damsels ' is mis- 
 printed camels. Thus: 'And Rebekah 
 arose, and her camels' [damsels]. See 
 ' Bibles.' 
 
 Rebel Cro-wn {The). A silver 5s. 
 piece struck at Kilkenny in the reign 
 of Charles I. There are seven varieties, 
 distinguished by the size of the crown, 
 and the shape of the letter S. 
 
 Rebellion {The Great). That of 
 the Parliamentarians against Charles I. 
 of England. It began in August, 16-42, 
 when Charles set up his standard at 
 Nottingham, and terminated with the 
 Restoration of Charles II., 29 May, 1660. 
 
 Rebellion of Paraguay {The), 
 
 1750. The Spanish Jesuits succeeded in 
 forming a flourishing colony, amounting 
 to 200,000 individuals, in Paraguay and 
 Parana, which for a century and a half 
 enjoyed both peace and happiness ; then 
 Spain gave up seven districts of Paraguay 
 to Portugal in exchange for certain 
 territory on the left bank of the river 
 Plate, and ordered the colony to remove. 
 The Indians resisted, and this resistance 
 was called rebellion. Ultimately the 
 matter was arranged, and the colony re- 
 mained undisturbed. 
 
 Rebellion of Shane O'Neil, in 
 
 Ulster, 15G1. On the death of O'Neil 
 earl of Tyrone a dispute arose respecting 
 the succession. England acknowledged 
 the eldest son as heir to the earldom, 
 while the sept maintained their right 
 of choosing a chief from any of the 
 family, and selected a younger son. 
 Shane O'Neil made good his claim by 
 the sword, and having defeated the lord 
 deputy invaded Connaught. He was 
 defeated by Colonel Randolph in 1566, 
 took refuge in Antrim, and was hewn to 
 pieces, June 1567, in a drunken squabble 
 by his Scotch retainers. 
 
 Rebellion of 1715 {The), when 
 the Chevalier de St. George landed in 
 Scotland. James Francis Edward, son 
 of James II., was defeated at Preston 
 Nov. 1715, and the cause was resumed in 
 1745 by his son Charles Edward. See 
 below, ' Rebellion of 1745.' 
 
 These were reasons which unquestionably 
 operated to prevent [in 17UB] that bloody retalia- 
 
 3b2 
 
V40 
 
 EEBELLION 
 
 RECUSANTS 
 
 tion which follov/ed the rebellions of 1715 and 
 1745.— HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Anne, 245). 
 
 Rebellion of 1745 {The), when 
 Charles, afterwards the 'Young Pre- 
 tender,' landed in Scotland. Charles 
 Edward Stuart proclaimed his father 
 ' James VIII. of Scotland,' and defeated 
 the royal troops at Prestonpans (22 Sept., 
 1745), and at Falkirk (28 Jan., 1746), 
 but was defeated at Culloden (16 April, 
 1746), and returned to France. At his 
 father's death (31 Jan., 1788) he became 
 * the Young Pretender.' 
 
 Rechabites (3 syl.). The posterity 
 of Jonadab, son of Eechab, who were 
 forbidden to build houses, to plant vine- 
 yards, to possess lands, to dwell in tents, 
 and to drink wine. They continued to 
 observe these injunctions for 300 years. 
 (Jer. XXXV. 6, 7.) 
 
 They were probably carried away captive by 
 the Chaldeans, as the title of Psalm Ixx. is ' Sung 
 by the sons of Jonadab and the principal cap- 
 tives.' They returned from captivity, and settled 
 in the city of Jabez, beyond Jordan. 
 
 Reciprocity Acts, 1823 (4 Geo. 
 IV. c. 77 ; 5 Geo. IV. c. 1), empowering 
 the king, by order in council, to authorise 
 the importation and exportation of goods 
 in foreign ships, provided the foreign 
 country in whose favour the order is 
 made places British ships on the same 
 footing as its own ships. See * Navigation 
 Act.' 
 
 Reciprocity Treaty (T^e), 7 June, 
 1854 (18 Vict. c. 3). Between Great 
 Britain and the United States, regulating 
 British American coast-fisheries, and the 
 navigation of the St. Lawrence and the 
 lakes. Terminated by notice from the 
 United States 17 March, 1866. 
 
 Recluse of Edgbaston {The). 
 John Henry Newman, created cardinal 
 (1801-1890), author of Tract No. 90, 
 the hymn ' Lead, kindly Light,' and a 
 dramatic poem called ' Gerontius,' with 
 numerous other works. 
 
 Recognition {The Act of), 1531. 
 That the king and not the pope is 
 ' unicus et supremus dominus ' of the 
 English Church ; not in the same sense 
 as Christ is head of the Church, but in 
 the sense that he is head of all his 
 subjects, with a right to their allegiance, 
 obedience, and submission in all legahsed 
 matters. 
 
 Thus the Convocation of York, 1534, unani- 
 mously agreed that the Pope of Kome has no 
 
 ' greater jurisdiction In these realms ' than any 
 other foreign bishop. In the Convocation of Canter- 
 bury thirty-four assented, one doubted, and four 
 denied the Act as interpreted by the Convocation 
 of York. See Article XXXVII. 
 
 N.B. — The words 'quantum per Christ! legem 
 licet ' were afterwards added. 
 
 Recognitions {The). Quoted by 
 Origen as a work of Clement's; was a 
 romance in ten books embodying the 
 Christian doctrines and history. It was 
 translated by Rufi'nus into Latin and 
 called 'The Acts and Travels of St. 
 Peter.' 
 
 Called Recognitions because it supposes Clement 
 to recognise his father, mother, and brother, who 
 had been lost. 
 
 R^collets (Reformed Franciscans). 
 Established in Spain in 1484, introduced 
 into France in 1592, and into Paris in 
 1603. Like the Soccolanti they adopted 
 sandals. Reformed Clares and Colettes 
 are called ' Recollettines ' (4 syl,). 
 
 The word is RecoUecti, that is recueiUis. It has 
 reference to spiritual recollection— tliaX is, the 
 complete devotion of all the powers to a spiritual 
 life. 
 
 Reconciliation {The Bill of), 1554. 
 An Act of Parliament repealing the whole 
 ecclesiastical legislation of Henry VIII. 
 and Edward VI. It, however, rejected 
 all proposals for the restoration of 
 church lands, and refused to change the 
 succession from Elizabeth to Philip. 
 
 Reconciliation {The Feast of the), 
 25 Jan. {St. Andrew's Day), 1555. To 
 commemorate the return of England to 
 the see of Rome in the reign of Mary. It 
 was celebrated by a grand religious pro- 
 cession, and ordered to be kept as an 
 anniversary for ever. 
 
 When the pope heard thereof he ordered a 
 jubilee In honour of the event. 
 
 Recopilacion {The). The code of 
 Castilian law. 
 
 The deputies in 1525 obtained a general law, 
 inserted in the Recopilacion, enactmg that the 
 king shall answer all the petitions before he 
 dissolves the assembly [Cortes].— Hallam, Middle 
 Ages, vol. ii. p. 43. 
 
 Rector. In Oxford University; the 
 title of the head of Exeter CoUege and 
 Lincoln College. 
 
 In the Church of England the rector has the 
 great tithes ; a vicar merely represents the 
 owner of a living, and receives either an annual 
 stipend or the small tithes. 
 
 Recusants. Persons who wilfully 
 absented themselves from their parish 
 church on Sundays and other days ap- 
 pointed by the ordinary. This absence 
 was made a legal offence by 1 Eliz. c. 2, 
 
RECUSANTS 
 
 RED 
 
 741 
 
 A.I). 1558. Popish recusants for wilfully 
 hearing mass wei'e fined G6l. I'ds. id. 
 (100 marks) ; and for saying mass double 
 that sum, with a year's imprisonment in 
 both cases. They could inherit no real 
 estate, purchase no land, teach in no 
 school, hold no public office, were not 
 permitted to have arms in their houses, 
 could not appear within ten miles of 
 London under a penalty of 100^., could 
 not travel above five miles from home 
 without a licence, could bring no action 
 at law or equity. These enactments 
 were partly removed in 1791, and more 
 fully by the Emancipation Act of 1829. 
 
 Recusants [Statute of), 25 Henry 
 VIII. c. 20, transferred the annates and 
 tenths from the pope to the crown. 
 
 Red and Black Lists [The). In 
 the Irish parliament it was customary to 
 publish lists of the Ayes and Noes on 
 every important division. In the Union 
 debates (1799, 1800) this custom was 
 followed. These lists were printed in 
 red and black. Hence the Red and 
 Black Lists are lists of how the Irish 
 members voted on the bills referred to. 
 
 Red and Blue Cockade [The), 
 
 1789. The cockade given to the French 
 militia at the outbreak of the great 
 French Revolution. Red and blue were 
 the Parisian colours. White was the 
 royal colour. Before the militia (or 
 national guard) was organised the insur- 
 gents wore a green cockade {q.v.). The 
 tricolour was adopted after the fall of the 
 Bastille, 
 
 Red and Blue Hoods [The). In 
 1356, during the captivity of Jean le Bon, 
 the Commune of Paris, as opposed to 
 the dauphin (afterwards Charles V.), 
 wore party-coloured hoods, mi-partie 
 (rouges et hleues) ; but at the death of 
 the provost Marcel in 1358 this faction 
 died away. 
 
 Red or Cardinal Band [The), 
 1572. The companies of assassins organ- 
 ized at Bordeaux for the massacre of the 
 Huguenots at the general slaughter 
 begun on Sunday, St. Bartholomew's 
 Day. 
 
 Red Beard. 
 
 I. Friedrich I. kaiser of Germany, 
 called Barharossa (1121, 1152-1190). 
 
 II. Horush or Horuc sultan of Algiers 
 (1474, 1516-1518). 
 
 III. Khair Eddin sultan of Algiers 
 (reigned 1518-1546). 
 
 Red Book [The). 
 
 I. In England is a register of all 
 persons under government in every de- 
 partment, legal, civil, military, and naval. 
 This register in the American govern- 
 ment is termed their ' Blue Book.' The 
 words Red and Blue refer to the colour 
 of the wrappers, but even those parts 
 issued without wrappers retain the 
 generic name. See ' Blue Book.' 
 
 n. In China (so called from its red 
 cover), contains the name, birthplace, 
 and other particulars of the 14,000 
 officials of the Chinese empire. It is in 
 six small volumes, and is printed quar- 
 terly. 
 
 No individual can hold a magistracy in his own 
 province, and no public officer may make alli- 
 ances with those under his own government ; nor 
 can a son, brother, or other near relative hold 
 office under a near kinsman. 
 
 Red Book of Hergest [The). 
 Includes the Mabiuogion [q.v.), copies 
 of some of the poems of Taliesin and of 
 Llywarch Hen, a brief clironology from 
 Adam to 1318, and a chronological his- 
 tory of the English to 1376. The MSS. 
 are preserved in the library of Jesus 
 College, Oxford, and are of the 14th 
 cent. 
 
 Red Book of Maximilian I. of Ger- 
 many [The). A manual which Maxi- 
 milian always cai'i'ied about him, and in 
 which he set down all the injuries which 
 he received from the French, a nation 
 he hated with deadly hatred. 
 
 Red Book of the Exchequer 
 
 [The). ' Liber Rubens Scaccarii ' (in the 
 Record Office), compiled in the reign of 
 Henry III., 1246, by Alexander de Swere- 
 ford archdeacon of Shrewsbury. It con- 
 tains the returns of all tenants in capite 
 in the reigns of Heni-y II., Richard I., 
 John, and part of the reign of Henry III., 
 certifying how many knights' fees they 
 held, and the names of those who held 
 them. It also contains much other 
 matter from the Pipe Rolls and other 
 sources. It has never been printed 
 (1890). The other book is called the 
 Black Book of the Exchequer, 'Liber 
 Niger Scaccarii.' The Red Book derives 
 its name from the colour of its cover, 
 
742 
 
 RED 
 
 RED 
 
 which was originally a pinkish-red 
 leather. 
 
 The Red Book contains the only known frag- 
 ment of the Pipe Roll of 1 Henry II., and copies of 
 the important Inquisition returned into the Ex- 
 chequer in 13 John. 
 
 Red Books of Spain (The). 
 Similar to our Blue Books {q.v.). All 
 sorts of official reports, papers, and docu- 
 ments printed for government and laid 
 before the legislative houses. Red and 
 blue refer to the colours of the covers. 
 See ' Yellow Books.' 
 
 Red Boots {A Pair of). A Tartar 
 phrase referring to a custom of cutting 
 the skin of a victim round the upper part 
 of the legs, and then stripping it off at 
 the feet. A Tartar will say, ' When you 
 come my way again, I will give you a 
 pair of red boots to go home in,' 
 
 Red Branch. {Knights of the). An 
 early military order of Ireland. So called 
 from their chief seat, ' The School of the 
 Red Branch,' in Emania, adjoining the 
 palace of the Ulster kings. T. Moore 
 refers to these knights in his ' Irish 
 Melodies,' and subjoins a note of explana- 
 tion : — 
 
 Let Erin remember the days of old .... 
 
 When her kings, with standard of green unfurled, 
 
 Led the Red-branch Knight? to danger;— 
 Ere the emerald gem of the western world 
 
 Was set in the crown of a stranger. 
 
 Red Button (A). A mandarin of 
 the first class, whose badge of honour is 
 a red button on his cap. 
 
 An interview was granted to the admiral 
 [Elliot] by Kishen, the imperial commissioner, 
 the third man in the empire, a mandarin of first 
 class and red button.— HowiTT, Hist, of England, 
 1841, p. 471. 
 
 Red Coat in Fox-hunting. 
 
 Henry II. made fox-hunting a royal 
 sport, and enjoined by mandate that all 
 who took part in that royal sport should 
 wear also the royal livery. 
 
 Red Columns ofVenice (The). 
 
 Two magnificent columns of red granite 
 erected in the Piazzetta of St. Mark in 
 1180. They were brought in 1125 from 
 Palestine bj^Dominico Michielli, the doge, 
 but for more than fifty years were left on 
 the quay because no one knew how to 
 erect them. At length Nicolo Barattiero, 
 a Lombard, succeeded in rearing them. 
 One column is surmounted with the 
 winged lion of St. Mark, and the other 
 with a full-length statue of St. Theodore, 
 armed with sword and lance, and tramp- 
 
 ling on a serpent. The space between 
 was the site of executions. 
 
 St. Theodore carries his shield on his ri^ht arm 
 and his lance in the left hand. 
 
 Between the pillars of St. Mark's, where tis 
 The custom of the State to put to death 
 Its criminals.— Byron, Marino Fali,-rn, v. 2. 
 Becanati expiated his treason between the Red 
 Columns.— Hwtori/ of Venice, vol. i. p. 'S-'jO. 
 
 Red Comyn (The). Son of John 
 Corayn of Badenoch and Margery sister 
 of John Baliol. 
 
 David Earl of Huntingdon had two daughters- 
 Margery and Isabella. 
 
 Margery s son was named Baliol, and Baliol's 
 son was B.\LlOL (the king). The king's daughter 
 ■was Margerj'themother of John, the "Red Comyn.' 
 
 Isabella (David s younger daughter) was the 
 mother of Bkuce (the Competitor) ; the ' Compe- 
 titor ' had a son named Bruce, whose son was 
 Robert Bruce, the great hero. 
 
 Red Cross {The). The Badge of 
 the royal banner of England till those of 
 St. Patrick and St. Andrew were added. 
 
 The fall of Rouen (1419) was the fall of the whole 
 province . . . and the red cross of England waved 
 on all the towers of Normandy. — Howitt, Hist, of 
 Enjland, vol. i. p. 54.5. 
 
 Red Cross Knights {The). The 
 Knights Templars, whose badge was a red 
 cross on a white robe in contradistinction 
 to the Knights Hospitallers, who wore 
 a black robe with a white cross. See 
 ' Templars.' 
 
 Red Cross Society {The), 1870. 
 For the relief of those wounded in battle. 
 It recognises no distinctions of rank, 
 friend, or foe. To be wounded is enough 
 to call forth all its sympathy, all its 
 skill, all its nursing care. The red cross 
 on the field of battle is quite sufficient to 
 command immunity from both belligerent 
 armies. See ' Geneva Convention.' 
 
 Red Earl {The). Richard Burke or 
 Burgo (1227-1229), earl of Ulster. 
 
 Red Flag {A). 
 
 I. In the Bomayi empire signified war ; 
 and when displayed on the capitol it was 
 a call to arms. 
 
 *,* As a railway signal it intimates danger, and 
 warns the engine driver to stop. A areen flag is 
 displayed by way of caution, and a white flag sig- 
 nifies that the rails are clear and all things in 
 order. 
 
 II. Hoisted by British seamen, it in- 
 dicates that no concession will be made. 
 Thus, previous to the mutiny at the 
 Nore, the sailors at Portsmouth hoisted 
 the red flag, and when Lord Bridport 
 promised redress the crew of every ship 
 hauled down the red flag. 
 
 On the 2.3rd May [1797] the mutineers hoisted 
 the red flag, and all the ships of war lying near 
 
 I 
 
RED 
 
 RED 
 
 743 
 
 Bheerness dropped down the Note. — HOWITT, 
 Hist, of EnnUind, Geo. III. 1797, p. 158. 
 
 III. In France. ' Le Drapeau Rouge,' 
 since 1791, has been made the symbol of 
 insurrection and terrorism. By a decree 
 of the Constituent Assembly the red flag 
 was unfurled to indicate that martial 
 law was established, and that all gather- 
 ings of the people would be dispersed by 
 force of arms. Usually, a red flag signi- 
 fies defiance. 
 
 Black flag betokens a pirate; white flag, peace; 
 red flag, dfjiance ; yellow flag signifies that the 
 vessel is in quarantine. 
 
 IV. A symbol or synonym of radi- 
 calism. 
 
 Mr. Chamberlain sticks to the red flag, and 
 apparently believes in its future success.— .yeuJS- 
 paper paragraph, January 188(5. 
 
 Red Flag with a White Flag 
 
 {A) indicates that unless the besieged 
 request peace without delay they will 
 receive no quarter. 
 
 De Feuquieres planted a cannon on a level with 
 the castle, on the mountain of Guignevert, and 
 then hoisted a white flag, and after that a red 
 one.— Ant. Monastier, Hist, of the Vaudois Church, 
 pp. 371-2. 
 
 Red Hand of Ulster {The). It 
 
 is said that in an expedition to Ireland 
 the leader thereof gave out that whoever 
 first touched the Irish shore should be 
 made possessors of the territory. One 
 of the O'Neills, in order to be the first, 
 cut off his hand and threw it on the 
 coast. The badge of the O'Neills is the 
 
 * Red Hand.' 
 
 Red Hat. First presented by Inno- 
 cent IV. to cardinals, 25 Dec, 1244, called 
 
 * the Sun's birthday,' and red is the sym- 
 bolical colour of the sun. The notion 
 that it indicates a willingness in a car- 
 dinal to shed his blood for the church is 
 mythical. 
 
 David Beatoun was born of good family, had 
 been made privy-seal by James V., and was raised 
 to a red hat by Pope Paul III.— Peincb, Parallel 
 History, vol. ii. p. 81. 
 
 Red Heads (The). The regular sol- 
 diers of the Persian empire, so called 
 from their red caps. 
 
 The Persian word is ' Kuzzilbashes.' They were 
 80,000 in the reign of Shah Abbas, but were after- 
 wards reduced to 30,000. 
 
 Red Hoods. The party colour of 
 Paris. Blue hoods, the party colour of 
 Navarre. Red and blue, the party colour 
 of Charles [V.] when dauphin. White 
 hoods, the party colour of the Burgun- 
 dians. 
 
 Red Hugh. Hugh O'Donell. So 
 called from a red birth-mark on his face 
 (reign of Elizabeth). 
 
 Red Indians of Newfoundland. So 
 called because they daub their skin, 
 garments, canoes, weapons, and almost 
 everything with red ochre mixed with 
 grease. Probably red has a religious 
 significance, as the Maoris of New Zea- 
 land regard red as a sacred colour. It 
 will be remembered that when the banner 
 of St. Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of 
 Milan, was taken to a battle-field, it was 
 drawn in a red car by red buUocks har- 
 nessed with red trappings. 
 
 Whether it was merely a custom, or whether 
 they daubed their skin with red ochre to protect 
 it from the attacks of mosquitos and black flies, 
 which swarm by myriads in the woods and wilds 
 during the summer, it is not possible to say. — 
 Lady Blake, Nineteenth Century (Dec. 1888, p. 906). 
 
 Red King {The). 
 
 I. Otto II. of Germany (955, 973-983). 
 
 II. William II. [Bufus] of England 
 (1057, 1087-1100). 
 
 III. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy 
 (1360, 1383-1391). See ' Red Beard.' 
 
 Red Land {The). The jurisdiction 
 over which the Vehmgericht of West- 
 phalia extended. The coui-t was called 
 a ' Free Session ' ; the judges were ' Free 
 Grafs ' or ' Free Burghers.' See ' Child 
 of the Cord.' 
 
 Red Laws {The). The civil code. 
 Juvenal says 'perlege rubras majorum 
 leges ' (' Satires,' xiv. 193). The civil 
 laws, being written in vermilion, were 
 called rubnca, and ' rubrica vetavit ' 
 means ' it is forbidden by the civil laws.' 
 The praetors' laws were inscribed in white 
 letters, as Quintilian informs us (xii. 3), 
 'praetores edicta sua in albo propone- 
 bant.' Imperial rescripts were written 
 in purple. 
 
 Red-Letter Days. Saints' days, 
 
 Sundays, and festivals. Non-working 
 days, printed at one time in red letters 
 in almanacs. 
 
 Red Peter. Pierce earl of Ormond, 
 deputy to the Earl of Surrey, lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Red Prince {The). Prince Fried- 
 rich Karl of Germany (born 1828). So 
 called because wherever he has made 
 his appearance a red-letter day has been 
 
744 
 
 RED 
 
 REED 
 
 added to the fasti of Fatherland. His 
 daughter Louise married the Duke of 
 Connaught. Prince Friedrich Karl was 
 one of the most successful generals of 
 the age. 
 
 Red Republicans. Extreme demo- 
 crats who scruple not to dye their hands 
 in blood. In France they used to wear 
 red caps. This was taken from the old 
 Roman custom of manumission. Wlien 
 a slave was manumitted a small red 
 cloth cap, called pileus, was placed on 
 his head. Their journals had red 
 wrappers. See p. 406, ' Hats.' 
 
 The red cap of the French Republicans was a 
 Phrygian cap, but the red cap given to the Roman 
 slave was sack-shaped. See p. 142, ' Cap.' 
 
 Red Scarfs {The). The party of 
 Henri and Charles IX. 
 
 White scarfs, the badge of the Crusaders, Ar- 
 magnacs, and Huguenots. Green scarfs, the 
 badge of Mazarin, Isabella, and the Conde family. 
 Tricolour scarfs, still worn in France by the 
 municipal magistrates and the commissaires of 
 police. White hoods, the badge ot the Burgun- 
 diang. 
 
 Red-Shanks, 1327. So the Enghsh 
 called the Scotch, who covered their feet 
 and shanks with the raw hides of the 
 beasts which they looted from the Eng- 
 lish, wearing the hair inside. 
 
 In 1273 the Scots and Redshanks out of the 
 Highlands made a sudden incursion into Ireland, 
 and, committing the most cruel murders and 
 depredations, escaped with their booty before the 
 inhabitants had time to rally in their defence.— 
 Thomas Moore, Hist, of Ireland, oh. xxxv. 
 
 Red Standard {The). This was 
 the Roman signal for battle. 
 
 Red Triumvirate {The), 1849. 
 Three cardinals sent by the pope from 
 Gaeta to Rome after the Restoration to 
 conduct the civil affairs of the Papal 
 States during his voluntary exile. Delia 
 Genga was one of the Triumvirate. These 
 commissioners robbed the people to the 
 amount of 35 per cent, of all the money 
 which bore the stamp of the republic, but 
 promised liberal institutions so far as 
 they were consistent with absolute power 
 founded on divine right. 
 
 Red Turbans, G-reen Turbans. 
 
 The Shiahs or Shiites of Persia wear the 
 red turban, as all the Fatimites of Egypt 
 did, to distinguish themselves from the 
 Sunis or Sunnites of Turkey. The de- 
 scendants ot Fatima in Turkey, called 
 ' emirs ' or ' sherecfs,' wear green turbans. 
 Shiites the unorthodox Sunnites the orthodox 
 party. The former dc not allow the KaUfatea of 
 Aboubekr, Omar, or Othman. 
 
 Reds and Blacks, or ' I Rossi,' and 
 ' I Neri.' The Signory or privy council 
 of the Doge were termed ' I Rossi ' (the 
 Reds) from their red robes of office. The 
 Council of Ten was called ' I Neri ' from 
 their black official robes. 
 
 N.B.— Red, white, blue, and green were livery 
 colours worn in the chariot races of Constanti- 
 nople, just as light and dark blue are worn as 
 distinctive colours in our university athletic con- 
 tests, such as boat-racing, cricket, football, &c. 
 In Constantinople the Reds merged into the 
 Greens, and the Whites into the Blues. See ' Bluea 
 and Greens." 
 
 Rede*s Lecturer {Sir Bohert). 
 On natural history, antiquarian history, 
 literature, science, &c., in the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. One lecture to be 
 given in full term. Fee nine guineas. 
 Fund left for the purpose by Sir Robert 
 Rede, lord chief justice of the Common 
 Pleas in the reign of Henry VII. Founded 
 1524. 
 
 Redemptionists {The), 1199. An 
 order of monks, founded by Jean de 
 Matha and Felix de Valois, for the re- 
 demption of Christian captives from 
 slavery in Barbary. These monks were 
 originally called Trinitaires, or Beli- 
 gieux de la Ste Trinite. Subsequently 
 they were called Maturins, from a church 
 in Paris (St. Maturin) given to the order 
 in 1226. Suppressed in 1790. 
 
 Redemptorists {The), or ' The 
 Redemptorist Fathers,' 1732. A Roman 
 Catholic missionary fraternity founded 
 by St. Alphonso Maria de Liguori. 
 Their object is to supply preachers for 
 rural districts, and to instruct the pea- 
 santry. 
 
 Also called Liguorists or Liguorians, from Liga- 
 ori, their founder. 
 
 Redpath Boys. An Irish secret 
 society, connected with the Moonlighters 
 and Land-leaguers {q.v.). See 'Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Reduction of Paraguay {The), 
 1690. An exchange of territory between 
 Spain and Portugal by which the sove- 
 reignty of that country was transferred 
 to Portugal. At the time of these ' reduc- 
 tions ' the Jesuits were virtually the domi- 
 nant power in Paraguay. 
 
 Reed {The) connected with the 'Cru- 
 cifixion ' of Jesus was not found by the 
 Empress Helena with the three crosses, 
 but was discovered subsequently. It 
 was sent in 614 to Constantinople, when 
 
REFEKENDAKY 
 
 REFORMATION 
 
 745 
 
 Jerusalem was taken by the Persians. A 
 part of it is said to be in Florence, a part 
 in St. Julian's church of Lunegarde, a 
 longer piece is in the convent of Andeschs 
 in Bavaria, and a still larger piece in the 
 convent of Vatopedi on Mount Athos, 
 We are not, however, told which of the 
 reeds is meant, whether the roseau de la 
 royaute derisoire, or the reed which held 
 the sponge dipped in vinegar, or whether 
 the same reed was used on both occasions. 
 See p. 231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.'' 
 
 Referendary {A). A public officer 
 whose duty was to procure, execute, and 
 despatch diplomas and charters. The 
 office of grand referendary of France is 
 now merged in that of the chancellor. 
 
 Reform Banquet [The), of the 
 12th arrondissement of Paris, 1848. Or- 
 ganised by 92 members of the opposition, 
 and on Feb. 22 began the ' nouvelle revo- 
 lution de trois jours.' 
 
 Reform Bill {The), 1832. Prepared 
 by Lord John Russell for the better re- 
 presentation of the United Kingdom in 
 the House of Commons. 
 
 1. It changed the voters from free- 
 men [q.v.) to persons having stated money 
 qualifications. 
 
 2. It disfranchised rotten boroughs 
 and pocket boroughs, such as Gatton and 
 Old Sarum (which had no inhabitants), 
 and gave members to large boroughs, 
 such as Birmingham and Brighton, which 
 were unrepresented 
 
 3. It reduced or increased the number 
 of members according to a numerical 
 scale of inhabitants. 
 
 4. It shortened the time of elections. 
 
 Reform Club [The) was established 
 in London 20 May, 1835. 
 
 Reform League [The), 1866, dis- 
 solved 1869. President, Mr. Edmond 
 Beales, a barrister. The ostensible 
 object of the league was the extension of 
 the suffrage, but it is best known by its 
 breaking down the railings of Hyde Park 
 July 23, 1866, in vindication of a public 
 right to enter the London parks and ad- 
 dress the people there. The committee 
 of the league had publicly announced 
 their intention of delivering an address 
 in the park, and the authorities of the 
 park ordered the gates to be shut. The 
 mob broke down the railings and forced 
 32 
 
 their way in. In 1872 a law was passed 
 to regulate the right of speaking to the 
 people in public. 
 
 Reform Pope [The). John Calvin, 
 1509-1564. He established a consistory 
 at Geneva invested with power to censure 
 and even excommunicate ; and made the 
 church a corporation independent of the 
 state. 
 
 Reformatio Legum, 1571. A 
 
 digest of the ecclesiastical laws of 
 England into a code, begun in 1534, 
 renewed in 1536, 1549, but not completed 
 till the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when it 
 appeared under the fuller title of ' Re- 
 formatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum.' See 
 next article. 
 
 Reformatio Legum Eccle'si- 
 astica'rum,1571. The Reformatio le- 
 gum completed and passed into law in the 
 reign of Elizabeth. This code of ecclesi- 
 astical laws deals with the doctrine of 
 the Trinity, the powers of the church, 
 the general councils, heresies, the sacra- 
 ments, confirmation, ordination, witch- 
 craft, marriage, simony,- dilapidations, 
 church parish officers, synods, visitations, 
 excommunication, and ecclesiastical 
 courts. Cranmer was the chief com- 
 piler. 
 
 Reformation {The). That great 
 spiritual and ecclesiastical ' reform ' which 
 took place in Europe in the 16th cent. 
 
 In France, 1512, begun by Lefevre and 
 Farel. 
 
 In Switzerland, 1516, begun by 
 Zwingli. 
 
 In Ge?-many, 1517, begun by Luther. 
 
 In Denmark, 1527, introduced by 
 Fi-ederick I. 
 
 In Scotland, 1527, introduced by 
 Patrick Hamilton. 
 
 In Sweden, 1529, established by Gus- 
 tavus Vasa. 
 
 In England, 1534, begun under Henry 
 VIII. 
 
 In Geneva, 1535, established by Farel. 
 
 Reformation Tree, or Oak {The). 
 An old oak on Mousehold [heath], near 
 Norwich, under which Robert Ket, the 
 tanner, sat to meet the rebels in 1549. 
 Under this tree the insurgents aired 
 their grievances and concocted their 
 schemes of redress. Here it was that 
 Ket, or Kett, sat as a Judge Lynch to try 
 
746 
 
 EEFORMATIONES 
 
 EEGENT 
 
 offenders, and here he and other stump 
 orators addressed the people. 
 
 Aldrich the Mayor of Norwich, several clergy- 
 men both of the old and new learning, and even 
 Matthew Parker, the future Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, ascended the tree to address the people. 
 
 Mousehold, pronounce Mtiscle; Norwich, pro- 
 nounce Nor'ridge. 
 
 E etormationes. ' Inquisitiones 
 
 Reformatorum in provincias missorum. 
 Literse Philippi VI. Franc. Regis, 1340, 
 vol. iii.' (Du Cange, vol. v. p. 638). 
 
 Reformatory Schools, 1834. 
 Schools where young misdemeanants are 
 sent instead of being sent to prison. The 
 greatest reformatory in England is at 
 RedhiU. 
 
 Reformed Chur ch{Second Parent 
 of the). John the Constant, elector of 
 Saxony (1407-1532). He succeeded his 
 brother Frederick the Wise in 1525, and 
 in 1530 presented to Karl V. (Charles 
 Quint) the Augsburg Confession of Faith, 
 drawn out by Melanchthon. 
 
 Reformed Churches. Those of 
 the Zwinglians, Swiss, Upper Rhine 
 Provinces, and Holland, which Were ' re- 
 formed ' without accepting Lutheranism. 
 There is a German-Swiss 'Reformed Church" 
 and also a Dutch ' Reformed Church ' in the U.S. 
 
 Reformed European Patriots 
 
 {The), 1821, or Philadelphians. A branch 
 of the Carbonari. 
 
 Reformed Presbyterian 
 
 Church {The). A remnant of the old 
 Cameronians, who have more than thirty 
 congregations in Scotland, and about as 
 many in Ireland. There are some also 
 in the United States and in Canada. 
 
 Reformed Presbyterian Synod 
 of Ireland {The). Unconnected with 
 the General Assembly, it does not there- 
 fore participate in the parliamentary 
 grant. 
 
 Reformers {The) of Hungary, 1794. 
 A secret political society to insure the 
 introduction of the principles of the 
 French Revolution. This society was in 
 alliance with the more aristocratic one 
 called ' The Friends of Liberty and 
 Equality.' 
 
 Reformers' Bible {The). The 
 ' Black Book.' An exposition of crown 
 revenues, with lists of pluralists, place- 
 men, pensioners, and sinecurigts. Effing- 
 ham Wilson, 1833 
 
 Refreshment Sunday. The fourth 
 Sunday in Lent, when the Gospel of the 
 day is about Christ feeding the multitude, 
 and the first lesson (Gen. xliii.) is about 
 Joseph feasting his brother. See ' Sun- 
 day.' 
 
 Regalia, or 'Right of Regale.' A 
 right in ecclesiastical things claimed by 
 sovereigns as royal prerogatives : such as 
 presentation to benefices, the revenues of 
 vacant benefices and sees, &c. The most 
 memorable conflict on the subject was 
 that between Pope Innocent XI. and 
 Louis XIV., which was only terminated 
 by the death of the pope. 
 
 Regality {A). A territorial juris- 
 diction formerly existing in Scotland, 
 resembling our palatinate. The holder, 
 called a ' Lord of Regality,' exercised the 
 rights of a king in his own jurisdiction. 
 Abohshed by 20 Geo. II. c. 50. 
 
 Regarders. Forest rangers, who 
 made their regard or range through 
 royal forests. 
 
 Regardes. Visitations held by the 
 king's justiciaries to correct encroach- 
 ments on crown lands, impose and assess 
 fines, determine suit and service, and 
 regulate forest ordinances. The ' Great 
 Regarde ' was held once in every fifty 
 years, and was entrusted to the highest 
 baron of the reahn, who empanelled 
 juries, summoned witnesses, required the 
 attendance of all forest officers, and 
 made all appointments. 
 
 Edward I., Aug. 1282, and Henry Vn. undertook 
 these inspections. 
 And early rising from his couch, with scant 
 
 reflection done, 
 Soon from his woodland towers, I trow, had the 
 
 good Abbot gone. 
 And with his white-frocked monks that day 
 
 rode o'er the grassy sward, 
 Oblivious of the bleating fold, to join the Great 
 Regarde. 
 
 Hayward Oaks, at the Regarde of Brian 
 d' Insula, the King's Jiisticiarie, 1202. 
 
 Regent and Won-regent. A 
 
 regent was a professor or university 
 lecturer. See Rymer, ' Foedera,' vol. iv. 
 page 411, col. 1 ; and again, p. 413, col. 1. 
 A non-regent is a master of arts or 
 doctor, no longer bound to give lectures. 
 The terms were retained in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge till 1858, though 
 the duties of giving lectures had long 
 passed to what are called ' professors.' 
 
 Regent Diamond {The). See 
 ' Pitt Diamond.' 
 
REGENT 
 
 REGISTRARY 
 
 747 
 
 Regent House (The) originally 
 meant the governing body of the uni- 
 versity. It was strictly confined to those 
 graduates who were actively engaged in 
 teaching, and those who had ceased to 
 teach formed, in 1400, a second assembly 
 called the Non-regent House, whose 
 consent was needful to the more impor- 
 tant graces. The two houses formed 
 the Senate. The master's hood for the 
 regent house was lined with white, for 
 the non-regent house the black hood had 
 no lining. In 1535 professors were sub- 
 stituted for regents as teachers. In 1570 
 the regency of masters was extended to 
 five years, when a master became neces- 
 sarily non-regent, and in 1858 both re- 
 gents and non-regents ceased to exist. 
 
 The Regents were Masters of Arts of less than 
 five years standing, and Doctors of less than two; 
 the non-Regents were Masters of Art of more 
 than five years' standing, with the Doctors of two 
 years' standing, who belonged to either of the 
 bouses. 
 
 Regent's Park, London, 1838. 
 Planned and given to the public during 
 the regency of George, afterwards the 
 fourth of that name. 
 
 Regiam Majestatem. An ancient 
 collection of laws said to have been com- 
 piled by order of David I. of Scotland 
 (1124-1153), but probably not older than 
 the reign of our Edward I. (1272-1807). 
 
 Regiam Potestatem. A compila- 
 tion of laws by Ranulph Glanvil, chief 
 justice of England, who died 1190. 
 
 Regicides {The). I. In English 
 histoiy the party which favoured the 
 execution of Charles I. 
 
 Thirteen suffered death for the part they took 
 in this affair, viz., Axtell, Barkstead, Carew, 
 Clement, Cook, Corbet, Hacker, Harrison, Jones, 
 Okey, Peters, Scott, and Scrope. 
 
 II. In Russian history, 1881, means 
 those Terrorists, or pol tical confederates, 
 who combined to assassinate Czar Alex- 
 ander II. 
 
 R^girae de la Calotte {Le). The 
 
 regime of priests. So the priestly ad- 
 ministrator of affairs, at the restoration, 
 was called in France. 
 
 The calotte is tne skull-cap worn by monks over 
 their tonsure. 
 
 R^gli- .nt de la Calotte {Le). 
 See ' Calotti'^tes.' 
 
 Regimes, of Factors (T/ie), 1745. 
 The ' Factors -vere the dukes of Devon- 
 shire, Bedford Jutland, and Montague 
 
 with the lords Herbert, Halifax, Chol- 
 mondeley, Falmouth, Malton, Derby, and 
 some others of less note belonging to the 
 great Whig party. Subscriptions were 
 given to a large amount for the raising of 
 troops, both horse and foot, to oppose the 
 Young Pretender after his victory at 
 Prestonpans ; but the Whig lords, ' fearing 
 that their relations and friends would 
 lose a magnificent job,' pro^josed in the 
 House of Lords that all the regiments 
 should be paid by the king only. 
 
 The 'Regiment-factors,' as they were called, 
 thus loaded the army list with a swarm of lord- 
 lings and lazy young fellows of high family, whom 
 the men in various cases refused to follow. — 
 HOWITT, Hist. ofEnq. (Geo. II.), 507. 
 
 Cholmondeley, pronounce Chum'-ly. 
 
 Regiomontanus. A Latinised 
 form of Konigsberger. ' Konigs-berg ' = 
 king's-mount, like ' Regius-mons ' ; and 
 Kiinigs-berger = Regio-montanus. Regio- 
 montanus was really John Miiller of 
 Konigsberg, in Franconia (1436-1476), 
 the restorer of the science of astronomy, 
 and archbishop of Ratisbon. 
 
 Regiomontanus was also noted for his mechani- 
 cal toys. Hence, says Sir T. Brown, ' who ad- 
 mires not Regiomontanus— his fiy more than his 
 eagle.' 
 
 A foolish fashion existed about the time of the 
 Reformation, especially with German and Dutch 
 scholars, of converting their names into Greek or 
 Latin. As Melanchthon for Schwarzerdt, &c., &c. 
 See p. 599, ' Names Classicised.' 
 
 Registrar {The), in the Oxford 
 University, is elected by the House of 
 Convocation {q.v.), and must be either an 
 M.A. or a B.C.L. He has to attend all 
 meetings of both Congregations, of Con- 
 vocation, and of the Hebdomadal Council 
 {q.v.) ; and registers all acts and docu- 
 ments to which the university seal is 
 affixed. His stipend is 600Z. a year. 
 See ' Registrary.' 
 
 Registrar-General {The), 1837. 
 
 Appointed under the Great Seal, with his 
 central office at Somerset House. Under 
 him is a chief clerk, six superintendents, 
 and a large staff of clerks appointed by 
 tlie lords of the treasury. From the office 
 of the registrar-general emanate instruc- 
 tions to all superintendent registrars, 
 registrars of births and deaths, and re- 
 gistrars of marriages. A copy of any 
 registry may be obtained by anyone for 
 3s. 6d., which includes search. 
 
 Registrary (T;^e), in the Cambridge 
 University, is elected by the senate from 
 one of two persons nominated by th<> 
 council. His duties are to attend all 
 
748 
 
 REGISTRATION 
 
 REGIUS 
 
 congi-egations of the senate, and to re- 
 gister all Graces {q.v.) in the University 
 Records. This officer, in the University 
 of Oxford, is called the registrar {q.v.). 
 
 Registration of Aliens Act 
 
 {The), G, 7 Will. IV. c. 11, a.d. 1836. This 
 was the repeal of 7 Geo. IV. c. 54, a.d. 1827, 
 which obliged all aliens or foreigners who 
 visited the British Isles to present them- 
 selves at the Alien Office to be registered. 
 By the new act, masters of vessels arriv- 
 ing from foreign parts are required to 
 declare what number of foreign passen- 
 gers are on board, and every foreigner on 
 landing is required to show his passport 
 to the chief officer of customs at the port 
 of debarkation. This registration and 
 showing of passports is never exacted ; 
 and no return is kept of vessels lauding, 
 nor have they been registered since 1842. 
 
 Registration of Copyright 
 
 {The), 5, 6 Vict. c. 45, a.d. 1842, autho- 
 rizing the registration at Stationers' 
 Hall of the title of copyright property. 
 The omission to register will not affect 
 the copyright, but will bar any action 
 being brought for its infringement. 
 
 Registration of Death {The), 
 
 1874. 37, 38 Vict. c. 88, s. 8 enacts that 
 the death of every person dying in Eng- 
 land shall be registered within five days 
 of the decease, and the cause of death 
 stated on a certificate to be handed to the 
 officiating minister before interment. It 
 devolves on the nearest relatives present 
 at the death or in attendance at the time 
 to give the registrar notice and to sign the 
 register. In default of relatives the duty 
 devolves on the occupier and inmates of 
 the house. 
 
 Registration of Electors Act 
 {The). 2 William IV. c. 45, s. 26, a.d. 
 1832, making it requisite for a voter in 
 the election of members of Parliament to 
 be registered before exercising the fran- 
 chise. 
 
 ' The Registration of 
 
 This 
 Voteri 
 
 is sometimes called 
 Act.' 
 
 Regium Donum. An annual grant 
 of public money for the maintenance of 
 dissenting ministers in Ireland. It be- 
 gan in 1672, when Charles II. gave 6001. 
 of secret servic e money to be distributed 
 annually among the Presbyterian clergy 
 in Ireland. William III. in 1690 increased 
 the grant to 1,200/. a year. George III. 
 in 17H4 raised it to 2,200/., and in 1792 to 
 
 5,000/. In 1863 the grant was 39,746/.; 
 and in 1869 it was abolished. 
 
 In 1793 commenced an annual grant to dissent- 
 ing ministers in England. 
 
 Regius Professor of Civil 
 
 Law {The), in the University of Cam- 
 bridge, 1540, founded by Henry VIII. 
 Original stipend 40/. a year. Present 
 stipend 534/. 18s., and 10 guineas a head 
 from each of the students who attend his 
 lectures. See ' Downing Professorship of 
 the Laws of England,' 'International 
 Law, &c.,' ' Chancellor's Medal, &c.,' 
 ' Battle's Scholarship,' ' Browne Scholar- 
 ship,' 'Craven Scholarship,' 'Whewell 
 Scholarship of International Law.' 
 
 Regius Professorship of Civil 
 
 Law {The), in Oxford University. 
 Founded in 1546 by Henry VIII. at 40/. 
 a year. The present stipend is 440/. a 
 year. 
 
 Regius Professorship of Di- 
 vinity {The), in the University of 
 Cambridge, 1540, founded by Henry VIII. 
 Original stipend 40/. a year, but now 
 considerably augmented. See ' Lady 
 Margaret Professorship of Divinity,' 
 ' Norrisian Professor of Divinity,' and 
 ' Hulsean Professor of Divinity,' ' Crosse 
 Scholarship,' 'Evans's Prize,' 'Jeremie 
 Prize,' ' Burney Prize,' ' Hulsean Prize,' 
 ' Kaye Prize,' ' Norrisian Prize.' 
 
 Regius Professorship of Di- 
 vinity {The), in Oxford University. 
 Founded in 1535 by Henry VIII. at 40/. 
 a year. Augmented by James I. in 1605. 
 
 Regius Professorship of Greek 
 
 {The), of the University of Cambridge, 
 1540. Founded by Henry VIII. The 
 original stipend was 40/. a year, but the 
 present endowment includes acanonry of 
 Ely Cathedral. See ' Chancellor's Clas- 
 sical Medal,' ' Porson Scholarship, ' Da- 
 vies Scholarship,' 'Pitt's Scholarship,' 
 ' Waddington Scholarship,' ' Scholefield 
 Prize,' ' Porson Prize,' ' Browne's Medals.' 
 
 Regius Professorship of Greek 
 
 {The), in Oxford University. Founded in 
 1547 by Henry VIII. at 40/. a year. In- 
 creased in 1865 to 500/. a year. 
 
 Regius Professorship of He- 
 brew {The)t in the University of Cam- 
 bridge, 1540. Founded by Henry VIII. 
 Original sti^ jnd 40/. a year, now endowed 
 with a canonry of Ely Cathedral. See 
 'Tyrwhitt Hebrew Scholarship.' 
 
REGIUS 
 
 EEIGN 
 
 749 
 
 Regius Professorship of He- 
 bre"W [The), in Oxford University. 
 Founded in 1540 by Henry VIII. at iOl. a 
 year. Augmented by Charles I. in 1630. 
 
 Regius Professorship of Medi- 
 cine (The), in Oxford University. 
 Founded in 1540 by Henry VIII. at 40^. a 
 year. Augmented by Chcxrles I. in 1630. 
 
 Called in the Cambridge University the ' Regius 
 Professorship of Physic ' (.q.v.). 
 
 Regius Professorship of Mo- 
 dern History, &C., in Oxford Uni- 
 versity. Stipend 620Z. a year. Founded 
 by George I. in 1724. 
 
 In the University of Cambridge there is a Pro- 
 fessor of Modern History, who holds his appoint- 
 ment during the sovereign's pleasure. Stipend 
 3111. a year, paid by the University. 
 
 Regius Professorship of Phy- 
 sic {The), in the University of Cam- 
 bridge, 1540. Founded by Henry VIII. 
 Original stipend AOL a year. Present 
 stipend SOOl. a year and a house in 
 Market Street. See ' Downing Professor- 
 ship of Medicine.' 
 
 Regular Abbot {A). An abbot 
 who discharged the duties of an abbey 
 held by a secular abbot. As a secular 
 abbot is a layman, he is not qualified to 
 undertake clerical duties. 
 
 Regular Canons. ' Canonici Ke- 
 gulares,' canons who lived in community, 
 bound by the ' rule ' of the house. Secu- 
 lai canons were exempt from the ' rule.' 
 
 Regulars {The). I. ' Kegular Clergy ' 
 {Begulares,hova.Tegula, a rule), Catholic 
 clergymen of some monastic order, who 
 live according to the rule of their order, 
 always including obedience, chastity, and 
 poverty. The secular clergy are those, 
 engaged in parochial duties, who are not 
 bound by monastic rules. 
 
 Archbishops, bishops, rectors, vicars, and 
 curates are not usually regulars but seculars. 
 
 II. In the British army. All troops 
 except the militia, yeomanry, and volun- 
 teers. They are regular all the year, and 
 not called out for certain days or weeks 
 only. 
 
 Regulation Act {The), 1773. Re- 
 lative to the East India Company. It 
 established a governor-general and a 
 Supreme Court of Judicature for all 
 British possessions in India ; prohibited 
 judges and members of council from 
 trading ; forbade any receipt of presents 
 from natives; and ordered that every 
 
 act of the East India Directors should be 
 submitted to the House of Commons for 
 approval before it was enforced. 
 
 Regulators. 
 
 I. In 1687. A committee of seven 
 Catholics and Jesuits a^jpointed by 
 James II. to send deputations to different 
 corporations and rejDort on them. The 
 board was at Whitehall, and they were 
 empowered to introduce into the corpora- 
 tions new rules and new men as they 
 thought fit. Of course the object was to 
 prepare for the reintroduction of Roman 
 Catholicism by returning members to the 
 parliament about to be convened favour- 
 able to the king's views. 
 
 II. In 1770. A body of men who took 
 the law into their own hands, and inflicted 
 bodily punishment according to their 
 own discretion and on their own 
 authority upon cffenlers. The diffi- 
 culty of bringing olienders in the back 
 settlements of North America to justice 
 induced orderly people to institute this 
 rough and ready method of proceeding. 
 
 III. In 1776. Backwoodsmen collected 
 together by Gov ernor Martin to recover 
 North Carolina in the American War of 
 Independence. They were decoyed into 
 a swamp, and such as escaped made 
 again for the backwoods. 
 
 Regulators were, later on, especially active in 
 Texas and California, where the population sud- 
 denly outgrew the constituted authorities. 
 
 Reichstag, 1871. The diet of the 
 German empire. Since the establishment 
 of the empire under the king of Prussia 
 the legislative council has consisted of 
 one representative to every 100,000 in- 
 habitants. As the entire population is 
 about 47 millions, this will give 470 
 members to the legislative assembly. 
 The delegates of the confederated govern- 
 ments form the ' Bundesrath,' and what- 
 ever passes the two houses and is signed 
 by the king-emperor becomes binding on 
 all the twenty- six states. 
 
 Reign of Tears {The), 1871. The 
 French Revolution terminated with the 
 ' Reign of Terror ' ; the Franco- German 
 war terminated with the 'Reign of 
 Tears ' [Thiers]. 
 
 Reign of Terror {The). 
 
 I. In Algiers, 1509. That of Bar- 
 barossa, the Turkish chief who put to 
 death Salem-Aben-Toumi, the Arab 
 
750 
 
 EEIS-EFFENDI 
 
 EELIEP 
 
 sheik whom lie came to assist against 
 the Christians. 
 
 II. ' Le Re'giroe de la Terreur ' (from 
 31 May, 1793, to 27 July, 1794). It began 
 with the triumj)!! of the Mountain over 
 the Girondists in the National Conven- 
 tion, and terminated with the execution 
 of Robespierre. While Robespierre and 
 his Committee of Public Safety {q.v.) do- 
 minated, France was filled with scaffolds. 
 
 Among its victims were Louis XVI., the Queen 
 Marie Antoinette, the Due d' Orleans (Philippe 
 Egalite), twenty-one Girondists, and many thou- 
 sands of others. It lasted 4-20 days. 
 
 III. In Ireland, 1881-1887. Under 
 the domination of Charles Stewart Par- 
 nell, M.P. for Cork. Mr. Parnell, in 
 order to obtain the severance of Ireland 
 from Great Britain, was at the head of an 
 organization which terrorized the Irish 
 by shooting at the legs of those who re- 
 fused to support their league, boycotting 
 them, pouring pitch on the bare heads 
 of their wives and daughters, maiming 
 their cattle, and rendering their lives a 
 ceaseless terror. In 1886 he contrived 
 to get eighty-six of his partisans elected 
 to tiie Imperial Parliament, and block the 
 business of the house. Some of his Ameri- 
 can friends tried to terrorize the English 
 by blowing up public buildings by dyna- 
 mite, and denouncing death on the public 
 servants of Ireland. See p. 679, ' Phoenix 
 Park Murder.' 
 
 Reis-Effendi. A Turkish secretary 
 of foreign affairs. 
 
 Relies {Christian). Excepting those 
 connected with the crucifixion, which 
 are noticed each in loco, the following 
 may be mentioned : — 
 
 The famous Mamis de. ccelo missa, which even Pope 
 Pius IX., in 1852, aclinowledged to be genuine (! !) 
 M'iUiam of Oulx was a peasant who had lost his 
 right hand, and for his piety an angel brought 
 him one from heaven. When he died the ' hand ' 
 refused to be buried, and persistently pushed 
 itself through the coffin. So the Archbishop of 
 Embrun ordered it to be cut olf and stored among 
 the holy relics. This was done, and certain days 
 were set apart when it was to be shown to the 
 people. This is one of the best attested relics of 
 the Catholic Church. 
 
 In a monastery of Calabria is the hood which 
 an angel from heaven brought Francis of Paula, 
 and put upon his head. 
 
 In half a dozen places is shown some of the 
 milk of Mary while she was nursing the infant 
 Jesus ; but we are not informed how this ' spilt 
 milli ' was gathered up and preserved. 
 
 Part of one of the stones cast at Stephen is 
 preserved at Toul. So Father Benedict informs 
 us in his ' Life of St. Gerard ' (1700). 
 
 Harmer, in his ' Observations,' tells us he was 
 shown ' a prodigious tooth,' wrapped in three 
 covers of paper, on one of which was written, A 
 tooth 0/ the holy int. Paul. 
 
 Peter himself told St. Longis where to find one 
 of his teeth. The tooth was taken to Boisseliere, 
 and Harduin says that a great crowd of people 
 flocked thither ' pour venerer ce gage de la- protec- 
 tion du prince des Apotres.' 
 
 The girdle of Joseph the carpenter is preserved 
 
 in Notre Dame, Joinvillesur-Marne i his walking 
 
 stick at Florence ; one of his hammers at the 
 
 , church of St. Anastasia, Rome ; and one of his 
 
 cloaks in the same place. 
 
 Brady gives us the following list : One of the 
 coals that broiled St. Lawrence ; a finger of St. 
 Andrew, another of John the Baptist, and a thumb 
 of St. Thomas; the hem of Christ s garment 
 touched by the woman suffering from the issue 
 of blood ; a lock of Mary Magdalen's hair, with 
 which she wiped her tears from the feet of Jesus ; 
 a phial of the sweat of St. Michael when he con- 
 tended with Satan ; some of the rays of the guiding 
 star which appeared to the Wise Men of the East ; 
 a rib of the Veibiim caro factum ; a pair of Enoch's 
 slippers ; the pap-spoon of the infant Jesus ; St. 
 Michael's sword and buckler ; one of the tears 
 shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus ; and one of 
 the water-pots used at the marriage feast of Cana 
 of Galilee. See ' Clavis Calendaria,' p. 240. 
 
 There was an ' age of relics, ' and it would require 
 many pages even to tabulate them. Some could 
 not even be set down without seeming to cast 
 ridicule on a subject far too sacred to be trifled 
 with. They have, however, an historic value, as 
 they show a very important phase of religious 
 thought and pious sentimentality in the middle 
 ages, though in this matter-of-fact age they are 
 much discredited. 
 
 Relics not Christian. 
 
 In one of the visits of the Prince of Wales to 
 Germany, the English ladies staying at the hotel 
 bought as relics the cherry-stones left by him at 
 dessert. This surely was the very crest unto the 
 crest of snobbism. 
 
 At Salamis was shown the sacred stone on 
 which Telamon the father of Ajax sat. 
 
 In one of the Spartan temples was suspended 
 one of the eggs of Leda, who had been transformed 
 bv Zeus into a swan. Probably it was an ostrich's 
 egg. 
 
 At Panopeus, in Phocis, was shown some of the 
 clay out of which Prometheus made man, and we 
 are assured that it had a strong smell of human 
 fiesh. 
 
 Mazois, a French architect and archteologist, 
 published in 1819 a work entitled ' The Palace of 
 Scaur us,' in which were plates of the bones of the 
 sea-monster which Perseus slew. 
 
 At Ceylon is preserved a tooth of Buddha ; 
 doubtless, from its great size, the tooth of some 
 extinct saurian, for no animal with a mouth 
 smaller than a horse could possibly have had such 
 a huge molar. 
 
 From 1424, for many years, the Heiltum was ex- 
 hibited at Nuremberg, the second Friday after 
 Easter, together with the sword of Charlemagne, 
 his crown and sceptre, as well as a piece of the 
 true cross, a nail used at the crucifixion, the lance 
 which pierced the dead body of Christ, part of the 
 manger of Bethlehem, and portions of the several 
 chains vsrith which Peter, Paul, and John were 
 bound. 
 
 Relief. A sum of money paid by a 
 vassal to his baron on his coming of age, 
 when he took up his right and paid his 
 fee to the king. 
 
 Relief Bill (The), or ' Catholic Re- 
 lief Bill,' 13 April, 1829. A bill to relieve 
 Catholics from religious and civil dis- 
 abilities. The same as the * Catholic 
 EmanciiDation Act' {q.v.). 
 
RELIEF 
 
 RELIGIOUS 
 
 751 
 
 The pastoral [of Dr. Doyle] besought the people 
 to promote the end which the legislature contem- 
 plated in passing the Belief Bill.— HowiTT, Hist. 
 o/EngAyesLT 1829, p. 146). 
 
 Relief Church {The), 1752. Se- 
 ceders from the Kirk of Scotland who 
 choose their own pastors. 
 
 Relief Synod {The), 1752. A seces- 
 sion h'om the Scotch Church led by the 
 Rev. Thomas Gillespie, who was after- 
 wards joined by the Rev. Thomas Boston. 
 They allowed greater freedom of com- 
 munion than any other sect in Scotland, 
 and, next to the Associate Synod, are the 
 most numerous of the Scotch Dissenters. 
 
 Reliefs. Fines paid to the lord by a 
 new tenant on his entering on the tene- 
 ment of his predecessor at death. Intro- 
 duced by William the Conqueror, and 
 abolished by 12 Car. II. c. 24. 
 
 Religieux de Citeaux, 1098. 
 
 Twenty inmates led by St. Robert from 
 the abbey of Molesme to the neighbour- 
 hood of Nuits, in the department of Cote 
 d'Or, and so called from the citcrnes or 
 subterraneous pits which they found 
 there. Commonly called Cistercians. 
 
 Religieux de la Merci {Les), 
 1218. Confirmed by Gregory IX. in 
 1235. An order under the rule of St. 
 Augustine for the redeeming of captives. 
 
 Religionists {The). So the Hugue- 
 nots or Calvinists were often called in 
 France. 
 
 The universities and colleges . . . invented diffi- 
 culty upon difficulty against conferring academic 
 degrees upon the Religionists. — FELICE, Hist, of 
 the Protestants of France, bk. iii. 7. 
 
 Religio'si. Monks or Regulares 
 (4 syl.) were so called. Nuns were Reli- 
 giosse. Called Regulars because they 
 followed some regula or rule ; and called 
 Religiosi because their entire life was 
 spent in religious duties or observances. 
 
 Religious Peace {The), or 'The 
 Treaty of Passau,' 1552. Imposed on 
 Karl V. by Maurice. It was agreed : 
 
 1. That both belligerents should lay 
 down their arms, and assist Ferdinand 
 against the Turks. 
 
 2. That the landgraf of Hesse should 
 be set at liberty. 
 
 8. That the ' Interim ' {q.v.) should be 
 revoked, and Protestants be free till the 
 Diet met, which was to be within six 
 months. 
 
 4. That those banished for their alli- 
 ance with the Smalcaldic League {q.v.) 
 should be recalled and reinstated. 
 
 5. That Protestants and Catholics 
 should be on an equal footing. 
 
 Religious Peace of Augsburg 
 
 {The), 26 Sept., 1555. This was supple- 
 mental to the Treaty of Passau in 155*i. 
 By this ' Peace,' full liberty of worship, 
 granted by the Treaty of Passau, was 
 confirmed. Lutherans and Catholics were 
 declared alike eligible to all offices of 
 state ; and every ruler might sanction 
 in his own province whatever form of 
 religion he chose, but all were to tolerate 
 those who held different religious views 
 from those favoured by the state. 
 
 Religious Statistics, 1890. As- 
 suming the entire population of the 
 globe to be 1,450 millions, of these, 
 1,050 millions are non-Christians, 400 
 millions are nominally Christians. 
 
 1. Nan-Christians— 
 
 Buddhists . . 400 millions. 
 Brahmins . .250 „ 
 Mahometans • . 180 „ 
 Fetish Worshippers 150 „ 
 Jews ... 8 „ 
 
 Various ... 62 „ 
 
 Total 1,050 
 
 2. Christians — 
 
 Koman Catholics . 175 millions. 
 Protestants . . 110 „ 
 Greek Church . 90 „ 
 Various ... 25 „ 
 
 Total 
 
 400 
 1,050 
 
 Entire p Dpulation 1,450 „ 
 
 Religious Wars {The), 1562-1598. 
 In the reigns of Charles IX. and Henri 
 III. of France. 
 
 First, 1562-1563. The Catholic leaders 
 were Fran(,-,ois due de Guise, St. Andre, 
 and the Comte de Montmorency ; the 
 Protestant leaders were Louis prince de 
 Conde', and the Sire de Coligny. The 
 chief events of this war were the siege of 
 Rouen, the battle of Dreux, and the siege 
 of Orleans. 
 
 Second, 1567-1568. The only event of 
 note was the battle of St. Denis, in which 
 Anne due de Montmorency lost his life. 
 
 Third, 1569-1570. The chief events 
 were (1) the battle of Jarnac (1569), in 
 which the Catholics were victorious, and 
 the Prince de Conde, the great Huguenot 
 leader was slain ; and (2) the battle of 
 Moncontour, also won by the Catholics. 
 
 On 24 Aug., 1572, occurred the great slaughter 
 of the Huguenots, called the Massacre of St. Bar 
 thoiomew's Eve. 
 
752 
 
 KEMEMBER 
 
 REMONSTRANCE 
 
 Fourth, 1573. The Cathohcs besieged 
 La Rochelle, but were obhged to raise the 
 siege. 
 
 Fifth, 1575-1576. The CathoHc leader 
 was Henri of Guise; the Protestant 
 leaders were the prince de Conde and 
 Henri of Navarre. 
 
 Sixth, 1577. The Protestants were 
 overmastered, but Henri III. coquetted 
 with them through fear of the Gruises. 
 
 Seventh, 1577-1578. In which Henri 
 of Navarre carried Cahors with a coup- 
 de-main, and peace ensued. 
 
 The last of the Catholic triumvirate 
 lost his life. The command of the 
 Catholic army was now given to Henri 
 due d'Anjou. 
 
 Remember the Vase of 
 Soissons. Kings never forgive or 
 forget. After the battle of Soissons (a.d. 
 486), Clovis wished to appropriate a 
 valuable vase, but one of the warriors 
 stepped forwards and broke it to atoms 
 with his battle-axe, saying, ' Thou shalt 
 have thy share only, like the rest of us.' 
 Clovis dissembled his anger, but did not 
 forget the insult ; and one day, finding 
 the same warrior had neglected to clean 
 his axe, he snatched it out of the man's 
 hand and split his skull with it, saying, 
 ' Remember the vase of Soissons.' 
 
 Remembrance {The). This was 
 the first document which openly avowed 
 an intention of bringing the king 
 (Charles I. of England) to a personal 
 judgment, and of changing the monar- 
 chical form of government. 
 
 Remem.brancer. An officer of the 
 Exchequer, who reminds the lord trea- 
 surer and the justices of that court of 
 such things as are to be called on and 
 dealt with for the benefit of the crown. 
 The clerks are called the ' Clerks of the 
 Remembrancers.' The office of lord 
 treasurer was abolished by Act 3, 4 
 William IV. chap. 99 (28 Aug., 1833), and 
 its duties transferred to the lord high 
 treasurer. 
 
 Rem^em.brancers {Clerks of the). 
 First mentioned in 1303. See above. 
 
 Reminiscere (5 syl.) Sunday. 
 The second Sunday in Lent, so called in 
 the Catholic Church from the introitus 
 (or beginning of the mass), the first word 
 of which is Bemiiiincere. 
 
 Remish Bible {The), 1584. A 
 translation of the Bible by the Roman 
 Catholics at Reims. Printed on large 
 paper. The great objection to this ver- 
 sion is its retention of so many Hebrew 
 and Greek terms untranslated, as 
 Azymes, Tunike, Holocaust, Prepuce, 
 Pasche, &c. See ' Bible.' 
 
 When any doctrine or dispute hangs on the 
 word, without doubt it is better to retain the ori- 
 ginal Greek or Hebrew, as baptism, schism, and 
 so en. 
 
 Remonstrance. From the council 
 of officers, 1648, called for the election of 
 a new parliament ; for electoral reform ; 
 for the recognition of the supremacy of 
 Parliament ; for the change of kingship 
 into a parliamentary magistracy ; and that 
 Charles I. should be brought to justice 
 for treason, blood, and ill-government. 
 See next article. 
 
 Remonstrance {Grand). On the 
 state of the kingdom, 22 Nov., 1641. 
 Clarendon says it was ' a very bitter 
 representation of all the illegal things 
 that had been done by the king [Charles 
 I.] from the first hour of his coming to 
 the crown to that minute.' It contained 
 206 clauses, and led to the arrest of the 
 five members {q.v.). 
 
 Among the charges were these : The war against 
 the French Protestants, tlie innovations in the 
 Church, the illegal imposition of ship-money, 
 forced loans, the cruelties of the Star Chamber 
 and High Commission, the forcing of episcopacy 
 on Scotland, the forcing of it on the Irish by 
 Strafford, and other illegal proceedings.— HowiTT, 
 Hist, of England, Charles I. chap. iv. p. 220. 
 
 Remonstrance {The), 1610. The 
 petition presented to the States of Hol- 
 land by the Arminians. It contained 
 these five points : (1) Predestination is 
 conditional on faith. Those who believe 
 are predestined to be saved, those who 
 refuse to believe are predestined to 
 perish ; (2) Christ died for all, but only 
 believers will receive the benefits of 
 redemption ; (3) all must be born again, 
 as no man is otherwise capable of exer- 
 cising a saving faith ; (4) though grace 
 may be resisted, yet without grace ho 
 man can think or will any good thing; 
 (5) believers are able by the aid of the 
 Holy Ghost to resist sin. 
 
 Remonstrance {The Irish), 1318. 
 In reply to a letter from Pope John XXII. 
 to the Irish clergy, commanding them to 
 censure all those who rebelled against 
 the ruling powers. The remonstrance 
 
REMONSTEANCE 
 
 REPEAL 
 
 753 
 
 gives a sketch of Irish history ' for 4,000 
 years ' ; expresses irreconcilable bitter- 
 ness against the English rulers; states 
 that they had given Ireland to Edward 
 Bruce, brother of the Scotch hero ; and 
 concludes with a threat of war a outrance 
 against every Englishman who holds an 
 inch of land in the whole island. See 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Remonstrance of G-rievances 
 
 (The), 1640. Sixteen articles. These 
 were Irish grievances laid before the 
 British Parliament, such as the arbitrary 
 decision of pleas by the lord deputy ; the 
 perversion of law by the judges; the 
 punishments inflicted for freedom of 
 speech; the exorbitant powers of the 
 court of commission; want of security 
 for persons or property ; the increase of 
 monopolies ; exorbitant fees extracted by 
 the clergy, and so on. 
 
 Remonstrant Synod of Ulster 
 
 (The), 1830. Formed in consequence of 
 the separation of seventeen ministers 
 with their congregations from the General 
 Synod of Ulster, on the ground that it 
 required from its members in 1827 and 
 1828 submission to certain doctrinal 
 acts not in accordance with the code of 
 discipline and contrary to previous 
 usage. 
 
 Remonstrants, 1610. Arminians 
 were so called from their humble petition 
 or ' remonstrance ' against Calvinism, 
 addressed to the states of Holland. See 
 ' Remonstrance,' 1610. 
 
 The anti remonstrants \9^ere called Gomarists. 
 The two leaders were Barneveldt (remonstrant) 
 and Maurice of Nassau (Gomarist). 
 
 Remonstrators or ' Remonstrants,' 
 1650. A break from the general body of 
 Presbyterians after the battle of Dunbar. 
 They consisted, at first, of some 4,000 
 Scotchmen, under Kerr and Strachan, 
 giving out that the defeat of Dunbar was 
 a divine punishment on the Presbyterians 
 for joining with Engagers {q.v.) and 
 Malignants (q.v.) in espousing the royal 
 cause. They were inclined to unite with 
 the republicans. 
 
 The royalists obtained the name of Public Reso- 
 lutioners ; their opponents, of Protestors or Be- 
 monstrants.— Dr. LiNGARD, History of England, 
 viii. 4. 
 
 Strachan, pronounce Strawn. 
 
 Rena'ssance Period {The). 
 Began in France with the reign of 
 Francois I. (1515). In Italy it began 
 
 under the patronage of the Medici (1453). 
 The Greeks, driven from Constantinople 
 by Mahomet II., took refuge in Italy, and 
 were the chief cause of this renaissance. 
 
 In architecture the Gothic was supplanted by 
 the Renaissance, which was itself succeeded by 
 imitation Greek. The Renaissance architecture 
 is conspicuous for its high roofs, crowded orna- 
 mentation, fanciful chimneys, statues introduced 
 into walls, parapets, and vestibules, for its doors 
 and windows, and its general bad taste. 
 
 Repairs of Church Images. 
 
 The subjoined is an extract from an old 
 account-book in the Muniment Room of 
 Winchester Cathedral, a.d. 1450. 
 
 For work done as follows : a. d. 
 
 Item : For soldering and repairing ye St. Josef 8 
 Item : For cleaning and ornamenting ye Holy 
 
 Ghost 6 
 
 Item : For repairing ye Virgin Mary before 
 
 and behind, and making a new Child 4 8 
 
 Item : For repairing ye Nose of Devil, putting 
 
 a new Horn on his head, and glueing a piece 
 
 on his tail 5 6 
 
 114 
 
 Repeal Agitation (Ireland). Or- 
 ganised in 1842 ; reached its culmination 
 in 1843. Its objects were to agitate for 
 a resident parliament in Dublin, and to 
 sever Ireland from the crown of Great 
 Britain. It was distinguished for its 
 monster meetings under the leadership 
 of Daniel O'Connell; the largest was 
 that held at Tara, in Meath, when above 
 250,000 persons assembled. Happily at 
 this period the temperance cause under 
 Father Mathew was in full force, so these 
 vast meetings were not riotous. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Repeal Association (TAe). 1.1829. 
 Followed the Catholic Association of 
 1824 [q.v.). The object was the repeal of 
 the union of the two parliaments effected 
 in 1801. Daniel O'Connell was the great 
 agitator of this repeal. When the Repeal 
 Association was proclaimed in 1830 a new 
 society rose under the name of the Anti- 
 Union Society. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 II. 1840, or ' National Association for 
 the Repeal of the Union,' set on foot by 
 Daniel O'Connell, who held his monster 
 meetings in 1843. 
 
 Repeal Cap (The). Green, gold, 
 and velvet. Green for Ireland. It was 
 worn by O'Connell and his party on their 
 release from prison in 1844. 
 
 Repeal Year {The), 1843. So called 
 from the monster meetings held in Ire- 
 land for the repeal of the union. The 
 first was held at Trim, in Meath ; the 
 largest was that on Tara hill, 15 Aug., 
 3C 
 
754 
 
 REPEAL 
 
 RESCRIPT 
 
 under the auspices of Daniel O'Connell, 
 and the last was at Mullaghmast, 1 Oct., 
 1S43. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Repeal of the Union (between 
 Great Britain and Ireland). Resolutions 
 in its favour passed by a meeting at 
 Dublin, 1 Sept., 1810. Associations or- 
 ganised to promote the repeal in 1829. 
 O'Connell brought forward his motion for 
 the repeal in 1834, but it was rejected by 
 the House of Commons. The National 
 Association for the Repeal was estab- 
 lished in 1840, and monster meetings 
 were held for the object on Tar a hill in 
 Aug. 1843. In 1881-1890 the question 
 again agitated Ireland under the leader- 
 ship of Mr. Parnell. See ' Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 Representers {The), 1721. The 
 twelve ' Marrow-men ' [q.v.) were so called 
 because they signed a ' representation ' 
 or protest against the judgment of the 
 General Assembly on the subject of the 
 book entitled ' The Marrow of Modern 
 Divinity.' See ' Marrow Controversy.' 
 
 Republica Parthenope'a, 1799. 
 The republic of Naples was so named by 
 Championnet, who took possession of it. 
 
 Neapolis was anciently called Parthenope, from 
 one of the syrens who was said to have lived 
 there. Naples, a contraction of Neapolis, means 
 the New City, referring to the new city built by a 
 colony of Cumaeans. 
 
 Republican Calendar. I. The 
 
 Months, beginning 22 Sept. Each month 
 80 days. 
 
 Autumn. 
 Vendemiaire (Vintage month) ... Sept. 22— Oct. 21. 
 
 Brumaire (Foggy month) Oct. 22— Nov. 20- 
 
 Frimaire (Sleety month) Nov.21— Dec. 20. 
 
 Winter. 
 Nivose (Snowy month) . .. ... Dec. 21.— Jan. 19. 
 
 Pluviose (Rainy month) Jan. 20— Feb. 18. 
 
 Ventose (Windy month) Feb. 19— Mar. 20. 
 
 Spring. 
 Germinal (Budding month) ... Mar. 21— April 19. 
 Floreal (Flowery month) ... April 20— May 19. 
 Prairial (Pasture month) May 20— June 18. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Messidor (Harvest month) June 19— July 18. 
 
 Thermidor (Hot month) July 19— Aug. 17. 
 
 Fructidor (Fruit month) Aug. 18— Sept. 16' 
 
 From Sept. 16 to Sept. 22 are five days. These 
 were called Sansculottides'ii syl.), and were national 
 holidays ; 17 dedicated to Venus, 18 to Genius, 19 
 to Labour, 20 to Opinion, and 21 to Rewards. 
 
 II. The Years. 
 
 Year I. From 22 Sept., 1792 to 21 Sept., 1793. 
 
 II 1793 „ „ 17y4. 
 
 III. „ „ 1791 „ „ 1795. 
 
 •> IV. „ „ 1795 „ „ 1796. 
 
 I. V. „ „ I79(i ,, „ 1797. 
 
 H VI. „ „ 1797 „ „ 1798. 
 
 Year VII. From 22 Sept., 1798 to 21 Sept., 1799. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 1799 „ 
 
 „ 1800. 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 
 1800 „ 
 
 „ 1801. 
 
 X. 
 
 
 
 1801 „ 
 
 „ 1802. 
 
 XI. 
 
 
 
 1802 „ 
 
 „ 1803. 
 
 XII. 
 
 , 
 
 „ 
 
 1803 „ 
 
 „ 1804. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 
 
 1804 „ 
 
 „ 1805. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 
 
 1H05 to the close of tho 
 
 year, when the reckoning was abolished by Napo- 
 leon. 
 
 Republican Calendar of 
 
 Brazil, 1890, beginning with Sunday : 
 Humanidi, Maridi, Patridi, Filidi, Fratidi, 
 Domidi, and Matridi. This ridiculous 
 list of names is called the ' Positivists' 
 Calendar,' and the twelve months are 
 equally absurd. 
 
 Charlemagne — July 
 
 Dante— August 
 Gutenberg— September 
 Shakespeare— October 
 
 Moses— January 
 Homer— February 
 Aristotle— March 
 Archimedes— April 
 Caesar— May 
 St. Paul— June 
 
 Descartes— November 
 Frederick the Great— Dec. 
 
 Republican Marriages, 1794. 
 A device by Carrier for putting to death 
 those persons in Nantes supposed to be 
 disaffected towards the republic. It con- 
 sisted in tying men and women together 
 by their hands and feet and casting them 
 into the Loire. No people in the world 
 have shown such refinement of savage 
 cruelty as the French. See p. 236, 
 ' Damiens,' as one example out of many. 
 
 Republican Martyr (T7ie). Jean 
 Paul Marat, murdered in his bath by 
 Charlotte Corday (1744-1793). 
 
 Requests by the Captain of 
 the G-reat Assembly in Kent 
 {The), June 1450. A paper of grievances 
 and requests handed in by Jack Cade 
 for the consideration of the king and his 
 advisers. It demanded that the king 
 should resume the crown grants, so that 
 his subjects might be relieved of too 
 heavy taxation ; that the false progeny of 
 the Duke of Suffolk be dismissed from 
 the king's council ; and that the Duke of 
 York be restored. 
 
 Jack Cade was an illegitimate son of the Duke 
 of York. 
 
 Rescessory Act {The), 1661. 
 
 Whereby Charles II. revoked his oath 
 taken in Scotland to be true to the 
 ' Engagement ' {q.v.). The revocation 
 was grounded on the plea of moral com- 
 pulsion. 
 
 The Rescessory Act at one blow levelled with the 
 groiind every legal prop of the Scottish Kirk. — Dr. 
 LiNGARD, History of England, ix. 1. 
 
 Rescript {A). The response of a 
 king to an individual on some question 
 
RESCEIPTS 
 
 RESTORERS 
 
 755 
 
 officially submitted to him. If the re- 
 sponse is made to a council, corporation, 
 or community, it is called a ' Pragmatic 
 Sanction.' 
 
 Rescripts {The) are replies of the 
 Roman emperors to questions of law put 
 to them by magistrates and colonial 
 governors. They were written in purple 
 ink. The edicts of praetors were in white, 
 and the jus civile in red ink. 
 
 Reservatum Ecclesiasticum. 
 
 A provision of the religious Peace of 
 Westphalia (1549), whereby the church 
 claimed the territorial property annexed 
 to any dignity if the holder thereof 
 changed his religion. This enactment 
 led to the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). 
 
 Residences of the kings of France. 
 See p. 492, * Kings of France,' &c. 
 
 Resolutioners (The), or 'Public 
 Resolutioners,' 1650, who were inclined 
 to treat the conduct of the deceased king, 
 Charles I., with leniency in opposition 
 to the Remonsti-ants, who ' protested ' 
 against his conduct in unmeasured terms. 
 In Scotch law a resolutioner is one who 
 does something prejudicial to an estate, 
 and if found guilty the estate is forfeited 
 and passes to the next heir. 
 
 The kingdom of Scotland was divided into Reso- 
 lutioners and Protesters, the former of whom 
 adhered to Charles II., after his father's death 
 upon the scaffold, while the Protesters inclined 
 rather to a union with the triumphant Republi- 
 cans.— Sir W. Scott, Old Mortnlity, ch. v. 
 
 Respublica Binepsis, l4th cent. 
 A social order founded by some Polish 
 noblemen, and so called from Binepsis, 
 the seat of its founder. It was a multum 
 inparvo of Poland itself, with its king, 
 council, chamberlain, master of the chase, 
 and other officers. Any of the members 
 conspicuous for a foible was created to 
 some office or title in ridicule thereof. 
 Thus a great lover of hunting was made 
 ' Master of the Chase,' a boaster was 
 made ' Field Marshal.' But no one was 
 allowed to chaff or ridicule these officers. 
 At one time the order contained well-nigh 
 all the court of Poland. The objects of 
 the order were to promote charity, good 
 feeling, and sociability, and to repress 
 immorality and affectations of all kinds. 
 
 Restitution Edict {The), 1630. i 
 Published by Kaiser Ferdinand II., 
 when the king of Denmark retired from j 
 the Thirty Years' War. It enjoined i 
 
 restitution to the Catholics of the two 
 archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, 
 and all the parish churches, lands, and 
 other properties which had been confis- 
 cated by Protestants since the ' Treaty 
 of Passau.' Compliance with this edict 
 was well-nigh impossible, so the Pro- 
 testants applied to Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden, and thus begixn the second 
 part of this long religious war. 
 
 Restoration {The). 
 
 I. In English history, 29 May, 1660. 
 The restoration of monarchical govern- 
 ment interrupted at the death of Charles I. 
 by a Commonwealth. The old form was 
 restored by the recall and return of 
 Charles II., who had been living in exile. 
 
 II. In French history. The restora- 
 tion of Louis XVIII. to'the throne after 
 the abdication of Napoleon and his 
 banishment to Elba, 3 May, 1814. On 
 21 March, 1815, Napoleon broke from 
 Elba, and Louis XVIII. fled ; but after 
 the battle of Waterloo Louis was re- 
 stored a second time, and entered Paris 
 8 July, 1815. 
 
 Restorationists. A religious sect 
 which believes that all persons will ulti- 
 mately be restored, after a due time of 
 purgaaon proportionate to their sins. 
 Origen was a Restorationist. 
 
 Restorer of Cities, and Father of 
 his Country. Sancho I. of Portugal, who 
 repaired the cities which had suffered 
 greatly in the recent wars (1154, 1185- 
 1212). 
 
 Restorer of French Liberty 
 
 {The). ' Le Restaurateur de la Liberte 
 Fran^aise,' 13 Aug., 1789. A title con- 
 ferred on Louis XVI. when he signed 
 the 19 articles formulated on the 4th by 
 the National Assembly. See ' August 4.' 
 
 Restorer of Learning {The). 
 
 Lorenzo de Medicis the Magnificent 
 (1448-1492). Also caUed the ' Patron of 
 the Fine Arts.' 
 
 Restorer of Letters {The). Alex- 
 ander Heigius of Westphalia (18th cent.). 
 
 Restorer of the Protestantism 
 of France {The). Antome Court 
 (1696-1760). 
 
 Restorers of Astronomy {TJie) 
 JohnMiiller (better known as ' Regio- 
 montanus,' q.v.), 1436-1476, and his pupil 
 G^^org Purbach of Austria (1423-1461). 
 3c 2 
 
756 
 
 RESUMPTION 
 
 KEVIVAL 
 
 Resumption Bill {The), 1700 (11, 
 12 Will. III. c. 2). For the resump- 
 tion of grants of land in Ireland by 
 William III. to foregners, as Keppel of 
 Guelderland (Earl of Albemarle); William 
 Bentinck, son of the Earl of Portland (a 
 Dutch favourite of William's), created 
 Viscount Woodstock ; Ginckel, another 
 Dutchman, created Earl of Athlone ; and 
 Ruvigny, a French Huguenot, created 
 Earl of G-alway. To these four foreigners 
 William gTanted above 300,000 acres of 
 h nd in Ireland. The land was sold to the 
 highest purchasers, and the money em- 
 ployed in paying the arrears of the army. 
 
 He granted also to Elizabeth Villiers, his mis- 
 tress, above 95,000 acres, valued at -25,995/. a year ! 1 
 
 The first duke of Portland was Henry Bentinck, 
 1716. 
 
 Resurrection {The). Tertullian 
 saysthe Crucifixion occurred on 25 March, 
 and the Calendar of the Arbuthnott 
 Missal places the Resurrection on 27 
 March. If so the year must have been 
 A.D. 29, when 25 March fell on a Friday. 
 
 Tertullian says that Christ suffered under Tibe- 
 rius Cfesar in the consulate of Uubellius Gercinus 
 and Fufius Geminus, in the month of March, at 
 the time of the passover, on the 8th day before 
 the Kalends of April [25 March], on the first day 
 of unleavened bread, on which they slew the lamb 
 at even.—AdreisusJudaos, c. 8. 
 
 The next year on which 25 Blarch was Friday 
 •was A.D. 40, and not again till A.D. 119, 124, 214, &c. 
 
 Resurrection Men. Men who 
 
 stole buried bodies out of cemeteries and 
 churchyards, and sold them to surgeons 
 for dissection. They were also called 
 'body sn?.tcliers.' In 1829 Burke and 
 Hare made themselves conspicuous by 
 this infamous traffic, and added to it the 
 sutfocation [burking] of living persons by 
 strangulation, or smothering them by 
 pitch-plasters placed over the mouth and 
 nose. Bishop and Williams, in 1831, 
 burked a poor Italian boy named Carlo 
 Ferrari, and were both executed. 
 
 Retreat of the 10,000 {The), 
 B.C. 401-399. Conducted by Xenophon, 
 the historian, who had joined the expedi- 
 tion of Cyrus. In the battle of Cunaxa 
 Cyrus lost his life, and the Greeks were 
 left without a leader. Xenophon volun- 
 teered to lead them back to Greece, and 
 has left an historical narrative of this 
 famous retreat, called Xenophon's Anab- 
 asis. 
 
 Return of the Heraeli'dse {The), 
 B.C. 1103. The migration of the descend- 
 ants of Heracles {Hercules) and the 
 
 Dorians to the Peloponnesus, which they 
 conquered. Heracles was promised the 
 land of Argos by Zeus, but was kept out 
 by Hera {Juno). Five times the de- 
 scendants of Heracles attempted to take 
 possession of the promised land, but were 
 driven out four times. The fifth invasion 
 was 110 years after the first by Hyllos, 
 son of Heracles, and 80 years after the 
 siege of Troy. It was completely suc- 
 cessful, and the peninsula was divided 
 by lot among the three leaders {Mythic 
 History). 
 
 Revised Bible {The). Published 
 in May 1885. The Revised New Testa- 
 ment was pubhshed 17 May, 1881. The 
 work was begun 30 June, 1870, by twenty- 
 five scholars, ten of whom died before 
 the revision was completed, 20 June, 1884. 
 The revisers had eighty-five sessions, 
 which extended over fourteen years. 
 See ' Bible.' 
 
 There seems no likelihood that the Revised 
 Bible will ever supersede the Authorised Ver- 
 sion. Whatever its critical value, it is sadly 
 defective in style, and is not to be compared to 
 the older book in rhythm and simplicity. It is 
 equally defective in arrangement, and we greatly 
 miss the tables of contents at the heads of tho 
 chapters. 
 
 Revised Code of 1862 {The). By 
 Lord Sherbrooke. The minutes of the 
 Committee of Council established by 
 government in 1846 on the education of 
 the children of the labouring poor, with 
 government grants based on ' results.' 
 
 The three grades of the results are ' fair, good, 
 and excellent,' as tested by government inspec- 
 tors on examination, and the grant varies accord- 
 ingly. In 1890 a change was made in the grant 
 by results, by which 'cramming' was greatly 
 checked, and general information was encour- 
 aged. 
 
 Revising Barrister {A). A bar- 
 rister annually appointed by the English 
 judges to revise the lists of voters for 
 members of Parliament, and to settle who 
 are qualified to vote. 
 
 Revival in Belfast {The), 1859. 
 
 A strange religious movement in which 
 the preacher produced hysteria, especially 
 among the mill girls. When any girl 
 was ' struck ' the preacher evoked from 
 her a wild continued scream, which of 
 course was catching. Those struck were 
 removed from the church to a darkened 
 room, and there told 'what they had 
 seen and heard.' This experience was 
 in all cases a rigmarole based more or 
 less on the Revelation 
 
EEVOCATION 
 
 REVOLUTION 
 
 757 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of 
 
 Nantes [The), 18, Oct., 1685. It pro- 
 hibited all exercise of the reformed reli- 
 gion in the kingdom of France. Pastors 
 were to quit France within fifteen days ; 
 if, however, they abjured, they were to 
 be endowed with pensions one-third more 
 than their previous salaries, with the 
 reversion of one-third to their widows. 
 If pastors wished to enter the legal pro- 
 fession they might dispense with academic 
 studies. Parents were forbidden to teach 
 their children the refoi'med religion, and 
 were to bring them to be baptized in the 
 Catholic Church, under a penalty of 500 
 livres (20^.) Refugees who did not re- 
 turn within four months were to suffer 
 confiscation of all their property. Re- 
 formers caught in the act of emigrating 
 were to be sent to the galleys (if men), 
 and if women to be imprisoned for life. 
 
 By the Edict of Nantes granted by Henri IV. 
 Fn neh Protestants enjoyed full freedom of their 
 religion and were placed on the game level in all 
 civil rights as Catholic subjects. It was Louis 
 XIV. who revoked this Edict, whereby 80,000 I'ro- 
 testants fled the country, and 20,000 were slain or 
 driven into the fields houseless and homeless. 
 
 Revolt of Egypt [The), 1835. A 
 large body of Egyptians ha\dng taken 
 refuge in Syria in 1832, Mehemet Ali 
 Bent his son Ibrahim to punish the pacha 
 of Acre for taking them under his protec- 
 tion. Ibrahim was wholly victorious, and, 
 being opposed by a Turkish army, con- 
 quered it and took the vizier prisoner. 
 The great powers now interfered, and 
 Syria was added to the pachalik of Egypt, 
 but in 1840 Syria was restored to the 
 Porte by the intervention of the great 
 powers. 
 
 Revolt of Hugh O ISTeill [The), 
 1597-1599. After the death of Shane 
 O'Neill, Hugh obtained the title of Earl 
 of Tyrone. He was brought up in the 
 English court, and was apparently in the 
 queen's interest ; but immediately he re- 
 turned to Munster he took up an attitude 
 of open defiance and offered Ireland to 
 the King of Spain. In 1597 he defeated 
 the English forces in Tyrone, but in 1601 
 he was obliged to surrender to Lord 
 Mountjoy. Being brought to England, 
 O'Neill was pardoned, retired to Brussels 
 in 1607, and died at Rome in 1616, 
 
 Revolt of the Desmonds, in 
 
 Ireland, 1579. Rome and Spain thinking 
 Ireland oppressed by Queen Elizabeth, 
 and hoping, through Ireland, to overthrow 
 
 the great heretic queen, landed on the 
 shores of Kerry a force of 700 men, which 
 was supported by the Earl of Desmond. 
 The invaders were cut to pieces at Smer- 
 wick, and Desmond declared a traitor. 
 He was discovered in a hovel, and put to 
 death by his pursuers. 
 
 There is a well-known legend that this old man 
 is not dead, but keeps his state under the waters of 
 Lough Gur, and that every seventh year he re- 
 appears fully armed, rides round the lake early in 
 the morning, and will ultimately return in the 
 flesh to claim his own again. 
 
 Revolution [The American), 1775. 
 By which the United States of America 
 threw off their dependence on Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Revolution [The Glorious), 1G88, in 
 English history means the accession of 
 William III., whereby the Stuart dynasty 
 was set aside, and a new dynasty intro- 
 duced. 
 
 William III. was grandson of Charles I., his 
 mother being Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. 
 He married :\Iary, eldest daughter of James II. So 
 that the choice of the nation fell on these two 
 from their alliance to the Stuarts both by blood 
 and marriage; but James II. was alive, and his 
 son and grandson were set aside. On the death of 
 William without offspring Anne, another daughter 
 of James II., succeeded. 
 
 Revolution [The Great French), 
 1789-1794. A great reaction against 
 absolutism, which began with the de- 
 struction of the Bastille. The king, 
 Louis XVI., was beheaded 21 Jan., 1793. 
 The Christian religion was set aside, and 
 the worship of Reason substituted in its 
 place. The Revolution terminated with 
 the death of Robespierre. 
 
 Revolution [The Italian), 1859- 
 1860. In which the various minor sove- 
 reigns of Italy were driven into exile, and 
 the whole Italian peninsula (except the 
 Roman and Venetian territory) was sub- 
 jected to "one ruler styled the 'King of 
 Italy.' 
 
 The Roman and Venetian territories were added 
 subsequently— the Venetian States in Oct. 1806, 
 after the Seven Weeks' War ; and the Papal States 
 in Oct. 1870. 
 
 Revolution ( Victims of the French). 
 Prudhomrae gives the following statistics: 
 18,603 nobles, priests, artisans, and others; 
 that is 13,623 commoners, 1,467 wives of 
 operatives, 1,278 nobles, 1,125 priests, 
 750 noblewomen, and 350 religieuses. 
 Besides these 18,603 persons guillotined, 
 we have 403,748 destroyed in various 
 ways at Vendee, Nantes, Lyons, &c. Of 
 these the victims of Vendee were 337,000, 
 
753 
 
 EEVOLUTIQN 
 
 BHAPSODISTS 
 
 of Carrier at Nantes 32,000, of Lyons 
 31,000 ; of women who died of grief, &c. 
 3,748. This does not include those mas- 
 sacred at Versailles, the Abbaye, the 
 Carmelites, the September victims, the 
 victims of the Glaciere d'Avignon, of 
 Toulon, of Marseilles, and the whole town 
 of Bedouin. 
 
 Revolution of Denmark {The), 
 8 Sept., 1660. By this revolution the 
 kings of Denmark, who had hitherto 
 been feudal chiefs, elected and controlled 
 by the barons, were made hereditary and 
 unlimited sovereigns, both in the male 
 and female line. By the constitution 
 granted by Frederick III., in 1665, the 
 monarch of Denmark was declared to be 
 hereditary and absolute, holding the 
 whole legislative, executive, and judicial 
 power of the state. It vested in him the 
 unlimited power of appointing all public 
 offices and dignities; of commanding the 
 forces of the kingdom by sea and land; of 
 making war, peace, and alliances. It gave 
 him the supreme jurisdiction in ecclesi- 
 astical affairs, subject only to the obliga- 
 tion of professing the Protestant religion 
 as expounded by the Confession of Augs- 
 burg. 
 
 Revolution of February {The), 
 
 1848. By which the Orleans dynasty was 
 overthrown in France. Eighteen years 
 before (1830) the Bourbon dynasty in 
 the person of Charles X. had been over- 
 thrown. The revolution of 1848 occurred 
 on 22, 23, 24 Feb. ; on the last of these 
 three days Louis Philippe fled from Paris, 
 and abdicated. See p. 538, ' Louis- 
 Philippe.' 
 Revolution of July {The), 1830, 
 
 when Charles X. was obliged to flee from 
 Paris, and abdicate. 
 
 Revolution of the 17th Cent., 
 
 1060, began with the restoration of 
 Charles 11. It transferred the crown 
 from Cromwell and his party to Charles ; 
 it transferred the power of the crown 
 from the king to the House of Commons ; 
 it overthrew Puritanism and introduced 
 freedom of religious thought ; it changed 
 the manners and customs of the nation; 
 it changed the fashion of dress and do- 
 mestic life ; it even introduced the study 
 of experimental philosophy in place of 
 dogmatism and tradition. 
 
 Revolution Society (T/ie), 1792. 
 A society numbering many of the highest 
 
 names in the Whig aristocracy, which 
 met on the 4th Nov. to celebrate the 
 anniversary of the landing of William III. 
 This society sent a glowing address to the 
 French National Assembly, which was 
 carried over by Lord Stanhope and 
 Dr. Price. In their address they vowed 
 that they 'would never again fight with 
 France at the command of any despot.' 
 
 The 4th Nov. was William's day. Ho was born 
 4 Nov., IGoO ; he took Bonn 4-12 Nov., 1(>7;.' ; he mar- 
 ried the Princess Mary 4 Nov., 1677 ; and the 
 4th Nov. was the anniversary of his landing at 
 Torbay in 1688. 
 
 Revolutionary Army {The), 
 Sept. 1793. A Parisian guard, raised by 
 the Convention at the instigation of Ba- 
 rere, to clear Paris of all enemies of the 
 Republic, or (in other words) to massacre 
 all who differed in opinion from the leaders 
 of the revolution. The property of these 
 victims was seized and confiscated to the 
 state. 
 
 Revolutionary Committees 
 
 (1793) were appointed by the Convention 
 to act under the Committee of Public 
 Safety, to receive denunciations and re- 
 port them. See ' Revolutionary Tribunal.' 
 
 Revolutionary Parties in 
 France between '93 and '95. See 
 ' Partis en France.' 
 
 Revolutionary Tribunal {The), 
 
 March 1793. A court of judgment insti- 
 tuted by the French Convention {q.v.) to 
 quash conspiracies against the revolu- 
 tionary government. This infamous 
 court sat in judgment on all persona 
 accused of disaffection to the state. Dur- 
 ing the Reign of Terror, when Fouquier 
 Tinville was ' public accuser,' it acquired 
 a horrible notoriety, being a mere official 
 tool in the hands of Robespierre. 
 
 Revolver Boys, about 1885. Irish 
 moonlighters, land-leaguers, and others, 
 supplied with revolvers to shoot at those 
 obnoxious to the secret societies. Gene- 
 rally the legs were aimed at. See * Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Rex G-entis Anglorum. The 
 
 over-king of the English heptarchs,the first 
 being Hengist king of Kent (457), and the 
 last Egbert king of Wessex (who in 827 
 became bretwalda or king of all England). 
 Rhapsodists. Greek minstrels who 
 wandered from place to place reciting in 
 musical chant the epic ballads of Homer 
 and other poets. After Peisistratos re- 
 
RHODE 
 
 EICE 
 
 759 
 
 duced the Homeric ballads into a con- 
 nected epic, the occupation of the rhapso- 
 dists rapidly declined. 
 
 A rhapsody means a single canto, ballad, or 
 part, suitable for one sitting or entertainment. 
 
 Rhode Island (U.S. America). So 
 named, in 1663, from the isle of Rhodes 
 in the Mediterranean. There seems no 
 special reason for this name, but it is so 
 called in the charter of Charles II. An 
 old nickname of the people is Gunflints. 
 
 Rhodian Law [The], The earliest 
 known code of marine law ; it was com- 
 piled by the Rhodians about B.C. 900. 
 Probably the marine laws of Justinian 
 were based on the Rhodian code. 
 
 Rhodian School of Sculpture 
 
 [The). Famous for (1) the Colossus, by 
 Chares, one of the seven wonders of the 
 world ; (2) the Laocoon group, by Ages- 
 ander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus ; and 
 (3) the Farnesian bull, in the museum of 
 Naples. This group represents Zethus 
 and Amphion binding Dirce to a wild bull 
 in order to revenge their mother. It was 
 the work of Apollonius and Tauriscus, 
 and was discovered in 1546. Called 
 Farnesian because it was set up in the 
 palace of Farnese at Rome. 
 
 Rhone of Christian Eloquence 
 
 {The). St. Hilary (a.d. 800-368), bishop 
 of Poitiers. 
 
 Rhuddlan {Statute of), 10 Edw. I. 
 1282. In Rhuddlan (North Wales) Ed- 
 ward I. held a parliament, which secured 
 to the Welsh certain rights ; and in this 
 town, in 1284, the infant Edward was 
 acknowledged as ' the Prince of Wales.' 
 The statute of Rhuddlan is the statute 
 confirming to the Welsh the rights con- 
 ferred on them by Edward I. Amongst 
 other grants conferred by this statute, 
 Anglesey was erected into a county. 
 
 It is said that Edward was born at Carnarvon. 
 
 Rialto {The) of Venice. A contrac- 
 tion of Bivo alto, the deep stream. First 
 the name of an island in the Lagune, 
 called ' Isola di Rialto ' ; then of the 
 bridge called ' II Ponte di Rialto,' con- 
 necting the island with the opposite 
 shore ; and lastly of the exchange called 
 the Rialto which stands on the island, 
 and is so familiar from Shakespeare's 
 * Merchant of Venice.' 
 
 Ribalds {The), 1189. A militia 
 raised by Philippe II. Auguste of France. 
 
 The captain was called the ' king of the 
 Ribalds,' united by Charles V. of France 
 to the ' Provost of the Hotel.' Disbanded 
 on account of their unbridled licentious- 
 ness. 
 
 Kibalds or Ribauds, from the Latin ripalis, from 
 ripa, a banker border. The licentiousness of these 
 soldiers gave birth to our word ribald, obscene. 
 
 Prof. Skeat derives ribald from the French 
 riber, to dally with women. 
 
 Ribbonism. The political prin- 
 ciples of the Ribbonmen of Ireland. See 
 
 next article. 
 
 Ribbonmen, 1808. A secret asso- 
 ciation among the lowest classes in Ire- 
 land opposed to the Orange confedera- 
 tion. It originated in Armagli, spreading 
 into Down, Antrim, Tyrone, Mon'aghan, 
 and Fermanagh (where Protestants most 
 abounded), but either under the same or 
 some other name it had affiliated societies 
 in King's County, Queen's County, Meath, 
 Louth, and Tipperary. The members 
 had their secret signs and pass-words, 
 and though at first confined to the lowest 
 classes, embraced later on farm-labourers, 
 artisans, and even clergymen and mer- 
 chants. The main object of the society 
 was to prevent landlords from evicting 
 or changing their tenants, or new tenants 
 from taking the farms of evicted tenants. 
 ' Tenant right ' or fixity of tenure was 
 also an essential part of their demand 
 which they determined to carry out to 
 the death ; and general interference be- 
 tween employers and the employed. Rib- 
 bonism was suppressed by Act of Parlia- 
 ment in 1871, but only to break out again 
 under some other name. From 1840 it 
 was in the fullest operation. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 It is supposed that the name refers to soma 
 badge worn by the members. 
 
 The Ribbonmen apparently branched from the 
 'Defenders,' a Catholic couiiterorganisal ion to 
 the Orangemen, who were Protestants, and are so 
 Still. 
 
 The Defenders being proclaimed changed their 
 name in 1806 into ' Thre.'^hers,' who for the most 
 part appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Longford, 
 and Ca'van. 
 
 Next appear the Ribbonmen in 1808, first in 
 Armagh, and thence spreading north and north- 
 west. 
 
 Other societies sprang up in other parts of Ire- 
 land, i.e.— 
 
 The Cardf.ys in East and West Meath, Ros- 
 common, and part of Mayo, 
 
 The Shanuvt'sU and Citiavats In Tipperary, Kil- 
 kenny, Cork, and Limerick. 
 
 The Phi'iiicians, the Biotkerhood of St. Patrick, the 
 Fenians, &c. follow in rapid succession. See each 
 of these. 
 
 Rice Christians. Hindus and 
 Chinese who profess to be converted for 
 
760 
 
 EICHARD 
 
 RICHMONDISM 
 
 the sake of the rice given by the mis- 
 sionaries to converts. Followers of 
 Christ, not for his doctrines, but for the 
 loaves and fishes. 
 
 Richard CoBur de Lion. 
 Richard I.' 
 
 See 
 
 of Bordeaux. See 
 
 Richard 
 
 ' Richard II.' 
 
 Richard surnamed Crook- 
 back. See ' Richard III.' 
 
 Richard I., surnamed ' Coeur de 
 Lion ' for his great daring and courage 
 in the Holy Land during the crusade 
 against Saladin. He was the third son 
 of Henry II. of England, and married 
 Berengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of 
 Navarre, but had no lawful issue. 
 Richard I. was the first to adopt the 
 words ' Dei gratia ' before his titles. His 
 style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex Anglise et 
 dux Normandiae et Aquitaniae [Guienne], 
 et comes Andegaviae [Anjou].' 
 
 When he travelled through Germany from the 
 Holy Land, he assumed the name of Hugh the 
 Merchant. 
 
 The youth who shot him with an arrow dis- 
 charged from the castle of Chaluz was Bertrand 
 de Gurdun or Gourdon. Being asked why he shot 
 the king, the lad replied, ' Because he slew my 
 father and two brothers.' Richard commanded 
 that Bertrand should be set free, but Marcadee, 
 leader of the Braban?ons, flayed him alive, and 
 then hanged him. 
 
 Richard II., of England, called 
 ' Bordeaux,' because he was born there 
 (1366, reigned 1377-1399, died 1400). He 
 was the only son of the Black Prince and 
 the Fair Maid of Kent (his wife). Richard 
 II. married twice, but left no issue. His 
 first wife was Anne of Luxembourg, 
 daughter of the kaiser-king Karl IV., 
 aged 15. His second wife was a mere 
 child of 7, viz. Isabelle, daughter of 
 Charles VI. of France. 
 
 His style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex 
 Angliae et Franciae, et dominus Hibernise.' 
 
 It is generally asserted that when Richard was 
 deposed he was imprisoned in Pontefract Castle, 
 and murdered there or starved to death ; but it 
 has been also said that he made his escape, and 
 lived many years disguised as an ordinary man. 
 They say that the person exhibited to the people 
 as the deceased king was his chaplain, Maudelain. 
 This rumour was still rife in the reign of Henry V., 
 whefi Thomas de Trumpington, in 1415, was in- 
 duced to palm himself off as the deposed king. 
 
 In 1402 the French court sent Creton, the page 
 of Richard II., into Scotland to ascertain if 
 Richard was indeed alive, and Creton declared the 
 Scotch Richard to be an undoubted impostor. The 
 French ordinance for the payment of Crston still 
 exists, and may be seen in the Archseologia. Sarla 
 before ho was executed confessed that the Scotch 
 Richard was Thomas Warde, Richard's court fool. 
 
 Richard III., of England, surnamed 
 ' Crookback ' (1452, 1483-1485), was the 
 younger brother of Edward IV., and 
 uncle of Edward V., whom he succeeded. 
 He married Anne, widow of Edward 
 prince of Wales (son of Henry VI.), and 
 was slain in the battle of Bosworth Field. 
 
 His style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex 
 Angliae et Franciae, et dominus Hiberniae.' 
 
 Edward III.'s third son was Lionel, who had a 
 daughter named Philippa. Philippa married Ed- 
 ward Mortimer, and tlieir son was Roger Morti- 
 mer. 
 
 Roger Mortimer's daughter (Lady Anne) married 
 Richard (son of Edmund duke of York), and their 
 son was the famous lUohard duke of York, 'the 
 AVhite Rose,' slain in the battle of Wakefield, 
 leaving behind him two sons, Edwakd IV. and 
 Richard III. 
 
 Whether Richard III. had a ' crookback ' is very 
 doubtful. Shakespeare makes him deformed, but 
 this might be out of flattery to Queen Elizabeth, 
 who was of the Lancastrian or lied Rose House. 
 Stowe says of Richard III., ' He was comely 
 enough, though low of stature.' 
 
 Richard IV., of England. Peter 
 or Perkin Warbeck, who was put forward 
 to personate Richard duke of York, 
 younger son of Edward IV., and one of 
 the two princes murdered in the Tower 
 of London in 1492. Charles VIII. of 
 France received the pretender as the true 
 prince and paid him regal honours (1492)/ 
 Margaret duchess of Burgundy acknow- 
 ledged him as her nephew in 1493; James 
 IV. of Scotland received him as the 
 prince, and gave him to wife Lady Cathe- 
 rine Gordon, granddaughter of James I. 
 (1493). ' Richard ' invaded England in 
 1496, and assumed the royal title of 
 Richard IV. (7 Sept. 1497), but he soon 
 surrendered, and was committed to the 
 Tower in Oct. 1497. He made his escape 
 on 9 June, 1498, was retaken and put to 
 death 23 Nov., 1499. His wife Lady 
 Catherine received an appointment in 
 the queen's household, was three times 
 married, and died at Fyfield, Berks, 1537. 
 
 It is said that Perkin Warbeck was son of John 
 Warbeck, or Osbeck, a renegade Jew of Tournaye, 
 with whom Edward IV. did business. Some, how- 
 ever, maintain that he was the son of Edward IV. 
 and the beautiful Catherine de Faro. Without 
 doubt he bore a striking likeness to the king. 
 
 Rlchmondism. That the higher 
 the price of corn the higher will be the 
 wages of agricultural labourers. This 
 was an axiom of the Chartists. When 
 Joseph Lankaster, in 1844, was arrested 
 for setting fire to wheat-stacks in order 
 to raise the price of wages, the act was 
 called bv the free-traders ' Riclimondism 
 put in practice.' 
 
RICIMER 
 
 EIGHTS 
 
 761 
 
 Ricimer. A Roman general of Sue- 
 vian origin, grandson of Walha the Goth. 
 He rose to the highest rank, and for 
 eighteen years was the ' king-maker ' of 
 the west. In 456 he dethroned Avitus 
 and gave the crown to Majorian. Ma- 
 jorian being assassinated in 461, Ricimer 
 gave the purple to Libius Severus (467), 
 and married his daughter. In 472 (Se- 
 verus being murdered) Ricimer placed 
 Olybius on the throne. But the king- 
 maker died forty weeks afterwards. 
 
 In the decrepitude of the western empire .... 
 the Ricimers and Odoacers put up and pulled down 
 at pleasure a succes!-ion of insignificant princes, 
 dignified with the names of ' Caesar ' and ' Au- 
 gustus.'— Prince, Paralli'l HUtorij, vol. ii. p. 627. 
 
 Riding the Marches. 'Beating 
 the bounds ' of a parish. Saxon mearc, 
 a boundary. 
 
 RidleyHall, Cambridge, 1882. For 
 training young men in the ' evangelical 
 principles ' of the Church of England. 
 
 Rienzi the Tribune (1310-1354). 
 A man of mean birth invited by Pope 
 Clement VI. to Rome, then in a state of 
 anarchy. Rienzi proclaimed in 1347 a 
 new constitution, drove away the turbu- 
 lent barons, and put a stop to brigandage. 
 He then received the title of Tribune 
 with dictatorial power, and formed a 
 design of making all Italy one united 
 republic. He lost his popularity and was 
 driven from Rome in 1348, returned in 
 1352, but was slain in 1354 in an insur- 
 rection. 
 
 Right and Fact, 1653. This dis- 
 tinction arose from a book called ' Augus- 
 tlnus ' by Cornelius Jansen, who died in 
 1638, just as the book was finished. The 
 Jesuits condemned the book, and Urban 
 VIII. px'onounced it heretical. The 
 friends of the book admitted that the 
 five propositions condemned as heretical 
 were in point of right justly condemned, 
 but declared that in point of /ac^ no such 
 doctrines were taught or could be deduced 
 from the book in question. That is, the 
 doctrines condemned by the bull were 
 heretical doctrines, but they were not the 
 doctrines taught in Jansen's book. 
 
 In consequence of the bull of Urban VIII. a gainst 
 ' the five propositions,' the Jansenists miiintained 
 that though the pope is infallible in points ot faith, 
 ' ble 
 
 he is not infallible in points of fact. 
 
 In 
 
 Right, Left, Centre {The). 
 the French Parliament. The Right, i.e. 
 the conservatives or landed gentry. The 
 
 Left, i.e. the rich wine merchants and 
 other radicals. The Centre, i.e. the 
 moderate party or Laodiceans. 
 
 Right-boys, 1787. An offshoot of 
 the White-boys or agi-arian rebels, who 
 rose in defence of Irish 'rights,' and 
 waged uncompromising war for a time 
 against the exaction of tithes from 
 Roman Catholics in support of the 
 Anglican church in Ireland, and against 
 various grievances comiected with the 
 tenure of lands. See '-Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 Right Honourable. Honourable 
 by legal right. The younger children of 
 earls and the children of viscounts and 
 barons are called ' Honourable,' but have 
 no legal right to the peerage. A peer, 
 being Right Honourable, has such a right. 
 Members of the privy council, even if com- 
 moners, and the mayors of London and 
 York are right honourable because they 
 are lords ex officio, and not by courtesy 
 only. The former are, by right of office, 
 ' Lords of H.M. Privy Council,' and the 
 latter are by legal right ' lord mayors of 
 London and York.' 
 
 Not only members of the privy council, but all 
 who have been members. The Lord Mayor of 
 Dublin and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh are 
 also called ' Right Honourable." 
 
 Right of "Way. The right of passing 
 over or through the grounds of another 
 person, as over a path in a field or park 
 which has been tacitly permitted by im- 
 memorial usage. 
 
 It is still thought in some places that a funeral 
 procession passing over a field gives a right of 
 way. I know a village where the man who walks 
 at the head of the procession sticks a pin in the 
 gate-post by way of fee or acknowledgment that 
 there is no free ' right of way ' through the field. 
 
 Rights {The Bill of). The statute 
 1 "William and Mary, st. 2, chap. 2, 
 A.D. 1689, in which is embodied the 
 Declaration of Rights presented by both 
 houses to William and Mary in the 
 banqueting-house at Whitehall, 13 Feb., 
 1689. The bill contains thirteen clauses: 
 
 (1) No law shall be suspended or held in 
 abeyance without consent of parliament ; 
 
 (2) it is illegal for the crown to dispense 
 with a law or suspend its operation ; (3) 
 courts of commission for ecclesiastical 
 causes are illegal ; (4) it is illegal to levy 
 money by royal prerogative or without 
 consent of parliament ; (5) subjects shall 
 have free right to petition the king ; (6) 
 it is illegal to keep a standing array with- 
 
702 
 
 EIGHTS 
 
 EINGAN 
 
 out consent of parliament ; (7) Pro- 
 testants may carry arms in self-defence ; 
 (8) elections for members of parliament 
 shall be free and unrestrained ; (9) free- 
 dom of debate shall not be tampered 
 with ; (10) excessive bail and excessive 
 fines are illegal ; (11) jurors shall be duly 
 empanelled and returned, only free- 
 holders shall be jurors for high treason ; 
 
 (12) fines before conviction are illegal; 
 
 (13) parliaments shall be called together 
 frequently. N.B. It transferred the 
 sovereignty from the king to the House 
 of Commons. See ' Petition of Rights.' 
 
 Rights of Man {The), 1795. Pub- 
 lished by the Batavian Republic. 
 
 1. All men are born with equal 
 rights. 
 
 2. Each man has a right to serve God 
 or not as he chooses 
 
 3. All the men of a state are eligible 
 to office in that state. 
 
 4. Every functionary ought to give an 
 account of his administration. 
 
 5. The people have a right to choose 
 and change their rulers and magistrates. 
 
 Rights of Man {The Society of 
 the), 1791. The name adopted by the 
 club of the Cordeliers, after Bailly, the 
 mayor, shut them out of their hall, 
 because Danton denounced both him 
 [BaillyJ and Lafayette as traitors. The 
 members removed to the Paris tennis- 
 court and changed their name. 
 
 RimbecCO. The reproach by the 
 relatives of a murdered man that the 
 next akin has not followed up the blood- 
 feud according t9 the custom of the 
 vendetta. In Genoa the uttering of such 
 reproach was punishable, but in Corsica 
 the vendetta is considered so sacred a 
 duty that the rimbecco is practically 
 unknown. 
 
 Ring. At Rome the different orders 
 of citizens were distinguished by a ring ; 
 in the early days of the republic only 
 senators wore rings of gold, subsequently 
 knights wore them, and later on anyone 
 who chose wore one or more of them. 
 Slaves wore an iron ring. The man in 
 marriage gives the bride a ring to show 
 that he confides in her the seal of his 
 rights in his possessions. A ring with 
 the cross is the symbol of pastoral 
 power; it is given by the pope to car- 
 dinals, archbishops, and bishops ; some- 
 times the ring is enchased with an 
 
 amethyst. The pope's ring, called the 
 ' Fisher's Ring,' with which he signs his 
 briefs, has the image of St. Peter sitting 
 in his boat. At the death of the pope 
 the ring is broken. 
 
 Ring {A), Juvenal, speaking of 
 Hannibal, says — 
 
 No sword his death, no dart, nor such- 
 like thing. 
 Rings he at Cannae reaj)ed, his death a 
 ring. 
 
 At the battle of Cannae 5,630 Roman 
 knights were slain, and three bushels of 
 gold rings were sent to Carthage (b.c. 
 216). In 183 the great hero poisoned 
 himself with the contents of a ring which 
 he wore. 
 
 Ring and Crozier, 1052. First 
 given to a bishop on his consecration by 
 Kaiser Heinrich III. as a symbol of 
 investiture {q.v.). After the settlement of 
 the moot point of investiture, the pope 
 invested the bishop with ring and crozier, 
 and the king invested him with a sceptre. 
 See ' Hallam,' vol. ii. p. 266. 
 
 Ring-money. A very ancient 
 coinage in use with the Egyptians. 
 Caesar mentions both gold and iron 
 rings as used in Gaul and Britain for 
 money. Sometimes a number of these 
 rings were strung together into a chain, 
 one or more being detached when re- 
 quired in payment of service. In 1805 
 a silver chain of thirty-three such rings 
 was dug up near Inverness, and is now 
 in the museum of the Scottish Anti- 
 quaries. 
 
 Ring of the Fisherman {The). 
 The papal official seal. See ' Ring.' 
 
 Rings. Military encampments. Low 
 Latin, rinca or ringa. The Avars lived 
 in camps called rings, because they were 
 disposed in concentric circles, and when 
 Charlemagne in 796 exterminated these 
 Huns, he took possession of their rings, 
 where he found rich plunder which they 
 had been accumulating for many years. 
 
 Rings of the Avars {The). 
 Wooden fortifications which encompassed 
 their villages and districts. Destroyed 
 by Charlemagne, a.d. 796. 
 
 Ringan {St.), i.e. St. Ninian. 
 
 Their devotion to tliis church of St. Ninian, or, 
 as she was popularly termed, St. llingau.— Sir W, 
 Scott, The i'imte, chap. xxv. 
 
EIPAILLE 
 
 ROBEKVALLIAN 
 
 763 
 
 Kipaille Fraternity (The). A 
 brotherhood of aged knights founded by 
 Amadeus VIII., noted for their luxurious 
 living, and giving rise to the phrase 
 /aire ripaille, to live jollily. Ripaille is 
 the chateau of Savoy, and the Duke 
 Amadeus was afterwards Pope Felix V. 
 He abdicated his dukedom in 1434, when 
 he retired to Ripaille, and left it when 
 he was pope, 1440-1449. 
 
 RitcMe's Act {Mr.), 1888. The 
 Local Government Act, of which Mr. 
 Ritchie was the sponsor. See p. 220, 
 ' County Councils, 1889,' and p. 529, ' Lo- 
 cal Government Act.' 
 
 Ritual or Pastoral {The). A book 
 containing directions for all the pastoral 
 duties of the inferior clergy of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, such as the administra- 
 tion of the sacraments and the celebra- 
 tion of the daily services. The book, 
 wliich contains all that pertains to the 
 celebration of the mass, is usually called 
 the Missal. The two chief rituals are 
 those of Rome and Paris. See ' Cere- 
 monial ' and ' Pontifical.' 
 
 Ritualisni now means that stricter 
 observance of church rites and cere- 
 monies introduced by what is called the 
 ' Oxford Party,' or ' High Church.' See 
 p. 421, and ' Tractarians.' 
 
 Ritualism abjured. In 1890 was 
 introduced in Suffolk the ' Besom Pledge,' 
 to sweep from the land ritualism and 
 Romanism. Tlie phrase was suggested 
 by the words of Isaiah, ' I will sweep it 
 with the besom of destruction.' 
 
 River of Paradise {The). St. 
 Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1153). 
 Also called the ' Mellifluous Doctor.' 
 
 Robber Synod {The), a.d. 449. A 
 council held at Ephesus against Fla- 
 vianus. This council declared in favour 
 of Eutychianism, and was called Latro- 
 cinium, or the Assembly of Thieves and 
 Robbers. 
 
 Robbers of the Bristol Mail 
 
 {The). John Hawkins and George Symp- 
 son, executed on Hounslow Heath, 1722. 
 
 Robe {The), worn by Jesus at the 
 crucifixion (John xix. 23). Two robes 
 claim pre-eminence — viz. ' the holy robe 
 of Treves ' and ' the holy robe of Argen- 
 teuil.' The former is by far the mora 
 
 delicate fabric, the latter being a tissue 
 of goat's hair without seam. We are 
 told that the robe of Treves was the one 
 worn as a shirt, and that of Argenteuil 
 was the tunic for which the soldiers cast 
 lots. Gregory of Tours tells us that this 
 tunic was bought of the soldier who won 
 the lot, and, being packed in a wooden 
 box, was sent to Galatia, then removed 
 for safety to Jaffa, then to Jerusalem. 
 When Jerusalem was taken by the Per- 
 sians, this tunic was removed to Persia ; 
 then, in 627, to Constantinople. It was 
 given by Irene empress of Constantinople 
 to Charlemagne, who sent it in 800 to his 
 daughter Theodrada abbess of Argenteuil. 
 A cure of Argenteuil cut the robe into 
 several pieces, so that it is not now pos- 
 sible to piece the parts together. 
 
 The White Bohe in which the soldiers 
 of Herod arrayed Jesus is said to be at 
 Venice. 
 
 The Purple, or Scarlet Bobe, in which 
 he was ai'rayed by the Roman soldiers, 
 was divided (we are told) between the 
 churches of St. Francis of Philip Anagni, 
 St. John Lateran, and Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 Moscow claims to have a robe of Christ, and so 
 do several other places, as St. Prassada, Rome. St. 
 Eoch. &c. 
 
 Christ is always represented in the Gospels as a 
 very poor man. but the shirt of Treves is that of 
 a prince, and must have been of fabulous price. 
 The same inconsistency is remarkable in nume- 
 rous other sacred ' relics.' 
 
 Robe of the Disdain {The). A 
 robe given to the court-bard of Wales, at 
 Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. The 
 bard sat next to the prefect of the palace 
 and received from him his harp. When, 
 however, the bard sang to the troops be- 
 fore a battle, the king himself handed to 
 him his harp, and the queen a gold ring. 
 
 Robes of State. Peers have the 
 privilege of wearing in parliament robes 
 of scarlet cloth, differenced by bars of 
 ermine. Dukes have 4 bars on each 
 side ; Mabquises have 4 bars on the right 
 side and 3 on the left ; Eakls have 3 bars 
 on each side, but Viscounts and Babons 
 have on each side 2 rows of plain white 
 fur, not ermine. 
 
 Robert Emmett. See 'Sons of 
 Freedom.' 
 
 Robervallian Lines, 1646. Cer- 
 tain curves in geometry, invented by 
 Gilles Persone de Roberval, delimiting 
 
764 
 
 EOBESPIERRE'S 
 
 ROI 
 
 the boundaries of lines infinitely extended 
 in length, yet equal to other spaces which 
 are terminated on all sides. 
 
 Robespierre's Soldiers, 1794, 
 The French soldiers were so called by 
 foreign potentates, intimating that Robes- 
 pierre was virtually king of France. 
 The term occurs in a proclamation by the 
 Duke of York. 
 
 Robespierre's ^^eavers, 1793. 
 The rowdy women, consisting of fishwives 
 and other females of the lowest grade, 
 who joined Henriot's sans-culottes 
 called the Parisian Guard. This miscel- 
 laneous riff-raff lined all the avenues of 
 the chamber during the session of the 
 National Assembly, and never ceased 
 yelling ' Down with the Girondists ! ' 
 
 Robin Bluestring. Sir Robert 
 Walpole (1676-1745), so called because as 
 knight of the garter he wore a blue 
 ribbon. He was also called the ' Grand 
 Corruptor,' because bribery was practised 
 by him on all occasions. 
 
 Robin Hood's Day. 1 May, the 
 anniversary of the death of Robin Hood 
 (1247). 
 
 Robin of Redesdale, Robert 
 Hilyard, an insurgent in the reign of 
 Edward IV.; executed in 1469. He 
 seems to have been a political tool of the 
 Nevilles, who played him off against the 
 Woodvilles. 
 
 Robinsonians, Followers of John 
 Robinson of Leyden, a puritan divine 
 (1575-1625). He seceded from the Church 
 of England in 1604 ; escaped to Amster- 
 dam in 1608 ; removed to Leyden in 1609 ; 
 and conducted the service at the embark- 
 ation of the Filgrim Fathers, 21 July, 
 1620. 
 
 The Robinsonians were only semi-Separatists, 
 the Brownists were rigid Separatists. 
 
 Rob Roy. Robert king of free- 
 booters was Robert M'Gregor Campbell, 
 a Highland chief, born about 1657, and 
 died after 1733. 
 
 Rock of Lamentation (The). 
 Craigchonichen, in Kincardine, where the 
 Marquisof Montrose fought his last battle, 
 April 1650. 
 
 Rockites, in Ireland. Followers of 
 * Captain Rock,' a name assumed by the 
 leader of the Irish insurgents in 1822. 
 
 Letters so signed were sent to persons 
 opposed or obnoxious to the league, 
 threatening death, or personal injury, or 
 loss of property, unless the person ad- 
 dressed subscribed to the league, or did 
 something specified, or forbore to do 
 something. The threats held out were 
 not vain words, and a warning from 
 ' Captain Rock ' was a real terror. The 
 Rockites made themselves conspicuous in 
 the sanguinary tithe- war {q.v.) 1830-1832. 
 See p. 455, * Irish Associations.' 
 
 Rogation Days prescribed by the 
 first Council of Orleans in 511 are the 
 Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday pre- 
 ceding Ascension Day. The term means 
 the Days of Supplication, and on these 
 days the Catholic Church enjoins that the 
 Litanies be recited or sung in public pro- 
 cession. In the Anglican Church the days 
 are only faintly observed ; but ' Beating 
 the Bounds,' or the 'Perambulation of 
 Parishes ' was very general to the middle 
 of the 19th cent., and even still survives 
 in some parts of Great Britain. 
 
 ROi^ations {Day of the), 10 May, 
 1790 (French history). The day selected 
 by the Municipal Council to visit the con- 
 vents about to be suppressed. Extinct. 
 
 Rogations [Fete of the), a.d. 474. 
 Instituted by St. Mamert bishop of 
 Vienne, in Dauphine, to invoke God's 
 blessings on the fruits of the earth. It is 
 celebrated three days before the Ascen- 
 sion. 
 
 Roger Bold. Robert Harley first 
 Earl of Oxford of the name of Harley 
 (1661-1724). 
 
 The De Veres were created earls of Oxford in 
 the reign of Stephen, and the earldom became ex- 
 tinct in 1702 on the death of Aubrey de Vere, the 
 twentieth earl. 
 
 Rogue-money, Scotland. Imposed 
 by 11 Geo. 11. c. 28 (1737), and abolished 
 in 1868. It was an annual cess for de- 
 fraying the expenses of apprehending 
 offenders, maintaining them in gaol, and 
 prosecuting them. 
 
 Roi Panade. Louis XVIII. of 
 France (1755, 1814-1824). 
 
 A panade is a pipkin for babies' pap. 
 
 Roi de Paques. The boy or man 
 who draws by lot the bean in the Twelfth- 
 night cake. This person is ' king ' for the 
 nonce, according to the rules of the game. 
 
KOI 
 
 EOLLIAD 
 
 765 
 
 The word pdque in this case means the 
 Epiphany, the ' Pascua de Epifania.' 
 
 Roi de Th^^tre {Un). Joachim 
 Murat king of Naples, who used to parade 
 the streets of Naples in silks and satins, 
 like a stage-king (1771-1815). 
 
 Roi des Halles {Le). Francois de 
 Vendome due de Beaufort (1616-1669), 
 grandson of Henri IV. and Gabrielle 
 d'Estrees, idolised by the common people, 
 and one of the leaders of the Fronde 
 against the court party. 
 
 Roi des Versailles [Le). Nick- 
 name of M. Thiers the French historian 
 (1797-1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 
 
 Rois Chevelures (Les). The 
 long-haired kings. So the successors of 
 Clodion in Gaul were designated. Clodion 
 introduced from Germany the custom of 
 wearing long hair. 
 
 It will be remembered that Homer calls the 
 magnates of the confederate Greek armiy ' the 
 Lontjhaired Greeks.' St. Paul denounces long 
 hair for men (1 Cor. xi. 14). 
 
 Rois FaiiK^ants (Les), 638-742. 
 Clovis II. and his ten successors. These 
 worthless kings were all parents at 15, 
 and old men at 30, to which age only one 
 of them attained. Clotaire IV. died at 
 the age of 12 ; Clovis III. and Dagobert 
 III. at 15 ; Clotaire III. at 18 ; Chilpe'ric 
 
 II. at 20 ; Clovis II. at 23 ; Thierry IV. 
 at 25 ; Childebert 11. at 28 ; and Thierry 
 
 III. was the only one who outlived the 
 age of 30. 
 
 Louis v., the last of the Carlovingian kings, was 
 also surnamed ' Le Faineant.' 
 
 Roll of Arms (The). An heraldic 
 record of arms which goes back to the 
 reign of Henry III. The original vellum 
 roll is lost, but a copy made in 1586 by 
 Glover, Somerset herald, is preserved in 
 the English College of Arms. 
 
 Roll of Caerlaverock (The). An 
 heraldic poem in Norman French, reciting 
 the names and arms of the knights pre- 
 sent at the siege of Caerlaverock in 1300. 
 
 Roll of Court. The court-roll in a 
 manor, wherein the business of the court, 
 the admissions, surrenders, names, rents, 
 and services of the tenants, are copied 
 and enrolled. 
 
 Rolls {Master of the). * Magister 
 Eotulorum.' The chief of a body of officers 
 called ' Masters of Chancei-y.' He is 
 
 judge of the Equity court, and ranks 
 next to the Lord Chancellor. The Master 
 of the Rolls has the keeping of the rolls 
 and grants which pass the great seal, 
 and the records of Chancery. Since 
 1838 he has been charged with the direc- 
 tion of the Public Record Office. 
 
 Rolls Court {The). The Chancery 
 Court of the Master of the Rolls in 
 Chancery Lane. The house was origi- 
 nally called Domus Conversuruvi, being 
 appointed by Henry III. for the use of 
 converted Jews; but Edward II. con- 
 verted it into a place for the custody of 
 the rolls. In 1838 the Mastev of the 
 Rolls was placed in charge of the Public 
 Record Office, and under his superinten- 
 dence have been translated, printed, and 
 published a large number of MS. rolls ; 
 a magnificent historic work, which still 
 goes on with great judgment and activity. 
 
 Rolls of Court {The). In Scotch 
 law. The lists of causes depending on 
 the Court of Session. 
 
 Rolls of Parliament. The MS. 
 
 registers of the proceedings of our old 
 parliament. 
 
 Rolls of the Exchequer. Rolls 
 
 relating to the revenue of the country. 
 
 Rolls of the King's Court {The). 
 Reports of legal processes from the 
 6 Rich. I, to 1 John. A very valuable 
 document still extant giving great in- 
 formation on the status of the people, 
 wages paid, their wealth, their legal 
 rights, &c. 
 
 Rolls of the Temple, or ' Calves- 
 head rolls,' in which every bencher, 
 barrister, and student is taxed yearly in 
 consideration of a dinner of calves-head, 
 provided in Easter term. 
 
 Rolled Bacon. A consignment of 
 dynamite from America to London. So 
 called from being packed in barrels of 
 what was invoiced as ' Rolled Bacon.' 
 Sometimes these consignments were in- 
 voiced as ' American Apples ' (1884-1885). 
 
 Rolliad {The). A series of political 
 satires, the first of which appeared in a 
 London newspaper in 1784, and was a 
 humorous criticism on Colonel Rolle 
 (afterwards Lord Rolle), member for 
 Devonshire. The most important of the 
 series was a pretended review of an 
 imaginary epic poem. 
 
766 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Salford 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 Southwark 
 
 Roman Achilles (The). Lucius 
 Sicinius Dentatus. Assassinated B.C. 
 450. 
 
 Roman Catholic Hierarchy of 
 
 England and Wales since 1850, consti- 
 tuted by Pius IX. The ' Province of 
 Westminster ' consists of the archiepis- 
 copal See of Westminster and fourteen 
 Suffragan Sees of 
 Birmingham 
 Clifton 
 
 Hexham and Newcastle 
 Leeds 
 Liverpool 
 Middlesborough 
 Newport and Menevia 
 
 In 1890 there were 2,635 Catholic 
 priests in Great Britain under the hier- 
 archy, and 1,030 places having churches 
 or chapels, with resident clergy, inde- 
 pendent of those places which have 
 weekly services, but no resident priest. 
 
 The hierarchy of Scotland -was appointed in 
 1878 by Leo XIII., and comprises (1) the Province 
 of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, with four sufira- 
 gan sees (viz. Aberdeen, Argyll and the Isles, 
 Dunkeld, and Galloway) ; and (2) the archiepisco- 
 pal See of Glasgow without suffragan sees. 
 
 Roman Catholicism {Develop- 
 ment of). 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Prayers for the dead began 200 
 
 Paul, the first hermit 251 
 
 Sunday made by Constantine the Christian 
 
 Sabbath 321 
 
 First General Council, at Nice in mthynia .. 325 
 
 Celibacy of the clergy recommended ... 325 
 
 The Scriptures called the Bible by Jerome 340 
 
 Saints, Martyrs, and Angels t/uloration of) 360 
 
 Christmas Day a religious festival 375 
 
 Bells used in churches 390 
 
 The Nicene Creed introduced 891 
 
 (Except the word 'Dead,' and 'Commu- 
 nion of Saints.) 
 
 Mary called the Mother of God ... 431 
 
 Sprinkling of Ashes, in Lent (Felix III.) ... 487 
 
 Canon of Scripture completed ... 494 
 
 Priests began to wear a distinctive dress ... 500 
 
 Stone altars enjoined .. 506 
 
 Extreme Unction introduced by Felix IV. 525 
 Lenten Fast extended to forty days (Council 
 
 of Orleans) ... 547 
 
 Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary ... 593 
 
 Worship in an unknown tongue 600 
 
 (It was in Latin as far back as 547.) 
 The title of POPE first assumed by Boniface 
 
 III 606 
 
 Papal Supremacy assumed at the same 
 
 time ... ... 606 
 
 All-Saints' Day introduced 625 
 
 Holy Bread first distributed „. 655 
 
 Athanasian Creed introduced ^ C70 
 
 (Athanasius died 37H) 
 
 Crucifixes used as talismans 680 
 
 Holy Water introduced .. 682 
 
 Kissing the Pope's toe introduced 7o8 
 
 (Abolished in 1773) 
 
 Veneration of Images imposed 788 
 
 Tithes exacted ... ... ^ ISd 
 
 Kogation days established by Leo III. ^. 8Ul 
 
 AsstiMPTioN Festival intiodued 813 
 
 Cardinals created .« ^. tl7 
 
 The ' FiLiOQUE ' dogma introduced KS) 
 
 Baptism of bells introduced ... ... 965 
 
 Canonisation of Saints introduced by 
 
 John XVI. 993 
 
 All-Souls' Day appointed 998 
 
 Advent Sunday appointed. . ... 1000 
 
 Celibacy of Priests made obligatory 10(X) 
 
 Prayers for souls in purgatory introduced ... 1000 
 Indulgences first bestowed by Ponce, 
 
 bishop of Aries 1002 
 
 Interdicts introduced .. 1073 
 
 Infallibility of the Roman Church 
 
 taught 1076 
 
 Excommunication introduced by Gregory 
 
 VIL 1077 
 
 Sale OF Indulgences sanctioned .. 1087 
 Plenary Indulgence 'in this life and in 
 the life to come,' authorised by the Council 
 
 of Clermont .. ... .. 1095 
 
 OfBce of the Virgin Mary appointed by ditto 1095 
 
 Transubstantiation made a Church dogma 1215 
 
 Auricular Confession officially imposed ... 1215 
 
 Adoration of the Host enjoined 1218 
 
 The Inquisition established _ .. 1229 
 
 The Cup withheld from the Laity 1263 
 
 Tha Angelus announced by a bell 1316 
 
 The dogma of Purgatory officially recog- 
 nised 1439 
 
 Holy Oil in chrism first used 1540 
 
 Tradition declared authoritative ... .. 1540 
 Veneration of Relics enjoined by the 
 
 Council of Trent ,. ... 1563 
 
 Marriage made a sacrament 1563 
 
 Confirmation made a sacrament ... 1563 
 The Festival of the Seven Sorrows intro- 
 duced by Benedict XIII. 1725 
 
 The festival of the Sacred Heart introduced 1732 
 
 The Immaculate Conception proclaimed .. 1854 
 
 Papal Infallibility proclaimed 1870 
 *,* A glance down this list will give a better 
 history of the Catholic Church than many 
 volumes, whether from the Catholic or Protestant 
 standpoint. 
 
 Roman Catholics, or, as they call 
 themselves, ' Catholics.' Those Chris- 
 tians who acknowledge the supremacy of 
 the Church of Rome. They believe that 
 St. Peter was appointed by Christ head 
 of the Apostolic College, that this same 
 apostle founded the Roman diocese, and 
 that the present pope comes in direct 
 line by ordination from the first founder. 
 All Roman Catholics accept seven sacra- 
 ments iq.v.), believe in the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation, withhold the cup from 
 the laity as unnecessary, admit the in- 
 fallibility of the pope when he speaks ex 
 cathedra, believe in the doctrine of pur- 
 gatory, in the efficacy of masses and 
 prayers for the dead, in works of super- 
 erogation, the advocacy of saints, the 
 sanctity of relics, and, above all, the power 
 and exaltation of the Virgin Mary, whom 
 they call ' the Mother of God ' and ' Queen 
 of Heaven.' In the Eastern rite the cup 
 is given to the laity. 
 
 As the Roman Church seceded from the Eastern 
 Church they are in reality schismatics. They 
 rent the robe in two, the Protestants merely tore 
 the rent a little further. 
 
 Roman Era [The). This era began 
 24 April, B.C. 753. 
 
ROMAN 
 
 ROMANCE 
 
 767 
 
 Roman Hercules {The). The 
 Emperor Commodus (a.d. 161, 180-192). 
 So lae styled himself, and the club and 
 lion's hide were placed by the side of his 
 throne among the ensigns of sovereignty. 
 
 Roman Literature {The Four 
 Ages of). 
 
 1. The Golden Age, B.C. 217 to a.d. 
 14. It includes Plautus, Ennius, Terence, 
 Cato, Catullus, Cassar, Cicero, Nepos, 
 Sallust, Virgil, Tibullus, Propertius, 
 Horace, Phaedrus, Ovid, and Livy. 
 
 2. The Silver Age (a.d. 14-117), in- 
 cludes Celsus, Persius, Seneca, Lucan, 
 Pliny, Juvenal, Martial, Quintilian, 
 Statins, Tacitus, and Florus. 
 
 3. The Brazen Age (a.d. 117-476), 
 includes Justin, Eutroi^ius, Vegetius, 
 Ausonius, Macrobius, Symmachus, Victor, 
 Claudian, and Orosius. 
 
 4. The Iron Age, from 476, includes 
 Sulpicius, ApoUinaris, Boethius, Priscian, 
 Festus, Jomandes, and Cassiodorus. 
 
 Roman Liturgy {The). The oldest 
 forms of this liturgy are to be found in 
 the three Sacramentaries (viz. those of 
 Leo, Gelasius, and Gregory the Great). 
 That of Gregory the Great is most pro- 
 nounced in the modem Roman missal, 
 brought into its present shape by a com- 
 mission appointed by the Council of Trent 
 (16th cent.). Revised first by Pius V., 
 then by Urban VIII., and thirdly by 
 Clement VIII. 
 
 Said to have been the work of Peter the apostle, 
 but without a sliadow of proof. The Roman, the 
 Milan, the Galilean, and the Spanish liturgies are 
 the four chief ones of the Latin Church. 
 
 Roman Obedience. In ecclesias- 
 tical history means adherence to the 
 Roman pope in opposition to the Avignon 
 pope in the great Western Schism {q.v.). 
 Sometimes it implies adherence to Latin 
 Clii-istianity, instead of Greek, Anglican, 
 &c. 
 
 Roman Republic {The). The 
 name, after the transfer of the seat of 
 government {o Constantinople, was con- 
 fined to the Latin provinces. 
 
 Roman Tribes {The). The three 
 original tribes were: (1) The 'Ram- 
 ^ nenses,' so called (says Livy, i. 13) 'a 
 Roinulo ' ; (2) ' Tatienses,' from Tatius 
 king of the Sabines ; and (3) ' Luceres ' 
 (people of the grove), i.e. those received 
 into the grove whiLh Romulus turned 
 
 into a sanctuary. (Virgil, ' .^neid,' viii. 
 342.) 
 
 Ramnenses. Of course ' -enses ' is a mere ter- 
 mination, meaning ' a man or men of.' This leaves 
 ' Ram- ■ as the crude form. ' Rem-us ' is another 
 variant. ' Ram-,' ' Rem-,' ' Rom-,' ' Romanus,' with 
 •etisis, will explain the derivation of Livy. We 
 have 'Catanensis' for ' Caithness,' ' Elfin-ensis ' 
 for 'Elphin,' ' Imelacensis ' for 'Emley,' 'Mid- 
 en-is' for 'Midd,' i.e. 'Meath,' ' Osti-ensis ' for 
 'Ostia,' ' Palensis' for ' Palencia,' ' Sabi-ensis' for 
 'Siben,' 'Uticensis' for 'Utica,' and hundreds of 
 others. 
 
 Roman Type. The upright type 
 used in the printing of this book, first 
 used at Rome in 1467 by Sweynheim and . 
 Pannartz. The type previously used was 
 what is called ' black letter.' Sloping 
 letters are called ' italics ' {q.v.), and type 
 used in the heading of these articles is 
 termed * Clarendon type.' 
 
 Romans {Emperor of the), and 
 ' Emperor-Elect of the Romans,' See 
 under ' Emperor,' &c. 
 
 Romans {King of the), and ' King of 
 Rome.' See under ' King,' &c. 
 
 Romans {Last of the). 
 
 I. Cato, called ' Uticensis ' (b.c. 95-46). 
 
 II. Caius Cassius was so called by 
 Brutus. 
 
 The last of all the Romans fare thee well ! 
 It is impossible that ever Rome 
 Should breed thy fellow. 
 
 SHAJiESPEARE, JuUxis Cccsar, V. 3. 
 
 III. Rienzi, last of the Tribunes (1310- 
 1354). 
 
 IV. Horace Walpole, Ultimus Boinan- 
 orum (1717-1797). 
 
 V. Charles James Fox (1749-1806). 
 
 Romance Languages {The) 
 Languages based on the Latin. 
 
 1. Italian. 
 
 2. The Wallachian or Roumanian. 
 
 3. Spanish (mixed with Arabic). 
 
 4. Portuguese, a dialect of Spanish. 
 
 5. Provencal, south of France, called 
 the Langue d'oc. 
 
 6. French, i.e. the northern portion, 
 with Belgium and Switzerland. There 
 are also minor Romance tongues, as 
 Catalan, Valaque, Rhetian, Ladinique, &c. 
 
 ' Valaque ' is the Valacian dialect, ' Rhetian ' is 
 the language of the Grisons, and 'Ladinique,' 
 spoken in the Engadine, is the Romance. 
 
 Romance of the Rose {The). An 
 
 allegorical romance in verse begun by 
 Guillaume di Lorris in the latter pai-t of 
 the 13th cent., and continued by Jean 
 de Meung in the former half of the 14th 
 cent. The sequel alone is longer than 
 
EOMANOV 
 
 EOOI 
 
 Homer's ' Iliad.' The part by Guillaume 
 di Lorris contains 4,000 lines ; the sequel 
 by Meung contains 18,000. 
 
 The poet dreams that dame Idleness conducts 
 him to the palace of Pleasure, where he meets 
 Love, -whose at.endants are Sweetface, Courtesy, 
 Youth, Jollity, and Competence, who lead the poet 
 to a bed of roses. He singles out one, and was 
 about to pluck it, when an arrow from Love's bow 
 stretches him fainting on the ground, and ho is 
 carried off. When he comes to himself he resolves 
 to seek out the rose of his choice, and Welcome 
 promises to aid him ; but Shyness, Fear, and Slan- 
 der obstruct him, and Reason advises him to give 
 up the pursuit. Pity and Liberality now show him 
 the object of his desire, but Jealousy seizes the 
 guide Welcome, and locks her in Fear Castle. 
 Here the original poem ends. It is called the 
 French Iliad. 
 
 Jean de Meung, pronounce Jahnd Muhng. 
 
 Romanov {TJw Dynasty of). The 
 second Russian dynasty. The first five 
 of this line of czars were scarcely acknow- 
 ledged. Boris Godounov usurped the 
 throne in 1598, and till 1613 it was a con- 
 stant struggle with Poland and Sweden. 
 In 1613 Michael III. [Romanov] put an 
 end to these troubles, and from him 
 dates the third dynasty ; but it was still 
 Romanov, and continued to 1762. Peter 
 the Great (1613-1686) was the third suc- 
 cessor of Michael, and there were four 
 queens, Sophia, Catherine, Anne Ivanovna 
 (Joanna), and Elizabeth Petrovna. It was 
 succeeded by the dynasty of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. 
 
 Romantic School of France 
 {The), or Bomanticists, 1830-1840. Le- 
 mercier, Victor Hugo, and Alexandre 
 Dumas are the chief exponents of the 
 French Bomantic School, which sought 
 to free the stage from the Aristotelian 
 unities, and to introduce the English, 
 Spanish, and German freedom. Dela- 
 vigne attempted a compromise, and 
 founded the Classico-romantic school of 
 French tragedy. The Romantic School 
 was not confined to tragedy ; all poetry 
 discarded the classic affectations intro- 
 duced at the revolution even into names 
 and dress. 
 
 Romantic School of Germany 
 
 (The), 1800-1810. Its founders were 
 Schlegel, Novalis, and Ludwig Tieck. 
 The next three names of the same school 
 are Hoffman, De la Motte Fouque (author 
 of 'Undine'), and Chamisso (author of 
 *• Peter Schlemil, the shadowless man '). 
 
 Novalis is the pen-name of Friedrich von Har- 
 denberg of Saxony. 
 
 Rome of the African "World 
 
 {The). Carthago, a long time the rival 
 of Rome. 
 
 Though Carthage might yield to the royal pre- 
 rogatives of Constantinople, and perhaps to the 
 trade of Alexandria or tlie splendour of Antioch, 
 she still maintained the second rank in the west, 
 as the 'Rome' of the African world.— GIBBON, 
 chap, xxxiii. 
 
 Romeseot, a.d. 720. When Ina 
 king of Wessex abdicated he went to 
 Rome, where he founded a Saxon school, 
 to provide for which he imposed a penny 
 on every family. This tax was called 
 Romeseot, and sometimes Peter-pence, 
 because it was collected on the festival 
 of St. Peter ad Vincula (Sharon Turner, 
 'History of the Anglo-Saxons '). 
 
 It was also called Hearth -mom-y, being a tax on 
 each hearth or family. Offa in 790 settled the tax 
 on the pope. It was discontinued by Edward III., 
 A.D. I.S60, and prohibited by Act of Parliament, 
 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, AD. 1534. 
 
 Romorantin {The Edict of), 1560. 
 A law passed through the influence of 
 Michel de I'Hopital, chancellor of France, 
 to keep out the Inquisition, which the 
 Guises wanted to introduce. By this 
 edict the crime of heresy was entrusted 
 to the bishops, and parliament was for- 
 bidden to interfere in matters of faith. 
 
 Romulus {The Second). Marcus 
 Furius Camillus, four times Dictator of 
 Rome ; died in retirement B.C. 360. After 
 the Gauls had burnt Rome Camillus both 
 repelled the invaders and restored the 
 city. 
 
 Ronsard School {The). A school 
 of French poetry founded by Ronsard 
 (1524-1584) ; his sonnets were modelled 
 on those of Petrarch; his epic on the 
 * ^neid ' and his odes were in imitation 
 of Horace, Pindar, and Anacreon. Pe- 
 dantry was the characteristic of this 
 school. Ronsard was the Cowley of 
 France. 
 
 Rood of G-race {The). At Boxley 
 in Kent. An image of Christ on the 
 cross, which hung its lip when silver was 
 offered it, but shook its beard merrily 
 when the offering was of gold. At the 
 dissolution of the smaller monasteries in 
 England Thomas Cromwell (1538) had 
 the rood taken to Paul's Cross, and 
 Hilsey bishop of Rochester, before a 
 large crowd of the citizens of London, 
 exposed the wires, wheels, and springs 
 by which this was done, and the image 
 was broken to pieces. See ' Darvel 
 Gatheren,' ' Blood of Christ,' &c. 
 
 Root and Branch Party {The), 
 1640. The Independents in the reign of 
 
ROOT 
 
 ROSARY 
 
 Charles I., hostile alike to the ' root,' 
 that is Episcopacy, and to the ' branch,' 
 that is Presbyterianism. A compromise 
 was made by 16 Car. I. c. 27, a.d. 1642, 
 when the bishops were deprived of their 
 suffrages in the House of Lords ; but the 
 status quo was restored by 13 Car. II. c. 2, 
 
 A.D. 1661. 
 
 Root and Branch Petition 
 
 {The), 1641. A petition containing 15,000 
 signatures in favour of the abolition of 
 Episcopacy in England and the establish- 
 ment of Presbyterianism. 
 
 Rope Dancer {The). Yvo de Grant- 
 mesnil the Crusader, one of the leaders 
 of Robert duke of Normandy's party 
 against Henry I. of England. Yvo was 
 one of those who escaped from Antioch 
 when it was besieged. He was let down 
 by a rope over the wall, and was hence 
 called * The Rope Dancer.' 
 
 Rope Dancers (^/^e). The deserters 
 from Antioch in the first crusade, who 
 dropped in the night from the walls, and 
 fled. (Gibbon, chap. Iviii.) 
 
 Rory o' the Hill {Captain), 1880. 
 The signature adopted by the writer of 
 threatening letters to landlords, tenants 
 who paid their rent, those who took the 
 farms of evicted tenants, &c., under the 
 authority of the Irish Land League. See 
 p. 435, ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Like the Fenians, the Land Leaguers wanted 
 to sever Ireland from the British crown. Rory 
 =Roderick, a commou name in Ireland, as Rory 
 O'More. 
 
 Rosamond. Daughter of "Walter 
 Clifford, a Hertfordshire baron, mistress 
 of Henry II. of England, was the mother 
 of William Longsword, who married the 
 daughter of the Earl of Salisbury, and of 
 Geoffrey archbishop of York. She re- 
 tired to the convent of Godestow, near 
 Oxford, where she died. The tale of the 
 labyrinth and the poisoned bowl forced 
 upon her by Queen Eleanor is not men- 
 tioned by any contemporary, and pro- 
 bably is a mere invention of romance. 
 
 Rosary {A). Either a sacred office 
 in honour of the Virgin Mary or a string 
 of beads, 15 of which are large ones. 
 The 15 large beads tell off the Pater 
 Nosters ; the 150 smaller beads tell off 
 the Ave Marias. Instituted by St. 
 Dominic (1170-1221). 
 33 
 
 Rosary. The office so called con- 
 sists of three parts, each of which con- 
 tains five mysteries. The entire rosary 
 consists, therefore, of fifteen mysteries. 
 The rosary begins by making the sign of 
 the cross thrice : (1) to ward off the devil; 
 (2) to implore the help of the Holy 
 Trinity; and (3) to bring to mind that 
 the cross is man's salvation. 
 
 After crossing comes the 'Apostles' 
 Creed,' or Symbol, then the Lord's Prayer, 
 and then ' Hail Mary ' is repeated thrice : 
 once in honour of God, the Virgin's 
 ' Father-in-law ' ; once in honour of the 
 Virgin's son ; and once in honour of the 
 Holy Ghost, the Virgin's spouse. 
 
 These being done, the rosary proper 
 commences. The rosary proper consists 
 of fifteen decades or dizains, divided into 
 threes, five recounting the ' Five Joyous 
 Mysteries' {q.v.), five recounting the 
 * Five Dolorous Mysteries ' {q.v.), and five 
 recounting the ' Five Glorious Mysteries ' 
 {q.v.). In each mystery ' Hail Mary ' is 
 repeated 50 times, i.e. 150 times in the 
 three mysteries. 
 
 As each mystery begins with a Pater 
 Noster, and as there are fifteen mysteries, 
 it follows that the Lord's Prayer is re- 
 peated fifteen times and ' Ave Maria ' is 
 repeated 150 times. 
 
 There is supposed to be a meditation after the 
 repetition of each mystery, a private prayer, and 
 a doxology. 
 
 *,* There is something revolting in the idea 
 that God is the ' father-in-law ' of a peasant girl, 
 that this villager is ' mother of God,' and also the 
 ' wife ' of God. It may be logical, but it certainly 
 anthropomorphoses Deity most shockingly. 
 
 Rosary {The Festival of the), 1573. 
 Instituted by Gregory XIII. to com- 
 memorate the victory of Lepanto, when 
 in 1571 Don John of Austria defeated the 
 Turks. 
 
 Rosary {The Greater) includes all 
 the three parts or fifteen mysteries with 
 their component prayers. See ' Rosary, 
 the Office.' 
 
 Rosary {The Lesser). Takes in one 
 of the three decades or mysteries. See 
 ' Rosary, the Office.' 
 
 That is, five mysteries [the joyous mysteries, the 
 dolorous mysteries, and the glorious mysteries. 
 (SVt- under the word ' Five,' p. oi'J]. 
 
 Rosary {The Living). A recital by 
 fifteen persons of the entire rosary, each 
 person saying daily one of the fifteen 
 mysteries. 
 
 3D 
 
770 
 
 ROSCIUS 
 
 EOSICRUCIANS 
 
 Roscius {The British). I. Richard 
 Burbage (15G6-1G19). 
 
 Richard Burbage is famous as our ' English 
 Boscius.' 
 
 II. Thomas Betterton (1635-1710). 
 
 III. David Garrick (1716-1779). 
 
 Roseius {The Irish). Spranger 
 Barry, the ' Silver-tongued ' (1719-1777). 
 
 Roscius {The Modern). William 
 Henry West Betty, who appeared at 
 Covent Garden Theatre 1 Dec., 1804, at 
 the age of 13, in the character of Achmet 
 in the play entitled ' Barbarossa.' He 
 received 50 guineas a night for the first 
 three nights, and 100 guineas a night 
 for the next twenty-five nights. In fifty 
 nights with benefits he realised 34,000Z., 
 and retired from the stage. He died in 
 1874, at the age of 84. 
 
 He is called sometimes the ' Infant Roscius,' and 
 sometimes the 'Youthful Roscius.' The great 
 Roman comic actor was Quintus Roscius, who 
 died B.C. C2, having realised an immense fortune. 
 His contemporary jEsopus was a tragic actor 
 equally celebrated. 
 
 Roscius of France {The). Michel 
 Baron (1653-1729). Roscius was a come- 
 dian of Rome, but the word in modern 
 times is generally applied to tragic 
 actors. Shakespeare says: 'What scene of 
 death hath Roscius now to act ! ' Baron, 
 however, was both a comedian and a 
 tragedian. 
 
 Rose. The plucking of white and red 
 roses by the Yorkists and Lancastrians, 
 which (according to Shakespeare) gave 
 the name to the great civil contest in the 
 reign of Henry VI., was paralleled in the 
 French Revolution, when CamiUe Des- 
 moulins, after addressing the mob, tore a 
 green leaf off a tree and placed it in his 
 hat. ' Others ' (says Carlyle, ' French 
 Revolution,' vol. i. p. 160) ' followed his 
 example, until the trees wexe stripped, 
 and the " wearing of the green " became 
 general.' 
 
 Rose of Derrinsalla {The), in 
 Tipperary. She came into the Cleburne 
 family by the marriage of Ellen Palmer 
 to Edward Cleburne (grandson of Richard 
 Cleburne, of Ballycullatan Castle, Tippe- 
 rary). 
 
 Rose of Raby {The). The mo- 
 ther of Richard III. She was Cicely, 
 daughter of Ralph de Neville of Raby, 
 earl of Westiuoreland, 
 
 Rose of Sharon {The), Cant. ii. 1. 
 Solomon says : ' I am the Rose of Sharon.' 
 Jesus Christ is also called the Rose of 
 Sharon, i.e. the wild rose. 
 
 Rose of York {The). The Princess 
 
 Elizabeth, eldest child of Edward IV. 
 She married Henry VIL, and thus united 
 the Rose of York to the Rose of Lan- 
 caster. 
 
 Rose's Act, 1812, on clerical fees, 
 &c. It directs ' that all customary fees 
 for making entries in the register and 
 giving copies shall remain in force.' In 
 1836 a uniform scale of fees for searches 
 and certificates was fixed by act of parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Roses {Wars of the), between the 
 Houses of York {q.v.) and Lancaster 
 {q.v.). Began with the battle of St. 
 Albans, 23 May, 1455, and terminated 
 with the battle of Bosworth Field, 22 Aug., 
 1485. The chief battles were those of 
 Northampton, Wakefield, Towton, Hex- 
 ham, Barnet, and Tewkesbury. A red 
 rose was the badge of Edmund earl of 
 Lancaster, brother to King Edward I. ; 
 and a white rose was the badge of the 
 Black Prince. Tradition says that 
 Somerset, in the Temple Gardens, 
 plucked a red rose, saying, ' Let all the 
 friends of Lancaster follow my example ; ' 
 and Warwick, the friend of York, plucked 
 a white rose, saying, ' Let all the friends 
 of York wear a white rose for their badge.' 
 The two tales are quite consistent, and it 
 seems that ribbons and rosettes of red 
 and white were worn by the partisans of 
 Lancaster and York. 
 
 Rosicrucians. A secret society of 
 the 17th cent., involved in much mystery. 
 Mosheim and others derive the word 
 from ros (dew) and crux { + symbol of 
 Lvx, light). ' Lux,' we are told, is that 
 which produces gold, and ' ros ' is its 
 greatest solvent. 
 
 In 1614 appeared a book entitled the 
 ' Brotherhood of the illustrious Order of 
 the R. C {Rosy Cross), which is the 
 story of Brother Christian Rosenkreux, 
 a German who is represented as living 
 in the 14th cent., and who was the 
 founder of the society. 
 
 F. R. C. stand for Fratres Boris Coacti, 
 the philosopher's stone being supposed 
 to be congealed dew. 
 
 That there was a secret society called 
 
ROSIN 
 
 ROUND 
 
 771 
 
 Rosicriicians in the 17th cent, may be 
 admitted, but the tale about Brother 
 Rosenkreux is mere romance. 
 
 Amongst other f oohsh things attributed 
 to the Rosicrucians is a behef in the pos- 
 BibiHty of perjiettial motion, and also of 
 a perpetually burning lamp. 
 
 Rosin Bible {The), printed 1609. 
 
 So called because the word rosin is sub- 
 stituted for ' balm ' in Jer. viii. 22. Thus : 
 * Is there no rosin in Gilead ? ' See 
 'Bible.' 
 
 Roskild {TreaUj of), 28 Feb., 1658, 
 between Sweden and Denmark. Charles 
 X. of Sweden had invaded Poland in 
 1655, and subjugated that country, when 
 Frederick III. of Denmark unwisely 
 espoused the Polish cause. On this in- 
 terference Charles at once invaded Hol- 
 stein, overran it, and proceeded to 
 Zealand, which no doubt would have 
 fallen into his power if Frederick had not 
 sued for peace. By the treaty signed at 
 Roskild, the Danish provinces beyond 
 the Sound, Scania, Halland, and Bleking, 
 were ceded to Sweden, together with the 
 district of Trontheim, the northern part 
 of Norway, and the island of Bornholm. 
 The district of Trontheim and island of Born- 
 holm were restored to the Danes 10 June, IGGO, by 
 the Treaty of Copenhagen. 
 
 Trontheim, pronounce Tron-yein. 
 
 Rosse's Telescope, 1844. A tele- 
 scope of 6 ft. aperture and 54 ft. focal 
 length, erected by Lord Rosse in his 
 grounds at Parsonstown, King's County, 
 Ireland. The speculum weighs 4 tons. 
 This telescope cost Lord Rosse as much 
 as 20,000Z. 
 
 Rossi (I) and 'I Neri.' See under 
 ' Reds and Blacks.' 
 
 Rotten Borough System [The). 
 
 The old ' free-men system ' which held in 
 elections for members of parliament be- 
 fore it was abolished by the Reform Bill. 
 These boroughs were rotten or corrupt 
 because the electors were venal. 
 
 Rotten Boroughs. Places which 
 returned members to the House of Com- 
 mons, the only electors being tenants or 
 subservients of the lord of the soil, who 
 virtually nominated the member, while 
 the electors merely gave effect to his 
 nomination. 
 
 Rotulus Wintonise. The Win- 
 chester Roll. So. Doomsday Book was 
 
 called ; because it was anciently preserved 
 under tlu'ee locks and keys, in the royal 
 treasury of that city. 
 
 Rouge-croix. One of the four pur- 
 suivants of England. So called from 
 the red cross of St. George. See p. 415, 
 ' Heralds.' 
 
 Rouge-dragon. One of the four 
 pursuivancies of England founded by 
 Henry VII. on the day before his 
 coronation. It was the ensign of Cadwa- 
 ladyr, the last king of the Britons, from 
 whom Henry was crookedly descended. 
 Sometimes Henry VII. used a red dragon 
 as a supporter. See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 
 
 Round Table {The). I. a.d. 540. 
 King Arthur is said to have founded this 
 order of knighthood at Winchester. So 
 called because Arthur and his knights 
 sat on state occasions at a round table, in 
 order that no dispute about rank might 
 arise. 
 
 II. A.D. 1884. The modern departure 
 of this phrase hails from America, and is 
 in no wise connected with the famous 
 table round of King Arthur. The Chau- 
 tauqua Reading Circle, near Lake Erie 
 (instituted 1871), has given birth to a large 
 number of similar societies in America 
 and Canada. Members meet together 
 occasionally at each other's houses to talk 
 over given subjects, and these gatherings 
 are called ' Round Tables,' or * Round 
 Table Conferences.' 
 
 I was present at one of Dr. Vincent's ' Bound 
 Table Conferences, ' which was attended by several 
 hundred members, . . . questions were asked and 
 opinions invited respecting the choice of boolcs, 
 and the best mode of reading itiQva..— Nineteenth 
 Century, Oct. 1888, p. 490. 
 
 Round Table Conference {Har- 
 court's), Dec. 1886 to March, 1887. Held 
 at the house of Sir Wm. Harcourt, where 
 the members assembled. See above. 
 The object was to unite, if possible, the 
 Liberal party, which had been broken 
 up by Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy. Mr. 
 Chamberlain, who had been one of Mr. 
 Gladstone's ministers, had left the party, 
 and was invited by Sir Wm. Harcourt to 
 join the Conference. In March a quarrel 
 between Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Cham- 
 berlain broke up the Conference. The 
 members were three Liberals (Lord 
 Herschel, Sir William Harcourt, and 
 John Morley), and two Unionists (Sir 
 George Trevelyan and Joseph Chamber- 
 lain). 
 
 The platform was to give Ireland an Irish 
 3 D 2 
 
772 
 
 ROUND 
 
 ROUSSEAUISM 
 
 executive, dependent on Irish legislation, with 
 regular departments, Including a Home Rule 
 office. Irish members were to be admitted to 
 Westminster to vote on Irish questions. The 
 great stumbling-block was Ulster, the most 
 wealthy and loyal part of Ireland, which strongly 
 objected to ' Home Rule ' (q.v.). 
 
 The whole history of Ireland shows that the 
 Irish would invite over Spanish or French 
 armies to strengthen their own if they were free 
 to act for themselves, thus rendering the island 
 a perpetual menace to Great Britain. On the 
 other hand, Ireland would lose infinitely by sepa- 
 ration ; for, if cut off (ro.n England, of course no 
 Iris-hmen could hold office in Great Britain, 
 and Ireland itself would be a poor field for Irish 
 genius and enterprise. Mr. Gladstone's notion of 
 the Irish managing ' their own affairs ' is silly, 
 unless he will show that their ' own affairs ' do 
 not mean their government, which indubitably 
 the Irish intend by the phrase. There can be no 
 objection to extending County Councils to Ire- 
 land, bat an Irish parliament is quite another 
 matter. 
 
 Round World (The). The ro- 
 tundity of the world was not believed in 
 by the early Christians, and was thought 
 to be antagonistic to Mosaic teaching. 
 In A.D. 200 Tertullian held that the 
 'Books of Moses [were] not only all 
 truth, but that all truth was contained 
 in them,' and as the globular form of 
 the earth is not part of that revelation, 
 the tenet is heretical. Lactantius about 
 a century later, referring to the globosity 
 of the earth and its revolution, says : 
 * Is it possible that men can be so absurd 
 as to believe that the crops and trees on 
 the other side of the earth hang down- 
 wards ? ' And St. Augusiine, about A.D. 
 400, says : ' Is it possible there should 
 be inhabitants on the other side of the 
 earth, since there is no such race men- 
 tioned in Scripture among the descend- 
 ants of Adam ? ' And then he adds : 
 'In the day of judgment men on the 
 other side of the earth could not see the 
 Lord descending through the air.' (!) 
 
 Cosmas, in the 6th cent., published his ' Chris- 
 tian Topography,' the object of which was to 
 denounce the heathen doctrine of the rotundity 
 of the earth, and to show that the tabernacle in 
 the wilderness is the pattern or model of the 
 universe. ' The earth,' he says, ' is a rectangular 
 plane, 400 days' journey east and west, and half 
 that distance north and south. It is surrounded 
 by mountains, on which the sky rests. The 
 heavens come down to the earth on all four 
 sides, like the wall of a room. All below the 
 firmament is the world, the story above is 
 heaven, and below the earth is hell. Beyond 
 ocean, bordering on the edge, is Paradise. Here, 
 too, on a barren and thorny soil, outside the 
 walls of Paradise, dwelt man from the Fall to the 
 Deluge. The ark floated the survivors across the 
 great ocean belt to the lands which we inhabit. 
 This plain lies a little tilted to the south, so 
 that the rivers (like the Tigris and the Euphrates) 
 running south run rapidly, while those running 
 north (like the Nile) run more slowly, because 
 they have to run uphill.' (!) This notion pre- 
 vpiled for above 1,000 years in the Christian 
 Chuich. 
 
