Class U ^-1 Book. , ^~ &~ Coipglit>J°_ flOPVRlGHT DEPOSJT. A REFERENCE HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT PART ONE: WORLD HISTORY PART TWO: NATIONAL HISTORIES MAPS, TABLES, CHARTS, AND AN EXHAUSTIVE INDEX BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT HARVARD UNIVERSITY IN COLLABORATION WITH WILLIAM SCOTT FERGUSON, Ph. D. CHARLES HOWARD McILWAIN, PH. D. PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT HARVARD UNIVERSITY HARVARD UNIVERSITY EVERETT KIMBALL, PH. D. DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT EXPERT IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH SMITH COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS SPRINGFIELD, MASS., U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY G. & C. MERRIAM COMPANY N PREFACE. War and History. The Two- fold Plan. World History. A History of the World has for many years been included as a special feature of the Reference-History Edition of ^^'ebster's New International Dictionary. Horace E. Seudder prepared the original outline, which was subsequently' expanded by John Clark Ridpath, and again enlarged by Edwm A. Grosvenor. Tlie World War, with its far-reaching effects, has made it neces- sary to revise and rewrite the whole field of liistory. This great TVi W IH struggle, with tlie consequent readjustments, has produced not only new states Out also new political and social iilcas. In order to record the tremen- dous events that ha^■e taken place smce the year 1913, the present editor and his collaborators have had to add a large amount of material. Some of the needed space has been found by retaining only tlie essential and vital facts of earlier peri- ods; but a further increase in the size of the history has also been necessary. In this revision the plan of the former work, including the essen- tial features of Historical Outline and Chronology, has been system- atized, developed, and com])lcted. The Reference Iliistorjj is now clearly divided into two main parts: Part One, World History, treating the pe- riods of history from the earliest times to the present; and Part Two, National Histories, treating the histories of all existing coun- tries and giving a brief description of their political and social organization, products, physical features, population, area, etc. The whole thus forms a complete, logically fleveloped history and historical gazetteer of the world and its main political divisions. The World History (Part One of the whole) is divided into five sections covering all the periods of history — Ancient, Medieval, Early Modern, Nineteenth-Century, and World- War periods — while Part Two covers the histories of the nations individually. Each period and each nation is described and has its story developed by means of a Historical Outline, which gives a general survey of all important movements, and a Chronology, wliich arranges the events in the order of their liappening. The chronologies are no longer made up almost entirely of political events. They now include also many entries recording important social, industrial, and literary events; for great inventions, the founding of new churches, the publication of momentous books, or the ap- pearance of new means of transportation are as much a part of history as are battles, sieges, and sudden death. The larger portion of the work is Part Two, (Ic^oted to the National Histories. The chronologies of this part include, of course, no dates that are not of special significance in the history of the country under consideration ; but wars and treaties, international congresses and agreements, and like events, always concern more than one coun- try; and many other events are really international. Such events are generally treated in the chronology of each of the countries involved, the various entries being linked together by cross references so that the reader may view them from various angles. In Part Two the plan is to treat e^•ery nation that is inde- pendent as one of the family of nations and to place it in its alpha- betical ])osition in this arrangement. According to this plan, those countries that are parts of an empire or nation, or are dependencies, colonies, or the like, are treated under the history of that em- The name of each of such constituent countries, dependencies, colonies, etc., is also entered in its alphabetical position, with a reference to the main country under which it is treated. Part Two is thus on a strictly alphabetical basis, an arrangement now for the first time fully carried out. It has been a difficult task to get definite information on some of the recently created nations, and particularly to bring their troubled history down to the present time. A few countries whose political Special featxires of National Histories. Two serv- ices in mind. Scope of Chronolo- gies. National Histories. Alphabetic arrange- ment. pire or nation. status is still uncertain have been left under the nations with which they were connected before the Worhl War. This arrangement of Part One according to dates and of Part Two alphabetically, together with the index appended to the whole, is designed to make this history as convenient and comprehensive as pos.sible, serving the needs alike of the casual inquirer, the reader, the student, and the researcli worker. An index to the whole history has been added in which the aim has been to co\er all references to jjersons, places, events, etc., each Thp Tndpv under the specific name. In addition to these spe- cific references, much of this information is again mdexed under topics, so that the wliole forms not only an index, but a topical analysis as well. It will be noted that some of the national histories, particularly the chronologies of the great European nations, begin -with the year 1C48. In that year, by the Peace of West- phalia, the map of Europe was largely remade, and the political status of Europe largely deter- mhied, in a form which lasted until the World War. The most imiwirtant events of the greater European states pre\ious to that date make up the bulk of Me- dieval History and Early Modern History to 1648. Such events are therefore put in the World History and omitted from the Na- tional Histories, though general cross references direct the reader to the sections where such earlier national events may be found. Two services ha^•e been especially kept in mind. The first is to help the reader in a « ay analogous to that of the vocabulary of the Dictionary, by enabling him to find out quickly just when a tiling happened. Even the experi- enced investigator can often help himself by mak- ing sure of a date that is the point of departure for further re- search. The other service is to show how the world is brought together. Records of events following each other chronologically, may bring home vividly to the mind the way in which history is bound together by a cause that Jiroduces an effect, which in turn becomes the cause of the next effect. Thus the student of the World War will find in the historical outlines of the \arious countries during the last twenty years, and particularly in the chronolog\" of the World History for that period, some of the secrets of the hostilities that led to war. The responsibility for the accuracy and usefulness of this work must fall upon the editor and those who have cooperated in pro- - ., , .. ducing it. Everett Kimball. Professor of Govern- ... nient at Smith College, has prepared all the his- torical outlines of the World History since 1492, as also of all the nations and the States of the United States, and the lives of the presidents. William S. Ferguson, Professor of Ancient History, and Charles H. Mcllwain, Professor of History and Gov- ernment, both of Harvard University, are responsible for the his- torical outlines and chronologies of the Ancient and Medieval periods. The chronology for the Early Modern Period was made up by the editor. All the rest of the chronologies, in- cluding those for the Nineteenth-Century and World-War periods and for all the nations, the States of the United States, and the prcsitlents, were made by Mr. David M. Matteson, of Cambridge. The main work of the editor has been to make plans, assign tasks, and handle the material in the copy and the proof. It is hardly possible that errors and misprints have altogether been avoided, in spite of the learning of the contributors and the care of the editor; but it is hoped that they have been reduced to a minimum by the repeated searches that have been given to j perfecting the matter ill the copy and the proof. I The purpose of editor and contributors has been to help other I people find their way tlirough the difficulties of securing exact I information. Their strong desire is to aid the users of this 1 Dictionarv to understand the world in which they live. Cambridge, Mass. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. Copyright, 1921, by G. & C. Merriam Co. Copyright iu Great Britaiu and Ireland and in all countries subscribing to the Beni Convention. All rights reserved. SEP 17 1921 ,. : g)CI.A622848 (2) CONTENTS. 4: PREFACE Page . 2 PART ONE — WORLD HISTORY. Historical Outlines and Chronologies of the Periods of History: I. ANCIENT PERIOD: Earliest Times TO 476 A. D 5 II. MEDIEVAL PERIOD: 477 TO 1492 11 III. EARLY MODERN PERIOD: 1492 to 1814 16 IV. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD: 1814 to 1914 23 V. WORLD-WAR PERIOD: 1914 to 1920 27 PART TWO — NATIONAL HISTORIES. Historical Outlines, Organization, .\nd Chronologies of all Existing Nations: ABYSSINIA 39 AFGHANISTAN 39 ALBANIA 39 ANDORRA 40 ARGENTINA 40 ARMENIA 41 AUSTRIA 42-46 AZERBAIJAN 46 BELGIUM 46-48 Belgian Congo 48 BHUTAN 48 BOLIVIA 48 BRAZIL 49 BRITISH EMPIRE 50-77 Great Britain and Ireland 50-61 British Dominions, Colonies, Protectorates, Posser- sions, and Dependencies 61-77 European Dependencies 62 Isle nf Man ... 62 Malta 62 Channel I shnds . . 62 Gibraltar .... 62 British Possessions in Asia Aden 62 Perini 62 Sokatra .... 62 Kuria Muria Islands . 62 Bahrein Islands . . 62 British North Borneo . 62 Brunei 62 Sarawak .... 62 Ceylon 62 Maldive Islands . . 62 Cyprus 62 Hongkong .... 62 India Dependeiieits on India . Baluchistan . Sikkini . . . . Andaman Islands Nicobars . . . . Laocadives Federated Malay States . Malay States not in the Federation Straits Settlements . Weihaiivei . . . . British Possessions in Africa Aseension Island British East Africa East Africa Protec- torate .... Uganda Protectorate Zanzibar Protector- ate .... Mauritius Nyasaland . St. Helena . . . Tristan da Cunha . The Seychelles . . British Somaliland Basutolatid . Beehitanaland . Rhodesia .... 65 Swaziland .... 65 Union of South Africa . Cape of Good Hope . 65 Natal 65 Transvaal .... Orange Free State 65 British West Africa 65 Nigeria .... 65 Gambia .... 65 The Gold Coast . . 65 Ashanti . . . . 65 The Northern Terri- 66 tories .... 66 Sierra Leone . 66 Egypt 66 Anglo- Egyptian Sudan British Colonies and Possessions in America Canada . . . . Neufoundland . Bermudas British West hidies . Bahamas . Barbados . Jamaica . 69- Leeward Islands Trinidad . Windward Islands British Guiana . British Honduras Falkland Islands 62-65 62-65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 6.5-69 66 66 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 68 68 69-74 74 74 74 74 74 74 British Colonies ant) Possessions in the Pacific Commonwealth of tralia New South ^^':des Victoria . Queensland . South Australia . Western Australia Tasmania . Alls- New Guinea or Papua . 74-76 New Zealand 75 Fiji Islands .... 75 Other Islands in the Pa- 75 eific 75 Tonga or Friendly 75 Islands .... 75 Pitcairn Island 74- 75 76 77 77 77 BULGARIA 77-79 CENTRAL AMERICAN STATFS 79-82 Costa Rica 79 Guatemala 79 Honduras 79 Nicaragua 79 Salvador 80 Panama 81 CHILE 82 CHINA 83-87 COLOMBIA 87 CUBA 88 CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 90 DENMARK 90 Greenland 91 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (SANTO DOMINGO) ... 91 ECUADOR 92 ESTHONIA 93 FINLAND 93 FRANCE 93-102 French Colonies and Dependencies 96-97 French Possessions in Africa 96 Algeria 96 Tunis 96 French West Africa . 96 Senegal .... 96 French Guinea . . 96 Ivory Coast ... 96 Dahomey .... 96 Upper Senegal-Niger 96 Upjier Volta ... 96 Military Territory of the Niger ... 96 French Possessions in Asia Mauretania ... 96 The Sahara .... 96 French Equatorial Africa (French Congo) . . 96 French Somali Coast . 96 Madagascar .... 96 Mayotta and Comoro Islands .... 96 Reunion 96 96-97 French India 96 Tonkin . . . . Laos Kwangchow . Saint-Pierre and Miqvc- lon 96-97 97 97 97 97 French Indo-China .... Cochin China ... 97 Cambodia .... 97 Annani 97 French Possessions in America French Guiana ... 97 Marlinigue .... 97 Ion 97 Guadeloupe .... 97 French Possessions in the Pacific 97 New Caledonia ... 97 New Hebrides ... 97 French Establishments in Oceania 97 Society Islands 97 GEORGIA 102 CONTENTS. GERMANY FoRMEK German Colonial Empire R U W Togo 105 Kamerun . . . .105 Southwest Africa . .105 German East Africa . 105 Kiaochow . . . .105 German A'fU' Guinea . 105 Kaiser-Wilhelmslaiid 105 Bismarck 4rchipel. Solomon Islands . Caroline, Pelew,and Mariana Islands Yap .... Marshall Islands . Samoa Islands . 103-109 104-105 105 105 105 105 105 105 j UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . . . . States of the Union in the Order of Admission GREECE 109-111 Smyrna, or Aidin HI HAITI Ill HEJAZ 112 Arabia 112 HUNGARY 112-114 ICELAND . 114 ITALY 114-117 Eritrea 115 Tripolilania and Cy- Italian Somaliland . .115 renaica . . . 115 JAPAN 118-120 JUGO-SLAVIA 121-123 Serbia 121 Montenegro . . . 123 Croatia and Slavonia . 122 Bosnia and Herzegovina 123 LATVIA 123 LIBERIA 123 LIECHTENSTEIN 124 LITHUANIA 124 LUXEMBURG 124 MESOPOTAMIA 124 MEXICO 125-128 MONACO 128 MOROCCO 128 NEPAL 129 THE NETHERLANDS 129 Dutch Guiana . . .129 Dutch East Indies . 129 Curagao 129 NORWAY 130 OMAN 131 PALESTINE 131 PARAGUAY 131 PERSIA 132 PERU 133 POLAND . .133 PORTUGAL . 134-136 Portuguese Dependencies 135 Goa, Daman, Din . . 135 Portuguese Guinea . Macao 135 SairU Thomas, Principe Timor 135 Angola .... Cape Verde Islands . 135 Mozambique . ROUMANIA RUSSIA Former Russian Possessions The Ukraine . . .139 Siberia .... Dependencies in Asia Bokhara 139 Khiva .... 139 The Former Baltic Provinces 143 SAN MARINO 144 SIAM 144 SPAIN 145-148 Canary Islands 146 Possessions in Africa 146 Spanish Morocco . . 146 Rio de Oro and Adrar 146 Ifni 146 Spanish Guinea . 146 SWEDEN 148 SWITZERLAND . 149 SYRIA 150 TURKEY 151-154 Former Turkish Possessions 152 URUGUAY 155 VENEZUELA 155 135 135 135 135 137- 139 136 -144 139 139 Delaware 195 Pennsylvania .... 195 New Jersey .... 195 Georgia 195 Connecticut . . . .196 Massachusetts .... 196 Maryland 197 South Carolina . . . 197 Neu> Hampshire . . . 198 Virginia 198 New York 198 North Carolina . . . 199 Rhode Island . . . .199 Vermont 200 Kentucky 200 Tennessee . ■. . . 200 Ohio 200 Louisiana 201 Indiana 201 Mississipjn .... 201 IUi7iois 202 Alabama 202 Maine 20B Missouri 202 Territories and Dependencies Alaska 209 Com Islands . . . .209 District of Columbia . . 209 Guantdnamo Naval Sta- tion 209 Hawaii 209 Pacific Islands . . .210 Guam 210 The Presidents of the United George Washington . . 212 John Adams .... 212 Thomas Jefferson . . . 212 James Madison . . .213 James Monroe .... 213 John Quincy Adams . . 213 Andrew J ackson . . . 214 Martin Vaii Buren . .214 William Henry Harrison . 214 John Tyler 214 James Knox Polk . . .214 Zaehary Taylor . . . 214 Millard Fillmore . . . 215 Franklin Pierce . . . 215 Arkansas . Michigan Florida . Texas Iowa . Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia Nevada . Nebraska . Colorado . North Dakota South Dakota Montana . Washington Idaho . Wyoming . Utah . . Oklahoma New Mexico Arizona . OF THE United States The Samoa Islands Wake Island . Midway Islands Guano Islands Panama Canal Zone Philippine Islands Porto Rico Virgin Islands . States James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses Sitnpson Grant Rutherford B. Hayes Joints Abram Garfield Chester Alan Arthur Grovcr Cleveland . Benjamin Harrison . William McKinley . Theodore Roosevelt . William Howard Taft Woodrow Wilson Warren G. Harding . 157-219 "195-208 203 203 203 203 204 204 204 205 205 205 205 206 206 206 206 206 207 207 207 207 208 208 208 208 209-211 210 210 210 210 210 210 211 211 212-219 215 215 215 216 216 216 216 216 217 217 217 218 218 219 STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES AND DEPENDEN- CIES 220 HUNDRED LARGEST CITIES OF UNITED STATES . 220 COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES 221 RECENT STATISTICS OF VARIOUS NATIONS . . .222 INDEX 223 MAPS Roman Empire facing p. 10 Europe in 1648 " p. 18 Europe showing Peace Conference Boundaries . " p. 38 Nations of the World (2 maps) . . . . bet. pp. 64 and 65 Territorial Growth of the United States . . facing p. 194 COLORED PLATES Development of the Merchant Marine Modes of Travel Habitations of Mankind .... Development of the World's Navy PLATES Aerial Locomotion I High Buildings ) Historic Buildings ^ Portraits of the Presidents [ . British Government Buildings ) . bet. pp. 96 and 97 bet. pp. 116 and 117 bet. pp. 128 and 129 bet. pp. 144 and 145 . bet. pp. 160 and 161 . bet. pp. 212 and 213 A REFERENCE HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL. D. AND THE FOLLOWING COLLABORATORS: WILLIAM SCOTT FERGUSON, Ph. D. CHARLES HOWARD McILWAIN, Ph. D. EVERETT KIMBALL, Ph. D. DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M. PART ONE : WOHLD HISTORY I. ANCIENT PERIOD : EARLIEST TIMES TO 476 A. D. Historical Outline. A DISCUSSION of ancient history covers the field from the origin of man upon the earth ciown to some arbitrarily fixed date. The fall of the Western Ro- man Empire (47C A. D.) is usually taken as the date at wlilch ancient history ends. For the greater part of this period, no absolute chronology exists. In the first epochs time is reckoned not by years, but by geological ages and. even after man left remains from wlijch his history may be reconstructed, dynas- ties and eras give a more correct idea of the passage of time than do imcertain dates. According to the testimony of geology and anthro- pology, man existed I'li the earth in the Early Stone Age, wliich is placi-d briween 50.000 and 125,000 years ago, after the third descent of the polar icecap and during the third long warm interval. Trace-s of man during this period are found, and his primitive culture may be reconstructed from the stone imple- ments buried in the glacial drift. The Middle Stone Age occurred during the fourth descent of the ice cap. in which period niankmd was driven south or took refuge in caves and adapted himself to the al- tered conditions. The Later Stone Age began be- tween S.OtX) and 10,000 years ago with the fourth warm interval, which still continues. It was in the Later Stone Age that artual historical records were first made, and from iliis period onward various na- tions have arisen at diirercnt times and have devel- oped their cultures. The Egyptian Empire, along the lower Nile in Africa, was the home of the earliest civilization of which authentic histori.c record was preserved. By means of picture writing and hierogiypliics, as well as by buildings, sculptures, and articles of use that have been preserved, the culture and civilization of the early Egyptians may be studied. The earliest fixed date in history is determined by the Egyptian in- vention of a calendar (4241 B. C). How long the Egyptian Empire hud existed before this there la no means of knowing, nor can it be determined when the race emerged from the Later Stone Age. At the same time, thougli by independent develop- ment, emerged the old Babylonian Empire. The plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates rivers fiow was occupied by the Sumerians long before 3000 B. c, and the city kingdoms were foimded and a culture developed, records of which have been pre- ser\'ed to us by the system of cimeiform writing. The Semitic people, who were descendants of the nomads occupying the Arabian Desert, overthrew this state; and in the age of Sargon (2700 b. c.) a Semitic empire was established which adopted much of the Sumerian culture. Tliis composite empire lasted perhaps imtil the 22d centiu-y b. c., when it was displaced by a new Semitic invasion, that of the Amorites of Syria, and the supremacy of Babylon was then estabhshed under Hammurabi. Farther north, on the upper course of the Tigris. was the Assyrian Empire. There, sometime be- fore 3000 B. c, the Semitic nomads of the desert set- tled at Ashur. They came alternately under the in- fluence of the Babylonians to the south, to whom they were vassals, and of the Hittites in the west and drew their culture particularly from the Aramae- ans, or Syrians. During the reign of Sennacherib (705-681 B. c). Babylon and Egypt were conquered, a vast empire was developed. Nineveh was founded as the capital city, and an elaborate administration was developed. The Assyrian army, the first to be equipped with iron weapons, proved invincible. The Assyrian Empire fell before the onslaught of the Chaldeans, and under Nebuchadnezzar (604- 561 B. c.) Babylon w^as the home of the highest civ- ilization yet developed. While these Semitic king- doms w^ere developing in the Tigris-Euphrates val- ley, other Semitic people like the Aramaeans and the Hebrews in Sjria and Palestine, though reaching no such material grandeur, developed a culture even more important. Particularly was this true of the He- brews, wlu^ ga\e to the worlri tlie monotheistic idea. The Medo-Persian Empire developed northwest of the Persian Gulf, founded, not by a Semitic peo- ple, but by a branch of the great Indo-European family. About 550 b. c, under Cyrus the Persian, the Medes were defeated and the foimdations laid for an empire which rapidly expanded, the Chaldean Empire of Babylon was overthrown and the Semitic east collapsed before the invaders from the north. In 525 Egypt was conquered by the Persian Cam- byses, and under Darius the Persians developed an administrative system which rivaled that of the early Assyrians. Another branch of the great Indo-European fam- ily pushed into India and reached the Ganges, per- haps as early as 1500 b. c. There they developed a culture based on the caste system and their religion was Brahmanism, which embodied the doctrine of the transmigration of the soifi. In the fifth century b. c. Buddhism was developed and for a time dis- placed Brahmanism, but was graduaUy driven out of India proper. It still floiu-ishes, however, in eastern Asia, where it numbers as its adherents nearly a third of the human race. StiU farther to the east the Chinese civilization was developed. This came neither from the Semitic nor from the Indo-Eiu-opean race, but from the Tu- ranians who settled in the valley of the Hwang River sometime before 3000 b. c. Here was devel- oped the Confucian religion, which ranks in num- ber of adherents next to Buddliism. The Chinese at a very early era developed a system of pictorial writing from which modern Cliinese characters were developed. A hterature. the most prized portion of which is included in the Nine Classics, was devel- oped sometime before the third century b. r. In the third century, moreover, was built the great Chi- nese wall, as a defense against the Huns. The Hittlte Empire existed in Asia Minor be- tween 1450 and 1250 b. c. The Hittites served as the great cormecting link between the east and the west, and although they developed a culture of their own which, as has been seen, influenced some of the Semitic empires, it was as carriers of cultiu"e from one region to another that the Hittites were most Important. In the Mediterranean at Troy (2500-1500 b. c.) and at Mycente m Greece (1500) and at Knossos in Crete (1600-1500), a civiUzation was developed which has been described by the poet Homer and was formerly known as Greek clvlllzadon. Ex- cavations have later proved that tliis civilization existed long before the Greek invasion; and it is now called the Minoan, Mycenaean, or Mediterra- nean. It was characterized by vast palaces and buildings and a profusion of gold. Great advances were made in architecture and engineering, and the metal workers developed extraordinary skill. This civilization fell before the invasions of an- other branch of the Indo-European race, the Greeks. Contrary to the formerly accepted opin- ion of history, the Greeks on their entrance into the Balkan Peninsula were still in the barbaric, nomadic stage of ctUture. Beginning about 2000 b. c, the Greeks in a series of invasions attacked and over- threw the Mycentean states they foimd. But the conquered gave to their conquerors their culture; and the Greeks, taking what was best from the My- cenaean civilization, developed in their little city- states a civilization superior to any that the world had yet seen. About the Sth century b. c. the Greeks began to send out colonies and settled on the islands and shores of the .^Egean Sea. in Sicily and Italy, and even in southern France. These colonies spread the Greek ideas, Greek trade, and Greek culture throughout the Mediter- ranean bases. Coming into conflict with the Per- sian Empire in the 5fh century, they held their own (5) WORLD HISTORY. 4500 b. c.— l 184 B.C. against Darius and Xerxes and maintained their in- IVI dependence. Later in the same century Athens, under Pericles, was tlie center of a classic culture which has never been equaled. The independence of the Greek city-states gave way before the growtli of the JMacedonian Empire. Under Alexander the Great, Asia Minor. SjTia. Egypt, and even In- dia were brought, at least for a time, imdcr Greek control. More important tlian the conquest of ^i^ these coimtries was the diffusion of the Greek culture. O which in a decadent form continued tliroughout an- cient history and even into medieval times. In Italy, city-states were foimded by the Etrus- cans, another branch of the Indo-Eiu-opeans. per- haps contemporary with the building of the city- states in Greece. The Italians followed with small states, of which Rome, the legendary date of whose foimdation is J53 B. C'.. was the most important. P At an early date a repubUcan form of government was established and a military system developed wliich enabled the Romans to conquer the surround- ing tribes and gradually to extend their dominion over Italy south of the Po. In so doing they came In contact with the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily. Even more important was their contJict with the Carthaginians. Tliis was,Aheir first non-Italian Q campaign and tlic success of the Romans eliminated the Semitic Plicenician state as a possible rival in the Mediterranean. After this first foreign war, the Roman conquest proceeded rapidlj-. First Greece, then Asia Minor and SjTia, then Gaul and Britain were subdued, mitil by the reign of Augustus, the flrst Roman emperor (27 b. c -14 a. d.), all the countries adjacint to the Mediterranean Sea were includi'd in liisdomiuion. AUIlougli e.xiiaildrd undii- f^ Trajan, the boundaries of Rome remained sub.staii- tially the same until the onslaught of tlie barbarians. Just as the Greeks and Romans had overthrown an earlier civilization, so the Romans themselvBS suc- cumbed to barbarian invasions from the north and east. This process, begimiing perhaps with the onslaught of the Cimbri and Teutones (11.3-101 B. c), became serious with the invasion of the Mar- Scomanni in ISO \. d. With ever-mcreasing fre- quency and mtensity the Teutonic tribes pushed into the empire and foimded Germanic kingdoms. In 456 A. D. the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus, was detlironed by Odoacer, the leader of the Herminones, or Hcrulians. and the Roman Empire in the West was at au end. Chronology. T Baslsof Ancient Chronology. To construct an exact chronology of ancient history from the earliest times is quite impossible. The reason for this is obvious. Such a chronology requires not only contemporaneous and continuous historical records, or writings embodying them, wliich are frequently wanting, but also a fLxed method of reckoning years ; an era or some other similar device must have been adopted. The need, however, of tliis is felt only after a long period of civilization. The Egyptians, with all their care to preserve records of events, had no historical era. If they dated at all. with very few exceptions they dated only '>>' the years of their sov- ereigns. From this fact, with the fragmentary char- acter of their monmnents and literature, and with the possible synchronism of dynasties, arises the great . • difficulty of determining the Egyptian chronology. V The AssjTians during the latter part of their liistory had an exact method of reckoning years. They named each year after an officer, tisually called by us an eponym. Lists of these eponyms hav(ibeen discov- ered, several copies, all of wliicli closely agree, cover- ing the period from 893 to 666 b. c. From the record of a total eclipse, 763 b. c., is determined the dates of all these years. This Assyrian canon, from the men- ^^ tion of Ahab, Jehu. Uzziah, and a few other kings of Israel and Judah in the Ass>Tian amials, has fixed tlie periods of these monarchs and compelled a modifica- tion of the previous tmderstanding of Old Testament chronology. The Hebrews seem to have preserved but few records of their early history, and the lapses of time given in the Old Testament from the period of creation down to the fall of Jerusalem are ui a X large degree conjectural. In addition to the Assyr- ian canon for determining dates of partially the same period, there is the Canon of Ptolemy, a chronolog- ical compilation, with astronomical notes, of Baby- lonian. Persian, Greek, and Roman kings, commenc- ing 747 B. c., and extending to 137 .\. d. This so far as te.sted has proved an accurate and reliable docu- ment, and has been of the greatest service in deter- minmg ancient clironology. F6r the periods of Bab- Y ylonian and AssjTian iiistory earlier than these canons, there are lists of monarchs, with the length of their reigns, going back to 2800 b, c. These lists have not been preserved or discovered entirely with- out breaks. Lists of magistrates or priests preserved in temples or in archives of state were the basis of the ordinary Greek chronology. Thucydides designates the year ^ of the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War as the ^ forty-eighth year of the priestess Chrysis at Argos, when iEnesias was ephor at Sparta, and Pythodorus was archon at Athens. From about 500 b. c. to 293 u B. c, we possess a complete list of the Athenian ar- chons, and for the earlier period (from the establish- ment of the office in 6S3 B. c.) and for the later period (to 26.5 .\. D,), an incomplete list. Tliis method of reckoning by local magistrates or priests was never wholly abandoned, but in the third century b. c. the Macedonian Kings of Syria computed the years of their reigns from the foimding of the dyiiasty in 312 B. c, and the era thus established — the Era of the Seleucids — set an example widelj' followed in later Greek and Roman times. After the fourth century B. f. Greek historians reckoned cliiefiy from the Olympian games, which were held in 776 b. e., and once in four years thereafter for more than a millen- niimi. Tims, the mvasion of Greece by Xerxes feU in the flrst year of the seventy-fifth Oljiiipiad, or 480 B. c. The Romans dated an event by giving the name of the two men in whose consulsliip the event occmred, or occasionally and less formally by giving the name of one consul. Formal lists of the consuls were kept as a part of the pubhc record. Some copies of these lists, in Latin and in CSreek, have been preserved and may be foimd in the " Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- narum." Vol. I.; they form the basis of Roman chro- nology. But it is probable that the puliUc records were destroyed when Rome was captm-ed by the Gauls, B. c. 390. and that the lists for the years 509- 390 were made up from priestly records or from tra- dition. For the earlier years, before the expulsion of tlio kings, the dates rest upon tradition or legend, and have litfiie value. The date of the foimding of the city, 753 b, <■., however, was universally accepted by the lionians and was occasionally used as a date to rcclioTi finni, especially when the period of time that had (lapsed was regarded as significant. The system of reckoning ab urbe condita is modern and conventional. In medieval and modern times, his- torians of antiquity long continued to compute time from the founding of Rome or the first year of Abra- ham (2016 B. c.) or the creation of the world or some similar pomt; but smce the end of the 18th century the practice of dating events, before as well as after the birth of Clirist. from a pomt which is fixed as mid- night between Dec. 31st. 1 b. c. and Jan. 1st, 1 a. d., has come into general use. Astronomers, however, have taken a whole year. 1 b. c., as their point of de- parture, designating it 0. so that the year 323 b. c, e.g.. appears in their calculations as 322 b. c. In this clironological history the dates of the early Egyptian dynasties I. -XVIII. are from the Cliro- nology of Eduard Meyer and Breasted, which are al- ways the latest that can be given for Egyptian eras. The much earlier dates once current are now pretty generally abandoned by Egj-ptologists. The following dates must be received as only approximate: Babylonian and Assyrian dates before the ninth century B. C, Biblical dates before the middle of the seventh century B. ('., Greek dates before the middle of the sixth cen- tury B. C, Roman dates before the beginning of the third century B. C. Many dates subsequent to these periods camiot be exactly fixed, and hence they are given differently by historical authorities. Sometimes dilTerences arise from different modes of reckonmg. Some writers, for example, coimt as the first year of a ruler the year in the course of which he came to the tiirone, others begin with the fu'st full calendar year of his reign. EASTERN NATIONS AND JUDEA. 4500 B. C. Predj-nastic Kingdoms (nonies) of Egypt flourisliing. 4000. Kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt prob- ably fiourishing. 3500-3000. Rise of Babylonian city kingdoms. 3400-2390. The Old Kingdom in Egypt. 3400-2900. First (Thinitei Egypiian dynasty, bc- girming with Menes, reputed founder of Mem- phis. Second (Thmite) Egji'tian dynas(y. 3000-2700. Sumerian ascendancy m Babylonia. 3000-2500. Early Minoan Age:developmentof cop- lier and bronze culture in Crete and ^Egean Basin. 2900-2840. Third (Memphite) Egyptian d.vnasty. 2840-2(i»0. Foiu-th (Memphite) Egyptian dynasty. Era of Snefcru, pyramid builder who had com- mercial relations with Phoenicia, and worked mines in the Sinaitic peninsiUa. Era also of Khufu (Cheops), builder of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, and of Khafra, builder of the second pjTamid. 2700-2500. Dynasty of Alikad: Semitic ascend- ancy in Babylonia. Sargon I., king of Akkad (Agade). reigns over a wide territory; conquers North Syria. Naram-Sin, king of Akkad, builder of the Temple of the Sun in Sippar, reigns in Balijionia and is lord of Mesopotamia. 2G80-2540. Fifth Egyptian djTiasty. Copper and malachite mines worked in the Sinaitic peninsula: the proverbs of Ptah-hotep are composed. 2540-2390. Sixth (iMemphite) Egyptian djTiasty. Era of Pepi I. First Egyptian invasion of Pales- tine: Palestine and Plioenicia already occupied by Canaanites. Era of (Jueen Nitocris. 2500-2350. First djiiasty of U.r. Ur Engur and Dimgi consolidate city kingdoms of Babylonia. 2500 1850. Middle Minoan Age (I. and II.) in Crete and the ^gean Basin. Contact between Crete and Egypt. Greeks enter Greece. 2500. Gudea patesi (lord) of Lagash (TcUoh) in S. Balij Ionia: a higlily advanced civilization, of which there are many remains; commerce extends into Syria and Arabia. 2390-2000. Seventh and eighth (Memphite), ninth and tenth (Heracleopolite), eleventh (Theban) Egyptian dynasties. The flrst four of these dynas- ties cover an obscure period of civil wars and for- eign invasion ; of this period there are few remains. During the eleventh occurred the rise of Thebes. 2350-2092. The djiiasty of Larsa m N. Babylonia and of Nisin in S. Bal^ylonia. 2225-1920. The flrst Babylonian d>-na.sty. Baby- lon becomes the chief city in Babylonia. As- syria first heard of. 2160-1788. The Middle Kingdom in Egypt. 2123-2081. Reign of Hammurabi — author of the oldest code of law extant, llamnuirabi uni- fies Babylonia and imposes code on all cities of N. and S. Babylonia and on Asliur and Nmeveh. Babylonian l)ecomes the diplomatic language of the entire Near East. 2000-1788. Twelfth Egyptian dynasty. An era of great prosperity under Amenemhat I. -III., User- tesenl.-III. Ethiopia is conquered. Trade is ex- tended tlirough Syria and Arabia. The reservoir Lake Moerls is excavated: great monuments at r, Karnak, Beni Hassan, and elsewhere are erected. 2000. Tlie Aryans — forenumers of the Medes and Persians, as well as of the Indians — flrst appear on the eastern frontier of Babylonia and Assyria. 1926. Hittites raid Babylon — flrst appearance of Hittites in history. 1850-1600. Great (palace) age of Knossos in Crete: Middle Minoan Age (III ). Extension of Cre- tan culture to Greek mainland. 1850-1630. Era computed by some modem schol- ars for the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, according to BibUcal tradition. (Abraham is also placed in connection with Ham- murabi, 2100.) 1788-1580. Thirteenth (Theban) . fourteenth (Xoite), fifteenth and sixteenth (Hyksos), seventeenth (Tlicban) Egyptian dynasties: a period of decline anrl the domination of the foreign Hyksos, or Shepherd kings (probably Asiatic Bedouins). 1736-1185. The third (Kassite, non-Semitic) Baby- lonian djTiasty. 1630-1200. Era according to Hebrew tradition of the sojourn of the Children of Israel In Egypt. (Another terminus about 1415.) 1600-1350. Late Minoan Age (I. and II.) in Crete. Rise of Tiryns and Mycenaj. 1580-1350. Eighteenth (Diospolite) Egj-ptian dy- nasty. Beginning of the " New Empire." Era of Ahmes I., Amenophis I. -IV., Thotmes I.-IV., Queen Hatasu, 1580. Ahmes I. completes the expulsion of the Hyksos: captures Sharulien in S. Judah. 1501-1443. Thotmes III. reigns in Egypt, con- quers Palestine and Syria at battles of Megiddo and Kadesh (overtlirow of Hittites) , conquers Nu- bia, erects a great temple at Kaniak. Greatest extent of Egyptian power. 1500. Assyria is independent of Babylonia. 1400-1110. Equilibrium between Babylonia and Ass>Tia. 1376-1358. Amenophis IV (Chuenaten or Ikhna^ ton) introduces solar monotheism into Egypt. Era of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, a correspond- ence of Egyptian viceroys in Palestine, of kings of Babylon, and of a king of Mitanni with the Egyptian court. Egypt's possessions in Syria are threatened. 1375. Hebrews threaten land of Canaan. 1350-1100. Mycenaean Age (Late Minoan III.). Greeks become masters of /Egeaii arcliipelago and OCCUP.V west coast af Asia Minor. Decline of Mycenrean civilization. 1350-1200. Ninetee/th (Diospolite) Egyptian dy- nasty. Era of Sed I.-II., Ramses II., Meneptah. 1313-1292. Setil^^ claims to have reconquered Pal- estme and S>Ti&; defeats the Libyans and allies. 1292-1225. Ramses II. (Sesostris) subdues Pales- tine and Syria: concludes peace with Hittites: is prolialily the Pharaoh of Israel's oppression. 1200-1090. Twentieth (Diospolite) Egyptian dy- nasty. Era of'I^amses III., who mines in Sinai, trades in the south, and gains a great victory over pirijitical invaders of Palestine. Close of the pe- riod of the New Empire and begirming of decline. 1200. Plirygians enter. Hittites leave, central Asia Minor. Fall of Hittite power. Near this time, probalily, under Meneptah or his successors, the Children of Israel, led by Moses, leave Egypt. (Another date about 1415 b. c.) 1193. The Trojan War begins, led by Agamem- non of Mycense. (According to a late Greek com- putation.) 1190. Philistines occupy coast of Palestine. 1185-1053. Fourth (Pashe, Semitic) Babylonian d\'nasty. 1184. Troy is taken and destroyed. 1160 B. C. — 446 b. C. ANCIENT PERIOD. 1160. Era of IsraePs entrance Into Canaan. (Another reckoning two centuries earlier.) 1150-900. During the weakness of Egypt, Balij- lonia. and Assyria, the small states in Palestine and SjTia become important and the Phoeni- cians are the cliicf seafaring people of the Medit^-^rranean . 1140-1040. Era of tlic Judges in Israel. (An- other reckoning 1340-1240.) 1140. Nebuciiadnezzar I., king of Babylon, a great conqueror, defeats the Elaraites and the Lu- lumi, and wages war with the Assyrians. 1110. Tigiatli-pileser I. firmly establishes the Assyrian Empire; he advances westward beyond the Eupiirates. 1100. Epoch of the return of the legendary Hera- clidae, and of the Dorian migration into Pel- oponnesus. IOSO-1020. Era of Eii, Samuei, and Saul in Israel. 1050-945. Twenty-first (Tanitic) Egyptian dy- nasty of priest kings. 1017. David reigns at Hebron over Judali, prob- ably as vassal of the Philistines. 1010. David is king over aii Israel, makes Jeru- salem his capital, and defeats tiie Pliilistines. 1000. Phoenicians devise their alphabet. 975-9.35. Solomon, succeeding his father, David. reigns over Israel. 973. The Temple at Jerusalem is foimded. 945-745. Twenty-second (Buljastite) Egyptian dy- nasty. Era of .Shishak and Osorkon; a Libyan domination. 935. On the death of Solomon, his kingdom is divided. Rehoboani reigns over Judali and Jeroboam over N. Israel. 930-913. Ashur-dan II. reigns in Assyria. 936. Shishak, king of Egypt, invades Palestine. 917-876. Asa reigns in Judah. 914. Baasha destroys the house of Jeroboam and reigns over N. Israel. 911-889. Adad-nirari III. reigns in Assyria; after a long war concludes peace with Babylon. 900-700. Greek epic poetry is at its best. Age of Homer. 889-884. Tukulti-Ninib II. reigns m Assyria. 889. Omri seizes the throne in N. Israel. He builds the city of Samaria. 884-860. Ashur-nasir-pal, famous for cruelty, reigns in Assyria ; extends its boimdaries and beau titles its cities. 875-853. Ahab and Jezebel reign in N. Israel. Period of Elijah. 867-851. Jehoshaphat reigns in Judah. 860-825. Shalmaneser II., a great warrior, reigns in Assyria: makes extensive concjuests inW. Asia. 854. Battle of Karkar — first fixed date in He- brew history: — Shalmaneser II. defeats Hada- dezer, king of Damascus, Ahab, king of N. Israel, and their allies. 852-842. Joram reigns in N. Israel: Moab revolts under Mesha: the Moabite stone is inscribed; era of Elisha. 851-843. Jehoram reigns ui Judah. Edom revolts 842. Jehu seizes throne of Israel; Athahah seizes that of Judah; Shalmaneser II. defeats Hazaoi. king of Damascus; receives tribute from Jehu. 825-812. Shamshi-Adad reigns in Assyria. 815-798. Jehoahaz reigns m N. Israel. Benhadad III. of Damascus ravages Israel. 814. Carthage founded. 812-783. Adad-nirari IV. reigns in Assyria. " Semiramis " of the Greek writers is his mother. 797. Adad-nirari captures Damascus, and Israel is freed from Syria. 789-740. Uzziah (Azariah) reigns in Judah. 783-773. Shalmaneser III. reigns in Assyria. It begins to decline. 782-741. Jeroboam II. reigns in N. Israel. A pe- riod of external prosperity. Amos prophesies in the middle and Bosea at the close of his reign. 776. The first Olympiad begins 773-755. Ashur-dan III. reigns in Assyria. 763. A solar eclipse is recorded which determines dates of A.ssjTian Canon. 756-745. Ashur-nirari V. reigns in As.syria. 763. Legendary founding of Bome by Romulus. 752. Archons appointed at Athens with ten years' term of service. 750-560. Age of Greek colonization. 745-718. Twenty-third (Tanitic) Egyptian dy- nasty; an era of disintegration. Egypt is con- quered by Pianchi, king of Ethiopia. ^. 745-727. Tiglath-pileser III. reigns in Assyria; an era of conquest and enlarged dominions. 743. Rhegium is foiuided by the Chalcidians and Messenians. 740-701. Ministry of Isaiah; Micah is a younger contemporary. 740-736. Within this period Uzziah, king of Judah, dies; Jothani, his son, becomes sole ruler. 738. Menahem, king of N. Israel, pays tribute to the Assyrians. 735. Accession of Ahaz, king of Judah until 725 or 715. A coalition of Syria and N. Israel tmder Rezin and Pekah is formed against Judah. 734-732. Pekah, king of Israel, is deposed and slain. Hoshea, with Assyrians' help, is appointed king in his place. Aliaz pays tribute. Tiglath- pileser carries into captivity uihabitants of N. E. Galilee. [rinthians. i 734. Syracuse and Corcyra are foimded by the Co- 1 732. Damascus is taken by Tiglath-pileser. 731. Merodach-baladan of Babylonia offers his al- legiance to Tigl'dth-pileser. [sieges Samaria. | 727-722. Shalmaneser IV. reigns in Assyria; be-1 723-705. Sargon II. reigns in Assyria. 722-721. Fall of Samaria and end of the kingdom - of Israel. 731. Babylonia tmder Merodach-baladan revolts against Assyria; he is made king of Babylon. Sybaris foimded in Magna Gra?cia by Achteans. 730. Battle of Kaphia: great defeat «f Egyptians under Shabaka by Sargon. 718-713. Twenty-fourth (Saite) Egyptian dyiiasty. Bekenrcnf (Bocchoris) reigns and Is deposed by Shabaka of Ethiopia. 715. Accession of Hezekiah, king of Judah. (An- other date, 725 b. c.) 712-613. Twenty-fifth (Ethiopian) Egyptian dy- nasty. Era of kings Shabaka, Shabataka, Tar- kaka; coalitions w'ith Israel; Assyrian invasions. 711. Sargon invades Philistia and possibly Judah. 710. Sargon defeats Merodach-baladan and is pro- claimed king of Babylon. 705-681. Sennacherib reigns in Assyria. 705. Sennacherib defeats Merodach-ialadan and despoils his palace. 701. Sennacherib invades Palestine, tlefeats Tarkaka, nephew of the king of Egypt, at Eltekeh, invests Jerusalem ; his aniiy is smitten with pesti- lence and he retires. AGE OF GREEKS. 700-460. Bloom of lyric poetry in Greece: Archilochus, followed by Tyrtjeus, Terpander, Alcman, Sappho, Alca?iis, Simonides, Baccliylides, and, greatest of all, Pindar, 700. Hesiod Uves. Period of Dajaukku (Deioces), foimder of the Median Empire. 696-641. Manasseh reigns in Judah (or 688-641> 688. Gela in Sicily is founded by the Rhodians. 683. The term of office of the archons at Athens i.s reduced to one year. 681-668. Esarhaddon reigns in Assyria: restores Babylon: anne.xes Egypt. Era of Assyria's wid- est domain. 668-626. Ashiu--bani-pal (Sardanapalus) reigns in Assyria; appoints his brother, Shamash-Shumu- kin, king of Babylonia. 664. First recorded naval conflict in Greek his- tory, between the Corinthians and CorcyTBeans. 663-525. Twenty-sixth (Saite) Egyptian dynasty; era of Psammetichiis, Necho, and Hophra: of the Egyptian renaissance. 657. Byzantium is founded by the Megarians. 650-625. Phraortes reigns in Media and conquers Persia and Armenia. 648. Shaniash-Shunuddn destroys himself after an luisuccessful re\olt against A.shur-bani-pal. Eclipse of the sun mentioned by Archilochus. 645. Assyrian domination over Egypt ends. 641-639. Anion reigns in Judah. 639-608. Josiah reigns in Judah. 636. Scythians invade western Asia. 632. Cylon attempts to seize tyTanny at Athens. 630-600. Revolt of the Messenians against Sparta. 626-586. The ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. 636-005. Nabopalassar. the Chaldean, reigns in Babylon, first as an AssyTian viceroy; later he es- tablishes an independent empire. 625. Cyaxares reigns ui Media imtil after 585. 634. Cyrenc in Libya is founded by a colony from Thera. 621. The Book of the Law (Deuteronomy) is foimd in the Temple at Jerusalem and occasions the reforms of Josiah. Draco codifies the laws of Athens. 610. Tlirasybulus tjTant of Miletus. 008. At the battle of Megiddo Josiah is defeated and killed by the Egyptians under Necho. 608-597. Jehoiakini reigns in Judah. 606. Nineveh destroyed by the Medes, Chalde- ans, and others. 60S. Battle of Carehemish; Necho, of Egypt, de- feated by Nebuchadnezzar. 604-561. Nebuchadnezzar II. reigns in Babylon. 601. Nebuchadnezzar conquers Judah and ^ Jehoiakini pays tribute. 600-500. Etiiiscans the dominant people in Italy. 600. Periander tyrant of Corinth. 597-586. Zedekiah reigns in Jerusalem. 597. Judah having rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; Jehoiacliin, successor of Jehoi- akini, and many other Jews are carried to Babylon . 594. Solon is archon at Athens. 692-670. Prophetic ministry of Ezekiel. 590. The Seven Wise Men of Greece; 588-569. Apries (Hophra) reigns in Egypt. 586. Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and the Jews carried captive to Babylon. 585. Battle of the eclipse: fighting between Medi- ans and Lydians ceases; triple league formed: Babylon, Media, and Lydia. Thales of Miletus flom-ishes. 582. Pythian games instituted at Delphi. 580-550. Astyages reigns in Media until dethroned by Cyrus. 569-625. Amasis reigns in Egypt. 560. Pisistratus becomes tjTant at Athens. Croe- sus succeeds to tlirone of Lydia. 659-539. Cyrus, king of Persia, reigns: conquers Media, dethroning Astyages, in 550: Lydia. de- throning Croesus, in 547 or .546; the Greek cities in western Asia Minor and Babylon, in 546-539. 555-539. Nabonidus reigns in Babylon. 546. CyTus captures Sardis. 540. Carthagmians and Etruscans, allied, expel tireeks from Corsica. [CyTus.l 539. Babylon siu-renders to Gobryas, a general ofl 538. Edict of Cyrus for the return of the Jews. 630. Polycrates. tyrant of Samos, flourishes. 639. CjTus is killed in battle with tlie Massagetae. 539-533. Cambyses reigns on Persian tlirone; in S27 or 525 conquers Egypt. (Psammetichus III.) 527. Death of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 525-414. Twenty-seventh (Persian) Egyptian dy- nasty. 522-485. Darius 1., son of Hystaspes, reigns on the Persian throne. The first years of his reign are marked with many insurrections : a formidable one at Babylon. His empire extends from Mace- donia to India, and from the Danube and ti^' Black Sea to Nubia. 520. Theprophets Haggai and Zechariah advocate the rfsto'rrftion of the temple at Jerusalem. 515. The.«?cond Jewish temple is completed at Jerusalem. 614. Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, assassinated, 510. Hiiipias, the tjTant, expelled from Athens. 509. Patrician commonwealth is established at Bome. Rome makes a treaty with Carthage. 508. Constitutional reforms of Cleisthenes ai6 '\thens. '.., ' 500-406. Highest development of Greek tragedy. 499. The Ionian Greeks revolt from Persia. ,-" ' 49S. The Ionian Greeks, assisted by Athenians and Eretrians, bum Sardis: are defeated at Ephesus. 498-454. Alexander I. reigns in Macedonia. 494. The Persians destroy Miletus. First secession of the plebs at Rome. (Prob- ably legendary.) The office of Tribune of the people is established at Rome. (An alternate date is 471.) 493. Themistocles, archon at Athens, creates naval base at Pireeus. 492. Expedition of the Persians under Mardonius against Greece. 490. Tlie Persians, mider Datis, are defeated at Marathon (September 12). 488. Ostracism introduced at Athens. 487. Election by lot applied to archonships at Ath- ens: generals become chief magistrates of the state; contest of comedies organized. 485. Darius dies; Xerxes I. succeeds liini on the tlirone of Persia. 484. Xerxes conquers Egypt (revolted in 486). 480. Xerxes sets out from Sardis for the invasion of Greece; is checked by the Spartan Leonidas at Thermopylae (August): is defeated in the great naval battle of Salamis (September 27 or 2S). Carthaginians defeated by Gelo of Syracuse in battle of Himera. 479. The Greeks are victorious over the Persians at Mycale and Plata?a (about September 10). 478. Athens heads tlic Delian Confederacy. Hiero follows Gelo as tyrant of Syracuse. 474. Hiero defeats Etruscans in great sea Hght at Cumae. 471. Themistocles, ostracized from Athens, goes to Argos, and later to Asia. 467. The battle of Eurymedon. Death of Hiero. 465. Xerxes assassinated by Artabanus. 464-424. Artaxerxes I. {Longimanus) is sovereign of Persia. 464-466. Messenians in revolt against Sparta. 463. Revolt of Thasos from Athens is suppressed. 462. Areopagus loses power in Athens. 461. Ostracism of Cinion: Pericles comes to power; radical democracy established in Athens. 459. Expedition of Athenians to Egypt to assist Inarus. 468. Mission of Ezra to Jerusalem. 467. Spartans defeat the Athenians at Tanagra; Athens. conquers Boeotia. 456. ^,gma is subjugated by the Athenians: .aischy- lus dies at Gela in Sicily. 454-413. Perdiccas II. reigns in Macedonia. 454. Athenian catastrophe in Egypt; treasury of confederacy transferred from Delos to Athens. 451-449. Decemviri rule in Rome. 449. Expedition of the Athenians against Cyprus: the}' are victorious near the Cyprian Salamis. 448. The Phocians attack Delphi ; the Sacred War; renewal of hostilities between Athens and Sparta. Peace between Athens and Persia. 447. Thebans defeat Athenians at Coronea; end of Athenian power in Bceotia. 446. Herodotus is in Athens. 8 WORLD HISTORY. 445 B. C. — 251 B. C. N U W 44S. Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem; the walls of the city are rebuilt . Promulgation of the Mosaic law at Jerusalem. Thirty years' peace made between Athens and Sparta. Canuleian law pemiits marriage between Roman patricians and plebeians. 443. The censorship is instituted at Rome. Thurii, in eastern Italy, is founded by Athenians. 438. Parthenon at Atliens, begim in 447, com- pleted, (^ampaniuns tak(.' C^apua from Etruscans. 437. Building of thi' Priipyla'a at .Athrns is bcgtm. 436. AmphipoUs, in 'riii-acc. is founded by Athe- nians. Corinthians make war on the Corcyrseans. 432. Potidaea revolts from the Athenian alliance. Nehemiah's second visit to Jertisalem. Priest Manasseh e.xpelled from Jerusalem: finds shelter with his fatlier-in-law. Prince Sanballat, wlio builds him a temple on Mt. Gerizim. Tliis is tlie beginning of the Samaritan Church. 431. Peloponnesian War in Greece begins (lasts till 404); Thebans attack Plataea. 430. Plague at Athens. 429. Potidtea is subdued by Athens. Pericles dies. 4'J8. Revolt of Lestos. 427. Arlstopiianes produces first comedy. Con- flicts between the Dorian and Ionian cities of Sicily. 425. The Spartans at Sphacteria surrender to Cleon after a long siege. 424. Arta.xerxes dies; his son, Xer.\es II., is slain by his brother, Sogdianus. who in tm-n is slain by his brother Darius II. (.A'olhus), who reigns until 404. Athenians are defeated at Deiium, in Boeotia. Thucydides, historian, banished from Athens. 421. Peace of Nicias; alliance for fifty years be- tween Athens and Sparta. Cimice taken by the Campanians. 420. Argos forms an alhance with Athens, and Thebes with Sparta. 418. Argives defeated at Mantineia by Sparta. 415. Athens sends an expedition against Syractiso, under Nicias, Lamachus, and Alcibiades. Alci- biades is recalled, but withdraws to Sparta. 414. Lamachus falls before Syracuse. 41.1. Archelaus seizes the Macedonian throne and kills Perdiccas. Athenian expedition against Syracuse Is de- stroyed miserably; Nicias is put to death; Decelea in Attica is occupied by Spartan troops. 412. Revolt of Athenian allies. 411. Athenian democracy overthrown; oli- garchy of the Four Hundred is established in March, but falls after a rule of foiu' months; a moderate democracy succeeds. 410. The Spartan Heet is destroyed by the Athe- nians off Cyzicus. 409. Hannibal of Carthage invades Sicily. 408. Cyrus appointed Persian commander in chief in Asia Minor; Lysander put in charge of Spartan naval operations; Alcibiades returns in trimnph to Athens, but goes into exile again sLx months later. 406. Death of the Athenian tragic poets, Sopho- cles and Euripides. Victory of the Athenian fleet off the Arginusas islands. Agrigentum taken by Carthaginians. 405. Battle of .,X!gospotami; Dionysius made tyrant of Syracuse. 404-359. Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) reigns in Persia. 404. Peace between Athens and Sparta after the Peloponnesian War; walls of Athens de- stroyed; the Thirty Tyrants are established in power at Athens, but are deposed after eight months' rule, in February, 403, and the former constitution is restored. 401. Cyrus the Yotmger, in revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes II., is killed in the battle of CL.naxa, and Xenophon leads the retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks to the Black Sea. 400-394. Sparta conducts war in Asia Minor against Persians. 400. Gauls occupy Po valley. 399. Archelaus of Macedonia is assassinated. Socrates put to death at Athens, aged 70 years. 396. Agesilaus takes command of Spartan army in Asia. The Roman troops tmder Camillus take Veil after a ten years' siege. 395-387. Corinthian War; Athens and Thebes, Corinth and Argos, tmited against Sparta. 394. The Athenian Conon, commanding a Persian fleet, is victorious over the Spartans, off Cnidus. Agesilaus recalled from Asia ; victorious at Coronea. 393. Long Walls of Athens rebuilt by Conon 390. Great defeat of the Romans by the Gatfls in the battle of tlie Allia. 387. The peace of Antalcidas is consummated be- tween Greece and Persia; the cities of Ionia are left in the power of the Persians. 383-379. War of Sparta against Olynthus. 383. Demosthenes born. 380. Isocrates's Panegijricus — plea for Hellenic union — published. 379-362. Prominence of Thebes in Greece; Epaminondas and Pelopidas are the leaders. 379. Theban oligarchy is overthrown. 878. Second Dellan Confederacy founded. 377-351. Matisolus reigns over Caria at Halicar- nassus. 376. Naval victory of the Athenians over the Spar- tans, near Naxos. 374. Peace is made between Athens and Sparta. 