 *«• Even so late as 25 Feb., 1616, the Holy OfBce, 
 presided over by the pope, declared it to be ab- 
 surd and contrary co Holy Writ to teach that the 
 sun does not move from its place, that the earth 
 is not the centre of the universe, that it moves 
 round the sun, and has also a diurnal motion. 
 These heretical notions were laid to the charge 
 of Galileo, and he was threatened with imprison- 
 ment unless he abjured them. The judgment is 
 signed by seven cardinals. 
 
 Roundabout Raid {TJie), 1565. 
 A military insurrection headed by Mur- 
 ray, the duke of Chatelherault, Argyle, 
 Glencairn, and Rothes, at the marriage of 
 Mary queen of Scots with Henry Darn- 
 ley. Mary, arrayed in light armour, and 
 wearing pistols in her saddle-bow, rode 
 at the head of her troops, and the in- 
 surgents retreated from place to place 
 to dodge the royal troops, without coming 
 to a combat. Murray applied to Queen 
 Elizabeth for aid, but Elizabeth dis- 
 missed the envoys, calling them traitors, 
 and the insurgents dispersed, making the 
 best terms they could, each for himself. 
 
 Morton and his associates [after the murder of 
 Rizzio] went to occupy those quarters in North- 
 umberland which had been lately tenanted by 
 the lords concerned in the Roundabout Raid. — 
 Sir W. Scott. Hist, of Scotland, xxviii. 
 
 Roundheads (The), 1641. The 
 Independents or Puritans in the reign of 
 Charles I. The royalists were nicknamed 
 ' The Cavaliers.' The former wore their 
 hair short, and dressed with great sim- 
 plicity ; the latter wore their hair flowing 
 over their shoulders, and dressed showily 
 and expensively. The two came into 
 collision about the expulsion of the 
 bishops from the House of Lords. The 
 Roundheads insisted on their expul- 
 sion, and the severance of the clergy 
 from all secular and state offices. It 
 was in this brawl that the two parties 
 gave each other the nicknames of Round- 
 heads and Cavaliers. 
 
 Clarendon says, when Williams archbishop of 
 York was hustled by the mob, one David Hide, 
 an officer who had been with the army in the 
 North, drew his sword and swore that he would 
 'cut the throats of those Roundhead dogs,' and 
 by this expression gave the first utterance to the 
 name Roundheads. 
 
 Rousseauism. The political theory 
 of Jean- Jacques Rousseau as set forth in 
 the ' Contrat Social ' and his ' Discours sur 
 I'origine de I'inegalite' parmi les hommes.' 
 In the state of nature man was strong, 
 healthy, contented, and good; all the 
 evils which have befallen him (such as 
 feebleness, sickness, poverty, and in- 
 equality of social life) result from civili- 
 sation ; and the first step to this Avernus 
 
ROUT 
 
 ROWLEY'S 
 
 773 
 
 is 'the right of property.' His axioms 
 are: — 
 
 I. All men are born free, politically 
 equal, and good, and in a ' state of nature ' 
 remain so. Consequently, it is their 
 natural right to be free, equal, and good. 
 
 II. If all are equal, none have any 
 right to disturb that equality by appro- 
 priating property or usurping authoi'ity. 
 The former is robbery, the latter tyranny. 
 
 III. If so, the spoliation of wealth is 
 simply restitution, and the disregard of 
 all authority not delegated by social con- 
 tract is simply a vindication of natural 
 rights. 
 
 The reply is :— I. No child Is born free, but from 
 the moment of birth is under control and re- 
 straint. 
 
 II. Children are not born equal, but some tire 
 stronger and more intelligent than others, so 
 that in the nursery some lead and others follow. 
 
 III. They are not born ' good,' in any sense of 
 the word. 
 
 IV. In regard to authority, on board ship who 
 •would take the votes of the sailors and crew 
 in regard to the steerage or trimming of the 
 vessel '? Applied to politics, this practical rule 
 goes far to upset the popular theory of universal 
 Bufirago. 
 
 V. Historically, no people ever did exist in 
 Rousseau's hypothetical 'state of nature'; such 
 a state of existence is morally impossible. 
 
 VI. All nature, from the stars of heaven to the 
 ■worm and rush, shows the greatest Inequality ; 
 and as for independence, thtre is no such thing 
 in heaven above, the earth beneath, or the waters 
 under the earth. 
 
 *,* ' Born politically equal ' is unmitigated non- 
 sense. Political means that which pertains to 
 civil government, and government of necessity 
 implies rulers and subjects. Some to command, 
 and others to obey. 
 
 Rout of Moray {The), 1746. Lord 
 Loudoun, hearing that Charles Edward 
 (the son of the Pretender) was living in 
 easy security at Moray, sent out a noc- 
 turnal party to surprise him and carry 
 him off captive ; but the ' surprise party ' 
 were met in a wood by the Macintoshes, 
 who caused them to retreat. This flight 
 of Lord Loudoun's surprise party is called 
 ' The Rout of Moray.' 
 
 Rout of Rosbacli (The), 5 Nov., 
 1757. A household phrase for a dis- 
 graceful rout. Its reference is to the 
 battle of Rosbach, won by Frederick II. 
 over the allied Austrian and French 
 army. The Prussian loss was 300, that 
 of the allies was 1,300 slain and 6,000 
 prisoners. 
 
 Routes, Chemins. Routes are 
 high-roads, chemins are common roads. 
 There are two sorts of Routes : (1) 
 Routes Nationales, the great high-roads 
 which lead to Paris, or which join two 
 
 principal towns, as Lyons and Bordeaux ; 
 (2) Routes Departementales, which con- 
 nect the principal towns of a department 
 one with another. 
 
 There are three sorts of Chemins : (1) 
 Chemins de granule communication, the 
 network of the routes departmentales. 
 Originally the routes were kept up by 
 government and the chemins by rates ; 
 (2) Chemins dHnteret commun, country 
 roads connecting villages ; (3) Chemins 
 vicinaux ordinaires, bye-roads. 
 
 Route =roo^ Chemins, pronounce Shmair]n. 
 
 Routiers. Bands of French ad- 
 venturers confederated in 1147, soon 
 after the departure of Louis VII. on his 
 crusade. They were so called from the 
 old French word route. These adven- 
 turers were put down in 1183 by the 
 Pacifici near Dun-le-Roi. Those who 
 survived enlisted in the militia called 
 the ' Ribalds ' {q.v.). 
 
 The Pacifici were the ' Confrerie du charpentier 
 Durand du Puy.' 
 
 Rowdy Parliament (The), 1887. 
 
 Lord Salisbury was prime minister and 
 Mr. W. H. Smith leader of the House 
 of Commons. Eighty-one of the Irish 
 members, led by Mr. Parnell, resolved 
 to obstruct the business of the house 
 by long speeches, endless amendments, 
 and disorderly conduct. ' The most con- 
 spicuous in insolence and vulgarity were 
 Dr. Tanner and two members named 
 Healy. A Mr. Dillon, a Mr. Conybeare 
 member for Camborne, and a Mr. Labou- 
 chere senior member for Northampton, 
 were also especially conspicuous. Cer- 
 tainly the conduct of the house was never 
 so disgraceful. See * Parliaments.' 
 
 In 1890, in six months, six members of the 
 House made above 750 speeches, or an average of 
 1-25 each. Chief of the six were Sir William Har- 
 court, Mr. Labouchere, and Sir George Campbell. 
 Now in six months, supposing parliament sits 
 five hours a day (with only four days' holiday), 
 this would give them 700 hours for busiiness. 
 Some of the obstructive speeches lasted over an 
 hour. So 750 speeches by six Opposition members 
 in 700 hours certainly look very much like ob- 
 struction of public business. 
 
 Rowley. Applied to Charles II. 
 Rowley was the name of a goat which 
 used to run about the Priory garden. 
 The animal was lecherous, good- 
 humoured, and familiar, certainly typical 
 of the good-humoured royal libertine. 
 
 It is said that a famous stone-horse of that time 
 was called ' Old Rowley.' 
 
 Row^ley's Poems. A volume of 
 poems said by Chatterton to have been 
 
774 
 
 ROXALANA 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 found by him in the muniment room of 
 the church of St. Mary RedcHffe, Bristol, 
 ■written on yellow parchment in very 
 antiquated style. Horace Walpole be- 
 lieved them to be genuine, but they 
 were the productions of Chatterton him- 
 self, a lad only 16 years of age. Besides 
 the poems of Rowley were those of 
 his friend Canynge (15th cent.). See 
 p. 525, ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Roxalana. So Elizabeth Daven- 
 port (decoyed by Lord Oxford into a 
 mock marriage) was called from ' Roxa- 
 lana,' in the ' Siege of Rhodes,' her 
 great part. 
 
 Roxburghe Club {The), 1812. A 
 literary club founded in London to 
 print, for members only, works hitherto 
 unedited or extremely rare. The idea 
 was started by the sale of the Duke of 
 Roxburghe's library in 1812, which con- 
 tained several rare books, as an edition 
 of Boccaccio, bought by the Marquis of 
 Blandford for 260^., afterwards purchased 
 by Lord Spencer for 918^. 15s. 
 
 Other similar clubs are the Camden Society, the 
 Percy, the Shakespeare, the Cheetham, the Whar- 
 ton, the Surtees (in England) ; and the Bannatyne, 
 the Maitland, the Abbotsford, and the Spalding 
 Club (in Scotland). 
 
 Koxburghe, pronounce Rox-burrah. 
 
 Royal Ac&demy of Arts {The), 
 1768. To promote the cultivation of 
 painting, drawing, engraving, sculpture, 
 modelling, and other fine arts. There 
 are forty academicians and twenty asso- 
 ciates, and six associate engravers. The 
 first attach to their names the letters 
 R.A. (Royal Academician) ; the second 
 attach to their names the letters A.R.A. 
 (Associate of the Royal Academy). They 
 first exhibited (1761) in Somerset House. 
 In 1836 they occupied part of the Na- 
 tional Gallery in Trafalgar Square ; but 
 in 1869 they moved to Burlington House. 
 
 That members of the Academy should be al- 
 lowed to hang on the line eight pictures each is 
 preposterous, and hundreds of excellent pictures 
 are discarded every year for want of room. Two 
 pictures should be the first limit to members, 
 then the best of the pictures of the general pub- 
 lic. If room still remained, begin again with the 
 members, and go on to non-members, one each. 
 The exhibition is now a mere clique, and very 
 often most disappointing. We want to see national 
 progress, not what forty men can do (1890). 
 
 Royal Arms of Great Britain. Our 
 earliest kings bore for a lion an heraldic 
 figure purely hypothetical — a mixture 
 between a lion and a leopard. Scott, in 
 his 'Talisman,' makes the Duke of 
 
 Austria refer to the change of this funny 
 animal into a lion, 
 
 Edward III. quartered the arms of 
 France with those of England. 
 
 Mary united those of Spain, after her 
 marriage with Philip II. 
 
 James I. added the arms of Scotland 
 and Ireland ; the first and fourth 
 quarters representing France and Eng- 
 land, the second Scotland (represented 
 by the lion rampant), and the third 
 Ireland (represented by a harp). 
 
 Anne had England and Scotland im- 
 paled in the first and fourth quarters, 
 France in the second, and Ireland in 
 the third. 
 
 George IH. renounced the absurd 
 titular assumption of ' King of France.' 
 
 Victoria omitted the arms of Hanover 
 from the escutcheon, because by the 
 Salic law a female could not be monarch 
 of Hanover, and no sovereign of Great 
 Britain ought to covet such a white ele- 
 phant. 
 
 Royal Arms in Churclies {The), 
 1547. Shortly after the date of Henry 
 VIII. General in the reign of Elizabeth 
 (1558-1603). 
 
 • Whereas it is generally enjoined by the Great 
 Counsell of England that in all churches thorow- 
 out the kingdoms of England his Maiesties Armes 
 shalbe sett up.' — Parisli Register of War ring ton, 30 
 July, 1660. 
 
 *^* Surely this mixture of ' His Maiesties armea 
 and the Tenne Commandments ' is only an un. 
 seemly recognition of that divinity which doth 
 hedge a king,' and ought to be utterly and en- 
 tirely discontinued. 
 
 Royal Assent {The) in parlia- 
 mentary matters. 
 
 I. To a public bill the words are * Le 
 roy (or la reyne) le veult.' 
 
 II. To a private bill the words used 
 are ' Soit fait comme il est de'sire'.' 
 
 III. To a bill of supply the words used 
 are ' Le roy remercie ses bons sujets, 
 accepte leur be'ne'volence, et ainsi le 
 veult.' See ' Royal Refusal.' 
 
 This was all very well with such kings as George 
 I. and II., who could not speak English, and be- 
 fore them, when the Court thought it more courtly 
 to talk French ; but it is now full time to speak 
 English, and to discontinue this ridiculous and 
 superannuated pedantry. Must aristocratic Eng- 
 land go to republican France for royal speech ? 
 It is full time for English monarchs to speak Eng- 
 lish to their British subjects (1890). 
 
 Royal Assurance {The). In 
 Swedish history. An act passed in 1720, 
 which limited the power of tlie king. He 
 could in future make no laws without 
 the consent of the states, nor could he 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 775 
 
 proclaim either peace or war. The coun- 
 sellors of the king were in future to be 
 called the Senate, and the number limited 
 to sixteen. The king was to have two 
 votes and the casting vote in the senate. 
 
 Royal Butcher {The). Henry VIII. 
 (1491, 1509-1547). 
 
 Royal Chamber (The). A substi- 
 tute for the Paris parliament which 
 Louis XV. dissolved, and gave to the 
 new chamber full jurisdiction in all civil 
 and criminal matters. The barristers 
 and councillors refused to plead before 
 the Royal Chamber, and the king was 
 obliged to give way. 
 
 Royal Collection of MSS. (The), 
 1757, in the Britsh Museum, presented 
 by George II. These MSS. date from 
 the reign of Richard III. to Charles II. 
 One of the most remarkable is the 
 Codex Alexandrlnus, a present from 
 Cyril patriarch of . Constantinople to 
 Charles I, It is in four quarto volumes, 
 written on fine vellum in uncial cha- 
 racters, is ascribed to some period 
 between the 4th and 6th cents., and is 
 supposed to be the oldest Greek Text 
 extant. This collection contains many 
 illuminated MSS., the Basilicon Doron 
 of James I. in his own handwriting, 
 several volumes executed for Edward 
 IV., a volume of French romances pre- 
 sented by Talbot earl of Shrewsbury to 
 Queen Margaret, and many other richly 
 illuminated books. 
 
 ' Royal George ' {Loss of the), 1782. 
 The ' Royal George ' was an old ship of 
 100 guns, fitted out at Portsmouth for 
 the relief of the garrison at Gibraltar. 
 Before starting a gang of carpenters 
 were sent to careen the vessel, and 
 heeled her over too far, so that the sea 
 ran into the portholes, and the ship 
 went down suddenly. Admiral Kempen- 
 felfc (aged 70) and 900 or 1,000 others 
 were drowned, and not above 300 were 
 saved. 
 
 Royal Literary Fund {The), 
 
 1790, incorporated 1818 in Great Russell 
 Street, Bloomsbury, London. For the 
 relief of authors and literary men who 
 have published works of merit, but who, 
 from age or infirmity, are reduced to 
 poverty. 
 
 Royal Marriage Act {The), 1772. 
 It prohibits any descendant of George 
 
 U. from marrying tiU the age of twenty- 
 five without the king's consent. After 
 the age of twenty-five the person must 
 apply to the privy council ; and if within 
 a year of such application both houses of 
 parliament assented the marriage might 
 be solemnized. 
 
 The bill was introduced because the Duke of 
 Cumberland had recently married Mrs. Horton 
 at Caldis, and the Duke of Gloucester had 
 married the Countess-Dowager Waldegrave. 
 
 Royal Medals of the Royal Society 
 of London, 1825. Instituted by George 
 rV. for scientific discoveries. 
 
 Royal Oak {The). The oak at 
 Boscobel in which Charles II. hid him- 
 self in his flight after the battle of Wor- 
 cester, 1(551. From this circumstance 
 oak leaves were worn on the birthday of 
 Charles II. (May 29), especially when he 
 returned to his kingdom, which he did 
 on his birthday 1660. 
 
 Royal Refusal {The). In parlia- 
 mentary matters. The words of dissent 
 are ' Le roy {or La reyne) s'avisera.' See 
 p. 774, ' Royal Assent.' 
 
 The last instance of royal refusal to a bill was 
 in 1707, when Queen Anne refused to sign a bill for 
 settling the militia of Scotland. 
 
 Royal Salute {A). Consists of 21 
 guns, i.e. 3x7. Three is the Trinity, 
 seven the sacraments. 
 
 Royal Society {The). 
 
 I. Of London, founded 1660 for the 
 promotion of mathematical and physical 
 science. 
 
 The Copley Medal was Instituted in 1709 by- 
 Sir Godfrey Copley for scientific discoveries. 
 
 The Rumfnrd Medal was instituted in 1796 by 
 Count Eumford for discoveries in light and heat. 
 
 Royal Medals were instituted in 1825 by George 
 IV. for scientific discoveries. 
 
 The ' Philosophical Transactions ' (q.v.) were 
 published 16C5, to be continued monthly. 
 
 II. Of Edinburgh, founded 1783, on 
 the model of the Berlin Academy, for the 
 investigation and discussion of subjects 
 in every branch of science, erudition, and 
 taste. 
 
 The Keith prize was founded by Alexander Keith 
 of Dunnottar. 
 
 The M'Dougal Brisbane prize was founded by Sir 
 Thomas M'Dougal Brisbane. 
 
 The Neill Prize was founded by Dr. Patrick 
 Neill. 
 
 All for communications on subjects connected 
 with the society. 
 
 Royal Society of Literature 
 
 {The). Founded in 1823. and chartered 
 1826. 
 
776 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 EUDOLPH 
 
 1 
 
 Royal Style and Titles of the 
 
 sovereigns of England since the Con- 
 quest. 
 
 1066 William I. 
 1100 William II. 
 1135 Stephen. 
 
 1154 Henky II. 
 
 1199 John. 
 
 1265 Henry III. 
 1341 
 
 1421 Henky V. 
 1429 Henry VI. 
 1544 Henry VIII. 
 
 1559 Elizabeth. 
 1603 James I. 
 1702 Anne. 
 1801 George III. 
 
 1877 Victoria. 
 
 ' Rex Anglorum.' 
 
 ' ^nglelandes King." 
 
 'Rex Anglorum, Dux Nor- 
 mannorum.' 
 
 ' Rex Anglise.Dux Normannise 
 et Aquitaniae.' 
 
 ' Rex AnglisB, Dominus 
 Hibernise, Dux Norman- 
 nisB et AquitanisB.' 
 
 ' Rex AnglisB, Dominus 
 Hibernioe, Dux Aquilanioe.' 
 
 'Rex Anglioe et P'rancice, et 
 Dominus Hiberniae.' 
 
 'Rex Anglise, Hseres et 
 Regens Franciee, et Domi- 
 nus Hiberniae.' 
 
 'Rex Angliae et Francise, et 
 Dominus Hiberniae ' (as 
 Henry III.). 
 
 ' Angliae Franciae et Hiberniae 
 Rex, Fidei Defensor et in 
 terra Ecclesise Anglicanae 
 et Hiberniae supremum 
 caput.' 
 
 ' Queen of England, France, 
 and Ireland, Defender of 
 tlie Faith.' 
 
 'King of Great Britain, 
 France, and Ireland, De- 
 fender of the Faith.' 
 
 'Queen of Great Britain, 
 France, and Ireland, De- 
 fender of the Faith.' 
 
 ' Britanniarum Rex, and of 
 the United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 King, Defender of the 
 Faith.' 
 
 'Of the United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 Queen, Defender of the 
 Faith. Empress of India. 
 
 Or, ' Victoria, Dei Gratia, 
 Britanniarum Regina Fid. 
 Def.' 
 
 Royal [English] Subsidy (The). 
 The interest of a fund formed from a 
 grant by Mary the wife of WilHam III. 
 of England for Vaudois pastors of the 
 valleys and of the Wiirtemberg colony. 
 This colony consisted of the French sub- 
 jects expelled from the valleys by the 
 secret treaty of Loretto. See ' Treaty of 
 1696.' The royal subsidy was augmented 
 in 1770 by the ' National Subsidy ' {q.v.). 
 
 Royalists and Cardinalists, 
 
 1642. The friends and adherents of 
 Cinq-Mars, the friend and favourite of 
 Louis XIII., called themselves Royalists. 
 The adherents of Richelieu, whom the 
 king hated, were called ' Cardinalists.' 
 
 Roydamna. The heir presumptive 
 of the over-lord of Ireland. The heirs 
 presumptive of the under-lords or dynasts 
 were called tanists. The heir presumptive 
 was elected in the lifetime of the ruler, 
 and was generally one of the sons, 
 brothers, or cousins of the blood royal. 
 
 He was ex-ofi&cio commander-in-chief of 
 the forces. 
 
 Rubens's "Women. The portrait 
 of Helena Forman (or Fourment), his 
 second wife, married at the age of sixteen, 
 is introduced into several of his historical 
 pictures; but in the painting called 
 Bubens and his Wife in the Munich 
 gallery the woman is the artist's first 
 wife, Isabella Brandt of Antwerp. 
 
 Rubicon [The). Now the ' Pisatello,* 
 a small river which flows into the Adriatic, 
 and separates Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
 proper. It was an act of treason for a 
 Roman to enter Italy proper with an 
 army ; when therefore Julius Ctesar, b.c. 
 49, crossed the Rubicon at the head of 
 his army, it was a declaration of revolt, 
 and the commencement of the civil 
 war. 
 
 From this passage of the Rubicon by Caesar, the 
 phrase ' To pass the Rubicon ' became proverbial, 
 meaning to take a decisive step and abide the 
 consequences, or to ent7er on an undertaking from 
 which there is no retreat. 
 
 Rubric {The). The directions to the 
 minister and congregation given at the 
 heads of divers parts of the liturgy. 
 These were originally printed in red 
 letters, the office itself being in black 
 letters. (Latin ruber, red.) 
 
 Rubrics. The Romans called the 
 jus civile ' Rubrica,' because these laws 
 were written in vermilion. The praetors' 
 edicts were written in white, the imperial 
 rescripts in purple ink. 
 
 Rudel {Geojfre]/). The king of min- 
 strels, to whom Henry II., on one occa- 
 sion, gave four manors in reward for a 
 song. 
 
 Rudmas-day. The feast of the 
 rode or holy cross. There were two of 
 these feasts, one on 3 May (the invention 
 of the cross), and the other 14 Sept. (the 
 exaltation of the cross). The latter is 
 called the Holy Rood-day. 
 
 Rudolph I. of Habsburg king of 
 Germany, but never kaiser or ' Emperor 
 of the Holy Roman Empire ' (1218, 1273 
 -1291). 
 
 Ftither, Albrecht count of Habsburg; 
 
 Mother, ; Wives, (1) Gertrude of 
 
 Hohenberg, (2) Elizabeth of Burgundy. 
 Contemporary with Edward I. 
 
 After the close of the Hohonstauffen dynasty 
 in 1254 to the accession of the Austrian dynasty in 
 143S, nearly 200 years, the rulers of Germany were 
 
EUDOLPH 
 
 RULE 
 
 777 
 
 promiscuous. After an interregnum of seventeen 
 years came Eudolph I. of Habsburg, Adolph of 
 Nassau, Albreciit I. of Austria, Heinrich VII. of 
 Luxemburg, Friedrich III. of .\ustria, Ludwig V. 
 of Uavaria, Gunther of Schwarzburg, Karl IV. of 
 Luxemburg. VVenzel [Wenceslaus] the Worthless, 
 Ruprecht the Elector Palatine of the Rhine, and 
 Siegmund of Drandenburg, altogether eleven 
 kings, besides the three nominal ones during the 
 interregnum. 
 
 Rudolph. II. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
 many of the House of Austria (1552, 
 1576-1612). 
 
 Father, Maximilian II.; Mother, 
 Mary. It was in honour of this monarch 
 the ' Tabulae Rudolphlnoa ' were so 
 named. Contemporary with Elizabeth 
 and James I. 
 
 Rudolphine Tables (The). 
 'Tabulae Rudolphlnae,' 1627. Astrono- 
 mical calculations begun by Tycho 
 Brahe', and continued by Kepler under 
 the immediate patronage of Kaiser 
 Rudolf n., after whom Kepler named 
 the work. See ' Ilkanian and Alfonsine 
 Tables.' 
 
 Rudolph gave Tycho Brahe an annuity of l,500i. 
 sterling. 
 
 Ruel {The Treaty of), April, 1649. 
 Terms of peace made by Mazarin and 
 Anne of Austria with the Prondeurs 
 or Parlementarians. Scarcely was the 
 treaty signed when the Prince de Conde 
 headed the party called ' La Jeune 
 Fronde.' The queen-mother arrested 
 the Prince de Conde', the Prince de 
 Conti, and the Due de Longueville while 
 assembled in council in the Palais Royal, 
 and sent them prisoners to Vincennes 
 (18 Jan., 1650). All the nobility flew to 
 arms. Anne of Austria stood out for a 
 time, but Mazarin fled. In the autumn 
 of 1651 Louis XIV. came of age, took the 
 government into his own hands, and the 
 nation quieted down. 
 
 Rufus Stone {The). A stone, now 
 enclosed in an iron casing, near a by-road 
 to Bramshaw, to commemorate the spot 
 where Purkis picked up the body of 
 William II. after he was shot. The tra- 
 ditional cottage stands some 100 yards 
 off, in the hamlet of Canterton. 
 
 Rule Nisi. An order of the law 
 court that something stated shall be 
 done, unless the opposite party, within a 
 certain time (say three or six days) show 
 cause why it should not be done. 
 
 Rule of Faith ( The). The dogmas 
 and doctrines binding on Christians : 
 
 Dissenters say ' the Bible, the whole 
 Bible, and nothing but the Bible is bind- 
 ing as a rule of faith.' 
 
 Catholics say the practices and doc- 
 trines recorded in the ' Fathers ' show 
 the rule held in their days, and this ' tra- 
 dition ' supplements the written Scrip- 
 tures, the two together making the rule 
 of faith. 
 
 The Church of England adds to the 
 Bible the decisions of the first four gene- 
 ral councils, and admits other practices 
 ' not contrary to Holy Scriptures,' as the 
 change of the Sabbath for Sunday, infant 
 baptism, &c. 
 
 Rule of Monastic Houses. Cer- 
 tain laws to be observed by the order 
 referred to. Originally there were but 
 four orders (Augustine, Basil, Benedict, 
 and Francis of Assisi) ; but these four 
 have given rise to a large number of sub- 
 ordinate orders. 
 
 Every religious order was bound to the four 
 vows of Obedience, Poverty, Charity, and Chastity; 
 but history must very much wrong them if these 
 vows were generally observed. 
 
 I. Rule of St. Augustine {The). 
 St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, 
 lived 354-430, and founded a society of 
 hermits ; but what is called ' Augustine 
 or Austin Friars ' is a society organised 
 in 1256 by Pope Alexander IV., who 
 appointed Lanfranc the ' general.' The 
 Augustine Friars wore originally a gray 
 habit, but afterwards a black and white 
 one, with a leathern girdle about the 
 waist. 
 
 There were also Augustine canons. 
 
 In 1567 Pius V. made the Augustine 
 friars one of the four mendicant orders, 
 the others being the Dominicans, the 
 Franciscans, and the Carmelites. 
 
 In 1574 Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese, 
 founded the Barefooted Augustines 
 (Augustins De'chausses). 
 
 What is technically called ' The Rule 
 of St. Augustine ' is a set of laws ap- 
 pointed to be observed by those who be- 
 long to the order ; but who was the author 
 of these laws nobody knows. There 
 were, in fact, three sets of rules ; the chief 
 items were : 
 
 1 Class : Absolute and holy poverty. 
 
 To possess no worldly goods of any 
 kind. Even articles of personal use to be 
 in common. See IV. 
 
 If any novice had property he must 
 sell it all, and give the proceeds to the 
 
778 
 
 EULE 
 
 EULE 
 
 poor, before he could be admitted into 
 the order. See IV. 
 
 Never to receive money from anyone, 
 nor any present except food, which must 
 be taken untouched to the monastery for 
 general distribution. See IV. 
 
 2 Class : Monastic duties. 
 
 To recite daily the psalms and ap- 
 pointed offices. 
 
 To employ the first part of the morning 
 and afternoon in manual labour. 
 
 To wash their own clothes. 
 
 To observe strict silence at meals ; to 
 attend to what was read ; and never to 
 eat out of the monastery. 
 
 Whenever they left the monastery, to 
 go two together ; and not even to go to 
 the baths separately. See IV. 
 
 Never to utter an idle word. 
 
 Never to receive a private letter. 
 
 Never to engage in a lawsuit. 
 
 On a Sunday a little wine was allowed. 
 
 3 Class : Beligious duties. 
 
 To love God and their neighbour man. 
 
 To attend prayer at the canonical 
 hours. 
 
 To sing only what is appointed. 
 
 To fast with discretion. 
 
 To be modest in look, word, and deed. 
 
 Never to look immodestly on any 
 woman, or harbour an immodest thought. 
 
 *,* Augustine himself, one of the four doctors 
 of the Church, is called, • Le Miroir des prelats, 
 le Maitre de la theologie, 1 Ornement des eveques. 
 I'Eclat de tout I'ordre sacerdotal, la Lumiere des 
 docteurs, le Soleil de I'Afrique, le Bouclier de la 
 foi, le Fleau des heretiques. le Temple de la reli- 
 gion, le Firmament de I'eglise, et la Colonne ine- 
 branlable de la verite.' 
 
 The following -".vere branches of the Augustine 
 order, and observed the same rule with a differ- 
 ence — viz. the Austin Friars, the Brigettines, 
 Dominicans, Gilbertines, Prsemonstratensians 
 
 or NORBERTINES, TABENNITES, TRINITARIANS, (ic. 
 
 See those in capitals ' Bule of ... ' each name. 
 
 II. Rule of St. Basil [The). St. 
 Basil lived 329-379. He retired into a 
 desert in the province of Pontus, and 
 founded there a monastery, for the better 
 government of which he drew up a series 
 of laws, called the ' Rule of St. Basil,' 
 even to the present day universally fol- 
 lowed by all Oriental monks, even by 
 those who call themselves of the order of 
 St. Antony. There were two sets of 
 rules, the Longer and the Shorter. All 
 that St. Basil himself enjoined are the 
 following : — 
 
 No monk of this order to return to his 
 parents without express permission of 
 his superiors. 
 
 Use hospitality to strangers, but avoid 
 
 dainty fare. Let even your hospitality 
 teach your guests temperance and so- 
 briety. 
 
 Communicate your most secret 
 thoughts to your superior. 
 
 Never omit the service of prime, but 
 always consecrate ' the firstfruits of your 
 thoughts to God.' 
 
 St. Basil's day is 14 June. 
 
 III. Rule of St. Benedict {The). 
 Absolute and holy humility. St. Bennet 
 or Benedict (480-542) was the founder 
 of the Benedictine Order. Gregory the 
 Great preferred the Benedictine Rule 
 to all others. Some ascribe the rule 
 to Gregory III. (731-741). It contains 
 twelve degrees of humility. 
 
 The following are the chief items of 
 the Benedictine Riole : — 
 
 The monks to serve by turns in kitchen 
 and at table, and the monks in service to 
 wash the feet of the other monks, and on 
 Saturday to cl^an the plate and linen 
 seven hours a day to be given to manual 
 labour, four in the morning and three in 
 the afternoon ; service seven times a day 
 two hours to be given to pious reading. 
 
 Total abstinence from meat and fowls 
 The allowance of bread per day to be 1 lb 
 and a hemina of wine. Fast all Lent 
 till 6 p.m. ; but no voluntary austerities 
 allowed. Perfect silence to be observed 
 at meals. 
 
 Avoid singularity, never give way to 
 loud laughter, and never at any time 
 speak in a loud voice. 
 
 Always to keep their eyes fixed towards 
 the ground. 
 
 Renounce your own will ; bear injuries 
 patiently ; think meanly of yourself and 
 most highly of God. 
 
 Train yourself to continual penitence ; 
 do all lowly offices ; be modest in look, 
 word, and thought. 
 
 Know your own will ; obey promptly ; 
 show your most secret thoughts to your 
 director. See II., IV. 
 
 Never go abroad except in pairs ; all 
 to sleej) in one dormitory, but never two 
 in one bed ; all to sleep in their day-dress 
 and girdle, with a lamp burning in the 
 dormitory all night. 
 
 Small oftences to be punished by loss 
 of meals, great ones by expulsion from 
 chapel. 
 
 No vows to be perpetual. 
 
 The dress to be a black gown with wide 
 sleeves and a pointed cowl. Every monk 
 
 I 
 
RULE 
 
 RULE 
 
 779 
 
 to have two of each, but to prefer old 
 clothes to new ones. 
 
 St. Rennet's Day is March 21. 
 
 The following observed the Benedictine Rule 
 with a difierence— viz. 
 
 The Bernardinas, Camaldules, Carthusians, 
 Celestines, Cistercians, monks of Cluny or Clu- 
 NIACS, Feuillants, Trappists, *c. .S.v those in 
 capitals under ' Rule of . . .' each name. 
 
 IV. Rule of St. Francis (The). 
 Absolute poverty. St. Francis of Assisi 
 (1182-1226) was the founder of three 
 orders: (1) the Fratres Minores in 1206; 
 (2) the nuns in 1212 ; and (3) what was 
 far more important (in 1221) the secular 
 order called Tcrtiaries — that is, men and 
 women who lived in ordinary life (married 
 and given in marriage), but promised to 
 live religiously, and to abandon frivo- 
 lity of dress, needless extravagance, and 
 self-indulgence. The Franciscans were 
 allowed to have nothing they could call 
 their own, not even the clothes they wore, 
 their convents or churches. Their right 
 extended only to the use of these things. 
 {See I.) They had to work for their living, 
 and, when provisions ran short, to beg 
 alms ; but under no consideration were 
 they allowed to take goods or money. 
 See 1. If a novitiate had property he 
 was bound to sell all and give the pro- 
 ceeds to the poor, not one farthing might 
 be invested even for the convent or the 
 order. See I. 
 
 There are at present many conventual ter- 
 tiaries. 
 
 The following are the chief of the twelve 
 articles of the Rule of St. Francis : 
 
 Never to leave the convent except in 
 twos. See I. 
 
 Never to preach without permission of 
 the ordhiary of the diocese. 
 
 Never to ride on a journey ; and never 
 to go into any foreign country. 
 
 Never to stand godfather to a child ; 
 and never to enter a nunnery. 
 
 To fast all Lent, and from All Saints' 
 Day (Nov. 1) to Christmas Day. 
 
 To confess to their superior their most 
 secret thoughts. See II., III. 
 
 This apostrophe of St. Francis is given in the 
 'Petits Bollandistes,' vol. xii. p. 29: 'Seigneur 
 Jesus, montrez-moi les voies de votre tres-clitre 
 pauvrete ! Ayez pitie de moi et de ma dame la 
 Pauvret«; car je I'aime avec tant d'ardeur, que je 
 ne puis trouver de repos sans elle, et vous savez, 
 O mon Dieu, que e'est vous qui m'avez donne ce 
 grand amour.' 
 
 When some persons complained to St. Franci i 
 that his rule was too austere, Mgr. Guerin says 
 (p. 86), 'lis furent surpris dentendre la voix de 
 Jesu-Christ meme qui lui dit en leur presence 
 ces paroles distinctes : "Francois, cette Regie 
 n'est point ton ouvrage, maia le mien; j'entends 
 
 qu'elle soit gardee a la lettre, a la lettre, k la lettre, 
 sans glose, sans glose, sans glose. Si quelques- 
 uns ne la veulent pas garder, qu'ils soient rejetes 
 de la compagnie comma desdifflciles, des mucins, 
 des scandaleux, et des incorrigibles. Je sais la 
 capacite de Ihomme et je sais les graces et les 
 secours que je veux lui donner." Ces superieurs, 
 saisis de frayeur, tomberent par terre et n'ose- 
 rent ouvrir la bouclie.' Notwithstanding, the 
 rule was greatly modified by Elias (the successor 
 of St. Francis), and the society was split in two, 
 those who were strict Franciscans and those who 
 followed a greatly modified rule. 
 
 St. Francis s Day is 4 Oct. 
 
 The following were Franciscans, and observed 
 the Franciscan Rule with a difference— viz. 
 
 The Capucins or Capuchins, Clarisses, Minims, 
 Picpus, R.'coUets, i&c. 
 
 St. Francis of Paula, who founded the Minims, 
 Bald that no monk who died without his cord of 
 two knots would ever go to heaven. 
 
 Rule of St. Chrodegand [Fran- 
 ciscans], 76.S. By this rule canons were 
 bound to manual labour, silence, and 
 confession twice a year. Clorodegand's 
 day is 7 March. 
 
 Rule of St. Dominic [Augustines]. 
 St. Dominic (1170-1221) was the founder 
 of preaching friars ; his rule of absti- 
 nence and poverty was similar to that of 
 St. Francis, with this exception — the 
 order might accept small rents in money. 
 
 The motto of his order was ' Perfect self-distrust, 
 out perfect trust in God.' 
 
 Not only individual monks had no personal pro- 
 perty, even the collective society had none. They 
 entirely depended on alms. 
 
 St. Djminic s great object was to multiply 
 churches and train zealous preachers. 
 
 The occupations of his monks were preaching, 
 contemplation, severe study, and acts of charity. 
 Retirement and self-denial were strictly enforced. 
 
 St. Dominic s day is 14 Aug. 
 
 Rule of St. Fintan of Leinster, 
 6th cent. [Benedictines]. The Rule of 
 St. Fintan and that of the Trappists are 
 unusually austere. 
 
 The monks of St. Fintan lived only on roots and 
 vegetables, in many cases not even cooked. 
 They tilled their own land. 
 St. Fintan's Day is 10 May. 
 
 Rule of St. Macar ius [Augustines] 
 301-404. 
 
 The monks fasted every day except 
 Sunday, and from Easter Day to Whit 
 Sunday. 
 
 They divided the day between manual 
 labour and prayer. 
 
 Hospitality was enforced by this rule. 
 
 No monk was allowed to speak a word 
 to a stranger without express permis^ioii 
 of the superior. 
 
 The abbots of this order wore no in 
 signia. 
 
 St. Macarius's Day is 2 Jan. 
 
 Rule of the Carthusians [Bene- 
 dictines], 1170, composed by Guido, the 
 
780 
 
 RULE 
 
 RUMP 
 
 fifth prior. They had nineteen articles 
 in their rule : 
 
 To fast all Lent till six o'clock at night ; never 
 at any time to eat flesh, fowl, or fish. Their bread 
 to be made of bran. Sunday and Thursday their 
 diet to be bread and cheese ; Tuesday and Satur- 
 day pulse ; all the rest of the week bread and 
 water. 
 
 Each monk to have a separate cell, where he 
 was to sleep, work, and eat in silence his solitary 
 meals. 
 
 Each monk to have a hair shirt at all times. 
 
 All to work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and 
 given to hospitality. 
 
 Rule of the Cistercians [Bene- 
 dictines], an order of monks founded 
 by Robert of Moleme (1018-1110). The 
 Virgin Mary was the protectress of this 
 order. The Cistercians were reformed 
 Bernardines, who affected the severest 
 simplicity. 
 
 The rule enjoined four hours' sleep, four for 
 choir singing, and four for manual labour in the 
 morning. 
 
 The diet was roots and herbs, which were not 
 served on a table, but on the bare ground. They 
 slept also on the bare ground. 
 
 Rule of the Cluniacs, or ' Monks 
 of Cluny,' founded by St. Hugues, abbot 
 of Cluny (1024-1109). Reformed Bene- 
 dictines. The rule was very austere. 
 St. Hugues abolished the law of manual 
 labour, but enjoined total abstinence from 
 animal food, and restricted the diet to 
 bread and pulse. 
 
 MgT. Paul Guerin, camorier de sa Saintete Leon 
 XIII., says in his ' PetitbBollandistes,' vol. v. p. 76, 
 ' Un moine de Cluny, plusieurs disent Hildebrand 
 qui fut plus tard Gr goire VII., vit un jour Jesus- 
 Christ s'asseoir dans une stalle du choeur, a cote 
 de Hugues, et lui dieter les decrets et les regies 
 monastiques.' 
 
 Rule of the Worbertines [Au- 
 gustines]. The monks who followed this 
 rule were called Norbertines, Premon- 
 stratensians, or White Canons. Robert 
 Norbert lived 1092-1134. 
 
 His rule enjoined total abstinence from 
 flesh, constant fasts, and avoiding linen. 
 
 St. Norbert's Day is 6 June. 
 
 Rule of the Tabennites. 
 
 Founded by St. Pachomius (292-348), 
 who 'was the first to draw up a mon- 
 astic rule in writing. St. Jerome's ver- 
 sion of it is still extant. Mgr. Guerin, 
 camerier de sa Saintete Leon XIIL, says 
 in his ' Petits Bollandistes,' vol. v. p. 526 : 
 ' Pacome allait quelquef ois dans un vaste 
 desert, nomme Tabenne, situe sur les 
 bords du Nil. Un jour qu'il y faisait son 
 oraison, il entendit une voix qui lui ordon- 
 nait de batir, a I'endroifc ou il e'tait, un 
 monastere destine a recevoir tous ceux 
 qui y seraient envoyes de Dieu pour le 
 
 servir fidelement. Vers le meme temps, 
 un ange lui donna la Regie que devaient 
 suivre ses religieux, appele's depuis Ta- 
 bennites.' 
 
 These monks ate in common and in dead silence, 
 having their hoods over their faces that they 
 might not see each other. Their tunic was made 
 of white linen, with a cowl, but no sleeves. 
 Over their shoulders they wore a white goat skin 
 called a meloies. They communicated the first and 
 last day of every week. There was not one minute 
 of tlie day which had not some duty awarded to 
 it. The law of silence was so severe thvt a monk 
 was allowed to express what Jie wanted only by 
 signs. 
 
 His day is 14 May. 
 
 Rule of the TrappistS [Bene- 
 dictines]. The most austere of the 
 Cistercian order, reformed by Jean le 
 Bouthillier de Ranee (1G26-1700). 
 
 The monks are not allowed to speak either to a 
 stranger or to one another. 
 
 They may never visit or even write to their 
 friends or relatives, nor may they receive any 
 communication whatever either from them or of 
 them. If a father or mother, sister or brother, 
 dies, the superior may be informed of it, and all 
 that he says is, ' The prayers of the brotherhood 
 are requested for the soul of one who has departed 
 this life.' 
 
 No monk of this order can possess any property 
 of any sort, nor give any at any time to the monas- 
 tery. 
 
 They may never look on a stranger, but are 
 bound to keep their eyes constantly on the 
 ground. 
 
 Their diet is weak cider and herb soup, with a 
 raw radish, carrot, or a few lentils : but never meat, 
 fowls, fish, or eggs. On fast days their allowance 
 is two ounces of the coarsest bread. 
 
 They work in the fields and lie upon straw. 
 
 These monks not only obey the superior, but 
 must obey the slightest sign of a brother-monk 
 instantly, no matter how employed, even if their 
 work is ruined by the interruption. 
 
 The very slightest fault is most severely pun- 
 ished, and yet withal they seem cheerful and 
 contented. 
 
 In fact, it is not self-denial but self-indulgence, 
 ambition, and uncertainty which are the chief 
 seeds of man's unhappiness. 
 
 Rule of the Trinitarians [Au- 
 
 gustinians]. Their special function was 
 the redemption of cap! ives. They divided 
 their income into three parts : one for 
 their own maintenance ; another for the 
 poor ; and the third part for the redemp- 
 tion of Christian captives. 
 
 *jf* There are a multitude of sub-orders, but the 
 instances given above will suffice to show the 
 nature of their rules. 
 
 Rumford Medal {The), 1796. In- 
 stituted in the Royal Society of London 
 by Count Rumford for discoveries in 
 light and heat. 
 
 Rump {The). The fag-end of the 
 Long Parliament after ' Pride's Purge ' 
 {q.v.), 6 Dec, 1648. It was dissolved by 
 Cromwell, 20 April, 1653. The members 
 of the Rump were only 100, and the usual 
 attendance did not exceed 50. It refused 
 
RUMPERS 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 781 
 
 to dissolve, and therefore on 20 April, 
 1633, Cromwell stationed 50 musketeers 
 within call, and after sitting awhile as if 
 listening to the debate, rose and said, 
 ' Come, come, we have had enough of this. 
 I will put an end to your prating.' The 
 musketeers then entered, and the mem- 
 bers rushed out. 'Takeaway this bauble,' 
 he said, referring to the mace, and locking 
 the door he walked away, and the Rump 
 was dissolved. 
 
 In 1849, from 6 to 18 June, was the German Rump 
 Parliament in Stuttgart. We want a Cromwell to 
 stop some of ' the prating ' in our present House 
 of Commons (1890). 
 
 Humpers. Members of the Rump 
 Parliament (q.v.). 
 
 Rundale (In). In patches : sale of 
 land in small separate patches. Some- 
 times, in Ireland, half an acre or an aci-e 
 of land is held in thirty or forty little 
 patches, too small to be enclosed, and 
 thus subject to depredations from cattle. 
 Sometimes the patches are so far asunder, 
 it is no easy matter for a tenant to know 
 what is his and what is another's. This 
 is because he ' conacres ' {q.v.) to two or 
 more different farmers. 
 
 Running Footmen were footmen 
 who ran in front of their master's coach, 
 to help it out of ruts, and to serve as 
 couriers. The costume was a light black 
 cap, a jockey coat, white linen trousers, 
 and a staff some six feet long. The staff 
 had a ball at the top containing a hard- 
 boiled egg and a little white wine, to serve 
 as refreshment. The last in England 
 was in the service of the Duke of Queens- 
 berry (1810), but in Saxony there were 
 running footmen even so late as 1845. 
 
 Running Parliament (The). A 
 Scotch parliament, so called from its con- 
 stantly being shifted from place to place. 
 See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Rupert [Ruprecht] surnamed Klemm, 
 i.e. pinched or straitened in circum- 
 stances, last but one of the promiscuous 
 kaiser-kingsofGermany(1352. 1400-1410). 
 He married Elizabeth of Niirnberg, and 
 was contemporary with Henry IV. 
 
 Rupert [Prince). Grandson of 
 James I. of England. His mother Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of James I., married 
 Friedrich V. the elector palatine. 
 Charles I. was his uncle. 
 
 Rupert's Land (1670). All the 
 lands that pour water into Hudson's 
 Bay. So called from Prince Rupert, who, 
 with certain specified associates, formed 
 the original Hudson's Bay Company 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Rural Dean {A). A person (gene- 
 rally a beneficed clergyman) appointed to 
 supervise in a certain district, called a 
 deanery, the condition of the churches, 
 the church furniture, the glebe houses, 
 the schools, the appliances of public wor- 
 ship, and all other things pertaining to 
 the church services, and to report on all 
 to the bishop as occasion seems fit. 
 
 Rural Labourers' League {The), 
 12 May, 18^8. A society which super- 
 seded the Allotments Association of 1882 ; 
 its object being to deal with every prac- 
 tical grievance of the rural population, 
 such for example as footpaths, commons, 
 local charities, allotments, rights of 
 labour, and so on. 
 
 Rurik {The Dynasty of). The first 
 Russian dynasty, 862-1598. They were 
 not kings of Russia, but rulers of a part 
 of Russia, over-lords of other princes, 
 and held their courts at Novogorod, 
 Kiev (1154-1240), Moscow (1154-1240), 
 Vladimir (1240-1339), Moscow again(1339- 
 1584). The seventh of the line, Vladimir I. 
 the Great, introduced Christianity ; the 
 ninth, Jaroslav I., was a great legislator ; 
 Ivan (or John) III. the Great unified the 
 kingdom (1462-1505), and assumed the 
 title of czar. This is called ' The Great 
 Dynasty '; it gave sixty-seven sovereigns, 
 and continued 736 years. 
 
 Russell's Cairn. A spot on the 
 farm of Auldton-burn, on the march be- 
 tween England and Scotland, where Sir 
 Francis Russell, eldest son of the Earl of 
 Bedford, was mortally wounded in 1584 
 by a party of Scotch raiders led by Sir 
 Thomas Kerr, of Ferniherst. 
 
 Russia, four dynasties. 
 
 1. The dynasty of Rurik (862-1598) 
 gives 67 sovereigns. 
 
 2. The dynasty of Godunoff (1598-1613) 
 gives 5 sovereigns. 
 
 3. The dynasty of Romanoff (1613- 
 1762) gives ll sovereigns. 
 
 4. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp 
 (1762- *) 
 
782 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 RUSSIAS 
 
 Russia. The Scythians, we are told, 
 called the Scandinavians Musses, i.e. war- 
 riors. This may be, but it is quite certain 
 that the Norwegian Rus means a new 
 or fresh-man; Bus-land the new-man's 
 land ; Russia is the freshman's land. The 
 notion that ' Eussia ' is derived from 
 * Rurik ' is absurd. 
 
 Ilu<5Sia {The Seven Crowns of). 
 Three in Europe : Russia proper, Poland, 
 and Finland. Four in Asia: Caucasus, 
 Trans-Caspian, Central Asia, and Siberia. 
 Population about 105 millions. 
 
 Russia Company ( The). Formed 
 in the reign of Edward VI., and chartered 
 by Mary, in 1555, under the name of the 
 ' Company of Merchant Adventurers of 
 England for the Discovery of Lands, 
 Territories, Islands, &c. unknown or un- 
 frequented.' Their privileges were to 
 have 'a governor, four consuls, and 
 twenty-four assistants ; to make laws, in- 
 flict penalties, send out ships to make 
 discoveries, take possession of them in the 
 king's name, set up the royal banner of 
 England, and enjoy the exclusive privi- 
 lege of trading to Archangel and other 
 parts of Russia, not yet frequented by 
 the English.' The company still exists 
 for social gatherings, but not for commer- 
 cial purposes. 
 
 Russian Afghan Treaty, 1881. 
 
 A treaty between Alexander II. of Russia 
 and the Ameer of Afghanistan, in which 
 the Russian Government engaged to be 
 the perpetual friend of the government of 
 Afghanistan, and to assist it against any 
 enemy which the Ameer might be unable 
 to subdue. The Ameer, on the ooher 
 hand, engaged not to make war on any 
 foreign power without first obtaining the 
 consent of Russia ; and to report to 
 Russia whatever goes on in Afghanistan. 
 The secret object of the treaty was to 
 win the Ameer from the British alliance, 
 and make Afghanistan a standpoint to 
 threaten our Indian empire, if at any 
 time England and Russia should be at 
 war. 
 
 Russian Byron {The). Alexander 
 Sergeivitch Pushkin (1799-1837). 
 
 Russian Church Catechisms 
 
 {The). The larger one was the Greek 
 Church catechism prepared in 1642 by 
 Peter Mogilas. The shorter one was the I 
 
 catechism prepared by the order of Peter 
 the Great. 
 
 Russian History {Father of). 
 
 Nestor, a monk of Kiev. His ' chronicle ' 
 is from 8G2-1116. Nestor died in the 
 12th cent. 
 
 Russian Influenza. 20 Jan., 1837, 
 
 was called Black Sunday, because 1,000 
 persons died in London of influenza, and 
 numerous churches were closed from want 
 of a congregation. Of the London police 
 force 800 men were incapacitated for 
 duty. 
 
 1832 and 1833 wore influenza years. The next 
 prevalence occurred in Jan. 1890. It was called 
 'The Russian Influenza,' and in France, where it 
 was very fatal, it was called La Grippe, 
 
 Russian Laws. The code was com- 
 piled in 1497, by order of Ivan III. the 
 Great. It was revised and completed in 
 1550 by Ivan IV. (the Terrible). Called 
 Sudehnik. 
 
 The New Code was compiled in 1649 
 by order of Alexis. It was called the 
 Sobornoe Ulajenie. 
 
 The corpus juris {Svod Zakonov) was 
 published 1826-1833. 
 
 Ivan III. the Great was the first to assume the 
 title of ' czar.' 
 
 Russian Messali'na(r^e). Catha- 
 rine, wife of Peter III. of Russia. Her 
 paramour when Peter was alive was 
 Gregory Orloff, officer of the guards. 
 
 Russian Murat {The). Michel 
 Miloradowitch (1770-1820). 
 
 Russian Rebels. See 'Decem- 
 brists,' ' Nihilists,' * Propagandists," Ter- 
 rorists.' 
 
 Russias {All the). 
 
 Baltic Russia, that part which borders 
 on the Baltic Sea. 
 
 Black Russia, the western part of 
 Lithuania, which forms the governments 
 of Minsk and Grodno. Called black from 
 the black caps and vestments which the 
 inhabitants used to wear. 
 
 Gkeat Russia, the north and middle 
 portions of Russia in Europe ; formerly 
 called Moscovia when Moscow was its 
 capital. 
 
 Little Russia, the south-west region, 
 the Ukraine. 
 
 New Russia, the southern region, com- • 
 prehending the governments of Kerson, 
 Jekaterinoslav, Tauris, Bessarabia, the 
 territory of the Cossacks of the Don, that 
 
EUSSO-GERMAN 
 
 SABBATH 
 
 783 
 
 of the Black Sea, and all the parts re- 
 cently added. 
 
 Red Russia, the part occupied by the 
 Ruthenians (or Russniaks) and Poles of 
 the Austrian frontier. It is said that 
 they wore a red cap, like the Turkish fez. 
 
 White Russia, that part of Lithuania 
 detached from Poland in 1772, forming 
 the governments of Smolensk, Moholev, 
 and Vitebsk. It is said that they wore 
 white caps and dresses; the Austrian 
 soldiers wear white. 
 
 Rus is Norwegian for n£W, Russers^the new 
 men ; and Rusland=the new man's land. 
 
 Russo-German Wa,r (The), 1812- 
 1815, against Napoleon Bonaparte. It 
 began with the Russian campaign of 
 Napoleon, and ended with the battle of 
 Waterloo. 
 
 Rustic War {The), 1525. Waged by 
 the Elector of Saxony and the German 
 princes against Munzer and the Ana- 
 i)aptists. The battle of Frankenhausen 
 put an end to the Anabaptist rebellion. 
 Munzer, being taken prisoner, was igno- 
 miniously put to death. 
 
 Rye House Plot (T/ie), 1683. After 
 the failure of the Mealtub plot, James 
 duke of York was taken into the king's 
 councils, and directed the affairs of 
 government without a parliament. The 
 nation grew alarmed, and a pjofc was set 
 on foot for the assassination of the king 
 on his way home from Newmarket. As 
 the house in which the king lodged acci- 
 dentally caught fire, he left Newmarket 
 sooner than was expected, whereby his 
 life was preserved ; but the conspirators 
 were hunted up, and amongst others 
 Lord William Russell and Algernon Sid- 
 ney were executed. 
 
 Called the Rye House Plot, because the conspira- 
 tors met at a farm belonging to Rumbold, a mu.lt- 
 Bter, called the Rye House, on the river Lea, nenar 
 Hoddesdon, in Hertfordshire, to concert their 
 
 Elans. Whether Lord William Russell was guilty 
 as been much disputed. 
 
 Ryswiek (Peace of), 20 Sept., 1697. 
 Signed by EnL^land, France, Spain, and 
 Holland ; 30 Oct., 1697, by the Emperor 
 of Germany. To establish the peace of 
 Europe disturbed by Louis XIV. The 
 treaty consisted of four parts : (1) Be- 
 tween France and England ; (2) between 
 France and Holland ; (3) between France 
 and Spain; (4) between France and Ger- 
 nia ay. By the 1st, Louis XIV. engaged to 
 abandon the cause of James II., and to 
 
 acknowledge William III. as lawful king 
 of England. By the 3rd, Louis restored 
 to Spain Garonne, Roser, Barcelona, Lux- 
 embourg, Charleroi, Mons, Courtrai, and 
 all the fortresses he had taken in Namur, 
 Brabant, Hainault, and Flanders, 
 
 This important treaty closed the conspiracy 
 between Louis XIV. and the Stuarts, begun at 
 Dover ; the object of which was to make England 
 a dependency of France and to restore Catholi- 
 cism. 
 
 Sabathai Sevi (1625-1676). A 
 
 false Messiah who went to Jerusalem in 
 1665, and, joining an ally named Nathan, 
 gave out himself to be the Messiah and 
 Nathan his Precursor. He collected a 
 large following, but was arrested by Kiu- 
 perli (minister of Mohammed IV.), and, 
 being brought before the sultan, confessed 
 his imposition, consented to embrace 
 Islamism, and became a public laughing- 
 stock. 
 
 Sabbatarian Controversy (T7ie), 
 
 1630. A controversy in the early part of 
 Charles I.'s reign respecting the observ- 
 ance of the Sunday and its being called 
 the ' Sabbath ' or the ' Lord's Day.' The 
 ' Book of Sports ' (q.v.), published in the 
 last reign, and appointed by Charles I. 
 to be read in churches, gave great offence. 
 Prynne printed his ' Histriomastix ' in 
 ridicule of Sunday sports, and spared 
 neither king nor queen from his merciless 
 castigation. For this he lost his ears, 
 was fined, imprisoned, and struck off the 
 Rolls. 
 
 Sabbatarians. Those Christians 
 who observe the seventh day (our Satur- 
 day) as the true Sabbath. They are 
 chiefly Baptists, and are sometimes 
 called the ' Seventh-day Baptists.' 
 
 There are also Seventh-day Adventists both in 
 America and in Europe. 
 
 Sabbata'ti, 12th cent. The Wal- 
 denses. Prat'eolus says ' quod qui 
 inter eos perfectiores erant, signum 
 quoddam in superiore parte sui sotularis, 
 quod sahbatem appellabant, deferre 
 solebant.' Ebrardus Bethuniensis says : 
 ' Sotulares cruciant, cum membra potius 
 debeant cruciare ; calceamenta coronant, 
 caput autem non coronant.' They were 
 also called ' Insabbatati ' {q-v.). 
 
 It is quite certain that the word is not connected 
 with Sabbath, though it may be with Sabot. 
 
 Sabbath, or Day of Rest. 
 
 1st day, Sunday — Christians. 
 2nd day, Monday — Greeks. 
 
784 
 
 SABBATICAL 
 
 SACHEVEREL 
 
 3rd day, Tuesday — Persians. 
 4th day, Wednesday — Assyrians. 
 5th day, Thursday — Egyptians ; Jesids 
 iq.v.). 
 
 6th day, Friday— Turks. 
 7 th day, Saturday — Jews. 
 
 Sabbat'ical Year (The). Every 
 seventh year, when the Jews abstained 
 from husbandry. 
 
 Sabbatum in Albis. The 
 
 Saturday following Easter Sunday. So 
 called because on that day those bap- 
 tized on Holy Saturday {i.e. Saturday 
 preceding Easter Sunday) laid aside the 
 white robes or stoles assumed on their 
 baptismal day. 
 
 Sabbatum in Traditio'ne 
 
 Sym'boli. The Saturday preceding 
 Palm Sunday. So called in the Ambro- 
 sian ritual, because on that day the 
 Mediolani gave the creed (or symbol) to 
 the catechumens, who appeared in white 
 stoles on Palm Sunday. 
 
 Sabbatum Magnum., in the 
 Catholic Church, means the Sabbath 
 which occurs in the Paschal Week. The 
 day when Christ lay in the grave, between 
 Good Friday and Easter Sunday. Of 
 course the day was the Saturday follow- 
 ing Good Friday. 
 
 Sabbatum Vaeat. The fifth 
 
 Sunday in Lent. ' Diem Dominicum ita 
 dictum, qui Pascha prtecedit ; quia pro- 
 prio officio caret. Propterea quod papa, 
 ipso die, occuparetur eleemosyna ero- 
 ganda ' (Du Cange). See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Sabbatum XII. Lectionum. 
 
 ' Ita appellatum Sabbatum Quatuor Tem- 
 porum, auctor est Amalarius ' (bk. ii. eh. 1). 
 
 Sabeism. Worship of the sun, moon, 
 and stars. So-called from the Sabeans, 
 a people of Arabia Felix. 
 
 Sabel'lianism, about a.d. 252. The 
 heresy of Sabellius of Libya, who main- 
 tained that there is but one person of the 
 Godhead. According to Sabellius, Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost are not three dis- 
 tinct persons, but only three functions or 
 manifestations of the one God. Before 
 the incarnation there was only the One 
 God ; this One God descended into the 
 Virgin and became the Son, and on the 
 Day of Pentecost this son diffused him- 
 self on the apostles, and that is the Holy 
 Ghost. So that Father, Son, and Holy 
 
 Ghost are only three names of the one 
 hypostasis. The Sabellians also believed 
 in the eternity of matter. Condemned 
 by the Council of Alexandria in 261. 
 
 According to Sabellius the Son or Word and the 
 Holy Ghost or Comforter are functions or opera- 
 tions of God, as light and heat are emanations of 
 the sun. 
 
 *,* The Orthodox are those who accept the 
 creed of the dominant state church. Heretics are 
 those who choose for themselves their own reli- 
 gious tenets, or forjn their own opinions of reli- 
 gious truths. (Greek, mid. voice of aipttu, to select 
 for one's self.) 
 
 Sabian'ism. The religious system 
 of the Sabians. They prayed thrice a 
 day, and the temple of the moon at Haran 
 was the term of their pilgrimage. Their 
 traditions of the creation, deluge, and 
 patriarchs were very similar to the Bible 
 stories; they appealed to the secret 
 books of Adam, Seth, and Enoch; and 
 had a slight infusion of Christianity. It 
 was not, however, as Sale says, 'the 
 primitive religion of the Arabs,' but a 
 graft of Chaldeanism. They are now 
 called Mandseans, or St. John's Chris- 
 tians. The sect still exists '1890). 
 
 Sa'bians (The). A people and sect 
 of Turkey. The same as the ' Naba- 
 tlieans.' 
 
 Sabin'ians. In Latin, Sahiniani. 
 A law school which derived its name 
 from Massurius Sablnus, a jurist in the 
 time of Tiberius. He was opposed to 
 the Proculeans {q-v.). The Sabinians 
 were orthodox equity lawyers, attached 
 to the court and aristocracy. The Procu- 
 leans were radicals. 
 
 Saecharissa. Dorothy Sydney is 
 so called by Waller, who made love to her 
 in vain. 
 
 In the meantime Sydney paced to and fro with 
 him [Hugo Warnclitfe] in the avenue which was 
 called ' Saccharissa's Walk,' in memory of Syd- 
 ney's beautiful sister Dorothy, immortalised by 
 Waller under that name.— Edna Lyall, In the 
 Golden Days, ch. x. 
 
 Sache'verel {Dr.), 1709-1710. He 
 preached two sermons on passive obe- 
 dience and non-resistance : one 15 Aug., 
 1709, at the Derby assizes, before the 
 judge and sheriff, and the other 5 Nov., 
 1709, before the lord mayor and corpora- 
 tion in St. Paul's Cathedral, on the text 
 ' Perils from false brethren.' The gist 
 of these sermons was against toleration 
 in religion. He was tried in Westmin- 
 ster Hall in Feb. 1710, and condemned. 
 But his sentence was suspension for two 
 
SACRAMENT 
 
 SACRED 
 
 785 
 
 years, and the sermons to be burnt by 
 the common hangman. 
 
 There was a large mob of Sacheverelites 
 (5 syl.), who went about London pulling 
 down the chapels of Dissenters and 
 burning the hymn-books, Bibles, and fur- 
 niture. The whole of this disgraceful 
 riot was as much political as anything, 
 the object being to oust the Whigs and 
 bring the Tories into power. 
 
 Sacrament of the Mass, or 
 
 ♦Elevation of the Host.' That part of 
 the mass in which the officiating priest 
 holds up the consecrated bread and 
 shows it to the people (a.d. 1373). 
 
 Sacranienta'rian Confession 
 
 {The). The confession of faith presented 
 by the Sacramentarians {q.v.) in the Diet 
 of Augsburg (1530). 
 
 Sacramentarians, or ' Sacra- 
 
 mentaries,' 1524. Certain reformers who 
 sepai-ated from Luther on the doctrine 
 of the eucharist. Luther believed in con- 
 substantiation, but the Sacramentarians 
 rejected the doctrine of a corporal pre- 
 sence, and admitted only a spiritual pre- 
 sence of Christ with the truly devout. 
 Zwingli was a Sacranaentarian ; so were 
 Carlostadt, CEcolampadius, Muncer, 
 Storck, and Martin Bucer. 
 
 M. Police, in his ' History of the Protestants of 
 France,' tells us that Lutherans were so called. 
 ' Many Lutherans, or Sacramentarians as they 
 were then called, were cast into prison ' (iv. p. 34) ; 
 but whether he means all Lutherans or somi' is 
 not evident. Certainly Luther's 'impanation' 
 means something added to the bread, or incorpo- 
 rated with it, or the word is senseless. 
 
 Sacramen'tary, or ' Sacramen- 
 tarian.' One who rejects the doctrine of 
 the real presence as taught in the Roman 
 Catholic and Lutheran churches [that is, 
 transubstantiation and consubstantia- 
 tion]. 
 
 The only thing which he [the Duke of Norfolk] 
 thought his enemies might bring against him was 
 for ' being quick against such as had been accused 
 for sacramentaries ' [151C],— Howitt, Hist, of Eng., 
 vol. ii. p. 293. 
 
 *,' The book used by Catholics in celebrating 
 mass is called a ' Sacramentary.' 
 
 Sacred Art {The). Ars Sacra. 
 Chemistry, which in Alexandria was 
 limited to the priests. 
 
 Sacred Band {The). A Theban 
 band of 300 hoplites of the best families, 
 enrolled under Epaminondas. The spe- 
 cial duty of this 'i.fpo<: X.<>xo^ was to 
 defend the Cadmea. In 1821, 500 Greek 
 students enrolled themselves into a 
 
 * Sacted Band ' to resist the Turks. They 
 fought most bravely, but, overpowered 
 by numbers, they were all slain at Drage- 
 schan. 
 
 The motto of their standards was 'Death or 
 Freedom,' or 'This, or Upon this' in rav, ? rwt 
 Tuv), the motto inscribed in the shields of the 
 ancient Spartans. 
 
 Sacred College {The), a.d. 311. 
 The Roman Church agreed to appoint 
 seventy of their clergy into a sacred 
 college. The number was in imitation 
 of the Jewish Sanhedrim and the seventy 
 disciples appointed by Christ. It was 
 composed of six bishops, fifty priests, 
 and fourteen deacons, to be called ' car- 
 dinals,' out of which one was to be elected 
 chairman or head of the hierarchy. The 
 assemblies of the college were called 
 conclaves, and each of the members now 
 wears a red hat. 
 
 The full number is not strictly kept up. Thus, 
 in ly41, there were but 61 (38 instead of 50 being 
 cardinal priests, and 11 instead of 14 being car- 
 dinal deacons). 
 
 Sacred Geese. Geese kept by the 
 ancient Romans in the temple of Juno 
 on the Capitoline HiU. These geese are 
 especially noted in Roman story, because 
 when a party of Gauls climbed stealthily 
 up the steep rock, unobserved by the 
 sentinels, and even without disturbing 
 the watch-dogs, the geese gave the alarm 
 by their cackling, and Manlius, being 
 aroused, reached the rampart just in 
 time to push over the foremost Gaul and 
 thus saved the capitol. 
 
 Sacred Heart {The). There are two 
 fetes so called in the Catholic Church : 
 (1) ' Le Sacre Coeur de Jesus,' insti- 
 tuted in 1698, from the revelations of 
 Marie Alacoque, and celebrated the third 
 Sunday after Pentecost, but in 1822 
 transferred to the second Sunday in July. 
 And (2) the Sacre Cceur de Marie, insti- 
 tuted in 1G61, and celebrated 8 February. 
 
 We are told as an historic truth that Jesus 
 allowed this visionary to repose on his bosom, and 
 one day said to her : ' Mary, my sacred heart is 
 full of love to man, but to thee especially, to 
 whom I enjoin the privilege of making known the 
 treasures of sanctification and salvation, which 
 alone can redeem from hell.' Then taking his 
 heart, he put it into hers. She saw it distinctly, 
 and says it was like a burningcoal. Every Friday 
 this was repeated, till she consented to establish 
 the festival of the Sacred Heart (!!). See 'Life 
 and Works of Margaret Mary Alacoque' ; BRE- 
 TON, 'Instruction sur le Sacre Cceur de Jesus,' 
 and 'Les Petits LJoUandistes,' vol. xii. p. 421. 
 
 Sacred Island {The). Ireland was 
 BO called long before the introduction of 
 Christianity into the island. Probably it 
 3E 
 
786 
 
 SACRED 
 
 SACRED 
 
 was the seat of Spanish-Phcenician mis- 
 Bions. Festus Avienus says that two 
 days will bring you 
 
 .... in sacram sic insulam 
 Dixere prisci .... 
 Eamque late gens Hibernorum colit. 
 Plutarch refers to the Magi of Ireland, and 
 Diodorus Siculusto its sun-worship. 
 
 Sacred Month (The), 1838, of the 
 
 Chartists. In which the Chartists swore 
 to abstain from all work and all drink, 
 * in order to secure the charter of their 
 political salvation.' See ' Six Articles, 
 &c.' In some places the ' Sacred Month ' 
 began in July, in others in August. 
 
 From the despatch of the Sacred Ship (q.v.) to 
 Its return was a Sacred Month in Attica. 
 
 Sacred Mount (The), or Mons 
 Sacer, a hill about two miles from Rome, 
 commanding the junction of the Tiber 
 and Anio. Called the Sacred Hill 
 because it was here that the Roman 
 army encamped with the intention of 
 forming themselves into a free and inde- 
 pendent community when they found 
 that Appius and the senate refused to 
 fulfil the promises twice made to them 
 when enemies were at the gates. Ulti- 
 mately a compromise was effected, and 
 two popular officers were granted to the 
 revolters. The terms of this treaty were 
 called the Sacred haws, or Leges Sacratce. 
 
 Sacred Shields {The). Of the 
 Salian priests, in the reign of Numa. 
 These twelve shields, we are told, fell 
 down from heaven, and became the pal- 
 ladium of Rome. 
 
 Sacred Ship {The). The ship in 
 which Theseus (2 syl.) sailed to Crete to 
 deliver Attica from the tyranny of Minos. 
 It was preserved ever afterwards, and 
 sent by the Athenians every year to the 
 island of Delos with offerings. From 
 the dispatch of the ship to its return no 
 criminals were put to death. 
 
 It so happened that Socrates was condemned to 
 death the night before the sacred ship weighed 
 anchor, and consequently his death was deferred 
 for thirty days, till the ship returned. 
 
 Sacred Spring {A). Ver Sacrum, 
 a dedication of all the produce of the 
 Bpring to the gods. Even the children 
 born during a sacred spring were devoted, 
 and had to leave the city of their birth. 
 It was a Sabine custom ; but when Han- 
 nibal, invaded Italy, Quintus Fabius 
 Maximus advised the Roman senate to 
 decree a ' Sacred Spring.' 
 
 Sacred Standard {The). The 
 'standard of green silk,' unfolded by 
 Mussulmans in times of imminent dan- 
 ger, and said to have been borne by the 
 prophet himself. When Selim I., in 1517, 
 conquered Egypt, this standard went to 
 the Osmanlis, and has ever since been 
 regarded as a palladium. In 1595 it was 
 displayed in the war of Hungary. 
 Mohammed III. confided it to the cus- 
 tody of 800 emirs. At present the sacred 
 standard is enveloped in four coverings 
 of green taffeta, and inclosed in a case 
 of green cloth. In the same case is a 
 small Koran written by the hand of the 
 Calif Omar, and the keys of the Caaba 
 {q.v.). 
 
 The pole of the standar-^ is twelve feet high, 
 and is surmounted with a rlosed hand. In times 
 of peace it is preserved in the ' Hall of the Noble 
 Vestments,' which also contains the prophet's 
 tunic, the sacred teeth, beard, stirrup, sabre, and 
 bow of the prophet. 
 
 Sacred War {The). There were 
 two sacred wars in Grecian history — the 
 first from 595 to 586, and the second 
 from 356 to 346, each therefore of ten 
 years' duration. The first of these broke 
 out in Phocis soon after the establish- 
 ment of Solon's laws in Athens. The 
 Crisseans levied grievous taxes on those 
 who went to consult the oracle of Delphi, 
 and even seized the sacred treasures of 
 that temple. Solon induced the Amphic- 
 tyonic league to avenge the sacrilege, 
 BO the lands of the Crisseans were laid 
 waste. In the ninth year of the war the 
 city of Crissa was taken, and the spoil 
 consecrated to Apollo. As many of the 
 Crisseans had taken refuge in Cirrha, 
 that city was attacked and shared the 
 fate of Crissa ; the whole territory of both 
 Crissa and Cirrha was consecrated to 
 Apollo, and was henceforth uncultivated. 
 
 The cause of the second sacred war 
 was that the Phocians cultivated a part 
 of the Cirrhsean territory which had been 
 dedicated to Apollo. The offenders were 
 cited before the Amphictyons, and fined, 
 but they refused to pay the fine. War 
 broke out. Thebes, Locris, Thessaly, 
 and several other states joined the 
 Amphictyons; but Athens and Sparta 
 joined the Phocians. At length Philip 
 king of Macedonia joined the Amphic- 
 tyons, and compelled Phocis to surrender 
 at discretion, B.C. 352. 
 
 It was on the interference of Philip of Macedon 
 in this war that DemosthSnes spol^e his first 
 Philippic and Olynthiac orations. 
 
SACKIFICATI 
 
 ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S 
 
 787 
 
 Sacrifica'ti {The). Those lapsed 
 Christians who, to avoid persecution, 
 consented to offer sacrifice to heathen 
 gods. They were very numerous. 
 
 Sacrificial Mass, or Sacrifice of 
 the Mass. ' Missa Perfecta,' reKeCa 
 Hvaia. The 'Missa Imperfecta' was 
 that in which the body and blood of 
 Christ were not administered. The ' Missa 
 Perfecta ' contained the perfect sacrifice. 
 See ' Mass.' 
 
 Sacy's Bible. 'Bible de Sacy.' 
 The Port Royal translation of the Bible, 
 so called from Isaac Lemaistre (Sacy), 
 director of the Port Royal monastery. 
 He was imprisoned for three years in the 
 BastiUe for his Jansenist opinions, and 
 during his captivity translated the Bible 
 into French (1666-1670). See ' Bible.' 
 
 Saci (now written Sacy) is an anagram of Isaac. 
 See ' Prison Literature.' 
 
 Saddueees, b.c. 250. A sect of the 
 ancient Jews who took their name from 
 ' Zadoc,' one of the followers of Antigonus 
 Sochaeus, president of the Sanhedrim. 
 They rejected tradition, believed only in 
 the pentateuch, disbelieved in a future 
 state, in angels, and spirits. They were 
 very rich and very influential. 
 
 Sadle'rian Professorship. Of 
 
 pure mathematics, in the University of 
 Cambridge, founded in 1710 by Lady 
 Sadler. In 1886 an alteration was made, 
 and the stipend increased to SoOl. See 
 * Mathematics (Professorship of).' 
 
 Saffron Hue {The). The royal 
 colour of the ancient Irish kings ; tlius 
 Murkertach is described by the Four 
 Masters {q.v.) as ' a warrior of the saffron 
 hue.' 
 
 Henry VIII. forbade by statute any Irishman 
 ' to wear or use any shirt, smocke, kerchor, bendol, 
 neckerchour, mocket, or linnen cap, coloured 
 or died with sattron.' The two chieftains. Lord 
 Roche and the Wliite Knight, having by tlieir in- 
 cessant quarrels wasted each other's lands, were 
 both seized by order of Henry VIII., and in prison 
 slept amicably in one bed. After a time they were 
 released apparelled as Englishmen, and no longer 
 wearing 'their saffron shirts and liernoghe's 
 coats.' 
 
 Saffron Veil. The Greek and Bo- 
 raa,n brides, wore a, flamme urn or yellow 
 veil which wholly enveloped them (Pliny, 
 ' Natural History,' xxi. 22). When the 
 bride was taken home, it was the hus- 
 band's part to take off her veil (Lucan, 
 ii. 861). 
 
 We call a sweetheart ' a flame.' The coincidence 
 [is worth noting, if of no other valaa. 
 
 Sagas, 11th to 16th cent. Poetical 
 compositions by the Scalds or Scandi- 
 navian bards. The subjects are mytho- 
 logical and historic traditions of Norway, 
 Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. 
 
 Sage of Syracuse {The). Archi- 
 medOs. 
 
 So Tully paused, amid the wrecks of time, 
 On the rude stone to trace the truth sublime : 
 When at his feet, in honoured dust disclosed, 
 The immortal sage of Syracuse reposed. 
 
 Rogers. Pleasures of Memory, pt. 1 
 
 Sahidic Version {The) of the 
 Scriptures, also called 'the Thebaidic,' 
 in the dialect of Upper Egypt, and sup- 
 posed to be of the 2nd cent. See ' Scrip- 
 tures.' 
 
 Sailor King {The). WiUiam IV. of 
 the British Empire (1765, 1830-1837). 
 He entered the navy 15 June, 1779 ; was 
 captain of royal navy 10 April, 1786 ; 
 created rear-admiral 1790, vice-admiral 
 1793, admiral 1799, lord high-admiral 
 1827. 
 
 The great seal of William IV. represents him 
 on horseback with ships in the background; and 
 seated in a chair of state with Neptune and sea- 
 nymphs, Minerva and sailors. Minerva holds a 
 spear and Neptune the trident. 
 
 St. Andre^W {Order of). Instituted 
 by Hungus king of the Picts. It took 
 its name, because after the battle with 
 Athelstane of England, Hungus and his 
 soldiers went barefooted to St. Andrews, 
 and there vowed that they and their 
 posterity would ever afterwards use his 
 cross as their ensign in every warlike en- 
 terprise (Peter Heylyn, ' Cosmography,' 
 p. 340). 
 
 St. Augustine's Oak. At Aust 
 in Gloucestershire, where the conference 
 was held in 601 under an oak on the 
 banks of the Severn, to secure the co- 
 operation of the British in the missionary 
 work of St. Augustine, and to effect a 
 complete uniformity of religious usages 
 in the island. The British bishops 
 utterly refused to accept Augustine as 
 their archbishop, or to accept his plat- 
 form. 
 
 His platform was this: (1) To keep Easter on 
 the first Sunday after the 14th of Nisan ; (2) to 
 baptize by ' trine immersion ; ' and (3) to join 
 Augustine in missionary work. 
 
 St. Bartholomew's Day, 24 Aug., 
 
 1572. A day never to be forgotten, on 
 which at midnight began in Paris the 
 diabolical massacre of the Huguenots. 
 Those employed in this slaughter wore a 
 8c 2 
 
ST. BEIGE'S 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG 
 
 scarf on their left arm, and a white cross 
 on their hat. For three days and three 
 nights the butchery went on, and as 
 many as 6,000 were massacred in Paris 
 alone. The whole number murdered 
 in France has been estimated at 50,000, 
 some say 80,000. The day after St. Bar- 
 tholomew's Day the king went in state 
 to Notre Dame to assist at a Te Deum, 
 or service of praise to God, and all the 
 bells of the city rang out their joy peals, 
 but the massacre was still going on and 
 still were heard the shrieks of the dying 
 and the roar of burning houses. 
 
 The massacre was planned by Catherine de' Me- 
 dici, the queen-mother, in the reign of her son 
 Charles IX. It seems past belief, but is never- 
 theless true, that Pope Gregory XIII. went in 
 solemn state to the church of St. Louis to offer 
 thanksgiving to Almighty God for this butchery ; 
 and yet dared to talk of the persecutions of the 
 Koman emperors. 
 
 St. Briee's Day, 13 Nov., 1002, 
 noted for the massacre of the Danes in 
 England, at the instigation of Ethelred 
 the Unready. 
 
 ' St. Cecilia, the beautiful mother of 
 beautiful daughters,' mentioned by Mac- 
 aulay, was Mrs. Sheridan and her three 
 daughters — the Duchess of Somerset, 
 Lady Dufferin, and the Hon. Mrs. Norton. 
 
 St. Germain-en-Iiaye (T^e Treaty 
 of), 8 Aug., 1570. Gave liberty of wor- 
 ship in all places under the French 
 crown ; it gave furthermore two towns 
 in each province for the celebration of the 
 Protestant service ; an amnesty for the 
 past, equal right of admission to all pub- 
 lic offices, permission to reside in any part 
 of France, and four hostage towns — viz. 
 La Rochelle, La Charite, Cognac, and 
 Montauban. 
 
 St. G-uy's Dance, 1374. Same as 
 St. John's Dance [q.v.]. 
 St. Guy's dance is another name for St. Vitus's 
 
 St. John's Dance, 1374. So the 
 
 Dancing Mania was originally called. 
 When it appeared at Strasburg in 1418 it 
 was called St. Vitus's Dance. Whether 
 St. John's or St. Vitus's Dance, the saint 
 was the one applied to by the afflicted, 
 who made small offerings on the altar of 
 the favourite saint. 
 
 Not St. John the Evangelist but St. John the 
 Baptist, to whose day was transferred several 
 hen then customs. The dancing mania broke out 
 on St. John the Baptist s Day (June 24). 
 
 St. Louis. Louis IX. of France 
 (1'215, 1226-1270). 
 
 St. Margaret's, the church of the 
 House of Commons, is noted in history 
 as being the place where the Commons 
 swore to the Solemn League and Cove- 
 nant in Sept. 1642. Mr. Nye read the 
 Covenant from the pulpit ; all present, 
 consisting of members of both houses, the 
 Assembly of Divines, and Scottish Com- 
 missioners, signified their assent to it by 
 holding up their hands. The members 
 afterwards signed the parchment- roll, 
 and then Dr. Gouge implored a blessing 
 upon the act. 
 
 St. Mark, Venice. 
 
 The glory, nay perhaps the very existence, of 
 St. Mark must pass away for ever. These cities 
 [mentioned in tiie text] still owed fealty to bt. 
 Mdik.— History of Venice, vol. i. p. 631 ; vol. ii. p. 379 
 (Murray). 
 
 St. Mary Overie, Southwark, now 
 St. Saviour's. It was founded by Mary 
 Overie, a nun, on the site of her father's 
 house. John Overie (it is said) was a ferry- 
 man, who used to ferry passengers from 
 Southwark to the city and back again. 
 
 Shakespeare's brother (Edmond), Fletcher and 
 Massinger (the dramatists) were buried in the 
 churchyard ; and there are monuments to Gower 
 the poet, Andrews bishop of Winchester, Lockyep 
 (the quack doctor in the reign of Charles II.), and 
 other historic characters. 
 
 St. Wieolas Shambles, London. 
 A flesh-market, east of Greyfriars. So 
 called from the church of St. Nicolas. 
 The Butchers' Hall was close by. The 
 lane of the shambles and hall used to be 
 called Stinking Lane, but is now named 
 King Edward Street. 
 
 St. Patrick's Purgatory. The 
 
 place of penance on an island, now called 
 Station Island, in Lough Derg, Irelaad. 
 It was a kind of cave dug up in fhe reign 
 of Charles I. 
 
 St. Petersburg {Treaties of). 
 
 I. 30 Oct., 1715, between Peter I. and 
 the King of Prussia, respecting the war 
 in Pomerania. 
 
 ■ II. 10 Aug., 1726, between the Czarina 
 Catherine and the King of Prussia. 
 
 III. 16 Dec, 1740, a defensive alliance 
 between the regent Anne of Russia and 
 Frederick II. of Prussia. 
 
 IV. 4 Feb., 1744, a treaty of aUiance 
 between Russia an(i Poland. 
 
 V. 22 May (2 June), 1746, a defensive 
 alliance between Great Britain and 
 Russia. 
 
 VI. 9 March, 1759, a treaty between 
 
ST. SALVATOR'S 
 
 ST. STEPHEN'S 
 
 789 
 
 Russia and Sweden to protect the navi- 
 gation of the Baltic. 
 
 yil. 5 May, 1762, a treaty of peace be- 
 tween Czar Peter III. and Frederick II. 
 of Prussia. 
 
 VUI. 11 April, 1764, an alliance be- 
 tween the Czarina Catherine and Frede- 
 rick II. of Prussia. 
 
 IX. 20 June, 1766, a treaty of com- 
 merce between Great Britain and 
 Russia. 
 
 X. 5 Aug., 1772, for the partition of 
 Poland between Austria, Prussia, and 
 Russia. 
 
 XI. 1 Aug., 1773, an alliance between 
 Russia and Denmark. 
 
 XII. 1 Aug., 1780, an alliance between 
 Russia and Sweden for the protection of 
 commerce. 
 
 XIII. 11 Jan., 1787, a treaty of com- 
 merce with France. 
 
 XIV. 12 July, 1792, a defensive alli- 
 ance between Russia and the King of 
 Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 XV. 18 Feb., 1795, a treaty of alliance 
 between Russia and Great Britain. 
 
 XVI. 15 Jan., 1797, a treaty between 
 Czar Paul I. and the Order of Malta. 
 
 XVII. 29 Nov., 1798, an alliance be- 
 tween Russia and the Two Sicilies. 
 
 XVIII. 28 Sept., 1799, an alliance be- 
 tween Russia and Portugal. 
 
 XIX. 21 May, 1800, between Russia 
 and Turkey, constituting the Ionian Isles 
 a republic. 
 
 XX. 18 Dec, 1800, an alliance between 
 Russia and Prussia. 
 
 XXI. 13 March, 1801, a treaty of com- 
 merce between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 XXII. 8 April, 1805, a treaty for a 
 third coalition against Napoleon, between 
 Great Britain and Russia. 
 
 XXIII. 24 March, 1812, an alliance be- 
 tween Sweden and Russia against Napo- 
 leon. 
 
 XXrV. 1 Aug., 1812, a treaty of peace 
 and union between Great Britain and 
 Russia. 
 
 St. Salvator's College. Better 
 ' San Salvator.' See p. 27, ' Andrews, 
 TJniversitij of St.' 
 
 Saint-Simonianism, 1814. A 
 non-communistic socialism, in which in- 
 dustry is to be regulated in obedience to 
 a self-constituted authority; production 
 is first to be accumulated to excess, and 
 then distributed in the ratio of merit; all 
 transmission of property is to be abo- 
 
 lished; marriage is to be abolished, all 
 grades of rank, all family ties, and each 
 individual is to belong to the one univer- 
 sal family of man. With all this com- 
 munism there is to be a head called the 
 ' Supreme Father,' whose authority is 
 to be wholly absolute. See ' Supreme 
 Father.' 
 
 A scheme which does not contemplate an equa.l 
 but an unequal division of the produce. It does 
 not propose that all should occupy alike, but dif- 
 ferently, according to the vocation or capacity of 
 each individual ; the function and salary of each 
 being assigned by the directing authority.— Mill, 
 PolUical Economy, 258. 
 
 St. Simo'nians {The), 1825. The 
 school of the Industrialists (5'. v.) founded 
 by St. Simon, for the amelioration of the 
 working classes, perverted after his death 
 into a communistic society, advocating 
 the aristocracy of toil, the perfect equality 
 of man, community of property, and the 
 abolition of inheritance and marriage. 
 Abolished by law in 1833. 
 
 • The aristocracy of toil and perfect equality,' 
 indeed ! This is mere clap-trap of the silliest 
 kind. Where is the ' aristocracy ' of digging a few 
 potatoes, cobbling old boots, or crying ' Dust, 
 oh ! ' •? Stutt ! And where is the equality of the 
 infant and its father, the idiot of an asylum and 
 Shakespeare or Newton ? It is a mere perversion 
 of language, and most misleading. The very stars 
 differ in glory. 
 
 St. Stephen's. The British Houses 
 of Parliament : thus we say, 'Tie parlia- 
 ments called by Edward I. were identical 
 with those which still sit in St. Stephen's.* 
 St. Stephen's Chapel was built 1150 by 
 King Stephen, rebuilt by Edward II. and 
 III. and finally destroyed by fire in 1834. 
 It was fitted up for the use of the House 
 of Commons in the reign of Edward IV. 
 In order to enter ' the palace of Westmin- 
 ster,' we pass through St. Stephen's porch 
 into St. Stephen's Hall, and north and 
 south of this hall corridors lead to the 
 House of Peers and House of Commons ; 
 hence it is, that, by a figure of speech, 
 the House of Commons is called ' St. 
 Stephen's,' and even the House of Lords 
 is sometimes so called, but not often, as a 
 separate house. The two together are 
 not unfrequently called St. Stephen's. 
 
 St. Stephen's originally formed part of the 
 palace of Edward the Confessor. 
 
 St. Stephen's Crown. The Hun- 
 garian crown. St. Stephen (979, 997- 
 1038) received a royal crown from Pope 
 Sylvester II., and the title of apostolic 
 king, which the emperors of Austria 
 bear to the present day. 
 
 II Hungarian independence should be secured 
 
790 
 
 ST. VITUS'S 
 
 SALT 
 
 through the help of Prince Napoleon, the prince 
 himself should accept the crown of St. Stephen. 
 —Kossuth, Minnoirnofmi) Exile, 1880. 
 
 St. Vitus's Dance. Chorea, a 
 disease marked by an involuntary and 
 irregular contraction of the muscles of 
 the face and limbs ; a kind of jerking 
 movement, and in some cases a mere 
 fidgetiness. In Germany the 'dancing 
 mania' was called ' St. "Witt's Dance,' in 
 Italy called ' Tarantism ' {q.v). 
 
 St. "Witt's Dance, 1374. So the 
 dance of the dancing mania was called in 
 Germany. See also ' St. Guy's Dance.' 
 
 Sainte Ampoule (JLia). The cruse 
 containing the sacred oil with which the 
 French kings were anointed at Reims. 
 
 Henri IV. and Louis XVIII. were not anointed 
 at Reims. Nor, of course, were Napoleon I. and 
 III. 
 
 Saints. Henry Garnet (Father Gar- 
 net), the English Jesuit (1555-1606), 
 born at Nottingham, and educated at 
 Winchester, is reckoned among the 
 'martyrs.' He confessed his implication 
 in the Gunpowder Plot, and was execu- 
 ted for high treason. 
 
 Martyrdom and high treason should certainly 
 never be made synonymous terms ; yet the name 
 of Henry Garnet is duly enrolled in the hagio- 
 graphy of the Boilandiscs, under 3 May. 
 
 At best the word ' Saint ' applied to any man is 
 most objectionable ; and Irish agitators have 
 reduced the word ' Martyr ' to utter ridicule. If 
 traitors and rebels are ' saints and martyrs,' the 
 title dishonours the head that wears it. 
 
 Saka Era(r/Ks) of Hindustan begins 
 from the death of Salivahana, A.r>. 76. 
 The Sakas or Scythians gained a footing 
 in Hindustan in 76, and gradually ex- 
 tended their empire. Tliey were the 
 ancestors of the numerous tribes of Raj- 
 puts from Oude to Marwar. 
 
 Sal'adin Tax {The), 1200. A tax 
 imposed on Christendom by Pope Inno- 
 cent III. for the prosecution of the 
 fourth crusade. 
 
 Saladin himself died in 1194. 
 
 Sal'adine Tithe {The\ 1187. A 
 general tax of the tenth of all movable 
 estate, imposed by the kings of France 
 and England upon all their subjects, 
 whether ecclesiastic or lay, towards the 
 expense of their intended crusade (the 
 third). This tax was sanctioned by the 
 pope and prelates as well as by the kings 
 and barons. 
 
 This is the first eminent instance of a general 
 tax. Church property as a rule paid no tax, as 
 it would have been deemed sacrilegious to take 
 church property for civil purposes. 
 
 Salic Law [The). The code of the 
 Salian Franks, introduced into France 
 (Gaul) by the Franks. It contained 400 
 articles, chiefly concerning debt, theft, 
 murder, and battery, the penalty in every 
 case being a fine. The most famous 
 article of the code is Title Ixii. 6, accord- 
 ing to which only males could succeed 
 to the Salic land or lod, i.e. to the lands 
 given for military service. In 1316, at 
 the death of Louis le Hutin, the law was 
 extended to the crown, and continued to 
 be observed to the end of the monarchy. 
 
 Salii {The). Twelve priests of Mars 
 chosen from high patrician families and 
 appointed to guard the twelve sacred 
 ancilia which were kept in the Temple 
 of Mars on the Palatine hill. The great 
 festival of Mars began on 1 March and 
 continued several days. They were 
 called Salii, from salio (to dance), from 
 their dancing in procession. Their dance 
 was called the ' Salic Dance,' and their 
 hymns or chants the ' Salic Songs.' 
 Varro says a salitando. 
 
 Salisbury, or Sarum Missal 
 
 {The), or ' Sahsbury Hours,' a.d. 1078. 
 A liturgy drawn up by Oswald or Osmund 
 bishop of Salisbury in usum Saruni. It 
 was in Latin and based on those of Rome. 
 This Missal was used throughout the 
 whole kingdom, 
 
 'Sarum is the better word, as 'Salisbury' is 
 ' New Sarum.' Our Common Prayer-Book is 
 almost a translation of this Missal, and the Litany 
 is almost word for word the same. 
 
 Sallust of France (T/ie). L'Abbe 
 de St. Real (1639-1692), author of 
 ' Spanish Conspiracies against the Re- 
 public of Venice,' from which Otway 
 borrowed his ' Don Carlos ' and his 
 * Venice Preserved.' 
 
 Salt. At the accession of James I. 
 the people of Grace Dieu (within the 
 liberties of Waterford) closed their gates 
 against Mountjoy, the English lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland; but Mountjoy 
 warned the people if they compelled him 
 to enter by force he would utterly destroy 
 the town, and * spread salt upon the 
 ruins.' In allusion to an ancient custom 
 of drawing a plough over the walls of a 
 conquered city and strewing salt over the 
 place. Thus when Abimelech took the 
 city of Shechem he sowed the place with 
 salt (Judges ix. 15). {See also Judges 
 ii. 9 ; Psalms cvii. 34 ; Jer. xvii. 6.) 
 
SALTERS' 
 
 SAMSON 
 
 791 
 
 Salters* Hall Controversy 
 {The), 1719. A Baptist controversy on 
 the question whether toleration is or is 
 not to be extended to Unitarians. 
 
 Salvation Army [The), 1878. A 
 home missionary organization set on 
 foot by William Booth, who was called 
 the ' General ' of the army. The plan of 
 operation is for a company to march 
 about cities, towns, and villages, singing 
 popular sacred songs and sjjeaking 
 between whiles for about five minutes. 
 The army has also a large number of 
 religious periodicals and small books. 
 
 Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New 
 Connexion, which he left in 1861, and began ' revi- 
 valistic services ' in a tent in Whitechapel. In 
 1805 his little band of followers called themselves 
 'The East London Christian Revival Society,' 
 afterwards changed to 'The Christian Mission.' 
 In 1869 the Missionmade expeditions to provincial 
 towns. Lastly, in 1873, the name was changed to 
 ' The Salvation Army.' 
 
 Their literary organ, called 'The Christian 
 Mission,' first appeared monthly in 1874. In 187J 
 it was called ' The Salvationist,' and in the same 
 year its title was changed into ' The War-Cry.' 
 
 Salvationism, Ecelesiasti- 
 
 cism. Ecclesiasticism is dogmatic 
 religion, the doctrine that the church is 
 the ark, out of which there is no salva- 
 tion. Salvationism is the doctrine that 
 the church is simply a name for all be- 
 lieving Christians, and that salvation is 
 a gift wholly independent of an hierarchy 
 or community of any kind called 'a 
 church.' Ritualists are strong believers 
 in ecclesiasticism ; Dissenters and what 
 are called 'Evangelicals' are Salvation- 
 ists. 
 
 Samaneans {The), or ' Saman8ei,' 
 were distinct from the Brahmins and 
 Gymnosophists (the latter were pro- 
 bably Jains), yet equally austere and 
 living in solitude. They were apparently 
 Buddhist priests. All the worshippers 
 of the Dalai-Lama have been also called 
 'Samaneans.' 
 
 Kot to be mistaken for the Chamaneans. See 
 'Chamanism.' 
 
 Sama'nides (3 syl.). A Persian 
 dynasty while Persia was a province of 
 the Califs. Founded by Ismail al Sa- 
 mani. Lasted only 97 years (902-999). 
 It succeeded the Sof'farides (3 syl.), and 
 was overthrown by the Ghaz'nevides (3 
 syl.). It reigned only over Transoxiana, 
 Khorasan, Balkh, and Seiatan. 
 
 The Samanides reigned over Seistan, Korasan, 
 Balkh, and Tabaristan. The Bowides in 932 ob- 
 tained a part of Persia. Gibbon (ch. Ivii.) says 
 the dynasty lasted 125 years (874 999). 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch {The), 
 
 2nd cent. A translation of the Hebrew 
 Pentateuch into the Samaritan dialect. - 
 It bears a strong resemblance to the 
 Targum of Onkelos. See ' Scriptures.' 
 
 It must not be confounded with the ' Pentateuch 
 of the Samaritans,' which is a copy of the Hebrew 
 Pentateuch in Samaritan characters. The Sama- 
 ritan Pentateuch is a translation. 
 
 Samaritan War {The), a.d. 529. 
 A war carried on by Justinian against 
 the Samaritans, who had risen in arms 
 to retaliate their wrongs. In this war 
 20,000 Samaritans were slain and as 
 many more were sold as slaves to the 
 Arabs and Persians. Gibbon (xlvii.) 
 says 100,000 Roman subjects were extir- 
 pated in this war, by which the fruitful 
 province of Samaria was converted into 
 a wilderness. ' But,' he adds, ' in the 
 creed of Justinian, the guilt of murder 
 could not be applied to the slaughter of 
 unbelievers.' 
 
 Samaritans {The). Not Israelites, 
 but Assyrian and Medish colonists sent 
 thither by Shalmanezer, when he had 
 carried the native population to Nineveh. 
 They received 'the books of the law.' 
 The division into Israelites and Judseans 
 had ceased long before the Incarnation. 
 
 Sa'mian Sage {The). Pythagoras 
 of Samos (b.c. 481-411). One of the 
 most astounding geniuses ever born. 
 
 Samnite Wars {The). A series of 
 wars between the Romans and the Sam'- 
 nites (2 syl.), which lasted, with few in- 
 terruptions, for fifty-three years. The 
 three great wars were : (1) 343-341 ; (2) 
 326-304; (3) 298-290. 
 
 Samos'atans. Followers of Paul 
 of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who 
 denied the doctrine of the Trinity and 
 the divinity of Jesus the Christ. He 
 was excommunicated by the Synod of 
 Antioch in 270. His followers are also 
 called Paulianists, or Paulinists. 
 
 Samp'sicera'nus, Alabar'ches, 
 the Jerusalemite. So Cicero desig- 
 nates the haughty Pompey, the great 
 eastern conqueror (b.c 106-48). 
 
 Snmpsicerdnm was king of Emesa in Syria. Ala- 
 harch^s is an oriental name for a tax gatherer. 
 Jerusalemite refers to his taking Jerusalem, B.C. 63, 
 when he entered the Holy of Holies out of curi- 
 osity and found nothing. 
 
 Samson {The Greek). Her'akles, 
 called by the Romans Her'cules. 
 
792 
 
 SAMSON 
 
 SANS-CULOTTES 
 
 Samson {The Italian). Milo of 
 Crotona, the athlete. 
 
 Samson {The Turkish). Ozdemir 
 or the Iron Ogli (16th cent.) So called 
 by Cantemir. 
 
 ^2i,ncho {The Crowned). Louis XYI. 
 was so called by Camille Desmoulins, 
 'because he was always thinking of his 
 stomach, and at Varennes lost the time 
 in which he might have escaped by stay- 
 ing to eat pig's pettitoes.' So it is said. 
 
 Sanchoni'atlio. In nine vols. A 
 literary forgery by Wagenfeld of Han- 
 over, published at Bremen in 1837. It 
 was said that the MS. of this work had 
 been discovered in the convent of St. 
 Maria de Merinhao by a Colonel Pereira 
 in the Portuguese army; but it was 
 ascertained that there was no such con- 
 vent nor any such colonel, and that the 
 paper of the MS. bore the water-mark 
 of Osnabriick paper-mills. See ' Literary 
 Forgeries.' 
 
 There was a 'history' said to be by Sancho- 
 niatho published bv Herennius Philon Byblius, a 
 translation from the original Phcunician work, 
 fragments of which are preserved in Eusebius ; 
 but considerable doubt exists as to the authen- 
 ticity of this work also. 
 
 Sancy Diamond {The). Picked 
 up on the field of battle near Granson. 
 It belonged to Charles le Te'me'raire of 
 Burgundy, who was routed there and fled. 
 Sixteen years after the battle it was sold 
 at Lucerne for 1,250Z. It fell into the 
 hands of the house of Braganza; was 
 subsequently purchased by Nicholas de 
 Sancy [Sahn-se\ and under the name of 
 the Sancy diamond was set in the crown 
 of France. During the Revolution it 
 was sold, but Napoleon I. rebought it. In 
 1825 it was sold to Prince Paul Demidoff 
 for 80,000?. The prince sold it in 1830 to 
 M. Levrat, administrator of the Mining 
 Society, but, Levrat being unable to pay 
 the money, it was returned in 1832 to 
 the prince. We next hear of it in Bom- 
 bay. In 1867 it was transmitted to Eng- 
 land by the firm of Forbes & Co. In 
 1873 it formed part of the crown necklace 
 worn by Mary of Sachsen-Altenburg on 
 her marriage with Albert of Prussia. In 
 1876 it was worn as a pendant by the 
 Maharajah of Puttiala; but in 1877 it 
 belonged to the Czar of Russia. 
 
 Sandal -wood Gates {The), or 
 Sandal Gates ' of the temple of the great 
 
 idol Somnat in Somnauth, in Guzerat. 
 This temple was built in the 5th cent., 
 and in 1024 the city of Somnauth was 
 stormed, the idol was broken by the 
 Sultan Mahmud, and the Sandal Gates 
 were sent to Ghuznee. In 1842 the gates 
 were carried off by the British. Lord 
 Ellenborough, governor-general of India, 
 wanted to restore them to Somnauth, 
 but the British Government would not 
 allow it to be done for fear of provoking 
 religious strife between Mahrattas and 
 Moslems. So they were taken to Agra, 
 where they still are (1890). 
 
 The stone idol, Somnat, an avatar of Siva or 
 Mahades, was fifteen feet in height, six of which 
 were sunk in the ground. When Mahmud took 
 the town of Somnauth and entered the temple 
 he knocked off the nose of the idol with his mace, 
 and ordered two pieces of the idol to be sent to 
 Ghuznee, whore they still are. His next stroke 
 was against the belly of the idol, and the opening 
 revealed an enormous quantity of diamonds, 
 rubies, and pearls. Som-nat=Somalord. Soma 
 ■was the sacred drink of the gods. 
 
 %* The old belief or prophecy was that when 
 the gates should leave Ghuznee the Sikh rule 
 would cease. This proved true. 
 
 Sandema'nians, 1728, or Glassists, 
 from Mr. John Glass, the founder, ex- 
 pelled from the Church of Scotland for 
 maintaining that national churches are 
 ' kingdoms of this world,' and therefore 
 unlawful. The word Sandemanian is 
 from Robert Sandeman, who published a 
 series of letters on the subject in 1755. 
 
 San-kou-e, or ' San-Kou,' (221-317). 
 Three states of China, collectively so 
 called. The source of Chinese romance, 
 and the fount from which they draw 
 their historical plays. In 265 the three 
 states (after being divided for forty-five 
 years) were united under one ruler, who 
 lived at Honan, and the Salic law was 
 introduced ; in 416 the Honan state 
 merged again into the Chinese empire. 
 
 The ' Three states ' were (1) the sixth imperial 
 dynasty ; (2) the kingdom of Oey or Wei ; and (3) 
 the kingdom of Ou or Woo. 
 
 Sanquhar Declaration {The), 
 
 1680. A deed renouncing the authority 
 of Charles II., drawn up by Richard 
 Cameron, Cargill, Douglas, and others. 
 So called from Sanquhar, a town in 
 Dumfries. 
 
 Sanquhar, pronounce Sang -her. 
 
 Sans-culottes {Les). A name of 
 contempt given to the democrats in the 
 French Revolution ; as much as to say, 
 they were only the tag-rags or raga- 
 muffins of society. Subsequently, like 
 the Gueux {q.v.), they gloried in the name, 
 
SANS-CULOTTE 
 
 SANTONS 
 
 and even affected negligence of dress, 
 goin;;? about in a blouse, red cap, and 
 wooden shoes. The red nightcap adorned 
 with a tricoloured cockade was called the 
 'bonnet-rouge.' Blouse = blooze. 
 
 The San-- culottes had a host of songs and a 
 dance (called the Carmagnole) of their own. Pro- 
 nounce L.iy Sahn' ku-lot'. 
 
 Sans-culotte Cabinet {The), 1792. 
 Consisting of Duranthon (minister of 
 justice), De Grave (minister of war), 
 Clavieres,adeaf man (minister of finance), 
 Lacoste (minister of marine), Koland 
 (minister of the interior), and Diimouriez 
 (minister of foreign affairs). None of 
 these men, except Dumouriez, was dis- 
 tinguished, and the court called them 
 the Sans-culotte Cabinet from their total 
 insignificance. Pronounce Sahn' ku-lot'. 
 When Roland presented himself at court, the 
 master of the ceremonies refused to admit him 
 till Roland explained that he was minister of the 
 interior. The astonished master observed to 
 Dumouriez, who entered next, ' Ah, sir, no buckles 
 in his shoes ! ' To which Dumouriez in affected 
 amazement replied, ' Bon Dieu ! then all is lost ! ' 
 
 Sans-culottides, 1793. The five 
 supernumerary days of the Kevolutionary 
 Calendar. Romnie divided the year into 
 12 equal months of 30 days, beginning 
 22 Sept., 1792. This gives only 360 
 days. The 5 days over were festival 
 days — 1 to Genius, 2 to Labour, 3 to 
 Actions, 4 to Rewards, 5 to Opinion. In 
 leap year a sixth Sans-culottide was 
 added and called the Festival of the 
 Revolution. The Convention Calendar 
 ceased 1 Jan., 1805. The months, begin- 
 ning with September, were called — 
 (Autumn) Vende'miaire, Brumaire, Fri- 
 maire (wine-ary, fog-ary, f rost-ary) ; 
 (Winter) Nivose, Pluviose, VentOse 
 (snow-ous, rain-ous, wind-ous) ; (Spring) 
 Germinal, Floreal, Prairial (bud-all, 
 bloom-all, mead-all) ; (Summer) Messidor, 
 Thermidor, Fructidor (reap-time, heat- 
 time, fruit-time). 
 
 No one, however, was allowed to hold any 
 opinion on politics, theology, sociology, or indeed 
 any other subject of public interest not in accord- 
 ance with the Convention. Such is liberty ! 
 
 The ancient Irish calendar contained only 360 
 days, the of ler five or six were days in which they 
 celebrated their Taltine games, i.e. to the sun and 
 moon. 
 
 Sans Peur et sans Reproche. 
 
 Chevalier Bayard is called the knight 
 
 sans peur et sans reproche (1476-1524). 
 
 Pronounce Sahn Puh'r a sahn R'prosh', 
 
 Santa Casa (The). The reputed 
 house of Joseph and Mary in Nazareth 
 
 where Jesus was brought up. It was 
 transported first in l'.i91 by angels to 
 Fiume, in Dahnatia, but in 1294 angels 
 removed it to Loreto at midnight 10 Dec. 
 In eight months' time it shifted its place 
 from the laurel grove, which was infested 
 by brigands, to the hill, and in four 
 months more (1295) it again shifted its 
 place from the hill to a heap of stones 
 near the high road leading to Recanati, 
 near the sea-coast, where it is still. >St\; 
 p. 149, ' Casa, &c.' 
 
 Pronounce Sahn'-tah Kah'-sah. 
 
 Santa Fedis, 1799. Members of the 
 Secret Association of the Holy Faith, 
 organised by Cardinal Ruffo to extermi- 
 nate all Jansenists, Molinists, Economists, 
 Illuminists, Freemasons, and Carbona'ri. 
 A deadly hatred existed between those 
 societies and the Fedists [Fa-dists] ; and 
 the Fedists, in 1816, committed most 
 frightful slaughter, especially on the Car- 
 bona'ri and their families. 
 
 Santa Hermandad {The), or 
 ' Holy Brotherhood.' An association 
 which executed summary justice on all 
 offenders without distinction of rank. It 
 was established in Spain by Ferdinand 
 the Catholic (1481-1516). 
 
 Santo Ben'ito. The robe worn by 
 those who were punished by the inquisi- 
 tors. It was a straight yellow coat with- 
 out sleeves, with sundry devices. If it 
 contained only a St. Andrew's cross, the 
 wearer paid a fine and was discharged. 
 If it was decorated with flames made of 
 red serge, but without a cross, the wearer 
 was discharged, but warned if ever he 
 relapsed that he would be delivered to 
 the flames. If besides the ' flames ' it was 
 decorated with devils, the wearer was 
 condemned to die. 
 
 Santons. A mendicant tribe of 
 Moslems which profess poverty and the 
 complete sacrifice of all temporal interests 
 to devote themselves to spiritual matters. 
 Yet they have not unfrequently filled the 
 chief offices of the state. When acting 
 simply as ' pi'ophets ' they live in retired 
 grottoes, like hermits, or in tents. The 
 Osmanli consider Abdal, called 'San- 
 tone Kalenderi,' contemporary with Ma- 
 homet, as the founder. He never pro- 
 nounced the name of God, but sounded 
 it on his pipe. See p. 136, ' Calenders.' 
 
794 
 
 SAPPHO 
 
 SAVIOUR 
 
 Sa,p-pho {The English). Mrs. Mary 
 D. Eobinson (1758-1800). 
 
 Sappho {The French). Mdlle. Scu- 
 deri (1607-1701). 
 
 Sappho {The Scotch). Catherine 
 Cockbum (1679-1749). 
 
 Sappho of Toulouse. Cle'mence 
 Isaure (2 syl.), who instituted in 1490 Les 
 Jeux Floraux. She is the authoress of 
 a beautiful ' Ode to Spring ' (14G3-1513). 
 
 Saraba'ites. Monks who live two 
 or three together in one ceU. 
 
 Hermits or Eremites live alone, Cenohii^^s (3 syl.) 
 live socially in common, in a monastery, or con- 
 vent, &c. All are Ascetics. 
 
 Sarace'nic Empire {The Golden 
 Age of the). That of Haroun al Raschid, 
 i.e. Haroun the Just (786-809). 
 
 Sardanapa'lus of China {The). 
 
 Cheou-sin, the last of the Chang dynasty 
 (B.C. 1154-1122). Like Sardanapalus, he 
 burnt himself and his queen to death in 
 his palace to escape falling into the 
 hands of Woo-wong. Chopsticks were 
 first used in this reign. 
 
 Sardanapa'lus of Germany 
 
 {The). Wenceslas VI. (or IV.) king of 
 Bohemia and kaiser of Oermany (1359, 
 1378-1419). 
 
 Sardinians for Sale. 'Sardi 
 venales ' (Livy, xl. 19), rubbish for sale. 
 The Sardinians rose against Rome in the 
 Second Punic War, and again B.C. 181. 
 Tiberius Gracchus checked the insurrec- 
 tion, and so numerous were the prisoners 
 that the market was glutted, and slaves 
 were an unsaleable drug. 
 
 Sargon was originally only a high 
 priest for the year B.C. 721, but was after- 
 wards king of Assyria. His name was 
 Sarru-gina, and he was father of Sen- 
 nacherib or Sin-akhi-erba, who began 
 to reign B.C. 707. 
 
 Sarma'tia. Russia in Europe. 
 Russia in Asia was called Scythia. 
 
 Sarum Missal {The), or 'Use of 
 Sarum,' compUed by Osmund, 1085. 
 Printed at Paris 1487, and at Rouen 1492. 
 Only one perfect copy is known to exist, 
 and that is in the British Museum. 
 
 IMr. Blades gives a description of the Sarum 
 Missal printed at Paris in 1487 (' Atheneeum,' 21 
 March, 1874). There is an imperfect copy of the 
 edition of 1492 in the Bodleian Library. 
 
 Sassan'ian Dynasty {The), or the 
 
 * Sas'sanides ' (3 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
 which succeeded the Arsacides (3 syl.), 
 and was itself succeeded by the Sama- 
 nides (3 syl.). So named from Sassan, 
 father of Ardeshir [Babegan], called by the 
 Greeks Artaxerxes, the first of the line. 
 It lasted 426 years, and terminated with 
 Yezdijird or Yezdedjerd III. (226-653). 
 Title : Shah-an-Shah (king of kings). 
 Capital: Madan. 
 
 This was the most glorious of the Persian 
 dynasties. Artaxerxes or Ardeshir the founder, 
 Shapur I. and II., Baharam I. and V., Khosroo 
 (Chosroes), Noorshirwan, were kings equal to any 
 that history records. 
 
 Satire {Father of). Archilochos of 
 Paros (B.C. 7th cent.). 
 
 Ssitire {Father of French). Mathurin 
 Regnier (1573-1613). 
 
 Satire {Father of Boman). Lucilius 
 (B.C. 148-103). 
 
 Satisfaction. In the Scotch Church 
 is about equal to penance in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, any disgrace suffered, 
 or bodily distress inflicted, or sum of 
 money paid, to obtain absolution of sin. 
 Thus in Scotland the ' Stool of Repent- 
 ance ' was called a satisfaction ; sackcloth 
 and ashes, money paid ad pios usus, and 
 so on, were satisfactions or atonements 
 for misdeeds. 
 
 Saturday Review {The). A Lon- 
 don weekly journal, commenced 3 Nov., 
 
 1855. 
 
 Savage {Richard) claimed to be the 
 
 son of the wife of Lord Brandon [after- 
 wards Earl of Macclesfield] and Richard 
 Savage earl of Rivers. His mother dis- 
 owned him, had him baptized ' Richard 
 Smith,' and then committed to the charge 
 of a Mrs. Portlock, a baker's wife (1698- 
 1743). 
 
 Savil'ian Professorship of 
 Geometry in Oxford University. 
 Open to all nations. Stipend 675 i. a 
 year.j Founded by Sir Henry Savile 
 (Warden of Merton) in 1619. Remodelled 
 in 1857. 
 
 Saviour of the Nation {The). 
 So Cromwell was called after the second 
 battle of Newbury, 27 Oct., 1644, where 
 his valour and military genius were most 
 distinguished. 
 
 Saviour of the People {The), 
 or ' King of the Poor.' William Fitz- 
 
SAVOY 
 
 SCEPTICS 
 
 795 
 
 Osbert, sumamed Longbeard, executed 
 with great barbarity in 1199. 
 
 Savoy Conference {The), 1661, 
 between the Episcopalian and Presby- 
 terian divines of England respecting the 
 Liturgy. There were twelve bishops and 
 twelve Presbytei'ian ministers, with nine 
 assistants on each side. It was held in 
 the Savoy, London, the residence of the 
 Bishop of London. Richard Baxter was 
 chief of the Nonconformists and Dr. 
 Gunning his chief opponent. The Pres- 
 byterians objected to (1) the use of the 
 surplice ; (2) the cross in baptism ; (3) to 
 calling the baptized regenerate; (4) to 
 the posture of kneeling at the Lord's 
 Supper ; (5) to the administration of the 
 eucharist to the sick ; (6) to the absolu- 
 tion ; (7) to the words sure and certain 
 hope in the burial service; and (8) to 
 subscription to the ' Book of Common 
 Prayer ' and the * Thirty-nine Articles.' 
 The conference ended in nothing. 
 
 Saxo Grrammaticus, died 1204. 
 He was a Danish chronicler, and wrote 
 in Latin a ' history of the Danish kings 
 and heroes,' beginning from the founda- 
 tion of the Danish monarchy, B.C. 1038. 
 It is based on the Scaldic lays, Icelandic 
 sagas, and local traditions. Much of it, 
 historically, is about equal in value to 
 Geolrey of Monmouth's ' British His- 
 tory.' 
 
 Saxon Line of Kings. The first 
 dynasty of Germany, 919-1024. It gave 
 five kings — Heinrich I. (Henry the 
 Fowler) ; Otto I., the Great ; Otto II., the 
 Red King ; Otto III., the Wisdom of the 
 World ; and St. Heinrich II., the Lame. 
 The Saxon dynasty was succeeded by 
 the House of Franconia. In 1133-1137 
 reigned Lothair 11., also of the House of 
 Saxony. 
 
 Saxon Mirror {The), or ' Sachsen 
 Spiegel,' between 1215 and 1218. The local 
 laws of Saxony compiled into a digest. 
 In the 15th cent, it had the same autho- 
 rity in Germany as the common law 
 has in our own country. See * Suabian 
 Mirror.' 
 
 Saxony, in Scotch history, means 
 the Lowlands, between the Forth and 
 the Tweed. Hence we read of ' the Picts 
 making raids upon Saxony,' the Picts 
 being the Highlanders south of the Forth. 
 
 Saxony {House of). See 'Saxon 
 Line,' &c. 
 
 Scalds. Scandinavian poets who 
 wrote about gods, kings, and heroes. 
 Each prince had his scald, who followed 
 him to war to celebrate his deeds of fight. 
 These chants were collected into the 
 Edda and the Sagas. 
 
 Scan'dina'via. A name given by 
 the ancients to Norway, Sweden, Den- 
 mark, Lapland, Finland, &rc., supposed 
 to constitute an island (Plin. iv. 13). 
 
 So called from the ancient province of Scandia 
 in the south of Sweden. 
 
 Scandinavian Alps {The). The 
 Dofrine mountains, a chain running be- 
 tween Norway and Sweden. The Snee- 
 haettan {Snow-cap) is the highest. 
 
 Scan'dina'vian Semir'amis 
 
 {The). Margaret, daughter of Valdemar 
 III., king of Denmark (1353, 1388-1412). 
 
 Scarlet and Blue. The colours 
 of the Scotch covenant. 
 
 Scarlet Days. Christmas Day, 
 Easter Day, Ascension Day, Whit Sunday, 
 Trinity Sunday, All Saints' Day, the first 
 Sunday in November (the day for the 
 commemoration of benefactors), Com- 
 mencement Tuesday (the Tuesday next 
 prepeding 24 June), and any other days 
 for which the Vice-Chancellor gives 
 notice, are so called in the University of 
 Cambridge, because on those days all 
 doctors wear their scarlet robes. 
 
 On all Litany days the doctors and noblemen 
 wear their robes, and the proctors their congre- 
 gation rulfs. 
 
 Searpine (A). An iron shoe, an in- 
 strument of torture, heated red-hot. Also 
 a boot made of wood, torture being in- 
 flicted by driving wedges between the 
 leg of the victim and the walls of the boot. 
 
 French escarpin, Ital. Scarpa. 
 
 1 was put to the scarpines. 
 
 KiNGSLEY, Westward Ho! chap. vii. 
 
 Sceptics, i.e. men of thought, 
 searchers or examiners into the truth or 
 falsehood of a statement. The Bereans, 
 who searched the Scriptures to see if what 
 was said by Christians was genuine and 
 worthy of credit, were true ' sceptics.' 
 The disciples of Pyrrho are called Pyr- 
 rhonists or Sceptics. The most famous 
 sceptics of antiquity were Protagoras, 
 Gorgias, Pyrrho, Timon, Enesidemos, 
 Sextus Empiricus, and, of the New Aca- 
 
796 
 
 SCEPTKE 
 
 SCHISM 
 
 demy, Arcesilas and Cameades. The 
 most famous sceptics of modern times 
 are Montaigne, Lamothe-Levaj'er, Bayle, 
 Sanchez, Huet, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, 
 Schulze, &c. 
 
 Sceptre depart from Judah 
 
 {The). 'The sceptre shall not depart 
 from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between 
 her feet, imtil Shiloh [the Messiah] 
 come.' 
 
 The Asmonaean dynasty terminated 
 with Aristobulus II., whose daughter 
 Mariam'ne was married to Herod the 
 Great, an Idumsean; and in this reign 
 Jesus was born. 
 
 Every Jewish ruler up to this time had 
 been of the race of Isaac. And Judah in 
 the prophecy means a Jew, not a parti- 
 cular tribe. Herod was the first Jewish 
 ruler not a Jew. 
 
 Herod was an Edomite, and therefore of the 
 race of Esau. 
 
 Scliainir. A magic stone used by 
 Satan, when compelled to assist in build- 
 ing the Temple. It cut the stones em- 
 ployed in the edifice as a diaracnd cuts 
 glass ; and in consequence ' no hammer, 
 axe, or other instrument of iron ' was re- 
 quired. 
 
 Schiltrons, hollow squares. The 
 Scotch infantry was disposed in schiltrons 
 at Falkirk, their spears pointed obliquely 
 outwards against the charging cavalry. 
 
 Schism Bill {The), 10 June, 1714 
 (13 Anne, c. 7). Kepealed 1718 (5 Geo. I. 
 c. 4). Forbidding dissenters to educate 
 their children. No person, unless he 
 subscribed a declaration that he con- 
 formed to the Church of England, and 
 obtained a licence from the archbishop 
 or bishop of the diocese, was allowed to 
 keep a school or become a private tutor. 
 The penalty was three years' imprison- 
 ment ; and even if licensed, if a teacher 
 of youth neglected to teach the Church 
 Catechism he forfeited his licence, and 
 made himself subject to three years' im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 ScMsm of the East, a.d. 862. The 
 separation of the Western Church from 
 communion with the Greek Church. It 
 was provoked by Photius, and consum- 
 mated in 1053 by the patriarch Cerularius. 
 Photius patriarch of Constantinople anathema- 
 tised Nicholas I. ' pope ' of Rome, and Nicholas 
 anathematised the patriarch, who advised his 
 clergy to separate from communion with Borne. 
 
 Photius was a man of extraordinary erudition. 
 Cerularius positively refused all Intercourse with 
 the Western Church. 
 
 Schism, of the Mohamm.edans 
 
 {The), A.D. 632, after the death of Ma- 
 homet. The question was whether Ali, the 
 son-in-law, or Abou-bekr, the father-in- 
 law, ought to succeed the prophet. Those 
 who thought Ali the proper successor 
 were called Shiites (factious) ; those 
 who thought Abou-bekr the true Imaum 
 were called Sunnites (traditionists). The 
 Turks, Arabs and Egyptians are Sunnites ; 
 the Persians are Shiites. The califs are 
 Abou-bekr, 632-634; Omar, 634-644; 
 Othman, 644-656 ; Ali, 656-661, &c. The 
 Shiites reject the first three, and begin 
 with Ali. 
 
 In India the Moslems are partly Sunnite and 
 partly Shiah. 
 
 Schism of the Twelve Tribes 
 
 {The), B.C. 962, when ten of the tribes re- 
 volted from Rehoboam, son of Solomon, 
 and formed the new kingdom of Israel. 
 The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which 
 remained under Rehoboam, then formed 
 the kingdom of Judah. Each kingdom 
 had its own kings. 
 
 Schism of the 'West {The Great), 
 1378-1449. A period of seventy-one years, 
 during which time two popes, and some- 
 times more than two, were elected — one 
 at Rome, and one at Avignon in France, 
 or somewhere else. It began by the 
 Italian cardinals electing Urban VI. in 
 opposition to the French cardinals, who 
 had elected Clement VII. The Roman 
 clergy called the popes who were not of 
 their own election 'anti-popes.' 
 
 This ' schism ' is not the same as the ' captivity ' 
 of the popes, meaning the residence of the popes 
 at Avignon instead of Rome. The ' captivity ' be- 
 gan with Clement V., who in 1309 removed his 
 court to Avignon, and ended in 1376 by Gre- 
 gory XI. removing his court back to Rome. At the 
 death of Gregory XI. the Italian cardinals chose 
 Urban VI. and the French chose Clement VII., 
 and for many years there were two simultaneous 
 popes. See p. 81, ' Anti-Popes.' 
 
 Schism of the Western Church 
 
 {The), 324-334, in the reign of Constan- 
 tine. The rivalry showed itself in 341. 
 
 I. The two churches differed in respect 
 to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost about 
 400, and in 589 the Latin Church intro- 
 duced into the creed the phrase ' filioque ' 
 {q.V.). 
 
 II. In 484, Felix 11. bishop of Rome 
 and Acacius bishop of Constantinople 
 excommunicated each other. In 648 
 Pope Theodore pronounced the patriarch 
 
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 
 
 SCHOLASTIC 
 
 797 
 
 Paul II. to be deposed. In 867 Photius 
 and Pope Nicholas I. excommunicated 
 each other. In 1054 the legates of Leo 
 IX. went to Constantinople to excom- 
 municate Michael Cerularius, and. then 
 Cerularius excommunicated Leo IX. 
 
 III. In 588 the Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople assumed the fitle of ' Ecumenical 
 (or universal) Patriarch ' ; and in 835 the 
 Pope of Kome, by the False Decretals, 
 claimed the right of universal jurisdiction. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein Question 
 
 {The), 1848. That is, did the two duchies 
 laelong to Denmark or Germany ? They 
 were at the time parts of the kingdom of 
 Denmark. Holstein belonged to Den- 
 mark only as a fief, and, though the duke 
 owed homage to Denmark, he was an 
 independent ruler. In 1846 the King of 
 Denmark, who was then Duke of Hol- 
 stein, declared the two duchies to be 
 united to the crown of Denmark ; but 
 Holstein objected, and appealed to the 
 German Confederation, of which it was 
 a member. In 1848 the king sent troops 
 to put down a revolt in Holstein, and 
 the German diet sent troops to defend 
 the duchy. In 1852 the great powers of 
 Europe signed in London a protocol 
 guaranteeing to Denmark the possession 
 of the duchies, but neither Holstein nor 
 the German diet would consent to the 
 protocol. The quarrel smouldered on 
 till 1863, when Austria and Prussia sent 
 troops into the duchies, and Demnark 
 armed for war ; Denmark, of course, was 
 powerless against these two great powers, 
 was forced to crave peace and to give up 
 tiie duchies. Prussia now quarrelled with 
 Austria, conquered her in war, and the 
 duchies fell to Prussia. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein "War (The). 
 
 I. 1848-52. On the accession of Frede- 
 rick VII. to the tlirone of Denmark, the 
 duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
 volted, and declared their independence. 
 Prussia entered Holstein, and Denmark 
 defeated the Prussians and Holsteiners 
 near Flensborg, 7 April, 1848. The war 
 continued till the Treaty of London, 8 
 May, 1852, when Holstein was transferred 
 to the Danes, and Schleswig was declared 
 independent. 
 
 II. 1864-1866, Prussia and Austria de- 
 manded that Denmark should evacuate 
 Schleswig and abolish the constitution ; 
 and Prince Frederick of Augustenburg 
 
 was proclaimed Duke of Kiel, 30 Dec, 
 
 1863. Austria and Prussia both interfered, 
 and hostilities continued till 1864, when, 
 by the Treaty of Vienna, Lunenberg, 
 Schleswig, and Holstein were ceded by 
 Denmark to the two powers. Austria 
 evacuated Holstein 12 July, 1866. After 
 the Seven Weeks' War, 23 Aug., 1866, 
 Schleswig-Holstein was added to the 
 kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 No war was ever more fruitful of consequences 
 than this petty Schleswig Holstein war. Out of it 
 arose the war between Austria and Prussia called 
 the ' Seven Weeks' War,' and the Franco Prussian 
 war or ' Seven Months' War,' by which Austria 
 was severed from Germany, and Prussia was 
 made the head of the German states. In 1870 the 
 King of Prussia was declared to be the ' German 
 Emperor ' also. 
 
 Schola Palati'na. The school es- 
 tablished by Charlemagne in his own 
 household. It accompanied the court 
 wherever it went, and was attended by 
 the king himself, his sons and daughters, 
 and the high officers of the realm. 
 
 Transcribing MSS. was a fashionable occupation 
 of the day, both in the schola palatina and in pri- 
 vate families. 
 
 Scholars, in the universities of 
 Cambridge and Oxford. Students elected 
 for the most part by competitive exami- 
 nations in their respective colleges. They 
 enjoy certain emoluments from their col- 
 lege from the time of their election. 
 
 At Merton College, Oxford, the * scho- 
 lars ' are called Postmasters. 
 
 At Magdalen College, Oxford, the 
 • scholars ' are called Demies [de-mize]. 
 
 Scholastic Theology, * Scholastic 
 Divinity,' or ' Scholastic Philosophy,' 
 may be divided into four periods. 
 
 I. The Preparatory period, from the 
 9th to the 11th cent. This period in- 
 cluded Gerbert of Aurillac (afterwards 
 Pope Sylvester II.), Berengarius of Tours, 
 and Lanfranc archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 II. The First period of Scholasticism 
 proper, 12th cent., opened by Roscellnus, 
 who broached the dispute concerning 
 Nominalism and Realism. This period 
 included Peter Lombard (* -1164) and 
 Alexander Hales {* -1245). In this 
 period it was pithy and logical. 
 
 HI. The Second and Golden Age of 
 Scholasticism, in which Aristotelian me- 
 taphysics were applied to the elucidation 
 of Christian doctrines. This period be- 
 gan with Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), 
 who was contemporary with one of the 
 greatest of the Schoolmen, Thomas 
 
798 
 
 SCHOLEFIELD 
 
 SCOTISTS 
 
 Aquinas (1224-1274). John Bonaventura 
 died the same year as Aquinas. 
 
 The great opponent of Thomas Aquinas 
 was Duns Scotus, a reahst (1265-1308) ; 
 the followers of Thomas Aquinas were 
 called Thomists,and those of Duns Scotus 
 were called Scotists. In this period the 
 school was subtle and sophistical. 
 
 IV. The Third period dates from Du- 
 landus bishop of Meaux [Mo]. 
 
 Called 'scholastic ' because it was taught in the 
 schools established by Charlemagne. 
 
 Seholefield Prize for knowledge of 
 the Greek Testament and the Septuagint. 
 Value about 15Z. Founded in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge by the friends of 
 the Rev. James Seholefield \_Shole -field] 
 regius professor of Greek, 1856. See 
 * Regius Professor of Greek.' 
 
 School Boards. The boards are 
 due to the Elementary Education Act of 
 1870; the object of which act is to bestow 
 elementary education upon every child in 
 England 'and Wales. Where there does 
 not exist a sufficient supply for the pur- 
 pose, ' a school board shall be formed to 
 supply the deficiency.' The boards are 
 elected every three years, and the ex- 
 penses of the education provided by these 
 boards are defrayed partly by rates and 
 partly by government grants. 
 
 The ratepayers appoint the board, but the 
 directors are not paid. 
 
 Schoolnieil. Those who taught in 
 the schools established by Charlemagne. 
 See ' Scholastic Divinity.' 
 
 Schwarz-gelber [Ein). In 1848 
 the Austrian Imperialists were called 
 ' Black-yellows,' because the imperial 
 cockades, sentry-boxes, and boundary 
 posts were all black and yellow. 
 
 Sciences. The six sciences, accord- 
 ing to Comte (1797-1857), are mathe- 
 matics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
 biology, and sociology; of these six, 
 according to Comte, the last is the chief. 
 
 Sclavonic Version {The) of the 
 Scriptures, by Cyril of Thessalonica and 
 his brother Methodius, in the 9th cent. 
 Translated for the Sclavonians of Mora- 
 via. It embraced the whole Bible. See 
 ' Scriptures.' 
 
 Scorpion Stanley. So Daniel 
 O'Connell designated Edward Geoffrey 
 Smith Stanley, chief secretary for Ireland 
 in 1830-1832, afterwards fourteenth earl 
 
 of Derby. Very obnoxious to the Irish 
 agitation from his great firmness in ad- 
 ministering the law (1799-1864). 
 
 No matter who the chief secretary may be, if 
 he resists lawlessness, rebellion, and crime, he is 
 bespattered as a ' scorpion Stanley,' a ' malignant 
 Forster,' or a ' bloody Balfour.' Such dishonour 
 is the proof and the reward of even-handed jus- 
 tice. 
 
 Scot and Lot include at the present 
 day all parochial assessments for the 
 poor, the church, lighting, cleansing, 
 washing, roads, &c. Scot and lot are 
 Swedish terms, both signifying tax, and 
 originally were applied to assessments 
 made for liquidating necessary debts of 
 the crown, levied, not by an equal rate, 
 but according to the capacity of the con- 
 tributor. 
 
 Scota. When the Scotch barons in 
 1320 answered the bull of Pope John 
 XXII., they began by stating that the 
 Scots were lineal descendants of Scota, 
 daughter of Pharaoh king of Egypt, 
 and were converted to Christianity by 
 St. Andrew the apostle. 
 
 Scotch Guard. See p. 357, ' Gardes 
 du corps.' 
 
 Scotch Marriage [A). A consent 
 to live together, without any legal or 
 church ceremony. 
 
 Consent makes marriage [in Scotland]. No form 
 or ceremony, civil or religious, no notice before 
 or publication after, no cohabitation, no writing, 
 no witnesses even are essential to . . . this con- 
 tract.— Lord Deas. 
 
 Scoti {The). Prehistoric invaders of 
 Ireland, from whom the island was called 
 Scotia. They conquered the five pro- 
 vincial kings and became their overlords. 
 O'Connor (' History of the Irish People,' 
 p. 30) says they were Scythi of the Scan- 
 dinavian race. See ' Scots.' 
 
 Scotia. Applied exclusively to Ire- 
 land from the 4th to the 11th cent. The 
 Scoti were a branch of the Teutons. 
 North Britain was called Albany or 
 Albania. It was not till the English, in 
 the reign of Henry II., invaded Ireland 
 that the island forces were called ' Irish.' 
 See ' Scotland.' 
 
 Finibus occiduis describitur optima tellus, 
 Nomine et antiquis Scotia dicta libris. 
 
 DONATCS. 
 
 Far westward lies an isle of ancient fame 
 By nature blest, and Scotia is her name. 
 
 Scotists. A theological school so 
 called from [John] Duns Scotus (' doctor 
 S2ibtilissimus ' — 'most subtle doctor'). 
 This school was opposed to the Thomists 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SCOTTISH 
 
 799 
 
 or disciples of Thomas Aquinas. The 
 Scotists were Realists, the Thomists were 
 Nominalists [q-v.). Duns was a Fran- 
 ciscan, and therefore the natural opponent 
 of Aquinas, who was a Dominican. 
 
 Scotland {Kings of). 
 Caledonia.' 
 
 See p. 135, 
 
 In the 9th cent. Kenneth II. (MaoAlpin) united 
 In his own person the two crowns of the Picts 
 and Sco^s, and was, therefore, in reality the first 
 king of Scotland ; but the Scotch annalists count 
 sixty-six kings before Kenneth MacAlpin, and 
 head the list with Fergus, B.C. 3J0. Omitting all 
 the names up to Fergus II., the list runs thus : - 
 
 Fergus II. 
 
 410-427 
 
 CONSTANTINE lY. 994-995 
 
 Eugene I. 
 
 4i7-449 
 
 Grim 995-997 
 
 DONGAKD 
 
 449-453 
 
 Malcolm II. ... 997-1033 
 
 CONSTANTINE I. 
 
 453-469 
 
 Duncan ... 1033 1040 
 
 CONGAL I. 
 
 469 501 
 
 Macbeth ... 1040-1057 
 
 GONllAN 
 
 501-535 
 
 Malcolm III. 1057-1093 
 
 EUGE.NE II. .. 
 
 535-568 
 
 Donald VII. .. 1093-1094 
 
 CONGAL II. 
 
 5G.S-57'2 
 
 Duncan II. .1094-1095 
 
 KINATHAL 
 
 572-580 
 
 (Donald VI. restored, 
 
 AIDAN 
 
 580-<>04 
 
 1095 1098). 
 
 (Colurriba converts the 
 
 EDGAR 1098-1107 
 
 Scots). 
 
 
 Ale.xander .. 1107-1114 
 
 Kenneth I. ... 
 
 604-606 
 
 David I. ... 1114-1143 
 
 Eugene III. ... 
 
 606-622 
 
 Malcolm IV.. .. 1143-1157 
 
 FerchardI. ... 
 
 622-632 
 
 William I. ...1157-1214 
 
 Donald II. ... 
 
 632-647 
 
 Ale.xander II. 1214 1219 
 
 FerchardII. ... 
 
 647-668 
 
 Alexander III. 1219-1286 
 
 Maldwin 
 
 <m-GSS 
 
 IiHerreunum. 
 
 Eugene IV. .. 
 
 688 092 
 
 JOHN P.ALIOL .. 1292-1306 
 
 Eugene V. 
 
 692 699 
 
 EDWARD I. 
 
 Amberchelet 
 
 699-700 
 
 Robert I. 
 
 Eugene vi. .. 
 
 700-702 
 
 (Bruce) ... 1306-1329 
 
 (Amberohelet restored, 
 
 David II. 
 
 702-704). 
 
 
 (Bruce) ... 1329-1332 
 
 Eugene VII. ... 
 
 704 717 
 
 Edward 
 
 Mordac 
 
 717 730 
 
 Baliol ... 1.332-1333 
 
 Erfinius 
 
 730-761 
 
 (David II. restored, 
 
 Eugene VIII. .. 
 
 761 764 
 
 1333-1370). 
 
 Fergus III. .. 
 
 764-767 
 
 Robert II. .. 1370-1390 
 
 SOLVATIUS 
 
 767-787 
 
 Robert III. 
 
 Anchaius 
 
 787-809 
 
 (called JOHN) 1,390-1406 
 
 CONGAL III. .. 
 
 809-814 
 
 Eobert th.- Puyent, 
 
 Dougal 
 
 814 820 
 
 1406-1409! 
 
 Alpin 
 
 820-823 
 
 Duke MuicUjch, 
 
 KENNETH U. 
 
 823-854 
 
 1409-1424. 
 
 I>ONALD V. 
 
 854-858 
 
 James I. ... 1424-14.37 
 
 CONSTANTINE II 
 
 . &58-874 
 
 James II. .. 1437-1460 
 
 Etheus 
 
 874-875 
 
 James III. ... 146J 1488 
 
 Gregory 
 
 875-893 
 
 James IV. ... 1488-1513 
 
 Donald VI. 
 
 893-904 
 
 James V. .. 1513 1542 
 
 CONSTANTINE III. 904-943 
 
 Mary . 1642 1.507 
 
 Malcolm I. ... 
 
 943-958 
 
 James VI. ... 1567 1607 
 
 INDULPH 
 
 958-968 
 
 When he became 
 
 Duff 
 
 968 973 
 
 JAMES I. of Great 
 
 CULEN 
 
 973 978 
 
 Britain (by royal pro- 
 
 Kenneth III. ... 
 
 978-994 
 
 clamation). 
 
 Scotland. Till the 11th cent. North 
 Britain was called Albany. The name 
 Scotia from the 4th to the 11th cent, 
 belonged exclusively to Ireland, a.d. 258 
 a colony of Irish-Scots settled in Argyll- 
 shire, and gave a line of Dalriadic kings. 
 From the 11th cent, we read of Irish- 
 Scots and Albanian-Scots. The Romans 
 called the southern ]3art of Scotland 
 Caledonia, a name which disappears in 
 the 4th cent. 
 
 Quod ut ante undecimum post Christi nativita- 
 tem saeculum liaudquaquam factum, in fine prse- 
 cedentis capitis declaravimus : ita neminem, qui 
 toto antecedentium annorum spatio Bcripserit 
 
 produci posse arbitramur qui ScotitE appellatione 
 Albaniam unquam designaverit.— USHER, EccLes. 
 Primord. cap. xvi. 
 
 Scotland a Fief of England. 
 
 During the reign of Malcolm I. (successor 
 of Constantine III.), Edmund king of Eng- 
 land bestowed on him part of the Cum- 
 brian kingdom [Cumberland and part of 
 Westmoreland]. It was this grant which 
 was the foundation of the claim of homage 
 made by the English kings on the Scot- 
 tish sovereigns. 
 
 Scots, i.e. Irish. A prehistoric colony 
 of Scythians which settled in Ireland about 
 B.C. 400. Subsequently a colony from 
 Ireland went to Argyllshire and reigned 
 there as a race of Scottish kings. The 
 famous Milesians were Scots, and as the 
 Scoti conquered the five provincial kings, 
 and became overlords, Ireland was called 
 Scotia. The Scoti of Caledonia (Scot- 
 land) spoke Earish (Ersh), i.e. Irish or 
 Western. 
 
 Totam cum Scotus lernen 
 Movitet infesto spumavit remige Tethys. 
 
 Claudian, lul. Cons. Stiiich. Book I. 
 When Scots came thundering from the Irish 
 
 shores. 
 The Atlantic trembled, struck with hostile oars. 
 
 Scottish Crown (^7^e). 'Itcam'wi' 
 a lass, and will gang wi' a lass.' So said 
 James V. a few days before his death 
 when informed of the birth of a daughter, 
 afterwards Mary queen of Scots. The 
 Stuarts descended from Margery (daugh- 
 ter of Robert Bruce), who married Walter 
 [the 6th] Steward or Seneschal of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Malcolm IV. was the father of William the 
 Lion (who succeeded him), and of David earl of 
 Huntingdon. William the Lion had no issue. 
 
 David earl of Huntingdon was the father of 
 Margaret, Isabella (who married Robert Bruce), 
 and Ada. 
 
 First take Margaret; she was the mother of 
 Devoirgoil, and John Baliol was the son of 
 Devoirgoil (great-great-grandson of Malcolm IV.). 
 
 Now take Isabella fwife of Robert Bruce) ; their 
 son was The Bruce (Robert I.\ 
 
 The Bruce iRobert) was the father of Margery 
 Bruce (who married Walter the Steward or 
 Seneschal), and their son was DAVID II. (Steward 
 or Stuart in French spelling). 
 
 Scottish Petitioners {The), Aug. 
 1775, who prayed the Virginia conven- 
 tion that they might be allowed to stand 
 neutral in the war between America and 
 Great Britain. The licence was first 
 granted and then revoked, the Scots 
 being largely enrolled in the royal militia. 
 
 Scottish Plato 
 Stewart (1753-1828). 
 
 {The). Dugald 
 
800 
 
 SCOTTISH 
 
 SCRIPTORES 
 
 Scottish Security Bill [The), 
 1704, for the separation of Scotland and 
 England. Authorising the Scotch on the 
 death of Anne to set up a monarch of 
 their own choice, independent of the 
 English choice of a sovereign. The Bill 
 was brought in by Godolphin. 
 
 The English tories printed and circulated the 
 Scottish Security Bill to show that the two 
 countries were really separated in the most abso- 
 lute manner.— Ho WITT, History of England (Anne, 
 194). 
 
 Scotus [John), entitled Erigena 
 [Erin-gen a], an Irisliman by birth. Died 
 875. North Britain was not called Scot- 
 land [q.v.) till the 11th cent. 
 
 Scourers. A set of dissolute young 
 rips in London in the 18th cent., especi- 
 ally in the reign of Queen Anne, opposed 
 to the Mohocks, but quite as infamous 
 and lawless. They were organised to 
 ' scour the streets of Mohocks,' but like 
 other street bullies they considered it 
 capital fun to break windows, upset 
 sedan chairs, beat quiet citizens, rudely 
 caress young women, and make older 
 ones scream with terror. See ' Street 
 Bullies.' 
 
 Who has not heard the Scourers' midnight fame ? 
 Who has not trembled at the ;\Iohocks' name ? 
 Was there a watchman took hia hourly rounds, 
 Safe from their blows and new-invented wounds ? 
 Gay, Trivia, III. 
 
 *,* The nephew of Prince Eugene, who accom- 
 panied his uncle on an embassage to Queen Anne, 
 was so savagely assaulted by these street bullies 
 in 171'2 that he died from the treatment he re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Denham bottled up his wrath till he was out of 
 Newgate ; but then, finding it no longer control- 
 lable, he joined a band of Scourers, and spent the 
 evening in wrenching off knockers, assaulting 
 defenceless shop signs, frightening the chapmen 
 into fits, and hustling everything that was 
 capable of being hustled (1684).— Edna Lyall, In 
 the Golden Days, xxxiv. 
 
 Scourge [The) used at the Cruci- 
 fixion, we are told by Alexis Comnenus, 
 was preserved at Constantinople. See 
 ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.'' 
 
 Scourge of Christians [The). 
 Noureddm-Mahmud of Damascus (1116- 
 
 1174). 
 
 Scourge of Europe {The). Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte (born 17fi8, foreign wars 
 1796-1815, died 1821). 
 
 Scourge of Germany {The). So 
 the Swedes were called (1630-1635) for 
 their extraordinary success in the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 Scourge of God {The). 'Flagel- 
 lum Dei.' So a Gaulish hermit called 
 
 Attila, and the king delighted in the 
 appellation (died 458). 
 Genseric king of the Vandals was called ' Virga 
 
 Dei ' (reigned 429-477). 
 
 Scourge of Princes {The). Pietro 
 Aretino of Arezzo, a merciless satirist of 
 kings and princes (1492-1557). 
 
 Thus Aretin of late got reputation 
 
 By scourging kings, as Lucian did of old 
 
 By scourging gods. 
 
 Lord Brooke, Inquisition upon Fame. 
 
 Scourge of Scotland {The). 
 * Scotorum Malleus.' Edward I. (1239, 
 1272-1307). 
 
 Also called the ' Scourge of Wales.' 
 
 Scourge of the Propagators 
 of the Faith [The). The pastor, 
 Charles Drelincourt, who, in his ' Abrege 
 des Controverses,' refuted the arguments 
 brought forward by the Converters {q.v.) 
 to turn Huguenots to the Catholic Com- 
 munion (1595-1669). 
 
 Scriptores Decern. A collection 
 of ten ancient chronicles of English 
 history in one folio vol. 1652, edited by 
 Roger Twysden and John Selden. 
 
 1. Simeon Dunelmensis (of Durham). 
 ' Historia.' 
 
 2. Johannes Hagustaldensis (John of 
 Hexham). * Historia Continuata.' 
 
 3. Richardus Hagustaldensis. ' De 
 Gestis Regis Stephani.' 
 
 4. Ailredus Rievallensis (Ailred of 
 Rieval or Rievaulx). ' Historia,' being 
 a genealogy of the kings. 
 
 5. Radulphus de Diceto. 'Abbrevia- 
 tiones Chronicorum ' and * Ymagines 
 Historiarum.' 
 
 6. Johannes Brompton. * Chronicon.' 
 
 7. Gervasius Dorobornensis (Gervais 
 of Dover). ' Chronica,' &c. : the burning 
 and repairs of Dover Church ; lives of 
 the Archbishops of Canterbury ; and con- 
 tentions between the monks of Canter- 
 bury and Archbishop Baldwin. 
 
 8. Thomas Stubbs, a Dominican. 
 ' Chronica Pontificum Ecc. Eboraci ' 
 (York). 
 
 9. Guilielmus Thorn Cantuariensis (of 
 Canterbury). ' Chronica.' 
 
 10. Henricus Knighton Leicestrensis 
 (of Leicester). ' Chronica.' 
 
 8, 9, 10 are chronicles of pontiffs or archbishops. 
 
 Scriptores Q,uinque, or * Scrip- 
 tores post Bedam,' 1 fol. vol., contain- 
 ing : — 
 
 1. Willielmus Malmesburiensis, 'De 
 Gestis Regum Anglorum,' 'Historic 
 
SCRIPTORES 
 
 SCRIPTURES 
 
 801 
 
 NovelljB,' and ' De Gestis Pontificum 
 Auglorum.' 
 
 2. Henricus Huntindoniensis. ' His- 
 toria.' 
 
 8. Roger Hovedeni (Hoveden). ' An- 
 nales.' 
 
 4. Ethelwerd. * Chronica.' 
 
 5. Ingulphus Croylandensis. ' His- 
 toria.' 
 
 Scriptores Tres, or in full thus: 
 ' Britannicarum Gentium Historiaa An- 
 tiquae Scriptores tres.' Then follow the 
 names : — 
 
 1. Richardus Coriensis (of Cirencester). 
 'De Situ Britanniae.' 
 
 2. Gildas Badonicus (of Bath). 
 
 3. Nennius Banchoriensis (of Bangor). 
 
 Dr. Bertram professed to have dis- 
 covered these MSS. between the years 
 1747 and 1757 ; but J. E. Mayor, in his 
 preface to ' Richardi de Cirencestria 
 Speculum Historiale,' has laid bare this 
 literary forgery. See ' Literary For- 
 geries.' 
 
 Scriptu'ra. A tax on cattle. So 
 called because the collectors ' set down 
 in writing ' a description of the number 
 and kind of cattle on which the tax was 
 levied. 
 
 Scriptu'ra Thesauri Regis. 
 
 The 'Record of the King's Treasury.' 
 So Doomsday Book was anciently called, 
 because it was kept, together with the 
 king's seal, under three locks and keys 
 in the royal treasury. 
 
 Scripture Interpolations. Cri- 
 tics say a ' reading is to be rejected as 
 genuine when there is plain evidence 
 that it has undergone a designed altera- 
 tion,' such as the following : — 
 
 1. From doctrinal reasons : Matt. i. 18; 
 Mark viii. 31, xiii. 32, xvi. 14 to the end; 
 and 1 John v. 7, 8. 
 
 2. From moral and practical reasons : 
 as Matt. V. 22. 
 
 3. From historical and geographical 
 doubts : Matt. viii. 28 ; compare Mark 
 V. 1. 
 
 4. From a desire of reconciling texts 
 inconsistent with each other: as Mark 
 viii. 31. 
 
 5. From a desire to make a discourse 
 more intensive. 
 
 6. From the manifest amalgamation 
 of different MSS. or parallel passages. 
 
 See Ernesti, ' Principles of Interpreta- 
 
 tion,' vol. ii. p. 114 ; Home's * Introduc- 
 tion ' ; Davidson, Michaehs, &c. 
 
 Scriptures. To the article ' Bible,' 
 p. 90, add the following : — 
 
 The Discharge Bible. 
 
 ,, Ears to ear Uible. 
 
 „ Rebekahs Camels Bible. 
 
 „ Rosin * Bible. 
 
 „ Standing fishes Bible. 
 
 ,, To-remain Bible. 
 
 „ Unrighteous Bible. 
 *,* These are typographical errors which have 
 occurred in different Bibles, all but one (marked*) 
 printed in the 19th cent. See also ' Peschito Ver- 
 sion ' (the Syriac Bible). 
 
 Scriptures (Spurious). 
 Part I. The Old Testament. 
 
 1. Apocryphal Books received by 
 some Christians and rejected by 
 others : — 
 
 land2E8dra8 . . in 9 -HG chapters. 
 
 Tobit , 14 
 
 Judith , 16 „ 
 
 The rest of Esther . „ 6 
 
 Wisdom . . . ,, 19 „ 
 
 Ecclesiasticus . . „ 51 „ 
 
 Baruch and \ „ 
 
 Epistle of Jeremiah/ >< " »» 
 
 Song of the Three Children. 
 Story of Susanna. 
 Bel and the Dragon. 
 Prayer of Manalseh. 
 
 1 Maccabees, in 16 chapters. 
 
 2 „ „ 15 
 
 •,* These and several others are canonical in 
 the Abyssinian Church. Book of Enoch translated 
 by Dr. Kenealy, set; p. 296. 
 
 2. The following are not even accepted 
 in the Apocrypha. They are called 
 Pseudepigraphoe : — 
 
 The 3 and 4 of Maccabees (in the Septuagint 
 Bible). 
 
 The Genealogy of Job and his Wife's speech (at 
 the end of the Greek text of the Book of Job). 
 
 CLI. Psalm (at the end of the Greek psalms). 
 
 A discourse of King Solomon (at the end of tlie 
 ' Book of Wisdom '). 
 
 The preface to the Book of Lamentations (in 
 the Vulgate). 
 
 8. The following, referred to in the Old 
 Testament, form no part of our Canon : — 
 
 The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41). 
 ,, of the Acts of Uriah (2 Chron. xxvi. 22). 
 
 of the Chronicles of David (1 Chron. 
 xxvii. 24). 
 „ of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel 
 (often). 
 Of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah 
 (often). 
 „ of the Covenant (Jos. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18). 
 „ of the Kings of Judah and Israel (often). 
 „ of Gad the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 20). 
 „ of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron. xii. 15). 
 
 „ of Jasher (Joshua x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18). 
 „ of Jehu (2 Chron. xx. 34). 
 
 „ of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chron. xxix. 
 
 29). 
 „ of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29 
 2 Chron. ix. 29). 
 of Shemaiah (2 Chron. xii. 15). 
 The Books of Jason i2 Maccabees ii.). 
 
 of the Wars (Numbers xxi. 14). 
 The Memoirs of Hircanus (2 Mace. ii.). 
 „ of Jeremiah (1 Mace. ii.). 
 
 3F 
 
802 
 
 SCEIPTURES 
 
 SCRIPTURES 
 
 The Prophecy about Babylon (Jer. ii.). 
 of Ahijah (2 Chron. ix. 29). 
 ,, of Jeremiah (Jer. li.). 
 
 „ of Jonah (Jonah). 
 
 Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22). 
 The Thousand and Five Songs of Solomon (1 Kings 
 
 iv. 32). 
 Three Thousand Proverbs of Solomon (1 Kings 
 
 iv. 32). 
 Visions of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron. ix. 29). 
 
 3. The following are sometimes re- 
 ferred to, but are no longer extant : — 
 
 The Assumption of Abraham. 
 
 „ ,, of Moses. 
 
 „ ,, of the Twelve Patriarchs. 
 
 „ Btooli of King Og. 
 
 „ Creation of Adam. 
 
 „ r)i«courscs of Jacob and Joseph. 
 
 „ Generation of the Sons, &c., of Adam. 
 
 „ Gospel of Eve. 
 
 „ Ham s (or Cham's) Book of Magic. 
 
 „ Jacob's Ladder. 
 
 ,, Jetsira. 
 
 „ Prophecy of Eldad and Mcdad. 
 
 ,, Revelation of Adam. 
 
 ,, Secrets of Elias. 
 
 ,, Secrets of Jeremiah. 
 Seth. 
 Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. 
 
 Part II. The New Testament. 
 
 The Book of Acts (ascribed to Peter). 
 The Gospel of Andrew, Apelles. Barnabas, Ce 
 rinthus, James the Elder, Judas Iscariot, Lucia- 
 nus, Lucius, Matthew {the false gospel of). Ma-tthnxs 
 Marcion, Nicodemus, PeterlEiisebius yl. 12), Philip 
 Tatian (The Didtessarou), Tnaddeus, Thomas, Va- 
 lentinus, &c. 
 The Gospel of Perfection. 
 
 „ of the Ebionites (4 syl.). 
 
 „ of the Infancy of Christ. 
 
 „ of the Nativity of Mary. 
 
 „ of the Twelve Apostles. 
 
 „ according to the Egyptians. 
 
 „ „ to the Hebrews. 
 
 „ „ to the Syrians. 
 
 The Everlasting Gospel (13th cent.). 
 The Four Gospels of the Manich6ans. 
 The Hebrew Gospel or Logia of Matthew, re- 
 ferred to by Papias. 
 The History of Joseph the Carpenter. 
 The Preaching and llevelation of Peter. 
 The Protevangelium of James. 
 J>aul and Thekia. 
 
 \* Irenseus (i. 17) speaks of the multitude of 
 spurious books in the 2nd cent. In the 4th cent. 
 th« re were at least eighty spurious gospels. 
 
 Mahomet apparently derived his knowledge of 
 Jesus from ' the Gospel of the Infancy,' ' the Book 
 of the Nativity of Mary,' and the 'Protevange- 
 lium of St. James." 
 
 Part III. Books accepted by the Gnos- 
 tics, which form no part of our canon. 
 
 Book of Adam, Enoch, Moseh, Elijah, Isajah. 
 
 Book of Armagil, Barbelon, Balsamum, Lensi- 
 boras, Matthias, and Glaucias. 
 
 Hymns of Blarcos. 
 
 Prophecies of Barcobas, Barcoph, Cain, Ham, 
 Parchor, &c. 
 
 Psalms of Valentlnus, Bardesanes. 
 
 *,* Basilides chiefly relied on some prophecies 
 which bore the names of Ham, Parchor, Barcobas, 
 and Barcoph, wilh an esoteric tradition which he 
 professed to derive from St. Matthias and from 
 Glaucias.— RoBEKTSON, History of the Church, vol. 
 i. p. 72. 
 
 Part IV. The following, though ad- 
 mitted into our canon, are (on the autho- 
 rity of Eusebius, iii. 2) disputable. 
 
 Second and Third Epistles of John. 
 
 Second Epistle of Peter. 
 
 Tlie Epistle of James. 
 
 The Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 *,* The Book of the Revelation was long dis- 
 puted. Jerome, Amphilochius and Sulpitius Se- 
 verus tell us that in their time many churches did 
 not accept it ; and certainly it is not in the cata- 
 logue of the Council of Laodicea or in that of 
 Cyril of Jerusalem ; nor in the Codex Vaticanus 
 (q.o.). In more modern times Luther and Lucke 
 deny its authenticity. (This is not the place to 
 enter on the pros and cons of the subject, but 
 simply to state a fact.) 
 
 Part V. Parts of our Canonical Scrip- 
 tures are not to be found in some of the 
 best MSS. It would take up too much 
 space to jot down omitted words and 
 short clauses, and the entire New Testa- 
 ment would be too wide a field. Con- 
 fining ourselves to the four gospels 
 (except in two cases), it may be re- 
 marked : — 
 
 I. The Apocalypse is omitted in the Codes 
 Vaticanus, &c. 
 
 II. 1 John V. 51, 52 (' the three witnesses ') are 
 admitted by all scholars to be interpolated. 
 
 III. The Ascension, as described by Mark xil., 
 the last twelve verses, is admitted in the Revised 
 Version to be at least doubtful ; and, what is more 
 remarkable still, vv. 51, 52 of the last chapter of 
 Luke are also omitted in many of the best MSS. 
 
 IV. In John ix. 35 our version makes Jesus say 
 to the man cured of his blindness, ' Dost tliou be- 
 lieve on the Son of God ? ' but many MSS. read, 
 ' Dost thou believe on the Son of Man ? ' 
 
 The following are omitted in many 
 
 MSS.:— 
 
 Matthew : vi. 15, the last clause of the ' Lord s 
 Prayer'; xvi. 2, 3; xvii. 21; xviii. 11; xix. 9, the 
 latter half. 
 
 Mark : x. 44, 46 ; xi. 26 ; xv. 28. 
 
 Luke : xvii. 36 ; xxii. 19, ' This is my body,' &c. ; 
 xxii. 43, 44; xxiii. 34, 'Father forgive them, for 
 they know not what they do '; xxiv. 6, 12, 51, 52. 
 
 John : iii. 13, last clause ; iv. 9, last clause ; vii. 
 53 ; viii. 2 11 (inserted in brackets in tlie Revised 
 Edition) ; ix. 36, for ' God ' many read man. 
 
 Every iota of information on the sub- 
 ject is valuable and important, and the 
 utmost candour should be encouraged. 
 The Bereans were highly commended for 
 searching to see how far the teaching of 
 the Apostles accorded with the written 
 word. Truth fears neither microscope, 
 telescope, jjrobe, nor scalpel. 
 
 Scriptures ( Versions of the). 
 Oriental versions. 
 
 Arabic. Memphitic (q.V.). 
 
 Armenian. Persic (q.v.). 
 
 Basmuric. Peschito. 
 
 Coptic. See Memphitic, Sahidic (.q.v.). 
 
 Thebaidic, Basmuric, Samaritan Pentateuch 
 
 and Sahidic. (q.v.). 
 
 Egyptian (^.i'.). Thebaidic (q.v.). 
 
 Ethiopic (q.r.). 
 
 ARABIC (Jhe) includes the Pentateuch and 
 Isaiah. Translated by Rabbi Saadias in the 10th 
 cent. 
 
 ARMENIAN (The) made by Miesrob in the 5th 
 cent. Somewhat interpolated from the Vulgate. 
 
 Basmuric (The), a version in the dialect of 
 Bashmur, &c., east of the Nile. 
 
SCKUTIN 
 
 SEAL 
 
 80a 
 
 Western versions. See ' Codex,' &c. 
 
 I. Greek : The Septuagint (-/.r.). 
 IL Latin : Anglo-Saxon versions. 
 Gothic version (q.v.). 
 Slavonic version (q.v.). 
 Vulgate iq.v.). 
 Anglo-Saxon version. It is supposed that the 
 Psalter was rendered into Saxon, in 709, by 
 Aldhelm bishop of Sherborne. The Venerable Bede 
 translated the whole Bible into Anglo-Saxon (died 
 7o5\ and about 200 years later King Alfred trans- 
 lated the Psalter. In 995 it is supposed that Ealfric 
 archbishop of Canterbury translated the Penta- 
 teuch, Joshua, Esther, and a part of Kings. 
 
 Scrutin d'Arrondissement. 
 
 Voting by districts. 
 
 Scrutin de Liste. Voting in mass. 
 
 Seullabogue Barn {Massacre at), 
 1798, in the Great Irish RebelHon. This 
 massacre by the rebels and that at Wex- 
 ford Bridge were the most infamous of 
 all the outrages in this fearful rebellion. 
 
 Scurvy. At one time very common 
 in England and Holland. It is described 
 by Hippocrates as a ' tumour of the spleen 
 produced by drinking cold water.' Pliny 
 calls it stoniacace and prescribes the 
 herb ' cochlearia ' [herba Britannica) as 
 a remedy. It broke out in the army of 
 Germanicus encamped on the Rhine, and 
 is mentioned by Tacitus. It was accom- 
 panied with the loss of the teeth and 
 paralysis in the knees. In Thorstein's 
 expedition to Greenland, in 1002, it 
 carried off Thorstein himself and his 
 twenty-five companions. It caused great 
 ravages in the army of St. Louis. Its 
 first appearance in Germany was in 1481, 
 when it was called Schorbuck [i.e. in- 
 flammation or tearing of the bowels). 
 Freind says it was first introduced into 
 Europe in the 15th cent, by the Portu- 
 guese, and that it came from the East 
 Indies. In the year 1498 it committed 
 frightful ravages in the crew of Vasco da 
 Gama, when he lost fifty-five of his 
 men ; in 1535 it broke out in the crew of 
 Cartier in his voyage to Canada ; and in 
 Lord Anson's memorable voyage (account 
 published in 1746) whole crews were 
 prostrated by this scourge. 
 
 Poupart the surgeon in lii99 says the plague of 
 Athens described by Thucydides was the scurvy : 
 BO also was that described by Lucretius, book xvi. 
 
 Scutage, or * shield money,' a money 
 payment in lieu of knight's service in the 
 field. It consisted of one, two, or three 
 marks (13s. Ad.) for each knight's fee {i.e. 
 land to the value of 20Z., or as much more 
 as the king chose to grant). The Great 
 
 Scutage, 1159, was a reform passed in 
 the reign of Henry II. soon after the 
 death of Thomas Becket. It greatly 
 diminished the military power of the 
 nobles, and gave the king instead a mili- 
 tary force of mercenary soldiers entirely 
 under his control. 
 
 As there were 60,000 knights' fees in England, 
 scutage would amount to 180,000i.=at least 5> 
 millions according to the present value of money. 
 
 Scythia. Russia in Asia. Russia 
 in Europe was called by the Romans 
 ' Sarmatia.' 
 
 Sea of Darkness {The). The Black 
 Sea. 
 
 Silesia and Little Poland, thirty days' journey, 
 according to the Greek computation, from the Sea 
 of Darkness.— Gibbon, Iv. 
 
 Sea-dogs, 1577. Seamen of the 
 southern coast who accepted letters of 
 marque from the Prince of Conde and 
 the French Protestants. These bold 
 freebooters took no heed of the complaints 
 of the French court, nor of Elizabeth's 
 efforts at repression, for the connivance 
 of every man along the coast, even of the 
 crown port-officers, insured them im- 
 munity. Francis Drake was a sea-dog, 
 and thought it a glory to sell negroes 
 to the i)lanters, to kill Spaniards, and to 
 sack their gold-ships. Philip of Spain 
 demanded that the freebooter should be 
 given up, but instead of so doing Eliza- 
 beth knighted him. 
 
 Seagreen Incorruptible {The). 
 Robespierre is so called by Carljde in his 
 ' French Revolution.' 
 
 Not even the Seagreen Incorruptible but shall 
 have some pity.— Vol. iii. book iii. 1. 
 
 There is in the incorruptible Seagreen himself 
 .... a heartfelt knowledge of this latter fact.-— 
 Vol. iii. book iii. 2. 
 
 Seal of Confession {The). ' Sigil- 
 lum Confessionis,' the obligation of a 
 confessor not to divulge to any human 
 being what is told him in the confessional. 
 The custom can be traced to the 5th cent. ; 
 but it was made binding by Innocent III. 
 in the 12th cent. 
 
 The confessional is the concealed seat on which 
 the priest sits to hear confession in the Catholic 
 church. 
 
 Seal of the Three Lions (The). 
 The Anglo-Norman ofiicial seal. 
 
 A few years afterwards the archdeacon [Becket] 
 was raised to the office of chancellor of England, 
 or keeper of the seal of the three lions, the symbol 
 of .A.nglo-Norman power.— Casseii's Hixl. of Kuq., 
 vol. i. p. 183. 
 
 S t' 2 
 
804 
 
 SEALED 
 
 SECOND 
 
 Sealed Prayer Book (The). Both 
 
 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
 and the crown printers are bound by the 
 Act of Uniformity to print the ' Book of 
 Common Prayer ' from a sealed prayer- 
 book, a copy of which ought to be kept 
 in each cathedral, and of course where 
 the book is officially printed. 
 
 Stance Royale {Une). A variety 
 of the ' Lit de Justice ' (q.v.), in which 
 the king of France took his seat and told 
 the parlemerit what law or laws he re- 
 quested them to pass. The parlement 
 had no voice in the matter, but simply 
 registered the royal edict. 
 
 Seato'nian Prize {The), for an 
 English poem on some sacred subject. 
 Value 40/. ; given annually to an M.A. of 
 the University of Cambridge. The same 
 person is qualified to take the prize any 
 number of times. Founded by the Rev. 
 Thomas Seaton of Clare College in 1741. 
 
 Seceders, 1730. Dissenters from 
 the kirk of Scotland led by Ralph and 
 Ebenezer Erskine of Stirling. They are 
 divided into burghers and anti-burghers, 
 that is, those who did not object to take 
 the ' Burgess oath ' [q.v.), and those who 
 refused to take it. 
 
 Secession [The), 1733. The body 
 of seceders from the General Assembly 
 of Scotland. See ' Seceders.' 
 
 Secession of :N"on- Jurors (The), 
 
 5 March, 1689. Sancroft archbishop of 
 Canterbury and the seven bishops of 
 Bath and Wells, Chichester, Ely, Glou- 
 cester, Norwich, Peterborough, and 
 Worcester refused to take the oaths to 
 William and Mary, and were suspended. 
 On 1 Feb., 1691, they were all deprived of 
 their sees. 
 
 Secession Synod of Ireland 
 
 [The], 1780. Formed by seceders from 
 the Presbyterian Assembly of L:eland. 
 
 Second Advent Brethren (T/je). 
 A Protestant religious sect which keeps 
 a watchful look-out for the second coming 
 of the Messiah. 
 
 Second Book {The). King Ed- 
 ward's liturgies reformed under Queen 
 Elizabeth. See p. 523, ' Liturgy.' 
 
 Second Catechism of Edward 
 VI. {The), 1553. Called 'The Larger 
 
 Catechism ' ; ascribed to Poynet bishop of 
 Winchester, but recommended to the 
 young king by Cranmer. It was in Latin 
 and English, in question and answer. It 
 was afterwards revised and enlarged by 
 Noel dean of St. Paul's, and published in 
 1570. This is not the catechism inserted 
 in our Book of Common Prayer. That 
 formulary was drawn up by Dr. Nowell, 
 afterwards bishop of Ely, and was enlarged 
 by Dr. Overall, at the command of James 
 I., and is based on Cranmer's Shorter 
 Catechism. 
 
 According to Canon Luckock (' On the Book of 
 Common Prayer ') the greater part is by Nowell. 
 Overall wrote the Explanation of the Sacraments. 
 
 Second Founder of Rome {The). 
 Sixtus v., who greatly embellished Rome 
 with beautiful edifices, brought water to 
 the city by an aqueduct 22 miles long, 
 constructed the cupola of St. Peter's, 
 enlarged the Vatican library, fixed the 
 number of cardinals at 70, and recreated 
 both the city and constitution of the 
 Church (1521, 1585-1590). 
 
 Second Grand Alliance {The), 
 7 Sept., 1701, between the kaiser, Great 
 Britain, Holland, Prussia, and Hanover, 
 against Louis XIV. Signed at the Hague. 
 The object was to prevent France suc- 
 ceeding to Spain, and to secure Spain 
 to Germany. If negotiations failed, the 
 allies agreed to make war on France till 
 they recovered Spanish Flanders, the 
 kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, with all 
 other Spanish territories in Italy. No 
 peace was to be made till the absolute 
 severance of Spain and France was 
 effected. See p. 381, ' Grand Alliance.' 
 
 Second Plebe'ian "War {The), 
 A.D. 126, in Irish history, is the rising of 
 the Attacots or proletariat of Ireland, 
 aided by the sub-kings, to dethrone Tua- 
 thal, son of Feredach the Just. Tuathal 
 took refuge with the king of the Picts, but 
 a famine induced the insurgents to invite 
 him back, and he was called Tuathal the 
 Acceptable. 
 
 The first plebeian war was the Massacre at 
 Magh-Cru (q.v.). 
 
 Second Prayer Book of Ed- 
 ward VI. {The), 1552. The second 
 revision of the ' King's Primer ' {q.v.) ; the 
 first revision was 1549. King Edward's 
 Prayer Book was augmented and revised 
 in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. 
 In 1662 it assumed tfie present form of 
 our * Book of Common Prayer.' 
 
SECOND 
 
 SECRET 
 
 805 
 
 Second Probation. The dernier 
 ressort of the prison governor to an incor- 
 rigible offender. It consists of solitary 
 confinement for 9 months, as at the com- 
 mencement of a sentence, with deduction 
 of one-third of the ordinary prison allow- 
 ance of food and the loss of all remission 
 marks. 
 
 Secret Articles {The\ 1647. A 
 
 secret treaty entered into by Charles I. 
 with the Confederates or Catholics of Ire- 
 land. Edward lord Herbert persuaded the 
 Confederates to make a double treaty, one 
 public and one private. In the private 
 treaty the Catholics had large concessions 
 made to them, but if they had been gene- 
 rally known the king's cause would have 
 been greatly prejudiced among Protes- 
 tants. This secret treaty was accidentally 
 discovered amongst the baggage of the 
 Archbishop of Tuam and published. The 
 king denied its authenticity, but no one 
 believed him, and the documents are pre- 
 served still in the public libraries of 
 England. 
 
 The secret treaty provided that the members of 
 the Catholic Church should pay their fees to the 
 Catholic clergy, and that the churches then in pos- 
 session of Catholics should remain so, 
 
 Secret Association of the Holy- 
 Faith {The), 1799. Founded by Cardi- 
 nal Ruffo, as a counterpoise to the 
 Carbonari. This society was sworn to 
 exterminate all Jansenists, Molinists, 
 Economists, Illuminists, Freemasons, and 
 Carbonari. The members were called 
 ' Santa Fedists.' 
 
 Secret Chancery [The). A kind 
 of ' Star Chamber ' introduced by Alexis 
 Michailowitz czar of Russia. It was a 
 species of state inquisition whereby the 
 czar could get rid of all persons dangerous 
 or obnoxious without any apparent inter, 
 ference on his part. 
 
 Karamsin says the Secret Chancery was founded 
 by Peter I., and that the court founded by Alexis 
 was only a private chancery. 
 
 Secret Committee {The), 1721, 
 See ' Committee of Secrecy.' 
 
 Secret Device {The), 1 July, 1543. 
 A private agreement between Henry VIII. 
 and the Douglas faction to bamboozle the 
 Scotch in regard to the projected alliance 
 between the royal children Edward (son 
 of Henry VIII.) and Mary (daughter of 
 James V.). The promise was that Mary 
 should remain iti Scotland till her 11th 
 year, but that an English nobleman and 
 
 his wife should form part of her suite. 
 The secret device was that Douglas should 
 throw Scotland virtually into the hands 
 of Henry, to get possession of Mary, and 
 to induce Scotland to repudiate her alle- 
 giance to the pope. 
 
 Secret Select {The), 1837. Persons 
 who hired themselves out to the trades 
 union of Glasgow to assassinate, muti- 
 late, or injure persons obnoxious to the 
 union. They belonged to what was called 
 No. 61, and when the secret committee 
 had resolved upon a deed of darkness the 
 name of one of this No. 61 was written on 
 paper and given to the secretary. The 
 Secret Select being sent for was ushered 
 into a dark room and told what he was 
 appointed to do ; then stretching out his 
 hand in the dark, a pui'se of money was 
 put into it. After the deed of darkness 
 he was smuggled out of the kingdom. 
 See ' Nobs.' 
 
 Secret Treaty {The), Jan. 1672, 
 ratified in June, between Charles II. and 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 I. Charles should publicly profess 
 himself a Catholic at such time as might 
 appear most expedient. 
 
 II. To enable Charles to quash insur- 
 rections, Louis should grant him 2,000,000 
 livres after the ratification of the treaty. 
 
 III. Both agree to observe the treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 IV. If any new rights on the Spanish 
 monarchy should accrue to Louis, the 
 King of England agrees to aid him in re- 
 covering them. 
 
 V. Both agree to make war on the 
 United Provinces, and neither shall make 
 peace without the other's consent. 
 
 VI. Louis agrees to take on himself 
 the whole expense of the war, but Eng- 
 land shall furnish him with 6,000 men. 
 
 VII. Charles shall equip fifty ships, 
 and Louis thirty, and the united fleet shall 
 be under the command of James duke of 
 York. 
 
 VIII. Charles to receive "Walcheren, 
 Luys (2 syl.), and the island of Cadsand 
 as his quota ; Louis all the rest. 
 
 IX. A mutual treaty of commerce shall 
 be concluded without delay. 
 
 No ' right divine ' can palliate such infamy. 
 
 Secret Tribunal {The). I. a.d. 
 783, of Westphalia. A kind of inquisition 
 established by Charlemagne to prevent a 
 into paganism. 
 
SECULAB 
 
 SEEKEKS 
 
 II. The Vehm-Gericht of "Westphalia 
 (12th cent.), recognised 1371 ; general in 
 Germany 1400, suppressed 1438, but did 
 not wholly cease to exist till 1811. 
 
 Its judges and officers were all 
 muffled, its summonses were delivered 
 in secret, and everyone connected with 
 the tribunal was sworn to secrecy. It 
 exerted a wholesome restraint on the 
 unruly barons, for anyone of them might 
 at any time be dragged blindfold before 
 the judges, and hung on the first tree. 
 See ' Red Land.' 
 
 It was no single court, but a society, which 
 could hold a court in any place within the Red 
 Land. 
 
 Secular Abbots. Laymen who 
 
 possessed monasteries ; their vicars, who 
 discharged the duties of the abbey, were 
 styled ' Regular Abbots.' 
 
 Secular Canons. Canons not con- 
 ventual. Laymen who out of honour or 
 respect are admitted into some chapter 
 of canons. They mixed more or less 
 with the world, but observed the rules 
 of the order to which they attached 
 themselves. 
 
 Secular Clergy [The). The clergy 
 generally who live in private houses. 
 Nearly all archbishops, bishops, deans, 
 canons, and parochial clergymen are 
 Seculars, in contradistinction to the Re- 
 gulars, who, having vowed obedience, 
 chastity, and poverty, live in some reli- 
 gious house, dead to the world and the 
 ' civil law ' by their ' entrance into reli- 
 gion.' Called ' Regulars ' because they 
 live under the Begula or rule of some 
 religious house. 
 
 Secularism, 1846. A system of 
 ethics which teaches that conduct should 
 be based on reason and knowledge, 
 wholly ignoring the Christian doctrine of 
 divine guidance and interference. It 
 regax-ds happiness as the proper aim of 
 man, utility his highest duty, and pro- 
 gress as the only gauge of right living. 
 Of course it considtrs perfect liberty of 
 thought as essential to progress, and 
 therefore objects to creeds, and what is 
 termed ' orthodoxy,' that is, certain set 
 dogmas and doctrines enforced by the 
 authority of a dominant party. It re- 
 gards this present life as the main concern 
 of man, experience his best guide, the 
 promotion of the well-being of society 
 his highest duty, the Book of Nature his 
 
 only Bible, and science its best inter- 
 preter. See ' Agnosticism.' 
 
 Secularists. Freethinkers who be- 
 lieve that the affairs of this world should 
 be the chief concern of man. They are 
 generally Agnostics, but some are Mate- 
 rialists, and some few are Atheists. How- 
 ever, religious views have no part nor 
 lot in Secularism except indirectly. 
 
 Sedan-day, 1 Sept. A school holiday 
 in Hamburg in commemoration of the 
 battle of Sedan in 1870, when Napoleon 
 III. delivered up his sword to William 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 Sedantaire, or 'Man of Sedan,' a 
 sobriquet of Napoleon III. after he re- 
 signed his sword to the King of Prussia 
 at Sedan, in the Franco-Prussian war, 
 1870. The pun is Sedan-terre. 
 
 Sede'runt {The Acts of). Acts 
 whereby judges are empowered to make 
 rules for the regulation of legal pro- 
 cedure and the expedition of justice in 
 the Scotch Court of Session. Scotch 
 Act, 1540, c. 93. 
 
 Sedgwick Prize [The), for geology. 
 Given every third year to any graduate 
 of the University of Cambridge who has 
 resided sixty days during the year of his 
 candidature. Value about 80Z. Founded 
 in 1865 in honour of the Rev. Adam 
 Sedgwick, Woodwardian Professor {q.v.). 
 
 Sed'leyan Professor of Natural 
 Philosophy in Oxford University. Sti- 
 pend 570/. a year. Founded by Sir 
 Wilham Sedley, 1621. 
 
 Seekers, 1628. A religious sect in 
 New England, which denied the churches 
 and ordinances of Christ. — John Harvard. 
 
 II. During the civil wars between 
 Charles I. and his parliament the sect 
 spread into England. They believed that 
 no true church was in existence ; that a 
 true church could be founded and ad- 
 ministered only by men who had the 
 supernatural gift conferred on the 
 founders and members of the primitive 
 churches. They were ' seeking and wait- 
 ing ' for such manifestation of the Holy 
 Ghost as would render it possible for 
 true churches to be constituted. George 
 Fox was at one time a ' Seeker,' believing, 
 as he said, that ' those who sought the 
 truth would surely find it.' See Barclay, 
 
SEGKETAKIO 
 
 SELKIRK 
 
 807 
 
 •Inner Life,' which contains an excellent 
 sketch of the Seekers. 
 
 Under the head of Independents. . . . were the 
 Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
 Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers. Perfectists, So- 
 cinians, Arians, and others. — HowiTT, Hist, of 
 Eng. (Charles I.), chap. vi. p. 273. 
 
 Segretario {II). Machiavel is meant, 
 if no proper name is added. 
 
 Seiads {The Government of the), 
 1414, succeeded in Delhi the ' House of 
 Toghlak.' Khiza Khan expelled from 
 the throne Doulat Khan Lodi. 
 
 Seicentis'ti. The Italian worthies 
 of the 17th cent., or in the decline of 
 Italian poetry and art. It is applied to 
 the men of note in any debased period. 
 See p. 174, ' Cinque Centisti.' 
 
 Se ■ gneur of Sark {The), 1565. Sir 
 Helier de Carteret, appointed by Queen 
 Elizabeth, was the first seigneur. In 
 1721 Sark passed by sale into the hands 
 of James Milner, and in 1730 passed into 
 the possession of Susannah Le Pelley ; 
 but in 1852 the seigneurie was transferred 
 to Mr. T. G. Collings of Guernsey. The 
 parliament or assembly of Sark is called 
 the Chefs Plaids. 
 
 Seja'nus of England {The). So 
 Sir John Elliot styled the Duke of 
 Buckingham when he was impeached in 
 1627, and truly the resemblance between 
 the favourite of Tiberius and the favou- 
 rite of Charles I. is very striking. Both 
 were equally unscrupulous, both equally 
 licentious, both popular in a way for their 
 dash, beauty, and extravagance ; both 
 favourites of two princes : Sejanus of 
 Caius Caesar and the Emperor Tiberius — 
 Buckingham of James I. and Charles I. ; 
 and both met an untimely end. 
 
 Select Preachers (of our Univer- 
 sities). Ten clergymen selected to supply 
 the place of those who decline to preach 
 in St. Mary's Church in their regular 
 turn. Five of the preachers are nomi- 
 nated annually by the Vice-Chancellor, 
 the Regius and Margaret Professors of 
 Divinity, and the two proctors. No sub- 
 stitute is permitted except those thus 
 selected. 
 
 Select Vestry Act {The), 1663. 
 
 By which a person was prohibited from 
 being a vestryman unless he abjured the 
 'Covenant,' swore not to take up anns 
 against the King's majesty, and promised 
 by oath to conform to the Liturgy. 
 
 Seleucides (4 syl.), or ' Dynasty of 
 the Seleucidae,' B.C. 312-64 (247 years). 
 A Macedonian dynasty which reigned in 
 Syria and Upper Asia after the death of 
 Alexander the Great. So called from 
 Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals, 
 its founder. Six of the dynasty were 
 named Seleucus, thirteen were named 
 Antiochus, and three were named Deme- 
 trius. It was succeeded by the Arsa- 
 cides. 
 
 The 'Era of the Seleucides' begins with this 
 I dynasty. Seleukos I. is surnamed Nicdtor (the 
 Conqueror). 
 
 Self-denying Ordinance {The). 
 See ' Self-renouncing Ordinance.' 
 
 Self-renouncing Ordinance 
 
 {The), or ' Self-denying Ordinance,' 3 
 April, 1645. A measure moved by Zouch 
 ! Tate and seconded by Sir Harry Vane 
 in the House of Commons for the removal 
 of the Earl of Essex from the command 
 of the parliamentary army. Tate said, 
 I ' There is but one way of ending so many 
 j evils, and that is for everyone freely to 
 i renounce himself.' The ordinance was 
 that no member of either house shall 
 hold any office, civil or military, during 
 the war. When the bill passed, Essex, 
 Warwick, and Manchester resigned, and 
 Fairfax was made commander. Crom- 
 well ought to have been excluded as an 
 M.P., but a special exception was made 
 in his case 'for his brilliant achieve- 
 ments.' Cromwell really introduced the 
 measure to the attention of the parlia- 
 ment, for he saw plainly that the aris- 
 tocracy were only half-hearted in the 
 war. On the death of Essex in 1647 
 this ordinance fell into abeyance. 
 Zouch, pronounce Zooteh. 
 
 Selj Uks ( T^e) , or ' Selj ukian Dynasty .' 
 An Oriental dynasty founded by Togi'ul 
 Bey, grandson of Seljuk of Turkestan. 
 He took possession of the empire of the 
 Ghaznevides (3 syl.), and put an end to 
 the Bowides (2 syl.) in Ispahan. The 
 Seljiiks of Persia began with Togrul I. 
 and went out with Togrul II. It gave 
 twelve sovereigns, lasted 156 years (1038- 
 1194), and was succeeded by the Gourides 
 (2 syl.) or Khans of Kharizm (1155-1225). 
 
 It will be seen that the Gourides were for thirtv- 
 nine years contemporary with the Seljiiks. Togrul 
 Bey, Alp Arslan, and Malek Shah are kings to be 
 proud of in any nation. 
 
 Selkirk Island. Juan Fernandez 
 is so called from Alexander Selkirk, a 
 
SELWYN 
 
 SEMPRONIAN 
 
 buccaneer from tlie fishing town of Largs 
 in Fifeshire, who resided there in soli- 
 tude for four years (1704-1708). The 
 story of Selkirk probably suggested to 
 Defoe that of ' Robinson Crusoe.' 
 
 Selwyn College, Cambridge, 1882. 
 Built by public subscription in memory 
 of George Augustus Selwyn, late bishop 
 of Lichfield, to provide an economical 
 education of ' high culture of the mind 
 combined with Christian training based 
 on the principles of the Church of Eng- 
 land.' 
 
 Belvryn Divinity School {The). 
 Founded in 1856 by William Selwyn, 
 D.D., of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity. 
 
 Sem'inarists, 1583 (Queen Eliza- 
 beth). The name given to the Roman 
 Catholic clergy who were trained at Dr. 
 Allen's College at Douay for the purpose 
 of being sent over to England as mis- 
 sionaries of the Pope. These were after- 
 wards treated by Elizabeth's officers as 
 being on the same footing as Jesuits. 
 
 Sem'ipela'gians, a.d.430. Pelagius 
 denied the doctrine of original sin, or the 
 taint of Adam. He maintained that all 
 men can, if they choose, keep all the laws 
 of God; that God gives grace to those 
 who deserve it ; that good acts are due to 
 the liberty of the will as well as bad 
 acts. The Semipelagians agreed with 
 Pelagius in the freedom of the will to 
 choose either good or evil, but after 
 having made the choice then they main- 
 tained that God's grace is indispensable 
 for justification and righteousness. Man 
 can walk to the palace door, but must 
 be ushered into the presence chamber. 
 
 Semir'amis of the North (The). 
 
 I. Margaret de Valdemar, queen of 
 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. She 
 was the daughter of Valdemar III. king 
 of Denmark [l853-1412). 
 
 II. Catharine of Russia, a powerful 
 ambitious sovereign, but licentious, 
 sensual, and immoral (1729, 1762-1796). 
 
 Semitic Languages {The). An- 
 cient Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Phcenician, 
 Chaldaic, .^thiopic, and perhaps ancient 
 Egyptian and Coptic. 
 
 Semitic Nations {The). The 
 Hebrews, Syrians, old Ethiopians, Ara- 
 
 bians, and Phoenicians. See ' Turanian * 
 and ' Aryan.' 
 
 Sempach {Convention of ), 1393. An 
 act of confederation between the Aus- 
 trians and Swiss. 
 
 * Semper sub Sextis perditaRoma 
 fuit.' 
 
 Nero was the sixth Caesar. (Julius, 
 Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, 
 Nero.) 
 
 Stephen VI. (pope 896-897) was a 
 monster. He caused the body of his 
 predecessor to be exhmned; and then, 
 cutting off the head of the dead body 
 with a hatchet, threw it into the Tiber. 
 The people, disgusted, seized him, cast 
 him into prison, and there strangled him. 
 
 Boniface VI. (pope 896) died within 
 fifteen days. 
 
 Benedict VI. (972-974) was confined 
 in St. Angelo by Boniface, called ' Anti- 
 pope,' and died there. 
 
 Gregory VI. (1044-1046) had three 
 rival claimants, and when he had bribed 
 them to retire Kaiser Heinrich HI. and 
 his cardinals obstructed all his reforms. 
 Driven to despair, he abdicated. 
 
 Clement VI. (1842-1352) resided at 
 Avignon. It was in this pontificate that 
 Rienzi the tribune troubled Rome. 
 
 Urban VI. (1378-1389). With this 
 pontificate began the ' Great Schism of 
 the West ' {q.v.). 
 
 Pius VI. (1775-1799) was ill-starred. 
 In France the National Assembly con- 
 fiscated the property of the church and 
 suppressed all religious orders ; in Ger- 
 many the Congress of Ems abolished 
 the Nunciature; in Naples the papal 
 tribute was withheld; and in 1791 
 Avignon and Venaissin were added to 
 France. France mvaded the papal 
 dominions, Bonaparte attacked the 
 Roman States, compelled Pius to sign 
 the Treaty of Tolentino, by which he 
 gave up the best pictures and statues of 
 Rome, introduced his republic there, 
 and the old pontiff, torn from his palace, 
 was transferred successively to Sienna, 
 Florence, Grenoble, and Valence, where 
 he died at the age of eighty-two. 
 To Rome if six hath always brought mischance, 
 Three, without doubt, has fatal proved to France. 
 
 See ' Three Fatal to France.' 
 
 Sempro'nian Law {The), b.c. 123. 
 That the state is to furnish corn at a 
 low price to all Roman citizens (25 ases 
 
SENATE 
 
 BISNATUS-CONSULTE 809 
 
 per bushel). At one time it cost the 
 state a million a year to make up this 
 deficit. It was carried by Caius Sem- 
 pronius Gracchus. 
 
 There were several other Sempronian laws, the 
 object of which was to lessen the power of the 
 oli^'archy and make t^ie constitution more demo- 
 cratic. 
 
 Senate {The) of the University of 
 Cambridge used to be divided into two 
 Houses : (1) The regents or white-hoods, 
 and (2) the non-regents or black-hoods. 
 Tlie Upper or White-hood House con- 
 sisted of masters of arts of less than five 
 years' standing and doctors of less than 
 two years' standing. The Lower or 
 Black-hood House consisted of masters 
 of arts of more than five years' standing 
 and doctors of more than two years' 
 standing. All doctors of the Upper 
 House and the public orator could vote 
 in either house. This arrangement was 
 wholly changed in 1857-58. 
 
 ' Regents ' originally meant ' tutors, lecturers, 
 and professors.' 'Non-regents' were those who 
 had served their time and were exempt from 
 these duties. Masters of arts took off the white 
 lining of their hoods to show they were no longer 
 regents or tutors and lecturers. The stripping of 
 the white lining has long been discontinued. 
 
 The Council of the Senate is called a ' Caput ' 
 (g. !.'.). An assembly in term-time is called a ' Con- 
 gregation,' but out of term-time it is a ' Convoca- 
 tion.' By a 'Grace' a convocation may be con- 
 verted into a congregation. 
 
 *,* There is no senate in the Oxford University. 
 See ' House of Convocation.' 
 
 Senate {The Present). The legislative 
 body of Cambridge University. Great 
 changes were made in 1857 (19, 20 Vict. c. 
 88), and in 1882 an entire new code of 
 statutes was approved by Queen Victoria 
 in council. Tlie senate now consists of 
 one house only, which assembles in the 
 senate-house. The members are the 
 chancellor and vice-chancellor, and the 
 following graduates, provided their names 
 remain on the university register, viz. : 
 All doctors of the five faculties {i.e. 
 divinity, law, medicine, science, and 
 letters). There is a Council of the Senate 
 {q.v.), and there is also an Electoral Roll 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Bachelors of divinity are members of the senate 
 only in virtue of their M.A. degree. 
 
 Senate (r/i-e Conservative) of France, 
 1799. ' Le Se'nat Conservateur ' created 
 by the Constitvition of Year VIII. was 
 not a legislative body. Its duties were 
 to see the laws enforced, and to elect 
 the future consuls. They appointed the 
 
 tribunes and legislators, and even filled 
 up vacancies in their own body. 
 
 The original number of Conservative senators 
 was 60, elected for life ; afterwards increased to 
 137. Under the empire the senate was quite 
 powerless, and in 1m14, on the restoration, the 
 senate was replaced by the Cluimbre dcs Pairs. 
 
 Senate {The Freyich). 'Le Se'nat 
 Francjais ' (14 Jan., 1852) was composed 
 of cardinals, marshals, and admirals, of 
 princes over the age of eighteen, and of 
 members nominated by the chef de 
 VEtat. The number was 150, and the 
 election for life. A decree of the senate 
 was called a senatus-consulte (plu. 
 senatus-consultes). 
 
 Senate of Lilliput {The). In the 
 reign of George II. (26 Feb., 1729), it 
 was made illegal to print reports of the 
 discussions of the House of Commons. 
 To evade this law the debates were 
 printed under initials, as debates of the 
 ' Senate of Lilliput.' 
 
 Senate of Rome (T/ie). Instituted 
 by Romulus to deliberate on peace and 
 war, appoint the imposts, distribute the 
 provinces, render justice, and enact the 
 laws. In the empire it lost all indepen- 
 dence, and at the partition of the empire 
 there were two senates — one at Con- 
 stantinople and the other at Rome. The 
 Roman senate ceased in 552, during the 
 domination of Theodoric. 
 
 The original number was 100, called Patres. 
 TuUus Hostilius doubled the number, and Tar- 
 qulnius Priscus increased the number to 300. 
 lirutus, on the expulsion of the kings, supplied 
 the places of those senators who sided with 
 Tarquin with new men whom he called Conscripti, 
 and the body was addressed as Patres [et] Con- 
 scnpti. Under tl»e republic the number generally 
 mounted up to 600, and at the death of Julius 
 Cajsar the number was 1,000. Augustus reduced 
 the number to (iOO. All senators wore the toga, 
 with a large band of purple called the laticldve, 
 from its being embroidered with a wide stripe, or 
 border, Clavus latus. 
 
 Senate of Venice, 1173. A com- 
 mittee of 60 chosen from the Great Council 
 {q.v.), which numbered 480 members. In 
 1435 the number was doubled, and later 
 still it was increased to 300. It was de- 
 liberative. The college was executive. 
 
 The college consisted of 26 members : the Doge, 
 the privy council of Slgnory (6), the 3 chief mem- 
 bers of The Forty, and 10 representatives of the 
 Senate. See ' Pregadi.' 
 
 Sdnatus-consulte Organique 
 de la Constitution (Year X.), 2 Aug., 
 1802. A modification of the Constitu- 
 tion of Year VIII. {q.v.), still less 
 democratic. Instead of three consuls 
 
810 SENATUS-CONSULTE 
 
 SEPAEATISTS 
 
 Napoleon was appointed consul for life. 
 In 1804 the consul was emperor. 
 
 S^natus-consulte Organique 
 de I'Empire Francais (Year XIL), 
 18 May, 1804, conferring on Napoleon 
 the power and title of emperor. 
 
 From the Ancient Regime Ave constitutions 
 brought the French back again to a monarchy. 
 A constitutional monarchy, a pure democracy, a 
 directory, three consuls and a conservative 
 senate, a consulate, an Empiee. 
 
 Seneca [The English). Joseph Hall 
 bishop of Norwich (1574-1656). 
 
 Seneca of the East (TA-e). Buzurg- 
 Mihir, who imported into Persia the 
 game of chess and the fables of Pilpay 
 (6th cent.). 
 
 S^neclial (The). A subaltern officer 
 of France who acted as a crown judge ; 
 the district over which he had jurisdic- 
 tion was called a senechaussee. These 
 sene'chaussees were established chiefly in 
 the south of France ; they were called 
 hailliages in the north. All France was 
 subdivided into senechaussees or hailli- 
 ages. 
 
 Every grand feudatory had his senechal, who 
 •was his major dome. In England a seneclial is 
 temporarily created for a coronation ceremony, 
 and when a peer is accused of a capital offence. 
 
 S6n^chal [TJie Grarid) of France. 
 He was master of the royal household, 
 the chief lord of the treasury, commander- 
 in-chief of the army, and lord chief 
 justice. It was the highest rank in the 
 Ifingdom, and in the lOtli cent, was made 
 hereditary in the house of Anjou. Sup- 
 pressed in 1191 by Philippe II. Auguste, 
 who divided the dignity and duties be- 
 tween the constable and grand master 
 of the king's palace. See above, ' Sene- 
 chal.' 
 
 Senior Students of Christ Church, 
 Oxford, correspond to fellows in other 
 colleges. What in other colleges are 
 called Scholars are termed Junior Stu- 
 dents in Christ Church. The head of 
 Christ Church is called the ' Dean.' 
 
 Sennacherib, King of Assyria, was 
 Sin-akhi-erba, son of Sarru-gina [Sargon]. 
 He began to reign B.C. 707. He was 
 high priest for eighteen years of his reign. 
 His war with Hezekiah was not the third 
 year of his reign, but his ' third expedi- 
 tion,' and his son Esar Haddon — that is, 
 Asshur-akhi-dinna — did not succeed till 
 B.C. 683. 
 
 Sensational School {The). I. A 
 school oi philosophy in the latter half of 
 the 18th cent. Condillac (1715-1780) was 
 its chief exponent. This school taught ' 
 that all the functions usually ascribed 
 to the soul are mere exhibits of the 
 senses. Knowledge is obtained by the 
 senses only; intelligence, conscience, 
 ' mind,' and so on are from the brain. 
 The disciples of this school were of course 
 materialists. 
 
 II. In French rotnance writers, fol- 
 lowed the Romantic, The first of the 
 sensational novels was ' Indiana,' by 
 George Sand (Mme. Dudevant, 1804- 
 1877). 
 
 Bad as the sensual novels of the ' Sensational 
 School ' of France undoubtedly are, the Realistic 
 School is ten times worse. They pander to the 
 most prurient passions of man, and uncover sen- 
 suality in all its nastiness ; for, laid bare, it is 
 both disgusting and revolting. 
 
 Sensualists. In philosophy means 
 those who believe that we depend on our 
 senses for all our knowledge of the ma- 
 terial world. These philosophers are also 
 called ' Empirics,' from a Greek word 
 meaning experience. The chief of these 
 philosophers among the ancients were 
 Democritus, Leucippos, Aristippos, Epi- 
 ciiros, and Lucretius ; and among the 
 moderns Hobbes, Gassendi, Condillac, 
 Helvetius, Cabanis, De Tracy, Broussais, 
 Hartley, and Priestley. Those who con- 
 tend for intuitive ideas and an inner 
 sense or perception are called Dogmatists. 
 The system of Sensualists is called 
 ' Sensualism.' 
 
 Some rank Aristotle, Bacon, and Locke among 
 Sensualists, but they distinctly teach that the five 
 senses are not of themselves sufficient to explain 
 all ideas. 
 
 Cabanis, pronounce Cah-hah-nee. 
 
 Separatists [The). I. 1580. Those 
 who withdrew from the Church of England 
 in consequence of the tyranny and dog- 
 matism of the Ecclesiastical Commission. 
 They objected to an established church 
 as contrary to the word of God ; to the 
 use of the cross in baptism as a rag of 
 popery ; to kneeling at the Lord's Supper 
 as a semi-adoration of the elements ; and 
 to the use of the surplice. Persecution 
 greatly increased their number and con- 
 firmed their opposition, so that they 
 quickly mounted to 20,000 souls, and 
 became a power in the state. 
 
 II. Or ' Pietists ' [q.v.), 1689. Founded 
 by Spener of Leipsic. 
 
 III. In 1886, &c. Those in favour of 
 giving the Irish a separate parliament, 
 
SEPOY 
 
 SERBONIAN 
 
 811 
 
 supreme in Irish matters, but subordinate 
 to the British parliament in all matters 
 affecting the United Kingdom. The bill 
 was brought in by Mr. Gladstone, the 
 prime minister, but was thrown out, and 
 led to the break-up of the Whig party, 
 those Whigs and Radicals who opposed 
 the bill being called Unionists. Lord 
 Hartington was the leader of the Whig 
 Unionists, and Mr. Chamberlain of the 
 Radical Unionists. See ' Irish Associa- 
 tions.' 
 
 An imperium in imperio is proverbially dan- 
 gerous, and would be especially so with the im- 
 pulsive Irish, who are ready to follow any dema- 
 gogue, and apply to foreign nations for support. 
 What the Irish want is to be a ' separate nation,' 
 and have its voice in the councils of Europe. To 
 effect this it must have its consuls, ambassadors, 
 and army. And fatal collision with England 
 could not be long delayed. 
 
 Sepoy "War {The), 1857-1858, or 
 Indian Mutiny (q.v.). 
 
 September Massacres (The). 
 
 2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792, when between eight 
 and ten thousand persons, chiefly noble- 
 men and priests, were massacred in cold 
 blood at the instigation of Marat. See 
 'Septembrisers.' 
 
 September 9. The day appointed 
 
 for the National Thanksgiving for the 
 
 king's escape from the Rye-house plot in 
 
 favour of the Duke of Monmouth and 
 
 the assassination of Charles II., 1683. 
 
 Lord William Russell and others were 
 
 executed as being implicated in this plot. 
 
 You hypocrites, forbear your pranks. 
 
 To murder men and then give thanks ; 
 
 Forbear, your tricks pursue no further, 
 
 For God accepts no thanks for murder. 
 
 LUTTRELLS Journal. 
 The ' murder ' referred to is that of Lord William 
 Russell, &c. 
 
 Septembrisers. I. * Septembri- 
 seurs.' Those engaged in the massacres 
 of September (q.v.), Sept. 1792. Three 
 hundred hired assassins wearing tri- 
 coloured scarfs round their waists went 
 to Les Carmes, L'Abbaye, and La Force 
 to assassinate those suspected of favour- 
 ing the royal cause. Li Les Carmes 163 
 ecclesiastics were executed without even 
 a mockery trial. In the other two prisons 
 a few questions were asked. If the 
 judges said a Cohlentz the ' suspect ' was 
 acquitted, but if the sentence was d VAh- 
 baije, or a la Force, he was led into the 
 yard and put to death. Truchat stated 
 to the Legislative Assembly that the 
 number which fell in the four days was 
 4,000, but the real, number was double 
 that or more. See above. 
 
 Billaud-Varennes promised each of the assassins 
 24 louis for his work (a total of about 5,000/.), bub 
 money enough could not be raised, and the sum of 
 1,463 livres (70L) is set down in the books of the Com- 
 mune as still due. This surely is some blunder, 
 for it is Incredible that the government should 
 be unable to lay hands on such a paltry siun of 
 money. 
 
 II. The revolutionary mob of France 
 in the first revolution was so called be- 
 cause they began their annual calendar 
 in September instead of January. 
 
 Certainly it was most unscientific to begin the 
 year in September, when its end is so near at 
 hand for all nations north of the equator. 
 
 Septennial Act [The), i Geo. I. 
 
 c. 38, 7 May, 1716, extending the duration 
 of parliament to seven years, instead of 
 three, as it had been since 1641. By 
 this act it was provided that the interval 
 between two parliaments should in no 
 wise exceed four years. 
 
 Sep'tuagesima Sunday. Seventy 
 days before Easter, Church way of reckon- 
 ing, which gives ten days to the week. 
 Thus: 1 eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 
 3 Monday, 4 Tuesday, 5 Wednesday, 
 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Saturday, 9 eve 
 of the Octave, 10 the Octave. See 
 ' Sunday.' 
 
 So the entombment was 1 eve of Saturday, 
 2 Saturday, 3 eve of Sunday. Septuagesima, often, 
 but incorrectly, pronounced Sep'-t'a-jes'y-vyiy. 
 
 Septuagint (T/te). A Greek version 
 of the Scriptures, and called ' the Alex- 
 andrian.' It was pi'oduced in the reign 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c. 284-247). 
 The Pentateuch, which contains many 
 Coptic words, was probably the work of 
 Egyptian Jews. See ' Scriptures.' 
 
 No one believes the tradition repeated by Philo, 
 Justin, Clement of Alexandria, Epiphanius, and 
 others : That Ptolemy, by the advice of his 
 librarian, employed seventy-two men of learning 
 to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. 
 The seventy-two met in the Isle of Pharos, and in 
 seventy-two days produced that translation. It is 
 furthermore added that each of the seventy-two 
 was shut up in a separate room, and when they 
 delivered in their translations all most minutely 
 agreed. Not a word, not a letter differed. 
 
 Richard Simon informs us that it was called the 
 Septuagint, because it was approved and autho- 
 rised by the Jewish Sanhedrim. The language is 
 Greek, but many of the words are Aramaic. Often, 
 but Incorrectly, pronounced Sep'-t'a-jini, 
 
 Seraphic Doctor {The). John 
 Bonaventura (1221-1274). A Franciscan, 
 chiefly distinguished for his adoration of 
 the Virgin Mary. He distorted every- 
 thing, by the help of allegory and 
 analog)^ to Christian theology. This 
 Doctor Seraphicus is placed by Dante 
 among the samts in Paradise. 
 
 Serbo'nian Bog {The). The lake 
 Serbonis in Egypt, near the istlimus of 
 
812 
 
 SEKENE 
 
 SERVITOES 
 
 Suez, and the border of Syria, which, 
 when the south wind prevailed, was 
 covered with sand, and looked hke dry 
 land. Artaxerxes Ochus lost troop after 
 troop in this bog, on his way to Egypt. 
 
 Serene Highness (His Most). Tn 
 Germany is the title of the collateral 
 branches of the sovereign or emperor. 
 In the reign of Louis XIV. the title was 
 given to the Prince de Conde. 
 
 Ser'geanty. Service rendered to 
 the crown for lands. It was divided into 
 Grand Sergeanty and Petit Sergeanty. 
 The service in Grand Sergeanty was 
 personal service, as following the king in 
 battle. The service of Petit Sergeanty 
 was some real or nominal payment by 
 way of rent. 
 
 Pronounce Sar'-jent-ty. 
 
 Serpent, as a Standard [The). 
 The kings of Assyria and of Babylon 
 adopted as a standard a ' Great Red 
 Dragon,' and Cyrus introduced a similar 
 standard into the armies of the Medes 
 and Persians. See Ezek. xxix. 3. 
 
 One of the Roman standards was a 
 serpent. The Tartars carried a serpent 
 standard, and it will be remembered that 
 a serpent was the standard of the tribe 
 of Dan, allusion to which is made in 
 Gen. xlix. 17. 
 
 The ancient Britons adopted the dragon 
 both as a crest and as a standard. 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us : ' When 
 Aurelius was at Winchester there ap- 
 peared to him . in the sky a star of 
 wonderful magnitude and brilliancy, 
 from which there darted forth a ray 
 ending in a fiery dragon.' He adds that 
 * Uther had two golden dragons made, 
 one of which he presented to Winchester 
 and the other he carried with him as a 
 royal standard.' A rattlesnake flag, with 
 the motto ' Don't tread on me,' was one 
 of the first standards adopted in the 
 American revolution. 
 
 Probably this is a pure invention of the ro- 
 mancing chronicler to account for the title of 
 pendiogon given to King Uther. But dragon is the 
 British word for 'leader,' and pen-dra(/o« means 
 Biniply ' leader-in-chief.' 
 
 The Greek SpaKuv is derived from Spaai, to be 
 active, and the Welsh drniion is allied to the word 
 draig, lightning. Both express the essential charac- 
 teristics of a good general, quick-eyed and quick 
 in execution. Probably the astronomical symbol 
 of the planet Jupiter (a serpent on a cross), and 
 the coiled dragon at the base of Satan, refer to 
 similar vigilance and activity. 
 
 Serpent Homer {The). A copy of 
 Homer's * Iliad ' on a roll of serpent skin 
 
 120 feet in length. This ancient MS. 
 was kept in the royal college of Con- 
 stantinople, but was lost in a fire which 
 destroyed the library. See Gibbon, 
 chap. liii. 
 
 Serpent of Old Nile {The). Cleo- 
 patra queen of Egypt (b.c. 69, 51-30). 
 
 Serventese. A popular sort of me- 
 diaeval ballad like ' Chevy Chase,' divided 
 into stanzas. 
 
 Poemata in quibus Servientium seu Militum 
 facta et servitia referuntur.— Du Cange. 
 
 Serve'tUS {Michael). The learned 
 theologian, who embraced the Arian 
 doctrine, persecuted to death by Calvin. 
 He published a book anonymously, but 
 Calvin ferreted out the author, and had 
 the book burnt at the gallows. Not long 
 afterwards, as he was passing through 
 Geneva in disguise, Calvin had him 
 arrested, and acted as informer, prose- 
 cutor, and judge, and Servetus was burnt 
 to death by a slow fire. No more in- 
 famous act ever disgraced the memory 
 of man (1509-1553). 
 
 Service Book {The), 1637. So the 
 Scotch called the Common Prayer Book, 
 which Charles I. tried to force the 
 people of Scotland to use in their places 
 of worship. 
 
 The term was common enough in England also, 
 but they were more often called ' Uses ' (q.v.). 
 These eleven were consulted by the Com- 
 missioners who compiled our Common Prayer 
 Book, viz. the Missal, the Graduale or Grayle, the 
 Processionale, the Ordinale, the Portiforium or 
 Breviary, the Legenda, the Pica or Pie, the 
 Finale, the Antiphonarium, the Manuale, and 
 Pontificale. Sec each of these words ?'» loco. 
 
 Servile or Slave War {The). The 
 first in Sicily, B.C. 133-131 ; the second 
 in Sicily, B.C. 103. 
 
 Ser'vites (2 syl.), or ' Servitors of 
 the Virgin.' A religious order founded in 
 Florence in 1232. Called ' White Mantles ' 
 from their dress. The order still sub- 
 sists in Italy, but was abolished in France 
 11274. 
 
 There are a few houses of Servites in the United 
 States ; also some of Servite ladies (nuns). There 
 is one house of Servites in England (Fulham Road, 
 S.W.), one of Servite Sisters (St. Anne's Road, 
 Stamford Hill, N.). 1890. 
 
 Servitors. Students of Chirist 
 Church College, Oxford University, re- 
 ceived at reduced fees, like the ' Bible 
 Clerks ' of Oriel College, Oxford, and the 
 sizars of Cambridge. At one time each 
 fellow had his servitor to wait on him 
 at dinner, and these servitors dined on 
 what was left at the fellows' table. 
 
SERVUS 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 813 
 
 Servus servi. A slave's drudge, 
 who helped him to cultivate his pecalium 
 [q.v.). 
 
 Since the time of Gregory the Great the pope 
 has styled himself Servus servorum Dei (the drudge 
 of God's ministers). 
 
 Sessional School {The Edin- 
 burgh), 29 April, 1813. A normal or 
 training school to educate teachers in 
 the principles and art of teaching. This 
 was the first of the training colleges in 
 Great Britain, but they had been estab- 
 lished in France in 1795, and in Germany 
 even earlier (1748). See ' Normal Schools.' 
 
 The Sessional Schools were in 20 Feb., 1838, 
 adopted as an appendage of the ecclesiastical 
 establishment under the name of the General 
 Assembly's Normal Institution. 
 
 Sestiere {A) (plural Sestieri). A 
 division of the city of Florence for legis- 
 lative purposes. It was a sixth part, 
 and each sestiere elected two anziani or 
 seniors. In 1282 the city was divided 
 into quarters, and the anziani were 
 superseded by priors {q.v.). 
 
 Sethos. King of Egypt, 19th dynasty, 
 father of Sesostris, reigned five centuries 
 before the Christian era. There is a 
 statue of this king holding a rat in his 
 hand, and containing this inscription : 
 ' Learn from my example to honour the 
 gods.' 
 
 The explanation given is this, according to 
 Herodotus : His soldiers refused to contend with 
 Sennacherib the Assyrian, and Sethos invoked 
 the god whose minister he was to aid him. At 
 night a crowd of rats invaded the Assyrian camp 
 and gnawed the bowstrings of the sleeping men, 
 BO that next morning Sennacherib was obliged to 
 draw off his army. No doubt this account is 
 ■wholly mythical, and the rat held in the king's 
 hand was the god he ' delighted to honour.' 
 
 Settlement {The Act of). The 
 statute 12, 13 William III. c. 2 whereby 
 the crown was limited to the family of 
 William. If William and his successor 
 Anne died without issue the succession 
 was to pass to the descendants of Prin- 
 cess Sophia, a daughter of James I., 
 provided they were Protestants (1702). 
 This, of course, is the ground of the 
 Hanoverian Succession. See ' Act of 
 Settlement.' 
 
 Settling Day. The day on which 
 stockbrokers settle or balance time 
 bargains {q.v.). Once a fortnight. 
 
 Seven. A magic number in Brussels. 
 Seven noble families, springing from 
 seven ancient castles, supplied the stock 
 from which was selected the seven 
 
 senators who composed the upper council 
 of the city. There were seven great 
 squares and seven gates (Motley, ' Dutch 
 Republic,' chap. i.). 
 
 Seven a Sacred Number. 
 
 Pythagoras, 500 years before the 
 Christian era, tells us that the number 
 7 belongs especially to sacred things. 
 
 Hippocrates (b.c. 460-357) divided the 
 life of man into 7 ages, a division adopted 
 by Shakespeare. 
 
 The Egyptian priests enjoined rest on 
 the 7th day, because it was held to be a 
 dies infaustus. In Egyptian astronomy 
 there were 7 planets, and hence 7 days 
 in the week, each day ruled by its own 
 special planet. The people of Peru had 
 also a 7-day week. 
 
 The Persians and Mexicans have a 
 tradition of a flood from which 7 persons 
 saved themselves in a cave, and by whom 
 the world was subsequently repeopled. 
 
 The Jews considered 7 the perfect 
 number: hence we have the 7 days of 
 the creative week ; 7 day's' respite before 
 the flood came ; 7 of all clean animals 
 saved in the ark ; the years of famine 
 and plenty were in cycles of 7 ; every 
 7th year, like every 7th day, was a sab- 
 bath ; the feasts of unleavened bread and 
 of tabernacles lasted 7 days ; the golden 
 candlestick had 7 branches ; 7 priests 
 blew with their trumpets when the walls 
 of Jericho fell down, after being encom- 
 passed for 7 days, and 7 times on the 7th 
 day; Jacob served 7 years for each of 
 his wives; Samson kept his nuptials 7 
 days, was bound with 7 green withes, and 
 7 locks of his hair were cut off ; Nebu- 
 chadnezzar was a 'beast' for 7 years; 
 and the furnace for the three Jews was 
 heated 7 times more than it was wont ; 
 the righteous are like gold 7 times puri- 
 fied in the furnace. 
 
 In the New Testament nearly every- 
 thing occurs by sevens : there were 7 
 churches in Asia; 7 spirits symbolised 
 by 7 candlesticks ; 7 stars ; 7 seals ; 7 
 vials. 
 
 3X7 is an important factor among ourselves: 
 thus, 3x7 constitutes a royal salute; 3x7 is the 
 time that man ' comes of age,' kc. The 7th son of 
 a 7th son was at one time supposed to possess 
 wonderful powers. Man consists of 7 parts (2 legs, 
 2 arms, a stomach, chest, and head), and his head 
 has 7 apertures (2 for the eyes, 2 for the ears, 2 for 
 the nose, and one for the mouth). 
 
 Seven Articles of Isl&,m {The). 
 1, There is one only God ; 2, Mohammed 
 is his prophet ; 3, Prayer is the key of 
 
814 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 paradise; 4, almsgiving; 5, fasting the 
 whole month of Ramada'n ; 6, a pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca ; and, 7, observance of the 
 festivals, viz. the first three days of 
 Shawal (which immediately follow the 
 month of Eamadan) and the three or 
 four days beginning on the tenth of Dsu'l 
 Heggeh. 
 
 Friday is the sabbath, but, service being over, 
 the rest of the day is at every man's disposal. 
 
 Seven Bibles {The). 1, The Chris- 
 tian's Bible ; 2, the Koran or Mahome- 
 tan's Bible ; 8, the Eddas of the Scandi- 
 navians ; 4, the Try Pitikes or Tripitaka, 
 i.e. ' Triple basket ' (viz. the Soutras or 
 discourses (literally ' strings *), Vinaya 
 or discipline, and Abhidharma or meta- 
 physics) ; 5, the Chinese five kings (viz. 
 Yih-king, cosmogony, Shu-king, or deli- 
 berations of the ' ancient kings,' the Shi- 
 king, or book of psalms, the Le-king, or 
 book of rites, the Chun-tsien, or history 
 of China) ; 6, the Three Vedas of the 
 Hindus ; and, 7, the Zendavesta of the 
 Persians. Of these the Koran is the most 
 modem. 
 
 The five kings do not mean five monarchs, but 
 five webs of cloth or five warps. 
 
 Seven Bishops {The), committed 
 to the Tower by Chief Justice Jeffreys, 
 10 June, 1688, were Sancroft archbishop 
 of Canterbury, Lloyd bishop of St. Asaph, 
 Ken bishop of Bath and Wells, Turner 
 bishop of Ely, Lake bishop of Chichester, 
 White bishop of Peterborough, and 
 Trelawney bishop of Bristol. These 
 seven bishops were deputed to wait on 
 James II. and inform him that the bishops 
 of the diocese declined to read the king's 
 Declaration of Indulgence according to 
 his command, or to instruct their clergy 
 so to do. The object of the declaration 
 was the removal of all disqualifications 
 from Roman Catholics in church and 
 state offices. The bishops, when brought 
 to trial, were acquitted, and this tyranni- 
 cal proceeding was the last offence which 
 brought about the overthrow of James II. 
 The declaration was to be read in London 
 20 May and elsewhere 27 May, 1688. 
 
 Seven Bodies in Alchemy 
 
 {The). 1, the sun is gold] 2, the moon 
 is silver ; 8, Mars is iron ; 4, Mercury is 
 quicksilver ; 5, Saturn is lead', 6, Jupiter 
 is tin ; and, 7, Venus is copper. 
 
 The bodies seven, eel£, lo hem heer anoon: 
 Sol gold is, and Luna silver we threpe, 
 Mars yren, Mercurie quyksilver we clepe, 
 
 Saturnus leed, and Jubitur is tyn. 
 And Venus coper, by my fader liyn. 
 Chaucer, Conterhurii Tales (Prologue to the 
 ' Chanounes Yemanes Tale '). 
 
 Seven Champions of Chris- 
 tendom {The). 1, St. George of Eng- 
 land', 2, St. Andrew of Scotland', 8, St. 
 Patrick of Ireland ; 4, St. David of 
 Wales ; 5, St. Denys of France ; 6, St. 
 James of Spain ; and, 7, St. Anthony of 
 Italy. 
 
 Seven Clerical Orders {The), 
 Ostiarii, lectors, exorcists, acolytes, sub- 
 deacons, deacons, and priests. Bishops 
 are dignified priests. 
 
 Docendum igitur erit hosce omn6s ordinea 
 septenario numero contineri, semperque ita a 
 CatholicaEccleslatraditumesse ; quorum nomina 
 hfec sunt : Ostiarius, Lector, Exorcista, Acolytus, 
 Subdiaconus, Diaconus, Sacerdos.— Cat. Concil. 
 Trident., pt. ii. c. 24. 
 
 St. Caius, who succeeded Eutychianus in 283, 
 made it a law of the church that all clerici should 
 pass through the seven inferior orders before they 
 were capable of being ordained bishops.— Prince, 
 Parallel History. 
 
 Seven Corporal "Works of 
 
 Mercy (T/ie). l, to bury the dead; 2, 
 to clothe the naked; 3, to feed the 
 hungry ; 4, to give drink to the thirsty ; 
 5, to harbour the houseless ; 6, to visit 
 those in prison ; and, 7, to administer to 
 the sick. See ' Seven Spiritual,' &c. 
 
 Seven Crosses {The). Seven 
 crosses mark the tomb of a bishop, five 
 of a priest, and one of an ordinary 
 Christian. 
 
 There are also seven forms of the ecclesiastical 
 cross. 
 
 _!_ The Greek cross, the oldest form. Symbol of 
 ^^ the word LVX., lux (light). 
 
 The Latin cross. 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Maltese cross. 
 
 X St. Andrew's cross, or reliquary cross. 
 
 j. The Lorrainese cross, or cardinal's cross, 
 "T" carried before a cardinal. The pope's cross 
 
 has three transoms. 
 T The Tau or Egyptian cross, or the marking 
 
 cross. 
 jP Constantino's cross j^ , i.e. XP, for ChrListos]. 
 
 Some other forms are occasionally seen, as the 
 ' Lambeaux,' which is a Maltese cross on a Latin 
 stem, standing on a lambel with three pendants. 
 The rectoral cross consists of two spears crossed ; 
 the Agnus Dei cross is a spear ^ 'rmounted with a 
 Maltese cross ; and the heralcUc crosses. 
 
 Seven Days' King {The). Masa- 
 niello {i.e. Tommaso Aniello), born 1622. 
 Headed a revolt against the Duke of 
 Arcos, at Naples, 7 July, 1647, forced 
 him to abolish the tax on provisions, and 
 
SEVEN 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 815 
 
 for seven days was master of Naples. 
 He was most arrogant and bloodthirsty, 
 and was assassinated 16 July. 
 
 He is the hero of two operas : one by Caraffa 
 called ' Masaniello,' and the other by Auber (li- 
 bretto by Scribe) called ' La Muette de Portici.' 
 
 Seven Deadly Sins {The). Covet- 
 
 ousness, envy, gluttony, lechery or lust, 
 pride, sloth, wrath. See ' Seven Virtues.' 
 
 Seven Deposed Ministers of 
 S Gotland ( The), 1843. A Mr. Edwards 
 was presented to a church in Scotland, 
 and, being refused ordination by the pres- 
 bytery of Strathbogie, he appealed to the 
 civil court and gained the verdict ; where- 
 upon seven ministers united in ordaining 
 him, contrary to the principle of the 
 'veto' {q.v.) adopted in 1834. These 
 seven ministers were now deposed by 
 the presbytery, their churches declared 
 vacant, and Mr. Edwards was deprived 
 of his licence as a minister. The seven 
 ministers petitioned the House of Lords, 
 which justified them, and insisted on 
 their restoration. This split up the 
 Church of Scotland, and the seceding 
 members formed what is called the ' Free 
 Church of Scotland ' {q.v.). 
 
 Seven Dolours {The), 1725. * The 
 
 seven dolours, or sorrows, of the Blessed 
 Virgin ' is a modern festival of the Ca- 
 tholic Church celebrated on the Friday 
 preceding Palm Sunday. They refer to : 
 1, the prediction of St. Luke (ii. 34) ; 2, 
 the flight into Egypt ; 3, the loss of Jesus 
 in Jerusalem ; 4, the sight of Jesus bear- 
 ing his cross ; 5, the sight of Jesus on 
 the cross ; 6, the piercing of his side 
 with the lance ; and, 7, the burial. The 
 festival was instituted by Pope Benedict 
 XIII. See ' Seven Joys,' &c. 
 
 Instead of piercing the side we have the betrayal 
 In the right place in some lists ; and instead of 
 the burial is given the Ascension, ' Let not your 
 hearts be sorrowful, &c.' No. 1 was not a sorrow, 
 but a prediction only ; the ' sorrows ' were the in- 
 cidents which fulfilled it. 
 
 Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost 
 
 (The). 1, counsel ; 2, the fear of the 
 Lord ; 8, fortitude ; 4, piety ; 5, under- 
 standing ; 6, wisdom ; and, 7, knowledge. 
 
 Philip said to the eunuch, ' Understandest thou 
 what thou readest,' this is the first step to a know- 
 ledije of God. 
 
 ' The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,' 
 this is understanding carried into practice. 
 
 ' I know whom I have believed,' this is the ex- 
 perience of a ripe Christian. 
 
 Seven-hilled City {The). 'Urbs 
 Septicollis,' Rome, built on seven hills : 
 
 1, the Palatlnus ; 2, the Capitollnus ; 3, 
 the Quirinalis; 4, the Caslius; 5, the 
 Aventlnus ; 6, the Viminalis ; and, 7, the 
 Esquillnus. 
 
 Seven Joys of Mary {The). 1, 
 
 the annunciation ; 2, the visitation ; 3, 
 the nativity ; 4, the adoration of the 
 wise men; 5, the presentation in the 
 temple; 6, finding Christ among the 
 doctors ; and, 7, the assumption. See 
 ' Seven Dolours,' &c. 
 
 strange that the ' resurrection ' should be 
 omitted. One wou Id have supposed it would have 
 been the joy of joys next to the nativity. 
 
 Seven Liberal Sciences {The). 
 Divinity, astronomy, geometry, music, 
 law, physic, and rhetoric. 
 
 Seven Men of Moidart {The), 
 1745. The seven persons who accom- 
 panied Charles Edward, the young pre- 
 tender, on his expedition to conquer Great 
 Britain and win back the crown aban- 
 doned by his grandfather James II. So 
 called because their first muster in Scot- 
 land was at Kinloch Moidart, Inverness- 
 shire. They were the old marquess of 
 Tullibardine (called by the Jacobites the 
 duke of Athol), Sir Thomas Sheridan 
 (Charles Edward's tutor). Sir John Mac- 
 donald, Kelly (the nonjuring clergyman), 
 Francis Strickland, JEne&s Macdonald 
 (banker in Paris), and Buchanan. 
 
 Seven Months' War {The), the 
 
 Franco-Prussian War. War was de- 
 clared by Napoleon III. against Prussia 
 19 July, 1870, and peace was signed at 
 Frankfort 10 May, 1871. The first half 
 consisted of a series of battles won by 
 Prussia; the second half consisted of 
 a series of sieges, ending with the siege 
 of Paris, in all of which Prussia was 
 successful. 
 
 The day after the battle of Sedan, Sept. 1, Napo- 
 leon III. surrendered his sword to the king of 
 Prussia. On 18 January. 1H71, Wilhelm I. king of 
 Prussia was created emperor of Germany, and on 
 28 January Paris surrendered to the conquerors. 
 
 Seven Mortal Sins {The). Pride, 
 wrath, envy, lust, gluttony, avarice, and 
 sloth. 
 
 Seven Nations of Canaan {The). 
 The Hittites, the Girgashites, the Amo- 
 rites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the 
 Hivites, and the Jebusites. 
 
 The Canaanites were also called the Philistines, 
 and by the Hebrews ' Cherethites,' because they 
 were supposed to be a colony from Cherith (Crete) 
 The people called themselves Palisthinea, and 
 
816 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 their country Palisthan (whence Philistines and 
 Palestine). 
 
 Seven Orders of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Churcli. 
 
 1. The ostiary, a kind of sexton, whose 
 duty it was to ring the bells and keep the 
 church doors. 
 
 2. The exorcist, whose function was to 
 exorcise those possessed. 
 
 3. The lector, or ' reader,' who read the 
 lessons at church. 
 
 4. The acolyth, or ' acolythist,' who 
 held the candles while the priest read the 
 Gospel in the celebration of the mass. 
 
 5. The subdeacon, who prepared the 
 holy vessels, and attended on the deacon 
 at the altar. 
 
 6. The deacon, who assisted the priest, 
 laid the oblations on the altar, baptized 
 children, and gave the eucharist to the 
 laity. 
 
 7. The priest, or 'presbyter,' who 
 preached, consecrated and administered 
 the elements, &c. Bishops and arch- 
 bishops are merely grades of the priest- 
 hood. 
 
 The Catholic Church has the same seven orders. 
 
 Seven Preexistences(T;ie). Sub- 
 scribed to by the Daruschists. They are 
 Law and Throne of Glory, which existed 
 before the creation of the world. The 
 other five existed in contemplation only, 
 viz. the Fathers, Israel, the Sanctuary, 
 the Messiah, and Repentance. 
 
 Seven Religions {The), according 
 to the Ismaelites, are these : (1) that of 
 Adam and his companion Soos (beth) ; 
 (2) Noah, with Shem ; (3) Abraham, with 
 Ismael ; (4) Moses, with Aaron ; (5) Jesus, 
 with Simon ; (6) Mahomet, with Ali ; (7) 
 the Chief, or Master, in whom culminated 
 ' the Sciences of the Primeval Ones.' 
 
 Seven Sacraments (The), of the 
 
 Roman Catholic Church : (1) Baptism ; 
 (2) Confirmation ; (3) the Lord's Supper ; 
 (4) Penance ; (5) Holy Orders ; (6) Matri- 
 mony; and (7) Extreriie Unction. Of 
 these. Confirmation and Orders can be 
 administered only by bishops. 
 
 Baptism, Matt. xxviii.l9; Eucharist, Matt. xxvi. 
 26 ; Conflrmation, Acts vi ji. 17 ; Penance. Matt. xvi. 
 19 ; Orders, Tim. iv. 4, 22 ; Matrimony, Eph. v. 32 ; 
 Extreme Unction, Mark vi. 13, James v. 14. 
 
 Seven Sciences (The). The Tri- 
 vium and Quadrivium — viz. grammar, 
 rhetoric, and logic, music, arithmetic, 
 geometry, and astronomy. Called by 
 
 mine host of the Black Bear the ' seven 
 damnable sciences ' ; theology being held 
 by the church the one and only true 
 science (' Kenilworth,' chap. iii.). 
 
 Seven kinds of Sectaries {The), 
 in New England in the 17th cent. GoB- 
 TONiSTS (who, it is said, denied the hu- 
 manity of Christ) ; Papists (who consider 
 their own merits and works equal with 
 Christ's invaluable death and suffering) ; 
 Familists (looking for rare revelations, 
 and forsaking the sure revealed word) ; 
 Seekeks (who deny the churches and 
 ordinance of Christ) ; Antinomians (who 
 deny the moral law to be the rule of 
 Christ) ; Anabaptists (who deny the civil 
 government to be proved of Christ) ; Pbe- 
 LATiSTS (who will have their own injunc- 
 tions submitted unto in the churches of 
 Christ) (John Harvard, 1G28). 
 
 Seven Sisters {The). I. The old 
 yew-trees, close to Fountain Abbey, at 
 least 1,200 years old. Only two now re- 
 main, one of which is 25 feet in circuit. 
 
 II. 1513. Seven cannons cast by Robert 
 Borthwick, master of artillery, and em- 
 ployed by the Scotch in the battle of 
 Flodden Field. An official report says 
 they were ' the neatest, the soundest, the 
 best fashioned, the smallest in the touch- 
 hole, and the most beautiful of their size 
 and length ever seen.' Borthwick fell on 
 the field while directing their operations. 
 
 Seven Sleepers (T^e). Noircarmes 
 and his six officers in the siege of Valen- 
 ciennes (1566) were so called, on account 
 of the sleepy way in which they conducted 
 the siege (Motley, ' The Dutch Republic,' 
 pt. ii. 9). 
 
 Of course, the legendary seven sleepers referred 
 to in the Koran XVIII., the Golden Legends, and 
 Gregory's ' De Gloria Martyrum ' were seven 
 noble youths of Ephesus who fled in the Decian 
 persecution to a cave in Mount Celion, and slept 
 for 230 years. Their names are differently given. 
 
 Seven Spiritual Works of 
 Mercy {The). (1) to admonish sinners; 
 (2) to bear wrongs patiently ; (3) to com- 
 fort the afflicted; (4) to counsel the 
 doubtful ; (5) to forgive offences ; (6) to 
 instruct the ignorant ; and (7) to pray for 
 the living and the dead. See 'Seven 
 Corporal, &c.' 
 
 Seven times Christ spoke on 
 the Cross. 
 
 1. Father forgive them, for they know 
 not what they do. 
 
SEVEN 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 817 
 
 2. To day shalt thou be with me in 
 paradise. 
 
 3. Woman, behold thy son. 
 
 4. My God, my God, why hast thou for- 
 saken me ? 
 
 5. I thirst. 
 
 6. It is finished. 
 
 7. Father, into thy hands I commend 
 my spirit. 
 
 Seven Towers {The), or ' Hepta- 
 pyrgium,' of Constantinople, clustered in 
 the southern end of the wall, not far from 
 the gate of Marmora. Within these Seven 
 Towers is the Golden Gate. The Seven 
 Towers were used as a state prison. 
 
 Supposing the top margin of this page to repre- 
 sent the port of Constantinople, the bottom of the 
 page would be the site of th-? Tower of Marmora, 
 and a little higher up would stand in a cluster (on 
 the right hand side) the Seven Towers and Golden 
 Qate. And about as far from the top margin as 
 the Seven Gates would be from the bottom mar- 
 gin would stand the palace of Constantine. The 
 wall connecting these is called the Western Wall. 
 
 Seven United Provinces (The). 
 Seven provinces of the Netherlands under 
 the yoke of Spain, leagued in 1579 under 
 the leadership of William the Silent 
 (prince of Orange-Nassau), aided by 
 Count Hoorn and Count Egmont, to 
 throw off their subjugation. In 1609 they 
 succeeded in establishing themselves into 
 a republic, by an armistice for twelve 
 years. The struggle was renewed and 
 carried on till 164:8, when all the powers 
 acknowledged the independence of the 
 provinces by the Treaty of Miinster. 
 
 The seven provinces were (1) Holland ; (2) Zee- 
 land; (3) Utrecht; (4) Guelderland, with Zutphen ; 
 (5) Over-Yssel ; (6) Friesland ; and (7) Groningeu, 
 with Drenthe. In 17^5 the United Provinces be- 
 came the Batavian Republic, paying 81 millions 
 sterling for a French army of 2o,000 men, and in 
 1806 Louis Bonaparte was made king of Holland. 
 In 1830 Belgium was broken off and the Nether- 
 lands became an independent kingdom. 
 
 Seven Virtue s(r7te). Faith, hope, 
 charity, prudence, justice, fortitude, and 
 temperance. 
 The first three are called the ' Holy Virtues.' 
 
 Seven Weeks' "War (The). Prom 
 8 June to 26 July, 1866, between Prussia 
 and Austria for German supremacy. 
 Italy was allied to Prussia. Prussia de- 
 clared the Gastein Convention invalidated 
 4 June, and the Prussian troops entered 
 Holstein 8 June. Hostilities between 
 Austria and Italy ceased 25 July, but the 
 Bavarians were defeated 26 July, and a 
 preliminary treaty was agreed to by the 
 belligerents. The Treaty of Prague was 
 .35 
 
 signed 23 Aug., 1866, and tlie Treaty of 
 Vienna between Italy and Austria on 
 3 Oct. By these treaties, Austria was 
 entirely excluded from Germany ; Prussia 
 was placed at the head of the German 
 states ; and Venetia was added to the 
 new-formed kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The battles were (I) Custozza (24 June), won by 
 Victor Emmanuel; (2) Langeiisalza (27 June), in 
 which Hanover, an ally of Austria, was defeated : 
 
 (3) Nachod, same day, won by the Crown Prince ; 
 
 (4) Trautenau, same day, won by Prince Friedrich 
 Karl ; (5) Munchengrat, won 28 June : (6) Skalitz, 
 same day ; (7) Sadowa, won 3 July ; (8) Olmiitz, won 
 15 July ; (9) Lissa, won 20 July ; and (10) the defeat 
 of the Bavarians, 26 July. 
 
 Seven Whistlers (The). The ' Ga- 
 briel Hounds,' a yelping or whistling sound 
 heard in the air, and supposed to forebode 
 bad luck. Called ' Gabriel Hounds ' from 
 the notion that they are the souls of the 
 unsaved hunted by Gabriel, and shrieking 
 from the smart of his whip as he lashes 
 them along. 
 
 N.B. — The cry really arises from birds, 
 such as teal, widgeons, and wild geese, 
 flying by night to new feeding grounds. 
 
 Seven Years* War (The), or 
 'Third Silesian War,' the third period 
 of the War of the Austrian Succession 
 between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
 Friedrich II. of Prussia. The object was 
 to determine to which of these two 
 crowns should Silesia belong. It was 
 divided into seven campaigns. 
 
 First campaign, 1756. Dresden cap- 
 tured by Friedrich II. Battle of Lobositz 
 indecisive. The Saxons surrendered. 
 
 Second campaign, 1757. Three battles 
 won by Friedrich ; those of Prague, Eos- 
 bach, and Leithen; one lost, that of 
 Kolin. 
 
 Third campaign, 1758. Battle of 
 Zorndorf won by Friedrich ; that of Hoch- 
 kirchen lost by him. 
 
 Fourth campaign, 1759. Both Kuners- 
 dorf and Maxen were won by the 
 Austrians. 
 
 Fifth campaigii, 1760. Both battles 
 (Leignitz and Torgau) won by Fried- 
 rich II. 
 
 Sixth ca7npaign, 1761. In which the 
 French allies of Austria were defeated. 
 
 Seventh campaign, 1762. The Prus- 
 sians victorious throughout. Peace of 
 Hubertsburg, and end of the war (15 Feb., 
 1763). 
 
 The Seven Years' War began because 
 Prussia claimed Silesia. After seven 
 years' fighting, and the loss of a millioa 
 8G 
 
818 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 SEX 
 
 lives, Silesia was handed over to Prussia; 
 but what was far more important is 
 this: at the beginning of the war Prussia 
 was only an insignificant kingdom ; at the 
 close of it, it was one of the great powers, 
 and the rival of Austria. 
 
 In 186(i another contest arose between the two 
 rival powers. This contest did not last seven 
 years, but only seven weeks, and Austria yielded 
 the palm to Prussia. After the Franco-Prussian 
 war. in 1870-1871, the King of Prussia was univer- 
 sally acknowledged to be ' the German Emperor ' 
 also, and Austria was a separate dominion. 
 
 Seven Years' War with Swe- 
 den [The), 1563-1570. Erik XIV. of 
 Sweden remonstrated with Frederick II. 
 of Denmark for continuing in the national 
 arms ' The Three Crowns,' commemora- 
 tive of the Calmar Union. As Frederick 
 gave no satisfactory answer, Erik retali- 
 ated by inserting the arms of Denmark 
 in the royal banner of Sweden. The 
 King of Poland and the city of Liibeck 
 made common cause with Denmark. The 
 Swedes, weary of the useless war and dis- 
 gusted with their king, deprived him of 
 his crown (1568) and confined him in 
 prison, where he was poisoned by his 
 brother and successor John, Feb. 1577. 
 The first act of the new sovereign was to 
 put an end to the war, but negotiations 
 drawled on till 1570, when a treaty of 
 peace was signed at Stettin by the belli- 
 gerents. 
 
 Seventeen Provinces [The) of 
 Karl V. (Charles-quint) : Franche-Comte, 
 Flanders, Artois, Malines (Mechlin), An- 
 vers (Antwerp), Hainaut, Namur, Bra- 
 bant, Limbourg, Luxemburg, Holland, 
 Zeeland, Gueldre-with-Zutphen, Utrecht, 
 Over-Yssel, Friesland, Groningen. After- 
 wards Cambray was added. In 1609 
 these provinces were divided into two 
 parts, one of which was called the seven 
 provinces of Holland, or the ' United 
 Provinces,' and the other ten formed the 
 Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Seventh Day Baptists {The). A 
 
 section of the Christian Baptist sect 
 founded for the express purpose of re- 
 storing the Jewish sabbath, or making 
 Saturday 'the Lord's Day.' There are 
 also ' Seventh Day Adventists ' both in 
 America and in Europe. 
 
 Seventy {The). 1. The Jewish San- 
 hedrim or national council, which con- 
 sisted of a president called Nasi, a 
 deputy, sub-deputy, and seventy ordinary 
 members. Their place of meeting was 
 
 called The Pavement. The seventy sat 
 in the form of a crescent, thirty-five on 
 each side of the throne. 
 
 II. A.D. 32. The seventy sent forth by 
 Jesus to spread his mission. They were 
 to go two by two, without purse, scrip, or 
 change of shoes, but were endowed with 
 the power of working miracles. 
 
 III. The seventy elders who were ap- 
 pointed to assist Moses in the wilderness 
 (Num. xi. 16, 17). 
 
 Seventy Years' Captivity (T/ie). 
 
 I. B.C. 584-515. Thecaptivity of the Jews 
 in Babylon, which lasted seventy years. 
 They were carried into captivity by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, and released by Cyrus. Also 
 called ' The Babylonish Captivity.' 
 
 n. 1305-1376. The time when the 
 popes fixed their chair at Avignon, in 
 France. It began with Clement V., and 
 led to the Great Schism of the West 
 (1378-1429). 
 
 Seventy Weeks {Daniel's). Sup- 
 posing it to begin with the decree of 
 Darius given to Ezra B.C. 491, and 
 seventy weeks to mean 70 times 7 years 
 {i.e. 490), this would bring us to the 
 birth of Christ, ' when a finish was made 
 to transgression, and an end put to sins 
 by the reconciliation of the Messiah, the 
 prince.' 
 
 Several Lands, lands enclosed, 
 and separate from common lands. ' Nos 
 pascua et campos seorsim ab aliis sepa- 
 ratos Severels dicimus' (Minsheu, Dic- 
 tionary, 1617). 
 
 My lips are no common, though several they be 
 (i.e. My lips are not common property, though they 
 are not inclosed or hedged in).— SHAKESPEARE, 
 Love's Labour's Lost, ii. 1. 
 
 Severians, a religious sect of the 
 2nd Christian cent. So named from 
 Severus their leader. They were exag- 
 gerated Encratites (3 syl.) who abstained 
 from marriage, animal food, and wine; 
 denied the salvation of Adam and Eve, 
 and taught the existence of seons 
 (Eusebius, book iv. 29). 
 
 Seville {Treaty of), 9 Nov., 1729, 
 between Great Britain, France, Holland, 
 and Spain. In 1731 the kaiser joined, 
 and the five powers coalesced in the 
 Treaty of Vienna. 
 
 Sex Vir i ( The) . In the University of 
 Cambridge. There are two courts, one 
 to hear accusations against members of 
 
SEXAGESIMA 
 
 SHAKESPEAKE 
 
 819 
 
 the University not in statu pupillari ; 
 and the other a court of discipHne for 
 those who are in statu pupillari. The 
 latter court consists of the chancellor 
 and six heads of houses appointed by 
 grace of the Senate. The former, also 
 elected by grace, held office for two years. 
 The Sex Viri can deprive of a degree, but 
 there is the liberty of appeal to the Senate. 
 
 Sexages'ima Sunday, 60 days 
 before Easter. In all such ecclesiastical 
 terms as Septuagesima, Sexagesima, 
 Quinquagesima, and Quadrigesima (Sun- 
 day), the week is reckoned as a ten-day 
 week, because the octave and the two 
 eves equal ten. See ' Sunday.' Thus : 
 
 1 eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 3 Monday, 4 Tues- 
 day, 5 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Satur- 
 day, 9 Octave Eve, and 10 Octave. So in music, 
 7 notes with the octave of the first note we call 
 an 'Octave,' and the 3 days of the entombment 
 were 1 eve of Saturday, 2 Saturday, 3 eve of 
 Sunday. 
 
 Sext {The). A continuation of the 
 Decretals of Raymond de Penafort. 
 Like the Decretals, the Sext is in 5 
 books. It - was compiled by order of 
 Boniface VIII., and contains the rescripts 
 from Gregory IX. to Boniface VIII. See 
 * Decretum.' 
 
 The 3rd part of the Corpus Juris Canonici is 
 the Extravagantes Communes, containing the 
 Clementines and Extravagantes Joannis (i.e. 
 Clement V. and John XXII.). 
 
 Sforza the More, or 'Moor.' 
 Ludovico Sforza was called ' the More,' 
 from morus, a mulberry. Either from a 
 mulberry-spot or stain on his right arm, 
 or from his armorial bearing (1451-1508). 
 
 Sforzes'chi (The), 1409. The parti- 
 Bans or company of Sforza, formed after 
 the death of Barbiano. See ' Bracces'- 
 chi.' 
 
 Shado"wer {The). ApoUodoms, the 
 Athenian painter ( * -440 B.C.). Zeuxis 
 was his pupil. 
 
 Shah {The). A diamond about half 
 the size of the Orloff, given to the Empe- 
 ror of Russia by Prince Cosroes, younger 
 son of the Abbas Mirza, when he was in 
 St. Petersburg. It weighs 86 carats, but 
 is withojit a flaw or cloud. 
 
 Shah-zada, a king's son (Afghani- 
 Btan). 
 
 Shakers, 1747. Reformed Quakers, 
 led by James Wardley and his wife. 
 They believe that the second coming of 
 Christ is at hand. They are Unitarians, 
 
 deny the doctrine of original sin, and 
 the eternity of punishment. They say 
 that baptism is the resurrection, and 
 after baptism there is no marriage or 
 giving in marriage, hence the married 
 are then divorced, and the single must 
 remain so. Anne Lee was their apostle, 
 whom they called * Mother ' — that is, the 
 mother of all living in the new creation. 
 They are called Shakers from the shaking 
 of their bodies in religious exercises. 
 ' The fundamental principles of Shaker- 
 ism are virgin purity, non-resistance, 
 peace, equality in inheritance, and un- 
 spottedness from the world.' 
 
 The Lord promised He would shake the earth 
 with terror (Iso. ii. 19). ' In that day there shall 
 be a great shaking in the land of Israel ' (.Ezek. 
 xxxviii. 19, 20). 'I will shake the heavens and 
 the earth.' 'I will shake all nations, and the 
 desire of all nations [.J?(hc Lee] shall come." 'Yet 
 once more I will shake not the earth only, but 
 also heaven ' {Hcb. xii. 26). 
 
 Shakespeare {The Spanish). Cal- 
 deron [de la Barca], 1601-1687. 
 
 Shakespeare Cipher {The), in 
 1886 Mr. Donnelly, of Hastings, Minne- 
 sota, U.S., gave out that he had dis- 
 covered by ciphers that Lord Francis 
 Bacon was the author of the plays attri- 
 buted to Shakespeare. The ' cipher ' he 
 referred to consisted of the blunders in 
 pagination, hyphenation, bracketing of 
 the great Folio edition of 1623, to which 
 must be added capitalling words without 
 any ostensible reason (thus the word 
 Bacon is capitalised even in such com- 
 pounds as ' Bacon-fed '), and in the use 
 of italics. In regard to italics he says : 
 In ' 1 Henry IV.' there are 7 italic words 
 in the first column, p. 53 ; by multiplying 
 these 2 ciphers we get 53 x 7 = 371, and 
 the 371st word is 'Bacon.' Again. On p. 
 67 of the same play the first column con- 
 tains 6 words in italics, and 67 x 6 = 402, 
 which word is ' St. Albans.' In this sort 
 of way Mr. Donnelly reads a minute 
 history of Lord Bacon in cipher, and 
 afiirms that all the blunders and irregu- 
 larities of the printed plays were designed. 
 The secret writing was adopted out of 
 fear of the jealousy of Queen Elizabeth, 
 who looked on some of the plays, as for 
 example ' Richard II.,' as no better than 
 high treason. 
 
 Shakespeare du Boulevard, 
 
 Guilbert de Pixere'court (1773-1844). 
 
 Shakespeare of Divines {The). 
 Jeremy Taylor, bishop of Down (1633- 
 3 r, 2 
 
820 
 
 SHAKESPEARE 
 
 SHEEPSHANKS 
 
 1667). So called by Emerson from the 
 fertility of his mind and the extent of his 
 imagination. 
 
 Shakespeare of Eloquence 
 
 (The), the Comte de Mirabeau (1749- 
 1791). So called by Barnave. 
 
 Shakespeare of Germany (T7ie). 
 August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotze- 
 bue (1761-1819). 
 
 We may parody the words of Coleridge on 
 Klopstock, the German Milton, 'Avery German 
 Milton indeed.' Certainly Kotzebue is a very 
 German Shakespeare indeed. 
 
 Shakespeare of Harmony 
 
 {The). Eichard Wagner (1813-1864). 
 This is a very exaggerated comparison. 
 
 Shakespeare of Painting {The). 
 
 Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). So called 
 by Garrick. 
 
 Shakespeare of Prose Fiction 
 
 {The). Richardson the novelist (1689- 
 1761). So called by D'lsraeli. 
 
 Shaking Hands. 
 
 To confirm a bargain, mentioned 
 2 Kings X. 15. 
 
 As a salutation, mentioned by Homer, 
 by Aristophanes (' Nubes,' 18), and by 
 Virgil ('/^n.'i. 403). 
 
 In modern times the custom is English ; 
 most continental nations salute with 
 kisses. 
 
 Shalmaneser, that is, Shalman of 
 Assyria, son and successor of Tiglath 
 Pileser. He reigned 14 years (a.m. 3276- 
 3290, i.e. B.C. 724-710). 
 
 Sham'anism. The religious doc- 
 trines of the ancient Hungarians, and 
 of many modern North Asiatics. The 
 Shaman worshippers adored one supreme 
 god called Isten with sundry inferior 
 spirits, as the gods of the mountains, the 
 woods, the springs, the rivers, fire, thun- 
 der, and so on. They offered sacrifice, 
 especially white horses. Their priests 
 were called Tdltos, Kam, or Shaman, 
 who were like the Roman augurs. 
 
 Shan'avests and Car'avats, 1808, 
 
 the Ribbon-men of Tipperary, Kilkenny, 
 Cork, and Limerick. They were rival 
 factions. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Neither the persons executed for these outrages 
 nor anyone else could tell what was the dispute. 
 It was notorious who were Caravats and who 
 were Shanavests, and this was all. — Arnold. 
 
 Sh^ng Dynasty. See ' Chang.' 
 
 * Sharp Knife.' So General Jack- 
 son was called by the Indians against 
 whom he fought in 1813 (1767-1845). 
 
 Shas'tras. A compilation of books 
 in Sanskrit, containing the Upa-Vedas, 
 the Up-Angas, and the Ved-Angas [q.v.), 
 books upon the religious tenets of the 
 Hindis, their laws, the sciences, and the 
 Sanskrit language, with two heroic 
 poems. The Shastras teach that there 
 is one supreme god called Brahm, but a 
 triad deity consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, 
 and Shiva. 
 
 She - majesty - generalissimo 
 
 {The). Marie Henrietta, wife of Charles I., 
 so called herself in 1643. At the death 
 of Charles she married Lord Jermyn, 
 and died 1669, at Colombo Castle, near 
 Paris. 
 
 It is said she had a child by Lord Jermyn while 
 Charles was alive. 
 
 She-wolf of France. I. Isabelle, 
 wife of Edward IL. who, according to a 
 tradition, being in love with Mortimer, 
 murdered her husband by thrusting a 
 red-hot iron into his body. Hence Gray 
 says, ' She-wolf of France, who tear'st the 
 bowels of thy mangled mate.' She was 
 the daughter of Philippe IV, of France. 
 
 II. Margaret wife of Henry VI. is so 
 called by Shakespeare, '3 Hen. VI.' act i. 
 sc. 4. She was the daughter of Ren^ 
 le Bon, titular king of Sicily, but was 
 brought up in the French court. In the 
 war of the Two Roses she sided with the 
 Lancastrians or Red- Rose faction. She 
 is generally called Marguerite d'Anjou. 
 
 As a rule the French wives of our English 
 sovereigns have not turned out well. 
 
 Sheb'sen. A. Jewish sect founded 
 by Sabathai Sevi of Smyrna (1625- 
 1076). He proclaimed himself to be 
 the Messiah, and found numerous fol- 
 lowers in Germany, Poland, Italy, and 
 Holland; but Sultan Mohammed IV. 
 cast him into prison. They put a mys- 
 tical meaning on the Bible and rejected 
 wholly the Talmud. The last of the 
 sect died in 1791. 
 
 Sheepshanks Exhibition. As- 
 tronomy. For undergraduate^ in the 
 University of Cambridge. Value about 
 50Z. a year, tenable for three years. The 
 successful candidate must be or must 
 become a student of Trinity College. 
 Founded by the Rev. Richard Sheep- 
 shanks, fellow of Trinity, 1858. 
 
SHEFFIELD 
 
 SHERIFF 
 
 821 
 
 Shefaeld Trade Outrages, 1866- 
 
 1867. Mainly connected with the Saw- 
 grinders', Saw-makers', and Saw-handle- 
 makers' Unions, and brought to a head 
 in Oct. 1866 by the murder of one Fearne- 
 hough of Hereford Street, whose house 
 was blown up with gunpowder because 
 he refused to conform to the rules of the 
 union of his trade. A reward of 1240Z. 
 was offered for the discovery of the per- 
 petrator of this outrage, but without 
 effect. At length the government sent 
 down three Royal Commissioners to in- 
 quire into the matter, and they sat for 
 twenty-five days, from 3 June to 8 July, 
 1867. Their report states that there 
 were sixty unions in Sheffield, thirteen 
 of which encouraged outrages. 
 
 Several centuries ago the artisans of Sheffield 
 had their trade laws, which in 1624 were revised. 
 By these laws — 
 Every artisan was bound to contribute to the 
 
 union of his trade. 
 The number of men allowed to be employed was 
 
 stated, their wages fixed, and the masters 
 
 allowed to be employers were named. 
 The enforced holidays were every Monday, a 
 
 month at Christmas time, and twenty-eight 
 
 days from 8 Aug. 
 No person was allowed to work without serving 
 
 a seven-years' apprenticeship. 
 The chief of the gang of outragers was William 
 Broadhead, an innkeeper, at whose house the 
 committee met, and his tools were Samuel Crookes 
 (employed to shoot people and throw gunpowder 
 into obnoxious houses) and James Hallam, who 
 revealed the whole matter. 
 
 Charles Reade, in his novel ' Put Yourself in his 
 Place,' gives a most powerful and graphic descrip- 
 tion of the organisation, management, and doings 
 of these unions. 
 
 Sheik ul Gebel {The). Hussun 
 Subah, called the 'Old Man of the 
 Mountain ' (q.v.). 
 
 Sheldo'nian Theatre (The), IG69. 
 Erected by Gilbert Sheldon, archbishop 
 of Canterbury and chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford. It corresponds 
 with the Cambridge Senate-house (q.v.). 
 
 Shemham-phorasch (The). A 
 talisman made of parchment on which 
 the sacred names were written, 
 
 A juggler came to Albert duke of Saxony and 
 offered to Impart to him the gift of infallibility. 
 ' Well,' quoth the duke, ' that I may make sure of 
 It, I will make the first trial on you.' So saying, 
 he drew his sword and so hacked the impostor 
 that not even the Shemham-phorasch could cure 
 him. 
 
 Shepherd Earl of Cumberland 
 
 (TJie). Henry de Clifford, the tenth 
 baron by writ (died 1523). His mother, 
 to save him from the Yorkists, sent him 
 to be brought up by a shepherd ; but in 
 1-185 Henry VII. 'restored him in blood 
 and honours,' and he was summoned to 
 
 Parliament the same year (15 Sept.). 
 His son and successor was the first to 
 discontinue the de before the name. 
 
 Henry de Clifford was not earl of Cumberland 
 The first Clifford who bore that title was Henry 
 Clifford his son, created earl of Cumberland 18 
 July, 1525, 'uppon the joyefuU newes of the 
 Emperours victorie at Pavie, in Italy.' 
 
 Shepherdess of Dauphiny 
 
 (The). Isabeau Vincent, who was only 
 sixteen when she first appeared as a 
 Camisard prophetess. Slie could neither 
 write nor read, but was believed to be 
 a worker of miracles, and prophesied 
 ' without the slightest appearance of 
 convulsion, and with a scarcely per- 
 ceptible movement of the lips.' 
 
 Shere or Sheer Thursday. 
 
 Maundy Thursday, or day preceding 
 Good Friday. The Northern ' Skyre 
 Thursday,' Icelandic ' Skfri-J)(5rsdagr,' 
 Maundy Thursday, Anglo-Saxon scir, 
 sheer ; Icelandic skira, to cleanse. See 
 Skeat, 'Etymological Dictionary,' ar- 
 ticle Sheer. Miles Phillips (1583) quaintly 
 says : ' In olde fader's dayes the people 
 wolde that day shere theyr hedes, and 
 clyppe theyr berdes, and polle theyr 
 hedes, and so make theym honest ayenst 
 Ester day.' 
 
 Sheridan's Begums Speech, 
 
 1787. One of the impeachments of 
 Warren Hastings, governor-general of 
 India (1774-1785). This speech lasted 
 five hours, and produced such an effect 
 that the house arose and adjourned tiU 
 the next day. It is said that Sheridan 
 wrote the best comedy (' The School for 
 Scandal'), made the best speech (the 
 third charge against Warren Hastings), 
 and composed the best convivial song 
 (' Here's to the Maiden of Bashful 
 Fifteen ') in the language. See ' Hast- 
 ings ' and ' Begums,' 
 
 Sheriff is a ' shire-reve ' and the 
 chief officer of the county, who does all 
 the crown business thereof. The judges, 
 on the morrow of St. Martin (12 Nov.), 
 meet in the Exchequer and propose 
 three persons for each county, whose 
 names are presented to the sovereign, 
 who pricks one of them, and the person 
 selected remains in office for one year or 
 till a successor is appointed. The sheriff 
 superintends the election of knights of 
 the shire, coroners, and verderers. He 
 is in the commission of the peace, and is 
 ex-officio the first man in the county. 
 
822 
 
 SHEEIFF-TOOTH 
 
 SHIP 
 
 Every sheriff appoints a deputy or under- 
 sheriff. It is customary for the high 
 sheriff to receive and escort the judges 
 to the assize court ; and in cases of dis- 
 turbance it is his duty to summon the 
 posse comitatus {i.e. all the people of 
 the county) to assist him in keeping the 
 peace. 
 
 Some cities (like Norwich) are both cities and 
 cowntles, and then the borough sheriff is part of 
 the municipal corporation (addressed as Mr. 
 Sheriff Soand-so). The county sheriff Is termed 
 the 'high sheriff.' 
 
 Sheriff-tooth. A tenure by the 
 service of providing entertainment for 
 the sheriff at his county court. A tax 
 for the sheriff's diet. Obsolete. 
 
 Sherrardian Professorship 
 
 (The) of Botany in Oxford University. 
 Stipend 200Z. a year. Founded by Dr. 
 Sherrard in 1728. 
 
 Sher^;s^ood Forester (TJie). Dr. 
 Spencer T. Hall. 
 
 Shibboleth. When the Ephraimites, 
 after their defeat by Jephthah, tried to 
 pass the Jordan, a guard stationed on 
 the banks of the river tested everyone 
 who came to the ford by asking him to 
 pronounce the word ' Shibboleth,' which 
 the men of Ephraim called sibboleth. 
 Everyone who said ' sibboleth ' was 
 immediately cut down by the guard, and 
 there fell in one day 42,000 Ephraimites 
 (Judges xii. 1-6). 
 
 Shield of Rome (The). Quintus 
 Fabius Maximus, died 203, called the 
 Lingerer (Cunctator), and the Lamb 
 (Ovicula) for his mild apathetic dis- 
 position. 
 
 Shi'ites (2 syl.), or ' Shiahs.' A 
 Musnlnian sect opposed to the Sunnites. 
 They recognise Ali as the real successor 
 of Mahomet, and his descendants as the 
 true imams. The word means heretics, 
 and of course was given to them by the 
 Sunnites, who call themselves the Ortho- 
 dox party. The Musulmans of Persia, 
 and some of those in India, Mesopotamia, 
 Syria, and north of Asia are Shiites ; 
 but those of the Ottoman empire, Arabia, 
 Egypt, Afghanistan, Malaya, &c., are 
 Sunnites. 
 
 In India the majority are Sunnites. 
 
 Shin'toism. A religious system 
 which prevails, side by side with Buddh- 
 ism, in Japan. It is a 'religion of 
 reason,' rec^uiring no temples, but having 
 
 a sanctuary into which nobody but the 
 Mika'do and his priests ever enter. The 
 Shintos profess to worship nature, an- 
 cestors, and the Mikado. Their code of 
 duty is to obey natural instincts and the 
 laws of the state. Since 18G8 Shintoism 
 has been restored in Japan, and now 
 overpowers Buddhism. 
 
 Shintoism is a sort of Agnosticism, which it 
 resembles in many respects. Neither doctrine 
 nor dogma can find place in eitlier system, nor 
 anything that does not commend itself to reason. 
 
 Ship Money. A tax to supply and 
 fit out ships to protect our coast and our 
 merchant vessels from corsairs and 
 hostile states. In 1007 all proprietors of 
 810 hides of land were taxed to equip a 
 fleet against the Danes. Queen Eliza- 
 beth required various ports to fit out a 
 certain number of ships against the 
 armada. Charles I. levied ship money 
 to restore the palsgrave to his throne. 
 The attorney-general Noye put the king 
 up to the dodge, and it was given out 
 that our commerce needed protection 
 from pirates, Turkish corsairs, and the 
 French and Dutch mariners ; so all the 
 counties were taxed without consent of 
 parliament, and the king was furnished 
 with 218,500Z. for his personal use, the 
 tax being a money nayment of 3,300Z. per 
 ship, instead of t ps themselves. It 
 was first levied on London in May, 1634 ; 
 in the spring following on other maritime 
 counties ; later on it was demanded from 
 the inland counties. In 1636 the judges 
 determined it was legal, but so great was 
 the outcry that it was abolished (17 Car, 
 I. c. 14). 
 
 Ship of Fools {The), or ' Naren- 
 scliiff,' 1494, by Sebastian Brandt, a Stras- 
 burg lawyer (1458-1520). An allegorical 
 satire in verse, in the Suabian dialect, 
 and divided into 110 chapters, immensely 
 popular at the time. It does not attack 
 religious and moral delinquencies so 
 much as social gaucheries. The tale is, 
 a transport- ship of this world, laden with 
 fools, and bound for Fools' Paradise 
 {Narrgonia), was capsized by Anti- 
 christ. The voyagers, tossed on the sur- 
 face of the waves, sought safety, some by 
 prayer, some by scrambling into a crazy 
 boat, and sonae by clinging to parts of 
 the wreck. The sea was also strewn 
 with books of an heretical character. 
 The moral to be drawn from this allegory 
 is that the abuse of printing will wreck 
 the earth. The superstitious, he says, 
 
SHIREMEN 
 
 SIBYLLINE 
 
 823 
 
 waste their lives watching the jumps of 
 grasshoppers, knights enter church with 
 hawk and hound, tradesmen have no 
 honesty, manners at table are most 
 gauche — carvers choose the best parts 
 for themselves, some eat too fast, some 
 talk too loud, and some engross the 
 general conversation. 
 
 In I860 an English translation by R. H. Mac- 
 kenzie was publislied, with illustrations by Crow- 
 quill, and in 1880 another by Thomas lloscoe. 
 
 Shire'inen (2 syl.)., now called earls. 
 In Saxon times they had shires com- 
 mitted to their supervision. 
 
 Shire-mote was an assembly in 
 Anglo-Saxon England of the county or 
 shire, held twice a year, and presided 
 over by the shire-reeve or sheriff. In 
 this court all the rights of the crown and 
 church, connected with the shire, were 
 settled, and all disputes about land were 
 adjudicated. Our county courts are shire- 
 motes, and the judge or presiding magis- 
 trate of these courts is a shire-man. 
 The shire-motes were often held under a 
 tree in the open air. In these motes the 
 king's writs were published ; demands 
 of aid were announced, the presentment 
 of criminals was received, local jurors 
 were priclced, the taxes of each district 
 were adjusted, and appeals from the 
 * soke,' or lesser courts of the hundred, 
 were heard. It was inferior to the 
 Witenagemote, but superior to the Folk- 
 mote iq.v.). 
 
 Shorn Moss {The), in Weardale, 
 Scotland. A pathway cut through a 
 great bog, which was filled with fagots, 
 over which the Scotch army made a 
 backward movement when they wished 
 to retreat from the army of Edward III. 
 in 1327. 
 
 Short Parliament (The), or the 
 Tliree-week Parliament. From 13 April 
 to 3 May, 1640. There were three shorter 
 ones, but this Three-week Parliament 
 was called the ' Short Parliament ' be- 
 cause it was followed by the ' Long 
 Parliament.' See ' Parliaments, the 
 Six Short.' 
 
 The Scots had made demands for triennial 
 parliaments and for freedom both of elections 
 and of debate, but the Earl of Strafford advised 
 that the rogues should be whipped back into their 
 senses, and the king summoned a parliament to 
 raise money to stamp out 'the Scotch treason.' 
 The new parliament distinctly declared that 
 redress of grievances must precede a grant of 
 supplies, and the parliament was summarily dis- 
 solved. It was the last that Charles I. dissolved. 
 
 Short Swords of Livonia (The), 
 
 or ' Order of Christ,' 1205. Instituted 
 in Livonia by Albert bishop of Riga, and 
 incorporated with the Teutonic Knights 
 in 1237. 
 
 Shortest Parliament {The). 
 
 7 days, from 21 to 28 March, 1681. The 
 fifth and last of Charles II. It was held 
 at Oxford. See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Shrove Tuesday. The day before 
 Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent. 
 So called because Catholics confess on 
 that day and obtain absolution. To 
 shrive is to absolve from sin. 
 
 Sibylline Prophecies. Twelve in 
 
 number, manifestly a clumsy forgery of 
 the 16th cent. They are as follows : — 
 
 1. The Agrippinan, Sibylla Agripplna : 
 'Jesus Christ shall be outraged and 
 scourged.' 
 
 Emblem, a whip. 
 
 2. The CumcBan, Sibylla Cumasa : 
 ' God shall be born of a pure virgin, and 
 commune with sinners.' 
 
 Emblem, a cradle. 
 
 3. The Cumdnian, Sibylla Cumana: 
 ' Jesus Christ shall descend from heaven, 
 and live in poverty on earth.' 
 
 Emblem, a crown. 
 
 4. The Delphic, Sibylla Delphica: 
 ' The projjhet born of the virgin shall be 
 crowned with thorns.' 
 
 Emblem, a crown of thorns. 
 
 5. The Erythrcean, Sibylla Ery three a : 
 ' Jesus Christ, son of God, the Saviour 
 of the world.' 
 
 Emblem, a horn. 
 
 6. The Europcean, Sibylla Europaea: 
 'A virgin and her son shall flee into 
 Egypt.' 
 
 Emblem, a sword. 
 
 7. The Hellespontic, Sibylla Helles- 
 pontlca : ' Jesus Christ shall suffer shame 
 upon the cross.' 
 
 Emblem, a T (tau). 
 
 8. The Libyan, Sibylla Libyca : ' The 
 day shall come when men shall see the 
 universal king.' 
 
 Emblem, a lighted taper. 
 
 9. The Persian, Sibylla PersTca : 
 * Satan shall be subdued by the true 
 prophet.' 
 
 Emblem, a lantern, and a dragon under tha 
 sibyl's feet. 
 
824 
 
 SIBYLLINE 
 
 SICYONIAN 
 
 10. Phrygian, Sibylla PhrygTca : ' Our 
 Lord shall rise again.' 
 
 Eviblem, a cross and a banner. 
 
 11. The Samian, Sibylla Samia: 'The 
 rich one shall be born of a pure virgin.' 
 
 Emblem, a rose. 
 
 12. The Tiburtine, Sibylla Tiburtina : 
 * The Highest shall descend from heaven, 
 and a virgin shall be shown in the valleys 
 of the desert.' 
 
 Emblem, a dove. See below. 
 
 Sibylline Verses. These go back 
 
 probably to the 2nd cent., when enthusi- 
 asts of Alexandria ' prophesied ' oracu- 
 larly. Whatever merit might be attached 
 to the originals, it is quite certain the 
 ' prophecies ' were interpolated and falsi- 
 fied to assist the views of those interested 
 in the propagation of the Christian faith. 
 The utterances of these sibyllists form a 
 special department of early ecclesiastical 
 literature, and are a mixture of Jewish, 
 Pagan and Christian doctrines. 
 
 Sibyllists. Those Christians who 
 corroborated the Christian religion by 
 references to what they termed ' Sibylline 
 prophecies.' These verses were the for- 
 geries of a Jew of Alexandria, added to 
 from time to time by Christians, as they 
 wanted to corroborate certain doctrines. 
 
 It is most regretable that for many centuries 
 the Catholic clergy and their learned adherents 
 thought it no shame to interpolate, mutilate, and 
 falsify books at pleasure, in order to make them in- 
 Btruments of ecclesiastical dogmas and traditions. 
 But so it was, and they actually defended the 
 practice, as it 'caught men by guile,' as St. Paul did. 
 
 Sicilian Expedition {The), b.c. 
 415-410. In the seventeenth year of the 
 Peioponnesian War, Alcibiadcs induced 
 the Athenians to send a powerful arma- 
 ment to Sicily in order to re-establish 
 the Ionian interest in the island. A 
 magnificent fleet was equipped, and a 
 large land force prepared, but the expe- 
 dition was most disastrous ; the fleet was 
 ruined, and most of the land forces were 
 either slain or taken prisoners. The 
 Lacedaemonians joined the Syracusians 
 against the Athenians. This terrible 
 affair was the Moscow of Athenian great- 
 ness. 
 
 Sicilian Ox (TTie). Thomas Aquinas 
 (1224-1274). Called ox from his great size, 
 and Sicilian because he was a native of 
 Naples and allied to the Sicilian kings. 
 
 Sicilian Table [A). A table spread 
 with aldermanic luxuries. Mithsecos tells 
 
 us that the Sicilians were as remarkable 
 for their luxurious living as the Spartans 
 for their simplicity of diet. 
 
 Sicilian ST'espers (The), 30 March, 
 1282 (Easter Monday). The massacre of 
 the French in Sicily out of hatred to 
 Charles of Anjou, king of the Two Sicilies. 
 A Sicilian bride, going to vespers, hap- 
 pened to pass with her train by a house 
 where some Frenchmen were holding the 
 festival of Easter. One of them, named 
 Drouet, advanced towards the bride 
 under pretence of seeking for arms 
 (which no Sicilian was allowed to carry), 
 and in so doing behaved rudely to her. 
 A young Sicilian instantly stabbed him 
 with his sword. This led to a riot, in 
 which the Sicilians put to death 8,000 of 
 the French. A war ensued in which 
 Charles of Anjou wo.s over and over again 
 defeated, and he died in 1285. 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that a similar outrage 
 occurred on the 4th of April, the same year, at 
 Catania. In this case the young Frenchman was 
 Jean Viglemada. the young lady was .Julia Villa- 
 melli, whose husband was slain by the libertine. 
 
 Sicilies {The Two). The island of 
 Sicily is one, and the kingdom of Naples 
 is the other. United under Koger II. 
 1130. In 10G2 Robert Guiscard and his 
 brother Roger commenced the subjuga- 
 tion of Sicily, and in ten years drove the 
 Saracens out of the island, when Roger 
 was made count of Sicily (1072). He 
 died 1102, and was succeeded by his son 
 Roger II. Meantime Robert Guiscard, 
 as sovereign of Naples, Puglia, and Ca- 
 labria, added Corfu and a great part of 
 Romania to his dominions. He died 
 1185, leaving his son, Roger Bursa, his 
 successor. Roger Bursa died 1130 without 
 issue, when his cousin Roger II., count 
 and king of Sicily, succeeded to the king- 
 dom of Naples, and called himself king 
 of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 After the Sicilian Vespers In 1282 Sicily was 
 severed for a time from Naples; but the kingdom 
 of the Two Sicilies was restored, and was at last 
 destroyed by Garibaldi in 1860. 
 
 Corfu, pronounce Kor-foo. 
 
 Sicyon'ian School of Painting 
 
 {The). Chief representatives were Eu- 
 pompos, Pamphilos, and Apelles. 
 
 Sicyon'ian School of Sculpture 
 
 {The). Chief representatives were Eu- 
 phranon and Lysippos. The characteris- 
 tics of this school were the representa- 
 tion of heroic strength and the forms of 
 
SIDETES 
 
 SIKHS 
 
 825 
 
 athletes. Alexander allowed only Lysip- 
 pos and Apelles to represent him. 
 
 Side'tes (3 syl.). Antlochus VII., so 
 called from Side in Pamphylia, where he 
 was brought up (b.c. 137-128). 
 
 Sidmouth's and Castlereagh*s 
 Five Acts, Nov. and Dec. 1819. I. An 
 Act to prevent the training of persons to 
 the use of arms ; II. An Act to punish 
 blasphemous and pernicious libels ; III. 
 An Act to authorise magistrates to seize 
 arms collected and kept for purposes 
 dangerous to the public peace ; IV. An 
 Act to prevent seditious assemblies ; V. 
 Castlereagh's bill for stamps on news- 
 papers. Called ' The Five Acts ' by the 
 partisans of Sir F. Burdett, William 
 Hunt, and William Hone, because they 
 aimed especially to cripple them in their 
 proceedings. • 
 
 Castlereagh, pronounce Castle-ray. 
 
 Sidney Sussex College, in Cam- 
 bridge University. Founded by Lady 
 Frances Sidney, countess dowager of 
 Sussex, in 1594. 
 
 Sidonian Era {The). This era 
 began Oct. b.c. 110. See ' Era.' 
 
 Siege or Obsidional Pieces. 
 
 Coins for the nonce issued by Charles I. 
 during the parliamentary wars. They 
 were, for the most part, articles of silver 
 clipped into pieces, and stamped with 
 some rude device of a castle the letters 
 O B S, the date, and the nominal value 
 of the piece. 
 
 Siete Partidas {Las), 1260. A code 
 of Alfonso X. which in 1501 became the 
 universal law of the land. 
 
 No deputies were present from the kingdom of 
 Leon in the cortes of Alcala in 1348 where the code 
 of the Siste Partidas first obtained a legislative 
 recognition.— Hallam, Middle Ages, vol. ii. p. 30. 
 
 Sigillum Confessionis. • The 
 
 Seal of Confession,' the obligation of a, 
 confessor under no condition whatsoever 
 to divulge to any living creature the 
 secrets of the confessional. This rule of 
 secresy may be traced back to the ith 
 cent., but was not rendered obligatory 
 till the 12th, when Innocent III. made 
 its violation the most heinous of offences, 
 and he who was proved guilty was 
 punished by the severest penalties which 
 the church could inflict. 
 
 Sigismund, properly • Siegmund.' 
 'The Light of the World,' last of the 
 
 promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany 
 (1368, 1410-1437). In this reign Huss 
 and Jerome of Prague were burnt alive 
 as 'heretics.' The house of Habsburg 
 succeeded him. 
 
 Father, Karl IV. (the pope's kaiser) ; Mother, Anne 
 of Schweidnitz; Wiven, (1) Maria of Anjou, queen 
 of Hungary, (2) Barbara called the Messalina of 
 Germany. Contemporary with Henry V. and Henry 
 
 W^nceslaus the Worthless was his brother. 
 
 *,* Sigismund was called ' Supra Grammaticam,' 
 from his bad Latinity. Being one day reminded 
 of a solecism, he replied: 'Ego sum Imperator 
 Bomanorum et supra grammaticam.' 
 
 Signory {The), or 'Signoria,' of 
 Venice, 1173. The privy council of the 
 doge ; it consisted of six members, one 
 for each district or sestiere. The college 
 consisted of twenty-six mexnbers, viz. 
 the Doge, the Signory, the three Capi dei 
 Quaranta (chief members of the Forty), 
 and sixteen Savii chosen by the Senate. 
 
 In Florence it consisted of eight prioi's 
 with a Gonfalonier 3f Justice, who dwelt 
 at the public charge in the palazzo, and 
 held office for only two months. 
 
 Signs removed, 1766. Shop signs 
 projecting over the footpaths were 
 ordered to be removed from the streets 
 of London, because their dripping in 
 rainy weather and thaws was a nuisance 
 to passengers. 
 
 Si-Han, or Western Han. The first 
 sixteen kings of the Han ijTiasty of 
 China (b.c. 202-25). These were about 
 the best of the Chinese emperors. The 
 second half of the dynasty was the Tong 
 or Eastern Han. 
 
 * Si j'avance, suivez-moi; ai je re- 
 cule, tuez-moi ; si je tombe, vengez-moi.' 
 The address of Henri de Larochejaque- 
 lein in the Vendean war 1794. 
 
 Sikhism. A compromise between 
 Brahmanism xnd Mahometanism, advo- 
 cated by Nanak (1469-1539) of Lahore. To 
 him succeeded nine pontiffs called gurus 
 (or teachers), the last of whom was Go vind, 
 who was issassinated in 1708. See 
 ' Sikhs.' 
 
 It was Govind who called the Sikhs ' singhs,' or 
 lions. 
 
 Sikhs, 1494, i.e. disciples [of Nanak 
 the Neo-BrahmanJ. Nanak of Lahore 
 (1469-1539) was their first pontiff, or 
 • guru,' and was succeeded by nine others. 
 The sixth, named Har-govind, rebelled 
 against the Great Mogul and the tenth, 
 
826 
 
 SILENT 
 
 SILKEN 
 
 or last guru, named Govind, taught that 
 the duty of a sikh is ' to be humble and 
 sincere, to eschew superstition, to practise 
 strict morality, and to live by the sword.' 
 On the decline of the Mogul empire, the 
 power of the sikhs rapidly increased, and 
 in 1764 they assumed the state of a dis- 
 tinct nation, or rather federation cf twelve 
 states. In 1805 Runjit Singh became 
 head of the federation. After the death 
 of Runjit Singh, a series of battles 
 occurred against the British — as that of 
 Moodkee, 18 Dec, 1845 ; that of Feroze- 
 shah, 21, 22 Dec, 1845 ; Aliwal, 28 Jan., 
 1846; Sobraon, 10 Feb., 1846; Chillian- 
 wallah, 13 June, 1846; Goojerat,21 Feb., 
 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to 
 British India. 
 
 The Sikhs worship one God, without 
 image or mediator ; they eat all kinds of 
 meat except beef, the ox being too useful 
 to be eaten. They dress in blue, even to 
 their turbans ; but other Hindus consider 
 blue to be unlucky. Their sacred book is 
 called ' Pothi,' which means ' Bible.' 
 
 Silent {The). Wilham L the stadt- 
 holder of the United Provinces. 
 
 Our own king, William III., like his father and 
 grandfather, was noted for his silence. After the 
 battle of Wierden,in 1(172, one of his officers asked 
 him what next. ' Can vou keep a secret ? ' asked 
 William. 'Yes,' said the ofilcer. 'And so can I,' 
 replied the Prince, drily. 
 
 Silent Week, or ' Holy Week '—that 
 is, the week beginning with Palm Sunday 
 and ending with Holy Saturday. So 
 called because no bells are rung in 
 churches during the Hebdomada Muta. 
 
 Silent'iary {The). Anastasius I., 
 emperor of the east (491-518), was so 
 called because he had been the chief 
 officer whose duty it was to maintain 
 peace and silence in the precincts of the 
 palace. 
 
 Sile'sia was divided into three govern- 
 ments — viz. Liegnitz, Breslau, and Op- 
 peln. At the death of Kaiser Karl VI. 
 numerous claimants put in claims for 
 parts of the empire. Prussia demanded 
 Silesia; Sardinia demanded Milan ; Spain 
 demanded Bohemia and Hungary; and 
 Bavaria claimed the whole empire. 
 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of Karl VI., was Queen 
 of Hungary, and nominally Kaiserin. It was from 
 this sovereign that Friedrich the Great claimed 
 Silesia, and, after seven years' war it was added 
 to the kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 In 15H7 the Duke of Leignitz made an agreement 
 with the Elector of Brandenburg that If either 
 died without issue, the survivor should have both 
 
 realms. In 1675 the Duke of Leignitz died without 
 issue, but Kaiser Leopold I. claimed the dukedom 
 as a forfeited fief. At the death of Karl VI., the 
 Elector of Brandenburg (then Friedrich II. the 
 Great, king of Prussia) claimed Silesia as his right, 
 and this led to the three Silesian wars (1740-17(>3). 
 
 Sile'sian Poets {The), of the 17th 
 cent. Martin Opitz (1597-1639), 'the 
 father of modern German poetry ' ; Paul 
 Flemming (1609-1640), the 'German 
 Herrick ' ; Andrew Gryph (1616-1664), the 
 ' f atlier of the modern German drama ' ; 
 and Gaspar Lohenstein (1635-1683), the 
 ' blood and thunder ' dramatist. 
 
 Sile'sian Wars {The). Three wars 
 between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
 Friedrich II. the Great of Prussia, for the 
 possession of Silesia. First war 1740-1742, 
 when, by the treaty of Berlin, Silesia was 
 handed over to Prussia. Second war : 
 Prussia having made alliance with France 
 broke the treaty, and a second war broke 
 out in 1744. This was concluded by the 
 treaty of Dresden, 25 Dec, 1745, when 
 Silesia was again confirmed to Prussia. 
 The Third was the Seven Years' "War, and 
 consisted of seven campaigns (1756-1763). 
 By the Peace of Hubertsburg Silesia was 
 finally confirmed to Prussia. 
 
 Field-Marshal Daun was by far the best general 
 on the Austrian side, and Friedrich II. the Great 
 on the Prussian side. 
 
 Silk Armour. A sort of armour 
 worn by timid magistrates in the troub- 
 lous times of Charles II. It consisted of 
 a doublet and breeches of quilted silk, so 
 closely stitched, and of such thickness, 
 as to be proof against either bullet or 
 steel ; while a thick bonnet of the same 
 materials, with ear-flaps attached to it, 
 and resembling a nightcap in shape, com- 
 pleted the equipment, and assured the 
 wearer security from head to knee. Roger 
 North describes this sort of armour, and 
 Sir W. Scott avails himself of North's 
 description in 'Peveril of the Peak,' 
 chap, xxxii. 
 
 Silken Lord {The). Lord Thomas 
 Fitzgerald (1513-1536), son of the Earl of 
 Kildare. So called from the richness 
 of his caparisons. He threw up his office 
 of vice-deputy of Ireland in 1534, and was 
 hanged at Tyburn for treason 3 Feb., 1535. 
 Also called ' Silken Thomas.' 
 
 During his confinement he was lacking in the 
 commonest necessaries of life ; and the ' silken 
 lord,' bare-footed and bare-legged, was indebted to 
 the charity of his fellow-prisoners for the few 
 tattered garments that hardly covered him. 'I 
 have never had since I came into pryson eny other 
 garment but a syngyll f ryse gowne, nothyr hosyn, 
 
SILLY 
 
 SILVER 
 
 dublet, shoys, nor shyrt but on— and so I go bare- 
 foote and barelegyd, and shuld have don styll, 
 but that som pore prysoners have geven me old 
 hosyn and shoys and Bhyttes.'— Letter to liothe, 
 S.P. clviii. 
 
 Silly. Nickname of the Duke of 
 Marlborough, from his constant use of 
 this word when he disapproved of a sug- 
 gestion: as 'Will your Grace besiege 
 Lisle ? ' ' Oh, silly.' ' Will you besiege 
 Ypres ? ' • No ! silly, silly ! ' (1650-1722). 
 
 Silly Billy. I. The nickname of 
 William IV. of Great Britain, sometimes 
 called The Sailor King, because he was 
 lord high admiral of the navy (1765, 
 1830-1837). 
 
 II. William Frederick duke of Glou- 
 cester, chancellor of the university of 
 Cambridge. He was the son of William 
 Henry, a younger brother of George III., 
 and died 1834. He married his cousin 
 Mary, a daughter of George III. 
 
 It is said that William duke of Gloucester was 
 shown one day over an asylum, and one of the in- 
 mates said 'Why, here is Silly Billy.' The duke 
 in amazement said to the keeper, ' The man 
 knows me.' 'Yes,' said the keeper, 'like all 
 lunatics he has his lucid intervals.' 
 
 Silver Book {The). The MS. of the 
 four gospels in Mseso-Gothic by Ulfilas 
 bishop of the Goths in the 4th cent., pre- 
 served in the library of Upsala, in Sweden. 
 All the letters are silver except the 
 initials, which are gold. The leaves are 
 vellum; some purple, and others of a 
 violet colour. 
 
 Silver Captain {The). Admiral 
 Sir Henry Digby, who, 14 Oct., 1790, fell 
 in with a Spanish vessel while shaping 
 his course for Cape St. Vincent. It is said 
 that each captain received 40,000Z., and 
 each seamen 2001. as his share of this 
 prize, and 63 artillery wagons were 
 employed to convey the treasure to Ply- 
 mouth citadel. 
 
 Another account states that each midshipman 
 received 10,000i. as his share of this rich prize. 
 
 Silver Casket {The), 1568. A casket 
 found in Edinburgh Castle after Mary 
 (queen of Scots) delivered it up to Murray 
 and Sir John Balfour. This casket con- 
 tained letters of the queen to Balfour, and 
 love sonnets. When Mary fled to Eng- 
 land, and was in the hands of Elizabeth, 
 connnissioners were appointed to examine 
 into the recent murder of Lord Daruley 
 (Mary's husband), and this casket with 
 its contents was laid before them. The 
 originals have disappeared, but copies of 
 
 the letters and sonnets are still extant. 
 Whether these copies have been tampered 
 with is a question subjudice, but they 
 certainly are most discreditable to Mary. 
 
 Silver Code {The), or 'Codex Ar- 
 genteus ' {q.v.). See ' Silver Book.' 
 
 Silver Crown {The). The crown of 
 the King of Germany. As king of Lom- 
 bardy, he was crowned with the iron crown 
 {q.v.), and as kaiser of the Holy Roman 
 Empire he was crowned with the imperial 
 crown, which was a small episcopal mitre 
 cleft in the front and not at the sides. 
 He was crowned with the silver crown at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle ; with the iron crown at 
 Monza ; and with the imperial crown at 
 Rome. 
 
 The kings of Germany did not go to Rome to be 
 crowned latterly. Karl V. was the last kaiser who 
 received his imperial crown from the hands of the 
 pope. 
 
 Silver Hand. I. Nuad, the chief- 
 tain who led back the tribe of the Da- 
 naans from Scotland to Ireland, from 
 which they had migrated. Nuad of the 
 Silver Hand had an artificial hand made 
 of silver by Cred the goldsmith, to sup- 
 ply the loss sustained from a wound 
 received in the battle of Moytura. Miach 
 son of Dian Kect set it on the wrist. 
 So says O'Flaherty, ' Ogygia,' part iii. 
 chap. X. 
 
 The battle of Moytura was long a favourite 
 theme of Irish song. In the library of Stowe are 
 live metrical clironicles of this famous fight. 
 
 II. An order instituted by Abd-el-Kader 
 for 'the most worthy.' The hand was 
 fastened to the camel's bridle. The order 
 contained three ranks or degrees, the 
 highest having seven fingers, and the 
 lowest five. See * Golden Hand.' 
 
 Silver People {The). So the Arabs 
 call the inhabitants of the Tell, or culti- 
 vated lands of the northern slope from 
 the Mediterranean to the Atlas moun- 
 tains ; the inhabitants of the towns they 
 term the Gold people ; and those of the 
 Sahara they call the Camel people. 
 
 Silver Stick. An officer of the 
 Second Life Guards, who carries an 
 ebony staff surmounted by a silver head, 
 and relieves Gold Stick when on duty in 
 attendance on the royal person. For 
 particulars see p. 371, ' Gold Stick.' 
 
 Silver Tongue. Daniel Finch 2nd 
 earl of Nottingham (1647-1730). 
 
828 
 
 SILVEE-TONGUED 
 
 SINGH 
 
 Silver-tongued {The). Spranger 
 Barry, the Irish Roscius (1719-1777). 
 
 Simcha Thora (joy for the law). 
 Last of the eight days of Succoth, or 
 Feast of Tabernacles, held by the Jews 
 in the month Tisri (Sept.). This day 
 was, and still is, a day of joy. 
 
 Simeons ofVan or Ormia {The). 
 One of the three branches of the Nes- 
 torians. The other two are the ' Elijahs 
 of Mosul,' and the ' Josephs of Amida.' 
 
 Simmes' Hole. See ' Symmes' 
 Hole.' 
 
 Simnel Conspiracy {The), i486. 
 
 A plot concocted by Richard Simons, a 
 priest of Oxford, to palm off his ward, 
 Lambert Simnel, a lad of about 11 years 
 of age, and the son of an Oxford joiner, 
 as Edward earl of Warwick, son of George 
 duke of Clarence, and heir to the throne 
 of England. Supported by many of the 
 Anglo- Irish lords in the Pale, he was 
 crowned in St. Mary's Abbey by the 
 Bishop of Meath, with a diadem bor- 
 rowed for the occasion from a statue of 
 the Virgin Mary, as ' Edward VI., king 
 of England and France, and lord of Ire- 
 land.' He invaded England, and was 
 made prisoner by Henry VII. at the 
 battle of Sfcoke near Newark ; but, instead 
 of being put to death, he was made turn- 
 spit boy in the royal kitchen, and after- 
 wards falconer. 
 
 Simon the Righteous {Sir). 
 Simon de Montfort earl of Leicester, and 
 brother-in-law of Henry III. (1200-1265). 
 He was very popular, and his death was 
 deemed ahnost a martyrdom, for few 
 kings have been more detested than 
 Henry III. and his father John, 
 
 Simo'nians {The), So called from 
 Simon Magus, who believed that the 
 body of Jesus Christ was not a real body, 
 but a mere phantom, like any other 
 visible form of God or angel spoken of in 
 the Old Testament. 
 
 Simoiii'ides {Co7istantine L. Philip). 
 A Hterary impostor (1824-1867). While 
 on a visit in the monastery of Khosos in 
 Mount Athos, he fell in with some Greek 
 MSS. greatly damaged by mildew, and 
 taught himself Greek manuscript writing. 
 He soon afterwards succeeded in imposing 
 spurious MSS. on the learned of Athens 
 
 and Constantinople, but, being detected, 
 he fled to England. In 1854 he offered 
 some genuine MSS. to the British Mu- 
 seum, and then tried to pass off his 
 forgeries; but was found out by Sir 
 Frederick Madden, and of course foiled. 
 However, Sir T. Phillips bought of him a 
 spurious MS. of Homer on serpent's skin, 
 which he professed to have belonged to 
 Chios Hipparchos, son of Pisistratos. He 
 then sold some genuine MSS. to the Bod- 
 leian, -but was again detected when he 
 offered his forgeries. Some time after he 
 sent to Berlin a palimpsest MS. in Greek 
 of Egyptian kings, said by him to be the 
 work of Uranios of Alexandria. Profes- 
 sor Dindorf began to publish this worlc, 
 but Ehrenberg discovered that it was only 
 a ba-d translation of the writings of Bun- 
 sen and Lepsius. Simonides was now 
 imprisoned, but, being released, retired 
 to Alexandria, where he died of leprosy. 
 See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Si'nait'ic MS. {The) of the Bible. 
 So called from the place where it was 
 discovered by Dr. Tischendorf, at St. 
 Catherine Convent, foot of Mount Sinai, 
 in May 1844. On his first visit the monks 
 allowed hun to take away eleven sheets. 
 At his second visit only one sheet re- 
 mained, the rest having been used for 
 lighting fires. Fifteen years later he 
 was shown a bundle of waste paper, 
 which to his delight contained parts of 
 the Old Testament and all the New. 
 This MS. is now preserved in the library 
 of St. Petersburg. The date is supposed 
 to be the middle of the 4th cent. See 
 'Vatican MS.' and 'Alexandrine MS.' 
 
 Singeing the King of Spain's 
 Beard, 1587. So Sir Francis Drake 
 called his raid upon Spain when the Ar- 
 mada was in active preparation. On 
 18 April he entered the road of Cadiz 
 and destroyed upwards of 80 vessels ; he 
 then ran over to Cape St. Vincent, and 
 demolished above 100 more, with 4 forts ; 
 and he next captured in the Tagus the 
 magnificent ship called ' St. Philip.' All 
 these vessels were designed to take part 
 in the invasion. 
 
 Singh (a lion). An Indian title of 
 royalty. In 1695 Govind abolished the 
 system of castes, and changed the title 
 of sikh {deist) into 'singh,' as Rimjeet 
 Singh of Lahore. 
 
SINGLE 
 
 SIX 
 
 Single Bill Session (A). The 
 autumn session of the British parliament 
 in 1884, called by Mr. Gladstone to pass 
 his Franchise Bill, rejected by the House 
 of Lords in the preceding session the 
 same year. 
 
 Single-speech Hamilton, 1755. 
 
 This speech was delivered by William 
 Gerald Hamilton upon the king's (George 
 II.) speech demanding subsidies for Hesse 
 and Kussia, Legge and Pitt ranged 
 themselves against the king, and even 
 against their colleagues in the ministry. 
 In the Commons the debate began at 2 
 and continued till 5 next morning (15 
 hours), the longest except one up to that 
 period. The longest was on the West- 
 minster election in 1741. Hamilton 
 spoke in favour of the subsidies, and in 
 1761 was made Secretary of State (Ire- 
 land), and in 1753 Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer in Ireland. 
 
 His speech in 176fi against Lord Townshend's 
 proposal to tax America by import duties was both 
 far-seeing and eloquent. 
 
 Singular and Invincible Doc- 
 tor {The). William of Ockham or 
 Occam, who died 1347. 
 
 Sinking Fund {The), 1716. Es- 
 tablished by Sir Robert Walpole. It was 
 to consist of the surpluses of the other 
 funds, and to be employed in reducing 
 the national debt. 
 
 The other funds -were the South Sea Fund, 
 established in 1711 ; the Aggregate Fund, estab- 
 lished in 1714, and the General Fund, established 
 In 1716. 
 
 Sino'pe (3 syl.), 30 Nov., 1853. The 
 Russian admiral Nachimoff signalled to 
 the Ottoman squadron to surrender. 
 The Russian force was ten times as 
 strong as the Turkish, and, as the Turks 
 did not surrender, Nachimoff set the 
 whole fleet on fire, and then, entering 
 Sinope, set that on fire also. This 
 butchery was called by the Russians a 
 'brilliant victory,' for which they 'thanked 
 the Lord of battles ' in solemn religious 
 thanksgiving, 
 
 Sintu'ism. The primitive religion 
 of Japan. It recognises a supreme deity 
 (Tien) — i.e. heaven or the sun — and a 
 host of inferior gods ; deifies great men, 
 and renders divine homage to virtue. 
 The priests abstain from animal food. 
 The Sintu religion teaches that there 
 is a supreme god from whom issued two 
 creator gods. Then succeed seven gods, 
 
 the last of- which created a part of 
 Japan by dipping his spear m the ocean. 
 Sintuism existed 600 years, at least, 
 before the advent of Christ. 
 
 The word Sin means a 'hero,' and SintA-ism 
 means ' hero-worship.' 
 
 Sir Bullface Doubleface. Sir 
 
 Norton Fletcher, for eleven years Speaker 
 of the House of Commons. 
 
 Sir Dynamite, 1885. The signature 
 of threatening letters issued by the Irish 
 Land League. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Sirdar (India). A general, a chief. 
 The generalissimo is the Sirdar-i-sirdar. 
 
 Sirventes (2 syl.). Lays of war and 
 chivalry by the Provencals or troubadours. 
 The erotic poems were called ' Chanzos.' 
 
 Sister Reform Association, 
 
 5 July, 1819. A society of women at 
 Blackburn to co-operate with the men 
 in bringing about parliamentary reform. 
 These associated women took upon 
 themselves to instil into the minds of 
 children what we now call radical ideas. 
 
 Sisters of Charity {The), 1634, 
 
 Unmarried Christian women associated 
 to nurse the sick, and relieve the suffer- 
 ings of all inmates of hospitals. The 
 society was founded in France by Vin- 
 cent de Paul and the widow Legras. It 
 was suppressed at the revolution, but 
 restored by Napoleon in 1807, under the 
 presidency of the empress-mother. 
 
 Si'vanism. The religion of the 
 votaries of Siva. One of the three great 
 divisions of the Hindu sects. 
 
 Six Acts {The), Nov. and Dec, 1819. 
 The first by Lord Eldon, the last by 
 Castlereagh, and the others by Lord 
 Sidmouth. [Castle-ray.] 
 
 1. 29 Nov. An act to prevent delay 
 in the administration of justice in cases 
 of misdemeanour. {Eldon.) 
 
 2. An act to prevent the training 
 of persons to the use of arms. (To con- 
 tinue till 1822.) 
 
 3. An act to punish blasphemous and 
 pernicious libels. {Sidmouth. Aimed 
 at W. Hone. To continue till 1822.) 
 
 4. An act to authorise magistrates to 
 seize arms collected and kept for pur- 
 poses dangerous to the public peace. 
 {Sidmouth. To continue till 1822.) 
 
 5. 17 Dec. An act to prevent seditious 
 asseijiblies (Uke those in St. Peter's 
 
830 
 
 SIX 
 
 SIXTEEN 
 
 Field, Manchester — see ' Peterloo '). (To 
 continue for five years.) 
 
 6. An act for stamping newspapers. 
 
 Six Articles [The). A statute 
 enacted in 1541 (33 Henry VIII.) com- 
 monly called ' The Bloody Statute.' Its 
 object was to compel all British subjects 
 to a uniform profession of six church 
 dogmas, viz. : (1) The real presence of 
 Christ in the eucharist ; (2) the all-suf- 
 ficiency of communion in one kind only ; 
 (3) the unlawfulness of the marriage of 
 priests; (4) the indissoluble obligation 
 of vows of chastity ; (5) the propriety of 
 retaining private masses ; and (6) the 
 obligation of auricular confession. Ee- 
 fusal to subscribe to these six articles 
 was punished by death or imprisonment 
 at the king's pleasure. Repealed in 
 1549. See p. 48, 'Articles on Theology.' 
 
 Six Articles of the People's 
 Charter {The), 1838. (1) Manhood 
 suffrage; (2) voting by ballot ; (3) equal 
 electoral districts; (4) annual parlia- 
 ments ; (5) no money qualification for 
 members ; (6) paid members. 
 
 Six Chroniclers {The). Dr. Giles 
 compiled and edited six Old English 
 Chronicles for Bohn's series in 1848. 
 
 1. Ethelwerd's ' Chronicle.' 
 
 2. Asser's ' Life of Alfred.' 
 
 3. Geoffrey of Monmouth's ' British 
 History.' 
 
 4. Nennius's ' History of the Britons.' 
 
 5. Gildas Badonicus {i.e. of Bath). 
 
 6. Richard of Cirencester, 'On the 
 Ancient State of Britain.' 
 
 The last three belong to Dr. Bertram's ' Scrip- 
 tores Tres ' (q.v.). 
 
 Six Days' Battle, a.d. 327. The 
 Jbattle between Colla usurper of Ulster 
 and Muredach Tiry the rightful successor. 
 ' Six successive suns went down on this 
 fight.' Muredach was the conqueror. 
 
 Six Errors, 1418. The ' Six Errors ' 
 ascribed to John Huss, and exposed to 
 public view at the chapel of Bethlehem. 
 (1) That he denies to the priesthood the 
 power of absolution; (2) he condemns 
 the doctrine of absolute obedience in all 
 things to a superior ; (3) he maintains 
 that an unjust excommunication is not 
 binding ; (4) he condemns as heretical 
 all simony, of which offence he charges 
 many of the clergy ; (5) he asserts that 
 prayers for the dead are useless ; and (6) 
 
 that money charged for ransoming souls 
 from purgatory, for prayers for the dead, 
 and for the sale of p.rdons are simply 
 devices invented by the avarice of the 
 clergy. 
 
 Six Nations {The), or * The Indians 
 of the Six Confederated Nations on the 
 South-East of the Great Lakes,' called 
 by the French the ' Iroquois,' viz. : The 
 Mohawks, Oneidas, Onandagos, Cayugas, 
 Sennekas, and Tuscaroras. In 1783 the 
 flight of the Mohawks and Cayugas to 
 Canada broke up the conlederacy, and 
 rendered the name no longer applicable. 
 
 The British, after the battle of Bunker s Hill, 
 secured the Six Nations as allies.— GREEN, Hist, 
 
 of the English Pe,oplc. 
 
 Six Sages of Venice {The). The 
 doge's privy council. Every matter was 
 first submitted to this grand jury, and, if 
 approved, was next sent to the Forty, 
 who were the council of state ; and was 
 finally sent to the 450 representatives 
 who formed the legislative assembly, the 
 members of which were annually chosen 
 in the six quarters of the city. 
 
 Six-stringed "Whip {The). The 
 Six Articles {q.v.) were so called from 
 their severity. Penalties were imposed 
 for writing or even speaking against 
 them. 
 
 Six unlucky to Rome. See 
 
 p. 808, ' Semijer sub Sextis, &c.' 
 
 Three is the French Fatal Number. See p. 313, 
 ' Fatal Three.' To which might be added : 
 
 Louis III. the Blind. Had his eyes put out by 
 Berenger, who usurped the crown (880-923). 
 
 Charles III. le Simple. Was deposed in 887; 
 reigned a short time with Eudes, but at the 
 death of that prince had to abandon Normandy 
 (Neustria) to Eollo ; was imprisoned in the 
 Chateau de Peronne, and died there (879-929). 
 
 Philippe III. le Hardi. Went to Sicily to 
 avenge the Sicilian Massacre (q.v.), was attacked 
 by an epidemic, and died (1245-1285). 
 
 Henei III. le Mignon. Beneath contempt, was 
 assassinated by J. Clement (1551-1589). 
 
 Napoleon III. Being utterly vanquished by 
 the allied Germans, resigned his sword, died in 
 England, and with him ended the French empire. 
 
 There was neither a Jean III, nor a Francois III. 
 
 Si dicitur semper sub sextis perdita Roma, 
 Francia sub tribus indubitanter perdita semper. 
 
 Old Rome found 6 her number of mischance. 
 But 3 tlie fatal numeral of France. 
 
 Sixteen {The). The standard- 
 bearers of Florence. See under ' Gon- 
 falons.' 
 
 Sixteen {The). 'La faction des 
 Seize.' An insurrectional committee 
 formed at Paris during the League {q.v.) 
 consisting of 16 members, one to each of 
 
SIXTY 
 
 SLAVE 
 
 881 
 
 the 16 ' quartiers de Paris,' Bussy-Leclerc 
 being the principal. In 1587 to 1588 the 
 Sixteen drove Henri from Paris and 
 prepared the Day of the Barricades. In 
 1590 they offered great resistance to 
 Henri IV. In 1591 they declared for 
 Charles due de Guise (son of Henri, 
 'Balafre'); but Mayenne sent Bussy- 
 Leclerc to the Bastille, and the power of 
 the Sixteen ceased. 
 
 Sixty Club {The). An Athenian 
 club containing 60 members, who held 
 their weekly meetings in the Temple 
 of Hercules, in the time of Philip of 
 Macedon. 
 
 Sizars, in Cambridge and Durham 
 Universities, are students similar to the 
 * Servitors ' of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 and the ' Bible-clerks ' of Oriel, Oxford, 
 received at reduced fees. They are gene- 
 rally sons of the poorer clergy. 
 
 Sizings, in University parlance, means an 
 allowance of food. Sizars have this allowance 
 free. There are other privileges allowed them. 
 Sometimes their rooms are free. There used to 
 be duties attached to these sizarships, such as 
 waiting on the Fellows, whence they dined at the 
 Fellows' table (free) after the Fellows had left. 
 In some cases they had to read the Bible lessons 
 at chapel. The duties are now iM, but in some 
 colleges they still dine as before. 
 
 Ski' Thursday. Maundy Thursday, 
 that is, the day before Good Friday, 
 meaning pure, clean, in allusion to the 
 words of Christ when he washed the feet 
 of his disciples. ' Ye are clean, but not 
 all ' (John xiii.). The Icelandic skir- 
 dagr, 'clean day,' our Anglo-Saxon seine, 
 brightness, splendour, our modern sky 
 and shine. Corrupt for ' Skire Thursday.' 
 
 Skinless Prince of "Wales 
 
 (The). Richard, afterwards Richard II., 
 son of Edward the Black Prince, was 
 born absolutely skinless, according to a 
 volume in French and Latin on ' Magna 
 Charta ' (1556). Under the head Notnina 
 Begum et eorum coronatio we read this 
 observation : ' Richardus II., filius Ed. 
 principis Walliae, natus sine pelle, et 
 nutritus in pellibus caprarum, incepit 
 regnare xxiii Junii, anno domini 
 MCCCLXXVn.' 
 
 Skioldungs {The). A semi-histori- 
 cal race of kings in Denmark, so called 
 from Skiold, son of Odin, who, at the 
 death of his father, established a colony 
 of Goths at Ledra, in Zealand, and ruled 
 there as a chief, B.C. 40-23. From 
 Skiold descended the Skioldungs, which 
 
 furnished Denmark with 35 kings, the 
 last of whom was Horda Knut II. {Harde 
 Canute), 1047. The Skioldungs were 
 succeeded by the Estrithides. 
 
 Magnus king of Norway laid claim to the 
 crown of Denmark ; but it was agreed between 
 him and Horda Knut that whichever survived 
 the other should have both kingdoms. Horda 
 Knut died first, but the right of Magnus was 
 disputed by Svend Estrithson, founder of the 
 second dynasty. See ' Ynglings." 
 
 Skirmishing Fund [The), for the 
 use of the Fenian organisation. Michael 
 Davitt was charged with appropriating 
 this money for the purpose of outrage 
 and crime in Ireland. The verdict of the 
 three Royal Commissioners in 1889 was — 
 
 We have shown . . . that Mr. I>avitt was a 
 member of the Fenian organisation and was con- 
 victed as such— that he received money from a 
 fund which had been contributed for the purpose 
 of outrage and crime, namely the Skirmishing 
 Fund It was not, however, for the formation of 
 the Land League (q.v.) this fund was raised, but 
 for the promotion of the agitation which led up 
 to it. 
 
 Skotkonung, i.e. the tax-king. 
 Olaus II. of Sweden was so called, 
 because of his grant of an annual tribute 
 to the pope, called Romskot or Rome- 
 tax. He was also called ' the Fat ' and 
 ' the Saint ' (992, 1000-1030). 
 
 Slade Professorship of Fine Art. 
 I. Founded 1869, in the University of 
 Camhridge, by Felix Slade. The pro- 
 fessor must give 12 lectures a term free 
 of charge. 
 
 II. Founded 1869, in the University of 
 Oxford, by Felix Slade, who bequeathed 
 for the purpose the sum of 12,000Z. 
 Chair held for three years, but the holder 
 is eligible for re-election. 
 
 Slaughter of the Innocents 
 
 {The). The murder of the children of 
 Bethlehem and its coasts from two years 
 old and under by order of Herod the 
 Great, in order to cut oif Jesus, who was 
 born in Bethlehem about the same time 
 Jesus escaped the slaughter because 
 Joseph, from a warning dream, fled with 
 him and his mother into Egypt. See 
 p. 572, ' Massacre of the Innocents.' 
 
 Slave-carrying Act (TAe). Com- 
 manding that a certain given space 
 between decks shall be allowed for each 
 slave, and a certain stated supply of food 
 and water shall be compulsory. 
 
 Slave Emancipation Act {The\ 
 1807 (47 Geo. III. c. 36). African slavery 
 abolished by the United States in 1808; 
 
SLAVE 
 
 SLAVEEY 
 
 in France, 1815. Traffic in slaves de- 
 clared to be felony by 51 Geo. III. c. 23 
 (1811) ; declared to be piracy by the 
 United States in 1820 ; by Venezuela in 
 1825 ; by Brazil in 1850. 
 
 Slave Kings of Delhi {The), 
 A.D. 1186. This was ' The First Gaurian 
 Dynasty ' (q.v.). 
 
 Slave Ship. The first English 
 slave ship in 1562 commanded by Sir 
 John Hawkins was named the ' Jesus,' and 
 Queen Elizabeth allowed Sir John to 
 wear as his crest a manacled negro slave. 
 
 In heraldic language ' a demy Moor in his proper 
 colour, bound with a cord.' 
 
 Slave Trade {Aholition of the), 
 47 Geo. III. c. 36 (25 March, 1807) ; de- 
 clared felony 14 May, 1811. 
 
 Slavery has existed from the earliest 
 ages. It spread from Chaldea into Egypt, 
 Arabia, and all over the East. 
 
 It existed in Greece in Homeric times, 
 and Lacedfemonian lads were trained to 
 ill-treat, deceive, and murder slaves. On 
 one occasion as many as 8,000 slaves were 
 massacred in one night by way of amuse- 
 ment. 
 
 Alexander, when he destroyed Thebes, 
 sold the entire population, old and young 
 of both sexes, for slaves. This was B.C. 
 335. 
 
 Among the Jews slavery was recog- 
 nised by the Mosaic laws. Abraham had 
 his slaves, and so probably had the ante- 
 diluvians. Among the Jews slaves were 
 either captives taken in war, or purchased 
 as Joseph was, or born slaves, or men re- 
 duced to slavery for debt, theft, or some 
 other offence. Masters had full power 
 over their slaves, to scourge them, or 
 even put them to death ; but a bought 
 Hebrew slave had to serve for only six 
 years, when he became free (Exod. xxi.). 
 If, however, he wished to remain in ser- 
 vitude, the master bored his ear with an 
 awl (Deut. xv. 17), and he continued in 
 his service till the year of Jubilee. Girls 
 were sold for concubines ; a man might 
 sell himself or his children, and kidnap- 
 ping was not uncommon among the Jews. 
 
 Slavery abolished in the 
 United States, 31 July, 1865, the 
 close of the American Civil War. Dis- 
 putes respecting slavery gave rise to the 
 secession of the Southern States in 1860. 
 In 1861 President Lincoln allowed each 
 state to maintain and regulate its own 
 
 laws about slavery, but 6 March, 1862, he 
 proposed the entire abolition of slavery 
 in all the United States. The northern 
 states ultimately prevailed, and slavery 
 was abolished by proclamation of the 
 President, January 1863. At the close 
 of the civil war it was wholly abolished. 
 
 No compensation was given to the slave-holders, 
 but it cost them 400 millions sterling ; it cost the 
 Federals in war against the Union 940 millions 
 sterling. Total, 1,400 millions sterling. 
 
 It was abolished in Vermont in 1777, in New 
 York 4 July, 1827. 
 
 Slavery in Ancient Greece. 
 
 I. Athens. If they lived under the 
 government of a master slaves in Athens 
 were called olKirai (domestics) ; but after 
 their freedom was granted them they 
 were called ZovXot, and sometimes voQoi 
 (bastards, i.e. not genuine free-born 
 citizens). 
 
 Slaves in Argos were called Gymnitae. 
 
 ,, Crete were called Clarotse and Mnoitee. 
 ,, Sicyon were called Corynephori (.Kopwrj. 
 
 ^opoi) club-bearers in battle. 
 ,, Sparta were called Helots (EtXcoref). See 
 
 ' Slavery,' not^. 
 „ Thessaly were called Penestse (Trevcarai), 
 
 Thessalian serfs, said to be from Penestia, a dis- 
 trict of Macedonia, but more likely from rrfvo/xai, 
 to work for ones living, whence wtt^t, a day la- 
 bourer. 
 
 *,* Our English word 'slave,' we are told, means 
 Slavonian, and comes to mean a bondman because 
 the Italians at one time bought Slavonians for 
 serfs. Vossius derives the word from Slaef, now 
 Sklave, one of the Slavonic tribes reduced to 
 slavery by Charlemagne. Probably, however, it 
 is connected with the Latin sei-vus (one who 
 serves), Ital. schiavo, French escUive. 
 
 II. Sparta. Slaves in Sparta were 
 called ' Helots.' The tale is that the 
 people of Helos, B.C. 883, refused to pay 
 the Spartans tribute, so the Spartans in 
 vengeance destroyed their city, reduced 
 all the inhabitants to abject slavery, and 
 degraded their name by calling all slaves 
 ' Helots.' 
 
 This is most improbable. The town was called 
 EXof, which could not possibly be perverted into 
 EiXoiTtc, Helots. The verb iXeiv (an infinitive of 
 alp(aj) means to seize, to Uike captive, and the tale 
 referred to is most likely an etymological myth. 
 There are thousands of such like etymologies. 
 
 *«* In the Peloponnesian War the Helots be- 
 haved with such bravery that they were rewarded 
 with liberty, B.C. 424. But, alas! for the villainy 
 of the Spartans, 2,000 of the bravest and best were 
 murdered. See p. 572, ' Massacre of the Helots.' 
 
 Slavery in Ancient Rome. 
 
 Men became slaves among the Romans 
 in three ways : (1) being taken captives 
 in war ; (2) by sale and purchase ; and 
 (3) by way of punishment. The children 
 of slaves were all born slaves. 
 
 Slaves were always sold naked. Those not 
 warranted sound wore a cap, and were called 
 pileati. Those from beyond seas bad their feet 
 
SLAVERY 
 
 SMALLEST 
 
 833 
 
 chalked and ears bored. Some slaves were do- 
 mestic servants, some followed trades, and some 
 ■were instructed in literature and the arts. Masters 
 had absolute power over their slaves ; they might 
 scourge them, and even put them to death. We 
 are told that C. Pollio threw such slaves as 
 offended him into his fishponds, to his lampreys, 
 B.C. 4'2. They were extremely numerous. Indeed 
 Csecilius Isidorus left 4,11C slaves to his eldest son, 
 B.C. 12. 
 
 Slavery in England. Captain [Sir] 
 John Hawkins was the first EngHslunan 
 who made a traffic of slaves. He procured 
 negroes on the coast of Africa, and sold 
 them in the West Indies, Oct. 1563. 
 
 In 1786 England employed 130 slave 
 ships, and carried off annually some 
 40,000 slaves, and in 1833 the number 
 of slaves in British colonies exceeded 
 770,000. 
 
 European avarice has been glutted with the 
 murder of 180 millions of our fellow creatures. 
 For every slave procured 10 are slaughtered in 
 their own land by war, a fifth die on the passage, 
 and a third in the seasoning.— Cooper, Letters on 
 the Slave Trade. 
 
 Lord Mansfield's Judgment. The 
 famous judgment of Lord Mansfield, 
 22 June, 1772, that ' slavery cannot exist 
 in England.' 
 
 The case tried in the court of King's Bench was 
 this : a poor slave named Somerset, brought to 
 England, was, from ill-health, turned adrift by his 
 master. Mr. Granville Sharpe took pity on him, 
 fed him, housed him, and restored him to health. 
 
 His old master now came forward, and claimed 
 his slave as his own, but Mr. Sharpe resisted the 
 claim, and law proceedings were taken by the 
 master for the recovery of his property. Lord 
 Mansfield was the judge, and gave judgment in 
 favour of the slave, as English law does not recog- 
 nise such a status. 
 
 Abolished in the British Colonies, 
 28 Aug., 1833 (3, 4 Will. IV.). By this 
 Act slavery was abolished in British 
 colonies, and the slave-owners were com- 
 pensated for their loss by a grant of 30 
 millions sterling voted by the British 
 Parliament. 
 
 1 Aug., 1831, as many as 770,280 slaves were 
 bought oft and set free. 
 
 Slavery in France. The holding 
 of negro slaves was regulated in the reign 
 of Louis XIV., 1685, by Colbert's ' Black 
 Code.' 
 
 Abolished in the French Colonies. 
 Slavery was abolished in French colonies 
 by the National Assembly, 15 May, 1791. 
 It was restored by Napoleon I. in all 
 French colonies except Hayti, 1804 ; but 
 was again abolished by the Provisional 
 Government, 1848. 
 
 Slavery abolished in other 
 Colonies. 
 In Danish colonies in 1848. 
 
 In Dutch colonies in 1860. 
 In Swedish colonies in 1746. 
 The trade in slaves was abolished by Austria in 
 
 1782. 
 
 Slavon'ic Liturgy [The). The 
 Liturgy used in the Russian and Russo- 
 Greek Church. It is also called the 
 Liturgy of Constantinople. 
 
 Slavon'ic Nations (T/ie). Poland, 
 Russia, and Bohemia. See ' Celtic 
 Nations,' ' Teutonic Nations.' 
 
 Slingsby La-wrence. The pseu- 
 donym adopted by G. H. Lewes in his 
 play called ' Speculation ' (or the ' Game 
 of Speculation '). 
 
 Sloane Collection {The), in the 
 British Museum Library, consists of 
 4,100 volumes, chiefly MSS., on natural 
 history, voyages, travels, and medicine. 
 Also thirty volumes of Dr. Sloane's corre- 
 spondence. Some of the drawings of 
 animals are both rich and accurate, and 
 two volumes of the insects of Surinam are 
 from the pencil of Maria Sibylla Me'rian, 
 the great Swiss artist and naturalist. 
 Collected by Dr. Hans Sloane. 
 
 Slobodisza {Battle of), 1665. Won 
 by Sobieski, the Polish general, over the 
 Cossacks. 
 
 Smalkal'dic League {The), 1530. 
 A league signed at Schmalkald in Ger- 
 many by the Protestant princes, by which 
 they bound themselves and their heirs, 
 for ten years, to assist each other by arms 
 and money in defence of the reformed re- 
 ligion, and to act unitedly in all religious 
 questions and movements. 
 
 Smalkaldic "War {The), 1546-1547. 
 Charles V., being threatened by the Turks, 
 tried to win over the Protestant states to 
 support him in the war, but they thought 
 this a ripe time to stand at bay, and I'aise 
 the standard of revolt. Charles put the 
 Smalkaldic League to the ban of the 
 empire, raised a new army, and marched 
 against the revolters. In April 1547 was 
 fought the battle of Miihlberg, in which 
 the Protestants were defeated, and the 
 Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of 
 Hesse were taken prisoners. This is called 
 ' Tiie First Religious War of Germany.' 
 
 Smallest Bible {The) in the world 
 was one printed 1875. 
 
 In "1880 was printed at the Oxford Press the 
 ' Finger Prayerbook,' weighingonly three-quarters 
 
 3H 
 
884 
 
 SMALLPOX 
 
 SNEEZING 
 
 of an ounce. A ' Finger New Testament ' was pub- 
 lished in 1890. 
 
 Smallpox, called by the French 
 'la petite verole,' is said to have ap- 
 peared in Europe in the lOtlicent., being 
 introduced from the East by the Saracens ; 
 but it was not common till the 16th cent., 
 when it was introduced by a negro slave 
 in the suite of Panfilo de Narvaez, 
 who commanded the expedition against 
 Cortez in Mexico. Robertson reports 
 that it proved fatal to fifty per cent, 
 of those attacked. Dr. Guy, 'Public 
 Health,' p. 197, says, ' Smallpox certainly 
 attacked the Arabian army at the siege of 
 Mecca in 569, and soon after reached 
 Alexandria. By the 8th cent, all Europe 
 was infected by it. . . . Anglada proves 
 that the disease had shown itself in 
 France and Italy as early as 570.' 
 
 It appeared in England and in Rouen 
 in 1521. In Normandy four men called 
 marquers were employed to look after 
 the sick of each house. They wore a 
 blue gown with a white cross. In 1520 
 and 1528 it broke out afresh in Italy, and 
 was especially fatal in Rome. Paul Jove 
 and Theodor Zwinger tell us that a 
 Greek, named Demetrius, authorised by 
 the magistrates, had an ox led through 
 the streets, one horn being cut off, and a 
 filet hung on the other horn. After it 
 had promenaded the town, it was slain, 
 and the smallpox disappeared. See 
 * Plague,' &c. . 
 
 This wasevidently a parodyof the Jewish scape- 
 goat. 
 
 Severe attacks occurred in 1174, 1365, 
 1440, 1556, 1564, and 1613. 
 
 In 1720tliere died in Paris of smallpox 20,000 per- 
 sons ; in 1733 the inliabitants of Greenland were 
 reduced by it from 30,000 to 7,000 ; in 1788 it com- 
 mitted great ravages in Bussia ; in 1743 as many as 
 75,000 died of it in Messina (Sicily). Baldwin liing 
 of Jerusalem died of it, 
 
 *«* The Chinese tried Inoculation in the llth 
 cent. ; and Timotheus, a Greek, in 1713 communi- 
 cated this safeguard to the Universities of Oxford 
 and Padua. It was first tried in England in 1721. 
 
 Smectyni'iiuus, 1641. An anagram 
 of the five Puritan divines who contro- 
 verted Bishop Hall's two books, entitled 
 ' Episcopacy by Divine Right,' and ' An 
 Humble Remonstrance.' Their names 
 are Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, 
 Thomas Young, Matthew KTewcome, 
 "William Spurstow. 
 
 Smith [King). Louis Philippe of 
 France, who assumed the name of Smith 
 when he fled to England. 
 
 * Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed the king. ' That is 
 curious indeed, and very remarkable that the first 
 
 to welcome me to England should be a Mr. Smith, 
 since the assumed name by which I escaped from 
 France was Smith ; and look ! this is my passport 
 made out in the name ol Smith.'— X^e Timet, 
 6 March, 1848. 
 
 Smith's Prizes for mathematics. 
 Two of 23Z, each for commencing bachelors 
 of arts in the University of Cambridge. 
 Pounded by the Rev. Robert Smith, D.D., 
 master of Trinity, 1768. 
 
 Sm.iths and Artists {Patron Saint 
 of). St. Eloi (588-659), master of the 
 mint in the reign of Clotaire II. Eloi = 
 Eligius. 
 
 There was also a Nonne, a prioresse, 
 That of hire smylyng was ful symple and coy, 
 Hire grettest ooth nas but by Seynt Eloy. 
 Chaucer, Canterbury Tales (Prologue, 118, &o.). 
 
 Sm.oek Marriages. Marriages in 
 which the bride divested herself in church 
 of all her clothes except her 'smock,' 
 under the notion that the husband would 
 not then be responsible for any of her 
 debts. 
 
 WTien a man designs to marry a woman who is 
 in debt, if he take her from the hands of the priest 
 clothed only in her shift, it is supposed he will not 
 be liable to her engagements.— BKAND, Popular 
 Antiquities (Vulgar Errors). 
 
 Sneakers, 1741. Those lords who 
 refused to vote on the motion for the re- 
 moval of Walpole from the ministry and 
 counsel of the king. The motion was 
 made in the Commons by Pulteney, and 
 in the Upper House by Carteret, sup- 
 ported by the Dukes of Argyll and Bed- 
 ford, the Earls of Sandwich, Westmore- 
 land, Berkshire, Carlisle, Abingdon, and 
 Halifax ; and the Lords Haversham and 
 Bathurst. 
 
 Sneezing and Yawning. The 
 
 European custom of saying ' God bless 
 you ' when a person sneezes, and the 
 Catholic custom of making the mark of 
 the cross on the mouth when a person 
 yawns, dates from a.d .589, when a plague 
 broke out in which people expired either 
 sneezing or yawning. Pelagius died of 
 the affection in 590. 
 
 The Catholic custom of making the sign of the 
 cross when a person sneezes or yawns is attri- 
 buted to Gregory of Tours (544 595). The ancient 
 Bomans considered sneezing a bad omen, and to 
 avert the threatened evil cried Absil omen. Ari- 
 stotle tells us that sneezing was accounted sacred 
 among the Greeks (tov -nTapfMov Seov lyyov/xc^a) ; and 
 Casaubon proves out of Xenophon that the Greek 
 soldiers worshipped sneezing as a god, and 
 averted evil consequences with the prayer, 'in 
 awaov (God bless me). Ammlan, in an epigram 
 upon a man who had a very long nose, says : 
 Oiidi Xeyci, Zet? a<£jov, Srav Trrap^ ov yap ditoiSu 
 T<f« itvoc, voXh yap rlji aKonc dir^tt. 
 
SNOW 
 
 SOCIALISM 
 
 835 
 
 He never says ' God bless me ! ' when he 
 Because his ear so far Is from his nose 
 It cannot catch the sound. 
 
 Several of the native Indian tribes look on 
 sneezlnE* as ominous, and utter their Absit omen 
 or z»t? <r&<rov also. The Germans say ' Gesundheit ' 
 (' health ') when one sneezes. 
 
 Snow King {The). So the German 
 Catholic party named G-ustavus Adolphus 
 king of Sweden, who in 1630 interfered in 
 the Thirty Years' War. They called him 
 the ' Snow King ' because he came from 
 Sweden, the land of snow, and they 
 thought he would melt away like Frede- 
 rick V. of Bohemia, nicknamed the 
 ' Winter King ' {q.v.). 
 
 At Vienna he (Gustavus Adolphus) was called 
 ' The Snow King,' who was kept together by the 
 cold, but would melt and disappear as he ap- 
 proached a warmer soil.— Dr. Crichton, Scandi- 
 navia iGustavus Adolphus II., 61). 
 
 Snow Queen {The). 1. Christina 
 queen of Sweden (1626, 1633-1689). 
 
 II. Elizabeth queen of Bohemia. She 
 was crowned with her husband Fried- 
 rich V. elector palatine, 25 Oct., 1619, but 
 fled in Nov. 1620. She was queen during 
 the winter 1619-20. 
 
 Soapy Sam. Samuel Wilberforce, 
 bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Win- 
 chester (1805-1873). It is somewhat re- 
 markable that the floral decorations above 
 the stalls of the bishop and principal of 
 Cuddesdon were S, O. A. P. (the initials 
 of Sam. Oxon and Alfred Pott). When 
 Soapy Sam went to inspect the building 
 he was dismayed at seeing his sobriquet 
 thus perpetuated. 
 
 Someone asking why the Bishop of Oxford was 
 so called, the bishop himself replied: 'Because I 
 am often in hot water, and always come out with 
 clean hands.' 
 
 Socage. Tenure by fixed and deter- 
 minate service. Almost all free lands in 
 England are held by socage tenure. 
 
 Soccolanti {The). An order in the 
 Catholic Church akin to the Franciscans. 
 It was established by St. Paulet de 
 Foligny (Foligno) in 1568. St. Paulet 
 was a hermit who, seeing that the moun- 
 taineers in his neighbourhood wore 
 wooden sandals or sabots (Ital. socco), 
 adopted them himself, and hence his 
 followers were called the Soccolanti. 
 
 Social Circle {The), 1790. A society 
 founded by the Abbe Fauchet, having 
 for its object the establishment of ' truth, 
 liberty, and happiness.' Fauchet was 
 elected ' Attorney- General of Truth ' ; 
 
 Paris was appointed the centre of civili- 
 sation, and the Palais Koyal was to be 
 the place of assembly. At the inaugural 
 address, 13 Oct., some 5,000 persons at- 
 tended, and nearly double that number 
 on 22 Oct., the day of the second meeting. 
 This society soon gave way to the Theo- 
 philanthropists {q.v.). 
 
 Social Democratic Federation 
 
 {The), 1886. The heads of which were 
 Hyndman, Burns, Champion, and Wil- 
 liams. They inaugurated their society by 
 riots, and frightful destx'uction of London 
 club and shop property in the second 
 week of February. 
 
 Social ReformCommittee (T^e), 
 17 May, 1888. To push forward social 
 reforms. 
 
 Social Science {The National As- 
 sociation of), 1857. For the promotion of 
 cheap popular literature, called Sixpenny 
 Science, because that was the price of 
 the treatises produced once a fortnight. 
 
 Social'War(r;ie). L b.c. 358-853. A 
 war between Athens and her allies. Arta- 
 xerxes supported the allies, and Athens 
 was compelled to make a disadvantageous 
 peace. 
 
 Another (b.c. 220-217) between Philip 
 of Macedonia and the ^tolians. A peace 
 was patched up by Philip, who was the 
 conqueror. 
 
 Social = confederate, and social war means war 
 of several confederate or associated states. 
 
 II. B.C. 90-89, between the eight allied 
 nations called the Italian Confederation 
 and the Romans. The complaint was 
 that they furnished two-thirds of the 
 army, and were yet treated as aliens. 
 
 This war is also called Bellum Italicum and Bcllum 
 M(ii!iicum from Pompagdius the brave Marsian 
 general. It is said that 300,000 men in the vigour 
 of life fell in this war. 
 
 Socialism. A system for the regu- 
 lation of labour by co-oi)eration without 
 competition. Louis Blanc was the father 
 of the system, and his ' Organisation du 
 Travail ' was published in 18iO. In this 
 book he denounces the plan of ' indi- 
 vidualism,' and advocates ' solidarity,' in 
 which each workman is to be paid accord- 
 ing to his need — a bachelor 2 francs a 
 day, a married man 2^, and a man with a 
 family 3 francs. In 1848 national work- 
 shops were tried in Paris on the Louis 
 Blanc principle. Government was the 
 employer of labour, and private enter- 
 Sh2 
 
836 
 
 SOCIETA 
 
 SOCIETY 
 
 prise was abolished as far as possible. 
 It was soon found that the national work- 
 shops were overcrowded, work was ill- 
 done, idle hands multiplied, and profitless 
 work had to be invented to keep the men 
 out of mischief. Some 1,500 tailors were 
 set to work in the Hotel Clichy at 2 francs 
 a day, but the scheme was a total failure. 
 
 Plato's 'Republic' is an ideal communism. 
 Minos and Lycurgos were communists. The early 
 Christians had 'all things in common,' but the 
 notion of government being the sole employer of 
 labour, and paying each, not according to the work 
 done, but according to individual necessity, was 
 left to the device of Louis Blanc. 
 
 Bellamy's novel entitled ' Looking Backward ' 
 is based somewhat on the same idea. 
 
 Societa degli Arcadi, or the 
 
 * Arcadians,' 1690. A literary society of 
 Rome in which each member was called 
 a shepherd of Arcady. Founded by J. M, 
 Crescimbeni with the view of introducing 
 'good taste.' A history of the Arcadians 
 was published by the society. 
 
 Society des Egalitaires {La). 
 See ' Society of the Rights of Man.' 
 Pronounce So-ce'a-tay days a-gaV -e-tare' , 
 
 Soci^td des Families (Jjo). See 
 
 * Society of the Rights of Man.' 
 
 Pronounce So-ce'-a-tay day fah-meeV, 
 
 Soc'^te des Saisons {La). See 
 ' Society of the Rights of Man.' 
 
 Pronounce So-ce'-a-tay day Say'-zon (« nasal). 
 