371. Epaminondas of Thebes defeats the Spar- tans at Leuctra; Thebes gains the ascendancy in Greece. 370. Megalopolis is foimded in Arcadia; Mantineia is restored ; death of Jason of Phcrae. 369. Expedition of Thclians tmder Pelopidas into Thcssaly and Macedonia. Icuse. | 367-357. Dionysius, the Yotmger, tyrant of SjTa- 1 367. Office of praetor created m Rome for the ad- ministration of justice; end of period of military tribimes with consular powers. 366. Lucius Sextitis is chosen first consul from the plebeians at Rome. Epaminondas mvades Peloponnesus for the third time. 364. Pelopidas invades Thessaly and is slain at Cynoscephato, near Pharsalus. 364-359. Perdiccas III reigns in Macedonia. 362. Battle of Mantineia. 361-285. Romans repel raids of Gauls. 360. Agesilaus of Si>arta dies. 359-338. Artaxer.xes III. (.Oelius) reigns in Persia. 359-336. Pliilip II., youngest son of Amyntas II., reigns m Macedonia; he institutes reforms in the Macedonian army. 358. Philip defeats Paeonians and lUyrians. 357-354. Dion tjTant at SjTacuse. 357. Philip seizes AmphipoUs and Pydna; war with Athens restilts. 356. Philip seizes Potidaea and foimds Philippi. Alexander III. (the Great) bom, son of Pliilip II. 355. Second Athenian Empire dis.solved. 354-350. Eubulus controls policies of Athens. 354. Caere becomes first Roman mimicipium. Demosthenes first appears before the people in an affair of state. 351. First Philippic delivered by Demosthenes. Death of Mau.solus of Caria. 348. Rome makes a commercial treaty with Carthage. Pliilip of Maccdon extends iiis em- pire in Thrace as far as Byzantium. 347. Plato dies (born in 427; pupil of Socrates). 346. Philip makes peace with Athens (Peace of Philocrates) ; goes to Delphi; lays waste Phocis. 345-337. Timoleon general in Sicily; defeats Car- thaginians at Crimisiis, 343-341. First Samnite War (between Rome and Sanmiimi) . 342. Philip overruns Thrace Aristotle, pupil of Plato, becomes Alexander's tutor. [League. I 340-338. Great Latin War; dissolution of Latin I 340. The Athenians opjiose Philip with arms as he advances agamst Byzantium, and he is obliged to abandon the advance. 339-338. Sacred War; Philip, chosen ampliicty- onic general, seizes Elatea. 338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans near Chaeronea (August); Macedonian hegem- ony over Greece established; Hellenic League formed, with sjTiod at Corinth. Roman silver coins issued in Campania. 336. Darius III. (Corfo7na?i7ms) succeeds to the sov- ereignty of Persia. Philip of Macedon assassinated by one of his bodyguard. Pausanias (August), and is succeeded by Alexander the Great. 335. Alexander subdues the Triballi, and razes Thebes (September). 334. He undertakes the conquest of Persia and defeats the Persian army at the tiranicus (May). 333. Alexander defeats Darius near Issus (No- vember) ; overruns Syria. 332. Alexander besieges and destroys Tyre; takes Gaza and (possibly) enters Jerusalem; occupies Egypt and founds Alexandria. 331. Alexander overcomes the Persians at Gauga- mela, 60 miles from Arbela, and not far from the ancient Nineveh (October); goes to Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. Aristotle's PoHHci finished. 330. Darius seized by his kinsman, Bessus, and slain. Alexander marclu's tlirough Parthia and Media: he puts his gent-ral, Parmenio, to death. 329. Alexander invades Bactria. 327-304. Second Samnite War. 327. Alexander marries Roxana, daughter of Oxy- artes, the satrap of Sogdiana; he Invades India. 326. Alexander contiuers Porus, an Indian king 325. Nearchus (imder Alexander's orders) in about seventy-five days sails down the Indus, across the sea. and up the Euphrates. 324. Alexander returns to Babylon. 323. He dies there: Philip III. (ArrhiJxus), Alex- ander's half brother, nominally succeeds to the throne of Macedonia; Perdiccas is made regent; Alexander's conquered territories divided among his generals; Lysimachus receives Tlirace; Antipater is made niler of the remaining Macedonian Empire in Europe. Ptolemy I. (SoUr), son of Lagus. becomes ruler, and alK)ut 305 king, of Egypt. 322. Death of Demosthenes at Calauria; death of Aristotle at Chalkis; Lamlan War; Antipater and the Macedonians defeat the Greeks neap Cramion: the.Etolians are the cliief cliampionsof HeUa.s; vH^tolian League formed. 321. Romans defeated by the Sanmites at the Caudine Forks. Death of Pertliccas; Antipater follows as regent. .320. Ptolemy takes Jerusalem. [Asia. I 319. Antipater dies; Eumenes is made General of I 317-307. Demetrius of Phalerum rules Athens; age of ]Menander. 317. Pliilip Arrhidaeus is put to death by Olympias. 316-289. Agathocles is tyrant at Syracuse. 316. Cassander, Antipater's son, rules in Mace- donia. 31 2-308. Appius Claudius Caecus censor ; work begtm onthe Appian Way from Rome to Capua. Applan aqueduct built; powers of Senate assailCKl. 312. Battle of Gaza; Babylon reoccupled by Seleucus Nicator: era of the Seleucldae begins. 311. Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and An- tigonus make a treaty of peace. 310. Cassander puts to death Alexander's widow, Roxana, and her son, Alexander IV. Agathocles carries the war with the Carthagin- ians Into Africa. The Romans cross the Ciminian forest and defeat the Etruscans, who had joined the .Saranites. 307. Demetrius Poliorcetes (son of Antigonus) lib- erates Athens. [king. 1 306. Battle of Salamls. Antigonus takes title of I 305. Siege of Rhodes. 304. End of second Samnite War. 301. Antigonus is defeated and slain at the battle of Ipsus by Lysimachus and .Seleucus. AGE OF ROMAN REPUBLIC. 300. Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea are foimded by Seleucus. 298. Third Samnite War begins. 297. Cassander dies; Alexander V. and Antipater reign m Macedonia. PjTrhus restored to throne of Epirus. [Samnites at Sentinum.l 295. Fabius overcomes tlie EtriLscans, Gauls, and! 294. Demetrius I. (Polwrce(cs) takes Athens; murders Alexander ; seizes Macedonian throne. 290. Third Samnite War of the Romans ends. 288. Pyrrhus rules in Macedonia. 287. Horteusian law enacted in Rome, making the votes of the Comitia tributa binding on all citizens. Secession of the plebeians to Janiculum. 285-247. Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus) reigns in Egypt; the Museum in Alexandria flourishes with distinguished men of science and literature; Jewish Scripttu-es begin to be translated into CJreek for the Jews at Alexandria (Septuagint version); bucolic poetry (Theocritus) at it3 best. 283. Demetrius Poliorcetes dies. [Tarentum.l 282. War between Rome and the Greek city of I 281. Pyrrhus of Epirus is summoned to Italy to aid Tarentimi. Seleucus defeats Lysimachus at Corupedion: Lysimachus falls. 280-261. Antiochus I. {Soler) reigns in Syria. 280. Achaean League formed. Pyrrhus wins the battle of Heraclea, but with heavy loss. First meeting of Greek phalanx and Roman legion. Death of Seleucus (2S1 7). 279. The Gauls under Brennus Invade Mace- donia, and pillage Delphi. Pyrrhus is victorious over the Romans in the bat- tle of Asculum, but again with heavy loss (" Pyr- rhic victory." See in the Dictionary.) 278-246. Nicomedes I. reigns in Bithynia; he in- vites the Gauls to enter Asia. 278. Alliance between Rome and Carthage; PjTrhus in SicUy. 277. Gauls driven from Macedonlaby Antigonus. 276-240. Antigonus (Conalnis) reigns in Macedonia. 276-195 ? Eratosthenes computes the circumfer- ence of the earth with substantial correctness. 275. Pyrrhus is beaten by the Romans under Cu- rius Dentatus at Beneventum; from this victory may be dated the supremacy of Rome in Italy. 274. Pyrrhus defeats Antigonus and is declared king of Macedon, but in 272 he is slain near Argos, and the crown is restored to Antigonus. [plius. I 273. Treaty between Rome and Ptolemy Pluladel- 1 272. Surrender of Tarentum to Rome. 270. The philosopher Epicurus (bom 342 7) dies. 268. Hiero is recognized as tjTant of Syracuse. First coinage of silver in Rome. 266. Treaty between Athens, Sparta, and Ptolemy. 264. First Punic War between Rome and Carthage begins. Zeno, pliilosopher, dies (another date, 261). 281-246. Antiochus II. {Theos) reigns in Syria. 261. Antigonus conquers .\thens. 260. A Roman fleet, constructed to meet the Car- thaginians, is victorious off Mylae. Aristarchus of Samos launches the heliocentric theory (that the earth moves round the sim). 256. Second and greater victory of the Roman fleet off Ecnomus. The consul M. Atilius Regu- lus " carries the war into Africa," but in the fol- lowing year is defeated and captured. 251. Aratus frees Sicjon from t>Tanny and annexes it to the Achaean League. 250 B. c. — 44 B. c. ANCIENT PERIOD. 9 260. Arsaces leads a revolt against the Seleucids and founds Parthian Empire. Era of the Arsac- idae begins. 248-242. The Carthaginian general. Hamilrar, liolds Eryx (in Sicily) against all Roman attacks. 247-222. Ptolemy ill. (Euergetes) reigns in Egypt; conquers Syria and holds it a few years. Struggle with INIacedou for sea power in eastern Mediterra- nean ends with destruction of Egyptian fleet. 246-226. Seleucus II. iCallinicuti) reigns in S>Tia. Djiiastic war rends Seleucid Empire for 20 years. 245-213. Aratus is general of the Achcean League in practically every aUemate year. 242. Corinth joins the Achaean League. 241-197. Attalus I. (Soter) reigns in Pergamum. 241. First Punic War ends with the Roman vic- tory at the .^gades islands ; Carthage agrees to pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents, and the larger part of Sicily becomes the first Roman province. 240. Livius Andronicus, the translator of the Odys- sey into Latin, exliibits first play at Rome. 239-229. Demetrius II. reigns in Macedonia. 238. Sardinia, taken from Carthage, is made the second Roman province, .^tolian and Achtean Leagues unite to expel Macedonia from Greece. 235-220. Cleomenes III. reigns in Sparta. 231. Clu'ysippus becomes head of the Stoic school. 229-221. Antigonus (Doson) reigns in Macedonia. 229. The suppression of the lllyrian pirates leads to a treaty between Rome and Corcyra and other Greek powers. 228. Argos joins the Achaean League; Athens is freed from Macedonian garrisons, and adopts a policy of strict neutrality: age of Eurycleides and ISIicion. Prusias I. reigns in Bithynia; dies about 1S5; is succeeded by Prusias II. 227. The Spartans under Cleomenes III. defeat the Achfeans at Laodicea, and Lydiades falls. 225-222. The Gauls of northeni Italy advance upon Rome, but are utterly routed by the Ro- mans; Cisalpine Gaul is subdued and colonies are estabhshed; all Italy is now Roman. 223-137. Antiochus III. (the Great) reigns in S>Tia. 223. Aratus calls the Macedonians imder Antigo- nus to the aid of the Achaeans against Cleomenes of Sparta ; glory of the Achaaan League passes away. 222-205. Ptolemy IV. {Philopator) reigns in Egypt. 221-179. Philip V. reigns in Macedon. 221. Tlie Macedonians vanquish the Spartans un- der Cleomenes at Sellasia. 220-217. The ^Etolians ravage Achaia; Social War (between Acheean and ^t-olian leagues) follows. 319. Second Mlyrian War of Rome. 215. Second Punic War b<_-gins; Hanniba3, hav- ing cstal>lished the Carthaginian power in Spain, crosses the Alps into Italy and defeats the Ro- cnans in the battles of the Ticinus and Trebbia; the Gauls of northern Italy join him. 217, Piiihp makes peace with the /Etolians at Nau- pactus. Ptolemy defeats Antiochus III. of SjTia at Raphia. The Romans are defeated in battle of Lake Trasimcnus by Hannibal. 216. Philip V. of iMacedon makes an alliance with Hannibal. Romans defeated by Hannibal at Cannae* — the severest defeat ever sustained by Rome; Han- nibal winters in Capua; some Italian towns re- nounce the Roman alhance; the Romans, by great efforts, raise and equip two new armies. [gins.j 215. First war between Rome and Macedonia be-1 213. The Achaean general Aratus dies. 212. Marcelius captures Syracuse and drives Carthaginians from Sicily; death of Archimedes: close of the greatest epoch of Greek science. ^tolia joins Rome against Philip; Romans in- vade Greece. 208- Pubhus Scipio fails to prevent Hasdrubal, the brother of Hamiibal, from crossing the Pyrenees to march into Italy. 207-192. Nabis is tyrant at Sparta. 207. Hasdrubal is defeated and killed in battle near the Metaurus before he is able to join Hannibal; Hannibal retires to southern Italy. 206. .etolians make peace with the Macedonians. 205(203 ?)-181. Ptolemy V. (Epiphaties) reigns in Egypt; Philip of jNIacedon and Antiochus of SjTia conspire to divide Empire of Egj-pt between them. 205. Philip of Macedon makes peace with Romans. 204. Pubhus Comehus Scipio {Africanus) lands in Africa and is joined by Masinissa. 203. Hannibal retires from Italy to Carthage. 202. Seipio defeats Hannibal in the decisive bat- tle of Zama. 201. Peace between Rome and Carthage. 200. Rome interferes again in Grecian affairs, and second war between Rome and Macedonia begins. Antiochus III. defeats Egj-ptians at Panium. 198. The Achaean League makes its first treaty with Rome. 197-159. Eumenes II. reigns in Pergamum. J.97. Romans defeat Philip V. at CjTioscephalse, and end Macedonian supremacy In Greece. 196. At the Isthmian games, the states. which had been subject to Macedon are proclaimed free. 193. Antiochus of Syria makes treaty with Egypt, by which he retains Palestine and grants its trib- ute to Ptolemy as dowry with lus daughter, Cleo- patra I. 192. Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, murdered by the .Etolians: Sparta joins the Achaean League. Antiochus enters Greece. 191. Elis and Messenia join the Achaean League. Antiochus and his allies are defeated by the Ro- mans at Thermopylae. 190. Battle of Magnesia. 189. Fulvius, commanding Romans, conquers .Eto- lian League. Antiochus yields Asia Minor to Rome. 187-175. Seleucus IV. (Philopator) reigns in Syria. 187. Hannibal takes refuge at the court of Prusias. 183. Scipio Africanus, the Elder, dies (born 237). Hannibal, to escape fallmg into the hands of the Romans, commits suicide in BithJ^lia. 182-148. Prusias II. reigns in BithJ^lia. 181-146. I*to\emyYlI. (Philo/netor) rules in Egypt. 179-168. Perseus rules in Macedonia. 175-164. Antiochus IV. (Epiphajies) rules in SyTia. 171. The tlurd Macedonian War with Rome be- gins; dissolution of the Boeotian League. 170. Antiochus visits Jerusalem. 169. Death of Ennius (bom 239), the first great Roman epic poet. 168. Perseus is defeated in the battle of Pydna (June); end of the Macedonian monarchy. Per- secution of the Jews by Antiochus (Epiphanes); the temple at Jerusalem is defiled. 167. The .Etohan patriots are put to death, and 1,000 Achaean patriots (including the liistorian Polybius) are transported to Rome. Jewish revolt against Antiochus by Mattathias and his five sons (the Maccabees). 166. Delos given by Rome to Athens. 162. Demetrius Soter kills Antiochus V. (ruled 164-162) and reigns in his stead until 150. 161. The Jews make a treaty with Rome. IGO. Judas Maccabaeus. leader of the Jews, is slain. Jonathan Maccabseus takes his place. 159-138. Attalus II. reigns at Pergamum. 153. Celtiberian War begins. 150-145. ' Alexander Balas, ha\'ing dethroned Demetrius, reigns in Syria. 150. Roman senate releases the surviving leaders of the Achaean League. 149-92. Nicomedes II., having killed his father, Prusias II., reigns in Bithj'nia. 149. Cato (the Censor), writer on history and on agricultiu-e, dies (bom 234) . Senate, through court of extortion, assumes control of provincial government: height of senatorial power. 148. The revolt in Macedonia is suppressed: Macedonia a Roman province. 146-117. Ptolemy IX. (Euergetes II., Pkyscon) reigns in Eg>-pt. 146. Carthage is captured by Publius Cornelius Scipio, the Younger, and utterly destroyed; Africa a Roman province. The Roman consul Mummins defeats the Achae- ans at Leucopetra, near Corinth; the Romans destroy Corinth; Achaean League dissolved, and all Greece becomes practically subject to Rome as a sort of dependency of the Roman prov- ince of Macedonia. 145-138. Demetrius Nicator overthrows Alexander Balas; reigns m SjTia. 143-135. Simon Maccabeeus, high priest and prince at Jerusalem, obtains from Demetrius a recogni- tion of Jewish independence, 143-133. Numantine War in Spain. 139-129. Antiochus VII. (Sideles), ha\ing slain the usurper Trj'phon, reigns in SjTia, in the stead of his captive brother, Demetrius Nicator. 139. Parthians, under Mithridates L, take Deme- trius Nicator prisoner and conquer Babylonia. The Greek djTiasty of Bactria succumbs to Tatar tril:)e of Su. 136-132. The Servile "War m Sicily. 135-105. John HjTCanus I. is high priest and prince at Jerusalem. 133. Antiochus destroys the walls of Jerusalem. Attalus III. of Pergamum bequeaths his kingdom to Rome. Publius Scipio. the Younger, takes Numantia after a siege of more than a year; death of Tiberius Gracchus, who had attempted agrarian reforms. 129. Assassination of Scipio Africanus, the Younger.!, Antiochus invades Parthia; he is defeated and killed. Demetrius Nicator is restored to the throne of S>Tia, and reigns until 125. 125-96. Antiochus VIII. (Cri/pus) reigns in SjTia. 123--121. Cains Sempronius Gracchus '^contin- ues his brother's agitation in favor of constitu- tional and agrarian reforms; he is slain. Knights given control of court of extortion and provincial administration. 120. Mithridates VI. (Eupafor) succeeds his father in Greater Phrj-gia and Pontus, and, about 115, takes government into his own hands. 118. Foundation of Narbo. Jugurtha shares with liis cousins the throne of Numidia. 117. Ptolemy IX. dies; Ptolemy X. (Soter II.) reigns Ui Egypt from 117 to 107 and from 88 to 81. 113-101. AVar between the Romans and the Cim- bri and Teutones. 112-105. War of the Romans with Jugurtha, king of Numidia. HI. Antiochus IX. (Cyzicemis) reigns over Cosle- S>Tia; his brother, Grypus, reigns at Antioch. 107-88. Ptolemy XL reigns in Egypt. 105. Jugurthine War ends by the betrayal of Jugiu-tha to Marius. Two Roman armies destroyed at Arausio. 104-99. Revolt of slaves in Sicily, Italy, and Attica. 103-76. Alexander Jannaeus is king and high priest of the Jews. 102. Caius Marius overcomes the Teutones in tlie battle of the Aq\ue Sextia*. 101. Marius annihilates the Cimbri at Vercellse; reform of the Roman army organization. 100. Marius, consul for the sixth time, crushes the revolutionists Satiuninus and Glaucia. 95-83. Antiochus X. (Eusebes) reigns in Syria. 95-54. Tigrancs II. (the Great) reigns in Armenia. 92-90. Reforms and assassination of M. Livius Diiisus. [thynia. I 92-74. Nicomedes III. (Philopator) reigns in Bi-I 90-88. Revolt of Italian allies against Rome. 88. Civil war begms between Marius and L. Cor- nelius Sulla. Mitlu-idates invades Asia Muior, and in one day massacres great numbers of Roman citizens (80,000-150.000). (Cuma. I 87. Massacre of Sulla's partisans by Marius and I 86. Marius dies at Rome in his 7th consulsliip. Athens is stormed by Sulla. 83. Romans restore Nicomedes to BithjTiian tlu"one. 82. Sulla, having concluded theMitliridatic War, becomes dictator of Rome; proscription of the leaders of the party of Marius. Sulla reforms the constitution in the interest of the optimate (sena- torial) party. 81. Ptolemy XIII. (Attletes) gains Egyptian throne. 79. Sulla abdicates; dies the following year. 77-71. Campaigns of Pompey against Scrtorius in Spain. 74. Nicomedes of BithjTiia bequeaths iiis kingdom to Rome. Third Mitlu-idatic War begins. 73. Spartacus, the gladiator, leads a revolt of slaves against Rome. 71. Crassus crushes revolt of slaves. 70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Consti- tution of Sulla overthrown. 69-64. Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticns) reigns in Syria. 69. Lucullus defeats Tigrancs of Armenia. 67. Gabinian Law, by wliich Pompey is given command against pirates, passed. 66. Manilian Law; Pompey against Mithridates. 64. Pompey conquers Syria, and dethiones Anti- ochus. 63-40. Hyrcanus II. is liigh priest and ethnarch of the Jews. 63. Pompey takes Jerusalem. The Mitliridatic War is ended; SjTia becomes a Roman province. Cicero puts down the conspiracy of Catiline. 61. Caius Julius Caesar (qnrestor in 69, sedile in 65. PontifexMaximus since 64. prsetor in 62) gains militarj' experience as proprsetor of Farther Spain. 60. Ca?sar, Pompey, and Crassus, form the First Triumvirate. 59. Consulship of Caesar. Ptolemy XIII. (Auletes) recognized as king of Egypt. 58-51. Csesar conquers Gaul. 56. Conference at Luca; rt-newal of the triumvirate. 55. Ca?sar invades Britain. 54. Ca'sar invades Britain for the second time. 53. Crassus is defeated by the Parthians at Car- rae and killed. 52. Pompey, sole consul, opens attack on Caesar. 51. Death of Ptolemy Auletes; he Is succeeded by his daughter Cleopatra (bom b. c. 69) and her brother Ptolemy XIV., yoimger than herself. 49. Ca?sar crosses the Rubicon, and war breaks out between him and the senatorial party in Rome, led by Pompey. 48. Pompey conquered at Pharsalia.andmurdered on the coast of Egj^pt by the order of Ptolemy. 47. Caesar conquers Ptolemy. Cleopatra reigns in Egypt with her younger brother, Ptol- emy XV. Library at Alexandria burned. Caesar defeats Phamaces at Zela. and sends to the senate the famous message: " Veni, vWl, vici." 46. The followers of Pompey are defeated at Thap- sus. and Marcus Porcius Cato commits suicide at Utica. Julian calendar introduced (s6e calendar, in the Dictionary) . 45. Battle of Munda; Csesar gains victory over the sons of Pompey. 44. Ceesar founds Roman colonies at Corinth and Carthage. Caesar, autocrat tlu-ough a Ufe tenure of dictatorial, consular, censorial, and tribunicial power, is assassinated in the senate house at Rome, March 15. 10 WORLD HISTORY. 43 b. C — 476 A. I». N Q U W X AGE OF ROMAN EMPIRE. 43- Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate. Cicero delivers the Philippics against Antony. Proscription of lead- ers of the senate; Cicero is slain. 42. Brutus and Cassius, leaders of the Republi- can party, are vanquished at Philippi by Octa- vianus and Antony. 41. Cleopatra is summoned before Antony to an- swer for the murder of her brother; he becomes in- fatuated with her and follows her to Egypt. 40. Herod the Great is proclaimed king of Judea. 36. Octavianus crushes Sextus Pompeius and forces Lepidus to withdraw from the trium\1rate. 31. Octavianus defeats Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium, September 2. 30. Octavianus occupies Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide. 27. Octavianus receives the title of Augusiiis from the senate; beginning of the principate. 27-14 A. D. Augustan age of Latin literature (Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Livy; Maecenas the patron of hteratiu-e). 27-19. Augustus rearranges the provinces. 23. Augustus abandons consulship and governs through tribunicial power. 20. Peace arranged with Parthian Empire. 19-16. Great domestic reforms of Augustus. 15. Roman frontier advanced to include Rhietia and Noriciun. 13-6 A. D. Germany conquered; Roman fron- tier advance?torian Guard. 41-44. Herod Agrippa king of Judea. 43. Aulus Plautius occupies parts of Britain. 44-66. Judea under Roman procurators. 46-120. Plutarch lives. 47. Tlie Romans subdue South Britain. 48. Claudius orders the taking of a census of the whole Roman Empire. 49. He banishes the Jews from Rome; he con- structs a camp on the site of London. 60. Ostorius overcomes Caractacus, British king. 61. Caractacus is carried in chains to Rome. 64-68. Nero emperor. 61. Boadicea, ciuoen of the Iceni, defeats the Ro- mans, but is Anally herself defeated. St. Paul is brought a prisoner to Rome. 64. Rome burned; Nero begins a persecution of the Christians. 65. Seneca, the philosopher, and Lucan, the poet, are put to death. [Romans.! 66. Nero in Greece; Jews in Palestmo rebel against I 67. St. Paul perishes by martyrdom. 68. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius become emperors in succession. 60. Mutiny of the frontier armies: Vespasian pro- claimed emperor by the legions in S>Tia. 70. Titus partially destroys Jerusalem. 75. A''espasian begins building of Colosseum. 79. Titus succeeds Vespasian. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an eruption of Vesuvius. Agricola defeats the Caledonians imder Galgacus and completes the conquest of Britain for the Romans. Death of the elder Pliny. 81. Domitian becomes emperor, succeeding his elder brother, Titus. [philosophers. I 93. Domitian persecutes the Jews, Cluistians. and I 96. Domitian is assassinated, and is succeeded by Nerva, flrst of the " five good emperors." 98. Trajan becomes emperor. 103. Pliny the Yoimger is proconsul in Bithynia. 106. Trajan persecutes the Christians; he creates the province of Dacia. 110 (107?). Martyrdom at Rome of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch. 113. Trajan's column is reared in Rome. 115. Trajan annexes Partiiia; Roman Empire reaches its greatest extent; silver age of Ro- man literature (Tacitus, Pliny, Quintilian, Ju- venal) falls chiefly witliin Trajan's reign. (See Latin, n., 1, in the Dictionary). 117-138. Hadrian emperor in Rome. 121. Hadrian builds the wall from the Solway to the Tyne. 122. Hadrian visits Egypt and Greece. 132. Bar-cocheba captures Jerusalem. 135. Romans subdue a revolt In Judea; half a million Jews perish. 138-161. Antoninus Pius emperor in Rome. 139. Wall built by the Romans between the Forth and the Clyde. 155. Martyrdom of Polycarp, a pupil of the apostle John. 161-180, Marcus Aurelius emperor in Rome. 162, The Parlhians invade Syria. 166. Persecution of the Christians throughout the Roman Empire. 180-192. Commodus emperor in Rome. 193. Pertinax emperor. Julian buys the empire from the Pnetorian G uard . 193-211. Mutmy of the frontier armies. Septim- ius Severus emperor. 196. Byzantium taken by the emperor Severus; he protects the Jews. 197. He defeats Albinus, governor of Britain, in a great battle at Lyons. 200. Age of Papinian. the great Roman jurist. 204. South Britain is divided into two provinces. 208. Severus establishes his court at Eboracum (York), and dies there in 211. 212. Edict of Caracalla (emperor 211-2X7) gives Ro- man citizenship to all freemen in the empire. 215. Caracalla causes massacres in Alexandria. 222. Ulpian, the great jurist, becomes pratorian prefect; Alexander Severus. emperor (222-235). 227. Ardshir (Artaxerxes), having come to the Per- sian throne in 211 or 212, overthrows the Parthian Empire and foimds the Persian monarchy of the Sassanidie (Sassanian Empire). 235284. Disintegration of the Roman Em- pire. Repeated mutinies of the frontier armies, followed by invasions of the barbarianr. 240-271. Sapor I. reigns over Persians. Rise of Manichseism. 250. The Goths invade the Roman Empire. A persecution of the Christians begun by Decius. 252. Roman Empire stricken with a pestilence. 252-260. Sapor I. wages war against the Romans: he occupies Armenia, invades SjTia, and cai^tures the emperor Valerian. 253. Franks invade Gaul, Spain, and Africa. 255. The Goths overrun Thrace. 267. Athens taken by the Goths. 369. Claudius II. (Gothicus) triumphs over Goths. Zenobia, queen of PalmjTa. conquers Egypt. 270. Aurelian becomes emperor; abandons Da- cia to the Goths. 271. Aurelian reestablishes Roman sway in Eg>-pt. 273. Zenobia is brought as prisoner to Rome, after the capture of Palmj-ra by AureHan. Tctricus is crushed in Gaul and unity is restored to the Roman Empire. 277. Emperor Probus drives Germans out of Gaul. 283. Cams invades Persia and conquers Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 284-305. Diocletian emperor in Rome. Diocle- tian makes Maximian his colleague. 286. Carausius in Britain makes himself Roman emperor. 293. Constantius and Galerius associated as Cae- sars with the emperors Diocletian and Maximian. 294. Allectus slays Carausius and seizes the Brit- ish dominion. 296. Constantius recovers Britain. 298. Galerius defeats Narses. king of Persia, and restores Tiridates to the Annenian throne. Per- sia makes peace with Diocletian. 303. Diocletian begins the so-called " tenth " perse- cution by an edict against the Cliristians. 305. Abdication of Diocletian. 306. Constantius dies at York, July 25; Constan- tine succeeds him. 308. Six emperors exist simultaneously In the Roman Empire. (sian crown. I 310. Sapor (Shapurj II., a babe, receives the Per-| 311. Galerius, in the name of Constantine, issues an edict of toleration of the Christians. 312. Constantine converted to Christianity. Battle of the- Mihian Bridge. 313. Edict of Milan. 3'24. Constantine defeats Licinius at Clirysopolis and rules alone. 325. Constantine convokes first general council of the Christian Church at Mcsea; it formulates the Nlcene Creed; Arlan controversy. 326. Eoundatlon of Constanttnopfe. 332. Tenant farmers (co/o nObomid to the soil. (See cOLONus in the Dictionary.) 334. Sarmatians allowed to settle in Thrace. 337. Constantine dies. May 22. Empire di- vided again into four parts. Sapor begins a war against the Romans, which is waged for twenty-five years. 339. Awful persecution of Christians in Persia. 348. Ulfllas bishop to the Goths. 353-361. Constantius rules reunited empire. 360. Britain invaded by the Scots and the PIcts. 361. Julian proclaimed emperor of the West by the Roman army in Gaul. He abjures Chris- tianity and reopens the pagan temples. 363. Julian is slain in battle in Persia, near the Tigris. Jmie 26. Jovian, making peace with Sapor, yields up the Persian provinces; he restores Christianity. 364. Division of the empire; Valentinian takes the western di\ision. Valens the eastern. 365. Sapor annexes Armenia to Persia; is soon again at war with the Romans. 371. Cessation of war between Persicuis and Ro- mans. 374. St. Ambrose elected Bishop of Milan; he champions the cause of the CathoUcs against the Arians and pagans; he excommunicates the em- peror Theodosius for his cruelty in the massacre of Thessalonica (390). 378. Valens defeated and slain by the Visigoths in the battle of Adrianople. 379-395. Theodosius the Great is emperor. Prohibits paganism. 381. Second ecumenical council, at Constan- tmople; the Apollinarian controversy. 382. HieronjTnus, known as St. Jerome, one of the Fathers of the Latin Chtu-ch. removes from An- tioch to Rome: here he begins and completes the Latin version of the Bible known as the Vulgate. 387. St. Augustine of Hippo is baptized by St. Ambrose. 389. "W'orsliip of Serapis in Egypt abohshed and his temple destroyed. 390. Armenia divided by treaty between Persia and Rome. 394. Olympian games abolished. 395. Triumph and death of Theodosius. Roman Empire finally divided into Eastern and Western. St. Augustine is made Bishop of Hippo. He be- comes the champion of the orthodox faith against the Donatists and the Pelagians. 395-408. Stilicho. the power behind the throne of the Western Emperor Honorius. Arcadius reigns in the East. 396. Alaric invades Greece. 402. Honorius, the "Western emperor, fixes his resi- dence at Ravenna. 404. St. Chrysostom of Antioch is exiled to Cap- padocia. where he composes his principal works. 408-450. Theodosius II. reigns in the East. 409. The Vandals Invade Spain. 416. Honorius renounces the sovereignty of Britain. Alaric and the Goths sack Rome, August 24. 420. Bahram (Varanes) V., a favorite hero of Per- sian tradition, becomes kmg of Persia. 422. Romans (Eastern Empire) and Persians make peace; religious freedom granted the Christians in Persia and 2Soroastrians in the Roman Empire. 425-455. Valentinian III. emperor m the "West; Aetius the power behind the throne. 425. Tniversity of Constantinople organized. Vortigem reigns in Britain. 426. St. Augustine of Hippo publishes the De Civitate Dei, "Concerning the City of God." 429. Armenia is united to Persia. TI]e Vandals imder Gcnseric invade Africa. 431. Third ecumenical council at Ephesus; Nesto- rian controversy. 439. Carthage captured by Vandals. 440-461. Leo I., smiiamed the Great, is pope. 441. Attlla invades Thrace. 449. Hengist and liorsa, Saxon invaders, land in England. 450-.'>00. Saxons and Jutesmakeconquestsand set- tlements in England; era of so-called heptarchy. 451. Attlla Invades Gaul and besieges Orleans; battle of Chalons. fourth ecu menical council, at Chalcedon : Eutychian controversy. 455. Genseric and the Vandals capture Rome, July 15. 476. Barbarian mercenaries demand a third of the land of Italy, and on refusal revolt, overthrow the remnant of Roman imperial power, de- throning Romulus Augustulus and proclaiming the Rerulian Odoacer, their learler, king. This ends the Western Roman Empire and closes what is conventionally called Ancient History. 11. MEDIEVAL PERIOD: 477 A. D. TO 1492. Historical Outline. The word " mwlifval " is used of the long period beginning at the extinction of the Roman Empire in Western Europe. Its end has l^een variously con- ceived, sometimes as Ijeiug coincident with the fall of Constantinople, in 1453. sometimes witli the spread of the Renaissance over Western F-urejn- ahoyt M(M); more often, with the chscovery of tfie Xew World, in 1492, or the outbreak of the Protestant Revolution, in 1517. The transitions from ancient to medieval and from medieval to modern times were gradual and, of com-se, not iHTceivee and the Rhine. The causes of this movement of the Teutonic nations arc obscure and difflctilt to separate from legend. The fact of the barbarian invasions is sufll- ciently tangible, but not the impelling forces. The Germanic nations, seated in the north and far east, after having been held at bay for several centuries, at last broke over the frontiers of Rome and. pouring through the passes of the Alps, overran Italj'. center of the Empire, defeated the arn^es of the degener- ates, took the capital, uprooted the unreal govern- ment of Romulus Augustulus, and instituted a bar- barian kingdom in its stead. This was the ls- sessions taken from the Lombards upon Pope Stephen II., thus laying the foundation of the Papal States. 756. Abderrahman, the only Ommiad prince to es- cape death at the hands of the Abl)assides, foimds in Spain the Ommiad caliphate of Cordoba. 763. The caliph Al-Mansur transfers the capital of the Abbasside cahphate to Bagdad, of which he is the founder. 768. On the death of Pepin his two sons. Carlo- man and Charles (Charlemagne), succeed to the rule of the Prankish Empire. THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 771. Karl, or Charles, the Great (Charlemagne), on the death of Iiis brother Carloman, becomes sole ruler of the Franks. 773. Desiderius having led the Lombards to seize the pope's patrimony, Charlemagne destroys the liingdom of the Lombards and is crowned king of f he Lombards, 773. 778. In response to the Arabian governor's request for aid against Abderrahman, Charlemagne in- vades Spain and aimexes the coimtry between the Ebro and the Pyrenees tmder the name of the " Spanish March." 786. Uarun-ai-Rashld (the Just) becomes caliph of the Arabian Empire, and introduces an era of remarkal3le enlightenment and prosperity. 787. Northmen begin invasions of England. 788. Charlemagne makes Bavaria a part of liis dominions. 796. Charlemagne, after a campaign of five years, reduces the Avars to subjection and incorporates their territory with the Frankish kingdom tmder the name of the " Avaric March." 800. Dec. 35. Pope Leo 111., having obtained the aid of Charlemagne to overcome an insurrection of the Romans, crowns his benefactor as succes- sor of the Ca?sars. 804. After a war of thirty-two years' din*ation C'harlemagne subjugates the Saxons; they are compelled to embrace Christianity. 814. On the death of Charlemagne, Louis the Debonair succeeds to the throne of the so- called Roman Empire. 837. States of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy ac- knowledge suzerainty of Egbert, king of Wessex. Saracens begin a campaign against Byzantines for possession of Siciiy. 840. Lotus dies, and the three sons, Lothaire, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald, claim the suc- cession; they war for possession of the kingdom. 841. In a battle of the brothers fought at Fonte- nailles, Louis and Charles defeat Lothaire. 843. The tiu'ee rivals make a treaty at Verdun by wliich the empire is divided into three parts; Lothaire receives Italy and the Central Franldsh territories; Louis the German accepts Germany, the " Eastern Frankish lands "; and Charles the Bald takes France, or the " Western Frankish lands." The Treaty of Verdun marks the be- ginning of national history for the tliree states. Italy, Germany, and France; also, the beginning of tlie middle land of Lorraine. ESTABLISHMENT OF EUROPEAN STATES. 845. The Northmen continue to invade France; they plimder Paris. 846. The Saracens make a campaign in Italy and lay siege to Rome. 1941). | 860. Russian attack on Constantinople (another in 1 803. Rurik, chief of the Varangians, establishes liis power at Novgorod and thus lays the founda- tion of the Russian Empire. 866. Alfonso the Great becomes kmg of Astm-ias. the Christian monarchy in Spain, afterward called Leon. 867. The contests between the Latin and the Greek Cluistians cidminate in the excommimication of the pope by Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, head of the Greek Chiu-ch. 870. Svatopluk II., a W^est Slavic chieftain, leads a successful rebeUion against the Emperor of Ger- many, Louis the German, great-grandson of Charlemagne: Svatopluk foimds the kmgdom of Great Moravia. 871. Alfred the Great becomes king of England and furthers development of law and learning. 873. Oxford (Univei'sity College) foimded, accord- ing to tradition. 874. Iceland is colonized by the Northmen. Nearer to the Western continent than the Eastern. 878. Alfred defeats the Danes at Edington and compels Gutlu'um, the Danish king, to emtjrace Christianity and be baptized. SicUy is subjugated by the Saracens. 887. Charies the Fat, great-grandson of Charle- magne, reunites the empire of Charlemagne, with the exception of cisjurane Burgimdy, which becomes an independent kingdom imder Boso; is deposed by the Franks of the East and the West. 891. The Northmen are beaten at Louvain by Ar- nulf , who has been elected king by the East Franks in place of Charles the Fat. 893. The Magyars under Prince Arpdd cross the Carpatliians. defeat the Moravians imder Svato- pluk, and settle in the valley of the Tisza (Theiss) River. 899 900. Alfred the Great dies, and Ins son. EdwaVd the Elder, ascends the throne of England. 906. Magyars conquer the kingdom of Great Mo- ravia, wliich later (1029) becomes a part of Bo- hemia. 911. The Caroiinglan dynasty in Germany be- comes extinct with the death of Louis the Cluld, last heir in right descent from C'harlemagne, and Conrad, duke of Franconia, is chosen king. Rollo, chief of the Northmen, receives from Charles the Simple, king of France, a grant of the province of Neustria, which becomes the duchy of Normandy. 913. Abderrahman III, begins to reign in C6rdoba. introducing the golden age of Arabian power in Spain. 919. On the death of Conrad, the Germans elect Henry the Fowler king, the first of the Sa.\on line. 933. Henry the Fowler defeats the Himgarians. The kingdom of Aries is estabUshed by union of the two Burgimdies, and so continues for a century. 936. Otto the Great becomes Idng of the'Germans. 937. Athelstan, king of England, wins a victory over the Danes and Scots at Brunanburh. 951. Berenger 11. of Italy is driven from liis tlirone by Otto of Ciermany, but is restored in 952 and allowed to reign tmder Otto's suzerainty. 955. Hungarians defeated by Otto on the Lecli. 961. Berenger II. is finally deprived of liis crown, and the sovereignty of Italy passes from the line of Cliarlemagne to Otto. 963. Pope John XII. crowns Otto Emperor of the Romans. 963. Nicepliorus Phocas accedes to the throne of the Byzantine Empire, and undertakes successful campaigns agauist the Asian Saracens. 966. Miecislas. king of Poland, becomes a con- vert to Christianity. 969. Fatiuiites (d.vnasty of Ali, who married Fa- tima, daughterof the Prophet) subjugate Egypt. Nicephorus is assassmated by ills general, Jolm Zimisces, who seizes the Byzantine crown. 973. Otto the Great dies, and his son. Otto II., succeeds to the tlirone of the German Empire. 978. Otto II. makes victorious invasion of France. 983. He is defeated by the Saracens and Greeks in South Italy. 986. The Norseman Herjulfson sights the coast of North America. 987. Hugh Capet seizes the sovereignty of France, and estabhshes the Capetian dynasty. 988. Vladimir the Great of Russia becomes a convert to Ciiristianity. 997. The doge of Venice is proclaimed duke of Dal- matia; in tills era Venice becomes the dominant power of the Mediterranean. 998. Otto III., Emperor of Germany, grandson of Otto the Great, conquers and slays Crescentius, who has seized the rule in Rome. 1000. Pope Sylvester 11. crowns St. Stephen king of Himgary. Marks acceptance of Cluis- tianity imder the Roman Cliurch by Himgary. Leif Erieson discovers Nortli America. 1001. Mahmud of Ghazni invades India. THE EMPIRE AND THE POPE. 1013. Danes imder Swe.\-u subjugate England. 1016. Edmund Ironside, son of Ethelred II., and Canute, son of Swein, who has succeeded to the rule in Denmark, war for the English tlirone. 1017. Canute victorious assumes the crown. lOlS, Basil 11. adds Bulgaria to Byzantme Empire. 1019. Yaroslav gains the tlirone of Russia. 1034. Conrad II., first of the Franconian djTiasty, ascends the German tlirone. 1037. Conrad yields Schleswig to the Danes. 1038. The Danes under Canute invade Norway. 1031. Ommiad caliphate of Cordoba extuiguished. 1033. Saneho the Great, of Navarre, constitutes Castile a kingdom. 1034. Conrad II. of Germany adds the domaui of Aries to liis empire. 1037. Togrul Beg estabhshes the rule of the Sel- jLiks in Persia. 1039. Conrad II. is succeeded by Henry III. in Germany. Macbeth, thane of Cawdor, after slaying Dun- can, becomes king of the Scots. 1041. The Normans overtlirow the Byzantine dominion in Apulia. 1043. Hardecanute dies, and with his death tlie Danish ascendancy in England ceases; Ed- ward the Confessor ascends tiie tlirone. 1046. Clement II. is decreed pope by Henry III. of Germany hi a comicil iield at Sutri to consider the cases of the rival claimants. 1050. The Scljukian Turkomans become masters of Persia. 1054. Schism between the Latin and Greek Catholics becomes complete. Russia, on tlie death of Yaroslav, is dismembered; pruicipali- ties are created out of the imperial domhiions. 1055. Togrul Beg establislies the suzerainty of the Seljuks over the caliphate of Bagdad. Arabian empire succeeded by Seljukian. 1056. Henry III. of Germany dies: succeeded by Henry IV., with liis mother. Queen Agnes, regent. 1057. Sept. 2. Isaac Conmonus is crowned em- peror at Byzantium, but remains on the throne only a year, and the dynasty of the Comneni does not begui imtil 1081. 1059. The establishment of a college of cardi- nals for the election of the popes is proclaimed by Pope Nicholas II. 1061. Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia and Cala- bria, leads Normans against Saracens in Sicily. 1062. Henry IV. of Germany, while yet a cliild, is seized by Harmo, archbishop of Cologne, who usurps the imperial functions. 1066. Edward the Confessor is succeeded by Harold II. in England, who defeats Harold Hardraade, king of Norway, and Tostig his brother, at Stam- ford Bridge; thereupon William, duke of Nor- mandy, called the Conqueror, leads a second 1066 A. D. — 1213 A. D. MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 13 10G6 (conliiiued). invasion, in whicli he triumplis over UaroM at tfie battle of Hastings (Seiilae), October 14, and establishes liimself as king of England; this is called the Norman Conquest. 1071. Komanus Diogenes, the Byzantine emperor, is couquerud, and made captive by the Seljuks under Alp-Arslan. Constantinople still safe. 1073. Palermo is wrested from tiie Saracens hy Roger Guiscard. duke of ApuHa and Calabria, who thus secures entire control of .Sicily. 1074. Pope Gregory VII. iHildebrand) summons a council in wliich simony is forbidden and the celibacy of the clergy Is decreed. 1075. The pope declares against the lay investiture of the clergy and engages in a controversy con- cerning it with Henry IV'. of Germany. 1076. The pope Is deposed at a council held in Worms by Henrys summons; the Emperor in turn Is deposed and excommimicated by the pope, who secures the cooperation of the German princes. 1077. Henry obhged to visit the poi>e and to hiun- ble liimself for three days in the courtyard at Canossa before he is admitted to an audience. The pope extends absolution to the penitent Em- peror; but a rival emperor, Rudolph of Swabia, is elected to the imperial dignity m Germany. 1080. Pope Gregory is again deposed at a council lield by Henry, and Guibert. Icnown as Antipope Clement III., is elected to the pontifical throne; in the same year Rudolph of Swabia dies. 1081. Henry makes an misuccessful advance on Rome, and Hermann of Luxemburg is elected to succeed Rudolph of Swabia. Constantinople captured by Alexius (I.) Coni- nenus, who proclaims himself emperor of the Byzantine dominion, beginning the Comneniau dynasty. 1084. The Seljuks overrun Syria and Asia Minor. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) is besieged in the castle of Sant" Angelo by Henry IV., but is deUv- ered by Robert Guiscard. 1086. William the Conqueror completes the survey of the English realm, the results of wliich are re- corded in Domesday Book. 1087. OuiWilliam's death one son, William Rufas. succeeds to the English tiirone, while the other, Robert, rules in Normandy. [Alalek Shah. I 1093. Seljuklan Empire is disrupted by death ofl FIRST EPOCH OF CRUSADES. 1095. Councils are held at Placenza and Cler- mont by Pope Urban II. He proclaims a cru- sade of Christians for tlie recovery of the Holy Sepuleher from the infidel Turks, who possess Jerusalem and levy a tax on all Ciiristian pilgrims visiting the city. 1096. Vast masses of men, incited by the exhorta- tions of Peter the Hermit and Waiter the Pen- niless* form an imdisciplined army of crusaders and march in four bands tlirough central Europe, Himgary, and the Danubian countries toward Constantinople; the Himgarians and Bulgarians, angered at the ravages of the crusaders, attack them, and only two of the four divisions reach Turkey where they are destroyed by the Turks. The proper army of crusaders, the chivalry of medieval Europe, set out for the East under God- frey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois, Stephen of Blois, Robert of Flanders. Bohemond of Taren- tum, Raymond of Toulouse, and others. 1097. Nica?a is captured by the crusaders in July, and they win a battle with the sultan of Iconium at Dorylseum; the principality of Edessa is created by Baldwin of Flanders. 1098. Antioch is stormed and yields to tlie cru- saders, who. in their turn, are besieged, but rout their foes and open the way to Jerusalem. 1099. Bohemond is proclaimed prince of Antioch. July 15, Jerusalem is stormed and conquered; Godfrey of Bouillon assumes the sovereignty of the city; the Islamites are defeated at Ascalon by Godfrey and Tancred. 1106. Henry I., the successor of William Rufus in England, defeats his brother Robert at Tmchebrai and restores Normandy to the English cromi. 1111. Pope Paschal II. is placed under arrest by Henry V. of Germany, who thus secures the pontiff's consent to imperial investiture; the pope emphasizes his defeat by crowning the king, only to cancel all his concessions in the year following and to cause the excommunication of Henry. 1131. Abelard, notable among the founders of scholastic theology, is cited Ijefore the Synod of Soissons and his books are burned. 1122. Pope Calixtus II. having succeeded Paschal II., the difficulties l>etween Henry IV. and Henry V. of Germany, on the one side, and the papal see on the other, are settled by the Concordat of Worms. The German Emperor concedes the privilege of a free election of bishops; the first Lateran council follows in the next year. 1125. The death of Henry V. of Germany puts an end to the Franconlan dynasty; Lothaire II., duke of Saxony, is elected to succeed to the crown. 1127. The count of Sicily, Roger II., consolidates the Norman territories In Italy; he is pro- claimed duke of Apulia and Calabria. ll'iS. Coprad. duke of Franconia, is declared king of the Lombards in opposition to Lothahe of Sax- ony, with whom he has engaged in war; the strug- gle does not terminate until seven years later, when Lothaire subjugates his enemies. 1133. Lothaire makes a successsful campaign in Italy, to sustain Pope Innocent II. against the at- tacks of the antipope Anacletus II. 1138. Conrad III , first of the Hohenstaufen line, becomes Emperor; engages in a struggle with Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony. Henry defeats All^ert the Bear, on whom Conrad has bestowed Saxony, -but dies the followuig year. 1139. Guelph VI. is defeat^ by Conrad m an effort to obtain Bavaria; the Emperor, however, ultimately gives Saxony to Henry the Lion, son and heir of Henry the Proud. The right of Stephen, grandson of the Con- queror, to the crown of England is disputed by Matilda, wife of GeofTrey Plantagenet of Anjou and daughter of Henry I. Gratian's Decretum. the first part of the Corpus Juris CaiLonici, Is written. 1140. Abelard before the Council of Sens is ac- cused of heresy, but is reconciled to Saint Ber- nard, who has prosecuted Iiim. 1143. Manuel Comnenus reigns in Byzantium; he begins a series of wars against the Normans. Magyars, and Seljulis. iasthig nearly twenty years. 1146. A new crusade is preached by St. Bernard, the cause of the movement being the capture of Edessa by the Fatimites and the massacre of the Christians there. 1147. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France support the crusade; their armies march to Constantinople, where they are hmdered by the secret hostility of Manuel Conmenus. 1149. Christians, after at tt-mpting to storm Damas- cus, are forced to retreat; they return to Europe. 1152. On the death of Conrad III.. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) becomes Emperor of Germany. 1153. A treaty is concluded at Wallmgford be- tween Stephen and Henry Plantagenet. Matilda's son, by wliich Henry is recognized as heir to the English crown. 1154. Stephen of England dies and is succeeded by Henry of AnJou (Henry II.). the first of the An- gevin or Plantagenet dynasty; Henry holds large parts of France besides Enghsh realm. 1155. Frederick I., making an expedition into Italy, restores the authority of Pope Adrian IV., wliich has been overturned in a repubUcan revolution led by Arnold of Brescia eleven years previously; Arnold is put to death. 1157. Frederick Barbarossa moves on Poland and forces that power to yield to his suzeramty. 1158. He malies a successful siege of Milan, which has refused to acknowledge his authority. 1159. Alexander III, accedes to the papacy, whereupon Frederick in opposition sets up Victor IV. as anti-pope. 1160. Frederick conquers Crema after a hard siege; he is then formally excommunicated by i Alexander. 1162. Frederick replies to the exconinumication of ' the pope by razing Milan; a league of the Lom- bard cities is formed against him and fourteen i years after (1176), at Legnano, the forces of the j league defeat Frederick. 1170. Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canter- bury, is murdered in Canterbury Cathedral and as a resiUt Henry II. has to relinquish many of his claims against the church made in the Constitu- tions of Clarendon, in 1164. 1171. The Fatimite dynasty of caliphs ceases in Egypt with the vict^^ies of Saladln, who estab- lishes the line of the Ajaibites. 1174. William the Lion, king of Scotland, is taken prisoner by the English; he acloiowledges the suzerainty of Henry II. 1177. The difficulties between Emperor Frederick of Germany and the league of the Lombard cities (Lombard League) are peaceably adjusted at Venice by the intervention o^ the pope. 1180. Henry tlie Lion, representative of the Saxon line, is deprived of his dominions by Frederick of Germany, who grants Bavaria to the House of \Vitt«lsbach; the remamder of Saxony is divided, the duchy of Westphalia falling to Cologne, and the eastern territory to Bernard of Ascania. 1183. The Peace of Constance is declared by Em- peror Frederick and the Lombard League; by the terms of settlement independence is conceded to the cities of the league. 1185. Dynasty of the Comneni in Constanti- nople ceases, but a yoiftiger line of the original house later (1204) secures a fragmentof the empire in AsiaMinor, and founds theempireof Trobizond. 1187. The Christian kingdom established In Je- rusalem in 1099by the crusaders imderGodfrey of Bouillon is overcome by Saladin, who dethrones King Guy of Lusignan; William, archbishop of TjTe, thereupon preaches the Third Crusade. SECOND EPOCH OF CRUSADES. 1189. Richard I. .succeeds his father, Henry II., as king of England. Frederick Barbarossa begins a crusade; forces from all parts of Europe hasten lo join (iuy of Lusignan in the siege of Acre. 1190. Frederick meets the uifidels at Iconium and defeats them, but is afterward drowned in Cilicia; Ilenrj- VI. succeeds to the crown of Germany. liichard, king of England, joins the crusaders together with Philip Augustus, king of France. 1191. Acre yields to the besiegers; dissensions arise among the Ciiristian princes, and Philip re- tires to his kingdom. 1193. Richard arranges a peace with Saladin and then starts on liis return to Europe, but is im- prisoned by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- mand of Henry VI. of Germany. 1193. John Lackland, the brother of Richard, plots to seize the English tlirone. 1191. Richard regains his liberty, returns to England, resumes lijs authority, and puts down the civil war caused by the intrigues of Jolm and Philip of France; he then engage.s in a successful war with Phihp, but dies in l)ic fifth year of the campaign. His brother Jolm succeeds him. 1199. The rule of the Hohenstaufen sovereigns is ex- tended over the Two Sicilies. 1195. The Moors defeat Alfonso, king of Castile, at Alarcos. 1197. Henry VI. dies and leaves the German crown to liis son Frederick II. 1198. Otto of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion, is proposed as Emperor by the Guelphs, and Pliilip of Swabia. brother of Henrj-. is chosen by the Ghib- ellines; the War of the Guelphs and the Ghlb- ellines ensues, in wliich Philip is victorious. 1201. A new crusade ha^Tng been proclaimed (I19S) by Pope Innocent HI., Baklwui of Flan- ders. Boniface of ^Slontferrat, and Simon de Mont- fort, with their forces and those of other princes, imdertake an expedition; they engage the Vene- tians to transport them to the Holy Land, and in return they agree lo conquer Zai'a. 1*203. The crusaders attack the Eastern Empire and capture Constantinople: the emperor, Isaac Ajigelus. is restored to the throne from which he had been deposed. 1304. Saint Dominic (Domingo de Guzman) re- moves from Osma, liis native diocese in Spain, to Languedoc and foimds the order of the Domini- cans, wliich is confli-med by the pope, 1216. A revolution in Constantinople follows the restoration of the Emperor, whereupon the cru- saders again take the city and plunder it; the By- zantine Empire is di\'ided. and with this division the Latin Empire in the East supplants the Greek Empire, Baldwin of Flanders ascending the throne. Much of the imperial teri-itory is gained by the Venetians and by the Italian and French nobles. The Greek empire of Trebizond is founded by Alexius (V.) Comnenus, who thus estabhshes a secondary Conmenian djTiasty (see 1185.) which continues imtil the fall of Trebizond before Mohammed II, (1461); m 1205 the empire of Xicsea is estabhshed by Theodore Lascaris. 1205. King John of England loses Normandy, .Maine, Poitou, Touraine, and Anjou, to Philip Augustus of France. Baldwin, Latin emperor of Constantinople, is de- feated in battle and taken prisoner by Joannice, czar of the Bulgarians, 1206. The empire of the Mongols is established by Genghis Khan, who invades Clihia and sub- dues the Chowaresmians. whose territory reaches from India to the Ciispian Sea, 1208. A crusade against the Albigenses imder the protection of Raymond of Toulouse, having been decreed by Pope Iimocent III., amassacre of them takes place at B^ziers (1209). King John of England refuses to receive St^ephen Langton, elected archbishop of Canterbury by command of Pope Innocent III.; aU England is laid under an interdict by the supreme pontiff. 1210. Saint Francis of Assist, famous Italian monk and preacher, founds the order of Francis- cans, which is confirmed by the pope thirteen years afterwards. Pliilip of Swabia is murdered; Otto IV, of Bnms- wick succeeds him as Emixror of the Germans. 1211. Otto IV. makes an effort to win tlie Two Sicilies from Frederick IL of Hohenstaufen, but fails ;,^Frederick begins a struggle for the Ger- man crown, aided by Pope Innocent HI. 1212. The Almohade ascendancy of tlie Mc>ors in Spain is broken by the imited efforts of the kings of Castile, Navarre, and Aragom Thousands of French and German boys start for the Holy Land in the Children's Crusade; many perish on the way: many are sold into sla-iery. 1213. England is threatened by tlie French; King John yields to the pope, receives Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, delivers his kuigdom to the pope; receives it back as a fief of the papacy. 