 Soci^t6 des Travailleurs {La), 
 1825. The 'Industrialists' {q.v.), after 
 the death of St. -Simon. The foundation 
 departed from its original principles, and 
 became communistic, advocating the 
 absolute equality of man, the community 
 of property, and the aristocracy of toil. 
 Abolished by law in 1833. 
 
 Soci^t^ en Commandite. A 
 
 limited liability partnership. A sleeping 
 partner puts money in a concei'n, and is 
 responsible only to the amount he agrees 
 to be responsible for. 
 
 Society for Constitutional In- 
 formation in London {The), 1792. 
 A corresponding society with the Jaco- 
 bins of Paris. Its real object was to 
 establish a republic in Great Britain. It 
 numbered among its members several 
 red-hot Americans. 
 
 Society for Constitutional In- 
 formation in Sheffield {The), 1792. 
 A society in strong sympathy with the 
 French Revolutionists. In May it called 
 
 on the ' Society of the Friends of the 
 People ' {q.v.) to establish a convention 
 in London ; but the latter society an- 
 nounced that they had no other object in 
 view except parliamentary reform by 
 strictly legal means, and that this end 
 once secured they should forthwith dis- 
 solve themselves. 
 
 Society for Promoting Chris- 
 tian Knowledge {The), 1699. In 
 1701 a branch called the ' Society for the 
 Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
 Parts ' was established. These societies 
 distribute bibles and common prayer- 
 books at very cheap rates, and sometimes 
 gratuitously. The original society limits 
 its operations to home, the branch society 
 extends to the colonies. 
 
 Society for Pl-omoting the 
 Education of the Poor {The), 
 2 Dec, 1811, in Ireland. Commonly 
 called the Kildare Place Society. A 
 voluntary institution for the instruction 
 of children, the instruction to be un- 
 influenced by religious distinctions. The 
 Bible was not to be made a class book 
 for teaching reading and spelling, and 
 when read by pupils sufficiently ad- 
 vanced was to be without either note 
 or comment. No religious catechism 
 was to be taught, and no book introduced 
 of a controversial character, that ' the 
 religious tenets of the pupils might not 
 be disturbed or interfered with.' A 
 public grant was given in 1819, but with- 
 drawn in 1830. 
 
 Society of G-riitli(T7ie). Mentioned 
 in the report of the government of Ziirich, 
 1844, as then existing in Switzerland. 
 Its object was the abolition of the federa- 
 tion principle in the Swiss constitution. 
 
 Griitli is a meadow in the canton of Uri, at tho 
 foot of the Seelisberg, and is famous for the oath 
 sworn on the night of 7 Nov., 1307, by Werner, 
 Stauffacher, Walter Furst, and Arnold Melchthal 
 to liberate Switzerland from the Austrian yoke. 
 
 Society of Jesus {The). The title 
 under which the Jesuits were originally 
 enrolled by Paul IV. in 1540. See 
 ' Jesuits.' 
 
 Society of Progress {The). A 
 secret democratic society of France in 
 the reign of Louis Philippe. By the 
 decree of 10 April, 1834, secret societies 
 were forbidden, and therefore when a 
 particular society was povmced upon and 
 declared illegal, it changed its name and 
 
SOCIETY 
 
 SODOR 
 
 837 
 
 was reorganised. The interdiction of 
 these secret societies led to the riots of 
 Lyons and Paris (9, 10, 11 April, 1834), 
 and prepared the way of the revolution 
 of 1848. 
 
 Society of United Irishmen 
 
 [The), 1793-1800. This egg was hatched 
 by the French Revolution, and the Irish 
 came nigh to rival the French in savagery 
 and lawlessness. The ostensible object 
 of the society was parliamentary reform, 
 but its real design was anarchy. The 
 soldier was taught to betray the king, 
 the servant to rebel against his master, 
 and the tenant to cheat his landlord. 
 Magistrates, witnesses, jurors, all who 
 attempted to support the laws were 
 marked for destruction. Assassins spared 
 neither sex nor age, and spread terror 
 and dismay throughout the island. In 
 1796 a communication was opened with 
 the French Directory, who promised in- 
 vasion, and in December a French fleet 
 anchored in Bantry Bay, but was forced 
 to retire ; a second attempt was equally 
 abortive ; at last by vigorous measures 
 the rebellion was stamped out, and in 
 1800 the Irish parliament was abolished. 
 See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Society of the Black Pin {The), 
 or ' Conjuration de I'Epingle Noire.' A 
 French secret society which arose from 
 the Carbonari after the unsuccessful out- 
 break of 24 June, 1817. 
 
 Conspiration qui se forma sur la Restauration, 
 et dans laquelle les conjures avaient pris pour 
 Eigne de ralliement une epingle noire. — Littke, 
 vol. ii. p. 14G3, col. 2. 
 
 *,,* There was another secret society at the 
 same period called ' The Society of the Bed Pin, 
 or La Conjuration de lEpingle Rose.' 
 
 Society of the Friends of the 
 People [The). 
 
 I. 28 April, 1792. An English parlia- 
 mentary reform society, supported by 
 the Lords Lauderdale, John Russell, 
 Dare, Stanhope, and Fitzgerald. Many 
 of the members were enthusiastic ad- 
 mirers of the French Revolution. 
 
 II. 1793. A society organized in 
 Scotland in sympathy with the French 
 revolutionists. Their standing toast was 
 ' George the Third and Last, and damna- 
 tion to all crowned heads.' 
 
 Society of the Rights of Man 
 
 {The). 'La Societe des Droits de 
 I'Homme.' A secret political society 
 formed in France during the reign of 
 
 Louis Philippe. By the decree of 10 
 April, 1834, secret societies were inter- 
 dicted in France, and therefore when a 
 society was dissolved by the government 
 it was soon re-oi'ganised under another 
 name. Thus we have 'La Societe des 
 Families,' ' La Socie'te' des Saisons,' * La 
 Societe des Travailleurs,' ' La Societe 
 des Egalitaires,' and so on, all of repub- 
 lican or communistic tendencies. The 
 prohibition of secret societies led to the 
 revolution of 1848 and the expulsion of 
 Louis Philippe from the throne. 
 
 Socinians. The followers of Faustus 
 Socinus, an Italian (1539-1604), nephew 
 of Leelius Socinus. He taught that God 
 is one person, and denied the divinity of 
 the Word and Holy Ghost, which he 
 called ' expressions ' and not ' persons ' ; 
 he also taught that Jesus is no mediator, 
 but only a perfect example of. holy life ; 
 he furthermore taught that the punish- 
 ment of hell is not eternal. 
 
 Socinians and Unitarians differ considerably in 
 their views of Jesus Christ. The Socinians say 
 he ought to be worshipped not as God, but as the 
 Saviour of the world ; and though a man, yet was 
 He born through the operation of the Holy Ghost. 
 The Unitarians admit neither of tliese dogmas. 
 There are many Unitarians in England, but pro- 
 bably no Socinians. Trinitarians believe in the 
 triple personality of the One God ; Socinians and 
 Unitarians both believe in the single personality 
 of the One God. 
 
 Socrates {The English). Dr. John- 
 son is so called by Boswell (1709-1784). 
 
 Mr. South s amiable manners and attachment 
 to our Socrates at once united me to him. — Life of 
 Johnson. 
 
 Socrates {The Mad). So Plato de- 
 nominated Diogenes the cynic (b.c. 419- 
 324). 
 
 Socrates of the Musulmans 
 
 {The). Abou-Hanifa, born at Cousa, 
 died in prison at Bagdad in a.d. 757. He 
 was chief of the Han'ifites (3 syl.). 
 
 Sodality of the Blessed Sacra- 
 ment {Brothers of the). Certain 
 fanatics which sprang up at Caen, in 
 1659, and gave out that their smell was 
 so nice they could distinguish a Jansenist 
 by the mere scent, and that all the clergy 
 in Caen, except two, were Jansenists. 
 
 Sodor. A small village in lona or St. 
 Columba's Isle, corruptly called ' Icolm- 
 kill.' Magnus king of Norway, in 1098, 
 obtained possession of this isle, with the 
 rest of the Hebrides, and united it to the 
 Isle of Man under one bishop. In 1333 
 
838 
 
 SODOR 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 England took possession of the Isle of 
 Man. 
 
 Sodor and Man. The Hebrides 
 were called by the Norsemen the ' Sudre- 
 jar,' i.e. ' Southern Islands,' corrupted 
 and shortened into ' Sud'ar,' * Sodor.' 
 The bishop of Sodor and Man is (titulary) 
 bishop of the Hebrides and the Isle of 
 Man. See ' Orkney Islands.' 
 
 Soeur Louise de la Mis^ricorde. 
 
 Mdlle. de la Valliere, the mistress of 
 Louis XIV., was so called in her retire- 
 ment (born 1644, mistress of the king 
 1661, retired 1674, died 1710). 
 
 SofFa'rian Kings {The), or 'Sof- 
 farides' (3 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
 which supplanted the Ta'herides (3 syl.) 
 in many of their possessions. The 
 founder was the brigand Yacoub the 
 Soffar (or 'blacksmith). Yacoub reigned 
 thirty years (872-902), and was succeeded 
 by the Samanides (3 syl.). 
 
 The Ta'herides (3 syl.), Sof'farides (3 syl.), Sam'- 
 anides (3 syl.), and Bou'ides (2 syl.), were concur- 
 rent with the Califs, and reigned only over parts 
 of Persia, as Seistan, Khorasan, Balk, and Tabar- 
 istan. 
 
 Sof'farides (3 syl.). See above. 
 
 Soft or SofFee Dynasty {The). 
 See ' Suffavean.' 
 
 Soissons {Flot of the Comte de), 
 1641. Louis de Bourbon, comte de Sois- 
 sons, had been proscribed by Richelieu 
 for rebellion, and had taken refuge at 
 Sedan, then the principality of the Due 
 de Bouillon. Here he entered into a 
 plot with Spain, assembled troops, and 
 assumed a defiant position. Richelieu 
 sent an army against him ; gave him a 
 crushing defeat at Marfee, near Sedan ; 
 Louis de Bourbon was shot, and the 
 plot fell through. See p. 752, * Remem- 
 ber the Vase of Soissons.' 
 
 Soke or Soc. A privilege of ad- 
 ministering justice and of executing laws 
 m Anglo-Saxon times. The lord had 
 the liberty of holding a court or mote of 
 his ' soc-men ' or tenants, who held under 
 him by a fixed determinate service called 
 ' soccage.' 
 
 Soldier. About 1214 Philippe II. 
 Auguste of France kept a large standing 
 army, and the pay was called their solde ; 
 hence * sold-at,' and ' sold-ier,' a military 
 servant who receives government pay. 
 
 Soldiers' Friend (T^e). Frederick 
 duke of York and Albany (1763-1827), 
 second son of George III., made colonel 
 in the British army 1780 ; commander-in- 
 chief in Flanders 1793; commander-in- 
 chief 1798. 
 
 Sorecism. An impropriety in lan- 
 guage, either of syntax or idiom. The 
 Athenian colonists of Soloi, by their long 
 expatriation, forgot their pure native 
 language (Suidas, ' Soloi '). 
 
 Solemn League and Covenant 
 
 {The). I. 3 Dec, 1557, whereby the 
 Scotch reformers bound themselves to 
 stand unflinchingly to the Calvinistic 
 reform, and to fight, if necessary, in its 
 defence. The bond was signed by the 
 Earls of Glencairn, Argyll, and Morton, 
 Lord Lorn, Erskine of Dun, and many 
 others, who assumed the title of ' Lords 
 of the Congregation.' And from this 
 hour to flinch or fall from the covenant 
 was an unpardonable sin in Scotland. 
 
 II. 1 March, 1638, the Scotch agreed 
 to join the parliamentary army against 
 the king (Charles I.) provided both popery 
 and episcopacy in the two kingdoms were 
 extirpated. The league was modified 
 25 Sept., 1643, by Sir Harry Vane, and 
 the terms were ' the kirk should preserve 
 its purity and freedom, and the church 
 of England should be reformed accord- 
 ing to the Word of God.' Charles I. in 
 1647 coquetted with the league, promis- 
 ing to establish presbytery and to concur 
 in the extirpation ' of the sectaries ' ; but 
 he dallied too long and disgusted the 
 league. Charles II. subscribed to the 
 league 16 June, 1650 ; but it was declared 
 to be illegal by 14 Car. II. c. 4. 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant, the Magna 
 Charta of the Presbyterian Church.— Sir W. ScoTT, 
 Old Mortality, ch. xxxvii. 
 
 III. 1774, a confederation entered into 
 at Philadelphia to abstain from the use 
 of English goods. This was in abhor- 
 rence of the Boston Port Bill {q.v.), 
 which the colonists described as ' a bar- 
 barous, cruel, bloody, and inhuman 
 murder.' 
 
 'Solicitudo Omnium Ecelesi- 
 arum,' 7 Aug., 1814. A bull issued by 
 Pius VII. for the rehabilitation of the 
 Jesuit order. 
 
 Solomon Avon, 3 November, 
 meaning the Eve of the Summer-close. 
 
SOLOMON 
 
 SOPHIVEAN 
 
 839 
 
 'Avon' a corruption of even or eve, 
 and ' Solomon ' a corruption of the Irish 
 samhuin = end of summer. 
 
 Solomon of China (The). Tae- 
 tsong ( * , 62(3-650), one of the most 
 enlightened monarchs that ever reigned. 
 He was the son of Kao-tsou, founder of 
 the Tang djTiasty {q.v.). This reign was 
 the Augustan age of China. His wife 
 was a lady also of singular wisdom and 
 virtue. 
 
 Tae-tsong may be favourably compared with 
 Antoninus the Roman emperor. 
 
 Solomon of his Age (The). 
 
 Robert I. of Naples, 1309-1343. Pious, 
 generous, and just ; a great patron of 
 learning and promoter of science. He 
 died at the age of 64. 
 
 Solon of French Prose {The). 
 
 Balzac (1596-1655), famous for his 
 
 'Letters.' 
 
 Solon of Parnassus. Boileau 
 (1636-1711) was so called by Voltaire. 
 He was the Alexander Pope of France, 
 and his * Art of Poetry ' obtained for him 
 Voltaire's cognomen. 
 
 Somnauth Proclamation (The), 
 1843, by Lord EUenborough, governor- 
 general of India. A pompous and foolish 
 declaration that he restored to the 
 Temple of Somnauth the sandal-wood 
 gates which had been taken away 800 
 years ago. Now these gates were in 
 ruins, and the people to whom they were 
 promised had become Mahometans, who 
 hated the Hindi! religion of the Temple 
 of Somnauth. So that the gates were 
 worthless, and the Mahometans to whom 
 they were promised would feel insulted, 
 not honoured, by the gift. Again, the 
 Hindfis, being a subjected race, the re- 
 stored trophy of their subjection would 
 be no more acceptable to them than to 
 their conquerors. 
 
 Besides, it had been foretold that the restoration 
 of the gates would be a forerunner of the end of 
 the Sikh dominion. This prophecy proved true. 
 
 Son of Heaven [The) and 'The 
 Ten Thousand Years' are the titles of the 
 emperor of China. 
 
 Sons of Freedom (The). A Fenian 
 organisation in North America opposed 
 to Donovan Rossa. These ' Sons of Free- 
 dom,' also called ' The Robert Emmett,' 
 have their head centre resident in Phil- 
 adelphia. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Sons of Liberty (The), 1765. An 
 association of the colonists of North 
 America, called into existence by Lord 
 Grenville's Stamp Act. They combined 
 to throw off allegiance to Great Britain 
 and make North America independent. 
 The association began in New York and 
 Connecticut. The term ' Sons of Liberty ' 
 was suggested by a speech of Colonel 
 Barrd's. 
 
 The 'Daughters of Liberty' mutually bound 
 themselves to drink no tea and wear no article 
 of apparel imported from England while the 
 import duties were unrepealed. 
 
 Sons of the Precept. Jewish 
 children, who at the age of 13, having 
 learnt the law and their daily prayers, 
 were made answerable for their sins; 
 for which, up to that time, their fathers 
 had been held responsible. This evi- 
 dently is the fons et origooi the Christian 
 rite of confirmation. 
 
 Son'derbund {The), 1846. A league 
 of the seven Catholic cantons of Switzer- 
 land [Friburg, Lucerne, Schwytz, Unter- 
 walden, Uri, Valais, and Zug] to resist 
 the federal diet, which had proclaimed 
 the Jesuits, the Liguorians {q.v.), and 
 other religious congregations. Sonder- 
 bund means ' separate league.' 
 
 Sonna {The), or ' Suna,' i.e. tradition. 
 A collection of the Mahometan traditions, 
 forming a supplement to the Koran. 
 Those who accept these traditions are 
 called Sonnites. 
 
 At the end of 200 years the Sonna or oral law 
 was fixed by the labours of Al Bochazi, who had 
 discriminated 7,275 genuine traditions from a mass 
 of 300,000 reports.— Gibbon, chap. 1. 
 
 Sophis {The), or ' Sophees,' i.e. 
 Mystics. A Moslem sect inclined to 
 pantheism. They look on the Koran 
 only as a book of morals. The sect was 
 founded in the 8th cent, by Abu Said 
 Abul Cheir. The system is called So- 
 phiism or Sopheeism. The four stages 
 are (1) Humanity or obedience to the 
 established religion ; (2) the Path, i.e. 
 of piety, virtue, and fortitude ; (3) Know- 
 ledge, when man is equal to the angels ; 
 and (4) Truth or union with deity. 
 
 To a Mahometan the word Sophi is about equal 
 to 'infidel.' 
 
 So'phive'an (or Safawi) Dsmasty 
 {The), 1499-1736. Founded in Persia by 
 Ismail grandson of Sheik Sophi u Dien 
 Izhak, a lineal descendant of Ali. These 
 kings were called saints. 
 
 ' Saints ' applied to these 13 kings seems like » 
 
840 
 
 SORBONNB 
 
 SOUTHCOTT 
 
 mockery. (2) Tamaspwas poisoned ; (3) Ismail II. 
 his fourth son murdered all the princes of the 
 blood royal and died of intoxication or poison ; (5) 
 Mohammed Murza was deposed ; (6) Mir Hamzah 
 ■was assassinated ; (7) Ismail III. was assassinated ; 
 (9) Sefl, the Nero of Persia, had not one redeeming 
 point;' (11) Soliman was dethroned; (12) Tamasp 
 was deposed and murdered ; (13) Abbas III. was an 
 infant set aside by the Affshars. 
 
 Sorbonne {The), 1252. The college 
 founded in Paris by Robert de Sorbon 
 (in the reign of St. Louis) for secular 
 ecclesiastics (q.v.), who lived together in 
 common, and devoted all their time to 
 the study of theology. From the 14th 
 to the close of the 17th cent, this college 
 enjoyed a European reputation; its de- 
 cisions on religious questions were 
 deemed final ; and it went by the flatter- 
 ing name of the Perpetual Cou7icil of 
 the Gallic Nation. It is now used as a 
 university, where the course in instruc- 
 tion includes, .besides theology, science 
 and general literature. 
 
 Soro'res de Poenitentia. The 
 
 same as the Beginse {q.v.). They are 
 spoken of in the bull of John XXII. 
 (7 Kal. Martii, anno 3). 
 
 Sort^S Bib'licaB, introduced during 
 the reign of Charlemagne, was a method 
 of telling fortunes by opening a book con- 
 taining the Four Evangelists and the 
 Psalms. The book was opened at ran- 
 dom, and the finger laid promiscuously 
 upon a passage, which was supposed to 
 be prophetic. In the age of Clovis the 
 book of the Acts of the Apostles was 
 similarly employed. The Greeks used 
 the poems of Homer and the Latins the 
 *^neid' of Virgil as books of fate. 
 
 Sortds Sancto'rum. Consulting 
 the Bible to know whether or not to do 
 some stated thing, or how it will turn 
 out if done. The Bible is opened at 
 random, and the finger laid at random 
 on any point. The passage pointed out 
 is the answer. Mr. Berridge consulted 
 the Bible on the question whether he 
 should marry, and his finger touched 
 Jer. xvi. 2 : ' Thou shalt not take thee a 
 wife.' I myself in a fit of curiosity con- 
 sulted the oracle as to whether or not I 
 should publish my ' Dictionary of Mira- 
 cles,' and my finger touched Ezra iv. 22, 
 * Take heed now that ye fail not to do 
 this.' 
 
 In the reign of Charlemagne, the Sortes Sanc- 
 torum was confined to the Four Evangelists and 
 the Psalms. In the reign of Clovis the Acts of the 
 Apostles. 
 
 Sortes Virgilia'nse. Consulting 
 the iEneid of Virgil in the manner de- 
 scribed in Sortes Sanctorum {q.v.). 
 
 In Persia the works of the poet Haflz are 
 employed in a similar way. The Greeks used the 
 Epics of Homer. 
 
 Sosii {The), the publishers. The 
 Sosii were two brothers, booksellers and 
 publishers of Rome in the time of Horace. 
 
 He [Carlyle] could not throw his thoughts into 
 a shape for which the Sosii of the day would 
 give him money.— J. A. FROUDE, Thomas Carlyle, 
 vol. ii. p. 114. 
 
 Soter (Preserver). Ptolemy I. king 
 of Egypt was so called by the Rhodians 
 B.C. 304, because he rescued them from 
 Demetrios, surnamed Poliorketes, king of 
 Macedonia, by whom they were besieged. 
 
 Poliorketes means the taker of cities by sieges. 
 Demetrios the besieger. It is rather remarkable 
 that this very Demetrios was called Soter (Preser- 
 ver) by the Athenians. ' Soter,' pronounce So-teer, 
 
 Sothic Period {A), 1461. Egyptian 
 years. So called from Sothis, the Egj^- 
 tian word for the Dog-star, and the Sothic 
 or Canicular period began with the helia- 
 cal rising of the Dog-star. 
 
 Soulouque (2 syl.). A nickname 
 givento Louis Napoleon at the coiip d'etat 
 of 1851. Soulouque was the negro who 
 was president of St. Domingo, called 
 himself emperor, and established in that 
 island (1849) a parody of Napoleon and 
 his empire in France. By ' Soulouque ' 
 was meant that Louis Napoleon was 
 making a burlesque imitation of his 
 uncle; but the coup d'etat proved a 
 reality, and the second empire is not to 
 be despised either in its duration, its 
 power in Europe, or its influence on 
 France. Certainly Napoleon III. was an 
 Augustus of Paris, for he beautified it 
 more than any of its crowned heads, and 
 kept it tolerably in hand. 
 
 Soul-shot, 'Peciinia Sepulchralis,' 
 or ' Symbol am Animse,' a mortuary or 
 oblation made at a person's death. In 
 Saxon times it was a funeral fee, and be- 
 came a right settled on the church. It 
 differed from a ' corse-present,' which 
 was an oblation made at funerals. 
 
 Southcott {Joanna), 1810, declared 
 herself about to be the mother of the 
 promised Shiloh. She wrote a vast 
 quantity of ' prophecy,' and sold seals 
 which were to secure salvation to the 
 purchasers. We are told that more than 
 
SOUTH-SEA 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 641 
 
 100,000 persons believed in her, and a 
 
 cradle of most costly materials was made 
 for the expected babe, but in 1814 she 
 died. Some, however, believed that she 
 would rise from the grave and restore all 
 things. 
 
 South-sea Bubble (The), 1720. 
 The scheme of Sir John Blount, a lead- 
 ing director of the South Sea Company, 
 to pay off the national debt (about 31 
 millions sterling) within twenty-six years. 
 The proposal was accepted by the House 
 of Commons 1 Feb., 1720, when lOOl. 
 stock rose to about 1,000Z. By August 
 l,000,OOOZ.of the new stock was subscribed 
 for, but by the close of the month the 
 stock began to fall. 22 Jan., 1721, Knight, 
 the cashier, absconded, carrying the re- 
 gister of the company with him. The 
 conduct of the company was inquired 
 into by the House of Lords in June 1721. 
 See ' South Sea Company.' 
 
 Blount's scheme was to buy up the unredeem- 
 able annuities, which amounted to 800,000?., and 
 reduce all the different public securities into one 
 uniform fund, making the best arrangements he 
 could with the present holders. Set" ' Committee 
 of Secresy,' ' Assiento,' and ' Mississippi Bubble.' 
 
 South-sea Company (The), 9 
 Anne c. 21, 6 May, 1710. A company 
 projected by Robert Harley for the pur- 
 pose of relieving the nation of its floating 
 debt, which amounted at the time to ten 
 millions. The plan was to sell this debt 
 to a number of merchants, who were to 
 be guaranteed 6% interest, and to have a 
 monopoly of the South-sea trade. The 
 buyers of the debt were incorporated by 
 royal charter as the ' South-sea Company,' 
 and certain taxes were set aside to pay 
 the annual interest, which amounted to 
 600,000Z. 27 June, 1711, a capital of four 
 millions was raised for the company 
 under a royal commission. 18 Feb., 1715, 
 the Prince of Wales was made a governor, 
 and 3 Feb., 1718, the king himself, George 
 I., was a governor. 7 April, 1720, the com- 
 pany offered to parliament to take into 
 its hands the whole national debt, amount- 
 ing to nearly 31 millions. See ' South 
 Sea Scheme.' 
 
 South-feea Fund (The). Esta- 
 blished in 1711 to pay the interest of that 
 part of the National Floating Debt ad- 
 vanced by the South-sea Company and 
 its annuitants. The debt was 10 millions 
 sterling, and the interest at 6 per cent, 
 amounted to 600,000^. a year. 
 36 
 
 South-sea Year (The), 1720. See 
 ' South-sea Bubble.' 
 
 Sow has farrowed (The), 1819. 
 When the English besieged Berwick 
 they sent a testudo against the walls to 
 undermine them. This movable pent- 
 house was called a sow, because its roof 
 resembled a sow's back. John Crab, a 
 Fleming, erected a huge catapult, and 
 one of the stones discilaarged from it 
 smashed the wooden shed, and the soldiers 
 under it ran as fast as they could to save 
 themselves. 'The English sow has far- 
 rowed ! ' shouted the besieged, and by 
 hurling lighted torches from the walls 
 they set fire to the sundry machines of 
 assault. 
 
 This jest was repeated, 7 Oct., 1337, by Black 
 Agnes of Dunbar. Edward III. sent the Earl of 
 Salisbury to besiege the castle of Dunbar, and a 
 * sow ' was driven to the walls, when Agnes called 
 out, ' Beware Monta^ow, for farrow shall thy sow,' 
 and a huge rock falling on it, dashed it to pieces. 
 
 Sowars, native Indian troopers. In 
 the Indian mutiny, 1857, the sowars were 
 conspicuous for their bloodthirstiness. 
 
 Spa Fields {The Affair of), 2 Dec, 
 1816. A great crowd, led by Orator Hunt 
 and Mr. Watson, met in Spa Fields. 
 They called themselves Spencean Phi- 
 lanthropists or Spenceans (q.v.), and 
 rushed to the Tower, demanding its sur- 
 render. The sentinel laughed at them, 
 when they followed Watson to Snow Hill 
 and rtinsacked a gunsmith's shop. The 
 Lord Mayor and Sir James Shaw dis- 
 persed the mob, making several prisoners, 
 but only one was executed. Capital was 
 made of this riot in the House of Com- 
 mons to urge the necessity of parlia- 
 mentary reform. 
 
 Spahees, holders of military fiefs in 
 Turkey. In war they are bound to arm 
 at their own cost. 
 
 Spahis (The). The Arab cavalry 
 in Algiers. The infantry are called 
 Turcos. 
 
 Spain (Kings and Queens of). Fer- 
 dinand [Fernando] of Aragon and Isabel 
 of Castile, 1479. 
 
 Then the house of Austria gives five 
 kings, 1516-1700. Then follows the house 
 of Bourbon. 
 
 House of Austria: Karl V., called Carlos I. (151f?- 
 ISoi.) ; Felipe II., his son (lo5()-loy8) ; Felipe III., his 
 son (1598- 1U21) ; Felipe IV., his son (1621-1005) ; Carlos 
 II., his son (1005 1700), no issue. 
 
 House of Ilouibon: Felipe V., son of Louis the 
 
842 
 
 SPALDING 
 
 SPANISH 
 
 Dauphin grandson of Louis XIV. (1700-1724) : 
 I. ; Fernando VI. ; Carlos IV. ; [Joseph Bon 
 
 Louis 
 
 Bonaparte 
 ■|«08 181H] ; Fernando VII. ; Isabel (deposed 1KI«) ; 
 ^'^adeus 1870; Alfons? XII.; Alfonso XIII. (born 
 1386). 
 
 Spalding MS. (The). A MS. 
 romance written by the Rev. Solomon 
 Spalding, who died in 1816. The 'Book 
 of Mormon' {q.v.)is said to be a verbatim 
 '"T>v of this romance, first published in 
 1830. 
 
 cJpan-COUrfter. Strutt (p. 384) in- 
 forms us that this was a game similar to 
 our chuck-penny. One of the players 
 throws a counter and another tries to hit 
 it, or to place his counter so near as to 
 be able to span both (as in marbles), and 
 in either case he wins both counters. In 
 French : ' Jouer au tapper,' and in Italian, 
 ' Meglio al muro. See ' Blow-point.' 
 
 Shortly boys shall not play 
 At span-counter or blow-point, but shall pay 
 
 Toll to some courtier. 
 
 Dr. DoNNB, Satire, iv. 
 
 Spanish Donkey {The), or * Equi- 
 leus,' an instrument of torture employed 
 by the Inquisitors. It consisted of a 
 saddle mounted on a post, but the saddle 
 was sharpened to a point. The victim was 
 seated on this point, and heavy weights 
 being attached to his feet, the point was 
 slowly and gradually driven into the 
 victim's body. 
 
 Spanish Era {The). This era begins 
 with 1 Jan. B.C. 38. See ' Era.' 
 
 Spanish Fury {The), 1576. The 
 Spanish soldiers under the Duke of 
 Parma garrisoned in Antwerp mutinied 
 in 1576 on account of their pay, joined 
 the rebels, surprised the city, and made 
 dreadful havoc of the inhabitants. The 
 town-house and many other magnificent 
 buildings, with 600 houses, were burnt to 
 the ground, and upwards of 6,000 persons 
 were killed or severely wounded. The 
 ' fury,' which lasted three days, began 
 4 Nov. See p. 348, ' French Fury.' 
 
 Spanish Inquisition (T/ie). In- 
 stituted by Ferdmand and Isabella in 
 1480 and suppressed in 1820. There had 
 existed an Inquisition ever since 1203, 
 when Innocent III. appointed a commis- 
 sion to ' convert ' the Albigenses. Even 
 in 382 Theodosius appointed inquisitors 
 to search out and punish heretics; but 
 what is generally understood by the Holy 
 Office of the Inquisition is the modern 
 Spanish Inquisition. 
 
 Spanish Liturgy {The). A Greek 
 liturgy altered by Isidore of Seville (570- 
 636). It remained in use till the 11th 
 cent. 
 
 Spanish Liturgy {The Old), or 
 'Mozarabic Liturgy,' consists of the 
 liturgy of Rome, mingled with the oriental 
 liturgies of the Arian Goths. Its use 
 was suspended by the council of Braga ; 
 and it was only saved from oblivion by 
 Cardinal Ximenes, who reprinted it in 
 1500, and endowed a chapel and canons 
 to use it daily in Toledo. 
 
 Spanish Main {The). The coast 
 along the north part of South America, 
 
 There was a loud demand upon Walpole (1733) to 
 insist on plain terms for throwing open the trade 
 to the Spanish main, and for satisfaction for past 
 damages, but Walpole knew that such a course 
 rendered a war hazardous. — HowiTT, Hist, of Eng ■ 
 land (Geo. II. p. 418). 
 
 Spanish Marriages {The). I. 
 That of Isabella II., who came of age in 
 1843 and who married against her will 
 her imbecile cousin Don Francisco d'Assis 
 10 Oct., 1846. 
 
 II. The marriage of Louis Philippe's 
 youngest son (the Duke de Montpensier) 
 with the Infanta Luisa Maria, sister of 
 Queen Isabella, also 10 Oct., 1846. These 
 marriages were brought about by the in- 
 trigues of Louis Philippe under the hope 
 of securing to his son the Spanish throne. 
 
 Spanish Phoenix {The). Lope de 
 Vega (1562-1635) is so called by G. H. 
 Lewis. 
 
 Spanish Shakespeare {The). 
 Calderon is so called by the brothers 
 Schlegel. Sismondi calls him the ' Poet 
 of the Inquisition.' 
 
 Spanish Succession (1700). A 
 question which led to a war of thirteen 
 years' duration. Carlos II. had no child, 
 and four crowned heads of Europe had 
 pretty nearly equal claims to the succes- 
 sion, viz. the King of France, the Kaiser- 
 King of Germany, the Elector of Bavaria, 
 and the King of Savoy. The last two re- 
 tired, and left the field to France and 
 Germany. Louis XIV. was the cousin of 
 Carlos and son-in-law of Felipe IV. 
 (whose eldest daughter he had married), 
 and Carlos left the crown to Philippe 
 d'Anjou, second son of the dauphin. The 
 kaiser argued that France could not 
 accept the Spanish crown, as she had re- 
 nounced all claim to it by the treaty of 
 
SPANISH 
 
 SPINOZAISM 
 
 843 
 
 the Pyrenees, and Karl, a grandson of 
 Felipe IV., was the rightful heir. Louis 
 XIV. pi-Qclaimed his grandson ' Felipe V.' 
 of Spain, and Leopold proclaimed his 
 second son ' Carlos III.' of Spain. War 
 ensued, and England joined Germany. 
 After a long contest, the French claimant 
 was acknowledged by all parties. See 
 ' War of the Spanish Succession.' 
 
 Spanish Tyrtaeus {The). Manuel 
 Jose' Quintana (1772-1857). 
 
 Spear (TAe), or ' Lance ' which pierced 
 the side of Jesus on the cross, is thus 
 accounted for. St. Andrew of Crete 
 affirms that it was found by the Empress 
 Helena in the cave of the temple of Venus 
 at Jerusalem, with the cross and other 
 relics. The shaft is in the basilica of 
 St. Peter's at Rome; but Baldwin 11. 
 king of Jerusalem sent the head of it to 
 Venice, and St. Louis (IX.) took it thence 
 to Paris, where it was carefully preserved 
 in the Holy Chapel till the French Revo- 
 lution. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 St. Andrew of Crete died In 722, and he speaks of 
 the spear in his ' De Exaltatione Crucis ' ; but cer- 
 tainly it is not included in any of the early lists of 
 the relics discovered by the Empress Helena. 
 
 SpecialPurposes and Sanitary 
 Committee {The Metropolitan). Re- 
 sponsible for the inspection and control of 
 the 15,403 premises in which animals are 
 slaughtered, or offensive trades are car- 
 ried on ; where petroleum and other ex- 
 plosives are stored ; where cows are kept 
 and milk sold ; and where babies are 
 farmed out. The committee has an in- 
 specting staff of ten persons. It also pre- 
 sides over the testing of gas and gas- 
 meters, for which it employs fifty chemists, 
 examiners, and inspectors. Every alter- 
 nate Tuesday it acts as the Contagious 
 Diseases Act Committee. 
 
 Speculum {Br. Dee's). A mirror 
 which Dr. John Dee asserted was brought 
 to him by the angels Raphael and Gabriel. 
 At the Doctor's death it passed into the 
 possession of the Earl of Peterborough at 
 Drayton ; then to Lady Betty Germaine, 
 who gave it to John duke of ArgyU. The 
 duke's grandson (Lord Frederick Camp- 
 bell) gave it to Horace Walpole ; and in 
 1842 it was sold, at the dispersion of 
 the curiosities of Strawberry Hill, to 
 Mr. Smythe Pigott. At the sale of 
 Pigott's library in 1853 it passed into the 
 
 possession of Lord Londesborough, and is 
 now in the British Museum. 
 
 It is a flat polished mineral, like cannel coal, of 
 a circular form, and fitted with a handle. 
 
 Speculum Hu'manae Salva- 
 
 tio'nis. A sacred picture book in 
 rhyme. This book and the ' Biblia Pau- 
 perum' {q.v.) were immensely popular 
 before the Reformation. 
 
 Speculum Majus {The). A kind 
 of encyclopaedia in four parts by Vincent 
 de Beauvais, who died 1264. Part i. 
 containing a description of nature ; part 
 ii. containing philosophy, rhetoric, gram- 
 mar, law, medicine, and theology; part 
 iii. containing history, and part iv. moral 
 philosophy. 
 
 Spencean Philanthropists 
 
 {The), or ' Spenceans,' 1816. A society 
 established in London by a Mr. Spence, a 
 Yorkshire schoolmaster, assisted by Pres. 
 ton (a workman), Watson (father and 
 son, surgeons), and Castles, who turned 
 out to be an informer against them. Their 
 platform was a common property in aU 
 land, the destruction of all machinery, 
 and parliamentary reform. On 2 Dec. 
 they met in Spa Fields, and went in a 
 crowd to the Tower, when Preston sum- 
 moned the sentinel to surrender, at which 
 he laughed. The mob was dispersed, and 
 one man was tried and condemned to 
 death. Hunt made capital of this silly 
 affair towards reform in parliament. The 
 Spenceans were connected with the Green 
 Bag Plot (g.v.). 
 
 Spenerism, 1690. A prototype of 
 Methodism, or the establishment of ' col- 
 legia pietatis,' that is leavening confra- 
 ternities. The whole community was 
 divided into sections, each section had a 
 centre of life, an earnest leader whom the 
 section was to obey. There were exhorters 
 to stir up the flagging, converts were 
 placed under the eye of trusty overseers, 
 and sections were vitalised by class meet- 
 ings. So named from Philippe Jacques 
 Spener, of Alsace, the founder of the sect 
 (1635-1705). 
 
 Sphinx (The Egyptian) at Gizeh is 
 attributed to tlip third Egyptian dynasty, 
 but there are several of later date. 
 
 Spino'zaism. The philosophical 
 system of Baruch de Spinoza, of Amster- 
 dam (1622-1677), who taught that the 
 universe is aU ou j with a mundane soul. 
 
844 
 
 SPIEES 
 
 SP"X 
 
 That there is only one substance which is 
 infinite, with two essential attributes — 
 thought and extension. This substance 
 is, in fact, Spinoza's deity, and all finite 
 beings are merely parts or modifications 
 of this one eternal whole. Spinoza died 
 1677, aged 45. 
 
 According to this system, the universe was not 
 created by God, but the universe is God. God is 
 everything, and everything is God ; that is to say, 
 God is ' the all in all.' 
 
 Spires, or 'Speyer' {Diet of ). See 
 under ' Diet.' 
 
 Spiritualists, or ' Spiritists ' {The). 
 Those who believe that men and women 
 have intercourse with the spirits of the 
 other world. Roman Catholics believe 
 that holy men and women have com- 
 munion with the spirits of the just, made 
 perfect ; but spiritualists believe that 
 any spirit may be invoked, and ques- 
 tioned by the living. Originated in Ame- 
 rica in 1848. 
 
 Splendour of Keason or Wis- 
 dom {The). Mian-ning emperor of 
 China, son of Kia-king. In 1840 he de- 
 clared war with England for importing 
 opium into his empire. In 1842 the war 
 terminated, and five ports were thrown 
 open to English traders. 
 
 Spoilt Child of Fortune {The). 
 Andre Massena, who, next to Napoleon, 
 was the greatest of the French generals 
 in the first empire. It was Napoleon who 
 called him ' the Spoilt Child of Fortune ' 
 and made him prince of Eslingen, for 
 his distinguished valour at Eslingen in 
 1809 (1758-1817). 
 
 Spolia Opi'ma. Spoils taken by a 
 Roman general from an enemy slain in 
 single combat. Only thrice obtained : 
 (1) by Romulus from Acron king of the 
 Caeninenses ; (2) by Cossus from Tolum- 
 nius king of the Veientes, B.C. 318 ; and 
 (3) by Marcellus from Virodomarus king 
 of the Gauls, B.C. 222. 
 
 Sponge {The), filled with vinegar and 
 presented to Jesus on the cross, when He 
 cried ' I thirst,' is said to be in the basilica 
 of St. John de Lateran of Rome. The 
 Venerable Bede assures us that he saw 
 it in the silver tankard used by our Lord 
 in the Last Supper. See 'Crucifixion, 
 Relics of the.' 
 
 A part of the sponge is said to be preserved 
 at St. James of Compiegne, another piece at St. 
 Sylvester, another piece at St. Maria Maggiore, 
 another at St. Mary in Trastevere, another at 
 
 St. Mark's, another at St. Mary's in Campitelli. 
 St. Louis (IX.) we are told bought a part of the 
 sponge of Baldwin with other ' sacred relics.' 
 
 Spot "Ward. Joshua Ward, one of 
 the physicians who attended the court of 
 George II. So called from a claret spot 
 {ncevus maternus) on his cheek. He was 
 famous for his blue, red, and purple pills 
 containing antimony or arsenic. 
 
 Of late, without the least pretence to skill, 
 Ward's grown a famed physician by a pill. 
 
 Spread-eagleism in America cor- 
 responds to chauvinism in France, and 
 jingoism in England. 
 
 Spring Captains are officers of the 
 militia summoned for duty in their re- 
 spective regiments for about six weeks in 
 the spring of the year. Also young officera 
 who come to London in the spring to 
 attend the Epsom and Ascot races, where 
 they go 'to cut a dash,' and risk their 
 money in bets. All well-dressed fast men 
 were, at onetime, called ' captain ' by book- 
 makers, and ai'e so still to a great extent. 
 See p. 858, ' Summer Lieutenants.' 
 
 Spring-heeled Jack (1837-1838). 
 Some one or party of confederates who 
 assumed sundry diabolical shapes, and for 
 six months kept London and its suburbs 
 in perpetual fright. Robbery was not their 
 game, but simply to scare. Spring-heeled 
 Jack first appeared at Barnes as a white 
 bull ; then at East Sheen as a white bear ; 
 then at Richmond, Ham, Kingston, and 
 Hampton as a man in brass armour ; then 
 at Teddington, Twickenham, Hounslow, 
 and Sion Park. Afterwards at Uxbridge, 
 Hanwell, and Brentford ; then at Ealing, 
 in steel armour ; then at Hammersmith, 
 as a gigantic baboon, (fee. He attacked 
 travellers and caused them bodily injuries, 
 then with a somersault disappeared over a 
 wall or hedge. Rumour said that the ring- 
 leader of this gang was the Marquis of 
 Waterford, but no proof was ever adduced 
 in support of this surmise. In the spring 
 of 1838 these silly pranks ceased. 
 
 Even so late as 1877-78 an officer of her Majesty's 
 service caused no little excitement at Colchester, 
 Aldershot, and other garrison towns, by springing 
 suddenly on passers-by. 
 
 Spurious Scriptures {The). See 
 p. 801, ' Scriptures, Spurious.' 
 
 Spy "Wednesday. The Wednes- 
 day of Holy Week, or the day before 
 Maundy Thursday. The sanhedrim first 
 sent a deputation to pry into the creden- 
 tials of Jesus ; then wily hypocrites to 
 
SQUARE 
 
 STADTHOLDER 
 
 845 
 
 put questions to entrap him ; at last they 
 agreed with Judas to betray his private 
 haunts during the hours of the night, and 
 sent with the faithless disciple officers to 
 apprehend his master. 
 
 Square Caps, in French ' Bonnets 
 Carre's' (15th cent.). First made in 
 France by Patrouillet, but used in Eng- 
 land by ecclesiastics long before. The 
 familiar name of a university cap is a 
 mortar-board, which some affirm to be a 
 playful corruption of the French mortier. 
 This is doubtful, as the viortier is a 
 round velvet cap, still worn in France by 
 the pre'sidents des cours de justice. It 
 has not a flat square board, like a mortar- 
 board, but resembles an inverted mortar 
 used by chemists and druggists. As a 
 rule tnortier means a velvet cap, bonnet a 
 woollen one. 
 
 still the French mortar-cap may have suggested 
 the playful name. St. Louis (1'215-1270), in a window 
 of Sainte Chapelle, is represented with a mo?-(icr on 
 his head, and numerous MSS. and miniatures re- 
 present Louis XI. with the same sort of cap. All 
 members of the French parlement wore scarlet 
 robes and mortars. 
 
 Square the Circle (To). To find 
 a square exactly equal to the area of a 
 given circle, or (which is probably the 
 same thing) to find the exact proportion be- 
 tween the diameter and the circumference 
 of a circle. Roughly speaking, three 
 times the diameter = the circumference, 
 but the exact measure has never been 
 discovered. 
 
 Anaxagoras died in prison while attempting to 
 square the circle. B.C. 428. 
 
 Squares of a Right-angled 
 Triangle (Euclid, i. 47). 'The square 
 of the greatest side = the sum of the 
 squares of the other two sides. This 
 famous proposition is attributed to Pytha- 
 goras ; but the Chinese have had from 
 time immemorial a somewhat similar 
 one. If the three sides are respectively 
 equal to 3, 4, 5 (or their multiples), then 
 the square of the greatest side will equal 
 the sum of the 
 squares of the other 
 two sides. 
 
 This is obvious 
 from the diagram. 
 The square of 5 con- 
 tains 25 equal parts, 
 the square of 3 con- 
 tains 9, and the 
 square of 4 contains 
 16. As 9 + 16 = 25, 
 the sum of the squares of the two smaller 
 
 sides = the square of the greatest side of 
 the right-angled triangle. 
 
 Squire Letters {The). Thirty-five 
 letters sent to Carlyle in 1847 respecting 
 Oliver Cromwell, purporting to have been 
 written by Samuel Squire, a subaltern in 
 the Ironsides. This Squire had served 
 with OUver from the ' first mount ' of 
 that indomitable corps, and had kept a 
 journal (1642-1643). Carlyle requested 
 to see the originals of these letters or 
 this journal, and received for answer 
 that the correspondent had ' gathered all 
 the old Puritan papers, the Ironside 
 Journal, and all Cromwell's autographs 
 together, and burnt them,' adding ' Much 
 evil hereby lies buried.' See p. 524, 
 ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Squitti'no {The) of Florence. A 
 corruption of Scrutinio, a special council 
 for the appointment of magistrates. The 
 act of election was termed squittinare, 
 i.e. scrutinimn, because minute investi- 
 gation was made into the quaUties of the 
 eligible burghers. 
 
 Sse-ki {The), or 'Book of Annals,' in 
 five parts, begins the history of China 
 from B.C. 2697, but no dates are given to 
 the annals till B.C. 827, the reign of 
 Siuen-wang. It was the work of Sse-ma- 
 Thsian, the Herodotus of China, who 
 lived in the reign of HanHo-lee (89-106). 
 
 The Shu-king, a book of morals and history, is 
 said to have been written in the mythical reign 
 of Ya-u, who reigned 102 years (B.C. 2357-2255). 
 
 Stabat Mater Doloro'sa. This 
 
 Latin hymn is sometimes attributed to 
 Innocent III., but with greater proba- 
 bility was composed by Jacopone of 
 Todi. 
 
 It has been set to music by Pergolese (4 syl.), 
 Haydn, Handel, Rossini, and others. 
 
 Stable-stand (in forest law) is when 
 a person is found at his stand in a forest 
 with a bow in his hand, or close to a tree 
 with a greyhound ready to slip. It is 
 one of the four presumptive evidences of 
 deer-stealing. The other three are — 
 
 Back-berond, or back-berind; that is, 
 having a deer on his back. 
 
 Bloody-hand, when his hands or clothes 
 are stained with blood. 
 
 Dog- draw, drawing after a deer by the 
 scent of a hound led in hand. 
 
 Stadtholder. A high functionary 
 in the republic of the Seven United 
 
846 
 
 STAFF 
 
 STAND AED 
 
 Provinces of the Netherlands. Originally 
 the word was given to the commander of 
 the forces, then to the governor of a 
 province, and to the general governor of 
 the united provinces called his stadt- 
 holderate. The office was abolished at 
 the death of William II., in 1650, but was 
 restored in 1672 in favour of William III. 
 (who received the crown of Great Britain). 
 It was again abolished at the death of 
 William III. in 1702, but was reconstituted 
 in 1747 in favour of William IV. of Nas- 
 sau, who was created ' General and Here- 
 ditary Stadtholder.' This continued till 
 1795, when France conquered Holland. 
 
 Staff of Jesus {The). Said to have 
 belonged to St. Patrick. It was covered 
 with gold and set with precious stones. 
 It was kept in the Cathedral of Armagh 
 till Fitz-Aldelm, the English governor of 
 Ireland, removed it to the church in 
 Dublin, in 1178. 
 
 Stagi'rite {The). Greek arrayeipiTri^. 
 Aristotle, born in Stagira, in Macedonia 
 (B.C. 384-322). 
 
 Staircase {The) of Pilate's judgment 
 hall, up which Jesus ascended, was sent 
 by the Empress Helena to Rome in 856, 
 and it was deposited in St. John de 
 Lateran. It consists of twenty-eight 
 stairs of white marble, now cased in wood 
 for preservation. See p. 231, ' Crucifixion 
 (Belies of the).' 
 
 Pope Leo IV., in 850, established the practice of 
 mounting these stairs on one s knees. If they had 
 not been cased with wood they would assuredly 
 have been worn through. 
 
 Stalwarts {The), 1889. The new 
 Radical party in the House of Commons. 
 In the U.S. the more out-and-out mem- 
 bers of the Republican party have been 
 called ' Stalwarts ' for fourteen or fifteen 
 years (1890). 
 
 Stambool, i.e. Constantinople, is a 
 corruption of eis rr/v iroKiv (Greek, 'to 
 the city'), pronounced by the Turks 
 Stan-bolin, shortened into Stambool. 
 
 Is it not rather a corrupt abbreviation of Con- 
 Btantinople into Stanti-pol, Stan-pol, Stanabool ? 
 
 Stamp Act {The), 17G4, by Lord 
 Grenville. The imposition of stamp 
 duties on our American colonies. Re- 
 pealed, after several riots in Boston and 
 other parts of North America, in 1766. 
 
 All that Grenville expected to obtain by this 
 act was barely 1*. a head from the North Ameri- 
 cans, which would have produced at the utmost 
 only 100,000/. a year.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eug. (Geo, 
 111. chap. iii. p. 38). 
 
 *;,,* The principal Stamp Acts since 
 are 55 Geo. III. c. 184 ; 13, 14 Vict. c. 
 97 ; 16, 17 Vict. cc. 59, 63 ; and the 17, 
 18 Vict. c. 83. The acts provide that a 
 tax be imposed on all papers on which 
 legal proceedings or private instruments 
 are written, and also upon licences for 
 retailing wines, letting horses on hire, 
 cards, dice, cheques, receipts, and nume- 
 rous other purposes. 
 
 Standard {Battle of the), 22 Aug., 
 1183, won by Stephen over the Scotch. 
 
 Standard {The) of the ' Battle of the 
 Standard ' consisted of the banners of St. 
 Cuthbert of Durham, St. John of Bever- 
 ley, and St. Wilfrid of Ripon, brought 
 from their churches. This combination 
 banner, raised on a tall mast, was set on 
 a four-wheeled car. The mast was sur- 
 mounted with a cross, attached to which 
 was a pyx containing the sacramental 
 wafer. This standard was erected by the 
 English army which fought for Stephen 
 against the Scotch, who took the part of 
 Matilda daughter of Henry I., and niece 
 of David king of Scotland at the time. 
 The battle was fought at Northallerton 
 22 Aug., 1138. See above. 
 
 Standard {The Black). That of 
 the Abbaside califs. 
 
 The dress, the turbans, and the standards of the 
 Abbaside califs were aU black.— Dr. Herbelot. 
 
 Standard {The Celestial). The 
 great green silk flag of the Turks, said to 
 have been given to Mohammed by the 
 angel Gabriel. It is now preserved in 
 four coverings of green taffeta, enclosed 
 in a case of green cloth. It is twelve 
 feet in height, and the golden hand 
 which surmounts the pole holds a copy 
 of the Koran. In times of peace this 
 palladium is guarded in the ' hall of the 
 noble vestments,' in which hall are pre- 
 served relics of the 'prophet,' as his 
 teeth, beard, stirrup, sabre, and bow. 
 
 Standard Doctrines {The) of the 
 Wesleyans, imposed by the Conference 
 on every minister in the connexion, are 
 contained in Wesley's four volumes of 
 sermons, and his ' Notes on the New 
 Testament.' 
 
 Standard of Augustus {The). A 
 globe, to indicate his empire of the world. 
 
 Standard of Cheap (opposite 
 Honey Lane). A substantial building 
 
STANDARD 
 
 STANDARD 
 
 847 
 
 for the supply of water, in existence in 
 the reign of Edward I. Stow, in his 
 'Survey,' tells us it was made in the 
 mayoralty of John Wells, grocer. 
 
 In the reign of Edward III. two fishmongers 
 ■were beheaded at the Cheapside Standard for 
 riot. And Henry IV. caused ' the blank charter ' 
 of Richard II. to be burnt at the same standard. 
 
 Standard of Constant ine {The) 
 
 was called the ' Labarum,' and the 
 bearers were denominated Labariferi. 
 It was purple, with a gold fringe, and 
 only unfurled when the emperor himself 
 was in the field. This standard was 
 decorated with the sacred monogram X P 
 (Chr-istos). See Gibbon, ' Decline and 
 FaU,' XX., 7iote (1788). 
 
 Standard of Cornhill (TAe), 1582. 
 A water conduit with four spouts made 
 by Peter Morris, a German, and supplied 
 with Thames water conveyed by leaden 
 pipes over the steeple of St. Magnus's 
 Church. It stood at the east end of 
 Cornhill, at its junction with Gracechurch 
 Street, Bishopsgatc Street, and Leaden- 
 hall Street. The water ceased to run 
 batween 1598-1G03, but the standard 
 itself remained long after. Distances 
 from London were measured from this 
 spot. 
 
 Standard of Great Britain 
 
 {The Boyal). A red banner with the 
 national arms covering the entire field. 
 
 The standard of Edward I. was a flag with the 
 arms of England, St. George, St. Edmond, and St. 
 Edward. 
 
 Standard of the ancient Danes : A 
 flag fringed, and bearing a raven. 
 Som.etimes mounted on a stand with 
 wheels. Since the 13tb cent, the Danne- 
 hrog has been the Danit^h standard. 
 
 EgijjJtians: An eagle stripped of its 
 feathers. 
 
 Franks : A tiger or wolf on a pole. 
 After they became Romanized they 
 adopted the Roman eagle, and later 
 still a large flag with fleurs-de-lis. 
 
 Gauls ; A lion, bull, or bear on a pole. 
 
 Greeks : See lower doivn. 
 
 Jews : See lower down. 
 
 Persians: In the time of Cyrus, a 
 golden eagle with outspread wings. 
 The blacksmith's apron ; said to be 
 the apron of Kawah, or Gao, who 
 headed a rebellion against Biver, 
 and used his apron for a standard 
 (B.C. 800). 
 
 Romans : See lower down. 
 
 Standard of the Anglo-Saxons 
 
 {The) was an ensign. It was a white 
 horse on a pole. Later on it was a flag 
 bearing a white horse. 
 
 Standard of the Greeks {The). 
 The ancient Greeks had no national 
 banners, but they had ensigns, called 
 semeia [se-ml-ah]. 
 
 The Athenian ensign was an owl on 
 the top of a pole, in honour of Athene 
 [Minerva], their protector. 
 
 The Corinthian ensign was a pegasus 
 or winged horse. 
 
 The Messenian ensign was the letter M. 
 
 The Lacedemonian ensign was a 
 Greek L [A]. 
 
 The Thehan ensign was a sphinx, in 
 commemoration of the monster overcome 
 by ffidipus. 
 
 The signal for battle was hoisting on a spear a 
 purple coat or white cloth. Polybius tells us that 
 the Illyrians received orders to begin the fight by 
 the hoisting of a uhite flag ; the Megalopolitans 
 by hoisting a imrple coat. And Homer says that 
 Agamemnon hoisted a purple cloth as a telegraph 
 to begin fighting. When the ensign was taken 
 down the fighting was to cease. 
 
 Standard of the Jews {The). 
 
 1. Of Judah : A Hon. 
 
 2. „ Reuben : A man. 
 
 3. „ Ephraim : A bicll. 
 
 4. „ Dan : The cheruhini (Gen. xlix. 
 3-22). Seep. 300, 'Evangelical Symbols.' 
 
 (Jahn, ' Archeologia Biblica,' No. 287.) 
 
 There are three words — degel, oth, and nes — 
 meaning a standard. The nes was not borne 
 from place to place, but the pole of the flag was 
 fixed in the earth (Jer. iv. G. 21 : li. 12, 27 ; Ezek. 
 xxvii. 7). It seems to have been used as a call to 
 arms. The oth appears to have been a long pole 
 ■with a bunch of leaves fastened on the top. 
 
 Standard of the Prophet {The), 
 A.D. 682. When Mahomet was dying, at 
 Medina, on the eve preceding the con- 
 quest of Syria, the chief officers entered 
 to hear his last orders. Ayesha, to save 
 the prophet from further exhaustion, 
 tore down the green curtain which 
 screened one end, threw it to the officers, 
 and told them to preserve it as a rallying- 
 point for Islam. This standard floated 
 over the walls of Vienna in 1683, but 
 is never unfurled except at times of grave 
 emergency. In battle it is borne to the 
 front, where all may see it. 
 
 Standard of the Romans {The) 
 was not a flag, but a pole surmounted 
 with an eagle, horse, or some other 
 device. A flag was always the proper 
 and only ensign of the Roman cavalry. 
 Under the empire a distinct body of 
 
848 
 
 STANDAED 
 
 STAR 
 
 soldiers, called ' Vexillarii ' (flag-bearers), 
 were embodied, to render assistance to 
 the army if required and guard the 
 frontiers. They were mounted, and car- 
 ried a special flag or ' vexillum.* 
 
 Neither the Romans nor the Greeks had 
 standards — i.e. large flags— but only ensigns. 
 
 Standard of the Turks. 
 
 The Sanjak Cherif of green silk. See 
 above, ' Standard of the Prophet.' 
 
 The Sanjak Cherif of red silk. 
 
 The Tug, consisting of one, two, or 
 three horse-tails fastened to the end of 
 a gilt lance. Beys have one horse-tail 
 carried before them. Pachas have three 
 horse-tails. 
 
 The Alem, a broad standard with a 
 silver crescent in the middle. 
 
 See ' Flags.' 
 
 Standards of Royalty, &c., in 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 The great standarde to be sett before the kinpe's 
 pavilion [not to be borne in battle] is to be of ithe 
 length of eleven yardes, [but] the standarde to be 
 borne [to battle] is to be slitte at the end, and vii. 
 yardes long. 
 
 The erle's standarde is to be vi. yardes long. 
 
 The baron's standarde v. yardes long. 
 
 The bannereU's standarde iiij. yardes and the 
 haulfe long. 
 
 The knicihtc's standarde iv. yardes longe. 
 
 Every standarde to have inthechiefe thecrosse 
 of St. George, to be slitte at the end, and to con- 
 tayne the creast wyth the posy and device of 
 the owner. 
 
 Standing Council of the 
 Church {The), 1596. A permanent 
 Scotch committee of Presbyterians, with 
 supreme authority in the Presbyterian 
 Church, whenever it was thought there 
 was any danger to the ecclesiastical 
 establishment. They were very dog- 
 matical and most rancorous against 
 Catholics. 
 
 Standing-fishes Bible (The), 
 1806. ' And it shall come to pass that the 
 fishes [flshers] shall stand upon it from 
 Engedi.' See ' Bible ' and ' Scriptures.' 
 
 Stanhope Historical Essay 
 
 (The), Oxford University. Value 201. in 
 books. The range is limited to the dates, 
 1800-1815. Founded by Lord Stanhope 
 in 1855. 
 
 Stapleton College, 1315. The 
 original name of Exeter College, Oxford. 
 Founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of 
 Exeter. 
 
 Star {The Order of the), 1350. A 
 French military order, established by 
 Jean le Bon. It consisted of warriors 
 
 who had received wounds in battle. The 
 knights of the Star vowed never to retreat 
 before an enemy more than one mile, 
 after which they had to make a stand and 
 either conquer, be taken prisoners, or be 
 cut down. Extinct about 1460. 
 
 Star and Luminary of La-w 
 and Lantern of Equity {The). 
 BartoH the Italian civilian (1312-135G). 
 
 Star Chamber {The). Chamhre 
 des Estoylles. In Latin, 'Camera 
 Stellata,' 3 Henry VII. c. 1 (1486). 
 Abolished 16 Car. I, c. 10 (1641). Green 
 sa,ys, in his 'History of the English 
 People,' 'the bonds of the Jews were 
 deposited for greater security in a cham- 
 ber of the royal palace at Westminster, 
 which, from their Hebrew name of 
 * Starrs,' gained the title of the Star Cham- 
 ber.' The Latin equivalent, ' Camera 
 Stellata,' does not support this hypothesis, 
 but seems to refer to some ' starry de- 
 coration ' of the chamber. We have the 
 Painted Chamber, the Wliite Chamber, 
 &c., and, if Mr. Green's suggestion were 
 correct, the Latin phrase would be ' Ca- 
 mera Stellarum,' not ' Camera Stellata.* 
 We are told that part of the decorations 
 of the Star Chamber may still be seen in 
 Leasowe Castle, West Cheshire, the seat 
 of Sir Edward Cust, baronet. 
 
 The jurisdiction of this court was without 
 appeal in the hands of the treasurer and the 
 keeper of the privy seal, assisted by a bishop, a 
 temporal lord of the privy council, the chief 
 justice, and two other justices. 
 
 The reason why the Court of the Star Chamber 
 
 was so hated in Charles I.'s time is because Charles 
 
 used it as a general law court to exact fines for 
 
 his own exchequer. Amongst other cases were 
 
 the following : A gentleman who had married his 
 
 I niece was fined 12,000/. Brawlers were fined 
 
 j 4,000;. or 0,0001. John Hampden was prosecuted 
 
 I in this court for refusing to pay ship-money. 
 
 Chambers, an alderman of London, was fined 
 
 2,000/. for saying that men in England were worse 
 
 off than those in Turkey. The judges in the court 
 
 of the Star Chamber were the king s privy council. 
 
 It was held in the palace of Westminster without 
 
 jury. 
 
 The Star Chamber took cognizance of forgery, 
 perjury, riots, frauds, libels, conspiracies, mis- 
 conduct of judges and of other ofQcers connected 
 with the law-courts, contempt of the king's 
 authority, and even treason, felony, and murder ; 
 but capital punishinent could not be awarded 
 by this court. Its power was restricted to fines, 
 pillory, torture, mutilation, and incarceration 
 for a term of years or for life. It dated back to 
 very ancient times, but its powers were abridged 
 by Edward III., and it was wholly abolished by 
 16 Car. I. c. 10. 
 
 Star of India {The), 1869. For 
 distinguished merit or service in our 
 colonial possessions. Originally it con- 
 sisted of 25 knights of the grand cross, 
 
STAR 
 
 STATES-GENERAL 
 
 849 
 
 60 knights commanders, and 100 com- 
 panions ; but in 1880 the numbers were 
 increased to 35, 120, and 200. 
 
 Star of South Africa (The). A 
 South African diamond, weighing in the 
 rough 83^ carats, and after being cut 
 46^ carats. 
 
 Star of the North {The). Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was so 
 called after his great victory at Leipzig, 
 7 Sept., 1631, over Tilly and the Catholic 
 League. This was the first great battle 
 of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 The other two great battles of this war were 
 Liltzen (1()32), also won by Gustavus ; and Nord- 
 lingen, in 1034, won by the kaiser s son over the 
 Protestants. This son was afterwards Frledrich 
 III. of Germany. 
 
 Star of the South (The) weighs 
 
 254 carats, and is the largest diamond 
 hitherto found in Brazil. It is a brilliant 
 of purest water, and was found in July 
 1853 by a poor negress working in the 
 mines of Bogagen. 
 
 Star-spangled Banner {The). 
 
 The national banner of the United 
 States of America. First applied to the 
 American flag by Francis S. Key on the 
 morning after the British attack on Fort 
 McHenry, at Baltimore, in 1814. 
 
 Oh ! say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
 O'er the land of the free and the home of the 
 brave ? 
 
 Star Tables {The), 1437. Compiled 
 by Ulugh Begh, sultan of Samarcand 
 and astronomer. They are still highly 
 esteemed and referred to. See p. 284, 
 * Eelkhanee Tables.' 
 
 Starch. It is said that Mrs. Anne 
 Turner invented the yellow starch which 
 stiffened the ruffs so fashionable at 
 one time in the haiit monde. This Mrs. 
 Turner also compounded love-philters, 
 and was condemned to death 15 Nov., 
 1615, for poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury. 
 On the day of execution Mrs. Turner 
 wore a ruff stiffened with yellow starch, 
 and the fashion went out of vogue. 
 
 The legend that Mrs. Turner was hanged by her 
 collar is, of course, nonsense. She might appear 
 on the scaffold in such a collar, that is, wearing 
 one, but that is a very different thing from being 
 suspended hii it to the gallows. 
 
 In 13 Nov!, 1840, Maria Manning wore a black 
 satin dress when she was executed on the roof of 
 Horsemonger Lane Gaol, and black satin gowns 
 instantly disappeared from society. 
 
 Star'keyltes (3 syl.). Faith-healers 
 so called from Mr. Starkey, a clergyman, 
 
 who joined James Prince, the founder of 
 the Agapemone at Charlynch, near 
 Bridgewater. 
 
 Starosts (2 syl.). Dignitaries of 
 Poland who held in the name of the king 
 either a fort or royal domain. They 
 taxed their own people, but paid one- 
 fourth to the king. 
 
 Stars and Bars. The flag of the 
 Confederate States of North America 
 (1861-65). 
 
 Stars and Stripes. The national 
 
 banner of the North American United 
 States. The stars are white on a blue can- 
 ton ; the stripes are alternately red and 
 white running horizontally. Said to re- 
 present the mullets and bars of the Wash- 
 ington coat of arms. 
 
 Start {The), 1650. The escape of 
 Charles II. from Perth, during a hawking 
 expedition, after the battle of Dunbar. 
 He rode forty-two miles and passed the 
 night in a miserable hovel at Clova, 
 a village in Forfarshire, in the braes of 
 Angus. Next day Colonel Montgomery 
 induced him to return, and he was 
 crowned by the Scotch parliament 1 Jan., 
 1651. 
 First the officers refused to serve under Leslie. 
 . . . Next, they hinted doubts of the lawfulness 
 of the war. . . . Then came the accident of ' The 
 Start ' which embittered and emboldened the zeal 
 of the fanatics.— Dr. Lingard, Hist, of Eng., viii. i. 
 
 State Services {The), 1661. Four 
 services annexed to the Book of Common 
 Prayer after the Restoration : viz. one 
 for Gunpowder Treason, 5 Nov. ; one for 
 King Charles's Martyrdom, 30 Jan. ; one 
 for the Restoration, 29 May ; and one 
 for the King's Accession. The first three 
 were expunged from the book by order of 
 council given by Queen Victoria. 
 
 Stately Sunday. Trinity Sunday 
 is so called, because the mystery of the 
 Trinity is the most stately of all. See 
 ' Sunday.' 
 
 States-General {The). I. In 
 French history was a deliberative as- 
 sembly, consisting of deputies from the 
 nobility, clergy, and commonalty. The 
 first was convoked by Philippe IV. on 
 10 April, 1302, and the last by Louis XVI. 
 in May, 1789, when the number of deputies 
 was 1,145. 
 
 There was a states-general under Louis XIII., 
 '27 Sept.,lG14. 
 
 81 
 
850 
 
 STATESMEN 
 
 STATUTUM 
 
 II. Of the united provinces. The 
 legish\tive body consistmg at first of only- 
 five members, but subsequently increased 
 to seven. The states-general of Holland 
 ceased to exist in 1795 when the republic 
 was broken up. 
 
 The legislative body of the present kingdom ol 
 the Netherlands is so called. 
 
 Statesmen {The), in the Common- 
 wealth of England were the civilians of 
 the House of Parliament in contradis- 
 tinction to the ' Grandees of the Army ' 
 {q.v.). 
 
 The grandees of the army felt that they no 
 longer [in 1653] possessed the chief sway of the 
 government. War had called them away to their 
 commands in Scotland and Ireland; and during 
 their absence the conduct of affairs had devolved 
 on those who, in contradistinction, were denomi- 
 nated the statesmen.— Dr. LiNGARD, Hist, of Eng., 
 viii. 5. 
 
 Statics {Father of). Archimedes of 
 Syracuse, slain B.C. 212, aged 75. 
 
 statics is the science of forces in (equilihrio, 
 •which produce rest. Dynamics is the science of 
 forces which produce motion. To Archimedes we 
 owe also the principal laws of hydrostatics. 
 
 Statue of "William III. This 
 equestrian statue on College Green, 
 Dubhn, was inaugurated in 1701, in com- 
 m.emoration of the battle of the Boyne 
 in 1690. Twice a year, viz. 1 July, the 
 anniversary of the battle, and 4 Nov., the 
 birthday of William (the Orangemen's 
 festivals), the statue used to be white- 
 washed, the king being decorated with a 
 scarlet coat and orange sash, while a 
 bunch of green ribbons and shamrocks 
 was placed under the uplifted left foot of 
 the horse. Garlands of orange lilies, 
 and streamers of orange ribbons decked 
 the horse, and any person passing the 
 statue who neglected to take off his 
 hat was knocked down, and then kicked 
 for presuming to fall in the presence of 
 the hero. In 3 822 these biennial decora- 
 tions were prohibited by law, and in 1836 
 the statue was blown to pieces by gun- 
 powder. Daniel O'Connell, during his 
 year of mayoralty, had the statue re- 
 paired and bronzed. The original statue 
 was of iron, faced with lead. 
 
 Statuesque School of French 
 artists. The school of painting founded 
 by David (1748-1825). 
 
 David, pronounced Dah-rerd. 
 
 Statu'ta Gui'gonis, 1134. The 
 iVritten rules of the Carthusians made 
 by the fifth prior Guigo. Also called 
 Consuetudlnes CartusicB. 
 
 Statu'ta Sabau'diae. The code of 
 laws by Amadeus III. of Savoy (1391- 
 1451). 
 
 Statute Caps. Cloth caps enjoined 
 by statute (13 Eliz. c. 19) to be worn by 
 all apprentices. Similar to the caps of 
 the Bluecoat boys. James I. had the 
 size, shape, colour, and price of such caps 
 fixed by Act of Parliament. 
 
 Better wits have worn plain statute caps. 
 
 Love's Labour's Lost, Act v. 8. 
 
 Statute-merchant, 12 Oct., 1283. 
 A bond of record under the hand and seal 
 of the debtor, authenticated by the king's 
 seal. If the debtor failed to pay on the 
 date assigned, execution was summarily 
 awarded. See p. 8, ' Acton Burnel, &c.' 
 
 Statute of Labourers (T7ie), 1349, 
 
 fixing the wages to be given ; and another 
 1360 which enacted that labourers, who 
 absented themselves from their work or 
 quitted their place of abode without per- 
 mission, should be imprisoned for fifteen 
 days and branded on their forehead with 
 a hot iron. Trades unions were decreed 
 to be unlawful. Every labourer was to 
 work at a rate of wages fixed by statute. 
 
 Statute 6 George I. {The). En- 
 acted that ' the crown of Ireland be in- 
 separably annexed to that of Great Bri- 
 tain ; that Ireland be bound by British 
 acts of Parliament, if named therein ; 
 that the Irish House of Lords have no 
 appellate jurisdiction ; and that final 
 appeals, in all cases of law and equity, 
 be to the British House of Peers.' In 
 1782 Henry Grattan induced the British 
 legislature to reijeal this act, and the 
 Irish parliament voted him a donation of 
 50,000Z. 
 
 Statutes of lo'na {The), 1603 
 (James I. of England). The object of 
 these laws was to bring the Hebrideans 
 in line with the rest of Scotland. 
 
 The principal men of the M'Leods, the Mac- 
 donalds, Jlacleans, and Macneils (also Mac- 
 kinnons, &c.) were Hebridean chiefs. 
 
 Statutum de Milit'ibus, 1307 
 
 (1 Edw. II.), defining and regulating the 
 obligation to receive knighthood in Eng- 
 land. It is now a coveted honour, but in 
 the middle ages it was shirked, and laws 
 were passed to compel those qualified to 
 assume the honour. The compulsory 
 obligation was abolished in 1642 (16, 17 
 Car. I. c. 80). 
 
STEEL 
 
 STENKILL 
 
 851 
 
 Steel Boys {The), 1760. Irish rebels 
 who went about armed to rescue from 
 the constables those taken up for refusing 
 to pay rent, or who committed acts of 
 violence in opposing the law. See ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 The cause of this armed rebellion was this: 
 The estates of Lord Donegal (an absentee Irish 
 landlord) being out of lease, he proposed to accept 
 fines from his tenants in the place of rent. Many 
 tenants were unable to pay the fine Imposed, and 
 some did not choose to do so. Evictions fol- 
 lowed, the vacant estates were let to merchants 
 of Belfast, whole districts were partly depopu- 
 lated, and insurrection followed insurrection. 
 When these upritings were put down by the mili- 
 tary, thousands of Irish migrated to America. 
 Ireland continued in a state of turbulence more 
 or less to the* close of the century, the great 
 grievance being the restrictions imposed by the 
 British parliament on Irish commerce. 
 
 *,* During the ' Home Kule ' trouble there was 
 a gang of Irish robbers called Steelboys in the 
 county of Mayo, but they had no connection with 
 the agrarian agitators. See p. 428, ' Home Rule.' 
 
 Steel Hand. The founder of the 
 race of Clephane of Carslogie was so 
 called because, when he lost one of his 
 hands, his feudal lord supplied him with 
 a liand made of steel (Scott, ' Border 
 Antiquities,' vol. ii. p. 206). See * Duke 
 with the silver hand,' ' Golden Hand,' 
 and ' Iron Hand.' 
 
 Steelyard {The). The English 
 branch and depot of the Hanseatic 
 League, on the banks of the Thames, 
 and near London Bridge. It was a solid 
 imposing structure, surrounded by a 
 strong waD, and with three massive gates. 
 There was a large garden, orchard, and 
 vineyard attached for the delectation of 
 the merchants and their api)rentices. 
 
 Stee'nie (2 syl.). George Villiers 
 (subsequently duke of Buckingham). 
 When first introduced to James I. as 
 cupbearer, at a supper entertainment at 
 Baynard's Castle, the king (weary of 
 Carr, who had grown spiritless) was much 
 struck with the looks of the youth, and 
 pointed out his imagined likeness to a 
 beautiful head of St. Stephen at White- 
 hall, whence he gave him the pet name 
 of ' Steenie,' which he ever after retained. 
 He was furthermore called by the king 
 ' his dog Steenie,' because the queen said 
 he must be her watchdog, and whenever 
 the king was about to make a fool of 
 himself he was to pull the old sow by 
 the ear. I fear his office was no sinecure. 
 
 Steenkirk {A). I. A wig. We have 
 also a Ramillies wig. The battle of 
 Steenkirk was in 1694. See * Wigs.' 
 
 I hope yonr lordship is pleased with your 
 Steenkirk ?— Vanbrugh, The Relapse (1697). 
 
 II, A cravat or neckcloth carelessly 
 tied and worn, 1692, by French ladies, 
 in imitation of the lace cravats worn by 
 the young French nobles surprised by 
 William III. in the Netherlands. These 
 young nobles, not having time to change 
 their dress, rushed to battle just as they 
 were, ' with lace era Vats loosely tied.' As 
 William was repulsed by Marshal de 
 Luxembourg in the battle of Steenkirk 
 in the Netherlands, 3 August, 1692, the 
 furore in France was boundless, and every 
 sort of article was called a Steenkirk 
 something. There were Steenkirk collars, 
 bracelets, and chains, Steenkirk perfumes, 
 confections, and sauces. In short, ' Steen- 
 kirk ' was the slang of the day. Wil- 
 liam III. is usually represented with a 
 Steenkirk cravat round his neck. 
 
 Good chance saved me from this extremity of 
 wretchedness. For just as I had yielded up my 
 cravat (a smart Steinkirk, by the way, richly 
 laced) enter Dougal, and the scene was changed. 
 —Sir W. Scott, Hob Roy. 
 
 Stella, the pen-name of Mrs. Bowen- 
 Graves, authoress of ' My Queen.' 
 
 Stella {Sir Philip Sidney's), Lady 
 Penelope Devereux. Edmund Spenser 
 called Sir Philip ' Astrophel,' ' lover of 
 Stella ' — formed from Phil (Greek <|>cAo?, 
 lover), and aa-rpop ( = Latin s^eZZa), a star. 
 Hence Astro-philos, Astrophel. 
 
 ' Stella * {Swiff s) was Esther daughter 
 of W. Johnson, steward to Sir William 
 Temple. Some say she was Sir William's 
 natural daughter. Swift was her tutor, 
 and in 1716 privately married her, but 
 she went by the name of Mrs. Johnson, 
 and never lived under the same roof as 
 Swift. In 1728 she died ' of a broken 
 heart ' at the age of 44. 
 
 While the husband of Stella he be- 
 came an admirer of Miss Vanhomrigh 
 (' Vanessa '), leading her to suppose that 
 he was unmarried. In 1717 she dis- 
 covered the fact, and soon after died. 
 Swift died 1745, aged 78. 
 
 Stella is Latin for a star =the Greek AarrtD, phone- 
 tically near enough to Esther for a lover s pun. It 
 is ratlier strange that Miss Vanhomrigh's name 
 was also Esther, which Swift fondled into ' Essa,' 
 and adding Van[homrigh] before it, made the 
 poetical name Van-essa. A third flame of his was 
 ' Varina,' a Miss Waring. Esther, in old Persian, 
 means a star. 
 
 Stenkill {The Dynashj of). A dy- 
 nasty of Sweden. It succeeded the 
 Ivarian, gave five kings, and was followed 
 3 I'i 
 
852 
 
 STEPHEN 
 
 STEWARD 
 
 by the race of Sverker. Stenkill race 
 1056-1129. 
 
 The Swedes chose Stenkill, but the Goths chose 
 Hako the Red. The rival monarchs came to an 
 amicable arrangement, stipulating that Hako 
 should reign during his life, but that Gothland 
 should revert to Sweden when he died. 
 
 Stephen, King of England, usurped 
 the crown which by regular descent 
 should have gone to Maud, daughter of 
 the last king (Henry I.), wife of Geoffrey, 
 Count of Anjou (Plantagenet). Maud was 
 actually crowned in 1141, but Stephen 
 was the recognised sovereign till his 
 death, when the crown descended to 
 the son of Maud (Henry II.). Stephen 
 was the grandson of William the Con- 
 queror by Adela, who married the Count 
 of Blois (1104, 1135-1154). 
 
 Father: Stephen count of Blois ; Mother: Adela, 
 daughter of William I. ; Wife : Matilda or Maud, 
 daughter of Eustace count of Boulogne. (His 
 son William inherited his estates and his title 
 'count of Blois.) 
 
 Style and TtWe;.— Stephanus rex Anglorum. 
 
 Stephen {Order of St.), 1764. A 
 military order of Hungary revived by 
 Queen Maria Theresa, the decoration 
 being an Hungarian cross hung on a 
 cerise-coloured ribbon edged with green. 
 The legend is ' Sancto Stephano regi 
 Apostolico.' 
 
 Stephen I. (St.), king of Hungary 
 (979, 997-1038). His name was Vayik, 
 and he was the son of Duke Geyza. St. 
 Adalbert, in 993, on the baptism of Vayik 
 changed his name to Stephen. He was 
 called ' the Apostle of Hungary ' and ' S. 
 Stephanus rex Apostolicus.' His day is 
 20 Aug., still held sacred, and his em- 
 balmed right hand is carried in proces- 
 sion through the streets of Buda. The 
 crown given him by Gregory V. is still 
 called St. Stephen's crown, and with it 
 the emperor of Austria is still crowned 
 as king of Hungary. 
 
 He died and was crowned on Ascension Day, 
 and five centuries after his death was canonised. 
 
 Stephen's Crown {St.). The 
 crown of Hungary presented by Pope 
 Gregory V. to King Stephen of Hungary. 
 The present crown consists of two parts, 
 but it is the upper part which was pre- 
 tsented by the pope. 
 
 Sterco'rians. Those Christians who 
 believe that the Eucharistic elements 
 are digested and turn to corruption like 
 otlier food. Of course, with those who 
 believe in the dogma of tran substantia- 
 
 tion, the difficulty is the promise : ' Thou 
 wilt not suffer thy Holy One to see cor- 
 ruption.' 
 
 Stercorianism. The dogma that 
 the Eucharistic elements are digested 
 i like other food. (Latin stercus, dung.) 
 
 I Sterling GrOld consists of 22 parts 
 ] (called carats) of pure gold and two parts 
 1 of alloy, either silver or copper. But 
 j fancy gold articles may be manufactured 
 I with only 15, 12, or even 9 carats of 
 
 gold and the rest alloy. 1 lb. Troy of 
 
 standard gold is coined into 46 sovereigns. 
 
 There remains a small fraction over; 
 
 but 46 sovereigns will do for a pound 
 
 Troy weight. 
 
 A sovereign weighs 5 dwts. 3"27447 
 
 grains ; but 5 dwts. 2^ grains is a legal 
 
 tender. 
 
 The Bank of England gives 46L 14s. 6d. 
 
 a pound for gold, and 31. 17s. lO^d. per 
 
 ounce. 
 
 Sterling Silver consists of 37 parts 
 of silver and three of copper. 1 lb. Troy 
 of silver is coined into 66 shillings. 
 
 A shilling from the mint weighs 3 
 dwts. 15-27272 grains. 
 
 The standard value of silver is very 
 variable. In 1870 it was 5s. an ounce. 
 In 1875 about 4s. In 1878 it was 4s. 2d. 
 In 1890 it varied from 4s. to 4s. id. 
 
 Stettin, in Prussia {Treaty of), 
 13 Dec, 1570. A treaty of peace after 
 the Seven Years' War. 
 
 Ste^Arard of the Household 
 
 {Lord). An officer in the royal household 
 of England, head of the ' Board of Green 
 Cloth.' He has no formal grant of office, 
 but receives his charge from the sove- 
 reign, who presents him with a white 
 wand, saying : ' Seneschal, tenez le baton 
 de notre maison.' The salary is 2,000Z. 
 a year. 
 
 These tags of French put into the mouth of our 
 English monarchs are quite out of date, and ought 
 to be abolished. Surely an English sovereign 
 ought to speak the English language. English 
 is fifty times a better language than French, 
 and quite able to express the mystic phrase 
 ' tenez le baton de notre maison.' 
 
 Steward of the Marshalsea 
 
 {Court of the). For the trial of treason, 
 murder, manslaughter, and blows by 
 which blood was shed in any of the 
 palaces or houses of the king during his 
 residence there (Henry VIII.). 
 
STEWART 
 
 STONEWALL 
 
 853 
 
 Stewart Diamond {The). A South 
 African diamond discovered in 1872, and 
 weighing 288| carats (nearly 2 ounces 
 Troy). It is of a light yellow colour. 
 See ' Diamonds.' 
 
 * Stir-up' Sunday. The last or 
 25th Sunday after Trinity. So called 
 from the first two words of the collect. 
 See p. 858, ' Sunday.' 
 
 Still Christmas, 1525. The fes- 
 tivities of this Christmastide were for- 
 bidden on account of the illness of the 
 king (Henry VHI.). 
 
 Stockholm {Treaties of). I. 11 
 Sept., 1640, of alliance between Sweden 
 and the States-General. 
 
 II. 20 Nov., 1719, an accommodation 
 between Sweden and George I., in right 
 of his Hanoverian dominions. George 
 agreed to pay a million crowns on con- 
 dition that Bremen and Verden were 
 ceded to him in perpetuity. 
 
 Bremen and Verden had been ceded to Sweden 
 by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). 
 
 III. 21 Jan., 1720. By this treaty, 
 enforced by Great Britain, the King of 
 Prussia got the town of Stettin, with the 
 Isles of Usedom and Wollin, and a part 
 of Pomerania. 
 
 Stettin was occupied by the Swedes 1630-1648, 
 and after much contention was restored to 
 Sweden in 1679. 
 
 Stoic Sect {The) of ancient Greece. 
 Founded by Zeno of Cyprus (b.c. 358- 
 260). He lectured in the ' Stoa Poecile ' 
 of Athens, whence his disciples were 
 called stoics, or frequenters of the porch. 
 The main doctrines of this sect were 
 fatalism, perfect subjection of the pas- 
 sions, and the freedom of the will. Zeno 
 considered the earth to be a sentient 
 animal, of which God is the living soul. 
 His contemporaries were Persteos, Aristo, 
 Herillos, and Sphseros. Their successors 
 were Cleanthes, Chrysippos, Zeno and 
 Athenod5ios of Tarsus, Panaelios, Dio- 
 genes the Babylonian, and Posidonios. 
 
 The New School consisted of Epictetos 
 of Phrygia (a.d. 50-120), Arrian the his- 
 torian (a.d. 90-182), and Marcus Aurelius 
 the Roman emperor (a.d. 130-180), author 
 of ' Meditations ' written in Greek, and 
 for style, humility, and piety unrivalled 
 among heathen writers. The poet 
 Seneca was a Stoic. 
 
 Stolbowa {Peace of), Feb. 27, 1617, 
 between Sweden and Russia, by which 
 
 Russia gave up Carelia, Ingria, Novgorod, 
 and Narva to Sweden ; renounced all 
 pretensions on Livonia ; and paid Sweden 
 £00,000 roubles (8,000^.). 
 
 Stone Age {The). The period of 
 stone implements, preceding the bronze 
 age. See p. 14, 'Ages.' 
 
 Stone Staircase {The), Venice. A 
 flight of forty-five stone steps leading 
 up to the doge's palace. See p. 366, 
 ' Giant's Stairs.' 
 
 Stone of Destiny {The). The Lia 
 Fail of Ireland, better known as the 
 Scone Stone, removed by Edward I. from 
 Scotland and enclosed in our coronation 
 chair, in Westminster Abbey, where it 
 still remains. It was called the ' Fatale 
 Marmor,' or ' Stone of Destiny,' from the 
 notion, inscribed on it, that wherever 
 this stone is, the Scots shall be the 
 dominant power ; and the succession of 
 the Stuarts is thought to be sufficient to 
 justify the prophecy. See ' Lia Fail.' 
 
 Ni fallat fatum, Scoti, quocunque locatum 
 Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. 
 Where'er this stone may be, such is the Fates 
 
 decree, 
 There the Scottish race will fill the highest 
 place. 
 
 It is a great pity it was not sent back 
 again, for a worse dynasty than that of 
 the Stuarts could not be easily found. 
 
 Stone of Infamy {The). A large 
 flagstone on which bankrupts were 
 bumped on Shrove Tuesday. There is 
 still one to be seen in Venice near St, 
 Mark's church, another in Verona, a 
 third in Florence in the old market place. 
 One by one the bankrupts were brought 
 to the stone, partially stripped, and then, 
 being lifted mto the air by two or three 
 stout men, bumped twelve times ' in 
 honour of the twelve apostles.' At each 
 bump the creditors crowed like cocks. 
 
 Stone of the Swede {The). Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus was slain at Liitzen 
 16 ^hov., 1632. His body was found the 
 next day not far from the great stone 
 between Liitzen and the canal. This 
 stone has ever since been called ' The 
 Stone of the Swede.' 
 
 In 1832 the German nation erected a noble 
 monument to the memory of the Swedish king. 
 
 Stone^vall Jackson. Thomas 
 
 Jefferson Jackson, general of the southern 
 or confederate army in the great Ameri- 
 can Civil War. He contributed to the 
 
854 
 
 STONY 
 
 STORTHING 
 
 defeat of the federals at Bull Run 21 
 July, 1861 ; distinguished himself in the 
 battles of Chickahominy June, 1862 ; de- 
 feated General Banks at Cedar Mountain 
 9 Aug., 1862 ; captured Harper's Ferry 
 15 Sept., 1862 ; fought in the battle of 
 Antietam 17 Sept,, 1862 ; contributed to 
 the defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville 
 2 May, 1863, and here he rectived his 
 death wound. It was General Bee who 
 said, in the battle of Bull Run, ' There is 
 Jackson, standing like a stone-wall.' See 
 p. 119, ' Brazen Wall,' 
 
 Stony "Waste {The). Between Mar- 
 seilles and the mouths of the Rhone, 
 ' about 100 furlongs from the sea.' Here 
 Hercules, passing through Gallia, en- 
 countered Albion and Bergion, who had 
 united their powers near the mouth of 
 the river Rhosne (Rhone), and a great 
 battle was fought. Hercules, seeing that 
 his men were worsted, commanded them, 
 to pick up stones and cast them against 
 the foe. This did they, and gained the 
 victory, leaving Albion and his brother 
 dead on the field. 
 
 Stool of Repentance (TAe). An 
 
 ecclesiastical punishment in which the 
 offender was placed ' directly over against 
 the pulpit, there to stand bareheaded with 
 a sheet, or other accustomed note of 
 difference, on a board raised a foot and a 
 half at least above the church floor, that 
 they may be in loco editiore, et eniinen- 
 tiores onini populo. This was repeated 
 somt times for 'six preaching days,' or 
 even more, and the preacher spoke at 
 the ' penitent ' or to the penitent as he 
 thought proper. The satisfaction being 
 finished, the offender put on his usual 
 clothes and entered the church purified 
 and absolved. 
 
 Storm (The Great), 26 Nov., 1703. 
 The most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
 land. It was this storm which supplied 
 Addison with the celebrated lines — 
 
 So when an angel by divine command 
 With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, 
 Such as of late o er pale Britannia past, 
 Calm and serene he drives the furious blast ; 
 And pleased the Almighty's orders to perform, 
 Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm. 
 
 Storm of Nov. 14 {The Memor- \ 
 able), 1854, in the Black Sea, where an ! 
 English fleet was moored during the | 
 Crimean War. It blew down six of the | 
 minarets of the Grand Mosque, tore off 
 
 many roofs, blew down almost all the 
 tents, dispersed the men's clothes in all 
 directions — blankets, hats, great-coats, 
 tables, chairs, tubs, bed-clothes, flew 
 through the air like autumn leaves. 
 Several ships were wrecked, and all the 
 fleet more or less injured. 
 
 In the ' Prince ' were lost 2,500 watch-coats, 
 16.000 blankets, 3,700 rugs, 53 000 woollen frocks, 
 19.000 lambswool drawers, 36,700 socks, 12,880 pairs 
 of boots, 1,800 pairs of shoes, besides drugs of all 
 Borts. 
 
 In 14 wrecked transports were lost 359,714 lbs. 
 Of biscuit, 74,880 lbs, of salt meat, 157 head of 
 cattle. 645 sheep, 8,000 gallons of rum, 73.986 lbs. of 
 rice, 11,200 lbs. of cotfee, 1,116,172 lbs of forage corn, 
 800,000 lbs, of pressed hay. 
 
 With the ' Resolute ' were lost several million 
 rounds of ball cartridge, and all the reserve 
 ammunition for the artillery. 
 
 Stormy Petrel {The), John Scott, 
 Earl of Eldon (1751-1838). So called 
 because he was in the habit of hastening 
 up to London, when any rumour of a 
 dissolution of the cabinet reached him. 
 He did so at the death of Lord Liverpool, 
 under the expectation that the king 
 would call on him to form a ministry, but 
 the task was assigned to Canning. Again, 
 when Canning died,- he was in full ex- 
 pectation of being sent for, but the 
 king applied to Lord Goderich, Again, 
 when Goderich I'esigned, Eldon felt sure 
 of being sent for, but the king asked 
 Wellington to form a ministry, 
 
 Stormy Petrel of Polities {The). 
 
 Lord Brougham. In a H.B. sketch. No. 
 691, 22 June, 1841, Lord Brougham is 
 represented as a stormy pet'rel flying 
 over the Channel. The words ' France ' 
 and ' England ' appear on opposite sides 
 of the picture, and his lordship's flight is 
 towards England. 
 
 Stormy Petrel of European 
 
 Polities {The). Giuseppe Mazzini 
 
 (1808-1872). 
 
 Storthing, or Storting {The). The 
 two legislative houses of Norway com- 
 bined. It is elected once in three years, 
 and for business purposes divides itself 
 into two chambers — the Lagthing -and 
 the Odelsthing (the legislative house and 
 ' house of commons '). All bills originate 
 in the Odelsthing, and are sent up to the 
 Lagthing for approval or disapproval. 
 If assented to they are submitted to the 
 king. If the king dissents, they are re- 
 turned to the Storthing (or combined 
 house), and whatever passes the Stor- 
 
STRABO 
 
 STRUCK 
 
 855 
 
 thing thrice becomes law, whether the 
 king approves it or not. 
 
 Thinq, or ting, a diet ; Stor-thinp, the great diet ; 
 
 Lag-thing, the law diet ; Odt'ls-thing, the landed diet. 
 
 Storthing, pronounce Stoor-ting. 
 
 Strabo of Germany (The). Se- 
 bastian Munster (1489-1552). 
 
 StradiotS. A kind of light cavalry- 
 raised by the Venetians in their Dalma- 
 tian possessions. They dressed in a semi- 
 European and semi-Eastern fashion. 
 They wore short hauberks, but over the 
 hauberks a parti-coloured tunic of rich 
 stuff ; their legs were clad in wide panta- 
 loons and half-boots. On their head 
 they wore a straight upright cap, like a 
 Greek cap, and their weapons were a 
 target, a bow and arrows, a scimitar, and 
 a poniard. Their horses were the best 
 obtainable, being employed for skirmish- 
 ing. Greek, crTpaTc(6ri)s, a soldier. 
 
 Scarcely had Charles (YIII.) dismounted at 
 Fornovo when his quarters were beaten up by the 
 Stradiots, who retired as soon as the French took 
 to arms. — History of Venice, vol. ii. p. 144 (Murray, 
 1630). 
 
 StrafEbr'dians, 1641. The fifty- 
 nine members of the House of Commons 
 who voted against the bill of Strafford's 
 attainder. In fact Strafford was not guilty 
 of treason against the king, that is quite 
 certain, and treason against the sove- 
 reignty of the people was a crime hitherto 
 unheard of. 
 
 Strangers from Rome. So Augus- 
 tine and his party announced themselves 
 when they landed in England, at Ebbs- 
 fleet, about 596. 
 
 The ' Strangers of Rome,' spoiien of in Acts ii. 10, 
 means Jews who had taken up a temporary resi- 
 dence in Rome. It was to these ' Strangers of 
 Rome ' that the ' Epistle to the Romans ' was 
 written. 
 
 Strate'gi. The Board of generals in 
 the Athenian republic, consisting of ten 
 officers, who in war took the command of 
 the army alternately, each for one day. 
 Later on a chairman, called the Pole- 
 march, was added, who had the casting 
 vote in tlie board. 
 
 Towards the decline of Roman greatness the 
 chief magistrate of Athens was called Strategos 
 (rfii'.c). Constantine the Great honoured him with 
 the title of ' Megas Strategos ' (Grand Diikr). 
 
 *«* Before the battle of Marathon ' The Ten 
 Strategi ' met in council, and the opinion was 
 divided. The casting vote was given by the pole- 
 march. Kallimachos. in favour of battle. 
 
 Strawberry Leaves {The). Em- 
 blem of a duke's crown. To ' desire the 
 strawberry leaves ' means to wish to be 
 created a duke. The duke's coronet is I 
 
 adorned with eight strawberry leaves. 
 The coronet of a marquis has only four 
 leaves (either strawberry or oak) and four 
 pearls, alternating. 
 
 The queen offered Lord Salisbury a dukedom, 
 but he does not desire the strawberry leaves.— 
 rraWt, 11 Feb., 1886. 
 
 Strawberry Preachers. So La- 
 timer called those clergymen who strayed 
 from their parishes. Some stray as 
 stars, some for pleasure, some from idle- 
 ness and indifference. The strawberry 
 is the plant which strays (Anglo-Saxoii 
 streowan, to stray, whence streow-herie). 
 
 Street Bullies, in London. At the 
 Restoration they were called Muns and 
 Tityre Tus [pronounce tuze]. 
 
 They were next called Hectors and 
 Scourers. 
 
 Later still they were called Nickers 
 and Hawcabites. 
 
 Then Mohocks. 
 
 The last of this ill-famed notoriety was 
 Spring-heeled Jack. 
 
 See each of these words in loco. 
 
 Street of Trip'ods {The), in ancient 
 Athens. These tripods had been won 
 by musical competitions between differ- 
 ent tribes. The choragos, or leader, re- 
 ceived a tripod for prize, but was expected 
 to build a shrine over it. The best 
 known is that of Lysicrates, popularly 
 known as the ' Lantern of Demosthenes.' 
 
 Strelitzes {The), that is, Russian 
 musketeers. A militia raised by Ivan IV., 
 and armed with muskets, instead of bows 
 and arrows. The word strelitz means 
 * one who fires a musket.' The militia 
 ceased to exist in the reign of Peter the 
 Great. Ivan = our English name John. 
 
 Strict Communionists. See 
 
 p. 180, ' Close Communionists,' 
 
 Strongbow. Richard de Clare earl 
 of Pembroke, to whom Dermot [M'Mur- 
 rough] king of Leinster gave in marriage 
 his daughter Eva and the succession to 
 the crown, for having recovered the king- 
 dom from which he had been driven by 
 Tiernan O'Ruarc lord of Breffny, whose 
 wife Dermot had abducted. Strongbow 
 was brave, munificent, and of ruined 
 fortune. His father Gilbert (who died 
 1149) was also called Strongbow, Died 
 1176. 
 
 Struck Bruce. Midnight, Lord 
 Aberdare (whose family name was 
 
856 
 
 STUAKT 
 
 SUAD^ 
 
 Brjace), as Home Minister, was the 
 father of the bill for the closing of public 
 houses at midnight. So when the clock 
 ; I as struck twelve, publicans say it has 
 ' struck Bruce.' 
 
 Stuart Dynasty (T^e), in England, 
 gave James I., Charles I., Charles II., 
 James II., Mary wife of William III., and 
 Anne. (With the two Pretenders, James 
 and Charles Edward.) 
 
 Henry Vll. was the father of Margaret, who 
 married James IV. of Scotland, and their son was 
 •T lines V. of Scotland. James V. was the father of 
 Mary queen of Scobs, and Mary queen of Scots was 
 the mother of James I. of England. 
 
 *j,* The Scotch as a nation are radicals, but no 
 kings could possibly be less democratic than the 
 Stuarts. The Scots are Presbyterians and puri- 
 tans, but the Stuart kings were Catholics, in 
 heart, at least, and anything but puritans either 
 in morals or religion. Perhaps Charles I. was the 
 best of the bad lot, the worst of all our dynasties. 
 
 Stuart Papers {The), 1712. Nego- 
 tiations carried on between the British 
 ministry and the Old Pretender respect- 
 ing his succession to the throne, on the 
 death of Queen Anne. The chief corre- 
 spondent was St. John lord Bolingbroke. 
 These papers were obtained by George 
 IV. from Rome, and are now preserved 
 in Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, 
 
 Stuarts (The). The old Scottish way 
 of spelling stewards. The royal Stuarts 
 of Scotland were descended from Walter, 
 the 6th steward or seneschal of Scotland. 
 The first of the dynasty was David II., 
 son of Margery and Walter, and grandson 
 of ' The Bruce.' 
 
 KOBERT I. (The Bruce) was the father of 
 ''largery, who married Walter the Steward or 
 Ssneschal, and their son was David II. 
 
 Stuarts {The). Ill-starred for 400 
 years. The house of Stuart was as un- 
 lucky as the house of the Theban Laius. 
 
 Robert III. died of grief because his eldest son 
 Robert had been starved to death, and his younger 
 Bon James was taken captive by Henry IV. 
 
 James I. (his son), after spending his youth in 
 imprisonment, was assassinated by his uncle. 
 
 James II. was struck dead by the plug of a 
 bursting cannon. 
 
 James III., flying from the field of battle, was 
 thrown from his horse, and murdered in a cottage 
 into which he had been conveyed. 
 
 James IV. fell at Flodden Field. 
 
 James V. died of grief for the ruin of his army 
 at Solway Moss. 
 
 Mary his daughter was beheaded by Queen 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Henry Stuart lord Darnley, her cousin and 
 husband (the titular king), was blown up in his 
 own lodging-house. 
 
 James I. of England died, not without suspicion 
 of being poisoned by Lord Buckingham. 
 
 (His I aughter Elizibeth Stuart was the ill- 
 starred ' Winter Queen of Bohemia.) 
 
 (His cousin Arabella died insane in the Tower of 
 London) 
 
 Charles I. was beheaded. 
 
 Charles II. passed many years in exile after 
 the fatal battle of Worcester. (The slave of Louis 
 XIV.) 
 
 James II., being driven from his throne, died in 
 a foreign land, a pensioner of Louis XIV. 
 
 The two Pretenders, James and Charles Edward 
 Stuart, vainly tried to recover the throne, and 
 both died in ex'le. 
 
 Mary, daughter of James II., died childless. 
 
 Anne, sister of Mary, lost all her seventeen child- 
 ren in infancy. 
 
 Henry the cardinal called himself Henry IX. 
 ' by the grace of God, but not by the grace of 
 man.' 
 
 It has been facetiously said that 'a cousin of 
 Queen Anne ' may be found in every family of 
 maiden ladies in every cathedral city of England. 
 
 Sturm und Drang Period, 1750 
 to 1800. The volcanic era of German 
 literature, when French and Latin 
 patches were banished from the language, 
 and German was left unadulterated. 
 
 The Sturm und Drang period of life is between 
 20 and 25, all enthusiasm and cram full of radical 
 reform. All abuses are to be swept away, and a 
 Utopian millennium is to be introduced. So in this 
 literary period the language was to be purified, 
 and German literature was to be made the model 
 literature of the world. Old things were to be 
 done away, and all things to become new. 
 
 Styli'tes (3 syl.). * Sancti Columna- 
 res ' (Latin), ' Pillar-saints ' (English). 
 Religious enthusiasts who followed the 
 example of Simeon the Syrian, who lived 
 47 years on the top of a pillar, and 
 died 460, aged 69, of an ulcer. He first 
 lived on a pillar only 12 feet high, then 
 on one 22 feet high, then on a pillar S6 
 feet high, and lastly on one 40 feet in 
 height. This foolery continued in the 
 East for 600 years. 
 
 When Vulfilacius erected a pillar near Treves, 
 the bishop had it pulled down. 
 
 Suabian League {The). ' Schwab- 
 ischer Bund,' 1376, opposed to the ' League 
 of Marbach' (q-.v.). In 1384 it wasextended 
 and converted into the Grand Union at 
 Heidelberg. In 1499 Wiirtemberg joined, 
 and thus formed the Great Suabian Con- 
 federation. It was dissolved in 1533. 
 
 At first it contained 82 towns, afterwards as 
 many as 41. 
 
 Suabian Mirror {The), or Schwab- 
 enspiegel (13th cent.). The local laws of 
 Suabia compiled into a digest. See 
 ' Saxon Mirror.' 
 
 Suabian Poets {The). The Minne- 
 singers (1150-1250). The modern school 
 is headed by Uhland (17S7-1862), uni- 
 versally known by his song called ' The 
 Lad of the Mountain.' 
 
 Su'adaB Medulla. The Marrow of 
 Persuasion; irresistible persuasion. So 
 
SUBDEACON 
 
 SUCCESSION 
 
 857 
 
 Ennius calls Marcus Cethegus, the 
 curule, edile, and pontifex maximus, B.C. 
 213. Persuasion is here personified. 
 
 Subdeacon. He does not receive 
 from the bishop imposition of hands, but 
 receives from him the patera and cup 
 empty, and from the archdeacon the 
 cruises of wine, of water, and the towel. 
 He must be 22 years of age. His duties 
 are (1) the custody of the sacred vessels 
 used in the mass ; (2) to pour out the 
 wine and the water; (3) to intone the 
 epistle; (4) to hold the book of the 
 Gospels while the priest reads; (5) to 
 cari-y the cross in solemn processions ; 
 (G) to pour water for the priest's washing 
 of his hands ; and (7) to assist the deacon 
 in receiving the offerings of the congrega- 
 tion. 
 
 Subjectivity of Knowledge 
 
 (The). The question whether our know- 
 ledge of phenomena is merely subjective 
 or mental. Does the outward world (in 
 relation to any individual) really exist, 
 except in the brain of that individual ? 
 Protagoras (b.c. 480-411) said, ' Man is 
 the measure of all things to himself ' ; 
 Heraclltos believed the same ; so did 
 Aristippos of Gyrene. This was the pre- 
 vailing belief in old Rome at the close of 
 the 2nd Christian cent., and has cropped 
 up again in Germany, France, and 
 England within the last few years. The 
 argument is this : If man cannot get out 
 of himself, all he knows must be in him- 
 self. Even his thoughts can never be 
 divorced from his ego, but must be al- 
 ways a part of himself. 
 
 Sublapsa'rians, Supralapsari- 
 
 ans. The Supralapsarians maintain 
 that God decreed the fall of Adam and 
 its consequences before the creation of 
 Adam {supra lapsuin, before the fall). 
 The Sublapsarians maintain that God did 
 not decree, but only permitted the fall, 
 and after man had fallen, God's judg- 
 ments against disobedient Adam were 
 carried out [suh lapsum, after the fall). 
 
 Illustrate thus. I lay a log over a rail, and the 
 train Is smashed ; that is one thing. The passen- 
 gers themselves lay a log over a rail, and 1 do not 
 interfere to prevent it ; that is another thing. In 
 both cases the train is smashed, but in one case 
 I am the active agent of the mischief, in the 
 other I am the passive permitter of it. 
 
 Sublime Porte [The). French for 
 the ' Lofty Gate.' Name given to the 
 Turkish government. Bagdad, the capi- 
 
 tal of the caliph, was called ' the Porte' 
 iq-v.). Constantinople has 12 gates, and 
 near one of these gates is a building with 
 a lofty gateway (called ' Bab-i-humajun). 
 In this building resides the vizier, and in 
 the same are the offices of all the chief 
 ministers of state. The French phrase 
 has been adopted because French was, 
 at the time, the language of European 
 diplomacy. 
 
 Sublime Society of Beefsteaks 
 
 {The). Established in London 1735. 
 
 Submission of the Clergy (TAe), 
 1531. Henry VIII. insisted on being 
 acknowledged supreme head of the 
 Church and clergy of England, next 
 immediately after Christ. Convocation 
 objected, but at length submitted, with 
 the limitation ' quantum per Christi leges 
 licet.' The Convocation of York gave in, 
 and offered a subsidy also. It was then 
 agreed that no new canons or constitu- 
 tions should be enacted without the king's 
 authority. The king agreed to the limi- 
 tation, and the clergy were restored to 
 royal favour. The Submission of the 
 Clergy was confirmed by Act of Parlia- 
 ment in 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). 
 
 Subtle Doctor [The Most). Doc- 
 teur Subtil. So Duns Scotus was called 
 by the French. He was regent of the 
 theological schools of Paris from 1304 to 
 1310, when he died of apoplexy in the 
 34th year of his age. 
 
 Succession {The Acts of). Acts of 
 Parliament to authorise a change in the 
 hereditary succession of the JBritish or 
 English sovereigns. 
 
 (1) Henry IV. who possessed himself 
 of the crown to the prejudice of Lionel 
 duke of Clarence (second son of Edward 
 III.), declared the succession should run 
 in his own son Henry [V.] and his de- 
 scendants. 
 
 (2) Henry VII. had no hereditary right 
 to the crown, but Parliament passed an 
 Act whereby his son Henry [VIII.J was 
 made heir, and the succession was placed 
 in his regular heirs. 
 
 (3) Henry VIII. changed the succession 
 first from Mary to Elizabeth and then 
 from Elizabeth to Edward VI. 
 
 (4) Charles II. was by parliament held 
 to succeed Charles I., by which Act the 
 Commonwealth was wholly ignored. 
 
 (5) On the * abdication ' of James II. . 
 
858 
 
 SUFFAVEAN 
 
 SUNDAY 
 
 the succession was settled on William 
 and Mary; and if they died without 
 issue, on the Protestant line, or issue of 
 the Electress Soj)hia of Hanover. 
 
 Suf'fave'an or Sofi dynasty 
 
 (The), lasted 237 (1499-173(5). A Persian 
 dynasty founded by Ismail, third son of 
 Hyder, fifth in descent from Sheik Sofi 
 or Suffee, a very holy man. It was over- 
 thrown by Nadir Shah. 
 
 Suffolk Resolutions (The), 9 Nov. 
 177-1. That is the county of Suffolk in 
 Massachusetts, of which Boston is the 
 capital. They were made against the 
 attempts of Great Britain ' to enslave 
 America.' They enjoined officers who had 
 public money in their hands to retain 
 it till the wrongs of the people w-ere 
 redressed ; and called on all public officers 
 appointed by the British Government to 
 resign before the 20th of Sept., or to be 
 held as enemies of the American colonies. 
 They called upon all Americans to attend 
 military drill and prepare themselves for 
 war. They advised the people to imprison 
 all government servants if Government 
 attempted to lay hands on the insurgents. 
 
 SuJBFragan Bishops. Assistant 
 bishops. Twenty-six were appointed by 
 26 Hen. VIII. c. 14, a.d. 1534. So called 
 because they were allowed the jus 
 suffragii or right of suffrage in the 
 synods. Discontinued and the Act re- 
 pealed by 1, 2 Phil. & Mary c. 8, a.d. 
 1554. Revived by 1 EUz. c. 1, a.d. 1559. 
 
 Suliots. A number of families who 
 fled from their Turkish oppressors to the 
 mountains of Suli in the 17th cent. They 
 were partly Hellenic and partly Albanian 
 in origin. Their descendants mostly live 
 in Greece. 
 
 Sulpic'ians. The company of 
 priests founded at Vaugirard by J. J. 
 Olier, cure of St. Sulpice. The object of 
 this college is the instruction of young 
 ecclesiastics. 
 
 The great seminary at Montreal, Canada, is 
 conducted by the Sulpicians, but their main esta- 
 blishment is in Paris. 
 
 Summer King. When Robert 
 Bruce was boasting of his sovereign rank 
 and great success, his wife said to him, 
 ' You are, indeed, a summer king ; but 
 you will scarcely be a winter one.' 
 
 Summer Lieutenants. In the 
 Prussian army are officers of the Land- 
 
 wehr and reserves summoned for duty in 
 their respective regiments for six weeks 
 in summer. 
 
 Summoned [The). Ferdinand IV. 
 
 of Castile and Leon (1285, 1295-1312), 
 so called because the brothers Peter and 
 John Carvajal, being condemned to death 
 without trial, ' summoned ' him to appear 
 before the tribunal of God within thirty 
 days. Ferdinand was quite well on the 
 thirtieth day, but was found dead in his 
 bed next morning. 
 
 Sun of AusterlitZ {The). A pro- 
 mise of success, a good omen. Napoleon 
 I. remembered that the sun broke out 
 just before the battle of Austerlitz (2 Dec. 
 1805), which he won over the Emperors 
 of Austria and Russia ; and in subsequent 
 campaigns looked on sunshine as a good 
 omen. 
 
 Quelques Instants avant la bataille de la Mos- 
 kowa, le soleil se montra dans son eclat : ' Soldats 
 (s'ecrie Napoleon) c'est le soleil d'Austerlitz ! ' et 
 ces seuls mots electriserent la grande armee.— 
 La Rousse, Dictiomiaire Universel. 
 
 Sunday. See under— 
 
 Advfnt four weeks before Christmas. 
 
 Second Sunday after the EPIPHANY, Festum 
 Architricllni. 
 
 riiini Sunday before Lent, Septdagesima Sun- 
 day. 
 
 Second Sunday before Lent, Sexagesima Sun- 
 day. 
 
 First Sunday before Lent, QUINQUAGESIMA Sun- 
 day ; Dominica Brandonum ; Sunday next before 
 Lent. 
 
 1st Sunday of Lent^ Quadragesima Sunday, 
 next to Ash Wednesday ; Day of the Burse. 
 
 2nd Sunday of Lent, ReminiscSre Sunday. 
 
 Srd Sunday of Lent, Oculi Sunday. 
 
 4th Sunday of Lent, Laetare Sunday. Dominica 
 de Rosa, Refreshment Sunday, Mothering Sunday, 
 Mid-Lent. 
 
 5th Sunday of Lent, Passion Sunday, Carl Sun- 
 day, Sabbatum vacat. 
 
 6th Sunday of Lent, Palm Sunday; Festum 
 Broncherise; Festum Olivarum ; Sunday next 
 before Easter. 
 
 Easter Day. 
 
 1st Sunday after Easter, Quasimodo Sunday, 
 Low Sunday, Alb Sunday. 
 
 2nd Sunday after Easter, Balaam's Ass Sunday 
 (.q.r.). 
 
 Srd Sunday after Easter, Fete du Patronage de 
 St. Joseph. 
 
 Sunday after ASCENSION, Expectation Sunday, 
 the Sunday next before Whit Sunday. 
 
 Sunday after the Octave of Ascension, Fete of 
 the Holy Relics. 
 
 Whit Sunday or Pentecost, 
 
 Trinity Sunday, called Stately Sunday. 
 
 Sunday next after Trinity Sunday, Fete Dieu, in 
 France. 
 
 25th, or Last Sunday of Trinity, called ' Stir up ' 
 Sunday and Fiaf<ment Sunday. 
 
 Sept. (Second Sunday in). Fete du saint nom de 
 B. v. Marie. 
 
 Oct. (Fifth Sunday in). Fete du Patronage de la 
 Sainte Vierge. 
 
 See also ' Panic Sunday," ' Precious Blood ' (Feast 
 of the). 
 
 *,* For explanation, see each word under its 
 proper letter. 
 
SUNDAY 
 
 SUPEEME 
 
 859 
 
 Sunday Fine {The). A fine of Is. 
 levied upon all the Irish who neglected to 
 attend the Protestant church. This levy- 
 was made first in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 and, with fees, amounted (says Hume) to 
 20Z. a month. The shilling was supposed 
 to go to the poor, but this was evaded, 
 at least in the case of the Catholic poor, 
 who (it was said) ought to pay and not 
 receive the shilling. 
 
 Sunday Sabbath, 321. It was 
 
 Constantine who, by an imperial decree, 
 consecrated the Sun-day [dies solis], as 
 the Christian sabbath, to be observed 
 throughout Christendom as a day of rest 
 and religious observances. And from 
 this decree it was called ' The Lord's 
 Day.' See * Day of Rest.' 
 
 Tr)v (TUiTTipLQV rjfxepav,^r Ka'i (^wto? cicai KO-i 
 ■f)\Cov iiru)vviJ.oi' crvjU^aiVei. — 'EvS'EBlVS, Life 
 
 of Constantine, iv. 18. 
 
 Sung or Song Dynasty. See 
 
 * Tsong.' 
 
 Sunnites (2 syl.), or * Sonnees ' or 
 ' Sunis.' A Musulman sect so called 
 from the Arabic word sunnah (tradition), 
 because they professed to preserve the 
 true tradition. They recognised as the 
 real descendants of Mahomet, the califs 
 Aboubekr, Omar, and Othman, and were 
 opposed to the Shiites or Shiahs who 
 insisted that Ali was the legitimate de- 
 scendant of Mahomet. The Sunnites now 
 prevail in the Ottoman Empire, Arabia, 
 Egypt, &c., while the Shiites prevail in 
 Persia, exist to some extent in India, and 
 to a much less extent in Syria. 
 
 The Sunnites are divided into four sects, called 
 the Hanbalites, the Shafeites, the MalekiteB, and 
 the Hanefites, so called from their leaders, Han- 
 bal, Hanefa, Shafei, and Malek. Hee 'Shiites.' 
 
 Superior Person (T/ie). Edward 
 Horsman, M.P. (1807-1876), was so called 
 by Mr. Disraeli in his speech upon Den- 
 mark and Germany, 8 July, 1804. 
 
 We know in private life there is always in every 
 circle some person who is regarded as a ' superior 
 person.' They [xic] decide on everything, they 
 lecture everybody, all acknowledge their trans- 
 cendent qualities, but everyone gets out of their 
 way. The right hon. member for Stroud is the 
 ■ superior person ' of the House of Commons. 
 
 Su'perlapsa'rians, or ' Su'pralaps- 
 a'rians.' Those who believe that God 
 from all eternity decreed the fall of man. 
 The Sublapsarians, on the other hand, 
 maintain that God did not foreordain 
 and predetermine the fall, but only per- 
 
 mitted it — that Adam was free to stand 
 and free to fall. 
 
 Supplementary Act {The), 1 
 June, 1815, added in the French Consti- 
 tutional Charter to the Imperial Consti- 
 tution as a codicil. This was done by 
 Napoleon in the famous ' Hundred Days.' 
 
 Supplicat (-4). In the University 
 of Cambridge is a grace of the senate 
 duly signed to confer a degree on the 
 person signified in the writ. 
 
 Supporters to an heraldic shield are, 
 in England, confined to corporations and 
 to peers and knights either of the Garter 
 or of the Bath. In Scotland Lord Lyon 
 {q.v.) has the privilege of granting this 
 honour to others ; not so the Garter king 
 of Arms {q.v.) in England. 
 
 Supremacy {The Act of), 26 Hen. 
 VIII. c. 1, A.D. 1534, constitutes the 
 reigning monarch of England supreme 
 head of the English church, and reduces 
 the ' courts spiritual ' into king's courts. 
 By this Act the bishops were virtually 
 made responsible for the loyalty of their 
 clergy ; the clergy were mere exponents 
 of the Royal will ; and the king had the 
 power of prescribing the form of faith, 
 doctrine, and discipline, which should be 
 taught throughout the land. 
 
 Fisher bishop of Rochester, Sir Thomas More 
 the ex-lord chancellor, and several others were 
 beheaded in 1535, for denying the king s supre- 
 macy. Before this Act was passed, the pope of 
 Rome exercised supremacy in the churches of 
 England and Scotland. 
 
 Supreme Being {The), 7 May, 
 1794. Robespierre proposed to the Con- 
 vention that the republic should acknow- 
 ledge Wisdom as the Supreme Being of all 
 created things, not as a personal fact, but 
 as a most useful political bogie. Accord- 
 ingly, the painter David was employed 
 to make in the garden of the Tuileries a 
 suitable symbol of the Supreme Being. He 
 made a mound surmounted with a tree 
 of liberty. On the top of this mound 
 Robespierre, as the high priest of the 
 Supreme Being, was to set fire to the 
 statues of Atheism and Deism, and to 
 unveil the statue of Wisdom. Dressed 
 in a sky-blue coat and most showy waist- 
 coat, and carrying in his hand a monster 
 bouquet, the ' Incorruptible ' headed the 
 procession on 8 June. All Paris was 
 mad with joy at this new change and 
 
SUPKEME 
 
 SUSPENSION 
 
 every church adopted the new motto TO 
 
 THE SUPKEME BEING. 
 
 The babyism of such foolery seems quite incon- 
 sistent with the ' philosophy ' of the Encyclope- 
 dists, and the many really wise and practical laws 
 passed at the time. 
 
 Supreme Father (The). The 
 grand master or chief potentate of the 
 St. Simonians. Barthelemy Prosper En- 
 fantin, usually called Pere Enfantin, was 
 elected Supreme Father in 1830. In 
 1831 a split in the ' family ' was made by 
 Bazard, chief of the dogma department, 
 who wished to keep his wife to himself, 
 and also that his daughter should marry ; 
 but Enfantin insisted there was no such 
 thing as marriage in the St. Simonian 
 Family. The contest grew so high that 
 Enfantin established ' a model com- 
 munity' at Menilmontant, near Paris. 
 Here he was arrested for social inde- 
 cency, imprisoned for a year, fined 41., 
 and the family at Menilmontant, which 
 had lasted only two years, was dispersed. 
 Enfantin, as Supreme Father of the world 
 both in spiritual and temporal matters, 
 summoned Louis Philippe, king of the 
 French, to appear before him, and answer 
 for his usurpation of the authority due 
 to the ' Supreme Father ' only. The 
 family wore a blue robe with a leather 
 girdle, white trousers, and a red cap ; 
 their neck was left bare, and they had 
 long flowing beards. 
 
 Supreme Governor of the 
 Church. When the * Royal Supre- 
 macy ' was restored (1 Eliz. c. 1), 1559, 
 the queen insisted that the words ' Su- 
 preme Governor of the Church, &c.' 
 should be substituted for ' Supreme Head 
 of the Church.' 
 
 Surgery {Father of English). 
 Richard Wiseman (17th cent.). He intro- 
 duced ligatures in amputation instead of 
 hot pitch, or strong acids, or branding 
 the wound with burning iron. The liga- 
 ture was invented by Ambroise Pare, a 
 French surgeon in the 16th cent. 
 
 Surgery {Father of French). Am- 
 broise Pare' (1517-1590). 
 
 Surintendant. A title of honour 
 in the old French monarchy. 
 
 I. Le surintendant cles finances was 
 created in 1300 by Phihppe IV. le Bel 
 for Enguerrant de Marigny ; but the office 
 was suppressed in 1G61 on the disgrace 
 of Fouquet. 
 
 II. Le surintendant general de la 
 navigation created by Louis XIII. for 
 Cardinal de Richelieu, but suppressed in 
 1669 on the death of the Duke of Beau- 
 fort, the third holder of the office. 
 
 III. Le surintendant des bdtiments de 
 la couronne created by Louis XV. for the 
 Marquis de Marigny, brother of Mme. de 
 Pompadour. 
 
 IV. In the empire there was a surin- 
 tendante de la Tnaison imperiale. 
 
 SurreniJer by a straw. Surren- 
 ders are made in various forms. In some 
 manors by a rod, in others by a straw, 
 in others by glove, delivered by the sur- 
 renderor to the steward or some other 
 person taking the surrender in the name 
 of seisin. In practice a pen or penholder, 
 a walking-stick or . umbrella, or, more 
 commonly still, an office ruler is employed 
 for surrenders and admissions to copy- 
 hold property. 
 
 Surtees Forgeries {The), 180G. 
 Mr. Surtees palmed off on Sir Walter 
 Scott certain ballads of his own composi- 
 tion as ancient ballads discovered by 
 him, and Sir Walter Scott inserted them 
 in his ' Border Minstrelsy.' One was 
 ' On a feud between the Ridleys and the 
 Featherstones,' which Mr. Surtees says 
 he took down from the recitation of an 
 old woman on Alston Moor. Another was 
 a ballad of ' Lord Ewrie,' which he says 
 he took down from an old woman named 
 Rose Smith of Bishop Middleham (aged 
 91). A third was ' Barthram's Dirge,' 
 obtained from Ann Douglas, ' a withered 
 crone who weeded in his garden.' A 
 whole series of legends were professedly 
 obtained from a Mrs. Brown of Falkland, 
 and another series from Mrs. Arnut of 
 Arbroath. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Suspension of the Habeas 
 Corpus. In old Rome the phrase was, 
 Videant Consules, ne quid detrimenti 
 cajnat Respuhlica (Let the Consuls see 
 that the Commonwealth suffers no in- 
 jury), by which the appeal to the Cen- 
 turies (in the empire to Ccesar) was held 
 in abeyance, and dictatorial power was 
 vested in the consuls without appeal. 
 This suspension of appeal was enforced 
 against the Gracchi and against the Cati- 
 line conspirators. 
 
 When habeas corpus is suspended, 
 suspected persons may be arrested 
 
SUSSEX 
 
 SWING 
 
 861 
 
 without assigning any reason, and per- 
 sons arrested are not allowed bail. 
 
 Sussex (Kiyigdom of). Founded 
 A.D. 491 by Ella, who came from Hol- 
 stein, the land of the Saxoni, landed at 
 West Wittering near Chichester (477), 
 and in 491 took Anderida, the capital of 
 the Regni. Chichester is a phonetic 
 spelling of Cissa-ceaster, the camp- 
 ground of Cissa, son of Ella. 
 
 Sutin'ians. Same as Photin'ians 
 iq.v.). 
 
 Sutras. Aphoristic rules in Sanskrit. 
 The word means sttning together, be- 
 cause the leaves on which they were 
 written were strung together on a thread. 
 
 Suttee. The voluntary immolation 
 of a Hindti widow on the funeral pile 
 of her husband. Declared illegal by the 
 governor-general of British India in 1829. 
 
 S"Wan. * By heaven and the sivans,' 
 an oath of Edward I.'s. On the day 
 when King Edward I. conferred the 
 dignity of knighthood on his son, the 
 Prince of Wales, 300 others were also 
 knighted. In the course of the high 
 festiv^al two swans richly adorned with 
 gold network were placed on the table, 
 and the king made a vow to God and the 
 swans that he would start forthwith to 
 Scotland and never sheathe sword till he 
 had avenged the death of John [Red] 
 Comyn. 
 
 Edward, In fulfilment of his romantic vow to 
 heaven and the swans, advanced as far as Carlisle 
 .... but was detained there by ... . dysentery. 
 —Sir W. Scott, History of Scotland, viii. 
 
 Sweating-sickness {The), in 1485 
 (Henry VII.'s reign), first appeared in 
 England. It lasted a month and carried 
 ofif 20,000 persons in London. Persons 
 died from extreme exhaustion caused 
 by profuse perspiration. It appeared a 
 second time in England during the year 
 1506 (Henry VII.) ; again between July 
 and Dec, 1517; for a fourth time in 1528 
 (Henry VIII.), and lastly in April and 
 Sept., 1551 (Edward VI.). It raged in 
 Holland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
 Poland, and Russia, 1525-1530. 
 
 Swechat, near Vienna, is the place 
 where in 1848 the Hungarian patriots 
 were defeated by the Austrians, led on 
 by JeUachich. 
 
 S"wed.en. Nine dynasties. 
 
 1. The race of Ivar and Sigurd, * — 
 1056, gives twelve sovereigns. 
 
 2. The race of Stenkill, 1056-1129, 
 gives seven sovereigns. 
 
 3. The races of Sverker and Eric, 
 1129-1250, gives eight sovereigns. 
 
 4. The Folkungians, 1250-1389, gives 
 seven sovereigns. 
 
 5. The period of the Union of Calmar. 
 
 6. The dynasty of Vasa, 1523-1654, 
 gives seven sovereigns. 
 
 7. The dynasty of Deux-Ponts, 1654- 
 1751, gives five sovereigns. 
 
 8. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp, 
 1751-1818, gives four sovereigns. 
 
 9. The French dynasty, 1818- *. 
 
 Swedenbor'gians, or ' The New 
 
 J^usalem Church ' {Rev. xxi.lO), followers 
 of Dr. Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). 
 They hold peculiar views respecting sal- 
 vation, inspiration, and the Trinity. In 
 regard to the Trinity, they believe it to be 
 centred in the person of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Swedes' Stone {The). A large 
 stone placed by Jacob Erichsson on the 
 night after the battle of Liitzeu (17 Nov., 
 1632) to mark the spot where Gustavus 
 Adolphus fell. In 1830 the German 
 nation replaced the stone by a noble 
 monument in memory of this ' Star of 
 the North.' 
 
 Sw^eet Singer of the Temple 
 
 (The). George Herbert, the poet, who 
 wrote 'The Temple' (1633) and 'The 
 Priest to the Temple ' (1652). Bom 1593, 
 died 1633. 
 
 Swi or Sooy Dynasty {The). The 
 twelfth imperial dynasty of China, in 
 which China was again united, after being 
 divided for 167 years (420-587). It gave 
 three emperors, and lasted thirty-seven 
 years (587-618). The city of the court 
 was Ho-nan. It was succeeded by the 
 Tang dynasty. 
 
 Yang-kien, who assumed the name of Wentee, 
 the founder of this dynasty, was prince of Swi. 
 
 Swing {Captain). 1830-1833. A 
 name assumed by certain persons who 
 sent threatening letters to those who 
 used threshing machines. The letters 
 ran thus : ' Sir, if you do not lay by your 
 threshing machine, you will hear from 
 Swing.' 
 
 Swing and his myrmidons were abroad in the 
 counties, and could scarcely be kept down by the 
 
SWING-FIRES 
 
 SYMBOLS 
 
 yeomanry and poor-law guardians.— T. HUGHES, 
 Tom Broun at Oxford, chap, xxxix. 
 
 S'Wing-jS.res. Incendiary fires for 
 the bui-ning of machinery. So called 
 from ' Captain Swing ' {see above). 
 
 He [Mr. Gladstone] quoted the Swing-fires as an 
 example of an evil which may have averted 
 greater evil.— r/ie World, 2 May, 1888. 
 
 Swiss Blood, or * Sang des Suisses.' 
 Wine of St. Jacques, near Basel, where 
 1,600 Switzers resisted 22,000 French 
 commanded by the Dauphin (afterwards 
 Louis XI. of France). All the Swiss but 
 ten were slain. This is called the ' Swiss 
 Thermopylaj,' a.d. 1444. 
 
 Swiss T]iermop''yl83 {The), 1444. 
 See above. 
 
 Sword, in the arms of the city of 
 London. 
 
 The usual hypothesis is that this 
 emblem was adopted on the first quarter 
 of the arms of this corporation to com- 
 memorate the act of Sir William Wal- 
 worth, who cut down with his sword the 
 rebel Wat Tyler in the reign of Eichard 
 n. We are told in ' Notes and Queries ' 
 (23 July, 1887) it had been adopted some 
 
 * few months previously.' 
 
 Another solution is that it is the sword 
 of St. Paul, the patron saint of London. 
 
 A third is that Stow mistook the letter 
 L in the first quarter for a sword. 
 
 Sword {Order of the). 1. Created 
 1522 in Sweden by Gustavus I. as the 
 
 * Star of the North,' and reconstructed 
 in 1748 by Frederick I. for ' fidelity to the 
 king and the Lutheran faith.' The deco- 
 ration is a St. Andrew's cross formed by 
 two swords, &c. 
 
 II. An order of chivalry instituted 
 1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. 
 
 Sword-bearers {Knights), or En- 
 siferi, 1204. An order of knighthood in 
 Livonia. Their habit was white, with 
 two swords crossed, in red. They acquired 
 sovereign power in Livonia. The order 
 ceased in 1562. 
 
 Also called ' Brothers of the Sword." 
 
 Sword of God {The). Khaled, 
 Mahomet's lieutenant (582-642); also 
 called 'The Scourge of Infidels.' It was 
 by the valour of Khaled that the empire 
 of the califs was founded in Arabia and 
 Syria. He used to say, 'As long as I 
 wear this cap, which has been blessed 
 
 by the prophet himself, I am in vulnerable 
 to all the darts and swords of the infidel." 
 
 Sword of Mars {The). Attila 
 (died 453). 
 
 Sword of Rome {The). Marcua 
 Claudius Marcellus, B.C. 270-280, famous 
 in the second Punic war. 
 
 Sy dr ack. A pliilosopher and astrono- 
 mer, who lived 847 years after Noah, of 
 * whose book of astronomy he held pos- 
 session.' He converted King Boccus to 
 the Christian faith (! !) and was invited by 
 him to build a mighty tower against the 
 invasions of a rival king (' The History 
 of Boccus and Sydrack '). 
 
 Symbol {The Twelve Articles of 
 the), i.e. the twelve articles of the 
 Apostles' Creed, said, in legend, to have 
 been suggested by the apostles themselves 
 in a grotto of Mount Olivet, before their 
 final separation. It was received into the 
 Latin church, in its present form, in the 
 11th cent., but there was a formula extant 
 in the 2nd cent. ; items were added in the 
 4th and 5th cent., and verbal alterations 
 much later. It has as much right to be 
 attributed to the apostles as the twelve 
 sibylline ' prophecies ' to the ancient 
 sibyls. Tradition assigns the items thus : 
 To 
 
 I. Peter: 'I believe in God the Father 
 Almighty, maker of heaven and earth,' 
 
 2, John : [And] ' in Jesus Christ, his only Son, 
 our Lord.' 
 
 3. James, the Greater : [who was] ' conceived of 
 the Holy Ghost ; born of the Virgin Mary ;' 
 
 4. Andrew : ' Suffered under Pontius Pilate;' 
 
 5. Philip: 'Was crucified and buried." 
 
 ' Dead ' is a modern innovation, and is very shaky 
 English. ' Mortmis est' means 'died,' and not ' was 
 d^'od.' ' Wa^ a-ucified, was dfad, and was buned.' 
 Was dead ? when ? We should hardly say ' Charles I. 
 was beheaded, dead, and buried.' 
 
 *,* 'Descended into Hell' is not in the older 
 formulas. 
 
 6. Thomas : ' The third day he rose again from 
 the dead.' 
 
 7. James the Less : ' He ascended into heaven, 
 and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father 
 Almighty.' 
 
 8. Matthew : [From thence] ' He shall come to 
 judge the quick and the dead.' 
 
 9. Nathaniel ; ' I believe in the Holy Ghost ;' 
 
 10. Simon : ' The Holy Catholic Church ;' 
 
 ' The Communion of Saints ' is not in the old 
 formulas. 
 
 II. Matthias : ' The forgiveness of sins ;' 
 12. Jddb :' The resurrection of the dead.' 
 
 ' The life everlasting ' was added in the 4th cent. 
 
 Symbols {The Four). 
 
 I. The symbol of the apostles, called by 
 us the ' Apostles' Creed,' because each of 
 the twelve clauses is attributed by legend 
 to one of the apostles. 
 
 II. The Symbol of Nicaea, called by us 
 
SYMMES 
 
 SYNOD 
 
 the ' Nicene Creed,' because it was for- 
 mulated in the Council of Mice a.d. 325. 
 
 III, The Symbol of Constantinople, so 
 called because it was formulated at the 
 Council of Constantinople in 831. It is 
 nearly the same as the original Nicene 
 Creed. This is the creed recited by the 
 priest in the mass. 
 
 The phrase " and the Son ' (Jilioqu^) was added 
 by a Council of Toledo in 5S9. 
 
 N.B. The original creed has been condensed in 
 Bome parts and expanded in others. 
 
 IV. The Symbol of Athanasius, called 
 by us the ' Athanasian Creed,' directed 
 mainly against Arianism. It did not 
 exist till 670, nearly three centuries after 
 the death of Athanasius, who died in 
 373, but it is supposed to express his 
 teaching. 
 
 Symmes* Hole. The hole about the 
 poles. Captain John Cleves Symmes 
 propounded the theory that the earth 
 about the poles is hollow, and his theory 
 in ridicule is spoken ot as Symmes' or 
 Symmes's Hole. 
 
 Sym'pathi'sers, 1837-1838. Fili- 
 bustering citizens of the United States of 
 North America who 'sympathised' with 
 and joined the democrats of Canada in 
 the rebellion. They issued proclamations 
 in the name of the Provisional Govern- 
 ment, oftering 100 dollars and 300 acres 
 of the best land in Canada to everyone 
 who joined the republicans. Their head- 
 quarters were on Navy Island, in the 
 Niagara river, about two miles above 
 the ' falls.' 
 
 Syncretists. I. In phUoso'phy. So 
 the Eclectics are called in contempt. 
 
 II. In theology. The Calixtines {q.v.) 
 are so called. 
 
 Syndics, of the Cambridge Uni- 
 versity, are the members of special com- 
 mittees. They must be members of the 
 Senate and are appointed, when re- 
 quired, by grace of the Senate. 
 
 Synergists, in theology. Those 
 * heretics ' who maintain that man co- 
 operates with grace, as a ' fellow-worker 
 together with God ' in salvation, and that 
 good works must be joined to grace. 
 Melanchthon was a Synergist, so was 
 Pfeffinger, and so was Strigel. This 
 dogma caused a schism in the Lutheran 
 party. 
 
 Synod {The), 1689, of the Scotch 
 kirk, is a superior court to the Presby- 
 
 tery, and consists of ministers and elders 
 of contiguous presbyteries. It is a court 
 ot review. 
 
 The four ecclesiastical bodies are ; 1. The Kirk 
 Session ; 2, The Presbytery ; 8. The Synod ; and 
 i. The General Assembly. The first is iunited to 
 one parish, the next extends to contiguous 
 parishes, the third to contiguous presbyteries, 
 and the fourth to the entire body in all Scotland. 
 
 Synod convened by Pole {The), 
 1555. A legatine synod convened in 
 London by Cardinal Pole for the ' cor- 
 rection of abuses and making of canons.' 
 
 I. The Feast of Reconciliation {q.v.) 
 was to be strictly observed. 
 
 II. Instructions were to be issued to 
 the clergy for the proper administration 
 of the eucharist. 
 
 III. Ecclesiastics were to resign all 
 pluralities, and not engage in secular 
 cares. 
 
 IV. Bishops were to restrain their 
 ostentation and luxurious living. 
 
 V . Bishops were to examine candidates 
 for holy orders personally. 
 
 Simony was forbidden, schools were to 
 be established, and visitations enforced. 
 
 Synod of Dort {The), 1618-1619. 
 A synod convened at Dort, to which 
 James I. sent deputies to decide upon 
 the five points of difference between 
 Calvin ists and Arminians. As the synod 
 excluded the Arminians their judgment 
 was one-sided. See ' Five Articles of 
 Dort.' 
 
 Synod of Gap {The), 1603, is re- 
 markable for giving out ' we believe and 
 maintain that the pope of Rome is 
 properly the Antichrist, and the " son of 
 perdition " prophesied of in the Word of 
 God, under the emblem of the scarlet 
 
 Synod of Lambeth {The), 1281. 
 Convened for the correction of eccle- 
 siastical abuses. Canons were passed in 
 this synod against pluralities and non- 
 residence, for the better teaching of the 
 people, for enforcing the doctrine of 
 Transubstantiation, and for communion 
 in one kind only. 
 
 Synod of Merton {The), 1236. An 
 assembly which attempted to introduce 
 into England Roman Canon Law, in 
 order to legitimise natural children by a 
 subsequent marriage, and to prevent the 
 interference of the secular power in 
 ecclesiastical matters. The legitimation 
 
864 
 
 SYNOD 
 
 SYRIAN 
 
 of children was warmly supported by the 
 clergy, but was overruled by the barons. 
 
 Synod of Presbyters. A general 
 
 council composed of two or more pres- 
 byteries, convened for religious purposes. 
 
 1. Of Antrim, 1727. This ' presby- 
 tery ' was an offshoot of the ' Synod of 
 Munster.' 
 
 2. Of Munster, 1660. The same as the 
 ' United Presbytery ' [q.v.). 
 
 3. Of Ulster, l^^'l. Formed originally 
 at Carrickfergus. This was the first pres- 
 bytery of Ireland. 
 
 A 'Presbytery' is a religious court formed ol 
 the respective pastors of a given district, and a 
 ruling elder, or tlie district itself so represented. 
 
 Synod of Ulster \^The). See above. 
 
 Synod of the Oak {The). A villa 
 near Chalcedon, to which Theophilus 
 summoned Chrysostom to appear. The 
 president was the bishop of Heraclea, 
 and a long list of charges was brought 
 against the archbishop, relating to faulty 
 administration of the church and its 
 funds, his habits in private life, his ritual 
 irregularities, and his heretical sermons. 
 (Robertson, ' Hist, of the Christian 
 Church,' vol. ii. p. 110.) 
 
 Synods of the Church. There 
 have been twenty-three altogether, or 
 twenty-four if the apostolic one is 
 reckoned in. Six are called Ecumenical 
 Councils iq.v.), between 325 and 680. 
 Seven other synods were held before the 
 Eastern and Western Churches sepa- 
 rated, and ten have been held since that 
 division. 
 
 The seven synods, not Ecumenical, 
 before the severance of the Eastern and 
 Western Churches, are : — 
 
 1. Held at Sardica, in 347, to restore 
 the bishops deposed by Arius. 
 
 2. Held at Ariminium, in 360, to alter 
 the wording of the Nicene Creed at the 
 instance of the Arians. 
 
 3. Held at Ephesus, in 449, to depose 
 Flavianus for condemning Eutyches, 
 who taught that the body of Christ was 
 not strictly speaking human. 
 
 4. Held at Constantinople, in 754, com- 
 manding the disuse in churches of 
 pictures and images. 
 
 5. Held at Nicsea, in 787, to reverse 
 the decision of the previous council 
 (No. 4). 
 
 6. Held at Constantinople, in 869, to 
 depose Photius, the originator of the 
 
 severance of the Eastern and Western 
 churches. 
 
 7. Held at Constantinople, m 879, to 
 restore Photius. 
 
 Synods of the Western Church 
 
 (The). Since the separation. 
 
 1. The first Lateran, summoned by 
 Calixtus II. in 1123. ' To settle the 
 question of investitures (g.v.). 
 
 2. The second Lateran, summoned by 
 Innocent II. in 1139. To condemn the 
 Manicheans, who believed there are two 
 principles, one of good and one of 
 evil. 
 
 3. The third Lateran, summoned by 
 Alexander III. in 1179. To regulate the 
 election of popes. 
 
 4. The fourth LateraU; summoned by 
 Innocent III. in 1215. To publish a 
 profession of faith, specially condemna- 
 tory of Manichaeism. 
 
 5. Held at Lyons, summoned by Inno- 
 cent IV. in 1245. To depose Kaiser 
 Friederich II. 
 
 6. Held at Lyons, summoned by 
 Gregory X. in 1274. To declare that the 
 Holy Ghost proceeds Paire Filio-que 
 (not from the Father only). 
 
 7. Held at Constance, summoned by 
 John XXIII. in 1414. To condemn the 
 doctrines of Wyclif, and enforce the one 
 element to the laity in the eucharist. 
 
 8. Held at Basle, summoned by Mar- 
 tin V. in 1431. To declare the authority 
 of a council paramount over that of a 
 pope. 
 
 9. Held at Florence, summoned by 
 Eugenius IV. in 1437. To confirm the 
 doctrine of purgatory, and the supremacy 
 of the pope. 
 
 10. Held at Trent, summoned by Paul 
 III. in 1545. To fix the doctrines of the 
 church, and condemn Protestantism. 
 This synod sat for eighteen years. The 
 first session was held 13 Dec, 1545, and 
 the last 3 Dec, 1563. 
 
 11. The Vatican Council, 1870, sum- 
 moned by Pius IX. to render the * Im- 
 maculate Conception ' an article of faith. 
 
 Syrian War {The). I. b.c. 192-190, 
 between the Romans and Antiochus, 
 king of Syria. It was brought to an end 
 by the battle of Magnesia, won by 
 Scipio, who was now called Asiaticus. 
 
 II. 1840. Mehemet Ah, pasha of 
 Egypt, laid claim to Syria in 1889, but 
 Great Britain, Russia, and Austria joined 
 
SYRO-MACEDONIAN 
 
 TABLE-TURNING 
 
 865 
 
 forces with Turkey to wrest it from him. 
 After tcaking Beyrout, Acre, and Sidon, 
 the pacha came to terms, and by the 
 Treaty of London, in 1841, Syria was 
 restored to Turkey. 
 
 Syro-Macedonian Era (The). 
 This era began with 1 Sept., B.C. 312. 
 
 Szatmas {The Compact of), 1711, 
 whereby an amnesty was granted to the 
 Rakoczy insurgents, who rose in arms 
 against the Austrians in 1708, and con- 
 stitutional and rehgious liberty was 
 secured to Hungary. 
 
 Szegedin {Treaty of), 12 July, 
 1444, between Hunya'des, the Hungarian 
 general, and the Sultan Amurath II. By 
 this treaty of peace the sultan recognised 
 the independence of Servia, and ceded 
 Wallachia to Hungary. 
 
 Tabardillo, 1627. A contagious 
 pest which ravaged Mexico, the year 
 after it had been visited by the plague 
 of locusts. The fever lasted seven days, 
 but most persons died between the third 
 and fifth day. The mouth and tongue 
 became black as a coal. It began in 
 Mexico and spread to Guatemala and 
 thence to all the regions round about. 
 See p. 694, ' Plagues,' &c. 
 
 Taberdarship. The rights and 
 privileges of a Taberdar, a kind of scholar- 
 ship in Queen's College, Oxford. So 
 called from the taberds or tabards, or 
 long gowns. 
 
 Tabernacle Connexion {The), 
 
 1770. A split from the Calvinistic Me- 
 thodists after the death of George Whit- 
 field. These Methodists hold that elec- 
 tion has been from all eternity according 
 to the sovereign will of God, and is not 
 a choice on God's foreknowledge of the 
 fitness of the elect to be numbered with 
 the saints in light. 
 
 Tabernacles {Feast of), or ' Festum 
 Canabarum' (JDey. xxiii. 33-36). A He- 
 brew feast lasting seven days. It began 
 on the fifteenth day of the seventh month 
 (Tishri), and commemorated the sojourn 
 in the wilderness. 
 
 Table. See also 
 
 Alfonsine Tables. Theodosian Table. 
 
 Kudolphine Tables. Twelve Tables. 
 
 Table {The) used at the last supper 
 is said to be preserved in St. Jolin de 
 
 :^7 
 
 Lateran of Rome. Nothing is known 
 about it. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 Table of Abydos {The). See 
 * Tablet,' &c. 
 
 Table of Emerald {The). The 
 table on which Hermes engraved, before 
 the flood, the secret of alchemy. It is 
 said to be hid under the great pyramid. 
 
 Table of Peutinger. 'Tabula 
 Peutingeriana,' also called the * Theo- 
 dosian Table,' one of the most valuable 
 literary relics of the world. It traces all 
 the military roads of the empire called 
 'Theodosian,' because they were made 
 in the reign of Theodosius the Great. The 
 table was discovered at Speyer [Spires] 
 in 1500 by Conrad Peutinger, who lived 
 1465-1547. 
 
 Tables. The Scotch committees 
 established in 1637 to resist an imposition 
 of the Anglican system of religion on 
 Scotland. In the burghs were four tables, 
 each of tour members, and each table 
 sent one representative to a fifth table in 
 the capital. All complaints were to be 
 made to the tables. These tables soon 
 spread through the length and breadth 
 of the land, whereby a united decision 
 was speedily come to, and the whole 
 weight of the country was brought to 
 bear on the unpopular measui'es of the 
 king [Charles 1.]. For the provincial 
 Fifth Tables, meeting in Edinburgh on 
 a summons, made a committee of the 
 whole soul, strength, and life of the reli- 
 gious party of the entire country. 
 
 They next elected as clerk-register Archibald 
 Johnstone, clerk of the Edinburgh Tables.— 
 HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Charles I., ch. iii. p. 178). 
 
 Tables {Lunar). Tabular lists of 
 the values of the elements of the moon's 
 orbit. Also the tabulated angular dis- 
 tances of the moon from certain stars at 
 fixed epochs, as given in the ' Nautical 
 Almanac' 
 
 Tables {Planetary). Tabular lists 
 of the elements of the planets' paths. 
 
 Table - money. An allowance 
 granted to general officers in the army, 
 and to flag officers in the navy, to enable 
 them to fulfil the duties of hospitality 
 within their respective commands. It 
 varies, but the maximum is three guineas 
 a day. . 
 
 Table-turning, 1848, with table- 
 rapping, the card process of spelling, 
 3K 
 
8G6 
 
 TABLET 
 
 TAKING 
 
 spirit drawings, and other manifestations 
 of the spirit world, originated in Ame-. 
 rica. It is said Andrew Jackson Davis, 
 the 'Seer of Poughkeepsie,' a cobbler, 
 who professed to hear spirit verses in the 
 air, was the^recursor of ' spiritism ' or 
 spiritualism. 
 
 Tablet of Aby'dos {The), b.c. 1355. 
 A series of royal rings, each contammg 
 the name of an Egyptian king. It was 
 found on a wall in a temple of Abydos. 
 Three rows of these rings remain still, 
 and the names correspond with those 
 given by Manetho. This valuable tablet, 
 now in the British Museum, was disco- 
 vered by W. Bankes, in 1818, on an inner 
 wall of "the Temple of Osiris at Abydos 
 in Upper Egypt. 
 
 Similar lists (though not so extensive) have been 
 found in Thebes (Egypt), and these names corre- 
 spond with those on the tablet of Abydos, with 
 some important additions. 
 
 Another valuable source of ancient Egyptian his- 
 tory is the list of names hewn in the solid rock in 
 the Grottoes of Ben Hassan, on the east bank of 
 the Nile. 
 
 Tabor {Light of Mount). In the 
 14th cent, a dispute of considerable 
 acrimony arose respecting the Light of 
 Mount Tabor, the scene of the Trans- 
 figuration. The question was this : What 
 was the nature of the Light there 
 seen by the three apostles: was it tlie 
 uncreated and eternal light in which the 
 divine essence dwells, or was it created 
 and temporal ? The monks of Mount 
 Athos violently protested it was the light 
 of God. Barlaam maintained the con- 
 trary, and so gi'eat was the angry feeling 
 he excited by this ' heresy,' that he was 
 obliged to quit Constantinople ; and a 
 synod, presided over by Cantacuzene, 
 established the dogma as an article of 
 faith, that the Light of Mount Tabor was 
 uncreated and divine. 
 
 Also called the ' Taboritic Light.' 
 
 Ta'borites (3 syl.), 1419-1436. The 
 insurgents of Bohemia after the treache- 
 rous martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome 
 of Prague. So called from Mount Tabor 
 where they pitched their tents. Under 
 the leadership of Zisca they often de- 
 feated the armies of the church, inso- 
 much that in 1433 the council of Basel 
 called the leaders to a conference. Cer- 
 tain concessions were made, which split 
 up the party, and in 1436 the church 
 and the kaiser succeeded in gaining the 
 ascendency. 
 
 Tac {Le), 1411. A pestilence which 
 appeared in Paris of a very strange cha- 
 racter. It was marked by loss of appetite 
 and insomnia, a trembling of the limbs, 
 and a violent cough night and day. It 
 lasted three weeks, but no one died. At 
 the end of three weeks the sufferer 
 bled profusely, and then recovered. See 
 p. 694, ' Plague,' &c. 
 
 Ta'herides (3 syl.), or ' Ta'herites ' 
 (3 syl.). A dynasty in Persia which 
 reigned over Khorassan (813-872). So 
 called from Taher, an Arabian general (in 
 the service of Haroun al Raschid), who 
 assassinated Amyn, and received this 
 government in reward. This was the 
 first of the contemporary kings, and was 
 succeeded by the Soffarides. Persia was 
 at the time a province of the califs. 
 
 Tai-Ping Rebellion {The), 1850- 
 1864. A schoolmaster named Hung, 
 having renounced Buddhism, founded 
 the society of the Tai-Pings (Universal 
 Peace), which came into collision with 
 the imperial army in 1850. Hung then 
 gave out that he was an instrument sent 
 by God to root out Buddhism and esta- 
 blish the dynasty of Universal Peace. 
 He also assumed the title of Tai'-ping 
 Wang (Prince of Universal Peace). 
 Nankin was made his capital in 1860. 
 Colonel Gordon, since called Chinese 
 Gordon, quelled the insurrection, and 
 overthrew the armies of Hung. Hung 
 himself committed suicide, and Gordon 
 returned to England, having received the 
 titles and privileges of the Ti-Tu, the 
 Yellow Jacket, and the Peacock's Feather. 
 
 Taking of the Covenant {The), 
 1643. In the civil war Charles I. sought 
 assistance from the Irish, who in 1641 
 had massacred 50,000 Englishmen in a 
 diabolical manner in the north of Ireland. 
 This was so hateful to the English, that 
 officer after officer in his army laid down 
 his commission, and Scotland, to secure 
 its own safety, hastened to take or sign 
 the covenant. The covenant pledged 
 them to ' bring the churches of God in 
 the three kingdoms to a uniformity of 
 faith, church government, and form of 
 worship; to extirpate popery, prelacy, 
 schism, and profaneness ; to preserve the 
 rights and privileges of the parliament, 
 and the liberties of the kingdom; to 
 punish malignants ; to unite England 
 and Scotland in peace and lasting union ; 
 
TALBOTYPE 
 
 TANTIVIES 
 
 867 
 
 and to vow both in public and private to 
 live as God-fearing Christians.' 
 
 Talbotype {The), 1839. So called 
 from W. H. Fox Talbot, who took per- 
 manent pictures on papers, which he 
 called calotypes, but his * instantaneous 
 process' is more wonderful still. An 
 image is formed in a camera, and a re- 
 volving-wheel which turns 200 times in a 
 second, being illuminated by an electric 
 spark, records a legible impression of 
 what is printed on a bill affixed to the 
 wheel. 
 
 Daguerre In 1S39 took impressions on copper; 
 Talbot the same year took impressions on paper ; 
 in 184« Joseph Nicephore Niepce de St. Victor took 
 Impressions on glass coated with a film ol albu- 
 men : Mons. le Gray in 1850 introduced the use of 
 collodion. 
 
 Talkmotes, places used by the old 
 Saxons for conference. In these places 
 they would also defend themselves when 
 attacked unawares. In Ireland they are 
 called Bannes ; some are square and some 
 round. 
 
 Tallage. Arbitrary impositions im- 
 posed by the Anglo-Norman kings on the 
 demesne lands of the crown and all royal 
 towns. Abolished by Edward III. by his 
 famous statute De tallagio cum conci- 
 dendo. The tax called la taille prevailed 
 in France also, but Turgot, the French 
 minister, substituted for it a fixed tax 
 towards the close of the 18th cent. 
 
 Talmud {The). The code of the 
 Jewish civil and canonical law. It is 
 composed of the Mishna or decisions of 
 the doctors, and the Gemara or the 
 reasons thereof. The Mishna was com- 
 piled in A.D. 180 by Jehuda the Saint. 
 There are two Gemaras, that of Jerusalem 
 completed a.d. 400 ; and that of Babylon 
 a century later and four times the size of 
 the former commentary. The language 
 is Aramaic. See ' Targum.' 
 
 The former is called ' The Jerusalem Talmud," 
 and the latter ' The Babylonian Talmud.' 
 
 Talmudists. Those Israelites who 
 accept the Talmud as authority. Those 
 who reject its authority are called 
 Carai'tes or Karaites. 
 
 * Talpra Magyar,* * Up, Hungari- 
 ans,' 1848. The Marseillaise of Hungary, 
 written impromptu by Petbfi. The first 
 Terse runs thus : 
 
 Magyars, obey your country's call, 
 Be slaves, or break the Austrian thrall. 
 We swear on our forefathers' graves, 
 Magyars no longer shall be slaves. 
 
 (Magyars pronounced Mah-yars, with a slight d 
 sound in the first syllable.) 
 
 Tamerlan h Lunettes. A nick- 
 name of Mons. Thiers, the historian 
 (1797-1877). See p. 57, ' Attila le Petit.' 
 
 Tamerlane. A corruption of Timur 
 leng {i.e. lame), 1336-1408. 
 
 Tang Dynasty {The). The 13th 
 imperial dynasty of China. It gave 22 
 emperors and lasted 289 years (618-907). 
 The court was held at Sia-gan-fu, in 
 Shen-si. In no dynasty was China more 
 prosperous than in this. It succeeded 
 the Swi dynasty, and at its close the 
 empire was again divided. 
 
 This was the Augustan or Golden Age of China. 
 
 Tanist. Heir presumptive of an 
 Irish provincial or sub-king. He was 
 chosen by the people from the blood 
 royal (either son, brother, or cousin) for 
 the most part in the lifetime of the king, 
 and was ex officio head of the army and 
 chief judge of the province. The heir 
 presumptive of the monarch or over-king 
 bore the title of Roydamna. 
 
 Tanist Stone {The), or 'Heir- 
 apparent's Stone.' A Celtic monolith 
 used as a coronation seat. Thus we read 
 in Judges ix. 6 of Abimelech, that * a 
 pillar was erected in Shechem ' when he 
 was made king. Again, in 2 Kings xi. 14 
 it is said that a pillar was raised when 
 Joash was made king, * as the manner 
 was.' 
 
 Tanlstry (in Ireland). A tenure of 
 lands for life only, the successor being 
 appointed from the family by election. 
 The tenant of such a holding is called a 
 tanist. By tanistry the ' inheritance of 
 land was given to the most worthy,' and 
 not to the next heir. The ' most worthy ' 
 was virtually the strongest, and this led 
 to endless family feuds. Abolished in 
 1605. 
 
 They were bound not to alienate their lands to 
 the mere Irish. Tanistry and Gavelkind were 
 abolished in the 5th year of James I.— O 'CONOR 
 Hist, of the Irish People, p. 155. 
 
 Tan'simas. The organic laws of 
 the Turkish empire, published in 1844 
 by the Sultan Abdul Medjid. Part 1 is 
 the political organisation of the empire ; 
 part 2, finance ; part 3, legal matters ; 
 and part 4, military affairs. 
 
 Tantivies {The), 1680. The Anti- 
 Birmingham party, opposed to the Ex- 
 3k2 
 
TANTRA 
 
 TARLETON'S 
 
 elusion Bill (q.v.). A royalist or cavalier, 
 so called from tantivy, the note of a 
 hunting-hoi'n, and therefore a fox-hunter." 
 The country gentlemen were almost all 
 tories and royalists. 
 
 Those who took the king's side were Anti-Bir- 
 minghams.Abhorrers, and Tantivies. — Macaulay, 
 Hist, of England, ch. ii. 
 
 Tantra. The Bible of the worship- 
 pers of Siva. Its subjects are the crea- 
 tion and destruction of the world; the 
 worship of the gods ; magical rites ; and 
 the modes of hypostatic union. There 
 are several Tantras. 
 
 Tantum Ergo. The most popular 
 of all the Eucharistic hymns in the 
 Catholic Church. It is sung at benedic- 
 tion with the Holy Sacrament. 
 
 It consists of the last two stanzas of the ' Pange 
 Lingua.' The first runs thus : 
 
 Tantum ergo sacramentum 
 
 Veneremur cernui : 
 Et antiquum documentum 
 
 Novo cedat ritui ; 
 Prsestat fides supplementum 
 Sensuum defectui. 
 (The second stanza is a mere Gloria Patri, &c.) 
 
 Tao-tsee. A religious sect in China 
 who adore Tao, founded by Lao-Tseu in 
 the 6th cent. B.C. Their sacred book is 
 called ' Tao-te-King.' 
 
 Taouism [Tao-tse, primitive rea- 
 son]. A religious system in China foun- 
 ded by Lao-Tseu, who was born B.C. 604. 
 It has degenerated into a sort of poly- 
 theism. Its priests, who are looked on 
 as magicians and astrologers, are con- 
 sulted about the sites of houses, burial 
 grounds, fortunate days, and other re- 
 sponses of the fortune-teller's character. 
 
 There are three religious systems in China. 
 That of "i'u, restored by Koun-fou-tse (Confucius) ; 
 the state religion, in which the emperor acts as 
 the priest and intermediator; and the third is 
 Buddhism. There are, however, Moslems, Chris- 
 tians, and even a few Jews in China. The Chris- 
 tians are, for the most part, disciples of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Tappent-durs (Strike-hards). A 
 species of guard that Robespierre had 
 always about his door, or guarding him 
 through the streets. They were armed 
 with clubs. or heavy sticks. 
 
 Eobespierre went, surrounded by his Tappent- 
 dtirs, first to the Jacobin club, and then to the 
 convention.— HO'WITT, Hist, of England (Geo. III., 
 1794. p. 122). 
 
 Tara Meetings {The). Tara is a 
 hill in the county of Wexford (Ireland) 
 
 where the ancient Irish held assemblies. 
 These musters were not popular meet- 
 ings, but conventions of the kings and 
 chiefs of the Milesian line. 
 
 Taran'tism or Tarentism (16th 
 cent.)^ The Dancing Mania. In 1374 a 
 similar hysteria appeared in Germany. 
 Probably the Bacchanalian orgies of the 
 Greeks and Romans are to be attributed 
 to similar hysteria. 
 
 The epidemic called Tareniismus, from Tarentum 
 or Taranto, in Naples, was said to be caused by a 
 small spider, the Tarentula (in Italian tarantula). 
 It provoked an irresistible desire to dance. Hence 
 the dance called Tarantella. 
 
 Tard-Venus {Les), 1361. Com- 
 panies of adventurers who formed them- 
 selves into gangs, in France, after the 
 Peace of Bretigny (1360). They were 
 composed of the offscouring of all 
 nations and disbanded soldiers. The 
 utter destruction of property was pre- 
 vented only by the payment of black 
 mail. They defied the army of Jean 
 which was under the command of Jacques 
 de la Marche, made themselves masters 
 of the Pont St. E sprit, and made Urban V. 
 tremble in Avignon. The Marquis of 
 Monferrat enrolled them in the pope's 
 army, and drilled them into discipline. 
 
 Of course the word venus In this compound has 
 nothing to do with, the goddess so called, but is 
 the participle of venir. Tard-venu, pi. Tard-venus. 
 
 Tar gums {The). Translations of 
 the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic, 
 made for the Jews because they had 
 forgotten the Hebrew language by their 
 long residence in Chaldea. The oldest 
 dates between the 3rd and 4th cent. ; 
 the latest iu the early part of the 11th 
 cent. The most noted Targums are 
 those of Onkelos, of Jonathan ben Uziel, 
 and of Joseph the Blind. See ' Talmud.' 
 
 A portion of Daniel and Ezra with verse 11 
 chap. X. of Jeremiah have no Hebrew original. 
 Aramaic, the language of the Jews in the time of 
 Christ, was a mixture of Chaldee, Syriac, and 
 Hebrew. 
 
 There are three Targums of the Pentateuch, 
 one on the prophets, two on Esther, one on 
 Chronicles, one on Daniel, besides those on the 
 Psalms, Job, the Proverbs, Solomon's Song, Ruth, 
 Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, &c. 
 
 Tarleton's Dash at Char- 
 lottesville, 4 June, 1781. During the 
 American War of Independence, Colonel 
 Tarleton at the head of his cavalry rode 
 at a dash into this town of Virginia, took 
 seven of the assembly prisoners, and 
 destroyed a large quantity of stores. 
 
TASCODEUGIT^ 
 
 TE DEUM 
 
 Tascodrugi'tse, or'Tascod'rygites' 
 (4 syL). Du Cange (vol. vi. p. 487, col. 1) 
 Bays : ' Haeretici ita appellati a raax^s, 
 quod illis j^dxillum sonabat, et Spovyyos, 
 nasus, quod inter oranduni iudicem digi- 
 tum naso apponerent, ut animi tristitiara 
 et affectatam quandain sanctitatein prae 
 se ferrent.' Also called ' Passalorin- 
 chitee a Graeco irdacrdKos, paxiUus, et ^iv^ 
 nasus, vel piyxos, rostrum, rictus.' 
 
 Tatian. A name common to several 
 persons, but especially noted in church 
 history for two authors often confounded 
 together. One was a Platonic philo- 
 sopher, bom in Syria, converted to Chris- 
 tianity by Justin the Martyr. He lived 
 in the 2nd cent., and was the author of 
 a ' Discourse to the Greeks.' In 172 he 
 became a Gnostic, and was the founder 
 of the Encratistes. 
 
 The ' Discourse ' of this Tatian -was published In 
 1545 by C. Gessner, and by Otto of Jena in 1851. 
 
 The other Tatian was a native of Me- 
 sopotamia, and lived a century or more 
 after the Platonic philosopher. He wrote 
 in very inferior Greek a book called 
 ' Diatessaron.' The original is lost, but 
 there is extant a Latin translation by 
 Victor of Capua, inserted in the ' Biblio- 
 theque des Peres.' 
 
 M. Bouillet says this latter Tatian 'vivait au 
 Ve siecle,' but this is an error, as the ' Diates- 
 Baron ' is mentioned by Eusebius. The ' Diates- 
 saron ' is an heretical book supposed to be based 
 on the Gospels. During the lifetime of the second 
 Tatian Syria belonged to Persia ; and the Emperor 
 Julian went thither to prepare for bis war against 
 the Persians. 
 
 Tavernier's Diamond. The 
 
 first blue diamond known in Europe was 
 bought by Tavemier in India, in 1642, 
 and sold to Louis 
 XIV. in 1668. It is 
 described as d'un 
 beau violet. It was 
 at and ill formed. 
 The cut given is from 
 m^MONr''^ an old French en- 
 2421 carats. (N.B. 151.V graving. It was ap- 
 carats = i ounce.) parently cut after it 
 came into the possession of ' Le Grand 
 Monarque,' for we read of a blue diamond 
 in the regalia of 67g carats. In August 
 1792 this ' blue diamond ' was seized 
 and deposited in the Garde Meuble. Of 
 course it was abstracted and never heard 
 of again. However, in 1830, a Daniel 
 Eliason was in possession of a blue 
 diamond weighing 44^ carats, without a 
 
 history, which afterwards became the 
 property of Henry Hope, and was called 
 the ' Hope Diamond.' Probably the 
 Great Table Diamond was made into two 
 brilliants. A model of the blue diamond 
 was shown in the first French Exhibition, 
 1862. See p. 254, 'Diamonds.' 
 
 The other part of the great diamond was sold 
 at the sale of the Duke of Brunswick s jewels in 
 1874, and is called the ' Brunswick Diamond.' Its 
 weight is from 6 to 7 carats, and it was purchased 
 In Geneva. 
 
 Taylor Institution {The). In 
 the University of Oxford, 1848, erected 
 from the bequest of Sir R. Taylor. It 
 consists of a library and reading-room 
 supplied with the chief periodicals of 
 France, Germany, and Italy, accessible 
 to all members of the university. It ia 
 well supplied with atlases, dictionaries, 
 encyclopaedias, biographical dictionaries, 
 and reviews. There is also a Taylorian 
 scholarship, and Taylorian scholars have 
 certain privileges similar to graduates. 
 
 Taylor Scholarship and Ex- 
 hibition, for modern languages. The 
 Scholarship is worth 50Z. a year and the 
 Exhibition 25Z. Called ' Taylor ' because 
 the candidates will be examined accord- 
 ing to what is taught in the Taylor 
 Institution, Oxford. 
 
 Tchew or Chow Dynasty {The\ 
 B.C. 1122-256. The third imperial 
 dynasty, and last of the semi-historic 
 period. It was preceded by the Chang 
 dynasty, and followed by the Tshin or 
 first historical dynasty. It gave thirty- 
 four emperors, and the seat of govern- 
 ment was Yn. This was the dynasty of 
 the ' kings combatant.' 
 
 Tcin Dynasty (The). The seventh 
 imperial dynasty of China. It gave fif- 
 teen emperors, and lasted 155 years 
 (from 265 to 420). The seat of govern- 
 ment was Ho-nan. It followed the San 
 Kuo (or three States) period, and was 
 succeeded by the Woo-tae, or five races. 
 
 Most of these rulers were bad emperors and 
 met with violent deaths. 
 
 Te Deum of Handel was composed 
 
 to commemorate the wonderful escape of 
 George II. at Dettingen 15 June, 1743. 
 The Earl of Stair had led the English 
 into a trap, in which there seemed no 
 escape ; but George cut his way through 
 the French, and ultimately drove them 
 
870 
 
 TE IGITUE 
 
 TEN 
 
 across the Main. The whole affair 
 seems more like romance than sober 
 history. 
 
 The 'Te Deum' is called the Ambrosian Hymn 
 from a tradition that St. Ambrose composed it by 
 sudden inspiration at the baptism of St. Augus- 
 tine. 
 
 Te igitur. One of the service- 
 books of the Catholic Church, used by 
 prelates and other church dignitaries. 
 So called from the first words of the 
 canon Te igitur, clementissitne Pater. 
 
 Tearless Victory [The], b.c. 367. 
 The victory of Archidamos III. king of 
 Sparta, over the Arcadians and Argives. 
 So called because not one of the Spartans 
 fell in the battle. 
 
 Not one of the British army fell in the Abys- 
 sinian expedition under Sir Charles Napier, 1867- 
 1868. 
 
 Tellers. In the division lists of the 
 House of Commons are a remnant of the 
 old talUers, officers who kept one part 
 of the tallies in the public archives, the 
 corresponding part being given to the 
 claimant. The tally system existed in 
 England till 1826 in our public accounts. 
 The tally was a wand cut with notches 
 to represent certain sums. In 1834 the 
 old tallies, of which there were two cart- 
 loads, were burnt in the stores of the 
 House of Lords, and it was this confla- 
 gration which set fire to and destroyed 
 both Houses of Parliament, with their 
 offices and a large part of the old palace 
 of Westminster. 
 
 Temperance Movement {The). 
 The movement in Scotland began 1828. 
 John Dunlop J.P. formed the first tem- 
 perance society in 1 829. The first E nglish 
 total abstinence society was formed 1830. 
 A temperance society was formed in Ire- 
 land by the Rev. G. W. Carr in 1829. In 
 England the first society was formed in 
 1830 by Henry Forbes, a merchant of 
 Bradford, and the first total abstinence so- 
 ciety, at Preston, in 1832. In 1838 Father 
 Mathew began his crusade at Cork. 
 
 In 1808 a total altstinence society (which still 
 exists (1890) was formed in Greenfield (New York). 
 The American Temperance Society was founded in 
 1826. 
 
 Templars, or 'Knights Templars,' 
 1118. A secret society founded by Hugues 
 de Payens and eight other knights then 
 in Syria, and uniting the monastic with 
 the mihtary character. Its nominal ob- 
 ject was to defend the Holy Sepulchre at 
 
 Jerusalem, and the pilgrims who came to 
 visit it. The red cross was assigned to 
 them in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III. They 
 were organised to defend the Holy Land 
 and protect pilgrims ; but on the loss of 
 Palestine, in 1192, they took refuge in 
 Cyprus. Their dissolution in England, 
 France, and other countries occurred in 
 1312, when their lands were transferred 
 to the Hospitallers, but in Spain to ' Our 
 Lady of Montesa.' ' Le crime des Tem- 
 pliers est encore un probleme.' Lejeune 
 in 1789 wrote a history in their defence, 
 but Raynouard, in 1813, wrote a history 
 in their condemnation. 
 
 Their dress was a white mantle with a red cross. 
 In 1814 the master of the Order, James de Molay, 
 was condemned to the stake. 
 
 Temple of Glory (The). Paris. 
 See p. 548, * Madeleine.' 
 
 Temporalisti, 1870. Those who 
 advocate the temporal power of the pope, 
 like M. Thiers; and after Rome had 
 been added to the kingdom of Italy be- 
 lieved in the possibility of its being 
 restored to the pope. 
 
 M. Thiers to his last hour was unable to under- 
 stand why the abolition of the pope's civil autho- 
 rity should be an irrevocable fact : and he died 
 belonging to the sect of the Temporalisti.— Mne- 
 Uenih Century, Sept. 1889, p. 395. 
 
 Temporary Relief Work, 1847. 
 Ireland, during the potato famine. This 
 relief was given in the spring to a large 
 number of labourers employed on ' pub- 
 lic works,' such as road-making, that 
 they might go and cultivate their own 
 plots of land for ensuing crops. 
 
 Ten {The), or 'I Dieci,' 1810. A 
 criminal court of Venice invested with 
 plenary inquisitorial powers, and entire 
 sovereignty over every individual in the 
 State from the doge downwards. At 
 first the tribunal was appointed for 10 
 days, but was prolonged first for 3 
 months, then a year, then for 5 years, 
 then for 10 years, and in 1325 for per- 
 petuity. They were called I Neri (the 
 black), from the colour of their official 
 robes- The ten controlled every branch 
 of government, were despotic in peace 
 and war, had sole control over all fiscal 
 enactments, annulled at pleasure even 
 the decrees of the Grand Council, and 
 were in power for five centuries. Long 
 before the invasion of Napoleon, in 1796, 
 
TEN 
 
 TEN 
 
 871 
 
 the government of The Ten had become 
 a veritable Reign of Terror. 
 
 The actual number of this council was seven- 
 teen, because the signoria (consisting of the doge 
 and his six councillors) was associated with it. 
 
 Ten Articles {The), 1536. Agreed 
 to by the Convocation to settle the reli- 
 gious differences of the Protestant party 
 at the reformation : (1) The Christian 
 faith as comprised in the Bible, the three 
 creeds, and first four general council-s to 
 be accepted ; (2) baptism is essential for 
 salvation ; (3) penance is a sacrament ; 
 (4) the real corporal presence in the 
 eucharist is to be believed; (5) justifica- 
 tion and remission of sins is a gift of 
 God, through the merits of Christ ; (6) 
 saints are to be honoured as examples of 
 holy life ; (7) prayers may be addressed 
 to saints as intercessors ; (8) vestments, 
 holy water, candles, palms, ashes, &c., 
 are excellent helps to devotion ; (9) 
 images aid devotion ; (10) prayers for 
 the dead are useful, though purgatory is 
 uncertain. See p. 48, ' Articles.' 
 
 Ten Kings of Darkness {The), 
 or the She-ming-wang, the ten judges of 
 hell in Buddhism. 
 
 Ten Men's Tale, or ' Tenmentale.' 
 So the freeborg was called in Yorkshire. 
 Tenmentale consisted in the responsi- 
 bility of ten men for the good conduct of 
 each other. If one of the ten committed 
 a fault, the other nine were bound to 
 produce him, and stand bail for him. If 
 he fled from justice, and his estate 
 proved insufficient, the nine had to make 
 good the penalty. 
 
 Everyone above the age of twelve was required 
 to be enrolled in some tything according to the 
 laws of Canute. 
 
 Ten Numerations {The). A 
 cabalistic doctrine. Three are called the 
 superior, and seven the inferior numera- 
 tions. The three superior are the 
 supreme diadem, wisdom, and under- 
 standing. These existed from all 
 etex'nity. The seven inferior numera- 
 tions are mercy, severity or might, 
 beauty, victory, glory, stability, and 
 sovereignty. 
 
 Ten per cent, and K"o Sur- 
 render, 1854. The watchword of the 
 trades-unions who commenced the great 
 wages movement {q.v.). 
 
 Ten Persecutions {The). Under 
 the Roman emperors. ' The ten horns 
 are ten kings which shall make war with 
 the lamb ' (Rev. xvii. 12-14). 
 
 First century. 
 
 1. Under Nero 64-68, in which Peter 
 and Paul are said to have been slain. 
 
 2. Domitian, 81-96. 
 
 Second century. 
 
 3. Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus 
 Pius, 107-161. 
 
 4. Marcus Aurelius, 161-181, in which 
 Justin Martyr, Polycarp, and Pothlnus 
 were put to death. 
 
 5. Septimus Severus, 202-211, in which 
 Irenfeus was put to death, 
 
 6. Decius, 250-251. 
 
 8. Valerian, 257-260, in which Cyprian 
 was put to death. 
 
 9. Aurelian, 272-275. 
 
 10. Diocletian, 298-305. 
 
 Before the Roman persecutions were those — 
 
 1. By the Zealots, a.d. 34, in which Stephen was 
 stoned. 
 
 2. By Herod Agrippa, A.i). 44, In which James 
 eon of Zebedee was beheaded. 
 
 3. By Annas the Hij;h Priest, A.D. 62, in which 
 James the Less was put to death. See ' Persecu- 
 tions,' and ' Milan, Edict of.' 
 
 Ten Thousand {The), b.c. 370. A 
 confederation of Arcadians, a synod of 
 which met periodically at Megalopolis. 
 See p. 756, ' Retreat of the 10,000.' 
 
 Ten Virtues of the Virgin 
 
 {The). In Catholic theology. 
 
 (1) Chastity. Because she is the queen 
 of virgins. 
 
 (2) Prudence. Shown in the Annun- 
 ciation. 
 
 (3) Humility. Even when chosen for 
 the mother of the Messiah, she called 
 herself ' the handmaid of the Lord.' 
 
 (4) Faith. She believed and doubted 
 not what the angel announced. 
 
 (5) Piety. Shown by her retirement, 
 silence, and submission. 
 
 (6) Obedience. She submitted to the 
 will of God. 
 
 (7) Poverty. She despised the gran- 
 deur and wealth of the world. 
 
 (8) Patience. In bearing the pain of 
 her travail. 
 
 (9) Charity. In offering her son a 
 sacrifice for the salvation of man. 
 
 (10) Compassion. In that a sword 
 jDierced her own heart out of compassion 
 to her son. 
 
872 
 
 TEN 
 
 TENTH 
 
 Ten Years' "War (The), or ' Sacred 
 War,' B.C. 356-346. This was the second 
 of the sacred wars. The first, called 
 the Cirrhsean War, was B.C. 595-586 ; 
 and the third, or Amphissian War, was 
 from Feb. to Aug. of 338 B.C. 
 
 Tenaille {The). In fortification, a 
 low work in the main ditch before the 
 curtain {q.v.) and between the flanks of 
 the half bastions of a front of fortifica- 
 tion {q.v.). Usually about 16 yards in 
 thickness, and riveted with masonry all 
 round. 
 
 Tenant at Will. One who occu- 
 pies without a lease, whose occupancy 
 may be terminated at any time the pro- 
 prietor thinks fit. 
 
 Proper time must be allowed lor removal, and 
 If crops have been sown the outgoing tenant has 
 a right to them or can claim compensation. 
 
 Tenant in Fee Simple. An 
 
 absolute owner, who by a fiction of law 
 is a tenant of the crown. 
 
 Tenant-right, in the north of Ire- 
 land, was either the custom ensuring a 
 permanence of tenure in the same occu- 
 pier, without liability of any increase of 
 rent, except such as might be sanctioned 
 by the general community, — or else the 
 right of the farm-tenant, on the transfer 
 of his farm to another, to receive pur- 
 chase-money, amounting to 101. or 12Z. 
 an acre. In this latter case a schedule of 
 the tenants' debts is made out. His back 
 rent is first paid, and then the different 
 creditors as far as the money goes. The 
 reason of this custom is this. Large 
 tracts of land, the property of absentees, 
 were let, but the owner did nothing 
 whatever either for the land or for the 
 tenant ; so the tenant claimed the right 
 of selling his tenancy. 
 
 The legality of tenant-right in Ulster -was 
 established by 33. 34 Vict. c. 46 (1870). 
 
 Tenants' Defence Association 
 
 {The), 1885. A society in connection 
 with the anti-landlord platform and the 
 ' Plan of Campaign ' {q.v.). As the banks 
 refused to renew the bills which the 
 Irish tenants had taken out to pay their 
 rents, the tenants formed themselves 
 into a society, each contributing to a 
 fund for defence of the whole tenantry. 
 See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Tenants' Defence League {The), 
 July 1889. An Irish League the object 
 of which is ' by litigation and other con- 
 
 stitutional methods to make the lives of 
 Irish landlords as miserable as possible.' 
 It is a tenants' protection league and an 
 agrarian trade-union with an executive 
 and sustentation fund. See p. 455, ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Tenants'-right, in Ireland. The 
 right of a tenant to his improvements, 
 and giving him a property in his holding 
 and a saleable interest. A provision of 
 the Land Act. 
 
 This was a deadly blow to professional agitators, 
 who did all they could to thwart the sale and 
 purchase by denouncing the transaction as 'land- 
 grabbing.' 
 
 Tenants in Socage. Tenants by 
 hereditary right. 
 
 Tennessee (U.S. America) means a 
 ' Curved Spoon,' an Indian name for its 
 river. The state "received its name in 
 1796. The inhabitants were at one time 
 nicknamed Whelps (a nickname now 
 seldom heard). 
 
 Tennis-ball of Fortune {The). 
 Pertinax, the Koman emperdr. He was 
 first a charcoal-seller, then a school- 
 master, then a soldier, then emperor of 
 Rome. Within three months he was 
 dethroned and murdered (126-193). 
 
 Tenson (meaning a contention). A 
 poetical dialogue, not unlike those 
 eclogues of Virgil in which two or more 
 shepherds contend in song. Spenser, in 
 his eclogues, has several tensons. The 
 word is applied to a class of Troubadour 
 poetry. 
 
 Tenth Mazarine {The). One of 
 the twelve diamonds set in the French 
 crown. It was a brilliant, and was so 
 called because Cardinal Mazarin in 1660 
 was the first person who had the diamond 
 polished. 
 
 Tenth Muse {The). 
 
 I. Sappho of Lesbos, who flourished 
 B.C. 600. 
 
 II. Margaret queen of Navarre, sister 
 of Francois I. of France. 
 
 Tenth of April {The), 1848. The 
 day when the Chartists determined to 
 present their monster petition to parlia- 
 ment, and carry it to the house by a 
 procession. The Chartists met on Ken- 
 nington Common under the leadership 
 of Feargus O'Connor, but the idea of a 
 procession was abandoned, and the peti- 
 
TEPHILIM 
 
 TERTIARIES 
 
 873 
 
 tioii was sent in three cabs. The term 
 * Tenth of April ' became proverbial of 
 an apprehended danger averted by 
 judicious forethought. 
 
 The 10th of April, 1848, has Deen a beneficial 
 crisis, not merely in the temper of the working 
 men, so called, but in the minds of those who 
 are denominated by them ' the Aristocracy. 
 — C. KiNGSLEY, A lion Locke (Preface addressed in 
 1854 to the Working-men of Great Britain). 
 
 Tephilim (The) or Frontlet. Four 
 pieces of parcliment containing four 
 texts of scripture, worn by the ancient 
 Jews on the left wrist or middle of the 
 forehead. The texts are Exod. xiii. 10 ; 
 Exod. xiii. 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9; and 
 Deut. xi. 13-21. 
 
 The Tephilim which these old pedants wore on 
 their left wrists, and the Mezuzah which they 
 fixed on the right side of their doors to keep ofl 
 devils.— KiNGSLEY, Hypatia, ch. xxi. 
 
 Ter Sex, aut Tres Tesserae. 
 
 Three sixes or three aces. The Romans 
 played dice with three tesserae, marked 
 like our dico, and the highest throw was 
 three sixes, the lowest throw was three 
 aces. Technically the highest throw was 
 called ' Venus ' or ' king ' {basilicics), and 
 the lowest canes, caniculce, vulturii, 
 or * tres tesserae.' 
 
 There was another game played with four Uili, 
 in which the highest throw was when all four of 
 the dice came different, and the lowest thirow 
 was when they all came alike. 
 
 Terminable Annuities. Sums 
 
 of money borrowed and so paid back that 
 both interest and principal are cancelled 
 in a certain number of years, and the obli- 
 gation terminates. Suppose I buy 1,000/. 
 3 per cent, of the Treasury Stock. If the 
 government pays me only 30Z. a year, it 
 merely pays the Interest, and the capital 
 sum (1,000/.) remains unreduced ; but 
 suppose the government pays 60/. a year 
 instead of 30/., then it pays back every 
 year both interest and part of the prin- 
 cipal, and in about twenty years it would 
 have paid back the entire interest and 
 principal, so that the obligation would 
 terminate. 
 
 Between 1889 and 1904 more than 70 millions ol 
 our National Debt will be thus cancelled. 
 
 Termors. Persons having only a 
 chattel interest in their estates. 
 
 Terra F^rma, applied to the former 
 territories of Venice, means those pos- 
 sessions in Italy not in the Lagune, as 
 the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, 
 Verona, Vicenza, and so on. 
 
 Terreur Blanche (La), 1815. The 
 bloody reaction of the Royalists. Marshal 
 Bi'une was massacred by a Royalist mob 
 at Avignon ; Marshal Berthier committed 
 suicide ; Labedoyere was executed ; 
 Fouche and Talleyrand were dismissed; 
 Marshal Ney was shot ; Murat was shot ; 
 and 4,556,000 Frenchmen were slain in 
 battle. 
 
 Terrible Tenth of May (The), 
 1857, when the British in India were 
 fearfully massacred in Delhi during the 
 Indian Mutiny. 
 
 Terror (The). A period in French 
 history between the extirpation of the 
 Girondists and the death of Robespierre, 
 1793-1794. 
 
 Terror of the G-reeks (The), 
 
 Dominico Michieli, or Micheli, the 36th 
 doge of Venice (died 1130). His tomb 
 bears this inscription : ' Terror Graecorum 
 jacet hie' 
 
 Terrorists. 
 
 1.1793. The party headed by Robes 
 pierre after the death of Marie Antoinette. 
 Those who tried to check the sanguinary 
 fury were nicknamed the ' Moderates.' 
 
 II. 1879. Revolutionists of Russia 
 who in 1881 assassinated Czar Alexander 
 II. See ' Decembrists,' ' Propagandists,' 
 and * Nihilists.' 
 
 Terry Alts, in Ireland. Insurgents 
 of Clare, who appeared after the Union, 
 and committed great outrages. They were 
 similar to the ' Thrashers ' of Con- 
 naught, the 'Carders,' the ' Rockites,' the 
 ' Fenians,' &c. They made themselves 
 very conspicuous in the sanguinary tithe 
 war 1830-1835 (q.v.). See p. 455, ' Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Tertiaries, or Tiers Ordre. Seculars 
 who followed their ordinary caUings, and 
 lived the ordinary life, but promised to 
 conform to certain religious and moral 
 rules drawn out by the order under 
 which they lived. 
 
 The Tertiaries of St. Francis were 
 founded in 1221, 
 
 Those of St. Augustine were founded 
 in 1401. 
 
 Those of St. Dominic were founded in 
 1422. 
 
 Others have been founded since, such 
 as the Carmelites, Servites, &c. 
 
 At present many tertiaries live in convents. 
 
874 
 
 TERTIABY 
 
 TETRARCHY 
 
 Tertiary Canons. Such as re- 
 ceived only a third part of the revenue of 
 the canonate. 
 
 Tertium Quid, which Abelard 
 called ' Conceptualism.' The realists, like 
 Plato, insisted that there is a real some- 
 thing in abstract ideas ; thus beauty is 
 not a mere notion, but a reality. No- 
 minalists, like Aristotle, insist that 
 abstract words are merely names of 
 abstract ideas, that beauty is nothing 
 perse, but simply expresses our general 
 idea of the beautiful in objects. Abelard 
 held a third or intervening theory, that 
 after our conception has been formed, 
 then there is reality in abstract ideas, 
 but not before. Thus w^hen we have 
 tnade up our mind on what makes 
 beauty, that conception of beauty is a 
 reality, a reality post rem (after the 
 conception), and not ante rem. It is a 
 * conceptual ' reality, or tertium quid. 
 
 Teschen, in Silesia {Peace of), 13 
 May, 1779, between Prussia, Austria, and 
 Saxony, terminating the war of Bavarian 
 succession. 
 
 Test Act {The). I. 1562. The first 
 of a series of penal statutes which 
 weighed on the Roman Catholics of 
 England for about 200 years. By these 
 acts the oath of allegiance and the abju- 
 ration of the temporal authority of the 
 pope was exacted of all persons holding 
 office, whether lay or spiritual, with the 
 exception of peers. 
 
 What is popularly known as the Test Act is 
 not this statute of Elizabeth, but the one below. 
 
 II. 25 Car. II. cc. 1, 2 (1673), an en- 
 largement of the Corporation Act {q.v.), 
 obliging all persons whatsoever, before 
 being allowed to accept any place of 
 trust under the crown, to take the oaths 
 of allegiance and supremacy, to subscribe 
 a declaration against transubstantiation, 
 and to receive the sacrament of the Lord's 
 Supper in a parish church. Repealed 
 
 828. 
 
 After 'The Popish Plot' (Oct., 1676) another 
 Test Act was passed to exclude all Roman 
 Catholics from the House of Lords as well as from 
 the House of Commons, and to declare the Church 
 of iiome to be idolatrous. 
 
 Testament {King Boberfs), in 
 Latin leonines. Thus given by Mr. 
 Tyler ;— 
 
 On foot should be all Scottish weire [war] 
 l!y hill and moss themselves to bear : 
 Let wood for walls be ;— Bow and spear 
 
 And battle-axe their fighting-gear. — 
 That enemies do them no drear [harm]. 
 In strait place cause to keep all store, 
 And burn the plain land them before ; 
 Then shall they pass away in haste 
 When that they nothing find but waste; 
 With wiles and wakening of the night. 
 And mickle noises made on height, 
 Them shall they turn with great affray. 
 As they were chased with sword away.— 
 This is the council and intent 
 Of good King Roberts testament. 
 The Scots kept King Robert s [Bruce] testament 
 in recollection, and lurking among the woods 
 and valleys they fell upon such English as sepa- 
 rated themselves from the main body.— Sir W. 
 Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xiii. 
 
 Tete Morte of WUrtemberg 
 
 {Order of the), 1806. Established by 
 Frederick William duke of Brunswick, 
 on the death of his father, at Jena, in 
 1806. When the duke's father had re- 
 ceived his death- wound Napoleon refused 
 to allow the dying man to be conveyed 
 to Brunswick, to die there. He wrote 
 these words in reply to the request: 
 * Qu'il s'en aille en Angleterre, y chercher 
 son salut. Je veux I'e'craser lui et toute 
 sa f amille.' The young duke then arrayed 
 all his soldiers in mourning, as members 
 of the order of the Tete Morte. He 
 placed on their military caps, in front, 
 the device of a skull and cross-bones, 
 and instead of a feather adopted flowing 
 black horse-hair. This gloomy costume 
 was to be continued till the death of 
 Napoleon. It was called ' The Black 
 Legion.' 
 
 Tetrad, according to Pythagoras, is 
 the fourth mathematical quantity, viz. 
 depth. The monad is the indivisible and 
 impartible point ; length is the duad, 
 and breadth the triad. Physically, in- 
 tellectual capacity is the monad, scientific 
 knowledge the duad, opinion the triad, 
 and perception through the senses the 
 tetrad. 
 
 Tetrapolitan Confession (The), 
 1531. The confession of faith of the 
 four cities, Strasburg, Constance, Lin- 
 dau, and Memmingen. This was the 
 Sacramentarian confession presented in 
 the diet of Augsburg, 1530. See p. 785, 
 ' Sacramentarian.' 
 
 Tetrarcliy {A). An independent 
 fourth part of a kingdom. Thus at the 
 death of Herod the Great the kingdom 
 of Judsea was divided into four parts, of 
 which Judaea, Galilee, and Iturea were 
 given to his three sons, Archelaus, Anti- 
 pas, and Philip. Samaria was the re- 
 
TETRARCHY 
 
 THANES 
 
 875 
 
 maining part. In 56 the division was 
 abolished again, and Herod II. (Agrippa) 
 was made sole king of Judaea. 
 
 Herod II. was great-grandson of Herod the 
 Great. His father, Herod Agrippa. ruled over 
 three of the tetrarchies, Judeei, Galilee, and 
 Samaria, but resided at Rome. 
 
 Herod the Great and Mariamne the Asmonsean 
 
 Aristobulus tetrarch of Judaea 
 
 Agrippa, who put James to death 
 
 Herod II. (Agrippa), who heard Paul make his 
 defence. 
 
 Tetrarchy {The Boman), 304-311. 
 Constantius Chlorus (the pale) was 
 maximus imperator, and died at York 
 A.D. 306. The four then were Constan- 
 tius, Galerius, Severus, and Maximinus. 
 
 Severus put an end to his life in 307, 
 and Maxentius became a tetrarch. 
 
 Constantine put an end to the te- 
 trarchy, and became sole emperor a.d. 311. 
 Maximinus killed himself 313. He dispossessed 
 Galerius in 308. 
 
 Teutonic Knights {The), or 
 
 'Order of Teutonic Knights,' 1190, 
 
 JL_ confirmed by Celestine III. in 1192. 
 
 I They wore white robes with a black 
 
 I cross of eight points. Suppressed 
 
 by Napoleon I. in 1809. 
 
 Called the ' Knights of the Virgin Mary,' or 
 ' Brothers of the Teutonic House of Our Lady of 
 Jerusalem,' or the ' Teutonic Knights of St. Mary 
 of Jerusalem,' or 'German Knights of the Cross. 
 
 Teutonic Knights {The), 1190. 
 Organised by Frederick duke of Suabia, 
 in Palestine, and invested in 1192 with 
 the privileges of the Hospitallers and 
 Templars. In 1237 incorporated with 
 the Short-swords of Livonia. Prussia 
 was given to them in 1243 by Innocent 
 IV., and in 1255 they founded Konigsberg. 
 They lost Prussia in 1525, which was 
 given to Albert of Brandenburg by the 
 peace of Cracow. The order was abolished 
 by Napoleon in 1809 ; but still subsists 
 in Austria as an honour. 
 
 Teutonic Nations {The). The 
 Germans, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, 
 Frisians, Dutch, Jutes, and Normans. 
 England was Celtic, but after the Saxon 
 and Danish invasions it became largely 
 Teutonic, and the Normans (after the 
 conquest) added to this predominance. 
 See p. 154, ' Celts.' 
 
 Wales and Ireland are Celtic, and the north of 
 Scotland, and Cornwall largely so. 
 
 Teutons. So the German races are 
 called, from the Teutones or Teutoni, an 
 
 ancient horde of Germany which, with 
 the Cimbri, invaded the Roman do- 
 minions B.C. 113. 
 
 Tewkesbury Mustard Pills. 
 
 Seven hundred fire-balls, which Titus 
 Oates asserted the Roman Catholics had 
 employed to set fire to London. Oates 
 furthermore asserted that these Roman 
 Catholics had made a good thing out of 
 the conflagi'ation by carrying off dia- 
 monds to the value of 14,000Z. Ten 
 years afterwards, in 1676, said Oates, the 
 same persons had set fire to Southwark, 
 by which they gained 2,000Z. above their 
 expenses. 
 
 Texas (U.S. America). It was so 
 called (it is believed) from an Indian 
 confederation called Texas, Tejas, or 
 Friends. The inhabitants were once 
 nicknamed Beef-heads. 
 
 Texerans or Tesserands (weav- 
 ers). So the Waldenses {q.v.) in the 
 south of France were called, because 
 they were for the most part weavers. 
 
 Thaborit'ic Light {The). A 
 heavenly light supposed to emanate from 
 the ' navel soul.' Certain quietists seat 
 themselves on the ground and fix their 
 eyes on their navel (the seat of the soul). 
 After a time a light beams forth upon 
 them which fills them with rapture and 
 ecstasy. This is the Thaborit'ic Light. 
 
 See ' Tabor, Light of,' because it was believed to 
 be identical with the light seen on Mount Tabor 
 at the Transfiguration. 
 
 Thalami'tae. The lowest bank of 
 rowers in a Greek galley ; the uppermost 
 bank were the Thranltce, and the middle 
 bank the Zeugltce. 
 
 Thames Tunnel {The), 1824-1841. 
 Constructed by Marc Isambard Brunei 
 to connect Rotherhithe with Wapping. 
 A bridge was not practicable, not so 
 much on account of the width of the 
 river as the obstruction it would offer to 
 our shipping. The Tunnel is 1,200 feet 
 long, and 63 feet below the bed of the 
 Thames. It has two arched ways and 
 two footways, one for those going from 
 Wapping and Rotherhithe, and one for 
 those going in the opposite direction. 
 
 Thanes (l syl.) were of two sorts, 
 Messe Thegnes and World Thsgnes. 
 Bishops were ' Messe Thanes,' and by 
 
876 
 
 THANNAIM 
 
 THAUMATUEGISTS 
 
 the laws of King Athelstan ranked with 
 earls or secular Thanes. Other priests 
 were ' World Thanes,' and hence were 
 subsequently entitled ' Sir.' The bishop 
 still retains the title of Lord, but the 
 wife of a bishop has no title, not even 
 that of a common knight's wife. 
 
 Thannaim {The). Jewish doctors, 
 authors of the ' Mishnah.' They lived 
 from the time of Malachi to B.C. 21. See 
 p. 291, ' Emoraim.' 
 
 The 'Mishnah' was closed by Rabbi Judah the 
 Nachi four years before. The annotations, &c., 
 form the ' Gemara,' and both together the 
 'Talmud.' 
 
 Thaumaturga of the Nine- 
 teenth Century {The). Filumena, 
 of whom nothing is known except that 
 three tiles were disinterred in 1802 in the 
 cemetery of Priscilla, inscribed thus : 
 
 PAXTE 
 
 CVMTI 
 
 By changing the position of the tiles we 
 get PAXTE cuarpi lumena, and by dividing 
 the words Pax tecum Filumena, The 
 miracles, of course, were those attributed 
 to the disinterred body. 
 
 We are gravely told as an historic fact that the 
 ' Virgin Martyr ' took the trouble to reveal to a 
 
 priest and a nun in a dream that her name waa 
 really Filumena. because she was Fi[lia] Liimena, 
 the daughter of the ' Light of the World.' In con- 
 firmation of this revelation, when her bones were 
 taken to Magnano, she repaired her own skeleton, 
 made her hair grow, and performed many other 
 wonderful works ! This silly stuff is told as an 
 historic fact in the 19th cent., and is actually be- 
 lieved by many. Filumena is duly registered iu 
 the hagiography of the Petits Bollandistes. 
 
 Thaumaturgists. Workers of 
 miracles. (Greek Oavixarovpyeui, to work 
 wonders, or perform tricks of jugglery.) 
 
 From the Old Testament the greatest 
 wonder-workers were Moses, Jannes and 
 Jambres (Pharaoh's magicians), and 
 EUsha. 
 
 Dositheus, who taught Simon Magus, 
 was a great thaumaturgist. 
 
 Simon Magus was called ' The Great 
 Power of God ' (Acts viii. 10). 
 
 A most graphic account of the ascent of Simon 
 Magus, in imitation of that of Elijah, is given in 
 ' Notes and Queries,' 8 Dec, 1883, pp. 441-2. It was 
 in the presence of Nero and an immense crowd. 
 Simon Magus applied to himself many of the 
 words uttered by Christ, such as ' Behold I go to 
 the Father. . . I will prepare a seat for you at the 
 foot of my throne. ... I will pour out upon my 
 elect people my celestial treasures.' And again, 
 ' Verily, verily, I say unto you, whoso believeth 
 in me shall not see death ; for in me is eternal 
 life.' .\nd again, 'Remember that your eyes 
 have seen the Word of God. I am the Beautiful 
 One, the Paraclete, the Omnipotent, the great 
 Pan, the divine All.' 
 
 Fete Day. 
 
 I. Apollonius of Tyana. * Life ' by Philostratos in 8 books 
 
 Philostratos says : ' He raised the dead, healed the sick, cast out devils, 
 uttered prophecies, and saw at Ephesus the assassination of Do- 
 mitian. 
 
 Plotlnus, the Neo-Platonic philosopher. * Life ' by Porphyry — 
 
 Gregory, bishop of Neocsesarea, in Cappadocia. Called em- 
 phatically ' The Thaumaturgus ' 17 Nov. 
 
 Dionysius, or Denys, patron saint of France .... 9 Oct. 
 
 Quintus of .lEolia, in Asia Minor ...... 2 March 
 
 Homdnus of Antioch, martyr ,9 Feb. 
 
 Asclepias, the Sabine. Martyred at Antinoe, in Egypt . . 23 Jan. 
 
 Nicolas, bishop of Myra, in Lycia 6 Dec. 
 
 Macarius the Elder, of Egypt. Solitary of Scete , . .15 Jan. 
 
 Martin of Tours, who divided his cloak with a beggar. 'Life' 
 
 by N. Gervais 11 Nov. 
 
 Titus, martyr, while Rome was under the Goths . . .16 Aug. 
 
 Germdnus, bishop of Auxerre, cc nfessor . . . . .31 July 
 
 Proclus. ' Life ' by Marlnus, and by Eunapius . . .24 Oct. 
 
 Brigit, or Brigida, of Ireland. Her cell was called ' Kill-Dara ' 1 Feb. 
 
 Linus, pope and martyr 23 Sept. 
 
 Cuthbert, the * British Thaumatui'gus ' 20 March 
 
 Jonas, priest of St. Sabas, in Palestine. Of the Greek Church 21 Sept. 
 
 Hesychhts, solitary of St. Andrew's, in Bithynia. Of the 
 
 Greek Church 6 March 
 
 John, bishop of Polybotos, in Asia ,,.... 5 Dec. 
 
 Isaac of Cordova, martyr ........ 3 June 
 
 Aldric, bishop of Mans 7 Jan. 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux, called ' The True Thaumaturgus of the 
 
 West' . . 20 Aug. 
 
 3-98 
 
 205-270 
 
 212-270 
 3rd cent 
 died 283 
 died 303 
 died 311 
 died 342 
 
 310-395 
 
 316-397 
 died 410 
 330-448 
 412-485 
 436-523 
 570-667 
 died 668 
 7th cent. 
 
 8th cent. 
 
 8th cent. 
 
 died 851 
 
 800-856 
 
 1091-115} 
 
THAUMATURGISTS 
 
 877 
 
 ^ Fete Day. 
 Isidore of Seville, farm labourer. 'Life' by John of Da- 
 mascus 10 May 
 
 Dominic, founder of the Dominicans 22 Jan. 
 
 Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans . ... 4 Oct. 
 Hyacinth, called ' Thaumaturgus of the Thirteenth Century* . 16 Aug. 
 ^«i7tOMr/ of Padua, who preached to the fishes. . .. •. 13 June 
 Catherine of Siena. (Not the Catherine famous for the wheel) 30 April 
 
 Vincent Ferrer, a Spanish Dominican 5 April 
 
 Francis of Paula, founder of the Minims . . . . ,2 April 
 
 Francis Xavier, apostle of the Indians 8 Dec. 
 
 Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan 4 Nov. 
 
 Vincent of Paul, founder of the Lazarists and ' Sisters of 
 Charity' 19 July 
 
 1110-1170 
 1170-1221 
 1182-1226 
 1182-1256 
 1195-1231 
 1347-1880 
 1357-1419 
 1416-1507 
 1506-1552 
 1538-1554 
 
 1576-1660 
 
 II. Of these neither the time of birth 
 
 nor of death is known : — 
 
 Fete Day. 
 
 Aninas, or Ananias, anchorite 
 and prophet. In Greek 
 menology . . . .17 Feb. 
 
 Attains, honoured in the 
 
 Greek Church . . .6 June 
 
 Dius, archimandrite and thau- 
 
 maturgist of Constantinople 19 July 
 
 Elisabeth, virgin of Constanti- 
 nople . . . .24 April 
 
 Eustratius of Nicomedia. 
 Honoured in the Greek 
 Church . . . 2 & 18 April 
 
 Felix of Spoleto . . .16 June 
 
 Filumena, called ' Thauma- 
 tui'ga of the Nineteenth 
 Century,' of whom nothing 
 whatever is known . . 10 Aug. 
 
 In 1802 three tiles were found 
 which made this name ; and 
 since then her ghost has 
 told her story. L'Abbe Migne 
 says : ' Ces revelations particu- 
 lieres paraissent reunir sous 
 lea caracteres dune source 
 .divine' ! ! (' Encyclopedic Theo* 
 logique,' vol. xli. p. 719). 
 
 Georgius the Younger. Hon- 
 oured at Constantinople . 23 March 
 
 Georgms-Theophorus, of the 
 Greek Church . . .11 March 
 
 Illyrius, of the Greek Church 3 April 
 
 Jasimus, of the Greek Church 4 Feb. 
 
 Maurus of Sopeto. (Not the 
 
 great Maurus of Glanfeuille) 16 June 
 
 Memnon, of the Greek Church 28 April 
 
 Onesimus, of the Greek 
 
 Church . . . .14 July 
 
 Peter, bishop of Argos . . 3 May 
 
 Peter of Gallia Cisalplna . * 
 
 Philotheus, founder of the 
 monastery of Mermecium, 
 on the Bosphorus . . 15 Cept. 
 
 Fete Day. 
 
 Bitza, a virgin of Coblentz . 30 Aug. 
 
 Puflnus, deacon of Sinope, 
 
 martyr .... 7 April 
 
 Sehastiana, Greek Church . 7 June 
 
 Stephen, Thaumaturgus of 
 the laura of St. Sabas, in 
 Palestine . . . .13 July 
 
 Tharasius of Lycaonia. (Not 
 the patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople) 25 Feb. 
 
 Theocleta, Greek Church . 21 Aug. 
 
 Titus, of the Greek Church . 2 April 
 
 Zanais, called ' Thaumaturgus 
 
 of Constantinople ' . .6 June 
 
 III. The following were miracle workers, 
 but not entitled ' Thaumaturgi ' by the 
 Catholic Church : — 
 
 Prince Jlexander of Hohenlohe, titular bishop 
 of Sardica. His miracles made a great noise 
 in 1620-1821. He healed by prayer only. 
 
 J. Joseph Oassnerot Bratz, in the Tyrol, who exor- 
 cised the sick. His cures were considered to be 
 miraculous (1727-1779). 
 
 Javibiicus. When he prayed, we are told, his body 
 ' rose in the air at least 10 cubits, and his face 
 became luminous ' ; so says Eunapius (4th 
 cent.). 
 
 Jannt's and Jambres, Pharaoh's magicians, who 
 imitated the miracles of Mo.ses. 
 
 Mohammed is said to have performed no miracles, 
 yet rode ho to heaven on the back of Alborak, 
 made the moon pass up one sleeve and down 
 the other, and took a scroll of the Koran out of 
 the horns of a bull (570-(>t2). 
 
 FAaise Pascal, philosopher and mathematician 
 (quite sufficient to account for his ' deeds of 
 wonder '), 1623 1662. 
 
 Simoii Magus of Samaria, called ' The Great Power 
 of God' (Acts viii. 10). 
 
 Sospltra, who, says Eunapius, ' had the power of 
 seeing what was done in any part of the world.' 
 
 Vespaaian, the P.oman emperor, we are told, ' cured 
 a blind man and a cripple by his touch while 
 staying at Alexandria.' 
 
 * ^* Caspar Schott published a treatise 
 on natural magic, entitled ' Thaumaturgus 
 Physicus ' (1657-9). 
 
 Apparently thaumaturgy did not hold 
 a very high place in the Cliristian Church. 
 It was extremely common, and nothing 
 
878 
 
 THAUMATURGUS 
 
 THEOPHILANTHROPISTS 
 
 whatever is known of many thauma- 
 turgists beyond the name and/e^e day. 
 
 Thaumaturgus. The following 
 
 are given as thaumaturgi by Mgr. Guerin, 
 'Petits Bollandistes,' xvii. p. 757. 
 Antony of Padua . . . 1195-1231 
 Bridget or Brigit of Ireland 436-523 
 
 Francis de Paula . . . 1416-1507 
 
 Gregory of Neoca?sarea . 212-270 
 Hyacinth (of the 13th cent.) . 1182-1257 
 Martin of Tours . . . 316-397 
 Vincent Ferrier . . . 1357-1419 
 Francis Xavier . . . 1506-1552 
 Hundreds ol others are said to have worked 
 miracles, but the eight given above are recognised 
 thaumaturgi. 
 
 Thaumaturgus of the "West 
 
 (The). St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091- 
 1153). 
 
 The before a proper name in Scot- 
 land and Ireland means the head of a 
 clan, as : The MacLeod, The Chisholm, 
 in Scotland; The O'Donoghue, The 
 O'Connor Don, in Ireland. The assump- 
 tion of ' the ' was forbidden and declared 
 treasonable because the head of a clan, 
 like The O'Neill, also claimed a right to 
 sovereignty. Thus when O'Neill threw 
 off his allegiance to Queen Elizabeth, he 
 called himself 'The O'Neill of Ulster,' 
 meaning that he was king of Ulster. 
 
 The'atines (3 syl.), 1524. Confirmed 
 by Clement VII. in 1524. Settled in 
 France by Cardinal Mazarin in 1644, 
 and suppressed in France in 1790. The 
 order was founded by the Archbishop of 
 Chieti(in Latin, Thedte),w\io afterwards 
 was pope (Paul IV.). The object of the 
 order was to reform the lives of the clergy, 
 and restore the priesthood to apostolic 
 purity. They wore a black soutane, and 
 black robe with white sleeves. 
 
 Theatines of the Congres-a- 
 tion, 1583. An order of nuns founded 
 at Naples by Ursula Benincasa. Made 
 subject to the Theatines by Clement IX. 
 in 1668. 
 
 Theatines of the Hermitage, 
 
 1610. Founded in Naples by Ursula 
 Benincasa, and confirmed by Urban VIII. 
 in 1624. 
 Thebaidic. See p. 787, ' Sahidic' 
 
 Thellusson Act (The), 39 & 40 
 Geo. III. c. 98. For checking the dispo- 
 hition of tosta.tov3 to restricting the use 
 
 of their fortunes till they had accumu- 
 lated to very large amounts. So called 
 from Mr. Thellusson, who had directed 
 in his will that his personal property 
 should be left to accumulate during the 
 lives of his three sons, and the lives of 
 their sons, and then to be inherited by 
 the eldest male descendant of his three 
 sons. No testator can now tie up his 
 property for more than twenty-one years, 
 dating from the death of the testator. 
 
 Mr. Thellusson died 21 July, 1797. It was decided 
 in the House of Lords that his 'stock' might 
 accumulate for 120 years, when it would amount 
 to 140 millions sterling. Should no heir then 
 exist, the whole should be applied to the discharge 
 of the national debt. 
 
 Them.istians, 535. Monophysites, 
 originated by Themistius, deacon at 
 Alexandria. Also called Agnoites [q.v.). 
 
 Themis'tocl6s of Modem 
 
 Greece. Constantine Kanaris (1795- 
 
 1855). 
 
 Theodor'iei Infernum. The 
 
 crater at Lipari. 
 
 Theodosian Code (The). Said to 
 have been compiled by command of 
 Theodosius the Younger, Emperor of the 
 East (401, 402-450). The reputed date 
 of the code is 438 ; but nine years later 
 the 'Novelise Constitutiones ' were 
 promulgated in the "Western empire. 
 The codex consists of 16 books, sub- 
 divided into titles and sections. The 
 262 laws are imperial Rescripts {q.v.) 
 consecrating the wisdom of Christian 
 princes from the reign of Constantine to 
 the year 447. One of the edicts ascribed 
 to Constantine, extending the jurisdic- 
 tion of bishops to all causes, has been 
 proved to be a forgery; it is, however, 
 inserted in the capitularies of Charle- 
 magne. See p. 524, ' Literary Forgeries.' 
 
 Another edict, ascribed to the same emperor 
 [Constantine], and annexed to the Theodosian 
 code, extended the jurisdiction of the bishops to 
 all causes which either party chose to refer to it, 
 even where they had already commenced in a 
 secular court, and declared the bishop's sentence 
 not subject to appeal. This edict has clearly 
 been proved to be a forgery.— Hallam, Middle 
 Ages. vol. 11. p. 211. 
 
 Theodosian Table (The). Same 
 as the Peutingerian Table (q.v.). 
 
 Theoph'ilan'thropists (Lover3 
 of God and man), 1796-1800. Philan- 
 thropic deists who rose in France during 
 the revolution. They believed in God 
 and the immortality of the soul, but not 
 
THEOPHORON 
 
 THERMOPYL^ 
 
 879 
 
 in the Christian scheme of salvation 
 through faith or by the atonement. They 
 considered that the duty of man is doing 
 good, and their rule was, ' Worship God, 
 cherish your kind, and render yourself 
 useful to your country.' Thomas Paine 
 was one of the founders of this society, 
 and one of its most active members. 
 
 These Theophilanthropists superseded the so- 
 cial circle of Paris. Its cliief authors were Auber- 
 mesnil, Chemin, Mandar, and Valentin Haily. 
 The cult was professed in many of the French 
 churches, but was forbidden in 1800. 
 
 Theoph'oron, Christot'okos, 
 and Theot'okos. Nestorius {5th cent.) 
 declared that Mary was not diorSKos 
 (mother of God), but only xP'<'''''OT({«os 
 (mother of Christ), for God cannot be 
 born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth 
 he called 6eo<p6pov (possessed of God). 
 These distinctions were condemned by 
 the Council of Ephesus in 431. 
 
 Theos'ophy, 1889, means ' the wis- 
 dom of the gods,' or the divine wisdom 
 which underlies all religions. It pro- 
 fesses to pick out the grains of wisdom 
 from all the divers religious systems of 
 the world, and to amalgamate them into 
 one consistent whole. 
 
 Theot (Catherine), 1725-1793. A 
 French visionary, who called herself 
 sometimes the Mother of God and some- 
 times the new Eve. 
 
 Theotokos. See ' Theophoron.' 
 
 Therapeutse (The), Greek OepaTrev- 
 Toi. Greek Jews of Egypt, more rigid 
 than the Essenes, as they avoided towns 
 and dwelt only in deserts or * commons,' 
 where they gave themselves up to contem- 
 plation. Like the Essenes they had all 
 things in common, but unlike the Es- 
 senes they abjured all possessions beyond 
 the barest necessities. When anyone 
 er.tered the society he ' sold all that he 
 had and gave to the poor.' The Thera- 
 peutse were all celibates, like the Essenes, 
 although women were allowed to join 
 their society. On Sabbath days all dined 
 'together, the women on one side, the men 
 opposite, and the fare was bread and 
 Bait, with a little hyssop (Philo, 'De Vi^a 
 Contemplativa '). 
 
 The Therapeutse believed that God is the author 
 of all good, but not of evil. 
 
 That the soul is immortal. That the good are 
 rewarded after death, and the wicked punished. 
 
 They objected to animal sacrifice, as no inan 
 could be justified in taking life. 
 
 Lie ven was their sacred number. 
 
 Ther'midor (The 9th), Year II. 
 27 July, 1794. The day when Robes- 
 pierre was accused by Tallien in the Con- 
 vention, and arrested in the H6tel-de- 
 Ville, Paris. He and 22 of his partisans 
 were guillotined next day (10 Thermidor, 
 Year II.). 
 
 Amongst these partisans were St. Just, Lebas. 
 Henriot, Robespierre jeune, &c. The month 
 called Thermidor was from 19 July to 18 Aug. 
 
 Thermido'rian G-overnment 
 
 (The), 1795-1799. The French Directory 
 was so called because it was established 
 in the month Thermidor (July). 
 
 Thermido'rian Re ign of Terror 
 
 (The), 1795. The period which immedi- 
 ately succeeded the fall of Robespierre, 
 when the Anti-Jacobins were in power, 
 and guillotined the Jacobins with the 
 same relentless vengeance as Robespierre 
 had shown against the Anti-Jacobins. 
 
 Thermido'rians. Partisans of the 
 9th Thermidor. See ' Thermidor.' Origi- 
 nally applied to Tallien, Legendre, Le- 
 cointre, Freron, Thuriot, Bourdon de 
 rOise, and Barras, but afterwards (1794) 
 applied to all the Anti-Jacobin party, 
 which rose into power on the downfall of 
 Robespiex're (9 Thermidor, Year II.), i.e. 
 27 July, 1794. There were a host of 
 young Thermidorians called * Fre'ron's 
 Gilded Youth.' See ' Jeunesse Dore'e.' 
 
 Generally speaking, the term Thermidorians 
 was applied to those who wanted to restore the 
 monarchy. 
 
 ThermopylaB of France {The), 
 
 1792. The Forest of Argonne, which 
 Thouvenot was assigned by General 
 Dumouriez to hold against the army of 
 Bi-unswick, who was marching on to- 
 wards Paris. Whilst planning how he 
 was to prevent the allied Prussian and 
 Austrian armies, which had just taken 
 Verdun (2 Sept., 1792), from advancing 
 on Paris, he wrote to the French min- 
 isters, ' Grand-Prey and Islettes are 
 our Thermopylae.' He meant that the 
 enemy would be penned up in the deso- 
 late, muddy, 'and sterile fields of Cam- 
 pagne, if his army held Grand-Prey and 
 Islettes. If not the enemy would winter 
 in the fertile country of the Trois 
 Eveches. 
 
 [Dumouriez] beckons a certain young Thouve- 
 not, the fire of whose looks had pleased him, to 
 wait a moment. Thouvenot waits : ' Voila (saya 
 Polymetis, pointing to the map) that is the Forest 
 of Argonne, that long strip of rocky mountain and 
 wild wood— 40miles long . . , this might one . . . 
 seize . . . [and] once seized . . . [it] might be the 
 
880 
 
 THESMOPHORIA 
 
 THIRTY 
 
 Thermopylae of France.'— Carlyle, French Revolu- 
 tion, vol. iii., book i., 3. 
 
 Thes'mophor'ia. A festival of the 
 ancient Greeks in honour of Demeter, 
 the thesmoph'oros or law-giver. It lasted 
 three days of October, and only married 
 women could take part in the ceremonies. 
 The last day, called Kalligenei'a, was 
 spent in jollity and raillery. 
 
 Thiers (Afows.). His nicknames were 
 ' Attila le Petit,' ' Tamerlan a lunettes,' 
 ' Camele'on,' ' Ge'neral Bonne,' ' Le Roi 
 des Versailleux.' Louis Adolphe Thiers, 
 born at Marseilles 1797 ; first president 
 of the French Republic 1871-1873 ; died 
 1877. 
 
 Thiggers ana Sorners of Scot- 
 land. Similar to the ' sturdy rogues ' of 
 England. Vagabonds who preferred 
 begging to work, and collected alms 
 by menacing the timid. James 1. of 
 Scotland tried to put them down, and 
 ordered licensed beggars to wear a badge. 
 These licensed beggars were called 
 ' Gaberlunzies.' 
 
 To thig is to beg. Ancient German tnigen. Thig- 
 gers also written Thigsters. A Sorner, in Scotch 
 law. is one who takes meat and drink from others 
 by force or threats. Sorn or Sorehon was an arbi- 
 trary exaction or servile tenure in Scotland and 
 Ireland. Purveyance was a similar exaction in 
 England, that isfood and free quarters for king or 
 chief and all his retinue on passage. 
 
 Thimble League (The), 1886. To 
 
 provide work at fair wages for women 
 whose only means of livelihood is needle- 
 work. 
 
 Thinse. An hypothetical city of 
 ancient geographers, situated, as Ptolemy 
 says (book vii., 3), ' on or near the vast 
 ocean which bounds Asia. It is enclosed 
 by brazen walls.' The following is the 
 description given in the Periplus of this 
 city : ' It is situated under the Lesser 
 Bear, and is reported to border on the 
 oj)posite part of Pontus and the Caspian 
 Sea, by which the Maeotis Palus flows 
 into the ocean ' (' Periplus Maris Ery- 
 thrsei,' ap. Hudson, ' Geogr. Vet. Scrip- 
 Grseci Minores,' vol. i., p. s6). 
 
 Some identify Thinae with China. 
 
 Third Founder of Rome {The). 
 Caius Marius, the victor of the Teutons 
 and Cimbrians (b.c. 101) ; the second 
 founder was Camillus, who overthrew 
 the Gauls that invaded Rome under 
 Brennua (b.c. 367). Romulus is called 
 the original founder (b.c. 753). 
 
 Third Order of Religionists 
 
 (The). See p. 873, ' Tertiaries.' 
 
 Third Romulus (TTie). See above, 
 ' Third Founder of Rome.' 
 
 Thirlwall Prize {The\, for original 
 historical research. A prize given every 
 alternate year. Part of the prize is a 
 bronze medal. Open to all graduates of 
 the University of Cambridge of not more 
 than four years' standing. Founded out 
 of the Thirlwall memorial fund 1884; 
 first award 1889. 
 
 Thirteen United Colonies (T^e), 
 
 1775. The style assumed by the Ameri- 
 can Congress after Georgia sent in her 
 adhesion. For the other twelve colonies, 
 see ' Patres Patriae.' See also ' Congress 
 of the United Colonies.' 
 
 Thirty {Battle of the), 1351. The 
 defiance of Jean sire de Beaumanoir to 
 the English chatelain Bemborough to 
 decide a contest by thirty Bretons pitted 
 against thirty Englishmen. It is said 
 by French historians that after eight of 
 the Englishmen had been slain, the rest 
 surrendered ; and that Jean sire de 
 Beaumanoir quenched his thirst with a 
 draught of blood. The fight took place 
 between the castles of Josselin and 
 Ploermel in France. 
 
 Thirty Tyrants {The). 1. Of 
 Athens, b.c. 404. After the battle of 
 ^gospotamos, the government of Athens 
 was changed into an oligarchy. The poli- 
 tical clubs named a committee of five who 
 called themselves the Athenian ephors; 
 and this committee nominated thirty 
 persons to draw up the new constitution 
 and to undertake the temporary admi- 
 nistration of the city. The chief names 
 were Theramenes and Critias. The com- 
 mittee thus appointed soon obtained the 
 unenviable name of the Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 II. Of Borne, b.c. 200. A term loosely 
 applied to a number of usurpers who 
 assumed the rank and title of Augustus 
 in different Roman provinces after the 
 death of Valerian. The phrase applied 
 to a list of independent rivals, only 
 nineteen in number, is ridiculous, and 
 these rivals in no wise resembled the 
 council of thirty set by Sparta over 
 Athens. 
 
 The nineteen pretenders to the Roman throne 
 were Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista Odenathus. 
 and Zenobia (in the East) ; Posthumus, Lollian, 
 
THIRTY 
 
 THOMISTS 
 
 881 
 
 Vlctorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and 
 Tetricus (in Gaul and the western provinces) ; 
 Ingennus, Regelliiinus, and Aureolus (in Illyricum 
 and the confines of the Danube) ; Saturninus, in 
 Pontus ; Trebellian, in Tsauria ; Piso, in Thessaly ; 
 Valens, in Achaia ; yEmilian, in Egypt ; and Gel- 
 Rus, in Africa. They all died a violent death. 
 Perhaps the thirty was made up of the wives and 
 children involved in the deaths of the pretenders. 
 
 Thirty Years' Peace of Venice 
 
 {The). From 1538 to 1570, when Selim 
 II. sultan of Turkey declared war against 
 Venice wholly without provocation. 
 
 Thirty Years' Truce {The), b.c. 
 445-415. This truce preceded the great 
 Peloponnesian war. 
 
 Thirty Years' War {A). The 
 War of the Roses lasted thirty years; 
 and in tliis civil war more than 100,000 
 Englishmen lost their lives. The first 
 battle was that of St. Albans 23 May, 
 1455, and the war ended with the death 
 of Richard III. in Bosworth Field 23 
 Aug., 1483. The other historic battles 
 were : Northampton, in which Henry VI. 
 was made prisoner a second time 19 
 July, 1460 ; Wakefield, in which Richard 
 duke of York was slain 31 Dec, 1460; 
 Towton, in which Henry VI. was a third 
 time made prisoner — this was one of the 
 bloodiest domestic battles ever fought, 
 29 March, 1461. Hexham, won by the 
 Yorkists 15 May, 1463; Barnet, in which 
 the Earl of Warwick was slain, fought 
 Easter Day, 14 April, 1471 ; Tewkesbury, 
 in which Margaret and her son were 
 taken prisoners 4 May, 1471. Altogether 
 eight noted battles. 
 
 Thirty Years' War {The), 1618- 
 1648. A war to extirpate the Protestants 
 of Germany set on foot by Kaiser Fer- 
 dinand II. It may be divided into four 
 parts, thus — 
 
 I. From the commencement to the 
 Danish intervention. A period of seven 
 years (1618-1625). 
 
 II. From the beginning of the Danish 
 intervention to the peace of Liibeck, 
 when Christian IV. of Denmark retired 
 from the contest. A period of five years 
 (1625-1630). 
 
 III. From the intervention of the 
 Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus to the 
 battle of Nordlingen. Another period of 
 five years (1630-1634). 
 
 IV. From the French intervention to 
 the peace of Westphalia, a period of 
 thirteen years, in which the character of 
 tlie war was wholly changed. It was no 
 
 longer a religious war, but a fight by 
 France and Sweden for German ascend- 
 ency (1635-1648). 
 
 Thistle {Knights of the), 809, said 
 to have been founded in Scotland by 
 Archaicus. Revived by James II. of Great 
 Britain in 1687 ; again by Anne 31 Dec, 
 1703. The badge is a collar composed 
 of sixteen gold thistles interlaced with 
 golden sprigs of rue ; and a small golden 
 image of St. Andrew in a gold badge 
 attached to the collar. The motto is 
 * Nemo me impune lacessit.' 
 
 The ' rue ' is a pun. Thistles Andrew {rue), 
 
 Thistlewood's Conspiracy, 
 
 1820, to assassinate all the ministry. 
 Arthur Thistlewood had been arrested 
 for taking part in the Spa Fields riots 
 {q.v.), Dec. 1816. He challenged Lord 
 Sidmouth (secretary of state for the 
 Home Department) 1817. Sixteen of the 
 ministers were to die at Lord Harrowby's 
 house in Grosvenor Square on 19 Feb. 
 One of the conspirators was to call with 
 a note, and when the door was opened 
 the rest were to rush in and murder all the 
 j ministers, bringing off in bags the heads 
 of Sidmouth and Castlereagh. They 
 were then to throw fireballs into the 
 straw-sheds of the cavalry bai-racks and 
 set them on fire ; and then to take the 
 Bank and the Tower. Edwards informed 
 against the conspirators, so the whole 
 affair ended in smoke. Thistlewood and 
 four others were executed 1 May, 1820. 
 
 The four others were Ings, Brunt, Tidd, and 
 Davidson. Castlereagh, pronounce Castle-ray, 
 
 Tho m as ( Chris tians of St.). A very 
 early sect settled on the coast of Malabar, 
 and said to have been planted by Thomas 
 the apostle. They lapsed into the Nes- 
 torian heresy ; that is, they believed in 
 the co-existence of the two natures of 
 Christ, but not in their union. At present 
 they are chiefly Monophysites, but many 
 are Romanists of the Eastern rite. 
 
 It is certainly remarkable that the churches 
 said to have been founded by apostles were, as a 
 rule, not what is now called ' orthodox.' These 
 were the Seven Churches of Asia, the St, Thomas 
 Christians, the Church of Pella presided over by 
 James and his brother, and so on. 
 
 Thomasites. See p. 169, ' Christ- 
 adelphians.' 
 
 Thomists. Disciples of Thomas 
 
 Aquinas (1224-1274), who applied the 
 
 Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. 
 
 Aquinas was a Dominican, and therefore 
 
 SL 
 
882 
 
 THOMITES 
 
 THREE-CORNERED 
 
 was hated by the Franciscans, their na- 
 tural enemies. In the 14th cent. Duns 
 Scotus, a Franciscan, came forward as the 
 avowed opponent of Thomas Aquinas, 
 and hence arose the two sects, the 
 Thomists and the Scotists. The Thomists 
 leaned to ' Nominalism ' (q-v.) ; the 
 Scotists to ' Realism ' (q.v.). The Tho- 
 mists, like Augustine, denied the ' Ira- 
 maculate Conception ' ; the Scotists 
 maintained it. The Thomists believed 
 in the doctrine of Condignitism (q.v.) ; 
 the Scotists were Semi-pelagians {q.v.). 
 The points of grace and predestination 
 were always bones of contention. 
 
 See 'Christians of St. Thomas,' a large body of 
 Christians in Malabar. See p. 170. 
 
 Thomites {The) of Kent, 1838. Fol- 
 lowers of John Nicholl Thom, a native 
 of Cornwall, who went to Kent, assumed 
 the name of Sir William Courtenay, gave 
 out that he was the Messiah, and wholly 
 invulnerable by fire or steel. This luna- 
 tic had a large following of respectable 
 middle-class men and women, who were 
 guilty of rioting. The military being 
 called out, Thom was shot, and buried 
 at Heme Hill 5 June, 1838. 
 
 Mr. Wyse referred to the ignorance revealed in 
 the county of Kent by the delusion of the Thomites. 
 — HOWITT, Hist, of Eng. year 1H39, p. 441. 
 
 Thorn {Treaty of), 1466, which closed 
 the wars between the Poles and the Teu- 
 tonic Knights of Preussen. By this 
 treaty all the western part of Preussen was 
 ceded to Poland, and the rest of Preussen 
 (or ancient Prussia) was held as a fief by 
 the knights. 
 
 Thorough (T^e). A system adopted 
 by Wentworth and Archbishop Laud, 
 which would (by the aid of the church) 
 have rendered Charles I. the most abso- 
 lute of all monarchs. It was the ' tho- 
 rough ' subjection of all law to the royal 
 will. 
 
 The hearers had not forgotten the ' Thorough,* 
 nor the utter suppression of all forms of religion 
 but his own, the sweeping away utterly of the faith 
 of Scotland, and the substitution of Arminianism 
 and the liturgy.— Howitt, Hint, of Engl. (Charles 
 I., chap. iv. p. 249). 
 
 Thoulounid.es (3 syl.). A Turcoman 
 dynasty of Egypt (869-905), so called 
 from Thouloun of the tribe of the Oi'gours. 
 He was a slave, but made Egypt inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 Thrani'tSQ, the uppermost bank of 
 rowers in a Greek galley. The lowest 
 bank was called the Thalamltce and the 
 
 middle bank the ZeugltcB. As the oars 
 of the Thranitee were the longest, their 
 labour was greatest, and they had higher 
 wages. 
 
 Three Articles {The), 1584. The 
 three things which Archbishop Wliitgift 
 required the clergy to subscribe to, viz. 
 (1) the royal supremacy in matters eccle- 
 siastical as well as temporal ; (2) the 
 legality of the Book of Common Prayer 
 and the Ordinal ; and (3) the Thirty-nine 
 Articles. See p. 48, ' Articles.' 
 
 Three Branch Men {The). A 
 term applied to those politicians who in 
 the reign of Charles I. used to speak of 
 the king, lords, and commons as the 
 three estates, or the three branches of 
 the legislature. The phrase originated 
 with John Reeves at the close of the 
 16th cent. 
 
 Lord Clarendon says : ' The three branches is not 
 only unsound in point of law, but is wholly false 
 as a metaphor. Nobody talks of branches, but 
 relatively to something else. If you speak of 
 branches of a canal, you always have in your 
 mind the grand trunk ; but if king, lords, and 
 commons are three branches, where is the 
 trunk ? ' 
 
 (Of course the three estates of the kingdom are 
 the nobility, the clergy, and the commons.) 
 
 Three Chapters {The). In Greek 
 Ke<j)d\aia. Schedules setting forth 
 the heresies of Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
 Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of 
 Edessa, accused of the Nestorian and 
 Pelagian taint. They had been cut off 
 and restored to church communion, and 
 were dead and buried, when Justinian 
 revived the controversy and submitted 
 the ' Three Chapters ' to the fifth general 
 council held at Constantinople in 553. 
 The three ' heretics ' and all their de- 
 fenders were then delivered over to the 
 prince of darkness. 
 
 Dean Milman (vol. ii. p. 843) says : ' The contro- 
 versy of "the Three Chapters" was idle and 
 frivolous; yet how many pages of church history 
 does it not fill ! ' Gibbon says : ' The dispute has 
 filled more volumes than it deserves lines.'— See 
 Robertson, Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. ii. 
 p. 301. 
 
 Three-cornered Constitu- 
 
 encies. A political device for repre- 
 senting minorities. In 1867 it was 
 enacted that if any place returned more 
 than two members, the constituents 
 should be allowed to vote for one less 
 than the entire number : thus if, as in 
 the city of London, there are four mem- 
 bers, the constituents could vote for only 
 three. By this arrangement the three 
 
THEEE 
 
 THREE 
 
 883 
 
 most popular candidates would represent 
 the majority, and the fourth choice would 
 lie between the least popular of the 
 majority and the most popular of the 
 minority, and in almost every case the 
 latter would be elected. 
 
 Three Days of July (The), or 
 • The Three Days,' July 27, 28, 29 (Tues- 
 day, Wednesday, and Thursday) of 1830, 
 in which the revolution of France cul- 
 minated in the abdication of Charles X. 
 
 The famous Three Days of July had as thrilling 
 an effect in Transylvania as elsewhere.— Godkin, 
 
 Jlist. of HuiiQury. 
 
 Three Emperors {The), b.c. 2953- 
 2598. The 10th ki of Chinese ' history.' 
 This mythic period followed the alle- 
 gorical. The three mythic emperors were 
 Fo-hi, Chin-nong, and Hoang-li, i.e. son 
 of heaven, divine husbandman, and em- 
 peror of earth. 
 
 Three Fatal to France. The 
 
 fatal nuinber to Rome has been six ; 
 and three has proved singularly fatal to 
 France. 
 
 I. Take the kings. The third of any 
 name has been uniformly either worth- 
 less or unlucky : Childebert III., Clotaire 
 III., Clovis III., Dagobert III., and 
 Thierry III. were rois faineants . 
 
 Childekic III., the last king of France 
 of the first race, was confined in a cloister 
 that Pepin le Bref might reign in his 
 stead. 
 
 Pepin le Bref was the third Pepin : 
 (1) Pepin de Landen ; (2) Pepin d'He'ris- 
 tal, his grandson, and (3) Pepin le Bref, 
 grandson of Pepin d'He'ristal, who was 
 succeeded by the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 
 Chaeles III. le Simple was wholly 
 under the thumb of favourites, and 
 after a most inglorious reign was 
 poisoned by the Comte de Vermandois, 
 
 Henki III. le Mignon. ' weaker than 
 woman and worse than harlot,' was 
 assassinated by Jacques Clement. 
 
 Louis III., joint king with Carloman, 
 reigned about a year and was killed by 
 an accident at the age of 22. 
 
 Philippe III. le Hardi was singularly 
 unfortunate, and singularly misnamed 
 ' The Bold.' This tool of Labrosse went 
 on a crusade, and brought home the dead 
 bodies of five near relatives : his father, 
 his wife, his son, his brother, and his 
 brother-in-law. The ' Sicilian Vespers ' 
 {q.v.) occurred in his reign. He died of 
 .an epidemic at Perpignan. 
 
 Napoleon III. lost his imperial crown 
 at Sedan, and died in exile at Chisel- 
 hurst, in Kent. 
 
 II. The succession of three brothers 
 has always proved fatal : 
 
 The Capetian dynasty terminated 
 with the succession of three brothers : 
 Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles IV. 
 (sons of Philippe le Bel). 
 
 The Valois line came to an end by the 
 succession of three brothers : Francois 
 IL, Charles IX., and Henri III. (sons of 
 Henri II.). 
 
 The BouBBON dynasty terminated with 
 the succession of three brothers : Louis 
 XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. 
 (sons of Louis the Dauphin). 
 
 III. The vionarchij of France was 
 brought to an end by the third of these 
 triplets. 
 
 The empire of France consisted of 
 Napoleon I., Napoleon IL, and Napo- 
 leon III. 
 
 Ut dicitur, semper sub sextis perdita Koma, 
 Sic quoque sub numero tres perdita Francia 
 semper. 
 
 If six to Rome hath always brought mischance, 
 Three hath a fatal number proved to France. 
 Sec p. 796, ' Semper sub Sextis.' 
 
 Three Glorious Days, or 'La 
 
 grande semaine.' The insurrection of 
 27, 28, 29 July (1830), in Paris, which 
 drove Charles X. from the throne. The 
 days were Tuesday, Wednesday, and 
 Thursday. 
 
 The political world was shaken by the three 
 glorious days in Paris.— J. A. Fboude, Thomas 
 'Carlyle, vol. ii. p. 124. 
 
 Three Great Military Orders 
 
 (The). The Knights Templars, the 
 Knights Hospitallers, and the Teutonic 
 Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem. 
 
 Three Hundred (The), of Milan. 
 The band in charge of the banner of St, 
 Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of Milan, 
 sworn to die in its defence. The three 
 hundred were supported by a guard of 
 three times three hundred, the elect sol- 
 diers of Lombardy. Three was a sacred 
 number, and three times three was thrice 
 sacred. 
 
 Three in English history. Our line of 
 kings never exceeds three reigns without 
 interruption or catastrophe. 
 
 William I., IL, Henry I, 
 A usurper, Stephen, 
 
 Henry II. , Richard I, 
 
 A usurper, John. 
 
 Sl2 
 
884 
 
 THEEE 
 
 THEEE 
 
 Henry III., Edward I. 
 
 Edward II. murdered. 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 Richard II. deposed. 
 
 Henry IV., V., VI. 
 
 Line of Lancaster changed. 
 
 Edward IV., V., Richard in. 
 
 Dynasty changed. 
 
 Henry VII., Vni., Edward VL 
 
 Lady Jane Grey. 
 Mary, Elizabeth. 
 
 Dynasty changed. 
 
 James I. 
 
 Charles I. beheaded. 
 
 Charles 11. 
 
 James II. dethroned. 
 William III., Anne. 
 
 Dynasty changed. 
 
 George I., II., m. 
 
 Regency. 
 George IV., William IV., Victoria. 
 
 Indirect successions. 
 *,* Except in one case, that of Jolin, we have 
 never had a qreat-ci landchild as sovereign indirect 
 descent. See ' Three Fatal to France.' 
 
 Three Kings {The). The three 
 Kings of Cologne are the supposed 
 Magians who offered gifts to the infant 
 Jesus in Bethlehem. The ' Feast of the 
 Three Kings ' is the Feast of Epiphany 
 or Twelfth Night. There was a famous 
 dramatic spectacle so called, once ex- 
 tremely popular. The representation in 
 1336 by the monks of Milan is historic. 
 
 The names usually given in Cologne Cathedral 
 are Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar ; but other 
 traditions give other names, as Apellios, Ameros, 
 and Damascos ; Magalath, Galgalath, and Sara- 
 sin,— Ator, Sator, and Peratoras. 
 
 Three Kings' Day. Twelfth 
 Day, so called because the visit of the 
 ' Three Kings ' or wise men of the East 
 who came to honour the infant Jesus is 
 commemorated on that day (the Epi- 
 phany). 
 
 Three per cent. Reduced 
 Annuities {The), 1747. Several 
 funds borrowed at a higher rate of inte- 
 rest reduced to a three per cent, interest. 
 In 1749 by Act of Parliament it was 
 declared that all such holders of the 
 fund as did not choose to accept the 
 reduced interest should be paid off in 
 full. Very few embraced the alternative. 
 
 Three Popes. 
 
 I. In the 11th cent, there were three 
 simultaneous popes : Benedict IX. (1033 
 -1048), Silvester HI. (1044), and Gre- 
 
 gory VI., who bought the pontificate 
 (1044-1046). Kaiser Henry III. in 1046, 
 having set aside Benedict and Gregory, 
 appointed Clement II., a German, who 
 died the following year. Benedict still 
 held on, and in the two next years two 
 other Germans were appointed by the 
 kaiser. 
 
 II. In the 15th cent, there were three 
 simultaneous popes : Gregory XII. (1406 
 -1415, died 1417), held his court at Friuli ; 
 Benedict XIII., the Avignon pope, held 
 his court at Peniscola, in Spain (1394- 
 1424); and Alexander V., the Roman 
 pope (1409-1410), succeeded by John 
 XXIII. (1410-1415). While Gregory and 
 Benedict were still alive the Council 
 of Pisa appointed Martin V. (1417), and 
 at the death of Benedict Clement VIH. 
 took his chair. 
 
 Three Questions {The), 1687. 
 The lords-lieutenants of counties and 
 mayors of boroughs were requested by 
 James II. to make a return of persons 
 who answered the following questions in 
 the affirmative : (1) If chosen to sit in 
 the next parliament will you vote for the 
 repeal of the Test Act and of the Penal 
 Laws ? (2) Will you give your vote to 
 candidates favourable to those repeals ? 
 (3) Will you support the declaration for 
 liberty of conscience by living peaceably 
 with Christians of a different creed to 
 your own ? The answers received were 
 not favourable to the king's views. 
 
 Three Rejected Articles {The). 
 The original number of the articles of 
 the Church of England was 42, drawn 
 up in 1551, but the present number is 
 39, tlrree having been omitted by Convo- 
 cation, 29 Jan., 1563. The three articles 
 rejected are these : (1) The resurrection 
 of the dead is not passed already; (2) 
 the soul does not perish with the body ; 
 and (8) not all men will be saved. 
 
 Three Sacraments {The). 
 
 I, 1520. Luther acknowledged only 
 three sacraments, viz. baptism, the 
 eucharist, and penance. Roman Catho- 
 lics have seven sacraments, but English 
 Protestants since 1553 have admitted 
 but two, baptism and the Lord's supper, 
 as may be gathered from the church 
 catechism published that year. 
 
 II. In ' Cranmer's Catechism ' {q.v,) 
 three sacraments are authorised ; 
 
 1. Baptism, the bath of regeneration, 
 
THEEE 
 
 THRONE 
 
 885 
 
 or instrument of the second birth (pp. 
 182, 206). 
 
 2. Absolution, or the authority of the 
 keys, by virtue of which pardon is 
 obtained for sins after baptism. 
 
 3. The holy communion, which sup- 
 plies fresh grace to the woi'thy recipient, 
 and enables him to go on from strength 
 to strength. 
 
 Three States or Stages (The). 
 
 Comte says the mind passes through three 
 stages, the theological, the metaphysical, 
 and the positive. In the infancy of 
 thought the mind attributes phenomena 
 to the arbitrary will of some spirit, fairy, 
 or pervading providence, which says and 
 it is done. In the second stage it attributes 
 the causes of phenomena to some abstract 
 or hypothetical principle, as law and 
 force. In the third stage it relies on 
 science and data. Thus plague or 
 famine by the first is attributed to God ; 
 by the second to eclipses or some other 
 hypothesis ; by the third to bad sanitary 
 arrangements. Most educated men are 
 in all the three stages : on some subjects 
 they are in the theological stage ; on 
 others in the metaphysical ; and on 
 others in the positive. Thus Faraday 
 was remarkable for his theological and 
 positive stages. 
 
 Three States [Pei-iod of the), called 
 by the Chinese San-kuo (221-226). The 
 states were (1) Heou-Han, or Sho-Han, 
 the continuation of the Han or 6th 
 imperial dynasty. It gave two kings, and 
 lasted forty-four years. The seat of govern- 
 ment was Shen-see ; (2) the kingdom of 
 Oey or Wei, which gave five kings, lasted 
 forty-five years, and had Honan for the 
 seat of government ; (3) the kingdom of 
 Ou or Woo, which gave four kings, lasted 
 forty-four years, and had its seat of 
 government first at Ou-chang, and after- 
 wards at Nankin. 
 
 Three Tailors of Tooley Street 
 
 {The). Only two of these busybodies 
 were tailors. They were John Grose 
 (tailor, Tooley Street), Thomas Satterley 
 (tailor, Weston Street), and George Sand- 
 ham (grocer, Bermondsey Street), who 
 met after business at a public-house, to 
 smoke their pipes and talk politics. 
 During the movement of Catholic Eman- 
 cipation they resolved to petition par- 
 liament, and commenced their document 
 
 with these words : ' We, the people of 
 England.' Canning was prime minister. 
 A correspondent of 'Notes and Queries' (21 
 Jan., 18S8, p. 66) avouches this to be a fact. 
 
 Three Test Articles [The), 1554, 
 
 introduced in the reign of Mary in proof 
 of orthodoxy, were : — 
 
 1. Is the natural body of Christ really 
 present in the elements after consecration, 
 or not ? 
 
 2. Does any substance, except the 
 body and blood, remain in the eucharist ? 
 
 3. Is the Mass a propitiatory sacrifice 
 for the sins of the living and dead, or is 
 it not ? See p. 48, ' Articles.' 
 
 Three Theological Virtues 
 
 {The). Faith, Hope, and Charity. 
 
 Three-way Leet. A three-way 
 road, a cross-road where suicides used to 
 be buried with a stake thrust through 
 their body. These cross-ways were the 
 terror of ' old women and old maides.' 
 
 Ltedan, zelsedan • Idd, geldd. Junius says, 
 ' Trivium, quadrivium, ita dicunt, in quibusdani 
 Angli8e tractibus. 
 
 * Three Ws' {The), 1837. Three 
 great American houses in London. The 
 amount paid from June to December by 
 Wilson & Co. was 935,300?. ; by Wigau 
 & Co. 674,700L; and by Wildes & Co. 
 505,000Z.; total acceptances in six months, 
 2,116,000?. 
 
 Three Writers {The). See p. 801, 
 * Scriptores Tres.' 
 
 'Five Writers,' sec 'Scriptores Quinque'; 'Ten 
 Writers,' see 'Scriptores Decern'; the ' Six Chro- 
 nicles,' see ' Six.' 
 
 Threshers {The), 1806. An Irish 
 secret treaty formed by Roman Catholics 
 of Ireland in opposition to the Orange- 
 men or Protestant association. They 
 appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Long- 
 ford, Roscommon, and Cavan. One of 
 their articles was the resistance to the 
 payment of tithes, even when voluntarily 
 paid to Roman Catholic priests. Their 
 chief called himself ' Capt. Thresher,' and 
 his gangs used to thrash or beat unmer- 
 cifully all collectors of tithes and their 
 clerks, as well as those who paid tithes. 
 See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Throne and Altar {The). 'Le 
 Trone et I'Autel,' the motto of the Legiti- 
 mists and Carlists. It really means the 
 divine right of kings and priests, both 
 'the Lord's Anointed.' The absolute 
 king and infallible Church. 
 
886 
 
 THRONE 
 
 TIEN -TEH 
 
 Throne of Jamshed {The). Per- 
 sepolis is so called because founded 
 by Jamshed (shed means illustrious). 
 This mythical king of Persia began to 
 reign B.C. 2240 and reigned twenty years. 
 The Blue-ribbonites will be glad to know 
 til at the art of making wine is ascribed 
 to this king. 
 
 Throne of the Barricades {The). 
 That of Louis Philippe of France (1830- 
 1848), founded on the Revolution of 
 July, when Paris was barricaded for 
 three days. 
 
 Thronus Regalis (Konigstuhl), A 
 round vault on tlie Rhine, five miles 
 south of Coblentz, The vault is built of 
 freestone, and rests on nine stone pil- 
 lars, one of which stands in the middle. 
 It is eighty feet in circumference, 
 furnished above with seven seats, one 
 for each elector. The ascent to it is by 
 stairs consisting of twenty-eight stone 
 steps, and it has two stout doors. On 
 this thronus regalis the original electors 
 consulted respecting their choice of a 
 king, Heinrich VII. in 1308 was elected 
 in this manner, and in 1338 the electoral 
 league was established here. Maxi- 
 milian I. was the last of the kaisers 
 brought to the thronus regalis. 
 
 Thugs {The). A religious fraternity 
 in India in honour of Khali, wife of Siva, 
 but addicted to murder. In some pro- 
 vinces they are called Phansigars or 
 stranglers. 
 
 Phansigars means those ■who 'employ the 
 noose ' or phansi. Thug means deceiver or cheat. 
 
 Thunderbolt of Italy {The). 
 
 Gaston de Foix, nephew of Louis XIL, 
 who fell at Ravenna in the moment of 
 victory (1489-1512). 
 
 Thunderer {The). The 'Times' 
 newspaper, so called from an expression 
 used by Captain Edward Stirling while 
 Thomas Barnes was editor : ' We thun- 
 dered forth the other day an article on 
 the subject of social and political reform.' 
 
 Thundering Legion {The), a.d. 
 174. In Latin 'Legio Fulminatrix.' 
 While Marcus Aurelius was engaged in 
 a war with the Quadi and Blarcomanni 
 his army suffered severely from want of 
 water. Eusebius says the 12th legion 
 {Legio Melitina) fell on their knees and 
 prayed for rain, when forthwith a storm 
 broke overhead, supplying the Roman 
 
 army with water, and dealing destruction 
 to the foe. From this storm the Legio 
 Melitina was ever after called the 
 Thundering Legion. 
 
 The assertion of Eusebius (v. 5), be it remem- 
 bered, is only one-sided, for others ascribe the 
 storm to the prayers of Marcus Aurelius to 
 Jupiter, and under this impression the emperor 
 raised a pillar in gratitude to ' Jupiter the Thun- 
 derer.' Others ascribe it to the Incantations ol 
 Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician. Then, again, 
 Dio Cassius informs us that the twelfth legion 
 had been called " Legio Fulminatrix ' ever since 
 the time of Augustus (Book vii., v. 23). 
 
 Thurificati {The). Those lapsed 
 Christians who, to avoid persecution, con- 
 sented to burn incense to heathen gods. 
 
 Tiara {The). The triple crown of the 
 pope, symbolising his civil rank, as the 
 keys symbolise his ecclesiastical power. 
 The most ancient head-dress of the 
 bishop of Rome was a high round cap. 
 In 1053 Pope Damasus II. adopted a cap 
 more like that of the Jewish high-priest 
 or a mitre. In 1276 Pope John XIX. 
 encompassed his miti-e with a crown ; in 
 1295 Boniface added a second crown; 
 and in 1411 John XXII. added a third 
 crown, completing the tiara or triple 
 crown to signify the power of the pope 
 over the church ' souffrante, militante, et 
 triomphante,' or else his power over 
 three parts of the world (Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa). 
 
 Surely the pope cannot claim power over the 
 church triumphant. 
 
 Tiberius {The French). Louis XL 
 (1423, 1461-1483). Both were cruel, 
 crafty, and deceitful. Their rule of 
 government was, ' He who knows not 
 how to deceive knows not how to rule.' 
 
 TibuUus of France {The). Eva- 
 riste Desire Desforges Parny (1753- 
 1814). The ' dame de sa plume ' was a 
 Creole, who, however, preferred in mar- 
 riage a rich planter to a poor poet. 
 
 Tiedge Verein (T7ie), 1842. An 
 institution founded in Berlin in honour 
 of Christoph August Tiedge, ' the Nestor 
 of German poesy ' (1752-1841). It gives 
 every fifth year a literary prize to some 
 youthful candidate, and makes provision 
 for needy meritorious authors. 
 
 Tien-teh. The pretender to imperial 
 power in China, and leader of an insur- 
 rection which lasted sixteen years. There 
 were five chiefs, all of whom acknow- 
 ledged his supremacy (1850-1866). 
 
 His proper name was Hung sieu-tseuen. He 
 
TIEN-TSIN 
 
 'TIMES' 
 
 887 
 
 was a native of Quangsl of lo-w origin, and as- 
 sumed the titular names of Tien-teh (celestial vir- 
 tue) and Tae-ping-wang (.prince of peace). 
 
 Tien-tsin {Treaty of), 26 June, 
 1858, between Great Britain and China. 
 Eatified 24 Oct., 1860. Provided for 
 ambassadors on the part of the two con- 
 tracting parties to reside at each other's 
 court ; for the estabhshnaent of a British 
 minister at Pekin, and the liberty of 
 trading without restriction. 
 
 Tierce. One of the eight daily ser- 
 vices of the Catholic Church, and third 
 of the four lesser ones. At nine in the 
 morning — the third hour of the day. 
 See p. 140, 'Canonical Hours.' 
 
 Tiers Consolid^, 1797. A name 
 given in France during the Directory to 
 the public debt, ' dont le tiers seul e'tait 
 garanti,' the nation being bankrupt at 
 the time. ■» 
 
 Tiers l^tat (Le), or ' Le Tiers.' The 
 third order of the state, the other two 
 being the noblesse and the clergy. The 
 three orders combined form the Etats 
 Generaux. In the reign of Louis le 
 Gros (1108-1137), the commons were 
 admitted into the legislative assembly, 
 which then took the name of the ' As- 
 semblee des trois etats.' 27 Dec, 1788, 
 it was determined that the deputies of 
 Le Tiers should equal those of the other 
 two orders combined. This is called 
 'Le doublement du Tiers.' The name 
 of Tiers Etat was abolished in 1789, 
 and the Etats Generaux became the 
 Assemblee Nationale. 
 
 Pronounce Tears-a-tah' . 
 
 Tiers Ordre, or ' Tiercelins,' or 
 ' Tertiaries.' Seculars of a religious 
 order who observe the rules of the 
 order to which they attach themselves 
 without renouncing their civil life. The 
 * Third Order of St. Francis ' was founded 
 in 1221 ; the ' Tertiaries of St. Augus- 
 tine ' in 1401 ; the ' Third Order of St. 
 Dominic ' in 1422 ; &c. 
 
 Some tertiaries who live in common. 
 
 Tigernach. Tlie oldest of the L-ish 
 annalists (died 549). His annals were 
 published in O'Connor's Berum Hiber- 
 nicarum Scriptores Veteres at the ex- 
 pense of the Duke of Buckingham, 1814- 
 1826. 
 
 Tiglath-pileser. 
 
 Shergat.' 
 
 ^eep.485,'Kileh- 
 
 Tigretier. The dancing mania of 
 Abyssinia, which occurs most frequently 
 in the Tigre country, whence its name. 
 
 Tilsit {Peace or Treaty of), 7 July, 
 1807, between France and Russia. This 
 was a most disgraceful affair, as Russia 
 was at the time an ally of Great Britain, 
 and they were acting together against 
 Turkey and the French. Napoleon by 
 this treaty won over Alexander, and 
 secretly provided that he should make 
 common cause with France against Gi'eat 
 Britain, and sign the Berlin Decree 
 {q.v.). It was secretly agreed between 
 the two signatories that France should 
 be allowed to make itself master of the 
 Danish fleet and Russia to seize Finland. 
 Turkey was to be divided between them : 
 France to have Macedonia, Dalmatia, 
 and Greece; and Russia all the rest of 
 Turkey. 9 July Prussia signed the 
 treaty, but was not informed of the 
 secret provisions above referred to. 
 
 * Times* {The), newspaper. Com- 
 menced 1 January, 1788. 
 
 * Times' {The) and the Irish Land 
 League, 1889. The ' Times ' newspaper 
 had used its gigantic influence to put 
 down the crunes committed in Ireland 
 for several past years connected with 
 the Land League. The Irish were com- 
 pelled by the leaguers to join the league 
 on pain of death or personal injury, and 
 those who joined the league were for- 
 bidden to pay their rents or to occupy a 
 holding from which a defaulting tenant 
 had been evicted. In 1889 three judges, 
 called Commissioners, were appointed to 
 examine into the merits of these charges 
 made by the ' Times.' 
 
 Whatever may be said respecting the position 
 taken up by the 'Times' in 1888 1889 against 
 Charles S. Parnell and the Irish party, one thing 
 is indisputable, the motive was noble and patri- 
 otic. Mr. Gladstone as prime minister had said 
 that ' crime doggpd the Parnellite party in every 
 movement,' and if so, the movement ought to be 
 put down. In fact, the phrase 'Parnellism .-ind 
 crime' ia only Gladstones dictum in another 
 form. The conduct of the ' Times ' in seconding 
 Mr. Gladstone was a most disinterested act, with 
 only one fault— the editors trusted too implicitly to 
 an adventurer named Pigott, who betrayed them. 
 
 * Times' Fund {The), 1854. A 
 sumi of 10,000Z. raised by private sub- 
 scription and sent to Printing-house 
 Square for the relief of the sick and 
 wounded in the hospitals of Scutari, 
 tended by Miss Florence Nightingale and 
 a staff of lady volunteers in the Crimean 
 
888 
 
 TIMES' 
 
 TITHE 
 
 war. The 'Times' newspaper under- 
 took to superintend this fund. 
 
 'Times' Memorial (The), 1841. 
 Mr. O'Keilly, the ' Times ' correspondent 
 at Paris, having received secret informa- 
 tion of a gigantic fraud projected on the 
 continent, exposed it in the ' Times ' 
 newspaper, and saved the bankers the 
 loss of a milhon sterling. A testimonial 
 was set on foot, and the ' Times ' declin- 
 ing any money recompense, a 'Times' 
 scholarship was founded at Oxford for 
 boys educated at Christ's Hospital, and 
 another at Cambridge for boys educated 
 in the City of London School. The rest 
 of the money was spent on four tablets, 
 to be set up in the Royal Exchange, in 
 Christ's Hospital, in the City of London 
 School, and in the ' Times ' printing office. 
 
 The swindle was to have been a simultaneous 
 issue of forged letters of credit on the chief 
 bankers of Europe. The attempt to expose the 
 Irish Land League was equally noble, but mis- 
 carried through the villainy of one Pigott. 
 
 * Times ' Testimonial (TAe), 1842. 
 The Bishop of London headed a sub- 
 scription to the 'Times' newspaper for 
 the interest taken by that journal in the 
 School of Christ's Hospital. The money 
 collected was funded to create exhibitions 
 in that school to either of the Universi- 
 ties, and to found ' Times' Scholarships.' 
 See above ' The " Times " and the Irish 
 Land League.' 
 
 Timothy Sparks. The no^n de 
 guerre of Charles Dickens in his pam- 
 phlet of ' Sunday under Three Heads ' : 
 
 (1) As it is; (2) As Sabbath bills have 
 made it ; and (3) As it might be made (1836). 
 
 Tim.othy Titcom.b. The pen- 
 name of Josiah Gilbert Holland, an 
 American author. 
 
 Tineman, i.e. lose-man, the man 
 who loses his men. So Archibald Douglas 
 was called, because after the death 
 or murder of the Duke of Rothesay, for- 
 tune deserted him, and he lost most of 
 his followers in each action he under- 
 took (died 1424). 
 
 Tintamarresque. Burlesque his- 
 tory : as ' Le Trocaderoscope, Revue 
 Tintamarresque de I'Exposition Uni- 
 verselle.' Paris, 1878. Par Touchatout. 
 
 ' Histoire de France Tintamarresque.' 
 Par Touchatout. Paris (to the flight of 
 Louis-Philippe in 1848). 
 
 ' Histoire Tintamarresque de Napoleon 
 
 in.' Par Touchatout. Paris, 1877 (from 
 1848). 
 
 ' La Degringolade Imp^riale ' (a second 
 part to the above). Paris, 1878. 
 
 ' Grande Mythologie Tintamarresque.' 
 Par Touchatout. 
 
 ' Histoire Populaire et Tintamarresque 
 de la Belgique.' Par F. Delisle. Brussels. 
 
 Tintoret of Switzerland {The). 
 John Rudolph Huber (1722-1790). He 
 painted 3,065 portraits, besides other 
 subjects. 
 
 Tippling Act (The). 24 Geo. IL 
 eh. 40. So called because it allowed no 
 action to be maintained for the sale of 
 spirituous liquors, retailed on credit, 
 unless the debt amounted to 20s. or 
 upwards at one time. Now in part 
 repealed. 
 
 Tire'sias. Milton is called 'the 
 blind Tiresias of modern times ' (1608- 
 1674). 
 
 Tirshatha. A governor appointed 
 over the Assyrian kings. , 
 
 Tirzah {The Ho^ise of). In the 
 language of the Roundheads, the Epis- 
 copalians were of the house of Tirzah. 
 Any persons who differ from our own 
 religious faith. Tirzah was the royal 
 city of the revolted tribes of Israel. 
 
 He liked not this going to feast in high places 
 with the uncircumcised in heart, and looked on 
 the whole ... as a making merry in the house of 
 Tirzah.— Sir W. ScoTT, Peveril of the Peak, chap. 4. 
 
 Tisserands (weavers). The French 
 name of the Cathari, or Puritans of the 
 12th cent. See p. 150, ' Cathari.' 
 
 Tithe Agitation {The). In Ire- 
 land, 1831. The Catholic Irish combined 
 to resist the payment of tithes to Pro- 
 testant clergymen. The rebellion was 
 stirred up by Daniel O'Connell, who 
 hated Mr. Stanley, the chief secretary. 
 Many of the clergy in Ireland were 
 reduced to pauperism. At Newtown- 
 barry, in Wexford, cattle were impounded 
 by a tithe-proctor, and the peasantry 
 who went to release them came into 
 collision with the yeomanry, who fired 
 and killed twelve. At Carrickshock, 
 however, there was a more frightful tra- 
 gedy. The peasantry armed with scythes 
 and pitchforks killed eighteen of the 
 police, including the commanding officer. 
 At Castlepollard, in Westmeath, the 
 police fired on the peasants and shot 
 
TITHE 
 
 TITLE 
 
 889 
 
 ten. At Gortroclie, near Rathcormack 
 (Cork), Archdeacon Ryder, supported by 
 a number of the mihtary, ordered the 
 soldiers to fire, when eight were killed 
 and thirteen wounded. Among the slain 
 was the son of widow Ryan. Government 
 now took the matter up. Mr. Stanley, 
 chief secretary, insisted that the law 
 must be respected ; Daniel O'Connell sided 
 with the tithe recusants. It was found 
 that the amount of arrears was 104,285Z., 
 but all that could be collected was 
 12,000/., and the cost of collecting it was 
 15,000/., so the contest was given up, as 
 the game was not worth the candle. See 
 * Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' 
 
 Tithe Bill, or Commutation Act, 
 1836, As a tenth of the produce of land 
 would in many cases swallow up the 
 profits of improvement, the bill enacted 
 that a rent-charge should be levied 
 equal to the average amount received 
 for wheat, barley, and oats, during the 
 seven preceding years. The rent-charge 
 removed the vexatious custom of taking 
 tithes in kind. The measure was devised 
 by Mr. Jones. 
 
 Many landlords let their lands tithe free, and 
 pay the rent-charge themselves. This should 
 always be done under all circumstances. When 
 tithe was collected in kind, a green bough was 
 Btuck into every tenth shock of corn on the field 
 to mark the property of the tithe-owner. 
 
 Tithe Commissioners of Eng- 
 land and Wales [The). 6, 7 Will. IV, 
 c, 71 appointed to convert the tithes 
 into a rent-charge payable in money, but 
 varying "in amount, according to the 
 average price of corn {i.e. wheat, barley, 
 and oats), for the seven preceding years. 
 
 Tithe Commutation Act {The), 
 1832, Ireland. This act enabled the 
 tenant to pay a yearly sura of money in 
 lieu of tithes, if the rector was willing to 
 accept the commutation. Above 1,000 
 parishes accepted the change, but some 
 rectors stood out, and this led to the 
 Anti-tithe War {q.v.). 
 
 Tithe Composition Bill {The), 
 1832. Introduced by Lord Stanley. In 
 1838 composition for tithes in Ireland 
 was changed for a fixed charge, which 
 was only three-fourths of the former 
 composition, to be paid by the landlords 
 and not by the tenants (1, 2 Vict. c. 
 109). 
 
 Tithe "War {The). In Ireland 
 (1830-1835). A most sanguinary rebel- 
 
 :-58 
 
 lion ostensibly for the abolition of tithes. 
 The Whitefeet, the Blackfeet, the 
 Terryalts, the Lady Clares, the Molly 
 Maguires, and the Rockites overran Ire- 
 land during these years. And in 1842, 
 1846, the Repeal movement roused the 
 country to a state of enthusiasm border- 
 ing on frenzy, if not actual revolt. See 
 p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Tithes {Co7nmii.tation of). In Eng- 
 land and Wales, 1836 (6, 7 Will. IV. c. 
 71), whereby the tithes hitherto collected 
 in kind were commuted for a fixed sum 
 of money. Amended by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 
 64 (1837), and several times since. 
 
 Titi {Prince). Frederick prince of 
 Wales, eldest son of George II. Seward, 
 a contemporary, tells us that Prince 
 Frederick was a great reader of French 
 memoirs, and that he wrote memoirs of 
 his own times under the pseudonym of 
 * Prince Titi.' These memoirs were sub- 
 sequently found amongst the papers of 
 Ralph the historian. 
 
 Correspondents of ' Notes and Queries ' in 1884 
 inform us that there is a political fairy tale by St. 
 Hyacinthe (1684-1746) called the • History of Prince 
 Titi, the four chief characters of which are King 
 GiNGUET, mean, stingy, and hating his son (like 
 George II.); the Queen Tripasse, his wife, 
 haughty, very fond of money, and also hating her 
 son (like Queen Caroline); Prince Titi, a good, 
 kind-hearted, affable prince, handsome and brave, 
 but ill-used by his royal parents (like Frederick 
 prince of Wales); and Prince Triptillon, a 
 younger brother, made much of by both his 
 parents (like the Duke of Cumberland). Kalph 
 also wrote a ' History of Prince Titi,' in which the 
 page L Eveille by fairy help gets to know all that 
 passes in royal councils, and keeps the prince 
 advised of everything. The page made a journal 
 in cipher of these matters, which was printed in 
 
 17;^;. 
 
 Titian {The French). Jacques 
 Blanchard (1600-1638). 
 
 Titian {The Portuguese). Alonzo 
 Sanchez Coello (1515-1590). 
 
 Titian {The Spanish). Juan Fer- 
 nandez Ximenes, generally called *E1 
 Mudo ' (the Dumb), 1598-1666. 
 
 Title, or ' Titiilus,' means ' pastor,' as 
 the ' Title of St. Mary,' i.e. the pastor of 
 the church so called. 
 
 Title of Accusation, (T^e), nailed 
 to the cross, we are told, is deposited 
 with one of the nails in the Santa Croce 
 of Rome. Bozio asserts that it was 
 found in the cave where the three crosses 
 were buried. The letters are red, and 
 the slab of wood. Lipsius informs us 
 that the slab shown to him was 9 inches 
 
8C0 
 
 TITULAES 
 
 TOLOSA 
 
 long; but, as it contained only a small 
 part of five "inscription, the entire slab, 
 he thinks, must have been about 4 feet. 
 See p. 231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 Father Durand (123-2-1296) tells us that he saw 
 in Paris the title of the accusation in full. The 
 monk Antonine (1389-1459) asserts that he held in 
 his own hands the slab bearing the full accusation 
 when he visited the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 
 
 The title on the Roman slab contains two Latin 
 words, NAZARINVS KE[x], and one Greek word 
 written bnckuards and spelt with two blunders, 
 iYONEPAZAN, where K should be H, and -OY2 
 >;hould be -02. Surely this must be a most clumsy 
 forgery, for the writer ignorantly supposed that 
 Greek was written like Hebrew from right to left. 
 
 Tit'ulars of Tithes. Scotchmen 
 to whom the king made grants of abbey 
 lands and tithes, on condition of their 
 providing suitable stipends to the re- 
 formed clergy. Also called the 'Lords 
 of Erection.' 
 
 Titus of Germany {The). Joseph 
 II. (1741-1765-1790), son of Maria 
 Theresa. So called because hardly a day 
 passed which was not distinguished by 
 some act of munificence, some private 
 deed of charity, or something done for 
 the good of others; yet was he almost 
 always unfortunate. 
 
 Titus, or the Delight of Man- 
 kind of Germany {The). Maxi- 
 milian II. Coxe, in his ' House of 
 Austria,' says : ' If ever a Christian and 
 philosopher filled the throne, that Chris- 
 tian and philosoper was Maximilian II.' 
 (vol. i. part ii. p. 649). Born 1527, reigned 
 1564-1576. 
 
 Tityre Tus (pronounce Tit'-e-re 
 tuze). The name assumed in the 17th 
 cent, by a clique of young blades in 
 London, of the upper class, whose delight 
 was to break windows, upset sedan-chairs, 
 rudely caress young women, molest the 
 watch, and annoy quiet citizens. See 
 ' Street Bullies.' 
 
 The reference is to the first line of Virgil's first 
 'Eclogue,' Tityre, tupatuUc recubanssub tegmine fagi, 
 implying that they were men of leisure who 
 delighted to 'recline at ease under their paternal 
 beeches.' 
 
 To Remain Bible. In Gal. xxiv. 
 29 an editorial note in the margin, ' to 
 remain ' [stet], is inserted in the text : 
 ' But as then he that was born after the 
 flesh persecuted him that was born after 
 the spirit to remain, even so it is now.' 
 See p. 90, ' Bible,' and ' Scriptures.' 
 
 Tobacco Revolt {The), 1848. See 
 p. 32, ' Anti-tobacconists.' 
 
 Toeplitz, in Bohemia {Treaty of), 
 Sept. 1818, between Austria and Great 
 Britain. This treaty of alliance was 
 effected between the battle of Dresden 
 and that at Leipsic. A few days pre- 
 viously (9 Sept.) Austria, Eussia, and 
 Prussia had entered into an alliance 
 against Napoleon. 
 
 Toga'ted Wation {The). The 
 ancient Eomans, whose distinguishing 
 dress was a toga or white robe bordered 
 with purple for magistrates. Women as 
 well as men wore the toga. 
 
 The children who were free-born wore a toga 
 prceiexia (white bordered with pvirple) till they 
 were seventeen, when they changed it for the 
 U^ga virllis, made of white wool without ornament 
 or border. 
 
 Toga'ti et Pallia'ti. The Eomans 
 and Greeks. The dress of a Eoman was 
 the toga, of a Greek the pallium, whence 
 the Eomans were called the gens togdta, 
 and the Greeks the gens pallidta. 
 
 Toghlak {The House of). Founded 
 in Delhi by T<5ghlak in 1821. This line 
 of kings succeeded the second Gaurian 
 dynasty, which reigned from 1288 to 
 1321. The house of Toghlak was suc- 
 ceeded in 1414 by the government of the 
 Seiads. 
 
 Toleration Act {The), 1 William & 
 Mary, c. 18 (24 May, 1689). For the relief 
 of Protestant Dissenters. All persons 
 dissenting from the Church of England 
 (except Papists, Unitarians, and Arians) 
 were allowed to assemble for religious 
 worship according to their owti forms, 
 provided they took the oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy, and also subscribed a 
 declaration against transubstantiation. 
 The exception of Unitarians and Arians 
 was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160, The 
 Eoman Catholics were relieved by the 
 Emancipation Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, 1829, 
 and 1844. 
 
 Tolosa {Gold of). Tolosa— «.e. Tou- 
 louse — was a large and wealthy city with 
 a famous temple, where great riches 
 were deposited. In this temple was pre- 
 served the booty taken by ' Brennus ' 
 from Delphi. In 106 this temple was 
 plundered by Quintus Servilius Csepio 
 on his way to meet the Cimbrian army. 
 Csepio was utterly defeated by the Cimbri, 
 and it was said that his defeat was a 
 judgment of the gods for his sacrilege. 
 Hence the Latin proverb Aurum Tolo- 
 
TOLTECAN 
 
 TONSUEE 
 
 891 
 
 sdnum habet ('Ill-gotten wealth never 
 prospers '). 
 
 Toltecan Nations {The). The 
 Mexicans and Peruvians are so called by 
 Morton. The Toltecans, he says, were 
 the builders of that series of mounds 
 found throughout North America. 
 
 Tom Moore of France {The). 
 Chaulieu (1639-1720). Called 'The 
 Anacreon of the Temple.' 
 
 Tom of Ten Thousand. Thomas 
 Thynne, of Longleat Hall. So called 
 not only from his great wealth, but for 
 his unbounded hospitality. He married 
 Elizabeth Percy (countess of Ogle), 
 heiress of Joscelyne earl of Northumber- 
 land, and was murdered on his wedding 
 day (12 Feb., 1682) by three assassins 
 hired by Charles count Konigsmark, a 
 disappointed suitor of Lady Ogle. 
 
 In Dryden s ' Absalom and Achitophel' Thomas 
 Thynne is introduced as ' Issachar.' 
 
 Tome of St. Leo {The). That is 
 his ' Dogmatic Letter ' 449. Leo set 
 aside the Council of Ephesus, which had 
 pronounced in favour of Eutyches, and 
 summoned a new council of Chalcedon, 
 in which his ' Tome ' was accepted ' as 
 the voice of St. Peter,' and adopted as 
 the orthodox exposition of the doctrine 
 of the person of Christ. It declared that 
 his body was not a celestial body, as Eu- 
 tyches maintained, nor yet a mere human 
 body into which the Godhead descended 
 at baptism, as the Nestorians taught, but 
 a human and divine nature like the 
 union of body and soul. This of course 
 led to the dogma that Mary was the 
 mother of God, and to the more modern 
 dogma of the Immaculate Conception. 
 
 Tomlins Praelector of Ana- 
 tomy in Oxford University. Founded 
 by Richard Tomlins in 1626. Now an- 
 nexed to the Linacre professorship of 
 Physiology, the stipend being 2001. a 
 year. 
 
 Tong-H^n. The last fourteen kings 
 of the Han dynasty (b.c. 25 to a.d. 220). 
 
 The first 16 kings of this dynasty were the west- 
 ern or Si-Han. The second hall the eastern or 
 Tong-Han. 
 
 Tong-Oei Dyiiasty {The), a.d. 534. 
 The northern empire of China was split 
 into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the 
 western or Si-Oei. The first dynasty of 
 
 the eastern kingdom had but one sove- 
 reign, who reigned 16 years (534-550). 
 
 Tonnage and Poundage. A 
 
 duty per ton or per pound on goods im- 
 ported into England. First imposed by 
 Edward III. by vote of parliament for a 
 fixed number of years, and renewed at 
 the expiry of the time. It was to furnish 
 the sovereign with ready money for the 
 defence of his realm. In the reign of 
 Henry V. the grant was made for life, 
 but on the accession of Charles I. the 
 parliament limited the grant to a year, 
 and when the grant was not renewed, 
 as was usual, Charles levied it without 
 the authority of a grant. The amount 
 was about 3s. per tun on imported wines, 
 10 per cent, on goods sold by the pound 
 of less value than 1001., and 5 per cent, 
 on goods above that value. In the reign 
 of Queen Anne these imposts were made 
 perpetual, and mortgaged for the public 
 debt, and in 1787 (27 Geo. HI. c. 13) ton- 
 nage and poundage was aboli".hed, a duty 
 being substituted according to tariff on 
 each article subjected to duty. 
 
 Of course, since 184fi, when- free rade in corn 
 was established, the principle has spread to the 
 free importation of well-nigh every article of 
 commerce ; but no nation in the world follows the 
 example (1890). The United States of N. America, 
 in Oct. 1890, ran to the extreme Df protection. 
 And now the nations will learn whether Free 
 Trade or Protection is the true principle of na- 
 tional prosperity. 
 
 Tonnage Bank {The), 1694. So 
 the Bank of England was called when 
 it was first established in the reign of 
 William III., because the Bank com- 
 pany was to lend government 1,200,000^. 
 at 8 per cent., and to receive in repay- 
 ment the proceeds of a new duty on 
 tonnage. 
 
 Tonsure. The shaven part of the 
 head indicative in the Catholic Church 
 of holy orders. Probably it represents 
 the halo of sanctity, or else the crown of 
 the royal priesthood. 
 
 1. St. Peter's tonsure. The shaven 
 part is the whole crown of the head, with 
 a fringe of hair left to represent the 
 crown of thorns. This is the tonsure of 
 the Latin Church. 
 
 2. St. Paul's tonsure, when the whole 
 head is shaven. This is the tonsure of 
 the Greek or Oriental Church. 
 
 Sifnon Magus's tonsure. A semicircle 
 shaven from ear to ear above the fore- 
 head, but not reaching to the hinder part 
 
892 
 
 TOOM 
 
 TORYISM 
 
 of the head, where the hair was suffered 
 to remain. This is sometimes called St. 
 James's tonsure. It was adopted by the 
 Irish missionaries. 
 
 Tonsures are mentioned by St. Dionysius the 
 Areopagite, who died a.d. 95, ' De Hierarchia,' p. 2 ; 
 and they -were general in the 4th and 5th cents. 
 See Bede, ' Church Hist.,' book v. ch. 22. 
 
 Toom Tabard (Empty Jacket). So 
 John Baliol was called by the Scotch for 
 his silly opposition to Edward I. (Baliol 
 born 1259, king 1292-1296, died 1314.) 
 ' Vox et prsetera nihil.' 
 
 Torch of Peng TArern ( The). Gwen- 
 wyn, prince of Powysland, was so called 
 from his constantly laying Pengwern 
 in Flintshire, part of the 'province of 
 Shrewsbury,' in conflagration. 
 
 Torches, Links, and Lanterns. 
 
 In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 
 courtiers (proceeding home after dark) 
 were conducted with torches, merchants 
 with links, and mechanics with lanterns. 
 
 Torgau {The Book of), 1574. A 
 celebrated confession of faith, the object 
 of which was to establish unanimity 
 between the reformers. Torgau is in 
 Prussia (Saxony). Also called the 
 * Formula of Concord.' 
 
 Torgau, pronounce Tor-gow (ow as in ' now '). 
 
 Tories (in Irish history), 1653, rap- 
 parees, or freebooters. They were the 
 Irish Catholics driven by Cromwell from 
 their homes into Connaught, who, instead 
 of settling down, lived by blackmail, 
 or by plundering those planted on their 
 estates. Tory-hunting was a regular bu- 
 siness after the Restoration, and was con- 
 tinued to the latter part of the 18th cent. 
 In 1695 a law was made that any Tory 
 killing two other Tories, * proclaimed and 
 on their keeping,' should be entitled to 
 pardon for all former offences, except 
 murder. In 1718 it was declared a suffi- 
 cient claim for pardon if a Tory could 
 plead that he had killed o7ie Tory. These 
 acts expired in 1776. The word is from 
 toruighim, to pursue for the sake of 
 plunder. 
 
 The word Tory has completely changed its mean- 
 ing: it no longer means the anti-government 
 party, but the Church and State party. So in 
 Italy the Guelfs and Ghibellines (q.v.)in 1313 com- 
 pletely changed their meanings. From the acces- 
 sion of William III. to the reign of George II. the 
 Jacobites or anti-government party were the 
 Tories: since then they have been the strong 
 Church and State party. 
 
 Tories and "Whigs, 1781, in the 
 American War of Independence. Those 
 
 colonists who adhered to the British in- 
 terest called themselves Tories, Boy- 
 alists, or Loyalists ; those in the Ame- 
 rican interest called themselves Whigs 
 or Patriots. They were nearly equal in 
 numbers, and showed a savage hostility 
 to each other. 
 
 ^ Tornd {Bishop), 1792, in the Na- 
 tional Hall of Paris, demanded that all 
 religious costumes and such like carica- 
 tures should be abolished. Then he 
 flung on the floor of the house his pon- 
 tifical cross, skull-cap, and frill-collar. 
 Fauchet and other prelates followed his 
 example, till all insignia were stripped 
 off (' Moniteur,' 7 April, 1792). 
 
 Torquema'da. A bigoted inqui- 
 sitor. The reference is to Thomas de 
 Torquemada, the first Inquisitor-General 
 of Spain, born at Valladolid' (1420-1498). 
 He was a Dominican, and made Inquisi- 
 tor-General of Castile in 1483. He greatly 
 augmented the number of persecutions 
 against ' heretics,' consisting of confisca- 
 tions, condemnations, punishments of all 
 kinds, and autos-da-fe, insomuch that 
 even the popes [Sixtus IV. and Alex- 
 ander VI.] were obliged to modera,te his 
 excessive zeal. Torquemada had the 
 chief hand in the banishment of the 
 Jews and Moors of Spain in the time of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 Tor'tura Torti (Tortus confuted), 
 1609. A book by Lancelot Andrews, 
 written at the request of James I. to con- 
 fute the attack of Bellarmine, who, under 
 the assumed name of Matthew Tortus, 
 had attacked that monarch. Andrews 
 was rewarded for his book with the see 
 of Chichester, 1605. 
 
 Tory. A political party in England 
 opposed to the Whigs. They are the 
 most remote from the democratic or re- 
 publican party, and are for the most part 
 attached to the monarchy, the established 
 church, and the landed interest. They 
 are called Conservatives from their de- 
 sire to preserve these, which the Radicals 
 wish to root out. For etymology see 
 ' Tories and Whigs,' ' Whig and Tory.' 
 
 Toryism, in the latter part of Queen 
 Anne's reign, and the earlier days of 
 George I., meant the peace party, and 
 the party of free-trade. This party was 
 opposed to the pretensions of the crown, 
 and endeavoured to override the autho- 
 
TOTEMISM 
 
 TEACTAEIANISM 
 
 893 
 
 rity of the House of Lords by the creation 
 of new peerages. Their sympathies were 
 with the Cathohcs of Ireland, and some 
 of them were for the repeal of the Scotch 
 Union, The reason is plain enough ; 
 they were Jacobites, and opposed to the 
 innovations of Anne and the house of 
 Hanover. 
 
 To'temism. An American Indian 
 superstition ; the belief in totems or 
 guardian angels, whether animal, vege- 
 table, or mineral. A totem is the image 
 of this guardian spirit. For not only 
 human beings have souls, but all animals, 
 plants, inanimate beings, stars, sun, 
 moon, earth, sky, and even thunder, 
 which the totem is supposed to represent. 
 
 Tottenham in his Boots, 1748. 
 The Irish patriot toast. The Irish House 
 of Commons incurred great public debts, 
 and was charged with extravagance. An 
 attempt was made to change the annual 
 vote for the discharge of the national 
 debt into a grant either for perpetuity or 
 for a term of years. The ayes and noes 
 were equal, when a member named 
 Tottenham entered the house in his 
 riding dress, and gave the preponderance 
 of votes to the anti-ministerialists. Hence 
 the toast. 
 
 Touch-piece (A). A medal which 
 the king hung on the neck of a person 
 touched for the ' king's evil.' It was 
 called an Angel, and contained the 
 legend, * He touched them, and they were 
 healed.' In the Stuart Exhibition, 1889, 
 nine of these tokens were exhibited. 
 Those of Charles II, were gold pieces ; 
 those of James I. and the two Pre- 
 tenders were silver. 
 
 Of course the legend shows the prevalence of 
 the notion of the ' divinity ' of kings. 
 
 Tou'lunites (3 syl,), 868-905. A 
 dynasty of califs in Syria and Egypt, 
 founded by Ahmed Ibn Toulun, a Turkish 
 slave. 
 
 Tower of Famine (The). The 
 tower on the Piazza del Anziana, in which 
 Ugolino of Pisa, with Gaddo, Ugoccione 
 (his sons), and Nino and Anselmuccio 
 (his grandsons), was confined. The arch- 
 bishop threw the key of the dungeon into 
 the Arno. Ugolino survived five days 
 after the death of the other four. Dante 
 refers to this in his ' Inferno.' 
 
 Town Clerk (The). Since the 
 Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 the 
 town clerk acts in obedience to the direc- 
 tions of the town council. His duties are 
 to preserve minutes of the transactions, 
 and to make out the freemen's roll, the 
 burgess list, and the ward list; he is 
 responsible for the safe keeping of all 
 charter deeds and municipal records; 
 and is subject to various fines in cases of 
 neglect. He is a lawyer by profession.* 
 
 Townley Marbles {The). Sculp- 
 tures which Charles Townley collected 
 at Eome between 1765 and 1772. He 
 died in 1805, when his collection was 
 purchased by the nation for the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Toyshop of Europe {The). 
 Birmingham. 
 
 I look upon Birmingham as being the great 
 toyshop of Europe.— BiRKE, speaking on a Bill for 
 licensing the New Street Theatre, Birmingham. 
 
 Tract No. 90 (1841), by the Rev. 
 J. H. Newman, was intended to show 
 that much of the Roman Catholic doc- 
 trine might be held consistently with 
 subscription to the Thirty-nine Aj-ticles 
 of the Anglican Church. This led to 
 the termination of the series, and the 
 resignation by Mr. Newman of the vicar- 
 age of St. Mary's, Oxford, and subse- 
 quently, in 1845, to his secession to the 
 Church of Rome. Many of his friends 
 and associates followed him. 
 
 Dr. Newman was made a Cardinal in 1879, and 
 died in 1890. 
 
 Tracts for the Times, or 'The 
 Oxford Tracts,' 1833-1841. A series of 
 tracts published in Oxford having for 
 their object the revival of church prin- 
 ciples, greater attention to all the rites, 
 ceremonies, and externals of religion, 
 and checking the latitudinarian tendency 
 of the day. The chief promoters of the 
 movement were the Rev. John Keble 
 (author of the ' Christian Year '), the Rev. 
 J. H. Newman (author of Tract No. 90) 
 {q.v.), the Rev. E. B. Pusey, the Rev. 
 Isaac Wilhams, the Rev. Hugh J. Rose, 
 &c., aU men of great scholarship and 
 literary honours. 
 
 The Apostolic succession, priestly absolution, 
 baptismal regeneration, the real presence, the 
 authority of the Church, the value of tradition, 
 and a discountenancing of Protestant principles 
 are the chief tenets of the Tractarian party. 
 
 Tractarianism. The system con- 
 tained in a series of papers called ' Tracts 
 
894 
 
 TEACTARIANS 
 
 TRAJAN'S 
 
 for the Times' {q.v.). The effect of 
 which have been : 
 
 1. A revival of the High Church party. 
 
 2. A great development of church 
 ritual. The preacher no longer wore his 
 college gown and Geneva bands, pews 
 were abolished, intoning became general, 
 and bowing at the name of Jesus. 
 
 3. A great impulse was given to church 
 restoration and building, and the style 
 of church architecture has been carefully 
 studied. 
 
 4. Many hundreds of churchmen have 
 seceded to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 5. The Pope has taken advantage of 
 the movement to establish in England 
 and Scotland a regular hierarchy. 1852. 
 
 Tractarians. Those who uphold 
 the doctrines and practices advocated 
 by the ' Tracts for the Times.' 
 
 Trades-Unions. Declared unlaw- 
 ful in 1360. The law abolished 1824. 
 Regulated by Act of Parliament 1825, 
 and again 1859. These unions are com- 
 binations of artisans to compel masters 
 to pay such wages as the union thinks 
 they ought to give. Commission on out- 
 rages at Sheffield, 1867 ; at Manchester, 
 1867; law amended, 1871. If 'masters 
 refuse to obey the demand, the men 
 'strike,' i.e. refuse to work, and the 
 masters are unable to fulfil their con- 
 tracts. 
 
 So long as the members of a union do not 
 interfere with the liberty of non-unionists, these 
 combinations are lawful, but the moment they 
 overstep that limit they are most despotic. Any 
 man may fix the price at which he will work, but 
 it is tyranny to prevent another man from work- 
 ing at a lower or higher wage. 
 
 In 18:^4 as many as 30,000 Dorchester labourers 
 marched through London to Whitehall to present 
 a petition of grievances to the throne. This, of 
 course, was a moral threat, and meant to be so. 
 
 Tradu'eianism. A theory to 
 account for the procreation of the soul 
 in human beings, ascribed to Tertullian. 
 Tertullian taught that souls are pro- 
 created by souls as bodies are by bodies. 
 
 Somewhat allied to Tertullian's theory are the 
 theories called GeneraiionUm and Creationism. The 
 former explains the production of soul as ana- 
 logous to corporeal generation ; the latter sup- 
 poses that the Creator sends a soul into every 
 human body at birth. 
 
 TrSigedy {Father of French). Robert 
 Garnier (1534-1590). Also P. Corneille 
 (1606-1684), generally called * Le grand 
 Corneille.' 
 
 Tragedy (Father of Greek). I. 
 Thespis, the Richardson of Athens. 
 
 11. ^schylos is also called the 'Father 
 of Greek Tragedy ' (b.c. 525-426). 
 
 Trailbaston. A law term applied 
 to certain lawless men, probably armed 
 with clubs. See below, ' Court of Trail- 
 baston.' 
 
 Circa haec tempora processit in publicum novsa 
 
 inquisitionis breve, quod Anglice dicitur Trail- 
 bastim, contra intrusores, conductitios, hominum 
 vapulatores, conductitios seisinsB captores, pacis 
 infrac tores, raptores, incendiaries, murdurafores, 
 pugnatores. Multi hoc perempti, multi redempti, 
 multi noxii. pauci innoxii sunt invent!. Adeo 
 quidem rigide processit hujus coercitionis jus- 
 titia, quod pater proprio filio non parceret, &c., 
 dira multa.— Hist. Roffens. folio 200, de anno 
 1305. See ' Notes and Queries," 10 Dec, 1887, p. 470)t. 
 
 Trailbaston {Court of), 1305. ' Jus- 
 tices of Traylbaston ' were appointed by 
 Edward I. upon occasions of great dis- 
 orders in the realm during his absence 
 in the Scotch and French wars. We 
 should now call them ' justices in eyre.' 
 Riley tells us that the offenders them- 
 selves were styled Trailbastons from the 
 hastens or clubs with which they were 
 armed. The courts were for the trials 
 of these rebels, who 'lurked in woods 
 and parks to rob, murder, and molest 
 the unwary.' 
 
 Justices in eyre are itinerant magistrates. 
 Eyre a French word from the Latin iter, a journey. 
 
 Train-band. A militia force sub- 
 stituted by James I. for the old English 
 fyrd. In the civil wars the train-bands 
 sided with the parliament. Charles II. 
 restored the militia to their ancient foot- 
 ing. Everyone will call to mind that 
 John Gilpin was a ' train-band captain.' 
 
 Traj an's Column, at Rome. Made 
 of marble, a.d. 114, by Apollodorus. It 
 is 132 feet in height, and has inside it 
 a spiral staircase of 185 steps, with 40 
 windows to let in light. It was sur- 
 mounted by a statue of the Emperor 
 Trajan, but the original statue was (by 
 Sixtus V.) most incongruously supplanted 
 by that of St. Peter. As in the column 
 of the Place Vendome, Paris, the battles 
 of Napoleon form the spiral reliefs, so the 
 battles of Trajan are represented spirally 
 in bas-relief in the older Roman column. 
 It still stands amid the ruins of Trajan's 
 Forum. 
 
 Trajan's Column is made of 24 huge pieces of 
 marble so closely united that they seem like one 
 block. It is about 12 feet in diameter. 
 
 Trajan's Rescript. This was a 
 letter to Pliny the Younger, propraetor 
 of Bithynia, telling him how to act 
 
TEAJAN'S 
 
 TKAVENDHAL 
 
 895 
 
 towards Christians. ' They are not to 
 be hunted up; but if brought before 
 you and convicted of crime, they must 
 be punished as the law directs.' See 
 p. 397, ' Hadrian's Rescript.' 
 
 Trajan's Wall. A line of fortifi- 
 cations across the Dobrudscha. 
 
 Trampling on the Crucifix. 
 
 See p. 468, ' Jefume.' 
 
 Transcendental and Transcen- 
 dent. Kant means by transcendental 
 the various ideas, forms, and categories 
 assiuned to be native elements of human 
 thought. These are not products of 
 experience, though manifested only in 
 experience. Such, for example, as space, 
 time, causality, &c. 
 
 Transcendent he reserves for those 
 transcendental elements that transcend 
 experience, as God, the immaterial soul, 
 spirits, and so on. See below. 
 
 Kant says : ' I call all knowledge transcendental 
 •which occupies itself not so much with objects 
 as with the way of knowing those objects so far 
 as it is possible d priori.' 
 
 Transcen'dentalism. The system 
 of certain schoolmen, like Duns Scotus, 
 who taught the existence of conceptions 
 which, by their universality, transcend 
 or rise above the ten Aristotelian cate- 
 gories. Thus God exists and the world 
 exists, so that existence bears the same 
 relation to particular existences as sum- 
 mum genus does to genera. Kant uses 
 the word transcendental differently, 
 though analogously. See above. 
 
 Kant means (I think) tl at there are certain 
 mental data which are innate, and thna transcend 
 mere experience. 
 
 Transfiguration {Day of). Matt, 
 xvii. 1-13. Instituted 6 Aug., 1498. 
 
 Transfiguration {Mount of). 
 Supposed to be Tabor, in the plain of 
 Esdraelon, in Galilee. On its summit 
 is a plain of about a mile in circumfer- 
 ence. The Mount is about 1,000 feet in 
 height. 
 
 Transubstantiation. The change 
 which takes place in the Eucharist by 
 
 consecration, when the whole substance j 
 
 of the bread is changed into the body of j 
 
 Christ, and the whole substance of the i 
 
 wine into the blood of Christ. The fact ' 
 
 that the bread and wine phenomenally j 
 
 appear to be unchanged is a sensual i 
 deception. By consecration the bread 
 
 ceases to be bread and the wine ceases 
 to be wine, the phenomenal appearance 
 is mere ' accident,' the noumenon, or real 
 substance, is the body and blood of Christ. 
 The Lutheran doctrine is that the bread 
 remains bread and the wine remains 
 wine, but that the body and blood of 
 Chvist by consecration are transfused 
 into them, ' as heat into hot iron ' ; so 
 that the bread is bread ^Z«s the body of 
 Christ, and tiie wine is wine plus the 
 blood of Christ. This is called ' Consub- 
 stantiation,' or ' Impanation.' 
 
 It has been denied that Luther taught the doc- 
 trine of Consubstantiation : but what else did he 
 mean by impanation and the " he it of hot iron ' ? 
 
 Trappists, 1140. Founded in Nor- 
 mandy by Eotrou, comte de Perche. 
 Refounded by Abbe de Ranee in 1636. 
 A reformed Benedictine order. The 
 female order call themselves Trappis- 
 tines, instituted 1822. When driven 
 out of France in 1791 they went to 
 Switzerland and built the monastery 
 called Val- Sainte, which wufi suppressed 
 in 1811. Fifty-nine monks of La Trappe 
 migrated from England to France in 
 1817, and settled in La Loire Inferieure. 
 In 1822 the Trappists had sixteen houses 
 in France. Their chief monastery was 
 burnt to the ground in August, 1871. 
 They have several houses in the United 
 States. 
 
 Travaux Forces, Code Napoleon, 
 called travaux publics in republican eu- 
 phemism. Hard labour of criminals in 
 public works, instead of the punishment 
 of the galleys, which was abolished in 
 1748. • 
 
 Travelling Bachelors, in the 
 
 University of Cambridge, 1861. Two 
 bachelors to travel for three years to 
 investigate the religion, learning, laws, 
 politics, customs, manners, and rarities 
 of foreign countries. Stipend, lOOZ. each 
 per annum. 
 
 Travendhal {Treaty of), 5 Aug., 
 1700, between Charles XII. of Sweden 
 and Frederick IV. of Denmark. Frede- 
 rick IV. of Denmark, regardless of the 
 treaty of Altona (1689), revived the dis- 
 putes with the Duke of Holstein, who had 
 married the eldest sister of Charles XII. 
 Charles immediately attacked Denmark 
 by sea and land, and so furious was the 
 attack that Frederick of Denmark was 
 obliged to sue for peace. By the media- 
 
TREACLE 
 
 TREATY 
 
 Frederikshanm 
 
 Poitiers 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Potsdam 
 
 Gisors 
 
 Prague 
 
 Gulestan 
 
 Presburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Pruth 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Pyrenees 
 
 Hubertsburg 
 
 llanstadt 
 
 Jassy 
 
 Ratisbon 
 
 Jonko'ping 
 
 Rosijild 
 
 Kainardji 
 
 Ryswick 
 
 Kardis 
 
 Sempach 
 Seville 
 
 Kiel 
 
 Knnerod 
 
 Stettin 
 
 Lahore 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Lambeth 
 
 Teschen 
 
 Laybach 
 
 Tilsit 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Toeplitz 
 
 London 
 
 Travendhal 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 Troppeau 
 
 Lunevilla 
 
 Troyes 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Turchomancho 
 
 Mersen 
 
 Turin 
 
 Moss 
 
 Unkiar Skelessi 
 
 Minister 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Nertschinsk 
 
 Verdun 
 
 Nimeguen 
 
 Verona 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Versailles 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Vervins 
 
 Noyon 
 
 Viasma 
 
 Nystadt 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Oliva 
 
 Villafranca 
 
 Orebro 
 
 Vordingborg 
 
 Paris 
 
 Wallingford 
 
 Passarowita 
 
 Widmore 
 
 Passau 
 
 Weliki Luki 
 
 Pequigny 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Perth 
 
 Wilna 
 
 Peronne 
 
 Wiirtzburg 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Ziirich 
 
 tion of England and France a treaty of 
 peace was signed at Travendhal, and 
 Denmark had to pay the expenses of the 
 war. 
 
 Treacle Bible {The) is Beck's Bible 
 of 1549, in which the word balm is 
 rendered treacle. The Bishops' Bible 
 has tryacle (Jer. iii. 22 ; xlvi. 11 ; and 
 Ezek. xxvii. 17). See ' Bible.' 
 
 ■ Treasurer {The), since the Muni- 
 cipal Corporations Act of 1835, is ap- 
 pointed by the council, of which he must 
 be a member, and he must give security 
 for the proper discharge of his duties. 
 The treasurer of the corporation is 
 bound to keep accounts of all receipts 
 and disbursements, and these accounts 
 must be open to the inspection of the 
 members of the council. He is to pay 
 no money except by written order, and is 
 to submit his accounts with vouchers 
 every half-year. 
 
 Treasury Devil. A law phrase 
 meaning clerk to the Solicitor- General 
 of government business. 
 
 Treasury Remembrancer, or 
 
 * Treasurer's Remembrancer.' He whose 
 charge it is to put the lord treasurer and 
 the rest of the judges of the exchequer 
 in remembrance of such things as are 
 called on and dealt with in the sove- 
 reign's behoof. In England the office 
 was in 1833 allied to the queen's 
 remembrancer, but in Scotland and Ire- 
 land the office remains. 
 
 Mr. Goschen met Mr. R. W. Arbuthnot-Solmes, 
 Treasury Remembrancer, and other officials. — 
 Newspaper paragraph (on Mr. Goschen's visit to 
 Dublin), 3 Dec, 1887. 
 
 Treaties, Conventions, &c. 
 
 See also 
 
 Aarau 
 
 Abo 
 
 Abrantes 
 
 Adrianople 
 
 Ainaly Cavak 
 
 Aixla-Chapelle 
 
 Afghan 
 
 Akerman 
 
 Alcacebas 
 
 Almorah 
 
 Altenberg 
 
 Altmark 
 
 Altona 
 
 Amboise 
 
 Amiens 
 
 Anagni 
 
 Ancenis 
 
 Andelot 
 
 Andrussow 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 Bartenstein 
 
 Bergen 
 
 Blois 
 
 Breda 
 
 Bretigny 
 
 Bromsberg 
 
 Bucharest 
 
 Cambray 
 
 Campo Formic 
 
 Capriano 
 
 Carlovitz 
 
 Gateau Cambresis 
 
 Chaumont 
 
 Closter Seven 
 
 Cognac 
 
 Constantinoplo 
 
 Constance 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Falezy 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Fontainebleau 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Treaty of 1841 {The), signed 29 
 Aug., 1842. Made with the Chinese after 
 the war with that country. Its pro- 
 visions were : — The payment by the 
 Chinese of 21,000,000 dollars (about 4^ 
 million £ sterling). The opening of the 
 new ports. Canton, Amoy, Poo-Chow, 
 Ningpo, and Shanghai to British mer- 
 chants ; the cession of the island of Hong 
 Kong to England ; , correspondence to 
 be opened and continued between the 
 Chinese and British Governments, and 
 the islands Chusan and Kolangsoo to be 
 held until the money was paid. 
 
 Treaty of 2 Dec, 1854 {The). 
 Between Austria, Great Britain, and 
 France, against Russia. Austria engaged 
 to defend the frontier of the Principali- 
 ties against Russia; if Russia made war 
 on Austria the three powers would act 
 in concert ; if the Crimean War lasted 
 beyond 1 Jan., 1855, the three powers 
 would unite to bring it to an end. 
 
 Treaty of Partition {The), b.c. 
 205. At the peace of Dyrrhachium 
 Philip v., king of Macedon, made a bar- 
 gain with Antiochus, king of Syria, to 
 divide the dominions of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes, the boy-king of Egypt. This 
 scandalous treaty induced Ptolemy to 
 
TREATY 
 
 TRIAL 
 
 897 
 
 place himself under the guardianship of 
 Rome. 
 
 Treaty of 1696 {The). In this 
 treaty it was secretly stipulated at 
 Loretto: (1) That the Vaudois valleys 
 should have no communication or con- 
 nection with the subjects of the great 
 king [Louis XIV.] in matters of reUgion ; 
 and (2) that the subjects of his most 
 Christian Majesty [Louis XIV J, who had 
 taken refuge in the valley, should be 
 banished. 
 
 This was a mere evasion of the famous Edict 
 of 13 May (q.v.), to which Victor Amadeus (whose 
 daughter was betrothed to the heir of France) was 
 forced by Louis XIV. 
 
 Treaty Stone {The), 8 Oct., 1691, 
 Limerick, Ireland. A large stone on 
 which the capitulation of Limerick 
 was signed by General Ginkell and the 
 leaders of the Irish insurgents. It still 
 stands near Thomond Bridge, in the 
 county of Clare, beside the river-bank. 
 
 Trecentisti. The Italian worthies 
 of the 14tli cent. See ' Cinquecentisti ' 
 and ' Seicentisti.' 
 
 This was the golden period, of which Dante 
 was the representative. 
 
 Tree of Feudalism (The), 14 July, 
 1792. An immense tree erected in the 
 Champ de Mars, Paris, on which were 
 hung crowns, blue ribbons, tiaras, cardi- 
 nals' hats, St. Peter's keys, ermine 
 mantles, doctors' caps, law-bags, titles of 
 nobility, escutcheons, coats of arms, and 
 so on, to which the king (Louis XVI.) 
 was to set fire. Louis refused to do so, 
 saying there was no such thing as 
 feudalism in France. 
 
 Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Mar (r of 
 • Sharnd ' silent). 
 
 Trees of Liberty. Trees or green 
 boughs set up as symbols of liberty. 
 The idea came from America. In 1790 
 the Jacobins planted a tree of liberty in 
 Paris, and soon every village in France 
 had its tree, crowned with the cap of 
 liberty, round which the people danced 
 singing revolutionary songs, as English 
 villagers used to sing and dance round 
 the May-pole. In the Reign of Terror 
 thousands were guillotined for injuring 
 these trees. During the empire the trees 
 were suppressed, but in July, 1830, they 
 were again set up, and again in 1848. 
 These trees were adorned with rings as 
 symbols of unity, with triangles as sym- 
 bols of equality, with tricoloured ribbons 
 
 as the revolutionary badge, and a cap of 
 liberty. The last was rooted up in 1872. 
 In Italy, during the revolution of 1848 andlSig, 
 numerous trees of liberty were planted in the 
 peninsula. 
 
 Trent {Council of), begun 1545 and 
 closed 1563. Its object was to correct, 
 confirm, and fix for ever the doctrines 
 and discipline of the Catholic Church, 
 and to reform the lives of the Catholic 
 clergy. Hence Catholics are called Tri- 
 dentines (3 syl.), from Tridentura, the 
 ancient name of Trent, in Lombardy. 
 
 Tr^ve de Dieu {La), 1040. Sus- 
 pension of arms during sacred days, 
 divine service, and the intervals between 
 Advent and Epiphany, Quinquagesima 
 and Pentecost. 
 
 Triad, according to Pythagoras, is 
 the third mathematical quantity ; the 
 monad or point ^s the first, length is the 
 duad, breadth the triad or third mathe- 
 matical quantity, and the fourth or 
 tetrad is the solid. Physically, intel- 
 lectual capacity is the monad, scientific 
 or certain knowledge is a duad, opinion 
 a triad, and perception by the senses a 
 tetrad. 
 
 Triad Society {The). A secret 
 society in China during the reign of Kia- 
 king (1796-1820). Organised for plunder. 
 Ostensibly, however, for the expulsion 
 of the Manchoos from the throne and 
 country. 
 
 Triads {Welsh). Mythological tra- 
 ditions, moral rules, historic fragments 
 of the British, &c., in the Welsh lan- 
 guage, disposed in groups of three. 
 
 Trial by Battel, or 'Wager of 
 Battle.' Recognised in the laws of 
 Liutprand, about 720. In use in Eng- 
 land before the reign of Henry I., and 
 not abolished till 1819. The combat- 
 ants fought on horseback, fully armed. 
 Being duly marshalled, they entered the 
 lists saying, ' May God defend the right.' 
 The king presided : if he threw do\vn 
 his warder, the combat ceased ; if not, it 
 went on till one of the combatants was 
 vanquished or slain. The notion was 
 that God would defend the innocent 
 party. 
 
 Abraham Thornton in 1818, charged with the 
 murder of Mary Ashford, refused to be tried by a 
 jury, and insisted on a wager of battle. Lord 
 Chief Justice EUenborough allowed the appeal, 
 and as Thornton was a very strong and athletic 
 8 M 
 
TRIAL 
 
 TRIBUNE 
 
 man, and his accuser a mere stripling, the trial 
 ■was declined, and Thornton released. 
 
 Trial of the Pyx [The). A very 
 
 ancient ceremony, spoken of in the 
 reign of Edward T. as 'a well-known 
 custom.' It is the final trial, by weight 
 and assay, of the gold and silver coins of 
 the United Kingdom prior to their issue. 
 The proceedings, which now occur every 
 year, are conducted by the Lords Com- 
 missioners of the Treasury with much 
 solemnity, and constitute a public attes- 
 tation of the standard purity of the coin. 
 The wardens of the Goldsmiths' Com- 
 pany act as the jury, and after making a 
 careful examination, deliver to the king's 
 or the queen's remembrancer a verdict 
 that they can discover no variation from 
 the standard specified in the Coinage 
 Act, 1870. 
 
 Triarchy {The J?o?naw), 337-361. 
 Constantine the Great; at his death, 
 divided his empire into three parts 
 between his three sons : 
 
 To his eldest son, Constantine [II.], he 
 left Gaul, Spain, and Britain. 
 
 To his second son, Constans, he left 
 Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. 
 
 To his third son, Constantius, he left 
 the East. 
 
 Constantine attacked his brother Con- 
 stans, and was slain a.d. 340, aged 25. 
 
 Constans was slain by Magnentius a.d. 
 850. 
 
 Constantius died at Tarsus a.d. 361, 
 aged 41. And the empire came to 
 Julian. 
 
 Tribes {Boman). The original fol- 
 lowers of Romulus were called Ramnes, 
 or Ramnians. After the Sabine war 
 the Sabines had a share in the new 
 state, and were called Titles, or Titians. 
 And after the conquest of Rome by 
 Porsena, the Etruscans had a share in 
 the state, and were called Luceres. 
 
 Ramnes, the original Romans. See Ramnes. 
 
 Titles, so called from Tatius, the Sabine king. 
 
 Luc§res, so called from Lucerum, a town of 
 Etruria. 
 
 It has been suggested by modern scholars that 
 these are primitive clan-names long before Rome 
 was founded. 
 
 Tribunal Extraordinaire, or 
 
 •Tribunal Revolutionnaire,' 1792. De- 
 creed by the Mountain for the trial and 
 dispatch of suspects. It had five judges 
 and a standing jury, was subject to no 
 appeal, and was virtually free from any 
 law forms. 
 
 Tribunal Revolutionnaire {Le), 
 
 10 March, 1793. An ' exceptional tri- 
 bunal ' created by the Convention of 
 France, and consisting of three judges at 
 least, a jury, and a public accuser. Its 
 decisions were without appeal. 
 
 Tribunal de Premiere In- 
 stance (Le), 1810. A jurisdiction 
 established in each arrondissement of 
 France for ' toutes les affaires civiles et 
 correctionnelles ' which are not specially 
 assigned to other tribunals. 
 
 Tribunal of Blood {The), 1567. 
 The organisation under Margaret, 
 governor of the Netherlands, under 
 which 18,000 persons were put to death 
 in three years. Also called ' The Council 
 of Trouble.' 
 
 Tribunal of the Faith {The), 
 1823. A revival in Spain of the ' Holy 
 Inquisition.' Extinct in 1868. 
 
 Tribunal of the 17th of 
 
 August {The), 1792. A French revo- 
 lutionary tribunal demanded of the Con- 
 vention by Robespierre, for the trial of 
 * traitors against the people.' It con- 
 sisted of one deputy from each section. 
 This tribunal was succeeded by the more 
 awful ' Tribunal Revolutionnaire ' {q.v.). 
 
 Tribunat {Le), 1799. In France, 
 established for discussing the merits of 
 the laws presented by the government. 
 Orators were appointed to speak pro 
 and con, and the corps legislatif 
 decided. The tribunat entered on its 
 functions in 1801. It was originally 
 composed of 100 members, not above 25 
 years of age. In 1802 the number was 
 reduced to 50, and in 1807 it was wholly 
 supj)ressed. 
 
 Tribunaux Correctionnels 
 
 {Les), 1810. Under this title the tribu- 
 nals of ' premiere instance ' take cogni- 
 zance of appeals from the decisions of 
 the police court, and all minor offences 
 limited to five days' imprisonment or a 
 fine not exceeding 15 francs (12s. 6d.). 
 Pronounce Tre-bu-no cor'rek'-sc-o-nel. 
 
 Tribune of the People. So 
 
 FrauQois Noel Babeuf called himself 
 (1764-1797). He assumed the name of 
 Gracchus, and tried to make himself a 
 second Robespierre, but his rebellion was 
 soon crushed by the Directory, and Ba- 
 beuf was guillotined. 
 
TRIBUNES 
 
 TRIERS 
 
 899 
 
 Tribunes {French), 1799. In the 
 Consulate 100 tribunes formed part of 
 the government. Their sole province was 
 discussion. The first consul submitted 
 a motion to the corps le'gislatif ; where- 
 upon the state councillors advocated its 
 adoption, and the tribunes pleaded 
 against it. In 1807 the tribunate was 
 abolislied, and the ' Corps Le'gislatif ' 
 was addressed by the Conseil d'Etat. 
 
 Tributum was the Roman property 
 tax, an extraordinary levy in times of 
 war. The censors made the assessment, 
 and it was called tribute because it was 
 exacted from all the tribes. The col- 
 lectors were called Tribuni ^rarii. 
 
 Tricolour (The), 1789. Clovis, after 
 his baptism, adopted the blue standard 
 of St. Martin de Tours for the national 
 banner. The successors of Hugues 
 Capet, who made Paris their capital, 
 changed the blue standard of St. Martin 
 for the red standard of St. Denis. As 
 red was the English colour, Charles VII. 
 discarded it, and chose white (in honour 
 of the Virgin Mary), for the national 
 colour. Hence blue, red, and white 
 have all in turns been the national 
 colours of France. In the revolution, 
 1789, blue and red were adopted, being 
 the colours of the commune of Paris, and 
 Lafayette added white (the lilies of 
 France), to represent the French nation. 
 
 Long before this, Mary Stuart, wife of Francois 
 II. (afterwards queen of Scotland), had adopted 
 the tricolour as the livery of her Swiss guards: 
 white for France, bliw for Scotland, and rt'd for 
 Switzerland, in compliment to the nationality of 
 the guards themselves. 
 
 There is no reason to suppose that Lafayette 
 introduced white (the monarchical colour) to con- 
 ciliate the Bourbon king. 
 
 Tricolour Scarfs. Still worn in 
 France by the municipal magistrates and 
 commissaires of police. 
 
 Tricolours (European). Indicative 
 of national liberty : 
 
 In Fbance : Blue, red, white, divided 
 vertically. 
 
 In Italy : Green, white, red, divided 
 vertically. 
 
 In Belgium: Black, yellow, red, 
 divided vertically. 
 
 In Holland : Red, white, blue, divided 
 horizontally. 
 
 Tricoteuses (Les). Women who 
 frequented the public clubs and revolu- 
 tionary tribunal in Paris, where they 
 
 sat knitting, while they listened to what 
 was going on, and expressed audibly 
 their approval or disapprobation. With 
 the fall of the Jacobins in 1794 they 
 ceased to appear. They were called 
 ' The Furies of the Guillotine.' 
 
 Pronounce Trick'-ko-Ui\ 
 
 No combination of 
 
 letters in the English language can convey the 
 sound of the French euse. It almost rhymes with 
 
 Tricoteuses de la G-uillotine 
 
 {Les). Knitters of the guillotine. 
 Women of Paris who daily went to the 
 Place de la Rc^volution, Paris, to witness 
 the executions, and passed their time 
 there knitting. 
 
 Tridentine Catechism {The), 
 
 1.566. Prepared in accordance with the 
 decrees of the Council of Trent by Arch- 
 bishop Leon, the Bishoj) ^gidius Fosco- 
 rari, and the Portuguese Dominican 
 Francis Fureiro. It was revised by the 
 Cardinals Borromeo, Sirlet and Antonian, 
 and sanctioned by Pius V. 
 
 Tridentine Council {The), i.e. 
 the Council of Trent, called in Latin 
 ' Tridentum,' 1545-1563. 
 
 Tridentine Decrees. Decrees 
 issued by the Council of Trent (16th 
 cent.). See above. 
 
 Tridentines (3 syl.). Bigoted Roman 
 Catholics whose religious views are rigidly 
 circumscribed by the decrees of the 
 Council of T\:BXii[Tridentum\, 1537-1563. 
 
 Triennial Bill {The), 1694. It 
 provided two things : (1) That no parlia- 
 ment shall continue longer than three 
 years, and (2) that a new parliament shall 
 always be called within tliree years of 
 the dissolution of the preceding one. 
 
 Triennial Parliaments, 1694 to 
 1715. Appointed to be held by Act 16 
 Car. I. c. 1 (1641), by 16 Car. II. c. 1 
 (1664), and by 6, 7 Will. & Mar. c. 2 
 (1694). Septennial Act was passed 1716 
 (1 Geo. I. c. 38). See ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Triers of Petitions. Edward I. 
 
 granted leave for everyone who thought 
 himself unduly assessed, rated, charged 
 to aids, subsidies, or taxes, to deliver a 
 petition to receivers who sat in the Great 
 Hall of the Palace of Westminster. The 
 petitions were forwarded to the king's 
 council. This gave, rise to the ' Triers of 
 Petitions ' at the opening of every new 
 3m2 
 
900 
 
 TRIMMERS 
 
 TRINODA 
 
 parliament by the House of Lords, a 
 usage which is still continued. See 
 ' Tryers.' 
 
 Trimmers, in the reigns of Charles 
 II. and William III., were those whose 
 political opinions were neither hot nor 
 cold. Charles Montagu (earl of Halifax) 
 called himself a ' trimmer ' or medium 
 man, half Whig and half Tory. They 
 were friendly to the monarchy, but 
 opposed to James duke of York ; and 
 pleased neither party. 
 
 Trimurti is the inseparable unity in 
 the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva 
 in one person. The Christian dogma is 
 the inseparable unity of three Persons 
 (Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in one G-od. 
 
 Son, husband, and father may be one and the 
 eame person, or trimurti ; and Antony, Octavi- 
 anus, and Lepidus may bo three separate persons, 
 but one triumvirate. This is not meant to be a;n 
 explanation of the Trinity, but merely to show 
 the difference between three gods equal to one 
 person, and three persons equal to one god. 
 
 Tringlo (A). A soldier of the Arab 
 commissariat and baggage trains in 
 Algiers. 
 
 Trinita'rian Controversy (The), 
 17th and 18th cents. This controversy 
 had many phases : (1) The Arian, an- 
 swered by Dr. Bull in his ' Defensio 
 Fidei Nicenee,' 1685-1688. This is termed 
 the 'Patristic' phase. (2) The Meta- 
 physical phase, controverted by Dr. 
 Thurlock and Dr. South. (3) The Scrip- 
 tural phase, set forth by Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke, Sykes, Whitby, and Jackson, and 
 answered by Dr. Waterland in his ' Vin- 
 dication of Christ's Divinity,' 1719, 1723. 
 (4) The Free-thinkers led by Lord 
 Shaftesbury, Collins's 'Free-thinking,' 
 Woolston's ' Discourse on Miracles,' 
 Tindal's ' Cliristianity ' ; replied to by 
 Waterland, Zachary Pearce, and War- 
 burton. 
 
 Trinitarians. Those who believe 
 that there are three distinct Persons 
 (Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in the 
 one undivided Godhead. 
 
 The word ' persons ' is very misleading applied 
 to deity, as we use the word to signify an objec- 
 tive individual, and cannot divest our thoughts 
 of some such idea. In no sense is God an indi- 
 vidual or objective person, but simply an entity, 
 or, to use the Hebrew phrase, an ' I am.' No one 
 on earth would call the human soul a person. 
 
 Trinity {Confraternity of the), or 
 ' Fathers of the Oratory,' 1550. A reli- 
 gious order founded in Rome by Philip 
 
 Neri to aid and succour pilgrims. When 
 it undertook to instruct the young the 
 brotherhood changed their original name 
 to Oratorians. In 1611 P. de Be'rille 
 instituted a branch of the society iu 
 France, and called it ' L'Oratoire de 
 Jesus,' a normal school for young priests. 
 Suppressed in 1790, but re-established iu 
 1853 under the title of L'Oratoire de 
 V ImtnacuUe Conception. 
 
 Some of the greatest Christian orators of France 
 were Oratorians ; as Malebranche, Massillon, 
 Mascaron, Richard Simon, Lelong, La Bletterie, 
 Foncemagne, Dotteville, Daunou, &c. Cardinal 
 Newman was an Oratorian. 
 
 Trinity College. 
 
 I. Cambridge University. Is the con- 
 solidation of several foundations : (1) Of 
 St. Michael house, founded by Hervey of 
 Stanton in 1324; (2) of King's Hall, 
 founded by Edward III. in 1337 ; (3) of 
 Phiswick's Hostel and Oving's Inn ; 
 (4) augmented and largely endowed by 
 Henry VIII. in 1546, when its present 
 name was given to the College. It is the 
 largest and richest foundation in the 
 University. The head of the college is 
 called the Master, and is appointed by 
 the crown. 
 
 II. J)ii6Zm University, 1591. Founded 
 by Queen Elizabeth Statutes revised 
 31 June, 1855. 
 
 III. Oic/orcZ University, 1554. Founded 
 by Sir Thomas Pope. It was originally 
 called ' Durham College,' being endowed 
 by the priors and bishops of Durham. 
 The headmaster is called the * president.' 
 
 Trinity Hall. A college in the 
 University of Cambridge, founded by 
 William Bateman, bishop of Norwich in 
 1350. 
 
 William Bateman was the second founder of 
 Gonville and Caius College also. See 'Caiua 
 College.' 
 
 Trinity Sunday. Instituted in 
 1287. It is next to Whitsunday, and is 
 called ' Stately Sunday.' See ' Sunday.' 
 
 Statuimus quod Festum Trinitatis Dominicaa 
 post octavam Pentecostes, quae vocatur octava 
 Trinitatis, cum ix lectionibus et debita solemn!- 
 tate fiat. — The Bull for its iiistiiiition. 
 
 Christmas Day is the day of the birth of Jesus, 
 Whitsunday is the day of the outpouring of the 
 Holy Ghost, and Trinity Sunday is the day dedi- 
 cated to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, ' One in 
 Three and Three in One.' 
 
 Trinity Week. Hebdomada Trini- 
 tatis, the week which begins with Trinity 
 Sunday. 
 
 Trino'da Neces'sitas. Three im. 
 posts or taxes to which all lands (not 
 
TKIPARTITE 
 
 TRIPOS 
 
 901 
 
 excepting church lands) were subject in 
 Anglo-Saxon times : (1) Brt/ge-bot, for 
 keeping bridges and highways in repair ; 
 (2) Burg-hot, for keeping the burgs or 
 fortresses in repair; and (3) Fyrcl, for 
 the payment of the mihtary and naval 
 forces of the kingdom. 
 
 Fyrd means an army, or the military force of a 
 country; fy idling means military service; and 
 fyrd-wite the fine for neglecting to join the fyrd. 
 
 Tripartite {The). The Jus iElianum 
 {q.v.). 
 
 Tripartite Decree {The), or 'De- 
 ere turn tripartitum juris consuetudinarii,' 
 by Verboczy of Hungary, 1514. 
 
 I. It established equal rights to all 
 the Hungarian nobility, who were exempt 
 from all taxation. 
 
 II. It limited the authority of the 
 clergy, and deprived the pope of the 
 disposal of church benefices in Hungary. 
 
 III. It took from the peasantry all 
 liberty and every species of property, 
 reducing them to the state of serfs. 
 
 Tripit'aka, or ' Three Baskets.' 
 The sacred books of the Buddhists ; the 
 books altogether being between two and 
 three thousand, A complete series was 
 presented to the India Office by the 
 Japanese ambassador, Iwakura-Tomomi, 
 from the Mika'do, some years ago. The 
 collection was originally published by 
 the Emperor Wan-lich of China, at the 
 close of the 16th cent., and it was re- 
 produced in Japan in the sixth year of 
 Nengo Impo {i.e. 1679). 
 
 Triple Alliance {The). I. 28 Jan., 
 1668, between Great Britain, the Nether- 
 lands, and Sweden, against France. It 
 was a ruse of Arlington's to force Louis 
 XIV. to accept the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. "William III. was king of 
 England, and his heart was bent on 
 checking the conquests of Louis that his 
 beloved Holland might be aggrandized, 
 and to this end he wanted to protect 
 from France the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 II. 4 Jan., 1717. Between Great 
 Britain, Holland, and France, against 
 Spain, or rather against the designs of 
 Cardinal Alberoni of Spain, whose object 
 was to re-establish the monarchy of 
 Charles V. In order to annoy the English 
 the Spanish cardinal favoured the pre- 
 tender, and in order to annoy France he 
 favoured the Huguenots. He tried to 
 
 induce Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter 
 I. of Russia to join him ; to plunge 
 Austria into a war with Turkey, to stir 
 up insurrection in Hungary, and actually 
 effected the ari'est of the regent Due 
 d'Orle'ans. The platform of the alliance 
 was (a) that the Pretender should be 
 made to quit France ; (6) that the forti- 
 fications of Dunkirk should be abolished 
 according to the treaty of Utrecht ; and 
 (c) that the Protestant succession of 
 Great Britain should not be disturbed. 
 
 III. 1789, between Great Britain, 
 Holland, and Russia, against Catharine 
 of Russia, in defence of Turkey. 
 
 Triple Tree {The). The gallows, 
 which was a permanent erection resting 
 on three posts ; first at Smithfield, then 
 at Tyburn. See ' Elms.' 
 
 Tripod of Life {The). The brain, 
 the lungs, and the heart. All natural 
 death in the human animal proceeds 
 from one of these three organs. 
 
 Tripos, in the University of Cam- 
 bridge. In the 15th cent, an 'ould 
 bachelour,' as representative of the uni- 
 versity, had to sit on a three-legged stool 
 ' before Mr. Proctours ' to test the abili- 
 ties of the candidates for degrees by 
 arguing some question with the ' eldest 
 son' of them as their representative. 
 There were three occasions on which 
 questionists were admitted to degrees : 
 (1) the Comitia priora on Ash-Wednes- 
 day, for the best men ; (2) the Comitia 
 posteriora, a few weeks later, for the 
 second-best men ; and (3) the Comitia 
 minora for the 'poll-men.' Hence the 
 word tripos meant the stool and the 
 ' ould Bachelour,' then the three classes of 
 questionists, and lastly the examination 
 system. 
 
 The Classical Tripos was established in 1824, and 
 the Historical Tripoa, the Science Tripos, &c., in 
 
 1868. 
 
 *^* The word now means the classifi- 
 cation into three classes of graduated 
 merit adopted in the University of Cam- 
 bridge, Class I. being the highest. 
 
 The Triposes are : The Classical Tri- 
 pos, the Historical Tripos, the Indian 
 Languages Tripos, the Law Tripos, the 
 Mathematical Tripos, the Mediasval and 
 Modern Languages Tripos, the Natural 
 Science Tripos, the Semitic Languages 
 Tripos, and the Theological Tripos. 
 
902 
 
 TEISAGION 
 
 TEIUMVIRATE 
 
 TriSSig'ion {The), or ' First Religious 
 War,' A.D. 508-518. The Trisagion is 
 the repetition of the word ' Holy ' three 
 times, as ' Holy, holy, holy. Lord God of 
 Hosts,' supposed to indicate a Trinity. 
 The Greeks maintained that it is the 
 song sung by the angels before the 
 throne of God, and that it was miracu- 
 lously revealed to the church at Con- 
 stantinople in the middle of the 5th cent. 
 The Manichaeans objected, and a sedition 
 was caused which filled the streets day 
 and night with men, women, and chil- 
 dren, shouting and fighting. Churches 
 were destroyed, the statues of the 
 Emperor Anastasius were thrown down, 
 and at length Vitalian, with an army of 
 Huns and Bulgarians, interfered for the 
 Catholic party. Such, says Gibbon (xlvii.), 
 was the event of the first religious war 
 waged in the name of the God of peace. 
 
 Triumphal Arches. The most 
 celebrated are the following : — 
 
 Constantine's Areh, in Rome, to com- 
 memorate the triumph of Constantine 
 over Maxentius. 
 
 The Arch of Septimus Severus, at the 
 foot of the capitol. 
 
 Gallienus's Arch, erected A.D. 260. 
 
 Titus's Arch, to commemorate his 
 taking of Jerusalem. 
 
 Arc de Benevent, in honour of Traj'an. 
 A copy of Titus's Arch. Another, dedi- 
 cated to the same emperor, called the 
 * Arch of Ancona.' 
 
 The Arch of Rimini, dedicated to 
 Augustus. This is the most ancient of 
 the Roman arches. Another, dedicated 
 to the same emperor, at the foot of 
 Mont Cenis, and called the 'Arch of 
 Suza.' 
 
 In Pabis there is an arc de triomphe 
 at the Porte St. Denis, erected in 1673 
 to commemorate the passage of the 
 Rhine by Louis XIV. There is another 
 dedicated to the same king at the Porte 
 St. Martin, to commemorate his con- 
 quest of the Franche-Comte. 
 
 The arch in the Carrousel was raised 
 to the honour of Napoleon in 1806. The 
 splendid Arc de Triomphe in the Champs 
 Elysees was begun in 1806 and finished 
 in 1835. It is the work of Chalgrin and 
 Huyot. 
 
 Triumvirate [The). I. The British 
 Triumvirate (1763), consisting of George 
 Grenville and the Lords Egremont and 
 
 Halifax, who succeeded the Earl of Bute 
 and Sir Francis Dashwood. Grenville 
 took both Bute's and Dashwood's ofidce 
 (lord of the treasurer and chancellor of 
 the exchequer), while Egremont and 
 Halifax were the two secretaries of state. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Anne the triumvirate 
 •was the Duke of Marlborough, Lord Godolphin, 
 and Sarah duchess of Marlborough. The first 
 controlled foreign affairs, the second controlled 
 the council and parliament, and the third con- 
 trolled the Court and queen. 
 
 II. The First French (1561). The 
 Guise family leagued against the Hugue- 
 nots. The triumvirate was the Due de 
 Guise, the Constable de Montmorency, 
 and Marshal de St. Andre. This league 
 was supported by the Pope, the Cardinal 
 de Lorraine, and the clergy generally, 
 the people of the north and west, and by 
 Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 III. The Second French Triumvirate 
 (1685) for the extirpation of Huguenots 
 in the reign of Louis XIV. The trium- 
 virate was Father la Chaise (the king's 
 confessor), Madame de Maintenon (the 
 king's wife), and the Marquis de Louvois. 
 See below, No. IV., ' Triumvirate ' {The 
 ThermidoHan),' and ' Reign of Terror.' 
 
 IV. The Thermidorian Triumvirate 
 (1795), consisting of Barras, Rewbell, 
 and La Reveillere. As in all other 
 triumvirates one of the three is dominant, 
 so in the Thermidorian Triumvirate Bar- 
 ras was infinitely more powerful than the 
 other two. 
 
 V. First Boman (b.c. 60). A cabal 
 formed by Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar. 
 Crassus was the wealthy partner, Pom- 
 pey the most powerful, Cassar the most 
 popular. 
 
 VI. The Second Boman Triumvirate 
 (b.c. 43-31). Lej)idus, Antony, and Octa- 
 vianus. After the assassination of 
 Ceesar. 
 
 VII. Of the Commonwealth (1659). 
 General Lambert having put down the 
 Rump Parliament, after the death of 
 Cromwell, introduced a inilitary form of 
 government. Its three heads were Lam- 
 bert, Fleetwood, and Monk. In April, 
 1660, the king (Charles II.) was recalled. 
 
 Fleetwood was Cromwell's son-in-law, and 
 Monk was governor of Scotland. 
 
 VIII. Of the Beign of Terror (1794). 
 Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. 
 
 IX. Of the Boman Government (30 
 March, 1848) Mazzini, Armellini, and 
 Suffi. These representatives of the 
 
TRIUMVIRATE 
 
 TRUCE 
 
 people formed a constitutional assembly, 
 with a design of converting Italy into a 
 republic like France ; but it was re- 
 publican France which prevented it by 
 an army of occupation. 
 
 Triumvirate of England {The). 
 Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate (poets). 
 
 Triumvirate of Italian Poets. 
 
 Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. 
 
 Boccaccio is now Itnown chiefly as the ' Father 
 of Italian Prose.' His ' Decameron ' has outlived 
 bis poetry. 
 
 Triv'ium. The three sciences : 
 Grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The 
 QUADBiviUM were the four sciences : 
 Music, arithmetic, geometry, and astro- 
 nomy. Up to the 14th cent, called the 
 seven sciences or seven liberal arts, and 
 all taught in Latin. 
 
 Trois Chapitres {Les). Three 
 theological works on the Incarnation of 
 Christ and his dual nature, by Theodore 
 of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and 
 Ibas of Edessa, condemned as heretical 
 in 553. 
 
 Trojans.and Greeks in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. Partisans of Sir 
 John Cheke, regius professor of Greek 
 in the University, and of Gardiner the 
 chancellor. Sir John introduced a new 
 pronunciation of Greek, against which 
 the chancellor protested. As Sir John 
 was a Protestant and Gardiner a Catholic, 
 the feud was more than half of a religious 
 character. Those who took the side of 
 the Regius professor were called 'Tro- 
 jans ' ; those who sided with the chan- 
 cellor called themselves ' Greeks.' Many 
 a street row ensued, till at last the king 
 in council commanded the innovation 
 of Sir John to be discontinued. See 
 p. 735, * Ramists,' 
 
 Troppau, in Silesia {Congress of), 
 from 20 Oct. to 20 Dec, 1820. Its object 
 was to resist the revolutionary movement 
 in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 
 Trottiera {La). The bell which 
 summoned the * riders ' or nobles to the 
 Grand Council in Venice. 
 