14 U w X 1214 Otto n' of Germany and John of England are defeated by Philip Augustus of iYanco at the battle of Bouvines. ^ , u „ ko- 1215 Kins John of England is forced by his bar- ons to grant Magna Charta (the Great Chax- tor) The pope declares the charter null and void, and' Langton is suspended from his archbish- ooric The French taction among the barons sets up Prince Louis, son of Philip of France, as king of England; in 1216 the prince conies to England, but the death of John and the accession of his son, Henry III . put an end to the pretensions of Louis. Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen gains the German crown Genghis, the Great Khan of the Tatar hordes, captures Peking; the city is pillaged and burned. The armies of Genghis in twelve years overrun the greater part of Asia. , „ , j 1216. Henry III. accedes to the throne of England, 'and Uonorius III. becomes pope. 1217. The Fifth Crusade is imdertaken by An- drew II. of Huugarj' with other princes. I'lS He abandons the expedition; it is then led by 'william I . Count of Holland, and John of Brienne. l'>19 Damietta is conquered by the crusaders. St. Francis becomes a hermit at Monte Alvemo, and announces the miracle of the stigmata. V'oi The crusaders are defeated in Egypt and "forced to accept disadvantageous terms of peace. looo Andrew II. is compelled to sign the Golden 'buII, the constitutional charter of Hungary and the foundation of the privileges of the nobility. 1224 The Mongols who have subdued Bokiiara, Turkestan, and Samarkand, attack and defeat the Kussians on the Kalka River. 1226. East Prussia conquered by the Teutonic Ivnights. . , ^. Louis VIII of France dies after a reign of three years. Louis IX. becomes king; his mother, Blanche of Castile, being regent. The Lombard cities reestablish their league to op- pose the domination of Frederick II. of Germany, 1227. Genghis Khan, on the eve of tmdertaking "the conquest of Europe, dies; his empire is di- vided among his four sons. , ■ cj i 1228. Frederick leads a crusade agamst the mfldels, and att«r a year arranges a peace with the sultan of Egypt by wliich the Christians receive Jerusa- lem; Gregory IX , who has succeeded Honorius III. as pope (1227), makes an nffort to secure the territories of Frederick. _ 1229. Gregory IX. establishes the Inquisition as a tribunal. . . . 1230. Formal organization of the Holy Inquisition. 1236. Frederick II. of Germany makes war on cities of the Lombard League. 1237. He defeats them at Cortenuova; tliree years later he advances against Gregory; in 1241 the death of the pope ends the war. 123S. Batu Khan leads his Mongolian hordes into Russia and subjugates the Slavic princes. 1239. The French and the English undertake a new crusade imder the leadership of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, and Thibaud, King of Navarre. It ends in failure. 1241. Mongols advance on central Europe, conquermg the Poles, Silesians, and Hungarians. 1242. They overrun Asia Mmor; destroy the SeljiUis. 124S. At the Coimcil of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. annomiccs deposition of Frederick II. of Germany. 1248. A new crusade, led by Louis IX. (Saint Louis.) of France, is caused by the capture of Jerusalem by the Tui-ks. 1249. Damietta is taken by the French crusaders. 1250-1669. The Hanseatic League of maritime and other commercial cities flourishes, with capi- tal at Liibeck. Long in control of the Baltic 1250. The Egyptians defeat the crusaders; St. Louis is matle a prisoner, but is ransomed. The Mamelukes become the rulers of Egypt. Conrad IV. succeeds Frederick II, in Germany; he is opposed by Wilham II,. Count of Holland, 1254. Conrad' dies, and with him the Hohenstau- fen line of emperors ends. Knights of the sliire fli-st attend an English parUament, the beginning of an elective part of the National Assembly. 1257. William of Holland having been slain (1256) in battle, Alfonso of Castile and Richard of Corn- wall, younger son of King John of England, are chosen to the throne of Germany ; the latter, though crowned at ALx-la-Chai)elle, fails of recognition. 1258. Manfred proclaims himself king of Sicily. A war breaks out between Venice and Genoa. Hulaku Khan, the Mongol, destroys the caliphate of Bagdad. 1260. Bela IV. of Hungary loses Styria to Ottocar II. of Bohemia. 1261. The Latin Empire m the East is usurped by Michael Palajologus. emperor of Niraea. who founds a dynasty in Byzantium. 1264. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, heads a rebellion of the English barons, who make Henry III. a prisoner. 1265. Simon de Montfort summons representa- tives from EngUsh boroughs to a parliament for WORLD HISTORY. the first time. He is slain at battle of Evesham. Kuger Bacon, the famous English philosopher and monk of the order of St. Francis, begins the composition of liis Opus Majus. Dante Alighieri is bom at Florence. 1268. Bibars, sultan of Egypt and Syria, subdues the Christian prmcipality of Antioch and makes it a part of his realm. 1270. Louis IX. leads a new crusade agamst the Mamelukes; m the course of the expedition he dies, near Tunis, August 25; Pliilip III, succeeds to the tlirone of France. 1272. Prince Edward of England, who has accom- panied St. Louis, withdraws from the crusade and it is abandoned; the attempt to recover the Holy Land is not again renewed. Edward I. succeeds to the English crown. IRROPTION OF ASIATICS. 1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg is chosen Emperor of Germany; this is the tx-gimimg of the ascendancy of the House of Hapsburg. 1274. Murch 7. St. Thomas Aquinas, the fa- mous Italian scholastic theologian and pliiloso- pher, dies near Terracma, Italy. His cliief work, Summa Theologim, greatly influences the opinions of succeeding philosophers. 1275. Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen dynasty in China, 1276. Rudolph of Germany wins Austria and other territories from Ottocar of Bohemia and sets his sons, All)ert and Rudolph, to rule them (1278). 1278. ' Ottocar, trymg to regain his dominions, per- ishes in the attempt. The writings of Roger Bacon are condemned as contumacious and he himself is imprisoned for ten years. He spends the rest of his life m scien- tific experimentation and pliilo.sophical mquiries, 1279. Seat of government in China is trans- ferred by the Mongols under Kublai lilian to Peking. 1280. Kublai IQian makes the Mongolian power supreme in China. 1282. A successful revolution against the rule of Charles of Anjou m Sicily begms with a massacre of the French in Palermo, known as the Sicilian Vespers; Pedro III. of Aragon is made king. 1283. Edward I, of England subdues Wales. Prussia, after a war of ftfty years, is conquered by the Teutons. 1288. Osman or Othman (the Conqueror), a Tiu'k- ish adventurer, begms a war of thhty-eight years' duration wtiich establishes the Turkish Empire m Asia Mmor under the Ottoman djiiasty. 1290. On the death of Margaret, tiuecn of Scot- land, Robert Bruce and John Baliol begin a civil war for the possession of the tlirone, which, two years later, Edward of England adjudges to Baliol- Baliol is renounced by Edward (1296), Iwcause of Ills aUiance with France in a war against England. . 1291. Malek el-Ashref, sultan of Egyi)t and SjTia, conquei-s Acre, thus termmating the kingdom of .Jerusalem; end of the Christian power in the Holy Land. First league of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden to resist control by their lords. Adolphus'of Nassau is chosen Emperor of Germany. 1295. Edward I, of England summons the '■ Model ParUament." mcludmg knights and burgesses, 1296. John Baliol of Scotland refuses to acknowl- edge Edward I, of England as his feudal lord; an Anglo-Scotch war of 33 years' duration begins. 1297. William Wallace leads the Scots to a vic- tory over the Englisli at Stirling; he is defeated in-the followmg year at Falkirk. 1298. Albert of Austria, son of Rudolph of Haps- burg, maltes war on Adolphus of Nassau, Emperor of Germany; Adolphus is defeated and slam, and Albert ascends the throne. 1300. The pope proclaims a jubilee of the Church, with indulgences to all who make pil- grimages to Rome. Dante becomes one of the priors of Florence and is embroiled in poUtical contentions. 1301. With the end of the AriiAd dynasty, the crown of Hungary becomes elective. Duns Scotus becomes professor of theology at Oxford. . 1302. Philip IV. (the Fan-) of France summons the first assembly of the States-General, wliich mcludes the third estate, or representatives of the burghers. Flanders rebels agamst the French rule (estab- Ushed in 1279) and defeats Philip at Coiu-trai. 1303. The long-continued disputes between France and the papacy, growmg out of the king's tax on ecclesiastical property and out of the pope's declaration of his superiority to all temporal sovereigns, culminate in Philip's arrest of Boni- face VIII.; pope is rescued from prison, but dies. 1304. Scotland Is conquered by Edward I. of England. Birth of Petrarch, Italian poet (Sonnets, Odes) Dies 1374. ^ ^^ 1305. William Wallace of Scotland put to death. 1214 a. D.-1355 a. D, 1306. Robert Bruce, the grandson of Baliol j ri\al, leads a reteUion against the English donima- tion and is proclaimed king. 1307. Edward II , son of Edward I., succeeds his father as king of England. 1308. Albert of Hapsburg, Emperor of Germany, is assassmated, and Henry VII of Luxemburg is elected his successor. 1309. Pope Clement V., a Frenchman, removes the papal court from Rome to Avignon, then follows (1309-77) the so-called "Babylonian Captivity " of sixty-eight yeai-s, ended by the return of Pope Gregory XL to Rome. 1312. The Knights Templars are condemned by the Council of Vienne; De Molay, the grand master, and others of the order are burned in France two years afterwards. Henr\' VII. of Germany, having led an expedition mto Italy, fails in the siege of Florence and dies in the following year. 1313. Birth of Boccaccio. Italian novelist and poet (Decameroti 1353). Dies 1375, 1314. June S4. Robert Bruce and the Scots win a victory over the Enghsh at Bannockburn. An eight years' war for the possession of the Ger- man tliroiie begins between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria; Louis is at last the victor. 1315. Formal Swiss League of Confederation. November 15, battle of Morgarten, in wliich Swiss infantry defeat mailed horeemen. 1318. Dante completes the Divina Com media after eighteen years of composition. He goes to Ravenna m 1320 and dies in the followmg year. 1324. Louis of Bavaria is excommunicated by Pope John XXII,, whereupon the German king invades Italy and decrees the deposition of the pope; he is ultimately compelled to retreat (1328). 1326. The pohcy of Edward II, in supporting for- eign favorites leads to a domestic reljellion; the queen, with Roger Mortimer, takes Edward pris- oner; in the following year Edward is deposed by Parliament, and soon afterwards is assassinated; on his deposition Edward III, becomes king. 1328. Scotland is recognized as independent by the English king, and the war between the two nations ends. The direct Capctian dynasty ceases in France with the death of Charles IV., and Philip VI. of Valois institutes a new dynasty. 1330. Turks under Orklian conquer Nica?a. thus fli-mly estabhshhig the Ottomans in Asia Minor, 1332. Edward Baliol attempts to dethrone David Brace of Scotland, 1333. Edward III, of England mvades Scotland and defeats the forces of the regent, Archibald Douglas, m the battle of Halidon Hill. 1334. Giotto begms his work on the cathedral of Florence. 1337. Flanders, imder leadersliip of Jacob van Arte- veld, refuses to submit to rule of Count Louis of Flanders. .,,.,, Edward III. of England, with the aid of the Low Countries and Germany, undertakes a war against France for the purpose of imiting the two realms under the Plantagenet crovm: thus Ix-gms an Anglo-French strife, the Hundred Years' War, destined to continue intermittently mitil 1453. 1339. Edward fails m an hivasion of Flanders, but is successful elsewhere; proclaimed king of France, RENAISSANCE EPOCH. 1340 ' Chaucer, the " Father of English Poetry," is born in London, He dies Octolier 25, 1400, 1342. Edward III, supports Jolm of Montfort in opposition to France, which aids Jeanne de Pen- tliievTe; the Enghsh king mvades Brittany. 1346. Pope Clement VI. secures the election of Charles of Luxemburg as Emperor of Germany to displace Louis of Bavaria; the latter dies, and Charles is eventually accepted as Emiieror (13491. Edward III. defeats Plillip VI, of France m the great national battle at Crecy, August 26. David Bruce invades England; he is overcome and taken captive, 1347. Calais is captiu-ed by the English, Cola di Rienzi, called " the last of the Roman tribunes," leads a revolution in Rome. 1348. The black death spreads to Europe from the Orient, reappearing several times m the next few years and killing thousands of the people, (.see BLACK DEATH, in the Dicdonor!/.) „. ,,,^,^ 1353. Completion of the League of the Eight Old Places m Switzerland, cities joming with the moun- tain cantons. 1354 The Genoese meet the allied V enetians, By- zantines, and Catalans m a naval battle off Con- stantmople; the war contmues for 27 years. Rienzi, the tribune, rules in Rome for a season, but is overthrown and assassinated. October 8, 1355. Marino Falieri. doge of Venice, heads an imsuccessful conspiracy against the CouncU of Ten- he is seized, condemned, and beheaded Capture of Gallipoli l5y the Turks, giving them control of the Dardanelles. They take Adnan- ople (1361) and Thessalonica (1430). By 147S they have conquered the greater part of the Bal- 1355 A. D 1492 A. D. MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 15 1355 (contittued). kans and subdued the Christian peoples. This Asiatic occupation in Europe is not eflfectiveiy opposed by the int4. Charles V. ascends the tlirone of France and tiic war with England is renewed. 13I>5-1S00. Foimdation of German universitie.s, especially Vienna (1365), Erfurt (1378). Heidel- berg (1380), Leipzig (1409), Wittenberg (1502). 1368. The Ming djniasty is established in China; distinguished for its arts and culture. 1369. Timm- Lenk (Tamerlane), the Asiatic con- queror, descendant of Genghis Khan, revives the Mongolian Empire; he makes a successful cam- paign against Ivhorassau. and captures Balkli after a siege of three years. 1371. David Bruce dies: Robert II., succeeding to tlirone of .Scotland, foimds Stuart dynasty. Casiaiir tlic Great of Poland dies; witli him ends the Piast dj-nasty; Louis the Great of Hmigarj- acquires the Pohsh sovereignty. 1377. Gregory XI. leaves Avignon and ends the " Babylonian Captivity " by restoring the papal court to Rome. 1378. Urban VI. succeeds Gregory XI. in the pa- pacy, and Clement VII. is elected antipope: with the election of Clement the great schism in west- ern Christendom Ijegins, which does not end for nearly 40 years (1417). 1379. The Genoese fight the Venetians for suprem- acy of the sea. 1380. The Genoese are defeated by the Venetians at Ciiioggia and never recover their equality. 1381. The English peasants revolt mider the leadership of Wat Tyler and Jolm Ball; they seize London, but are soon overcome, and Tyler is put to death. (See Peasants' Revolt, in the Did.) 1382. The rule of Count Louis II. is rejected by the citizens of Ghent, and Pliilip van Arteveld. theh- leader, is made governor; the French interfere to restore Louis, and Philip is slain. John Wycliffe translates Bible mto English. 1384. Phihp the Bold, of Burgundy, gets Flanders, 1386. Chaucer becomes knight of the shire for Kent. In the foiu-teen years following he com- poses the Canterbury Tales. Jagellon is made king of Poland, as Ladisias II.; he thus establishes the Jagellonlan dynasty. The Duke of Gloucester takes the place of regent for Richard II. of England. 1397. The Union of Kalmar is effected, by which Norway, Sweden, and IDenniark are united imder one crown, Queen Margaret, the " Seniira- niis of the North," being the first sovereign. 1399. Richard II. of England is depo.sed and the line of Lancaster is established by Henry IV. 1400. Emperor Wenceslaus of Germany is deposed and Rupert of the Palatinate succeeds him. Completion of Froissart's Chronicles of France, England, Scotland, and Spain. 1401. The English Parliament decrees the burning of heretics. Statute is aimed agamst Lollards, a religious sect following the tenets of Wycliffe. 1403. Heno' IV. of England overcomes the con- spiracy of the Percys at battle of Shrewsbury. 1409. Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. are de- posed from the papacy at the Council of Pisa, and Alexander V. becomes pope; three popes instead of two contend for the tiara. 1413. Rome is captured by Ladislas of Naples. 1414-1418. The Council of Constance. 1415. Henry V. of England defeats the french at Agincourt, October 25. The t'niverslty of Salamanca, chief seat of classical learning in .Spain, is founded. Pope Jolm XXIII. is deposed by the Council of Const^mce. John Huss, at one time rector of the University of Prague, an advocate of the doctrines of Wyc- liffe, is condemned for heresy by tlie Council of Constance in defiance of a safe-conduct from the Emperor and burned at the stake; ui the foOow- ing year Jerome of Prague, another prominent reformer, suffers tlie like martjTdom. 1417. Pope Martm V. accepted by the whole churcii. 1419. The Hussites gain in numbers and make an attack on the town hall in Prague. A year later a crusade is made against them, but imder the lead- ership of Jdn Zlska they are victorious. After- wards they ravage Sa.\on.v, Franconia, and Ba- varia; their uprising ends with the Treaty of Iglau, by whicli Sigismund is accepted as king of Bohe- mia (14:56). The Portuguese, under the patronage of Henry the Navigator, sail to the Madeira Islands. 1430. By the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V. of Eng- land succeeds to the French crown: he enters Paris. Two years later both he and Cliarles VI. of Prance die. Henry VI. is proclaimed king of France. The French support Cliarles VII . tlie son of Charles VI., and the war between the two nations is resumed. 143S. James I. is .set at Uberty by the Enghsh: he gains the throne of Scotland. 14?8. The city of Orleans is besieged by the Eng- lish ; a year later Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, inspires the French to raise the siege. 1431. Joan of Arc is burned at the stake by the English in the market place of Rouen, in May; in Decemlier Henry VI. is crowned in Paris. 1437. James I. of Scotland is assassinated ; James II. succeeds hira. With the death of Sigismund, the LiLxemburg dynasty m Germany and Bohemia comes to an end and .\Iliert II. of Hapsburg succeeds to the crown. 1438-1450. Invention of printing by Gutenberg and others. Tlie Mazarin Bible printed 1450-55. (See under Bible, in the Dictionary.) 1439. The union of the Lathi and Greek Churches is decreed by the Council of Florence, but the scliism remains practically unaltered. 1442. Alfonso V. of Aragon gains possession of Naples. 1444. The importation of slaves from Africa is begun by the Portuguese. 1450. Normandy is regained by the French, and Guienne is taken from the Englisli m the following year; the English are again defeated at Castilloii (1453), where the Hundred Years' War ends; only Calais remains to England of all her Conti- nental conquests. 1452. Great exodus of Greek scholars from Con- stantinople; they make their way into the more enlightened parts of western Europe and greatly promote the revival of arts and leamuig. Birth of Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, archi- tect, and sculptor. Dies 1519. 1453. Constantinople falls before Mohammed II. (the Conqueror). May 29; the Emperor Con- stantine XIII., the last representative of the East- ern Empire, is killed. Thee.xtmction of the East- ern Empire marks the final subsidence of the forces of the ancient civilization. EVENTS LEADING TO FOUNDATION OF MODERN EUROPE. 1455. The Wars of the Roses, in which the crown of England is fought for by the houses of York huhite ro.ie) and Lancaster (red ro.sc) break out; the Duke of York takes up arms agamst Henry VI. and Ills supporters, 1456. Turks capture Athens and in four years' campaign gain possession of nearly all Greece. Pope Pius II. (iEneas Sylvius), a Renaissance pope. 1461. The Yorkists, defeated by the Lancas- trians at St. Albans, February 17, are afterward successful, and Edward IV, is proclaimed king. 1405. Henry VI. is captured and Imprisoned In the Tower of London; a Yorkist ascendancy of five years follows. 1470. Henry VI, restored by Earl of Warwick. Completion of Sir Thomas Malory'sMorted'Artftur. 1471. Edward IV. mvades Englatid; the Lancas- trians are overcome at Barnet, April 14, where Warwick is killed, and agam at Tewkesbury, May 4, where Margaret's force is destroyed; in May Henry VI. is murdered in the Tower. 1473. Louis XI. of France begins a war against his feudatory princes; m a contest of nearly five years, he is successful in breaking then' power. 1474. Isabella ascends the tlu-one of Castile and Leon. By her marriage with Ferdinand of Ara- gon (in 1469) the way is prepared for the union of all Spain mider their grandson Charles V. Birth of Ariosto, Italian poet (.Orlando Furioso 1510). Dies 1533. 1475. Edward IV. of England undertakes a brief war against France. The Turks g.ain an ascendancy in the Black Sea, and subdue the Crimea. Birth of Michelangelo. Italian painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. Dies 15(54. 1476. Charles the Bold defeated by the Swiss at the battle of Grauson, March 2. 1477. Rene of Lorraine conquers and slays Charles the Bold at Nancy, January 5; LouisXL of France makes a conquest of Burgundy; Mary, the daugh- ter of Charles, retains possession of the Nether- lands and Franche-Comte, and is married to Ma.\- imilian of Austria. Three years later, on the death of Rene. Louis seizes Aujou, and m the following year Provence is added to the French realm. William Caxton, first English printer, sets up his press near Westmmster Abbey, and prints the first book in England. 1483. The war between Maximilian of Austria and Louis of France relative to tlie French seizmcs of territory terminates with the Treaty of Arras. 1483. Edward IV, of England, having put to death Ills brother (the Duke of Clarence), dies; and ' Richard III., last of the Plantagenet kings, succeeds to the throne. Birth of Raphael. Italian painter. Dies 1520. 1485. Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, vanquishes and slays Richard at Bosworth Field, August 22; tliis ends the Wars of the Roses, and the Duke of Richmond takes the tlirone as Henry VII., thus establishing the Tudor dynasty. 1486. By his marriage with the princess Ehzabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., Henry VII. effects a union of the Houses of York and Lancaster. 1487. Bartholomeu Dias, in a voyage along the coast of Africa southward, discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 1488. Anne of France (dame de Beaujeu). regent for her brother, Charles VIII. of France, defeats the forces of Louis, duke of Orleans, who has tried to seize the French crown ; the duke is made a prisoner, James III. of Scotland is slain in a struggle with his nobles, and liis son ascends the throne as James IV. 1489. Treaty of Medma del Campo between Heiirj- VII. of England and Ferdinand of Aragon provides for tlie marriage of Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine, Ferdinand's daughter. 1491. Charles VIII. of France, by his marriage with the Duchess Anne of Brittany, gains posses- sion of Brittany; m the next year Henry VII. of England, makes a campaign against the French, but a treaty of peace is concluded at Staples. 1492. Alexander VI. (Borgia) pope. Ferdmand and Isabella of Spam, after a war of t«n years agamst the Moorish kingdom of Granada, enter the capital as victors, in Januarj-; witli this event the dominion of the Moors in Spain terminates. Granada is incorporated with the Cliristian kingdoms. The Jews are expelled from the territories of Spain. N III. EARLY MODERN PERIOD: 1492 TO 1814. Historical Outline. Modern history strictly includes tlie whole recent progress of mankind to the present day. It is con- venient, however, to group together the events and tendencies of the tliree centuries ending with the close of the Napoleonic period, during which the habits of thought and government, the organization of society, and the religious beliefs of the Christian world took on the forms with wiilch men of to-day are familiar. The modem era opens with the Age of Discovery. During the Renaissance man was finding himself; now he foimd the world. No change in the whole course of history is more significant than that which restilted from the expansion of the Roman and the Medieval world, which took no account of anj'thing outside the Mediterranean region and western Eu- rope, into the world which includes Asia and the Americas. The epoch-making voyage of Columbus and the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama meant more than the discovery of new land and the opening up of new spheres of trade. It opened the way for expansion from Europe and the foundation of colonies east and west, which devel- oped into new nations, holding different ideas from those of the mother countries. In this Age of Discovery Spain was preeminent. The strong monarchy established by Ferdinand and Isabella was in a position more favorable than that of any other European state to throw its strength and resources into the foimdation of a colonial empire, and the Spaniards were bold and successfid naviga- tors and traders. Spain took full advantage of her opportimity and laid the foimdation for a colonial empire not inferior in extent and even in duration to that of ancient Rome or of the modern British Em- pire. She impressed her language, her religion, and her culture upon South America, the West Indies, portions of North America, and the Philippines: and down to 1815 her control was still active. Then the empire collapsed and finally disappeared, except for Cuba. Porto Rico, and the Philippines, but the Spanish language and religion remained the basis of South American cultiu'e. In this period came the logical result of the ques- tionings of the Renaissance — the Protestant Ret- orniatlon. Beginning in a series of attempts to remedy abuses of the Roman Catholic Church the movement, tmder Luther, Calvin. Zwingli. Ivnox, Huss, and their followers, caused a schism which has never been liealed. The chief issue was the de- nial of the authority of a imiversal church and a reli- ance on the dictates of the individual conscience. Not only did the Reformation put an end to the imiversality of the Roman Church, but in the reli- gious wars which followed it dislocated the political power and weakened the influence of that other great medieval institution, the Holy Roman Empire. The Age of Discovery opened the world to Euro- pean settlement, while the Reformation led to the foundation of Protestant powers which denied the papal authority. Both Catholic and Protestant na- tions entered the race for colonial expansion. Thus France, tlirough the discovery of the St. Lawrence and the explorations of her voyafjeurs and missiona- ries, opened up and acquired an empire in North America, including the valleys of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. So, too. England, after breaking the naval supremacy of Spain, founded colonics along the Atlantic seaboard wliich were a perpetual ctiallcnge not only to the papal power, but to the sovereignty which Spain claimed over that region. In the Eastern Hemisphere, first the Portuguese and then the Dutch acquired colonial possessions and tapped the lucrative trade of India. The period was favorable to the development of strong national states. England had a system of representative government in the elective House of Commons, but allowed Henry VIII. to exercise an almost absolute monarchy. Henry's daughter Elizabetli, also, was a genuine national sovereign, though arbitrary. The popular element in the gov- ernment, however, joined issue with the Stuart kings, and the civil war against Charles I. laid the fomidations for a real parliamentary government which was superior to the cro\vn and which with the accession of William III. became supreme. In Kussia Ivan the Terrible and, at a later date, Peter the Great, by imchecketi absolutism brought the nation into contact with Europe and made a be- giiming in modem state organization. In Austria and Germany the Holy Roman Empire persisted in a feeble and decUning form, a bar to the develop- ment of vigorous nationalism, a poor defense against the onslaughts of the Turks. During this period the Baltic powers of Denmark and Sweden had brief periods of prosperity and wide European influence, especially tmder Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII. of Sweden. Italy was the prey of the ambition of the greater Eiu'opean powers and the scene of frecjuent wars and invasions. In France, beginning with Francis I., a strong national state was developed which, though torn by the religious wars of the Hu- guenot period, became, imder Louis XIV., the strong- est factor in Eiu-opean life and politics. The 18th centiu-y witnessed the struggle of Europe against the supremacy of Louis XIV. In a series of wars wiiidi encircled the world, France was de- feated in India, America, and EMope, and England emerged as the most powerful state with the widest colonial possessions. Prussia rose as a force to be reckoned with and became the center of Germany. The 18th century closed with what may be called the Era of Revolution. In America the English colonists, questioning the right of England to con- trol their economic development, and demanding wider powers of self-government, declared their independence. With France as their ally, they achieved their aim, and the United States of America was foimded, which was destmed to make the militaiy force and political ideas of the New World a factor in European policy. In France the revolution was of even greater effect: it gave point to the teachings of the philosophers of the previous age. The despotism, which had continued from the days of Louis XIV., based on the feudal system, fell before the attack of democratic ideas. Feudalism was destroyed. France became a republic, and her republican ideas permeated even the most des- potic systems of Eiu-ope, while her revolutionary armies attempted by military force to mold these ideals into states. From the democratic enthusiasm of the French revolutionary- rcpubhc developed the military em- pire of Napoleon. Once again, as in the time of Louis XIV., France dominated Europe and one man dominated France. Spain and Italy were con- quered: Prussia and Austria were humbled: and Na- poleon drew the botmdaries of new states, placed new sovereigns on old and new tlu-ones, and impressed his system on aU Europe. Only England and Rus- sia remained outside his power. In 1812 he invaded Russia, but the very vastness of that empire defeated him, and a disastrous retreat was the begiiming of his downfall. Under the lead of England, the Eu- ropean nations rallied and on the field of Waterloo were finally successful and put an end to the ambi- tion of France to dominate Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 remade the map of Europe and established botmdaries and poli- cies which, with the exception of the imification of Italy and Germany, remained tlu'oughout tiie 19th century. Tlius the year 1815 may well be taken as the ending of early modem history and the begin- ning of nineteenth-centiu'y history. Chronology. For events affecting any one cotmtry only, or es- pecially, see the historj' of that cotmtry in the Natio.n'.\l Histories, begiiming page 39. ERA OF THE RENAISSAMCE AND REFORMATION. 1492. Christopher Columbus, leading an expe- dition imder tile auspices of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, reaches America, October 12, discovering Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba: on his second voy- age, made in 1493, he discovers Porto Rico, and on liis third voyage, in 1498. he reaches Trinidad and the coast of South America. From Hisjjan- iola he is sent bacic to Spain in chains (1501), but is allowed his liberty and makes his fourth and last voyage in 1502. Columbus dies in neglect and penury at Valladolid. May 20, 150G. 1493. Charles VIII. of France makes a treaty of peace with Maximilian, just made Emperor of Ger- many, at Senlis. Maximilian attempts to reform the Empire. Institutes the Aulic Council (1501). 1494. The Medici are driven from Florence, and Savonarola, the Italian reformer, restores the re- pubhcan form of govemment. Tlie Franco-Italian wars, waged between France and Spam, break out; they continue for twenty- five years, having for their cause the claim of Charles VIII. to the tlu'one of Naples. In these , conflicts the Italians range themselves alternately with the Spaniards and with the French. Birth of Hans Sachs, November 5; most famous of the German Meistersingers. Died 1576. 1495. After a year's campaign, Charles conquers Naples, but is forced to withdraw from Italy, owing to a league formed against liim by the pope and Ferdinand (of Naples), who regains the Nea- politan crown. 1497. Mainland of North America discovered by John Cabot. Vasco da Gama sails around the Cape of Good Hope. [arrives in India. I 1498. Vasco da Gama finds an all-water route and I Sebastian Cabot traces a great part of the At- lantic coast of North .Vmerica. [May 23.1 Savonarola executed as a heretic at Florence.] 1499. Vespucci and Ojeda trace the coast of South America. The Swiss practically acknowledged as Inde- pendent after war with Maximilian of Germany. 1500-1600. Period of Renaissance in Fionch literature: Rabelais (Pantagruel 1.533), Marot, Calvm. Amyot. Bodin. Montaigne {Essaye: 1580). 1500. Ludovico Sforza regains Milan from the French, who had seized it a year before. Birth of Benvenuto Cellini, Italian artist in metal and author (Autohioaraphy). Died 1.571. 1501. The French, by Louis XII 's conquest ol Naples and with the aid of Ferdmand of Aragon, reestablish their power in Italy. Cesarc Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI., gains dominion of Faenza, Rimini, and Pesaro, with the title of Duke of Romagna. 150%. War In Italy breaks out again between the French and Spaniards, the French being driven from Naples after a conflict of nearly a year. 1506. On the death of Pliilip I. of Castile, Ferdi- nand assumes the rule as regent for Joan the Mad Madagascar is discovered by Portuguese. Chiu'ch of St. Peter at Rome begun on site of an- cient church, completed in 1590; dedicated 1626.. 1508. IMa.ximilian of Germany, Pope Julius II., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon form the League of Cambrai against Venice; the Venetians are overcome at Agnadello (1509). 1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League for protection against France; in this Spain, Venice, and England (imder Henry VIII., who has mar- ried Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, and daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) are united against Louis XII. 1513. The French win a victory at Ravenna, April 11, but are forced to withdraw from Lom- bardy, and Sforza djTiasty is restored in Milan: Ferdinand of Aragon conquers Spanish Navarre. The Medici regain their authority in Florence. 1513. Henry VIIl. of England, with the aid of Maximilian of Germany, invades France; the French are overwhelmed in the battle of the Spurs at Giunegate, August 16: Therouarme and Toiu-nai are taken by the English. [pope. I Pope Leo X, one of the Medici: a renaissance I England is invaded by the Scots tmder James IV.; the Scots are defeated at Flodden Field, Septem- ber 9, and James is killed: Queen JSlargaret be- comes regent for her son, James V. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. Niccolo Machiavelii WTites The Prince, a classic in the history of political thought. 1514. Henry VIIL makes treaties of jjeace -with Scotland and France. 1515. 'Francis I., succeeding Louis XII. as king of France, marches into Italy, and with the aid of the Venetians defeats the Swiss allies of Milan at Marignano, September 13 and 14, thus breaking the prestige of the Swiss infantry: he gains posses- sion of Lombardy. Early in the next year he es- tablishes the Perpetual Peace with the Sw iss and makes a concordat with Pope Leo X. From tltis time Switzerland is a recruiting groimd for the Frencli army. 1510. Sir Thomas More's Vtopia. an account of an imaginary Commonwealth, is published. New Testament in C:reek published by Erasmus. 1517. Leo X. decrees preaching of indulgences for the benefit of St. Peter's Ciiurch in Rome. In October, Martin Luther puts forth his 95 theses at Wittenberg, and the Reformation be- gins in Germany. [the .Swiss. I 1518. Zwingli begins the Reformation amongi 1519. On the death of Ma-\iiiiilian of Germany, Charles I. of Spain, his grandson, who is also the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, is elected Emperor as Charles V.; Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, the Sicilies, and Sardinia are thus joined under one sovereignty. Fernando Magellan, a Portuguese, makes a voy- age for Spain through the straits separating Tierra del Fuego from Patagonia: two years later lio lantis on the Ladrones and reaches the Philipphies (March, 1521), where he is killed; one of his sliips completes circumnavigation of globe (1522). 1520. Francis I. of France entertains Henry VIII. of England at a meeting on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, near Guines. Pope Leo X. issues a bull of excommunication against Luther, but the refiTrmer burns the papal edict. Cliristian II. of Denmark invades Sweden and es- tablishes liimself in its sovereignty: overtlirown in 1521 in a revolt of the Swedes led by Gustavus Vasa, who eventually Isecomes king (1523). (16) 1521 A. D. — 1569 A. D. EARLY MODERN PKKIOU. 17 1531. Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France engage in a series of wars covering a period of more than a score of years; the conflict origi- nates in counterclaims to the possession of Na- varre, Naples, Milan, and Burgundy. Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conqueror, in- vades Mexico and after a long siege takes the capital city. Lutlier is summoned before the Diet of Worms (■■ Here I stand ") ; he is adjudged guilty of heresy against the teacliings of the Catholic Chui-ch. 1533. Charles V. of Germany attacks the French and defeats them at La Bicocca, m April. 1534. The French withch-aw from Italy and the Cbevalier Bayard, one of their leaders, falls in the retreat. German Peasants' War Ijreaks out in Swabia and Franconia, accompanied with frightful out- rages. The disturbance lasts nearly a year. 1535. The Imperial troops defeat the army of Fran- cis at Pavia, February 24, and make the French king prisoner. East Prussia is made by Albert of Brandenburg a hereditary principality. 1526. Treaty is made at Madrid, January 14, be- tween Charles V. and Francis I., by wloich the French king is set at liberty. The sultan, Soiyman tlie Magnifleent, who has conquered Belgrade (1521), vanquishes the Htm- garians at Mohdcs, August 20. Hungarian power broken for more than a century. Iljraltim Lodi of Delhi is overcome by the Mogul Baber, descendant of Tamerlane, at Panipat. The Mogul dynasty in India is thus established. New Testament (Tyndale's version) introduced into England. 1537. Second war between the French and Impe- rialists, in wliich France is aided by the pope, the Venetians, and the Storzas (the League of Co- gnac). Rome is captured by the forces of the Constable Bourbon; the pope is made prisoner- Frightful sack of the city. The Medici are driven from Florence. 1538. Henry VIII. of England and Francis I.- of France join forces m the war.against diaries V. of Germany. 1539. Cardinal Wolsey, lord chancellor of Eng- land, loses the favor of Henry VIII., and is de- prived of his offices. The reformers in Germany present a protest (hence the name Protestant) to the Diet of Spires, April 19. Charles V. and Francis I, make a treaty at Cam- bral, August 5, by which Italy is surrendered to the Empire; restored by German forces (1530). Suitan Soiyman seizes Buda and makes ari ^'n- successful attack on Vienna; he then esta^Bies on the Himgarian tlirone Jolm Zapolya, -v^^de of Transylvania. 1530. Pope Clement VII. crowns Charles V. of Germany at Bologna as Kuig of the Lombards and Emperor of the Romans; the Emperor makes a grant of Malta to the Knights of St. John (see HospiT.\LLER, in the Dictionary). The Protes- tant Confession of Faith is presented to the Diet of Augsbiu'g. 1531. The Protestant states of Germany, with the Saxon elector at their head, form the League of Schmaikalden, for mutual protection. Tlie Swiss Catholics rout the army of Zurich in the battle of Kappel, Oct. 11, and Zwlngll is leth at Berwick by which they seciu-e the English forces as' allies. Mary of Guise dies. Mary Stuart and her husband Francis II., now king of France, conclude with tlie reformers and Elizabeth the Treaty of Edinburgh. 1561. Mary, Queen of Scots, arrives in her realm from France. lO'Neill.l The Irish rebel imder the leadership of Shanel The Livonian Knights, or Sword bearers (see port- GL.AivE, in the Diet.) are forced to cede Livonia to Sigismimd Augustus of Poland and Lithuania; the last grand master of the order becomes a vassal as Duke of Kurland 1563. A limited privilege of worship is extended to the Huguenots by the Edict of Saint-Germain issued by the Cathohc king. Massacres of the Protestants occur at various places. Huguenot wars begin. The Huguenots imder Condc and Coiigny are overcome at Dreux, December 19. In the following year (February) the Dul:e of Guise is murdered; lijs death is followed by the Pacification of Amboise. 1563. The Calvinists proclaim the Heidelberg Catechism (see in the Dictionary). 1565. Mary Stuart marries her cousin, Henry Stu- art, Lord Damley. [is repulsed. I Mustafa Pasha makes an attack on INlalta, which! St. Augustine, the oldest permanent .settlement of the white race witliin the present limits of the United States, is founded by the Spaniards. 1566. The nobles of the Netherlands form the league of the Gucui, or " Beggars " (seeCtEux, in the Diet.) : the refusal of their demands precipi- tates a civil war. Himgary is invaded for the last time by Soiyman the Magnificent, who dies at the siege of Sziget; his successor, Selim II., storms and takes the city. 1567. Lord Darnley, the husband of Queen Mary of Scotland, is assassinated, and the qiuvn mar- ries the Earl of Bothweil, who is openly accused of the murder of Darnley: she is thereupon impris- oned and forced to abdicate in favor of her son, James VI., who reigns tuider regency of Miu'ray. The rebellion of Shane O'Neill in Ireland is sup- pressed and the leader is killed. The Huguenot wars in France break out afresh. The Duke of Alva reaches the Netherlands with a Spanish army to aid the contest against the league of the GueiLx: institutes the Blood Council (see in the Dictionary). 1568. Mary of Scotland, having escaped from Im- prisonment, is met by the regent Murray, at Lang- side (^lay 13) ; the queen is defeated and flees for refuge to England, but is made a captive by Queen Elizabeth. , The temporary' Peace of Longjumeau is concluded between the Catholics and Huguenots in France: the strife is renewed after the assembly of the Protestant leaders at La Rochelle, IVIargaret of Parma, the regent William of Orange, and many of the nobles having withdrawn from the Netherlands, the Duke of Alva, with great cruelty, causes many to be put to death, including the coimts of Egmont and Horn. William of Orange and his brother, Louis of Nassau, make a Protestant campaign against the Spanish forces in the Netherlands, but are repulsed. 1569. The Moriscos in Spain rebel ; in the following year they are overcome by Don John of Austria. The Huguenots are beaten at Jamac, March 13: the Duke of Conde is taken prisoner and shot; the Huguenot army imder Coiigny is routed at Mon- contour, October 3. 18 WORLD HISTORY. 1689 {continued). Cosmo de' Medici the Great becomes grand duJiO of Florence. [sovereignty.! Poland and Lithuania are united under onel u w ERA OF DECLINE OF SPAIN. 1570-1610. Elizabethan era in England; spirit of adventure and discovery, a greater freedom of thought and action, and a remarkable develop- ment of literature, especially of the drama. 1570. Murray, the regent of Scotland, is murdered. The Enghsii make an invasion of Scotland. The Catholics and Huguenots in Prance make peace by the Treaty of Saint^Ciermam. 1571. The pope, the Spaniards, and the Venetians unite in the Holy League against the Turks; the fleet of the league, under Don John of Austria, victorious at Lepanto, October /. 1573. Henry, king of Navarre, marries Margaret of -Valois. sister of Charles IX. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew m Pans, with the sanction of the kmg, August 24; Cohgny and manv other Huguenots are slain, where- upon the Huguenots again take up arms. A general rising of the Dutch against Spanish rule takes place under William of Orange. In the following year the troops of Spain conquer Haar- lem but besiege Leiden without success. With the death of Sigisraimd Augustus, the crown of Poland becomes elective; a year later Henry, Duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., is chosen king but on the death of Charles he ascends the French throne as Henry III.; he gives up the Po - jsh cro™. to which Stephen Bithori of Transyl- vania is ultimately elected (157.5). Pubhcation of the Lusiad of Camoens, the great epic of Portugal. , , . , , 1573 The Huguenots, after a successful defense of La Rochelle, are granted a measure of toleration In France; two years afterward Heiu-y of Navarre escapes from Paris and becomes their leader. 1576. Catholic League is formed in France agamst The rerolttag provinces of the Netherlands, both Catholic and Protestant, put aside all differences among themselves, and unite in the Pacification of Ghent, to resist Spanish dominion; Don John of Austria is appointed governor by his half brother, Philip II. of Spain; he is not accepted by 1577-1580.' Voyage of Sir Francis Drake for Eng- land (second circumnavigation). 1677 Henry III- of France and the Huguenots conclude the Treaty of Bergerac. 1678. Don John of Austria, governor of the Nether- lands, is victorious over the army of the reljels at the bkttle of Gembloux. January 31 ; ho dies, and Alessandro Famese, Duke of Parma, succeeds him. 1579 The Union of Utrecht is formed by the seven Protestant provinces of the Netherlands; this union, two years later, renounces the authority of Spain, declares complete independence, and set- tles the hereditary stadholdership of the nf'on on William of Orange-Nassau, called the Silent. This event is the foundation of the Dutch Republic. 1 SSO Philip 1 1 . of Spain makes a campaign agamst Portugal and subdues it. [Concord.l The German Lutherans publish the Formula of I 1881. Annexation of Portugal by Spam. 1582. Ermak-Timofeevich leads the Cossacks to the conquest of Siberia. Pone Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar and declares that October 5 of the current year be changed to October 15; hence the Gregoria,n calen- dar or New Style, gradually adopted and still m general use (see c^lend.ir. in the Dichanary). Jesuit missionaries reach Chma. 1583. Newfoundland is granted to Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert by Queen Elizabeth: the first English colony." j r.i.in. 1584. William of Orange is murdered, JiUy 10. his son, Maurice of Nassau, becomes the head of the seven provmces of the Netherlands; the Duke of Parma, Spanish governor of the Netherlands, ^ besieges Antwerp, and in the toUowmg year cap- tures the city. , ^ .. , The Catholic league of France makes a treaty of alliance with PhiUp II. of Spain against the French Huguenots. , North Carolina is reached by an expedition or Sir Walter Raleigh; the territory is named Vir- ginia by the queen. . 1585. The CathoUc League takes up arms against Henry III of France, but the king and the Catho- lics are reconcUed by the Treaty of Nemours; the war against the Huguenots is resumed. Sir Francis Drake leads an English expedition against the Spanish colonies in America without formal war. John Davis, English navigator, sets out on a two years' cruise In search of northwest passage to Asia. 1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, imphcatedm the con- spiracy of Savage. Ballard, Babington. and others, is beheaded February 8, by order of Queen Elizabeth. Henry III. of France is defeated by Henry of Na- varre" at the battle of Coutras. 1688. Philip II. of Spain sends the Invincible Ar- mada against England; the Spanish fleet, under the Duke of Medma-Sidonia, is assailed by Eng- Ush ships under Drake and Howard ; it is terrorized by fire ships, over«'helmed by a tempest, and only a remnant escapes. Henry of Guise enters Paris; the king, Henry 111., is forced to flee from the city; the sovereign sum- mons a meetmg of the States-General at Blois; the assassination of the Duke of Guise is ordered, and the duke is slain. December 23. 1589-1620. Shakespeare and Elizabethan literature: Shakespeare, dramatist and poet (about 37 plays — comedies, histories, tragedies 1588-1611; poems 1593-1594; sonnets 1609); died 1616 Other dramatists — Ben Jonson (.The Alchemist 1610). Lodge, Chapman, Beaumont and Fletcher (Philasler 1609?), Middlcton, Webster, Dekker, Massinger; Poetry — Drayton, Donne; Prose — Bacon (Essays 1597), Hakluyt,, Raleigh^ 1589. Henry III. makes an alliance with Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots, and the combined forces move agamst Paris. The king is stabbed by an assassin wliile at Samt-Cloud, August 1 ;_he dies on the following day, thus ending the dy- nasty of Valois. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV ) succeeds to the throne and establishes the Bourbon line of French sovereigns. „ . ,. 1590. Henry IV. defeats the forces of the Catholic League uilder the Duke of Mayenne at Ivry, March 14 ; a Spanish army, under command of tlie Duke of Alva, joins the Catholic troops and de- livers Paris from the kuig's attack. 1592. The Presbyterian Church is established as the National Church of Scotland, to supersede the Episcopal ecclesiarchy. ..^ „ * „ 1593 Henry IV. of France abjures the Protes- tant faith; he is crowned in the following yea. at Chartres. February 27. On March 22 of the same year he enters Paris without opposition. 1595. Henry IV. undertakes a campaign agamst Spain. _.. , . 1596. The Catholic League is dissolved. 1597. The Spaniards are defeated at Turnliout by the Dutch under Maurice of Nassau, aided by his English allies. The Dutch complete their first voyage to the East Indies bv way of the Cape of Good Hope. 1598. Toleration is conceded to the Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes, proclaimed by Henry IV. ol France, April 13; on May 2 a treaty between France and Spain is concluded at "\ ervms. The Rurik dynasty, Scandmavian in origin, ends in Russia with the death of Feodor I., and Boris Godunov ascends the tlirone. , ,. ^ , „ ,, 1599 Sigismund Vasa tries to establish the Cath olic religion in Sweden and is driven from h'S throne for his defection from the national faith. 1600. The Archduke Albert of Austria, governor of the Netherlands, is overcome by the Dutch under Maurice of Nassau at Nieuport. The philosopher Giordano Bruno, after seven years' imprisonment m Rome by the Inqmsitiou on a charge of heresy, is burned at the stake. The English East India Company is formed. 1602 The Dutch East India Company is formed 1603 The Tudor dynasty in England ends with the death of Queen Elizabeth, March 24 panics VI of Scotland, the son of Marj' Stuart, a Protes- tant, and descendant of Henry VII. of England, receives the crown as James I. A conspiracy to place ArabeUa Stuart on the ttoone is unsuccessful, and its alleged promoter, Sir Walter Raleigh, is Imprisoned. Peace made with Spam. ERA OF THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1604 The English bishops and the Piu-itan leaders meet James I. in a conference at Hampton Court. He objects to Presbytcrianism as a limit on royal power, . 1605. A conspiracy is formed to blow up the king and Parliament of England, but the plot is dis- covered and the leaders seized, November 5. " Gunpowder Plot " (see Gunpowder Plot, in the Dictionary). „ . xi, i,„ i„ Feodor II succeeds to the Russian throne, he is aftcnvard dethroned by the Pseudo Demetrius The Turks are overcome at Busrah by Abbas the Great, of Persia. [Reigns tUl 162 , . | lahangir, son of Akbar, becomes Mogul emperor I 1606. Pseudo Demetrius of Russia is slam; suc- ceeded by Shuiski, who takes the title of Basil IV. The London and Plymouth companies are chartered by patents of James I. of England. Australia discovered by Dutch, who land at Carpentaria. ^ 1007. Jamestown, m Virgmia, first permanent English settlement m North America, Is founded by the London Company, May 14. 1608. The Protestant states of Germany establish the Evangelical Union. Rudolph II. of Germany is forced to give uP Aus- tria, Moravia, and Hungary to his brother Mat- thias (found ({uebec.i The French under Samuel de Chaniplaln Invention of the telescope. 1569 a. d. — 1625 A. D. 1609. A Catholic league is formed m Germany; Rudolph II. is compelled to grant religious tolera- tion to the Bohemians; two years later (1611) he is forced to surrender his crown to Matthias. A treaty of peace for two years is made by Spam and the Netherlands. [Philip III. I The Morlscos are finally driven out of Spain by I Henry Hudson, sailmg under the flag of the Dutch East India Company, ascends the Hudson River; m the followmg year he explores Hudson Bay, but iierishes on the voyage. 1610. The second Pseudo Demetrius gains the throne of Russia by the aid of Polish nobles; in a short time he is assassinated. Henry IV. of France is assassinated by Ravail- lac, May 14; Louis XIII. becomes kmg, with Marie de Medicis as regent. By means of the newly invented telescope Galileo discovers the satellites of Jupiter. Authorized Version, or King James Bible, completed; the work is issued the followmg year. 1613 The Romanov dynasty begins in Russia with the accession of Mikhail Romanov as czar; first national sovereign. 1614 The Dutch build a fort on Manhattan Island and afterward purchase the territory from the Indians (1626). , ^ , , h The system _of logarithms is mvented by Lora John Napier!" . 1615. Louis XIII. of France marries Anne of Aus- tria daughter of Philip HL of Spam. Founda- tion of later French claim to Spanish throne. First regular newspaper in 'Europe (Frank.iurter Journal). ^ . , 1616. The circulation of the blood is demon- strated by William Harvey. Shakespeare dies, April 23. 1617. By the Peace of Stolbova, Russia cedes Ka- relia and Ingria to Sweden. 1618. Crisis In the religious rivalries ol Ger- many. Most of northeni states and cit.cs are Protestant — either Lutheran or Calv.nistic. Iilany Protestants in Bohemia. Austria, and Hun- gary Southern Germany mostly Catholic. Constant dlHiculWes m the Imperial Diet. Settle- ment of Augsburg ol 1555 overthrown. The Thirty Years' War begms in Germany with the msurrection of the Bohemians under Count Thum- the conflict is caused by the msistence of the Emperor Matthias on securmg the succession in Bohemia and Hungary- to his cousm, Ferdinand, Duke of Styria, a Catholic, and therefore unac- ceptable to the Protestant states. 1619. Arminlanlsm, a Protestant doctrine em- phasizing free wUl, is condemned as heresy at the Synod of Dort. (See Arminhnism, and Synod r^ DnnT. in the Dictionary.) Btdiiiand of Austria, havmg succeeded Matthias, is elected Emperor as Ferdinand II.; Freder.ck \ .. elector palatine and son-in-law of James I. of Eng- land, becomes king of Bohemia. The first legislative assembly elected m America sits in Vu-ghiia; the same year the cultivation of i cotton is begim. Negroes are brought by a Dutch vessel to James- tovm and are sold as slaves; this event is the origin of African slavery Ui the United States. 1620-1680. Puritan Age of English literature: Poetry — Milton (Muior poems lfi29-1637. Paradise Lost 1667; Prose works 1641-1654), Her- rick Herbert. Daniel; Prose — Bunyan (Pd„Tim s Prooress 167S), Burton. Browne, Fuller, Taylor, Waiton (Compleal Angler 1653). 1620-1665. Most brilliant period of Spanish drama: Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and Calderon delaBarca (1600-16S1). 1620. Ferdinand II. of Germany is supported by the Catholic League: tlie forces of the Protestants . are defeated at White Mountahi, m Noven tier. The Protestants are massacred m the Valtellma. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England land at Plymouth, Decemter 21; first permanent Eng- lish colony m northern section of the contment. 1621. Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam, lord chan- cellor of England, is impeached on a charge of ac- ceptmg bribes and is deprived of his offices. Philip IV. ascends Spanish throne; he renews war with the Netherlands. . Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden begms a victori- ous campaign of nine years' duration agamst the Poles. -^ 1622. War breaks out between Louis XIII. of France and the Huguenots. Ferdmand II. and Gdbor Bethlen, prmce of Transylvania, who invaded Hungary m 1619, conclude a peace at Nikolsburg. The Dutch West India Company successfully colonizes the New Netherlands. ^ ., , „ . 1623. Dutch colonists of Manliattan build I'ort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. ^ 1624 The London Company is abolished ant! V ir- ginia is placelian scientist, prosecuted by the In- quisition for asserting that the world is round. 