 Trou'badours {The), Minstrels of 
 Southern France in the 11th, 12th, and 
 13th cents. They were the first to dis- 
 card Latin and use the native tongue 
 in their compositions. Their poetry was 
 
 either about love and gallantry or war 
 and chivalry. See ' Trouveres.' 
 
 The poetry of the proven<;als or troubadours 
 ■was of two sorts : cansos, or poems of love and gal- 
 lantry, and sinentesr, or lays of war and chivalry, 
 politics and morals. The word is from troubar, to 
 invent, as ' poetry ' is from the Greek verb mean- 
 ing ' to make ' or ' create." 
 
 Trousse-galant {Le), 1445. An 
 epidemic which ravaged France, and was 
 so called 'de la rapidite avec laquelle 
 elle enlevait les malades. Elle affectait 
 surtout le bas-ventre et la tete.' See 
 * Plague,' &c. 
 
 Trouveres {The). Minstrels of the 
 north of France in the 12th, 13th, and 
 14th cents. The language they employed 
 was the ' Walloon ' or ' Langue d'oil ' 
 {q.v.). The subjects of these minstrels 
 were satires and romances, tales of 
 knavery and adventure, legends and his- 
 torical traditions. It had three periods. 
 In the first period the subjects were 
 Gothic, Frankish, and Burgundian heroes. 
 In the second period the subjects were 
 Charlemagne and his paladins. In the 
 third period they were traditions of 
 British story, such as the fabulous Brute, 
 King Arthur and his knights, King Horn, 
 and so on. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott's ' Marmion," 'Lady of the 
 Lake,' ' Rokeby, &c., are excellent imitations of 
 the old Trouvere minstrelsy. The word is the 
 AValloon verb trouver, to find out or invent. The 
 same as troubar. Sec ' Troubadours.' 
 
 Troy {The Destruction of). This 
 was 12 June, B.C. 1184. 
 
 Troyes, in France {Treaties of). 
 
 I. 2f May, 1420. Between Charles VI. 
 of France, Henry V. of England, and 
 Philippe le Bon of Burgundy, for the 
 marriage of Henry V. with the Princess 
 
 j Katharine of France. By this treaty 
 Henry was declared regent and heir of 
 France. 
 
 II. 1 April, 1564. A treaty of peace 
 between England and France, 
 
 Truce of God {The), 1040, A 
 modification of the ' Peace of God ' [q.v.). 
 The latter was an ecclesiastical prohibi- 
 tion of war altogether, under the general 
 expectation of the Second Advent of 
 Christ, the Prince of Peace (1035). The 
 truce limited the prohibition to Thurs- 
 day, Friday, Saturdi^y, Sunday, and 
 Church festivals, such as Easter, Lent, 
 and Christmas, and absolutely forbade 
 anyone to molest a man working in tlie 
 
904 
 
 TEUCK 
 
 TSHIN 
 
 fields. The penalty of breaking the 
 truce was death or outlawry. 
 
 Truck Act {The\ 1, 2 Will. IV. c 
 37 (1831), forbids employers to pay 
 wages in whole or in part by goods in- 
 stead of money. Orders on a truck- 
 shop or store are likewise forbidden as a 
 set-off against wages. 
 
 ' Truck ' is the French troquer, to barter. 
 
 Truck System {The). The mode 
 of paying wages in part or wholly either 
 by goods or by an order on some store. 
 Very common before it was prohibited 
 by law in 1831. 
 
 True as Bicknell. Bicknell was 
 a hosier who supplied George III. with 
 gloves. In the Gordon riots, 1780, a 
 notion got abroad that the Eoman Catho- 
 lics designed to kill the king by poisoned 
 gloves, as Catherine de Medicis killed 
 Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henri IV. of 
 France, and many others. The ' London 
 Courant ' and other newspapers, to lull 
 this suspicion, inserted the following 
 paragraph : ' We are authorised to assure 
 the public that Mr. Bicknell, his majesty's 
 hosier, is as true and faithful a Protestant 
 as any in his majesty's dominions.' 
 
 True Blue, in a theological sense, 
 means a Presbyterian in contradistinction 
 to an Episcopalian. Butler says that his 
 knight Hudibras was ' Right Presbyterian 
 true blue.' In the time of George I,, and 
 probably before that reign, ' True Blue,' 
 in a political sense, meant a Whig in 
 contradistinction to a Tory. Lord George 
 Gordon, in 1780, and his adherents ap- 
 peared in the House of Commons with 
 blue cockades in their hats. 
 
 ■ True Blues ' ; so the Palatines of Limerick 
 called themselves when they mustered into the 
 yeomanry service. ' True Blues ' have always 
 been associated with Orangeism. 
 
 Trumpet {Murder of the), 1403. 
 This refers to an incident in Venetian 
 history. A Venetian trumpet (herald) 
 appeared before Vicenza and announced 
 to Francesco Terzo that the city had 
 placed itself under the protection of 
 Venice. Francesco ordered the trumpet 
 to retire, and not retvirn without a safe 
 conduct. In the evening he returned, 
 bearing the pennon of Vicenza, and com- 
 manded the Paduans to raise the siege. 
 Francesco denied the authority of the 
 trumpet, and said if he had been sent by 
 the Venetians he would have borne the 
 
 Venetian pennon. Next morning the 
 trumpet again appeared, this time with 
 a Venetian pennon. The guards seized 
 him, cut off his nose and ears, and sent 
 him back with a declaration of war. 
 ' Let us make this trumpet,' said the 
 guards, ' the Lion of St. Mark.' The 
 point was this : the Lion of St. Mark has 
 both nose and ears, but shall henceforth 
 be mutilated like this trumpet by the 
 indignant Paduans. 
 
 Trumpet of Sedition {The). So 
 George III. spoke of William Pitt, the 
 statesman, afterwards the earl of Chat- 
 ham, because he protested so strongly 
 against the American war, which George 
 as strongly desired. While Britain was 
 glorying in the victories of Lord Howe, 
 he said: — 
 
 You cannot conquer America. If I were an 
 American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign 
 troop was landed in my country, I never would 
 lay down my arms— never, never, never.' 
 
 Trumpets {Feast of). A Jewish 
 festival held the first day of the civil 
 year, which was in September, and insti- 
 tuted in commemoration of the thunder 
 heard on Mount Sinai at the giving of 
 the Law. 
 
 Tryers, or Triers, 20 March, 1654. 
 Commissioners appointed by Cromwell 
 and his council to examine into the 
 ' sufferings of the clergy.' Francis Rous, 
 with thirty-seven others, part laymen 
 and part ministers, were appointed. A 
 list of the names is given by Neal in his 
 ' History of the Puritans,' iv. p. 93. See 
 p. 899, 'Triers of Petitions.' 
 
 Tse Dynasty {The). The ninth 
 imperial dynasty of China. Like the 
 eighth, tenth, and eleventh dynasties, it 
 had dominion only over Southern China, 
 the court being held at Nankin. It 
 lasted twenty- three years (479-502), and 
 gave five sovereigns. 
 
 Tshin Dynasty {The). The first 
 historic dynasty of China (B.C. 256-201). 
 Also called the fourth imperial dynasty. 
 It gave five emperors who held their 
 court at Yn ; and lasted fifty-four years. 
 It was succeeded by the dynasty of Han, 
 It was Tchao, the first of this dynasty, 
 who built the great wall of China. 
 
 This dynasty must not be confounded with that 
 of Tsiit (the seventh), nor with that of Tchin (the 
 eleventh;, nor with that of Tsing (the twenty- 
 second). It is spelt and pronounced differently. 
 
TSIN 
 
 TUDORS 
 
 905 
 
 Tsin Dynasty (T/ie), 265-420. The 
 seventh imperial dynasty of China. It 
 was preceded by the San-kuo or Three 
 States, and succeeded by the duplex em- 
 pire called Southern and Northern. It 
 gave fifteen kings, all of whom were 
 either dethroned or put to death. This 
 dynasty is known by its exodus or grand 
 migrations. 
 
 It is thought that the word China is derived 
 from Tsin, but Fo-hi was said to hold his court at 
 Shensi or the country of Tsin or Chin, whence 
 Tsin a, Sina, China, and this was B.C. 2953, the 
 mythic period of the empire. No dates are intro- 
 duced in the Chinese annals till B.C. 827. 
 
 Tsing Dynasty {The) of China 
 (1644-*) succeeded the Mings, founded 
 by Choun-tchi. This is sometimes called 
 the Manchou dynasty. The present 
 reigning fainily of China is of this dynasty. 
 
 Tsong Dynasty {The) or Pih Sung. 
 The eighth imperial dynasty of China, 
 and first of the Woo-tae or ' five races.' 
 These five races ruled only over the 
 southern empire, and held their court at 
 Nankin. The eiglith dynasty gave seven 
 emperors and lasted fifty-nine years 
 (420-479). The founder, Noo-tee, was a 
 cobbler. 
 
 Tuatha-na-Danans (T/ie), a semi- 
 historical very early Irish dynasty. It 
 is said that the five sons of Dela esta- 
 blished in Ireland the five principalities 
 of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, Connaught, 
 and Meath, and this pentarchy con- 
 tinued for eighty years, when the three 
 sons of Danan invaded the island and 
 established themselves there, till they 
 were driven out by the eight sons of 
 Milesius, who came from Spain. Five 
 of the sons perished, and the whole 
 island was divided between two of the 
 surviving sons, Heremon and Heber. 
 Heremon took Connaught and Leinster, 
 and fixed his residence at Tarah, in 
 Meath. Heber ruled over the southern 
 provinces, but being slain in battle, Here- 
 mon became sole monarch of the island. 
 Tuatha=coinmander. 
 
 Ttibingen School {The), of theo- 
 logy in Germany, also called ' The His- 
 torical School,' founded by Baur, to 
 investigate the historical correctness of 
 the New Testament. Baur wrote a book 
 to prove that the Gospel of St. John was 
 not written till some considerable time 
 after the other three gospels ; and another 
 to show that St. Mark's Gospel was not 
 
 written till many years after the supposed 
 date. The bases of his criticisms are 
 the undoubted historic facts of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 Tuchins, or Touchins, 1385. Peas- 
 ant rebels of France who committed 
 most frightful massacres. The verb 
 tuchinare (rebellare) and the noun tuchi- 
 natus (rebellio) are used in ancient 
 French charters. 
 
 La ville de Nismes est bonne ville . . . les habi- 
 tans sont . . obeissans au roy, et ils ne furent 
 onques Tuchins, maisont ton jours eu lesfleurs de 
 lys sur les portes de la \il\e.—i'lacitum, '21 Jan., 
 1387. 
 
 Tudor, a corruption of Theodore. 
 Owen Tudor, a yeoman in the guards in 
 Bedford's army, married Catherine, 
 widow of Henry V., and had three sons. 
 The eldest son Edmund, who was made 
 by Henry VI. earl of Richmond, married 
 Margaret Beaufort, heiress of the house 
 of Somerset. He died at the age of 20, 
 leaving one son, afterwards Henry VII. 
 
 Catherine fell In love with the Welsh guards- 
 man while he was keeping guard at Windsor. It 
 is said that he stumbled and fell upon her lap at 
 a dancing party, whence their acquaintance 
 began. He had but 40;. a year. No proof of the 
 marriage was ever traced. The Dulse of Glouces- 
 ter, lord protector, seized Tudor and committed 
 him to Newgate, whence he escaped, and after a 
 while Henry VI. made him keeper of his park in 
 Denbigh, Wales. 
 
 Tudor Rose {The), or ' Union Rose,' 
 a combination of the Lancastrian red 
 rose and the Yorkist white rose. The 
 red rose has two rows of five alternate 
 petals ; the white rose is represented 
 with three rows of five alternate petals ; 
 the Tudor or Union rose has four rows 
 of alternate petals, one containing 10, 
 one 8, one 7, and one 6 (counting from 
 the exterior), with centre. The Tudor 
 rose, between sprigs of shamrock and 
 thistle on one stalk, forms the badge of 
 England. 
 
 Tudors {Line of the). Henry VII., 
 Henry VIIL, Edward VI., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Henry VII. descended from Jolin of 
 Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 4th son of 
 Edward III. {q.v.). He married Eliza- 
 beth of York, daughter of Edward IV., 
 son of Richard duke of York slain at the 
 battle of Wakefield, 146G. See ' York.' 
 
 Henry VII. had no hereditary right to the 
 crown. He was the illicit and adulterous son of 
 Edmund Tudor by Margaret Beaufort, daughter 
 of the Duke of Somerset. Elizabeth of York was 
 heir to the crown, but even in the Lancastrian 
 line there were many who had a much cleaner 
 title than Henry. It is not even certain that he 
 
906 
 
 TUDOES' 
 
 TUMULTS 
 
 •was born in wedlock at all. He was a despicable 
 money-grubber, and very ' indiflerent honest.' 
 
 Tudors' Crest {The). A crown in 
 a bush of fruited hawthorn to comme- 
 morate the incident of a soldier finding 
 the crown of Richard III. hid in a haw- 
 thorn bush on the day of battle. It was 
 given to Lord Stanley, who placed it on 
 the head of Richmond, saying ' Long 
 live King Henry ! ' 
 
 Tugendbund (Der), or * League of 
 Virtue,' 1813. A secret society set on 
 foot by the Prussian minister Von Stein, 
 and sui:>ported especially by the students. 
 It had for its object the total expulsion 
 of the French from German soil, and 
 embodied the*seething hatred of Ger- 
 many for France. It gave umbrage to 
 the allies and was dissolved in 1815. 
 
 Tulchan Bishops, 1574. Bishops 
 
 who took a small part of their stipends 
 and gave the rest to their patrons. When 
 a cow had lost her calf, it was customary 
 in Scotland to flay the calf and stuff the 
 skin with straw, that, being placed before 
 the mother, she might be induced to part 
 with her milk freely. This stuffed calf 
 was called a Tulchan, and the stipendiary 
 bishop parted with his revenues to the 
 patron freely, his see being only nominal. 
 The first skimmed-milk bishop was John 
 Douglas, appointed archbishop of St. 
 Andrews by the Earl of. Morton, who 
 claimed the cream. 
 
 The regent Morton, affecting zeal for the Pro- 
 testant doctrines, disobliged the Church of Scot- 
 land by a device which he had invented to secure 
 to the secular nobility the lands and revenues of 
 the Catholic clergy. To this end he nominated to 
 the archbishopric of St. Andrews a poor clergy- 
 man named Douglas, taking his obligation to rest 
 satisfied with a very small annuity out of the re- 
 venues of the see, and to hand over the rest to his 
 patron, the regent himself. This class of bishops 
 . . . was facetiously called Tulchan prelates.— Sir 
 W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxi. 
 
 Tuileries {The), a garden and palace 
 in Paris, built on the site of an ancient 
 fobrique de tuiles. It was composed of 
 three great pavilions, called Le pavilion 
 de Marsan (north), the pavilion de Flore 
 (south), and the pavilion de VHorloge 
 (centre). It was joined to the Louvre by 
 Napoleon III. (l'851-6). The land was 
 bought by Francois I. in 1564, and the 
 original palace was made for Catherine 
 de Medicis, after the design of Philibert 
 Delorme. Louis XIV., Napoleon I., 
 Louis-Philippe, and Napoleon III. made 
 great improvements, especially the last. 
 
 In the republic the convention held their 
 meetings there, afterwards it was used 
 by the Conseil des Anciens. The First 
 Consul made it his residence in 1800. In 
 1848 it was converted into an asylum for 
 invalid workmen ; it was the imperial 
 residence of Napoleon III. from 1852; 
 and was burnt by the Communists 24 
 May, 1871. 
 
 Tulip Mania {The), 1634-1637. An 
 extraordinary rage for tulip-bulbs, which 
 prevailed in Holland and spread through 
 Europe. The tulip called the Viceroy 
 fetched 250L, and the Semper Augustus 
 as much as 1,700Z. Thousands were sold 
 on Exchange merely as articles of specu- 
 lation, and when the rage subsided thou- 
 sands of persons were ruined. 
 
 TuUia'num {The). A loathsome 
 dungeon in Rome. This dismal sub- 
 terranean dungeon was built by Servius 
 Tullius, and was a part of the Career 
 Mamertlnus built by Ancus Martins on 
 the slope of the Capitoline hill. The 
 Tullianum is especially noted, as it was 
 in this dungeon, twelve feet underground, 
 that several of the Catiline conspirators 
 were put to death. 
 
 Mamers is the Sabine form of Mars, and Ancus 
 Marcius was a Sabine. Jugurtha was starved to 
 death in the Career Mamertlnus. 
 
 Tully, i.e. Cicero. The TuUii were 
 of Alban descent, transplanted to Rome 
 in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Cicero 
 made the word a generic name for a legal 
 orator. 
 
 Tumble-down Dick. Richard 
 Cromwell, son of the Protector. He was 
 proclaimed Protector after his father's 
 death, but resigned office within seven 
 months. ' Tumble-down Dick ' was a 
 common public-house sign affected by 
 royalists. 
 
 Tumults and Disorders {Act 
 against), 1661. This Act made it an 
 offence punishable with a fine of lOOZ. 
 and three months' imprisonment to solicit 
 a signature to a petition to king or 
 parliament which had more than twenty 
 names signed, unless the petition was 
 sanctioned by three justices of the peace, 
 or by the majority of the grand jury of 
 the county. Wlioever presented such 
 petition was liable to the same punish- 
 ment also ; and whoever was present at 
 the presentation of a sanctioned petition, 
 
TUKANIAN 
 
 TWELVE 
 
 907 
 
 if there were more than ten persons 
 attending it. 
 
 Turanian Languages (The). 
 The agglutinate orders of languages, 
 divided into North and South. The 
 NortJiern division falls into five sections, 
 viz. the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, 
 Finnic, and Samoyedic. The Southern 
 division comprises the Tamulic, the Gan- 
 getic, the Taic, the Malaic, and some 
 other Polynesian tongues or dialects. 
 See ' Semitic ' and ' Aryan.' 
 
 Turcomanchi [Peace of), Feb., 
 1828, between Persia and Russia, making 
 the river Araxes the boundary of the 
 two kingdoms. Persia had also to pay 
 the expenses of the war. 
 
 Turcos (The). The native Algerian 
 foot-soldiers. The horse-soldiers are 
 called Spahis. Cf. Sepoy. 
 
 Turin {Treaty of), I. 8 Aug., 1381, 
 terminating the war of Chiozza between 
 the Venetians and the Genoese. The 
 turning-point of Genoa's greatness, from 
 which she began to decline. 
 
 II. 29 Aug., 1696, for separate peace 
 between France and Savoy. 
 
 Turin Papy'rus (The), or 'Book 
 of Kings.' A fragmentary list of Egypt- 
 ian kings brought from Thebes by an 
 Italian named Drovetti. At one time it 
 was supposed that this was a complete 
 list in chronological order, but it does 
 not point out contemporary or double 
 kings. A facsimile is preserved in the 
 Royal Society of Literature, 21 Delahay 
 Street, London. 
 
 Turkish Trilateral (The). Silis- 
 tria, Shumla, and Varna in Bulgaria and 
 on the flank of every possible line of 
 operation upon the Balkan. 
 
 Turkish War of 1683-1697. Prin- 
 cipally noted for the siege of Vienna by 
 Mustapha, the Turkish vizier, in 1683. 
 When, on the eve of success, Sobieski, 
 king of Poland, arrived with reinforce- 
 ments, Mustapha decamped, leaving 
 behind him the sultan's standard, many 
 splendid dresses, and the harnesses of 
 several Turkish horses adorned with 
 silver, gold, and precious stones ; besides 
 the money for the siege, the pay of the 
 soldiers, the baggage, tents, cannons, 
 and chariots. 
 
 The war dragged on after this till 1697, and was 
 brought to an end by the " Peace of Carlovitz.' 
 
 Turlupins, 1372. Heretics analo- 
 gous to the Begards (q.v.). They taught 
 the perfectionabiiity of man; and, it 
 is said, went about nude. They were 
 exconununicated by Gregory XL in 1372, 
 and were extirpated by the order of 
 Charles V. of France. They called them- 
 selves the Fraternite des pauvres. 
 Called Turlupins ' quod ea tantum habi- 
 tarent loca, quae lupis exposita erant.' 
 (An etymology most unsatisfactory.) 
 
 A turlupin means a sorry jester, a fool. Whence 
 turlupinotie and the verb turlupiner, to play the fool. 
 
 Turneys, 1339. A base coin made 
 in Ireland and circulated ' to the injury 
 of the king's sterling money.' See p. 99, 
 ' Black Money.' 
 
 Turpin's Chronicle, ' Chronique 
 de I'archeveque Turpin.' Turpin was a 
 monk of St. Denis, and afterwards arch- 
 bishop of Reims, contemporary of Charle- 
 magne. The chronicle referred to is an 
 historic romance having Charlemagne 
 for its hero, and is full of marvels, such 
 as enchanted castles, winged horses, 
 magical horns, incantations, and so on. 
 Historically it is worthless, and probably 
 Turpin had no hand at all in it. Some 
 say it was the work of Gui de Bourgogne 
 (Calixtus n.) in the 12th cent. ; others 
 ascribe it to a monk of St. Andre de 
 Vienne, in Dauphine, who lived in the 
 lltli cent. 
 
 Tweeddale's Act {The Earl of), 
 1668. It restored to their livings those 
 ministers who had been ejected, provided 
 they would accept collation from the 
 bishop, and would attend the presby- 
 teries and synods. 
 
 ' Collation ' means induction and institution, or 
 investing a clergyman with the temporalities and 
 spiritualities of his living. 
 
 Twelfth {The), i.e. the 12th August. 
 The commencement of grouse-shooting. 
 
 Twelve Articles of the Symbol 
 
 {The). Said to have been suggested by 
 the Apostles in a grotto of Mount Olivet 
 just before their final separation. 
 
 1. Peter: I believe in God the Father 
 Almighty, maker of heaven and earth. 
 
 2. John : [And] in Jesus Christ, his 
 only son, our Lord. 
 
 3. James the Greater : Who was con- 
 ceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the 
 Virgin Mary. 
 
908 
 
 TWELVE 
 
 TYND ALE'S 
 
 4. Andbew: Suffered under Pontius 
 Pilate ; was crucified and buried. 
 
 ■ Dead ' was subsequently added, and is bad 
 English. We should not say (A B) was hanged, 
 dead, and buried. 
 
 5. Phxlip : He descended into hell. 
 
 6. Thomas : The third day he rose 
 again from the dead. 
 
 7. James the Less : He ascended into 
 heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of 
 God the Father Almighty. 
 
 8. Matthew : [From thence] He shall 
 come to judge the quick and the dead. 
 
 9. Nathaniel : I believe in the Holy 
 Ghost. 
 
 10. Simon : The Holy Catholic Church. 
 
 ' The Communion of Saints ' was added in the 
 6th cent. 
 
 11. Matthias : The forgiveness of sins. 
 
 12. JuDE : The resurrection of the 
 dead, and the life everlasting. 
 
 The twelve Apostles were anciently delineated, 
 each holding a banderole inscribed with the 
 words attributed to him. Of course the tradition 
 is historically worthless. The Apostles had no 
 hand whatever in the creed. 
 
 See ' Articles.' 
 
 The 
 
 Twelve Brethren {The), 
 Twelve ' Marrowmen ' {q.v.). 
 
 Twelve Fruits of the Holy- 
 Ghost {The) in Catholic theology. 
 
 (1) Chastity ; (2) faith ; (3) gentleness ; 
 (4) goodness; (5) joy; (6) longsuffering ; 
 
 (7) love or charity; (8) meekness; (9) 
 modesty; (10) patience ; (11) peace; and 
 (12) temperance. 
 
 Compare these with Gal. v. 22, 23. 
 
 Twelve Peers of France {The). 
 Philippe Auguste fixed the number of 
 peers to six seculars and six ecclesiastics. 
 The secular peers were : (1) the Duke of 
 Normandy ; (2) the Duke of Burgundy ; 
 
 (8) the Duke of Guyenne ; (4) the Count 
 of Flanders ; (5) the Count of Toulouse ; 
 and (6) the Count of Champagne. 
 
 The ecclesiastical peers were : (1) the 
 Archbishop of Reims ; (2) the Bishop of 
 Laon; (3) the Bishop of Langres; (4) 
 the Bishop of Beauvais ; (5) the Bishop 
 of Chalons; and (6) the Bishop of 
 Noyon. 
 
 Twelve Remembrancers {The). 
 (1) Unity of the Godhead ; (2) the hypo- 
 static union of God and man ; (3) the 
 Trinity; (4) the Evangelists; (5) the 
 wounds of Christ, two in the hands, two 
 in the feet, and one in the side ; (6) the 
 Bix days of creation ; (7) the seven words 
 
 uttered on the cross; (8) the Beatitudes ; 
 (9) the heavenly host; (10) the com- 
 mandments; (11) the Apostles after 
 Judas the traitor had ' gone to his place ' ; 
 (12) the Apostolic college when com- 
 pleted. Called ' The Twelve.' 
 
 Twelve Tables {The), or Leges 
 DuocU'cim Tabularum. The Magna 
 Charta of Old Rome drawn up by the 
 Decemvirs. Ten of them B.C. 451, and 
 the other two B.C. 450. 
 
 Twenty {The). See p. 367, ' Giunta.' 
 
 Twenty Years' "War {The), 1794- 
 
 1815. The wars against Napoleon. 1 
 June, 1894, the French fleet was defeated 
 and crippled by Lord Howe off Brest, 
 and 18 June, 1815, the battle of Waterloo 
 gave the coup de grace to the great dis- 
 turber of nations and enduring enemy of 
 England. 
 
 Twenty-two {The), 30 Oct., 1798. 
 The twenty-two Girondin deputies were 
 sentenced to death, with confiscation of 
 goods. 
 
 Two Hundred {The). On the day 
 of subscription to the Bill of Uniformity, 
 in the reign of Charles II., 200 of the 
 Scotch Presbyterian clergy relinquished 
 their livings. Calamy, Baxter, and Rey- 
 nolds, chief of the Nonconformist leaders, 
 were offered bishoprics, but only Rey- 
 nolds accepted the bribe. See ' Seven 
 Bishops.' 
 
 Charles II. said to Lauderdale that a Scotch- 
 man s religion ' is not fit for a gentleman.' It is 
 much to be feared the king's religion was not fit 
 for any man, gentle or simple. 
 
 Two Thousand {The). See ' Me- 
 morable,' &c. 
 
 Tyburn Dick. Richard Savage, 
 lord Rivers ; made by Queen Anne lieu- 
 tenant of the Tower in 1710. 
 
 Tyndale's Bible. English trans- 
 lation of the New Testament, published 
 at "Wittenberg in 1526. English trans- 
 lation of the Pentateuch, published at 
 Hamburg in 1530. This translation 
 was the basis of the Great Bible (1539- 
 1541) in the reign of Henry VIII. ; of the 
 Bishops' Bible (1568-1572) in the reign 
 of Elizabeth; of the King's Bible (1611) 
 in the reign of James I. ; and of the Re- 
 vised Version (1870-1884) in the reign of j 
 Victoria. See ' Bible.* 
 
TYNWALD 
 
 TYET^OS 
 
 Tynwald {The Court of). The 
 court of the three estates of the Isle of 
 Man, consisting of the governor, the 
 council of ten, and the House of Keys. 
 It is the supreme court of the island. 
 All new Manx laws must be proclaimed 
 in English and Manx, in the presence of 
 the people, at the Tynwald Hill. 
 
 The laws of Man still retain much of their an- 
 cient peculiarity of character, though modified by 
 occasional acts of the Tynwald.— Peince, Parallel 
 History, vol. iii. p. 285. 
 
 Type {The), a.d. 648. An edict pub- 
 lished by Constans II. of the Eastern 
 empire under the hope of burying in 
 silence the dissentient views of the ortho- 
 dox Christians and the Monothelites {q.v.). 
 It imposed silence on both parties on all 
 points of religious differences. 
 
 Tyran de Blanc. Frederick baron 
 Grimm (1723-1807). So called from his 
 free use of cosmetics to repair the ravages 
 of increasing age in his face. He was so 
 called when he took up his abode in 
 Paris. 
 
 Tyranny of the Thirty {The), 
 B.C. 404, lasted eight months. After the 
 overthrow of the Athenians at -^Egospo- 
 tamos the Lacedaemonians insulted them 
 by setting over them thirty magistrates, 
 called ' Tyrants.' These magistrates be- 
 haved with such arrogance and cruelty 
 that Thrasybulus easily got possession 
 of the city and expelled the tyrants. 
 
 To the honour of the Spartans be it said, when 
 they were informed of the rebellion, instead of 
 punishing the conspirators, they passed a bill of 
 amnesty, and re-established in Athens the demo- 
 cratic form of government upon its ancient foun- 
 dation. 
 
 Tyra,ntBasili'des(T/ie). Ivan IV. 
 of Kussia, surnamed the ' Terrible ' by 
 the Russians. ' Basili ' is only another 
 spelling of ' Vassili,' and Ivan IV. was 
 the fourth of the Vassili who had reigned 
 in Russia. ' Basili-ides ' or ' Vassili-ides ' 
 means ' a descendant of Vassili.' 
 
 Among the writers of the history of the north, 
 Ivan IV. is famous as ' The tyrant Basilides.'— 
 Duncan, Hist, of Russia, vol. i. p. 89. 
 
 Tyrants of Sparta {The), b.c. 
 219-192. They were, first, Lycurgus, 
 nine years ; then Machanidas, four years ; 
 and lastly Nabis, fourteen years. Called 
 tyrants because they did not belong to 
 either of the royal dynasties, but were 
 usurpers. 
 
 Tyrconnel — now Donegal, Tyrone, 
 Derry, Fermanagh, Armagh, and Ca'vaa 
 
 (500,000 acres) — was the land planted by 
 James I. The lands were portioned out 
 into estates varying from 1,000 to 2,000 
 acres, and the proprietors were bound to 
 build substantial houses in the English 
 fashion, and to people them with EngHsh 
 and Scotch tenantry. A company of 
 London merchants, called ' The Irish 
 Society,' contracted (1619) for large tracts 
 of land, which are still held under this 
 tenure. 
 
 Tyrian Era (T/ie). This era began 
 19 Oct., B.C. 125. 
 
 Tyrolese Insurrection {The), 
 
 1809. Tyrol had been 442 years under 
 Austria, and was happy and prosperous ; 
 but Napoleon placed it under Bavaria, 
 with a promise that nothing should be 
 changed. Immediately, however, Maxi- 
 milian changed its name to South Ba- 
 varia, and conformed its laws to those of 
 his own kingdom. Andre Hofer, proprie- 
 tor of the inn of Sand, now induced 
 Austria to join them in freeing the Tyrol ; 
 battle after battle was won by the insur- 
 gents, and then Austria made peace with 
 France. Hofer was taken prisoner by the 
 French and shot 20 Feb., 1810. 
 
 Tyrtaeos {The English). Laurence 
 Minot, who celebrated the exploits of 
 Edward III. in English verse (died 1352). 
 
 In 1878 the music hall jingo-song, 'We don't 
 want to fight,' almost roused England into a war 
 with Russia. 
 
 Tyrtseos of Attica in the second 
 Messenian War was by command of an 
 oracle appointed leader of the Spartan 
 army, and by his war-songs led them to 
 victory. The following is a free transla- 
 tion of the first of his three extant 
 elegies : — 
 Oh ! 'tis joyful to fall in the face of the foe, 
 
 For country and altar to die ; 
 But a lot more ignoble no mortal can know 
 Than with parents and children, heart-broken 
 with woe. 
 
 From home as an exile to fly. 
 
 Unrecompensed travail, starvation, and scorn, 
 
 The fugitive s footsteps attend ; 
 Dishonoured his race, and his children forlorn, 
 Himself by temptation and shame overborne, 
 
 Never hear the sweet voice of a friend. 
 
 To the field, then ! Be strong, and acquit ye like 
 men! 
 
 Wlio shall fear for his country to fall ? 
 Ye younger, in ranks firmly serried remain ; 
 Ye elders, though weak, look on Might with disdain, 
 
 And honour your fatherland s call. 
 
 Tyrtseos of France. Rouget de 
 Lisle (1700-1836), whose ' Marseillaise ' 
 stirred the French revolutionary party 
 
910 
 
 TYET^OS 
 
 ULSTER 
 
 almost to madness. The refrain of this 
 spirit-stirring hymn runs thus : — 
 
 Aux armes, citoyens ! Formez vos bataillons ! 
 Marchons! marchons ! qu'unsangimpurabreuve 
 nos sillons. 
 
 Tyrtseos of Germany {The 
 
 Youthful). Karl Theodore Korner (1791- 
 1813), killed in a skirmish with Walmo- 
 deii's outposts at Godebusch. His ' Lyre 
 and Sword Songs ' stirred his country- 
 men like a trumpet. Perhaps the ' Wacht 
 am Ehein,' by Max Schneckenburger, 
 who died 1851, may be called the German 
 'Marseillaise.' The fifth verse runs thus: 
 
 Wi»ile there's a drop of blood to run, 
 While there's an arm to bear a gun, 
 While there's a hand to wield a sword, 
 No foe shall dare thy stream to ford. 
 Dear fatherland, no fear be thine. 
 Thy sons stand firm to guard the Rhine. 
 
 Tyrtaeos of Spain. Manuel Jose 
 Quintana, whose odes stimulated the 
 Spaniards to vindicate their liberty at 
 the war of independence (1772-1857). 
 
 Tyrwhitt Scholarships, for 
 Hebrew. Two for bachelors of arts of 
 the respective values of 30Z. and 20Z., 
 tenable for three years. Founded in the 
 University of Cambridge by the Kev. 
 Robert Tyrwhitt, 1818. See 'Hebrew 
 Prize,' ' Mason Prize.' 
 
 TJ and "V. The ancient use of these 
 two letters was this: U before vowels, 
 especially the vowels a, e, and i ; Y be- 
 fore consonants, especially the consonants 
 n, r, p, s. 
 
 As meruailed, aduantage, conuaye ; 
 leaue, haue, gaue, moued, reueal, gouern, 
 deserues, diuers, forgiue ; deuise, hauing, 
 deuil, sauiour, seruice. 
 
 vnto, vnite, vnmannerly, co-vntry ; dis- 
 covrse, Oedipvs. 
 
 It must not be supposed that u was never set 
 before consonants, nor v before vowels. In the 
 book now before me, dated 1004, hundreds of ex- 
 amples might be gathered, as very, rule, mouse, 
 foure, houre, &c. 
 
 Ubiqua'rians (The). A social club 
 which existed in Barbadoes, and probably 
 elsewhere, in the latter half of the 
 eighteenth cent. Their tenets were called 
 Ubiquarianism. 
 
 Ubiquita'rians or Ubiquists 
 (The), 1560. A small German religious 
 sect, originating with John Brentius, 
 who maintained that the body of Christ 
 was present everywhere (ubique), in the 
 eucharist, by virtue of his divine ubi- 
 
 quity. They were opposed to the Sacra- 
 mentarians ($.f .). 
 
 Udaller (A), an allodial possessor of 
 Zetland. A Udaller holds his possession 
 under an old Norwegian law, instead of 
 the feudal tenures introduced from Scot- 
 land. Hence a Udaller had no feudal 
 lord or superior. Icelandic odal, an 
 hereditary estate. 
 
 Uhlan King {The). King Alfonso 
 XII. of Spain was so called in contempt 
 by the French, in 1883, because he ac- 
 cepted a colonelcy in Germany of a Uhlau 
 regiment. 
 
 Uhlans, Prussian hussars, 1813. They 
 are mounted on fleet horses, are lightly 
 clad, and armed with sword, pistol and 
 lance. Every battalion of the Landwehr 
 {q.v.) has its squadron of Uhlans. In 
 the Franco-German War, 1870, these 
 Uhlans did admirable service, especially 
 as scouts. 
 
 Ukase {Emanoi), that is, a ' personal 
 order,' meaning an edict signed by the 
 czar. These edicts, as various as the 
 opinions, whims, or prejudices of the 
 czar, are the laws of Russia. Alexei 
 Michailowitz (1645-1676) had a selection 
 of such edicts for the preceding century 
 made into a digest called the Sobornoe 
 Ulajenie, which is the common law of 
 Russia. In 1670 he collected all the royal 
 ukases held by private individuals as per- 
 sonal licences, and burnt them, so that 
 one and the same law prevailed through 
 his whole dominion. Ukase = Ou'-kase. 
 
 Ulaj'enie (T/ie). A Russian code of 
 jurisprudence, amended and codified by 
 Alexei Michailowitz, czar of Russia 
 (1646). See above, ' Ukase.' 
 
 Ule'ma, a powerful corporation in 
 Turkey, consisting of the Mufti, who 
 presides, the Imaums, the Mollahs, and 
 the Kadis. Their functions extend to 
 the religion of the country, the adminis- 
 tration of justice, and the general govern- 
 ment. It serves as an equipoise to the 
 despotism of the sultan. 
 
 Ulid'ia, in Ireland, comprised the 
 present county of Down and part ol 
 Antrim. 
 
 Ulster Custom {The), 1870. It 
 was a custom up to 1870, but was then 
 made a law. It is a sort of ' free sale ' 
 
ULSTER 
 
 UNCROWNED 
 
 911 
 
 which prevails in Ulster. Suppose A is 
 the tenant of B, and does not wish to 
 continue so, instead of throwing up his 
 tenancy, he can sell it to C, and then C 
 is the tenant of B. Certain restrictions 
 are made. For example, the landlord 
 can ■ prevent A's asking an exorbitant 
 price, because this would be to the pre- 
 judice of the landlord. The new tenant 
 C must be accepted by the landlord be- 
 fore the transfer is made. And, lastly, A 
 (the old tenant) must pay up all rents 
 and taxes before C can take his place. 
 
 Mr. Lowther, chief secretary of Ireland, in 1879, 
 protested against the extension of Ulster custom 
 to the rest of Ireland; but in 1881 this demand, 
 together with ' fixity of tenure' and 'fair rent,' 
 •was duly recognised. 
 
 Ulster King-of-arms, chief of the 
 
 Irish staff of heralds. The first was ap- 
 pointed by Edward VI. (1 June, 1552). 
 That of Scotland is styled Lord-Lyon. 
 See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 
 
 Urtimus Anglo'rum. William 
 Bedell (Protestant bishop of Kilmore and 
 Ardagh), who died 1642, aged 70. The 
 Irish insurgents fired a volley over his 
 grave in Kilmore churchyard, and parted 
 saying * Requiescat in pace ultimus 
 Anglorum.' 
 
 urtimus Romano'rum. Dr. 
 
 Johnson was so called by Thomas Carlyle. 
 I think he might be more aptly called 
 the last of the Catos (1709-1784). 
 
 Sometimes Horace AValpole Is so called (1717- 
 1797). 
 
 Ulto'nian Kings {The). The kings 
 of Ulster, in Ireland. 
 
 Emania, the seat of the old Ultonian kings.— 
 T. Moore, Hist, of Ireland, vii. D. 143. 
 
 Ultramontane Doctrines, or 
 
 ' Ultramontanism.' Extreme views of 
 papal supremacy and the rights of the 
 popes. These partisans of the pope are 
 so called in France because the pope 
 resides on the other side of the Alps, 
 ultra monies. They are opposed to the 
 Galileans {q.v.). 
 
 Ultramontane Party (in Ireland), 
 1825. The anti-English and anti-Pro- 
 testant party. The Duke of Wellington 
 made a great distinction between 
 * Orangemen and Papists ' [Ultramon- 
 tanists] and ' Protestants and Catholics.' 
 
 Ultramontanes. So the Vaudois 
 who settled beyond the Apennines, after 
 they were driven from their valley homes 
 in the 13th cent., were called by the na- 
 
 tives, because they originally dwelt on 
 the other side of the mountain range. 
 They first founded, in the vicinity of 
 Montalto, the town of Borgo d'Ultra- 
 montani, subsequently the walled town 
 of Guadia. 
 
 O Florence, what does the word Florence mean ? 
 The flower of Italy. And so thou wast till these 
 Ultramontanes persuaded thee that man is justi- 
 fied by faith and not by works ; and herein they 
 lie.— GiLLES, p. 20. 
 
 Ulysses of Brandenburg (The). 
 Albrecht III,, elector of Brandenburg. 
 Also called the ' German Achilles ' (1414- 
 1486). 
 
 Ulysses of the Highlands. Sir 
 
 Evan Cameron lord of Lochiel. Also 
 called ' The Black ' (died 1719). 
 
 It was the son of Sir Evan who was called the 
 'Gentle Lochiel.' 
 
 Umbrella {Mr. Gladstone's). Mr. 
 Gladstone's policy. When in September 
 1885 he issued his manifesto to the 
 electors of Midlothian it was said that 
 he ' opened his umbrella.' His ministry 
 were said to take shelter or stand under 
 his umbrella. In caricature he is often 
 drawn with a ' Sarah Gamp ' under his 
 
 Unam Sanetam, 1302. The fa- 
 mous constitution of Boniface VIII., 
 setting forth that ' the church is one body 
 and has one head. Under its sway are 
 two swords, one spiritual and the other 
 temporal. The former to be used by the 
 supreme pontiff himself, and the latter 
 by temporal powers at his bidding, but 
 at all times the lesser sword must be in 
 subjection to the greater, the temporal 
 power to the spiritual . , . Every human 
 being on the earth is the subject of the 
 see of Rome (' Extra vagantes,' book i., 
 title viii. c. 1). 
 
 This constitution ends thus : ' Diclmus, deflni- 
 mus, et pronunciamus, omnino esse de necessitate 
 fldei.' 
 
 Uncorruptible Commoner 
 
 (The). Andrew Marvell, also called ' The 
 British Aristides ' (1620-1678). See p. 48, 
 ' Aristides,' n. 
 
 Uncrowned Monarch {The), of 
 
 Ireland. Daniel O'Connell, also called 
 ' The Agitator.' With Sheil he founded 
 the new Catholic Association in 1825 ; he 
 began the agitation for the repeal of the 
 Union in 1842, held monster meetings 
 in 1843, was arrested for sedition in 1844 
 and found guilty, but the sentence passed 
 
912 
 
 UNDER 
 
 UNIFORMITY 
 
 on him was reversed by the House of 
 Lords. He lost his supremacy, and died 
 at Genoa, on his way to Rome (1775- 
 1847). 
 
 Under the Yoke (Sent). In Roman 
 history to be sent under the yoke was a 
 sign of subjection. The yoke consisted 
 of an arch made with three spears, two 
 upright ones, and one forming a transoin. 
 The conquered army was made to lay 
 down their arms, and march suhjugum in 
 token of subjugation. 
 
 Undertakers. I. In English 
 history, 1614. Men of influence who 
 undertook for a consideration to get 
 such persons returned to parliament as 
 would prove submissive to the royal 
 will [James I.]. 
 
 Bacon, Somerset, and Neville were the 
 three chief, and are sometimes called 
 ' undertakers ' because they undertook 
 by bribes to win over the chief speakers 
 and men of influence in the parliament 
 of 1614. 
 
 A generation about the court that, to please and 
 humour greatness, undertook a parliament, as 
 men presuming to have friends in every county 
 and borough, who by their power among the 
 people would combine to return such members 
 as should comply solely to (sic) the king s desires. 
 —Wilson. 
 
 In his [.lames I.] opening speech he admitted 
 •what he had so sturdily denied before, the exist- 
 ence of Undertakers in the last parliament, ' a 
 strange kind of beast which had done mischief.— 
 HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. (James I., vol. iii., p. 83). 
 
 II. In Irish history, 1608. Those 
 English or Scotch colonists sent by James 
 I. in the northern counties of Ca'van, 
 Fermanagh, Armagh, Derry, Tyrone, and 
 Tyrconnell, who were allotted 2,000 acres 
 each. They were men of capital, and 
 undertook to pay a mark a year for every 
 60 acres, and to admit no recusant for 
 tenant. 
 
 James confiscated 2,000,000 acres in these coun- 
 ties, and divided them in lots of 2,000, 1,500, 1,000 
 acres. Elizabeth tried to plant Ulster with an 
 English colony. 
 
 *^* In the early part of George III.'s reign a 
 party which played off the British Government 
 against the Irish Parliament were called Under- 
 takers. They had two objects in view: (1) To 
 make the crown, so far as Ireland was concerned, 
 dependent on themselves : (2) To check the spirit 
 of liberty in the people, but throw the odium on 
 the government. This party was broken up by 
 making the lord-lieutenant reside in Ireland and 
 distribute the patronage himself. 
 
 Undertakers {Fife), 1600. An 
 association of gentlemen, chiefly proprie- 
 tors of Fife, who undertook to settle in 
 the Lewis, Uist, and other isles conveni- 
 ent for the fisheries, in order to bring 
 
 these islands into a more civilised state. 
 They expelled the natives, built towns, 
 and introduced manufactories. The 
 attempt did not succeed, and three years 
 later was tried again, but with no better 
 success. 
 
 Unfair Preacher [The). Isaac 
 Barrow, D.D. (1630-1677). So Charles IL 
 called him ' because his sermons were so 
 exhaustive that he left nothing for others 
 to say who came after him.' 
 
 Unfunded Debt {The). Loans to 
 the British government which are paid 
 off in a given number of years. Some- 
 times these loans are for a few months 
 only, and sometimes for a few years. Thus 
 a war, such as that in Egypt, may increase 
 the government expenditure, say 10 mil- 
 lions, more than the Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer has provided for, and instead of 
 adding this sum to the National Debt, 
 the Treasury may think proper to borrow 
 the money at 3 per cent., and pay off 
 2 millions every year for 5 years, and so 
 cancel the debt. Such a debt is not 
 ' funded,' but is only temporary. 
 
 Unicorn. One of the pursuivants 
 of Scotland. See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 
 
 Uniformity {Statutes of), 3 Edw. 
 VI. c. 1 (1549) ; 5, 6 Edw. VI. c. 1 ; 1 
 Eliz. c. 2 ; 13, 14 Car. II. c. 4. Dissenters 
 relieved of all penalties of nonconformity 
 by the Act of Toleration (1689). 
 
 Uniformity {Act of), 1661. En- 
 acted that the revised Book of Common 
 Prayer shall be used in all places of 
 public worship; that the ordination of 
 ministers therein prescribed shall be 
 alone lawful; that all beneficed clergy- 
 men shall read the service therein con- 
 tained within a given time, shall sub- 
 scribe to the 39 articles, and shall profess 
 in a set form of words their unfeigned 
 assent and consent to these Articles and 
 to everything else contained in the said 
 Book of Common Prayer. Above 2,000 
 ministers refused to be bound by this 
 act. All schoolmasters, all who entered 
 our universities, and all persons who took 
 any office, civil or military, were required 
 to give on oath their assent and consent 
 to this act. 
 
 By the Act of Uniformity all ministers who re- 
 fused to comply were to be imprisoned for six 
 months for the first offence, to lose their livings 
 lor the second offence, and to be imprisoned for 
 life for the third offence. 
 
UNIGENITUS 
 
 UNION 
 
 918 
 
 ITnigen'itus {The Bull), 1713, 
 passed by Clement XI. in condemnation 
 of the Jansenists. This bull condemns 
 101 passages extracted from the famous 
 book of Quesnel, called ' Moral Reflections 
 on the New Testament,' and set the whole 
 kingdom of France in an uproar. 
 
 The Jansenists were Calvinistic Roman Catho- 
 lics who maintained the doctrines of free grace, 
 predestination, and the non-freedom of tlie will. 
 
 Union (The), 22 July, 1706. The 
 union of Scotland and England under 
 the name of Great Britain. The terms 
 were : (1) The succession to the throne 
 of Great Britain shall be vested in the 
 Princess Sophia and her heirs ; (2) All 
 the subjects shall enjoy the same rights 
 and privileges ; (3) the court of session 
 and all other courts of judicature in Scot- 
 land shall remain as at present consti- 
 tuted ; (4) Scotland shall be represented 
 in parliament by 16 peers and 45 comr- 
 moners, &c. 
 
 Union {Act of), 1799. An Act of 
 Parliament by which Ireland was united 
 to Great Britain. It came into opera- 
 tion 1 Jan. 1801, when the Dublin parlia- 
 ment was suppressed. 
 
 Union {L'Arret d'), 13 May, 1648. 
 The abolition of the Act of Union. 
 Mazarin proposed to keep back for four 
 years the salaries of all the crown courts 
 of France except those of the Paris par- 
 lement. The Paris parlement refused to 
 be made an excej^tion, and immediately 
 passed the Act of Union, declaring that 
 all crown courts should be treated alike. 
 Mazarin stopped the Act from passing, 
 declaring it to be illegal, and this was 
 * I'arret d'Union.' The parlement would 
 not give way, and civil war broke out. 
 This civil war was called la guerre de 
 la Fronde, which was between Mazarin 
 and the Paris parlement. 
 
 Union {The Edict of), 1588. An 
 Act proclaimed at Blois, by which Henri 
 III. was declared chief of the league or 
 confederation of the Catholics in France 
 against the Huguenots. See ' Holy 
 Union.' 
 
 Union {The Evangelical), 1608. An 
 alliance formed at Auhausen in Bavaria, 
 and confirmed at Halle in 1010, between 
 the Protestant states of the Palatinate, 
 Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Baden- 
 Dourlach, against the Holy League 
 formed in 1609 at Wurtzburg. 
 
 Union Brigade (T/ze), at Waterloo, 
 1815, was composed of the • 1st Royal 
 Dragoons [Englayid'] ; the 2nd Dragoons 
 [the Royal Scots Greys] for Scotland 
 and the 6th [Inniskillings] for Ireland. 
 
 Union of Calmar {The). The 
 union of the three crowns of Denmark, 
 Norway, and Sweden, agreed to in the 
 Conference of Calmar in Sweden. From 
 the overthrow of Albert king of Sweden 
 in the battle of Falkoping, Margaret 
 queen-regent of Denmark and Norway 
 had acted as regent of Sweden ; but the 
 Diet held at Calmar on 17 June, 1397, 
 conferred the crown of the three king- 
 doms on Eric, her grand-nephew, because 
 no woman could reign. The union was 
 only nominal at any time, and was for- 
 mally abolished in 1523, 
 
 Margaret had the provinces of Wermland, East 
 and West Gothland, with several contiguous de 
 pendencies, assigned to her as a life settlement. 
 
 *,* From 1471 to 1523 Sweden had separate ad- 
 miniKtration, but Wasa or Vasa united the two 
 kingdoms. 
 
 Union of Public Good {The). 
 The reorganised ' Association of Russian 
 Knights.' A Russian secret society in 
 the reign of Czar Alexander I. Their 
 ostensible object was the welfare of 
 Russia, but all their schemes were to be 
 worked secretly to prevent envy, hatred, 
 and opposition. There were several 
 sections ; the duty of the first was phil- 
 anthropy ; it had to watch over all chari- 
 table institutions, and report abuses. 
 The business of the second section was 
 educational ; it had to keep watch on all 
 schools and colleges, and see that the 
 scholars were taught to love Russia and 
 hate foreigners. The third section was 
 devoted to the law-courts, and reported 
 all grievances. The fourth section was 
 to study political economy, the sources of 
 national wealth, and the development of 
 industry. 
 
 Union of Safety, or the True 
 and Faithful Sons of the Coun- 
 try {The). A secret society organised 
 in Russia in 1816 by young officers who 
 had served in the campaigns of 1813, 
 1814, 1815. The members were divided 
 into (1) Brothers, (2) Men, and (3) Boyars. 
 The Boyars were superior in grade to the 
 Men and Brothers, and from them three 
 directors were chosen monthly, viz. a 
 president, a superintendent, and a secre- 
 tary. Solemn ceremonies were observed 
 3N 
 
914 
 
 UNION 
 
 UNITED 
 
 at their meetings, and all members were 
 sworn to absolute secrecy. Dissolved 
 1821. 
 
 Union of Scotland and Ireland 
 
 {The), 1651, effected by the Rump Par- 
 liament. Eight commissioners were sent 
 to Scotland, and in spite of much oppo- 
 sition, procured a vote in favour of the 
 iTnion, and 30 members were admitted in 
 the parliament of 1654 for Scotland, and 
 30 for Ireland. But the legislation of 
 the Protectorate was ignored by Charles 
 II., and the permanent Union was effected 
 in the reign of Queen Anne, 1707, when 
 the Scotch parliament was abrogated, 
 and the nation was permitted to send 16 
 lords and 45 commoners to the British 
 parliament. 
 
 Union of Utrecht {The), 1579. A 
 league under the influence of William 
 (prince of Orange-Nassau), aided by 
 Count Hoorn and Count Egmont, to 
 throw off the Spanish yoke. It was 
 joined by seven of the South Belgian 
 provinces, which succeeded in 1594 in 
 erecting themselves into an independent 
 state, called the ' Republic of the Seven 
 United Provinces.' 
 
 The seven provinces were Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Gelderland with Zutphen, Over-Yssel, 
 Friesland, and Groningen with Drenthe. 
 
 Union with. Ireland {The). The 
 act passed for this Union 2 July, 1800 
 (89, 40 George III. c. 67). 
 
 Unionists, 1885, &c. The Radicals 
 and "Whigs who united with the Con- 
 servatives, in Lord Salisbury's adminis- 
 tration, to preserve the integrity of the 
 United Kingdom, which Mr. Gladstone 
 (the preceding premier) would have sacri- 
 ficed to please the Irish Home Rule 
 party led by Mr. Parnell. Mr, Glad- 
 stone's bill utterly demoralised the Whig 
 party, and split froiji it its i-ichest, most 
 talented, and most influential members. 
 George Joachim Goschen, a Whig, joined 
 the ministry as chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer ; Lord Hartington and Joseph 
 Chamberlain, important members of 
 Gladstone's ministry, abandoned the 
 Whig party and became Unionist leaders ; 
 about seventy-five M.P.'s did the same, 
 leaving the Gladstone party an utter 
 wreck. See ' Broad-bottom Administra- 
 tion.' 
 
 Mr. Gladstone, by giving independent parlia- 
 ments to Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, would 
 have reduced the United Kingdom into a mere 
 
 federation. In IftOO the Gladstone or Whig party 
 was nicknamed the ' demoralised.' 
 
 Lord Salisbury's parliament, formed in 1886 on 
 the downfall of the Gladstonian house, consisted 
 of 670 members, of which 303 were Conservatives 
 and 75 LiberalUnionists who voted with the Con- 
 Eervatives=378. The opposition consisted of 205 
 Gladstonians and 86 Nationalists, chiefly Irish 
 members==291. Conservative majority 87, often 
 increased to 100 and more. 
 
 Unitarians, 16th cent. Protestant 
 Dissenters who believe in the monarchy 
 of God, and disbelieve that the one God 
 has three persons. Arians, Socinians, 
 Mussulmans, and Jews are in one sense 
 Unitarians, but, of course, the sect so 
 called disavow the identity of the five 
 creeds. Unitarians disbelieve the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity, the vicarious atone- 
 ment of Christ, the doctrine of original 
 and transmitted sin, and everlasting 
 punishment. They baptize, however, 
 and celebrate the eucharistic sacrament 
 as a memorial of the crucifixion. 
 
 Milton, Newton, Priestley, Locke, and Dr. 
 Lardner were Unitarians. 
 
 U'nitas Fratrum. The Moravian 
 brotherhood (1500). 
 
 United Armenians {The). A 
 sect in Italy, Poland, Galicia, Persia, 
 Russia, and Marseilles, which recognise 
 the spiritual sovereignty of the pope and 
 hold the doctrines of the Catholics, but 
 have their own church government. 
 
 United Brethren {The), or, as 
 they call themselves, ' Unitas Fratrum.' 
 More generally called ' Moravians ' {q.v.) 
 or ' Moravian Brethren,' 1500. 
 
 The 'United Brethren in Christ' (1800) are Ger- 
 man Methodists of North America. 
 
 United Brotherhood {The). The 
 American Irish League. They were 
 called 'V.C {q.v.). The object was to 
 bring about an Independent Irish Re- 
 public in Ireland by force of arms. Called 
 in Ireland ' I.R.B.' (Irish Revolutionary 
 Brotherhood). 
 
 The Irish, in their jargon, were called ' Jsjti,' 
 and Ireland was called ' Jsfmboe.' 
 
 The executive body was known as 'F.C' which 
 was merely removing the initial letters (like V.C.) 
 one letter in advance. F.C. for E.B., and V.C. for 
 U.B. 
 
 The secretary was known as ' Y,' the treasurer 
 as ' Z,' and the chairman as ' X.' 
 
 Letters were addressed ' To the F.C. of the V.C.,' 
 i.e. the ' Executive Body of the United Brother- 
 hood.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 United Diet of Prussia {The), 
 1847. A union of the provincial diets 
 created in tlie previous reign. It was no 
 organ of the national will, like the British 
 Parliament. It levied taxes, except in 
 
UNITED 
 
 UNITED 
 
 915 
 
 time of war, but the kingdom of Prussia 
 was ruled like a military camp by the 
 king as commander-in-chief, and his diet 
 took the place of field officers. 
 
 United East India Company 
 
 (The), 1708. The original company 
 chartered in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth, 
 and granted a monopoly for fifteen years 
 of trading to India, united with a rival 
 company chartered in 1693. In 1759 the 
 united company obtained from parlia- 
 ment the political management of the 
 acquired countries, subject to certain re- 
 strictions, and was denominated the 
 ' East India Company,' and twenty-four 
 members were appointed directors, their 
 acts being subject to the revisal of the 
 Board of Control. In 1858 the govern- 
 ment of India was transferred to the 
 crown. 
 
 The original company was formed in 1599, and 
 consisted ot four ships. The charter had to be 
 renewed every fifteen years. 
 
 United Empire Loyalists (The), 
 1783. Those lovers of Old England 
 who gave up everything they had rather 
 than abide in the revolted American 
 colonies under a new and alien flag. They 
 settled in Nova Scotia, the wilderness of 
 Ontario, the West Indies, New Bruns- 
 wick, and elsewhere. The centenary of 
 their departure from the United States 
 was held in the Dominion in 1883, when 
 the quaint costumes and old coaches of 
 the previous century were paraded. 
 
 United Free Church Metho- 
 dists {The), about 1850. The Wesleyan 
 Association and Wesleyan Eeform As- 
 sociation united. 
 
 United Free Gospel Churches, 
 
 or ' Band Room Methodists,' 1806, who 
 first met in the Band Room, Manchester. 
 They do not pay their ministers, they 
 ignore class meetings, and they admit 
 non-members into their society. 
 
 United Irishmen (The). 
 
 I. In 1793. Projected in 1791 by 
 Samuel Neilson, a draper of Belfast, to 
 unite Protestants and Catholics in a 
 constitutional agitation for reform and 
 Catholic emancipation. The principal 
 leaders of the people were Wolfe Tone, 
 Hamilton Rowan, and James Napper 
 Tandy, whose violence was so great that 
 they were obliged to expatriate them- 
 selves. When the Earl of Camden, who 
 
 succeeded the Earl Fitzwilliam, returned 
 to the old system of coercion, the United 
 Irishmen advocated a separation from 
 England and the establishment of a re- 
 public in Ireland in alliance with the 
 French Republic, and a well-organized 
 system of secret confederacy was spread 
 over the country, the heads of which 
 issued orders for enlisting, combining, 
 and arming their adherents. In the 
 northern and midland counties were two 
 associations at the same time, one of 
 Catholics called 'Defenders,' and the 
 other of Protestants called' Orangemen.' 
 The Defenders joined the United Irish- 
 men, and the Orangemen were the op- 
 ponents. See * Irish Associations.' 
 
 II. In 1846. An Irish newspaper edited 
 by Mr. Mitchel; the organ of a party 
 which split from the Young Irelanders, 
 whose organ was called the ' Nation.' 
 The ' Nation ' advocated the ' combination 
 of all classes, and the exercise of all poli- 
 tical and social influences ' to carry Re- 
 peal ; the United Irishmen advocated 
 revolution, bloodshed, and civil war. 
 Mitchel every week addressed the lord 
 lieutenant as ' Her Majesty's Execu- 
 tioner-general and Butcher-general of 
 Ireland ' ; and women were exhorted to 
 throw vitriol on the police and the 
 Queen's soldiers. 
 
 United Kingdom. That of Ire- 
 land added to Great Britain. The Act 
 of Union took effect 1 Jan., 1801. 
 
 The union of the four kingdoms, Wales, Ireland, 
 and Scotland, added to England, make the ana- 
 gram W.I.S.E, 
 
 United Kingdoms {The Four). 
 
 England, the Heptarchy united 
 under Egbert .... 802 
 
 Ireland, united under Anlaf . . 853 
 
 Scotland, one kingdom under Ken- 
 neth MacAlpin .... 850 
 
 Wales, the several princes of Wales 
 and Powisland united under 
 HowelDha 907 
 
 England and Ireland, Henry II. . 1172 
 
 England and Wales (with Ireland), 
 Edward 1 1283 
 
 Great Britain (England, Wales, 
 Scotland, and Ireland), under 
 James VI. of Scotland, called 
 ' James I. of England ' . . 1603 
 
 United Methodist Free 
 Churches {The), 1857. An amalga- 
 mation of the Protestant Methodists 
 3n2 
 
916 
 
 UNITED 
 
 UNIVEESITY 
 
 (formed 1828), the Wesleyan Methodist 
 Association (1834), and the Wesleyan 
 Eefonn Association (founded in 1849). 
 
 The Wesleyans have 7,310 chapels, the Primi- 
 tives 4,486, and the United Methodist Free 
 Churches 1,242. Their chief differences are the 
 disapproval of a theological seminary, the exclu- 
 sion of instrumental music, the place they give 
 to laymen in church administration, which is 
 much larger than in the original body, and the 
 greater freedom from control in the circuits. 
 
 United Presbyterian Church 
 
 {The), 1847, is composed of the ' Seces- 
 sion ' and the ' Rehef,' the former insti- 
 tuted in 1733 and the latter in 1752. 
 
 United Presbytery {The), or 
 ♦ Synod of Munster,' formed in 1809 by 
 the junction of the Southern Presbytery 
 of Dublin with the Presbytery of Mun- 
 ster. It is one of the three non-subscrib- 
 ing Presbyterian bodies of Ireland. 
 
 The other two are the ' Remonstrant Synod of 
 Ulster • (q.v.), and the ' Presbytery of Antrim ' (q.v.). 
 These three bodies subsequently united and 
 formed the 'General Non-subscribing Presby- 
 terian Association of Ireland ' (q.v.). 
 
 United States {The). There are 
 somewhat more than 2,700 counties. Of 
 these 10 per cent, are named after presi- 
 dents, and 35 per cent, after Americans 
 who have not been presidents (1890). 
 
 1. Counties, &c,, named from presi- 
 dents : — 
 
 27 counties named Washington, besides cities and 
 
 towns innumerable. 
 43 Jefferson. 
 21 Jackson. 
 
 17 Lincoln, Madison, and Monroe. 
 12 Polk. 
 10 Grant. _ 
 
 9 Adams and Harrison. 
 
 4 Garfield, Pierce, and Van Buren. 
 
 2. Counties, &c., named from Ameri- 
 cans who have not been presidents : — 
 
 Putnam. 
 Randolph. 
 
 Calhoun. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Hancock. 
 
 Scott. 
 
 Webster, and many more. 
 
 3. The following names are enough to 
 Nicodemus any place from ever rising 
 into a bishopric. Only fancy a dignified 
 clergyman signing himself 'Yours faith- 
 fully, John ....,' followed by one of 
 the following names : — 
 
 Eurekapolis. 
 Eurekaville (!) 
 Fighting Cocks. 
 Good Thunder. 
 Hell and Nails Cross- 
 
 Alkaliburg. 
 Bleeder s Gulch. 
 Bloody Bend. 
 Boanerges Ferry. 
 Breeches Fork. 
 Bludgeonsville. 
 Bugville. 
 Butter's Sell. 
 Buried Pipe. 
 Cairovllle. 
 Clean Deck. 
 Daughter's Loss. 
 Euchreville. 
 
 ing. 
 Hezekiahville. 
 Hide and Seek. 
 Jack Pot. 
 Joker. 
 
 Murderville. 
 Nettle Carrier. 
 Numaville. 
 
 Peddlecake. 
 Poker Flat. 
 Pottawattomieville. 
 Plumpville. 
 Roaring Fox. 
 Sharper's Creek. 
 Skeletonville Agency." 
 Soaker s Ranche. 
 Spottedville. 
 
 Starvation. 
 Stuck-up-Canon. 
 Thief's End. 
 Tombstone. 
 Ubet. 
 
 Villa Realville. 
 Yellow Bledicine. 
 Yuba Dam. 
 &c. 
 
 United States {The), 4 July, 1776. 
 
 At the ' Declaration of Independence ' 
 the name of the American Colonies was 
 changed into ' The United States.' At 
 that time eleven of the states signed the 
 declaration, and formed the nucleus of 
 the United States. 
 
 The War of Independence did not terminate till 
 1782. 
 
 Unitive Life. Quietism. 
 
 Molinos in 1681 published his ' Spiritual Guide/ 
 in which he spoke of bringing the soul to a degree 
 of perfection which he called ' Unitive Life ' ; and 
 ' Quietism ' became the appellation of his mystic 
 doctrine.— Pkince, Parallel Hisiory (vol. ii. p. 290). 
 
 Universal Agent {The). That 
 subtle and all-pervading something of 
 which light, heat, electricity, and life are 
 the phenomena and sensible manifesta- 
 tions. J 
 She struggled to take her eyes from his, but 1 
 was of no use. The subtle power of the Universal 
 Agent had got hold upon her, and she was riveted 
 to the spot so long as he kept his eyes upon her.— 
 Crawford, Zoroaster, chap, xviii. 
 
 Universalists, or 'The Universal 
 Christians,' 3rd cent. Those who believe 
 that Christ died for all, and that no one 
 will ultimately be cast away for ever. 
 He shall see of the travail of his soul and 
 be satisfied. The wicked shall be cast 
 into hell only till they are purified, when 
 (cleansed from sin) they will join the 
 saints in light. 
 
 The Philadelphian Universalists are the fol- 
 lowers of Mr. James Kelly, who was connected 
 with Mr. Geo. Whitfield. His congregation met 
 in the Philadelphian Chapel, Windmill Street, 
 Finsbury Square, London. There are a goodly 
 number of these Christians at Boston, Philadel- 
 phia, and other parts of the U. 8. of America. 
 
 See ' Paulinists.' 
 
 University. 
 
 Paris, founded about 1109 ; its degrees 
 were recognized 1200. 
 
 Oxford, founded about 1150 ; its de- 
 grees were recognized 1214. 
 
 Cambridge, founded about 1209 ; its 
 degrees were recognized 1231. 
 
 Glasgow, founded about 1450. 
 
 Aberdeen „ „ 1506. 
 
 Edinburgh „ „ 1582. 
 
 Dubhn „ „ 1591. 
 
 London „ „ 1828. 
 
UNIVEESITY 
 
 URBANISTS 
 
 917 
 
 University College, 872. The 
 
 oldest in the University of Oxford, 
 founded by Alfred the Great. Probably 
 the real founder was William of Durham, 
 rector of Wearmouth 1249. The head of 
 the college is called the Master. 
 
 University Counsel {The), Cam- 
 bridge. These officers have no con- 
 nection whatever with the Council • of 
 the University {q.v.). They are coun- 
 sellors-at-law consulted upon occasions 
 of doubt, and appointed by grace of the 
 Senate. 
 
 University Fight (The). In the 
 reign of Elizabeth, when that queen in 
 1504 visited Cambridge, the public orator 
 declared in his harangue that Cambridge 
 was the older University. Oxford at 
 once took up the cudgel, and when in 
 1566 the queen visited that university, 
 she was told that Oxford, not Cambridge, 
 was the older foundation. 
 
 Caius in 1574 published a goodly quarto in 
 defence of Cambridge. He countenances the pre- 
 
 Eosterous assertion that the first stones of Cam- 
 ridge University were laid 178 years after the 
 flood!! and gravely tells us that Cambridge 
 derives its name from Cantaber, a royal Spanish 
 emigrant, who in the 4th Christian cent, sent for 
 Greek philosophers from Athens as professors in 
 the Cantaber or Cambridge University. Brian 
 Twyne in IGOiS published a similar folio on behalf 
 of Oxford, stating its foundation was laid when 
 Brute came to the island. This ' Trojan ' colony 
 laid the university at Cricklade— !-e.Bello Situm— 
 ■where Oxford now stands. And as for Cambridge, 
 it was a mere offshoot of Oxford in the reign 
 of Henrx I- 
 
 University Museum {The), 1855, 
 erected for the study of natural science. 
 There are lecture-rooms, work-rooms, 
 and laboratories, a dissecting-room, a 
 library, and a reading-room. The keeper 
 has 801. a year (University of Oxford). 
 
 The nearest approximative institution of Cam- 
 bridge is the museum in the old Botanical Gar- 
 dens : but there are other museums, as the Wood- 
 wardian for geology, another for zoology, others 
 for comparative anatomy, botany, mechanics, 
 optics and astronomy, chemistry, &c. See p. 328, 
 'Fitzwilliam Museum.' 
 
 Unkiar Skelessi {Treaty of), 26 
 June (July 8), 1833. A secret treaty 
 between Russia and Turkey of alliance, 
 offensive and defensive, for eight years. 
 It provided the establishment of a per- 
 petual peace between Russia and Turkey. 
 Each was to defend the other's territory 
 against all invaders. The treaty was for 
 eight years positive, with the hope of its 
 being perpetual. The alliance was made 
 when Egypt threatened Turkey with 
 war, and Russia feared that Constanti- 
 
 nople would fall into the hands of Egypt. 
 This alliance was annulled by the Treaty 
 of London 13 July, 1841. 
 
 Unlearned Parliament {The). 
 ' Parliamentum Indoctum,' 1404, from 
 which all lawyers were excluded. So 
 called by Su: E. Coke. See p. 664, 
 ' Parliaments.' 
 
 It advised the king to seize the revenues of the 
 church. More than one third of all the land of 
 England was church property. It also advised 
 the king (Henry IV.) to repeal the statute De 
 Haeretico Comburendo, but he feared the clergy. 
 
 Unrighteous Bible {The). Cam- 
 bridge Press, 1653, contains this query : 
 ' Know ye not that the unrighteous shall 
 inherit the kingdom of God ? ' See ' Bible * 
 and ' Scriptures.' 
 
 Up-Angas {The). Written in Sans- 
 krit by the sage Vyasa, on the subjects 
 of cosmogony, chronology, and geography. 
 Two heroic poems are also included, viz. 
 the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 
 See p. 820, ' Shastras.' 
 
 The P<aranas, or sacred poems of Up-Angas, tell 
 of virtue, good works, and the soul. 
 
 Upa-Vedas {The), deUvered by 
 Brahma, treat of medicine, archery, 
 architecture, music, and sixty-four me- 
 chanical arts. See p. 820, ' Shastras.' 
 
 Upsetters. The college companions 
 of St. Augustine. See his ' Confessions,' 
 iii. 3. 
 
 They formed themselves into tumultuous bands 
 Which wandered through the city streets with 
 
 noise, 
 Fright'ning the old, the peaceful, and the weak 
 And hence, from acts upsetting decency. 
 Were called ' Upsetters,' nor refused the name. 
 
 Heney Warwick Cole, Q.C, St. Augustine. 
 
 Urbanists and Clem'entines 
 
 (3 syL), 1378. The followers of Urban 
 VI., pope of Rome, and Clement VI., 
 pope of Avignon. For fifty-one years 
 there were two sunultaneous popes. 
 
 Urbanists and Damianists. 
 
 Nuns of the order of St. Claire. In 1264 
 Urban IV. mitigated the austerity of 
 the Franciscan rule observed by these 
 nuns. Those who followed the rule thus 
 modified were called Urbanists, but 
 those who continued the more austere 
 rule were called Damianists from St. 
 Pietro Damian, noted for his extreme 
 austerity. 
 
 The nuns of St. Claire devote themselves chiefly 
 to the education of the young. 
 
918 
 
 UKBAKIAL 
 
 USES 
 
 Urbarial Dues. The labour and 
 produce due to the landlord for an 
 Urbarial Tenure (q.v.). 
 
 Urbarial Tenure. A free tenure 
 in Hungary according to the provisions 
 of the Urbarium. By this charter a Hun- 
 garian peasant was no longer attached 
 to the soil, but could leave his landlord 
 and farm whenever he thought fit. 
 Every peasant had as his own an acre of 
 land, with a house and garden ; and also 
 could possess a farm, varying from four- 
 teen to sixty acres, the rent of which 
 was paid by labour and produce. One- 
 ninth of the produce belonged to the 
 landlord, and the labour varied from 
 18 days to 104 days, according to the size 
 of the holdings. 
 
 In 1848 the nobles of Hungary abolished, of 
 their own free will, their right to exact either 
 labour or produce in return for lands held by 
 urbarian tenure. Thus were the peasants in- 
 vested with the absolute ownership of twenty 
 millions of acres among them.— GoDKiN, History 
 of Hungary, p. 319. 
 
 Urbarium {The). A code of laws 
 made in the reign of Maria Theresa of 
 Austria, regulating the relations between 
 landlord and tenant. This was an ad- 
 mirable measure, passed in 1764, and 
 remaining in force till 1835. It was 
 called ' the People's Charter.' 
 
 Ursulins, 1537. A religious society 
 founded by St. Angela of Brescia, and 
 dedicated to St. Ursula. Their speciality 
 is the gratuitous education of the 
 young. They followed the rule of St. 
 Augustine. Abolished in France in 
 1790, but subsequently re-established. 
 They have some houses in the U.S. 
 
 Uscoechi, or Uskoks. Dalmatian 
 fugitives, swelled by the offscouring of 
 all nations, who infested the Adriatic for 
 about a century as pirates. They consisted 
 of Turks, Austrians, Croats, Dalmatians, 
 Venetians, and English, who lived in 
 Segni ; and ' God save you from the 
 Uskoks' was a proverbial expression. 
 By the Treaty of Madrid, 16 Sept., 1617, 
 the extermination of the pirates was an 
 article stipulated by Venice and Austria, 
 and the horde disappeared. - 
 
 Uskoks, Russian uskakat, fugitives. 
 
 Use. Meaning the prayer-book used, 
 or the ' services ' of the mediaeval church. 
 Several large dioceses had their own 
 prayer-book, which contained services 
 for local saints and holidays, and special 
 
 modes of singing and saying the service. 
 The preface of our Common Prayer Book 
 tells us ' there [had] been [hitherto] great 
 diversity in singing and saying in 
 churches within this realm, some follow- 
 ing Salisbury Use, some Hereford Use, 
 and some the Use of Bangor, some of 
 York, some of Lincoln. Now, from 
 henceforth, all the whole realm shall 
 have but one Use.' 
 
 The Sarum or Salisbury Use was 
 compiled by Osmund about 1085, and of 
 this missal there have been several re- 
 prints and translations. 
 
 The dates and authors of the other five 
 Uses are unknown, but it is generally 
 thought that they were older than the 
 Sarum. There is a MS. of the Hereford 
 Missal in University College, Oxford, of 
 the 14th cent., and it was printed at 
 Rouen in 1502; copies of the printed 
 Missal are preserved in the British 
 Museum and in the Bodleian. 
 
 The Bangor Missal was never printed, 
 but from a MS. of the 15th cent, of this 
 book Mr. Maskell printed the Ordinary 
 and Canon in the Ancient Liturgy of the 
 Church of England in 1844. 
 
 The York Missal was printed at Rouen 
 in 1509, and a copy of it is preserved in 
 the Bodleian Library. Nothing of the 
 Lincoln Missal remains except a MS. 
 fragment of the 15th cent., preserved in 
 the Bodleian. 
 
 Sometimes the term Use was applied 
 to the local usage of a particular parish. 
 Thus there were offices and a mass of St. 
 Wilfrid secundum usum Biponice. 
 
 In the northern parts was generally observed 
 the Use of the archiepiscopal Church of York, in 
 South Wales the Use of Hereford, in North Wales 
 the Use of Bangor, and In other places the Use 
 of the principal sees, as Lincoln, Sarum, &c.-« 
 Stephens, O/t the Common Prayer, p. 121. 
 See 'Notes and Queries," 28 June, 1890, pp. 509, 510. 
 
 Use of Sarum (' Li Usum Sarum '), 
 1078. A liturgy or service-book drawn 
 up by Osmund bishop of Salisbury, 
 which was generally adopted throughout 
 the entire kingdom. It was in Latin, 
 and based on the Roman Missals. 
 
 There were other liturgies besides that of 
 Sarum, as the ' Use of Bangor,' the ' Use of Here- 
 ford,' the ' Use of Lincoln,' and the ' Use of York.' 
 These ' Uses' contained eleven different services, 
 as the Missal, Graduale or Grayle, Processionale, 
 Ordinale, Portiforium or Breviary, Legenda, Pica 
 or Pie, Finale. Antiphonarium, Manuals, and 
 Pontificale. 
 
 Uses. A legal device to elude the 
 statutes of mortmain. As no lands could 
 be left to religious houses, donors granted 
 
USES 
 
 VACCA 
 
 919 
 
 their property in trust for the use of a 
 
 stated religious house. Other property 
 was transferred by a similar fiction during 
 the wars of the Roses. As a itse was not 
 a tenure, such property could not be for- 
 feited for treason or any other offence. 
 
 Uses ( The Statute of),27 Henry VIII. 
 c. 10. To prevent the ecclesiastical 
 evasion of the statute of mortmain. It 
 laid down the rule that there cannot be 
 'a use upon a use.' In other words, 
 that a third person cannot be nominally 
 held for a church or other society, so as 
 to enable that church or that society to 
 evade the statute of mortmain. 
 
 Useful Knowledge {The Society 
 for the Diffusion of), 1827. Designed to 
 give information on useful subjects gene- 
 rally. Lord Brougham, Professor De 
 Morgan, Sir David Brewster, Professor 
 Lindley, &c., contributed to the series 
 of books issued by the Society. 
 
 Useless Parliament (The). Con- 
 vened 18 June, 1625, "by Charles I., ad- 
 journed to Oxford 1 Aug., and dissolved 
 12 Aug., having done nothing but offend 
 the king. See p. 664, ' Parliaments.' 
 
 Utah Mormons {The). The Poly- 
 gamist Mormons. Sometimes called 
 Brighamites, from Brigham Young, who 
 practised polygamy. Utah was first 
 occupied by the Mormons in 1847. 
 
 Polygamy was declared unlawful in 1870 by the 
 • Mormon Disabilities Bill,' and in 1890 was aban- 
 doned by the Mormons. 
 
 Utas of Easter {The). Utas are 
 the octaves of a festival. Old French, 
 oitauves, octaves. 
 
 Utilitarian School {The). 'To 
 be as useful as possible,' *to give the 
 least possible pain to others,' and ' to 
 give the greatest possible happiness to 
 the greatest number.' A system of ethics 
 founded by Jeremy Bentham (1747-8 — 
 1832). 
 
 On his death-bed he gave his body to his 
 physician. Dr. Southwood Smith, for dissection, 
 that he might do the most useful thing possible 
 with it. He forbade calling his friends to his 
 bedside, that he might give them the least 
 possible pain. The two were in accordance with 
 his principle of Dinxivin felicitas. 
 
 *,* His body was, however, embalmed, and is 
 now kept in University College, London. 
 
 *" U'traquists. A sect of the Hussites, 
 also called Calix'tines (3 syl.). Called 
 Calixtines from calix (a cup), because 
 they insisted on the cup being given to 
 
 communicants; and called Utraquists 
 from utraque (both kinds), because they 
 insisted that both bread and wine should 
 be administered in the eucharistic sacra- 
 ment. 
 
 Utrecht {The Treaty of), 1713, 
 between France and t/ie following allies, 
 viz. Great Britain, Savoy, Portugal, 
 Prussia, and the states of Holland, signed 
 11 April. Spain, which, of course, was 
 allied with France, did not sign till 18 
 Sept. Peace was concluded after a war 
 of eleven years, noted for the brilliant 
 victories of the Duke of Marlborough and 
 the Prince Eugene. The treaty of Utrecht 
 is generally considered most dishonour- 
 able to England, as it ignored all Marl- 
 borough fought for. Philip still remained 
 king of Spain, and the interests of the 
 allies were almost entirely ignored. Bo- 
 lingbroke, Oxford, and Ormonde, parties 
 to this treaty, were (1715) charged by the 
 House of Commons with high treason. 
 Bolingbroke and Ormonde fled, but 
 Oxford was brought to trial and acquitted. 
 
 However, it confirmed to England the 
 island of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, 
 with the possession of Gibraltar and 
 Minorca, St. Kitts, and Hudson's Bay. 
 
 In 1708 Newfoundland was attacked and partly 
 conquered by the French. 
 
 Nova Scotia was given to France by the treaty 
 of St. Germain in 1632, was reconquered by the 
 British in 1654, and again ceded to France by the 
 treaty of Breda in 1667, was again taken by Britain 
 1711, and confirmed to the British crown in 1713. 
 
 These were but small concessions, it is true, but 
 they tended to confirm the peace between Franco 
 and England. 
 
 v. C. The cryptogram used in Ire- 
 land to designate the ' United Brethren.' 
 It consists simply of shifting the initials 
 one letter forwards. V comes next to 
 U, and C comes next to B. The ' Clan- 
 na-Gael ' {q.v.) was a secret organisation 
 known as ' V. C See p. 455, ' Irish As- 
 sociations.' 
 
 V and S {hrandi7ig with). V^ va- 
 grant, S = slave. 
 
 A runaway, or anyone who lives idly for three 
 days, shall be brought before two justices of the 
 peace, and marked V with a hot iron on his 
 breast, and shall be adjudged the slave of him 
 who brought him for two years. ... If within 
 that space he absents himself fourteen days, he 
 shall be marked on the forehead or cheek by a 
 hot iron with an S, and be his master's slave for 
 ever. (Edward VI.) 
 
 Vacca {Totver of the), in the Palazzo 
 Pubblico or Delia Signoria of Florence. 
 The great bell-tower or campanile in the 
 middle of the edifice. Arnolfo designed 
 
920 
 
 VAKEEL 
 
 VALOIS-ORLEANS 
 
 and began it, but it was completed by 
 altri maestri. Why called the Cow 
 Tower is not known, but the ' lowing ' of 
 the bell is a part of the city wit. 
 
 Vakeel. A Persian satrap, or prince 
 of a small state. In India an envoy or 
 inferior ambassador is called a Vakeel. 
 
 Aga Mohammed was soon set aside by Luft All 
 Khan of the Zend tribe, and a relative of the 
 late Vakeel, 1789.— PBINCE, Parallel History, vol. 
 Ui. p. 132. 
 
 Valdenses. Separatists from the 
 Catholic Church in the 11th cent. Pro- 
 bably vallenses from the Latin vallis, a 
 valley. Hence commonly called the 
 ' Church of the Valleys,' the chief being 
 the valleys of Piedmont and Embrun. 
 Other valleys where they abounded were 
 the ' Valley of San Martino,' the ' Valley 
 of Perosa,' the ' Vale of Pragela,' the 
 ' Valley of Lucerna,' the High Valley of 
 the Durance and the adjacent glens, and 
 many others. The followers of Peter 
 Valdo were ' The Poor Men of Lyons.' 
 
 Eberard de Bethune says : ' They call themselves 
 Vallenses because they live in a Vale of Tears.' — 
 Maxima Biblioth. P. P. vol. xxiv. 
 
 Valentia. One of the five provinces 
 into which Britain was divided in the 
 reign of the Emperor Severus. It in- 
 cluded the land from the Wall of Severus 
 to the Forth and Clyde. It had its own 
 ruler, but that ruler was subject to 
 the prsefect or governor-general of the 
 island. 
 
 Valentin'ians {The), 2nd cent. 
 Followers of Valentlnus, an Egyptian, a 
 Platonist, who taught that Depth is the 
 first principle, and the trinity of Depth, 
 Thought, and Silence existed from all 
 eternity. From this triune sprang Wis- 
 dom and Truth. Thought and Silence, 
 Wisdom and Truth, Valentlnus called the 
 first quaternity of eons, the source of all 
 the rest. The second quaternity was 
 the offsprin-;; of Wisdom, viz. the Word 
 (or Logos) and Life, Man and the Church. 
 Logos and Life produced five couples of 
 eons, Man and the Church formed six 
 couples, and the thirty eons compose the 
 Pleroma of deity. Wisdom wanting to 
 pry into depth (or Bythos) gave herself 
 much trouble, and from this sprang 
 matter. Horos restored Wisdom to the 
 Pleroma, and then she brought forth 
 Christ and the Holy Ghost. Irenseus, 
 Justin the Martyr, Tertullian, and others 
 
 were avowed opponents of the mixture 
 of Christianity and Platonism. 
 
 Eon, in Platonic philosophy, means a divine 
 attribute existing without beginning or end. In 
 Gnostic theology it means an emanation from 
 deity anterior to time. The Son is an eon of the 
 Father, the Holy Ghost is an eon from the Father 
 and Son. The word is also used to signify a period 
 of time of immeasurable duration. 
 
 Vale'sians, a.d. 198. Heretics, so 
 called from Valesius, an Arabian. They 
 admitted only eunuchs into their society, 
 insisting that this crucifixion of the flesh 
 is essential to salvation. 
 
 Valley of Death {The). Balaklava, 
 famous for the charge of Lord Cardigan's 
 Light Brigade, consisting of 607 sabres, 
 which advanced right into the Russian 
 centre with the view of taking thirty 
 Russian guns directed against them. 
 When Lord Raglan perceived the mis- 
 take, he ordered a retreat to be sounded. 
 25 Oct., 1854. 
 
 Certainly a worse choice than Lord Raglan as 
 leader of a great war could hardly have been 
 made. He had neither the energy, the dash, nor 
 the lightning speed of a military hero. 
 
 Valley of Heroes {The). So the 
 Persians call the Plain of Oujan, the 
 famous royal hunting-ground. 
 
 Valley of "Waters {The). The 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 The Valley of Waters, widest next to that 
 Which doth the earth engarland, shapes its course 
 Between discordant shores [Europe and Africa], 
 Dante, Paradise, ix. 
 
 Valley of the Shadow of 
 Death {The). The Koord Cabul Pass, 
 where in 1839 the Afghans annihilated 
 the British army. See p. 485, ' Khyber 
 Pass,' and p. 13, ' Afghan War.' 
 
 Valois Branch {The). The younger 
 branch of the Capetian race of French 
 kings (1328-1498). Li 1498 came a 
 branch of the Valois called the Orleans- 
 Orleans, and in 1515 a branch called the 
 Orleans- Angouleme. Called Valois from 
 Philippe VI. de Valois (1328-1350). 
 
 Valois-Angoul^me Branch of 
 
 the Capetian dynasty gave to France 
 five kings : Francois I., Henri II., Fran- 
 cois II., Charles IX., and Henri III. 
 (1515-1589). 
 
 Valois-Orleans Branch of the "^ 
 Capetian dynasty gave to France one 
 king, Louis XII., le pere du peuple 
 (14(32, 1498-1515). 
 
VALOR 
 
 VEDAS 
 
 921 
 
 Valor Ben'efieio'rum, 1512. 
 DravvTi up by the clergy in council at 
 Edinburgh, and known by the title of 
 ' Bagimont'^ ' or ' Bajimont's Roll.' See 
 p. 66. 
 
 "VajndL-yck-^The Caledonian). George 
 Jameson (1586-1644). 
 
 Vandyck {The English). William 
 Dobson, painter (1610-1647). 
 
 Vandyck of France {The). 
 Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743), the 
 founder of the Pre-Raphaelites. 
 
 Vandyck of Sculpture {The). 
 Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720), 
 
 Va'nists. Followers of the religious 
 opinions of Sir Harry Vane (1612-1662), 
 which were almost identical with Anti- 
 nomianism. He detested episcopacy, and 
 though he promoted the Solemn League 
 and Covenant, he abhorred both it and 
 the presbytery. Vane was a fifth-mon- 
 archy man, and a great believer in ' un- 
 known tongues,' so that his prayers were 
 utterly unintelligible. He wrote several 
 theological treatises, but all mark him 
 out as a wild visionary. 
 
 Varan'gians. All Northmen were 
 so denominated by the Greeks; but, 
 strictly speaking, the Varangians were 
 the Norse bodyguard of their emperors. 
 
 Varela {Peace of), 3 Aug., 1790, be- 
 tween Sweden and Russia. 
 
 Vasa {Order of), 1772. A Swedish 
 order instituted by Gustavus III. in 
 honour of Gustavus Vasa, founder of the 
 dynasty. 
 
 Vassy {Massacre of), 1 March, 1652. 
 Some 1,200 reformers had assembled in 
 a barn on Sunday morning, when Francois 
 due de Guise with sixty horsemen and 
 bowmen rode by, and all began to insult 
 the worshippers by calling them ' rebels ! 
 dogs ! heretics ! ' &c. Some of the re- 
 formers shut the doors, when the duke 
 shouted ' Mort-dieu ! slay the vermin ! ' 
 A scuffle ensued, in which a stone struck 
 the duke on the cheek. His horsemen 
 now fell foul cutting and slashing. Sixty 
 were slain and above 200 wounded. 
 When called upon to answer for this un- 
 provoked attack, the duke declared that 
 the reformers were the aggressors, and 
 that he only acted in self-defence. He 
 
 died the following year, and the matter 
 ended for a time, but it led to the long 
 * Religious Wars of France.' 
 
 A Bible was shown to the duke, and he handed it 
 to his brother the cardinal, who said, ' There is no 
 harm in this book. It is the Holy Scriptures.' 
 ' How ! (cried the duke) sang-dieu ! Call you that 
 the Holy Scriptures y Why, they were written 
 more than l,oOO years ago, and this -was written 
 last year, as you may see by the date.' 
 
 Vatican {The). 'Vaticanus Mons ' 
 is a hill at Rome ; but is now chiefly 
 noted for its magnificent palace of the 
 popes, with its superb gardens, its mu- 
 seums, celebrated library, and basilics* of 
 St. Peter. The palace was constructed 
 in 49S, but has been often enlarged, es- 
 pecially by the popes Nicolas V., Paul 
 IL and III, Sixtus IV., Leo X., Sixtus V., 
 Benedict XIV., Clement XIV., Pius VI., 
 &c. 
 
 In the Vatican are the celebrated Sixtlae 
 Chapel, the Pauline Chapel, and the Raphael 
 room. 
 
 Vatican {Council of the), 1870, to 
 render the dogma of the Immaculate 
 Conception an article of faith. 
 
 Of course the New Testament does not give the 
 remotest hint of such a dogma, nor does it remove 
 the difficulty of ' bringing a clean thing out of an 
 unclean," or, in other words, the entail of sin. It 
 merely removes it one stage further back, and 
 helps to destroy the proper manhood of Christ. 
 The dogma is a grand theological mistake. 
 
 Vatican MS. {The) of the Bible. 
 See p. 184, ' Codex Vaticanus.' 
 
 Vauban de la Marine {Le). 
 Baron Sane, the shipbuilder, born at 
 Brest (1740-1832). 
 
 Vaudois {The) must not be con- 
 founded with the followers of Peter 
 Waldo, or ' Poor Men of Lyons,' who were 
 a revival of the Paulicians ; but the 
 Vaudois, mentioned by Jerome, were 
 Valentinians, and were confined to the 
 Cottian Alps. 
 
 Ved-Angas {The), revealed by 
 Hindu inspired saints, are devoted to 
 astronomy, grammar, prosody, pronun- 
 ciation, charais, incantations, religious 
 rites, and religious ceremonies. Written 
 in Sanskrit. See ' Shastras.' 
 
 Vedas. The sacred books of the 
 Hindus written in Sanskrit. They are 
 four in number : (1) The Big, containing 
 hymns, and in A'erse ; (2) The Yadjour, 
 prayers in prose ; (3) The Sama, designed 
 to be chanted ; and (4) The Atharvan, 
 containing formulas for consecration, 
 
922 
 
 VEDUTO 
 
 VENDETTA 
 
 expiation, and imprecation. Said to have 
 been written in the 15th cent. B.C. 
 
 Of the commentaries the most celebrated are 
 the Purdnas and the Sutras. See these words. 
 
 Veduto. See p. 286, ' Eighty ' (The). 
 
 Vehmgerichte {The), ' The Holy 
 Vehm.' A secret tribunal of Germany, 
 death being the penalty of a betrayal 
 thereof. 
 
 It had its origin in Westphalia in the 
 13th cent. The members consisted of 
 the initiated and the ignorants, but 
 every member must be free born and in 
 lawful wedlock. There were secret signs 
 of recognition. The names and charges 
 of persons brought before the tribunal 
 were entered in the ' Blood Book ' toge- 
 ther with the sentence of the tribunal. 
 There were tl.u-ee modes of proceeding — 
 the summary, the secret, and the open. 
 Death was by hanging on the nearest 
 tree, but a knife stuck in the tree an- 
 nounced to the world that the victim was 
 not hanged by highwaymen. Towards 
 the close of the 16th cent, the Vehm- 
 gerichte dwindled and died. See p. 743, 
 ' Red Land.' 
 
 See Walter Scotts 'Anne of Geierstein ' and Rey- 
 nolds's 'Bronze Statue.' 
 
 Vella {Giuse2}pe), an abbot and lite- 
 rary impostor (1751-1814). He confessed 
 his frauds and was sentenced to fifteen 
 years' imprisonment. His books are 
 ' Codex Diplomaticus Siciliae,' 1791, and 
 ' Libro del Consiglio di Egitto,' 1798. 
 See p. 524, ' Literary Forgeries,' &c. 
 
 "Velvet. The little gentleman in 
 velvet, the mole. The Jacobites used to 
 drink to the ' little gentleman in velvet,' 
 meaning the mole which threw up the 
 mound against which Sorel (King William 
 III.'s horse) stumbled, whereby, being 
 thrown to the ground, he broke his collar- 
 bone, which caused his death. 
 
 Velvet Book {The). The Russian 
 peerage and official lists. 
 
 Velveteen Plot {The), 1842. A 
 trick played upon Sir Robert Peel by a 
 Lancashire manufacturer in order to for- 
 ward the anti-corn law interests. It was 
 tlie present of a piece of cotton velvet so 
 dressed as to look like silk velvet, and 
 ostensibly made in New York. Sir 
 Robert thanked the donor, and said that 
 Lady Peel would hav« part made into a 
 cloak and he himself would have the rest 
 
 made up for his own use. After a more 
 careful inspection Sir Robert found that 
 the design consisted of wheat-ears about 
 a scroll on which was inscribed the word 
 FREE. So he returned the present, stat- 
 ing that he was unaware of its political 
 symbolism. 
 
 Vend^an Massacres {The), or 
 Vende'an war, May 1793 to 19 Feb., 1795. 
 That is the resistance of the Vendeans 
 to the republican J acobins . Prudhomme 
 says the slaughter of the Vendeans in 
 this contest was 337,000, distributed 
 thus : — 
 
 Women killed in La Vendee 15,000; children 
 killed 22,000 ; men killed 300,000. 
 
 Vend^an Wars {The), 1793-1800. 
 Divers wars between royalists of the 
 west of France and the republicans. The 
 insurgents were the nobles, priests, and 
 peasantry combined. The first encoun- 
 ter was in March 1793 in the Bocage. 
 Lazarus Hoche brought the contest to an 
 end in 1796, and was called the Pacifica- 
 teur de la Vendee. In 1799 the Vendeans 
 again took up arms. Brune brought this 
 insurrection to an end in the early part 
 of 1800. In 1815, during the Hundred 
 Days {q-v.), the Vende'ans would have 
 taken up arms if General Lamarque had 
 not interfered to prevent it. In 1832 
 insurrections were again planned, but 
 came to nothing. Prudhomme estimates 
 the death of the Vendeans in their resist- 
 ance to the republican Jacobins at 
 337,000, of which 37,000 were women and 
 children. See ' Chouans.' 
 
 Vend^miaire (Days 12, 13), Year 
 IV. That is 3, 4 Oct., 1795 ; the days when 
 the troops under Barras and General 
 Bonaparte triumphed over the insurgents 
 against the Convention. The combat 
 before the church of St. Roch was most 
 murderous. 
 
 Vendetta. The blood-feud, or duty 
 of the nearest akin of a murdered man to 
 slay the murderer. The custom prevails 
 in Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, Calabria, 
 among the Montenegrins and Albanians, 
 the Druses, Circassians, Arabs, natives 
 of Australia, and in central Asia. In the 
 play of ' Romeo and Juliet ' the two houses 
 of Montague and Capulet ' suffered the 
 vendetta.' Moses appointed cities of 
 refuge to break down the vengeance of 
 the vendetta. 
 
 The vendetta is called by the Bedouins Tar'= re- 
 
VENDETTA 
 
 VENICE 
 
 923 
 
 taliation. It existed in ancient times among the 
 Greeks. In the summer of 18,s9 in Corsica both the 
 slayer and the avenger in a blood-feud were slain 
 in a duel fight with each other. 
 
 Vendetta Transversale, a cross 
 blood-feud. That is, each set of two re- 
 latives has a murder to avenge, A has 
 a blood-feud with B, but B has a blood- 
 feud with A. 
 
 Vendidad Sadd. A sacred book 
 of the Parsees attributed to Zoroaster. 
 It fonns part of the Zend-Avesta, and is 
 in the form of a dialogue between Ormuzd 
 and Zoroaster. 
 
 Venerable {The) Bede, the author 
 of an ' Ecclesiastical History.' A native 
 of Wearmouth. He died 735, aged 62. 
 
 Ven'eta Factio. The Blue Coats. 
 A faction in Byzantium, so called because 
 their livery was Venice blue. The Veneti 
 were simply charioteers in the circus 
 dressed in blue, but the blue coats ulti- 
 mately fonned into a political party of 
 royalists, opposed to the Prasina Factio 
 {q.v.), which were opposed to Justinian, 
 and tried to assassinate him. See ' Blues 
 and Greens.' 
 
 Ven6ti is Latin for Venetians, Venice is ' Vene- 
 tisB,' and Venetus, the adjective, means 'of 
 Venice,' or ' Venice Blue,' the livery of the com- 
 mon soldiers and seamen of Rome. 
 
 Vengeance de Jeanne de Cas- 
 tille {La), a box on the ears. Jeanne 
 de Castille out of jealousy boxed the ears 
 of a maid of honour she had brought 
 from Portugal, and who developed into a 
 rival. 
 
 Vengeance for the Lamb torn 
 by the "Wolf. The war-cry and motto 
 of Capobianco, the leader of the Carbo- 
 
 Vengeur {Le), 1 June, 1794. A 
 French man-of-war immortalised by a 
 romantic fiction. It was one of the fleet 
 engaged against the English fleet under 
 Lord Howe. The English gained a signal 
 victory, but Jean Bon St. -Andre, the 
 Jacobin commissioner on board the ' Ven- 
 geur,' announced to the Convention that 
 the French had won a most splendid 
 ■victory, and the * Vengeur ' went down 
 all the men shouting ' Vive la Re'publique ! 
 Vive la France ! ' and continued these 
 cries even at the bottom of the ocean. 
 Barere added to the fiction that the 
 • Vengeur ' was not sunk by the English, 
 but was engulfed by the waves. Chenier 
 
 the revolutionary poet wrote a panegyric 
 on the ' Vengeur,' containing these 
 lines : — 
 
 Les voix des braves expLrans 
 Qui chantent au fond des abimes I 
 
 The Binliing of ' Le Vengeur ' described by 
 Bart-re, and Napoleon crossing the Alps, a paint- 
 ing by David, are what Carlyle would call ' master- 
 pieces of blague.' Napoleon, who really crossed 
 the mountains on a plodding mule, and buttoned 
 to the chin in a grey greatcoat, is represented in 
 full military costume spurring a prancing charger, 
 and pointing with his right liand towards Italy. 
 But strangely the wind blows the tail and mane 
 of the charger one way, and the military cloak of 
 the rider in an opposite direction. 
 
 The' Vengeur ' wasoneof the ships of the French 
 Convention, which encountered Howe in the 
 Brest waters. Six of the French fleet had been 
 taken, and the battle was lost. The 'Vengeur,' 
 disabled, sank with all its crew, to the number of 
 200. The men were picked up by British boats, 
 and saved from a watery grave, for which they 
 were very grateful. This is how Barere describes 
 the incident (the translation is by Carlyle, who 
 spells the name Barrere) :— 
 
 Twelve hours of raging cannonade ; sun now 
 sinking westward through the battle-smoke. Six 
 French ships taken ; the battle lost ; what ship 
 soever can still sail, making off ! But how is it 
 with ' Le Vengeur ' ? she neither strikes [sail] nor 
 makes off ? She is lamed ; she cannot make off, 
 [and] strike she will not. Fire rakes her fore and 
 aft from victorious enemies : the 'Vengeur ' is sink- 
 ing. Strong are ye, tyrants of the sea ; yet we 
 also, are we weak ? Lo ! all flags, streamers, 
 jacks, every rag of tricolour that will yet run on 
 rope, fly rustling aloft. The whole crew crowd to 
 the upper deck, and with universal, soul-madden- 
 ing yell, shouts ' Vive la Republique ! ' Sinking, 
 sinking. She staggers, she lurches, her last drunk 
 whirl. Ocean yawns abysmal. Down rushes ' Le 
 Vengeur,' carrying ' Vive la Bepubliques ' along 
 with her, unconquerable, into eternity. (He gives 
 as authority Barrere, ' Choix des Bapports,' xiv., 
 416-421, and refers to Lord Howe's report for the 
 simple truth, 'Annual Register,' 1794, p. 86). See 
 p. 36.'^, ' Glorious First of June,' and ' Fire First.' 
 
 Veni, Vidi, Vici, b.c. 47. Cassar's 
 despatch to the Roman senate when he 
 vanquished Pharnaces, king of the Cim- 
 merian Bosphorus in the battle of Zela. 
 
 Karl V. imitated this despatch when he an- 
 nounced his victory at Muhlberg, in April 1547. ' I 
 came, I saw, God conquered.' 
 
 Venice of the East. Bangkok, 
 capital of Siam. 
 
 Venice of the North {The). I. 
 Amsterdam, built on 95 small islands, 
 and its canals are crossed by 290 bridges. 
 
 II. Stockholm, capital of Sweden. 
 
 Venice of the "West. Glasgow. 
 
 Another element in the blazon of the Venice of 
 the West is the fish laid across the stem of the 
 tree.— Burton. 
 
 Venice Sketch-Book {The), or 
 * Raphael's Sketch Book,' preserved in 
 the Accademia delle Belle Arti, in Venice. 
 Long considered to be a collection of 
 sketches by Raphael, but proved by 
 Morelli to be sketches by Pintoricchio, 
 
924 
 
 VER 
 
 VERSAILLES 
 
 the Umbrian artist, and executed before 
 Raphael was born. 
 
 Ver Sacrum. When the whole pro- 
 duce of a spring-time was devoted to the 
 gods. This was done by the Sabellians 
 in times of famine and public calamities. 
 Even the children born during the ver 
 sacrum were devoted to Mamers, the war 
 god, and had to leave the city of their 
 birth. 
 
 Verbena'lia. Annual rites held by 
 the Romans when the altars were deco- 
 rated with verbena or vervain, called the 
 herha sacra. 
 
 Verdun {Treaty of), a.d. 843, by 
 which the empire of Charlemagne was 
 divided into three parts. Lothaire I., 
 as emperor, received Italy and Lorraine ; 
 Charles the Bald re- ^ 
 ceived France; and 
 Louis or Ludwig re- 
 ( eived Germany. So 
 that by this treaty 
 Germany was created 
 into a separate kingdom. 
 
 Vergobret [Vergob'retus], A tem- 
 porary king chosen by the Druids in times 
 of danger. Like the Roman dictator a 
 vergobret laid down his office when the 
 war was ended. 
 
 Vergognosi (J). * The Shamefaced,' 
 or begging nobles of Venice, 16th cent. 
 Many of the nobles of Venice from the 
 16th cent, were so utterly penniless that 
 ' begging licences ' were granted them. 
 These begging nobles assumed a particu- 
 lar dress, viz. an old black linen frock 
 falling to the feet. The head was covered 
 with a hood, and a thick veil fell over 
 the face with two eye-holes. They carried 
 in their hands a little conical box made 
 of paper, for alms. See p. 84, * Begging 
 Licences.' 
 
 Veriss'imus. So the Emperor Ha- 
 drian used to call Marcus Aurelius [An- 
 toninus], a pun on the name of his 
 adopted son, Lucius Verus. Lucius the 
 son was Verus ; Marcus the father was 
 Verissimus (the philosopher). 
 
 Vermilion PenciL The pencil 
 used by the Chinese in royal edicts and 
 despatches. 
 
 On the 25th day of the 1st moon [16 Feb.], 
 and '21st year of Tao-Kwang [1841], the following 
 despatch, written with the vermilion pencil, was 
 re36i\ed in reply [to Commissioner Keshen'8 
 despatch].— Jficsi ClUnese War, 
 
 Vermilion To^wers. To the right 
 of the Alhambra in Granada. So called 
 from their very ruddy hue. Built by 
 Mohammed 11., who reigned 1273-1302. 
 
 Vermont (U.S. America), means 
 * Green Mountains.' So called in 1777 
 from a range of mountains which tra- 
 verses the state (French Verd-mont). 
 The inhabitants are called Green-moun- 
 tain Boys. 
 
 Verner's Law. The law of the 
 
 interchanges of s and r in the Teutonic 
 languages. 
 
 Vernier. A sliding scale by which 
 linear and angular magnitude may be 
 read off with much greater accuracy than 
 by mechanical division and subdivision. 
 B 
 
 ^5 
 
 A B is part of a scale ; a 6 is the vernier 
 made to slide along the edge of the scale, 
 Ten divisions of the vernier = eleven of 
 the scale. Invented by Pierre Vernier, 
 a Burgundian, who died 1637, aged 59. 
 
 Verona [Congress of), from 25 Aug. 
 to 15 Dec, 1822. It was a congress of 
 European sovereigns. 
 
 Versailles [Congress of), opened 
 8 Dec, 1784. Between France and the 
 States-General of Holland. 
 
 Versailles [Treaties of). 
 
 1. 9 March, 1701, between the elector 
 of Bavaria and Louis XIV. 
 
 2. 5 April, 1715, between Louis XTV. 
 and Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
 3. 5 June, 1744, between Louis XV. 
 and Frederick II. the Great of Prussia. 
 
 4. 1 May, 1756, of alliance, between 
 France and Austria. 
 
 5. 30 Dec, 1758, of alliance, between 
 France and Austria. 
 
 6. 16 July, 1782, between France and 
 America. 
 
 7. 3 Sept., 1783, of peace, between 
 Great Britain and the United States of 
 America, admitting the Independence of 
 the United States. 
 
 8. 26 Feb., 1871, of peace, between 
 France and Prussia, after the Franco- 
 German War. 
 
VERSAILLES 
 
 VICTIMS 
 
 925 
 
 Versailles {The German). Cassel 
 is so called from its gardens, conserva- 
 tories, fountains, and colossal statue of 
 Hercules. 
 
 Versailles of Poland (T/ie). The 
 
 palace and grounds of the counts of 
 Braniski, which now belong to the 
 municipality of Bialystok, 
 
 Versailles of Prussia {The). 
 Potsdam. 
 
 Vervins {Peace of), 2 May, 1598, 
 between Henri IV. of France and Felipe 
 II. of Spain. 
 
 Vespers. One of the eight daily 
 services of the Catholic Church, and one 
 of the four greater ones. At eventide or 
 sunset. See p. 140, ' Canonical Hours.' 
 
 Veto {Monsieur). Louis XVI., so 
 called in mockery by the revolutionists, 
 because at one time he had the power of 
 annulling by a simple veto the decrees 
 of the National Assembly. His queen, 
 Marie Antoinette, was nicknamed Ma- 
 dame Veto {q.v. p. 548). 
 
 Veto Jj&W {The) or 'Veto Act,' 1834, 
 in Scotland. The General Assembly 
 gave it out as a fundamental principle of 
 the Scotch Church that no minister shall 
 be placed in any parish against the will 
 of the congregation — i.e. against the 
 consent of the majority of the male 
 communicants. This law was based on 
 the practice of the 'minister's call,' or 
 invitation of the people to become their 
 pastor. 
 
 Viasma {Peace of), 1634, between 
 Russia and Poland, in which Russia, on 
 one part, renounced all pret'^nsions to 
 Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland; and 
 Vladislas of Poland, on the other part, 
 abandoned his rights to the throne of 
 Poland, and recognised the dynasty of 
 Romanov. 
 
 Vicar of Bray. ' Let whoever will 
 be king, I will be Vicar of Bray.' Several 
 vicars have held their livings through 
 shifting creeds. Some say the vicar re- 
 ferred to was Simon Alleyn ; others tell 
 us it was Pendleton. Ray says Simon 
 Symonds lived under the Protectorate, 
 Charles II., James II., and William III., 
 and that he was at one time Independent, 
 then Anglican, then Papist, then mode- 
 rate Churchman. The vicar referred to 
 
 in the song lived in the reigns of Charles 
 II., James II., William III., Anne, and 
 George I. 
 
 Vicars Apostolic {of England). 
 Catholic dignitaries appointed by the 
 Pope over the 'Vicariates' {q.v.). 
 
 Vicariates (4 syl.). Divisions of 
 England into Catholic governments, pre- 
 sided over by ' Vicars Apostolic' From 
 the revolution of 1688 up to 1840 there 
 were four vicariates ; but Gregory XVI. 
 doubled the number. They were the 
 London, the Western, the Eastern, the 
 Central, the Welsh, the Lancastrian, 
 the York, and the Northern districts. In 
 1850 Pius IX. re-established in England 
 the regular episcopal system of the 
 Church of Rome ; and since then the 
 converts from the Anglican to the Roman 
 rite have been very numerous indeed, 
 especially in the upper classes of society. 
 It looks very much as if Catholicism was 
 about to become dominant in England 
 again. 
 
 What else can be expected with the wretched 
 organisation of the Anglican Church ? No autho- 
 rity to appeal to, powerless bishops, curates 
 without any certain promotion, vicars taxed far 
 higher than the squirarchy, and their widows vir- 
 tually turned out of house and home the moment 
 their husbands cease to breathe. It is a most 
 pitiful system, hardly possible to be worse. 
 
 Vice-Chancellor {The). In our 
 universities. The deputy of the chan- 
 cellor, by whom, in Oxford, he is chosen 
 annually from the heads of the colleges ; 
 but in Cambridge he is chosen annually 
 by the Senate from two heads of colleges 
 nominated by the council. In 1855 the 
 stipend of the vice-chancellor, at Oxford, 
 was fixed at 600 Z. a year from the uni- 
 versity chest. At Oxford it has been 
 usual of late to hold the office for four 
 years, and the first vice-chancellor was 
 William Farrendon (1400-1403). In Cam- 
 bridge the office is an annual one. 
 
 In Cambridge the vice-chancellor is elected 
 Nov. 1 or 3, and enters on his functions Jan. ID 
 or 11. 
 
 Victims of the Unstamped 
 
 {The). Persons imprisoned or heavily 
 fined for publishing unstamped news- 
 pai)ers. The duty was Ad. on each paper, 
 and the Government stamp was in red, 
 at one corner of each sheet. Stamp 
 abolished 1855. 
 
 The prisons of London and the provincial towns 
 of Manchester, Liverpool. Leeds, Hull, Birming- 
 ham, Bristol, Edinburgh, and Glasgow wera 
 seldom untenanted by Bome of the persons popvu 
 
926 
 
 VICTOE 
 
 VIENNA 
 
 larly called the 'Victims of the Unstamped.* 
 Large numbers of women and very young persons 
 ■were pvit in ijrison for selling by retail papers 
 without a stamp.— HowiTT, History of England, 
 year 1841, p. 618. 
 
 Victor {Canons Begular of St.), 
 1113. Established in Paris by Guillaume 
 de Champeaux. See ' Victorins.' 
 
 Victor of a Hundred Battles 
 
 (The). Napoleon the Great (born 1768, 
 emperor 1804-1815, died 1821). 
 
 Victoria. Queen of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and Empress of India. The 
 5th sovereign of the house of Hanover. 
 Born 24 May, 1819, began to reign 
 20 June, 1837. Proclaimed Empress of 
 India 1 January, 1877. 
 
 Father : Edward duke of Kent, 4th 
 son of George III.; Mother; Louisa 
 Victoria of Saxe-Coburg; Consort: Albert 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; Children: 1. 
 Victoria, the princess royal (who mar- 
 ried Frederick William, crown prince of 
 Prussia) ; 2. Albert Edward, prince of 
 Wales (who married Alexandra of 
 Denmark) ; 3, Alice Maud (who married 
 Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt), she died 
 1878 ; 4. Alfred duke of Edinburgh (who 
 married Marie- Alexandrovna of Russia) ; 
 5. l_elena (who married Christian of 
 Schleswig-Holstein) ; 6. Louise (who 
 married the Marquis of Lome); 7. Arthur 
 duke of Connaught (who married Louise 
 Margaret, daughter of Prince Frederick 
 Charles of Prussia); 8. Leopold duke 
 of Albany (who married Helen, daughter 
 of the Prince of Waldeck), died 1884; 
 9. Beatrice (who married Henry Maurice 
 of Battenberg). 
 
 style: Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India 
 [Kaisari-Hind]. Or Victoria, Dei Gratia, Britan- 
 niarum Regina, Fid. Def. [Empress of India is 
 added only to documents which extend to India.] 
 
 *^* The Queen Victoria is lineally 
 descended from Egbert. Omitting the 
 Normans, we come to Henry II., whose 
 mother was Maud wife of Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet. Maud's mother was Matilda 
 wife of Henry I. of England. Matilda's 
 mother was Margaret wife of Malcolm 
 III. of Scotland. Margaret's father was 
 Prince Edward, son of Edmund. King 
 Edaiund was son of Ethelred, Ethelred 
 of Edgar, Edgar of Edmund, Edmund of 
 Edward the Elder, Edward the Elder 
 of Alfred, Alfred of Ethelwolf, and 
 Ethelwolf of Egbert. 
 
 From Henry II. the Plantagenets 
 
 continued to the Tudors. Henry VIL 
 descended from John of Gaunt, 4th sou 
 of Edward III., and he married Eliza- 
 beth of York, daughter of Edward IV. 
 Henry VII.'s daughter Margaret married 
 James IV. of Scotland, and their son 
 was James V. of Scotland. The daughter 
 of James V. was Mary Queen of Scots, 
 whose son was James I. of England. 
 Elizabeth, daughter of James I., married 
 Frederick king of Bohemia, whose 
 daughter Sophia was the wife of Ernest 
 Augustus duke of Brunswick. And 
 their son was George I. 
 
 Victoria and Albert {Boyal 
 Order of). Instituted 1862. In 1878 was 
 instituted ' The Imperial Order of the 
 Crown of India.' 
 
 Victoria Cross {The), 19 Jan., 
 1856. A Maltese cross of bronze, with 
 the inscription for valour. It is given 
 to any person who has performed an act 
 of distinguished courage, such as rescuing 
 from fire or water, acts of great bravery 
 in battle, and so on. V.C. 
 
 Victorieux {Le). Charles VII. of 
 France (1403, 1422-1461). So called 
 because in his reign the English lost all 
 their possessions in France except Calais. 
 He won the battle of Gravelle in 1423, 
 and of Montarges in 1427, and, by the 
 aid of Joan of Arc raised the siege of 
 Orleans in 1429 ; he took Metz, con- 
 quered the English at Formigni, got 
 possession of Normandy and Guienne, 
 and in 1451 drove the English out of 
 France, leaving only Calais in their 
 power. 
 
 Victorins (T/ie), or 'Canons of St. 
 Victor,' 1113, Paris ; especially those of 
 them who accepted and extended the 
 mystical views of Hugo of St. Victor. St. 
 Victor contended that the objects of reli- 
 gious contemplation are partly above 
 reason and partly contrary to reason {e.g. 
 the dogma of the Trinity). The Victorins 
 were opposed to dialectical theology. 
 
 Victory of Victories {The). So 
 the great battle of Nehavend (a.d. 637) 
 is called by the Arabs. In this battle 
 Yzdegerd III. king of Persia was de- 
 feated and afterwards murdered by the 
 Saracens. 
 
 Vienna Conference {The). 
 
 I. 6 Jan.-21 April, 1853. Between 
 
VIENNA 
 
 VILLAFEANCA 
 
 927 
 
 Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
 Prussia, on a device of Count Buol, 
 chief minister of Austria, to prevent war 
 with Russia. Great Britain and France 
 could not agree to Count Buol's plan, 
 and the conference fell through. See 
 * Vienna Note.' 
 
 II. in 1855. Between Austria, Great 
 Britain, France, and Russia, for the pur- 
 pose of bringing to an end the Crimean 
 war. It came to nothing. 
 
 Vienna {Congress of), from 1 Oct., 
 1814, to March, 1815, of the allied princes, 
 to distribute the spoils of the French 
 empire, after the banishment of Napo- 
 leon T. to Elba. It was found impossible 
 to satisfy the greed of the different 
 powers, and probably war would have 
 broken out between the allies had they 
 not been startled by the alarming news 
 that Napoleon had escaped from Elba 
 and was gathering around him the best 
 strength of France (7 March, 1815). 
 
 In this congress England was represented by 
 Lord Castlereagh, Russia by Czar Alexander, Aus- 
 tria by Prince Metternich, Prussia by Baron 
 Hardenberg. and France by Prince Talleyrand. 
 
 It was arranged to give to England the Cape of 
 Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, and Corfu; to 
 Russia was assigned Finland and Poland ; to 
 Austria was assigned Lombardy and the Venetian 
 States ; to Prussia was allotted Saxony, Fran- 
 conia, and Swedish Pomeiania ; to the Ajrchduke 
 Ferdinand was allotted Tuscany ; to the King of 
 Sardinia was allotted Genoa ; to Marie Louise, 
 wife of Napoleon, was assigned Parma and Pla- 
 centia; to Sweden was assigned Norway : and to 
 Ferdinand IV. of the Bourbon line was allotted 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Vienna {Treaties of). The treaties 
 of Vienna are numerous. The tlu-ee 
 subjoined are the most important ; — 
 
 L 18 Nov., 1738, which gave Lorraine 
 to France after the death of Stanislaus, 
 Tuscany to Francis husband of Maria 
 Thei'esa, and Naples to Don Carlos. It 
 concluded the War of the Polish Succes- 
 sion {g.v.). 
 
 II. 14 Oct., 1809, which put an end to 
 the war carried on by the fifth coalition 
 against Napoleon I. By this treaty the em- 
 peror of Germany ceded the Tyrol and Dal- 
 matia to France, and agreed to adopt the 
 ' Continental System,' i.e. to hold no com- 
 mercial intercourse with Great Britain. 
 
 III. 9 June, 1815, in which the boun- 
 daries of France were defined by the 
 allied powers of Europe. 
 
 The other treaties of Vienna were :— 
 
 27 May, li«7. An alliance between the kaiser, 
 
 Poland, and Denmarlc, iigainst Sweden. 
 IG March, 1731. An alliance between the kaiser, 
 
 Great Britain, and Holland, to guarantee the 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction. 
 
 3 Oct., 1735. To agree upon preliminaries of 
 peace between France and Germany. 
 
 20 June, isoo. To agree upon subsidies between 
 Austria and Great Britain. 
 
 23 March, 1815. Between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, confirming the Treaty of 
 Chaumont and effecting the union of Holland 
 and Belgium. 
 
 81 May, 1815. Between the king of the Nether- 
 lands, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 agreeing to the enlargement of Dutch territories, 
 and vesting the sovereignty of the Netherlands in 
 the House of Orange. 
 
 4 June, 1815. Between Denmark and Prussia, 
 for the cession of Swedish Pomerania and Riigen 
 to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. 
 
 2 Dec, 1SS4. A treaty of alliance between Great 
 Britain, France, and Austria. 
 
 HO Nov., 18 .4. Between Denmark, Prussia, and 
 Austria, for the cession of the duchies of Schleswig- 
 Holstein to the allies. 
 
 11 Oct., 18C<5. A treaty of peace between Austria 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Vienna Wote {The), 1853. A 
 scheme of Count Buol to prevent war 
 with Russia. It proposed a compromise 
 between the czar and the sultan. Russia 
 claimed a protectorate over the Christian 
 subjects of Turkey. This, of course, the 
 sultan could not and would not concede. 
 Count Buol suggested that the Christian 
 subjects should have protection not only 
 as Ottoman subjects, but over and above 
 that as Christians. 
 
 The Vienna Note was as huge a diplomatic 
 blunder as could possibly have been devised. 
 ' Such a concession [wrote Lord Stratford 20 Aug.] 
 would leave Russia nothing to desire as to the 
 means of exercising a powerful influence on all 
 the concerns of the Greek clergy, and of inter- 
 fering on behalf of the Greek laity, subjects of the 
 Porte. —HOWITT, Hist. o/£)((7. (year 1853,p.l53). 
 
 Vigilance Society (TTie), 1885. A 
 secret Irish society, similar to the Moon- 
 lighters, Fenians, &c., for the murder, 
 mutilation, and destruction of the pro- 
 perty of those who refused to obey the 
 league. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Vigilants {The). Irish rebels simi- 
 lar to the Invincibles. See p. 455, ' Irish 
 Invincibles.' 
 
 Vigin'ti-virat of Rome. The office 
 of the Vigin'tivirs or Committee of 
 Twenty. They had charge of the public 
 ways, the minting of money, and the 
 prisons. It was a most honourable office. 
 
 Villafranca, in Italy {Treaty of), 
 11 July, 1859. Between Francis Joseph 
 emperor of Austria and Napoleon III. 
 emperor of the French, for tlie creation 
 of the Italian Confederation and the ces- 
 sion of Lombardy. Austria ceded Lom- 
 bardy to France, and France gave it to 
 Sardinia. Lombardy and Sardinia soon 
 . afterwards formed parts of the kingdom 
 of Italy (14 March, 1861). 
 
VILLEINS 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 Villeins in G-ross. Villeins were 
 farm labourers and domestic servants, 
 not exactly slaves nor yet exactly free- 
 men, but something between the two. 
 ' Villeins in Gross ' were, for the most 
 part, domestic servants, who moved from 
 place to place with their master and his 
 family. See 'Villeins Regardant.' 
 
 Villeins Regardant. Farm la- 
 bourers who could not be shifted from 
 place to place, but had a fixed habitation. 
 If a master died or his tenement changed 
 hands from any other cause the villeins 
 remained, like other fixtures, with the 
 new lord. 
 
 ' Villeins in Gross ' -were those attached to the 
 person of the lord, and, like personal property, 
 might be sold or otherwise transferred. ' Villeins 
 Kegardant ' were attached to the land, and were 
 fixtures. 
 
 Vinegar Bible {The\l&\l, Claren- 
 don Press. In this Bible the ' Parable 
 of the Vineyard ' was printed the ' Parable 
 of the Vinegar.' See p. 90, ' Bibles.' 
 
 Vinegar Hill. An eminence near 
 the town of Enniscorthy in Ireland, 
 famous for being a station of the rebels 
 called ' White Boys ' and ' Peep o' Day 
 Boys,' &c. Here was fought what is 
 called the 'Battle of Vinegar Hill' in 
 1798. 
 
 Vinerian Professorship {The) 
 of English law, in the University of Ox- 
 ford, 1758. Founded by Charles Viner. 
 The professor is called the ' Vinerian 
 Reader.' 
 
 Vinerian Scholarships. Three 
 for law. Of the value of 80Z. a year for 
 thuee years. Founded in the University 
 of Oxford by Charles Viner in 1755. 
 
 Vinzaglio {Battle of), 30 May, 1859, 
 in which the allied army led by Victor 
 Emmanuel and Napoleon III. defeated 
 200,000 Austrians. The honour of this 
 day was due to General Cialdini. 
 
 Violets, worn by partisans of the 
 French empire in compliment to Napo- 
 leon I. He was called ' Father Violet,' 
 because he said, when leaving France for 
 Elba, 'I will return with the violets.' 
 Those partisans who were in the secret 
 of his return wore a violet on their 
 breasts, and always toasted Napoleon as 
 ' Caporal la Violette.' Prints containing 
 profiles of Napoleon and Maria Louisa 
 in two violets were common in 1814, and 
 
 beneath was written 'En printemps il 
 reviendra.' In 1815 a popular song refers 
 to Napoleon as ' Le pere de la Violette.' 
 
 Farewell to thee, France; but when liberty rallies 
 Once more in thy regions, remember me then— 
 
 The violet still grows in the depth of thy valleys, 
 Though withered, thy tear will unfold it again. 
 Byron. 
 
 Violets {The Day of the), 1 March, 
 1815. The day when Napoleon I., having 
 escaped from Elba, landed at Cannes, 
 and with 800 soldiers began his march 
 towards Paris. 
 
 Virgil of the race of Scota 
 
 {The). Flann MacLonan, ' chief poet of 
 all Ireland ' (ninth cent.). 
 
 It must not be forgotten that Scota is Ireland. 
 North Britain was called Albany till the 12th cent. 
 
 Virgin City {A), or ' Maiden City.' 
 One which has never changed masters or 
 been conquered. Bayonne, in France, 
 boasts of being a ' Virgin City.' Metz 
 was a ' Maiden Fortress ' before it fell 
 into the hands of the Germans in the 
 Franco-German War, 1870. 
 
 Virgin Mary's G-uard {The). 
 The Corps Ecossais, or ' Gardes du 
 Corps du Roi,' organised in 1448 by 
 Charles VII. of France. Louis XL made 
 the Virgin Mary their colonel. Disbanded 
 in 1830. See ' Gardes du Corps du Roi.' 
 
 Virgins {The Eleven Thousand). 
 Ursul [Ursilla], or Horsel, in Suabia, 
 means the moon, and her eleven thousand 
 virgins are the stars. But in Cologne 
 Cathedral is shown a pile of bones of all 
 sorts, men, women, and children, taken 
 from an old Roman cemetery, across 
 which the wall of Cologne ran. These 
 bones are exhibited as the veritable bones 
 of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand 
 virgin companions, said to have fallen 
 martyrs to the Huns. 
 
 Virgins offered to dragons. 
 
 When, in 786, Abdalrahman of Cordova 
 entered the Asturias in the reign of 
 Mauregato, he utterly defeated his army, 
 and would make peace only on condition 
 of an annual tribute of 100 Spanish 
 virgins. Alfonso II. , ' the Chaste,' has 
 the credit of compelling the Moors to 
 relinquish this tribute, about 800. 
 
 Virgins of the Shield. In Danish 
 Skioldmeyar, female warriors of ancient 
 Denmark. 
 
 Virginia (U.S. America), so called, 
 in 1584, by Sir Walter Raleigh in com- 
 
VIRI 
 
 VOLUNTARY 
 
 929 
 
 pliment to the ' Virgin ' queen Elizabeth. 
 The inhabitants are nicknamed Beadies. 
 
 Viri Galilaei. The north summit of 
 the Mount of Ohves, about three furlongs 
 from the middle suixmiit, from which 
 Christ ascended. So called from the 
 words of the angels, ' Ye men of Galilee.' 
 
 It is also called Galilee. See Matt, xxviii. 16. 
 
 Virtuous Genevese {The). 
 Jacques Necker, the French statesman 
 and financier (1732-1804). 
 
 Visigoths (The). The Western 
 Goths, who came from Scandinavia, and 
 settled in Moesia, a.d. 376. They esta- 
 blished themselves in Gaul, a.d. 412, and, 
 passing into Spain, founded a kingdom 
 there in 414, which was overthrown by 
 the Moors in 712. The names of the 
 kings were — 
 
 AtaulfUB to 414 
 
 Wallia ... 415-418 
 
 Theodores ... 418? 
 
 Theudis 531-548 
 
 Theudisele 548-550 
 
 Agila (at Merida) 550-556 
 
 Atharagild 556-567 
 
 (Toled(J his capital) 
 Liuva (at Nar- 
 
 bonne) 567-568 
 
 Leovigild ... 568 572 
 
 Becared 672-586 
 
 Liuva II. ... 586-603 
 
 Vitteric 603-610 
 
 Visitandines (4 syl.), or 'Eeh- 
 gieuses de la Visitation,' 1610. An order 
 of females instituted by St. Francis of 
 Sales and the Baroness of Chantal, in 
 commemoration of the visitation of the 
 Virgin Mary. They wore a black dress 
 and a silver cross. 
 
 Visitation (The), or * Festum Visita- 
 tionis,' 2 July, instituted 1263 in comme- 
 moration of Mary's visit to her cousin 
 Elizabeth {Luke i. 39-56). The 'Con- 
 gregation of the Visitation ' was founded 
 in 1610 by the Baroness de Chantal at 
 Annecy, and the order was confirmed by 
 Urban VIII. in 1626. 
 
 Vitry Disaster (The), 1143. Louis 
 VII. (le Jeune) persuaded the Comte de 
 Vermandois to divorce his wife and marry 
 the princess (Louis's sister). The Comte 
 de Champagne, father of the divorced 
 countess, to resent this interference, 
 stirred up a rebellion against the king, 
 and Louis, to punish the revolt, set fire 
 to the castle of Vitry. The flames spread 
 to the town. The inhabitants fled to the 
 church, which also caught fire, and 1,300 
 persons were burnt to death. The king, 
 
 Gundemar .. 
 
 . 610612 
 
 Sisebut 
 
 612-620 
 
 Kecaredll. .. 
 
 620-621 
 
 Suintella 
 
 621-631 
 
 Sisenand 
 
 631-ft^6 
 
 Tulca 
 
 . 636.642 
 
 Chindasvinde 
 
 642-649 
 
 Recesvinde 
 
 . 64J-672 
 
 Wamba 
 
 672-680 
 
 Ervige 
 
 680-687 
 
 Egiza 
 
 687-701 
 
 Witiza 
 
 701-710 
 
 Roderic 
 
 . 710-711 
 
 horrified by the shrieks of the sufferers, 
 gave up the war, and made peace with 
 the count. 
 
 Vizier of Sultan Selim. The 
 
 greatest curse which a Turk can utter 
 against a foe is this, ' May you be vizier 
 of Sultan Selim ! ' Few of his viziers 
 lived more than a month (1512-1519). 
 
 Volpone (3 syl.), 1709. So Dr. Sache- 
 verell called Lord Godolphin in his two 
 sermons, one at Derby and another in St. 
 Paul's, London. For this offence he was 
 brought to trial before the Lords, and 
 suspended V>r three years. The mob 
 took the doctor's side, and shouted 
 ' High Church and Sachevex-ell ! ' and 
 Queen Anne gave him the living of St. 
 Andrew's, Holborn. The first sermon he 
 preached there was sold for lOOZ., and 
 40,000 copies were sold in a few days. 
 
 ' Volpone ' is the title of a comedy by Ben 
 Jonson. It means ' old fox.' 
 
 Voltaire. His name was Marie 
 Francois Arouet. He was confined in 
 the Bastille for satirising the Duke of 
 Orleans, and on his release from prison 
 assumed the name of Voltaire from a 
 small property left him by his mother. 
 He retired to Femey, a little village 
 near Geneva. At one time he lived for 
 fifteen years with Madame du Chatelet 
 at Cirey, in Champagne, a lady of for- 
 tune, the wife of a marquis, and here 
 he composed his best works. He set 
 up reason as the guide and rule of every- 
 thing, and whatever could not be squared 
 with human reason he rejected in religion 
 and politics. 
 
 Voltaire of G-ermany (The). I. 
 Christoph Martin Wieland (1733-1813), 
 author of ' Oberon ' and the romance of 
 ' Agathon.' 
 
 II. Johann Wolfgang von Gothe (1749- 
 1838), also called ' The German Voltaire.' 
 
 Voltaire {The Polish). Ignatius 
 Krasicki (1774-1801). 
 
 Voltaire {The Russian). Alexander 
 P. Sumorokof (1727-1777). 
 
 Voluntary Controversy {The), 
 1834, in Scotland. One of the most in- 
 tensely pronounced controversies that 
 Scotland ever witnessed. The question 
 was this : Is a congregation to exercise 
 the right of giving a ' call ' or invitation 
 to its pastor, or has the kirk the right of 
 presenting any minister it thinks proper ? 
 The question was tried on the eel ibratei 
 30 
 
930 
 
 VOLUNTEERS 
 
 WAGES 
 
 ' Auchterarder Case' {q.v.), and termi- 
 nated in the great schism of the Free 
 Church. 
 
 Volunteers {The), 1852. The Vic- 
 torian movement sprang into existence, 
 and Dr. J. C. Buckuill of Exeter was the 
 originator. The corps first mustered in 
 uniform 6 Oct., 1852, when the oath of 
 allegiance was taken. Consolidated 21 
 July, 1863, by Act 26, 27 Vict. c. 65, which 
 Act was amended 9 Aug., 1869. 
 
 Bi/ie corps organised 1859. 
 
 Volunteers as volunteers have no re- 
 gimental colours, but several of the Vo- 
 lunteer corps have had special colours 
 presented to them by persons interested 
 in the movement. Thus the Duchess of 
 Gloucester and her daughter Sophia 
 presented colours to the Kensington 
 Volunteers. 
 
 First raised in Great Britain March, 1794 ; again 
 in the spring 1808 George III. reviewed them in 
 Hyde Park, 26 and 28 Oct., 1803. 
 
 Vordingborg {Peace of), 1435, ter- 
 minating the long war of twenty-six years 
 between the counts of Holstein and the 
 Hanse Towns. By this treaty it was sti- 
 pulated that the Hanse republics should 
 continue to enjoy all their immunities in 
 the Sound and in the harbours of the 
 three united kingdoms of Scandinavia ; 
 and that Adolphus count of Holstein 
 should be secured in the possession of 
 the duchy of Sleswig during his life and 
 his heirs two years after. 
 
 Votaries of Celestial Reason 
 
 {The), or Tien-le, a brotherhood in China 
 during the reign of Kea-king (1796-1820). 
 They broke into the palace and kept 
 possession of it for several days. 
 
 Vote of Non-address {The), 1647. 
 After the escape of Charles I. from 
 Holmby House, a vote was passed in both 
 houses that no further ap^jlication or ad- 
 dresses to the king should be permitted 
 under the penalty of high treason, and 
 that neither the House of Lords nor 
 House of Commons should receive from 
 him any letter or message. 
 
 The vote of non-address amounted to a declara- 
 tion tliatall attempts at reconciliation were at an 
 end, and that the Independents meant to proceed 
 to put the doctrines of the army in force, and put 
 the king to death,— HowiTT, Hist, of Engl. (Cha.ilas 
 I., chap. vi. p. 290). 
 
 Votive Mass. 'Missa Votlva,' a 
 mass ' quae ex proprio voto dicitur.' See 
 p. 565, ' Mass.' 
 
 VoTAT of the S'wan {The), or Vow of 
 the peacock, heron, pheasant, or some 
 other bird. A fantastic vow made during 
 some banquet in Mid-Lent to perform 
 some feat during the year. The bird, 
 profusely ornamented, was brought into 
 the banquet-room in great ceremony, a 
 herald trumpeted its approach, and a 
 body of knights, squires, and pages at- 
 tended it. The person who made the 
 vow stood up, laid his hand on the bird, 
 and vowed before the year was out to 
 perform some feat in honour of the bird 
 and some lady. 
 
 10 Feb., 1306, Edward I., then an old man, rising 
 at the royal board, swore on the dish before him 
 (a swan) to avenge on Scotland the murder of John 
 Comyn by Robert Bruce. 
 
 Edward III. said, 'Hey! the White Swanl By 
 God's soul I am thy man ! ' 
 
 Henry V. vowed in a similar manner to traverse 
 France from sea to sea with flying banners. 
 
 Vulgate {The). A Latin version of 
 the Scriptures by Jerome, the third of 
 the Latin Fathers {q.v.), sanctioned by 
 the Council of Trent. It was translated 
 from the Hebrew, and received the ap- 
 proval of Gregory the Great. See p. 
 801, * Scriptures.' 
 
 There was a ' New Latin Version ' execu- 
 ted by Jerome, 390-405. Wiclif rendered 
 it into English, 1324-1384. See ' Bibles.' 
 
 There was an earlier version called ' the Itala,' 
 of which some few fragments remain. Jerome in 
 the 4th cent, revised parts of the lUila, but his 
 MSS. are lost. The Vulgate is quite a new trans- 
 lation. 
 
 "Waddington Scholarship. Clas- 
 sics. For undergraduates in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, tenable for five 
 years. It is the interest of 3,000Z. in the 
 3 per cent, consolidated Bank annuities. 
 Founded by Miss Waddington and her 
 sister in memorv of their two brothers, 
 1870, 
 
 Wadham College, Oxford, 1609. 
 Founded by Nicholas Wadham of Mary- 
 field, Somersetshire. The headmaster is 
 called the ' Warden.' 
 
 Wager of Battle. In this ordeal 
 the challenger faced the west; the one 
 challenged faced the east. If the defeated 
 party craved his life he was a craven, but 
 had his life spared. 
 
 Wages in England. 
 
 d. 
 
 1352, a thresher a day 1 
 
 reaper 
 
 master carpenter 
 
 2 to Sd., not less 
 than Sd. in 
 1445. 
 
 3, advanced to 5d. 
 in 1445. 
 
WAGES 
 
 WALDENSES 
 
 931 
 
 1352, a carpenter 
 
 master mason 
 
 bricklayer's 1 
 
 labourer / 
 
 1568, farm labourer 
 
 16'20, 
 
 lt»2, 
 
 1S47, „ „ 
 
 1GC2, „ „ 
 
 Kiss, „ ,, 
 
 IG!I8, 
 
 I7ir>, 
 
 1740, 
 
 17G0, „ „ 
 
 17H8, 
 
 a day 2, advanced to id. 
 in 1445. 
 4 
 
 " 11, bricklayer, 4d. 
 in 1445. 
 
 4 
 „ 4i 
 
 6 
 „ 10 
 
 „ 10 
 „ 1-J 
 ,. 16 
 from 9<. to 15s. a •week. 
 ,, lis. to 15s. „ 
 
 Wages Movement {The), 1854. A 
 combination of artizans for a sliding 
 Bcale of wages equal to a tenth of the 
 profit of their production. The men 
 went out on strike only in one or two 
 places at a time, and those employed 
 subscribed to support those on strike. 
 The woollen manufacturers of Preston 
 and Burnley led the way. The movement 
 came to an untimely end in April 1854. 
 The loss to workmen was 500,000Z., and 
 to masters many millions. 
 
 "Wahab'ites (3 syl.), or ' Wahabbees,' 
 or ' Wah'abees,' 1759. Keformed Mos- 
 lems, founded by the son of Abd-el 
 Wahab, and dominant over the greater 
 part of Arabia. They are firm believers 
 in the Koran, and want to bring back the 
 faithful to the primitive precepts and 
 practices of the first kalifs. They deny 
 the sacred character of Imaums, advocate 
 the perfect equality of man, and call 
 their muftis * brothers.' These strictest 
 and straitest of the Moslem sects are 
 great brigands and pirates. 
 
 Mohammed Abd-el Wahab was born in Arabia 
 1096, and died about 1764. He preached universal 
 toleration, and taught that Moses, ChrL=t, and 
 Mahomet were three gifted men who taught the 
 will of God, and that the faiths of all three are 
 reconcilable. 
 
 "Waits. Musical serenaders, who 
 play or sing between midnight and four 
 or five in the morning about Christmas 
 time, and call afterwards on the in- 
 habitants for a Christmas-box, They 
 used to wish greeting to the master, 
 mistress, children, and all, before ]3art- 
 ing. The thing has now dwindled down 
 to a carol or popular tune or two. Ori- 
 ginally they were musical watchmen. 
 Rymer, in the ' Foedera,' tells us they 
 ' piped the watch nightly in the king's 
 court from Michaelmas to Shrove Thurs- 
 day, and to make the bon gayte at every 
 
 chamber-door and office, for fear of 
 pyckeres and pillers.' 
 
 Wakes and Lyke-wakes. These 
 are very different things. A lyke or 
 licJie wake is a watching of a^ dead 
 body (Ang.-Sax. lie) all night by the 
 friends and neighbours of the deceased. 
 It used to be a scene of revelry and mourn- 
 ing, the object being to watch the body 
 from being interfered with by evil spirits. 
 
 The other ' wake ' is about equal to 
 * vigil,' and every church had its wake on 
 the anniversary of the saint. A religious 
 service was given, but, as the crowd 
 became great, hawkers and minstrels 
 assembled, and the wake became a fair, 
 held in the churchyard. In 1285 Ed- 
 ward I. forbade fairs to be held in church- 
 yards, but the practice continued to the 
 Reformation. 
 
 Walburgis. See ' Walpurgis.' 
 
 Warcheren Expedition (The), 
 
 1809. Under the charge of the Earl of 
 Chatham and Sir Richard Strachan. 
 The design was to destroy the French 
 fleet in the Scheldt and take Antwerp ; 
 but the expedition was so ill-planned and 
 executed that only the fortress of Flush- 
 ing was taken and the i^e of Walcheren. 
 When the British seamen landed in the 
 pestilential marshes of Walcheren they 
 died by thousands. Napoleon said we 
 might as well ' have thrown our men into 
 the sea as land them at Walcheren.' 
 
 It was a magnificent fleet, consisting of 87 men- 
 of-war, 23 frigates, 115 sloops, &c., and carrying 
 41,000 men. The Earl of- Chatham resigned to 
 prevent being brought before a court-martial. 
 *,* Strachan, pronounce Strawn. 
 
 Waldemar {Knights of St.), nss. A 
 Russian order conferred on both military 
 men and civilians for merit. The ribbon 
 is red, edged with black. 
 
 Waldenses {The), or ' Vaudois,' 9th 
 cent. By Mosheim traced to Peter 
 Waldo of Lyons, who died 1197 ; but this 
 is an error, as they are mentioned as 
 early as 1100, and had a regular confes- 
 sion of faith in 1120. They seem to have 
 been early reformers dwelling in the 
 valleys of the Cottian Alps, called Vaux, 
 and the inhabitants Vaudois — in Latin 
 Vallenses. These were the ancient 
 ' Subalpini.' The Lyonists or ' Poor 
 Men of Lyons ' seem to have followed in 
 the same footsteps, and therefore the two 
 are very often confounded. The Wal- 
 denses, the Wiclifites, and the Lutherans 
 3o2 
 
932 
 
 WALES 
 
 WALPUEGIS 
 
 were very similar in their reforms. Their 
 original limits were the districts of An- 
 grogna, Villaro, Bobbio, and Rorata. See 
 ' Lyonists,' 
 
 They were condemned by the Council of the 
 Lateran in 1179, and Innocent VIII. in 1487 en- 
 joined their extirpation. The crusade included 
 the Waldenses and Lyonists (or Poor Men of 
 Lyons) in one general slaughter. The similarity 
 of Valdo and Valdenses led to the mistalse, but 
 the Waldenses were the followers of Claudius of 
 Turin, who died 839— that is, 358 years before the 
 death of Waldo. 
 
 The Waldenses or Valdenses were also 
 called : Apostolicians (in the 12th cent.), 
 Arnaldists, Arnoldists, Bagnolens, Ca- 
 thari (after the 12th cent.), Consolati, 
 Good Men (in Germany), Insabbates, 
 Lionists, Montani, Passagins, Patarins 
 or Paterins, Perfecti, Petrobrusians, 
 Piphles (in Flanders), Poor Men of 
 Lyons, Poplieans, Purists, Texerans or 
 Tesserands (in some parts of France^, 
 Ultramontanes, Vaudois (in France), 
 Xabatatelises. See each of these words. 
 
 A Miss Jane Waldo, of Clapham and Hever 
 Castle, daughter of Sir Timothy Waldo, died 1841, 
 aged ninety-six. This was the last of the direct 
 descendants of Peter Waldo of Lyons. 
 
 Wales {The Statute of), 12 Edw. L, 
 A.D. 1284, which abolished the most bar- 
 barous of the Welsh customs, established 
 guilds, introduced English jurisprudence, 
 and divided the land into shires and 
 hundreds after the English model. 
 
 Walker Exliibition(/oi^nZ/Mca.s), 
 for discoveries in pathology. Value 50Z. 
 a year ; in the University of Cambridge. 
 Founded by John Lucas Walker, 1887. 
 
 Walker Studentship {John 
 Lucas). 0?;iginal research in pathology. 
 It may be held by either sex, and not 
 necessarily a member of the University. 
 Value 2001. a year, tenable for three 
 years, and the holder eligible for re-election 
 for two more years. Founded in the 
 University of Cambridge by John Lucas 
 Walker, 1887. 
 
 Wall of Seve'rus, the Roman em- 
 peror, extending from the German Ocean 
 to the Solway Firth. This was built 
 because the emperor, when he visited 
 Britain a.d. 208, viewed with alarm the 
 enormous encroachment of the Scots 
 southwards. This emperor died at York 
 in 211, aged sixty-six. 
 
 The Wall of Severus was for the most part, but 
 not invariably, parallel with Hadrian's rampart. 
 It was further north, and extended somewhat 
 further at each end. 
 
 Wallace of Switzerland {The). 
 Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese patriot 
 (1767-1810). He was a man of gigantic 
 stature and strength ; brave as a lion, 
 but gentle as a lamb. 
 
 Wallace of Wales {The). Owen 
 Glendower (1350-1415). 
 
 Wallach Rebellion {The). In 
 Hungarian history, 1784. The Wallachs 
 are a people of Hungary, but chiefly of 
 Wallachia in Roumania. These insur- 
 gents, led by Hora and Kloska, assassi- 
 nated the government commissioners, 
 destroyed six villages and 182 private 
 houses, killed 4,000 Hungarians, and did 
 other acts of violence before they could 
 be put down. 
 
 Wallingford, in Berkshire {Treaty 
 of), 7 Nov., 1153. Between Stephen king 
 of England and Henry (afterwards Henry 
 II.), son of Matilda, ' the Lady of Eng- 
 land.' Henry, by the death of his father, 
 having succeeded to Normandy and An- 
 jou, and holding Aquitaine in right of 
 his wife (Eleanor of Poitou), was invited 
 by the archbishop of Canterbury to make 
 his appearance in England. On his 
 arrival the treaty of Wallingford was 
 agreed to by the rival claimants. The 
 castles were to be razed, the crown lands 
 resumed, the foreign mercenaries dis- 
 missed, Stephen to continue on the throne 
 during life, and Henry to succeed as his 
 heir. Stephen died within twelve months 
 of this treaty. 
 
 Walloons {The). The French-speak- 
 ing inhabitants of Artois, Hainault, Na- 
 mur, Luxemburg, Flanders, and Brabant. 
 These six provinces constituted Catholic 
 Netherlands. The seven united provinces 
 constituted Protestant Netherlands. 
 
 There are speakers of the Walloon dialect of 
 French in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, 
 and Germany. 
 
 Walpurgis Night. The eve of 
 
 May-day, when the old pagan witch- world 
 was supposed to hold high revelry under 
 its chief on certain high places. The 
 Brocken, in Germany, was an especially 
 favourite spot for these revelries. Wal- 
 purgis was a female saint concerned in the 
 introduction of Christianity into Germany. 
 
 Walpurgis or Walburgis was the daughter of St. 
 Kichard, king of the West Saxons, and was edu- 
 cated in the monastery of Wimborne in Dorset- 
 shire. She was sent to Germany in 752 to assist 
 in the conversion of the Germans, and in 754 was 
 made abbess of Heidenheim. She died 25 Feb., 779, 
 and the day of her death is held in her honour. 
 
"WALTER 
 
 WAR 
 
 938 
 
 Already do I feel the power, 
 The fun and frolic of the hour ; 
 The advent of Walpurgis Nisht 
 Bids every limb thrill with delight. 
 Another night, another day, 
 And then the glorious First of May. 
 
 Goethe, Faust (Anster). 
 
 Walter the Pennyless. ' Gautier 
 sans avoir ' of Burgundy, joint leader of 
 the First Crusade with Peter the Hermit 
 in 1096. 
 
 "Wapentake. A term in Yorkshire 
 similar to ward or hxinclred. The word 
 means weapon-touch, and refers to the 
 vassals touching the spear of their feudal 
 lord in token of homage. The word 
 passed from the assembly to denote the 
 district tenanted by the vassals. 
 
 Wappenschaws. The feudal array 
 of a county, when each crown- vassal was 
 required to appear with such muster of 
 men and armour as he was bound to 
 make by his fief, under high penalties. 
 
 War Cries. 
 
 I. Of England, in the Middle Ages, ' St. 
 George ! ' 
 
 „ Fbance, ' Montjoye St. Denis!' 
 [pronounce Sahn Dnee]. Mont- 
 joye referred to the little mounds 
 surmounted with a cross between 
 Paris and St. Denis, either to 
 guide travellers or to console the 
 pious wayfarer. In the French 
 empire it was Vive VEmpere2ir ! 
 
 „ Germany, during the long conten- 
 tion between the Dukes of Ba- 
 varia and the House of Hohen- 
 stauffen, it was Guelf and 
 Ghihelline ! See p. 394. 
 
 „ Scotland, it was frequently the 
 name of some clan or chief, as 
 A Douglas ! A Home ! 
 
 „ Spain, ' St. Jago ! [St. James] and 
 close, Spain ! ' Cervantes says 
 it was ' St. Jago ! and charge, 
 Spain ! ' or ' Santiago mata moros ! ' 
 (II. ii. 4.) 
 Mount, chivalrons hidalgo ! Not in vain 
 Kevive the cry, ' St. Jago ! and close, Spain ! ' 
 Byron, Age of Bronze, vii. 
 
 „ the Irish, ' Aboo ! ' 
 „ the Welsh, ' Alleluia ! ' 
 
 Loud shrieks of ' Alleluia ! ' blended with those 
 of 'Out! Out! iOuct! Oxict!] Holy Cross.'— Lord 
 Lytton, Harold. 
 
 n. Of the Bourbons, the word ' Bour- 
 bon ! ' 
 „ the Crusaders, ' Dieu le veut ! ' 
 Not of the First Crusade. 
 
 Of the Counts of Hainault, * Hain- 
 
 ault the Noble ! ' 
 „ Jehoshaphat, in his war against 
 Ammon, Moab, and Seir, 'Praise 
 the Lord, for His mercy en- 
 dureth for ever ! ' (2 Chron. xx. 
 21.) 
 „ the Dukes of Milan, ' Milan the 
 
 Valiant ! ' 
 „ the Lords of Montmorency, ' Dieu 
 aide au premier Chretien ! ' 
 III. In battle of Markfeld, 1278. Of 
 the Bohemians, ' Praga ! ' of 
 the Germans, ' Christ ! ' 
 „ battle of Naseby, 1645. Of the 
 Royalists, ' God and Queen 
 Mary ! ' of the Parliamen- 
 tarians, ' God our strength ! ' 
 „ battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48. Of 
 Ponjpey, 'Hercules Invictus!' 
 of Caesar, ' Venus Victrix ! ' 
 At Senlac the English had two war 
 cries, ' God Almighty ! ' and ' Holy 
 Cross ! ' The latter was the cry of 
 Harold's own men, and referred to Walt- 
 ham Cross, which he held in special re- 
 verence. The Norman shout was ' Dieu 
 aidois a nos ! ' {God help us I). 
 
 Of Capobianco, leader of the Carbo- 
 nari, it was ' Vengeance for the Lamb torn 
 by the Wolf ! ' 
 
 Nelson's mot at the battle of the Nile 
 was 'Victory or Westminster Abbey.' 
 At Trafalgar it was ' England expects- 
 that every man will do his duty.' 
 Several others are given in loco. 
 
 War Poet {The). G. H. Boker, ren- 
 dered famous in the American anti- 
 slavery war. See p. 100, ' Black Regi- 
 ment.' 
 
 War Songs {National). 
 Austrian, Haydn's Hymn to the Em- 
 
 2}eror. 
 Belgian, the patriotic Brahanqonne. 
 Danish, the Song of Danebrog. The 
 
 danebrog is the flag with a white cross 
 
 which fell from heaven in the 13th 
 
 cent, at the prayer of Waldemar II., 
 
 and which ensured him the victory. 
 English, Bule Britannia. Words by 
 
 Thomson, music by Handel. 
 French (ancient), the Chanson de Bo- 
 
 land. 
 French (modem), the Marseillaise and 
 
 the Chant du Depart. 
 German (modern), Arndt's DesDeutschen 
 
 Vaterland and Heil Dir im Sieges- 
 
934 
 
 WAE 
 
 WAK 
 
 kranz, Watch on the Rhine, Sword- 
 song of Korner, &c. 
 
 HuNGABiAN, the itakoczy March. 
 
 Italian, Garibaldi's warlike hymn, com- 
 posed by Mercantino, and Godfredo 
 Mameli's Italian brethren, Italy has 
 awaked ! 
 
 Russian, God protect the Czar! 
 
 Scotch Jacobite Songs : The king shall 
 enjoy his own again, and When the 
 king comes o'er the water. The Lilli- 
 bulero of 1688 created a most marvel- 
 lous furore. 
 
 War in Algeria (The), 1827-1847. 
 France owed two Jewish merchants of 
 Algiers 100,000Z., the balance due for the 
 Egyptian expedition. Hussein dey of 
 Algiers pressed for payment, and asked 
 the French consul why his master did 
 not reply to the letter sent. The consul 
 insolently replied, ' The king of France 
 holds no correspondence with the dey of 
 Algiers.' Whereupon the dey struck him 
 on the face. This insult could not be 
 overlooked, and war ensued, which ended 
 in France taking Algeria, and annexing 
 it to France. 
 
 War of Calmar (The), 1611-1613. 
 This war was carried on between Chris- 
 tian IV. king of Denmark and Charles 
 IX. of Sweden, and, after the death of 
 Charles, with Gustavus Adolphus. The 
 real cause of the war was jealousy with 
 Sweden, which had broken away from 
 the ' Union.' The ostensible reason was 
 interruption of Danish commerce in the 
 ports of the Gulf of Riga. The war con- 
 sisted in destroying each other's towns and 
 ports. It was brought to an end by the 
 mediation of James I. of England. 
 
 War of Candia (The), 1667-1668, 
 between the Venetians and the Turks. 
 So relentless was this war, that the ex- 
 pression ' Una Guerra di Candia ' became 
 in Venice synonymous with ' war to the 
 knife.' In this terrible siege 30,000 
 Christians were slain, and although the 
 Turks ultimately became masters of the 
 island, yet they lost in the siege more 
 than 120,000 men. 
 
 War of Chiozza (The), 1378-1381, 
 between Venice and Genoa. Chiozza was 
 taken by the Genoese under Pietro Doria 
 16 Aug., 1379, but recovered by the Vene- 
 tians June 24, 1380. The recovery of 
 Chiozza is one of the most marvellous of 
 all the romances of history. 
 
 War of Devolution (T/^e). ' Guerre 
 
 de Devolution,' 1667. The war proclaimed 
 by Louis XIV. against Spain to enforce 
 his pretension to a part of the Spanish 
 Netherlands, founded on an old custom 
 of the Netherlands called * Le droit de 
 Devolution.' The law was this : * Les 
 immeubles apportes en mariage par I'un 
 des epoux devinssent la propriete des 
 enfants du premier lit lorsque le pere ou 
 la mere contractaient un second mariage.' 
 Now Maria Theresa was the daughter of 
 the first wife of Philippe IV., but Carlos 
 II. of the second wife. The war was 
 brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, 2 May, 1668, by which treaty 
 all Flanders was ceded to France. 
 
 Louis XIV. married Maria Theresa of Austria, 
 daughter of the King of Spain. 
 
 War of Honain (The), a.d. 629- 
 632, between Mahomet and the Arabian 
 idolaters of Mecca. So called from the 
 Valley of Honain, where the great con- 
 flic fc was decided. The battle was first lost 
 by Mahomet and then recovered by his 
 uncle Abbas. After this victory and the 
 siege of Fayef, Mecca was lastingly con- 
 verted to the winning side of the Koran. 
 
 War of Independence. I. In 
 North America (1774-1782), see p. 24, 
 * American War of Independence.' 
 
 II. In Scotland (1297-1328). The 
 wars carried on by Wallace and Bruce 
 to liberate Scotland from the English 
 crown. Bands of Scot^i insurgents 
 rose against Edward I. before 1297, but 
 in that year the insurrection became 
 general. The independence of Scotland 
 was recognised in a parliament at North- 
 ampton, 4 March, 1328. 
 
 This recognition wus due to the great Scotch 
 victory at Bannockburn (24 June, 1314), the defeat 
 of the army of Edward II. at Biland Abbey, in 
 YorltsWre, in 1323, and a victory over Edward III. 
 in 1327. 
 
 III. In Himgary {18iS-1849). Through 
 the treachery of General Goergey this 
 struggle terminated fatally to the Hungar- 
 ians. Austria called in the aid of Russia. 
 
 War of La Radde (The), 1573. A 
 war against the Vaudois by the French. 
 The Vaudois showed so determined a 
 front that the French were glad to come to 
 terms of peace. La Radde was the officer 
 who commanded the French troops. 
 
 This was a continuance of the St. Bartholomew 
 slaughter, begun in Aug. 1572. 
 
 War of Liberation (The). The 
 war between Germany and Napoleon I. 
 
WAR 
 
 WAR 
 
 to throw o£E the French yoke. It began 
 in 1813 and ended in 1815. First Prussia 
 and Kussia made an offensive and de- 
 fensive aUiance, 27 Feb., 1818. Sweden 
 joined on 14 Marcli, and on 16 March 
 Prussia declared war on Napoleon. 
 Austria joined the alliance 27 June, and 
 declared war with France on 12 Aug. 
 Bavaria joined 8 Oct. (all in the year 
 1813). It terminated with the Treaty of 
 Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814, in favour of national 
 independence. 
 
 The French won the battles of Ltitzen, 2 May ; 
 Bautzen, 19-21 May ; and Dresden, 26, 27 Aug. 
 
 They were defeated at Grossbeeran, 23 Aug. ; 
 Katzbach, 21 Aug. ; Kulm, 29, 30 Aug. ; Dennewitz, 
 6 Sept. ; Wartenberg, 2 Oct. ; and at Leipsic, 
 16-19 Oct. 
 
 War of Mityle'ne (The), b.c. 606, 
 between the Atlienians and Mitylenians. 
 Phrynon the Athenian attacked Mity- 
 lene, which was defended by Pittacos. 
 The two leaders agreed to decide the 
 battle by single combat. Pittacos threw 
 a net over his antagonist, and while 
 Phrynon was struggling to extricate him- 
 self, despatched him and won the victory. 
 Mitylene (4 syL). 
 
 War of Proclamations (The), be- 
 tween General Bu'-goyne on the side of 
 the English and General Schuyler on the 
 side of the United States. 
 
 1. General Burgoyne issued in June a 
 pompous proclamation threatening to 
 punish with the utmost severity those 
 who refused to side with the British 
 government. 
 
 2. At Skenesborough, in July, he issued 
 a second proclamation summoning the 
 people to send deputies to deliberate on 
 the measures to be adopted to save from 
 destruction those who had not yet con- 
 formed to his former proclamation. 
 
 3. General Schuyler issued a counter- 
 proclamation assuring the people they 
 would be accounted traitors if they 
 obeyed the proclamations of General 
 Burgoyne. 
 
 War of Schmalkald (The), 1547, 
 
 by the Kaiser against the ' Schmalkaldic 
 League ' (q.v.), under a plea made to the 
 pope of extirpating heresy, and to the 
 Germans of putting down rebellion. The 
 real object of the war was the lust of 
 dominion. The Protestant princes, alive 
 to the danger of this alliance between 
 kaiser and pope, assembled at Ratisbon 
 and determined on resistance, but were 
 overthrown. 
 
 War of the Amorous {The), 
 or ' The War of the Lovers,' 1577-1578. 
 The seventh religious war of France ; so 
 called because it arose out of some 
 scandalous intrigues of the French 
 court. In fact, Catharine de Medicis, in 
 order to break up the Huguenot party, 
 invited many of them to balls and fetes, 
 where she surrounded herself with maids 
 of honour more beautiful and fascinating 
 than moral. Gallantries and intrigues 
 naturally took place. One effect of this 
 was to detach the Due d'Alen^on from 
 the court party and ally him to the 
 reformers. 
 
 It is said that the real motive of this change 
 was the hope of marrying the English queen, 
 Elizabeth. He died in 1584. 
 
 War of the Austrian Succes- 
 sion (The), 1740-1745. On the death of 
 Kaiser Karl VI. the question was who 
 had a right to succeed him. Properly, 
 females could not occupy the throne of 
 Austria ; but Karl VI., by a decree called 
 the ' Pragmatic Sanction,' made his 
 only child Maria Theresa his heir. Ba- 
 varia, Saxony, Prussia, Sardinia, and 
 Naples all made rival claims, but Karl 
 Albert elector of Bavaria had the best 
 claim, and next Frederick Augustus 
 elector of Saxony. Prussia demanded 
 Silesia, Sardinia demanded Milan, and 
 Spain demanded Bohemia and Hungary. 
 Ultimately the war was left to Bavaria 
 and Prussia ; the Elector of Bavaria was 
 crowned kaiser in 1744, lost his electorate, 
 and was kaiser only in name. He died 
 in Jan. 1745. Maria Theresa agreed to 
 restore the electorate of Bavaria to his 
 son Maximilian Joseph, and the elector 
 agreed to give up all claim to the crown 
 of Austria. This being settled, the hus- 
 band of Maria Theresa was crowned 
 kaiser 4 Oct., 1745 (the same year). 
 
 In 1756 broke out the Seven Years' War between 
 Maria Theresa and Frederick II. (the Great) of 
 Prussia. 
 
 War of the Bastards (The). * La 
 Guerre des Batards,' 1324. A war be- 
 tween Charles IV. of France and Ed- 
 ward 11. of England, supported by the 
 Gascons. ' Dite La Guerre des Batards, 
 parce que les Gascons avaient pour chefs 
 des batards de la noblesse.' 
 
 War of the Cam'isards (The), 
 1702-1704. The Count de Broglie began 
 it with horrible savagery, but in 1703 he 
 
936 
 
 WAR 
 
 WAR 
 
 was recalled, and the war was conducted 
 by Marshal de Montrevel. 
 
 "Wa,r of the Giants (TJie), b.c. 
 1842. The third revolt of the Titans or 
 sons of the earth. These revolters were 
 ultimately overcome by Herakles (Her- 
 cules). 
 
 The battle of Marignano, 1515, is called the 
 ' battle of the Giants,' from the great valour 
 displayed by the combatants. It was won by 
 JFranQois I. 
 
 War of the Mercenaries, b.c. 
 
 241-238. A terrible war which Carthage 
 had to sustain in Africa with the mer- 
 cenaries because they were not paid. It 
 occurred between the first and second 
 Punic Wars, the leaders being Mathos 
 and Spendius. Hamilcar was sent 
 against the insurgents, and massacred 
 Bome 40,000 entrapped in a defile. 
 
 War of the Peasants (The), 
 1525. Waged by the Elector of Saxony 
 and the German princes against the Ana- 
 baptists, headed by Munzer, Stubner, 
 Storck, and others. Munzer was taken 
 prisoner and beheaded. 
 
 War of the Polish Succession 
 
 (The), 1733-1738. The case was this: 
 On the death of Sobieski king of Poland, 
 in 1674, Frederick elector of Saxony was 
 chosen king. At the death of Frederick, 
 in 1733, two claimants were put forward, 
 Stanislaus, a Pole, and Frederick Au- 
 gustus elector of Saxony, As Stanis- 
 laus was the father-in-law of Louis XV. 
 his claim was backed by France, but 
 Germany took the side of the elector. 
 The war ended in a compromise: Ger- 
 many gave up Lorraine to Stanislaus, 
 and agreed to exchange Naples and 
 Sicily for Tuscany and Parma. This 
 being done, Frederick Augustus was 
 allowed to keep the throne of Poland. 
 
 War of the Rustards (The), also 
 called ' The War of the Peasants,' 1525. 
 A rising of the peasants of Alsatia, 
 excited by the Anabaptists. The leader 
 was Erasmus Gerbert of Molsheim. 
 Chased from Alsatia by the Due de Lor- 
 raine, they took refuge in Germany and 
 amalgamated with the Anabaptists. 
 
 War of the Saeramentaries 
 {The), 1524, The paper war or contro- 
 versy between the followers of Luther 
 and those of Zwingli, the Swiss refoi'mer, 
 on the subject of the Eucharist. Luther 
 
 maintained that, though the bread re- 
 mained bread and the wine remained 
 wine after consecration, yet the body of 
 Christ was transfused into the elements 
 and was taken into the mouth by com- 
 municants. Zwingli maintained that no 
 such transfusion took place at all, but 
 that the bread and wine were simply 
 symbols of the body and blood of Christ, 
 well calculated to remind communicants 
 of the sacrifice of Christ and nothing 
 more. 
 
 Carlostadt, CEcolampadius, Muncer, Storck, and 
 Martin Bucer sided with Zwingli. 
 
 War of the Spanish Succes- 
 sion {The), 1700-1714. Carlos TI. had 
 no child, and at his death four claimants 
 to the throne of Spain arose — viz. the 
 King of France, the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, the Elector of Bavaria, and the 
 King of Savoy. The last two retired and 
 left the field to the other two. Louis 
 XIV. was the cousin of Carlos and son- 
 in-law of Philip IV., whose eldest 
 daughter he had married. Carlos had 
 recognised this claim by leaving the 
 crown to Philippe d'Anjou second son 
 of the dauphin, but Louis XIV. by the 
 Treaty of the Pyrenees had renounced 
 all claim to the Spanish crown. Leopold 
 of Germany claimed the crown for his 
 second son Karl, whose mother was also 
 a daughter of Philip IV. War succeeded, 
 and lasted for twelve years. England 
 opposed France, and was joined by Hol- 
 land, Portugal, Savoy, Brandenburg, 
 and of course Germany. 
 
 The French won the battles of Almanza, Villa- 
 viciosn, and Denain ; but lost those of Blenheim, 
 Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 
 The Treaty of Utrecht left France in possession 
 of Spain. 
 
 War of the Three Henris {The), 
 1584-1589— «.e. Henri III. of France, 
 Henri of Navarre, and Henri due de 
 Guise. On the death of the Due 
 d'AleuQon in 1584, Henri of Navarre 
 was leader of the Protestant party in 
 France ; whereupon Henri due de Guise 
 put himself at the head of the Catholic 
 league; Henri III., jealous of both 
 parties, resolved to bring them to obedi- 
 ence. The king was driven from Paris, 
 the Due de Guise was assassinated, 
 Henri III. was also assassinated, and 
 Henri of Navarre succeeded to the 
 crown of France, under the name and 
 title of Henri IV., but he also was assas- 
 sinated. 
 
WAR 
 
 WARDSHIP 
 
 937 
 
 War of the Uscoechi {The), or 
 • Uskoks,' 1592-1617. The Uskoks were 
 pirates who for a century infested the 
 Adriatic. They first settled in Clissa, 
 then removed to Zara, and finally to 
 Segna. They were Dalmatian fugitives 
 who gave sanctuary to the proscribed of 
 all nations, and were both numerous and 
 formidable. By the treaty of Madrid, 
 16 Sept., 1717, the Venetians and 
 Austrians stipulated to extirpate the 
 U§koks, and the horde disappeared. 
 
 Uskoks means fugitives. The Russian tiskdkat, 
 to run away, is the key to the word. 
 
 "Wars of Cappel, 1529-1531. See 
 p. 143, ' Cappel,' 
 
 "Wars of the Roses {The\ 1455- 
 1485. Between the Houses of York 
 [white) and Lancaster (the red rose). 
 It began with the battle of St. Albans, 
 23 May, 1455, and ended with the battle 
 of Bosworth Field, 22 Aug., 1483. The 
 chief battles were Wakefield, 1460, won 
 by the Lancastrians (in this battle fell 
 Richard duke of York, claimant of the 
 crown), and those of St. Albans, North- 
 ampton, Towton, Hexham, Barnet, and 
 Tewkesbury, won by the Yorkists. 
 
 k white rose formed the badge of the House of 
 York, and a red rose was the cognizance of the 
 House of Lancaster. The political effects of the 
 war were — (1) the ruin of the ancient baronage ; 
 and (2) the growth of monarchical power, being 
 relieved of the baronial check. 
 
 Wars of the Silesian Succes- 
 sion. Between Frederick II. of 
 Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria 
 for the possession of Silesia. 
 
 The first war (1740-1742). Maria 
 Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick II. of 
 Prussia by the treaty of Berlin. 
 
 The second war (1744-1745). Maria 
 Theresa confirmed Silesia to Prussia by 
 the treaty of Dresden. 
 
 Between the first and second Silesian war was 
 fought the battle of Dettingen, 27 June, 1743. 
 
 The third war (the ' Seven Years' War,' 
 1756-1763), when Silesia was finally ceded 
 to Prussia by the treaty of Hubertsburg. 
 
 Wars of the Tributary Princes 
 
 (The). An intestine commotion of 
 China, which lasted with short intervals 
 450 years (b.c. 770-320) ; called by the 
 Chinese the Chen-kuo (fighting kings). 
 
 The most powerful of these states were GEY, 
 founded by Nang-leewiing ; TcHAO, by Heao- 
 tchingwang; Han, by Huonhocj ; TsEE, by Wang- 
 kin ; and TsiN, by Tchao siang-wang. 
 
 Wars with the Albigenses 
 {The). The first was from 1208 to 1229, 
 40 
 
 in the reign of Philippe Auguste. It 
 was entrusted to Simon de Montfort, 
 called ' The French Maccabasus.' 
 
 The second was in 1226, in the reign 
 of Louis VIII., the Lion. Louis himself 
 was the leader, instigated by Pope Hono- 
 rius III. to ' purge the land of heretics.' 
 
 The third was from 1545-1547, in the 
 reign of Francois I. 
 
 Warbeck Plot {The), 1490-1499, of 
 which Margaret duchess of Burgundy 
 was the prime mover. The person she 
 selected to personate her nephew, Rich- 
 ard duke of York, second son of Edward 
 IV., who (she said) had made his escape 
 from the Tower, was a Flemish lad 
 named Peter Osbeck, generally called 
 Perkin Warbeck. The lad was invited 
 to the French court, but soon abandoned. 
 He then made his appearance in Ireland, 
 in what is termed the Pale {q.v.), and in 
 1495 started for Scotland. He was re- 
 ceived by the Scotch king James IV., 
 who gave to him in marriage Catherine 
 Gordon, granddaughter of James I. In 
 1497 he returned to Ireland, fled to Corn- 
 wall; and in 1499 was executed at Tyburn. 
 
 Warbeck of the North {The), 
 1598. Otrepieff, who personated Deme- 
 trius, the prince murdered by Boris. As 
 Warbeck married Catherine Gordon, so 
 this mock Demetrius married Marina, 
 daughter of the Palatine Sandomir. He 
 was murdered in an insurrection m 1605. 
 Wai'beck was hanged for insurrection. 
 See ' Richard IV.' 
 
 Warden, in Oxford University. The 
 title held by the head of five of the 
 colleges: All Souls, Keble,.Merton, New 
 College, and Wadham. 
 
 Warden of the Cinque Ports. 
 
 The custodian of Dover Castle was cre- 
 ated by William the Conqueror warden 
 of the Cinque Ports {q.v.). The juris- 
 diction of this office was very greatly 
 abridged by 18, 19 Vict. c. 48. 
 
 Warden of the Stannaries 
 
 {Lord). An officer who has the adminis- 
 tration of the metal mines of Devon and 
 Cornwall. When Edward III. created 
 his infant son ' prince of Wales,' he con- 
 ferred on him these stannaries. 
 
 Wardship. Custody of the body 
 and estate of minors holding under the 
 king, till the minor, if a male, was 21, 
 and, if a female, was 16 years of age. 
 
938 
 
 WARMING-PANS 
 
 WATCHES 
 
 The lord gave no account to anyone of 
 liis stewardship. Introduced by Wilham 
 the Conqueror, and abolished by 12 
 Car. II. c. 24. 
 
 "Warming-pans. Jacobites, so 
 called because Mary d'Este, wife of 
 James II., says rumour, never had a 
 living child of her own, but, wishing for 
 an heir, she had a male child brought to 
 her in a warming-pan, which she substi- 
 tuted for her own still-born babe. This 
 ' warming-pan heir ' was James III. the 
 Pretender, called 'The Warming-pan 
 Hero.' See Macaulay, ' Hist, of England,' 
 ii. 308 ; and Miss Strickland, * Queens of 
 England,' vi, 213, 243. 
 
 What gave some colour to the scandal are the 
 facts that the child was born at least a month 
 before its time, and at its birth none of the per- 
 sons most interested in the matter were present. 
 Thus the Princess Anne was not present, nor yet 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury, nor yet the Dutch 
 Ambassador, nor any one of the Hyde family. 
 AVllliamof Orange, in his manifesto, openly refers 
 to ' the son and heir ' of James II. as spurious ; 
 but yet the probability is that there was really 
 no collusion. 
 
 "Warren's Cavalry, 1887. Mounted 
 London police. Sir Charles Warren was 
 Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police 
 Force. 
 
 '"Warren's Cavalry" armed to the teeth.'— 
 Newspaper paragraph, 30 Jan., 1888. 
 
 "Warrior Lady of Latham {The). 
 Charlotte countess of Derby, daughter of 
 Claude de la Tremouille (peer of France) 
 and of Charlotte daughter of William I. 
 prince of Orange. Born 1601, died 1664. 
 The earl joined the king's troops, and 
 left his house at Latham in charge of 
 his wife. The Parliamentary army de- 
 manded its surrender, but the countess 
 returned answfir, ' It does not suit me.' 
 For eight months she held out, when 
 Sir T. Fairfax retired, leaving Colonel 
 Rigby in command of the besieging 
 troops. At length Prince Rupert came 
 to the rescue, and Rigby raised the siege. 
 
 "Warrior of Freedom [The). Giu- 
 seppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). 
 
 "Wartburg Contests {The), or 
 ' Battles of the Minnesingers.' An annual 
 prize given by Hermann margraf of 
 Thuringia for the best minne-song. It 
 was given in honour of his wife Sophia, 
 and all the best minstrels attended. 
 About 150 of these prize-songs are still 
 extant. Those by Walter of Vogel- 
 vverde are the best. See ' Minnesingers.' 
 
 There is a poem so called. It is by Wolfram, and 
 
 records the contests of the Thuringian and Sua- 
 bian poets. 
 
 "Wasa {The Dynasty of), or ' Vasa.' 
 Gustavus Vasa broke off Sweden from 
 Denmark, to which it had been united 
 for 126 years — that is, from the ' Union 
 of Calmar' (1197-1523). Norway still 
 remained in the union till 1813, when it 
 was taken from Denmark by the allies 
 and attached to Sweden. 
 
 "Wasa {Knights of), Sweden, 1772. 
 Decoration is a gold sword hung on watered 
 blue ribbon. The name of the founder 
 is inscribed in a purple cartouche. 
 
 "Wat Tyler's Insurrection, 1381. 
 
 A rising of the peasantry again st serfage. 
 It was a servile war produced by oppres- 
 sion and misery. John Ball, a Kentish 
 priest, was the stump orator of the day, 
 and told the people that as all men came 
 from Adam and Eve all men had equal 
 rights, and it was gross oppression that 
 some should be gentlemen and others 
 serfs. The real cause of the insurrection 
 was a poll-tax to defray the expenses of 
 the war in France. The insurgents mus- 
 tered in great force on Blackheath, where 
 they had an interview with Richard II. 
 The king invited Wat Tyler to a confer- 
 ence in Smithfield, when Sir William 
 Walworth, lord mayor of London, 
 despatched him with a dagger, and the 
 king induced the rioters to disperse. The 
 tax especially objected to was one to 
 enable John of Gaunt to dispute with 
 Henry of Trastamare the crown of Castile 
 in right of his wife Constance, a natural 
 daughter of Pedro the Cruel. 
 
 The mayors of London were created 'lord 
 mayors' by Edward III. Walsingham calls Wat 
 Tyler ' Wat thehelier ' (Ang.-Sax. hel-an,' to cover'). 
 
 "Watches. It is said that Robert 1. 
 (Bruce) had a watch about 1310. Watches 
 were used by Purbach in astronomical ob- 
 servations in 1500. Those made at Nurem- 
 berg in 1477 were egg-shaped. Cornelius 
 van Dreble and James Torrianellus 
 introduced great improvements in 1580. 
 
 Henry VIII. (1509-1547) certainly had 
 a watch. In 1572 the Earl of Leicester 
 presented one to Queen Elizabeth. It is 
 thus spoken of : — 
 
 One armelet or shakeU of golde all over fairly 
 garnished with small diamondes and fower score 
 and one smaller peeces fully garnished with like 
 diamondes, and hanginge thereat a rounde clocke 
 f ullie garnished with diamondes and an appendant 
 of diamondes hanging thereat. 
 
 Pretty common in Shakespeare's time, 
 and often alluded to in plays. 
 
WATCHWORDS 
 
 WELLINGTON'S 
 
 939 
 
 Watchwords. Of course military 
 watchwords are frequently changed ; still, 
 it is interesting to know the watchwords 
 of great military men. The following 
 are well known : Brutus, Liberia s ; 
 Caesar, Venus genitrix ; Marius, Lar 
 deus ; Sylla or Sulla, Apollo Delphicus. 
 
 Waterlanders (The). Mild Men- 
 nonites, who split off from the general 
 body in 1554, and are so called from 
 Waterland, in Holland. 
 
 Watling Street. A great Roman 
 road running from Dover to Caernarvon- 
 shire in Wales. A branch ran to Scotland. 
 
 It passed through Canterbury and Rochester to 
 London, then ran to Uriconium and Chester 
 into Wales. From Uriconium a branch ran to 
 Manchester, Lancaster, and Kendal. 
 
 "Wattier's Club, at the corner of 
 Bolton Street. Li the time of the regency 
 this was the club for all the marriageable 
 young heirs to ancestral honours, and 
 all the penniless younger sons whose 
 dowry was their animal spirits. It is best 
 known to fame for the masquerade at- 
 tended by the prince regent, into which 
 Caroline forced her way and created a 
 fresh scandal. 
 
 Waynflete Professorships (T/ie). 
 One of moral philosophy, and one of 
 chemistry, in Oxford University. Formed 
 from three prselectorshps of Magdalen 
 College in 1854. Annual stipend 600^ each. 
 
 William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, 
 founded Magdalen College, Oxford, in 144«. 
 
 Waywode (2 syl.). 1. A farmer of 
 the revenue of a district in the Ottoman 
 empire. 
 
 2. A foi-mer military title of Russia 
 and Poland. 
 
 3. A former ruler in the Danubian pro- 
 vinces of Turkey. 
 
 Weapons of War and Armour. 
 
 Battle-axes : the best were Danish. 
 Casques : „ „ of Poitiers. 
 
 Hauberks: ,, „ of Rouen. 
 
 Swords : „ „ of Damascus, Cologne, 
 
 and Toledo, in Spain. 
 
 Wec'habites (3 syl.). Generally 
 called ' Wahabites ' (q.v.). 
 
 Wedmore, in Soiuersetshire {Peace 
 of), 878. Between Alfred king of Eng- 
 land and Guthrum the Dane, settled in 
 East Anglia. This treaty followed Alfred's 
 great victory at Edington, and by its 
 terms Guthrum consented to be baptized. 
 
 Week of Expectation {The). 
 * Hebdomada Expectationis.' The sixth 
 
 week after Easter, when our Lord said 
 to his apostles : ' Manete in hac civitate, 
 et expectate usque dum induamini virtu te 
 ex alto ' {Luke xxiv. 49). 
 
 Week of the Cross {The), or 
 ' Hebdomada Crucis,' is Rogation week. 
 
 Weeping Crosses. So called be- 
 cause, in Catholic times, penances were 
 finished before them. 
 
 Weeping Philosopher {The), 
 
 Heraclltos the Ej^iesian, who died B.C. 
 495, aged sixty. So called because he 
 was ever mourning over the follies and 
 frailty of man, and the vicissitudes of all 
 human affairs. See p. 630, * Obscure Phi- 
 losopher.' 
 
 Weliki-Luki {Treaty of), 20 July, 
 1812. Of alliance between Spain and 
 Russia. 
 
 Well-beloved {The). *Le Bien- 
 aime'.' Louis XV. (1710, 1715-1774). 
 
 The contest was carried into the reign of the 
 ' Well-beloved.' — Hist, nf France. 
 
 *,* How such a licentious, heartless, and sin- 
 gularly immoral man could be ' well-beloved ' is 
 past all human understanding. 
 
 Wellington Administration 
 
 {The), 1829-1830. That of Prince Poli- 
 gnac was so called by the French. It was 
 a retrogi-ade Tory administration, con- 
 temporary with the administration of 
 the Duke of Wellington in England. 
 
 Wellington Statues. 
 
 I. By Boehm at Hyde Park Place, 
 unveiled 21 Dec, 1888. The figures 
 round the pedestal represent the four 
 nationalities engaged in the battle of 
 Waterloo in 1815— viz. (1) The British 
 Guardsmen; (2) the 42nd Highlanders; 
 (3) the Inniskilling Dragoons; and (4) 
 the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers. 
 
 II. The bronze statue of Achilles, 18 
 June, 1822, by the women of England, 
 and made of the cannons taken at Sala- 
 manca, Vittoria, Toulouse, and Waterloo. 
 It was originally placed in the south-east 
 angle of Hyde Park, near Apsley House. 
 
 III. Equestrian statue of the Duke of 
 Wellington surmounting the Marble 
 Arch. Hyde Park Corner, set up in 1846, 
 taken down 24 Jan., 1883. See p. 131, 
 * Burton Arch.' 
 
 Wellington's Assassin. Can- 
 tillon, to whom Napoleon I. left a legacy 
 for his base attempt, and to whom Napo- 
 leon III. paid the legacy. Whether 
 Napoleon hired this villain or not to do 
 
940 
 
 WELSH 
 
 WESTERN 
 
 the damning deed is not of the slightest 
 moment. He certainly set his hand and 
 seal to the f uU approval thereof, and it is 
 but charity to believe that both Napo- 
 leon I. when he made the legacy and 
 Napoleon III. when he paid it were ' po- 
 litically insane.' Cantillon was alive 
 and in Paris in 1859. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 
 
 1743. Organised by Charles of Bala, a 
 clergyman of the Cl^urch of England. 
 They believe in the ' Thirty-nine Articles ' 
 taken in a Calvinistic sense. In church 
 government they are Presbyterian. 
 
 "Welsh Mortgage {A). A pledge 
 of land in which there is no day fixed for 
 redemption. Such a mortgage is redeem- 
 able at any time on payment of the loan. 
 A ' vif-gage ' {t:ivum vadimn) is a conveyance of 
 property to a creditor and his heirs till he has 
 (out of the profits of the estate) satisfied the debt 
 ■with interest. As neither debt nor interest is lost, 
 such a gage is living — i.e. does not lapse or fail. 
 
 Wenceslaus the Worthless. One of 
 the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Ger- 
 many (1357, 1378-1400, deposed and died 
 1419). 
 
 It was a frightful period. In Germany was 
 Wenceslaus the Worthless, in France Charles VI. 
 the idiot, in England Richard II. the fop. There 
 were two popes anathematising each other, one 
 at Rome and the other at Avignon. 
 
 Werela [Peace of), 14 Aug., 1790. 
 Between Sweden and Eussia. In this 
 treaty the limits of both states were re- 
 established according to the provisions 
 of former treaties. 
 
 Wesleyan Conference (The), 
 
 1744. The original conference consisted 
 of six Methodist clergymen of the Church 
 of England and four lay preachers, who 
 met together in London to consult on the 
 continuance of the work. Subsequent 
 conferences have been annually held since. 
 
 Wesleyan Methodist Associa- 
 tion (The), 1885. Seceders from the 
 old Methodist Connection from an objec- 
 tion to the Conference, which they 
 thought to be tyrannical, especially in 
 excluding laymen from any share in the 
 general management. 
 
 Wesleyan Methodist Reform- 
 ers (The). Seceders from the Methodist 
 Connection, who object to the overbearing 
 authority of the Conference, and espe- 
 cially to the exclusion of those who 
 dared to censure their proceedings. (19th 
 cent. ; about 1840.) 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists, 1738. 
 The Arminian Methodists organized by 
 John Wesley. 
 
 The Calvinistic Methodists led by Whitfield 
 separated in 1752. The ' Wesleyan Methodist 
 Church,' 184.?, was formed at Utica, and object to 
 Episcopal titles. 
 
 Wesleyan Reform Union [The), 
 1849. Those Reformed Methodists who 
 did not join the United Methodist Free 
 Church. 
 
 Western Church (The), or 'Latin 
 Church ' ; as they call themselves, ' The 
 Catholic Church ' ; as others call them, 
 * The Roman Catholic Church,' separated 
 from the Eastern Church about 324-334 . 
 In 606 the word ' pope ' was limited to the 
 Bishop of Rome ; the Bishop of Constan- 
 tinople being called ' patriarch ' since 588. 
 
 Of course the Eastern Church was established 
 before the Western, and the Western Church sepa- 
 rated on the moot point whether the bishop of 
 Rome or patriarch of the East were the higher 
 office. As the Western Church severed itself 
 from the Eastern, in the language of the church, 
 it was ' schismatic,' and remains so still. 
 
 Western Empire (The). 
 
 I, Borne, or the western portion of the 
 ancient Roman empire after its division 
 by Valentinian and Valens, A.D. 364. 
 Valentinian had the western portion, with 
 Rome for his capital, and Valens, his 
 brother, had the eastern portion, with 
 Constantinople for his capital. The 
 Western empire ended in 476, when 
 Odoacer, king of the Herilli, took Rome, 
 and assumed the title of ' king of Italy.' 
 
 The Eastern empire continued nearly l.OOOyears 
 longer, tUl 1453. 
 
 II. 960-126«. The united empire of 
 Germany and Italy. Otto I. the G-reat 
 took Italy from the usurper Berengarius 
 II. and added it to the German empire. 
 In 1268 the Germans were driven out of 
 Italy, and several republics were formed 
 there. 
 
 Western Schism {The), or ' Great 
 Schism of the West.' Variously reckoned 
 39 years, 50 years, and 71 years. 
 
 1. 39 years, from the double election 
 of Urban VI. in Rome and Clement VII. 
 in Avignon, 1378 to 1417, when Martin V. 
 was elected by the Council of Pisa. 
 
 2. 50 years, from 1378 to 1429, when 
 Clement VIII., elected to succeed Gregory 
 XII. at Avignon, resigned the tiara. 
 
 3. 71 years, from 1378 to 1449, when 
 Felix V. was elected by the Council of 
 Basel to succeed Eugenius IV. 
 
 See p. 31, * Anti-popes.' 
 
WESTMINSTER 
 
 WHIG 
 
 941 
 
 Westminster {The Conference of), 
 1559. Summoned by Queen Elizabeth 
 to settle these three questions: (1) Should 
 the public worship be conducted in Latin 
 or English ? (2) What power should be 
 allotted to each particular church in the 
 matter of rites and ceremonies ? (3) Is 
 the Mass a propitiatory sacrifice or not ? 
 The bishops of Lincoln and Winchester 
 threatened to excommunicate the queen 
 and conference if they could not have 
 their own way, were arrested and sent to 
 the Tower for high treason, and the con- 
 ference was dissolved. 
 
 Westminster Assembly of 
 Divines {The), 1G43-1649. A convo- 
 cation appointed by the Long Parliament 
 for settling the doctrine, liturgy, and 
 government of the Church of England. 
 It consisted of 121 clergymen and 30 
 laymen (10 of whom were lords). This 
 assembly wanted dogmatically to dictate 
 what articles of faith should be compul- 
 sory, and even what form of worship 
 should be established, but Cromwell de- 
 manded toleration and independence. 
 
 "Westminster CatecMsms {The). 
 The Shorter Catechism, 5 Nov., 1647; 
 the Longer Catechism, 18 Sept., 1648. 
 They were drawn up by the Westminster 
 Assembly of Divines {q-v.), and are still 
 used by the Presbyterians as standard 
 catechisms, but are not accepted by the 
 Church of England as of any authority. 
 
 The Shorter Assembly Catechism was probably 
 drafted by Mr. Palmer. 
 
 Westminster Confession of 
 Faith {The), 1646. A confession of 
 faith contained in 33 articles drawn up 
 by the Westminster Assembly of Divines 
 {q.v.), and still considered a standard of 
 faith in the Presbyterian churches of the 
 United Kingdom ; but, never having re- 
 ceived the royal sanction, it is of no 
 authority in the Church of England. 
 
 Westminster School, 1560. 
 Founded by Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Westphalia {Peace of), 24 Oct., 
 1648. One of the most important in 
 European history, as it closed the Thirty 
 Years' War. By the terms of this treaty 
 * the balance of power ' in Europe was 
 first recognised. Alsace was ceded to 
 France ; part of Pomerania to Sweden ; 
 the Swiss cantons were declared inde- 
 pendent ; perfect religious freedom was 
 granted, and German Protestants were 
 
 admitted to equal rights with their Ca- 
 tholic fellow-countrymen. No one could 
 henceforth be put under the ban of the 
 empire but by the diet alone. 
 
 Lusatia and Alsace were taken from Austria, 
 and Austria received instead Transylvania and 
 Croatia. Upper Pomerania, Kugen, with Stettin, 
 Gratz, Damme. Golnau, the Isle of Wollin, Peine 
 Schiveine, the l)ivenau in Lower Pomerania, Wis- 
 mar, the Duchy of Bremen, and the principality 
 of Verdun were given to Sweden. 
 
 Wetter {Mrs.), the Queen Victoria. 
 The family name of her husband was 
 Wetter. A playful pseudonym. 
 
 Some say Wettin, which is Prussian ; but Wetter 
 or Vetter, is Swedish. 
 
 Wharncliffe Meetings. Meetings 
 of public companies held in conformity 
 with the Wharncliffe Order {q.v.). 
 
 Wharncliflfa Order. A provision 
 introduced into the House of Lords that 
 no meeting of a public company shall 
 have power to change the constitution of 
 the company unless seven days' notice 
 has been given to the subscribers and 
 the meeting represents at least three- 
 fourths of the paid-up capital. 
 
 Wharton. Philip Wharton, duke 
 of Wharton (1698-1731). Pope calls him 
 ' the scorn and wonder of our days.' His 
 talents were brilliant, and his power of 
 oratory electric ; but his life was most 
 licentious, and he turned traitor. He 
 fought against his countrymen at the 
 siege of Gibraltar, and joined the Pre- 
 tender, from whom he accepted the worth- 
 less title of ' Duke of Northumberland.' 
 
 Whevsrell Scholarships for in- 
 ternational law. Two yearly, value re- 
 spectively lOOZ. and 50Z., tenable for four 
 years. Founded in the University of 
 Cambridge by the Kev. William WlieweU, 
 D.D., master of Trinity College. See 
 p. 748, ' Regius Professor of Civil Law.' 
 
 AVhewell, pronovince You-el. 
 
 Whig and Tory, modified conti- 
 nuations of the terms Roundhead and 
 Cavalier, which arose, in 1680, on the 
 introduction of the Exclusion Bill. Tory 
 was the name by which ruined adherents 
 of King James were known when he 
 lived in a state of outlawry in Ireland. 
 It was applied in derision to those who 
 held the doctrine of ' the divine right of 
 kings,' subsequently applied to those who 
 stood by ' church and state.' Whig was 
 applied to an opposite class of men in 
 Scotland, but similarly circumstanced as 
 the Irish Tories. They were vagabonds 
 
942 
 
 WHIG 
 
 WHITE 
 
 collected by the Marquis of Argyll to 
 oppose certain government measures in 
 the reign of James I. As the Irish Tories 
 were church and state men, the Scotch 
 Whigs were nonconformists, who repu- 
 diated the doctrine of ' divine right ' and 
 the right of an established church. 
 
 Scotch Covenanters were nicknamed Whigs 
 (vagabonds) as far back as 1(548 ; the Abliorrers (q.v.) 
 slanged the Pelitioners (q.v.) as Whigs. The term 
 was not used in England as a political designation 
 till 1680. Tory is about equal to Eapparee. As Ab- 
 horrers called the Petitioners by way of contempt 
 Whigs, so the Petitioners returned the contumely 
 by calling the Abhorrers Tories. 
 
 Tory is from an Irish verb, meaning to pursue 
 for plunder. 
 
 Whig of the Revolution {A). 
 So George III. called himself. Not the 
 French but the English revolution. He 
 abhorred the former, but owed his crown 
 to the latter. 
 
 Whig Bible. See * Placemakers' 
 Bible ' and ' Bible.' 
 
 Whig Club {The), 1793, in Irish 
 history, was instituted to promote reform 
 by pressure from without, through the 
 agency of voluntary associations. It was 
 afterwards superseded by the society of 
 the United Irishmen {q.v.). See p. 455, 
 ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Whigs' Vault {The). A subter- 
 ranean dungeon in the castle of Dunnottar 
 where the Privy Council of Scotland, in 
 1685, shut up a number of prisoners sup- 
 posed to be hostile to the government. 
 
 In this prison .... still termed the Whigs' 
 Vault, several died of the diseases incidental to 
 such a situation.— Sir W. ScoTT, Old Mortality 
 (Introduction). 
 
 Whigamores {The). The rigid 
 Presbyterian party, under the leadership 
 of the Marquis of Argyll. After the de- 
 feat of the Duke of Hamilton, leader of 
 the Engagers (q.v.) or moderate Presby- 
 terians, the Marquis of Argyll, with 6,000 
 followers, marched to Edinburgh and 
 made himself head of the government 
 (1648). The word contracted into ' Whigs ' 
 was applied to the Presbyterians of Scot- 
 land opposed to the Royalists or Malig- 
 nants, and was subsequently applied to 
 all those who denied the divine right of 
 kings, the supremacy of royal preroga- 
 tives, and the dogma of passive obedi- 
 ence. 
 
 The etymology of the word is doubtful. Some 
 derive it from Ugham-more, pack-saddle thieves ; 
 others from irhig. in horse language, meaning 
 ' get on ' ; others more wittily than truly from an 
 anagram ' We Hope In God.' 
 
 In the ' Encyclopoedia Britannica' we read: 
 Ibe Whigs were so denominated from a cant 
 
 name given to the Presbyterian conventiclers : 
 "whig," milk turned sour; and Tories received 
 that honourable appellation from the Irish ban- 
 ditti so called— the Irish word toree being equal to 
 " stand and deliver ! " ' Whig or Whey is butter- 
 milk. 
 
 Whigamores' Inroad {The), or 
 * The Whigamore Raid,' 1648. Cromwell 
 with 8,000 men having defeated Lang- 
 dale, whose army amounted to 20,000 
 men, made his way into Scotland, when 
 the Marquis of Argyll, and the Earls 
 Cassilis and Eglintoun, at the head of 
 the Presbyterians of the west country 
 and the Highlands, marched to Edin- 
 burgh, and conducted Cromwell to the 
 metropolis in triumph. This expedition 
 of the Covenanters to Edinburgh gave 
 the finishing blow to the royal cause in 
 Scotland, and is known in history as the 
 'Whigamore's Inroad' or 'Whigamore 
 Raid. (' Encyclop. Britannica,' v. 411.) 
 
 The Duke of Hamilton supported what is called 
 ' the Engagement ' (q.v.) in the Scotch parliament. 
 The Marquis of Argyll opposed it. The Duke of 
 
 Hamilton was defeated at Warrington (1648), and 
 surrendered to Cromwell. 
 
 Whip -with six strings {The), 
 81 Hen. VIII. c. 14, a.d. 1539. 'The 
 Bloody Statute.' See the ' Six Articles. 
 
 Whipping Boy {A). A boy kept 
 to be whipped when a prince deserved 
 chastisement. 
 
 Edward VI. Barnaby Fitzpatrick stood lor 
 Edward VI. 
 
 Henri IV. of France. D'Ossat and Du Perron, 
 afterwards cardinals, were whipped by Clement 
 VIII. for Henri I v.— Fuller, Church Historii, ii. 342. 
 
 Charles I. Mungo Murray stood for Charles I. 
 
 James I. of England. We are told that George 
 Buchanan would not punish the Scotch by substi- 
 tution, and when the Countess of Mar complained 
 of his whipping the prince, he stoutly confessed 
 it, and said he would do it again if the boy blun- 
 dered over his Latin declensions. 
 
 Lesage, in his ' Gil Bias ' makes Raphael to be 
 flogged for the son of the Marquis de Leganez ; 
 but Raphael, not seeing the justice of this arrange- 
 ment, ran away (v. 1). 
 
 Whipping Post {The), to which 
 Jesus was fastened at the scourging, is 
 now shown at Rome through iron railings 
 in a little chapel in the church of St. 
 Praxedes ; and over it is inscribed words 
 to the effect that John de Colonna 
 brought it to Rome in 1223. The socle 
 of the post, however, is in St. Mark's 
 Cathedral, Venice. The post is of p^ey 
 marble, a foot and a half long, one fo :>t 
 in diameter at the base and eight inches 
 at the top, where an iron ring is inserted, 
 to which the victim was tied. See p. 
 231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 
 
 White and Black Face, in 
 
 Turkish phraseology, are terms of praise 
 
WHITE 
 
 WHITE 
 
 943 
 
 and reproach, meaning bright and down- 
 cast. 
 
 When the Janizaries were enrolled, a dervish 
 blessed the new levies and said, ' Wheresoever 
 they go, may they return with white faces.' Gibbon 
 tells us that the Komans had the sentence ' Hie 
 nigey est, hunc tu, Eomane, caveto.' — Decline and 
 Fall, chap. Ixiv., and note. 
 
 We also speak of a downcast leaden look. And 
 Bay he looked black in the face ; looked black at 
 me ; you need not look so black. 
 
 "White and Black Factions 
 
 (The). The Ommiades (whose colour 
 was white), and the Abbassides (whose 
 colour was black). Green was the colour 
 
 of the Fatimites (3 syl.). 
 
 From the Indus to the Euphrates the east was 
 convulsed by the quarrels of the White and Black 
 factions.— Gibbon, chap. 111. 
 
 "White and Crimson. In the 
 
 Valois-Angouleme dynasty Protestant 
 soldiers wore white jackets and scarfs, 
 but the Catholic soldiers wore crimson 
 jackets and scarfs. The Swiss guard 
 wore a grey uniform, 
 
 "White Battle (The), 20 Sept., 1319. 
 The battle of Mytton, in Yorkshire, was 
 BO called from the number of clerks who 
 fell. It was between the Scots (under 
 Douglas and Randolph) and the forces of 
 William of Melton archbishop of York. 
 It is said that at ka3t 300 men in holy 
 orders were slain, and many were taken 
 prisoners, among whom was William de 
 Ayremyn (afterwards bishop of Norwich). 
 Bishop Hotham of Ely narrowly escaped 
 being taken captive. The battle is some- 
 times jocosely spoken of as ' The Chapter 
 of Mitton.' 
 
 Of tha yhet thre hundreth war 
 Prestis that deit [died] intill that chas : 
 Tharfore that bargane callit was 
 ' The Chaptour of Mytoun,' for thare 
 Slain so many prestis war. 
 
 Barbour, The Bnis. 
 
 "White Books. The official reports 
 of both Germany and Portugal are 
 stitched in white wrappers. See ' Blue 
 Books,' ' Black Books,' * Red Books,' 
 • Yellow Books.' 
 
 "White Brotherhood (The). The 
 adventurers led by John Hawkwood (14th 
 cent.). 
 
 An English mercenary, John Hawkwood, with a 
 band of adventurers, the White Brotherhood, had 
 ravaged Italy from the Alps to Calabria.— Gibbon, 
 chap. xlvi. 
 
 "White Camisards, 1703. Catho- 
 lic volunteers, under tlie name of Cadets 
 of the Cross or White Camisards, joined 
 the regular troops of Marshal Montrevel 
 as auxiliaries to extirpate the Camisards 
 
 of the Cevennes, called by Pope Clement 
 XI. ' a cursed brood from the execrable 
 race of the Albigenses.' See p. 96, ' Black 
 Camisards.' 
 
 A military night surprise is a camisade. Thus 
 the taking of Pontoise in 1419 wasa camisade, and 
 the battle of Pavia in 1524 began with a camisade. 
 
 "White Canons. Canons, like the 
 Premonstratensians, who wore white 
 habits. See ' Canons,' * Black Canons.' 
 
 "White Caps were worn by the 
 Volones or volunteer slaves as a token of 
 liberty. 
 
 Then Gracchus fulfilled his promise to the 
 Volones, and celebrated their enfranchisement 
 by a public festival, in which they all appeared 
 wearing white caps in token of liberty.— 27kj -S'/u- 
 denfs Rome. p. 236. 
 
 "White Caps (in the U.S., 1889-1890), 
 bodies of self-constituted ' regulators ' 
 and correctors of morals. 
 
 White Caps (The), 1758. A sedi- 
 tious faction in China put down by the 
 Emperor Kien-long. They were zealous 
 Mahometans. See p. 120, ' Brethren of 
 the White Caps.' 
 
 White City (T^ie). Belgrade, called 
 Alba Grcecia by the Franks in the 9th 
 cent. 
 
 White Coats {The). I. The train- 
 bands, as the ' Red Coats ' were the 
 regular soldiers, and the ' Blue Jackets ' 
 the sailors. 
 
 II. The Earl of Newcastle's pikemen, 
 chiefly Roman Catholics, in the time of 
 Charles I. They woie white coats. 
 
 White Company {The). A com- 
 pany of adventurers which, after the 
 wars of Edward III. in France, passed 
 into the service of the Marquis of Mont- 
 ferrat. When they were employed by the 
 Pisans against Florence the famous Sir 
 John Hawkwood was their commander. 
 
 White Cross Knights {The). The 
 Knights Hospitallers, who had a white 
 cross on their black robes. The Knights 
 Templars were the Red Cross Knights, 
 their badge being a red cross on a white 
 robe. See ' Poor Brothers of St. John.' 
 
 "White Eagle {Knights of the), 132.'>. 
 A Polish order instituted by Ladislas 
 king of Poland on the marriage of his 
 son Casimir with Anne, daughter of the 
 Grand Duke of Lithuania. The ribbon 
 was blue. Extinct. 
 
 "White Flag {The). Emblem of 
 legitimacy in France. The flag of the 
 
944 
 
 WHITE 
 
 WHITE 
 
 Bourbon monarchs. Ordinarily, the white 
 flag craves for truce and peace ; a black 
 flag indicates a pirate ; a red flag, defiance ; 
 a yellow flag, that the vessel is in quaran- 
 tine. 
 
 Those who reverence the symbol of the White 
 Flag may feel that its latest upholder [the Comte 
 de Chambord] did nothing to sully its purity.— 
 Daily Neics, Sept. 3, 1883. 
 
 *,* A white flag as a railway signal means the 
 rail is clear, and everything in order; a red flag 
 Bignifies danger, and means stop; a green flag 
 Intimates that caution is required. 
 
 White Flagellants {The). So 
 called from their white mantles. See 
 ' Flagellants,' and ' Blancs Battus.' 
 
 "White Friars (The), 1171. The 
 Carmelites. So called from the colour of 
 their dress, as the Dominicans were called 
 ' Black Friars ' and the Franciscans 
 • Grey Friars.' 
 
 White Hats (The). I. In Flanders, 
 were in the 14th cent, the badge of the 
 democratic party, led by Jacob van Arte- 
 velde, the great brewer of Ghent, who 
 was elected their captain in 1338, and 
 was assassinated in 1345. Their next 
 captain was John Lyon, who was sup- 
 posed, to be poisoned by the court party 
 in 1381. Philip van Artevelde, son of 
 the great brewer, next assumed the 
 white hat of the party. He was slain in 
 the battle of Kosebeque, Nov. 1382. 
 
 II. White hats were used in England 
 to denote radical proclivities, because 
 Orator Hunt (1773-1835), the great dema- 
 gogue, during the Wellington and Peel 
 administration, used to wear a white hat. 
 Lord Liverpool, who was prime minister 
 for fifteen years (1812-1827), rendered the 
 badge no longer distinctive by adopting 
 a white hat himself. 
 
 White Hood House (The). The 
 Regents' or Upper House of the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. So called because 
 the Masters of Arts wore hoods lined 
 with white silk. It consisted of Masters 
 of Arts of less than five years' standing, 
 and of Doctors of less than two. If of 
 longer standing, they belonged to the 
 Black Hood House {q.v.), called the non- 
 regent or Lower House. All this was 
 abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' 
 
 Regents originally meant tutors, lecturers, and 
 professors. Members of the University having 
 fcerved their time were exempt from these duties, 
 and Masters of Arts took off the white lining of 
 their hoods to show they were non-regents. 
 
 White Hoods (The), or. 'Les 
 Chaperons Blancs.' I. 1379. The work- 
 
 men of Ghent, when they revolted against 
 the Duke of Burgundy, adopted as their 
 badge a white hood. 
 
 II. 1407-1415. All Paris, on the 
 assassination of the Due d'Orleans, was 
 divided into two factions— the Burgun- 
 dians under Jean-sans-Peur duke of 
 Burgundy, and the Armagnacs, who were 
 partisans of the Orleanists. The Bur- 
 gundians adopted for their badge a St. 
 Andrew's cross on a white hood, the 
 Armagnacs adopted a St. George's cross. 
 After a time the Cabocians were enlisted 
 by Jean-sans-Peur, and wore as their 
 badge white hoods. So violent were 
 these rowdies that they compelled the 
 doctors of the Sorbonne to wear the 
 white hood, and, having got the dauphin 
 into their power, made him also adopt 
 the same badge. See p. 848, ' French 
 Brigands.' 
 
 White Huns {The), or the 'Hia- 
 tilla.' The Huns of Sogdiana. 
 
 Called White Huns by the Greeks, ' a cause de 
 leur civilisation et de leur douceur.' — Bouillet. 
 
 Gibbon says, chap, xxvi., they were called White 
 Huns from the change of complexions. The 
 Huns of the North are the black Calmucks. 
 
 WTlite Knight (T/^e), or 'Chevalier 
 Blanc de Valaigne ' {i.e. Valachia), John 
 Corvinus Hunniades, the Hungarian 
 general (1400-1456). The Turks, who 
 employed his name to frighten their 
 perverse children, called him Jancus 
 Lain (or the Wicked). 
 
 The white knight fought with the hand rather 
 than the head.— Gibbon, Ixvii. 
 
 White Knight of Wallachia 
 
 {The). Same as the preceding. 
 
 White Laws. The Jus Honora- 
 rium, or Edicts of the Boman praetors. 
 Bed Laws or Eubrics were the •Civil 
 Law. 
 
 Alii se ad Album [i.e. jus praetorium, quia 
 PrsBtores edicta sua in albo proponebant] ac 
 Kubricas [i.e. jus civile] transtulerunt.— QUINTI. 
 LI.4X, xii. 3, 11. The Imperial Rescripts were 
 written in purple ink. 
 
 White Mantles {The). I. The 
 Servites (2 syl.), or ' Servitors of the 
 Virgin.' A religious order founded in 
 Florence in 1232. So called from their 
 white mantles. The order was suppressed 
 in France in 1274, but still subsists in 
 Italy. 
 
 II. Williamites (3 syl.), or ' Guillem- 
 ites ' (3 syl.), were also called ' White 
 Mantles ' from their large white mantles. 
 This was a religious order founded by 
 
WHITE 
 
 WHITE 
 
 945 
 
 William of Malavalle, which spread 
 through all Italy, Germany, and France. 
 
 White Monks. The Bemardines 
 or Cistercians. So called from the colour 
 of their habit. 
 
 The Dominicans wore a black habit, the Fran- 
 ciscans a grey one. 
 
 "WTiite Penitents, 1899. These 
 were men, women, girls, boys, townsfolk 
 and countryfolk, nobles and burghers, 
 laity and clergy, all with bare feet and 
 dressed in white sheets from head to 
 foot, who visited in succession the towns 
 and villages of every district of Milan. 
 Whenever they came to a cross road or 
 to a cross, they threw themselves on the 
 ground, crying ' Misericordia ' three times ; 
 then recited the Lord's Prayer and the 
 Ave Maria. On entering a town or city, 
 they walked singing the ' Stabat Mater.' 
 Corio, in his ' History of Milan,' assures 
 us that the number was between 10,000 
 and 15,000 at a time. 'However (he 
 adds), the people returned to a worse 
 course of life than ever after the excite- 
 ment was over.' 
 
 "WTiite Poet (The). Olaf, younger 
 brother of Sturla, and nephew of Snorro 
 the historian (13th cent.). 
 
 White Rent. Rent paid in silver or 
 white money instead of corn. Quit- 
 rents were so called. Anglo-Saxon, 
 Hwit-rent, white-rent. 
 
 White Rose {The). Elizabeth of 
 York ; she married Henry VII., and thus 
 united the rival houses of York and 
 Lancaster. 
 
 White Rose of England {The), 
 
 1490. So Margaret duchess of Burgundy 
 called Perkin Warbeck, appointed by her 
 to personate Richard duke of York, 
 younger son of Edward IV. 
 
 White Rose of Scotland {The). 
 Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the 
 Earl of Huntly, and grand-daughter of 
 James I. Her first husband was Perkin 
 Warbeck the pretender, her second hus- 
 band was Sir Matthew Cradock. Called 
 the ' White Rose ' because Warbeck pre- 
 tended to be the representative of the 
 House of York (the White Rose party). 
 
 White Russia. Musco^7•. The 
 king of Muscovy was called the * White 
 JCing ' from his alha tegumenta. 
 
 White Scarfs and White Hoods 
 
 {The), 1407-1415. The Armagnac and 
 Burgundian factions, after the assas- 
 sination of the Due d'Orle'ans. The 
 Orleanists or Armagnacs adopted as their 
 cognizance a St. George's cross on a 
 white scarf. The Burgundians, led by 
 Jean-sans-Peur duke of Burgundy, 
 adopted a St. Andrew's cross on a white 
 hood. 
 
 The Crusadeirs, the Armagnacs, and the Hugue- 
 nots all adopted as their badge the white scarf ; 
 but the Burgundian badge was a white hood. A 
 red scarf was the badge of Henri III. and Charles 
 IX. ; a green scarf of Mazarin, Isabella, and the 
 Gondii family. A tricolour scarf is still worn in 
 Fiance by municipal magistrates and tiie com- 
 missaires of police. 
 
 White Sheep {The), 1468-1497. 
 Certain Turkomans who on the decay of 
 Timur's dynasty fixed themselves (under 
 the leadership of Uzun Hussun) in 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Asia 
 Minor. They afterwards drove out the 
 Black Sheep and made themselves 
 masters of all Western Persia. They 
 were utterly stamped out by Ismael, a 
 native prince, who founded the Suffavean 
 or Sofi dynasty. 
 
 At the decay of the Timur dynasty the domi- 
 nions of Timur were divided into three parts: 
 Hussein Mirza, a descendant of Timur, had 
 Khorassan, and held his court at Herat ; the 
 Black Sheep acquired Azerbijan, Irak, Fars, and 
 Herman ; and the Turkomans of the White Sheep 
 held the third part. Called the White Sheep from 
 the efiSgy displayed on their standard. 
 
 White Ship {The). La Blanche 
 Nef, the ship in which Prince William, 
 son of Henry Beauclerc, embarked at 
 Barfleur, and was wrecked with 140 pas- 
 sengers and 50 sailors, by striking on 
 the Ras de Catte (now Catteville), 25 
 Nov., 1120. It is said that the king 
 fainted when he heard the news and 
 ' never smiled again.' 
 
 White Staff {The). The staff of 
 office presented by the sovereign to her 
 privy council. Thus the premier, the 
 lord chamberlain, the treasurer of the 
 household, the lord steward, &c., bear 
 white wands or staffs. 
 
 Shrewsbury refused to take the white wand 
 [of chief minister], except from her majesty's own 
 hand. It was therefore handed to her [Queen 
 Anne], and she extended it towards Shrewsbury, 
 saying, ' For God's sake, use it for the good of my 
 people.' Shrewsbury was already chamberlain, 
 and he presented the stafE of that office in resig- 
 nation of it, but the queen bade him retain 
 both.— HowiTT, Hist, of En,]l<i)i(1 (Anne, p. 322). 
 
 Lord Harley of Wigmore will have the white 
 staff given him tomorrow by the queen herself, 
 and be declared lord high treasurer.— Defok (29 
 May, 1711). 
 
 8P 
 
946 
 
 WHITE 
 
 WHITEBOYS 
 
 White Standard, that of Charles 
 Edward the Young Pretender. The 
 white cockade was the badge of his fol- 
 lowers. The Bourbons also adopted the 
 white cockade and standard. 
 
 When the white standard is again displayed, it 
 shall not be turned back so easily— Sir W. SCOTT, 
 lledgauntlei, chap. xxii. 
 
 White Strangers, or ' White Gen- 
 tiles.' Norwegians, who took possession 
 of Dublin in 838. Dublin- and north- 
 wards was the territory of the White 
 Strangers. From Dublin southwards 
 was the territory of the Black Strangers. 
 
 Dublin and settlements in Leinster constituted 
 the territory of the Fin gall or White Foreigners. 
 Called by the Four Masters Fionn-gentie (White 
 Gentiles). 
 
 White Town {The). Belgorod, the 
 third circle of Moscow. So called from 
 the white wall with which it was encom- 
 
 Moscow had four concentric circles. Beginning 
 ■with the innermost they were— (1) the Kremlin, (2) 
 Kilaigorod or the Chinese Town, (3) Belgorod or 
 the White Town, and (4) Somilangorod, which was 
 defended by ramparts. 
 
 White Water-flower {The), or 
 Pe-lien-kaou. An association at the 
 close of the 18th cent, formed in China 
 against Kea-king, the emperor. This 
 brotherhood excited in Shan-tung an in- 
 surrection, which spread over three of 
 the neighbouring provinces. The leader 
 was designated San-hwang, and main- 
 tained his ground for eight years. 
 
 Or White Water Lotus. Kea-king reigned 1796- 
 1820. 
 
 Whites and Blacks {The), I3th 
 cent. Rival factions in Italy at the close 
 of the 13th cent, and the first four years 
 of the 14th. The Blacks were the 
 noblesse, the Whites the rich hourgeois. 
 The Whites were (ruelfs, the Blacks 
 were Ghibelins. Dante in 1302 was 
 exiled for being a White. 
 
 Whites and Blues {The). 'Les 
 Blancs et Bleus' in the great French 
 Revolution mean the royalists, whose 
 flag and livery were white ; the republi- 
 can troops wore a blue uniform. 
 
 Whites, Beds, Blues, and Greens were colour 
 factions of Constantinople, being the liveries worn 
 in chariot races, and party colours as formerly in 
 our elections for members of parliament ; but the 
 Whites merged into the Blues, and the Reds into 
 the Greens. See p. 108, ' Blues and Greens.' 
 
 Whites and Reds ( The). ' Albati ' 
 and ' Russati.' The original liveries of 
 
 the Roman charioteers, in the chariot 
 races. Afterwards two more liveries, the 
 Green and the Blue, were added, and the 
 latter ultimately absorbed the original 
 colours. In Rome, the colours were a 
 Capulet and Montague standing faction, 
 which led to street brawls and not un- 
 f requently death ; and such emperors as 
 Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, Verus, Com- 
 modus, Caracalla, and Elagabalus, were 
 Greens or Blues, and made their livery 
 party questions as we do Whig and 
 Tory, Church and Dissent. The same 
 rage prevailed in Constantinople ; the 
 Greens were the partisans of Anastasius, 
 the blues of ustinian. In fact, the whole 
 empire was divided into Greens and 
 Blues. Even religion had its Orthodox 
 Blues and Heterodox Greens. 
 
 Whiteboy Acts {The), 1762. Laws 
 against the Whiteboys, many of which 
 are still in force. 
 
 Whiteboy Riots. It would be 
 difficult to tabulate all the riots of these 
 turbulent Irish since the formation of the 
 society in 17C0. Lord Drogheda was 
 charged in 1762 with the task of suppress- 
 ing the society, but he only scotched it. 
 Outrages were renewed in 1822 ; and in 
 1828 Queen's County, Carlow, and Kil- 
 kenny were scenes of disgrixcef ul ' White- 
 boy riots.' These rioters robbed and 
 murdered in every direction, much the 
 same as the Moonlighters, as agents of 
 the more secret leaders of the Land or 
 National League, Home Rule, and Plan 
 of Campaign {q.v.). See p. 455, 'Irish 
 Associations.' 
 
 Whiteboys {The). I. Protestant 
 rioters in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 See ' The Abbot,' cuap. xvi., by Sir W. 
 Scott. 
 
 II. 1760. An illegal association of Irish- 
 men, so called because, in their nightly 
 expeditions, they disguised themselves in 
 white smocks. Their object was to resist 
 the enclosure of commons, in order to 
 increase the number of cattle required 
 by the murrain which began in Germany 
 and spread to England. They existed 
 some time before 1760 under the name of 
 Levellers {q-v.), and soon after 1760 be- 
 came noted for agrarian aggressions. In 
 1762 Lord Drogheda was charged with 
 the suppression of this riotous society. 
 Outrages were renewed in 1807, and in 
 
WHITEBOYISM 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE 
 
 947 
 
 1811, 1812 spread to Tipperary, Water- 
 ford, Kilkenny, Westmeath, Roscom- 
 mon, and Queen's County. The White- 
 boys called themselves the agents of 
 Captain Right. 
 
 In 1784 and the three following years houghing, 
 tarring and feathering, and other personal moles- 
 tations prevailed to a great extent. The Protestant 
 clergy, especially in the south of Ireland, were 
 subjects of especial persecution by the Whiteboys. 
 Riotous assemblies were next organised, so that 
 in 1787 an act was passed to prevent tumultuous 
 assemblies.' 
 
 In 1822 the rioters became so violent that the 
 • Insurrection Act ' was passed, and continued in 
 force for three years. Similarly in 1807 an Insur- 
 rection Act had been passed which remained in 
 force for four years; when withdrawn, two years 
 of turbulence ensued of a very aggravated cha- 
 racter. Set' p. 4.55, ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 *,* Parnellism and crime have had a long spell 
 of late years. In 1890 it was thought ' patriotic ' 
 to insult the judges, slang the ministers, defy the 
 laws, ruin the landlords, and obstruct the police 
 in their attempts to keep order. 
 
 "Whiteboyism. The political and 
 agrarian platform of the Whiteboys of 
 Ireland. In 1762 the outrages of this 
 association were greatly repressed, but 
 they reappeared soon afterwards in the 
 south of Ireland. See ' Whiteboys.' 
 
 "Whitefeet (The). One of the dis- 
 turbing factions of Ireland in the Tithe 
 War iq-v.). They were associated with 
 the Blackfeet, Terryalts, Lady Clares, 
 Molly Maguires, and Rockites. See each 
 of these in loco, and * Irish Associations.' 
 
 Whitefeet and Blackfeet. Il- 
 legal associations formed in Ireland 
 during the sanguinary Tithe War (1830- 
 1835) (q.v.). The names were in con- 
 formity with the colour of their shoes, 
 assumed as badges of the associations. 
 
 Whitefieldites (3 syl.), 1739. 
 Followers of the Rev. George Whitefield 
 [Whit-Jield], an ordained clergyman of 
 the Anglican Church, who separated 
 from that communion and established a 
 hyper-Calvinistic system of religion iu 
 opposition to Wesley, whose tenets were 
 Arminian {q.v.). Whitefield insisted on 
 the doctrines of predestination and un- 
 conditional election. Wesley founded 
 the Wesleyan Methodist connexion. 
 
 Whitehall Preachers (T/ie), 1724. 
 Established by George I. One from the 
 University of Oxford and one from the 
 University of Cambridge. Appointed 
 for two years. Originally there were 
 twenty-four preachers, twelve resident 
 fellows of each university. The two are 
 
 now appointed by the Bishop of London, 
 as dean of the royal chapel. 
 
 White-hood House (The), in 
 
 Cambridge University, is the Regent or 
 Upper House of the Senate, composed of 
 masters of arts of less than five years' 
 standing and doctors of less than two 
 years' standing. See ' Black- hood House.' 
 Abolished 1858. 
 
 So called because the hood of a Cambridge M.A. 
 is lined with white silk. Called ' regent ' because 
 they were the tutors and professors, and as such 
 were the 'rulers' of the university. After the 
 time stated they were released from these duties, 
 and stripped off the white lining of their hoods. 
 This has been discontinued for many years. 
 
 Whit-Sunday. The Sunday which 
 commemorates the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost on the day of Pentecost on the 
 disciples, in the form of ' tongues of fire,' 
 after which they were all inspired to 
 speak in foreign tongues, as the Spirit 
 gave them utterance. Verstegan says: 
 ' We yet say hallowed for halih-wied ; 
 also we hereof retain the name of Whit- 
 son day, which more rightly should be 
 written Weid-Sonday, i.e. " Sacred Son- 
 day." So called by reason of the de- 
 scending down of the Holy Ghost . . . .' 
 (' Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,' 
 p. 18S). 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, under the article 
 * Wytte-Sonetyd,' says: 'Good men and 
 wymmen, this day is called Wyt-sonday, 
 because the Holy Ghost brought wytte 
 and wisdom into Cristis disciples, and so 
 by her preching after in all cristendom, 
 and fylled hem full of ghostly wytte.' 
 
 Another derivate is ' White-Sunday,' 
 from the white dresses anciently worn by 
 the newly baptized catechumens, to whom 
 the sacrament of the Eucharist was ad- 
 ministered on the A^gil of Pentecost. 
 Whitsuntide includes the white octave, 
 but is now in England almost restricted 
 to Whit- Sunday, Whit-Monday, and 
 Whit-Tuesday. 
 
 Whitsuntide Dancers. AtEch- 
 ternach, in Luxemburg, thousands of 
 pilgrims take an active part in a ' sacred ' 
 dance, singing at the same time litanies 
 in honour of St. Vv'illebrod. The dancers 
 take three springs forwards and one 
 backwards, or five forwards and two 
 backwards, to bands of music. The 
 space traversed is about a mile and takes 
 above an hour. 
 
 Le mardi de pentecOte une procession de sau- 
 teurs parcourt encore les rues dEchternach du 
 pont de la Sure a Icglise, et cela, dit-on, pour con- 
 jurer la danse de St. -Guy, qu'une tradition Iuu.iIq 
 
 3p2 
 
948 
 
 WHITSUN 
 
 WILLIAM 
 
 dit avoir ete tres-commune dans le pays vers le 
 huitieme siecle.' — Keclus, Nouvelle Geogiaphie 
 Universelh'. 
 
 ('St. Guy' or'Gui' is the French form ol our 
 St. Vitus.) 
 
 "Whitsun "Week. * Hebdomada 
 Pentecostes.' Beginning with Whit- 
 Sunday ; the week which commemorates 
 the descent of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 Whyte's Professorship of 
 Moral Philosophy {Dr.\ in Oxford 
 University, at lOOZ. a year. Founded by 
 Thomas Whyte, D.D., in 16'21. The 
 stipend has been raised to 400Z. a year. 
 
 Wicked Bible {The),lQm. Printed 
 in London by Kichard Barker and Martin 
 Lucas, the king's printers, in the reign of 
 Charles I. The printing was bad, the 
 paper bad, and there were two monstrous 
 errors. The seventh commandment, by 
 the omission of not, ran thus : ' Thou shalt 
 commit adultery'; and in one case 
 * greatnesse ' got converted into ' gi-eat 
 asse.' The printers were fined 500/., and 
 the edition of 1,000 copies was ordered 
 to be burnt. See p. 90, ' Bibles.' 
 
 When the case was brought into the Court of 
 High Commission, Laud said : ' The printeing is 
 Boe bad and the paper too, that, if it be not 
 mended shortlie, they wilbe put downe by those 
 of Amsterdam, and tlie trade spoyled.' See ' Raw. 
 linson MS.,' printed by the Camden Society, K.S. 89. 
 
 Wicked Street {The) of ancient 
 Kome, at the foot of the Esquiline Hill. 
 So called because here Tullia, the daugh- 
 ter of Servius Tullius, drove her chariot 
 over the murdered body of her old father, 
 who had been king of Rome forty-four 
 years. 
 
 Wic'lifites (8 syl.). Disciples of 
 Wiclif. Also called ' Lollards.' They 
 denied the dogma of transubstantiation, 
 Wiclif lived 1324-1384. 
 
 Wigs. In the middle of the 18th 
 cent, there were thirty-three different 
 sorts of wigs in use : — 
 
 The Artichoke wig. 
 Bag wig. 
 Barrister's wig. 
 Bishop's wig. 
 Brush wig. 
 Bush wig. 
 Buckle wig. 
 Chain wig. 
 Chancellor's wig. 
 Corded wolf s paw. 
 Count Saxe smode. 
 Crutch wig. 
 Cut bob wig. 
 Detached buckle 
 
 wig. 
 Drop wig. 
 Dutch wig. 
 Full wig. 
 
 The Half-natural. 
 Jansenist bob. 
 Judge's wig. 
 Ladder wig. 
 Long bob. 
 Louis' wig. 
 Periwig. 
 Pigeons wing. 
 Rhinoceros wig. 
 Rose. 
 
 Scratch wig. 
 She dragon. 
 Small black wig. 
 Spinage [.s-ic] seed 
 
 wig. 
 Staircase. 
 Welsh wig. 
 Wild boixr's back. 
 
 His periwig was large enough to have loaded a 
 camel, and he bestowed upon it at least a bushel 
 of powder.— Brown, Letters (time Charles II.). 
 
 Sing [? singe] old Rose and burn the bellows 
 (burn Hbellos). 
 
 Wigs were worn by bishops In the House of 
 Lords till 1830, when Blomfield bishop of London 
 obtained permission of William IV. for bishops to 
 discontinue their use. 
 
 The oldest wig in the world is of ancient Egyp- 
 tian manufacture. It was found in a tomb at 
 Thebes, and is now in the British Museum. 
 
 Wilburites (3 syl.). A new sect of 
 Quakers of great strictness, founded by 
 John Wilbur, who insisted most rigidly 
 on the traditions and peculiarities of the 
 society. This movement was the counter- 
 action of the Hicksite movement in 1827. 
 
 Wild Scots of Gal way {The). 
 
 The Galwegians, a mixed race, partly 
 Irish-Scots of Argyllshire, partly Picts. 
 
 Wilfrid's Needle {St.). The crypt 
 of Ripon Cathedral. The eye of this 
 ' needle ' is a hole in a wall through 
 which women suspected of unchastity 
 were required to * thread themselves,' as 
 evidence of their innocence. 
 
 There is a ' Wilfrid's Needle ' in Belvoir Castle, 
 spoken of by Bishop [Joseph] Hall. Others are 
 also referred to occasionally. 
 
 Wilkes's Riots, 1768. In No. 45 
 of the ' North Briton,' conducted by 
 Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, the king 
 was charged with telling a deliberate lie 
 in his speech from the throne. The 
 royal party was so infuriated that Wilkes 
 fled to France, but returned in 1768, and 
 was sentenced to imprisonment for 
 twenty-two months. The mob rose in 
 insurrection on behalf of their champion, 
 and resolved to conduct him in triumph 
 to Westminster. The yeomanry were 
 called out. Wilkes was expelled from 
 the house, but was re-elected by an over- 
 whelming majority. Soon afterwards he 
 was made a London alderman, lord 
 mayor, and eventually member for Middle- 
 sex, and chamberlain of London — a very 
 lucrative office. 
 
 William I. ' Wilhelm ' king of Prus- 
 sia and German emperor; born 1797, 
 died 1888. 
 
 King of Prussia, 1861-1888. 
 
 German Emperor, 1871-1888. 
 
 Father, Friedrich Wilhelm III. (second son); 
 Mother, Louisa Augusta of MecklenburgStrclitz ; 
 Wife, Louisa Augusta, daughter of Karl Friedrich 
 of Saxe-Weimar. Contemporaru with Victoria. 
 
 *^^* His son, Friedrich Wilhelm [Nicholas], born 
 183i, married Victoria princess royal of England 
 in ia58. He succeeded his father in March, but 
 died in June 1888. 
 
WILLIAM 
 
 WILLIAMITES 
 
 949 
 
 William I. the Conqueror (1025, 
 1066-1087). First of the Norman dy- 
 nasty of England, which supplied four 
 sovereigns— viz. William I., William II. 
 (his son), Henry I. (brother of William II.), 
 and Stephen (brother-in-law of the last 
 two kings). 
 
 Father, Kobert le DIable duke of Normandy 
 (William was a natural son). His moVier was Ar- 
 lete, Harlotta, or Herleva=' beloved,' and her 
 father was a tanner of Falaise, II'i/c, Matilda, 
 daughter of Baldv/in V. count of Flanders. His 
 daughter Adela married Stephen count of Blois, 
 and it was their son Stephen who usurped the 
 crown. 
 
 Style, and title : Qulielmus rex Anglorum, comes 
 Normannorum et Cenomanentium. 
 
 *,* The Cenomani were a people in what is now 
 called Mans, in France. 
 
 "William II., Rufus, or ' The Eed 
 
 King' (1056, 1087-1100), the second king 
 of England from the Conquest. He was 
 the second son of William I. {q.v.), and 
 usurped the crown of his elder brother 
 Robert. 
 
 Fatlter, William I. ; Mother, Matilda, daughter of 
 Baldwin V. count of Flanders. Never married ; 
 shot in New Forest while hunting by Sir Walter 
 Tyrell, whether by accident or design was never 
 known. Hisstyleand title: Gulielmus rex Anglorum. 
 Sometimes ' Gulielmus monarchicus Britannise.' 
 
 William III. and Mary. Fifth 
 of the Stuart dynasty of Great Britain. 
 William III. (1650, 1689-1702). Mary 
 (1662, 1689-1694). No issue. 
 
 Father of William, William II. of 
 Orange ; Mothe7; Mary, eldest daughter 
 of Charles I. ; Wife (see below), 
 
 Father of Mary, James II. of Great 
 Britain ; Mother, Mary d'Este of Modena; 
 Husband (see above). 
 
 Style and Title: William and Mary, 
 D. G. of England, Scotland, France, and 
 Ireland, King and Queen ; Defenders of 
 the Faith, &c. Aftei* the death of Mary 
 in 1694 the needful alterations were of 
 course made. 
 
 The horse on which William III. was riding 
 when he received his fatal accident was named 
 
 Sorrel.' Pope says:— 
 
 Angels who watched the guardian oak lio well, 
 
 How chanced ye slept when luckless Sorrel fell ? 
 
 *,* The principality of Orange consisted of a 
 part of the present department of Vauclnse ; and 
 the House was founded in the 9th cent, In 1530 
 Nassau was added by the marriage of Otto of Nas- 
 sau with Claude de Chalon of Orange. In 1599 
 William of Orange and Nassau was elected 
 stadtholder of Holland. After the death of Wil, 
 liam III. of England the line of Orange and Nassau 
 became extinct, whereupon Louis .\IV. claimed 
 the principality of Orange and added it to France. 
 
 William IV. (1765, 1830-1837). 
 Third son of George III., and brother of 
 George IV., the preceding king. His 
 brother, Frederick duke of York, the 
 second son of George III., died in 1827. 
 
 William was duke of Clarence. Being 
 brought up in the navy service, he became 
 Lord Admiral of England, and was called 
 ' The Sailor King.' By Mrs. Jordan he 
 had eight children : George Fitzclarence, 
 Frederick Fitzclarence, Augustus, and 
 the five daughters Sophia, Mary, Eliza- 
 beth, Augusta, and Amelia. 
 
 Father, George III, ; Mother, Charlotte Sophia of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; U'ife, Adelaide, daughter 
 of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; two children, 
 both died in infancy. Next lieir to the crou:n,yic- 
 toria, daughter of his brother Edward duke of 
 Kent. Style and title, William IV., D.G. of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, King, Defender of the 
 Faith, &c, 
 
 William the Bad (*, 1154-1166). 
 
 William I. of Sicily. 
 
 William the Conqueror. Wil- 
 liam I. {q.v,). So called because he con- 
 quered Harold in the battle of Senlac, 
 and thus became king of England. 
 
 He had four sons and six daughters. His sons 
 were Robert (twice supplanted by his younger 
 brothers) ; William II. (Kufus), who succeeded his 
 father ; Richard, who was killed by an accident ; 
 and Henry I,, who succeeded his brother Wil- 
 liam II. 
 
 His daughters were Cecilia, Constance, Adela 
 who married Stephen count of Blois (whose son 
 Stephen succeeded Henry I.), Adeliza, Agatha, 
 and Gundred. 
 
 William the Conqueror's 
 
 Comet, 1066. This comet was visible 
 in China from 2 April for 67 days ; it was 
 visible in Europe from May for 40 days. 
 Never comet excited such attention. In 
 the famous tapestry of Queen Matilda 
 several figures are represented gazing at 
 this comet, and the inscription below is 
 
 * Isti mirantur stellam.' 
 
 William the Good (1154, 1166- 
 
 1189). William II. king of Sicily, son of 
 William the Bad. 
 
 William the Lion of Scotland 
 (1166-1214). So called because he was 
 the first who introduced a lion in the 
 armorial bearings of Scotland. The chief 
 of the Scottish heralds is called Lyon 
 king of arms. 
 
 William the Silent (1533, 1544- 
 
 1584), prince of Orange. Assassinated 
 by Balthasar Gerard at Delft. 
 
 Williamites (3 syh), in French 
 
 * Guiliemites ' (3 syl.), in Italy ' Guglielm- 
 otes,' 1153. A religious institution founded 
 by St. William of Malavalle, which 
 rapidly spread through all Italy, Ger- 
 many, and France. They were called 
 White Mantles because they wore large 
 white mantles. 
 
950 
 
 WILLIAMS 
 
 WINDSOE 
 
 Williams Prize {The George). 
 Theology. Given to the best student in 
 the theological tripos. Value about 9Z. 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge 
 by friends of the Rev. George Williams, 
 formerly fellow of King's College, 1882. 
 
 Will's Coffee House. In the 
 
 reign of Charles II. near Covent Garden, 
 at the western corner of Bow Street. It 
 was the great emporium of libels and 
 scandals, but was one of the best in 
 London, and had acquired the sobriquet 
 of 'the Wits' Coffee-house.' Here the 
 frequenters heard the talk of the town 
 about the poets, authors, and other cele- 
 brities, and here was the ' Observator,' 
 and all the Tory and Whig journals of 
 the day; and here would be found 
 Matthew Prior, John Dryden, Betterton 
 the tragedian, and other celebrities. 
 
 Wills and Uses {The two Statutes 
 of), 1634. Passed by the Irish parlia- 
 ment, giving to the crown of England a 
 share and interest in the education of the 
 heirs-apparent of the great families of 
 Ireland. Of course, the object was to 
 bring them up Protestants, like the son 
 of the Earl of Ormond, formerly the 
 king's ward. 
 
 Winchester. Henry III, of Eng- 
 land was surnamed Winchester from the 
 place in which he was born (1206, 1216- 
 1272). 
 
 'Win.oh.eBtQT {The Statute of), 1285. 
 A renewal of the ' Assize of Arms ' {q.v.), 
 i.e. basing the preservation of public 
 order on the strict enforcement of the 
 local system of frank-pledge. By this 
 statute every man was bound to hold 
 himself in readiness for the king's ser- 
 vice, every man was to join in the hue 
 and cry after felons, every district was 
 held responsible for all crimes committed 
 within its bounds, the gates of every town 
 were required to be closed at nightfall, 
 every stranger was required to give an 
 account of himself to a magistrate, and all 
 brushwood and cover for thieves was to 
 be destroyed for 200 feet on each side of 
 a high road. 
 
 Winchester Book {The). The 
 register of King Alfred's survey of 
 England drawn up by his council at 
 Winchester. 
 
 Winchester College [Seinte Marie 
 College of Wynchestre], 1387. Founded 
 
 by William of Wykeham, bishop of Win- 
 chester. 
 
 The famous dulce cUimwin is still sung in the 
 courts of the college before the breaking up of the 
 school for long vacation. It is very funny that 
 the solecism should have so caught the fancy. 
 
 Winchester Reading Prizes 
 
 {The). For reading classical English 
 poetry and prose, the scriptures and 
 liturgy. Two prizes of the value of 40^., 
 two-thirds to be given to the best reader, 
 and one-third to the second best. 
 Founded in the University of Cambridge 
 by an anonymous donor in 1886. 
 
 Wind, Protestant and Popish. 
 
 See p. 718, ' Protestant.' 
 
 Windsor Prophecy {The), 1712. 
 A scurrilous set of verses by Swift, after- 
 wards dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin. In this 
 ' prophecy ' Elizabeth duchess of Somerset 
 is called ' Carrots ' for her red hair, and is 
 accused of assassinating Thomas Thynne 
 of Longleat,her second husband. She was 
 daughter and heiress of Joceline duke of 
 Northumberland, and married Lord Ogle, 
 son of the Duke of Newcastle, when only 
 11 years old. She was a widow at 13, 
 and married Thomas Thynne, who was 
 shot by Count Kbnigsmark, a German 
 adventurer. Being thus a widow again 
 at the age of 14, she took for her third 
 husband the Duke of Somerset, who died 
 1748. 
 
 But England, dear England, if I understand, 
 Beware of Carrots from Northumberland {daughter 
 
 oj . . .) 
 Carrots, however Thynne, a deep root may get 
 
 (second husband),^ 
 If so be they are in Summer-set (.third husband). 
 Their Cunning s-mark thou, for I have been told 
 
 (shot Thynne) 
 They asscissinc when young and poison when old. 
 Boot out those Carrots, thou whose name 
 Spelt backwards and forwards is always the same 
 
 (Anna or Queen Anne), 
 And keep close to thee always that name 
 Which backwards and forwards is almost the same 
 
 (Mrs. Mosham). 
 And England, wouldst thou be happy still, 
 Bury those Carrots under a Hill. 
 
 (Mrs. Masham s maiden name was Abigail Hill). 
 
 When Sw^ift s name was given to the queen for 
 the vacant see of Hereford the Duchess of Somer- 
 set set her face against the appointment, and Swift 
 lost his bishopric. The ostensible plea against 
 him was his ' Tale of a Tub.' 
 
 Windsor Soap. ' Soapy Sam,' 
 Bishop of Oxford. Called ' Soap ' from 
 an inscription on the porch of Cuddesdon 
 College. S. Oxon was the founder and 
 Alfred Potts the first principal. The 
 bishop himself observed the curious com- 
 bination of letters S.O., A.P. ' Windsor ' 
 was added because Samuel Wilberforce 
 
WINDY 
 
 WINTERS 
 
 951 
 
 was a great favourite with the court at 
 Windsor (1805-1873). 
 
 Samuel Wilberforce was transferred to Win- 
 chester. 
 
 "Windy Cap. Eric king of Sweden, 
 second to none, says Olaus Magnus, in 
 magical arts, was so familiar with evil 
 spirits that what way soever he turned 
 his cap the wind would presently blow 
 that way. Historia de Gentibus Septen- 
 trionalibus, Romae, 1555. 
 
 Wines of Africa and Asia. 
 
 JBithynian wine from the Mer sites 
 grape was of a very choice quality. The 
 wines of Byblos, in Phoenicia, vied in 
 fragrancy with Lesbian wine. The white 
 wines of Mareotis and Tcenia, in Lower 
 Egypt, were of unrivalled excellence ; 
 the former was sometimes called Alex- 
 andi-ian. The wine of Meroe resembled 
 Falernian (Lucan, 'Pharsalia,' x. 161). 
 Tceniotic wine was greenish, luscious, 
 and aromatic. The wine of Antylla, in 
 the vicinity of Alexandria, and the 
 Sebennytic wines were also commended. 
 On the mountain of Tmolus, in Lydia, 
 was produced a brown wine, described 
 as first rate by Virgil and Galen. The 
 Scybellites of Galatia was thick and 
 sweet. The Ahates of Cilicia was a 
 sweet red wine. Tlie Tibenum, the 
 Arsynium, and the Titucazeiiuni were 
 of lighter growth, the first two being 
 dry red wines, and the last a sweet wine 
 of paler colour. 
 
 Wines of Ancient Greece. 
 
 The earliest wine was the Maronean, a 
 sweet black wine, so called from the 
 district where it was made, which was on 
 the coast of Thrace. Usually mixed 
 with twenty parts of water; in Pliny's 
 time with only eight parts of water; 
 Sciathos, another black wine of lighter 
 quality, being drunk half and half. 
 Pramnian, a dry red wine, made from 
 grapes grown on the Pramnian hill, in 
 the island of Icaros. Corinthian wine, 
 so astringent that Alexis declares it was 
 real tortui-e to drink it ('Athen.' i. 24). 
 The luscious sweet wines were Lesbian, 
 Chian, Thasian, Corcyrian, Cyprian, 
 Cretan, Cnidian, and li/todian, all 
 white wines. The Saprian (qy. Chian) 
 wine was famous for its aroma; the 
 Lesbian had less ai'oma, but was very 
 delicious. Pliny places the Clazomenian 
 wine of Ionia in the first rank. Virgil 
 
 calls the Phanean the king of wines. 
 Of light wines we have the Mendean 
 (from Mende, in Thrace), a white wine ; 
 the Argitis (* Georgics,' ii. 99), and 
 Omphacites. 
 
 Winter King (The). Frederick V. 
 (who married Elizabeth, daughter of 
 James I. of England), who was crowned 
 at Pragfue king of Bohemia, 25 Oct., 
 1619, and was driven from the throne by 
 the Catholics, 8 Nov., 1620. He was 
 king for one winter and no more. 
 
 Frederick, elector palatine, was made king of 
 Bohemia in opposition to Kaiser Ferdinand II. 
 
 Winter Queen (The). Elizabeth, 
 daughter of James I. of Great Britain, 
 and wife of Frederick V. the 'Winter 
 King.' 
 
 Winters (Cold). 1709, the severest 
 winter on record. The following were 
 cold winters : 
 
 1067. Thousands of travellers in Germany were 
 
 frozen to death. 
 1133. Wine casks in France and Spain were frozen, 
 
 and many trees in Italy were split by the 
 
 frost. 
 1179. The snow up to Easter was eight feet deep in 
 
 Austria. 
 1233. The Po was frozen over. 
 1236. The Danube was frozen to the very bottom. 
 
 The Cattegat between Norway and Jutland 
 
 was also frozen. 
 1281. Many houses in Austria were actually buried 
 
 in snow. 
 1292. Travellers passed on the ice from Norway to 
 
 Jutland. The Rhine was frozen over. 
 1314. All the rivers of Italy were frozen. 
 1323. Travellers passed on the ice from Dantzic to 
 
 Denmark. 
 1364. The sea at Venice was frozen. 
 1408. Travellers passed on the ice from Norway to 
 
 Denmark. 
 1434. It snowed forty days and forty nights in 
 
 Germany without intermission. 
 1468. Wine in casks and bottles throughout all 
 
 Europe was frozen. 
 1580. The Great and Little Belt were frozen over. 
 1('.22. The Hellespont was frozen over. 
 1658. Charles X. led his whole army over the ice 
 
 from Holstein to Denmark. 
 1692. The Zuydfir-Zee was entirely frozen over. 
 1684. Coaches plied on the Thames. 
 1709-10 was infinitely colder than any of the pre- 
 ceding. The frost penetrated three yards (!) 
 
 into the ground. The olive plantations in 
 
 France ^\e^e utterly destroyed. Birds died 
 
 by thousands, and trees with vegetables 
 
 were killed in all directions. The Adriatic 
 
 was frozen over, so was the coast of the 
 
 Mediterranean about Genoa. 
 1729 was a continued frost from October to May 
 
 1730. 
 1740 was the coldest winter known except that 
 
 of 1709. 
 1744 was a severe winter. 
 1776. Wine was frozen in the cellars in France and 
 
 Holland. And in England the destruction 
 
 of birds and fishes was frightful. 
 1794 was a continuous frost from 24 Dec. to 14 
 
 Feb., 1795. 
 1796. Dec. 25 was the coldest day ever known in 
 
 London. Fahr. thermom. was 16° below 
 
 zero(!). 
 1814. A fair was; held on the Thames. 
 
952 
 
 WINTON 
 
 WIVES 
 
 1848. On one occasion the mercury in the thermo- 
 meter was frozen. 
 
 1860 was one of the severest winters ever known In 
 Britain. On Christmas Day the thermo- 
 meter on the grass stood 13° below zero Fah- 
 renheit. The three coldest days were 24, 
 25, 20 Dec. 
 *,* Remember 32° is freezing, so that— 16"=46° of 
 
 frost. Apparently a correct observation. 
 
 Winton Domesday (The). Con- 
 taining two surveys of the city of Win- 
 chester: one made between 1107 and 
 1128, and the other made in 1148. 
 Published by Sir Henry Ellis in the 
 second of the supplementary volumes of 
 Domesday Book, 1816. 
 
 Wire Age {The). The Golden Age, 
 the Silver Age, the Age Of Bronze, and 
 the Iron Age have had their day, and we 
 now live in the Wire Age. Every street 
 and almost every road is crowded with 
 telegraph wires, which are stretched 
 over our houses and sunk under our 
 seas. Our books are stitched with wire, 
 our clocks set by wire, our watches run 
 by wire, our politics are managed by 
 wire ; we announce our wants, our news, 
 our going and coming by wire ; use wire 
 covers for our meat, wire sieves, and 
 wire pulls for our gongs; we sleep on 
 wire mattresses, and indeed in every 
 department of life wire is our slave (1890). 
 
 "Wisconsin (U.S. America). So 
 called in 1836 from its river of the same 
 name. The inhabitants are nicknamed 
 Badgeis. 
 
 "Wisest Fool in Christendom 
 
 {The). James I. of England was so 
 called by Sully, the French politician 
 (1566, 1603-1625). 
 
 Witch of Eye {The). Marjory 
 Jourdemain, with whom Dame Eleanor 
 Cobham, the mistress and afterwards 
 wife of the ' Good duke Humphrey [Duke 
 of Gloucester], protector of the realm in 
 the minority of his nephew Henry VI., 
 Dame Eleanor was accused of sorcery 
 with intent to bewitch the king and raise 
 her husband to the throne.' Marjory 
 was burnt as a witch at Smithfield, 1441. 
 
 Witchcraft. So late as 1805 a 
 woman was tried at Kirkcudbright for 
 witchcraft, and actually sentenced to a 
 year's imprisonment, and to be set once 
 a quarter in the pillory. Elspeth Rule 
 in 1709 was tried in Dumfries in the 
 Court of Justiciary, and condemned for 
 witchcraft to have her cheek branded 
 with a hot iron. Documents referring 
 
 to Elspeth M'Ewen, who was burnt to 
 death in a tar-barrel for witchcraft in 
 1697 at Kirkcudbright, have recently 
 been unearthed, in which is this item : 
 ' Payed to Robert Creighton ... 8 shill 
 Scots for beating the drum at Elspet 
 M'Queen's funeral, and to James Carsson 
 his wife threeten shillings drunken by 
 Elspet's executioner at seall times.' 
 
 That is, James Carsson's wife. 
 
 Witches' Hammer {The), 15th 
 cent. An infamous document drawn up 
 by John Gremper, an ecclesiastic, laying 
 down with great minuteness the charac- 
 teristics of witches and wizards, the 
 skin-marks to be sought for, the familiar 
 which clung to them in the shape of cat, 
 dog, goat, or other pet animal, and the 
 questions to be asked in order to convict 
 them out of their own mouths. 
 
 Pope Innocent VIII. led the way to this witch 
 persecution by his bull of 1484, which charged the 
 inquisitors and all true Catholics diligently to 
 search out and put to death all who practised the 
 diabolical arts of witchcraft, magic, sorcery, and 
 enchantment. 
 
 Wit'ena-gemo'te {The). The mote 
 or council of wise men. In Saxon times 
 each kingdom, before 827, had its sepa- 
 rate gemote, but after that date there 
 was one general assembly composed of 
 ecclesiastics, aldermen, and large land- 
 holders, held every Christmas, Easter, 
 and Whitsuntide. In the year 984 the 
 gemote (2 syl.) was attended by King 
 Athelstan, 4 Welsh princes, 2 archbishops, 
 17 bishops, 4 abbots, 12 dukes, and 52 
 thanes. The Witena-gemote ordained 
 the king's succession, made laws and 
 treaties, levied taxes, regulated military 
 and church affairs, and was a supreme 
 court of justice. See ' Shire-mote.' 
 
 Witena is the gen. plural of the Anglo-Saxon 
 wita, a wise man (verb uitan, 'to know '—our 
 ' wit '), and gemote is an assembly, from the verb 
 metan, ' to meet together.' The king presided in 
 hig robes of state. 
 
 Witling of Terror {The). Ber- 
 trand Barere de Vieuzac, president of 
 the National Convention in 1792. So 
 called from the flowery language in 
 which he spoke on all measures of the 
 reign of terror. Also called the ' Ana- 
 creon of the Guillotine.' 
 
 Wives of the English Kings. 
 
 I. Before the Conquest : — 
 
 Lady Redburga. 
 
 Egbert 
 Ethelwolf 
 
 Lady Osburga, whose fathei 
 was the Great Butler of 
 England (mother of Alfred 
 the Great). 
 
WIVES 
 
 WOMAN-PLOGGER 
 
 953 
 
 I 
 
 Alfred 
 
 Edward the Elder 
 
 Edmund 
 
 Edgar 
 
 Ethelred 
 
 Edmund Ironside 
 
 Edward the Con- 
 fessor 
 
 1. Judith daughter of Charles 
 
 the Bald of France. 
 
 2. Ethelswitha or Answinta 
 
 daughter of the Earl of 
 Mercia. 
 
 1. Lady Eguina. 
 
 2. Elfleda. 
 
 3. Edgiva mother of Ed- 
 
 mund. 
 Lady Elgiva. 
 
 1. Ethelfled. 
 
 2. Elfrida daughter of Ord- 
 
 garus duke of Devon- 
 shire. 
 
 1. Elgiva daughter of Duke 
 
 Thored. 
 
 2. Emma daughter of Rich- 
 
 ard II. duke of Normandy. 
 Algitha widow of Segeforth, 
 
 a Dane. 
 Edgitha daughter of Earl 
 
 Godwins. 
 
 II. Since the Conquest : — 
 
 WiUiam I. the Con- 
 queror 
 Henry I 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Henry II 
 
 Bichard Cceur de 
 Lion 
 
 Henry III. ... 
 Edward I. ... 
 Edward II. ... 
 Edward III. 
 
 Richard II. .. 
 
 Henry IV. .. 
 
 Henry V. ., 
 Henry VI. .. 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Richard III. 
 Henry VII... 
 
 Henry VUI. 
 
 James I. 
 Charles I. 
 
 ..A 
 
 Matilda daughter of Baldwin 
 
 V. count of Flanders. 
 Matilda or Maud daughter of 
 
 Malcolm III. of Scotland. 
 Matilda daughter of Eustace 
 
 count of Boulogne. 
 Eleanor of Guienne, divorced 
 
 wife of Louis VII. of France. 
 Berengaria daughter of 
 
 Sancho VI. of Navarre. 
 
 1. A daughter of the Earl of 
 
 Mortagne. 
 
 2. Avisa daughter of William 
 
 earl of Gloucester, 
 mother of Henry III. 
 
 3. Isabella of France. 
 Eleanor daughter of Ray- 
 
 monet earl of Provence. 
 Eleanor sister of Alfonso XI. 
 
 king of Castile. 
 Isabella daughter of Philippe 
 
 IV. of France. 
 Philippa of Hainault. 
 
 1. Anne daughter of Kaiser 
 
 Karl IV. of Germany. 
 
 2. Isabella, aged seven, 
 
 daughter of Charles VI. 
 of France. 
 
 1. Mary le Bohun daughter 
 
 of the Earl of Hereford. 
 
 2. Jane daughter of Charles 
 
 the Bald of Navarre and 
 
 widow of John duke of 
 
 Brittany. 
 
 Catherine daughter 
 
 Charles VI. of France. 
 
 Margaret daughter of 
 
 Duke of Anjou. 
 Elizabeth daughter of 
 Richard Woodville of Graf- 
 ton, Northamptonshire. 
 Anne Neville widow of Ed- 
 ward prince of Wales. 
 Princess Elizabeth daughter 
 of Edward IV. 
 
 1. Catharine of Aragon 
 
 mother of Mary, who 
 married Philip [II.] of 
 Bpain. 
 
 2. Anne Boleyn mother of 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 8. Jane Seymour mother of 
 Edward VI. 
 
 4. .\nne of Cleves. 
 
 5. Catharine Howard. 
 
 6. Catharine Parr. 
 Ann of Denmark. 
 Henrietta daughter of Henri 
 
 IV. of France, 
 
 of 
 the 
 
 Sir 
 
 Charles II.* The Infanta Katharine of 
 
 Portugal. 
 ' 1. Ann Hyde daughter of 
 the Earl of Clarendon, 
 mother of Mary and 
 Anne. 
 .2. Mary d'Este of Modena. 
 William III. ... Mary daughter of James II. 
 
 and Anne Hyde. 
 (Anne married Prince George of Denmark.) 
 
 George I Sophia daughter of George 
 
 William duke of Brunswick 
 and Zell. 
 
 George II Wilhelmina daughter of John 
 
 Frederick margrave of 
 Anspach. 
 
 George III Charlotte of Mecklenburgh- 
 
 Strelitz. 
 George IV Caroline princess of Bruns- 
 wick. 
 William IV, ... Adelaide daughter of the 
 Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. 
 (Victoria married .A.lbort second son of Ernest 
 duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.) 
 * Cromwell married Elizabeth daughter of Sir 
 James Bouchier of Essex. 
 
 Wizard of the Sea {The). Capt. 
 Kidd, 17th cent. Executed for piracy 
 12 May, 1701. 
 
 "Wolf of America {The). Mont- 
 gomery, who led the attack on Quebec in 
 1775. The English Wolfe took Quebec, 
 and fell in the hovir of victory; Mont- 
 gomery tried to take it, but failed, being 
 killed in the hour of defeat. 
 
 Wolf of Badenoch {The). Sir 
 Alexander Stewart, fourth son of Robert 
 II. by his first wife Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Sir William Mure of Rowallan, who 
 was related to him within the prohibited 
 degrees and was divorced. Sir Alexander, 
 who was earl of Buchan, was fierce and 
 savage as a wolf. 
 
 Some say he was grandson of Robert II., and 
 third son of Robert duke of Albany. 
 
 Wolf of Plinlimmon {The). 
 Gwenwyn prince of Powys Land during 
 the reign of Henry II. 
 
 Wolsey of Hungary {The). The 
 Cardinal Martinuzzi (16th cent.). 
 
 Wolsey's Foundation at Ox- 
 ford, 1524. Called ' Cardinal College.' 
 In 1546 the name was changed to 
 ' Christ Church College.' 
 
 Woman-flogger {The). Julius 
 Jakob baron von Haynau (1786-1853). 
 An Austrian general who signalized him- 
 self during the Italian campaigns of 
 1848-1849 by ruthless cruelty. His 
 flogging of women refers to his treatment 
 of the defeated Hungarians, and his 
 infamy excited the detestation of all 
 Europe. In 1850 he came to England 
 and visited the brewery of Barclay & 
 
954 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 WONDERFUL 
 
 Perkins in London, when he was as- 
 saulted by the draymen and narrowly 
 escaped with his life. He afterwards 
 visited Belgium and France, and was 
 received with strong demonstrations of 
 popular hatred. 
 
 "Woineil {The Four Perfect). Miriam 
 sister of Moses, Mary mother of Jesus, 
 Cadi j ah the first wife of Mahomet, and 
 Fatima his daughter. 
 
 "Women's Rights. A political 
 movement first started in 1851 by the 
 ' Westminster Review.' It includes the 
 right of suffrage, for which a petition 
 was presented to parliament in 1866. 
 Their industrial rights include admission 
 to the Universities and the right of en- 
 gaging in the higher professions. The 
 third claim is the right of married women 
 to hold and bequeath property. 
 
 In 1869 the municipal franchise was conferred 
 on women. Several colleges for women have 
 been opened in Cambridge and Oxford ; and the 
 Women's Property Act enables them both to hold 
 and bequeath property. 
 
 "Wonderful Boy of Devizes 
 
 (The). Sir Thomas Lawrence, born at 
 Bristol, the great painter of portraits. 
 Died 1830 at the age of sixty. 
 
 "Wonderful Boys. 
 
 Babatieb [Johann Philip), 1721-1740. 
 German. At the age of five he knew 
 Greek, Latin, and French, besides his 
 native German. At nine he knew Hebrew 
 and Chaldee, and could translate Ger- 
 man into Latin. At thirteen he could 
 translate Hebrew into French, or vice 
 versa. His life was written by Formey, 
 and an account of him is inserted in 
 most biographical dictionaries. 
 
 Bassle {Crustave Adolph). In the 
 first half of the 19th cent, exhibited his 
 wonderful powers at Willis's Rooms 
 under the patronage of the Duke of 
 Sussex. About 20,000 questions had 
 been prepared by the duke's authority, 
 and were circulated amongst the audi- 
 ence. These questions were in sacred 
 and profane history, chronology, physical 
 science, mythology, statistics, arithmetic, 
 geography, cosmography, and natural 
 history. Any one of the audience might 
 put any question to the boy, or as many 
 as he pleased, in any order, and the boy 
 instantly answered without a mistake. 
 Several members of the British Associa- 
 tion were present, and took part in the 
 function. 
 
 It was said that much of this was due to the 
 science of ' sunemonics,' a predecessor of 'mne- 
 monics.' 
 
 Betty {Williajn Henry West). Made 
 his debut in London as an actor in 1803, 
 being about twelve years of age. In 
 fifty-six nights he realised 34,000Z., and 
 with wonderful sagacity retired into pri- 
 vate life. He died in 1874 at the age of 84. 
 
 The greatest mark of genius was his retirement 
 in the full tide of his popularity. 
 
 BiDDEB {George Parker). At the age 
 of six amused himself by counting up to 
 a million. He became an engineer, and 
 baffled the parliamentary counsel on 
 contested railway bills by confuting their 
 statements of figures before the words 
 were out of their mouths. In 1856 he 
 showed to the members of the Institution 
 of Civil Engineers that these calculations 
 were not made by dodges, but seriatim, 
 only with inconceivable rapidity (b. 1800). 
 
 Buxton {Jedediah), son of a school- 
 master. On hearing a sermon he would 
 tell at once how many words the preacher 
 had spoken. If a period of time was 
 mentioned, he would instantly calculate 
 how many seconds had elapsed since 
 then to the time. He was taken to see 
 Garrick in ' Richard III.,' but his sole 
 amusement was to count the number of 
 words he uttered. He once set himself 
 to reckon how much a farthing would 
 amount to if doubled 140 times ; the 
 answer contained thirty-nine figures re- 
 presenting pounds. In 1750 he reckoned 
 how many grains of eight different kinds 
 of corn and pulse would cover 200,000 
 miles, and how many hairs would make 
 an inch. What is strange is this — he 
 could suspend a calculation at any mo- 
 ment, and take it up again hours or days 
 afterwards. (1704-1775.) 
 
 Candiac {Jean Louis Elizabeth de 
 MontcalTn de), we are told, knew his 
 letters when an infant inarms. At three 
 years he could read fluently both Latin 
 and French either in print or MS. At 
 four he could translate Latin. At five he 
 could translate the most difficult Latin 
 authors. At six he could read Greek 
 and Hebrew, was good at arithmetic, 
 history, heraldry, geography, and the 
 science of medals. At seven years of 
 age he had read the chief poets, orators, 
 historians, philosophers, grammarians, 
 &c. But he died before he had com- 
 pleted his seventh year. (1719-1726.) 
 
 Dictionnaire d' Education, 1819, and most biogra- 
 phical dictionaries, under the word ' Montcalm.' 
 
WONDERFUL 
 
 WOOD 
 
 956 
 
 His elder brother Louis Joseph marquis de Mont- 
 calm (born 171"2) commanded the French army in 
 Canada and defeated Abercromby ; but was mor- 
 tally wounded in 1769 under the walls of Quebec. 
 
 CoLBUKN [Zerah). A native of Vermont, 
 in the United States ; came to London 
 in 1812, being eight years old, and an- 
 swered most comphcated problems, such 
 as raising 8 to the sixteenth power; 
 giving the square root of 106,929, the 
 cube root of 268,336,125 ; and how many 
 seconds in fifty years. He never re- 
 quired above a second or two for his 
 answer, but knew nothing of arithmetic. 
 Zerah had more than the usual number 
 of fingers and toes, so had his father 
 and brothers. Later, his mathematical 
 powers disappeared to a great extent. 
 (1804-1840.) 
 
 'H.^ia^c'KEsT^ [Christian Heinrich). At 
 one year old knew the chief events of the 
 Pentateuch ! At thirteen months he 
 knew the history of the Old Testament ! 
 At fourteen months he knew the history 
 of the New Testament! At two-and-a- 
 half years of age he could answer any 
 ordinary question of history or geogi-ajihy. 
 And at three years old he knew French 
 and Latin, as well as his native German, 
 The life of this boy v/as written by 
 Schoeneich, his tutor, and his name, like 
 that of Baratier, is inserted in most bio- 
 graphical dictionaries. (1721-1725.) 
 
 Mangiamete {Nito). A Sicilian, son of 
 a shepherd. At eleven years old (July, 
 1839) he was examined by Arago, Lacroix, 
 Libri, Sturm, and others, sent for the 
 purpose by the Academy of Science in 
 Paris. He was asked to give the cube 
 root of 3,796,416, which he answered in 
 one minute ; he gave the 10th root of 
 282,475,249 in three minutes. He was 
 then asked by M. Arago, ' What number 
 has the following proportions : if the 
 cube is added to five times its square, 
 and then 42 times the number, and the 
 number 42 be subtracted from the result, 
 the remainder will be ? ' Before M. 
 Arago had finished his question the boy 
 answered 5. 
 
 Viscount {Ennius), we are told, could 
 ' read Greek and Latin, as well as his 
 own language [Italian], before he was 
 four years old. He was exhibited as a 
 prodigy between the age of four and five, 
 and submitted to a public examination. 
 Viscount died in 1818, aged sixty- seven. 
 
 "Wonderful Castle [The). The 
 palace built of stone at Tuam by Roderic 
 
 O'Connor (1161). Castles were till the 
 12th cent, built of wood in Ireland. 
 
 Probably there were stone or brick structures 
 in Ireland before the 12th century, as. for example, 
 the Round Towers, but they were so rare that the 
 palace of Tuam was called ' Wonderful.' 
 
 "Wonderful Doctor {The). 
 ' Doctor Mirabilis,' Roger Bacon (1214- 
 1292). A Franciscan monk, bom at 
 Ilchester, in Somersetshire. His chief 
 work is called ' Opus Majus.' He looked 
 with contempt on ' Scholastic Theology.' 
 
 Wonderful Parliament {The), 
 
 or ' Wonder-making Parliament,' 3 Feb., 
 1388. Convened by Thomas [Plan- 
 tagenet] duke of Gloucester in the reigu 
 of his nephew Richard II. The chan- 
 cellor, De la Pole, having been impeached 
 in 1386 by the commons, the duke pro- 
 ceeded to establish a permanent council 
 of fourteen, consisting of his own par- 
 tisans, to inquire into everything in the 
 king's household, the ministry, the law 
 courts, and the condition of the people. 
 Gloucester was at the head, and the 
 king, now nearly twenty-one years of 
 age, was virtually deposed. All sove- 
 reign prerogatives for five months lay 
 with the council. The king protested, 
 the judges declared the proceedings un- 
 constitutional axid the parliament guilty 
 of treason. The king impeached the 
 chief members, but Gloucester, at the 
 head of 40,000 men, compelled the king 
 to give way, and resolved to depose 
 him. Several of the king's friends were 
 arrested, and some were put to death. 
 Strangest of all, it declared that its judg- 
 ments should never be reversed, nor its 
 acts repealed. It was dissolved 3 June^ 
 1388. See p. 664, ' Parliament.' 
 
 Wood of the Cross {The). There 
 is an ingenious legend that when Adam 
 was buried at Hebron three trees 
 sprang from his dead body. David trans- 
 planted these trees to Jerusalem, where 
 they amalgamated into one. Solomon 
 felled the tree, intending to use it for 
 the principal of the Temple, but being 
 too short it was laid on one side. The 
 Jews used this very tree for the Cross, 
 and after the crucifixion it was buried 
 for more than 200 years, when it was 
 discovered in a cave during the visit of 
 Helena, the emperor's mother, to Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 This can hardly be called a legend ; it Is a mera 
 allegory, to connect the first with the seconU 
 
956 
 
 WOOD 
 
 WORMS 
 
 Adam; the trinity with unity; and the short 
 coming of the law with the everlasting gospel. 
 
 Wood Silver. A payment of money 
 instead of wood for the manor fires by 
 a tenant farmer (14tli cent.). 
 
 Wood's Halfpence, 1724. Half- 
 pence coined for Ireland by William 
 Wood, an iron and copper founder of 
 Wolverhamptom. There had long been 
 a deficiency of copper coin in Ireland, 
 and the government contracted with Mr. 
 Wood to supply 108,000 pounds' worth of 
 halfpence and farthings, of stated weight 
 and fineness. Sir Isaac Newton, master 
 of the mint, was fully satisfied with the 
 way the contract had been carried out, 
 and said that, although the weight of the 
 Irish coin was a trifle less than that of 
 the English copper money, yet Wood had 
 fully compensated for this difference by 
 superior fineness. Dean Swift, for poli- 
 tical purposes, ran down the new coin 
 both in prose and verse. One of his 
 verses runs thus — 
 
 The halfpence are coming, the nation's undoing, 
 There's an end of your ploughing, and baking, 
 
 and brewing. 
 In that you must all go to rack and to ruin. 
 
 See ' Drapier s Letters." 
 
 Woodland Party (The). The 
 Bianchi faction (q.v.), so called from the 
 Cerchi, who lived in woodland ( = rural) 
 districts when Dante in exile was thrown 
 amongst them. 
 
 Woodstock Grhost (The), 1649. 
 A trick played on the commissioners 
 sent by the Long Parliament to take pos- 
 session of the house. The ghost was 
 one of the commissioners' clerks, named 
 Giles Sharp, who played his part so 
 well that his companions fled from 
 Woodstock in terror. The secret was 
 kept till the Revolution. 
 
 The real name of Giles Sharp was Joseph Col- 
 lins, a concealed Royalist, who had lived at Wood- 
 stock and knew every hole and cranny inti- 
 mately. 
 
 Wood"v\rardian Professor of 
 
 Geology. Value 500Z. a year. Founded 
 in the University of Cambridge by Dr. 
 Woodward, 1727. See ' Harkness Scho- 
 larship,' ' Sedgwick Prize.' 
 
 W^OO-tae in Chinese history means 
 * The period of the Five Races.' During 
 the first part of this period the empire 
 was divided into southern and northern ; 
 the imperial line reigned in the southern 
 empire, with Nankin as the seat of 
 go^'ernment. The seat of government 
 
 of the northern empire was Ho-nan. In 
 A.D. 534 the northern empire was split 
 into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the 
 western or Si-Oei". In 587 the three 
 empires were united again under the 
 12th imperial dynasty, that of Swi. The 
 founder was a cobbler named Lieu-yu, 
 and when he usurped the throne he was 
 named Voo-tee III. The contemporary 
 kings of the northern empire were Tao- 
 Voo-tee and Ming-yuen-tee. The capital 
 of the southern empire was Nan-kin, and 
 of the northern empire Ho-nan. 
 
 The five races were Tsong, Tsee, Leang, Tchin, 
 and Swi, including the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 
 r2th imperial dynasties. 
 
 *,* Voo means trarrior, and tee means iniler. 
 
 Worcester College, Oxford, 1714. 
 Foimded by Sir Thomas Cookes, The 
 head-master is called the Provost. It 
 was originally called Gloucester Hall, 
 and was used by the monks of St. Peter, 
 Gloucester. 
 
 Working-men's Association 
 
 (The), 1838. A title assumed by the 
 Chartists (q.v.). 
 
 Works of Supererogation, 
 
 1274. The belief that our Saviour's 
 sufferings were more than sufficient for 
 the sins of the world, and hence good 
 works were an extra stock which might 
 be applied to balance off evil works. As 
 saints abounded in good works they 
 accumulated a stock of merits which 
 could be applied for the benefit of others 
 or for redemption of souls from purgatory. 
 
 Workshop Regulation Act 
 
 [The), 1867 (80 & 31 Vict. c. 146), pro- 
 vides : 
 
 1. That no child under the age of 8 
 shall be employed in any handicraft. 
 
 2. That no child under 13 shall be 
 employed for more than 6^ hours a day, 
 between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. 
 
 3. That no young person under 18 and 
 no woman shall be employed more than 
 12 hours, between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m., 
 with an hour and a half interval at least 
 for meals. 
 
 4. Except in retail business no child 
 or woman shall be employed after 2 
 o'clock on Saturdays. 
 
 5. No child under 11 shall in any wise 
 be employed in grinding or fustian 
 cutting. 
 
 Worms {The Diet of), 1521. Con- 
 vened by Karl V. to put down the 
 
WORSHIP 
 
 YANKEE 
 
 957 
 
 new opinions in religion. Luther was 
 summoned, and defended himself; but 
 the diet convicted' him of hei-esy, and 
 issued an edict for his api^rehension, and 
 the committal of his books to the flames. 
 The Elector of Saxony concealed him 
 for nine months, and he escaped. 
 
 Worship of Reason {The), 1793. 
 A substitute for Christianity in the first 
 French republic. It was the beauty of 
 virtue and the arbitrament of reason. 
 7 Nov., 1793, Mgr. Gobet, archbishop of 
 Paris, with a multitude of other ecclesi- 
 astics, went to the Hall of the Convention, 
 and there solemnly resigned their func- 
 tions and renounced the Christian reli- 
 gion. It was then decreed that the 
 deities of France should thenceforth be 
 Liberty, Equality, and Reason. The 
 word ' God ' was prohibited, and all 
 Christian rites were abolished. A pro- 
 cession was then made to Noti'e Dame, 
 where an actress was seated on the 
 altar to represent the Goddess of Reason. 
 
 "Worsley's Act {Lord), 1836 (6 & 7 
 Will. IV.). The General Enclosure Act. 
 Nine years after came a more general 
 Act for the enclosure of commons (1845). 
 
 "Wranglers, 1753. In the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. Originally the Tripos 
 consisted of Senior Optimes (3 syl.), 
 Junior Optimes, and the Poll-men, or 
 Ot iroWoi. But in 1753 the first class 
 was divided, and the best men were 
 made into a new division called Wranglers. 
 The Poll-men were then cut off, and the 
 Tripos consisted only of the three honour 
 classes called Wranglers, Senior Optimes, 
 and Junior Optimes. The first word 
 refei-red to the disputations, or acts held 
 in the school, which, being highly satis- 
 factory, the moderator complimented 
 the respondent by saying to him Summo 
 ingenii acuniine disputasti ('You have 
 wrangled excellently '). To the other 
 honour men he said Optime disputasti 
 (for Junior Optimes), and OjJthne quidem 
 disputasti (for Senior Optimes). 
 
 * Wright of Derby.' Joseph 
 Wright (1734-1797), a celebrated land- 
 scape painter bom at Derby. His land- 
 scapes are noted for elegance of outline 
 and judicious management of light and 
 shade. 
 
 Writ of Habeas Corpus (16 
 Car. I, c. 10), A.D. 1641. It enacts (1) 
 
 that any person arrested for a bailable 
 offence shall be set at liberty upon 
 giving the awarded bail, with an assurance 
 to appear and answer the charge when 
 duly called upon so to do ; (2) that 
 officers shall not evade this law by shift- 
 ing about the custody of a prisoner 
 under a penalty of 100/. for the first 
 offence and 200/. for the second ; (3) no 
 person delivered by habeas corpus shall 
 be re-committed; (4) every person 
 charged with an offence shall, if he re- 
 quires it, be tried in the next session ; 
 (5) no prisoner shall be sent out of his 
 own country to be tried. Thus an Eng- 
 lishman cannot be sent to Scotland, Ire- 
 land, the Channel Isles, or to any of 
 the Colonies. 
 
 There are four other provisions, but they rather 
 pertain to the legal profession than to the general 
 public. 
 
 Writer to the Signet, or ' Clerk 
 to the Signet.' A Scotch attorney of the 
 highest class. At one time the clerks so 
 called were in the office of the Secretary 
 of State, where writs that passed under 
 the royal signet were prepared. 
 
 Wiirzburg {Patron Saint of). 
 St. Kilian, an Irislunan, who converted 
 a duke of Wiirzburg, and was assassi- 
 nated by Geila, who was his brother's 
 wife. Kilian told the duke it was un- 
 lawful to live with Geila, and the 
 exasperated woman sent an assassin to 
 murder Kilian while he was celebrating 
 midnight service. Geilah = Gy-lah, 
 
 Wyatt's Rebellion, 1553-1554. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger formed 
 a confederacy to oppose the marriage of 
 Queen Mary with Philip II. of Spain. 
 He marched on London, and the train- 
 bands who were sent against him under 
 the command of the Duke of Norfolk 
 deserted in a mass to the rebel. Wyatt 
 pushed on to Temple Bar, which was 
 closed against him. He surrendered to 
 Sir M. Berkeley, was committed to the 
 Tower, tried, convicted, and beheaded. 
 
 Xabatatenses (Wooden shoes), so 
 the Waldenses {q.v.) were called from 
 xabatata (a wooden sandal), worn in imi- 
 tation of the apostles. 
 
 Yankee. A name of badinage ap- 
 plied to the North Americans by the 
 English, but accepted with pride and 
 satisfaction by all true-hearted Ameri- 
 cans. It was originally the corruption 
 
958 
 
 YANKEE 
 
 YEAR 
 
 of the word Anglois by the American 
 Indians. Jonathan Hastings, a farmer 
 of Cambridge, in New England, in 1713, 
 used the word as a synonym of excel- 
 lence. ' It is Yankee good,' or good as 
 if English made ; and the people of the 
 other colonies jocosely called the New 
 Englanders ' Jonathan Yankees,' and 
 sometimes shortened the phrase either 
 into Jonathan or into Yankee. 
 
 Yankee Doodle. The name of a 
 well-known tune, one of the ' national 
 airs ' of the U.S. ; also a doggerel song 
 set to that tune. 
 
 Yassanian Dynasty {The). The 
 fourth of the fabulous dynasties of Persia. 
 The two names given are Shah Yassan 
 the founder, and Yassan Ajem the last 
 of the race. It was preceded by the 
 Kuleev dynasty, and followed by the 
 Paishdadians {q.v.). 
 
 Yatagan, a Turkish sabre worn in 
 the sash. 
 
 Year I. of the Revolutionary Calen- 
 dar, from 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1793. 
 The French Convention announced that 
 in future the Christian era was to be 
 abolished, and all dates were to be taken 
 from the Revolution era. 
 
 The Bepublican calendar was first used 26 Nov., 
 1793, and was discontinued 31 Dec, 1805. 
 
 Royalty abolished, 22 Sept., 1792. 
 
 The King Louis XVI. guillotined, 21 January, 
 1793; and the Committee of Public Safety in- 
 Btituted. 
 
 Fall of the Girondists, 2 June, 1793. 
 
 Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday, 
 13 July, 1793. 
 
 New constitution proclaimed, 10 Aug., 1793. 
 
 Year II. of the Revolutionary Calen- 
 dar, from 22 Sept., 1793, to 21 Sept., 1794. 
 The Queen Marie Antoinette guillotined, 16 Oct., 
 
 1793. 
 
 The Girondists put to death, 31 Oct., 1793. 
 
 Worship of the goddess of Reason introduced, 
 10 Nov., 1793. 
 
 The noiiades of Nantes in Dec, 1793. 
 
 Danton and others guillotined, 5 April, 1794. 
 
 Robespierre president of the convention, 4 June, 
 1794. 
 
 Revolution of 9 Thermidor and end of the Reign 
 of Terror, 27 July, 1794. 
 
 Year III. of the Revolutionary Ca- 
 lendar, from 22 Sept., 1794, to 21 Sept., 
 1795. 
 
 Jacobin Club closed, Nov., 1794. 
 Revolt in La Vendee, July, 1795. 
 New constitution (the Directory) appointed, 
 22 Aug., 1796. 
 
 Year IV. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1795, to 21 Sept., 
 1796. 
 
 Close of the convention, 26 Oct., 1793. 
 
 Napoleon commander-in-chief of the army of 
 Italy, 23 Feb., 179(3. 
 
 Napoleon marries Josephine Beauharnais, 9 
 March, 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Montenotte, 
 
 12 April, 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Piedmontese at Millesimo, 
 
 13 April ; at Dego, 15 April ; at Mondovi, 22 April, 
 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Austrians at the bridge of 
 Lodi, 10 May, 1796. 
 
 Napoleon enters Milan, 15 May, 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats Wurmser at Castiglione, 5 Aug., 
 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Boveredo, 
 4 Sept., and at Bassano, 8 Sept., 1796. 
 
 Year V. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1796, to 21 Sept., 
 1797. 
 Al vinzi defeats Napoleon at the bridge of Areola, 
 
 15-17 Nov., 1796. 
 
 The Cispadane Republic formed, Dec, 1796. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Rivoli, 14 
 January, 1797. 
 
 Treaty of Tolentino, 19 Feb., 1797. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Archduke Charles on the 
 Tagliamento, 16 March, 1797. 
 
 Year VI. of the Revolutionary Ca- 
 lendar, from 22 Sept., 1797, to 21 Sept., 
 1798. 
 
 Treaty of Campo Formio, 17 Oct., 1797. 
 Napoleon takes Malta, 11 June, 1798. 
 Napoleon takes Alexandria, 4 July; wins the 
 battle of the Pyramids, 23 July, 1798. 
 
 Year VII. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1798, to 21 Sept., 
 1799. 
 
 Napoleon takes Jaffa by storm, 6 March, 1799. 
 Napoleon orders the massacre of his prisoners, 
 March, 1799. 
 Napoleon wins the battle of Aboukir, 25 July, 
 
 1799. 
 
 Year VIII. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1799, to 21 Sept., 
 1800. 
 
 Napoleon abolishes the Directory and seizes 
 the supreme power, 9, 10 Nov., 1799. 
 
 Napoleon made first consul, 24 Dec, 1799. 
 
 Napoleon passes over the Alps, May, 1800. 
 
 Napoleon wins the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 
 1800. 
 
 Year IX. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1800, to 21 Sept., 
 1801. 
 
 The infernal machine directed against Napoleon, 
 24 Dec, 1800. 
 
 Treaty of Luneville, 9 Feb., 1801. 
 
 Concordat concluded with the pope, Sept., 1801. 
 
 Year X. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1801, to 21 Sept., 
 1802. 
 
 Peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 
 Napoleon first consul for life, 2 Aug., 1802. 
 Piedmont annexed to France, Sept., 1802. 
 
 Year XI. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1802, to 21 Sept., 
 1808. 
 
 Napoleon declares war against England, 22 May, 
 
YEAR 
 
 YEAR 
 
 959 
 
 Napoleon establishes the censorship of the press, 
 
 Sept., 1803. 
 
 Year XII. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 
 1804. 
 
 The Duo d'Enghien shot at Vincennes, 21 March, 
 1804. 
 
 Napoleon assumes the title of Emperor, 18 May, 
 1804. 
 
 Napoleon prepares for the invasion of England 
 during the summer of 1804. 
 
 Year XIII. of the Revolutionary- 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1804, to 21 Sept., 
 1805. 
 
 Napoleon crowned by the pope, 2 Dec., 1804. 
 Napoleon crowned at Milan as king of Italy, 
 26 May, 1805. 
 Napoleon breaks np the camp of Boulogne, 
 
 16 Aug., 1805. 
 
 Year XIV. of the Revolutionary 
 Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1805, to 31 Dec, 
 1805. This was a year of 466 days, i.e. nine 
 extra days in September, with the three 
 months of October, November, and De- 
 cember, which, of course, were dupli- 
 cates. But Napoleon, who abolished 
 the calendar, returned to the old system 
 on 1 Jan., 1806. 
 
 Napoleon wins the battle of Austerlitz, 2 Dec, 
 18C5. 
 
 Peace of Presburg, 25 Dec, 1805. 
 
 Napoleon dethrones the King of Naples, Feb. 
 1806. 
 
 Napoleon makes his brother Joseph king of the 
 Two Sicilies, March, 1808. 
 
 Napoleon makes his brother Louis king of Hol- 
 land, (i June, 1806. 
 
 Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena and 
 Auerstadt, Oct., 1806. 
 
 Napoleon publishes his Berlin decree, 21 Nov., 
 
 Year Books. Reports. These year- 
 books are extant in an unbroken series 
 from Edward II. to Henry VIII., and 
 were made by the court scribes (protho- 
 notaries) at the expense of the crown, 
 and published annually. 
 
 Year of Confusion {The), b.c. 46, 
 which consisted of sixteen months (445 
 days). It was the year a.u.c. 708 when 
 Julius Caesar inserted (beside the inter- 
 calary month of twenty-three days) two 
 extraordinary months between Nov. and 
 Dec, one of thirty-three days and the 
 other of thirty-four days, in order to ad- 
 just the year according to the course of 
 the sun. To prevent the recurrence of 
 any future confusion, he reformed the 
 calendar, making it to consist of 365 days 
 and a leap year of 366 days, instead of 
 355 and the mensis intercalaris attri- 
 buted to Numa. 
 The reform was the work of Sosiggnes of Alex- 
 
 andria, who introduced the terms kalends, nones, 
 and id(}s, to designate certain divisions of the 
 Roman month. Kalends the first day of the 
 month, when the priest railed out or announced to 
 the peoiile the day of the new moon. Nones, nine 
 days before the Ides. The Ides were the 15th of 
 March, May, July, and October, but the 13th of the 
 other eight months. 
 
 Year of Death (The), a.d. 637, is 
 so called by the Arabian historians be- 
 cause of the terrible plague which deso- 
 lated Syria. As many as 25,000 men of 
 the army of the Kalif Omar, encamped 
 before Jerusalem, fell victims. Next 
 year it desolated Aleppo and Antioch. 
 
 Year of Destruction (The), a.d. 
 
 639, is so called by the Arabs from the 
 dreadful plague which broke out at 
 Medina. It was preceded by violent 
 hailstorms which destroyed enormous 
 quantities of corn. 
 
 Year of Jubilee (The). Every 
 fiftieth year among the Jewish race, when 
 all lands returned to their original owners 
 and all slavQs were set free. 
 
 Year of Liberty {The), 1648. After 
 the execution of Charles I. his statues in 
 the Royal Exchange and in other places 
 were taken down, and the following in- 
 scription was substituted by Act of Par- 
 liament : ' Exit Tyrannus, Regum ulti- 
 mus. Anno Libertatis Angliae restitutse 
 primo, A.D. 1648, Jan. 30 ' (old style). 
 
 Year of Revolutions {The), 18^8. 
 The Chartist demonstration in this 
 country; the third of France; the in- 
 surrections of Italy ; revolutions in Hun- 
 gary and Austria. 
 
 Year of the Deputations {The). 
 The eighth of the Hedjrah (a.d. 630), 
 when, after the victory near Taif, deputa- 
 tions flocked from various tribes to pay 
 homage to Mohammed. 
 
 Year of the Revolutionary Calendar. 
 
 1. From 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1793 
 
 2. „ 1793 „ 1794 
 
 3. „ 1794 „ 1795 
 
 4. „ 1795 „ 1796 
 
 5. „ 1796 „ 1797 
 
 6. „ 1797 „ 1798 
 
 7. „ 1798 „ 1799 
 
 8. „ 1799 „ 1800 
 9 „ 1800 „ 1801 
 
 10. „ 1801 „ 1802 
 
 11. „ 1802 .. 1803 
 
U60 
 
 YELLOW 
 
 YELLOW 
 
 12. From 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 1804 
 
 13. „ 1804 „ 1805 
 
 14. „ 1805 to 31 Dec, 1805 
 When the practice was discontinued. 
 
 Yellow and Blue, in China. The 
 followers of Lamaism wear yellow robes, 
 the imperial colour, because Lamaism 
 was promulgated in China by a son-in- 
 law of the emperor. The other twelve 
 sects wear blue. 
 
 Yellow Book (The). Keports of 
 the inspectors of schools for England, 
 Wales, and Scotland. So called from 
 the yellow cover. 
 
 Yellow Books (The). In France, 
 the government reports, papers, and 
 other official documents are stitched in 
 yellow covers. So are the government 
 reports of foreign affairs. See p. 106, 
 ' Blue Books.' 
 
 Yellow Caps. The caps worn 
 in France before the 15th cent, were 
 round and of a yellow colour, like the 
 stockings of our Blue-coat boys. 
 
 In Italy Jews were obliged to wear 
 yellow caps as a badge. And Shylock 
 ought to have such a head-dress. 
 
 Yellow Caps [Behellion of the). 
 In China in the reign of Han-ling-tee 
 (168-189). This formidable insurrection, 
 headed by Tchang-keo, received its dis- 
 tinctive name from the caps worn by the 
 insurgents, which were all of the imperial 
 colour. Till 220 rebellion followed re- 
 bellion in quick succession, and between 
 220 and 266 China was divided into three 
 states, called the San Kuo period. 
 
 Yellow in China is the imperial colour, which 
 these insurgents adopted. 
 
 Yellow Division {The), or Brigade 
 of Pentonville Prison. A convict goes 
 through three grades during his sen- 
 tence after the probation : (1) the third 
 class, when he wears black facings on 
 his jacket ; (2) the yellow division or 
 second class, when he can, if he likes, 
 have tea for supper instead of ' skilly ' or 
 gruel ; and (3) the first class, when he 
 may have roast instead of boiled beef. 
 
 Yellow Dress [The). A dress worn 
 by convicts who have attempted to 
 escape, but have been captured and 
 brought back. One half, is a bright 
 'canary yellow and the other half a 
 
 sombre drab. If the man has used vio- 
 lence, the penalty is a ' yellow dress and 
 stangs ' [irons], while the drab half is 
 changed to deep black. 
 
 Yellow Fever {The). So called 
 from the yellow tint which extends over 
 the whole body, varying from a pale 
 lemon to a deep orange colour. Havan- 
 nah and Vera Cruz may be termed nur- 
 series of this fatal disease, which attacks 
 Europeans in Sept. and Oct. It seems 
 to reappear in Europe about thirty times 
 in a century. 
 
 It ravaged Antigua in 1816. 
 
 „ Barbadoes in 1647 and 1691, where it 
 
 was called the ' New Distemper.' 
 „ Barcelona in 1821. Above 5,000 died. 
 
 „ Cadiz for the first time in 1705, brought 
 
 by a ship from America ; since then 
 
 in 1730, 1733, 1744,1753, 1764, 1819, when 
 
 it also attacked the dogs, cats, cattle, 
 
 birds (even canaries), and was most 
 
 fatal. 
 „ Carthagena in 1792, where it produced 
 
 dreadful havoc. 
 „ Domingo (St.) in 1730, 1740, 1791, 1792-3, 
 
 1798, when 15,000 Englishmen and 
 
 nearly the whole French garrison fell 
 
 victims to it. 
 „ Gaudeloupe in the autumn of 1816-7, 
 
 1819. 
 „ Gibraltar in 1804, 1814, 1828. 
 
 „ Guayaquil in 1740 and often since. 
 
 Havannah is its nursery. 
 „ Isla de Leon in 1819, 1828-9. 
 
 „ Livorno in 1803, where it carried off 
 
 1,560 persons out of 5,500 who were 
 
 attacked by it. 
 „ Malaga in 1741, 1803, when 6,884 persons 
 
 died; in 1804, when 18,582 persons 
 
 were attacked. 
 „ Massachusetts in 1618, but not severe. 
 
 „ Mauritius in 1815. 
 
 „ Mexico in 1545. 1576, 1736-7, 1761-2, 1867. 
 
 „ New York in 1791. 
 
 „ North America eight times between 
 
 1790 and 1805 (sundry parts). 
 „ Philadelphia in 1699, 1762, when its vio- 
 
 lence was unparalleled ; in 1793, 1797, 
 
 1802. 
 „ Spain (various parts) in 1800, 1803, 1813. 
 
 Vera Cruz, like Havannah, is a nursery 
 
 of the disease. 
 „ Virginia in 1699 and 1855, where its 
 
 havoc was horrible. 
 West Indies in 1732, 1739, 1745, 1763, and 
 
 often since. 
 
 Yellow^ Flag [A). A yellow flag 
 flying from a mast indicates that the 
 vessel is in quarantine. 
 
 A black flag indicates a pirate, a red flag defiance, 
 a white flag craves a truce. 
 
 Yellow Flags {The), or 'Yellow 
 Flag Troops. ' The Anamese mercenaries. 
 In the Tonquin war, 1883, they were for 
 a time French auxiliaries. Their standard 
 was a yellow ensign, and their head- 
 quarters was Ho-Tang. See p. 97, 
 ' Black Flags.' 
 
YELLOW 
 
 YOKE 
 
 961 
 
 Yellow Palace {The), or Khoosk 
 e Zurd, one of the hunting-seats of Ba- 
 haram Gour in Persia. 
 
 The Yellow Mountain, or ' Koh e Zurd,' is the 
 source of the Zeinderood, on which Ispahan 
 stands. 
 
 The Yellow Sea, or 'Whang Hal,' is an arm of 
 the North Pacific, on the north-east of China. 
 
 Yello-W River {The), or ' Hoang 
 Ho.' Known generally as ' China's 
 Sorrow.' 
 
 Yellow Robe {Order of the). A 
 religious order founded by Buddha. The 
 founder himself wore a yellow robe and 
 carried an alms bowl. 
 
 But to his own, them of the Yellow Robe, 
 
 He taught how they should dwell ; 
 
 How live, free from the snares of love and wealth ; 
 
 What eat, and drinli, and carry : three plain 
 
 cloths. 
 Yellow, of stitched stuff, worn with shoulder 
 
 bare— 
 A girdle, almsbowl, strainer. Thus he laid 
 That noble order of the Yellow Robe 
 Which to this day standeth. 
 
 Edwin Arnold, Tiie Light of Asia, bk. vili. 
 
 Yellow Stick {Beligion of the). 
 Scotland. The reformed religion. 
 
 [Livingstone] has . . . recorded a tradition that 
 the people of [lllva Isle] were converted from 
 being Roman Catholics by the laird coming round 
 with a man having a yellow staff . . . [and! the 
 new religion went long afterwards ... by the 
 name of the ' Religion of the Yellow Stick.' — 
 Blaikie, Personal Life of David Livingstone. 
 
 Dr. Blaikie adds : ' The same story is told of 
 perhaps a dozen other places in the Highlands." 
 See ' Notes and Queries,' 13 July, IBB9, p. 29. 
 
 Y'en Dynasty {The) of China 
 
 (1279-1368) succeeded the dynasty of 
 Song, and was succeeded by the Mings. 
 Kublai Khan was the founder. It was 
 the twentieth imperial dynasty — that of 
 the Moguls — gave ten kings, and lasted 
 ninety years. The seat of government 
 was Pe-kin. 
 
 China was at the time divided into two kingdoms, 
 north and south of the Yellow River. The Song 
 kings reigned in the south. It v as the old, old 
 tale. The reigning king, threatened by the 
 Tartars, called in the aid of tiie Moguls. Kublai 
 Khan repelled the Tartiirs, then dethroned the 
 Song kings, and then made himself master of the 
 nortn also, thus uniting again North and South 
 China. 
 
 Kublai Khan was called by the Chinese ' Ho-pee- 
 lie.' His regnal name in China was ' Shee-tsu,' 
 and his reign is still called • the Wise Govern- 
 ment." 
 
 Yeoman Usher (T/ie). The deputy 
 of the Gentleman Usher of the Black 
 Eod. See ' Black Eod.' 
 
 Yeomen of the Guard, or ' Beef- 
 eaters,' 1485. Instituted by Henry VII. 
 It was a corps of fifty soldiers, whose 
 41 
 
 duty it was to attend upon the king and 
 wait on him at meals. 
 
 It used to be generally supposed that ' Beefeater ' 
 was a corruption of the Knglish-French bitffet-er 
 or bujtetier, 'one who waits at the buffet.' That 
 there is no such French word as buJTetier is no 
 argument against such a perversion. We have 
 a small host of English-French words equally 
 Ignored in Paris. Take, for example, e)ico7f=tha 
 French bis, stirtotii — pardessus, while the French 
 svrttuit = the English epergne. Nom de plume is 
 English-French, in imitation of nom de gtterre. 
 
 Y'n {Dynasty of ), B.C. 1401-1122. The 
 latter part of the Chang dynasty was so 
 called from the city Yn, where the court 
 was held. The court had been previously 
 held at Yang-tching, but Poan-keng, 
 the seventeenth emperor of the Chang 
 dynasty, moved his court to Yn (b.c. 
 1401), and changed the name of the 
 dynasty from Chang to Yn. 
 
 This must not be confounded •with the Y'en 
 Dynasty. See above. 
 
 Ynglings of Norway (The). It 
 is said that a family of Ynglings reigned 
 in Norway from 863 to 1136, but the 
 whole of this part of Norwegian history 
 is very doubtful. The Ynglings of 
 Norway were contemporaneous with the 
 Skioldungs of Sweden, as will appear 
 from the following lists : — 
 
 Noncay Ynglings. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 863 
 
 Harald Haarfagen 
 
 Eric I. Blodeexe .'.'." 
 Hako I. the Good 936 
 Harald II. Graafel 960 
 Hako II. Jarl 962 
 
 Olaf I. king of Den- 
 mark, Tryggveson — 
 Eric II. ... 1000 
 
 Ola,f II. (Saint) ... 1015 
 Sueno II. king of 
 
 Denmark — 
 
 Magnus I. the Good 10.36 
 Harald III 1047 
 
 Magnus II. 
 Olaf III. 
 Magnus III. 
 Olaf IV. 
 Sigurd I. 
 Magnus IV. 
 Harald IV. 
 
 ... 1087 
 ... 1103 
 .. 1122 
 .. 1130 
 1135-1136 
 
 Swedish Skioldungs. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 859 Emund of the race 
 
 of Ivar. 
 873 Erik Emundson. 
 923 Biorn Erikson. 
 
 993 Erik the Victorious. 
 
 1026 Olof Skotkonung. 
 
 1056 Stenkill, founder of 
 the race of Sten- 
 kill. 
 
 1066 Halstan. 
 
 1080 Inge I. 
 
 1112 Philip. 
 
 1118 Inge II. 
 
 1122 Sverker, 
 of the 
 Sverker. 
 
 founder 
 race of 
 
 Ynglings of Sweden {The). A 
 semi-historic race of Swedish kings from 
 B.C. 70 to A.D. 647. So called from Yngve, 
 son of Odin, to whom at death he assigned 
 Sweden. The Ynglings of Sweden were 
 not kings of all Sweden, but chiefs of 
 Upsala, and overlords of the other chiefs. 
 They gave twenty- four chiefs, and were 
 succeeded by the Skioldungs. 
 
 Yoke of Infamy. Three spears 
 arranged like a gallows, under which 
 3Q 
 
YORICK 
 
 YOUNG 
 
 conquered troops were made to march, in 
 token of subjection. (A Roman custom.) 
 
 Yorick. The pen-name of Laurence 
 Sterne, who died in 1768, at the age of 
 fifty-five. 
 
 York [Frederick Duke of), son of 
 George III., commander-in-chief. He 
 was obliged to resign his office owing to 
 the exposure of a wholesale traffic in 
 army commissions, carried on by his 
 mistress Mrs. Clarke. 
 
 York {The Line of) gives England 
 three kings, viz. Edward IV., Edward V., 
 and Richard III., through Lionel duke 
 of Clarence, third son of Edward III. 
 
 Lionel was the father of Phillppa, who married 
 Edward Mortimer earl of March, and their son 
 was Roger Mortimer earl of March, who was slain 
 In Ireland 1398. 
 
 This Roger Mortimer was father of Edmund 
 Mortimer earl of March, and of Ann Mortimep 
 who married Richard duke of York. 
 
 *^,* At the death of Richard II. Edmund Mor- 
 timer was heir to the throne. He died 1424. It 
 was in Sept. 1399 that Henry IV. deposed Richard 
 II. and usurped the throne, being succeeded by 
 Henry V. (his son) and Henry VI. 
 
 Now take Ann Mortimer. She was the mother 
 of Richard duke of York (slain, in 14(56, at the 
 battle of Wakefield), leaving two sons, Edward IV. 
 and Richard III. Edward V. was the son of 
 Edward IV., and was murdered by his uncle 
 Richard. 
 
 York {The Statute of), 12 Edward U., 
 A.D. 1318. Ordered that all black money 
 {noir monnoie) lately current in the realm 
 be excluded. This base coin was intro- 
 duced from foreign countries, and pro- 
 bably from Ireland also, for in 1339 black 
 money, called turneys, was current in 
 Ireland. 
 
 York {Trial of the Duke of), 1809. 
 Colonel Wardle accused the Duke of York 
 in the House of Commons of promot- 
 ing improper persons to military rank 
 through the influence of a Mrs. Clarke. 
 An inquiry was made and the duke 
 acquitted. Such things were common 
 enough till the middle of the nineteenth 
 century. ' Douceurs ' [to mistresses] were 
 even advertised in the daily press. I 
 well remember when the ' Times ' dis- 
 continued these advertisements. 
 
 This was Frederick duke of York, second son of 
 George III. 
 
 York Prize {The) for an essay on 
 the law of primogeniture. For any 
 graduate of the University of Cambridge 
 of not more than seven years' standing. 
 The same person may receive the prize 
 
 more than once. Value about 90Z. 
 Founded by Edmund York of St. Catha- 
 rine's Hall, 1875. 
 
 Young. Chevalier {The). The 
 Prince Charles Edward [Stuart]. Also 
 called the ' Young Pretender ' [i.e. to the 
 British throne], 1720-1788. 
 
 Young Clerical School {The), 
 1890. To draw more closely together the 
 religious party and the masses. M. de 
 Mun (in France), M. Decurtius (in Switz- 
 erlanci), and a large number of German 
 and Austrian Catholics have made nume- 
 rous journeys to Rome, and have suc- 
 ceeded in forming a very influential 
 party at the Vatican. The pope (Leo 
 XIII.) is in favour of the movement, and 
 hopes thereby to solve the great labour 
 question. 
 
 A man who styled himself ' General ' Booth, 
 because he was head of a religious society termed 
 by him ' the Salvation Army,' said, in the autumn 
 of 1890, that if he was entrusted with 100,OOOJ. he 
 would solve the great 'labour question." In 
 December, 1890, above 80,00OL had been sub- 
 scribed. Mr. (General) Booth issued a book to 
 explain his scheme, but it has not yet been put 
 in operation (1891). 
 
 Young England, about 1840. A 
 group of clever politicians with fantastic 
 ideas who for a time commanded consider- 
 able attention. The chief of the party 
 were Benjamin Disraeli [Lord Beacons- 
 field], Lord John Manners, George Sydney 
 Smithe [Lord Strangford], Cochrane- 
 Wishart-Baillie [Lord Lamington], and 
 many others distinguished in oratory and 
 literature. Their platform was laughed 
 at by practical men as Utopian, and 
 quietly sank out of notice. 
 
 Young Englanders. A set of 
 
 young men who tried to revive the for- 
 mality and court manners of the Chester- 
 field school. They wore white waistcoats, 
 patronised the pet poor, looked down 
 upon shopkeepers, and were altogether 
 Red Tape Knights. 
 
 In 1882-3 Oscar Wilde made himself ridiculous by 
 trying to introduce the ' esthetic foolery ' both in 
 taste, dress, and manners. 
 
 Young Europe, 1834. An Italian 
 journal which took the place of ' Young 
 Italy ' {q.v.), and tried to propagate the 
 same Utopian system. 
 
 Young German School {The) 
 of literature followed the emancipation 
 of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. 
 
YOUNG 
 
 YUEN-OEl 
 
 963 
 
 Headed by Karl Gutzkow. The other 
 chief authors of this school are Theodor 
 Mundt, Gustav Kiihne, Heinrich Laube, 
 Ludolf Wieuberg, Robert Heller, Ernst 
 Kossak, and Heinrich Heine (the best of 
 all). 
 
 Young Germany. A secret so- 
 ciety mentioned in the report of the 
 Government of Ziirich, 1844, and said to 
 be then in existence in Switzerland. This 
 society aimed at a United Germany with 
 a republican form of government. 
 
 Young Ireland, 1848. A party 
 nursed by the newspaper called the 
 'Nation.' It differed from the Old Ire- 
 land party headed by Daniel O'Connell 
 chiefly in this respect. The old party 
 was a religious one and sought the su- 
 premacy of the Catholics; the young 
 party wanted to unite both Protestants 
 and Catholics in the great object of the 
 severance of Ireland from the British 
 crown. Though the Young Irelanders 
 disclaimed warlike intentions, many of 
 their speeches were very inflammatory. 
 O'Connell headed the old repealers ; the 
 young repealers were led by William 
 Smith O'Brien. The Young Irelanders 
 gave birth to the United Irishmen (q.v.), 
 a war party. See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 In December, 1890, the Irish ' Nationalists, who 
 had been under the leadership of Charles S. 
 Parnell for ten years, were split up into two 
 parties, because Mr. Gladstone refused to co- 
 operate with Mr. Parnell. Those who fell off 
 from Mr. Parnell placed themselves under Justin 
 M'Carthy, and the two Irish ' Nationalist ' 
 parties went by the name of Parnellites and 
 M'Carthyites. 
 
 Young-Ireland Rising {TJie), 
 1848. This was the sequel of Daniel 
 O'Connell's repeal agitation. The mem- 
 bers called themselves the ' Patriots of 
 the Nation.' They were quite ripe for 
 active rebellion, but the ravings of 
 Mitchel were of a piece with the stump 
 orations of a music hall ; and the Young- 
 Ireland rising was easily suppressed. 
 The ' Nation,' an Irish newspaper, was 
 their organ, but the ' Nation ' never had 
 the slightest influence on public opinion. 
 See ' Irish Associations.' 
 
 Young Italy, or ' The Young Italian 
 Party,' 1831. Formed by Mazzini. The 
 object of this party was ' the unification 
 of Italy,' or ' Italy under one ruler.' At 
 the time spoken of part of Italy belonged 
 to Austria, part to France. Genoa and 
 Lucca were a republic, Tuscany a grand 
 
 duchy, Parma and Placentia were under 
 a duke of the Bourbon line, Naples and 
 Sicily were a kingdom, the States of the 
 Church were under the pope, and so on. 
 Young Italy wanted all the several parts 
 to be united under one ruler, to be called 
 the ' king of Italy.' In 1860, by the arms 
 of Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel was 
 hailed ' king of Italy ' ; in 1866 Venice 
 was added, and in 1870 Rome was made 
 the capital of the new kingdom. 
 
 Mazzini lived till 1872 ; Garibaldi died in 1882 ; 
 and Victor Emmanuel in 1678. 
 
 Young Pretender (T/ie). Charles 
 Edward, after the fatal battle of CuUoden 
 in 1746, made his escape to France, and 
 his adventures resemble those of Charles 
 II. after the battle of Worcester. The 
 heroic lady who assisted him was Miss 
 Flora Macdonald ; and Charles Edward, 
 dressed in woman's clothes, went by the 
 name of 'Betty Bourke.' When Miss 
 Macdonald left him, his guide was Mal- 
 colm Macleod ; and the prince, as Mac- 
 leod's man servant, assumed the name 
 of ' Louis Caw of Crieff.' Ultimately he 
 arrived at Roseau, near Morlaix, in Bre- 
 tagne, and died at Florence in 1788. 
 
 Young Roscius (The). William 
 Henry West Betty (1790-1874). He 
 made his debut in 1803, and in fifty-six 
 nights realised 34,000?., when he wisely 
 withdrew from public life. 
 
 Young Swritzerland, 1835. An 
 association in Switzerland organized by 
 Joseph Mazzini on the same platform 
 as ' Young Italy ' (q.v.). Mazzini was 
 banished from Switzerland in 1836, and 
 his association melted into air. 
 
 Mazzini's motto was not the French ' Liberty, 
 Fraternity, and Equality,' but the word 'Hu- 
 manity.' Abstract humanity is not a workable 
 quantity. 
 
 Yuen or Y'en Dynasty (The). 
 
 The twentieth imperial dynasty of China. 
 Founded by Kubla'i Khan, emperor of 
 the Mongols. It gave ten emperors, and 
 lasted ninety years (1278-1368). Pekin 
 was I'ebuilt and made the seat of govern- 
 ment. It was succeeded by the Ming 
 dynasty. 
 
 Yuen-Oei Dynasty (The). The 
 first dynasty of the Northern Empire 
 of China. Founded by the Goli Tartars. 
 Chief city Ho-nan. It gave eleven kings, 
 when the Northern Empire was split into 
 3q2 
 
964 
 
 ZADIGISM 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN 
 
 two, called 'Tong-Oei'' and 'Si-Oei',' or 
 'Eastern and Western Oei ' (386-534). 
 ' Oei" ' is written ' Goel ' by many authors. 
 
 Zadigism. The science of observa- 
 tion, or the practice of observation in 
 scientific research. ' Zadig ' is the hero 
 and title of a novel by Voltaire. He de- 
 scribes a lost camel, which he had never 
 seen, as blind of the left eye, as having 
 lost two of its front teeth, and being 
 slightly lame in the near fore-foot. When 
 pressed to explain how he knew all this, 
 never having seen the animal, he replied : 
 'I knew it was blind of the left eye 
 because I noticed it browsed only on the 
 right side of the road. I knew it had 
 lost two of its front teeth because some 
 of the leaves and some of the grass was 
 bitten and some not. I knew it was 
 lame of the near fore-foot because the 
 marks of this foot in the sand were 
 shorter than those of the other feet,' &c. 
 
 Zampieri. Better known as 'Do- 
 menichino ' (1581-1641). 
 
 Zegris (T^e), or 'Zegries.' A Mauri- 
 tanian dynasty. See ' Zeirides.' 
 
 Zeirides {The), or * Zeirites.' A tribe 
 and dynasty of Moors which furnished 
 many kings to Fez, Tlem^en, Algiers, 
 Tunis, Kairouan, Mahadia, and Tripoli. 
 The chief were the Sanhadjides or 
 Zeirides Badissides, and the Zeirides 
 Zenates.' The former rendered them- 
 selves independent of the Fatimite califs 
 in 972, and their dominion continued to 
 1050. The latter was from 988 to 1070. 
 
 Called alter Zeiri ben Mounad, chief of the tribe 
 of the Badissides, who conquered Algiers and 
 Tripoli. He founded Achir, and died a.d. 971. In 
 the proper names given above the -es does not 
 form a syl., but Zeirides is trisyllabic. 
 
 Ze'lotes (3 syl.). Simon is called 
 * the Canaanite ' — i.e. Kavavir-ns and also 
 ZtjAcut^s. Probably ' Kananite ' is from 
 the Hebrew root kana, whence kanani 
 = * zealous ' ; so that ' Simon Kananite ' 
 is merely the Aramaic translation of 
 ' Simon Zelotes.' The Zelotse were He- 
 braists — that is, great sticklers for the 
 Mosaic law. 
 
 Zemindary. The jurisdiction of 
 a zemindar or officer who superintends 
 the lands, protects the landowners, and 
 sees that government receives its legal 
 share. {Indian.) 
 
 Zendavesta {The) is said to have 
 been written by Zoroaster in letters of 
 gold on 12,000 skins of parchment, and 
 to have been deposited by Darius Hys- 
 taspes in the Castle of Persepolis, about 
 B.C. 500. 
 
 ' Zend ' is the language, and ' avesta ' = text. 
 The compound word means the sacred books of 
 Zoroaster in the Zend tongue. 
 
 Zendicism, 8th cent. A Saracenic 
 heresy resembling that of the Jewish 
 Sadducees. 
 
 Zeugi'tae. The middle bank of 
 rowers in a Greek galley. The upper- 
 most bank was the Tharntce, and the 
 lowest bank the Thalamltce. 
 
 Zeyds {The). One of the numerous 
 Shiite sects who profess to follow the 
 tenets of Zeyd son of Ali, who is supposed 
 to have received, through his father, 
 some of the prophet's last injunctions. 
 See ' Imaumians,' ' Khattabians.' 
 
 The Shiites reject the first three kalifs (Abu- 
 beker, Omar, and Othman), and also the traditions 
 concerning the prophet and his will. The Sunis 
 accept both. The Persians and Afghans are 
 Shiites. 
 
 Ziobbagrassa. Bead * Zobia 
 Grassa.' The last Thursday of carnival. 
 See p. 559, ' Mardi Gras.' 
 
 Zisca (' one eye '). His name was John 
 of Trockznov; he was born in Bohemia, 
 and lost one eye in battle when a boy. 
 In the Huss persecution he built a fort, 
 which he called ' Tabor,' a place of refuge 
 for the Hussites, who were thence called 
 ' Taborites ' (3 syl.). At the siege of Rabi, 
 Zisca lost his other eye, and still continued 
 to head his troops and win victories (1380- 
 1424). 
 
 Zisca's Drum. Zisca, chamberlain 
 to Wenceslaus, was the first leader of the 
 Hussite War {q.v.), and died 1424. The 
 tale is that he ordered his skin to be 
 tanned and made into a drum-head. 
 Byron, in his ' Werner,' and also in his 
 * Age of Bronze,' refers to this trsidition. 
 
 But be it as it is, the time may come 
 His name [i.e. Napoleon's] shall beat th' alarm, 
 like Zisca's drum. 
 
 Age of Bronze. 
 
 Zoll verein ( The), or * Custom Union,' 
 1819. Hesse-Darmstadt joined it 14 Feb., 
 1828 ; Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha in 1829; Waldeck and Hesse- 
 Cassel in 1831 ; Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
 Saxony, Saxe- Weimar, Saxe-Altenberg, 
 
ZOOLACTAF 
 
 ZURICH 
 
 965 
 
 and the two Schwarzburgs in 1833; 
 Hesse-Homburg, Baden, and Nassau, in 
 1885 ; Frankfort in 1836 ; Lippe-Detmold 
 and Brunswick in 1841 ; Luxemburg in 
 1847 ; Hanover, Oldenburg, and Schaum- 
 burg-Lippe in 1851 ; Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Lii- 
 beck in 1868. The effect of this union 
 has been a greatly increased demand for 
 German goods in foreign markets, and 
 diminished imports. Pronounce ZoV- 
 ve-rine. 
 
 Zoolaetaf, or Dsulaktaf. So 
 
 Sapor II. was called (a.d. 310-379), be- 
 cause he dislocated the shoulders of all 
 Arabs capable of bearing arms. 
 
 Zoroaster. In Greek, Zoroastres ; 
 in the Zendavesta, Zabathustra ; in 
 Persian, Zerdusht. Founder of the 
 Magian religion. 
 
 Zoroas'trianism. The religious 
 system of Zoroaster, now called the Par- 
 
 see religion. It was originally mono- 
 theism, but subsequently the dualism of 
 good and evil. The Magi remained 
 faithful to the monotheism of Zoroaster, 
 while the Zendiks believed in the dualism 
 as taught in the ' Zend-Avesta.' As 
 ' Zoroaster ' is also written ' Zarathustra,' 
 so ' Zoroastrianism ' is called * Zarathus- 
 traism.' 
 
 John Malcolm, who died in 1833, attempted to 
 prove that Zoroaster was the Jewish Ezra. 
 
 Zseklers, or Szeklers. A people who 
 occupy the highlands of Transylvania, 
 and belong to the Magyar stock, all 
 noble and free. Some are Magyar Uni- 
 tarians and some Catholics. They are 
 spread over five districts, called Udvar- 
 hely, Haromszek, Csik, Maros, and Aran- 
 yos, and are about 350,000 in number. 
 
 Zurich {Treaty of), 11 Nov., 1859. 
 For the ratification of the Treaty of 
 Villafranca. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE CHIEF BATTLES OF THE WOBLD 
 
 ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED 
 
 ABOUKIR 
 
 ALBANS 
 
 Aboukir {Battle of), 1 Aug., 1798. Nelson 
 defeatefi Pran(^ois Paul de Brueys, the French 
 admiral, in the Bay of Aboukir. The French 
 admiral was killed by a cannon-shot. 
 
 Generally called, in English history, ' The 
 Battle of the Nile.' 
 
 Aboukir {Battle of), 25 July, 1799, won by 
 Bonaparte over the Turks. 
 
 Next year (1800) Kleber was assassinated by 
 a young Turk, and Egypt was lost to France. 
 
 Abu Klea {Battle of), 17 Jan., 1885, won 
 by General Stewart with 1,500 men over an 
 array of Arabs of 10,000 in the service of the 
 Mahdi. 
 
 Abydos {Naval battle of), B.C. 411, won by 
 the Athenians over the Lacedajmonians. 
 
 Aclea {BattU of), 851, in which Ethelwulf, 
 the son of Egbert king of England, defeated the 
 Danes. Acl6a is Ockley, in Surrey. 
 
 Actium {Battle of), 2 Sept., B.C. 31, gained 
 by Octavian (Augustus Caesar) over Antony 
 and Cleopatra, both of whom kided themselves 
 to prevent being made captives by the con- 
 queror. Octavian dated the years of his impe- 
 rial monarchy from the day of this battle. 
 
 Adrianople {Battle of), 3 July, A.D. 323. 
 This battle obtained for Coustantine the empire. 
 
 ^gatian Islands {Naval battle of), b.c. 
 241, won by the Roman consul Quintus Luta- 
 tius Catiilus over Hanno the Carthaginian, off 
 the Agates. Tliis victory brought to an end 
 the First Punic War, which had lasted twenty- 
 three years. 
 
 .^gospot'amos, or ' Goat's River ' {Naval 
 battle of ), B.C. Sept. 405. This was scarcely a 
 battle, it was rather a surprise, for no fighting 
 was needed. The Athenians left their fleet un- 
 guarded, and most of the men were on shore 
 when Ly Sander captured above 150 of their 
 ships, and put to death above 3,000 Athenian 
 
 prisoners. This disaster virtually brought the 
 PeV>ponnesian war to a close. 
 
 Aghrim, in Ireland {Battle of), 12 July, 
 1691, where William III. and General Ginkell 
 defeated James II. and St. Ruth. 
 
 Agincourt {Battle of), 25 Oct., 1415, won 
 by Henry V. of England over the French, led 
 by D'Albret constable of France. The French 
 army was five times greater than the English. 
 The English loss did not e.Kceed 1,600 men, but 
 the French was 10,000 slain, and 15,000 taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 Agnadello {Battles of). I. 14 May, 1509, 
 in which Louis XII. defeated Petigliano and 
 D'Alviano. This to the Venetians was one of 
 the most disastrous battles in all their history. 
 
 II. 16 Aug., 1705, in which the Due de Ve'n- 
 dtime defeated Prince Eugene. Also called the 
 ' Battle of Cassano.' 
 
 AgOSta {Naval battle of), 1676, won by Du- 
 quesne over the Dutch. Here Ruyter, the Dutch 
 admiral, lost his life. 
 
 Ai'rolo, in Italy {Battle of), 23 Sept., 1799, 
 in which Suwarrow, the Russian general, de- 
 feated Gudin, the French general. 
 
 Aix {Battle of), July, B.C. 101, in which the 
 Teuton host was annihilated by Marius the 
 Roman consul. 
 
 Aiznaden {Battle of),\Z July, A.D. 633, 
 in wldch Klialed, commander of "the Koreish 
 cavalry, defeated Werdan, general of Heraclius, 
 commander of the Greeks. 
 
 Aland, in the Baltic {Battle of ), 27 July, 
 1714, in which Peter I. the Great defeated the 
 Swedish fleet. Pronounce 0-land. 
 
 Alarcon, in Spain {Battle of), autumn 
 1195, in which Yacub ben Yussef defeated 
 Alfonso VIII. of Castile. 
 
 Albans {Battles of St.). I. 22 May, 1455. 
 This was the first battle of the Two Roses, and 
 
968 
 
 ALBUERA 
 
 ANCYRA 
 
 was won by Richard duke of York (the White 
 Rose) over Henry VI. 
 
 11. 2 Feb., 1461, between the same factions. 
 In this battle Warwick, the king-maker, joined 
 the royal side of Queen Margaret, and defeated 
 the Yorkists. 
 
 Albuera, in Spain (Battle of), 1811, in 
 whicli Marshal Beresford defeated Soult, one of 
 Napoleon's marshals. Pronounce Al-boo-a'-rah. 
 
 Albufera da Valencia {Battle of), 1811, 
 in which Sucliet marshal of Prance defeated 
 Blake and the Spaniards. For this victory 
 Napoleon created Suchet ' Duke of Albufera.' 
 
 Alcaniz', in Spain (BattZeo/), 23 May, 1809, 
 in whicli Blake and tlie Spaniards defeated 
 Suchet, one of the marshals of Napoleon. 
 
 Alc^zax-C{VLXViv {Battle of), 4 Aug., 1578, 
 in which Muley Moluc of Morocco defeated and 
 slew Sebastian of Portugal. 
 
 Aldenhoven, in Belgium {Battle of), 
 1 March, 1793, in which Clairfait, the Austrian 
 general, defeated Francisco Miranda. 
 
 Alessandria {Battle of),M May, 1799, in 
 wliich Suwarrow, the Russian general, defeated 
 the French under Moreau. 
 
 Alexandria {Battle of), 21 March, 1801, 
 won by the British army under Sir Ralph Aber- 
 crombie over the French under the command 
 of Menou. 
 
 Alford {Battle of), 2 July, 1645, in which 
 General Eaillie, with an army of Covenanters, 
 was defeated by the Marquis of Montrose. 
 
 Alia, or AUia, in Italy {Battles of). I. 
 16 July, B.C. 390, where the Gauls under [their] 
 Brennus defeated the Romans. 
 
 II. B.C. 374 or 377, when Cincinnatus, the 
 dictator, defeated the Pra3uestines and their 
 allies. 
 
 Aliwal', in India {Battle of), 28 Jan., 1846, 
 won by Sir H. Smith over the Sikhs. 
 
 Aljubarota, in Portugal {Battle of), 
 14 Aug., 1385, in whicli Joam I. of Portugal 
 defeated Juan I. of Castile. 
 
 Alkmaar {Battle of), 1799. A bloody but 
 indecisive battle between the allied English and 
 Russian on the one hand and tlie allied Frencli 
 ami Dutch armies on the otlier. 
 
 Allifse, in Italy {Hattle of), B.C. 307, in 
 whicli the proconsul Q. Fabius Maximus de- 
 feated the,Samuites. 
 
 Alma, in the Crimea ( Battle of the), 20 Sept., 
 1854, in which Lord Raglan, the Englisli com- 
 mander, and Marshal St. Ariiaud, the French 
 commander, defeated Prince Menscliikoffi, the 
 Russian general. 
 
 Almanza, in Spain {Battle of), 25 April, 
 17u7, in which tlie French Marshal Berwick 
 defeated the Archduke Karl, and thus secured 
 tlie throne to Philip V. (14 Api-il, Old Style.) 
 
 Alnnarez, in Spain {Battle of), 24 Dec, 
 18UK, in which Marslial Lefebvre defeated tlie 
 Spaniards. 
 
 Almeida {Battle of), 5 Aug., 1811, won 
 by Lord Wellington, commanding the Anglo- 
 Spanish army, over the French commanded by 
 Marshal Massena. Pronounce Al-ma-e'-dah. 
 
 Almenara, in Spain ( Battle of), 27 July, 
 1710, in which the Earl of Stanhope and Count 
 Stahremberg (or Starhemberg) defeated the 
 Marquis de Bay. 
 
 Almham {Battle of), 723, in which Fergall 
 (overlord of Ireland) with 21,000 men (who had 
 invaded Leiuster to enforce tlie Boarian Tribute 
 (q.v.), remitted by Finactha) was utterly de- 
 feated by 9,000 Lagenians. As many as 7,000 
 were slain, among whom were200 kings [chiefs] 
 and Fergall with all his bodyguard. 
 
 Almonacid, in Spain {Battle of), 11 Aug., 
 1809, in which General Sebastian, a marshal of 
 France, defeated Venegras (3 syl.). 
 
 Alney {Battle of ), 1016. This was a single 
 combat between Edmund Ironside and Canute 
 in sight of their armies. When Canute was 
 wounded he proposed a division of the kingdom, 
 and the south part fell to Edmund ; but Ed- 
 mund was murdered soon afterwards at Oxford, 
 by Edric Streon. 
 
 Alsenz, in Germany {Battle of), 8 Dec, 
 1795, in which Clairfait, the Austrian general, 
 repulsed the French under Pichegru (2 syl.). 
 
 Altdorf, in Switzerland {Battle of), 5 May, 
 1799. The Swiss peasants were here defeated 
 by Marslial Soult, the French general. 
 
 Altenberg, in Germany {BaMle o/), 24 
 Sept., 1813, in wliich Lefebvre Desnouettes, the 
 French cavalry officer, defeated Thielmann, 
 commander of the Russian forces. 
 
 Altenheim, in Germany {Battle of), 29 
 Ju'y, 1075, in wliich Montecuculi, the Austrian 
 general, defeated the French armies under 
 Comte de Lorges. Here the Marquis de Vaur 
 brun fell in battle. 
 
 Altenkirchen, in Germany {Battles of). I. 
 4 June, 1796, where Kleber, the French general, 
 defeated the Archduke Karl of Austria. 
 
 n. 19 Sept., 1796, in which the Archduke 
 Karl of Austria defeated the French led by 
 Jourdan. In this battle the French general 
 Marceau was slain. 
 
 Altura, in Spain {Battle of), 25 June, 1838, 
 wliere the Carlists defeated Amor. 
 
 Amberg {Battle of), 24 Aug. 1796. The 
 Arcluhike Karl defeated Moreau, the French 
 general. 
 
 American Civil "War, 1861-1865. 
 Brought to a close 10 May, 1865, by the sm- 
 render of General Johnston. 
 
 Amis'ia, or the Ems, in Germany {Battle 
 of the), B.C. 12, where Nero Claudius Drusus 
 defeated the Bruct6ri in a naval engagement. 
 
 Ancrum Muir, in Scotland {Battle of ), 
 17 Feb., 1545, in which Archibald Douglas 
 earl of Angus defeated Sir R. Eyre and Sir 
 Brian Latoun. 
 
 Ancy'ra or Ango'ra {Battle of), 20 July, 
 1402, in which Bajazet I. sultan of tlie Otto- 
 
ANDEENACH 
 
 ASSAYE 
 
 969 
 
 mans, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Timour the Tartar. 
 
 Andernach. {Battle of), 939, near Coblenz, 
 won by Otto I. over his rebellious half-brother 
 Tankmar and several disaffected nobles. Tank- 
 mar was slain and the rebellion quashed. 
 
 Andredes-lea, the Weald of Sussex 
 {Battle of), 477, where Ella and his sous de- 
 feated the Britons. 
 
 Ango'ra {Battle of). See above, ' Ancyra.' 
 
 Anjou {Battle of), or 'Battle of Beauge,' 
 3 April, 1421, won by the Dauphin of France 
 over the Duke of Clarence. This battle turned 
 the tide of success against the English. 
 
 Antietam, in Maryland {Battle of), 17 
 Sept., 1862, between the Federals under General 
 McClellan and the Confederates under General 
 Lee. Indecisive. 
 
 Antium {Battle of). May 1378, between 14 
 Venetian galleys under the command of Victor 
 Pisani and 10 Genoese galleys under Luigi 
 Fiesco. The Venetians won the victory. One 
 of the Genoese galleys was dashed to pieces on 
 the rocky shore, five surrendered, and the other 
 four escaped, 
 
 Antoign^ {Battle of), 13 Aug., 1792, won 
 by the French over the allied Austrians and 
 Prussians. 
 
 Aquae Sextiee {Battle of), b.c. 102, in 
 which Cains Marlus defeated the Teutons. 
 
 Axhela,{Battleof),-B.C. l Oct., 331, in which 
 Alexander the Great overthrew Darius Codo- 
 manus for the third time. It was fought near 
 Gaugamela, and is sometimes called the ' Battle 
 of Gaugamela.' 
 
 One of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen Decisive 
 Battles of the World. 
 
 At Arbela the united Egyptian and Syrian 
 army defeated the Ottoman troops in the reign 
 of Bajazet II. (1482). 
 
 AJCis-SUr-Aube {Battle of), 20 March, 
 1814, between Napoleon's French army and 
 Schwartzenberg's Austrian army. It was quite 
 indecisive. 
 
 Ar'cola {Batik of), 15 and 17 Nov., 1796, in 
 which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians under 
 Alvinzy. 
 
 Argentoratum {Battle of), a.d. 357, in 
 which Julian defeated the Alemanui. 
 
 *s* Argentoratum, now Strassburg. 
 
 Ajginusse {^"aval battle of), B.C. 406, won 
 by the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 Arklow {Battle of), 10 June, 1798, where 
 a sma 1 British force utterly defeated 31,000 
 Irish insurgents. 
 
 Aries {Battle of), A.D. 508, in which Clovis, 
 founder of the French munarchj', was defeated 
 by Theodore the Great king of Italy, and 
 father-in-law of Alaric king of the West Goths. 
 
 Armageddon {Battle of). Rev. xvi. 16, 
 where God will collect together his enemies for 
 destruction. Ar-ma-geddon is supposed to be 
 
 the ' city of Megiddo,' and Megiddo is a typical 
 word for a battle-fie'.d. Zech. xii. 11 speaks of 
 * the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley 
 of Megiddon.' The vicinity of Megiddo was 
 noted as a great battle-field in Bible history. 
 It was here Pharaoh-necho overcame and slew 
 Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). The great 
 slaughter of Jabin's and Sisera's army was at 
 'the waters of Megiddo' {Judges v. 19). It 
 was in this plain that Gideon overthrew the 
 Midianites {Judges vi. 33, vii. ; here was the 
 fight between Saul and the Philistines, and 
 between Tryphon and Jonathan MaccabEeus 
 (1 Mac. xii.). In later times it was the battle- 
 field of the Tartars and Saracens. 
 
 Armagh' {Battle of), 1318, in which Ed- 
 ward Bruce was defeated and taken prisoner. 
 He was beheaded at Dundalk. 
 
 Arginusse {Naval battle of), July B.C. 407, 
 won by the Athenians over the Laceda?mo- 
 nians. What is especially noteworthy in this 
 victory is that six of the ten admirals who 
 commanded the Athenian fleet were put to 
 death, for not picking up those swimming 
 for their lives. The excuse was, they were 
 prevented by a sudden storm. 
 
 Argoed, or Argoed Llyvain {Battle of), 
 A.D. 547, won by Urien over Ida the Saxon in- 
 vader. 
 
 Arques {Battle of), 21 Sept., 1589, in which 
 Henri IV. with 7,000 men defeated the Due de 
 Mayeune at the head of 30,000 men. 
 
 Ascalon {Battles of). I. 12 Aug., 1099, in 
 which Godfrey of Bouillon defeated the Sultan 
 of Egypt. 
 
 n. 1192, in which Richard I. defeated the 
 Soldan's united army, numbered at 300,000 men. 
 It is said that 40,000 of the Saracens were left 
 dead on the field. 
 
 Aschaffenb\irg(5rt/«« of), 16 Sept., 1796. 
 The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated 
 Moreau, the French general. This was his 
 third victory since August. 
 
 Ash.do"WTl {Battle of), or .Slscesdun, or 
 Ash-tree Hill, a.d. 870. The great battle in 
 which Ethelred and Alfred overthrew the 
 Danes and slew their king, Bacseg. This vic- 
 tory is commemorated by the famous White 
 Horse. The town now called Ashbury used to 
 be called Ayshesdown. The downs are still 
 called Ashdown, and not far off is Ashdown 
 Park. 
 
 Aspern {Battle of), 21 May, 1809, in 
 which the Archduke Karl of Austria was de- 
 feated by Napo'eon. Called by the French the 
 battle of Essling. 
 
 AssandTin {Battle of), 1016. A decisive 
 victory of Canute over Edmund Ironside. The 
 death of Ironside left Canute master of the 
 realm. 
 