1634. Wallcnstein is treacherously murdered at Eger, B'ebniary 25. 1635. Ferdinand II. and the elector of Saxony con- clude the Peace of Prague. [and Spahi.l Richelieu undertakes a campaign against Austria! The French Academy is founded. 1636. John Hampden refu.ses to pay ship money as required by the writs of ship money issued by Charles I. of England : the Court of Exchequer re- fuses hy a vote of 7 to 5 to sustain his resistance. (See SHIP MONEY, in the Diclio/iary.) 1637. An attempt to hitroduce the English forms of worship into Scotland meets with vehement resistance. 1638. The Scots declare the abolition of episco- pacy in Scotland and publish the National Cove- nant. ' [Rheinfelden.l Bernard of Weimar defeats the Imperial army at I 1639. The National Covenant is defended with arms by the Scots. [the Downs. I Spaniards defeated by Dutch in a sea battle in | 1640-1700. Classic period of French drama: Rotrou, Comeille (Le Cul 1636), Moliere (V Avare\ 166S), Racine tAihaUi- 1601). 1640. The Short Parliament sits in .\pril and [ May and is followed by the Long Parliament, • which begins its session in November; the Scots invade England. i Frederick William, the Great Elector, becomes ruler of Brandenburg; the foundation of the later Prussia. Catalonia revolts from Spain; Portugal regains her freedom, with John, Duke of Braganza, as king, styled John IV. 1641. Archbishop Laud is Imprisoned in the Tower of London; the Earl of Strafford, tlie king's adviser, is put to death. In the same year the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission are abolished. A rebellion breaks out in Ireland. Descartes publishes his philosophical system, in which the superstructure of all positive knowledge is based on self-consciousness. 164"!. Charles I. of England engages in open war with the Parliament; the battle of Edge Hill is fought, October 23, without decisive results. Richelieu dies. Jansen's teaching as to the doctrine of St. Augus- tine is condemned by Pope Urban VIII. (See J.^NSEMSM, in the Dictionary.) Tasman, a Dutch voyager, discovers Van Die- men's Land, or Tasmania, and New Zealand. 1643. The Westminster Assembly, meeting to formulate a body of doctrine, continues its session until 1649. Prince Rupert capturas Bristol; the battle of Newbury is fought, September 20; the Parlia- ment subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant as a bond between the Scots and the English, having for its end the support of Presby- terianism in Scotland and a contention for its supremacy in England and Ireland. Louis XIH. of France is succeeded by iiis minor son, the boy Louis XIV., May 14, witli his mother Anne of Austria as regent, and Mazariu as prime minister. Louis XIV. assumes power in 1661; reigns till 1715. The Duke d'Engliien defeats the Spanish at Ro- croi, but the French are beaten by the Imperial army at Tuttlingen. Sweden is attacked by Christian IV. of Dermiark. Torricelli invents the barometer. 1644. The Scots enter England; at the battle of Marston Moor, July 2, the Royalists under Prince Rupert are overcome by the allietl armies of the Scots and the Parliament; the Covenanters are vanquished at Tippermuir. The Ming d>-nasty in China overthrown by Man- chus invited in to defend a faction. The Manchu dynasty thus founded lasts imtil 1912. Roger Wilhams secures a patent for the confeder- ate government of the colonies of Rhode Island. 1645. Jan. 10. William Laud, archbishop of Canterburj-, having tx^en impeached for treason in 1643, is beheaded. At tlie battle of Naseby, Jime 14, Royalists de- feated by Fairfax, assisted by Cromwell and Ireton. 1646. Charles 1. of England gives himself up to the Scots m May; the Prince of Wales seeks ref- uge in Holland. 1647. The Scots deliver Charles I. to the English Parliament; he is cast into prison, January 30. Masaniello leads an insurrection in Naples. Beginning of the Quaker movement by George Fox. 1648. The English Royalists rise in arms for the deliverance of Charles I.; they are aided by the .Scots, but are defeated by Cromwell. The Parliament adopts the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the Long Parliament (later desig- nated tlie Rump Parliament) is purged by Cromwell, [Spain.] Independence of Holland is acknowledged byl The Thirty Years' War ends; treaties are signed at Osnabruck and Miinster, A general treaty is signed at Miinster and the Peace of Westphalia is completed, October 24. Holland and Switzer- land are independent. Alsace is assigned to Prance, with Metz, Toul, and Verdun; Sweden re- ceives German Baltic territory; Sa,xony is mucli enlarged; the Upper Palatinate is apportioned to Bavaria; and a new electorate is instituted for the Rhine Palatinate. The Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Reformed creeds in Germany are recog- nized in full equality. The ecclesiastical connec- tion of the states becomes definitely fixed on the principle of cujus regio ejus religio [Latin, " the ruler establishes the religion "] . each prince or city to decide what the faith of tlie people shall be. Since 164S no European nation has formally and permanently changed its religion. The political status of Modern Europe is in large measure de- termined by this treaty. The principle of the balance of power, asserted at various times in ancient and medieval iiistory, receives confirma- tion and may be said to have become established as a part of international law. 1648-1689. Decay of Poland, due to decline of royal power and the weakness and confusion of ttie Diet. Tills body, composed of a senate of bish- ops, voivodes, and castellans, and a Ixidy of rep- resentatives chosen by the total nobility, leaves the common people out of accoimt. It elects the king, makes war, and passes laws: but the Slav principle of unanimous consent (liberum veto) makes imity impossible. Rivalry, force, and the machinations of outside sovereigns eventually bring about anarchy. ERA OF LOmS FOURTEENTH. 1649. England nominally a republic, the " Commonwealth," in whose name acts are done and " Ordinances " passed by Parliament. Mili- tary authority comes in: the Protectorate (1653) becomes virtually a monarchy. 1653. July 8. Naval war between England and Holland. Ends in 16,54. 1654. Charles X. becomes king of Sweden. He invades Poland in 1655. War ends m 1660. Air pump invented by von Guericke. 1655. Alexander VII. pope. 1656. Russia, Denmark, and the Emperor declare war on Sweden; joined by the elector of Bran- denburg. 1657. Poland in the Treaty of Wehlau recognizes the elector's sovereignty over East Prussia. 1658. Aurangzeb, Mogul emperor. A long and splendid reign, renowned for its buildings and arts, which continues till 1707. Dutch of New Netherland annex the Swedish pos- sessions on the Delaware : end of Swedish power on the continent of Nortli America. 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees (France and Spain) includes marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. Basis of later claim of Louis- of right to dispose of Spanish crown. 1660 1700. Period of the Restoration in Eng- lish literature: Poetry — Dryden (Absalom and Achitophel 16S1), Butler (lluilibras 1603); Drama — Congreve, Otway, Wycherley; Prose — Pepys {Diary 1660-1669), Evelj-n, Hobbes (Leriathan 1651), Locke. First English news- paper. Public Jntellir/encer. 1663. Followed by Publick Occurrences (Boston, IMasS-, 1690). 1660. Peace of Copenhagen; Denryark surren- ders to Sweden southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. Never again lost. May S. Peace of Oliva (Sweden with Poland, Brandenburg, and Holy Roman Empire) ; Livonia to Sweden, East Prussia to Brandenburg. 1661. Cliinese emperor Kang-hi conies to the tlirone; reigns till 1721. Conquers Tibet and Formosa. For first time China is involved with a European power; war with Russia (1GS4- l(i89). Reign noted for science and literature. French and English traders settle at Canton. Death of Mazarin. Beginning of personal gov- ernment of Louis XIV., a spirited yoimg prince who at once forms plans of war and conquest (" Le Grand Monarque "). Bombay is part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza; ceded to England in 1665. Granted to the East India Company in 1668. 1G63. The Diet of the Holy Roman Empire fixed formally at Regensburg (Ratisbon), which remains the legislative capital. 1665. Feb. Si. Englandatwarwith Holland, due to rivalry of trade and colonies. New Amsterdam (captured in 16fi4) becomes New York; con- firmed, 1667, at end of war. April. Plague in London; great loss of life. 1666. Jan. 16. War breaks out with France; ends in 1667. 1667. July 31. Peace of Breda (England, Hol- land, France). Acadia returned to Franci', Init she loses some West India islands; England cides Surinam to the Dutch. Clement IX. pope. [deposcd-1 Portuguese revolution at Lisbon. King Pedro II , | 1668. Reflecting telescope made by Newton. Jan. ~'S. Triple Alliance (England, Holland, and Sweden) formed to check Louis XIV., who buys off Charles II., king of England, by a secret subsidy treaty (1670). May 2. Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (France, Spain) stops war; question of claims to Spanish crown postponed. 1669. Crete taken from Venice by the Turks, who hold it tiU 189S. 1670. Clement X. pope. Hudson's Bay Company chartered by the Brit- ish crown. Sets up himtjng and trading posts on the watershed of Hudson Bay and subsequently west of the mountains. Charter given up in 1S69 as a territorial authority. Still continues in trade. 1673. Third war of England against Holland. Ends in 1674. Made possible by influence of France over Charles II. [of ZaraMio. 1(576 I Tm-ksmakewaron Poland. Defeated 1673. Peace! Augusi. Mob kills the De Witt brothers, lead- ers of the aristocratic republican party in Holland. Question of war or peace with France. 1675. June 18. Battle of Fehrbellin. Frederick William, " The Great Elector " of Brandenburg, defeats the Swedish allies of Louis XIV., and tlius establishes Brandenl:nirg as a European power — predecessor of Prussia. War ends in 1679. St. Paul's, London, begtm, from designs of Chris- topher Wren. Completed in 1710. 1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of the Duke of York, who later be- comes King James II. of England. Makes possi- ble the later revolution in England and the organi- zation of opposition to Louis XIV. 1678. Turkey, which has now subjugated most of Hungary, Moldavia, and Wallaclua, pushes north- east and engages in the first war with Russia. This reveals the great rivalry between the two na- tions. " Popish Plot " excitement in England. Marks revival of Cathohc-Protestarit rivalries. 1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen), a series of treaties which brought to a close the war between the French and the Dutch and their allies caused by Ixiuis XIV.'s invasion of the Netherlands in 1672. It made various territo- rial adjustments and included a treaty between France and Holland (.\ug. 10, 1S7.S), to which was annexed a separate commercial treaty; one between France and Spain (Sept. 17, 1678): one between the Emperor and France and Sweden (Feb. 6, 16791; and one between Holland and Sweden (Oct. 12. 1679); also, the following trea- ties: atFontainebleau, between France and Den- mark (Sept. 2, 1679); at Lund, between Denmark and Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 1679. Ju7ie 211. Peace of Saint-Germain (Bran- denburg and Louis XIV., in name of S\^eden) German territory (Pomerania) restored to Sweden. 20 WORLD HISTORY. 1680 A. D. — 1740 A. D. 1080? Tramways with wooden rails used near M Newcastle, Enyland. 1682. Discovery and exiiloration of the lower Mis- sissippi by La Salle for France. He names the region Louisiana, for Louis XIV. (April 9). less. Siege of Vienna. Successful relief by joint German and Polish army under Charles of Lor- raine and Jolm Sobieski. king of Poland. Far- tliest point of Turiiish advance and beginning of Owithdrawai. French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, occupation of Luxemburg, and seiziu-e of Treves (Trier) (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied by France, but Treves is given up. 1684. Truce of Begensburg (Louis XIV. retains all the " reimions " made up to August 1, 1681, including Strassbiu-g, which is held till 1871). 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Many P Huguenots emigrate to England, Holland, and Germany; and some to the English colonies, in spite of prohibition. Protestant services are for- bidden and Protestants not to engage in professions or arms. Enforced by dragomiades, with quarter- ing of licentious soldiery in Protestant houses. 1686. Foundation of Caicutta, in India. Buda, capital of Himgary, retalien by Austrians Q after being held by tlie Turks 145 years. Perma- nent loss of west of Himgary for the Turks. League of Augsburg (Holy Roman Emperor, Sweden, Spain, Holland, and German states) against France. Louis XIV. at once invades Palatinate and his army frightfully ravages the coimtry. Leaves deep impression of the terrors of French conquest. —^ 168J. Aug. 12. Battle of Harkiny. Most impor- R tant single e\ent in overthrow of Turkish as- cendancy in Hungary. Joseph I. of Austria crowned king of Hungary. Principia published by Sir Isaac Newton (theory of attraction of gravitation). 1688. ttevolution in Engiand. James II. driven out, and received by Louis XIV. William, stad- holder of Holland, lands and assiunes power. S ERA OF GRAND ALLIANCE. 1689-1748. England develops a navy to protect her commerce and colonies, wliich subsequently is to serve as her favorite instrument in war. France, Spain, and the northern sea powers lose prestige. In all wars privateers freely used to destroy enemy's commerce. Islands and other _— coast colonies frequently change hands. I 16S9. Peter I., " tlie Great," reigns as sole monarch of Russia (till 1725). William III. and Mary (imtil 1694), sovereigns of England, by will of Parliament. William reigns solely from 1604 tiU 1702. Grand Alliance against France, on principle of ** balance of power " in Eiu-ope. Engineered by William III.; includes Holy Roman Emperor, I! Sweden, England, Holland, small German states, and Savoy. Resulting war continues till 1697. Alexander VIII. pope. May 7. England at war with France. 1690. War extends to America. Port Royal taken by a colonial expedition (see United States). 1691. Innocent XII. pope. IHoly Roman Empire.! 169?. Hanover l)ecomes the ninth electorate in the] V Witchcraft trials in New England. Revulsion there and m Europe follows, 1093. National debt of England begins by a loan made by associated goldsmiths. 1694. Bank of England founded. First modem national bank. 1697-1698. Peter the Great undertakes a journey, for his instruction, tlirough Germany to Holland. Works as ship carpenter in Saardam (Zaandam), y^ and afterwards goes to England. 1697. Charles XII. king of Sweden. A great sol- dier and conqueror; in a war with Russia advances as far as present Ukraine. Reigns till 1718. Peace of Eyswick (France, England, Spam, Hol- land). Ends the long war against Louis XIV., who formally recognizes the Protestant sovereign of England. Mutual restoration of conquests. X Proves only a breathing space. Augustus II. » elector of Saxony, becomes king of Poland after the death of John Sobieski, and adopts the Catholic faith of the coimtry. 1698. First Treaty of Partition of Spain (Eng- land, France, and Holland). Foreseeing the death of Charles II. of Spain without heirs, they propose to recognize Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria as sov- ereign of Spain, India, and Spanish Netherlands; Y and to apportion other Spanish dependencies. Never carried out. March. Darien settlement on isthmus of Pan- ama, foimded by Paterson for a company of Scot- tish subscribers. Expects it to become a world- commercial city. England does not support him ; colony fails in 1700. 1099. Jan. 28. Peace of Karlowitz (Turkey, Aus- Ztria, Venice). Turkey yields all Hungary except TemesvAr; and also cedes the Morea (peninsula of Greece) to Venice. 1700-1750. Age of Voltaire: Voltaire { Henriade 1728; Zaire 1732), Saint^Simon, Fontenelle, Vau- venargues, Montesquieu (Esprit des lots 1748), Le Sage (.Gil Bias 1735), Abb6 Prevost. 1700-1745. Early Eighteenth Century of Eng- lish literature, sometimes called the Age of Pope: Poetry — Pope (Essay on Man 1732-1734), Yoimg (Night Thoughts 1742-1745), Watts (Hymns 1707), Thomson (Seasons 1726-1730); Prose — Addison (Sijectalor 1711-1712), Steele, Swift (GuUivers Travels 1726), Defoe (Robinson Crusoe 1719). 1700. Clement XL pope. A'or. 1. Death of Charles II. As he is child- less, a great dispute about the Spanish Succes- sion arises. Louis XIV. claims through his wife Maria Theresa, older sister of Charles, but Louis at the marriage renounced all claims to the throne for liis descendants. Leopold I., Emperor, claims tlirough his marriage to Margaret Theresa, younger sister of Charles II. Louis insists that his grandson Philip of Anjou (who is eventually seated) is the rightfid heir. Leopold puts forward his second son Charles. Joseph Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria and grandson of Mar- garet Theresa tlu'ough his mother (Maria An- toinette), claims also to be rightful heir, but dies Fel3ruary6, 1699. (partition treaty. I Nov. 13. France and England make a second I Pliilip of Anjou, designated by will of Charles as heir to the throne, goes to Spain and becomes king as Philip V. [over the Russians at Narva. I Non. 30. Victory of Charles XII. of Sweden! 1701. . Frederick 111. of Brandenburg assumes title of " King of Prussia, wiiich is a possession not in the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor ap- proves, and Frederick crowns himself as Frederick I. at Konigsberg, thus establishing the Hohen- zollern dynasty, wliich lasts till 1918. Sevt. 17. Second Grand Alliance (Emperor, England, Holland, German states, Portugal, Sa- voy) against France. The real issue is whether IiYance shall control the na\'y and colonies of Spain. War rages in northern, central, and south- ern Europe and in America. Lasts till 1713. 1702. Anne, second daughter of James II.. wife of Prince George of Denmark, becomes queen of England on the death of WiUiam III, (March 8). Reigns till 1714, Becomes patroness of Churchill, made Duke of Marlliorough, the principal British commander in this period. Pubhcation of Cotton Mather's Magnolia; first comprehensive ^Vmerican work. 1703. Peter the Great establishes the capital of Russia at the new city of St. Petersburg (now Petrograd) near the Baltic. [land, I 1704. Stanislas Leszczynski elected king of Po-I Gibraltar taken by Rooke and auxiliary Dutch troops. Becomes the greatest naval fortress of Great Britain; still held in 1920, Aug. IS. Battle of HocJistiidt and Blindheim (Blenheim). Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French. 1705. Death of Emperor Leopold I. His son Jo- seph I. becomes Emperor. Jo.seph's younger brother Charles is Austrian candidate for throne of Spain, supported by the .\Uiance. [millles.l 1706. May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ka-I Se-pt. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin. Sept. H. Peace of Altranstadt between Sw'eden and Augustus II, of Poland and Saxony. Augustus renoimces tlirone of Poland in favor of .Stanislas LeszczjTiski 1707. Mayl. Union of Engiand and Scotland imder the name of Great Britain goes into effect- One Parhament, but Scottish laws continue in effect. Scotland oflficially called North Britain. Scotchmen thenceforth prominent in the activities of the empire, [Quickly suppressed, I 1708. Revolt of the Cossack leader Mazeppa. I July 11. French defeated at Oudenarde. 1709. July 8. Russian victory at Poltava, wliich establishes Peter s approach to the Baltic, and de- stroys the Swedish power in eastern Eiu'ope. Charles XII. joins the Turks. Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at Malplaquet. 1711. Charles, brother of Joseph, .succeeds on Joseph's death as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereign of Austria and Himgary. Reigns tUl 1740, His accession to the Imperial tlirone destroj'S the interest of the allies in Ills claim to Spain, Hence the Grand .Alliance ends. Czar Peter makes the Peace of the Pruth by bribing the Turks. Ends the war with Sweden and Charles XII. is allowed to return home. 1713. Frederick William I., son of Frederick I., king of Prussia. Builds up an effective army; a harsh sovereign and parent. Reigns till 1740. April 11. Peace of Utrecht (several docu- ments), Philip V. recognized as rightful sover- eign of Spain, Spanish Netherlands go to Aus- tria. Spain grants asslento (slave-trade privi- lege) to English, who receive territory in America from France. Emperor refuses to recognize Pliiiip, but makes peace with France (Rastatt and Baden; March-September). Spain thencefor- ward pursues an independent pohcy; and after death of Louis XIV. in 1715, France is weak. The expected combmation of the two states fails. April 19. Charles VI. establishes succession m Ills Austrian and Hmigarian domains (" Prag- matic Sanction"). All lands belongmg to the Austrian group of states to be mdi visible ; in case of lack of male heirs, Charles's daughters should inlicrit. Eldest was Maria Theresa. Their heirs should follow in primogeniture. ERA OF BALANCE OF PO'WERS. 1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the Emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Tiu-ks. 1714. George, Elector of Hanover, becomes king of England (as George I.) by descent from So- phia, granddaughter of James I., on death of Queen Anne. Lands in England, September 14, and. is accepted as king by the ^\^ligs, who are in power. Personal union of Great Britain and Han- over wliich lasts tUl 1830. Till 1745 repeated plots of the "Jacobites." 1715. Louis XV. becomes king of France at age of Ave years; great-gi-andson of Louis XIV, Long regency, which is a weak and profligate govern- ment, Louis reigns till 1774. Barrier Treaty (Kiigland. Austria, Netherlands). 1716. Aug. a. Defeat of Turks (Austro- Venetian war against Turkey) by Prince Eugene at Peter- wardein (Hungary). 1717. Yoshimune, one of the ablest of the Toku- gawa clan, becomes shogun, the actual luler of Japan, though the mikado is titular emperor. Reigns tiU 1744. 1718-1720. " Mississippi Bubble." Speculation in France of Jolm Law. Seeks to exploit the re- sources of Louisiana ; includes issue of paper money. Fails disastrously. 1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Pozare- vac) between the Turks. Venice, and the Empu'e. Turks accept the loss of Hungary; also cede Serbia (Belgrade), northern Bosnia, and Little Wallachia. Venice cedes the Morea to Turkey, but keeps posts in Albania and Dalmatia, Aug. 2. Quadruple Alliance (France, Eng- land, the Emperor, and after 1719, Holland), Object, to support the settlement of the Peace of Utrecht. Holland nominally governed by their High Mightinesses the States-General, as a fed- eration, drifts into a kind of limited monarchy under the House of Orange. Dec. 11. Charles XII. of Sweden assassinated. 1721. Peter assumes the title "Czar of all the Russias," first borne by Ivan the Terrible. Inoculation as a preventive of severe smallpox introduced into England by Lady Montagu. A palliative of a world scourge. Aug. SO. Peace of Nystad (Sweden and Rus- sia). Sweden cedes Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, and eastern Finland with Viborg. thus abandonuig control of Baltic Provhices. End of significance of Sweden in eastern Europe. 1723. Louis XV. assumes the government, and the regency comes to an end. 1724-1800. Revival of Italian drama: Metastasio, Goldoni, Alfieri. 1724. Benedict XIII. pope. 1725. Catherine I., widow of Peter, assumes the tlirone m Russia. Accepts the advice of Menshi- kov, trusted by Peter. Reigns till 1727, 1727. June 1. George II. assumes the crown of England on death of his fatlier, George I. Peter II. of Russia, grandson of Peter I,, becomes titular emperor, at 12 years of age. Reigns till 1730. 1728. Bering Strait discovered and named by Bering, a Dane in Russian service. 1730-1800. Methodism in England. An attempt to reform Church of England; results in anew nonconformist church (" Wesleyan"). John and Charles Wesley leaders. The Wesleys and White- fleld visit the English colonies of North America. 1730. Clement XII. pope. Anna Ivanovna. yoimger daughter of the elder brother of Peter the Great, empress of Russia. 1733. Augustus II., king of Poland, dies. War of Polish Succession follows. Diet prevented from seeking a national candidate. A king, Frederick Augustus (Augustus III.), chosen by external pressure w^hich is reducing Poland to impotence. 1735. Linnfeus publishes Ills Systema Naturae. A great step in scientiflc research and classification. 1738. Nor. IS. Peace of Vieniia. Atendof Pol- ish War; Lorraine ceded to France (for Stanislas). 1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia. Sackof Dellii. ERA OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 1740. Ivan VI., son of Anna of Brunswick, is czar of Russia. Reigns only a year. At death of Charles VI., Maria Theresa, his daughter, becomes queen of the Austrian lands. As a woman cannot take the Empire. Charles Al- bert of Bavaria is made Emperor (1742) and also coregent of the Austrian lands from 1740. At death of Frederick William I. of Prussia, his son Frederick II. (" the Great ") becomes king and 1740 A. D. 1795 A. D. EARLY MODERN PERIOD. 21 1740 UorUinue^l). begins the War of the Austrian Succession, or flrst Silesian War. 17«. Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, empress of Russia. Reigns til! 1762. Mainland of Alaska discovered hy Bering and Chirikov. Settlements on Kodiak Island m 1784 and Baranof Island (Sitka) in 1709. 1743. May, July. Separate Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Austria and Prussia ends first .Silesian War. o 1743. May 7. Peace of Abo (Sweden and Rus- sia): ends war brought on by the "Hats" of Sweden. Czarina Elizabeth victorious, yet agrees to surrender most of Fmland if her cousin. Adol- phus Frederick of Holsteln, is made heir to Swed- ish crovni. He succeeds in 1751. [Dettingen.l June er. Allies defeat French m battle ofl 1744. Frederick of Prussia beguis second Silesian War. War between Great Britain and France in America called King George's War; is another installment of War of the Austrian Succession. In 174.T British navy and colonists take Louisburg (Cape Breton). War lasts till 1748. 1745-1798. Latter half of Eighteenth Century of English literature; the Age of Johnson : Prose — Johnson {Lives of the English Poets 1779-1781), Hume, Gibbon, Bui'ke; Richardson (.Pamela 1740), Fieldmg (Tom Jones 1749), Smollett (Roderick Jiandom 1748), Sterne (SentimentalJ ourney 1768), Goldsmith (Vicar of Wakefield 1766): Poetry — Cowper (The Task 1785), Gray (Elegy 1751). Gold- smith (Traveler 1765: Deserted Village 1770); Drama — Goldsmith (She Stoops to Conquer 1774), Sheridan {Rivals 1775). 1743. ^:raneis I., husband of Maria Theresa, Em- peror. Reigns till 1765. January. Alliance between Austria, Sa.xony, England, and Holland against Prussia. April 2S. Separate Peace of Fiissen. Elector of Bavaria obtains restitution of his doojinions by acknowledging pragmatic sanction and supporting Imperial candidacy of Maria Theresa's husband. May 11. French victory of Fontenoy (" Irish Brigade ") over alhes. Dec. 2d. Peace of Dresden between Prussia and Austria (Saxony) ends second Silesian War. 174G. Captiu-e of Madras by the French: restored . by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1748. 1748-1832. Golden Era of German literature - and pliilosophy: Klopstock (Messias 1748), Les- sing (Minna von Barnhelm 1767), Wieland. Her- der, Goethe (Faust 1790. 1831), Schiller (Wilhelm Tell 1804), Richter: Kant (Critique of Pure Reason 1781), Fichte, Hegel, the Schlegels. 1748. Oct. 18. Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (Great Britain. France. Austria, Sardmia. Prussia. Spain. Holland); ends War of the Austrian Successioji. General rastitution of conquests: Parma. Piacenza, and Guastalla to Don Philip, restoration of Duke of Modena and republic of Genoa, recognition of pragmatic sanction and of Emperor Francis. Si- lesia guaranteed to Prussia. 1750-1800. Period of the Revolution in French literature (includes also Rousseau and the En- cyclopedists): Buffon. Beaumarchais (Le Mariage de Figaro 1778). Bemardin de Saint-Pierre (Paul el Virginie 1787), Andre Chenier, M. J. Chenier. 1751-1785. The Encyclopedists m France: Diderot and D'Alembert (see enxyclopedist. in the Did.) . 1751. War between French and British in India. Defense of Arcot by Olive. War lasts till 1760. 1753. England introduces the Gregorian calendar, already long used on the Continent. Franklin's discoveries in electricity. 1754. Hostilities in upper Oliio Valley between English {George Washington) and Frencli devel- op into French and Indian War (see United States). [publislied.l 1755. Joimson's Dictionary of the English Language] 1756-1763. " Seven Years' War " to preserve balance of power among European states begins. Includes American (French and Indian) War and also hostilities In Asia and Africa. Fredericlt the Great again fights Austria. 1757. Frederick the Great is almost crushed by Austrians and Russians, but is relieved by death of his enemy. Elizabeth of Russia, whose succes- sor, Peter III., withdraws Russian troops. War rages on the sea. with many naval battles. Great Britain in 1757 seems worsted, but revives imder William Pitt lEarl of Chatham), who re- organizes the management of tlie army and navy. Spain comes into the war in 1762. June 23. Clive at Piassey defeats great army of Siraj-ud-Daula. Nawab of Bengal. Establishes English supremacy in India. 1758. Clement XIII. pope. 1760. George III., son of George II.. first of the Hanoverian sovereigns bom in England , Pursues a policy of asserting royal power, combined with bribery of members of Parliament. The Whig nobles, who have directed the government since 1689. lose prestige. George III. reigns till 1811 when he goes insane: and his grandson George is regent till the king's death (1820). 1761-1763. PubUcation of J. J. Rousseau's La nouvelle H^lolse, Le control social (" The Bible Of the French Revolution"), and £milc; of great influence in ecUication and social life. 1761. Duke of Bridgewater's Canal in England. Is at about the beginning of an era of canal build- ing in Europe, whicli lasts till railroads come. 1763. May S. Peace of St. Petersburg. Russia restores her conquests to Prussia. 1763. Captain Cooli's voyages in the Pacific, in- cluding islands and parts of the northwest coast of America. The voyages continue till 1778. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris (Great Britain. France, and Spain). England gets Canada and Louisi- ana, east of Mississippi, from France; also Mi- norca, Dominica. Grenada, St. Vincent. Tobago, and Senegal. England restores conquests in India to France, also Goree. Guadeloupe. Martinique. Saint-Pierre, and Miquelon, and cedes St. Lucia to her. She gets Florida from Spain, restoring Cui^a and Manila. The war a terrible defeat for France by sea and land: destroys lier colonial empire. Feh. lo. Peace of Hubertsburg between the Empire and Central Eiu*opean powers. Termi- nates war in Central Europe. 1764. Stanislas Poniatuwski king of Poland Last of the Polish sovereigns. Reigns till 1795. 1765. Joseph II. Holy Roman Emperor and also sovereign of the Austrian lands. Reigns till 1790. Appearance of Blackstone's Cormnenlaries in England. Has great influence over field of law and government in England and the colonies. 1767. James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny, followed by Arkwright's spinning frame (1769). Crompton's mule spinner (1779). and Cartwright's power loom (1785). These inven- tions revolutionize the textile industries. 1768. Catherine II., a German princess, widow of Czar Peter, becomes the greatest sovereign of Russia (ne.xt to Peter the Great) . A ruler of great energy: rules tlu'ough ministerial favorites. 1769. Steam engine Invented by Watt. Even- tually revolutionizes industrj-. [edition).] 1771. Encyclopedia Brltannica published (first I 1773. Poland deprived of territory by Russia. Austria, and Prussia in the flrst partition: each of the three annexes a belt of territory. 1773. Pope Clement aJjoiishes the order of Jesuits. 1774. Warren Hastings governor-gen. of India. Later accused of oppression and unsuccessfully impeached in England. Recalled in 1785. July 12. Peace of Kiichiik Kainarja (Tur- •"key and Russia). Turkey renoimces suzerainty over Crimea and elsewhere in Black Sea region, and gives Russia indefinite right to protect the Orthodox churches in Turkish Enipire. Oxygen is discovered by Priestley in England (who called it dcphlogisticated air) and by Scheele. ERA OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1775-1800. American political philosophers, statesmen, and writers. j^mesiOtis, Thomas Paine (Common Sense 1776; 'Age of^Reason 1794). Alexander Hamilton. Thomas Jefferson (Declara- tion of Independence 1776). Francis Hopkinson. Noah Webster. George "Washington. Benjamm Franklin (Aufobiography). 1775-1783. War of Independence of the British Colonies in North America. SccL^mted States France allies with the colonies (1778), and Spain aids them. Holland goes into the war in 1780 and makes a treaty with the United States in 1782 Many naval battles. France loses most of her com- mercial marine. Continental Congress as a federal government directs national affairs of the thirteen colonies till 1781, when Articles of Confederation go into effect. This is the first American nation: it is foimded on the right of revolution, denies the divine right of kings, establishes a successful democracy, and creates a workable federation. 1775. Pius VI. is pope. 1776. Appearance of Adam Smith's Wealth of Na- tions, tirst systematic treatise on the economic or- ganization of society. July 4. Adoption of Declaration of Inde- pendence by the American Congress, Formally signed August 2. First official use of term L^nited States of America. A model for many revolu- tionary bodies in other countries, and a land- mark in the history of liberty. 1778-1779. War of the Bavarian Succession, resulting from Joseph II. 's (see 1765) attempt to acquire territory in Bavaria. 1779. May IS. Peace of Teschen settles the differences arising from the Bavarian question. Palatinate and Bavaria being united. Sept. 23. John Paul Jones defeats and captures British ship Serapis off English coast. First decisive naval victory of the United States. 1780. Reforms of Joseph II. in Austrian lands. Freedom of religion, suppression of monasteries, etc. Ahead of his time. Dies. 1790: reforms fail. Declaration of Armed Neutrality (Russia. Den- mark, and Sweden) to protect neutral flags from right of search claimed by Great Britain. United States invited to come in. but never actu- ally ratifies. Partlj' checks the British practices. 1783. Nov. SO. Peace of Versailles and Paris (definitive treaty same terms Sept. 3. 17,S3) (Great Britain and United States, and separately with France and Spain). Independence of United States together with very favorable western boitndary (Mississippi River): Senegal to France; Minorca and Florida to Spam. Acknowledges the new order of things in the Western Hemi- sphere. Is followed by recognition of the United States by most civilized nations. 1784. Feb. 2. Ship Ejnpress starts on a voyage from New York to Chma: arrives jMay 14, 17S5, and opens up Oriental trade to the United States. 1785. July. League of the German Princes (Prussia. Saxony and Hanover. Brun.swick. Mamz, Hesse-Cassel. Baden. ^MecklenburgxAnlialt. and the Thuringian lands). Intended as a substitute for the decaying Empire. 1786. Aug. IT. Death of Frederick the Great. Succeeded by Kmg Frederick William II., who reigns till 1797. 1787. Drafting of the Constitution of the United States by the Federal Convention (ISlay 5-Sept. 17). It is ratified by tlie States (1787- 1790). Goes into effect in 1789. Becomes a model for federal governments in other coimtries. Catherine's second war with the Turks: caused by Russian claims in Georgia and her annexation of the Crimea. Austria aids Russia. Ends in 1792. Triple Alliance (Prussia. Great Britain. Holland) opposed to aggrandizement of Russia and Austria. Austria later abandons Russian alliance and makes peace with Turkey (Sistova. Aug 4. 1791). 1788. Swedish war with Russia, in Russian Fin- land. Ends in 1790. (stored for the time. I Austrian Netherlands revolt. Authority re-l London Times newspaperestablished. Becomes a great pohtical force. 1789. AijrilS. George Washington president of the United States; serves till 1797. ERA OF FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1789. June 17. I Oath of the Tennis Court, which marks the beginning of the French Revolution and the rise of antimonarchical spirit in Euroje. Develops into a Constituent Assembly, which draws up a constitution on the general model of Great Britain. Mirabeau is the leading figure. 1790. On death of Joseph II . Leopold II. becomes Emperor and king. Reigns till 1792. 1791. Warning against Revolution by Confer- ence of Pillnitz (Leopold II. and Frederick Wil- liam II.). Beginning of coalition against France. Oct. 1. French Legislative Assembly meets: practically the government of France under a limited monarchy. Lasts till September, 1792. 1793. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey. Danger of a European war over Eastern question. England and Prussia both threaten Cath- erine. War by Austria and Prussia against France. Offensive manifesto of Duke of Brunswick. French take Austrian Netherlands, but lose them again. Allied successes lead to massacres in French prisons (September 2) and to proclamation of a republic (September 21). Tide turAs in favor of French arms in 1793. September. National Convention of the French Repubhc. Lasts till October, 1795. Louis XVI. (Capet) eiecuted January 21. 1793. 1793-1797. First coalition agamst France (Great Britam, Austria. Prussia, the German Empire, Spain. Holland, and other smaller states). 1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. .System of Committee of Public Safety. Revolutionary tribunals and public guillotining. Robespierre, extreme radical, falls July 27. 1794; is executed. 1793. April 22. Neutrality proclamation of President Washington. Beginning of policy of keeping out of European complications, and new assertion of the status of neutrals. Sept. 23. Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia. Prussia gets Posen. Danzig, and Thoi'n. Ru.ssia gets all the eastern provinces from Livonia to Moldavia. In Haiti freedom for Negroes proclaimed by French Convention. Later withdrawn. First British embassy (Lord George Macartney) to China. [cotton culture). Whitney patents his cotton gin (revolutionizes] 1794. Nov. 19. Jay Treaty (Great Britain and the ITnited States): neutral trade, botmdaries, commerce. Followed by treaty with Spain (1795): boimdaries, Mississippi navigation, com- merce. These treaties give the United States the full status of a member of the then existing family of nations, and open up international commerce. Polish revolt imder Kosciusko, who is defeated at Maciejowice. Last effort, to save the nation, 1795. French invade Austrian Netherlands and states of Holland. Batavian Republic setup; under French control in various forms till 1814. Final partition of Poland (Ru.ssia. Prussia, and Austria). The kingdom extirpated: but the peo- ple adhere to their language, religion, and national 22 WORLD HISTORY. 1795 A. D. - 1814 A. D. N R U V W 1795 (continued). traditions. Kussia assured possession of the Bal- t.c Provinces. Ition of the Niger. I Mungo Park, African traveler, tiegins explora-l April 0. Peace of Basel (Prance and German states) . Prussia cedes west bank Kliine to France. July. Peace of Basel with Spain (France and Spain). Slaiu.^ quo, except cession of Santo Do- mingo to France. Oct. S. Directory established in France Ijy Constitution in face of Parisian insurrection, sup- pressed ctiiefly by Bonaparte. Directory sup- ported by popular desire for peace, order, and prop- erty. Aclniowledges personal rights won by revo- hition, but is an oligarchy supiwrted by bayonets. 179l>-17»3. General Bonaparte makes a daring campaign in Italy. Crushes the Sardinians, beats the Italians (Lodi), and forces the pope to cede part of the papal territory. 1796. Dr. Jenner begins to practice vaccination, wliich slowly supersedes inoculation, and reduces the dreaded smallpox. May IS. Peace between France and Sardinia, the latter ceding Savoy and Nice. 1797. John Adams president of the United States till 1801. X Y Z episode with France. Napoleon's Alpine and Italian campaign. Vene- tian Republic fails. Frederick William II. of Prussia dies. Fredericli William III. .succeeds; reigns till 1840. Oct. 1 7. Peace of Campoformido (France and Austria) closmg war which Iwgan in 1792. Aus- tria cedes large areas including Netherlands, but receives Venice and IlljTia. 1798-1799. Bonaparte in Egypt. Captures Malta, Cairo (after battle of the Pyramids). Defeated in sea fight of battle of the Nile (Au- gust 1. 1798). Invades Palestine, 1799: abandons his army and retvmis to France in October. 1798. Koman Uepublic takes the place of the papal government. Swiss Confederation is brought to an end after five centiu-ies. Replaced by the Helvetic Kcpublic, a centralized state. 1799-1801. Second coalition (Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, and the Ottoman Porte). Defeated by French in every campaign (Marengo, Hohenlinden) . Obliged to accept peace. 1799. JnnuaTxj. Partbenopcan Republic set up in Naples. Lasts only a few months. In France the Directory falls (June) ; establish- ment of the Consulate (November) by Constitu- tion of Year VIII. (of the French Revolutionary Calendar). Nominally a republic, actually a dic- tatorsliip by First Consul Bonaparte. Naval war between France and the United States. Cap- ture of merchantmen and a few ship duels. Ended by Convention of September 30. 180O. ERA OF NAPOLEON. 1800-18S0. Era of stone roads. Makes possible a system of stagecoaches and diligences. ' ISOO-lSll. Early Russian national literature; Krylov, Zhukovski, Pushkin (Boris Oodunov), Ka- ramzin, Lermontov. 1800-1840. Steam power, textile macliinery, and improvements in metaLs make it possible to man- ufacture many lines of goods on a large scale. This leads to the factory system, particularly in Great Britain, by which workpeople are assembled in large numbers and the processes are divided (" division of labor "). The result is the growth of manufacturing towns with poor conditions of life and with woman and child labor. Begin- ning of modern industrial legislation . 1800-1832. Early Nineteenth-Century litera- ture in England; Age of Wordsworth: Poetry — Wordsworth, Burns, Scott iLadij of the Lake 1810), Coleridge {.indent Mariner 1798), BjTon iChitde Harold 1812-1818), Shelley (.Prometheus Unbound 1820) . Keats (Ei-e of St. Agnes 1820) ; Prose — De ' Quincey. Coleridge, Lamb {Essays of Eha 1820- 1833). Himt. Landor. Hazlitt. Jane Austen. Scott {Warerley 1814: Ivanhoe 1820). 1800-1830. Reaction period in French literature: Chateaubriand {Alala 1800). Madame de Stacl (De I'Atlemagne 1810). J. de Maistre. Nodier. 1800. Pius VII. is pope. [States till 1809.1 1801. Thomas Jefferson president of the United | Restoration of Catholic worship in France. Na- poleon agrees to a ** concordat " regulating the relations of papal power with the government and '. Catholic Church of France. Feb. H. Peace of Luneville. Germany west of t^e Rhine in the possession of France. Recog- nition of the various " republics " France had set up. Tuscany ceded to Parma. Deposed princes west of the Rhine to be compensated out of chiu-ch and free-city territory east of the river. March S3. Paul I . emperor of Russia miu-dered . Succeeded by his son. Alexander 1. (1801-1825). 1803. Italian Republic: Bonaparte president. March S7. Peace of Amiens (Great Britain, France, Spain, and Holland). British to restore all over-sea conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon. First peace by Great Britain since 1793. Proves to be only a truce. Aug. S. By new constitution (5th for France) Napoleon made Consul for life, virtually sovereign I80S. April so. Napoleon agrees to a treaty with the United States ceding Louisiana, and thus giving up a plan for reviving the French col- onies in North America. Makes the United States the strongest North American power. War renewed between France and England, the latter refusing to give up Malta. Napoleon as- sembles a large army at Boulogne and tlu-eatens the invasion of England. Has no sufficient naval force to break British control of the Channel. Report of the special committee of the Holy Ro- man Empire on the " mediatization " of small states and cities by incorporating them in larger neighlx)rs (Reichsdeputationshauptschtuss). All the free cities but six thus lose their privileges. Breaks uporganizationot Holy Roman Empire. Act of Mediation, a federal constitution drawn by Napoleon for Switzerland. 1S04-I806. Explorations of Lewis and Clark, for I'nited States government (see United States). 1804. First locomotive steam engine, used on the MerthjT Tydfil road in Wales. February. Conspu'acy against life of Bonaparte. May IS. Napoleon I. declared Emperor of the French. A hereditary monarchy is thus es- tablished. Crowns himself (December 2). Sets up a new nobility, chiefly of succe-ssfiU generals and diplomats. At first is not admitted to the fellowship of " legitimate " European sovereigns. In 1805 takes title of Kmg of Italy. The German emperor, who is also archduke of Austria, assimies the title of " Hereditary Em- peror of Austria and King of Bohemia and Him- gary." (See Austria.) Duke d'Enghien seized outside of France and shot (March 21) on suspicion of complicity in plots against Napoleon. Enrages conservative Europe and makes enemies for Napoleon. 1805. Third coalition against France (Eng- land, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Naples) to re- store the balance of power. France makes Spain its ally and builds up joint fleet that is defeated by British tmder Nelson at Trafalgar (Oct. 21. 1805). October. Napoleon breaks loose against coali- tion: captures Ulm: penetrates Austria, defeats allies at Austerlitz ("Battle of TlireeEmpcrors"). Thus prevents Prussia from joining and forces a peace. Abandons hope of invading England. Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg (France and Austria) . Venice ceded to Italy, much of Austria to Bavaria, the elector of which is made a king. Formation after this treaty of Confederation of the Rhine carries control of the small states of the Holy Roman Empire. 1806-1807. Fourth coalition against France (Prussia, Russia. Great Britain. Sweden). Prussia cru.shed at Jena and Auerstiidt (October 14. 1806). Prussian military system collapses : Napoleon oc- cupies large part of Prussia and enters Berlin (Oct, 27. 1806). 1806. Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, is made king of Holland. Aug. 6-8. Francis abdicates as "German Emperor." and the Holy Roman Empire comes to an end after 1000 years. Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's elder brother, made king of Naples. Boiu-bon com-t with- draws to Sicily. [1812.1 War between Russia and Turkey. Lasts till I Nov. 21. Berlin decree in which Napoleon proclaims a paper blockade of Great Britain and the closing of the Continent to British trade ("Continental system"). Intended to counter- act British naval and commercial supremacy (" War of whale and elephant "). Is a reply to IJritish order in coimcil of May 16. 1807-181?. Persistent opposition of the United States to both French and British systems by pro- tests, limitation of commerce, and hints of war. 1807. First successful trial of a steamboat. Ful- ton's Clermont on the Hudson. Slave trade for English colonies or by English sliips forbidden by Act of Parliament, effective March 1. 1809. Secured by a propaganda. Fch.-June. Battles of Eylau and Friedland. Deadlock of armies. Napoleon offers peace. Jidy 7-9. Peace of Tilsit. Prussia cut down in area and inhabitants. Russia recognizes Na- poleonic kingdoms and new duchy of Warsaw (Po- land), accepts Continental system, but is encour- aged in ambitions to the east and south. .4 lujusl. Foimdation of the kingdom of West- phalia. Napoleon's brother Jerome made king. November. Portugal refuses to accept the Continental system and is occupied by the French. King and family take refuge in Brazil. Dec. 17. Milan decree, intensifying the Ber- lin decree and Continental system at expense of neutrals, esp. United States, which passes an Em- bargo Act against France and Great Britain. Re- pealed m 1809. 1808-1812. Revival of Prussia under Stein, who reforms courts, frees serfs, and looks after business New school system. University at Berlin (1810). Napoleon forces Stein out of pubhc life, recogniz- ing the effectiveness of these reforms. 1808-1811. Revoltof some Spanish colonies in .South America (Venezuela. Uruguay. Paraguay. Chile, Buenos Aires, and Mexico). All put down. 1808. Invasion of Spain by Napoleon, who aims at conquest, carrying with it the Spanish colonies. He. therefore, in May seizes the (abdicated) king (Charles IV.) and the heir to the throne, and makes his brother Joseph king of Spain, giving throne of Naples to his brother-in-law, Murat. Napoleon checked by the defeat of his troops in Portugal by a British army (" Peninsular War"). September, October. Assembly of Princes at Er- furt docs homage to Napoleon, who is at the zenith of his career. [ally king) of Sweden. I 1809. Bernadotte becomes prince royal (eventu-| Fifth coalition (England and Austria). British under Sir Arthiu* Wellesley (later Duke of Wel- lington, " Iron Duke ") push back the French in Portugal and Spain. Austria again ventures war. is defeated at Wagram (July 5-6) and forced to accept Peace of Vienna (October 14), making great territorial sacrifices, including the northern coast of the Adriatic. [1S17.1 James Madison president of the United States till I Sept. 17. Peace of Fredrlkshamn (Russia. Sweden) . Finland is ceded to Russia : is promised a separate administration. 1810-1813. Special session of the SpanLsh Cortes called at Cidiz. assimies the sovereignty and draws up a constitution (completed in 1812). 1810. Several dependencies of France incorporated with the central French Empire: Holland. Old- enburg, canton of Vaiais, some German states, and the Hanseaticcities. 130 departments m France. Continental sovereigns give up jealousy of a self- made monarchy and accept Napoleon as a brother. Emperor of Austria gives his daughter. Marie Louise, in marriage to Napoleon. France free from land w-ar except in Spain, which proves a ter- rible drain. Louis, king of Holland, abdicates, rather than consent to ruin of his adopted country. 1811. March. Birth of a son to Napoleon (" King of Rome "}. later Duke of Reichstadt. Sj-mptoms of hostility by Napoleon toward Russia, which is weary of the Continental system. British army presses bard on the Frencli in Spain. 1813. Napoleon's campaign in Russia. Cirand army of 420.000 men, including contingents from Italy. Germany, and even Prussia and Austria. Crosses Niemen in Jime. Breaks tln-ough Rus- sians with heavy losses (Smolensk. Borodino). Reaches Moscow September 14. Russians burn the city October 19 Retreat begins. Frightful suffering, especially at the crossing of the Berezina: a remnant leaves Russia (December). Three foiu'ths of army lost. May S8. Peace of Bucharest. The Pruth made the boimdary between Tm"key and Russia; Russia takes parts of Bessarabia and Moldavia. 181.3. Bolivar drives the Spaniards from Caracas. ISlexico again declares its independence. Rising of Europe against Napoleon. Feb. 13, appeal of Frederick William III. of Prussia for vol- unteers. Feb. 28. Treaty of Kalish with Russia. Prussian people rise. Landwelu- and Landsturm. Order of " Iron Cross " foimded. Napoleon raises new armies and accepts war. England furnishes navy and money. Sixth coalition against France (Prussia. Russia. Sweden. Great Britam. .\ustria) joins in war by land and sea. Leipzig. *' battle of the Nations" (Oct. 16 and IS). French defeated, their kinglets in western Germany flee. Napoleon forced to cross the Rhine (October). June SI. Wellington wins at Vitoria, and the French yield most of Spain. July s-Oct. 11. Effort to come to an tmder- standing with Napoleon at Congress of Prague. That failing. Austria joins the allies (August 12). Great campaign in central Germany (battle of Dresden. Aug. 26. 27). Ahies imite at Teplitz- Schonau (Sept. 9) in a declaration of purpose to continue war. Bavaria deserts Napoleon (Oct. 5). 1814. Jan. 1. Prussian troops with Bliicher cross the Rliine. and carry the war into the French Empire, which has not seen an invader since 1795. Jan. 1.',. Peace of Kiel adjusts the relations of the Scandinavian powers. Russia, and England. Union of Sweden and Norway as two kingdoms tmder one monarch. Feb. 5-March l.'i. Congress at Chatillon. Napoleon offered boimdaries of 1792. but refuses. March SI. Allies enter Paris. Senate de- clares that Napoleon and his family have forfeited the throne, and he is forced to abdicate (April 6). Allies select the island of Elba as a prmcipaUty for Napoleon, who goes there May 4, May. Return of the Bourbon royal family and many of the Emigres, who expect a restoration of privileges. Spanish Bourbons are also restored. May SO. (First) Peace of Paris. France re- tains most of the boundaries of 1792. with some annexations. Most of lost colonies restored. September. Congress of Vienna assembles tO; reconstruct Europe. IV. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD: 1814 TO 1914. Historical Outline. The 19th cc-ntm-y, as here considered, practically includes the period from the Congress of Vienna in 1S14 to the opening of the World War in 1914. Tbese hundred years bave a unity unusual in his- tory; the new poUtical. social, and economic condi- tions separate the period from earlier centuries and lead up to the World War. The century began with exliaustion and reaction. Europe was weary of the wars of revolutionary France. The Quadruple Alliance against Napoleon was successful not merely in the o\erthrow of Na- poleon, but also in the resistance to the new ideas by the autocracy of France, Austria, Prussia, and Spain. Europe had seen so many sovereigns de- posed and set up by France and Napoleon that the onlj^ safety for royalty seemed the " principle of legitimacy." Hence, the Holy Alliance, formed by Kussia, Prussia, Austria, and eventually France, wliich developed imder the leadership of Coimt MetttTnich as a bulwark of conservatism and weapon of repression. Autocracy was strengthened in the countries of the allies; and the Alliance used its power to suppress democratic movements else- where. Thus, the revolutions in Italy and in Spain were suppressed by the allies; and for years after the Congress of Vienna the forces of reaction controlled the world. Even in England, the freest state in Europe, the policy of suppression initiated m the previous cen- tiu-y continued until 1832. Not luitil the Reform Bill of that date, which extended, the vote to the mid- dle classes, could England l>e said to have a genu- inely popular or democratic government. In the United States, imder the influence of the ideas of the Revolution restatetl by Jefferson, a real democracy was growing up; and the success of federal govern- ment was attracting the attention of Europe. The conditions of the whole coimtry, and especially of the West, were favorable to a rough, good-humored, and active popular government, which revealed it-self in national affairs by the election of Jackson in 1828. The year 1830 was ushered in by revolutions. In France the Boui:bon monai'chy came to an end with the alxlication of Charles X. and the accession of Louis Philippe, the citizen king, who e,stalilished a constitutional monarchy of considerable liberalism in France, wliich lasted imtil 1S4S. Another revo- lution disrupted tlie artificial kingdom of the Neth- erlands, which the Congress of Vienna had created. Belgium declared her independence and was recog- nized ^ an independent state whose neutrality was guaranteed by the powers. The revolution blazed up far to the eastward in Poland, which the czar of Russia had erected as a separate kingdom imited to Russia by personal imion. The Poles desired greater liberality and, above ail, independence; and they re- volted. They were crushed and their country dis- appeared from the map, continuhig only as a Rus- sian province. Revolutions m the parts of Italy held by Aastria were easily suppressed and smalt disturbances in the minor states in Germany were imsuccessful. In England the movements of the period were mostly political. The 19th century was an age of Inventions. From the downfalj of Napoleon to the outbreak of the World War, greater mat<3rial changes took place than from the beginning of history to the Napoleonic j era. In science, new discoveries were made; new ! applications of knowledge in medicine and hygiene . checked or ended plagues and pestilences wliich had j decimated whole sections of the world. Humanity and sympathy demanded that the sufferings due to poverty, disease, and ignorance should be relieved. In material progress the greatest advance was In communication and transportation. At the begimiing of this period the journey from Boston to New York occupied as many days as it now does hours. In Europe large cities lived in fear of starva- tion because of the impossibility of the transporta- tion of supplies. The transportation of the raw cot- ton demanded by Manchester manufacturers from Liverpool, only 30 miles away, was often delayed a month. The invention of the steam engine and tlie building of railways altered these conditions. Moreovsr, the application of steam to navigation aided the rapid transport of the commerce of the world from one point to another. Danger from famine seemed to disappear and the resources of the whole world could be concentrated at any point and the products of every nation conid be exchanged throughout the world. Communication by steam was supplemented by electricity; and the telephone and telegraph, and later the wireless, made it possible for nations to transfer ideas even more quickly than they ex- changed products. The world of thought grew closer and what happened in one coimtry was al- most instantaneously known in another. Social, eco- nomic, and poUtical ideas became common property. Machinery, steam, and electricity were apphed in other fields. Industry was revolutionized. At the beginning of the century it was conducted by means of man or animal power, wind or water, in the homes of the workers. The relation between employer and employee was intimate and constant. With the application of steam came the factory sys- tem : transportation brought raw prod ucts to centers ; power was distributed in great factories employing hu'ge numbers of workers. These workers no longer were under the intimate observation of the owner, wlio now, instead of being an individual, was likely to be a corporation, less in touch with the ncx-ds and , demands of the workers and more intent on .securing profits. The massing of population in industrial centers caused a migration from coimtry districts and the rise of cities in wliich lived large populations of workmen, too often crowded in inadequate houses. In 1848 another series of revolutions swept over Europe, wliich, as in 1830, began in France. The monarchy of Louis Philippe gave way to the Second Republic, wliich was speedily replaced by the Second Empire. Hungary, under Kossuth, revolted from Austria and for a moment enjoyed independence. The Czeclis of Bohemia also demanded independence and their demands were temporarily conceded; but Austria, soon regaining her power, suppressed their aspirations. The Austrian provinces of Italy re- volted and renomiced Austrian control, but the jeal- ousies of the Italians as yet prevented united action, and the Austrian army restored authority. In Germany the revolutionary movement affected a large number of states. In the Parliament at Frankfurt am Main the attempt was made to estab- lish a German federal union, at the head of wliich should l>e the Prussian king; but on his refusal the idea was abandoned for a score of years. Neverthe- less, as a result of this movement Prussia and several other German states received constitutions which, by the standards of those days, seemed liberal. The 19th century was the period of develop- ment of nationalities. The Congress of Viemia had drawn the map of Europe for the benefit of dynasties, with scant regard to races or peoples. Tliroughout the century there was a steady revival of nationalism. It was seen in the imsuccessful strug- gles of Hungary and Bohemia for national independ- ence in 1848. Although Italy, also, failed in 1848 to realize her aspirations, Cavom- and Garibaldi suc- ceeded in driving out the Austrians and converting Italy from a geograpliical expression to a imited kingdom in ISGl. In 1S66 the German states freed themselves from the control of Austria, and under William I. of Prussia founded a strongly nationalistic federal empire. In southeastern Europe the Balkan peoples, who hiid suffered for centuries under the oppression of the Turks, struggled successfully for their freedom and founded national states, jealous of one another, whose conflicting claims and relations to their neigh- bors made a danger spot in Eiu-ope. The Poles and Bohemians and other peoples in Austria-Himgary still failed to achieve their legitimate national aspira- tions. In the Far East Japan opened her doors to Western influence, borrowed what she considered the best from Western culture, and developed a na- tionality and civiUzation peculiarly' her own. She sought expansion not merely in Korea, but also in China. After defeatmg China in 1895, she dared to challenge Russia and in the drawn conflict (1905J won not merely Korea, but also recognition as a first- rate power, to be reckoned with in world politics. The 19th century was a century of expansion. During the ISth centiu*y Great Britain appropriated much of the French colonial empire, and though slie lost some of her own colonies tlirough the successful American Revolution and the establishment of the United States of America, she was more than com- pensated for this loss by expansion elsewliere. In India she established an empire which in poi^uJation outranks that of ancient Rome or the Spanish Ameri- can empire. As in ancient times Rome strove to civilize the peoples conquered by her. so Great Brit^ ain tries in India to raise a people of lower standards of living to European conceptions. In Austraha and New Zealand the English colonies developed into great self-governing dominions; and in South Africa the British possessions were consolidated and by the conquest of the independent Boer states, the South African Union became the determining factor in that portion of the continent. This era of colonial expansion was affected by the dismemberment of empires and divisions of conti- nents. The Tiu-kish Empire lost most of its Euro- pean possessions to the newly formed Balkan states, its African suzerainties to England, Italy, and France. In eastern Europe Russia's ambition to find an outlet to the Mediterranean tlireatened Tur- key's possession of Constantinople and furnished a problem for European diplomacy. Thecontment of Africa was partitioned among the Eurojjean states. England, France, Portugal. Belgium. Spain, and later Germany, were rivals for portions of its terri- tory. Twice relations were strained Ix-tween Eng- land and France and twice between Germany and France in this rivalry for African possession. At the close of the century Africa was practically di- vided among the great states of Europe. Russia, unable to obtain Constantinople, sought expansion to the east, and havmg acquired Siberia and Central Asia attempted to dominate Mancluu-ia and Korea and thus came in conflict with Japan. The vast Chinese Empire at times seemed on the point of disintegration and about to suffer the fate of Africa and l>e partitioned among tlie powers. Only mutual jealousy and rivalries and the inertia of China itself seemed to prevent. Even the Ignited States sought expansion, and by her war with Spam put an end to Spain's once vast colonial empire and acquired Porto Rico and the Philippines, thus be- coming a world power with interests no longer con- fined to the Western Hemisphere. The artificial boimdarics of European states, which ignored nationalities, and the rivalry in ex- pansion, fomented natural jealousies. Pritssia had reached supremacy in Germany and expected to dominate Europe tlirough military force. The suc- cess of the military system of Prussia compeUed other states to adopt similar systems. Almost everywhere throughout Europe, save in England, military service was compulsory, and vast standing armies were maintained at ruinous cost. The inventions of the age outran the realm of in- dustry, and nations vied with each other in the pro- duction of new and more terrible means of destruc- tion. With the development of colonial empires overseas came the necessity of navies to protect these far-distant possessions. Thus developed a rivalry in military and naval etiuipment which threatened to bankrupt the less prosi>erous states and burden industry with a cnisliuig load of taxes. Moreover, the possession of such military equipment affected the tone of international intercourse, and the threat of force was too often ill concealed by the words of diplomacy. In 1899 the nations met at The Hague in a con- ference. This was called by the czar of Russia for the purpose of attempting to check the mcrease of armaments and to devise methods of maintaining peace. It was unsuccessful in its attempt to limit military preparations, but devised a scheme of arbi- tration with a permanent voluntary court which was of some use in settling international disputes. A second Hague Conference was held in 1907 which, although it still failed to limit armaments and to pro- vide for compulsory arbitration, did accomplish much m the codification of military law and the es- tablishment of rules for what, as was vainly hoped, would be more humane modes of warfare. The great world nations were engaged not only in colonial rivalry and the race for military prepared- ness, but also in economic rivalry, and vast revenue was needed to support the burdens of the colonial em- pires and the military establishments. National in- dustries were stimulated by protective tariffs, while each nation sought to market its products in the ter- ritories of others. Competition and trade rivalries characterized the last two decades of the period. In the countries less commerciaUy developed, such as Cliina, outside nations sought exclusive privileges; and even in higiily developed states they attempted, often by discreditable methods, to gain commercial advantage. The economic rivalry of the nations reacted upon the industrial conditions in each state. The factory systems based on capitalism were pushed to their extreme hmit. In protest there developed a school of thought which denied the very foimdation of the capitalistic system. The socialists, original- mg in the early decades of the 19th century, were successful, not in establisliing their theoretical so- cialist state, but in forcing the governments of most states to mitigate some of the more obvious evils of the capitalistic system. Not content with such results, in many states the sociahsts became a po- litical party, which in a few cases held the majority in the legislature. Outside the theoretical socialist movement, labor organized into unions and, at first little touched by socialist doctrine, sought by negotiation and strikes to improve its condition. Single imions were gradu- ally combined into national imions and these in turn into great federations. The "general strike " at the end of the century was held in reserve as an ultimate method of obtaining not simply industrial (23) 24 WORLD HISTORY. 1814 a. D.-1852A. D. reforms, but, as in Russia, of extorting political and constitutional changes. The la.st years of the century saw a revival of the nationalistic movement of the mid-century. Tiie Czechs and the Poles were restive imder the control of Austria and Russia. In Russia, the nationalistic movement of the autocracy attempted the Russifi- cation of all the included nationalities, and was met by rival nationalistic movements in Finland, Poland, the Baltic Provinces, and the I'kraine. In Asia, China succ^KJed in throwing off the cen- turies-long control of tlie Manchus, and a republic was established. Japan was becoming more con- scious of her power and less ready to submit to Eu- ropean dictation in Asiatic questions. The Balkan states, in a temporary union, deprived Turkey of her European posse.ssions up to Constantinople, and each state hoped for a imion of the members of its nationality in a single, state. In 1914 England was distracted over the Irish question, and seemed for the moment unable to solve the labor problem. Russia was in the tlirocs of a general strike. The Balkans were dissatisfied with the results of their war with Turkey and distrustful of Atistria. The German Empire, alone, seemed at the height of its prosperity and strength ; and in 1914 Germany attempted to gain world control. Chronology. HOLY-ALLIANCE ERA. 1814-1815. Congress of Vienna to reeonstrurt Europe after the Napoleonic wars: starting point of present-day international relations. A congeries rather than a congress; final act, Jime 9, 1815, merely codifies the treaties between the various states; result, a patchwork that violates the prin- ciple of the Congress, " legitimacy," and also the opposing principles of nationalism and liberalism. France reduced to boundaries of 1792 ; Russia aug- ment.ey Finland (from Swe<:ieu), part of Prus- sian Polaud, and Turldsh territory. Prussia loses part .of Poland but gains part of Saxony, Pome- rania (from Sweden) , and Rliine territory. Austria gains compactness by giving up her Netherlands and gets part of northern Italy (Lombardy and Venetia), Illyria, and some extension into tlie Alps. Great Britain increases her colonial empire. These additions are at the expense of smaller states; but Sweden receives Norway from Den- mark, and Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) is miited to Holland. Italy is left as 10 states with Austria dominating and the repubhcs abolislied Various German princes are " mediatized." and a loose confederation of 38 states formed, with the presidency in Austria. 1814-18S0. Prohibition of the slave trade by all civiUzed nations. Previously (1807) by Eng- land and United States. Urged in Congress of Viemia. Abolition of slavery in British Colonies (1833); takes effect 1838. Abolition in French colonies (1S48). Also by Latin American states. Controversy of Quintuple Treaty (1841) ; Joint Cruising Convention of U. S. and England (1842) . Era of improved transportation in the LTnited States. Turnpikes, especially the Cumberland Road (1820); canals, especially Erie Canal (1825); steamboats on lakes and rivers, clipper ships on the sea. Beginning of railroads and ocean steamers. 1814-1860. Development of factory system in Eu- rope and U. S. and constant improvement of ma- chinery ant^i^ocesses. Clieap iron makes cheap machinery possible. Division of Labor increases product. Cheap transportation brings raw ma- terials together and distributes manufactured goods. Opening up of \nrgln lands furnishes new materials and enlarges food products. 1814-I8S4. Change in colonial conditions of the world. The Spanish and Portuguese empires break up in America. Great Britain gives respon- sible government to the large colonies settled by Englishmen. Colonial trade is opened up. France expands in .Vfrica and Great Britain in the East and m North America. 1815. For Napoleon's escape from Elba, his tri- umphal entry into Paris, the "Hundred Days," and the battle of Waterloo, see France. Sept. 26, Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and later acceded to by most of Europe: a proclamation of government by Cliristian ideas, due to the pietism of the czar, but popularly connected with the repression wliich develops. This reaction is the work of the Quad- ruple Alliance {four powers) , formed with England by treaty of November 20, to prevent by concert and annual congresses a renewal of the liberal ideas of the French Revolution. Metternich, Austrian minister, is the leader of the system of reaction and absolutism. Nov. W. Neutrality of Switzerland is guaran- teed by a convention at Paris signed by the four powers, also by France and Portugal. 1818. Stethoscope invented. 1819. Discovery of electro magnetism by Oer- sted. Leads to many mechanical appliances. 1820-1850. Middle Nineteenth Century period of American literature: Historians, Bancroft, Prescott, Parkman, Motley: Statesmen, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Lincoln : Novelist.^, Cooper, Irving, Hawthorne, Poe, Harriet Beecher Stowe: Poetn, Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, Emerson; Travels, R. H. Dana, Kane, Fremont: So- cial Reformers, Dorothea DLx, William Lloyd Garri- son, Wendell Phillips, Neal Dow, Jolm B. Gough, Theodore Parker, William EUery Channing; Jour- nalists, James Gordon Bennett, Horace Greeley: Divines, Lyman Beecher, Horace Bushnell, Charles G. Finney, Henry Ward Beecher. 1820. Use of anthracite coal begins (Pennsyl- vania). Bituminous coal first used for smelting iron in 1837. October. Liberal revolutions having taken place in Spain and Naples (the Two Sicilies) and an out- break in Portugal, the Congress of Troppau of the Ave allied powers (France having joined in 1818) adopts principle of intervention, though France and Great Britain do not support the measure. 1820-1860. Era of emigration from Europe, es- pecially to the Ignited States. Smaller streams to Canada, Australia, and South America. Stimu- lated by Irish famine of 1846 and German revolu- tion of 1S4S. 1821. Alliance commissions Austria to restore ab- solutism in Naples, wliich is done. A constitu- tional revolution in Piedmont (kingdom of Sar- dinia) is overthrown by the same means. March. Greek revolution begins, counte- nanced by Europe, notwithstanding" legitimacy." 1823. Under the decision (November, 1822) of the Congress of Verona, a French army restores abso- lutism in Spain : Great Britain protests. A further congress is proposed to consider tlie regaining for Spain of her revolted colonies in America. Canning, British foreign secretary, negotiates with United States for mutual opposition tJb this: France eventually, on October 9, gives assurance of nontnter\'ention. Dec. £. Enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine (see United States): a warning to Europe that America is outside the European sphere and any intervention would be resisted by the United States. Holy Alliance has thus passed its zenith. 1827. Jul!/ S. Treaty of London between Great Britain, Russia, and France demanding from Turkey that she erect Greece (in revolt, see Greece) ii)to an autonomous state. Turkey re- fuses and naval battle of Navarino takes place, Oc- tober 20. Later, Russia and France send armies, but England vacillates. Greek independence is won by these three of the memliers of the Alliance acting in direct contravention of its policy. Be- ginning of the Near-East question in European diplomacy. ERA OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS. 1830-1900. Period of Russian novelists: Gogol, Goncharov, Dostoevski, Turgenev,X?ount Tolstoy. Later Nineteenth Century period of German literature: Heine, Scheffel, Freytag, Mommsen, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, Storm, Heyse, Dalm, Wildcnbruch, Sudermaim, Hauptmaim. Italian literature of the Nineteenth Cen- tury: Manzoni, Lcopardi, Silvio Pellico. 1830-1890. Victorian Age of English literature: Poelrif — Tennyson, Browning, Mrs. Browniing, Arnold, Swinburne, ^lorris; Prose — Carlyle, Ma- caiUay, Ruskin, Arnold, Newman, Pater. Borrow: Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot. Hardy, Mere- dith, Kingsley, the Brontes, Trollope: Scientists — Darwin. Spencer, Tj-ndall, Hu.\ley, Wallace. 1830-1880. French poets and prose writers not affected by the Romantic movement: Berangcr. Guizot, Tocqueville, Thiers, Michelet, Cousin, Taine, Sainte-Beuve. French Romantic school: Lamartine, Victor Hugo. Gautier, Vigny, Musset, Dimias pirc, George Sand. 1830-1860. Humanitarian movement in Eu- rope and America. Agitation against imprison- ment for delit, cruel treatment of prisoners and insane, slavery and slave trade: for women's rights, education, freedom of labor, and temper- ance. Carried on by societies, public meetings, literature, press, and petitions to legislatures. Introduction of agricultural machinery, partic- ularly horse mower invented by McCormick (1834) and horse reaper, improved plows, great improve- ments in cotton gins. Era of household inventions, mostly in United States. Matches, modem cookstoves, sewing ma- chines (patented by Howe in 1846), gas, rubber. These conveniences spread from the United States to other countries. Development of mechanical Inventions, especially saw-mill and wood-work- ing machinery: turbine water wheel (1834), rotary printing presses (invented by Hoe) . Large fac- tories, banks, and transportation carried on by incorporated companies. Profitable fur trade in West. 1830-1850. Transcendental movement In New England: Emerson, Thoreau. Margaret Fuller, Dana, Higginson. 1830. Revolutions in France, Poland, Italy, and Germany, and Belgium revolts from Holland. Members of the Alliance too busy at home to inter- vene elsewhere. Beginning of French conquest of Algeria; It revives imperialistic spirit in France. 1831. May 21. Conference of the five powers (see 1820, above) at Rome orders the pope to carry- out reforms in his dominions, following restoration of order there and elsewhere in Italy by Austria. Nov. 15. Convention of London by the five powers guarantees neutrality of Belgium. 1832-1836. Epidemics of cholera. 1832. On renewal of revolt in Papal States both France and Austria send armies, but in opposition instead of in alliance. First street railway in the world opened be- tween City Hall and Fourteenth St., New York City. 1833. Kalevala, national epic of Finland, first col- lected and published. Ancient legends and songs orally transmitted. ilarch 32. Formal organization of the Zoll- verein, which becomes the entering wedge of Ger- man tmity. Sept. IS. At the Convention of Milnchen- griitz, Aastria, Prussia, and Russia guarantee in- tegrity of Turkish Empire: a revival by the tliree absolutist powers of the principles of the Alliance. 1837. Commercial panic in United States. In- terest stopped on many State bonds held In Europe. Principal repudiated by some States. 1839. Daguerreotypes invented by Daguerre in France. First automatic stm pictures. .4pri7 10. Further treaty guaranteeing neutral- ity of Belgium signed by the five powers. 1840. Opium War in Cliina; based on principle that China must be forced to trade with Western nations (see China). July 15. Convention of London signed bj- four powers (lYance excluded) to check advance of ■^ehemet Ali against Turkey (see Turkey). Me- hSmet All is driven back to Egypt. 1841. July 13. At London the four powers sign with Turkey the Straits Convention, sustaining the sultan's policy of closing the Dardanelles and Bosporus to foreign warsliips when the Porte is at peace. Dec. 20. Quintuple Treaty signed at London by the powers for mutual right of search, which was intended to break up the slave trade. Strongly criticized by Cass, minister of the United States to France. 1846. Nov. 6. Republic of Cracow incorporated by Austria with acquiescence of Russia and Prus- sia: a violation of the principles of the Congress of Vienna against which France and Great Britain protest. 1848. Discovery of gold in California; followed in 1850 by similar discovery in Australia. Revo- lutionizes the use of specie as a basis of currency and trade. February- March. Revolutions in France. Italy, Germany, and Austria-Hungary; overthrow of INIettemich, March 13. Revolts, except that in France, all put down: Third Republic established there. Evident that such a thing as the Holy Al- liance is no longer possible for Europe in general: and little is left of the work of the Congress of Vienna as a European policy except the territorial settlements, which gall Poland and Italy. Immi-' gration of educated Germans to the United States of America. 1848-1853. People of the United States show warm interest in the revolutions in Etirope and the at- tempts to form republics (Koszta incident: visit of Kossuth; Huelsemann incident). Do not go beyond sympathy. 1849. Russia comes to the aid of Austria and re- duces Hungary, where declaration of independ- ence was being sustained. 1850-1920. Renaissance of Spanish prose liter- ature, particularly the novel: Fem:5n Cabellero, Alarcon, Pereda, Valera, Perez, Galdos, Palacio Valdes, Pardo Bazdn, Blasco Ibdfiez, Pio Baroja. 1850-1900. French novelists of Naturalist school: Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, M^rimde, Zola, Dau- det, Maupassant, Anatole lYance. Scandinavian literary men: Ibsen {Peer Gynt 1867: Doll's House 1879); Bjomson (Sigurd the Crusader 1873: The Kini) 1879). 1850. McClintock, English explorer, demonstrates continuous " Northwest Passage " (obstructed by ice) around the north of North America. Ee- ttmis, 1854. 1851. May 1. World Eihlbition opened in Hyde Park, London. First of the great world ex- hibitions of which many have since taken place. 1852. Revival of the Napoleonic empire in France, following the coup d'itat of 1851 (Napoleon "Third," "Emperor of the French"; national- istic ideals), and recognition of the emperor by the powers contravene the results of the Congress of Vienna in part, but as a reaction from the so- cialistic elements of the Revolution of 1848 in other respects support principles of the congress. 1854 a. D.-1884 a. d. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 25 EUROPEAN -WAR ERA. 1854. March 12. Alliance of France and Great Britain to aid Turkey in war witli Russia; Frencli reasons largely personal; British, imperial and commercial. (See Turkey for Crimean War). Piedmont (Sardinia) joins the alliance later to get a " place in tile sim " and good will of allies. Ocl. IS. Ostend Manifesto dra^vn up by repre- sentatives of United States relative to Cuba. Dec. S. Dogma of Immaculate Conception promulgated by tlie Pope. 1855. Bessemer process for steel making is pat- ented. Grows slowly. Introduced into tlic United States about 1S67. Makes possible steel rails, ships, and buildings. [Panama Railroad, I J tin. 3S. First train from ocean to ocean by thcl 185G. March SO. Treaty of Paris ends Crimean AVar. First general congress since Vienna; at- tended by the five great powers. Piedmont, and Turkey. Turkey admitted to the European con- cert; her territorial integrity gtiaranteed; i:)eside6 boimdary adjustments, treaty neutralizes the Black Sea and establishes free navigation of the Danube. April 16. The congress makes declaration on naval warfare that advances international law; privateering is abolished; neutral flag covers en- emy's goods not contraband; neutral goods not contraband safe imder enemy flag ; blockade must be efl'ective. I'nited States declmes to join be- cause capture of private property at sea is not proliibited. (China).! 1857. Anglo-French expedition against China (seel Adjustment of long-pending controver-sy with Denmark over the Sound dues. United States active in the settlement. Commercial panic in United States and Europe, — caused in the United States by overljuilding railroads and speculation. Slow reco^e^y. Aug. e. First Atlantic cable laid from United States to Great Britain. Breaks immediately. Relaid in 18.58; messages pass in August, but ceases to work. A successful cable laid in July. 1866. 1858. Building of steamship Great Eastern. First large iron steamer (20.000 tons); arrives in New York in 1860; is never profitable because not properly engined. ^ Sources of the Nile (Victoria Nyanza) discovered by Speke and Grant. English explorers. July St. Conference at Plombieres-Ies-Bains between Napoleon III. and Cavour, Piedmontese minister; the emperor agrees to assist in driving Austria out of Italy upon proper pretext, in re- tui'n for cession of Savoy and Nice. 1859. Publication of Darwin's Oriain of Species. Classic of the theory of " natural selection." April. Cavour goads Austria into beginning the war (see Italy). Napoleon takes an army to assist Piedmont, but on July 11 concludes an armistice far short of liis promise to Cavour (Lom- bardy alone ceded by Austria) , because he is im- certain of fuller success, tearfid of creating too strong a state in Italy, and distiu-bed because Prussia is mobilizing on the Rhine. He yields right to receive Savoy and Nice. 1860-1900. Later Nineteenth Century period of American literature: Whitman. Taylor. Aldrich, Howells. Bret Harte. Crawford. Fiske. Parkraan. Burroughs. Mark Twain. Henry James. 1860. Petroleum deposits, long known in north- western Pennsylvania, are opened up commer- cially. Begiiming of a great industry. March-June. First Japanese mission to a Western country, comes to the United States. March 11, 12. Plebiscites m Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Bomagna (part of Papal States), favor annexation to Piedmont. Cireat Britain favors it and Napoleon permits it, getting, March 24, Savoy and Nice as price for so doing, though by this he alienates England, while the Italians re- sent the earher armistice as well and factions at home oppose the participation in Italian alTairs. Nov. 4-.i. The Marches and Umbria of tlic Papal States vote to join Piedmont. Napoleon, who has an army at Rome, agrees, provided Rome and the " patrimony " be left to the pope. 1861. March S t.N.S-). Imperial ukase in Russia assures the freedom of the agricultiu'al serfs. Takes efTect gradually. March 17. Following the conquest of Naples (Garibaldi's "Thousand" in Two Sicilies), the new kingdom of Italy is proclaimed over all the peninsula except Rome and Venetia. Tliis luii- flcation overthrows territorial settlement of Con- gr*s of Vienna, and Ijy adding another to the five Eiu-opean powers (see 1820. above) requires a re- ad.Iustnientofba'ance of power. Italian imity greatly influences Germany, where Prussia acts as Piedmont and Bismarck leads like Cavour. Bismarck's problem is to achieve German imity in the face of Austria and France. .4;)'i; 14. Civil War breaks out in the United States. Leads at once to difficulties with Great Britain and France as to contraband trade, block- ade, Confederate cruisers, and recognition. Ocl. SI. Treaty of London by Great Britain, Spain, and France for coercion of Alexlco in be- half of foreign l»ndholders. advantiige being taken of Civil War in United States. Expedition sent, but England and Spain withdraw, as France clearly intends to overtlirow Mexican republic (see jNIexico). In 1866 United States forces witli- drawal of French troops and empire established by them falls. Loss of money, men, and prestige, and preoccupation dtiring the time of Prussian aggrandizement eventually destroy Napoleon. 186'^. Second International Exhibition, again held in London. 1863. Jan. 1. Proclamation of Emancipation of slaves in the rebellious parts of the United States, by President Lincoln. - Feb. 8. Convention for Prussian support of ■" Russia against Polish revolt, thereljy gaining Russia's neutraUty in her own plans. Great Britain. France, and Austria protest but attempt no Intervention. 186*. Austro-Prussian war on Denmark caused Ijy Schleswig-Holstein (see Denmark), into which Bismarck has led Austria as a step toward the contest for leadership in central Em-ope. Confer- ence of powers at London accomplishes no adjust- ment. By treaty of Cctol:)er 30. Denmark reluc- tantly renotuices the duchies in favor of Prussia and Austria. Aug. 2i. Geneva Convention for the amelio- ration of tlie condition of wotmded in time of war (Red Cross Convention), framed hy 12 coun- tries and joined l3y most of tlie otlier nations later. Early example of international cooperation. 1865. Aug. H. Treaty of Gastein; Austria and Prussia to retain joint ownersliip of the duchies, but Prussia to administer Sclileswig and Austria Holstein. October. Meeting of Napoleon and Bismarck at Biarritz; Bismarck satisfies liimself that he can proceed against Austria without fear of French intervention. December. Slavery abolished altogether In the United States by 13th Constitutional Amend- ment. 1866-1890. Commercial panics; England. 1866; United States. 187.3 ; Australia and Argentina. 1890. 1866. Aprils. Prusso-ltahan alliance agamst Aus- tria. Bismarck then picks a (juarrel with Austria over administration of tiie duchies, and Atostria causes German Diet to vote forces against Prussia. June 16-July 28. Seven Weeks' War of Prus- sia and Italy against Austria and other German states (see Austria). Bismarck hastens peace for fear of intervention by France, the chance for wliich Napoleon lets slip. Italy is given Venetia; Prussia amiexes Schleswig-Holstein and various C:erman states; the German Confederation is abol- islied and in its place rises the North German Confederation of 22 states north of the Main, luider Prussian leadership. 1867. Prussia becomes dominant power of cen- tral Europe, and a war with France is considered I:)y Bismarck necessary to the firm unification of Germany. Napoleon demands compensation in Luxembiu-g and on the Rhine. Prussia to be repaid at expense of soutiiem German states. Bismarck discloses the demand to . these states, who form military alliance with the Confederation. Completion of Suez Canal by de Lesseps for a French company; formally opened in 1869. Brit^ ish government l)uys control of canal in 1875: and occupies Egypt (18.S2), April-November. World's Fair at Paris. E.x- position of industry of all nations. May 11. Convention of London by the six pow- ers (see 1861. above) and Belgium and the Nether- lands guarantees the neutrality of Luxemburg. 1868. First Chinese mission (Burlingame) to the United States and Europe. 1869. May 10. Through rail connection from the Atlantic to the Pacific (" transcontinental ") made at Promontory Point. Utah. 1870-3914. Polish literature: Sienkiewicz (With Fire and Sword. lS90;QiioVadisf 1 895). only author widely known outside of Poland. 1870. Completion of sub-Alpine tunnel of Mont Cenis; followed by St. Gothard (1882) and Sim- plon (1906). Jvly IS. Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church accepts dogma of infallibility of the Pope (" in matters of faith and morals.") July to. French declaration of war on Prussia, brought about by Hohenzollcra candi- dacy for the Spanish throne and Bismarck's con- densation of the Ems dispatch (see France). ' France Is isolated; Great Britain declares neu- trality. Austria and Italy are blocked. France and Prussia (July 15. 16) give assurances of re- specting neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg. Sept. SO. French troops being withdrawn from Rome. Italians capture the city, completing their iznification except as to the Trentino and Trieste (" Italia irredenta "). Oct. 31. Russia annotmces that she considers herself no longer toimd to observe the neutraliza- tion of the Black Sea; a " scrap of paper " action which Bismarck supports, Russia in return pre- vents Austria and Italy from aiding France. 1871. Jan. IS. German Empire is proclaimed at Versailles. May 10. Peace of Fraiikfiu't: France forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine (French since the time of Louis XIV.) to Germany, a loss wliich keeps alive French resentment. May lo. Treaty of London between the sig- natories of the treaty of 1856, accepts Russia's denunciation of neutrality of Black Sea, and cov- ers the violation of the treaty by declaring (Janu- ary 17) that treaty engagements cannot ije de- noianced or modified by contracting powers with- out consent or understanding of other signatories. RECONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE. 1873. August. Dreikaiscrbund (Three Emperors' League) formed informally by Austria. Germany, and Russia ; but soon after Russia and Prussia form a defensive alUance secretly without Austria. 1873. World E.vposition at Vienna, [tablished.l 1874. Oct. 7. International postal system es-l 1875. Germany, alarmed at France's rapid recov- ery, seems bent upon another war, but Russia dis- approves and greatly weakens her alliance witii Germany. Sctence and Health with Key to the Scriptures pul> Ushed by Mary Baker Glover (Eddy). 1876. Development of electrical Industry. Tele- phone invented by Graham Bell, 1876. Electric light (principle discovered by Davy in ISOO), ap- plied by Edison, 1879, electric welding. ISSl. Trolley cars. 1884 (Kansas City and Cleveland). Phonograph, 1S77; later perfected by Edison and otiiers. Centennial Exposition (himdrfedth anniversary of independence) lield at Philadelphia. JNIakes Americans acquainted with many inventions and processes. E-xploration of Central Africa by Henry M. Stanley. Locates the source of the Congo River. July S. Secret convention of Reichstadt be- tween Austria and Russia on united pohcy and ac- tion in the war then going on between Turkey and Serbia and Montenegro (see Serbia, under Jugo- slavia) ; result temporarily frustrated by Turkish success. Dec. BS. Conference of the powers begins at Constantinople to force reforms on the Porte; faiis, and Russia is left to carry out her tlireat of war (see Turkey). For his own' purposes Bis- marck agrees to the plan* and the Aiistro-Russian convention is renewed. January, 1877. 1878. International Exposition at Pari.ecomes complete, the aUiance Is dropped m 1890. and the entente with Trance advances. This is encoiu-aged by French loans to Russia and develops Into a formal alliance, but not acloiowledged for several years. 1888 Ocl 29 Suez Canal Convention at Con- stantmople by the six powers, Netherlands, Spain, and Tiu-key: neutralization, but Great Britain, controlling the canal, does not agree to it until April S, 1901; and it does not prevent British ownership and operation or the blocking of the canal to Germany In the World War. 1889. First Pan-American Congress (Washing- ton) Followed bv second at Mexico City (1901), third at Rio de Janeiro (1906), and fourth at Buenos Aires (1910). International Eiposltlon at Paris. Bridge over the Forth in Scotland completed; longest spans In the world. 1890-1929. Great irrigation works in U. S. (es- pecially Roosevelt Dam, 1910). The system opens up lands for tillage and furnishes water power which is transformed into electricity and carried long distances. 1890. July 1. Anglo-German treaty by which England cedes Helgoland to Germany m ex- change for concessions in Africa. Germany forti- fies this island, which Is of great strategic imi>or- tanco and becomes a menace to British naval con- trol diu-ing the World War. July 2- Brussels Convention for the repres- sion of the African slave trade; signed by 13 Euro- pean nations. United States, Congo Free State, and Zanzibar, and acceded to later by Abyssmia, Persia, and Orange Free State. United States ratifies with reservations — no poUtical uaterest m Africa. 1891. Aug. 22. Secret Franco-Russian alliance signed. 1894-1896. Armenian massacres (see Armeni.i). Powers imable to agree upon any effective action. British pohcy Is checked by German Intrigue with Turkey. 1894. Argon discovered; an unexpected element; revolutionizes conceptions of chemistry. Kiel Canal from North Sea to Baltic completed by Germany. Officially opened June 21, 1895. 1895. May. Intervention of Russia, Germany, and France m the Chmo-Japanese peace treaty, on the plea of preserving the integrity of Chinese ter- ritory; Japan prevented from gathermg the fruits of her victory. 1896-1897. Cretan revolt and Turko-Greek war (see Greece). Powers, hopelessly split on the Balkan question, warn Greece not to expect any aid- but after Greek defeat Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia (Austria and Germany, Tur- key's supporters, holding aloof) arrange an autono- mous government for Crete (1898). 1896. Revival of ancient Olympian games by a score of coimtries at Athens. Gold discovered on the Klondike, a branch of the Yukon River, in British Canadian territory. 1897-1898. European seiziu-es of territory in Chma. followed (1899) by the amioim cement of the Amer- ican policy of the " open door " (see China). 1898. Radium and polonium discovered by the Curies, husband and wife, m Paris. Beglnnmg of great chemical advance. 1899. Begimimg of Assuan Dam in Egypt, to aid in irrigation of Egypt. Modern system of wireless telegraphy In opera- tion between England and France. Fk^t message across the Atlantic in 1902. WORLD HISTORY. PRELIMIHARIES OF WAR. 1899. ^fay IS-July 29. First Peace Conference St The Hague, suggested by the czar on August 24 1898. Delegates from 26 states attend, in- cluding nearly all European states. Cliina. Japan, Persia, Slam, Mexico, and the United States, winch is very active. Foiu- conventions are adopted on July 29- (1) for the pacific settlements of mtcma- tional disputes by voluntary means; (2) prohibi- tion of laimcliing of projectiles from aircraft; (.3) adaptation to maritime warfare of the prmciples of the Geneva Convention; (4) amelioration of laws and conditions of war on land. Germany is chiefly mstrumental m blockmg any form of compulsory arbitration. 1900. Boxer rising (see China). United States participates in rescuing the diplomats. International Exposition at Paris. Count Zeppelin successful in flight in a dirigible balloon, or airship. 1901. Pan-American Exposition at Bxiffalo Second Pan-American Congress at Mexico City South Carolina and West Indian Exposition at Charleston. 1903. Jan. SO. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance (see Japan) brmgs Japan definitely mto European connection, her participation m the Boxer suppres- sion having been an earlier step m tills direction. April. Rhodes legacy for scholarships in English imiversities for Americans and others — to cultivate good feeling. December. Coercion of Venezuela (see Venezu- ela) primarily an excuse by Germany for mterfer- ence in South American poUties; checked by atti- tude of United States. 1903. March B. Turkish convention for construc- tion of the Bagdad Railway under German aus- pices (■• Berlin to Bagdad "); a phase of German poUcy to control the Near East and Middle Eu- rope as an offset to the colonial empu-es of the other powers. Turkey falls completely under German influence. 1904. Subway in New York City opened. March. First tunnel under the Hudson River completed from New York to Jersey City. April s Anglo-French agreements on Mo- rocco and Egypt and all other outstandmg ques- tions mark the beginning of the entente cordiale (see Great Britain, imder British Empire). Rus- sia's reverses In the Japanese War have left France again unprotected. Egyptian-Morocco agreement has a secret clause for mutual aid m case a tliird nation (Germany) attempts to dis- turb the arrangement. Oct. S. Franco-Spanish agreement on Morocco, with a secret clause similar to the above. 1905. March SI. Emperor William's speech at Tangier, declarmg the sultan of Morocco an abso- lutely Independent sovereign, is adirect challenge of the Anglo-French and Franco-Spanish agreements, which Germany had hitherto accepted in prmciple. France not m a position to challenge Germany's demand for a voice in all such arrangements. June S. Roosevelt's offer of Ms good oflaces to end the Russo-Japanese War (see Japan) is a fur- ther step in American participation m general di- plomacy, begun at the Congo Conference and ad- vancedbv the participation in Chinese affairs. 1906. Red Cross Convention ratified by the U. S. Third Pan-American CongressatRiodeJaneiro April 7. Algeciras Convention by the six powers. Belgium. Spam. Morocco, Netherlands, Portugal, and United States, a result of Germany's demands. It provides for the " open door " and leaves the control over Morocco nominally mter- national but actually with France and Spam imder conditions practicaUy unworkable, especially against German intrigue with the sultan. The UTnlted States, specially invited by the emperor, is responsible for the decision, which is imlavorable to Germany. July 6. Further Red Cross Convention. 1907. June IB-Ocl. IS. Second Hague Peace Con- ference, attended by delegates of 21 European. 19 American, and 4 Asiatic nations. United States agam promment. Fourteen conventions are adopted on: (1) pacific settlement of disputes and permanent court of arbitration; (2) nonemploy- ment of force to recover contract debts (Drago doctrme); (3) opening of hostilities; (4) ameliora- tion of war on land ; (5) right and duties of neutrals in war on land; (6) limitation on use of marine mines and torpedoes: (7) naval bombardment; 1885 a. d.— 1913 A. D. (8) adaptation of Geneva Convention to naval warfare; (9) right of captures m naval warfare; (10) international prize court; (11) rights and duties of neutrals m naval war; (12) prohibition of discharge of projectiles from aircraft; (13) status of enemy merchant ships at outbreak of hostilities; (14) conversion of merchant ships mto war sliips. A final act registers the Conference as unitmg imaiumously on the desirability of the prmciple of compulsory arbitration. The conventions for lessening the horrors of war are repeatedly vio- lated durmg the World War (1914-1918). Auy. IS. Anglo-Russian treaty over spheres in Asia, the only matter m which the mterests of the two powers directly clash. This annoimces a rnpprorichement similar to the Anglo-French one and of a tripartite entente cordiale. No formal treaty of aUiance is made. 1908. October. Austria annexes Bosnia and Herze- govma. and Bulgaria declares her complete mde- pendence; both violations of the Treaty of Bcrim and the declaration of 1S71. Serbia protests, but signatories of that treaty are now divided; Eng- land and France unwlUing to go to extremes. Ger- many supporting Austria, and Russia forced to yield" becau.se not equal to a great war. The vio- lations are formaUy condoned m 1909. 1909. Alaska-Yukon-Paciflc Exposition at Se- attle. Washington. Feb. 9. Franco-German agreement on Morocco ; recognition of French permanent mterest at the price of joint economic control; a violation of the ■■ open door " and fruitful of further controversy. Feb. 26. Convention of London on regula- tion of naval warfare; suggested and called by Great Britain: framed by delegates of Germany, Austria. Spam. France. Great Britam. Italy, Netherlands. Russia. United States, and Japan; signed by the British authorities: their assent then withdrawn by a technicality m the British Parlia- ment, and never put in operation; its principles nuUlfled durmg the World War. April 6. Peary discovers the North Pole. 1910. July. Fourth Pan-American Congress at Buenos Aires. 1911. April. France sends a force to Fez to restore order, and Spain occupies a part of Morocco. On July 1 Germany annoimces intention to send a warship to Morocco (Agadir affair), and interna- tional complications are renewed, mvolving Eng- land and also other African possessions. Matters are quieted on November 4 by a Franco-German treaty, admitting French protectorate in Morocco but ceding to Germany a portion of French Equa- torial Africa. People of neither nation satisfied; CaiUaiLx. French premier, later accused of playing into German hands. Sept. 20. Italy suddenly declares war on Tur- key for the possession of Tripoli (see Italy), and is permitted by the powers to work her wOl. proba- bly because of the danger of a general war if any nation mtervenes. Dec. le. South Pole discovered by the Nor- wegian explorer Roald Amundsen. 1913. Aug. 26. Alliance of four Balkan states (not including Roumanla) agamst Turkey, proba- bly with Russian secret consent; aided by the in- difference of the powers to the Tiu-ko-Italian War. Also, the evident designs of Austria (Germany) on then- territory have caused them to abandon their internecine controversies. Teutonic powers ex- pect a Turkish victory over the allies. Turkey loses every battle m the open and every fortified place m Macedonia and Thrace. 1913. May SO. Treaty of London at end of Bal- kan War deprives Turkey of all her European territory except neighborhood of Constantmople. but the Triple Alliance forbids Serbia to control Albania with its Adriatic frontage. Teutonic in. trigue is busy against the contmuation of the Bal- kan League, workmg on Bulgaria, which country on June 29, precipitates a second Balkan War on its erstwhile aUies (see Bulgaria), and is defeated, Roumanla joining the other states against her. Aug 10. Treaty of Bucharest between tht Ba'Uian states readjusts the boundaries at the ex- pense of Bulgaria, even Turkey regaimng somt territory Powers look on; Teutonic nations foi the moment not able to help either Turkey or BiU- garia, but ready to take advantage of the unsatis- factory domestic conditions of the memljersof tht Triple Entente. . Aug. 28. Palace of Peace at The Hague, gift of Andrew Carnegie. V. WORLD-WAR PERIOD: 1914 TO 1920. Historical Outline. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. The occasion for the World War was found in the Balkans. Although Austria had succeeded m en- forcing her will in the settlement of the second Balkan War in 1913, and tlii-oiigh the erection of an Albanian kingdom had successfully prevented Serbia from gaining access to the sea, the Serbs were filled with resentment. The idea of nationality was strong in them and they hoped to imite their race in one autonomous state. Since Austria-Hungary ruled millions of Serb subjects, she could but regard this ambition as dangerous to her supremacy. Both In Serbia and in the Serbian regions governed by Austria, secret societies were formed and an active Pan-Serbian propaganda was initiated. Still, Serbia was obliged to submit in 1913, as she had done in 1908 and 1909. Alone, she was in no condition to measure strength with Austria. On June 2S, 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdi- nand of Austria, heir to the ttirone. was assassi- nated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Altliough the assassins were Austrian subjects and natives of Bosnia, they were Serbians by race. Austria had been watching for an opix)rtunity to teach Serbia a lesson and forthwith assumed tliat tliis act was the result of Serbian propaganda, denoimced the Serbs as a nation of murderers, and held the Serbian gov- ernment responsible. On July 23 Austria carried out a long-planned de- sign and sent the fated ultimatum to Serbia con- taining demands of such a character as. Sir Edward Grey said, had never been laid upon an independent nation. The Pan-Serbian propaganda must \ye suppressed, all anti-Austrian propaganda, whetlier in newspapers, textbooks, or schools, must cease: oflBcers in the government and army whose names the Austrian government should submit must Ixi re- moved: Sertiia must accept Austrian aid in the in- vestigation of this conspiracy. FmaUy, Serbia was given 48 hoim* in which to siibmit to this humihat- ing ultimatum. The nature of the demands was such as to make it evident that Austria had resolved on war. On July 25 Serbia submitted to all demands save the last, wliich she offered to arbitrate; but this did not satisfy Austria, and on July 28 she declared war upon Serbia. Although the war began with the attempt of Austria to suppress a petty Balkan state, the real causes were far wider than the Balkan question. They were world-reaching. From the point of view of Germany, she and her ally, Austria, were in constant danger of a move- ment — commonly called Pan-SIa\ism — to imite the Slavs of the Balkans and the Slavs of Russia. To German eyes Pan-Slavism meant the extinction of Pan-Germanism and of the pecuhar Kultur for which Germany stood. Germany aUeged that she and Austria would be siuroimded by " an iron ring." — on the one side Russia and her aUies, on the other France with her ally. Great Britain. Germany was conscious of great material success; she was prosper- ous, efficient, and scientific and demanded a position equal to what she considered her due — "a place in the Sim." Germany's colonial empire was small compared with that of Great Britam and France, and the colonics she held were less lucrative and desirable than those in the hands of her rivals. The teachings of her philosophers emphasized that the state was might, and that war was the proper means to ex- pand her culture. Finally, the growth of the Social- ist party in Germany was a menace to the military regime and if Germany was ever to strike it must do so before this rising power prevented such action and destroyed the mihtary machine which had been so carefully prepared. For these reasons, among others, Germany supported her ally, Austria, in her demands on Serbia, and believed that the day had come when she might aspire to world domination. Russia could not allow her Slav protegee, Serbia, to be overridden by Austria. Twice before, Russia had been forced to assent to Austria's sUghts and must now take some decisive steps in order to retain her hifluenco in the Balkans. Therefore, on July 29, the day after Austria declared war upon Serbia. Russia mobiUzed the forces in the southern military districts; and the day after Belgrade was bom- barded by the Austrians, Russia ordered a general mobilization (July 31). Germany seized upon that action as a pretext for a war long agreed upon. While her regular armies were massing on the Ru.ssian border, she demanded that Russia cease mobilizing, and on August 1 de- clared war. An ultimatum was presented to France demanding whether France would support Russia. On August 2 Germany struck at France through the neutral state of Luxemburg and en- tered French territory. On the same day Germany demanded a passage for her armies tiirough the neutralized state of Belgium, wliich refuseti and bravely accepted the war thus thrust upon her. Throughout these events Great Britain did all in her power to mitigate the severity of the Austrian demands on Serbia and to mediate in the dispute be- tween Russia and Austria. She received no sym- pathy in tluwo steps from Germany, wliich insisted that mediation was impracticable. The evidence shows that Austria took no step without the consent if not the positive advice of her ally, Germany. The suppression of Serbia was part of the general policy of Germany, whicii desired not a peaceful set- tlement of the Serbian dispute, but an appeal to arms, in wliich she felt herself destmed to Ix) trium- phant. Still, Germany was not ready to measure strength with France and Russia if Great Britain were to be their ally. She therefore offered to respect the terri- torial integrity of France should England remain neutral (July 28), but refused to give a similar assur- ance with regard to the French colonial possessions. England was already bound by a secret agreement to protect the Channel coast of France. Her refusal of this offer led Germany to strike at France tbrougti Belgium; and the appeal of Belgium at once brought Great Britain into the war as the ally of France and Russia, contrary^ to Germany's expectations. In another respect the plans of the Teutonic allies miscarried. Italy, the tliird member of the Triple Alliance, issued a declaration of neutrality, Au- gust 3, correctly asserting that the Triple Alliance was a defensive, not an offensive, aUiance, and that she had not !