 Assaye, in India {Battle of), 23 Sept., 
 1803, in which Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
 Duke of Wellington) defeated Scindia and the 
 Rajah of Berar. The forces opposed to the 
 English were fully ten times the more nume- 
 
970 
 
 ATHENRY 
 
 BEAUGE 
 
 rous. This battle is especially noteworthy as 
 being the first great victory of the Iron Duke. 
 
 Athenry' {Battle of), 1316, in which Ferd- 
 lim O'Connor was utterly defeated by "William 
 de Burgh and Richard de Eermingham. It is 
 said that 11,000 Irish fell in this battle, which 
 gave a final blow to the restless O'Connors. 
 
 Audelay' {Battle of), 1118, in which Henry 
 I. (Beauclerc) defeated Louis VI. of France. 
 The object of this battle was to regain the 
 dukedom of Normandy, which Henry had 
 taken, for William, son of the deposed Robert. 
 
 Auerstadt (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1806, won 
 by the French Marshal Davoustover the Prus- 
 sians the same day as Napoleon won the battle 
 of Jena. [Pronounce Va-nah.l 
 
 Auglirim, in Ireland (Battle of), 12 July, 
 1691. Same as Aghrim (q.v.). 
 
 Augsburg (Battles of). I. 955, won by 
 Otto I. (the Great) of Germany over the Hun- 
 garians. 
 
 II 24 Aug., 1796, won by Moreau, who com- 
 manded the French armv, over the Imperialists. 
 
 III. Again 2 Sept., and again 7 Sept., 1796, 
 won by the same general (Moreau), 
 
 Austerlitz, in Moravia (Battle of), 2 
 Dec, 1805, in which Napoleon defeated the 
 Emperors of Austria and Russia. This great 
 victory led to the treaty of Presburg. It is 
 called ' The Battle of the Emperors.' 
 
 The Emperor of Austria was Francis, and 
 the Czar of Russia was Alexander I. It was 
 won by Napoleon on the anniversary of his 
 coronation. 
 
 Aylesford, in Kent (Battle of), A.D. 449, 
 between the Angles and the Britons. Horsa 
 fell in this battle, and the victory gave Kent 
 to Hengist the invader. The massacre which 
 followed the batt'e was merciless, and drove 
 the conquered Britons over sea or to lurking- 
 places in the forests, where many were cut down 
 and many were made slaves to the conquerors. 
 
 Badon, i.e. Bath (Battle of Mount), 520. 
 Called in Latin Mons Bndontcus. This legen- 
 dary battle was the 12th won by Arthur over 
 the' West Saxons, and checked for a time their 
 progress. 
 
 Ballinahincli (Battle of).U June, 1798, 
 against the insurgent Irish. The royal army 
 was, of course, victorious, but suffered very 
 severely. 
 
 Baltimore (Battle of), 12 Sept., 1814, won 
 by General Ross over the Americans, but Ross 
 was slain, and the attack on Baltimore failed. 
 
 Bannockburn (Battle of), 24 June, 1314, 
 in which Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated 
 Edward II. In this battle the flower of the 
 English knighthood fell into the hands of the 
 conquerors, while the Irishry and foot 
 soldiers were ruthlessly cut down as they 
 fled. For centuries afterwards, the rich 
 p'under of the English camp left its traces on 
 the vestment rolls of Scottish castle and abbey. 
 
 Bancs di Toloso (Battle of), 1210, in 
 which Alfonso IX. of Leon, <fec. defeated the 
 Moors. The loss of the Moors is stated to have 
 been 180,000 men. They never recovered from 
 this tremendous defeat. 
 
 Bantry Bay (Battle of), 1 May, 1689. 
 This was merely an indecisive engagement 
 with a French squadron. The English ad- 
 miral was Herbert earl of Torrington, noted 
 for his indolence and total want of seaman- 
 ship. 
 
 Barbury Hill, in Wiltshire (Battle of), 
 A.D. 552, in which the Angles defeated the 
 Britons. 
 
 Barnet, in Hertfordshire (Battle of), 14 
 April, 1471, in which the Earl of Warwick was 
 defeated and slain by Edward IV. This battle 
 was a medley of carnage and treachery. It 
 lasted six hours, and ended with the fall of 
 Warwick, the 'king-maker,' as he fled for 
 hiding to the woods. One more battle, that of 
 Tewkesbury, three weeks afterwards, left 
 Queen Margaret a captive in the victor's 
 power. 
 
 Barrosa (Battle of), 6 March, 1811, won by 
 General Graham, leader of the British army, 
 over Marshal Victor and his French army. In 
 this sanguinary conflict was captured the first 
 eagle that the British army had ever taken. 
 
 Bassano (Battle o/), 8 Sept., 1796, in which 
 Bonaparte defeated the Austrians. In this 
 battle Marshal Augereau and Marshal Massena 
 greatly distinguished themselves. 
 
 'Bebasovaih. (Battle of), 4 Nov., a.d. 657. The 
 first civil war of the Moslems. In this battle 
 Ali, the calif, defeated Ayesha, Telha, and 
 Zobeir. 
 
 *Sf* Generally pronounced Bass5rah, but it 
 should be called Bas'sorah or Bas'rah. 
 
 Bath.. See ' Badon." 
 
 Batowitz (Battle of), 1653, in which the 
 army of John II. of Poland suffered a crushing 
 defeat from Bogdan the Cossack and his son. 
 
 Battlefield (Battle of), 1402, won by 
 Henry IV. over Percy, surnamed Hotspur. 
 
 Bautzen (Battle of), 21 May, 1813, won by 
 Napoleon over the allied Russian and Prussian 
 armies. Pronounce Bowt-zn, 
 
 Baylen (Battle of), 19 July, 1808, in which 
 the Spanish General Castanos utterly defeated 
 Dupont and his French army. 
 
 Bazabdfe (Battle of), A.D. 360, in which 
 Sapor the king of Persia repulsed Constantius 
 II. 
 
 Beachy Head (Battle of), 30 June, 1690, 
 in which the English and Dutch allied fleet 
 was defeated by the French. 
 
 Beaugd (Battle of), 1420, won by the 
 French over the Duke of Clarence, brother of 
 Henry V. In this battle Clarence was slain, 
 and the Earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Hunt- 
 ingdon were taken prisoners. The victory is 
 ascribed to a contingent of Scotch mercenaries. 
 
BEAUMONT 
 
 BOUVINES 
 
 971 
 
 Beaumont {Battle of), 28 Aug., 1870, in 
 the Franco-German war. Won by the Prus- 
 sians. 
 
 Bedr {Baitle of), A.D. 624, the famous battle 
 in which Mahomet defeated the Koreishites. 
 He ascribed his victory to Gabriel, who fought 
 on his white horse for the ' prophet.' 
 
 Belgrade {Battle of), 1456, in which the 
 Turks were defeated by a German army. The 
 famous Siege of Belgrade was in May, 1717, 
 by Prince Eugene. The Turks went to relieve 
 the city, Aug. 5, with 200,000 men, and, after a 
 very sanguinary battle, Belgrade surrendered. 
 
 *** This city has often been besieged. 
 
 Bell air, or Moorfields {Battle of ), in Mary- 
 laud, 30 Aug., 1814, A small British force 
 under Sir Peter Parker attacked the town, 
 but, after an obstinate fight, were repulsed 
 with loss. Sir Peter being slain. 
 
 Belle Isle {JVaval batth's of), 25 Oct., 1747, 
 in which Admiral Hawke well nigh annihilated 
 the French fleet. In 1759 Admiral Hawke 
 obtained a second victory over the French 
 near the same spot. 
 
 Benacus {Battle of Lake), 268, in which 
 Claudius defeated the Alemanni. 
 
 Benburb {Battle of), 5 June, 1646, in 
 whicli Owen O'Neill the Irish chieftain com- 
 pletely defeated the Scotch and English, led b .• 
 Monroe. Of the Scotch and English, 3,243 
 were slain in battle and many more on the 
 road ; of the Irish army, only 70 men were 
 slain and 200 wounded. Owen Koe O'Neill died 
 soon after the battle, the last of the Irish 
 chitfs. 
 
 Bennington, Vermont, TJ.S. {Battle of), 
 16 July, 1777. Here the Americans defeated 
 the Germans in the American War of Indepen- 
 dence. These Germans were British merce- 
 naries. The American general was Stark. 
 
 Bensington, in Oxfordshire {Battle of), 
 in which Offa king of Mercia defeated Cyne- 
 wulf king of the West Saxons. 
 
 Beresina {Battle of), 28 Nov., 1812, in 
 which the French were attacked by the Rus- 
 sians, and lost 20,000 men. It was a most 
 terrible disaster on their retreat from Moscow, 
 
 Bergen {Battles of). I. 14 April, 1.759, won 
 by the French over the allies, 
 
 II. 19 Sept., 1799, won also by the French over 
 the allies, 
 
 III. 2 Oct,, 1799, won by the French over the 
 allies. 
 
 Biberaeh. {Battle of), April, 1799, in which 
 Marshal Moreau, the French general, defeated 
 the Austrians. 
 
 Bibracte {BaXtU of), b.c. 58, in which 
 Julius Caesar overthrew the Gauls. 
 Bibracte is Autun, in Burgundy. 
 
 Bicocco {Battle of), 1521, in wliich Charles 
 v. defeated Lautrec, the French general. This 
 defeat involved the loss of Milan to the French 
 nation. 
 
 Bilbao {Battle of), 25 Dec, 1836, won by 
 Espartero over the Carlists. (Christmas Day.) 
 
 Blaekkeath. {Battle of), 22 June, 1497, 
 in which the Cornish insurgents led by Lord 
 Audley, Michael Joseph, and Thomas Flam- 
 mock, met a crushing defeat from the army 
 sent against them by Henr}' VII. Above 
 2,000 of the insurgents were slain and 1,500 
 taken prisoners. 
 
 Bladensburg {Battle of), 24 Aug., 1814, 
 in which General Ross defeated the Americans 
 commanded by General Winder in the second 
 American war, 
 
 Blenheim, in Bavaria {Battle of), 13 Aug., 
 1704, in which Marlborough and Prince 
 Eugene defeated the French and Bavarians. 
 The great benefit of this victory was tliat 
 it broke the spell of French invincibility. 
 The many victories that the Frencli had won 
 induced Europe to believe they were irresis- 
 tible; but the fate of Blenheim dispe'led the 
 delusion and raised the fame of England in 
 proportion. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the Wo?id. 
 
 Borodi'no, in Russia {Battle bf), 7 Sept., 
 1812, between the French commanded by 
 Napoleon, and the Russians under Kutusoif. 
 This was one of the most sanguinary battles on 
 record, and both sides claimed the victory ; but 
 as the Russians retreated, the advantage was 
 with Napoleon, to whom the road to Moscow 
 was left open. 
 
 This battle is also called 'The Battle of 
 Moskwa.' 
 
 Boroughbridge {Battle of), 16 March, 
 1323, in which the royal troops of Edward II. 
 led by Sir Simon Ward and Sir Andrew 
 Barclay defeated the Earls of Lancaster and 
 Hertford, two of the lords ordainers who had 
 risen against the royal favourites Hugli le 
 Despeuser and his father. Lancaster, being 
 taken prisoner, was hanged, drawn, and 
 quartered as a traitor. 
 
 Fourteen bannerets and fourteen knights 
 bachelors were hanged, drawn, and quartered, 
 with the earl. 
 
 Borystbenes {Battle of the), 1508, won 
 by Sigismund I. of Poland over the Muscovites. 
 It is said th.it the Muscovites lost 80,000 men in 
 this battle. Pronounce Bo-Hs'-then-eze. 
 
 Bos worth Field, in Leicestershire 
 {Battle of), 22 Aug., 1485, in which Richard III. 
 was defeated and slain by the Earlof Richmond 
 (Henry VII.). This batt e brought the Plan- 
 tagenet dynasty to an end, and established that 
 of Tudor, 
 
 The Tudors were descendants of John of 
 Gaant's il egitimate offspring, bom of Cathe- 
 rine Swynford. The last of this line, called 
 Beaufort, was Lady Margaret, who married 
 Edmund Tudor, and became the mother of our 
 Henry VII. 
 
 Bouvines, in Flanders {Battle of), 27 July, 
 1217, in which Philippe Auguste king of 
 France defeated the Kaiser Otto and his allies, 
 
972 
 
 BOXTEL 
 
 CADESIA 
 
 the Flemish and English. The Flemish were 
 the first to fly, then the German centre gave 
 way, and lastij^ the English on tlie right wing, 
 led by the Earl of Sa'is!)ury. This was a very 
 important battle. If Philippe had lost it, 
 France would have been partitioned among the 
 conquerors. As King John was one of the de- 
 feated allies, his vengeance against the English 
 barons was powerless, and hence the grant of 
 Magna Charta. 
 
 Boxtel {Battle of), 17 Sept., 1794, in which 
 the British allied army commanded by the 
 Duke of York was defeated by the French re- 
 publican arm3\ The Duke retreated across the 
 Meuse. 
 
 Boyne, in Ireland {Battle of the), 1 July, 
 1690, where William III. defeated James II., 
 who the parliament declared had abdicated. 
 
 Bradford on the Avon (Battle o/), A.D. 
 657, in which Cenwalh defeated the Britons. 
 
 Brandyivine, a river in the U.S. (Battle 
 of the), 11 Sept., 1777. Won by Lord Howe over 
 Washington, in the American War of Inde- 
 pendence, Philadelphia fell to the possession 
 of the victors. 
 
 Breslau. Between 1757-60, in the ' Seven 
 Years' War,' it was taken and retaken by the 
 Prussians under Frederick the Great and the 
 Austrians ; but in 1763 Silesia passed defini- 
 tively into the hands of the Prussians. 
 
 It was besieged and surrendered to the 
 French 5 Jan., 1807 ; and again 31 May, 1813. 
 
 Pronounce Bres-low (ow as in now). 
 
 Bretigny (Treaty of), 1360, after the 
 battle of Poitiers. It stipulated that Edward 
 III. should renounce all claim to the crown of 
 France ; but should retain Calais, and be the 
 independent lord of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, 
 Sahitonge, the Limousin, and Guyenne. The 
 French also paid in money 366,000^. and gave 
 40 hostages. 
 
 Briar's Creek, in South Carolina 
 (Battles of). I. 16 March, 1779, won by the 
 English army led by General Prevost over the 
 Americans commanded by General Ashe. 
 
 II. 3 May, 1779, by the same belligerents and 
 with the same results. 
 
 Brienne (Battle of), 29 Jan., 1814, won by 
 Napoleon over the allied Russians and Prus- 
 sians led by Bllicher. 
 
 Brooklyn, U.S. (Battleof), 27 Aug., 1776, 
 where General Howe defeated the Americans in 
 the American War of Independence. This is 
 sometimes called ' The Battle of Flatbush.' 
 
 Brunanburh (Battle of), 937, won by 
 Athelstan king of England over a confederacy 
 organised by Anlaf king of Ireland. The con- 
 fe lerated chiefs who joinetl Anlaf were from 
 Scotland, Cumberland, together with some 
 Welsh or British chiefs, and some of the Danes 
 settled by Alfred in the Five Boroughs. 
 
 Bull Run, Virginia (Battles of), 21 July, 
 1861. I. The first of the conflicts in the American 
 Civil War. The Federals, under General Irwin 
 
 M'Dowell, were successful at first ; but when 
 some Confederate reinforcements arrived, being 
 seized with a panic, they fled to Washington, 
 leaving their baggage and ammunition behind. 
 The Confederate generals were Beauregard and 
 Jackson. 
 
 II. 30 Aug., 1862. A desperate conflict which 
 also ended in the triumph of the Confederates, 
 commanded by General [Stonewall] Jackson. 
 The Northern army was under General Pope. 
 
 **.* It was General [Bernard] Bee who gave 
 Jackson this cognomen at Bull Run. 
 
 Bulla (Buttle of), 15 Sept., a.d. 533, in 
 which Belisarius defeated Gelimer, last of the 
 Vandal kings of Carthage. Gelimer was made 
 captive, and Carthage became a Roman pro- 
 vince. 
 
 Bunker's Hill, near Boston, V.S. (Battle 
 of), 17 June, 1775, two months after the battle 
 of Lexington. Nominally the result was favour- 
 able to Lord Howe and the British troops, but 
 the real victory was on the side of the American 
 insurgents, led by Colonel Prescot. The British 
 loss of men was double that of the Americans. 
 
 Burford, Oxfordshire (Battle of), 752, ia 
 which Cuthred king of Wessex defeated Ethel- 
 bald king of Mercia. In a second defeat at 
 Secandum, in 755, Ethelbald was slain. 
 
 This battle between Wessex and Mercia was 
 one of the best contested battles of the hep- 
 tarchy. 
 
 BuTlieTSdorf (Battle of), 21 July, 1762, in 
 which the Prussians drove the Austrians from 
 their entrenchments. (In the seventh cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Burlington Heights (Battleof), 6 June, 
 1813, won by the British, who carried the 
 heights, but the Americans defended them with 
 great valour. 
 
 Busac'o, in Portugal (Battle of), 27 Sept., 
 1810, in which Lord Wellington, the British 
 commander, defeated the French, commanded 
 by Massena. After the battle, Wellington re- 
 treated to Torres Vedras. 
 
 ButtingtoD, in Wales (Battle of), AJ>. 
 894, in which Ethelred defeated the Danes. 
 
 Byland, in Yorkshire (Battle of), 1328, in 
 which Robert the Bruce routed the chivalry of 
 England and of France under Edward III. 
 
 Cadesia (Battle of), a.d. 636, in which 
 Ysdegerd (king of Persia) was defeated by 
 Khaled, commander of the Saracen army. The 
 battle lasted three days. The first was called 
 the Day of Succour, from a reinforcement of 
 3U,000 which arrived on that day. The second 
 day was called the Bay of Concussion, from the 
 conflict of the two armies on that day. The 
 third day was called the Day of Bai-king, from 
 the discordant noises of the Persian camp when 
 a high wind drove clouds of dust into their 
 faces. In this battle the famous standard called 
 'Durufsh e Kawanee,' better known as the 
 ' Blacksmith's Apron,' fell into the hands ot 
 the Saracens. 
 
CAMBUSKENNETH 
 
 CHARFORD 
 
 973 
 
 Cambuskenneth. {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
 1297, in which William Wallace defeated the 
 English army under the Earl of Surrey. By 
 this victory Scotland was lost to Edward I. 
 
 Cambuskenneth is close to Stirling Bridge. 
 Wallace allowed half the English army to cross 
 the bridge, then fell on them, and, taking posses- 
 sion of the bridge, prevented the rest of the 
 English from crossing it. 
 
 Camden, South Carolina, U.S. {Battles 
 of). I. 16 Aug., 1780. Here Lord Comwallis 
 defeated the American General Gates in the 
 American War of Independence. 
 
 II. 25 April, 1781, won by Lord Rawdon, the 
 British general, over General Greene of Ame- 
 rica. 
 
 III. 13 May, 1781, won by the same general 
 over the same opponents. Camden was burnt. 
 
 Camperdown (Battle of ),n Oct., 1797, in 
 whicli Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch. 
 
 Cannaa (Battle of), 2 Aug., B.C. 216, in 
 which Hannibal the Carthagiruan utterly de- 
 feated the Romans led by the Consul Varro. 
 This was one of the most disastrous defeats 
 ever suffered. At least 40,000 Roman foot and 
 3,000 horse were left uead on the field. 
 
 Cape St. Vincent (Battles of). 1. 17 June, 
 1693, in which Sir George Rooke was defeated 
 by Tourville the French admiral. 
 
 II. 14 Feb., 1797, in which Sir John Jervis 
 defeated the Spanish fleet. 
 
 Caravaggio (Battle of), 1448, in which 
 Sforza defeated the Venetians, took all their 
 stores and 15,000 prisoners. 
 
 CaristO (Batdeof), 29 Aug., 1351, a great 
 naval \'ictory of Venice over the Genoese. 
 
 Carthagena, South America (Naval battle 
 of ), 1747. It was seized by the French in 1544 ; 
 taken by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; retaken by 
 the French in 1697; and unsuccessfully besieged 
 by Admiral Vernon in 1747. 
 
 Casal SecCO (Battle of), 12 July, 1426, 
 This was scarcely a battle. It was rather an 
 affray between the Venetians led by Carma- 
 gnuola and the Milanese under the leadership of 
 Francesco Sforza. It was not decisive, but the 
 Venetians had the advantage in that they com- 
 pelled the Milanese to retire to their lines. 
 
 Casalecchio (Battle of), 26 June, 1402, in 
 which Visconti signally defeated the Bolognese. 
 
 Cassa'no (Battle of), 28 April, 1799, in 
 which Suwarrow, the Russian general, defeated 
 Mai-ohal Moreau and took 5,000 French prisoners. 
 
 Cassel (Battle of), 1677, won by the Due 
 d'Orleans over the Dutch. 
 
 Castel Nuovo (Battle of), 29 Sept., 1806, 
 in which the Russians were defeated by the 
 French. 
 
 Castiglione (Battle of), from 2 to 5 Aug., 
 179G, in which Bonaparte defeated the Aus- 
 triaus under W^urmser. Here Marshal Augereau 
 greatly distinguished himself, and was created 
 Duo de Castiglione (5 syl.). 
 
 Castillon (Battle of), 17 July, 1453. The 
 most signsil defeat suffered by the English. 
 Here the Earl of Shrewsbury and his son were 
 slain. This victory put an end to the dominion 
 of the English in France. 
 
 Castlebar, in Ireland (Battle of), 27 Aug., 
 1798. This was not strictly a battle. In 1798 
 the Irish rose in revolt, and were suppressed on 
 Vinegar Hill, near Wexford, by General Lake, 
 21 June, 1798. Scarcely was this done, when 
 General Humbert landed with 1,000 French 
 soldiers, and defeated Lake and Hutchinson, 
 who had some 3,000 men under them, at Castle- 
 bar. The lord-lieutenant, Lord Cornwallis, now 
 marched against the invaders and Irish re- 
 volters, at the head of 30,000 men, and compelled 
 Humbert to surrender. 
 
 Catalaixnian Plains (Battle of the), a.d. 
 451. Here Attila king of the Huns was van- 
 quished by the Gallic Mer-wig, or Meroveus, 
 who united with the Roman anny. 
 
 Cattraeth. (Battle of), a.d. 547, won by Ida 
 the Saxon over the British Confederacy. In 
 this confederacy there were 363 Britons distin- 
 guished by golden torques. 
 
 Cerignola (Battle of ), 1503, won by Gon- 
 zalvo of Cordova over the French. 
 
 Cheeroneia (Battles of). I. b.c. 447, in 
 whicli the Athenians were defeated by the Boeo- 
 tians, and their general Tolmidas was slain. 
 
 II. 2 Aug. B.C. 338, won by Philip of Mace- 
 don over the allied Theba'n and Athenian 
 army. This battle made Greece a province of 
 the Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 It was in this battle that Demosthenes the 
 orator served as a foot-so dier, and fled. 
 
 III. B.C. 81, in which Syila, or Sulla, over- 
 threw Archelaos, the best general of Mithri- 
 dates VI. king of Pontus, sent to aid the 
 Athenians who had revolted against Rome. 
 The army of Mithridates (4 syl.) consisted of 
 100,000 men, with 10,000 horse, and 90 scythed 
 cars. The whole army of Scylla did not exceed 
 30,000 men. Pronounce Ke-ro-ne'-ah. 
 
 Chalgrove, in Oxfordshire (Battle of), 
 18 June, 1643. This was a skirmish between 
 the parliamentarians and royalists, which is 
 only noteworthy because it was here that 
 Hampden was mortally wounded. Generally 
 callal ' Chalgrove Field.' 
 
 Ch4lons (Battle of), A.D. 451, in which 
 Aetiusand Theodoric utterly overthrew Attila. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Champ-Aubert (Battles of), lO Feb., 
 1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led 
 by BlUcher. And again 14 Feb., 1814. 
 
 Chancellorsville, U.S. (Battle of), 
 2 May, 1863, won by the Confederates under 
 Lee and Jackson. The Northern army was 
 commanded by General Joseph Hooker. 
 
 Cbarford (Battle of), a.d. 519, in which 
 a band of Saxons under Cerdic defeated the 
 Britons. This victory set the crown of the 
 West Saxons on the conqueror's head. 
 
974 
 
 CHARMOUTH 
 
 CORUNNA 
 
 Cliarinouth. {Battle of), a.d. 850, in which 
 Ethelwulf king of Wessex was defeated by the 
 Danes. 
 
 Charrse {Battle of), b.c. 53, in which the 
 Roman army under Crassus the triumvir was 
 defeated by Sureuas, a principal officer of 
 Urodes, ' king of kings.' Crassus was treach- 
 erously seized in a conference, and killed by 
 molten gold being poured down his throat. 
 
 Charroe is Haran [Harran] where Abraham 
 once dwelt. 
 
 CMteau Thierry {Battle of), 13 Feb., 
 1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led 
 by Bliicher. 
 
 Chesapeake {Battle of the),17Sl, in which 
 the British admiral, Graves, was repulsed by 
 the French admiral, De Grasse, fighting for the 
 Americans in their struggle for independence. 
 See ' Shannon and Chesapeake,' &c. 
 
 Chester {Battle of), 607, won by Ethel- 
 frith over the North Britons. In this battle 
 2,000 monks of Bangor, who had invoked 
 divine vengeance on the invaders, were the 
 first to fall. 
 
 Chiekahominy {Battle of), 25 June to 
 1 July, 1862, in the American Civil War. 
 ' Stonewall ' Jackson, a Confederate general, 
 greatly distinguished himself in these conflicts. 
 
 Chickamatiga, U.S. {Battle of), 19, 20 
 Sept., 1863, won by the Confederates under 
 General Bragg. The Northern army was com- 
 manded by General Rosecrans. 
 
 Chillian wallah (Battle of), in India, 
 13 January, 1849, in which the Sikhs were 
 completely routed by General Lord Gough. 
 *«* Gough, pronounce Goff. 
 
 Chippewa {Battles of). I. 5 July, 1814, in 
 which the British forces under Gf'neral Riall 
 were defeated by the Americans led by General 
 Browne. 
 
 II. 25 July, 1814. Between the English and 
 North Americans. Both claimed the victory. 
 The British were led by General Drummond 
 and General Riall ; the Americans by Winfield 
 Scott and General Browne. Riall was wounded 
 and taken prisoner. See ' Lucdy {Battle of).' 
 
 Chrysop'olis, Scutari {Battleof), A.D. 323, 
 won by Constantine over Licinius. 
 
 ClontBiXf {Battle of). Good Friday, 23 April, 
 1014, in which Brian Boru king of Munster 
 and Connaught utterly defeated the con- 
 federated Danes of England, Wales, Ireland, 
 and Denmark. This battle, which lasted all 
 day, was one of the most decisive ever fought. 
 It is said that 14,000 Danes were slain, and 
 7,000 Irish. Brian fell by assassination in his 
 tent, aged 88. 
 
 Cnidus {Naval battle of), B.C. 394, won by 
 Conon, the commander of the allied Phoenician 
 and Grecian fleet, over Pisander the Lacedse- 
 monian. This defeat deprived LacediBmou of 
 her recently gained maritime ascendency. 
 
 Coblenz {Battle of), B.C. 55, in which 
 Julius Caesar annihilated the German swarms. 
 
 It is said that 150,000 of them were either 
 slain or drowned in the Rhine. 
 
 Cocherel, near Evreux {Battle of), 1364, in 
 which Charles Y. le Sage of France, by his 
 General Duguesclin, defeated Charles the Bad 
 king of Navarre. 
 
 Cold Harbor. {Battle of), in Virginia, 
 3 June, 1864, between the Federals under Gen. 
 Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Lee. 
 It was very bloody, but indecisive. 
 
 Colline Gate {Battle of the), 23 Aug., 
 B.C. 82, in which Pontius, leader of the Sam- 
 nites, was defeated by Crassus. Sylla mas- 
 sacred the 6,000 captive Samnites taken in this 
 battle. 
 
 Conquereux or Conquerueil, in 
 
 France {Battles of). I. a.d. 981, in which 
 Geofl'rey count of Anjou was defeated by 
 Conan comte de Rennes. 
 
 II. A.D. 992, in which Conan comte de 
 Rennes was defeated and slain by Foulques 
 Nerra duke of Anjou. 
 
 Copenhagen {Battle of), 2 April, 1801, 
 won over the Danish fleet by Admiral Lord 
 Nelson and Admiral Parker. 
 
 Corinth {Battle of), b.c. 394, won by the 
 Lacedaemonians over the allied Corinthian 
 army. 
 
 Coronea {Battles of). I. b.c. 447, won by 
 the Boeotians over the Athenians. This great 
 disaster caused the death of Isocrates, ' the old 
 man eloquent.' 
 
 II, B.C. 394, in which Agesilaos king of 
 Sparta defeated the allied Athenians, Thebans, 
 Argives (2 syl.), and Corinthians. 
 
 Corrichie {Battle of), between the Earl of 
 Huntley (a Catholic) and the Earl of Mar (a 
 Protestant). The bone of contention was the 
 earldom of Murray, which Mary the Queen 
 first gave to the Earl of Huntley, and then re- 
 called, that she might give it to her brother, 
 the Earl of Mar. The feud culminated in the 
 battle of Corrichie, in which the Earl of 
 Huntley fell. 
 
 The houses of Huntley and Murray were 
 mortal enemies. The fatal battle of Corrichie 
 was an event not to be forgotten nor forgiven. 
 Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxviii. 
 
 Cortenudva {Battle of), 17 Nov., 1237, 
 in which Kaiser Frederick II. defeated the 
 Milanese. 
 
 Corunna {Battle of), 16 January, 1809. 
 This was not a- battle, but a fight to keep the 
 enemy at bay while the British troops were 
 safely embarked. Sir John Moore had to retire 
 before a French force, and repulsed the foe, 
 which pressed har.l upon him. The British 
 loss was very great, and amongst the slain was 
 Sir John Moore. The French say, ' n y perdit 
 le 16 Jan., 1809, la bataille, qui lui coMa la vie, 
 et qui for(^a ses troupes a abandonner toute 
 I'E^pagne.' Of course, after the British troops 
 ha I set sail. Marshal Soult occupied Corunna, 
 and therefore claimed the victory. 
 
CORUPEDION 
 
 DENNEWITZ 
 
 971 
 
 Corupedion, near Salamis (Battle of), 
 B.C. 281, in wliich Lysimachus was defeated, 
 and Macedonia, with most other parts of Alex- 
 ander's vast empire, fell under the hands of 
 Seleucus. 
 
 Courtray (Battles of). I. In 1302, in which 
 the French were defeated by the Flemings, com- 
 manded by Count John of Namur liVa-moor''] 
 and William de Juliers. This was ' The Battle 
 of the Spurs,' so called because more than 4,(i00 
 gilt spurs were picked up on the field. These 
 were the spurs of French knights slain in the 
 battle. 
 
 II. In 1793, in wliich the French defeated 
 the English. 
 
 *«* Courtray has been often lost and won. 
 
 Coutras (Battle of), 20 Oct., 1587, in 
 which Henri (afterwards the IV. of France), 
 at the head of the Huguenot army, utterly 
 routed the Leaguers or Catholics led by the 
 Due de Joyeuse. 
 
 Cowpens, South Carolina, U.S. (Battle 
 of), 11 Jan. 1811. Here the Americans de- 
 feated the British, in the American War of 
 Independence. The English troops were led by 
 Colonel Tarleton, the Americans by Colonel 
 Morgan. The colours, cannons, and baggage 
 waggons fell into the hands of the victors, and 
 the loss of the British amounted to at least 600 
 men, while that of the Americans was trifling. 
 
 Cran'on (Battle of), B.C. 322, in which the 
 Macedonians led by Antipiter and Crateros 
 defeated the confederated Greeks both by sea 
 and land. We are told that Hyperides, being 
 taken prisoner, was put under torture, and bit 
 or cut ofiE his tongue that he might betray no 
 secrets. 
 
 Crayford (Battle of), aj). 457, in which 
 the Saxons triumphed over the Britons, who 
 abandoned Kent and fled to London. 
 
 Probably the same as the battle of the Darent. 
 The river Cray runs into the Darent. 
 
 Cressy or Cr^ci, in France (Battle of), 
 Saturday, 26 Aug., 1346, in which Edward III. 
 of England defeated Philippe VI. of France. 
 The victory was mainly due to the Black Prince, 
 who in this battle won his spurs. In this great 
 victory 1,200 French knights and 30,000 foot- 
 soldiers (a number equal to the whole English 
 army) lay dead on the field. The siege of 
 Calais followed, and its surrender to the vic- 
 torious king. 
 
 This is the gi-eatest victory ever won. The 
 French were at least four times more numerous 
 than the English, but they lost two kings, 
 eleven great princes, eighty bannerets, 1,200 
 kuights, and 30,000 rank and file. The English 
 lost three knights one squire, and an insigni- 
 ficant number of inferior rank. After the 
 battle. King Edward sent Lords Cobham and 
 Surrey, with a number of secretaries and 
 heralds, to take a record of the slain; and 
 their recoi-d is still exf ant. 
 
 (Jropredy Bridge, near Banbury (Battle 
 of), 29 June, 1644, in which Charles I. defeated 
 
 Sir W. Waller, one of the Parliamentary 
 oflBcers. 
 
 Cullod'en, near Inverness (Battle of), 16 
 April, 1746, in which the Duke of Cumberland 
 completely overthrew the Young Pretender, 
 Charles Edward, and stamped out Jacobitism 
 for ever. Charles Edward escaped to France, 
 three Scptch nobles were beheaded, fifty of 
 Charles's followers were hanged, and forty per- 
 sons of rank attainted. 
 
 Cunax'a (Battle of), b.c. 401, between 
 Cyrus the Younger and his brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon. Cyrus was slain. Tliis event has 
 been rendered especially famous by ' the retreat 
 of the 10,000' Greeks, led by Xenophon the 
 historian, who also wrote an account of it in 
 his ' Anabasis.' 
 
 Cunersdorf (Battle of), 12 Aug., 1759, 
 won by the Eussians over the King of 
 Prussia. 
 
 Cunobizza (Battle of), 1444, won by 
 Huuyades over the Sultan Amurath II. 
 
 Cynoscepll'alee, or the Dogheads (Battle 
 of), B.C. 197, in which Philip V. of Macedon 
 was utterly defeated by Flaminius the Pioman 
 consul. By this defeat Macedonia lost her 
 supremacy in Greece. 
 
 Cynossema (]\^aval battle of), B.C. 411, 
 won by the Athenians over the Lacedaemo- 
 nians. Cynossema means 'dog's tomb,' so 
 called from being the traditional tomb of 
 Heciiba, who had been metamorphosed into a 
 dog. 
 
 Cyzicum (Battle of), B.C. 410, won by the 
 Athenians over the Lacedasmonian fleet com- 
 manded by Mindaros and assisted by Pharua- 
 basus the Persian. 
 
 Czaslau (Battle of), 17 May, 1742, in which 
 Frederick IT. of Prussia defeated Prince Charles 
 of Lorraine. In the War of the Austrian Suc- 
 cession. Pronounce Tshas-low (ow as in now). 
 
 Deegsaslan, north of the river Tees (Battle 
 of), 603, won by Ethelfrith over the forces of 
 the Northern Britons. By this great victory 
 the rule of Northumbria, from the Humber to 
 the Forth, was established. Daegsaslan is Dal- 
 ton, in Yorkshire. 
 
 Danbury, Connecticut, U.S. (Battle of), 
 26 April, 1777, won by the English, who set 
 fire to the town. In the American War of 
 Independence. 
 
 DegO (Battle of), 15 April, 1796, in which 
 Bonaparte repulsed the Austriaus. 
 
 Delium (Bat/l- of), b.c. 424, won by the 
 Boeotians over the Athenians in the eighth year 
 of the Peloponnesian war. This battle was the 
 most disastrous ami most decisive of all the 
 battles fought in the first eight years of the 
 war. 
 
 Denain (Battle of), 1712, won by the 
 French, commanded by Marshal Villars, over 
 Prince Eugene. 
 
 Dennewitz (Battle of), 6 Sept., 1813, won 
 by Marshal Bernadotte [afterwards Charles 
 
976 
 
 DEORHAM 
 
 EDGECOTB 
 
 XTV. of Sweden] over Marshal Ney. The loss 
 of the French was 16,000 men, Napoleon's de- 
 feat at Leipsic the following month (16, 18, 19 
 Oct.) closed his reverses in this disastrous year. 
 
 Deorliain, in Gloucestershire {Battle of ), 
 577, ill which the West Saxons conquered the 
 Britons. Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath, 
 which had leagued under the British king in 
 this contest, became the spoil of the conquerors. 
 Three British kings, viz. Conmail, Condidan, 
 and Fariumail, fell in this battle. 
 
 Dessau {Battle of), 1626, won by Wallen- 
 stein in the Catholic interest. This was one of 
 the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 *.j5* Pronounce Des-soic (ow as in now). 
 
 Dettingen {Battles of) I. 27 June, 1743, in 
 which George II. defeated the French under 
 Marshal Noailles. In a military point of view 
 this battle was a very small matter, consisting 
 of extricating Lord Stair from a position in 
 which his blundering had placed hiui. George 
 II. cut his way out. The effect of this success 
 was considerable, for the French evacuated 
 Germany, and the fortunes of Maria Theresa 
 revived. This battle, which was in the War 
 of the Austrian Succession, was the last in 
 which an English sovereign engaged in person. 
 
 II. 26 July, 1866, in which the Prussians 
 defeated the Bavarians in the Austro- Prussian 
 war. 
 
 Diamond {Battle of the), Sept., 1795. A 
 battle in Ireland between the Orangemen 
 and Catholics ; so-called from the place where 
 it was fought, county Antrim. 
 
 Dolabella {Battle of), a.d. 24, in which 
 Tacfarinas the African freebooter was defeated 
 by a Eoman army and slain. 
 
 Donnington {Battles of). I. in 1643, in 
 which the parliamentarians were defeated by 
 Colonel Cavendish. 
 
 II. in 1645, in which the royalists, led by Lord 
 Ashton, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. 
 
 These are not the same places. The former 
 is in Lincolnshire ; the latter in Gloucester- 
 shire. 
 
 Douro {Battle of the), 12 May, 1809, won by 
 Sir Arthur Welles' ey (duke of Wellington) 
 over Sou;t,the French marshal. 
 
 For this exploit Sir Arthur was created 
 Baron Douro. 
 
 Dresden {Battles of). 1. 28 Oct., 1806, where 
 Napoleon defeated the Prussians. 
 
 II. 26, 27 Aug., 1813, won by Napoleon over 
 the allies, led by the Prince of Schwarzenberg. 
 Marshal Idioreau was slain in this battle. 
 
 Dreux {Battle of), 1562, between the Ca- 
 tholics and Huguenots, in the first religious 
 war of France. Marshal St. Andre, one of the 
 French Triumvirate {q.v.), was slain ; but the 
 Catholics claimed the victory as Prince Conde 
 was taken piisoner. 
 
 Dryfe Viands {Battle of), 1593. Between 
 the Maxwells and Johnstones, the former of 
 whom was left dead on the field. This was the 
 last great clan battle fought on the borders. 
 
 Dunbar {Battles of). I. 27 April, 1296, in 
 which the English, under John Earl of 
 Warrenne, defeated Baliol's army with great 
 slaughter. 
 
 II. 3 Sept., 1650, in which Cromwell utterly 
 defeated the Scotch, led by Leslie. After this 
 victory, Edinburgh Castle and several other 
 strong fortresses fell into the hands of Crom- 
 well. 
 
 Ten thousand prisoners fell into Cromwell's 
 hands in this victory, with all the baggage 
 and guns ; and as many as 3,000 were slain. 
 Spain instantly recognised the commonwealth, 
 and Holland offered its alliance. 
 
 Dunes {Battle of the), 4 June, 1658, iu 
 wiiich the English and French defeated the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 Dungan Hill {Battle of), 10 July, 1647, 
 in which the Irish were defeated by Colonel 
 Jones. 
 
 Dunsin'nane {Battle of), 1057, won by 
 Seward over the army of Macbeth. Macbeth 
 fled and was slain at Lumphanan, in Aber- 
 deenshire. 
 
 *«* Called by Shakespeare Dunsinane. 
 
 Dupplin Moor {Battle of), 1332, in 
 which an army of 40,000 Scots was utterly 
 defeated by some 3,0(K) Englishmen. Above 
 13,000 of the Scotch were slain, and not above 
 30 of the English. 
 
 Durham {Battle of), 17 Oct., 1346, in which 
 Queen Philippa defeated David Bruce king of 
 Scotland, who was taken prisoner. 
 
 Durham Station, North Carolina, the 
 ' Sedan ' of the American Civil War. Here (10 
 May, 1865) General Johnston, who had the chief 
 command of the Confederates, surrendered to 
 General Sherman, and thus brought the war to 
 an end. The war began in 1861. 
 
 Durrenstein {Battle of), 11 Nov., 1805, 
 in which the French were defeated by the 
 Kussians. 
 
 Ebersberg {Battle of), 13 May, 1809, in 
 which the French Marshal Massena defeated 
 the Austrians. 
 
 Eckmiihl in Bavaria {Battle of), 22 April, 
 18u9, won by Napoleon over the Archduke 
 Karl, leader of the Austrians. All the Austrian 
 artillery, fifteen standards, and 20,000 prisoners 
 fell to the French in this battle. 
 
 April 23, Napoleon was wounded in the heel. 
 
 Ec'nomus {Naval battle of), B.C. 256, in 
 the first Punic war. The Roman fleet was 
 victorious over the Carthaginian. 
 
 *.j.* Ecnomus, now Monteserrato. 
 
 Eddington or Ethandun, near Westbury 
 in Wilts {Battle of). May 11, A.D. 878, in which 
 Alfred completely overthrew the Danes and 
 recovered his throne. Finding it impossible 
 to drive the Danes out of the kingdom, he 
 allowed them to settle in East Anglia, &C., 
 provided they became Christians, 
 
 Edgecote {Battle of), 26 July, 1469, in 
 which the royal forces were defeated by 
 Lancastrian insurgents. 
 
EDGEHILL 
 
 FREDERICKSBURG 
 
 977 
 
 Edgehill {Battle of), 23 Oct., 1642. An 
 indecisive battle between the royalists led by 
 Prince Rupert and the parliamentary party 
 led by the Earl of Essex. This was the fi rst 
 battle between Charles I. and his subjects. The 
 king himself was personally present in this 
 battle. 
 
 Elchingen (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1805, in 
 which the French under Marshal Ney defeated 
 the Austrians. 
 ' Ellandun (Battle of), 823, in which Egbert 
 defeated Beoruwulf of Mercia. Ellandun is 
 Wilton, close by Salisbury, a little to the 
 south-east of Ethandun or Eddington, famous 
 for one of Alfred's victories. 
 
 Elster (Battle of), 5 Oct., 1080, won by 
 Heiurich IV. of Germany over Rudolf, the 
 pseudo-emperor appointed by the diet of 
 Forscheira. Rudolf died of his wounds. 
 
 Emmendingen (Battle of). 19 Oct., 1796. 
 The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau 
 the French general. 
 
 Engen (Battle of), April, 1799, in which 
 Moreau the French general defeated the 
 Austrians. 
 
 Enghien (Baffle of), 3 Aug., 1692, won by 
 the French under Marshal Luxembourg over 
 William III. Enghien (3 syl.). 
 
 Epila (Battle of), 1348, in which the 
 Union of Aragon was overthrown. This was 
 the last battle of Aragon fouglit in defence of 
 public liberty. The ' Privilege of Union' was 
 abolished, Peter himself cutting to pieces with 
 his sword the original charter. 
 
 Espierres (Battle of), 22 May, 1794, in 
 which the French were repulsed by the allied 
 English and Austrians. 
 
 Essling (Battle of), 21, 22 May, 1809, won 
 by Karl archduke of Austria over Napoleon. 
 This was the greatest defeat that Napoleon 
 himself had hitherto sustained. Marshal 
 Lannes fell in the fight, and 30,000 French 
 were made prisoners. 
 
 Here Kaiser Rudolf, in 1276, overthrew 
 Ottokar king of Bohemia. 
 
 Eurymedon (Battle of), b.c. 470, won by 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, over the Persians. 
 
 Eutaw Springs, U.S. (Battle of), 8 Sept., 
 1781, in which Colonel Stewart and General 
 Arnold (a renegade American) defeated the 
 Americans in the American War of Indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 Evesham (Battle of), 3 Aug., 1265, in 
 which Simon de Montfort and his son were 
 defeated and slain by Prince Edward son of 
 Henry III. It is said that at one period of the 
 battle the king was on the point of being cleft 
 down by a common soldier, and saved his life 
 by exclaiming, 'Don't kill me, soldier; I am 
 Henry of Westminster, the king.' See Hexham. 
 
 Eylau (Battle of), 8 Feb., 1807, a doubtful 
 battle between Napoleon and the combined 
 Russian and Prussian armies. Napoleon 
 claimed the rictory because the allied army 
 
 decamped during the night. It was a most 
 
 bloody fight. The French were 64,000 strong, 
 
 the allied Prussians and Russians were 72,000. 
 
 *** Pronounce Ey-low (ow as in now). 
 
 Falkirk (Battles of). I. 22 July, 1298, in 
 which Edward I. defeated Wallace, who was 
 afterwards captured and beheaded. 
 
 II. 17 Jan., 1746, in which the 'Young Pre- 
 tender ' defeated General Hawley. 
 
 Paraham, in Surrey (Battle of), a.d. 894, 
 in which Alfred defeated the Danes under 
 Hastings their leader. 
 
 FSre - champenoise (Battle of), 25 
 March, 1814, in which Marmont's French army 
 was defeated by the Austrians led by Schwartz- 
 enberg. 
 
 Perozeshah (Battle of), in the Punjab, 
 22, 23 Dec., 1845, in which Sir Hugh Gough 
 defeated the Sikhs. 
 
 Hugh Gough was created a baronet in 1842 
 and a baron in 1846. (Gough = Gqf.) 
 
 Plat-busll (Battle of), Long Island, 27 
 Aug., 1776, in which the Americans were 
 defeated by the British forces. 
 
 Pleurus (Battle of), 17 June, 1794, in 
 which the allied army, consisting of 10U,000 
 men, under the command of the Prince of 
 Coburg, marching to the relief of Charleroi, 
 was signally defeated by the French revolu- 
 tionary army commanded by Jourdan. In this 
 battle the French made use of balloons to 
 reconnoitre the enemy's army. 
 
 Flodden Field (Battle of), 9 Sept., 1513, 
 in which the Earl of Surrey defeated the Scots. 
 
 Pontenoy (Battle of), 11 May, 1745, in 
 which Marshal Saxe defeated the Duke of 
 Cumberland at the head of an allied army of 
 English, Dutch, and Hanoverian troops. 
 
 Pormigny, in Normandy (Battle of), 18 
 April, 1450, in which the Constable of Riche- 
 mont defeated an army of 3,000 Englishmen, 
 This battle was the coup de grdce of our claim 
 upon France. A monument on the field of 
 battle records the victory. 
 
 Pornovo (BcUtle of), 6 July, 1495, in which 
 Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italian 
 allies. This was a most marvellous victory : 
 the French did not number above 9,000, the 
 allies exceeded 40,000. Yet the loss of the 
 French was only 200, but that of the allies 
 3,500. Paulus Jovius terms this battle 'the 
 extinction of Cisalpine military glory, an igno- 
 minious rout which made Italy contemptible, 
 and the beginning of countless miseries.' This 
 battle is also called ' The Battle of the Taro.' 
 
 Prankenhausen (Battle of), 1525, in 
 which the Elector of Saxony utterly defeated 
 the Anabaptists, and took their leader, 
 Munzer, prisoner. Munzer was iguominiously 
 beheaded. 
 
 Fredericksburg, in the United States 
 (Battle of ), 13 Dec, 1862, in which the Con- 
 federates under General Lee defeated the 
 Northern army led by Genei^al Burnside. 
 8R 
 
978 
 
 FREIBURG 
 
 HALIDON HILL 
 
 Freiburg {Battle of), 1644, in which the 
 French led by the Great Conde defeated Franc^ois 
 de Merci, a general in the service of the Elector 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 It was in this battle that Cond6 flung his 
 baton into the enemy's trenches. 
 
 Friedland {Battle of), 14 June, 1807, won 
 by N apoleon over the Russian army which had 
 fought atEylau, 8 Feb., 1807. The peace of 
 Tilsit was the result of this victory. 
 
 Friedlingen {Battle of), 1702, won by the 
 French commanded by Marshal Villars over 
 the imperialists commanded by the Prince of 
 Baden. 
 
 Frithern {Battle of), a.d.584, won by the 
 Saxons over the Britons. Cealwin was the 
 Saxon chief. 
 
 Fuentes de Onoro {Battle of), 5 May, 
 1811, between the British and Spanish forces 
 under Wellington and the French under Mas- 
 sena. It was an indecisive battle, but the 
 French retreated out of Portugal on the 10th, 
 and therefore the advantage was on the side 
 of Wellington. The Angio-Spanish loss was 
 1,500, the French loss nearly 5,000. 
 
 Gallip'oli {Battle of), 1294, a great naval 
 victor}- won by the Genoese over the Vene- 
 tians. 
 
 Garigliano {Battle of ), 27 Dec, 1503, won 
 by Gonsalvo, the great captain, over the 
 French. 
 
 Gaugamela {Battle of), 1 Oct., b.c. 331. 
 Same as the ' Battle of Arbela ' {q.v.). 
 
 Gemblours {Battle of), Jan., 1578, in 
 which the Dutch were defeated by Don John 
 of Austria. 
 
 Genestrello {Battle of), 20 May, 1859, the 
 first of the battles fought by the Sardinians 
 against the Austrians. The allied army, con- 
 sisting of Sardinians, Italians, and French, 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Germantown, U.S. {Battle of), 4 Oct., 
 1777. Here General Howe defeated the Ame- 
 ricans in the American War of Independence. 
 
 Gettysburg, Pennsylvania {Battle of), 
 3 July, 1863, in which the Confederates under 
 the command of General Lee were defeated by 
 the Northern army. This was one of the great 
 battles of the Civil War. 
 
 Ghuznee {Battle of ), 23 July, 1839, won by 
 the English, led by Sir J. Keane, over the 
 Afghans. The citadel was attacked at 2 a.m. ; 
 at 3 the gates were blown in, and at 5 the 
 English colours were flying on the towers. 
 
 (Jienlivet {Battle o/),3 Oct., 1594, a trial 
 of strength between the Highlanders and 
 the Lowlanders. The Earl of Argyll led the 
 Highlanders and the Earl of Huntley the 
 Lowlanders. Victory rested with the latter. 
 
 Tbe encounter came to resemble that of Har- 
 law (q.v.), where the force of the ancient Gael 
 had been tried in mortal contest with that of 
 the Low-country Saxons (Sir W.ScoTT, 'His- 
 tory of Scotland,' xxxviii.). 
 
 Goo'jerat, or Gujerat {Battle of), 21 
 Feb., 1849, won by Lord Gough over the Sikhs. 
 A magnificent afliair. 
 
 *»* Gough, pronounce Goff. 
 
 Gorey {Battle of), 4 June, 1798, in which 
 the king's troops were defeated by the Irish 
 insurgents. 
 
 Grampian Hills {Battle of the), a.d. 79 
 or 82, in which the Romans, under Agricola, 
 utterly defeated the Caledonians led by 
 Galgac. 
 
 Grani'cus {Battles of the). I. May b.o. 334, 
 in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius 
 Codoman'us. 
 
 II. B.C. 73, in which LucuUus defeated Mith- 
 ridates. 
 
 Grans on {Battle of), 1476, in which the 
 Swiss fell upon the army of Charles le T6m6- 
 raire duke of Burgundy, and put it to utter 
 rout. 
 
 Gravelotte {BattU of), 18 Aug., 1870, in 
 the Franco- Prussian war ; won by the Prus- 
 sians. 
 
 Grochow {Battle of), 20 Feb., 1831, won by 
 the Poles over the Russians. 
 
 Gross Beeren {Battle of), 23 Aug., 1813, 
 when the French were repulsed by the Swedes. 
 
 Guildford, or Guilford {Battle of), 
 1781, in which Lord Cornwallis with 1,600 men 
 utterly defeated Greene, the American general, 
 who had 6,600 or 7,000 men. Marshall, in his 
 ' Life of Washington,' says : ' No battle in the 
 whole course of the war reflects more honour on 
 the courage of the British troops than this of 
 Guildford ' (in North Carolina), 
 
 Guinegate, near Calais {Battle of), 18 
 Aug., i513, won by the allied armies of Henry 
 VIII. of England, the Kaiser Maximilian, and 
 the Swiss, over the French. Called the ' Battle 
 of the Spurs,' because the French used their 
 spurs in flight more than their swords in 
 fight. 
 
 Guzerat. '(SeeGoojerat.' 
 
 Gwenystrad (Battle of), a.d. 547, won 
 by Urien over Ida the Saxon invader. 
 
 Hadriano'ple {Battles of). I. 3 July, Aj). 
 323, in which the Roman emperor Licinius was 
 defeated by Constantine. 
 
 II. 9 Aug., A.D. 378, in which the Roman em- 
 peror Vaiens was utterly defeated by the Goths, 
 and lost his life. No battle, except that of 
 Cannae, could be compared to this in its fatal 
 consequences on the Romans. 
 
 Halidon Hill {Battle of), near Berwick, 
 19 July, 1333, in which Edward III. defeated 
 the Regent Douglas (brother of the famous 
 ' Good Sir James '). By this victory Berwick- 
 upon-Tweed remained to the English, and 
 Baliol was restored to the throne as sub-king to 
 the English crown, but the wars with France 
 drew Edward out of the country, Baliol fled, 
 and David Bruoe returned to his kingdom. 
 
 It is said that 30,000 Scots were killed ; but 
 only 1 knight, 1 esquire, and 13 privates on 
 Edward's side. 
 
HALLE 
 
 ISLIP 
 
 979 
 
 Halle {Battle of), 16, 17 Oct., 1806. Here 
 Bernadotte defeated the Prussians. 
 
 H.an&VL( Battle of), 29 Oct., 1813. The French 
 claim the victory because the Austrians were 
 compelled to retreat. The French were led by- 
 Napoleon and the Austrians by General Wrede. 
 The affair was doubtful, though the French 
 army was double that of the adversary. 
 
 H.3iTln.Mr {Battle of), 24 July, 1411, atrial 
 of strength between the Gaels and Saxons. 
 The Saxons, or Lowlanders, were led by the Earl 
 of Mar ; the Gaels, or Highlanders, by Donald 
 of the Isles. Thelatter army was considerably 
 more in number, but all the benefits of victory 
 remained with the Saxons. On 3 Oct., 1594, 
 a similar trial occurred at Glenlivet, when 
 the Karl of Argyll led the Highlanders and 
 Huntley the Lowlanders. In this case also the 
 victory rested with the Lowlanders. 
 
 Hastings {Battle of), 14 Oct., 1066, where 
 William duke of Normandy conquered and 
 slew Harold II., and thus won, by conquest, the 
 throne of England. Also called the 'Battle of 
 Senlac' 
 
 Hatfield, in Yorkshire {Battle of), 14 Oct., 
 
 633. Called the ' Battle of Hatfield Chase,' in 
 which Edwine king of Northumbria was de- 
 feated and slain by Penda of Mercia. 
 
 Havenfeld, or Hefenfield {Battle of), 
 
 634, in which the Welsh under CadwaUon were 
 utterly defeated by Oswald king of Northum- 
 bria. Havenfeld means ' heaven's field,' so called 
 because Oswald just before the battle threw 
 himself on his knees in the midst of the army, 
 and asked God to give him the victory. Cad- 
 waUon fell fighting in this battle. Havenfeld 
 was in Durham, not far from Hexham. 
 
 Hefenfield. See Havenfeld. 
 
 Heights of Komainville {Battle of 
 the), 30 March, 1814, in which the French army 
 under Joseph Bonaparte, Marmont, and Mortier 
 was defeated by the allies, who entered Paris 
 the next day. 
 
 Heiisberg {Battle of), 10 June, 1807, in 
 which the Prussians were defeated by the 
 French. 
 
 Hengestesdun {Battle of), 835, in which 
 Egbert king of England defeated the Danes. 
 Hengestesdun is now called Hengston Down, 
 in (Jornwall. 
 
 Heraclea {Battle of ), -3.0.280. In which 
 the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus. 
 
 Heracleum {Battle of), b.c. 38, where 
 Veiitidius (Antony's legate) defeated the Par- 
 thians under PacSms. 
 
 Herara {Battle of), in Aragon, 24 Aug., 
 1837, in which Don Carlos of Spain defeated 
 General Buerens. 
 
 Hermanstadt {Battle of), 1442, won by 
 Hunyades over the Turks. 
 
 Hexh.ani, in Northumberland {Battle of ), 
 15 May, 1464, in which the Lancastrians were 
 defeated by Lord Montacute. There is a current 
 legend that after the battle Queen Margaret, in 
 
 her flight, encountered a brigand, and said to 
 him, ' Man, I trust to your loyalty the son of 
 your king.' We are furthermore assured that 
 Margaret and her son escaped over the border 
 under this robber's guidance. See Evesham. 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill, South Carolina, U.S. 
 {Battle of), 25 April, 1781, where Lord Rawdon 
 defeated the American General Greene in the 
 American War of Independence. 
 
 Hochkirchen {Battles of). I. 14 Oct., 
 1758, when Marshal Daun defeated Frederick 
 II. the Great of Prussia. (In the Third Cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 II. 22 May, 1813, when Napoleon defeated 
 the combined Russian and Prussian armies, 
 
 HocllSt {Battle of), 11 Oct., 1795, in which 
 the Austrians defeated Marshal Joirrdan, and 
 compelled the French to cross the Rhine. 
 
 Hochstadt {Battle of), 19 June, 1800, won 
 by Marshal Moreau, the French general, over 
 the Austrians. 
 
 Hogue {Naval battle off Cape la), 1692, in 
 which the French were defeated by the League 
 (consisting of England, Germany, HoUand, 
 Spain, and Savoy). 
 
 Hohenlinden {Battle of), 3 Dec, 1800, 
 won by Marshal Moreau for the French over 
 the Austrian Archduke John. In this battle he 
 took 100 pieces of cannon and 11,000 prisoners. 
 
 Holmedon Hill {Battle of), 14 Sept., 
 1402, between the Scots headed by the Earl of 
 Douglas and the Percys. Hotspur, one of the 
 Percys, was the victor ; Douglas was taken 
 prisoner, and so were the earls of Angus, Fife, 
 Murray, and Orkney, with many more of the 
 Scotch nobility and gentry. 
 
 IconivLm {Battle of ), 1387, won by Amurath 
 the Turkish sultan over the Caramanians. 
 Here Prince Bajuzet greatlv distinguished him- 
 self, and acquired the epithet of Yilderim 
 (Lightning). 
 
 Ingolstadt {Battle of), 20 April, 1809, won 
 by Napoleon. 
 
 Inkermann, in the Crimea {Battle of), 
 5 Nov., 1854, • won by the allied British and 
 French armies over the Russians. 
 
 Inverlocliy, in Scotland {Battle of), 
 2 Feb., 1645, in which the Marquis of Montrose, 
 commander of the royal army in Scotland, 
 defeated Argyll. 
 
 Ipsus {Battle of), B.C. 301, a decisive battle 
 which closed the great contest between the 
 gener.^ls of Alexander the Great for the succes- 
 sion to the empire. Antigonus being defeated 
 and slain, Seleucus was confirmed in his king- 
 dom. 
 
 Irun {Battle of), 17 May, 1837, in which the 
 Carlists of Spain were defeated by the British 
 auxiliary legion under General Evans. 
 
 Islip Bridge, Oxfordshire {Battle of), 
 22 April, 1645, in which Cromwell routed four 
 regiments of cavalry convoying the king's 
 artillery from Oxford to Worcester. 
 
 3r2 
 
ISSUS 
 
 KOSSOVA 
 
 Issus (Bittlfsof), Nov. B.C. 333, won by 
 Alexander the Great over Darius Codoman'us 
 king of Persia. The Persian army consisted of 
 600,000 men. Alexander's army did not amount 
 to 30,000 men. In this battle Sisygamia, the 
 mother of Darius, and Statira his wife, fell into 
 the hands of the conqueror. 
 
 A.D. 194, Severus conquered Pescennius Niger 
 in a decisive battle on the same plains. The 
 loss of Pescennius Niger was 20,000 men and his 
 own life. His head was sent to Rome. 
 
 Ivry (Battle of), 1590, in which Henry IV. 
 gained a brilliant victory over the Due de 
 Mayenne. 
 
 Jalula {Battle of), A.D. 637, won by the 
 Saracens over Yzdegerd king of Persia. 
 
 Janvilliers (Battle of), 14 Feb., 1814, won 
 by the French over the Prussians under 
 Bliicher. 
 
 Jarnac (Battle of), 13 March, 1569, in the 
 third religious war of France. The Catholics 
 were victors, and the Prince de Cond6, the 
 great Huguenot leader, was killed in cold blood 
 by Moncontour. 
 
 Jemappes, iu Belgium (Battle of), 5 Nov., 
 1792. Tills battle lasted four days; it was 
 between the French revolutionary army led 
 by General Dumouriez and 28,000 Austrians en- 
 trenched in woods and hills. Dumouriez was 
 the victor ; but he lost 12,000 men, the loss of 
 the Austrians being 10,000. 
 
 Jena, in Saxe-Weimar (Battle of), 14 Oct., 
 1806, in which Napoleon defeated the King 
 of Prussia and advanced at once to Berlin. 
 Here the Duke of Brunswick lost his life. 
 On the same day Marshal Davoust routed the 
 Prussians at Auerstadt. 
 
 *,jf* Jena pronounce Ya-nah. 
 
 Jsaszeg (Battle of), 5 April, 1849, in the 
 "War of Indei)endence. It was won by the 
 Hungarians. With this battle the demoralisa- 
 tion of the Austrian army was complete. 
 
 June 1st (Battle of), 1794, a naval victory 
 in which Lord Howe defeated and crippled the 
 French fleet off the coast of Brest. The battle 
 is called that of the 'First of June.' The 
 French admiral was Villaret-Joyeuse. 
 
 Kadesiah. (Battle of), or ' Kudseah,' a.d. 
 636, won by the Mahometans over the Per- 
 sians. This battle decided the character of 
 the Persian empire. 
 
 K!ainard.ji,or Kutschuk-Kainardji (Treaty 
 of), 21 July, 1774. A treaty of peace between 
 Eussia and Turkey. By this treaty the Azof 
 was ceded to Russia, and the freedom of 
 the Black Sea. The Crimea was severed from 
 Turkey and declared free. 
 
 Kaiserlautern (Battle of), 30 Nov., 1793, 
 won by the Duke of Brunswick over the 
 French. 
 
 'Ka.litscb.(Battleof), 13 Feb., 1813, in which 
 the French were defeated by the Russians, 
 The French general was Reguier and the 
 Russian general was Winzingerode. 
 
 Kalusz (Battle of), 15 Oct., 1667, won by 
 Sobieski, the Polish general, after seventeen 
 days' fighting, over the Cossacks and Tartars. 
 
 Eapolna (Battle of), 1848, one of the 
 battles of the War of Independence. Lost by 
 the Hungarians, who were led by Dembinski. 
 It is said that the jealousy of Gbrgey, who 
 refused to obey orders, was the cause of this 
 defeat. 
 
 Kars (Battle of), 29 Sept., 1855, won by the 
 Turks, commanded by General Williams, over 
 the Russians, commanded by General Moura- 
 vieflf. Certainly, the Russians were thrice 
 the number of the Turks. The Turks lost 
 1,094 men, the Russians lost 6,500. Kars was 
 invested by Mouravieff, 16 June, 1885 ; after 
 the battle it was obliged to capitulate, 12 
 Dec, 1855 ; but when peace was restored 
 Kars was by the treatv of Paris restored to 
 Turkey, 1856. 
 
 KatabachL (Battle of), 26 Aug., 1813, won 
 by Bliicher over the French. 
 
 KesseldorfiF (Battle of), 15 Dec, 1745, 
 in which Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau de- 
 feate<l the Saxons under Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine. (In the War of the Austrian Succession.) 
 
 Kiblene (Battle of), St. Andrews' day, 
 1335, won by the Scotch (led by Liddesdaie) 
 over the English, under the command of the 
 Earl of Athol. 
 
 Kilcullen (Battle of), 23 May, 1798, in 
 which General Dundas was routed by the 
 Irish insurgents. 
 
 In a subsequent engagement General Dundas 
 overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen Bridge. 
 
 Killiecrankie (Battle of), 17 July, 1689, 
 in which John Graham viscount of Dundee 
 (Claverhouse), a Jacobite, defeated General 
 Mackay, who commanded an army in the 
 service of the Prince of Orange (William 
 III.) Claverhouse fell early in the battle. 
 
 Kilsyth., in Scotland (Battle of), 15 Aug., 
 1645, in which the Marquis of Montrose, 
 commander of the royal forces in Scotland, 
 defeated the Scots under Baillie. 
 
 Knoc-Auadh. (Battle of), 1504, in which 
 Kildare governor of Ireland (i.e. the Pale) 
 utterly routed the confederated Irish. It is 
 said that from 4,000 to 9,000 of the Irish fell, but 
 not one single English soldier in Kildare's army. 
 
 Kolin, in Bohemia (Battle of), 18 June, 
 1757, where Marshal Daun defeated Frederick 
 II. (the Great) of Prussia. (The Second Cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Ko'nieh (Battle of), 20 Dec, 1832, in 
 Turkey. The Turks were defeated by Ibrahim 
 Pasha. 
 
 Koniggratz (Battle of), same as Sadowa 
 (q.-o.). 
 
 Konovics (Battle of), 28 Nov., 1443, in 
 which Hunyadi defeated the Turks. 
 
 Kossova (Battle of), 27 Aug., 1369, won by 
 Amurath, the Turkish sultan, over the allied 
 
KOTZIM 
 
 LEIPZIG 
 
 981 
 
 Christian army. Amurath was slain, probably 
 by treachery, after the battle was won. 
 
 Kotzim or Ctioczim {Battle of), 10 Nov., 
 1673, won by Sobieski, tlie Polish general, over 
 Capitan Pasha, the Turkish general. This was 
 a truly marvellous victory, and 40,000 Turks 
 were slain. 
 
 Kowno {Battle of), 14 Dec, 1812, in which 
 the French were defeated by the Russians. 
 
 Krasnoi {Battle of), 16 Nov., 1812, in 
 which Marshal Davoust ( Prince of Eckmlihl) 
 and his French army were defeated by the 
 Russians under the command of Kutusoff. 
 
 Krefeld {Battle of), 23 June, 1758, in the 
 third campaign of the Seven Years' War. Here 
 the Duke of Biiinswick, fighting on the side of 
 Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, drove the 
 French army across the Rhine. 
 
 Kulm {Battle of), 31 Aug., 1813, won by 
 the allied armies of Austria and Russia over 
 the French. 
 
 Kunersdorf {Battle of), 12 Aug., 1759, 
 the fourth campaign of the Seven Years' War. 
 Here Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia 
 suffered from the combined Austrian and 
 Russian armies the greatest defeat in all his 
 reign. He wrote in pencil to his chief minister, 
 'AH is lost, save the royal family.' Strange 
 to say, after this great victory, the Austrian 
 and Russian generals feU to loggerheads, and 
 Prussia was saved. 
 
 La Hogue {Battle of), 19 May, 1692, in 
 which the French fleet, under Admiral Tour- 
 ville, was utterly destroyed by the English and 
 Dutch. This was a most important victory, 
 won by the Admirals Russell and Rooke, as it 
 not only put an end to the threatened French 
 invasion, and overthrew the hopes of James II. 
 of recovering his throne, but so crippled the 
 navy of France that it ceased to be formidable. 
 
 La Rothi^re {Battle of), l Feb., 1814, 
 won by Napoleon over the combined Prussian 
 and Russian armies. 
 
 Lake Champlain, in North America 
 {Battles of). I. 11 and 13 Oct., 1776, when the 
 American fiotUla was defeated by the English. 
 
 II. 11 Sept., 1814, when the Americans de- 
 feated the English squadron. 
 
 Lake Erie, in Canada {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
 1813, in which the Americans captured the 
 British squadron. 
 
 Fort Erie, in Canada, was taken by General 
 Brown from the British, 3 July, 1814 ; but 
 5 Nov. the same year was abandoned by the 
 captors. 
 
 Lake Lemanus, in Geneva {Battle of). 
 B.C. 108, in which Cassus Longinus the consul 
 was slain, and his whole army cut to pieces 
 by the Cimbrians. 
 
 Lake Merom {Battle at the), b.c. 1450, 
 where the kings of the hill country and their 
 allies were defeated by Joshua. 
 
 Lake Begillus. See ' Regillus.' 
 
 Landau, or Pirmasens {Battle of), 14 Sept.' 
 1793, won by the Duke of Brunswick over the 
 French. 
 
 *,jf* Pronounce Lahn-dow (ow as in now). 
 
 Landen {Battle of), 29 July, 1603, in 
 which Marshal Luxembourg defeated William 
 III. of England. 
 
 Langensalza, in Prussia {Battles of). I. 
 14 Feb., 1701, in which the Hanoverians 
 defeated the French (in the sixth campaign 
 of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 II. 27 June, 1866, in which General Flies 
 defeated the Hanoverians in the Austro- 
 Prussian war (in the Seven Weeks' War.) 
 
 Langport, in Somersetshire {Battle of), 
 June, 1645, in wliich Fairfax routed the royal 
 forces. 
 
 Langside, in Scotland {Battle of), 13 
 May, 1568, in which the Hamiltons, who sup- 
 ported the cause of Mary Queen of Scots, were 
 defeated by the Earl of Murray. After this 
 defeat Mary crossed the Solway and took 
 refuge in the castle of Carlisle. Here she 
 demanded one of two things — either her resto- 
 ration to the throne of Scotland or a safe 
 passage to France. 
 
 Lansdowne Hill, near Bath {Battle of ), 
 5 July, 1643, in which the royalist army, under 
 Sir Bevil Granville, defeated Sir William Waller 
 and his parliamentarian forces. 
 
 Laon (Battle of), 9 March, 1814, won by 
 the allied armies of Bernadotte of Sweden and 
 Bliicher over Napoleon. 
 
 Laufeld or Lawfield {Battles of). I. 
 1747, in which the French, under Marshal 
 Saxe, defeated the allied English and Dutch, 
 under the command of the Duke of Cumber- 
 land. 
 
 II. 1794, in which the French were vic- 
 torious. 
 
 Laupen, Beme (Battle of), 1339, in which 
 the Bernois, commanded by Rudolph d'Erlach, 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Lech {Battle of). 1632, won by Gustavus 
 Adolphus over the German Catholic League. 
 Here Tilly was mortally wounded. This was 
 one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 Lechfeld {Battles of). I. a.d. 743 Pepin 
 defeated the Bavarians and Saxons. 
 
 II. 794 Charlemagne defeated the Huns. 
 
 III. 910 the Hungarians defeated the Franks 
 and Bavarians. 
 
 IV. 955 Otto L of Germany defeated the 
 Hungarians. 
 
 Legnano, near Como (Battle of), 29 May, 
 1176, in which Frederick Barbarossa was de- 
 feated by the Milanese, and the independence 
 of Lombardy was recognised by him in the 
 treaty of Constance, 1183. 
 
 Leipzig {Baltl's of). I. 7 Sept., 1631, in 
 which Gustavus Adolphus defeated Tilly. This 
 was in the Tliirty Year' War, and was one of 
 the three great battles. 
 
 The other two were LUtzen, won by Gusta- 
 
982 
 
 LENS 
 
 LUTZEN 
 
 vus Adolphus in 1632 ; and Nordlingen, won 
 b V the Kaiser's son (afterwards Ferdinand III.) 
 in 1634. 
 
 II. 16, 18, 19 Oct., 1813, won by the alUed 
 Russian, Austrian, and Prussian armies over 
 Napoleon. 
 
 The bridge over the Elster, blown up by a 
 mine, was tlie most disastrous part of this 
 sanguinary battle. The French numbered 
 180,000 men. the aUied army 300,000. The 17 
 German battalions in the French army deserted 
 to the aUies. 
 
 Xiens, in the Pas-de-Calais {Battle of), 
 1648, in which the great Conde defeated 
 Leopold brother of the Kaiser of Germany. 
 
 Lepanto {Naval battle of), 7 Oct., 1571, in 
 which Don John of Austria defeated the Turks. 
 It was recaptured by the Venetians in 1678, 
 and restored to the Turks by the treaty of 
 Carlowitz in 1699, 
 
 The naval victory of Lepanto was one of the 
 most splendid ever achieved. 25,000 Turks 
 were slain, 4,000 were taken prisoners ; 12,000 
 Christian slaves were released ; 130 ships were 
 captured, 130 others were abandoned and de- 
 stroyed, and 80 were sunk during the battle. 
 
 Leuctra {Battle of), 8 July, B.C. 371, in 
 which the Lacedsemonians, led by Cleombrotus, 
 received a crushing defeat from the Thebans, 
 led by Epaminondas and Pelopldas. 
 
 Leutlien, in Silesia {Battle of), 5 Dec., 
 1757, in which Frederick II. of Prussia de- 
 feated the Austriaiis under Prince Charles of 
 Lorraine. This was just one month after the 
 rout of Rosbach (in the second campaign of 
 the Seven Years' War). 
 
 Lewes {Battle of), in Sussex, 14 May, 1264, 
 in which Simon de Montf ort and his Londoners 
 defeated and captured both King Henry III. 
 and Richard earl of Cornwall, king of the 
 Romans. Prince Edward escaped, and subse- 
 quently surrendered. 
 
 Lexington {Battle of), in Massachusetts. 
 I. 19 April, 1775. The first skirmish in the 
 American War of Independence. Gage, the 
 British general, had the worst of it, and so far 
 it may be scored as an American victory ; but 
 the affair, though honourable to the American 
 militia, was not important, and was not a 
 battle, but a mere skirmish. 
 
 II. Lexington, in Missouri, is noted for a 
 battle between the Federals (or Northern 
 States) and the Confederates (or Southern 
 States) in Sept., 1861. In this case the town 
 remained in the hands of the Confederates. 
 
 Liegnitz, in Silesia {Battles of). I. 9 April, 
 1241, in which Baton Khan defeated Duke 
 Henry of Silesia and the Christian allies. 
 
 II. 3 May, 1634, in which the Saxons, under 
 Arnheim, defeated Jerome CoUoredo, comman- 
 der of the Bohemians. 
 
 III. 16 Aug., 1760, in which Frederick II. 
 (the Great) of Prussia, defeated the Austrians 
 under Laudon (in the fifth campaign of the 
 Seven Years' War). 
 
 Ligny {Battle of), 16 June, 1815, won by 
 Napoleon over Blucher ; but the defeat was not 
 sufficiently grave to prevent Blucher from as- 
 sisting at the field of Waterloo on the 18th. 
 
 Lincoln {Battles of). I. 2 Feb., 1141, where 
 Stephen king of England was both defeated 
 and captured by Ralph and Robert of Glouces- 
 ter. After this victory Matilda (the wife of 
 Geoffrey the Handsome, or Geoffrey Planta- 
 genet, and daughter of Henry I.) entered 
 London, and was received as ' the Lady of Eng- 
 land.' 
 
 II. 19 May, 1217, in which Louis the dau- 
 phin of France was utterly defeated by the 
 army of Henry III. 
 
 Linlithgow Bridge {Battle of), 1525, 
 won by Su- James Hamilton over the Earl of 
 Lenox, who wanted to obtain possession of the 
 King (James V, of Scotland). Lenox was slain 
 by Hamilton. 
 
 Lippstadt {Battle of). See 'Liitzen.' 
 
 Lissa {Battle of), in Silesia, 5 Dec, 1757, in 
 which Frederick 11. of Prussia defeated Prince 
 Charles of Lorraine. 
 
 Llongborttl {Battle of), 530, won by 
 Cerdic over the Britons. In this battle Arthur 
 was the commander of the British army, and 
 Geraint prince of Devonslure united with him 
 against the Saxons. Geraint was slain. 
 
 Lobositz {Battle of), Oct., 1756, between 
 Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians 
 under General Brown. It was indecisive, but 
 Frederick claimed the victory. (First cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Loch, Gary (Battle of), 26 July, 1654, in 
 which General Middleton and his Highlanders 
 were defeated by the Protector's army. 
 
 Lodi {Battle of), 10 May, 1796. At the 
 bridge of Lodi Bonaparte beat the Austrians, 
 and on the 15th entered Milan without opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Logron'o {Battle of), 10th century, in the 
 reign of Ramiro II. king of Asturias, when 
 the Arabs under Abderrahman II. were over- 
 thrown. This was the famous battle in which 
 St. James on his white horse fought, as we are 
 told, for Spain. 
 
 Lonato (Battle of), 3 Aug. 1796, in which 
 Bonaparte vanquished the Austrians led by 
 Wurmser. 
 
 Lone Island {Battle of). North America, 
 27 Aug., 1776, in which Sir William Howe de- 
 feated the American troops. Same as Flatbush. 
 
 Lundy {Battle of), 25 July, 1814, between 
 the United States and the United Kingdom. 
 The American generals were Winfield Scott 
 and General Brown ; the British forces were 
 commanded by General Drummond and General 
 Riall. The victory was doubtful. 
 
 Sometimes called the battle of Bridgewater, 
 battle of Niagara, battle of Lundy's Lane, &c. 
 
 Ltxtzen (Battles of). I. 6 Nov., 1632, won 
 by the Swedes over the German Catholic 
 League. Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden 
 
MACATO 
 
 MARSTON MOOR 
 
 983 
 
 died of wounds received in this battle ; some 
 say foully in the moment of victory. This 
 was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
 War. Also called the battle of Lippstadt. 
 
 II. 2 May, 1813, won by Napoleon I. over 
 the allied armies of Prussia and Russia. 
 
 Macato {Battle of), 11 Oct., 1427, in which 
 Carmaguuola defeated the Milanese forces led 
 by Carlo Malatesta. 
 
 Macziewice {Battle of), 10 Oct., 1794, in 
 which the Polish general Kosciusko was de- 
 feated and taken prisoner by Suwarof, the 
 Russian general. 
 
 Mag'dolon {Battle of). So Herodotus 
 calls the battle of Megiddo {Hist. ii. 159). The 
 Romans called Megiddo ' Legio,' and it is still 
 called 'Lejjun.' The battle referred to by 
 Herodotus is that in which Josiah was over- 
 come and slain by Pharaoh-Necho king of 
 Egypt (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). 
 
 Magenta {Battle of), 4 June, 1859, won by 
 the French Marshal M'Mahon over the Aus- 
 trians. Por this brilliant action M'Mahon was 
 created 'Due de Magenta' by Napoleon IIL 
 The Austrian general was Gyiilay. 
 
 Magheracloon {Battl'- of\ 1843. This 
 was no battle in the usual sense of the word, 
 but an affray between the police and some Irish 
 rioters. A Mr. Shirle}', being unable to obtain 
 his rents, obtained an order for 'substitution 
 of service ; ' the process was to be attached to 
 the walls of the Cathohc chapel of Maghera- 
 cloon. "When the bailiif attempted to attach 
 the process to the chapel wall, he was assailed 
 by a volley of stones, and he ordered the police 
 to fire on the rioters. One man was shot dead 
 and others wounded, but the rioters became so 
 violent that the bailiff and the police had to 
 make off with all speed in order to save their 
 lives. This the rioters called a victory, and the 
 affray is still called in Ireland ' the Battle of 
 Magheiacloon.' 
 
 Magheracloon is near Carrickmacross, in 
 Mon'aghan. 
 
 Magnano {Battle of), 5 April, 1799; won 
 by the Austrian General Kray over Scherer the 
 French general. 
 
 Magnesia {Battle of), b.c. 190, in which 
 Antiochus king of Syria was utterly defeated 
 by the two Scipios, and lost all his conquests in 
 Asia Minor, 
 
 Maid a {Battle of), 4 July, 1806. Sir John 
 Stuart routed the French under the command 
 of Regnier. 
 
 Makla {Battle of), in Algeria, 1834, in 
 which the French were defeated by Abd-el- 
 Kader. 
 
 Mal'aga (Naval battle of), 1704, won by 
 Admiral Rooke over the French. 
 
 Malplaquet, in Prance {Battle of), 11 
 Sept., 1709, where the Duke of Marlborough 
 and Prince Eugene defeateti the French under 
 Marshal Villars. The French lost 12,000, the 
 allies many more, though they won the victory. 
 The cause of this battle was this : the allies 
 
 insisted that Louis XIV. should compel his 
 grandson to give up the crown of Spain. Louis 
 replied, ' If I must wage war, it shall be vnih 
 my enemies and not with my own children.' 
 *ijt* Pvonoxxnce Mal-pla-ka'. 
 
 Mantine'a {Battles of). I. b.c. 418, won 
 by Agis the Spartan general over the Argive 
 
 II. B.C. 362, won by the Thebans, led by 
 Epaminondas, over the Lacedaemonians and 
 Arcadians. 
 
 III. B.C. 207, won by Philopoemen, head of 
 the Achsean League, over the Lacedfemonians. 
 
 Marathon {Battle of), 28 Sept., b.c 490, in 
 which Miltiades the Athenian defeated the 
 Persians under Datis and Artaphernes. This 
 was one of the most important and decisive 
 battles of the world— the ' Waterloo ' of ancient 
 history. If the Persians had been victorious, 
 Attica would have been a mere satrapy of 
 Persia, but as the Athenians were victorious 
 they became one of the most brilliant people 
 of all history. 
 
 One of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen Decisive 
 Battles of the World. 
 
 Marengo, in Italy {Battle of), 14 June, 
 1800, in which Napoleon Bonaparte defeated 
 the Austrians under General Melas. The French 
 army was retreating, when General Dessaix 
 arrived with reinforcements and turned the 
 fortunes of the day. 
 
 Marignano, in ItaXj {BaMes of ). I. 14, 
 15 Sept., 1515, in which Francois I. of France de- 
 feated the allied Italian-Swiss armies, called by 
 Trivulzio ' The battle of the giants,' from the 
 great valour displayed on both sides. As many 
 as 6,000 French and 10,000 of the allies were left 
 dead on the field. 
 
 II. 8 July, 1859, in which the Austrians were 
 driven from their position by Napoleon III. 
 
 Also called the battle of Melegnano. 
 
 Maritza {Battle of the), 1375, won by 
 Amurath, the Turkish sultan, over the crusa- 
 ders. This was the first of a long series of 
 Turkish victories 
 
 Markfeld, near Vienna {Battle of), 1278, 
 in which Ottokar king of Bohemia was utterly 
 defeated by Rudolf I. king of Germany, and was 
 slain in the battle. 
 
 Here, 5 July, 1809, was fought the battle 
 of Wagram, in which Napoleon defeated the 
 Austrians, and took 20,000 prisoners. 
 
 Marsala {Battle of), 11 May, 1860, certainly 
 the most marvellous and heroic battle in all 
 history. Garibaldi, with 1,000 Itahan volunteers, 
 6 smaU cannons, and 1,200 peasants, utterly de- 
 feated 50,000 Austrian troops with numerous 
 artillery, posted in strong fortresses, and sup- 
 ported with a fleet of 500 guns. After this 
 victorv, he crossed the mountains and took 
 Palermo on the 27th of the same month. The 
 thing seems wholly increilible, but is j-et an 
 historic fact without hyperbole or exaggeration. 
 
 Marston Moor, in Yorkshire (7?rt//Zeo/), 
 2 July, 1644, in which Cromwell defeated Prince 
 
984 
 
 MASEEFELD 
 
 MONTENOTTE 
 
 Eupert. The whole of the Prince's artillery 
 fell into the hands of Cromwell, and the 
 royalists never afterwards recovered the loss of 
 that disastrous day. 
 
 Maserfeld {Battle of the), 655, in which 
 Oswald king of Northumbria was defeated and 
 slain by Penda king of Mercia. 
 
 Maxen, in Saxony {Battle of), 20 Nov., 
 1759, where Marshal Daun took Fink, a Prus- 
 sian general, prisoner. (In the fourth cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Meg'aletaph'ros, the 'Great Ditch' 
 {Battle of), in which Aristomenes and theMes- 
 senians were completely defeated by the Spar- 
 tans. In this battle the Arcadians deserted in 
 a body from the Messenians. 
 
 Megiddo (-BaWes of). I. The overthrow 
 of Jabin and Sisera was 'at the waters of 
 Megiddo' {Judges v. 19). 
 
 II. HerePharaoh-necho overthrew and slew 
 Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). 
 
 ULeiitenk {Battle of), a.d. 576, in which 
 Chosroes I. king of Persia was defeated by 
 Justinian, general of Tiberias empei'or of the 
 East. This was the last conflict of the Persians 
 with the Romans. 
 
 Meloria {Battle of), 1284, in which the 
 whole navy of Pisa was utterly destroyed by 
 the Genoese, and Pisa ceased to be a maritime 
 power. 
 
 Merseburg, in Saxony {Battle of), 934, 
 in which Heiurich I. tlie Fowler of Germany 
 conquered the Hiingarians with great slaughter. 
 
 Mdry-sur- Seine {Battle of), 24 Feb., 
 1814, won by Napoleon over the Austrian army 
 under Schwartz enberg. 
 
 Metaurus {Battle of), b.c. 207, in which 
 the consuls Livius and Nero utterly cut to 
 pieces the army of Hasdrubal sent to reinforce 
 Hannibal in the south of Italy. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Mexico {Battle of), A.D. 1521, won by the 
 Spaniards, because St. James on his white horse 
 fought for them. Bernal Diaz, who was pre- 
 sent and saw the mysterious rider, tells us he 
 thought it was Francisco de Morla, but it 
 might be St. James notwithstanding. 
 
 Meyenfels {Buttle of ), 8 Oct., 876, where 
 Louis the Younger of Saxony defeated Charles 
 the Bald of France. 
 
 Milazzo, or Melazzo {Battle of), 20 
 June, 1860, in which Garibaldi defeated the 
 Neapolitan General Bosco. 
 
 Millesimo {Battle of ), 14 April, 1796, in 
 which Bonaparte repulsed the Piedmontese. 
 
 Minden, in Prussia {Battle of), 1 Aug., 
 1759, in which Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
 witli six English regiments defeated tlie French 
 under Marshal Contades. (In the fourth cam- 
 paign of the Seven Years' War. Ferdinand's 
 army consisted principally of British and Hano- 
 verian troops.) 
 
 Marshal Contades said : ' I have seen this day 
 what I never thought possible, viz. a single line 
 of cavalry break through three lines of cavalry 
 ranked in order of battle, and tumble them all 
 to ruins.' Contades (2 syl.). 
 
 Minorca {Naval battle off), 20 May, 1756. 
 This was no battle, but a shameful retreat of 
 Admiral Byng, who had been sent to the relief of 
 Port Mahon. Byng was shot for his cowardice 
 by sentence of court-martial 14 March, 1757. 
 
 Mockern {Battles of). I. April 1813, in 
 which the Prussian army was defeated by the 
 French under Eugene Beauharnais. 
 
 II. 14 Oct. 1813, between the French and the 
 allies. The town of Mockern was taken and re- 
 taken five times in this conflict. 
 
 Mohatz {Battles of), in Lower Hungary. 
 I. 29 Aug., 1526, in which the Turks under 
 Solyman II. defeated Ludwig of Hungary, with 
 the loss of 22,000 men. Ludwig after the battle 
 was suffocated with his horse in a muddy brook 
 called Csele. 
 
 II. A.D. 1687, in which a Christian army, 
 commanded bv Prince Charles of Lorraine, de- 
 feated the Turks, who lost 10,000 men. 
 
 Mohilow {Battle of ), 23 July, 1812. A san- 
 guinary battle between the Russians under 
 Prince Bagration and the French under Mar- 
 shal Davoust. The Russians were defeated, and 
 their loss in killed and wounded was immense. 
 
 Moinmor {Battle of ), 1151, in which Tor- 
 del vach O'Connor utterly defeated Thomond 
 king of Munster with great slaughter, and be- 
 came king of Ireland. 
 
 Molwitz {Battle of), 30 March, 1741, won 
 by Friedrich III. of Prussia over the Austrian 
 army sent against him by Maria Theresa. This 
 was the first battle in the War of the Austrian 
 Succession. 
 
 Moncontour {Battle of), 1570, in the 
 third religious war of France. The Hugue- 
 nots were defeated by Henri due d'Anjou, bro- 
 ther of Cliarles IX. 
 
 Mondovi {Battle of), 22 April, 1796, in 
 which Bonaparte defeated the Piedmontese. 
 
 Monmouth Court House, U.S. {Battle 
 of), 28 June, 1778. Here Washington won his 
 third victory over the British in the American 
 War of Independence : (1) Trenton, (2) Prince- 
 ton. At Brandywine he was defeated {q.v.). 
 
 Mons en Puelle, in Flanders {Battle of), 
 18 Aug., 1304, in which Philippe le Bel defeated 
 the Flemings. 
 
 Mont St. Jean {Battle of ), 18 June, 1815, 
 called in English history the 'Battle of Water- 
 loo ' {q.v.). 
 
 Montebello {Battle of ),G June, 1800, won 
 by Napoleon Bonaparte over Ott, the Austrian 
 general. General Lannes for his valour in this 
 battle was created Due de Montebello. 
 
 Montenotte {Battle of), 11 April, 1796, in 
 which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, com- 
 manded by Beaulieu. This was the first of hia 
 series of brilliant victories. 
 
MONTEKEAU 
 
 NAISSUS 
 
 985 
 
 Montereau (Battle of), 18 Feb., 1814, in 
 which tlie allied armies were defeated by Napo- 
 leon. 
 
 Montlh^ry (Battle of), 1465, between 
 Louis XI. and the ' League for the Public We<al.' 
 The battle was indecisive, but led to the treaty 
 pf Conflans, and the league was soon broken 
 up. 
 
 Montmirail (Battle of), 11 Feb., 1814, 
 won by Napoleon over the Prussians led by 
 Bliicher. 
 
 Moodkee, in Hindustan (Battle of), 18 
 Dec, 1845, in which Sir Hugh G-ough defeated 
 the Sikhs. Sir Robert Sale was mortally 
 wounded in this battle. 
 
 Hugh Gough was created a baronet in 1842, 
 and a baron in 1846. 
 
 *s* Gough, pronounce Goff. 
 
 Mooltan (Battle of ), 7 Novf, 1848, won by 
 
 the Britisli over the Siklis. 
 
 Tlie town was taken 2 Jan., 1849, and the 
 citadel 22 Jan. 
 
 Mopsuestia (Battle of), a.d. 838, called 
 by Arabian writers 'Mamuriyah,' in which 
 35,00U Greeks were left dead on the field. 
 
 Morat, or Murden, Switzerland (Battle 
 of), 22 June, 1476, in which the Swiss defeated 
 the brilliant army of Charles le Temeraire. The 
 celebrated Ossuaire of Morat was made of the 
 bones of the Burgundiaus slain in this battle. 
 
 Moravian 11oy<m (Battle of), 5 Oct., 1813, 
 won by General Harrison over Proctor. 
 
 Morgarten (Battles of). 1. 25 Oct., 1315, 
 between 1,300 Switzers and 20,000 Austrians 
 under the command of Duke Leopold. The 
 Swiss army was made up of 600 men of Schwitz, 
 400 of Uri, and 300 of Unterwalden. These 
 1,300 slew 15,000 Austrians, and not a few of 
 the army of Leopold were drowned in the 
 Egrer See. This and Marsala (q.v.) are, per- 
 haps, the most extraordinary battles of history, 
 if we except that of Gideon, who with 300 men 
 put to flight the allied Midianites and Amale- 
 kites. Gideon's victory, however, was from 
 panic, the other two the result of indomitable 
 valour. 
 
 II. A.D. 1798, between the French and the 
 Switzers. The French loss was 2,754 dead, ex- 
 clusive of wounded ; the Switzers' loss was 431 
 men and women ; but the Assembly thought it 
 prudent to come to terms with tlie" French and 
 not renew tiie fight. 
 
 III. In 1799 .the French defeated the Aus- 
 trians on the same battlefield. 
 
 Mortemer, in ancient Normandy (Battle 
 of), 1054, where William (afterwards called the 
 Conqueror) defeated Henri I. king of France. 
 
 Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford (Battle 
 of), 2 Feb., 1461, in which Edward duke of 
 York defeated the Lancastrians under the com- 
 mand of Jasper Tudor earl of Pembroke. 
 
 Moskirch (Battle of), April 1799, in 
 whicli Marshal Moreau, the French general, 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 42 
 
 Moskwa (Battle of), 7 Sept., 1812, between 
 the French under Napoleon and the Russians 
 led by Kutusoff. Each claimed the victory. It 
 was one of the most sanguinary conflicts in 
 history. Also called the Battle of Borodino. 
 
 Mosul (Battle of), also called 'The Battle 
 of Nineveh,' I Dec, a.d. 627, won by Heraclius 
 emperor of Constantinople over Chosroes II. of 
 Persia. Elmacin says 500,000 Persians fell in 
 this battle, but Gibbon thinks 50,000 too high 
 a number. Twenty-seven standards were taken 
 by the victorious Romans. 
 
 Motta (Battle of), 7 Oct., 1513, in which 
 the Venetians led by D'Alviano were defeated 
 by the Spaniards. 
 
 Mount Tabor (Battle of), 1799, won by 
 Bonaparte over the Mamelukes. 
 
 Muhlberg (Battle of), 1547, in which 
 the Smalkaldic League was utterly defeated by 
 Karl V. The Elector of Saxony and the Land- 
 grave of Hesse were both taken prisoners. 
 
 Muhldorf (Battle of), in Bavaria, 1322, 
 between Friedricli the Handsome and Ludwig 
 v., rivals for the throne of Germany. The 
 latter was victorious, and Friedrioh was taken 
 prisoner. 
 
 Miinchengratz (Battle of), 28 June, 
 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The Prussians 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Mursa (Battle of), 28 Sept., a.d. 351, in 
 which Constantius II. defeated tlie usurper 
 Magnentius. Constantius lost 30,000 men out 
 of an army of 80,000 ; and Magnentius lost 
 24.000 men out of an army of ^6,000. 
 
 Muta (Battle of), a.d. 629, in wliich 
 Khaled, commander of the Khoreish cavalry, 
 saved the army of Mohammed. 
 
 Mycale ( Battle of), 22 Sept., B.C. 479, in 
 which the Persians were completely defeated 
 by the Greeks. On the same day Mardonius 
 was defeated at Platea. 
 
 Naas (Battle of), in Ireland, 24 May, 1798, 
 in which the Irish rebels were defeated by the 
 king's troops. 
 
 Nachod, in Bohemia (Battle of), 27-29 
 June, 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The 
 Crown Prince of Prussia defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Nafels (Battle of), 6 April, 1388, in which 
 350 of tlie men of G aris withstood 15,000 
 Austrians with such terrible slaughter that the 
 Austrians were obliged to retreat. 
 
 Nahavund or Nehaveud (Battle of), 637, 
 in which Yzdegerd III. king of Persia was 
 defeated by the Saracens, and subsequently 
 murdered. His loss is stated at 100,000 men. 
 This battle, called by the Arabs ' The Victory 
 of Victories.' brouglit to an end the famous 
 dynasty of the Sassaaides (3 syL) aud also the 
 religion of the Magi, which had existed ii^ 
 Persia more than 1,200 years. 
 
 Naissus (Bat lie of), A.D. 270, won by the 
 Emperor Claudius over 320,000 Goths, of whom 
 50,000 were left dead on the field. For this 
 great victory Claudius was called Gothicits. 
 
9»6 
 
 NAJARA 
 
 NICOPOLIS 
 
 Wajara, in Spain {Battle of), 3 April, 
 T367, in which Henry of Trastamare was 
 defeated by his brother Pedro the Cruel assisted 
 by the Black Prince. In this battle Duguesclin 
 constable of France was taken prisoner. 
 
 Narva (^«^«e of), 30 Nov., 1700, in which 
 Peter the Great of llussia was defeated by 
 Carl XII. of Sweden. 
 
 While dictating despatches, a bomb fell 
 through the roof of the hoiase, whereupon his 
 secretary dropped his pen in a fright. ' What's 
 the matter ? ' asked Carl. ' The bomb, the 
 bomb, sire 1' said the secretary. ' The bomb ? ' 
 replied the king, 'what have we to do with 
 the bomb ? Pray write on.' 
 
 Naseby {Battle of), north-west of North- 
 ampton, 14 June, 1645, in which Charles I. 
 was defeated by Cromwell and Fairfax. The 
 main body of the royal army was commanded 
 by Lord Astley, the right wing by Prince 
 Eupert, and the left by Sir Marmaduke Lang- 
 dale. The king himself headefl the reserves. 
 In this battle the king lost aU his cannon and 
 baggage, and 5,000 of his army were made 
 prisoners. This battle ended the war. 
 
 Fairfax led the centre of the parliamentary 
 army, Ireton the right wing, and Cromwell 
 the left. Ireton was therefore opposite 
 Rupert, and Cromwell was opposite Sir 
 Marmaduke. Ireton was routed, Fairfax fell 
 back, but Cromwell overthrew his opponents 
 and redeemed the day. 
 
 Navarete {Buttle of). Same as ' Najara ' 
 {q.v.). The battle was fought between Najara 
 and Navarete. 
 
 Navari'no»(^««?e of), 20 Oct., 1827, won 
 over the Turkish navy by the combined fleets 
 of England, France, and Russia, under the com- 
 mand of LordCodrington. The Turkish navy 
 was well-nigh annihilated. 
 
 This 'untoward event' occurred under 
 Canning's administration. The weakening of 
 Turkey and an alliance for such a purpose 
 with Russia was certainly one of the greaitest 
 blunders ever committed. 
 
 Navas de Tolosa {Battle of Lns)^ 1214, 
 in which Alfonso III. of Castile defeated the 
 Almohades, and destroyed one of the largest 
 armies that ever crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 Naxos {JVaml battle of), B.C. 376, won by 
 the Atlienians, led by Chabrias, over the Lace- 
 daemonian fleet. This victory restored to Athens 
 the supremacy at sea. 
 
 Wechlansmere, in Scotland {Battle of), 
 20 May, 685, in which Egfrith king of 
 Northumbria was defeated and slain by the 
 Picts. ' A solitary fugitive alone escaped the 
 slaughter to tell how Egfrith and the flower of 
 his nobles lay dead on the field.' With this 
 battle fell for ever the supremEicy of Nortlmm- 
 bria; and Mercia succeeded to the overlordship. 
 
 • Neer winden {Battles of), I. 19 July, 1693, 
 in which the French Marshal de Luxembourg 
 defeated William III. 
 
 II. 18 March, 1793, in which the Austrians 
 defeated General Dumourie*. 
 
 Nehavend. *See ' Nahavund.' 
 
 Neresheim {fiattle of), lO Aug., 1796, 
 in which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal 
 Moreau, the French general. 
 
 Wetad {Battle of), A.D. 453, a great battle 
 won by various dependent nations over the 
 sons of Attila, after his death. Ellak, his 
 eldest son, and above 30,000 of his people were 
 slain. The great empire of Attila soon after 
 this defeat crumbled away. 
 
 Neumarkt {Battle of), 22 Aug., 1796, in 
 which the Archduke Karl defeated the French. 
 
 Neville's Cross {Battle o/), near Durham, 
 12 Oct., 1346, in which David 11. of Scotland 
 was both defeated and taken prisoner. Aug. 
 26 the same year is noted for the battle of 
 Cressy. 
 
 This battle was won by Philippa while 
 Edward III. .(lier husband) was in France. 
 King David was taken prisoner, and between 
 16,000 and 20,000 Scots were slain. Of the 
 English, only one leader (Lord Hastings) fell. 
 
 New Orleans, in Louisiana {Battle of), 
 8 Jvme, 1815, in which the American general 
 Jackson defeated the Enghsh, and their gene- 
 ral. Sir Edward Pakenham, was slain. 
 
 This, of course, was not the General Jackson 
 who was one of the Confederate leaders in the 
 American Civil War, 1861-1865. 
 
 Newark {Battle of), 21 March, 1644, in 
 which the royal army, under Prince Rupert, 
 was defeated by the parliamentarians. 
 
 Newburn {Battle of), 28 Aug., 1640. This 
 was no battle at all, but a stampede. Lord 
 Conway with 6,000 English troops was sent by 
 Charles I. to resist the Scotch covenanters, 
 but immediately the covenanters crossed the 
 river the English fled without offering any 
 resistance. 
 
 Newbury, in Berkshire {Battle of). 20 
 Sept., 1643, in which Charles I. repulsed the 
 Earl of Essex, commander of the parliamentary 
 army. Next year (27 Oct., 1644), was an 
 indecisive engagement at Newbury between 
 Charles I. and the Earl of Manchester. 
 
 In the former of these battles fell Lord Falk- 
 land. 
 
 Newtown Butler, in Ireland {Battle of), 
 1689, between James II. aided by French 
 troops and the army of William III. The 
 Protestants were besieged in Londonderry, and 
 had food only for two days, when the men of 
 Enniskillen came to their relief, and drove the 
 besiegers before them 1 ike wild geese ; the 
 panic spread through Hamilton's whole army, 
 which took refuge in Dublin, where James lay 
 helpless. His French ally, Comte d'Avaux, 
 advised the general massacre of all Protestants 
 in the districts which remained still in 
 James's interest ; but James revolted from the 
 proposal, whereupon the Frenchman sullenly 
 replied, 'Mercy to Protestants is cruelty to 
 Catholics.' 
 
 Nicop'olis, in Turkey {Battles of). I. 28 
 Sept., 1396, in which Kaiser Sigismund waa 
 defeated by Bajazet. 
 
NILE 
 
 PAKRET 
 
 987 
 
 II. A.D. 1799, in which the French were 
 defeated by the Albanians. 
 
 Nile {BatlU of the), 1 Aug., 1798, in which 
 Admiral Nelson defeated the French fleet. 
 This victory obtained for the admiral a peer- 
 age, under the title of Baron Nelson of the 
 Nile. His battle cry was ' Victory or West- 
 minster Abbey 1 ' The French admiral was 
 Bfueys. 
 
 Often called, especially in French history, 
 the Battle of Aboukir iq.v.). 
 
 Ninevell {Battle of ),l Dec, a.d. 627, won by 
 Heraclius the emperor of the East over Chosroes 
 
 II. the Great King. The slaughter was very 
 great. 
 
 Nisbet {Battle of), 7 May, 1402, won by 
 the English over the Scotch. It is said that as 
 many as 10,000 Scots fell in this encounter. 
 
 Nordlingen, in Franconia {Battles of). I. 
 6 Nov., 16.34, won by Ferdinand, son of Kaiser 
 Ferdinand II. over the Protestants. This was 
 one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 n. 6 Sept., 1645, won by the Due d'Enghien 
 over the imjierial German army. (Ferdinand 
 
 III. was kaiser.) This also was one of the 
 battles of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 Noreia {Battle of), b.c. 113, in which 
 Cneius Papirius Carbo the consul was slain by 
 the Cimbrians and his whole army was cut to 
 pieces. 
 
 Northallerton {Battle of), in Yorkshire, 
 22 Aug., 1138, in which David I. of Scotland 
 was defeated by Stephen king of England- 
 The battle is generally called ' The Battle of 
 the Standard.' 
 
 Northampton {Battle of), 10 July, 1460, 
 in wliich Henry VI. was defeaterl and captured 
 by the Y'orkists. Margaret the queen fled to 
 Scotland. 
 
 Novara {Battle of), 23 March, 1849, in 
 which the Sardinians (under Charles Albert) 
 were defeated by the Anstrians led by Marshal 
 Radetzky (a Bohemian). 
 
 Novi {Battles of). I. 15 Aug., 1799, in which 
 Suwarrow, general of the allied Russian and 
 Austrian armies, defeated Marshal Joubert and 
 the French army. Joubert was slain in this 
 battle and 4,000 French were taken prisoners. 
 
 II. 8 Jan., 1800, in which the French were 
 defeated by the Austrians. 
 
 Nurnberg {Battle of), 1456, in Bavaria, 
 between the barons and the townsmen. Eight 
 times the barons were victors, but in the ninth 
 contest the townsmen were the conquerors and 
 Niirnberg vindicated its freedom. 
 
 In this battle Albrecht the Achilles and 
 Ulysses of Germany was taken captive by 
 the citzen soldiers. 
 
 CEnoph'yta {Battle of), b.c. 456, won by 
 the Athenians over the Boeotians. The 
 Athenian general was Myronides. 
 
 Ohud {Battle of), a.d. 623, in which Kha- 
 led, commander of the Koreish cavalry, de- 
 feated Mohammed. 
 
 Olmlitz {Battle of), 15 July, 1866, the last 
 battle of the Seven Weeks' War, won by the 
 Prussians over the Austrians. 
 
 Oltenitza {Battle of), 4 Nov., 1853, won 
 by Omar Pasha, the Turkish general, over the 
 Russians. 
 
 Orthes {Battle of), 27 Feb., 1814, in which 
 the French under Marshal Soult were defeated 
 by the Marquis of Wellington, commander of 
 the allied British and Spanish armies. 
 
 Ostrach {Battle of), 20 March, 1799, in 
 which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal 
 Jourdan, the French general. 
 
 Ostrolenca {Battle of), 26 May, 1831, be- 
 tween the Russians and the Poles. It was a 
 most sanguinary affair, and both sides claimed 
 the victory. 
 
 Otford {Battle of), on the Derwent, 773, in 
 which Offa king of Mercia defeated the 
 Kentish men. By this victory Offa became 
 lord of Kent and all East Anglia. 
 
 Otterburn {Battle of), 10 Aug., 1388, in 
 wWch the Scots under Sir William Douglas 
 defeated the English under the Earl of North- 
 umberland and his two sons. Douglas was 
 slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, but 
 both the Percys were made prisoners. See p. 
 165, ' Chevy Chase.' 
 
 Oudenarde {Battle of), in Belgium, 11 
 July, 1708, in which the Duke of Marlborough 
 and Prince Eugene defeated the Freuch under 
 the Dukes of Burgundy and Vendome. Louis 
 XIV. gave up ten Flemish fortresses to the 
 Dutch, surrendered to the empire all that 
 France had gained since the peace of West- 
 phalia, acknowledged Anne, offered to banish 
 the pretender from his dominions and to de- 
 molish the fortifications of Dunkirk. 
 
 By the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, Louis XIV. 
 agreed to recognise William III. ; but on the 
 death of James II. in 1701 he recognised James 
 the pretender as the lawful king of England, 
 under the name and title of James III. This, 
 in fact, involved him in the wars with Marl- 
 borough, so disastrous to France. 
 
 Oulart {Battle of), 27 May, 1798, in which 
 the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces by the 
 Irish insurgents. 
 
 Ouriqne {Battle of), 25 July, 1139, in 
 which Alfonso of Portugal defeated a pro- 
 digious army of Moors, in which were live 
 Saracen kings. 
 
 Palestro {Battle of), 31 May, 1859, in 
 which the Austrians were defeated by the 
 allied army of Sardinians and French. 
 
 Panormus {Battle of), b.c. 254, in which 
 the Romans conquered the Carthaginians. 
 Metelluswasthe Roman general and Hasdrubal 
 the Carthaginian. This was the chief battle 
 of the First Punic War, 
 
 Parret {Battl'^ of the), 845, in which Eal- 
 stan (bishop of Sherborne) and Osric defeated 
 the Northmen. 
 
PATAY 
 
 PEAGUE 
 
 Patay {Battles of). I. 18 June, 1429. Talbot 
 defeated by the Maid of Orleans and taken 
 prisoner. This was the first battle lost by the 
 English since their victory at Cressy in 1346. . 
 Talbot was taken prisoner. 
 
 II. 1 Dec, 1870, the Bavarians were repulsed. 
 
 Pa'via (Battle, of). I. A.D. 774, where Charle- 
 magne overthrew Desiderius, whom he atter- 
 Avards confined in the monastery of Corbie, in 
 France. 
 
 II. 24 Feb., 1525, in which Francois I. of 
 France M'as taken prisoner, and all the flower 
 of his army was cut to pieces. FraiK;ois, it is 
 said, wrote to his mother, ' All is lost," Madam, 
 except honour' {Tout est perdu, Madame, fors 
 Vhonneur). 
 
 Peterwaradin {Battles of). I. 1691, won 
 by the Austrians over the Turks. Kaprioli, son 
 and brother of two former viziers, fell in this 
 fight. 
 
 II. A.D. 1711, in which Prince Eugene de- 
 feated the Turks with great slaughter. 
 
 PfafFendorf {Battle of), 15 Aug., 1760, in 
 which the Austrians were defeated by the 
 Prussians. 
 
 Pharsa'lia {Battle of), 12 May, B.C. 48, 
 won by Julius Caesar over Pompey the Great. 
 This victory made Caesar the foremost man of 
 Bome. 
 
 Philipliaugh, in Scotland {Battle of), 
 Sept., 1645, in which Montrose, called 'the 
 Great Marquis,' commander of the royal forces 
 in Scotland, sustained a crushing and irre- 
 trievable defeat. This was ten months after 
 the defeat of Charles at Marston Moor. 
 
 Philippi {Battle of), Oct., B.C. 42, in which 
 Brutus and Cassius both met their death, 
 and Antony and Octavian became masters of 
 Rome. 
 
 Pinkie, in Scotland {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
 1547, in which the Lord Protector Somerset de- 
 feated the Scotch with such great slaughter 
 that the day was called ' Black Saturday.' 
 
 Plains of Abraham {Battle of the), 
 13 Sept., 1759, in which the French of Canada 
 were defeated by the English under General 
 Wolfe, who fell dead at the moment of victory. 
 
 Plassey {Battle of), in Hindustan, 23 June, 
 1757, in which Colonel Clive defeated Surajah 
 Dowlah, and laid the foundation of our empire 
 in the East. Clive's army consisted of 1,000 
 Englishmen and 2,000 sepoys; the Surajah's 
 army numbered 50,000 foot and 14,000 horse. 
 The victory was complete, and Surajah Dowlah 
 was one of the slain. 
 
 Platsea {Battle of), 22 Sepo., B.C. 479, in 
 which the Grecian army (110,000 men) under 
 Pausanias utterly defeated the Persian army, 
 which amounted to 300,000 men, under the com- 
 mand of Mardonius. Mardonius was slain at 
 the very onset, and it is said that 200,000 of the 
 Persians were left dead on the field. On the 
 same day was won the battle of Mycale. 
 
 Plattsburg {Battle of ), 11 Oct., 1814, won 
 by the Americans, under Gen. Macomb, over 
 the English under Sir George Prevost. 
 
 Podaic {Battle of), 1672, won by Sobieski, 
 the Polish general, over the Tartars. 
 
 Poitiers {Battles of). I. Oct., a.d. 732, in 
 which Charles le Martel utterly defeated the 
 Saracens under the command of Abd-el-Rah- 
 mah, viceroy of Spain. 
 
 II. 19 Sept., 1356, in which Edward the Black 
 Prince defeated and took captive Jean II. le 
 Bon of France. The English force was 8,000, 
 the French 60,000. It is almost incre lible, but 
 we are assured on good authority, that 8,000 of 
 the French were slain and 2,000 taken prisoners. 
 Never was victory so unexpected, never was 
 victory more complete. 
 
 Pola {Battle of). May, 1379, between a fleet 
 of 22 Genoese galleys commanded by Luciano 
 Doria and 20 galleys of the Venetians under 
 Pisani. Doria was slain, but the Genoese won 
 the victory, taking 15 gaUeys and 1,900 pri- 
 soners. 
 
 Pollentia, in Italy {Battle of), 29 March, 
 A.D. 403 (Easter Day). In this battle Stilicho 
 attacked Alaric, and caused liim to retreat. 
 
 Polotsk {Battle of), 30, 31 July, 1812, in 
 which the Russians, under Wittgenstein, de- 
 feated the French under Marshal Oudinot. 
 
 Portlevoi {Battle of), 1016, won by Fulc, 
 called the Black Count, over the Count of Blois. 
 This great victory crushed the rival house of 
 Blois. 
 
 Porto Bello (Naval battle of), 1739, won, 
 with six ships, by Admiral Vernon over the 
 Spaniards. All the fortifications of the port 
 were demolished. • 
 
 Porto Novo {Battle of), 1 July, 1781, in 
 which Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali regent 
 of Mysore. 
 
 Also called the battle of Cuddalore (3 syL), 
 
 Potsdam {Battle of), 25 Oct., 1806, where 
 Napoleon defeated the Prussians. 
 
 Praga {Battles of). 1. 10 Oct., 1794, in which 
 30,000 Poles were butchered by the Russian 
 general Suwarrow or Suwarof. 
 
 II. 31 March, 1831, won by the Poles, led by 
 Skrznecki, over the Russians under the com- 
 mand of General Giesmar. Above 6,000 Rus- 
 sians were taken prisoners. 
 
 Prague {Battles of), in Bohemia. I. 8 Nov., 
 1620, when Maximilian of Bavaria defeated 
 Frederick V. the Elector Palatine. This was 
 the first of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
 War. Prague (1 syL). 
 
 II. 6 May, 1757, when Frederick IL(the Great) 
 of Prussia defeated Prince Charles of Lorraine. 
 This victory was followed (June 18) by a 
 crushing defeat at Kolin by Marshal Daun. 
 (Second campaign of the Seven Years' War). 
 This is the great and memorable battle of 
 Prague. 
 
PRESCOTT 
 
 EIGOMAGO 
 
 989 
 
 Prescott {Battle of), in Upper Canada, 
 17 Nov., 1838, in which the Canadian rebels 
 were defeated by Lieutenant-Colonel Dundas. 
 
 Preston {Battles of), in Lancashire. I. 
 17 Aug., 1648, in which Cromwell defeated the 
 Scotch royalist army, le<l by the Duke of 
 Hamilton. 
 
 II. 12, 13 Nov., 1715, after the ' clap of Sheriflf- 
 muir.' A very poor affair, where the Jacobites 
 were cooped up, and driven to a most cowardly 
 surrender. (Reign of George I.) 
 
 All that is known of James the Pretender 
 only confirms the wisdom of setting him 
 aside. 
 
 Preston-pans {Battle of), in Scotland, 
 21 Sept., 1745, in which the 'Young Pretender ' 
 Charles Edward (grandson of James II.) de- 
 feated Sir John Cope. 
 
 Never was a battle so quickly decided. It is 
 said not to have lasted more than five or six 
 minutes. Never was a defeat more absolute. — 
 Ho WITT, Hist, of England, George II. p. 501. 
 
 Princeton, New Jersey, U.S. {Battle of), 
 2 Jan., 1777. Here Washington defeated Lord 
 Cornwallis in the American War of Indepen- 
 dence. This was Washington's second victory. 
 See ' Battle of Trenton.' 
 
 Pultowa or Pultawa {Battle of), 9 July, 
 1709, in which Czar Peter the Great utterly 
 defeated Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Pultusk {Battles of). I. 1 May, 1703, in 
 which the Saxons were defeated by the Swedes. 
 
 II. 26 Dec, 1806, between the French under 
 Napoleon and the allied Prussians and Rus- 
 sians. Both sides claimed the victory. 
 
 Pydna {Battle of), b.c. 168, in which Per- 
 seus, last of the Macedon kings, was utterly 
 defeated and his army annihilated by ^milius 
 Paulus, the Roman consul. Perseus was taken 
 captive, and Macedonia was made a Roman 
 province. 
 
 Pyramids {Battle of the), 21 July, 1798, in 
 which Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes. 
 
 Pyrenees {Battle of the), 28 July, 1813, 
 won by Lord Wellington over the French under 
 the command of Marshal Soult. Souit was sent 
 by Napoleon to supersede Jourdan, who had 
 been utterly defeated at Vittoria on the 21st, 
 and to drive Wellington across the Ebro, but 
 the French marshal met with a series of defeats 
 between 25 July and 2 Aug., with the loss of 
 20,000 men. 
 
 Quatre-Bras, in Brabant {Battle of), 
 16 June, 1815. Two days before the battle of 
 Waterloo. It was a combat between the British 
 allied army and the French under Marshal Ney. 
 The British under the Duke of Brunswick, the 
 Prince of Orange, and Sir Thomas Picton, held 
 their ground, but the Duke of Bruns\vick was 
 slain and the Prince of Orange was taken pri- 
 soner. At the close of the day the French 
 marshal withdrew his men. 
 
 Quebec, in Canada {Battle of), 13 Sept., 
 1759, where General Wolfe defeated the 
 Marquis de Montcalm, commander-in-chief of 
 the French armies in Canada. The taking of 
 Quebec was the conquest of Canada. Wolfe 
 died on the day of battle, and Montcalm the 
 day after from his wounds. See below ' Quiberon 
 Bay.' 
 
 Qneenstown, Upper Canada {Battle of), 
 13 Oct., 1812, in the Second American War, 
 where General Sheafife defeated the Americans 
 commanded by Van Rensselaer. 
 
 Quesnoy {Battle of), ll Sept., 1793, in 
 which the British forces defeated the French. 
 %* Pronounce Keen-wah. 
 
 Quiberon Bay {Xavai battle of ), 20 Nov., 
 1795, where Lord Hawke defeated the French 
 fleet, which was utterly ruined. The commander 
 of the French fleet was Marshal Conflans. In 
 one year the English won three great victories 
 over the French, viz. Minden, Quebec, and Qui- 
 beron Bay. 
 
 Baab {Battles of). 1. 1 Aug., 1664, won by 
 Montecuciili, general of the imperial army, over 
 the Tiirks. 
 
 n. June, 1809, in which the Austrian Arch- 
 duke John was totally defeated by Eugene 
 Beauharnais, and the country bordering on the 
 Adriatic was annexed to the French empire. 
 Raab (1 syl.). 
 
 Baclawice {Battle of), 4 April, 1794, in 
 which Kosciusko the Polish general defeated 
 the Russians. 
 
 Bam-hormuz {Battle of), b.c. 226, in 
 which Artaxerxes (called by the Persians Arde- 
 shur Babegan, or Ardeschir ben Babek) utterly 
 defeated Artabanes IV., shook off the Parthian 
 yoke, and restored the empire of Persia Proper. 
 
 Bamillies, in Belgium {Battle of), 23 May, 
 1706, where the Duke of Marlborough defeated 
 the French and Bavarians. The French general 
 was Marshal Villeroy. France lost Flanders, 
 and soon afterwards Italy. 
 
 *»* This word is often caUed Ram'-e-liz in 
 English, but it is called by Belgians Ra-mel-ya'. 
 
 Bathmines {Battle of), 2 Aug., 1649, be- 
 tween Ormond the royalist and Colonel Jones 
 governor of Dublin. The royalists were de- 
 feated, and 2,000 of them were taken prisoners. 
 
 Bavenna, in Italy {Battle of), 11 April, 
 1512, between the French under Gaston de Foix 
 (nephew of Louis XII.) and the combined 
 Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix won the 
 battle, but was left dead on the field. 
 
 Gaston de Foix was called ' The thunderbolt 
 of Italy.' 
 
 Begillus {Battle at the Lake), B.C. 499, be- 
 tween the Romans and the allies who sought to 
 restore Tarquin. In this battle it is said that 
 Castor and PoUux on their white horses fought 
 for the Romans and won the battle. 
 
 Bigomago {Battle of), 1447, lost by 
 Huuyadi, governor of Hungary through the 
 treachery of the voivod of Wallachia. This 
 was one of the bloodest battles ever fought. 
 
990 
 
 EIVOLI 
 
 SALAMIS 
 
 Biv'oli {Battle of), 14, 15 Jan., 1797, where 
 Bonaparte defeated the Austrians led by Wurm- 
 ser and Alvinzy. 
 
 Kocroy {Battle of), 1643, in which the 
 French, led by the Great Gond6, sustained a 
 most crushing defeat. 
 
 Kolipa (Battle o/), 16 Aug., 1808, the first 
 encounter of Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
 Duke of Wellington) with the French in Por- 
 tugal. The French under Delaborde were de- 
 feated. 
 
 Roncesvalles {Battle of ), \jd. 778. It was 
 here that the rear-guard of Charlemagne's army 
 on their return from Spain were attacked by 
 the Moors and annihilated. Among the slain 
 was Roland, the famous paladin, the king's 
 nephew. 
 
 Roland in Italian romance is called Orlando. 
 
 Rosbachi, in Prussia {Battles of). I. 17 
 Nov., 1382, in which 40,000 insurgent Flemings 
 were cut to pieces by the French. 
 
 II. 5 Nov., 1757, where Frederick II. defeated 
 the allied Austrian and French armies. This 
 defeat was so disgraceful to the French that the 
 ' Rout of Rosbach ' is still a proverb and a by- 
 word. The loss of the Prussians was only 300 
 men, that of the allies was 1,300 slain and 6,000 
 prisoners. (In the second campaign of the 
 Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Rosbecque {Battle of), Nov. 1382, in which 
 Charles VI. of Prance defeated the republican 
 army of Flanders, and re-established the earl 
 who had been deposed. Philip van Artevelde, 
 leader of the democratic party, fell in this 
 battle. 
 
 Ross, in Ireland {Battleof), 4 June, 1798,in 
 which the Irish insurgents, commanded by 
 General Beauchamp Bagenel Harvey, were de- 
 feated by the royal troops under the command 
 of General Johnston. 
 
 Rothiere {Battle of), l Feb., 1814, won by 
 Napoleon over the combined armies of Bliicher 
 and Schwartzenberg. 
 
 ROUCOUX, or Raucoux {Battleof), 11 
 Oct., 1746, in which the French, under Marshal 
 S'axe, defeated the allied English and Dutch 
 
 Round-way Down, near Devizes {Battle 
 of). 13 July, 1643, in which the royalists under 
 Prince Rupert defeated Sir W. Waller, a parlia- 
 mentary officer. 
 
 Roveredo {Battle of), 4 Sept., 1796, in 
 which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians. 
 
 3a.alf eld {Battle of), 10 Oct., 1806, won by 
 Napoleon over the confederates. 
 
 Saarbriick {Battle of), 2 Aug., 1870. In 
 the Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prus- 
 sians the same day as they won the battle of 
 Worth. 
 
 31 July, 1870, it was seized by Napoleon III., 
 and here the young Prince Imperial received 
 his • baptism of fire ; ' a battle was fought 
 2 Aug., in which the French were dislodged. 
 
 and on 6 Aug. it was occupied by the German 
 allies. 
 
 Sadowa, in Bohemia {Battle of), 3 July, 
 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. King Wil- 
 liam I. of Prussia defeated Benedek, the Aus- 
 trian general. 
 
 St. Albans, Herts {Battles of). I. 22 May, 
 1455, in which Richard duke of York defeated 
 and took prisoner Henry VI. of England. 
 
 II. 7 Feb., 1461 {Shrove Tuesday), in which 
 battle Queen Margaret defeated the Earl of 
 Warwick. 
 
 St. Denis {Battle of), 1567, in the Second 
 Religious War of France. Here Anne de Mont- 
 morency, the last of the French Triumvirate 
 {q.v.), lost his Ufe, but the Huguenots were 
 defeated. 
 
 St, Denis, pronounce Sahn Dnee, 
 
 St. Dizier {Battle of), 27 Jan., 1814, won by 
 Napoleon over BlUcher. 
 
 Pronounce Sahn De-ze-a. 
 
 St. Jacob's {Battle of), in the vicinity 
 of Basle, 1444. Here 1,600 Swiss kept 32,000 
 French soldiers at bay for ten hours, and would 
 not surrender till their number was reduced to 
 ten men only. 
 
 St. Quintin {Battle of), 10 Aug., 1557, 
 won by Philip II. of Spain over the French. 
 This was their most severe defeat since the 
 battle of Agincourt. 
 
 Pronounce Sahn Kahn-tohn (nasal). 
 
 St. Sebastian {Battles of). I. 5 May, 
 1836, won by General Evans, commander of the 
 English Auxiliary Legion, against the Carlists 
 of Spain. 
 
 II. 1 Oct., 1836, the Carlists were repulsed 
 by De Lacy Evans. 
 
 St. Vincent, in Portugal {Battles of). I. 
 17 June, 1693, in which Admiral Toiu-ville 
 marshal of Prance defeated the allied English 
 and Dutch fleets under the command of Sir 
 G. Rooke. The allies lost 12 men-of-war and 
 80 merchantmen in this great naval battle. 
 
 II. 16 Jan., 1780, in which Admiral Rodney 
 defeated Juande Langara the Spanish admiral, 
 who was also taken prisoner. 
 
 III. 14 Feb., 1797, in which Admiral Jervis 
 defeated and won a great victory over the 
 Spanish fleet, for which he was raised to the 
 peerage under the name and title of John Jervis 
 earl of St. Vincent. 
 
 IV. 2 Ju'y, 1833, in which Admiral Napier 
 captured the Miguelite squadron. 
 
 Salamanca {Battle of), 22 July, 1812, won 
 by Lord Wellington over the French forces led ' 
 by Marshal Mai-mont. This was the seventh 
 French marshal defeated by Lord Wellington 
 in four years. In this battle 7,141 prisoners 
 fell into "the victor's hands, 11 cannons, 6 stand 
 of colours, and 2 eagles. 
 
 Sal'amis {Naml battle of), 20 Oct., b.c. 480, 
 in which the Greeks, under Themistocles, with 
 only 371 triremes, defeated the Persian fleet, 
 which consisted of 928 sail of much larger size. 
 Of this formidable fleet only 300 ships escaped 
 
SAMINAKA 
 
 SHANNON 
 
 991 
 
 destruction. The Persian loss must have been 
 very great indeed, that of the Greeks was only 
 40 men all told. 
 
 Xerxes, who was a spectator of the fight, re- 
 turned at once to Asia. 
 
 Saminara {Battle of), north-east of 
 Reggie, 21 April, 1503, won by Gonzalvo of 
 Cordova over the French. 
 
 Santes {Battle of), in which St. Louis of 
 France defeated the insurgents under the 
 Comte de la Marche. Santes (1 syl.). 
 
 Sapienza {Battles of), 4 Nov.,1354, in wliich 
 the Venetian fleet under Niecolo Pisani was 
 surprised and captured by the Genoese fleet 
 under Paganini Doria. 
 
 II. 6 Oct., 1403, in which the Venetian fleet 
 under Zeno defeated the Genoese fleet com- 
 manded by Boucicault. 
 
 Saratoga, New York, U.S. {Battle of), 
 11 Oct., 1777. Here the American General 
 Gates defeated the British General Burgoyne. 
 This was the worst disaster hitherto sustained 
 by the English in the American War of Inde- 
 pendence. General Burgoyne surrendered to 
 General Gates, and, on cavitulation, had a 
 free passage to Great Britain, on condition of 
 not serving again against America. After this 
 terrible overthrow, France at once recognised 
 the independence of America. Sir John Bur- 
 goyne, of course, retired from the army, and 
 spent his tinje in writing for the stage. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Sasbach {Battle of), 1675, between Monte- 
 cuculi on the German side and Marshal Tu- 
 renne on the side of the French. Turenue was 
 killed by a cannon ball, and victory was claimed 
 by the Germans. 
 
 Scearstan {Battle of), 1016, won by 
 Canute over Edmund Ironside ; but Canute re- 
 treated at night towards Loudon, unwilling to 
 renew the fight. 
 
 Schellenberg {Battle of), 2 July, 1704. 
 Here Marlborough defeated the Bavarians, and 
 returned to England with 121 standards, 179 
 colours, the Bavarian general, and twenty-six 
 ofiicers of high distinction. 
 
 Schleitz {Battle of), Oct., 1806, won by 
 Napoleon over the confederates. 
 
 Sch.liengen {Battle of), 20 Oct., 1796. The 
 Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau, 
 the French general. He had defeated him the 
 day before at Emmendingen. 
 
 Secandun {Battle of), a.d. 755, in which 
 the Mercians were defeated by the West Saxons. 
 Ethelbald was slain in this battle. 
 
 Sedan {Battle of). I. ll Sept., 1870, in the 
 Franco-Prussian war, won by the Prussians. 
 On 2 Sept. the Emperor Napoleon III. gave up 
 his sword to William I. king of Prussia. 
 
 This was just a month after the war began. 
 The occupation of Saarbriick and ' baptism of 
 fire' was 2 Aug., and Napoleon gave up his 
 sword 2 Sept. 
 
 n. 10 May, 1865, General Johnston, at Dur- 
 ham's Station, North Carolina, surrendered to 
 General Sherman, and thus brought the Ameri- 
 can civil contest to a close. This was the Ameri- 
 can ' Sedan.' 
 
 Sedgemoor {Battle of), 5 July, 1685, in 
 which the Duke of Monmouth was completely 
 defeated by the army of James II. The duke 
 was made prisoner, and was soon afterwards 
 beheaded. 
 
 Seidlitz {Battle of), in Poland, 10 April, 
 1831, won by the Poles over the Russians. 
 
 Sellasia {Battle of), b.c. 221, in which 
 CleomenC'S the Spartan was utterly defeated by 
 Antigonus and the Achaean League. 
 
 Semincas {Battle of), a.d. 938, won by 
 Ramirez II. king of Leon and the Asturias over 
 the Moors. It is said that 80,000 of the Moors 
 were slain in this conflict. 
 
 Sempach {Battle of), 9 July, 1386, in which 
 1,400 Switzers utterly defeated the Austrian 
 army under Duke Leopold. The Austrian army 
 consisted of 4,000 knights of high rank, and a 
 numerous well-appointed host of foot soldiers. 
 The duke and most of the knights were slain. 
 It was in this battle that Arnold Struthan von 
 Winkelried of Unterwalden rushed on the ad- 
 vancing spears of the Austrians, grasped as 
 many of them as he could reach, buried them 
 in his bosom and bore them to the gi'ound ; 
 thus making a gap into which the Swiss rushed 
 and slaughtered the Austrians right and left. 
 The loss of the Swiss was about 200, of the 
 Austrians at least 6,000. 
 
 Probably a part of this tale is onty legendary. 
 
 Senef {Battle of), 1674, a drawn battle 
 between WilUam prince of Orange and the 
 
 Great Cond6. 
 
 Senlac {Bottle of), 14 Oct., 1066, where 
 William duke of Normandy conquered Harold 
 II., and thus won, by conquest, the throne of 
 England. Also called 'The Battle of Hast- 
 ings.' 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Serin' gapatam' {Battles of). I. 15 May, 
 1791. Lord Oornwallis defeated Tippoo Saib 
 sultan of Mysore. In 1799 the city was as- 
 signed to the British. 
 
 II. 4 May, 1799, won by Major-General 
 Baird. In this battle Tippoo Saib was slain. 
 
 Shannon and Chesapeake {Battle of 
 the), 1 June,1813. The 'Shannon' was an English 
 ship, commanded by Captain Broke ; the 'Chesa- 
 peake ' was an American vessel, commanded by 
 Captain Lawrence. In the second American 
 war Captain Broke sent a challenge to Captain 
 LaAvi-ence to meet him, in order to prove whether 
 the English or Americans were the better men. 
 The two combatants met ; and, after a most 
 furious and murderous engagement, which 
 lasted about fifteen minutes, the English sea- 
 men hauled down the American colours. Cap- 
 tain Lawrence was s'.ain, and Captain Broke 
 was made a baronet, under the style and title 
 
992 
 
 SHERIFFMUIE 
 
 STRASBURG 
 
 of Sir Philip Bowes Yere Broke, of Nacton, 
 Suffolk. 
 
 Stierififinuir {Battle of), in Dumblane, 
 13 Nov., 1715, in which the Duke of Argyll de- 
 feated the Jacobites led by the Earl of Mar. 
 The worthless Pretender, James, arrived too 
 late for the battle, and proved a more incom- 
 petent leader than even the Earl of Mar. James 
 kft England, and the clans dispersed like a 
 dream. 
 
 Both claimed the victory; but, as the Pre- 
 tender lost the battle of Preston on the same 
 day, his cause hopeless 'y collapsed. 
 
 Shiloh, Tennessee {Battle of), 6 Feb., 
 180^, in the American Civil War. Won by the 
 Pederals. 
 
 Shrewsbury (Battle of), 23 July, 1403, in 
 which Henry IV. defeated the Percys. 
 
 Sliropsllire (Battle of), a.d. 51, in which 
 the Britons were completely svibjugated to the 
 Eomans, and Caradoc [Caractacus] king of 
 the Silures was made a prisoner. 
 
 Silverhausen (Battle of), 1553, in which 
 Maurice elector of Saxony was slain. His 
 antagonist was Albert of Brandenburg, 
 
 Sin'gara (Battle of), a.d. 348, between Con- 
 stautius II. the emperor of the East and Sapor 
 the Persian. The Eomans had won the battle, 
 and had given themselves up to joy and revelry ; 
 but Sapor crept upon them in the darkness of 
 night, recovered the victory, and made most 
 dreadful havoc of the panic-stricken Romans. 
 
 Sinope (Naval battle of), 30 Nov., 1853, 
 won by the Russians over the Turks. 
 
 Sluys (Naval battle of), in the Netherlands, 
 24 June, 1340, in which Edward III. defeated 
 the French fleet, which for a time was utterly 
 ruined. (Pronounce Slu-iz). 
 
 Smolensko (Battle of), 17 Aug., 1812, 
 won by the French over the Russians, led by 
 Barclay de ToUi. 
 
 Sobraon (Battle of), in the Punjab, 10 
 Feb., 1846, won by General Gough and Sir 
 Henry Hardinge over the Sikhs. In this battle 
 a bridge of boats over the Sutlej broke, and 
 thousands of the Sikhs in their flight were 
 drowned. It was the greatest battle ever 
 fought in India. 
 
 Gongh= Goff. 
 
 Socza-wa (Battle of), 1676, won by John 
 in. (Sobieski) of Poland over the Turks. 
 
 Soissons (Battle of), A.D. 486, in which 
 Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, de- 
 feated Syagrius, son of ^gidius. After this 
 victory Clovis made Soissons the capital of his 
 kingdom. In 507 he removed to Paris. 
 
 Solebay (Naval battle of), 28 May, 1672, 
 in which the Diitch were defeated by the 
 English under the command of James duke of 
 York [James II.]. 
 
 Solferi'no, in Italy (Battle of), 24 June, 
 185 y, in which Napoleon III. and Victor 
 Emmanuel defeated Francis Joseph emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 Solonium (Battle of), b.c. 61, in which 
 C. Pomptinus the praetor defeated the Allo- 
 broges. 
 
 Solway Moss, in Cumberland (Battle of), 
 25 Nov., 1542, in which the Scots under Oliver 
 Sinclair were defeated by the Duke of Norfolk. 
 
 Somerton (Battle of), a.d. 733, in which 
 the royal town of Somerton was captured by 
 Ethelbald king of Mercia. This great victory 
 ended the war with the West Saxons. 
 
 SommersJiausen (Battle of), n April, 
 1648, won by Turenne and Wrangel. This 
 was the last of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
 War. 
 
 Spurs (Battle of the), 18 Aug., 1513, won 
 by the English over the French, who used 
 their spurs in flight more than their swords in 
 fight. 
 
 Stamford Bridge, near York (Battle 
 of), 25 Sept., 1066, in which Tostig, son of Earl 
 Godwin, was defeated and slain by Harold IL 
 king of England, his brother. 
 
 Steinkerke (Battle of), 4 Aug., 1692, in 
 which the French Marshal de Luxembourg 
 defeated William III. and his allies. The loss 
 on both sides was about equal. 
 
 Stillwater (Battle of), 19 Sept. and 7 
 Oct., 1777, won by the British over the 
 Americans. The loss of the British was 350 
 killed and wounded, of the Americans 1,500 
 slain. 
 
 Stillwater is a town on the river Hudson, 
 belonging to the State of New York. 
 
 Stirling Bridge (Battle of), 10 Sept., 
 1297, in which William Wallace utterly 
 defeated the English under the command of 
 Warenne earl of Sm-rey. 
 
 Stockach. (Battle of), 25 March, 1799, in 
 which Marshal Jourdan, the French general, 
 was defeated by the Archduke Karl, and 
 Germany was lost to France. 
 
 Stoke, near Newark (Battle of), 1487, in 
 which the conspiracy of Simnel was utterly 
 crushed by Henry VII. 
 
 Stonar (Battle of), a.d. 465, in which 
 Vortinier defeated Hen gist, and drove the 
 Saxons to their ships. They did not return till 
 the death of Vortimer, five years afterwards. 
 
 Stony Creek, U.S. (Battle of), 6 June, 
 1813, where General Vincent surprised and 
 defeated the American General Winder, in the 
 Second American War. 
 
 Stony Point (Battle of), 1779. StonyPoint, 
 in New York, 30 May, was taken by Clinton. 
 An engagement took place 20 June at Stone 
 Perry. General Wayne recovered Stony Point 15 
 July, but abandoned it to the British next day. 
 
 Stowe, in Bucks (Battle of), 1645, in 
 which the Irish royalists, under the command 
 of Lord Astley, were defeated by the parlia- 
 mentary troops led by Colonel Morgan. Lord 
 Astley was taken prisoner. 
 
 Strasburg (Battle of), Aug., a.d. 357, won 
 by Julian over the Alemanui. In this battle 
 
STKATTON HILL 
 
 TOGGENBUKG 
 
 993 
 
 Chnodomar or Gundomar, the huge leader of 
 the Germans, was taken prisoner. 
 
 Stratton Hill (fiattleof), in Devonshire, 
 16 May, 1043, in which the royalists defeated 
 the parliamentary army led by the poet 
 Waller. 
 
 Strom'boli (Navnl battle of), 1676, won by 
 Duquesne over the Dutch. 
 
 Duquesne =DuJi-kam. 
 
 . Sukoro {Battle of), 29 Sept., 1848, between 
 the Croats led by Baron Jeiachich, and the 
 Magyars, led by Moga. The former numbered 
 50,udu, and were well arme<l ; the latter not 
 above 5,000, armed with scythes, pitchforks, 
 and old muskets. The Hungarians, however, 
 were completely victorious. This was the first 
 battle in the War for Independence. 
 
 Tagina (Battle of), July, a.d. 552, in which 
 Totila the Gothic king was defeated and slain 
 by Narses the eunuch, commander-in-chief of 
 Justinian's army. 
 
 Tagliamento (Battle of), 16 March, 1797, 
 in which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, led 
 by the Archduke Karl. 
 
 Talavera, in Spain (Battle of), 27, 28 
 July, 18U9, won by Sir Arthur Wellesley (Duke 
 of Wellington), commander of the united 
 British and Spanish forces, over Victor and 
 Jourdan, marshalsof France. The French loss 
 was 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon ; the 
 allied British and Spanish forces lost 800 
 killed and 4,000 wounded or missing. 
 
 For this victory Sir Arthur (already Baron 
 Douro) was created Viscount Wellington of 
 Talavera. 
 
 Taillebourg (Battle of), 1242, in which 
 St. Louis of France defeated the insurgents 
 under the Comte de la Marche. 
 
 Taliacot'a, or Tagliacozzo,in Italy (Battle 
 of), 23 Aug., 12G8, in which Charles of Anjou 
 overthrew Conradin. 
 
 Tar a (Battles of), I. 980, in which Malachy 
 monarch of Ireland defeated the Danes. 
 This was the most decisive of all the battles 
 fought by the Irish against the Danes, except 
 the battle of Clontarf in 1014. 
 
 (II.) 2G Mav,.1789. in which the Irish rebels 
 were defeated by the royal troops. 
 
 Tarbes (Battle of), in France, 20 March, 
 1814, in which the French army under 
 Marshal Soult was defeated by the Duke of 
 Wellington. Tarbes (1 syl.). 
 
 Taro (Battle of the), 6 July, 1495, won by 
 Charles VIII. with 9,000 men over an allied 
 Italian, German, and Spanish army of 40,000. 
 Of the French not above 200 fell, of the allies 
 15,000. The Venetians caUed this a victory, 
 and erected a tablet to one of the Provveditori 
 with this barefaced lying inscription : ' Here 
 lies Melchior Trivisano, wlio fought success- 
 fully against Charles [VIII.] king of France 
 at the battle of the Taro.' 
 
 Tchernaya (Battle of the), 16 Aug., 
 1855, in which the French and Sardinians 
 
 defeated the Russians. This was one of the 
 great battles of the Crimejin War (q.v.). 
 
 Tel-el-Kebir (Battle of), 13 Sept., 1882, 
 won by the English under General Wolseley over 
 Arabi the Egyptian rebel. 
 
 Temesvar (Battle of), 1849. One of the 
 battles of the War of Independence. The 
 Hungarians were utterly routed by the allied 
 Russian and Austrian armies. 
 
 Tenna (Battle of), 9 Nov., 1439, in which 
 the Venetians led by Sforza utterly defeated 
 the Milanese under the command of Piccinino. 
 
 Tewkesbury (Battle of), in Gloucester- 
 shire, 4 May, 1471, in which Edward IV. 
 defeated and took prisoner Queen Margaret. 
 Her sou either feU on the field or was stabbed 
 after the battle ; and the death of Henry VI. 
 in the Tower, some eighteen days afterwards, 
 left Edward IV. of the House of York the 
 undisputed sovereign of the kingdom. 
 
 Thapsus (Battle of), 4 Feb., B.C. 46, ia 
 whicli Julius Caesar utterly defeated Juba 
 king of Numidia and the senatorial army 
 which befriended the cause of Pompey. 
 
 Thermop'ylee (Battles of), I. 7 Aug., b.c. 
 480, between the Greeks and the Persians. Leo- 
 uidas king of Sparta was sent with 300 Spartans 
 to withstand the whole Persian army at the 
 defile of Thermopylae. He held his ground for 
 three days, when Ephialtes perfidiously led the 
 enemy by a secret path to the rear of the 
 Greeks, who were thus hemmed in between two 
 forces. All but one man perished figliting 
 gloriously, leaving 20,000 Persians dead in the 
 pass. This was one of the most heroic acts iu 
 all history. 
 
 II. B.C. 191, in which Antiochus III. king of 
 Syria was utterly defeated by the Romans. 
 
 TMonville, or Diedenhofen (Battle of), 
 June, lt)3D, one of the minor battles of the 
 Thirty Years' War, General de Feuquieres 
 was defeated by Ottavio Piccolomini. 
 Pronounce Te-onlg^-veel. 
 
 Thrasymenus (Battle of), b.c. 217, in 
 which the Romans under Flaminius were 
 defeated by the Carthaginians under Hannibal. 
 Of the Romans, 15,000 were slain and 10,000 
 taken prisoners. 
 
 Till (Battle of the), A.D. 556, in which the 
 Asiatic Turks slew the Khan of the Ogors with 
 300,000 of his subjects (1 1). 
 
 Tinchebrai (Battle of), 28 Sept., 1106 
 where Robert duke of Normandy (son of Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror) was utterly defeated by his 
 younger brother Henry I. king of England. 
 In consequence of this victory the duchy 
 became a dependency of the English crown. 
 
 Tippermuir (Battle of), Sept., 1644, in 
 which the Marquis of Montrose, commander 
 of the royal forces in Scotland, defeated the 
 Covenanters. 
 
 Toggenburg or Tockemburg, in 
 Switzerland. This has been the site of two 
 contests, called the ' first ' and ' second war of 
 
 ss 
 
994 
 
 TOLBIAC 
 
 VASCAPE 
 
 Tockemburg.' The first in 1436 was a contest 
 between the Count of Zurich and the Count of 
 Schwitz for the succession. The second, in 
 1712, was the revolt of the Toclcemburgers 
 against the abbot of St. Gall their ruler, end- 
 ing in favour of the revolters. 
 
 Tolbiac {Battle of), A.D. 496, in which 
 Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, 
 repulsed the Alemanni, a Teutonic league, 
 with great slaughter. 
 
 Tolbiac is now called Zulpich ; it is near 
 Cologne. 
 
 Toplitz {Battle of), 1762, in which the 
 Prussians were defeated by the Austrians. 
 
 Torgau {Battle of), in Prussia, 3 Nov., 
 1760, in which Frederick II. of Prussia en- 
 countered Marshal Daun. The battle was in- 
 decisive ; but Frederick claimed the victory, 
 because Marshal Daun decamped during the 
 night. (In the fifth campaign of the Seven 
 Years' War.) 
 
 Pronounce Tor-gow (ow as in now). 
 
 Torres Vedras, in Portugal. The French 
 marshal arrived before the ' Lines ' constructed 
 by Wellington in Oct., but retreated Nov. 14, 
 1810. See p. 521, ' Lines of Torres Vedras.' 
 
 Toulon, in Prance {Battles of). 1. 22 Feb., 
 1744. when Admiral Matthews was repulsed by 
 the allied French aud Spanish fleets. 
 
 II. 15 Nov., 1793, a conflict between the 
 English and the French, in which the French 
 were repulsed. 
 
 Toulouse {Battle of), 10 April, 1814, won 
 by the Duke of Wellington over the French, 
 led by Marshal Soult. This was the last of 
 Wellington's peninsular battles. 
 
 Tours {Battle of), 10 Oct., A,D. 732, in 
 which Charles Martel, mayor ot the palace, 
 leader of the Franks, utterly defeated the 
 Saracens under Abderahman. This was one of 
 the most important and decisive of victories. 
 If the Saracens had succeeded, without doubt 
 they would have planted in France the reli- 
 gion of Mahomet, and there, as in Spain, it 
 would have dominated, at least for a time. It 
 was the battle between the Crescent and the 
 Cross. 
 
 This is one ot Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 Towton {Battle of), in Yorkshire, 29 
 March, 1461 (Palm Sunday), in which Edward 
 IV. defeated Henry VI. This was one of the 
 most terrible struggles in English history, 
 second only to the battle of Hastings or Senlac. 
 The number brought into the field on either 
 side was about 60,000 men, and for six hours the 
 fight lasted in themiilst of a severe snow-storm. 
 The loss on each side was more than 20,000. 
 The Lancastrians lost six barons, the Earls of 
 Devon and Wiltshire were taken prisoners 
 and beheaded, the Lords Oxford and Aubrey 
 were subsequently executed. An enormous 
 number of the Lancastrians were charged 
 with treason, and all their lands were confis- 
 cated. 
 
 Trafalgar {Battle of), 21 Oct., 1805, won by 
 Admira! Lord Nelson over the combined French 
 and Spanish fleets, commanded by Admiral 
 Villeneuve (French) and two Spanish admirals. 
 All the three admirals were taken prisoners. 
 Nelson commanded in the ship called the 
 'Victory,' and lost his life in the battle. It 
 was in this engagement he is credited with the 
 signal, ' England expects every man to do his 
 duty.' This is our most glorious naval victory. 
 
 Trasimene {Battle of Lake), same as 
 Thrasymenus {q.v.). 
 
 Trautenau {Battle of), 27 June, 1866, in 
 the Seven Weeks' War. Prince Frederick 
 Charles defeated the Austrians. 
 
 *jj5* Trautenau, pronounce Ti'ou'-ta-now. 
 
 Tre'bia {Battles of the). I. b.c. 218, in which 
 Hannibal the Carthaginian defeated Publius 
 Seipio and Sempronius. This great battle ended 
 Hannibal's first campaign. 
 
 II. 17-19 June, 1799, Suwarof, the Russian 
 general, defeated Macdonald and his French 
 army. 
 
 Trenton, in New Jersey, U.S. {Battle of), 
 26 Dec, 1776, Here Washington won his first 
 victory over the British and Hessian troops in 
 the American War of Independence. 
 
 Tricamarum {Battle of), a.d. 534, in which 
 Belisarius defeated Gellmer, last of the Vandal 
 kings of Africa. 
 
 Turin {Battle of), 1706, won by Prince 
 Eugene over the French commanded by La 
 Feuillade. 
 
 Usnant {Naval battle of ), 27 July, 1778, in 
 which the British fleet under Admiral Keppel 
 defeated the French fleet commanded by the 
 Comte d'Orvilliers. It was not a defeat, but the 
 French withdrew their ships under cover of the 
 night. 
 
 Val-fes-'Dunes, near Caen {Battle of), 
 1047, in which William duke of Normandy de- 
 feated his revolted nobles. 
 
 "Valmy', in France {Battle of), 20 Sept., 
 1792, in which the French Marshal Kellermann 
 defeated the Duke of Brunswick. The duke 
 looked on the French revolution as a contemp- 
 tible riot, and was thunderstruck with the re- 
 ception he met with at Valmy. 
 
 This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
 Decisive Battles of the World. 
 
 YsiTnSi{ Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, won by 
 Amurath II. sultan of Turkey over the Hun- 
 garians, led by Ladislaus and Hunyadi. Ladis- 
 laus had sworn to preserve peace with Amurath 
 for ten years, but, persuaded by Cardinal Julian 
 and other churchmen, had scandalously broken 
 his oath, and the defeat of Varna was the fruit 
 of his perjury. 
 
 Vasag {Battle of), 1422, won by Hunyadi 
 the Hungarian general over the Turks under 
 Amurath II. 
 
 Vascape {Battle of), 1441. The greatest 
 of all the victories of Hunyadi, won over the 
 
VERCELL^ 
 
 WARSAW 
 
 995 
 
 Turks under the command of Sciabedin Bey. 
 The Turks were 80,000, the Hungarians not 
 15,000. 
 
 Vercellse {Battle of), 30 July, B.C. 101, in 
 which the Cimbrian host was annihilated by 
 Marlus the Roman consul. 
 
 Verneuil, in France (Battle of), 16 Aug. 
 1424, in wliich the Duke of Bedford defeated 
 the allied French and Scotch. This battle was 
 hardly less disastrous to the French than that 
 of Agincourt, for full one-third of the knight- 
 hood were left dead on that fatal field. The 
 loss of the French was 4,000, that of Bedford's 
 army 1,G00. 
 
 Among the slain were the Earl of Buchan, 
 Earl Douglas, Lord James Douglas (the earl's 
 son). Sir Alexander Meldrum, &c. 
 
 Verona (Battle of), 30 March, 1799, in 
 which the Austrian General Kray defeated the 
 French. 
 
 Veszprem (Battle of), 997, won by St. 
 Stephen king of Hungary, soon after his bap- 
 tism, over Kopan, a nobleman of the old Shaman 
 faith. By this victory Christianity was estab- 
 lished in the laud. 
 
 Vienna (Battle of ), 12 Sept., 1683, in which 
 Sobieski king of Poland, with a relief force of 
 40,000 men, utterly defeated Kara Mustapha 
 vizier of the Stiltau Mahomet II., whereby the 
 siege of Vienna was raised. This is one of the 
 most important and decisive victories ever won. 
 If the Turks had been victorious, probably 
 Vienna, like Constantinople, would have been 
 subject to the Crescent, and the Eastern and 
 Western empires would have been united again, 
 but under the power and religion of the sultan. 
 
 Villa Viciosa (Battle of), 1710, won by 
 the French, commanded by the Due de Ven- 
 dome, over the Archduke Karl. 
 
 Villafranca, in SicUy (Battles of), 1. 1718, 
 In which the Spaniards won over the Austrians. 
 
 II. 10 April, 1812, in which the British 
 cavalry, led by Sir Stapleton Cotton, defeated 
 Marshal Soult. Napoleon greatly blamed Soult 
 for this defeat. 
 
 Villingshausen (Battle of), 15 July, 
 1761, in which Ferdinand duke of Brunswick 
 defeated the French. (In the sixth campaign 
 of the Seven Years' War.) 
 
 Vimeira, in Portugal (Battle of), 21 Aug., 
 1808, in which Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
 Duke of Wellington) defeated the allied French 
 and Spanish forces under Marshal Junot This 
 was the first of his peninsular victories. 
 
 Vindalum (Battle of), b.c. 121, in which 
 Cn. Domitius the pro-consiil defeated the AUo- 
 brSges. 
 
 Vinegar Hill, near Wexford (Battle of), 
 21 June, 1798. This could hardly be called a 
 battle. The Irish had risen in revolt, and mus- 
 tered 15,000 strong on Vinegar Hill. General 
 Lake was sent to put down the revolt. He took 
 their camp, and utterly suppressed the rebel- 
 lion. In the autiunn 1,000 French soldiers, 
 
 under General Humbert, landed in Mayo, and 
 defeated Lake and Hutchinson, who had about 
 3,000 men under them, at Castlebar, 27 Aug., 
 1798 ; and then Lord Cornwallis, the lord-lieu- 
 tenant, with 30,000 men, forced Humbert to 
 surrender. 
 
 Vionville (Battle of), 16 Aug., 1870, in the 
 Franco-Prussian war, won by the Prussians. 
 
 Vittoria (Battle of), 21 June, 1813, won by 
 Lord Wellington over the French ai-my com- 
 manded by Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal 
 Jourdan. This was one of the most brilliant 
 victories in the British annals. Marshal Jour- 
 dan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 ammunition 
 waggons, all his baggage and treasure, and even 
 his marshal's baton, 
 
 Voglade. See below ' Vougle.' 
 
 Volturno (Battle of the), 17 Sept., 1860, won 
 by Garibaldi over the Neapolitan troops of 
 Francis II. 
 
 VougM, near Poitiers (Battle o/), a.d. 507, 
 in which Clovis, founder of the French monar- 
 chy, ovtrthrew Alaric II, king of the West- 
 Goths. Alaric himself was slain on the field. 
 
 VSTagram, in Austria (Battle of), 6 July, 
 1809, in which the French, lefl by Napoleon, 
 overthrew the Austrians, led by the Archduke 
 Karl. This battle led to a treaty of peace, in 
 which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; 
 the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were also 
 enlarged at the expense of Austria. 
 
 "Wakefield, in Yorkshire (Battle of ), 31 
 Dec, 1460, in which Queen Margaret defeated 
 Richard duke of York. This was the only 
 great victory of the Lancastrians in the long 
 War of the Hoses. 
 
 Walcourt, in Holland (Battle of),27 Aug., 
 1689. Here Marshal d'Humieres was defeated 
 by the Prince of Waldeck. Marlborough was 
 present in this battle, and laid the foundation 
 of his future fame. 
 
 "WandevT'ash., in Hindustan (Battle of ), 
 Jan., 1760, in which Thomas Arthur comte de 
 Lally, the French governor in India, was de- 
 feated by Sir Eyre (Joote, and Pondicherry fell 
 into the hands of the English. 
 
 "Wareham (Battle of), A.D. 876, in which 
 the Danish fleet was repulsed by King Alfred. 
 The Danes then allied themselves with the 
 Welsh. Being hard pressed, the Danes swore 
 to leave Wessex, but reappeared at Chippenham 
 in the winter of 878. 
 
 Warna (Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, in which 
 Amurath II. defeated Ladislaus V. king of 
 Hungary, who was also slain. 
 
 "Warsaw (Battles of ). 1. 10, 12 Oct., 1794, 
 in which the Poles were defeated by the Rus- 
 sians. 
 
 II. 20 Feb., 1831, in which the Russians were 
 defeated. This is also called the battle of 
 Growchow. 
 
 III. 7, 8 Sept., 1831, won by the Russians over 
 the Poles. 
 
WARTENBUEG 
 
 YERMUK 
 
 "Wartenburg, in Prussia {Battle of), 
 3 Oct., 1813, won by the alUes over the French. 
 
 ■Waterloo {Battle o/),18 June, 1815, the 
 most momentous victory ever won by the Bri- 
 tish arms, and the most happy in its results. 
 Napoleon commanded the French and the Duke 
 of Wellington the British and their allies. The 
 battle lasted from seven in the morning tiU nine 
 at night. Napoleon's career ended with this 
 battle. He delivered himself into the hands of 
 Captain Maitland, 3 July, and was banished to 
 Longwood in St. Helena, where he landed, 16 
 Oct., 1815. 
 
 Tlie Duke ot Marlborough won a battle over 
 the French at Waterloo, 17 Aug., 1705. 
 
 »#» The battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 1815, 
 was exactly six centuries to a day of the signa- 
 ture of Magna Charta by King John, 18 June, 
 1215. See Colonel Gurwood's 12th vol. Creasy's 
 • Fifteen Decisive Battles.' 
 
 "Wattignies, near Lille {Battle of), 15, 16 
 Oct., 1793. The Austrians defeated Jourdan, the 
 French marshal, here. 
 
 "Wawz {Battle of),U March, 1831, in which 
 the Russians were defeated by the Poles under 
 the command of Skrzynecki. 
 
 "Weissenburg {Battles of). I. a.d. 1620, 
 won by the Roman Catholics over the Protes- 
 tants of Bohemia. Maximilian duke of Bavaria 
 affirms that his success was due to the aid of 
 St. John Nepomuk. 
 
 II. 4 Aug., 1870. The first 'battle' of the 
 Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Crown 
 Prince of Prussia. 
 
 Wertingen {Battle of ), 8 Oct., 1805, in 
 which the French defeated Mack, general of the 
 Austrian army. 
 
 ■White Plains, near New York, U.S. 
 {Battle of), 28 Oct., 1776, where General Howe 
 defeated the Americans in the American War 
 of Independence. 
 
 Wig'an {Battles of). I. 1643, in which the 
 royal forces, under the Earl of Derby, were de- 
 feated by the parliamentary anny led by Sir 
 John Smeaton. 
 
 II. 1651, in which the Earl of Derby was 
 again defeated by the parliamentary army, 
 led by Colonel Lilburne. 
 
 Wilhelmsthal {Battle of), 24 June, 1762, 
 won for Prussia by the two Dukes of Bruns- 
 wick. This was the last battle of the Seven 
 Years' War, 
 
 Wilton {Battle of), A.D. 823, which Egbert 
 king of Wessex won over Beornwulf king of 
 Mercia. This victory led to the absorption of 
 Mercia into the kingdom of Wessex. 
 
 Winceby-on-the-Wolds, Lincoln- 
 shire {Battle of), 1G43, won by Cromwell and 
 Fairfax over the Marquis of Newcastle. Here 
 Cromwell had a horse shot under him. 
 
 Winwoed, near Leeds {Battle of), 665, also 
 called Winwidfeld. In this battle Penda was 
 slain by Os^vi of Northurabria. Win weed is 
 Weewood in York, 
 
 In this battle Oswi vowed, if God gave him 
 the victory, he would dedicate his daughter to 
 the Lord and build twelve monasteries. 
 
 Witepsk {Battle of), 11 Nov., 1812, in 
 which the French, under Marshal Victor, were 
 defeated by the Russians commanded by 
 General Wittgenstein. 
 
 Wittstock {Battle of), 4 Oct., 1636, won 
 by the Swedes, in the Protestant interest, over 
 tlie German Catholic League. This was one of 
 the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 Wodensfleld {Battle of), a.d. 910, in 
 which Edward, son of Alfred, defeated the 
 Anglo-Danes with great slaughter. 
 
 Wodnesbeorgh. {Badles of). I. a.d. 591, 
 in which Cealwin the Saxon was defeated by 
 his nephew Ceolric, who had allied liimself with 
 the Cymry and Scoti. The death of Cgalwin 
 soon followed, in the thirtv-+i)ird year of his 
 reign. 
 
 IT. 714, in which ' ^e greatest of the 
 kings of Wessex, c. ..3d and slew Ceobred 
 king of Mercia. Wodnesbeorgh is Woodbury 
 in Devonshire. 
 
 Woerden {Battle of), in Holland, June, 
 1672. Marshal de Luxembourg defeated the 
 Hollanders. 
 
 Worcester {Battle of), 3 Sept., 1651, in 
 which Cromwell utterly routed Charles II. 
 Some 3,000 royalists were slain and ]i),000 were 
 taken prisoners, who were sent as slaves to the 
 plantations. Charles made his escape to France, 
 and his adventures make one of the most mar- 
 vellous romances of history. 
 
 Cromwell says for four or five hours this 
 battle was 'the stillest contest he had seen.' 
 The Scotch lost all their baggage and artil- 
 lery, with 6,000 men, amongst whom was the 
 Duke of Hamilton, their leader. 
 
 Worth {Battle of), 6 Aug., 1870, in the 
 Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prussians 
 over MacMahon, the French marshal. 
 
 Wurtschen {Battle of), 1813, in which 
 Napoleon defeated the allied Russian and 
 Prussian armies. The carnage on both sides 
 was terrible. 
 
 Wiirtzburg {Battle of), 3 Sept., 1796. 
 Archduke Charles of Austria defeated Moreau, 
 the French general. 
 
 Wyppeds Fleot {Battle of), a.d. 465, 
 won by Hengist over the Britons. 
 
 Xeres {Battle of), a.d. 1237, won by Al- 
 fonso, ' infant ' of Ferdinand III, over Aben- 
 hud, the Moorish king of Seville. In this 
 battle, we are told, St. James on his white 
 horse fought for Spain. 
 
 Ximera {Battle of), 10 Sept., 1811, in 
 which the Spaniards, imder General BaUasteros, 
 defeated the French under the command of 
 General Regnier. 
 
 Yerrauk, in Syria {Battle of the), Nov. a.d. 
 638, in which Khalid and Abu Obeidah, with 
 their Saracen troops, defeated the Greeks undei 
 Heraclius. 
 
 I 
 
YOKK 
 
 ZUTPHEN 
 
 997 
 
 York {Baflle of), A.D. 807, in which the 
 two sons of Ragnar Lodbrog the Dane defeated 
 Osbert and Ella, the Saxons, with great slaugh- 
 ter. Both Osbert and Ella feU. 
 
 Yvres (Battle of), 1591, won by Henri 
 IV. king of France over the Catholic League. 
 
 Zalaca, in Spain (Baffin of), 23 Oct., 1086, 
 in which Alfonso VI. of Castile was defeated 
 by Jussef ben Taxfyn or Taschfin of Morocco. 
 
 Zama (Battle of), b.c. 202, in which Scipio 
 defeated Hannibal, and ended the Second Punic 
 War. Zama is called the Waterloo of Han- 
 nibal, as Cannee is called his Austerlitz. 
 
 Zelia, or Zeleia, in Mysia ( Battle of), B.C. 47, 
 where Cfesar defeated Pharnaces IV, king of 
 Pontus. Csesar announced his victory in the 
 famous despatch Veni, Vroi, Vici. 
 
 Zelichow (Battle of), 6 April, 1831, in 
 which the P ^•^d by General Diebitsch, 
 
 were defeaic^ Poles with great 
 
 slaughter. 
 
 Zenta, in Hungary (Battle of), 1697, won by 
 Prince Eugene over" the Turks. The prince 
 fought contrary to orders; but so judicious 
 were his plans and so well carried out, that he 
 received a written licence from the kaiser to 
 act ever after entirely on his own judgment. 
 Certainly a most extraordinary licence. 
 
 Zingara (Battle of), a.d. 350, between the 
 Persians, led by Shapflr Zoolaclaf, and the 
 
 Romans, led by the Emperor Julian The 
 Romans won the field, but Shapflr recovered 
 his advantage in a night attack. 
 
 Zlotzow (Battle of), won by John III. 
 (Sobicski) of Poland over the Tartars. 
 
 Zomdorf ( Battle of), 25, 2G Aug., 1758, in 
 which Frederick II. of Prussia defeated the 
 Russians under General Fermor, who retreated 
 into Poland (in the third campaign of the 
 Seven Years' War). This was one of the most 
 tenaciously contested fields ever fought. It 
 began at 9 A.M., and continued long after the 
 moon had risen. As many as 19,000 Russians 
 and 11,000 Prussians were slain. 
 
 Zutphen, in the Netherlands (Battle of), 
 22 Sept., 1586. Zutphen was under the power 
 of Spain from 1572, but the States twice be- 
 sieged it, in 1584 and in 1586, but without suc- 
 cess. The second of these sieges is well known, 
 because it was there that Sir Philip Sidney, ' the 
 Marcellus of England,' and author of the prose- 
 poem called ' Arcadia,' met his death. This was 
 a mere skirqjish, not a battle, Lord Leicester, 
 with 8,000 men, being sent to assist the 
 Flemish. 
 
 The tale is that he was mortaUy wounded in 
 this batt'e; and, as he was raising a small 
 bottle of vrine to his lips, he cast his eyes upon 
 a common soldier dying beside him. 'Poor 
 fellow!' said Sir Philip, 'thy necessity is 
 greater than mine ; ' so saying, he handed to 
 the man the bottle, and died. 
 
 *>* For battles named incidentally, or circumstantially— as the ' Battle of the Standard,' the 
 'Battle of the Forty,' &c.— and not geographically, see the word ' Battle,' pp. 78, 79, 80. 
 
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