>een consulted by her alhes in the steps wiiich brought on the war. Whether the war was necessary for Gerniany''$ defense or not, her actions soon alienated the sympathies of the world. The confession of the German chancellor that Germany was violatmg Belgian rights and his assertion that " Just for a word — neutrality — just for a scrap of paper Great Britain was gomg to make war on a kindred nation " showed a cynical disregard for international law and the rights of small nations. Furthermore, Ger- many's method of making war was more brutal and terrible than the world had seen in modem times. The invasion of Belgium was resisted by the Bel- gian army and the heroic opposition of this little force at Liege ohecl^ed the German advance and gave the AUies time to concentrate their forces. Thus thwarted, the Germans took savage revenge upon the Belgians. Louvain was destroyed, towns and villages along the route of the German advance were sacked, and hmidreds of irmocent civihans were ruth- lessly executed. A pohcy of terrorization was adopt- ed which, although preventing insurrection, failed to break the Belgian spirit, but won the sympathy of the world and gained universal opprobriiun for Germany. CAMPAIGNS OF 1914. Liege fell on August 7 ; on August 20 Brussels was occupied. Three days later Namur was occupied and Mens attacked, and the great retreat of the French and English forces began. France was invaded; for ten days and ten nights the retreat continued. The great fortresses proved useless against the most powerful gims ever moved by an advancmg army. Town after town in northern France was occupied as the British and French forces were obliged to retire to avoid being surrounded. The invaders came within striking distance of Paris, and German victory seemed certain. On September 6 the advance was halted and to liis generals Marshal Joffre sent word that " the hour has come to hold fast and let yourselves be killed rather than to yield." The decisive world battle of the Marne l>e^an with the desperate assault by the French, as is shown in the message which Gen- eral Foch sent to Joffre, " My right is in retreat, my center is yielding. Situation excellent. I shall attack." The attack was successful, and not only was the German advance checked, but the German army was driven back with enormous losses from the Marne to the Aisne. where it took refuge in a hne of trenches and resisted the French advance. The battle of the Mame saved Paris and France from German dominion. But Germany still occu- pied large portions of the French territory, and after their defeat on the Mame the Germans besieged and captured Antwerp and swept westward to occupy the Chaimel ports. Ostend was captured October 15. but the Germans were checked before Dunkirk was reached and the first battle of Tpres began October 19. Here the British army, though out-- numlwred four to one and suffering a loss of one half, beat off the German attack. Both sides intrenched themselves and the opposing lines extended contin- uously from the Channel to Switzerland, in positions which varied little imtil March 1918. Although Germany failed to capture Paris and to destroy l«Yance, she occupied most valuable terri- tory, by possession of which her power to continue the war was augmented. The territory she held con- tained nine tenths of the iron ore and half of the coal of France: and the Belgian harlxjrs of Ostend and Zeebrugge fimiislied convenient bases for the sub- marine warfare :^he later adopted. On the Russian front Germany was disagreeably surprised. She had counted on the slowness of the unwieldy empire to mobilize, and hoped by a sud- den blow to paralyze Russia's western ally, and then to deal with the East at her leisure. Russia, how- ever, advanced more rapidly than was expected and invaded East Prussia on the north and Gahcia on the south, where the Austrians were defeated at Lem- berg (September 1) and Frzemysl was mvested, wlnle a central army struck hi the direction of Posen. On August 29 the Germans, with reenforced lines, de- feated the Russians at Tannenberg and drove them out of East Prussia; and by a combined attack of the German and Austrian forces the Russians were pushed back in Poland until General von Hinden- burg was on the outskirts of Warsaw. On Octolx^r 13 Grand Duke Nicholas, the Russian generahssimo, took the offensive, and the battle of the Marne was repeated on the Vistula. Hinden- burg struck again at Warsaw, but was checked, and after the Russian \ictory in the north at Avgustovo (October 4) the Russians again invaded East Prus- sia. On December 6, the Germans, though suffer- ing terrific losses, cut their way eastward to Lodz and by the end of the year estabUshed a Une twenty- five miles west of Warsaw. While Germany and Austria were occupied with Russia and France. Serbia, aided by Uttle Monte- negro, the only Balkan state to stand" by her, gained some initial >ictories. although the Austrians suc- ceeded in occupjing the Serbian capital, Belgrade. Because of the rehef from pressure resulting from the Russian a<:Ivance m Gahcia. the Serbians were able to retake it, drove the Austrian troops out of Serbia, and invaded Bosnia. Meanwliile the Central Powers enlisted an ally. On November 5, 1914, Turkey entered the war. Ever since the revolution which estabUshed the Yoimg Turks in control (1908), German influence had been dominant. The success of Russia might mean the loss of Constantinople to Turkey, wliile a German victory might insure the continuance of the Ottoman Empire. To Germany and her allies the adherence of Turkey was of great value. The sul- tan, as the head of the Mohammedan religion, was expected to proclaim a " jihad," or holy war, which would cause unrest among the milhons of Moham- medan subjects of Great Britain and Russia. More- over, the Turkish army, officered by Germans, would be a convenient instrument with which to detach a signiflcant part of the military strength of Russia and G reat Britain. Diu-mg 1914, although the Turks attempted to cross tlie Sinai peninsula and threaten Egypt, and to Invade the Caucasus, they were defeated; the immediate reply was the British occupation of Busrah at the head of the Persian Gulf, the final annexation of Cji^rus. and the announce- ment that Egypt had become a British colony. In the Far East. Japan as Great Britain's ally declared war upon Germany and demanded the surrender of Kiaochow. When this was refused, Japan captured the fortress by siege. Germany's widely scattered colonial empire was attacked elsewhere. In the Pacific, Apia was occupied by New Zealand troops (August 29), and the surrender of the German possessions in the Samoan group and of Kaiser-Willielmsland, Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Islands rapidly foUowed. Octol>er 7, Japan seized the Marshall Islands. In Africa a Fran CO- British force captured Togo, and the forces of the South African Union began the conquest of other German possessions. British troops came to the rescue of France on the western front, while the British navj' upheld the cause of the Alhes all over the world. The fleet, on the declaration of war, at once began a blockade of the German northern coast, wliich continued throughout the war. At the same time, Ger- many's vast merchant marine was swept from the sea by British and French cruisers or interned in neutral harbors. During the early days of the war considerable damage was done to Allied commerce by the swift German cruisers Emden and Karlsruhe; but with the destruction of these vessels the danger was diminished and only the German main fleets were to be feared. The home fleet was mostly bottled up in the Kiel Canal; the small Pacific fleet (November 1) won a naval victory over an English squadron off the coast of Chile. December S, however, it was totally de- stroyed in the battle of the Falkland Islands. In (27) 28 WORLD HISl'ORY. Eurocean waters the British won a naval victory | Anglo-French troops aided by the AustraJian and iLuropean vvaucia ouc ^^ „„„..i x..,^ ■-/.oninnrt irmv Onrns Immvn as t he Anzacs. u w near Helgoland (August 2S, 1014): but soon alter lost three 12.000-ton cruisers, tlie Aboukir, Cressy, and Hague, by the attack of a German submarine. The main German fleet, however, did not take the sea and though a small port on the coast of England was bombarded (Dec. 16), little damage resulted. Great Britain also conunandcd the English Chan- nel and was able to transport an ever mcreasmg number of troops to France with the loss of only a few hundred men. Etiually vital was tlie blockade which Great Britain estabUshed agamst the German ports. Not only were ships prevented from entering the ports, but "the trade of neutrals was restricted tlirough the doctrine of ■' continuous voyage," so that Germany was cut off from commercial mter- coiu-se with all Ijut the neighljoring states. Thus l)egan an economic pressure which ultimately had the effect of breaking the morale of the German peo- ple and paving tlie way for the victory of the AUies. Although tlie battle of tlie Marne saved France, yet the Germans hold practically aU of Belgium and northwestern France and a hne of intrcnchments from the North Sea to Switzerland. Diu-ing the year 1915 the Allies attempted to dislodge them frotn these positions. The war was a war of " attrition," or as Joffre said, " of nibbling." For some months no engagements of importance were fought, but on March 10, at Neuve Chapclle the British began a tentative offensive. This battle was remarkable be- j cause intensive artillery preparation was first used. On a narrow front of less than foiu- miles, more than , 300 British cannon were concentrated, and by means of high explosives the German defenses were liter- ally blasted away. In this single battle the British used more sheU than they had used in the whole of the Boer War. Following the artillery preparation, the infantry advanced and gamed about a mile. The German line was bent but not broken. The Ger- mans coimterattacked but the British in spite of enormous losses held their new front. On the part of the Germans an attempt to break the lines of the. Allies was made at Ypres (April 22-25). This battle was noteworthy for the first use of poisonous gas. The Canadians, on whom the attack was made, were unprepared for such tactics. The use of poisonous gas had been expressly proliibited by the Hague Convention of 1907, to which Germany had given her assent. Her illegal methods were momentarily successful and the French and Canadians were forced back. But on May 24 the fighting died down, and the Germans had suc- ceeded only in bending the Allies' Ime. Again, on September 25, the Allies took the offen- sive at the battle of Loos. Although the immedi- ate objective was obtained, yet the cost in Uves was enormous, and the British commanders failed to fol- low up their initial success. Thus the deadlock on the western front continued. 1915 A. D. — 1916 A. D. on May 7, 1915, one of the largest Imers in passenger CAMPAIGNS OF 1915. On the Russian front the Allies had better suc- cess. On the north the Russians attempted a new inrasion of East Prussia, but von Hindenburg, to whom this territory was familiar, outmaneuvered them and decisively defeated them in the battle of the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 10-12, 1915). In this battle, the Russians lost in killed and wotmded 150.000, and over 100,000 were taken prisoners. Against Austria Russia at fh-st won more success. From January imtil May the Russian army pushed into GaUcia." Przcniysl fell March 22, and the whole battle front moved forward imtil May 1. At this date the tables were turned. The Austrians, reenforced under von Hindenburg and von Mac- kensen, attacked the Russians on a wide front. The Germans and Austrians were everywliere successful, and the whole Russian line was forced to retreat. Przemysl was recaptured Jime 3; Lemberg, Jime 22; Russian Poland was invaded and Warsaw was occupied. August 5; Russian Poland was conciuered and the provinces of Lithuania and Kiu-land were overrun. The Russian army was extricated by the skillful gcneralsliip of the Grand- Duke Nicholas. Yet for his iU success he was removed from his com- mand and sent to the Caucasus. The Allies suffered another severe blow In the Turkish campaign. An ambitious plan to cap- tm-e Constantinople was prepared. The impor- tance of the place was obvious. Constantmople. in tlie hand of the Turks, barred the Allies from reach- ing Russia by water. Tlirough the Dardanelles and the Black Sea ports munitions might be dispatched to Russia and from Russia provisions might be drawn to relieve the necessities of the Allies. More- over, the possession of Constantinople would cut Germany off from her Tm-kish ally and put an end to the Teutonic dream of uninterrupted German con- trol from Berlin to Bagdad . Furthermore, an Allied success in this quarter woidd have a wonderful effect upon the wavering coiu-age of the Balkan states. The first attempt to capture Constantinople was made at the Dardanelles (February 19. 1915) but was checked a month later by the loss of three battleships, two British r..nd one French. Although repulsed, the Allies, reenlorced by an army of the Now Zealand Army Corps, known as the " Anzacs, landed on the penmsula of Gallipoli. An attack was made at Achi Baba, the key to the Turkish positions, but the Turks, under the command of the German General von Sanders, repulsed them. Des- perate attempts were also made to cut the commu- nications with Constantinople,, but the operations failed. Although the troops, remamed tliroughout the year, notliing was accomplished. The evacua- tion of the AUied positions was accomplished by January 8, 1916. The British had some mitiaJ success in their cam- paign agamst the Turks in Mesopotamia. They succeeded in drivmg the Tiuks back bejond the Tigris and Euphrates by July, and pushed forward in the direction of Bagdad. On November 22-24 General Townshend's colunm defeated more than 13,000 Tiu-ks at Ctesiphon. The Tiu-ks, however, re- ceived reenforcements, and the British were com- pelled to retreat to Kut-cl-Amara, where they were besieged. One permanent gam was made by the Alhes. On May 23, 1915. Italy declared war on Austria- Himgary. Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance for over 30 years, and in 1912 tliis aUiance had been renewed to last imtil 1920. But Italy was not consulted in the Serbian ultimatum, and tlie war was obviously offensive and not defensive. Under j these circumstances Italy was perfectly justified m refusing to enter the war on the side of her allies and [ in taking up a neutral position. j The kingdom of Italy, however, was not complete, as Austria still controlled himdreds of thousands of Italians in the Trentino and Trieste. This was ■• Ilnlui irmhiila " — luiredeemed Italy. The Ital- ian government attempted to acquire this terri- tory from Austria by negotiations; but when this at- tempt failed, Italy, in response to an overwhelming popular demand, felt that her legitimate asphations coidd best be satisfied by'joming the Allies and therefore deciai'ed war upon Austria. A double offensive was laimched against Austria, one colunm niovmg into the Trentmo, and another against the positions beyond the Isonzo, flankmg Trieste. After some initial successes, both sides in- trenched themselves, and the Italian offensive came to a halt, largely because of the difficult nature of the coimtry. Tlie effect of the AUied failure at the DardaneUes was disastrous. Greece had been about to join the Allies, but now adopted a tortuous pohcy of benevo- lent neutrality towards Germany. On Bulgaria the result was even more decisive. Bulgaria liated Roumania, Serbia, and Greece and felt that these powers had deprived her of her legitimate territory by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913. (See Bulgaria.) Now that the Russians were driven from Galicia and the Allies unsuccessful at the Dardanelles, Bulgaria saw her opportimity to tear up the treaty and with German aid to acquire the territory and seaports she coveted. After a period of devious diplomacy the Bulgarian czar, Ferdmand, joined the Central Powers (Oct. 5, 1915), although war was not formally declared until Oct. 14. The effect was far-reachhig. It gave to Germany the long-wished-for " corridor " to Turkey and enabled her to hiurj- munitions and men to her Tm-kish allies. The accession of Bulgaria to the Central Powers sealed the doom of Serbia. 1915 saw the vu-tual extinctton of the imwiUing pretext of the war, Serbia. In October a new cam- paign was organized against her; and the Austrians, freed from the danger of Russian invasion and reen- forced by the Germans and the Bulgarians, who had now jouied the Teutonic powers, swept through the coimtry. The renmant of the Serbian army was transported by Allied vessels to the island of Corfu. In German Southwest Africa, a division of the troops of the Union of South Africa, commanded by General Louis Botha, began operations in February. Windhuk, the capital, was captured on May 12, and on July 9 the German commander siu-rendered im- conditionally. In tlie Kamerun the AUies occu- pied the .seacoast and the raihoads and drove the Germans into the interior. In German East Africa the resistance was more obstmate and the British suffered minor repulses. No important fleet engagements took place durmg the year 1915. The Germans confined their naval activity to the use of the submarine. In Febru- ary, the British Isles were declared in a state of blockade, and Germany claimed the right to stalt merchant vessels bearing the British flag and boimd for British ports. Although international law al- lowed the destruction of the merchantmen of one belligerent by another, the dictates of humanity, wliich had hitherto been observed by contending powers, required that the crew and passengers sliould be removed before the destruction of the vessel. The submarhie was a craft imable either to capture a merchant vessel or adequately to provide for the safety of the crew and passengers. Thus the use of the submarme as a weapon against merchantmen was considered illegal. Unmoved by such consider- ations, the Germans with their submarines destroyed many merchant sliips, both neutral and English, and service — the Lusltanla — was sunk without warn- hig. Nearly 1 ,200 men, women, and cliUdren perished, among whom were more than a himdred Americans. In spite of the submarine menace. Great Britain continued to transport into France troops and muni- tions and, although suffering great losses in her mer- chant marine, was able to keep in touch with her colonial empire and to import food and munitions. CAMPAIGNS OF 1916. In 1916 Germany's supreme effort on the west- em front was made at Verdun, a place so strongly fortified as to be considered almost impregnable; and for that very reason there were few defenses of ma- jor importance between Verdun and Paris. The capture of such an important position woiUd paralyze the AlUed resistance and with the faU of Paris France might succumb. Moreover, the very difficulty of the military operations offered a chance for mihtarj- glory to the German Crown Prmce, who commanded that section of the line. The Germans made careful preparations and ac- cumulated enormous armies and vast supphes, and on February 21 tlie attack began. It seemed im- possible that human force could defy such destruc- tive artillery fire, or that troops could mauitain tlieir positions aiid check tlie advance of then- opponents, sheltered behmd the rain of high explosives. Al- though the French were driven from position to posi- tion and in four days retired four miles, tliey con- tested every mch of the ground. Reijnforcements were hurried to them, and the advance was tempo- rarily cheeked ; taut the Germans had resohed to cap- ture "Verdun whatever the cost. The French, mider Pctam, and, later, NiveUe, were equally resolved to check them and, with the Cry "lis ne passeront pas! " [" They shaU not pass! "1, they thwarted the efforts of the Germans and actually chove them out of most of the positions they had won. The battle lasted from February imtil July. It was renewed in October, and on December 15, by a surprise at- tack. General Nivelle recovered Fort de Vaux and two niUes of territory along a seven-mUe front and took 1 1,400 prisoners and 115 giuis. Tliis ten montlis' battle cost the Germans about 600,000 men and the French nearly 500,000. On July 1 began the great Allied offensive on the Somme. The intent was twofold. By at- tacking the Germans in tliis region it was hoped to relieve the pressure on Verdim. The immediate objective, however, was the captm-e of the railway centers of Peronne and Bapaume, which supported the German front. The AUies here perfected the method of artiUery preparation before attacking the German positions. After blastuig away the protective barriers of barbed wire and sliattermg the trenches, the infantry, foUowmg the barrage, occu- pied the German positions. Tliroughout the sum- mer the advance proceeded. Thiepval, Pozicres, Longueyal, and Combles were captm-ed and Peroime was threatened. In the autumn (September 15) the " tanks " first made their apiwarance, and betneen November 12 and 18 in the Ancre region the British gained the liigliland commandhig Bapaume. The rains of November brought the advance to an end, yet the Allies had gained 170 square mUes wliich tiiey re- tamed, unlike the Germans at Verdun, who had been driven out of most of the positions taken by them. The year 1916 marked the height of Russia's success. In Armenia, Grand Duke Nicholas was successful agamst the Tm-ks and captiu-ed the strongly fortified city of Erzerum (February 16, 1916) and Trebi^ond (AprU 18), wliile another Rus- sian column penetrated the moimtaiiis and occupied " old Armenia." The Tm-ks thus lost over 30,000 square mhes on a front of 750 mUes. In Europe General Brusilov started a great offen- sive in June. The immediate object was tlie cap- ture of Kovel and Lemberg and the recaptm-e of Bukowina. Along a front which extended from the Prlpyat marshes to the Roumanian frontier, the Russian forces advanced. The Austrian lines were broken and the fortresses of Lutsk and Dubno were captured. Czemowitz was reoccupicd (Jime 1 7) and Bukowina retaken. On the north, Brody was cap- tured and Kovel was tlireatened and the Russian Cossacks poiu-ed tlu-ough the Carpathian passes toward the Himgarian plain. As before, Germany came to the rescue of Austria. The Russians were halted at the Styr on the north, but on the south they almost reached Lemberg. At this pomt Bru- sUov's offensive came to an end. Tliis victory was the greatest Allied success since the battle of the Marne. The Russians took more than 420,000 pris- oners and over 15,000 square miles of territory. The Russian dri%e was intended to prepare the way for the entrance of Roumania on the side of the Allies. In Transylvania Austria governed miUions of the Roumanian race and the nationaUstic aspira- tions of Roumania led to the hope that these people might be jomed with the Roumanian state. More- over, Bulgaria, ne\-er forgetting the Treaty of Bucha- rest, was ready to take any advantage the war might offer to regain the territorj- she had surrendered to Roumania in 1913. 1916 A. D. - 1917 A. D. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 29 On August 27. Roumania joined the Allies and made a spectacular raid into Transylvania. The results were tragic. Brusilov's offensive had come to a stop and Russia was not able to aid the Rou- manians. The German general, von Mackensen, commanding an army of Bulgarians, Turks, and Germans, swept into the Dobruja and captured a division of the Roumanian army. The mvading troops m Transylvania were ordered to withdraw, but a new German army commanded by von Falken- Ua.yn fell upon its rear and drove it across the bor- der. Alackensen crossed the Danube and the Roumanian forces were caught between two converg- ing armies. Bucharest was abandoned December G, and the Roumanian army souglu refuge in the Rus- sian lines. Like Serbia, l-ioumania was almost com- pletely conquered, and the grain fields and oil wells were at the service of the Teutonic allies. More- over, the Austro-German front now ran almost in a straight line from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In Mesopotamia the Turks pressed the siege of Kut- el-Amara, and General Townshend was forced to siu-render AprU 29, 1016. In Arabia the Grand Shereef of Mecca revolted from Turkish rule and es- tablished a government which included Mecca, Me- dina, and Jedda. In the southern Balkans the Austrians meted out to Montenegro the same fate that the Serbians had suffered and occupied Cetinje January 13 and Scu- tari, the chief trading center of Albania, January 2,3. To check tliis advance, or at least to prevent the Teutonic powers from overrunning Greece, the Al- lies occupied Salonilii, as a pomt from which they might attack the Bulgarians and possibly threaten the Teutonic lines of commimication. Large de- tachments of Frenoli and Enghsh troops were sent to Saloniki, and the Serbian army, which had been re- fitted by the French at Corfu, was given the position on the left flank. In September an offensive was begim wliich resulted in the Allied occupation of Monastir, Noven^er 19. On tlie Itaiiali front the Austrians launched a powerful offensive m May. Taking from the east- ern front large detachments of troops and guns, Austria struck south along the vaUey of the Adige and Brenta and approached the Venetian plain. Brusilov's drive in the east, however, forced Austria to htirry reenforcements to that front and saved the day for Italy. Takhig advantage of tliis. the Italian offensive began in August along tlie Isonzo, and Giirz (Gorizia) was captiu-ed August 9, thus redeem- ing the first important town of " Italia irredenta." A foothold was also gained on the Karst (Carso) plateau, and m October the Austrian line was broken in the Julian Alps. The year 1916 saw the extinction of German au- thority in Africa. In February the conquest of the Kamerim was completed and 900 German and 14,000 colonial troops took refuge in Spanish Guinea. German East Africa, however, was stubbornly de- fended, and not until September were any large detaclunents of German troops defeated. By De- ceml)er the Allies were everywhere successful and German authority was at an end. The naval operations during 1916 included the continuous use by Germany of the submarine against both naval and merchant vessels. While Germany had an undoubted right to sinlc without warning the naval vessels, she had no right to sink the merchant ships without giving an opportimity to save the hves of the noncombatants, nor to attack ships of a neutral state, imless bound for a blockaded port or carrying contraband. Since the British fleet prevented an effective blockade of Allied ports, the only right of capture or destruction rested upon the carriage of contraband. Both Germany and the Allies had declared i)ractically aU articles of commerce, mcluding foodstuffs, contraband; and tiirough the doctrine of continuous voyage, by which merchandise consigned to a neutral port for ree.xportation to a belligerent was considered contra- band, practically all the commerce of the world was at the mercy of one belligerent or the other. Since Great Britain and her allies commanded the sea, they were able to enforce their plans, but tliis they did by the legitimate means of search and seizure. Against the extreme doctrine of continuous voyage, and the British system of ordering alt vessels to put in at Kirk- wall in the Orkneys, the United States protested. Germany, since the submarine was imable to search or captiu-e merchant vessels, re.sorted to destruction without warning. Against tliis the United States protested. As far back as February, 1915, it warned Germany that " strict accoimtabil- ity " would be demanded of her for the destruction of American vessels. After the sinking of the Lusi- taitia, President Wilson demanded that Germany disavow the act and make reparation " as far as reparation is possible," and declared that the L^nited States would not " omit any word or any act neces- sary to the performance of its sacred duty of main- taining the rights of the ITnited States and its citi- zens and of safeguarding their free exercise and en- joyment." Germany evaded the issue, and in the correspondence wliich followed President Wilson again repeated his demand for reparation. Ulti- mately Germany offered to pay mdenmity and made a promise not to suik " Imers." No agreement was reached between the two governments and no fur- ther action taken. On March 24, 1916, a French packet, the Sussex, was torpedoed whUe crossmg the English Channel and two Americans were killed. President Wilson protested and declared that the United States would sever diplomatic relations imless the German gov- ernment should declare an effective abandonment of its submarine warfare against passenger and freights carrying vessels. On May 4 Germany apparently agreed, and promised tliat merchant vessels would not be sunk without warning nor without safeguard- ing human Ufe unless resistance was offered or escape attempted. Even tliis promise was conditioned uiion the success the United States should have in compelling Great Britain to observe what Germany held was international law. President Wilson ac- cepted the promise but repudiated the condition. On May 31 occiu-red the greatest navai battle of tlie war. For the first and last time the German Grand Fleet offered battle. The German high-seas fleet, commanded by Admiral von Scheer. was sighted by the British scouts imder Admiral Beatty sailmg northward up the western coast of Denmark. While signaling the British main fleet Admiral Beatty attacked without delay, hoping to cut off the German fleet from its base. The battle lasted im- til evening, and imder the cover of darkness the Ger- man fleet escaped. The result was inconclusive. The Enghsh admitted the loss of 14 vessels, includ- ing 3 of their largest battle cruisers, with which Beatty had attacked before JeUicoe came to liis aid. The English asserted that the German losses were 21 , but the Germans conceded the loss of only 1 1 ships. The real victory, however, lay with England, for her main fleet was imdamaged and the German high- seas fleet never took the sea ageiin imtil it left Kiel to surrender. CAMPAIGNS OF 1917. The two major events in 191J were the Russian revoiution and the entrance of tlie United States into the war. From the outbreak of the war in 1914, although shocked at German atrocities in Belgium, the government of the United States maintamed strict neutrahty; and although the ma- jority of the American citizens sympathized with the Allies the attitude of the government was genuinely impartial. As the war developed, the demand that the United States should become an active partici- pant on the side of the Alhes grew stronger, particu- larly in the East. The submarme campaign of Ger- many accentuated the feehng of hostihty toward the Teutonic powers. When this campaign resulted in the destruction of American vessels and loss of American lives, the demand for action greatly in- creased. Moreover, the action of German imder- agents in fomenting strikes and even in causing the destruction of property stu-red up a feeling of bit- ter hostility. In 1915 the Austrian ambassador, Dumba, and the German mihtary attaches von Papen and Boy-Ed, were forced to leave the coimtry because of the discovery of such activities. When, however, on January 31, 1917, Germany announced that in. a zone arotmd Great Britain, France, Italy, and in the eastern Mediterranean, all sliips there foimd woiUd be simk, the rights of the United States were infringed in a way no other na- tion had ever dared to suggest. As if to add insult, Germany conceded that one passenger vessel a week would be allowed to go to England, if it proceeded along a route laid down by Germany and if it were painted with stripes, the width of which was care- fuUy prescribed. To tills attack upon the rights of the United States there could be but one answer. On February 3 diplomatic intercourse was sev- ered. The German ambassador received his pass- ports and the ambassador of the United States was recalled from Germany. On April 2 President Wil- son addressed Congress and recommended a declara- tion of war. On April 6 war was formally declared as already existhig by the act of Germany. Meanwhile, a revoiution in Russia forced the abdication of the czar (March 15, 1917). The pro- visional government wliich was established at- tempted to carry on the war and disclaimed the in- tention of making a separate peace; but RiLssia had suffered more than any other countrj- in loss of men, her people were war-weary, and food shortage was common in the large centers. The provisional gov- ernment gave way first to a frankly socialistic repub- Uc under Kerenski, and he in turn was overtlirown liy the extreme socialists, or Bolshevik! (November 7, 1917). The new government at once annoimced its poUcy of an immediate democratic peace, the con- fiscation of all landed property, the recognition of the supreme authority of the Soviets, or the work- ingmen's and soldiers' councils, and the election of a constitutional convention. An armistice was signed (December. 1917) and peace negotiations were at once started with Germany, resulting in the Peace of Brest-Litovsk (March, 191S) on terms very unfa- vorable to Russia. From this time Russia, which had served to counterbalance any success which Ger- many might obtain in the east, could no longer be counted upon to give mihtary aid to tlie ^Ulies. iVlong the western front the year was marked by the great German retreat to the Uindenburg line (February to April) . The British attacked this new position in the \1clnity of Arras and succttdcd in captiu-ing more than 20,000 prisoners and 257 guns (April and Ma,\). Tlie most notaljle exploit in this operation was the recapture of V'iniy Ridge by the Canadians. On Jime 7, after two weeks of inten- sive artUIery preparation, enormous mines were ex- ploded and the British captured Siessines KIdge, which dommated their salient at Yiires. On July 31 began the battle of Fianders, during wliich the British advanced along the front from the Lys to the Yser. 6,000 prisoners were taken the first day, and dm-ing the next tliree months 16,000 more. The battle of Cambrai began November 20 and was a sequel to the battles of Arras and Flanders. Here the British by a siu-prise movement, employing tanks without previous artillery preparation, almost reached Cambrai and captured 10,000 prisoners and 150 guns. The Germans, howe\'er, counter- attacked with surprishig force and recovered most of the ground which had been gained. In the meantime, in April, the French had made an attack between Soissons and Reims, taking 24,000 prisoners and 150 guns, but this victory had been purchased by an immense loss of hves. It was clear that though the Alhes won local victories in France and succeeded in bending the German line they failed to break it, and so far were unsuccessfid in their attempt to force the Germans back. In the Balkans Roumania was occupied by the Germans m January, 1917, and on December 19 ac- cepted a forced armistice. Nor were the actions of the Allied forces at Saloniki successfifl. It was felt imwise to reenforce the army in this region further, and a decision was reached (but never carried out) to withdraw the troops. On the Italian front the Allies were more suc- cessful. In May Italy began a formidable offensive north of Gorz. In two weeks the Italians took more than 50,000 prisoners and tiiroughout the summer continued to advance, tmtil by October they were near Trieste and the way to Laibach was open. At this jtmctm-e, the collapse of Russia hberated German troops from the eastern front. The Aus- tro-German offensive began October 24 with an attack upon the Italian flank upon the upper Isonzo and gradually forced a retreat beliind the Taglia- mento. Therefore the defense in the mountain dis- trict to the west collapsed -nith frightful losses to the Italians. This breakdown of the Italians was due partly to lack of supphes, partly to the superior- ity of the Austrian artillery, and partly to subtle propaganda and pacifist doctrmes, which were mak- ing considerable headway. The retreat was contin- ued mitil the Piave was reached, where the Italian line held against further assault. The most important military success of the Al- Ues durmg the year of 1917 was m Mesopotamia. After General Townshend's surrender at Kut-el- Amara (April 29, 1916), a new British expedition was formed imder General Maude. With 120,000 East Indians General Maude marched against Kut- el-Amara. which he recaptm-ed P'cbruary 24, 1917. He pushed forward, and on March 11 captured Bag- dad, the ancient capital of the Mohammedan world. For a few weeks the British and Russian forces were m touch. In September the advance was renewed, the Turks were defeated at Ramadie on the Euphrates, and the British finally reached Tekrit. which they occupied Nov. 6, but did not hold. The Turkish power was threatened in another region. The British resolved that the dangers which had tlu-eatened the Suez Canal during the early years of the war should not be repeated. Consequently they sent an army into Palestine, which on March 26-27 defeated the Turks near Gaza, but was com- pelled by the s umm er heat to remain idle tiU autumn. In October this force, now under General Allenby, inflicted great damage upon the Turkish troops, captured Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, in Novem- ber, and on December 1 1 occupied the Holy City itself. The capture of Jerusalem and its de- hverance from the Turks caused great rejoicing tiiroughout the Cliristian world, as the \ictory of the medieval Crusaders seemed to be repeated. More important, however, from a strategic point of -slew was the fact that the capture of Jenisalem prevented the dispatch to Bagdad of a Turkish force which was being formed under General Falkenhayn. There were no important naval operations during 1917. The imrestrieted submarine warfare which Germany waged upon commerce was, how- ever, havuig its effect. The neutral countries, par- ticularly Norway, suffered great losses, but the brimt of the attack fell upon Great Britain. The British admu-alty admitted in December that the Germans had succeeded in destroying vessels faster than they could be built, but claimed that the British navy was destroying the German submarines faster than Ger- many could replace thom. Nevertheless, although the shrinkage of British tonnage from the outbreak of the war to January 191S, was 7,100,000 tons, the tre- 30 WORLD HISTORY. 1918 a. D.- 1919 A. D. mendous burden placed upon the British marine in transporting troops and supplies, not simply for itself but for its allies, made the question of shipping one of the most important of the war. CAMPAIGNS OF 1918. The year 1918 was both the most disastrous and tlie most glorious year for the AUies. It opened with a tremendous German drive in France be- ginning on March 21. With Russia ehminated from the war the Germans could transfer their troops from the east«m to the westtTU front. With these at their disposal they felt seciu'e of success. " The prize of victory," said the Kaiser, " must not and will not tail us." The first attack was made in Picardy between the Scari)e and Oise on the British Fifth Army, which was commanded by General Gough. This held the position at the extreme right of the British army next the French and the brmit of the attack came upon the British. The Germans hoped to win a decisive success and force the British to withdraw. They chose the British rather than the French because a victory over the French would leave the British in the field, while a British defeat meant a French sur- render. The Germans were successful in breaking the British Ime and tlirowing it back, and a great dis- aster might have resulted had not the French cav- alry arrived in time to check the Germans. Never- theless, the Germans won a great success : Peronne, Bapaume, Ham, Albert, Noyon, and Montdidier feU. At this moment the American commander in chief, General Pershing, placed all his forces at the absolute disposal of Marshal Foch, and with French reenforcements the British retirement was checked. Nevertheless, the Germans had reached many points that they had previously reached In 1914. German activity was now turned toward the north. At the battle of Armentlercs, at the point where the British and Portuguese lines joined, they made a vicious limge. Their hope was to reach the Channel ports and cut off the British army from its base. During the first 10 days they won consid- erable groimd and forced the British to retreat. At this critical moment General Halg issued his fa- mous order: " Every position must be held to the last man. There must be no retirement. With oiu- backs to the wall, and believing in the justness of our cause, each one of us must fight to the end." In the bitter flghtmg wliich continued, the British lost Messines and W>tschaet« ridges and even Moimt Kemmel. But French reenforcements came in time and Ypres was not captured. On May 27 and Jime 9 two movements were di- rected against Paris, one between Reims and Noyon, wliich continued for several days and gained some 30 miles, the other between Noyon and Montdidier, wliich was less successfiU. A month later the Ger- mans, in their fifth offensive, tlirust lietween Cha- teau-Thierry and the Argonne. Here they em- ployed more material and men than had been used since the March drive. In two days they succeeded in crossing the Mame and threatened Reims. But Foch had now American troops at his disposal, the advance was checked, and the counter-offensive at last began. In tlie meantime the Austrlans attaclted the Italian front for a hundred miles, from Asiago to the Adriatic, and captured thousands of prisoners. Although the Italians, aided by the AUies, made a coimt«rattack, the Austrians remained in possession of half of Venetia and the positions they had held at the end of 1917. The Italians in Albania, aided by a French contingent, began an offensive (July 6). But without support from the AlUes in Macedonia, they were obliged to halt and the Austrian counter- attacks forced a retreat. On the sea, Germany continued her ruthless sub- marine warfare and even dispatched submarines to operate off the coast of the United States. Al- though she was successful in sinldng many vessels, the combined na\ies of the Allies were able, through the system of convoys, to keep a stream of supplies and munitions poiuing into Europe. A greater achievement, however, was the transportation of the American army of 2,000,000 men across the Atlantic with the loss of only 732. Moreover, as the year progressed the Allies were more and more suc- cessful in checking the menace of the submarine. On April 23 the British succeeded in blocking the entrance to the harbor of Zeebru,e:ge, which had served as a submarine base, and on May 9 were par- tially successful m a similar attempt at Ostend. New inventions, such as the depth Ijombs, and the great mine barrage which the American navy laid down in the North Sea took heav-y toll. Germany was not only unable to destroy Alhed commerce and to prevent the transportation of the American anny, but was forced to see her most successful instrument, the submarine, fail. Meanwliile the Americans appeared on the west- ern front and came into contact with the ejiemy June 3. at Ch.ateau-Thicrry, followed by eleven daysof hard fightmg in Bclleau Wood. On July IS Foch as- sumed the counteroflensive. He attacked the enemy from Chateau-Thierry on the Mame to the river Aisne and advanced from four to six miles, reclaiming twenty villages and taking thousands of prisoners. On August 8 the British army moved forward between Albert and the Luce, a branch of the Avi-e. After five days of continuous fighting General Raw- linson advanced 12 miles, taking 30,000 prisoners and 750 guns. In the third week of August the French attacked the line between the Aisne and the Oise, while the British struck again between Arras and Albert, and advancing from Arras General Home broke the permanent German defenses, the Drocourt-Queant line. In six weeks the Allies took 150,000 prisoners and 2,500 guns and 2,000 square miles of French territory. The next advance was made in the region of the Meuse where, on Septem- ber 12 and 13, the American array eliminated the Saint-Miliiel salient. In 24 hours the Germans lost 25,000 prisoners and were forced to withdraw from 150 square miles of French territory. On the Ballian front the Allied attack began on September 15. The lines were extended beyond Monastir and Lake Doiran with a front of more than a himdred miles. The French and Serbs took ad- vantage of tills gain and pushed up the valley of the Vardar, capturing important centers of communica- tions and splitting the Bulgarian army apiut.. On .September 23 the Italian, Greek, and French troops captiu'ed Prilep and on the 26th the British and Greek forces took Strumnitza. with a large quantity of raw material. The Bulgarians, thus cut off from retreat, made miconditional surrender on September 30. The Italian drive was renewed (October 24) and the Austrian line was broken. On Octol^r 26 and 27 armies crosseeror. On November 8 a meeting between Marshal Foch and the German plenipotentiaries took place and on November 11 an armistice was signed. The mili- tary clauses of the armistice demanded not merely cessation of hostiUties but the immediate evacuation of Belgium. France, Alsace and Lorraine, and the left bank of the Rhine. Vast military stores and 5,000 locomotives were to be turned over to the Al- lies to compensate for the seizure of French and Bel- gian material. Of the naval forces all submarines, 6 battle cruisers, 10 battleships, 8 hght cniisers, and 50 destroyers were to be interned in a place desig- nated by the Allies. German troops, moreover, were to evacuate the territories of Austria-Hungary, Roumania, Turkey, and Russia: and Germany was to renoimce the treaties of Bucharest and Brest- Litovsk. The terms of this armistice were such that Germany was deprived of all power of resistance and would be forced to accept the treaty which the United States and the Allies should impose upon her. PEACE NEGOTIATIONS. The Peace Conference assembled in Paris, Janu- ary 18, 1919. At this conference were represented the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan, as the five principal powers who took part in all sessions. In addition, the following pow- ers were members of the conference and took part in sessions especiaUy affecting them: Belgium, Brazil, the four great British self-governing colonies, India, China, Cuba, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti. Hejaz. Hon- duras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Poland, Portu- gal, Roumania, Serbia, Siam. and Czecho-Slovakia. The representation of the several powers was fixed as foUows: five members each were allowed the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan: Belgium, Brazil, and Serbia had three members each; China, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portu- gal, Roumania, Siam, Czecho-Slovakia, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and India, two meraters each ; Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti. Honduras. Liberia. Nicara- gua. Panama, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, and New Zealand, one memter each. All important deci- sions were reached in the Supreme Council, com- posed of the ranking delegates of the fivechief powers. The problems which faced this assembly were more important and far-reaching than had faced any previous international conference. Not only was it necessary to deal with Germany and her allies but with new and weak states which had been formed out of their territory. The national aspirations of the five principal powers were not always in har- mony, and these aspirations sometimes ran coimter to the best interests of some of the newly created states. Moreover, the collapse of the German Em- 1913 a. D.-1914 a. D. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 31 pire and of the Austro-Hiingarian Monarchy and the disiiuegration of Kiissia presented almost insohible problems. The results of the conference were bound to be a series of compromises which would be com- pletely satisfactory to no nation. One of the most important accomplishments of the Peace Conference was the formation of a Cove- nant for a League of Nations. Tliis League was to consist of the powers represented at the confer- ence, together with such other powers as on invita- tion acceded to it. It provided for an Assembly at wtiich each state ha<:l one vote, and a Council whicii should consist of the five principal powers and repre- sentatives of four other members selected by the Assembly. Measures were adoptod to prevent war by the fixing of armaments and by arbitration, which should be carried out by the League, Members re- sorting to war in disregard of the Covenant would be debarred from intercourse with other members and the Council might take military, naval, or eco- nomic measures against them. A system, known as the mandatory, was evolved by wliich backward powers might be placed imder the tutelage of mem- bers of the League. Provisions were inserted for a permanent international lalx)r conference, the con- trol of trade in arras and ammimition. for freedom of communication, and ecjuitable treatment for com- merce of all members of the League. The second act of the conference was to prepare a treaty to terminate the war with Germany. By this treaty Alsace-Lorraine was restored to France, and France was given the occupation of the Saar coal fields for a limited period in recompense for the destruction of her coal mines. An independent state of Poland was erected, and the southern and eastern frontiers of East Prussia were to be deter- mined by plebiscites. More important to Ger- many, Danzig was made a free city under the super- vision of the League of Nations. Czecho-Slovakia was recopnlz;ed as an independent state, and the boimdary of the Schleswig-Hotstein region was to be readjusted in accordance with the expresso<:l wishes of the population. Germany, moreover, recognized the entire independence of German Austria. Outside of Europe. Germany surrendered all her colonies to the Allied and Associated powers, recog- nized the French protectorate in Morocco and the English protectorate in Eg.vpt and accepted, in ad- vance, all arrangements which might be made con- cerning Turkey and Bulgaria. To Japan Germany ceded all the rights and privileges she had acquired by lease from China in the peninsula of Shantung. The military and naval clauses of the treaty ampli- fied the terms of the armistice. Compulsory mili- tary service was prohibited for Germany, and the size of the army and navy was fixed. Germany was obliged to accept the responsibihty for the damage which the Allied and Associated powers had suf- fered and to make such restitution and reparation as might be determined upon. Stringent economic clauses and financial provisions were inserted which would seriously handicap any possible German com- mercial rivalry. The delegates of Germany signed this treaty June 2S, 1919, and it was subsequently ratified by the German National Assembly, July 9, and put in force January 10. 1920. The work of the Peace Conference, however, was not finished. A treaty was prepared for Austria, which she signed September 10, 1919, by which German Austria was separated from Czecho-Slovakia, from Hungary, and from Jugo-SJavia. Her posses- sions in southern Tirol and at the head of the Adriatic were lost and Austria was confined to the part of the coimtry occupied by Germans. Similar provisions were introduced by which Austria accepted the re- sponsibility for the loss and damage of the Allied and Associated governments and promised such repara- tion as the Allies might determine. Provisions were introduced for the protection of minority national- ities and for the transference of citizenship to the new states and to the territories acquired by Italy. Another perplexing question which faced the con- ference was the disposition of Fin me. This city, with a small majority of Italians, lay within terri- tory occupied from time immemorial by Slavs and claimed by the new Serb-Croats Slovene state (Jugo- slavia). Italy demanded Fiume, but the Peace Conference, acting upon the sugge.stion of President Wilson, refused to accede to this demand. It was seized by an unauthorized force of Italian troops, and held for many months. The most dil^cult problem which the Peace Con- ference faced was the question of Russia. Not only had the empire disintegrated, and certain por- tions, such as Finland and Poland been recognized as independent states by the Allies, but the Russian government, in the hands of the Bolsheviki. was such that no po^er was willing to treat with it, France, England, the United States, and Japan, had troops in her territory and were at war with the Bolshevist government. Various proposals were made looking to the settlement of tliis question but no solution was reached by the l^eginning of 1920. Thus, the eastern boundaries of Poland, the northern boimdarj- of Rou- mania, and the questions of the Baltic Provinces are still imsettled, nor does the solution seem imminent. Chronology. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. Other events pertainmg to the war, of interest especially with reference to particular nations, will be found in the histories and chronologies of the nations involved. 1913. End of Balkan Wars (see -Nineteenth-Cen- tury Peuiod) leaves Balkan states as formidable barriers to Teutonic plans for Middle Europe and control of the Near East. A ug. 9. Austria secretly informs Italy, her ally, of intention to take measures against Serbia as a necessary defensive action. Italy declines to con- sider the situation as defensive and so within terms of Triple Alliance. 1914, June 2S. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to Austrian throne, and wife assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Bosnian Serbs. Austria holds Serbia responsible. July .;. Emperor WiUiam of Germany receives a letter and memorandum from Emperor Francis Joseph and Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, prepared for the most part before the assassination. Outlines a plan to ehrainate Serbia pohtically by alliance with Bulgaria and pressure on Roumania. and declares a friendly settlement with Serbia no longer to be thought of. July tj. Bethmann-Hollweg. German chancellor, assures Austrian ambassador that whatever Austria decides to do will be supported by Germany as ally and friend. Emperor William approves and urges quick action. They thus give Austria a free hand and commit Germany to a speedy but undetermined plan of action. July 7. Ministerial council at Vienna plans surprise attack on Serbia without informing Italy or Roumania. with whom Austria has alhances. Tisza, Himgarian premier, protests, and decision reached to send a prehminary demand of wliich the rejection may be foreseen. July IS. Berchtold receives report of agent on assassination, entirely exonerating Serbian gov- ernment. He suppresses it. July 23. Austrian demand and ultimatum to Serbia presented. Germanj- not informed of exact contents imtil too late to hold it up. Ser- bian officials accused of complicity in assassina- tion; Serbia ordered to publish in stated terms condemnation of propaganda against Austria, to suppress anti- Austrian plots and feeUng. and hold an investigation practically imder control of Austrian officers; only 48 hours allowed for an answer. July 25. Austria mobilizes against Serbia without waiting for reply. Serbia, on Russian, British, and French advice, makes a humihating and almost complete sub- mission, and offers further reference to Hague Tribunal or conference of powers. Austria re- jects reply as imsatisfactorj- and prepares for war in full knowledge that it will brmg in other powers. Russia, as protector of Balkan Slavs, cannot ignore the challenge. France pledged by alliance to sup- port Russia. Attitude of Great Britain uncer- tain; friendly to France and Russia, but without formal alliance. However, an agreement with France (1912) virtually requires her to protect French Atlantic and Channel ports from naval at- tack, which is equivalent to war under certain conditions. July 26. Sir Edward Grey proposes a confer- ence of France. Germany. Italy, and Great Britain at London. Russia approves. Germany rejects proposal, but has no alternative to suggest except leaving matters for Austria and Serbia to settle. July 27. Berchtold. warned by Germany that British proposals cannot be ignored, decides on early war to prevent attempts at intervention. July 2S. Austria declares war on Serbia. July 2.9. Russia orders a partial mobilization against Austria; also toward German frontier. July 31. Germany demands that Russia de- mobilize and answer within 12 hoiu^. Also de- mands of France within 18 hours statement of intention as to neutrality. Great Britain inquires of France and Germany if they intend to respect Belgian neutrality. France says yes; Germany gives no guarantee. Aug. 1. France orders a general mobiliza- tion. Germany does the same, having already placed a large regular army on Russian frontier. Germany declares war on Russia. Italy announces her neutrality, thus pronounc- ing Austrian action to be aggressive. Aug. 2. Germans enter LiLxemburg, though its neutrality has been guaranteed by the powers. Germany demands of Belgium passage of troops across te^^itorJ^ .\ug. 3. Belgium refuses to permit violation of her neutrahty. [France.! State of war exists between Germany and| Formal announcement of Italian neutrahty. Tliis action permits France to concentrate forces on German frontier, Aug. If Germany invades Belgium. Brit- ish ambassador at Berlin demands his passports ("scrap of paper" episode). Both nations de- clare war. United States issues proclamation of neutrality. British issue first of various proclamations greatly enlarging Ust of contraband art.cles. Aug. 5. President Wilson offers his good offices to promote peace. Aug. G. Austria declares war on Russia. United States endeavors to get contestants to agree to follow in naval warfare the Declaration of London, wliich had never been put in force. Aug. S. Montenegro, as Serbia's aUy, de- clares war on Austria. Greece, equally bound, fails to do so. The queen of Greece is sister of Emperor William. Aug. 10. German warships Goeben and Breslau, piu^ued by Allied ships, escape by a ruse and en- ter the Dardanelles, contrary to Turkish treaties. On protest of the Alhes Turkey makes an ostensi- ble purchase of them. [on Austria i Aug. IS. Great Britain and France declare war[ Aug. IS. Japan .sends ultimatum to Ger- many to withdraw tlt^et from the Pacific and sur- render Kiaochow. Action taken imder British alhance and desire to eliminate Germany from Orient, as well as to revenge the interference in 1S95 and "' yellow peril ' propaganda {see J.'ipan). Aug, 22. Great Britain, followed by other AUies, declines to accept Declaration of London without certain modifications. These being im- acceptable to United States, the suggestion of August 6 is withdrawn on October 22. Aug. 23. Japan declares war on Germany. Sept. 5. Great Britam, France, and Russia agree not to make peace separately. Later, Japan (October 19) and Italy accede to the agreement. Sept. 10. Turkey annuls the Capitulations, which permit exterritoriahty of citizens of West- em powers. St-pt. 2S. Dardanelles closed to all merchant- men, thus cutting off communications between Russia and her Allies by Black Sea ports. Oct. 29. Turks bombard a Black Sea port. Russia considers this an act of war. Nov. 2. Because of the German mines laid therein. Great Britain declares the North Sea a " military area " and warns merchant vessels of danger in traversmg it. A'or. a. Great Britain and France declare war on Turkey. Entrance of Turkey on side of Central Powers isolates Russia and compels her to fight on Caucasian front. Sultan as caliph, head of Islamic world, expected to tlireaten safety of colonies of Allies; but his proclamation of the jihad (holy war) is ignored. Nov. 23. Portugal, as British ally, authorizes mihtary intervention. Aid not called for at once. Dec. IS. Egypt declared a British protectorate, and thus entirely separated from Turkey. Dec. 26. Protest of U. S. against violation by Allies of neutral rights (see United States). WESTERN FRONT, 1914. Anig. 4- The main offensive German army crosses Belgian border on way to envelop Paris from northeast, by the (juickest and least heav- ily fortified route tlirough the valley of the Meuse. Halted by modern fortifications at Liege, which it besieges. Other German armies extend the ad- vance on the left on a line through Luxemburg, Lorraine, and Alsace to the Swiss border. Aug. 6. Belgian mobile troops at Liege withdraw to prevent envelopment. Forts con- tinue to hold out. though imable to withstand the Stirprisingly powerful German ordnj.nce. Last of forts not taken imtil August 17. Fiance has time to complete mobilization, and Anglo-French troops march into Belgium. Aug. 7. French, General Joffro in supreme command, endeavor to carry out prearranged war program by invasion of Alsace and Lorraine. Efforts continue until August 25, with httle suc- cess; then events to the north compel its cessation. Aug. 9. British forces, under General French, begin to land in France and advance into Belgium. Aug. 15. French troops cross Belgian border, take up line from Dinant through Namur to Charleroy. Aug. 19. Germans occupy Louvain, which, August 20, they sack and burn (see Belgium for German occupation during war). Treatment of Louvain arouses horror in various parts of the world. Aug. 20. Brussels occupied; no defense at- tempted. Belgian mobile army, cut off from junc- tion with Anglo-French forces, retires to defenses of Antwerp. Aug. 21. British take up position at Mons, prolonging French Namur - Charleroy line. Namur, second of barriers to German advance, invested. Engagement joined on Dinant - Mons line; some 400,000 Germans attack 270,000 Brit- ish and French. Aug. 22. Attack on French at Nancy begins. Aug. S3. Namur captured. French retire all along the line, Britlsb follow next day. Stra- 32 WORLD HISTORY. 1914 a. d. — 1915 a. d. N U W 19U (caninucJ). tegical retirument along whole line with Verdun as pivot continues until line of the Marne is reached, with left resting on Paris defenses. Re- treat prevents encirclement of left, but leaves the industrial section of France (Flanders, Picardy) in hands of enemy. Garrison left at Maubeuge, which holds out imtil September 7. Aug. 27. Germans occupy Lille. Aug. 31. Germans take Amiens. Change made in their strategy; plan to en\'elop Allied left giveji place to an attack on left center. German right, imder von Kluck, turning southeast ac- cordmgly, exposes its flank. '[Bordeaux.! Sept. 3. French government transferred tol Sept. 5. Germans take Reims. Allied re- treat stops. French .Sixth Ai-my moves out from Paris against von Kluck's flank. Sept. 6-10. First battle of the Marne. Wliile von Kluck turns to meet army from Paris, British and French south of the Mai-ne attack him. Further east Germans attempt to break through French army under Foch. September 9, von Kluck begins to retreat; Foch also compels German center to retire. Retirement conducted in good order to line of the Aisne and extending north of Reims to near Verdim. Sept. It- Germans fail in attempt before Nancy and this part of their line also retires. Sept. 13-2S. First battle of the Aisne. Joftre moves to encircle German right. Amiens and Reims reoccupied, but Alhes unable to com- pel Germans to retreat beyond the Aisne. Both armies extend northward in attempt to gain Channel ports. Eace for the sea. |by Germans. I Sept. go. First shelling of Reims Cathedral! Sept. 23. Germans captui-e .Saint-Mihiel, forming a sahent in line south of Verdim. Line south of the salient, extending to Swiss border, remains practically unchanged during rest of the war, within or close to border of Alsace. Hard fighting, but little advance. Sept. BS. Attack on Antwerp opens. Belgian army there a menace to German communications. Reduction accomplished by artillery. Belgian government and army retire October 9 and make their escape to jom AUied left in Flanders. City surrenders October 10. Oct. 1. Transfer of British army from Cham- pagne to left of Allied line in Flanders begms. Completed by October 19. [Lille. I Oct. IS, Germans occupy Ghent andreoccupyl Oct. IS. Zeebrugge and Ostend taken by Germans; they become submarine bases. Al- lies hold Channel ports from Nieuport westward. Oct. 19- Nov. 21. First battle of Ypres. Bloody attempt of Germans to break through Brit- ish lines to Dunkirk and Calais. They take Messines (November 1) , Neuve-Chapelle (Novem- ber 2), Dixmude (November 10) ; but British line, though drawn back, holds. Ypres region flooded. Farther south, German attack also fails. Lines become stabilized and elaborately intrenched. War of positions follows. Line, which continues with few changes to 1917, begins at North Sea at Nieuport, runs south to the Oise, leaving Ypres, Arras, and Amiens within AUied Imes; but with German control over Lille. Douai, Peronne, and Noyon, together with most of the French mdus- trial region, and coal and iron fields. At the Oise hue turns east to Verdun, leaving Soissons, Reims, and Verdun in French occupation; thence south by the Saint-Miliiel salient and the border of Alsace. EASTERN FRONT, 1914- Aug. 7. Russians invade East Prussia. Aug. 10. Austrians invade Poland. Aug. H. Russians begin a joint Invasion of Gallcia, moving on Lemberg. Aug. 18. Russian mobilization completed with such speed as to derange the German plan to de- stroy French army before Russia can take tlie field. Aug. 20. Battle of Gumblnnen; Russians defeat the Germans, who retire on Konigsberg, the siege of which begins August 29; soon raised. Aug. 22. Von Hindenburg appointed to com- mand German forces m East Prussia and reen- forcements sent. .•1 1/9. ^.3. Austrians defeat Russians at Krasnilc, Poland, but make little advance toward their ob- ■ jective, Lyublin. Aug. 26-29. Battle of Tannenberg. Hin- denbm-g routs the Russian Second Army in East Prussia. Other Russian forces in that province retire and are further defeated at battle of Ma- surian Lakes (September 6-12). Hindenburg occupies SuvaUri (September 15). Aug. Sl-Sept. 2. First battle of Lemberg. Austrians defeated and evacuate the city, wliich Russians occupy September 3. Sept. 10. Second battle of lirasnik. Austrians defeated and retreat from Poland, as flank is e.x- posed by Russian advance in Galicia. Sept. 22. Russians besiege Przemysl. Next day they occupy Jaroslau, the Austrians continu- ing their retreat. Russians advance to the line of the Vistula and the passes in the Carpathians, and toward Cracow, gateway to Vienna and Berlin. Sept. 26-2S. Battle of the Niemen. Hinden- burg retires. Sept. 29-Oct. 4. Battle of Avgustovo. Rus- sians advancing from the Niemen defeat Ger- mans, reenter East Prussia and pursue to the Masurian Lakes. Oct. 1. Hindenburg begins an invasion of Poland from Silesia as a counter to Russian advance in Galicia. October 14, he gets witlhn range of War- saw but retreats (October 27) to prevent encu'cle- ment by Grand Duke Nicholas, Russian com- mander in chief, who lias temporarily withdrawn troops from Gahcia and raised the siege of Przemyil. On German retreat siege is resumed ; also advance on Cracow. Nov. 14. Hmdenburg and von Mackensen attempt another invasion of Poland. Lodz cap- tured December 6, but Germans unable to break the line along the Bzura and Rawka rivers. BALKAN FRONT, 1914. July 29. Austria opens the war by a bombard- ment of Belgrade. Aug. 12. Main Austrian attack on Serbia de- velops across the Drina from Bosnia, with Valjevo as objective. Aug. 16-25. Battle of the Jadar. Serbians defeat and drive the Austrians back into Bosnia and Slavonia. Sept. 7. Austrians again invade Serbia across the Drina; defeated, and again retire. Sept. 10. Serbians cross the Save and occupy SemUn, Hungary, but reth-e on September 17. Sept. 22. Serbians invade Bosnia, but are driven out by October 27. Nov. 1. Tliird Austrian invasion of Serbia. Serbs abandon Valjevo. Belgrade falls, Decem- ber 2. Russian advance in Gahcia (after PoUsh campaign) causes withdrawal of troops from Ser- bian front. Dec. 3-6. Battle of the Ridges. Putnik, Serbian commander, routs tlie Austrians, who again evacuate Serbia. Belgrade reoccupied by Serbians, December 15. OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1914. Aug. S. French and British troops enter Togo in Africa. It siurenders, August 26. Aug. 2o. Anglo-French attack on Kamerim begins. [Zealand troops. I Aug. 29. German Samoa occupied by New| Sept. 1. British expeditionary forces begm to arrive at Mombasa for an attack on German East Africa. Sept. 2. Japan begins operations against Kiao- chow. [Australians. I Sept. It. Bismarck Archipelago occupied by I Sept. 13. Australians take Solomon Islands. Sept. 19. Liideritzbucht hi German Southwest Africa occupied by troops from Union of South Africa; but Boer revolt checks operations (see South Africa, underBRiTisH Empire). [Guinea.! Sept. 24. Australians take German New I Oct. 7. Japanese occupy Marshall Islands November. Turks begin campaign agauist Suez Canal and Egj-pt, across the Sinai Peninsula. Nov. 3-5. British attack on Tanga, German East Africa, repulsed. Nov. 6. British-Indian troops begin invasion of Mesopotamia; Fao, at mouth of Shat el Arab, captured. Nov. 7. Tslngtau captured by Japanese. This ends Japanese active operations in the war, except naval patrol in the Mediterranean and later forces in Siberia. Nov. 21. British-Indian troops occupy Bus- rah, hi Mesopotamia. Nov. SO. Russians invade Turkish Armenia. Turks under Enver Pasha are also conducting offensive against Russians in Transcaucasia. Dec. 20. Battle of Sarykamlsh, Armenia, begms. Ends January 2, 1915. Turks routed; compelling also retreat of Turkish force wliich has occupied Ardahan, January 1. NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1914. August. German merchantmen take refuge in many neutral ports, where interned. Later most of them are seized as neutrals wliich have become combatants. Almost aU of German warships are at Kiel Canal, naval base; Austrian ones at Pola in the Adriatic. British fleet blockades German coast; French concentrate m Mediterranean. Allied sea power is almost complete from be- ginning of the war. The German Baltic fleet, a small Asiatic fleet, and a few commerce raiders re- main at sea. Mines are sown broadcast with- out reference to international obhgations. Aug. 5. British destroyer flotilla sinks a Ger- man mine-layer. Aug. 6. British cruiser Amphion simk by a mine in the North Sea. .■\.ug. to. Goeben and Breslau episode (see Out- break OF THE War, above). Aug. 13. British cruisers shell and raid Dares- salam, German East Africa. [Adriatic. I Aug. 16. Austrian cruiser Zenla simli in the I Aug. 26. British cruiser Highflyer suiks attxili- ary cruiser Kaiser WUhelm der Grosse off West African coast. .Aug. 27. German cruiser Magdeburg goes ashore in Gulf of Finland. Blown up. Aug. 28. Battle of Bight of Helgoland. Tlu'ee German cruisers and two destroyers siuik by British. [submarine, I Sept. 5. Biitish cruiser Pathfinder sunk by al Sept. 10. En^don, German raider, appears in Bay of Bengal. [marine. I Sept. IS. German cruiser Wrfa sunk by a sub- 1 Sept. 14. German cruiser Cap Trafalgar sunk off Trinidad by British cruiser Carmania. Sept. 20. German, raiding cruiser Konigsberg sinks British cruiser Pegasus off Zanzibar. Sept. 22. Three British cruisers sunk within an hour by a submarine off Hook of HoUand. Emden shells Madras. Trifling damage. First British air raid; — on Diisseldorf. Oct. 11. Russian cruiser Pallada sunk by a submarine in the Baltic. Oct. 1.5. Britisli cruiser Hawke sunk by sub- marhie in North Sea. Germans occupy Zeebrugge and Ostend, which become great submarine bases. Oct. 17. British cruiser Undaunted and four destroyers sink four German destroyers off Dutch coast. Oct. IS. British monitors bombard German coast lines in Flanders. Oct. 27. British dreadnought Audacious sunk by a mine off coast of Ireland. Oct. 28. Emden sinks a Russian cruiser and French destroyer, in harbor of Penang, and escapes. Oc'. 30. Konigsberg discovered in Rufiji River, German East Africa. Blockaded but not de- stroyed until July 11, 1915. Nov. 1. German Asiatic fleet of flve cruisers imder von Spec destroys two of the three British cruisers under Cradock off Cape Coronel, Chile. Nov. 2. North Sea made a military area (see OuTBHE.\K OF THE War, abovc). [Yarmouth.l Nov. 3. German cruiser squadron bombards! Nov. 4. German cruiser Karlsruhe, operating since beginning of the war in the Pernanibuco area, destroyed by a mysterious explosion. Had captured 17 vessels. Nov. 9. Emden, after sinking 17 vessels, de- stroyed off Cocos Islands, by Australian cruiser Sydney. Dec. S. Battle of Falkland Islands. Heavy British fleet imder Sturdee amiiliilates all von Spec's squadron except the Dresden. Dec. 13. British submarine enters Dardanelles and sinks Turkish battleship Messudiyeh. Dec. 16. German cruisers bombard Scar- borough, Hartlepool, and Whitby, unfortified points on British coast. Dec. 25. German warships bombed by British seaplanes off Cuxliaven. German airplane attack on Dover. Dec. 30. German airplane raid on Dunkirk. DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1915. For events that affect especially the United States, see also Chronology Under United States. Jan. to. British preliminary reply to American protest. Jan. 28. Sinking of the William P. Frye. Feb. 2. Great Britam declares food " condi- tional contraband." Feb. 4. Germany declares waters arQund Great Britain and Ireland a war zone, within wliich all enemy merchantmen wUl be destroyed without regard to safety of crew or passengers: and within which neutral vessels will not be safe. Feb. 10. American note to Germany protest- ing against war zone. Feb. 11. British seizure of cargo of Wilhelmina, food-laden, bound from United States to Ger- many. Becomes test case. Feb. 16. German reply to war-zone note. Feb. 20. Further American note on war zone. Feb. 25. British foreign minister states that Allies approve of Russian desire for open-sea port ; this interpreted to mean Constantinor.le. Unfa- vorable mfluence on AUied diplomacy in Balkans, Feb. 2S. French seiziire of the Dacia. March 2. Further German reply on war zone. March 28. Sinking of the Fain ha by submarine. April 11-21. Von Bemstorff and American government discuss shipping of munitions. .April 26. Secret treaty of London between Italy and Allies (see It.^lt) . In previous nego- tiations, at German promptings, Austria offers Trentino and other concessions, which Italy re- jects as inadequate. April 28. Attack on the Culmg. May t. Sinking of the Gu' flight. May 7. Sinking of the Lusitania by a sub- marine. 114 American lives lost. [speech. I May 10. Wilson's "too proud to fight "I 1915 A. D. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 33 1915 (continued). May IS. First American note on Lusitania. May 23. Italy declares war on Austria. May 25. Submarine attack on Nchruskan. May 2S. First German reply defending sinking of the Lusitania. June 4. German note on tlie Gulfliyht, promis- ing indemnity. [tania.\ June 9. Second American note on the Lusi-\ June 2S. Sinking of the Armenian. June 29. Austro-Hungarian protest on sale of munitions from the United States. July 8. Second German reply on the Lusitania. July 14. American protest on Britisli admiralty decisions imfavorable to American neutral trade. July IT. Bulgarian secret treaty with Cen- tral Powers, wlio have outbid Allies for lier sirpport. J uty 21. Third American note on Lusitania. July 28. Sinking of the Lee^nnauj. Aug. 19. Sinking of the Arabic. Disavowed by German government, October .5. .4 u(]. 34. Serbia consents to relinquish territory to Bulgaria to gain her support of Allied side. Sept. 1. German promise not to sink liners. Sept. 4. SinJving of the Hesperian. Sept. 9. Recall of Austrian ambassador at Washington requested because of violation of U. S. neutrality. 1g.\ria).| Sept. 10. Tiu-ko-BuIgarian treaty (.see Bul-| Sept. 14. Final Allied offer to Bulgaria (see Bulgabia). (traband.l Sept. 19. German promise on conditional con- 1 ■Sep!. 21. Venizelos, Greek premier, realizing that Bulgaria intends to attack Serbia, with whom Greece has a defensive alliance, asks troops of Allies. Promised, and Greece begins to mobi- lize on September 23. Oct. 2. Allies notify Greece of intention to occupy Saloniki in order to aid Serbia. Oct. 0. Bulgaria enters the war on side of Central Powers, though war is not formally de- clared by her imtil October 14. Venizelos is forced out of office by King Constan- tine. brother-in-law of German emperor. Venize- los secures a majority in new parliament. Again the king ignores the government. Mobilized Greek troops become a menace to Allies at Saloniki camp. Oct. 21. Protest of United States to Allies on neutral rights. November. Intrigue in Persia (see Persia). Nov. 9. Sinking of the Ancona. Dec. 1. Recall of German attaches at Wash- ington, von Papen and Boy-Ed, demanded, be- cause of violation of American neutrality. Dec. 4. Henry Ford's peace expedition to Eu- rope. No result. [on .\ncona.\ Dec. 6. American not« to Austria-Himgary I Dec. 30. Sinking of the Persia. WESTERN FRONT, 1915. Jan. S-14. Protracted battle of Solssons. First of various attempts on part of Allies to break tlirough: all of them imsuccessful. Allies still short of artillery. German policy during the year is to keep western line stationary while driv- ing back the Russians. Feb. 17-.ivril 12. Desperate French attempt to reduce the Saint^Mihiel salient. Fails. March 10-12. British attack at Neuve Cha- pelle. Minor gains at large expense after a great artillery preparation and imder a lifting barrage. April 22-S.5. Second battle of Ypres begins. German attack follows (for first time except ex- perimentally) a noxious gas preparation. French position penetrated, but Canadians hold the salient thus formed and prevent breaking or outflanking. Attack does not subside until May 24. May 9-Juue 19. Battle of Artols. French (Foch, Retain) attack on ridges south and west of Lens (Vimy and Notre Dame de Lorette) . First day Notre Dame taken, but Vimy holds out. As- sault continues, especially May 30-Jime 17 at the Labyrinth, which is finally taken. British assatdt on French left at Aubers (May 9) and Festubert (May 16-25) without essential success. Sept. 25. Joffre begins attack in Chanspagne on front of 16 miles, after 3 days bombarclment; overruns enemy's first line. At same time French capture Souchez, near Lens, but fail again at Vimy Ridge. British begin battle of Loos, north of Lens, and penetrate to enemy's third line; but lacking proper support fail to take Lens. Ger- mans coimterattack British September 26 and re- take most of the groimd. " French in Champagne later take German second line, but enemy coimter- attacks on October 8 and saves liis third line. Dec. 16. General French resigns command of British force; Haig succeeds. EASTERN FRONT, igiS- Jan. 19. Austrian army enters Gaiicia in efTort to reheve Przemysl. Other armies advance on Lemberg and into Buko*ina. Only success for Austria is in Bukowina, where Czemowitz is taken February 17. Feb. 7. Hindenburg advances on Russians in East Pnissia around Masurian Lakes and pushes them back; occupies Suvalki and advances to the Niemen, and also at the same time captures Przas- nysz in northern Poland (February 24). He fails, however, to reach the Warsaw - Petrograd rail- road, and retires into East Pnissia again. Ger- mans also attack on the Rawka - Bziu'a line be- fore Warsaw. March 22. Russians capture Przemysl after a second siege of four months. May 1. Great .\ustro-German offensive tmder Hindenburg and Mackensen begins. Rus- sian lack of guns and munitions decidmg factor in the campaign. Mackensen attacks on the Biala River south of Tam6w in Galicia. Russians, im- able to reply to the imexampled bombardment, re- treat, causing retirement of whole Ime. Tamow captiu'cd May 6, and Jaroslau May 14; Austrians advance from the south against Przemysl. June 3. Russians evacuate Przemysl and fall back on Lemberg. June s. Stanislau recaptured by Austrians. June 10. Mackensen pierces the Lemberg line; the city falls Jime 22 and all of Galicia is lost to the Russians. Retreat here exposes the Pohsh salient to attack from the south as well as from the west and north. July 14. Germans reoccupy Przasnysz. July 15. Germans advance against Riga. July 16-lS. Battle of Krasnostaw, in south- eastern Poland, Russians defeated and Austro- Germans occupy Ljaiblin, July 30. July 19. Hindenburg advances from Przas- nysz, forces the Narew River aroimd Ostrolenka. Enemy thus in rear of Warsaw to both north and south. City evacuated; occupied by Austrians August 5. Russians retreat fast enough to pre- vent encirclement by Mackensen's northward movement on Brest- Litovsk. July 30. Germans occupy Mitau, Ktu'land. .iug. 17. Hindenburg occupies Kovno on the Niemen. Ossovetz, farther south, falls August 22. Mackensen is in Brest-Litovsk August 25. Vilno falls September 18, and Grodno, the last fortress of Russian second defense, September 20. Sept. 6. Grand Duke Nicholas relieved, and czar takes nominal personal command. Retreat continues imtil end of September, when Russians stop the Germans and occupy a line from Riga along the Dvina to Dvinsk, then south by Pinsk (Pripyat Marshes) and Rovno to before Czemo- witz. Retreat costs Russians about 350,000 killed, 1,250,000 prisoners, and 100,000 square miles of territory — primarily because of lack of munitions. German attacks on Dvinsk (October 3-10) and on Riga (November 10) fail. ITALIAN FRONT, 1915. May S5. Italian campaign under Cadorna up the Adige Valley against Trent and on the Isonzo River begins. Little progress is made on Trentino front; Rovereto on the Adige (Novem- ber 23) and, further east, Borgo occupied; but difficulties of mountain campaign almost insuperable. On the Isonzo, the bridgehead at Gorz (Gorizia) withstands Italian attacks, though on the nortli Monte Nero (Jime 2) and to the south Monfalcone (Jime 9) east of the river are captured. Combat becomes one of positions on this front also. July IS. Cadoma begins a determined attack on Karst (Carso) plateau, possession of which will open the way to Trieste and flank Gorz. Ac- tive operations continue into August and a foot- hold is gained on ttie edge of the plateau. Oct. 21 . Italians, after three days of bombard- ment along whole of Isonzo front, begin several attacks. Main effort at Gorz bridgehead results by beginning of December in .some gains. On the Karst during the same period more minor gains are made; but Austrian line not pierced. BALKAN FRONT, 1915. Feb. 19. Allied Gallipoli campaign begins with a naval attack on the forts at entrance of Dardanelles. Campaign has Constantinople and possession of straits as objective, to relieve Rus- sian and Near East communications and for moral effect on Moslem World, and, if possi- ble, to unite western and Russian fronts. Forts at entrance silenced by February 25. Forts at Narrows bombarded March 6, 7, and again on March IS; operation suspended (as develops later, just when Tiu-kish forts have about exhausted their ammunition) in order to await arrival of army. One French and two British battleships sunk by mines; a British battle cruiser beached. April 24~2S. Troops under Hamilton land; about 120,000 men on the peninsula, some French, but mostly British — Australians and New Zea- landers (Anzacs), East Indians, regulars, and marines. Objective — high ground commanding forts at Narrows. Delay of troops gives Turiis, under von Sanders, time to prepare defenses. May 1-S. Fighting at Krithia, at tip of penin- sula, fails to advance invaders and war of posi- tions results. Another attack June 4 also fails. Meanwhile, tliree more battlesliips siuik and most of navy withdraws. May 29. Italians occupy Aviona in Albania. Aug. 6-10. Assault by Anzacs at Sari-Bahr commanding the Narrows of the Dardanelles. Fails through lack of proper cooperation. This practically ends active operations of Gallipoli campaign. Oct. o. Allied troops land at Saloniki (see Diplomacy, above), but force too small to furnish effective aid to Serbia in ensuing campaign. Oct. 6. Joint German-Austrian-Bulgarian campaign against Serbia opens. Mackensen commands. October 8, Belgrade captured. Serbians steadily pushed southward, while Aus- trians attack from Bosnia and Bulgarians attack on the east. Oct. 19. Bulgarians, after hea\^- fighting, oc- cupy Vranja, cutting the commimication of Al- lies at Saloniki with Serbians centered at Nish. Advancing Allies occupy Stnminitza. A'oi>. 4. Main Serbian force evacuates NIsh and retreats to southwest toward Prishtina. Bulgarians and Germans from the north effect a jimction. Meanwhile another Serbian army far- ther west has been driven southward by Austrians advancing from southern Bosnia. Pursuing enemy occupies Prishtina November 26; and remnant of Serbian army with government and many refugees continue disordered retreat over the mountains into Albania. Nov. IS. Bulgarians capture Prilep; also Monastir, December 1, the remaining Serbian army retiring into Greek territory. Allies, having moved up the Vardar and Cema in aid of this army, retire to Salonild camp. Dec. S. Monro, who has succeeded Hamilton, begins the withdrawal from Gallipoli, which is accomphshed successfully. Last troops leave January S, 1916. OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1915. Jan. 9. Turks, wiio have invaded Persia in fall of 1914, take Tabriz, but are driven out by Russians January 30. In May Turks withdraw temporarily from Persia. Feb. S. Turks reach Suez Canal at three "points. Main attack at Tussum. Defeated, and retreat across Sinai again. Feb. 8. Boer rebels having been put down, Botha as commander of South African troops sails for Walfish Bay to reopen campaign against German Southwest Africa. April 11. British occupy Kuma, at confluence of Euphrates and Tigris rivers; April 14, defeat the Turks at Shaiba, near Busrah. Goal of expedi- tion, Bagdad, valuable for poUtical rather than military reasons, best reached up the Tigris. To protect flanks of this advance, movements made toward Persian frontier and up Euphrates, with success in both cases. May 12. Three converging columns occupy Windhuk, capital of German Southwest Africa. May 20. Russians capture Van in Armenia. June 3. Townshend in advance up Tigris captures Amara. July 9. German army in German Southwest Africa surrenders. [Mesopotamia.! Sept. 29. British capture Kut-el-Amara, inl October. Allies attack Kamenm from all sides. November. Invasion of western Egypt by the Senussi, under German direction. Beaten back after five months of fight mg. Nov. 22-24. Battle of Ctesiphon, below Bagdad. Turks force Townshend to retreat, imtil Kut is reached December 7, where the Brit- ish are besieged. NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1915. For orders and sinkings involving neutrals, see Diplomacy, above. Jan. 1. British battlesliip Formidafcic torpedoed in Enghsh Channel. Jan. 19. First Zeppelin raid over England; — at Norfolk. Jan. 24. Naval battle of the Dogger Bank, 5 British battle cruisers under Beatty defeat 3 German l^attle cruisers and 1 armored cruiser (Bliicher), which last is sacrificed as others escape. Feb. IS. German war-zone policy, announced on February 4 (see Diplomacy, above), goes into operation, with large increase in sinkings by submarines, including liners. Feb. 19. Beinnning of naval operations in Dardanelles (see Balkan Fhont, above). March 10. German raider Prinz Eitcl Friedrich puts in at Newport News, Va., where interned. March 14. Dresden, last of the German Asiatic fleet, sunk off Juan Fernandez Island. March 20. Zeppelin raid over Paris. April 11. Converted cruiser Kronprim Wil- helm puts in at Newport News, Va., and is in- terned. Konigsbcrg, last surface war vessel of Central Powers outside home ports, is blockaded in Ruflji River, East Africa, and destroyed July 11. 34 WORLD HISTORY. 1915 A. D.- 1916 A. D. 1915 (continued). A pril £7. French armored cruiser Leon Gam- betia torpedoed in Strait of Otranto. Miiij SI. Zeppelin raid over London. Dtu-- ing remainder of year 16 otlier raids over England take place; but defense against them successfully develops and Germans suljstitute airplanes for airships in subseciuent raids. June 13. Austrian squadron raids Fano, Italy, and on July 23. Ortona. July 2. German cruiser Pommern torpedoed by British submarines in the Baltic. Jnli/ s. Italian cruiser sunk by Austrian sul)- mariue in Adriatic. On July IS, another. .Auii. 19-20. German fleet defeated in Gulf of Riga by Russian fleet, losing 3 cruisers and 8 de- stroyers. Aug. IJ,. British transport sunk by suijmarme in .-Egean Sea; four otlier transports simk in the Mediterranean during the year. Up to the end of 1915. S83 AUied and neutral merchant vessels (1,645,000 tons) have been de- stroyed, and 71 (175,000 tons) of Central Powers' ships. Very large German tonnage seized in ene- mies' ports or detained in neutral ports. During the year 20 Zeppelin and 4 airplane raids over Great Britain; 209 killed, 538 injured; 2 Zeppe- Uns destroyed. DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1916. For events that affect especially the United States, see also Chronology under United States. Jan. 4. American protest on mail seizures by the AUies. Jan. 7. German note that submarines in the Mediterranean are forbidden to sink merchant- men without warning or regard for security of crew and passengers. ^(111. IS. American suggestion of modification of sulimarine warfare and armed merchantmen. British reply, March 23, declining to accede. Feb. S. Germany and Austria aimoimce that all armed merchantmen will be considered belliger- ent vessels to be destroyed without warning (after February 29). March 9. Germany declares war on Portu- gal because of seizure by Portugal (February 23 and later) of interned German vessels, at Britisli | beliest. Previous to this. Great Britain has made ; no demand on her ally, though in Africa the Portu- | guese neutrality has been very benevolent toward the Allies. [packet Sussex. I March Si. Sinking of the French Channel! March 30. Great Britain applies doctrine of continuous voyage to conditional as well as abso- lute contraband. Itest on mail seiziu-es. I A pril 3. Anglo-French reply to American pro- 1 April IS. Amerlcaa ultimatum to Ger- many on submarine warfare. .ipril 24. Anglo-French reply to American protest of October 21, 1915. May 4. German reply, yielding conditionally to American ultimatum. [reply. I May S. American acloiowledgment of German I May 9. 16. Anglo-French secret agreement on Asia Minor (see Syri.\). [seizures.] May 24. Second American protest on mail I June a. Husein, Grand Shereef of Mecca, de- clares ills independence ot Tin'key. June e. Pacific blockade of Greece by AlUes for allowing BiUgarians to cross frontier. June 21. Allies demand of king of Greece that he demobilize army and dismiss anti-.\lly ministry. Ministry ousted, but demobiUzation delayed. July 18. British order blacklisting certain firms in the United States and elsewhere which are supposed to he controlled by Germans. July 26. American protest on blacklisting. Aug. n. Secret treaty of Roumania with Allies, in wliich she is promised practically all of Hungary east of tiie Tisza River. Russian ad- vance favorable t-o participation of movement int<) Transylvania. Allies promise aid from Saloniki. Aug. 27. Koumania declares war on Aus- tria, [mania. I Aug. 20. Austria's allies declare war on Rou- 1 Sept. 29. Vcnizelos establishes provisional gov- ernment in Crete. AUies recognize it. Oct. 10. Reply to American protest on tjlack- listing. Oct. 11. Greek navy placed under control of Allies on their ultimatum. [seizures. I Oct. 12. Second Anglo-French reply on mail I Oct. IS. Norway prohibits belligerent sub- marines from using her territorial waters. Ger- many protests. October 20, but Norway reiterates her position, Novemljer 4. Oct. 17. Allies send troops to Athens. Oct. 28. Venizelos's provisional government installed at Saloniki. Oct. 29. Husein proclaimed Idng of the Arabs. Nov. 7. Sinking of the Columbian. Nov. 25. Greece, provisional government, de- clares war on Germany and Bulgaria. Cf. June 30, 1917. Nov. 28. Sinking of the Chemung. Nov. 29. American protest to Germany on deportation of Belgians. Dec. 1, 2. Attacks m Athens on detaclmients of Allied troops. AlUed ships drop a few shells in the city and demonstration ceases. Later, Greece salutes Allied flags in reparation. [Germany). I Dec. 12. Peace note ot Central Powers (seel Husein recognized by Allies as idng of the Hejaz. Dec. IS. American peace note. (note. I Dec. 26. Reply of Germany to American peace] Dec. 29. Reply of Allies to peace note of Cen- tral Powers (see Germany). ■WESTERN FRONT, 1916. Feb. 21. Verdun campaign begins with a stu- pendous German bombardment on a 6-mile sector north and east of the Meuse. Reduction of Ver- dmi salient l)y Germans would end its menace against the iron fields of Briey basin and extend the German front. Infantry attack begins the next day. February 25, Fort de Douaumont, one of main outer defenses, falls. Retain succeeds as French commander. His policy of coimterat^ tacks checks German advance. March 6. Germans transfer field of attack to west of the river, carrying Hill 265 (Le Mort Homme) next day. Attack and counterattack contiiUK- through April and May. Germans mak- ing .simn; au'f, having slipped through tlie blockade, is foimd operating in the Atlantic. She retiuTis to port, safely Miirch 4, after sinking 54,000 tons of shippmg and send- ing the Appam, a captured British liner, to the United States where, however, that vessel is ul- timately returned to owners. Feb. ee. French transport simk m Mediter- ranean; heavy loss of life. [its opponent. I Feb. 29. Another raider, the Greif, sunk; also I March SO. Russian hospital ship smik in Black Sea by a submarine. (England. I March 31 -April 5. Five Zeppelin raids in I Mag 31. Battle of Jutland, only big squad- ron naval battle of the war. German high-seas fleet puts out behind a screen of battle cruisers. Beatty's British battle-cruiser fleet, soon assisted by 4 battleships, begins the fight. Jelllcoe's Grand Fleet arrives about two hours after battle begins. Battle upon, imder, and over the sea. German fleet, being headed, draws off and escapes back to port through the imfavorable weather con- ditions. British lose 3 battle cruisers. 3 cruisers, 7 destroyers, and 1 other vessel. Germans ac- knowledge loss of 1 battle cruiser, 1 battleship, 4 cruisers, and 5 destroyers. June 5. Lord Kitchener lost when cruiser Hampshire, on wliich he is en route to Russia, is sunk by a mine west of the Orkney Islands. June 9. Italian transport sunk by a submarine in Adriatic, with great loss of life. July 9. German merchant-submarine Deutsche land arrives at Baltimore, Md., with cargo. Re- turns safely to Germany, August 23. Aug. 19. German battleship Westfalen simk by a British submarine. Oct. 7. German war submarhie in American -waters (see United States). Nov. 1. Italian torpedo boats raid Pola. Deutschland arrives at New London. Conn., on second and last trip, reaching Germany on return, December 10. [Mediterranean. | Nan. £4. British hospital sliip torpedoed in I Noc. 25 French battleship Suffren sunk by a submarine in the Adriatic. Dec. 3. German submarine (cruiser type) bombards Fmichal. Madeira. Dec. 11. Italian battleship Regina Margherita sunk by a mine in the Adriatic. Dec. 27. French battleship Gaulois simk by a suljmarine in the Mediterranean. During 1916, 1065 Allied and neutral merchant vessels, of 2,000.0(X1 tons, lost. Central Powers lose 17 ships of 37,000 tons. 22 Zeppelin and 16 airplane raids over Great Britaui re^sult in death of 311 and injury of 752. 9 Zeppelins destroyed. DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1917. For events that affect especially the United States, ^ see also Chrono'ogy imder IInited States. Jan. 10. Reply of the Allies to Wilson's peace note, emlxxlying purposes of war; (1) Restoration of Belgiimi, Serbia, and Montenegro, with indemnities; (2) Evacuation of France, Rus- sia, and Roumania, with reparation; (3) Reor- ganization of Europe, with full security and lilx'rty of economic development for all nations great or small; (4) Liberation of Italian. Slav, Roumanian, and Czecho-Slovak subject people; (.5) Enfran- chisement of populations subject to the Turks; (6) Expulsion of Ottoman Empire from Europe; (7) Poland an autonomous government. In gen- eral, no mtention to encompa.ss extermination of German people or their political disappear- ance; but overtlirow of Prussian militarism. Jan. 22. President Wilson's " peace without victory " address. Jan. 31. German note on renewal of unlim- ited snb marine warfare. .4pn7 6. Germany. April 7. April 8. Feb. 3. Diplomatic relations between United States and Germany severed. Sinking of the Hou^atomc. Feb. 4. American note to other neutrals. Feb. 26. Requisition of Dutch ships in British ports. Feb. 2S. Zimmermann note to German minister in Mexico urging war on the United States. March 12. Sinking of the Alganquin. Russian reTolution (see Russia). March 14. China severs diplomatic relations with Germany. [sliips. 1 March 16-18. Sinking of 3 other American March 22. Sinking of the llenldton. United States declares war on [on Germany.! Cuba and Panama declare wari Austria severs diplomatic relations with United States. [with Germany, I April 11. Brazil severs dii>loinatic relations! | April 14. Bohvia severs diplomatic relations with Germany. [with United States.! April 20. Turkey severs diplomatic relations I April 2.S. Guatemala severs diplomatic rela- tions with Germany. [with Germany. I May 8. Liberia severs diplomatic relationsi May 17. Honduras severs diplomatic relations with Geitnany. [tions with Germany. I May 19. Nicaragua severs diplomatic rela-1 June 2. Brazil seizes interned German ships. June 12. At demand of Allies Constantine of Greece abdicates in favor of second son, Alexan- der. Venizelos becomes regular premier, June 25. Jxme IS. Gen. Persbing and staff arrive in Paris. June IS. Haiti severs diplomatic relations with Germany. [France.! June 26. First American troops arrive in I June 30. Greece, regular government, breaks off relations with Germany and Austria; tanta- mount to declaration of war. [Slavia),! July 20. Declaration of Corfu (see JiGo-| July 22. Slam declares war on Germany. Aug. 1. Pope's peace note (see Italy, also, for rephes). Aug. 4. Liberia declares war on Germany. Aug. 14. Cbina declares war on Germany and Austria. Aug. 27. American reply to pope's note. Allies approve of reply. Sept. 8. Luxburg disclosures on " spurlos versenkt " (" sunk without trace "). Sept. 21 . Costa Rica severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Oct. 5. Peru severs diplomatic relations with Germany, [with Germany,! Oct. 7. Uruguay severs diplomatic relationsi Oct. 19. American embargo on trade with neutral Holland and Scandinavian countries. Oct. 26. Brazil declares war on Germany. Dec. 1. First meeting at Versailles of Inter- allied Council. [Austria-Hungary. I Dec. 7. United States declares war on I Independence of Finland (see Finland). Ecuador severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Dec. 10. Panama declares war on Austria- Hungary. Igary.l Dec. 12. Cuba declares war on .\ustria-Hun-l Armistice l^etween Roumania and Central Powers. Dec. 17. Russian Soviet government and Central Powers agree to armistice. Dec. 23. Peace conference between Central Powers and Russian Soviet government meets at Brest-Litovsii. WESTERN FRONT, 1917. Jan. 11. Haig renews the offensive north of the Somme against the Ancre salient left by the battles of 1916 and against Bapaimie. Progress made, Grandcourt occupied, February 7, Febru- ary 24, Germans begin a general retirement along the Ancre, and by March 13 the British are before Bapaume. March 15. Germans begin a retirement all along the 100-niile line of the Noyon sahent from north of Arras to near Reims, to the prepare*! Hindenl^urg line, fighting only rear-guard ac- tions. New line, attained without appreciable hindrance, leaves Cambrai, Saint-Quentin, and La Fere within German lines. Germans systemati- cally lay waste region over wliich they retreat. April 9. First battle of Arras begins. Brit- ish attack from south of Arras to south of Lens. Canadians take Vimy Ridge April 9. Fighting continues to May 16. Lens reached, but city not taken. Canadians take Fresnoy-le-Grand south- east of Lens, May 3, and Bindenburg line pierced . Battle extends southward toward Cam- brai. May 12-17 Bullecourt, 'on the Hinden- burg line, midway between Arras and. Cambrai, taiTig's troops get within two miles of Cambrai, when coimterattacks stay the advance. Proper support not given to hold ground gained. Von LudendorfT, who has virtuaUy succeedetl Hindenburg as head of the German armies, by a coimteroffensive, Novem- ber 30, compels British right to retreat in disorder; but British able to hold part of gains and remain within striking distance of the city. EASTERN FRONT, 1917. July 1. General Komilov, Russian com- mander in chief under the revolutionary govern- ment, laimches offensive in Gahcia against Leni- berg. HaUcz (July 10) and Kalusz (July 11) north of Stanislau taken; but by July 21 Bolshe- vist propaganda has undermined morale of the troops and retreat begins which clears both Ga- licia and Bukowina, and continues till line of 1915 retirement is reached. Aug. 22. Germans advance against Riga, cross the Dvina September 2, and occupy city Septem- ber 3. Advance continues along the Dvina to Yakobshtat, September 22. After defeating Rus- sians in Gulf of Riga (October 14-17) Germans land forces at Verder, Esthonia, October 21, threatening Revel, the gateway to Petrograd ; but when Bolsheviki get control of Russian govern- ment Germans retire to east of Riga. Dec. 17. Armistice begins. ITALIAN AND BALKAN FRONTS, 1917. There were no important operations on the Balkan front in 1917. Russo-Roumanian line across south- em Moldavia forced back shghtly, Briiila being captured January 5. May 14-June 1. Main army under Cadorna renews the assault on Bainsizza and Karst pla- teaus, east of the Isonzo. Austrian coimterof- fensive brings attack to an unsuccessful close. Aug. 19. Another effort made against the plateaus. By September 14 most of the Bainsizza taken and way to Laibach almost opened. Far- ther south, battle on the Karst is less successful. Oct. 24. Troops from east concentrate against Italy. Germans under von Below break through at Caporetto, a quiet section on the Isonzo north of Bainsizza plateau, getting on flank and rear of ItaUans on Gorz front. October 30, Udme, grand headquarters of Itahan army, occupied. Center and right of Italian army ttoough to the coast retreats in disorder and with heavy loss, but is not cut off. Itahans in Camic Alps also forced to retreat by exposure of right flank. Italians at- tempt stands at the Tagliamento (October 31) and the Livenza (November S), but retreat does not end imtil line of Plave is reached alxjut No- vember 15. Diaz displaces Cadorna as com- mander in cliief, November 9. Some British and French troops are sent to assist Italians. Nov. 9. Attack sliifts to the northern (Alpine) front to turn the Piave position. Asiago cap- tured, but Italian hnes successfully resist here as well as on the Piave. By end of year winter stops the moimtain operations. Offensive yields about 300,000 prisoners and 4,000 square miles of Italian territory. Dec. 12. Armistice between Roumanians and Central Powers. Retirement of Russian line and of Russian troops in Moldavia leaves Roumania helpless. OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1917. January. Maude's Anglo-British forces begin attack on Turkish lines south of Kut. 36 WORLD HISTltRY. 1917 A. D.-19I8 A. D. 1917 (continued). Jan. 9. Turks driven from Rafa, and British control whole of Slnal Peninsula, proparatory to an invasion of S.\Tia. [toward Bagdad. I Feb. 24. Kut captured. Turks retreat I March 7. Turks make a stand below Bagdad ; but, being defeated, abandon tlie city, which is occupied March 11. March 20. Turkisii forces retreating from Ilamadan, Persia, smce fall of Kut, and pursued by Russians, make a stand at Pai-Tak Pass. British advancing from Bagdad in rear of this posi- tion, Turks again retreat March 30, and evade the encircling British force, ultimately joinmg Turks from Bagdad. Russian-British forces meet April 2, but no continuous line maintained. March 27, April 7. British forces under Mur- ray defeat tlie Turks near Gaza on border of Syria; but no further action imtil autumn. Turks heavily fortify Gaza-Beersheba line. April 23. British captiu-e Samarra, northern terminus of Tigris River raiboad from Bagdad. Sept. 28-29. Maude defeats Tiu-ks at Ramadie on the Euphrates, west of Bagdad. Oct. SI. Allenby, Miuray's successor, breaks Tui'ldsh line and captures Beershcba in Pales- tine. Gaza, at other end of hue, falls, November 6. British advance cuts Jerusalem-Jatfa (Joppa) railway. Jaffa occupied November 7, giving invaders a new base. Dec. 1. Last German force in German East Africa driven into Portuguese territory, where it maintains itself imtil its surrender Nov. 14, 1918. Dec. 9. Turks evacuate Jerusalem. Al- lenby formally enters on foot December 11. Arabs under Prince Feisal assist in campaign by operating along Damascus railroad to the east. NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1917. Jan. II. British battleship Corn u'a Ws sunk by a submarine in Mediterranean. Diu-ing the year transports are frequently simk in this sea. Jan. SI. Central Powers announce resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, although the sinkings increased rapidly before the annomice- ment. Total sinkings reach peak April, 1917, with 875,000 tons. Naval forces of United States aid effectively after this in combatmg the sub- marines, and failure of German plans evident by July. Total of sinkings decreases rapidly : also size of boats simk. Convoys almost immune from at^ tack, and flow of American troops and suppUes to Europe not affected. [in Mediterranean.! March 19. French battlesliip Danton torpedoed I March 21. British hospital ship sunk with- out warning by a submarine. Another, March 30. Two more, April 17. March 23. Mdwe returns to port after a second raid on Allied shipping, sinking 27 vessels. April 20. Five German destroyers raid Dover Two are sunk. [waters. I May 17. American destroyers reach British! June IS. Dayhght attack on London by 15 German airplanes. [mine off Bombay. I June 23. British liner Mongolia sunk by a| Aug. 11. British liner City of Athens sunk by a mine near Capetown. Sept. 16. Allied air raid on German cities; repeated September 22. September 24-October 1, Germans make five night air raids on London. Oct. 14. Action between German and Russian fleets in Gulf of Riga. October 17, Russians abandon battlesliip Slaca. Oct. 17. Scandinavian merchantmen convoyed in North Sea by 2 British destroyers attacked by Germans. Destroyei-s and most of convoy sunk. Oct. 19. Zeppelin raid over London. At least 11 airships participate; 5 of them brought down in France on retm-n Journey. Dec. 6. American destroyer Jacob Jones tor- pedoed by a submarine. Dec. 9. Itahans torpedo two Austrian battle- ships in port of Trieste, sulking one. During the year the shipping sunk by the Cen- tral Powers amounted to about 6,000.000 tons. 27 airplane and 6 Zeppehn raids over Great Britain recorded; killed 097, injiu'cd 1,644. DIPLOMACY, DECLARATIONS, AND NEGOTIATIONS, 1918. For events that affect especially the United States, see also Chronology under United St.^tes. Jan. 5. Statement of peace policy by Lloyd George. [Czecho-Slovaki.O.I Jan. 6. Independence of Czeclio-Slovakia (seel Jan. S. Wilson's " fourteen points " peace speech (see United States). Jan. 24. German and Austrian pronounce- ments on Wilson's speech (see Austria and Ger- many, Chro'^o'oi/y). Feb. D. Treaty between Ukraine and Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk. Independence recog- nized. Efforts of Central Powers to exploit re- gion fails. Feb. 10. Russian Soviet delegates with- draw from Brest-Litovsk in protest at German demands contrary to the " no annexations, no indemnities " slogan, as well as to Soviet expecta- tion of favors returned. German army begins to move on Petrograd. February IS, and Bolsheviki return to the peace conference. Feb. 11. Wilson's second formulation of peace policy (see United States). Feb. 24. Esthonian republic (see Estho-nta). March 3. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Bolsheviki and t^entral Powers. Russia surren- ders Ukraine, Poland, Kurland, Lithuania, Fin- land, and western half of Livonia and Esthonia. Eastern half of these left to self-determination under German protection. Also cedes Erivan, Batmn, and Kars m Transcaucasia to Turkey. Germany seizes Black Sea fleet and her troops overnm the littoral. Bessarabia turned over by Russia to Roumania in compensation for Dobruja. April 10. Congress of the Oppressed Austrian Nationahties (see Jugo-Sl.^via). April 21. Guatemala declares war on Ger- many, [many. I May G. Nicaragua declares war on Ger-I Treaty of Bucharest between Roumania and Central Powers. Dobruja ceded, also strategic territory on border of Hungary. Central Powers given important economic rights. May 23. Costa Kica declares war on Ger- many, [terras of ijcace.l July 4. Wilson's Mount Venioii speech on| July 1,'). Haiti declares war on Germany. July 19. Honduras declares war on Ger- many. .iugust. Supplementary agreements be- tween Russian Soviet government and Ger- many: indemnity of a billion and a half dollars; free trade with Germany; renunciation of all rights to eastern half of Esthonia and Livonia; in- dependence of Georgia. Aug. 5. Annoimcement of agreement by United States and Japan for intervention in Siberia where the Czecho-Slovaks (see Czecho- slovakia) are operating. Sept. 27. Wilson's speech laying down the five principles for foimdatiou of League of Nations. Sept. 30. Bulgarian armistice signed. Oct. 5, S, 12, 14, 20, 23. German peaee notes to United States and replies. Oct. 7, 19. .Austrian peace note to United States and reply. [armistice. I Oct. 27. Germany requests proposals for an I Oct. SO. Turkish armistice signed. Nov. 3. Austrian armistice signed. Nov. .{. WiLson sends .Allied reply to German proposal for armistice. German representatives can get the terms by applying to Foch. He also states final views of Allies on terms of peacp. Nov. 11. German armistice. Nov. 30. Lithuanian repui:)lic (see Lithuania). WESTERN FRONT, 1918. March 21 . Von Ludendorff begms first great German offensive of the year. Ultimate pur- pose to crush French and British before American force turns scale. Peace on eastern front has enabled Germany to concentrate forces on western front. Attack made along the Somme (Picardy) to drive wedge between British and French armies and roll former back on Channel. Breaks tlirough British Fifth Army (March 22) west of Saint- Quentin. March 26, Allies finally unify their forces; Foch made generalissimo. Germans continue advance threatening Amiens; but gap in Allied forces closed. March 27, Germans take Montdidier and Albert, south and north of Amiens. Attack shifts to Arras, but fails entirely to take Vimy Ridge. Minor German advances continue until April 5. When line is stabilized Germans are farther west than in 1916, and within easy range of Amiens, most important of -Mhed positions. [long-distance cannon, I March 23. First bombardmient Of Paris by I April 9. Second great attack begins; this time in Flanders up Lys VaUey south of Ypres, to envelop that city and advance to the coast west of it. Attack penetrates ncai" La Bassoe, takes Ar- mentieres. April 10, and reaches Merville. April 15, attack made north of Ypres, recovering groimd gained by British in 1917. French reen- forcements (Foch's Army of Maneuver) arrive, April 16, and advance checked. April 18, Ger- man efl'orts southeast toward Bethime fail, but April 25, Kemniel captured and Ypres gravely threatened from south. However, assault on southwest line fails. April 29, and offensive ends without opening way to the coast. May 27. Ludendorff, abandoning Channel ports for Paris as objective, launches third at- tack in Champagne on hghtly-held line north of the Aisne «'hemin des Dames). May 28, Soissons taken and Marne reached May 31. June 1, Chateau-Thierry reached and becomes apex of saUent. June 1-3, German attack on western line of salient between Chateau-Tlilerry and Soissons. Jime 6, French and Amoricans combine attack on southern end of west line around Bouresches (Marines in Belleau Wood), throw Germans on defensive and end the advance, which has given Germans 050 square miles of terri- tory, but left them in a dangerous pocket. May 28. First important engagement of American troops, at Cantigny, near Montdi- dier. Strong Cierman position seized and held against counterattacks. June 9-11. German fourth offensive, in- tended to flatten out French salient around Com- piegne between Picardy and the Marne, advances by attack between Noyon and ISlontdidier. Stopped by counterattacks with only slight gains, a.s are also attacks farther south between Soissons and Chateau-Thierry (June 11-13). July IS. Ludendorff's fifth and final offen- sive on east side of Marne salient and east of Reims to pinch out the French salient between this and Saint-Mihiel lines, causing evacuation of Verdim, and getting elbow room for advance on Paris. At- tack cast of Reims breaks down at once. July 15-18, Germans cross the Marne toward Conde- en-Brie but fail to drive Americans from river near Chateau-Thierry. July IS. Allied grand counteroffensive in- augurated and does not stop imtil armistice. First phase to wipe out Aisne-Mame salient begins l^y Franco-American surprise attack on west side of saUent. Chateau-Thierry retaken July 21, Fere-en-Tardenois taken, and the Oiu'cq reached July 29. Meanwhile Germans retire from east side of sahent, and whole force pushed back to the Vesle. August 2, Soissons retaken, and Germans retire on the Aisne lines. Ends first phase, with practical elimination of tlie salient* Aug. S. Second phase, battle of Amiens, begins; attack on the Picardy sahent on Ixith sides of the Sonmie. August 10, Montdidier evacu- ated by Germans. August 13, Alhes before Chaulnes and Roye, where German defense stif- fens. Foch accordingly sliifts point of attack, August 18-21, and flanks the ( liaulnes-Roye line by an advance which wipes out gain of Ger- man fourth offensive and envelops Noyon. Aug. 21. Haig attacks opposite Bapaume and farther south. Albert captured August 22. August 23, drive along the w hole line from Noyon to Arras begins, resulting in the capture of Roye August 20, Chauhies August 28, Noyon. Combles, and Bapaume August 29, Pcronne September 1. A ug. 2(1. British attack east of Arras below the Scarpe, and by September 3 have erased the Queant-Drocoiu-t line of the Hindenburg sys- tem and forced a general retreat down to the Somme. Lens evacuated September 3. Sept. 12-17. Battle shifts to a line southwest of Cambrai, and, September 18-19, still farther south to before Saint-Quentin, which French develop from the south. Except around Cliemin des Dames, German salient in Picardy has now been wiped out. By September 6, Germans have also volimtarily retired from the Lys River salient south of Ypres. Sept.l2-lS. Third phase. American army, imder Pershing, now acting for the first time as a unit, with French troops, drives the Germans out of the Saint-Mihiel salient, bringing Metz within range of the long-distance gims. Sept. 26. Fourth phase of simultaneous at- tacks begins. (1) -Americans and French launch the Meuse-Argonne offensive from Verdim to east of Remis. -Attack aims at the vital supply and evacuation line tlirough Sedan and Mezieres, 30 miles north, and flanks the enemy's ."Msne lines (Chemin des Dames). Americans advance rap- idly in Argonne Forest for tlorce days. Attack resumed October 4, but then as Germans resist obstinately in order to hold this pivotal position, it advances slowly imtil the end of October, when the forest has been cleared and the German main lin e from Grandpre eastward penetrated. French on west meanwhile pushing down the Aisne to union with Americans at Cirandpre, key of the Krlemhilde (east) and Bunding sections of Ger- man second withdrawal line. October 8, attack begins on the east of the Meuse against the point on which the German general retreat must pivot. The third phase of the American attack begins on November 1, and advance is again rapid and troops are across the river from Sedan November 7. After that date the operation is mamly pm-- suit of the retiring enemy east of the river. Sept. i7. (2) Haig and the French make the final assault on the Hindenburg line at Saint- Quentm and the Canal du Nord. Line pierced September 29, Saint-Quentm taken October 1. and October 5 British again before Cambrai. City taken October 9, and Le Cateau, October 10. Sept. 2S. (3) AUied troops imder King Albert advance in Flanders between Ypres and Di.Ymude. Dbmiude occupied September 29. Farther south Messines Ridge taJien same day. Advance forces evacuation of Armentiercs October 3. Sept. SO. (4) West of the Argonne opera- tions. The French advance north and cast of Reims and force the enemy to retire to the Aisne. 1918 a. D 1919 a. D. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 37 1918 (conli'iucd). October 9, Germans compelled to evacuate Moron- villiers Heights, from which they liave shelled Reims and the cathedral; also. Bazancourt on October 7. B'arther west Germans evacuate Chemin des Dames October 12, the position here not only attacked in front, l)ut Hanked by the French advance beyoncl Suint-yuentin, up theOise. La Fere and Laon takni c ictohor 1.3, and Germans fall back on the Bunding line, already menaced on both flanks by American and French advance. Ocl. I-i. (3a) Flanders offensive renewed. Menin and Roulers taken that day, Ostend Octo- ber 17, and Dutch boundary reached October 20, Germans having evacuated Zeebrugge and Bruges, and retired to Ghent. Oil. IT. ;5) Douai occupied by forces oper- ating between the Flanders and Picardy offensives, and Germans abandon Lille next day. Oct. IT. (2a) Haig attacks the German line of the Selle south of Valenciennes. This crossed (October 20), attack renewed (October 23) towards Forest of Mormal and against Valenciennes, which city falls November 2. The French east of Saint-Quentin drive the Ger- mans between the Oise and Serre, while farther east the Hunding line north of the Aisne is assaulted. Xov. 4. A general assault precipitates the German retreat along the whole line from the Meuse to the Scheldt. (4b) Guise, on the Oise, and Vervins farther east taken, November 5, from the west, and Bethel on the Aisne from the south by the French, who reach outskirts of Mezierea on November 8, while (la) Americans have ap- proached .Sedan. November 8. (2b) British take Totu-nai on the Scheldt and, November 9. Jlau- beuge on the Sambre; while Mens, the place from whicli the British retreat began m 1914, is occu- pied November 11, and farther north Gram- mont, within 20 miles of Brussels. .Vui'. II. Armistice signed and in operation. At this time German line rims tlu-ough Ghent southeast to east of Sedan and by the bor- der of Alsace-Lorraine to the Swiss boimdary. By terms of armistice Germans to evacuate France, Belgium, Luxembm-g, and Alsace-Lorraine within two weelvs, surrender a vast amoimt of ordnance and equipment, repatriate (without reciiirocity) prisoners, and make reparations. Allies to occupy territory west of the Rhine with extensive bridgeheads east of the river at Mainz (Frenclii. Koblonz (American), and Cologne (Brit- ish) : Germany to pay for upkeep of army of occu- pation. All submarines and G battle cruisers and 10 battleships, 8 light cruisers, and .50 destroyers to be siu'rendered, and all other warsliips disarmed and placed imder Allied stipervision. Blockade to continue. Germans to withdraw from Rus- sia, Koiunania, and Turkey. Treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk to be abandoned and paj-ments imder them restored. These terms make impossi- ble any renewal of the war by Germany. A' on. 17. AUied imopposed advance toward Germany begins; boundary crossed December 1. Troops reach Cologne Dec. 6, Koblenz Dec. 9, and Mainz Dec. 9, though formal entries come later. EASTERN, ITALIAN, AND BALKAN FRONTS, 1918. See also Esthoni.\, Livoni.^, Lithu.^nia, Latvia, Finland, Poland, Russia. June IS. Austrians attempt a desperate offen- sive over nearly the whole front ; too extensive to succeed. Minor gains especially at vital elbow of line, Montello plateau, annulled by Itahau coim- t«roffensive Jtme IS-July 6. July 7. Italians controlling Adriatic with French assistance attempt advance in Albania, but do not reach objective, Elbasan. Austrians counterattack in August and drive Allies back to old lines. Sept. IS. French, Serbians, and Jugo-Slavs (deserters from Austrian army) attack in triangle between Cema and Vardar rivers, severing con- nection between two Bulgarian armies. Septem- ber 21, raih'oad cut and, September 25, Koprili (Veles) captured. Bulgarian line collapses. Italians from Monastir occupy Prilep, Septemter 23. and drive one Bidgariau army toward Albanian border. Lskilp occupied September 30. ,Se;)(. IS. Farther east, Greeks, French, and British attack on both sides of Lake Dou'an. Bul- garians break September 21, after communication severed by other advance, and are pursued over border. Strumnitza occupied September 26. Sept. 30. Armistice, asked by Bulgarians September 26, goes into effect (see Bulgaria). jiustrian troops remaining in Albania, Monte- negro, and Serbia soon driven out. Ocl. 14. Italians capture Durazzo. . Ocl. 24. Italian flnal offensive opens, feint- ing in moimtain section. October 27, real drive begins across the Piave. Austrian lines broken October 29 and Vittoria entered. Next day Austrians begin to retreat all along the line from Rovereto to the sea, closely pm'sued. November 3 Udine, Trieste, and Trent occupied. Nov.l. Belgrade occupied. ' Nov. 4. Austrian armistice in effect (signed Nov. 3); terras include: Evacuation of all in- vaded territory by Austrians, and withdrawal be- hind specified line in Austria-Hungary, leaving Trentino. Gorz, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia to ' occupation by Allied forces: demobilization of army : evacuation of all German troops in Austria- Himgary; repatriation of prisoners without reci- procity : surrender or disarmament of navy ; AUied right to movement across Austrian territory; blockade to continue. Italians occupy Scutari. OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1918. Feb, 11. Jericho taken by Allenby. Further operations toward Damascus difficult imtil Turks driven from upper Jordan. Feb. 24. Turks reoccupyTrebizond. Russians, before and after treaty of Brest-Litovsk. retire from Armenia: also from Persia. Turks reoccupy positions and advance into Transcaucasia (see Armenia and Russia). March 9. Marshall (Maude's successor) takes Hit and (March 26) Klian Bagdadi on Euphrates. August. AUied troops in Siberia (see Czecho- slovakia and Russia). Sept. 19. Surprise attack on Turkish coast lin e north of Jaffa. Through the break cavah'y rushes, turning line farther east, and closing line of retreat west of the Jordan, as well as blocking northern cro.sstngs. Allenby then advances from Jerusalem, closes southern crossings and pushes Ttu-ks west of river into hostile arms of cavalry. B,\' Sei)tomlier 23 this Turkish army loses all organization. Sept. g.3. Turks east of Jordan retreat. Pursuit by AUies and Arabs continues into SjTia. Cavalry and Arabs make jimction and togetLer enter Damascus October 1. Oct. S. Beirut occupied, giving, with railroad to Damascus, a new base of operations. Cavahr and Arabs occupy Aleppo October 25. Ocl. 23. MarshaU begins advance east of the Tigris : defeats Turks October 29 before Mosul and receives their surrender next day. Mosul occu- pied November 3. Oct. SO. Turks ha\Tng l)een driven 300 miles from Jerusalem granted an armistice, which begins ne.xt day. Terms uiclude: AUied occupa- tion of DardaneUes and Bosporus; demobUization; surrender of aU war vessels in Turkish waters; evacuation of Persia and Transcaucasia; aU Ger- mans and Austrians to be evacuated : garrisons in Asia Minor surrendered: but AUies to occupy Armenia only in case of disorder. Nov. 14. German troops belonging to East Africa surrender. Last vest ige of German colonies. NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, J918. Jan. 4. British hospital ship torpedoed in Channel; first of six such attacks during the year. Jan. 20. Goeben and Bresiau engage British fleet at mouth of DardaneUes. Breslau sunk; Goeben mined, but escapes. Feb. 5. Transport Tuscania, with American troops, simk by a submarine. Only eastboimd transport simk. Feb. It. French air raid on Metz. Allies late in adopting retaliation for enemy air raids, but from 1917 on such raids are made from time to time; 9 recorded for 1918. Feb 24. German aiLxiliary cruiser IFo// rettmas to port after raiding commerce for 15 months. Feb. 2S. Austrian airmen bombard Venice. March 21. Eighteen German destroyers raid Dunkirk. No landing. .4 pril 9. German submarine sinks the Liberian patrol boat and bombards Monrovia. April 23. British raid on Zeebrugge and Ostend to block entrance of harbors. Ostend at- tack fails. At Zeebrugge mole is stormed, whUe three old cruisers are sunk at entrance of canal. May 10. Ostend partly blocked by sinking an- other old cruiser. (battleship in Pola harbor. I May 14. ItaUan motor boat sinks an Austrian! June 10. Austrian battleship Szent Istvdn de- stroyed by ItaUan torpedo boats. June-October. Americans and British estabUsh a mine barrage across northern end of North Sea, laying 70,000 mines. LTp to the armistice Central Powers in 1918 sink 3,200,000 tonnage of merchant siiipping. Replacements during the war are so great, however, that, in spiteof the sink- mg of some 15,000,000 tons of Alhed and neutral shipping during the war by enemy and marine risk, the net loss is only about three miUion tons. Germans lose some 200 submarines during the war. Germans made 6 airplane and 4 Zeppelin [ raids on Great Britain during the year. Various raids on Paris also. [Island. I July 19. U.S.S. Dicffi) simk by a mine off Long! July 21. German submarine attacks a tug ami barges off coast of Massachusetts. Oct. 3. British and Italians destroy Austrian naval base at .Durazzo. 1 I Nov. 1. Austrian dreadnought Viribus Unitis sunk at Pola by an Italian motor boat. Not. 9. British battlesliip Britannic sunk by a submarine off Cape Trafalgar. iVoi>. 21. Main instaUment of German high- seas fleet surrendered, according to armistice. Later interned at Scapa Flow. NEGOTIATIONS AND TREATIES, 1919. For mtemational events involving new or other minor states, see also these states by name: especially, Latvia: Esthonia; Lithuania: Czecho-Slovakia; Finland: Hungary; Jugo-Sl.^via; Mesopotamia; Poland; Syria. Jan. IS. Peace Conference (of those on AUied side of the war only) opens at Paris. Twenty- seven states represented, including Poland, Jugo- slavia (instead of Serbia and Montenegro) and Czecho-Slovakia. China, Japan, and Slam rep- resent the Far East: Hejaz, the Near East: Li- beria, Africa. 1 1 Latin-American states send del- egates. ITnited States, British Empire, France, Ital,v, and Japan assigned especial position as " principal powers." Four British dominions and India represented in British delegation. Feb. 16. Revised armistice with Germany signed: chiefly concerns Poland (see Poland). Feb. 26. Reparation question develops in tliree plans: (1) British theory; Central Powers to pay whole cost of war, includmg expenses of Al- lies. (2) French theory, same, except that bills for destruction are to be settled first. (3) Ameri- can theory; only reparation for wanton damage contrary to rules of war, March S. Committee on Reparation estimates reparation to amoimt to 120 biUion doUars, but question not one of what should be paid, but what Germany and her aUies are able to pay. March 7. United States decides to ask for no reparation beyond that realized from German property- and ships sequestered in U. S. territory. March 20. LTnofficial meetmg of various neu- tral delegates with committee on League of Na- tions to consider its provisions. March 2S. Coiuicil of Ten, or Supreme Council, gives way to Council of Four, composed of WU- son, Lloyd George, CMcmenccau, and Orlando, as having active control of negotiations. March 26. Austrian fleet finally surrendered at Venice according to armistice, being meanwhUe in Jugo-Slav possession. April 10. German National Assembly de- mands peace based on AVilson's " fourteen points." April 11. International Labor Committee makes final report to conference: later embodied in treaty: provisions for an mtemational labor conference to meet amiuaUy; international labor oificer at seat of League: labor principles enunci- ated, including denial of labor as property, coUec- tive bargaining, eight-hour day, one day's rest in seven, wages adequate to reasonable standard of Ufe, no chUd labor, equal labor rights of women. April 2S. Adoption of revised and clarified League of Nations at a plenary session of con- ference. ProWsion for withdrawal after two years' notice; unanimity of CoimcU; disarmament to be approved by governments before put m force: removal of domestic cjucstious (inmiigra- tion, etc.,) from jurisdiction of League: safeguard for national pohcies such as Monroe Doctrme; no nation made a mandatory without its consent: any country dissenting from an amendment to League ceases thereby to be a member. AU na- tions not represented at conference asked to join League, except Central Powers, Russia, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Santo Domingo. May s. Provisional organization of League. May 6, Mandates for German colonies given (see Germany', former African colonies). Great Britain to have mandate over Nauru Island, New Zealand over Samoa, Austraha over Pacific Is- lands south of equator, Japan north of equator. May 7. Peace treaty delivered to German delegates, with warning of complete economic isolation if not signed. Germans protest terms and statement of responsibility for the war. Pro- posals of modification made and considered. June 2. Austrian treaty handed to delegates. June 21. German naval officers sink their fleet interned at Scapa Flow. Germans at Ber- lin bum French battle flags captiu-ed in war of 1870, return of which treaty demands. New German cabinet formed, which agrees to sign treaty, without recognizing responsibility for war and without agreeing to deUver up persons ac- cused of violating laws of war. Supreme ComicU (CouncU of Four) peremptorily refuses to accept any qualification, and warns of complete blockade and invasion. June -28. , Treaty of Versailles, German peace treaty, signed. Cessions: Alsace-Lorraine to France, certain smaU sections to Belgium (see Belgium) and to G^echo-SIovakia, Poscn and West Prussia to Poland, and Memel detached. Plebiscites to determine future of Upper Silesia (see Poland), Schleswig-Holstein (see Dexmajrk), 38 WORLD HISTORY. 1919 a. D.- 1920 A. D. N W 1919 (continued.) and southern half of East Prussia (see Poland) Danzig with small territory south and east be- comes a free city and iK)rt. for Poland (sw Poland) . Saar Basin coal mines handed over to France: League to govern, and after 15 years pleliiscite to decide. Luxemburg detached from Zollverein and to choose commercial imion between Belgium and France. Fortifleation forbidden on Helgo- land, entrance to the Baltic, west of Khlne, or within thirty miles of river on ea-stern side German colonies renoimceject to various modifications: in the mam the cost is that of the in- crease during the period of the war over the normal peace expenditiu-es ; but the cost of the war does not end with the cessation of hostilities, wliile it includes advances to Allies in the case of United States ($9.- 1 598,8.57,645), Great Britain ($8,695. OOO.CKK)). France ($1,,547,200,(X)0), and Germany (82,375,000,000). A portion of these will be recovered, and reparations by Central Powei's will increase their ultimate cost and diminish that of tlie Allies. ALLIES. Great Britain $44,029,011,868 Canada 1,665,576,0:32 AustraUa 1.423,208,040 India 601,279,000 New Zealand 378,750,000 South Africa 300,000,000 United States 32,080,266,968 France 25,812,7.s2,800 Russia 22,59:i,950,(Xi0 Italy 12,4i:i,'.i'.i.s,0(K) Roumania 1,600,000,000 Belgium _.. . 1,154,467,914 ' Serbia 399,400,000 Greece 27(i.oiH).iX)0 Japan 4(i.i)(io,(i(«] Other Allies 500.000,000 Provisional Total 8145,262,690,622 CENTRAL POWERS. Germany $40,150,000,000 Austria-Hungary 20,622,960,600 Turkey 1,430,000,000 Bulgaria 815,200.000 Provisional Total $63,018,160,600 ' PRIVATE LOANS TO BELLIGERENT COUNTRIES raised in the United States since the outbreak of the war and down to July 1, 1920. Short-time notes which were taken up during the war, mainly by sub- stitution of longer term notes, not included. Great Britain: Amouyit Japan ratifies. Supreme Coimcil calls Germany's at- tention to various matters in which armistice has not been carried out ; failure to deliver equipment or to withdraw troops; destruction of vessels at Scapa Flow. Protocol for compensation framed 400,0iX) tons of tugs, floating docks, and other maritime equipment to oifset sinkings at Scapa Flow. Germany does not sign imtil January 10, 1920, when amoimt reduced to 275,000 tons. Noc. «7. Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seinc, Bul- garian peace treaty, signed (see Bulgaria). Dec. 9. American delegates leave Peace Con- ference. 1930. Jan. 10. German peace treaty becomes operative by signing of proces-verbal by Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. Jan. IS. Supreme Council recognizes Georgia and .Azerbaijan in Transcaucasia as de facto gov- ernments (see Georgia and Azerbaijan). Jan. IS. Peace treaty handed to Hungarian delegates. Jan. 16. First meeting of League of Nations. AUies demand ex-kaiser from Holland. Are refused January 22, and again. March 5, after a second demand. Jan. 21. Peace Conference dissolves. Place taken by Council of Ambassadors and Council of Premiers. Feb. s. Demand made on Germany for extra- dition of 890 war criminals, including Crown Prince, one of his brothers, Hindenburg, Luden- dorfl, Tirpitz, Capelle, and Mackensen. German Anglo-French ( J ) $250,000,000 United Kingdom 150,000,000 United Kingdom 143,587,000 United Kingdom 250,000,000 France: Anglo-French (j) 250,000,000 City of Paris 50,000,000 City of Bordeaux 15.000,000 City of Lyon 15,000.000 City of Marseilles 15,000,000 Belgium 75,000,000 Germany 10,000,000 Russia 75,000,000 Italy 25,000,000 Canada 150,000.000 Provincial and municipal 119,424,366 Newfoimdland 2,500,000 $1,595,511,366 On .luly 1, 1920, $1,564,254,930 of tills total was still outstanding in United States. AMERICAN LOANS TO THE ALLIES UP TO MAY II, 1920. Great Britain $4,277,000,000 France 2,977,477,.S00 Italy 1,631,338,000 Belgium 338.745,000 Russia 187,729,750 Czecho-Slovakia 56,524,000 Greece 48,236,629 Serbia 26,780,466 Roumania 25,000.000 Cuba ■ 10,000.000 Liberia 26.000 $9,578,857,645 In addition the United States government holds French bonds for $400,000,000 for purchase of .\merican surplus war supplies in France. 1 Does not include fines and levies by Germany: with these, about $3,000,000,000. - These totals are all subject to correction for the fig- ures of individual countries. They do not include seizure and destruction of private and pubhc property, which ha.s been estimated at 30 billion dollars on land and 7 billions at sea. AMERICAN WAR DEBT AS OF JUNE 30, 1919. First Liberty Loan $1,984,79(;,500 Second Liberty Loan 3,566,456,600 Third Liberty Loan 3.958,552,700 Fourth Liberty Loan 6,794,504,587 Fifth Liberty Loan 3.467,844,972 War Savings and Tlu-ift Stamps 953,997,435 Certificates of Indebtedness 3,624,983,490 $24,351,136,284 NAMES OF BELLIGERENTS AND DATES OF ENTRY INTO THE WAR. CENTRAL POWERS. 1. Austria-Himgary, July 28, 1914 2. Germany, August 1, 1914 3. Tiu-key, Novembers, 1914 4. Bulgaria, October 14, 1915 ALLIES. 1. Serbia, July 28, 1914 2. Russia- August 1, 1914 3. f^rance, .\ugust 3, 1914 4. Belgium, August 4, 1914 5. Great Britain, August 4, 1914 Montenegro, August 8, 1914 7. Japan, August 23, 1914 8. Italy, May 23, 1915 9. Portugal, March 9. 1916 10. Roumania, August 27, 1916 11. Greece (provisional government) , November 23, 1916 12. United States, .April 0. 1917 13. Cuba, .\pril 7, 1917 14. Panama, April 7, 1917 15. Siam, July 22, 1917 16. Liberia, August 4, 1917 17. China, August 14, 1917 18. Brazil, October 26, 1917 19. Guatemala, AprU 21, 1918 20. Nicaragua, May 6, 1918 21. Costa Rica, May 23, 1918 22. Haiti, JiUy 15, 1918 23. Honduras, July 19, 1918 COUNTRIES THAT SEVERED DIPLOMAT- IC INTERCOURSE WITH GERMANY WITHOUT DECLARING WAR. 1. Bolivia, April 14, 1917 2. Peru, Octoter 5, 1917 3; Uruguay, Octolxjr 7. 1917 4. Ecuador, December 7, 1917 TOTAL COUNTRIES INVOLVED. Central Group 4 AUied Group 23 Partially engaged 4 31 COST OF WAR IN MEN.i Prisoners and Allies. Dead. Wounded. Missing. Russia 2,762,064 4,950,000 2,500.000 French Empire 1,427,800 3,044,000 453,500 British Empire 807,451 2,059,134 64,907 Serbia 707,343 350,000 100,000 Italy 507,160 962,196 1,359,000 Roumania 339,117 200,000 116,000 Belgium 207,000 140,000 10,000 LInited States 107,284' 191,000 2 4,912 2 Greece 15,000 40,000 45,000 Portugal 4,000 17,000 200 Japan 300 907 3 Central Powers. Germany 1,611,104 3,783,143 772,522 Au-stria-Himgary 911,000 3,000,000 443,000 Turkey 436,924 407,772 103,731 Bulgaria 101,224 152,399 10,825 1 These estimates founded on Direct and Indirect Costs of the Great World War by E. L. Bogart. It is estimated that probably 50% of those listed as " prisoners and miss- ing" are dead. ' Later official statement tor the American Expedi- tionary Force givesonly 77,1 18 deaths, 221,050 wounded, 4,432 prisoners. PART TWO : NATIONAL HISTORIES. ABYSSINIA. Historical Outline. Abyssinia corresponds in part with ancient Ethiopia. Its boundaries, formerly vague, were de- fined by treaties in 1906-07 so that it is shut off from the Red Sea and tiie Gulf of Aden by the Italian de- pendency of Eritrea and by French Somali Coast and British Soraaliland. By these treaties Great Britain, France, and Italy undertake to preserve the integrity of Abyssinia, to maintain the " open door " as far as concessions are concerned, and to abstain from intervening in internal affairs. The Abyssinians were converted to Cliristianity in the fourth centurj' and have remaine' one of them is a soldier, and the present ruler depends upon them to maintain her supremacy. Chronology. 330. Frumentius. instrumental in converting tlie region, is made first bishop of Etliiopia. 675. Moslem advance cuts Christian Ethiopia off from contact with outside world. 1490. Arrival of Corilhara. in search of Prcster Jolin. Portuguese missions into the country begin about this time, and Jesuits remain for a century and a half. 1633. Jesuits expelled; country relapses into iso- lation. 1769. Bruce, in his exploration of the Blue Nile, visits Abyssinia, 1805. First mission (British). Missionaries and explorers follow. 1855. Theodore, by conquest of other chiefs, be- comes negus, or emperor. 1868. War with Great Britain results in Theo- dore's death (April 13); succeeded by a rival, Jolm. 1869. Nov. 15. Beginning of the Italian colony of Eritrea; tliis and French, British, and Italian Somaliland lie between Abyssinia and the coast. ' 1889. March 9. Death of John; a rival, Mchelik, gains the cliief power. May 2. Ucclalli treaty, under which Italy claims a protectorate. 1893. Menelik denounces the treaty with Italy. 1895. War with Italy; crushing defeat of Italians at Adowa, March 1. 1896. 1896. Oct. 26. Treaty of peace of Adis Abeba; Italy acknowledges absolute independence of Abyssinia. 190'i. Dec. SI. Completion of railway from Jibuti. French Somaliland ix)rt. to Dire Dawa. about 30 miles northwest of Harar. 1906. Dec. IS. Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- ment provides for territorial integrity and domes- tic independence of Abyssinia, and etiual conces- sionary advantages. 1913. December. Afenclik dies; succeeded by his grandson Lij Yasu. 1916. Sept. 27. Lij Yasu is deposed; his aimt, Waizeru Zauditu, succeeds. 1919. July lit- President Wilson receives Abys- sinian delegates sent to extend congratulations on success of the World War. ADEN. See imder British Empibe. page 62. AFGHANISTAN. Historical Outline. Afghanistan is geographically a lofty quadrilateral plateau lying between northwestern India, eastern Persia, and Russia. The Afghans, who are the pre- dominant population of the coimtry, are of unknown origin, though doubtless a residue of the old Indo- European stock. Afghanistan was conquered by the emperor Tamerlane, who died in 1405. Sultan Baber added a part of Afghanistan includmg Ivabul to his domains and for two centuries it belonged to India and was ruled by the Mogul emperors. The Persian Nadir Shah seized it in 173S. In 1749 a separate empire was formed by Ahmad Shah, who defeated the Marathas in 1701 and gave the country a national character. After Alimad came Timur Ivhan. who transferreri his capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Among his twenty-three sons a strife arose for the succession. Finally, in ISIS, Kamran Khan obtained the tlirone, which he held for thirty years. In 1842 Dost Mohaumaed cap- tured Kabid and made himself supreme. The attention of Great Britain, now firmly cstal)- lished in India, was tiuned to Afghanistan : and ag- gressions on English officials aroused the spirit of the British. In 1S41 two British officials wore injured in a revolt in Kabul. Soon afterwards Sir William Macnaght-en was murdered by Akbar Ivlian. son of Dost Mohammed. An agreement was made for the withdrawal of the British garrison from the countr>^ but the march of the 690 Europeans from Kabul to Jalalabad was a massacre. Only 23 of the number reached Jalalabad, though 95 prisoners were ulti- mately liberated. To avenge tliis outrage an expedition in 1S42 un- der General Pollock forcetl the Kliyber Pass and re- lieved Jalalabad. Dost Mohammed was restored to the throne as a friend of the British government. After his death Shere Ali Ivlian came to the throne with the aid of Great Britain and succesolute. The ameer receives a subsidy of 1.850.000 rupees from the Indian government, and his total revenue amounts to al30ut 13,000.000 rupees. Industry and Production. The principal in- dustry of Afghanistan is agriculture. The chief products are fruits, mcluding the apple, pear, al- mond, peach, quince, and apricot. Vegetables and cereals are also raised in paj'ing quantities in the fertile plains and valleys, often with the aid of irriga- tion from small rivers or wells. There are two har- vests in the year in most parts of the coimtrj'. one reaped in the summer, the other in autumn. The principal minerals are copper and lead, although iron is produced and gold is found in small quantities. The leading manufactures are silk and carpets, felts and articles made of camel's and goat*s hair. In 1916- 17 the imports from India amounted to $6,750,(K)0 and the exports to India amounted to $5,7(X).0O0. Defense. The Afghan army is said to number 98. (XK) men. The real military strength lies in the mountainous character of the countrj', the lack of roads, and the capacity of the inhabitants for guerriUa warfare. The greater part of the territory of Afghanistan is taken up with lofty motmtains and high-lying val- leys. In the north, on the banks of the Amu Darya, and in the southwest are wide-extending plains. Temperature varies from 12 below zero to as high as 120 alx)ve in the shade along the Amu Darya. The area is about 245.000 square miles, and the population about 6,380.000. Chronology. 1747. Following various Indian, Turkish, and Mongol dynasties, the rule of the present Durani dynasty is establisheecame provinces of the Byzantine Empire. In 640. northern Albania was conqueretl by the SerIx>-Croats and remained under Serbian rule until 1360, although in the ninth and tenth centuries the Bulgarians imder the Czar Simeon controlled the country (see Bulgaria). In the eleventh centurj' the Normans made themselves masters of Durazzo, while in the fourteenth century Stephen Dushan added Albania to his short-lived Serbian empire (see Serbia). In the fifteenth cen- tury came the Turkish conquest, and in 1502 the Turks captured Durazzo and established a nominal t39) 40 NATIONAL HISTORIES: ALBANIA — ARGENTINA. N O P Q R U Turkish sii|)remacy throughout Allmnia which con- tinued luUil 1912. The An)anians furnished leaders and troops for the Turldsh Revolution of 1908, but gained little during the rule of the Yoimg Turks. In the Balkan wars of 1912-1913 the disposition of Albania was an impor- tant question . Serbia and Montenegro hoped to par- tition ."Mbania, but in this they were thwarted by the powers (see Au3TRi.\, Serbi.\): an "independent" kingdom of Albania was erected imder the protec- tion of tlie powers, and a German prince, William of Wied, placed upon the tlirone. At tlie outbreak of the World War William fled, and Albania fell into a state of anarchy. In 1916 the Austrians occupied the country, but June 3, 1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces set up a provisional government at Diirazzo, and .southern iVIbania, though nommally independent, is actually an Italian protectorate. Industry and Labor. Tlie chief occupation is agriculture, but this is carried on in an extremely primitive way and great tracts of the country are barren mountains incapable of cultivation. There are few carriage roads and no railways in the coim- try. Albania is said to possess considerable mineral resources but these have not been investigated. Religion and Education. Two thirds of the Al- banians are Moslems, and the remaining one tliird are divided between the Roman Catholic and Greek Chuj-ches. Under Tiu-kish rule little was done for education. There are schools maintained by the Jesuits and the Orthodo.x Greek Church and by American missionaries. The estimated area is between 10,500 and 11,500 square miles, and the population is between 800,000 and 850,000. Chronology. 1B4S. For Balkan Peninsula in 164S, see Bulgaria. 1760. An almost independent sovereignty is estab- lished around Scutari, which exists imtil 1831. Contemporaneously there is a similar state in the south, centered at Janina. 1840-1911. Albania nominally part of Turkey; actually no comprehensive government. 1878. Following the Treaty of Berlin, Albanian League forms, protesting against territorial ad- justment; but, though there are occasional revolts, Albanian interests continue to be mostly tribal and but little nationahstic sentiment is shown. 1908. Albanian soldiers in the Tiu-kish army sup- port the Young Turk revolution. 191^. Albanians revolt against military and finan- cial exactions of the Yoimg Tiu-ks. Independ- ence is declared on November 28 during the Balkan War (see Bulgaria, 1912). Allies occupy tlie cotmtry but are not permitted by the iMwers to retain it, their presence on the Adriatic httoral checking the plans of both Austria and Italy. 191.'!. MaijSO. Conference of London declares Alba- nia independent* status being left to the powers. Sipl. gs. International Commission of Control representing the powers is established at Avlona. Nod. HJ. William of Wied is selected as sov- ereign and powers promise adequate financial support. He arrives at Durazzo March 7. 1914. Drcemher. Southern frontier is determined: it includes Epirus, largely Greek in population. 1911. May. Essad Pasha heads an uprising, but is arrested by international marines and ban- ished. General anarchy ensues, and Prince William seeks refuge on an Italian warship. .Stp(. 3. William abdicates and the Commis- sion resumes control. 1915. March. Disorders culminate in an attack by 50,000 on Essad at Durazzo. Italians later occupy Avlona and Durazzo; Greeks occupy Epirus, and Montenegrins Scutari. 1910. Jtiniiary-March. Central Powers overrun most of the country, though Italian control con- tinues in the south, where Greeks are displaced. 1917. Junes. Italy proclaims the independence and unity of Albania under her protection. 1918. Ocl. 3. Austrian troops evacuate Albania. Dec. 2S. At Durazzo Albanian delegates form a government and later appeal to the Paris Peace Conference for recognition and restoration of terri- tory taken in 1S7S and 1913. 1919. Italy is given by the Peace Conference a mandate over Albania, but final decision as to boundaries (Italy's occupation of Avlona, Greek claim in Northei-n Epirus) is reserved. Dec. a. Epirus is given to Greece by an Anglo-Franco-Araerican memorandiun. Presi dent Wilson objects to the cession of northern part of Albania to Montenegro. 19'!0. June-July. Fighting with ItaUans, who give up Avlona and ivithdraw most of troops from Albania. ANDORRA. The Republic of Andorra is situated on the south side of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, and claims an existence of more tlian 1100 years, going back to the time of Charlemagne. The territory consists chiefly of a valley 17 by 18 miles, and the popiUation of about 5,000 is scattered in small villages. It is under the joint guardiansliip of the president of France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel. It is governed by a council of 24 members elected for four years by the heads of famiUes. Chronology. 1?78. Condominium tietween Bishop of Urgel and Count of Foix over feudal claims to Andorra. 1589. Henry of Navarre, Count of Foix, becomes king of France and his rights pass to French crown. 1793. French Republic refuses to assert authorit^- 1806. March 21 . Decree by which the French wUI participate. The valley continues to be a seign- iory of France and the Spanish bishop jointly. Quasi independence results from its unimportance and the diverse nationality of the seigniors. ARABIA. See under Hejaz, page 112. ALGERIA. See under France; page 96. z ANDAMAN ISLANDS. See under British Empire, page 65. ARGENTINA. Historical Outline. The coast of Argentina was traced by white men as early as 1512. Buenos Aires was first foimded by Mendoza in 1535 — tliirty years before the foimding of Saint Augustine in Florida — but the settlement was not permanent. An expedition sent out by liim explored the valley of the Rio de la Plata as far as Paraguay and founded Asimcion (1536). Atflrsttliis region was regarded as a province of the Spanish vice- royalty of Peru. This relation was held mitil 1620, w^ien Buenos Aires {Colonms de In Plata) received a separate provincial government from Philip III. The Spanish colonial system attempted to monop- oUze for Spain all the trade with the colonists and to prohibit intercolonial trade. But forbidden traffic was bound to flourisli in the face of such restrictions. From 1715 to 1739 England held the contract (a.ii- ento) for supplying tlie Spanish American colonists with negro slaves, and in so doing contrived Ijoth to smuggle in and carry away a large quantity of goods. In 1776 a viceroyalty was formed of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia, with Buenos Aires as its capital. In the wars of the French Revolution Spain sided with France against Great Britain; and in reprisal General WiUiam Beresford in 1806 landed a body of troops and held Buenos Aires for about two months. In 1807 another British force of 8,000 im- der General Whitelocke attempted to regain po.sses- sion of Buenos Aires, but was compelled to capitu- late. The successful defense of Buenos Aires with- out aid from the mother coimtry strengthened tlie growing feeling of dissatisfaction and led to a revolt, which was aided by popular resentment at efforts to secure the province for France. May 25, 1810, a provisional junta was formed and the war of independence began. The most fa- mous leader was General Jose de San Martin, who defeated the adlierents of Spain. March 25, 1816, a repubUc was proclaimed; and Buenos Aires was declared the regular seat of the goverrmient. Although the independence of Argentina was thus assured in 1816, the war witli Spain dragged on tmtii San Martin crossed the Andes, set free Chile and Peru, and finally captui-ed Lima, in 1821. The Spanish government, however, did not ac- knowledge this actual independence imtil 1842. In 1825 a national constitution of the federal states wliich formed the Argentine RepubUc was decreed, and the English government acloiowledged its inde- pendence. Peace, however, was long delayed, for Argentina was involved both in civil wars and in war with Brazil. In 1829 Juan Manuel de Rosas made himself mas- ter of Buenos Aires, and in 1835 established a dicta- torship which lasted imtil 1852. His poUcy was to reincorporate Uruguay and Paraguay into the re- piibhc, and lie was so indifferent to the rights of for- eign residents that, in 1835, a French fleet was sent to blockade Buenos Aires. His rule gradually de- generated into one of tjTanny and bloodshed. In his attempt to control LTruguay he laid siege to Monte- video. This brought about the jomt intervention ot the French and English fleets in 1S45. In 1853 a new constitution, modeled upon that of the United States, was adopted: Buenos Aires, at first resisting, gave lior adherence, in 1855. In 1856 war broke out with Paraguay, which might have resulted in tlie ex- tinction of that country had not insurrections in Argentina itself broken out. Argentina, in common with ail Spanish American repulilics, suffered from revolts and political dis- turbances. Until 1893 scarcely a presidential elec- tion was held without an appeal to arms. Since that t inie affairs have been more settled and the gov- ernment has been more secure. Organization. Government. The constitution of the Argen- tine RepubUc was adopted in May, 1863, modified in 1860-66 and 1898. The e.vecutive power is vested m tlie president, elected for sLx years by electors chosen by the fourteen provoiiccs, equal to double the number of senators and deputies combined . The legislative authority is in a national Congress con- sisting of two l)odies. The Senate of 30, two from the capital and two from each province, is elected every three years by a special body of electors from the capital and by the legislatures in the provinces. The House of Deputies, fixed at one for every 33,000 inhabitants in 1919, lias 120 members in all. The deputies are elected for four years, but one half re- tire every two years. The president is commander in chief of the army and navy and appoints aU civil, military, naval, and judicial oflicers. In local af- fairs the fourteen provinces control independently of the central government. For the territories, of wliich tliere are ten, the president appoints the governors. Beliglon and Education. There is no state religion, although the Roman Catholic Church is supported by the state and the president must be a Roman CathoUc. Primary education is free, secu- lar, and compulsory for children from 6 to 14 years of age. In 1917 there were more than 8,000 public primary schools, with more than a million pii]>ils. There are 37 national coUeges, with over 11,000 stu- dents, and 33 private institutions of the same grade. Industry and Production. Argentina possesses more than 250,000,000 acres wliich may be used for agricultural purposes or cattle industries. Of this area about 10,000,000 acres require irrigation and 58,000,000 acres were under cultivation in 1917. It is one of the great wheat-growing countries of the world and m 1917-18 produced about 6,000,000 tons of wheat, 4 ,000,000 tons of maize, and 1 ,000,000 tons of oats. Cotton, tobacco, and wine are also [iro- duced and the sugar mdustry is growing rapidly. Argentmais famous for its live-stock industry, ami in 1915 it was estimated that there were 30,000,000 cat- tle, 9,000,000 horses, 81 ,000,000 sheep, and 4,000,000 goats. The total wool clip amounted to more than 180,000 tons. Mining is of no great importance, al- though gold, silver, and copper are worked on a sniaU scale. IJefore the World War Argentina exported more to Great Britain than to any other country, and imported more from it. From 1915 to 1919, however, the United States ranked first, both in imports to and exports from Argentina. Defense. MiUtary service is compiflsory on all men from the 20th to the 45th year. For ttie fir .t ten years they belong to the active army and then pass into the national guard, where they serve for ten years and finish their service with five years in the territorial guard. The greater proportion of the an- ' nual contingents are trained for only tliree months, but a part sen'e for one year. There are five mili- tary districts, each of wliich is supposed to provide on mobiUzation a complete division of the first line and also a reserve division, irrespective of the national guard and territorial troops. The total peace estab- lishment of the army is 25,000 ofHcers and men, and the reserve numbers 250,000. The navy is in the process of transformation and consists cliiefiy of two modem dreadnoughts and a few destroyers. The other vessels are of Uttle military value. Finance. Owmg to the frequent revolutions and extravagant and ill-advised financial policies of the dictators, the financial condition of Arfieiitina is not good. Thereis a bonded debt of nearly .^r.OO.OOO, 000, gold, and 3223,000,000, paper, and also a floating debt of 5572,000,000, paper. The annual charges on the pubUc debt amount to 8126,000,000, pnper, about a third of the totnl revenue, which ordinarily amounts to $362,000,000, paper. The estimated area is 1,153,119 square miles and tlie population in 1918, 8,279,159. Chronology. 1516. Eio de la Plata discovered by Juan Diaz de Soils for Spain. 1527. Sebastian Cabot explores the Rio de la Plata. 1535. First settlement of Buenos Aires by Men- doza. Results in complete failure. 1536. Aug. IS. Asuncion settled; first perma- nent settlement on the river. [Peru and Chile. I 1553- 1573. Various interior settlements made from I 1580. Third and final settlement of Buenos Aires. 1630. Buenos Aires becomes capital of a subordi- nate government uicluding the interior' settle- ments; attached to viceroyalty of Peru. Legiti- mate trade practically prohibited; development tlirough smuggUng. 1776. Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires is established; jurisdiction includes modern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Spanish trade freely per- mitted. 1806, 1807. Two British attempts on Bueno? Aires are disastrous to tlie invaders. 1810. May 2o. Independence Day; viceroy superseded by a j imta at B uenos Aires ; but interior NATIONAL HISTORIES : ARGENTINA — ARMENIA. 41 1810 (continued). provinces not accepting it, civil war results as well as conflict with Spanish troops. 1816. July 0. Separation from Spain is for- mally declared, but conflicts continue, resulting ultimately in separate republics for Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Various attempts to fonn a constitutional government are imsucce-ssful. 1S?3. Jan. 27. Recognition by the tfnited States, through the appointment of a minister. 1825. Feb. 2. Treaty of recognition and commerce with Great Britain. [(see Uruguay).! 18*27. Brazilian war and independence of Uruguay I 1835. Out of the warfare between the Federalists and Unitarians rises the dictatorship of Rosas, a Federalist; the interminable contest continues. 1845. Great Britain and France blockade Buenos Aires and open passage to Paraguay. 1853. Feb. 5. Defeat of Rosas by Urquiza, in alh- ancc with Brazil and Urnguay. Rosas flees. 1853. May. Federal constitution adopted and Urcpiiza elected president; but Buenos Aires province is recognized as independent. 1859. Nov. It. Buenos Aires reenters the confed- eration after its army is defeated. 1800. Sept. S5. Amended constitution is adopted. 1861. Sept. It. Buenos Aires regains its ascend- ancy over the interior provinces. It becomes the capital, with Mitre as president. 1865-1870. Alliance with Brazil and Uruguay in war with Paraguay. 1867. Insurrection, which Mitre puts down. 1868. Sarmlcnto become-s president. 1870-1873. Insurrections in Entre Rios provmce. 1874. Oct. t2. Avellaneda, candidate of the in- terior provinces, inaugurated as president. Mitre, Buenos Aires candidate, alleging corrupt practices, heads a revolt that is soon crushed. 1880. July. Renewal of war between army of the national government, under Roca, and Buenos Aires; latter entirely defeated. Oct. 12. Roca inaugurated as president. He malics city of Buenos Aires a federal district and transfers capital of province to La Plata. 18S6. Oct. 12. Celman begins his term as presi- dent. Administration is corrupt; bankruptcy of national credit and honor threatens, 1889. National Civic Union with Alem at its head organized to combat public corruption. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress opens at Waslwngton (see United St.\te9). 1890. July 31 . Armed revolt of the National Civic Union forces Celman to resign: Vice President Pellegrini succeeds. Period of financial crisis; liquidation of Baring Bros., of London, the govern- ment's financial agents. 1892. Oct. 12. Luis Saenz-Peiia becomes presi- dent: candidacy promoted by Mitre and Roca, but opposed by Alem. Paper money stabilized by provisions for conversion at 44*^ gold per peso. 1893. Alem promotes an unsuccessful revolt and is banished. 1895. Jan. 21. Saenz-Pena forced by Congress to resign: Vice President Urlburu succeeds. Res- toration of financial credit progresses. Feb. 5. President Cleveland of United States arbitrates the boundary dispute with Brazil. 1898. Oct. 12. Roca again president. 1899. Boundary controversy with Chile, which threatens war, is partly arbitrated, but delay in rest of the award keeps alive the tension. 1902. Nov. 27. lying Edward of Great Britain finally makes his award on the Fatagonian boundary; Chilean controversy ends. 1904. Oct. 12. Quintana becomes president. 1908. March 11. Quintana dies; Vice President Alcorta completes the term. 1908. August. Naval appropriation of $75,000,000 authorized; portion of it spent on two great dread- noughts built in the United States — the Riva- d-ivia and the Moreno. 1909. Because of Bolivia's nonacceptance and threats following Argentina's arbitration of the Peru-Bolivia boundary, diplomatic intercourse is severed. Restored in 1911. 1910. C-ompletion of the all-rail connection be- tween Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. May,.2d. Centenary of independence cele- bratecT July- August. Fourth Pan-American Con- gress held at Buenos Aires. Oct. 12. Roque Saenz-Pena is inaugurated as president. 1911. Resenting Argentina's quarantine laws, Italy forbids emigration. Affair is settled the next year. 1913. January. Difficulty with Paraguay; inter- course severed but restored in Februa^J^ 1914. February. Saenz-Pena turns over his func- tions to Vice President de la Plaza, and dies on August S. fST.f.TES).| . April-June. ABC mediation (see United] 1915. May So. Tripartite treaty with Brazil and Chile; no war before investigation and re- port by an impartial commission. 1916. Oct. 12. Irigoyen inaugurated as president; first Radical to hold the office and first election by secret ballot. 1917. April 16. Mobs at Buenos Aires attack German legation, consulate, and newspaper offices because of sinking of Argentine ships. Sept. 12. Von Luxburg, German charge d'af faires, is dismissed after American revelation of his official messages recommending that Argen- tine vessels be " sunk without a trace " (" spurlo^. Tcrsenht "). Anti-German riots renewed; pub- lic demands severance of intercourse with Ger- many. Sept. 25. House of Deputies by vote of 53 to 18 advises, as Senate has also done on September 19, severance of diplomatic relations with Ger- many. President Irigoyen does not act on the recommendations, but preserves neutrality. Railway strikes, which follow, are believed due to German intrigue. 1919. January. General strike, believed due to foreign radical propaganda, ties up shipping and railways and amoimts almost to a revolution, es- pecially at Buenos Aires. Troops finally restore quasi-normal conditions; increase in wages given. July 7. Argentina joins League of Nations 19?0. March 7. Congressional election, after bit- ter campaign marked by strikes and anarchistic disturbances, results in a Radical triumph. ARMENIA. Historical Outline. The northern and central portions of ..\sia Minor have for ages been occupied by the Armenian race, which has maintained its language, religion, culture, and national characteristics hi the face of conquests and oppression by Roman, Persian, Byzantine, and Tm-kish masters. Xenophon passed through the land on his famous Retreat of the Ten Thoiisand (401—400 B.C.). It was a Roman province. Chris- tianity was adopted imder Sapor, about 300 a. d,; and the Armenians are, therefore, tlie earliest people to make Christianity the national faith. Armenia was a province in the Empire of the Otto- man Turks from 1514 a. d. The Turks foil owed their usual policy of permitting Cliristian subjects to exer- cise the faith, while depriving them of all national and political power. Nevertheless, the business and statesmanlike abilities of the Armenians caiLsed their spread into other parts of the empire, including Constantinople. When Russia began to press upon Turkey, the Armenians were again brought into the war frontier. By the Peace of Berlin (1S7S) Armenia was di\ided. and Russia took over the northern area, Ix^tween the Black and Caspian Seas. Part of the Armenians were in Persia. Rleanwliile the Armenians in all parts of the Turkish Empire were selected by the fanatical Turks imder Sultan Abdul Hamid as ene- mies of the Turkish dispensation, subject to plunder and murder. Brutal massacres of Armenians in the capital and elsewhere occurred m 1896; and again under the regime of the Young Turks in 1909. When the World War broke out the Armenian yoimg men were called up into the army, except those who took flight. Then followed one of the most frightful massacres of llistor^^ The Armenians left at home were called upon to give up their arms. When disarmed, they were set upon by Kurds and other enemy tribes and by the regular Turkish au- thorities, acting imder pressure from the Germans. Men, women, and cliildren were swept up and started on horrible journeys to distant parts of the empire, most of them perisliing on the way. No fewer than 1.500,000 lives were tjius sacrificed. Russian forces came to the rescue of the imihappy countrj'. and the Armenians made such organiza- tion as was possible for self-defense. In 1918 they formed the Republic of Armenia on the Russian side, with a provisional ministry. The Turks, however, held the southern area and after Irostilities in West- ern Europe ended went on killing Armenians. The question of national existence has been complicated by the founding of a Georgian repubfic in the nortli and the Republic of Azerbaijan in the east. The purpose of the Turks was to destroy the nation by killing so many that they might then set up the plea that an Armenian republic would contain only a minority of Armenians, and would thus violate the principle of self-determination. The Armenians sent delegates to the Congress of Paris, but were coolly received by the Congress. They were finally declared independent by the treaty of peace of June, 1919, and the Tiu-kish treaty of May 20. 1920: but the Tiirkish raids still continued. They urged the United States to accept a mandate for them: and President Wilson agreed to be arbiter of their boimdary difficulties, but the Senate declined that responsibility. In the spring of 1920 the Arme- nians were still imperfectly organized: and what was left of the Turkish nationalistic forces were trying to destroy them. Almost all the country occupied or claimed as a part of Armenia is mountainous and rugged. Much of it is a high plateau, out of which rises Mt. Ararat. The climate of this high coimtrj' is severe, but with irrigation large areas of land are cultivated and hemp, grapes, fruit, and grain are raised. In the lower districts cotton is raised. The people are in- dustrious and tlirifty. Rug making has been a tra- ditional pursuit for ages. The people are intelligent and intensely devoted to their o\vn national church. The people of the Armenian race are widely scattered tlirough Asia Minor and they claim Cilicia on the Mediterranean. Many thousand Armenians have emigrated to America. The total population of Ar- menian race and language in Europe and Asia when the World War broke out was estimated at 2,400,000, of whom a million were in Russian Armenia and per- haps 800,000 in various parts of Turkey. Chronology. B. C. 69. Defeatof Tigranes, king of Armenia, by Lu- cullus. makes the country a vassal state of Rome. A. D. 301. King baptized by Gregory tlie Illumma- tor; Christianity becomes the state religion; and the Armenian Church is the earliest national Christian Church. (See Armenian Church, in the Dictionary). 491. Church separates from the Greek rite, and becomes known as the Gregorian or Armenian Church, with a Catholicos at its head. 633. Country comes under the Caliphates, this event lieing followed tlu*ough several centuries by strife between Arabs, Seljuks, and Byzantines, and by the mvasions of Timour (Tamerlane) and other Mongols. 1514. Ottoman Turks, under Selim I., begin to rule Armenia. Coimtry continues to be a land of strife between Turks and Persians. 1639. Part of eastern Armenia ceded to Persia. 1803. Georgia definitely declared a province of Russia, bringing that nation to the Armenian frontier. Earlier. Catherine the Great, during her wars with the Turks, has encouraged the Arme- nians with projects of independence under her protection, but fails to support them. 1838. Feb. 22. Treaty of Turkmanchai; two Armenian provinces, mcluding Eclmiiadzin, seat of the Catholicos, are ceded by Persia to Russia. 1829. Sept. 14. In the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey cedes to Russia a small portion of her Armenian territory. Like the Jews, the Arme- nians have become widely scattered, but retain their nationalism, and the Russian wars with Per- sia and Turkey have promoted emigration, espe- cially to Russia. Expatriates promote plans for independence. 1831. American Protestant missionaries begin their labors among the Armenians. Opposed by- Russians (Greek rite) and leaders of the Armenian Church, but the work progresses and is partic- ularly successful along educational lines. EQ'ort is also made to promote Roman Catholicism among the Armenians. Turkish rule is attended by more or less forced conversions to Moham- medanism. 1878, March 3. Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey. Russia annexes a further portion of Armenia, including Kars, Ardahan. and the port of Batimi on the Black Sea. Turkey en- gages to carry into effect in Armenia " the im- provements and reforms demanded by local re- quirements . . . and to guarantee their security from Kurds and Circassians." June 4. Anglo-Turkish convention; Tur- key promises to introduce reforms for protec- tion of Christian subjects in Asia, but fails to do so. July 13. Treaty of Berlin signed by the powers. Cessions to Russia in Asia and the prom- ise of reforms are confirmed. Powers to superin- tend the application of the reforms. Begmning of the Armenian question. Reforms are not made and powers do not compel them, being di- vided in interests. CJreat Britain left alone to protest on behalf of Protestants and Gregorians. Armenian plots against Turkish rule promote reprisals. 1893-1894. Massacres of Armenians by Turkish troops fhially cause an investigation by the powers and renewed demands for reforms. 1895. May. Impracticable project of reform presented to the Porte by representatives of Great Britain. France, and Russia, aq^d an irade is issued, October 17. Oci. 1 . Riot in Constantinople due to an Arme- nian demonstration is followed by renewed mas« sacres in provinces Covered by the reform irade. 1896. Aug. 26. Armenians attack the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople. In the riots that follow, the Armenians of the city are systematically slaughtered by organized bands of Mohamme- dans, some 7,000 being killed. Planned massa- cres in the provinces continue, the victims being generally either Protestants or Gregorians. Cath- olics and Greek Orthodox Armenians are spared by Turkish plan to divide the powers, and now and later support for this policy is found in the purpose of Germany to pain a controlling interest over the affairs of the Near East, her " Drang nach Oslen " (Ger., pressure or impulse toward the 42 NATIONAL HISTORIES: ARMENIA — AUSTRIA. 1896-1920. 1896 (continued). East). Turkish attitude an aflfront to Great Britain and a deflance of the sentiment of the United States. Result, nuJUflcation of reform and the prevention of interference by the powers. 1909. April 13. Beginning of the massacres in Adana province, contemporarj' with the Young Turk revohition at Constantinople. 1914. Feb. 8. Reforms promulgated, based up- on a Russian draft and revised by tlie ambassa- dors at Constantinople; but, even if sincere, opera- tion is frustrated by the World War, and the scheme is officially nullified in October. 1915-1918. When Turkey Joins Germany and Austria against tlie .lilies and the Holy War is proclaimed by the spiritual head of Islam, mas- sacres of Armenians by Kurds and Turkish sol- diers are renewed with greater systematic vio- lence than ever before, and with the evident inten- tion of e.\termination. These continue during the war, and the Cliristians are deported and placed in concentration camps. Relief is attempted through the American Red Cross and other fimds. Armenia is a field of the Russian advance and re- treat, and .\rmenians increase Turkish resentment by aiding the foe. Turkish advance in Russia and Persia is accompanied by atrocities on the Arme- nians and other CIu*istians in these detached por- tions of the coimtry. 1916. Feb. 16. Russians capture Erzerum. This and the later occupation of Trebizond (April 18), the main port of Turkish Armenia on tlie Black Sea, Bitlis (March 2). Mush (February 19), and Erzingan (July 25) give control of most of Ar- menia, and this territory is mostly retained, though Russians are not able to use the position for a further advance through Asia Minor against Con- stantinople. 1917. Revolution in Russia and the Bolshevist regime there destroy the morale of the Russian forces. Turiiey regains control of Armenia, and also of Russian and Persian Armenia. 1915. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolsheviki and the Central Powers. Russia agrees to evacuate Turkish Armenia; also the Russian districts of Krivan, Kars, and Ba- tum. Constitutional and intcniational conditions of these districts to be reorganized in agreement with the neighboring states, particularly Turkey. April £J. Russian Armenia unites with Georgia and Azerbaijan to form the Federal Re- public of Transcaucasia, which lasts only a few weeks. Russian Armenia sets up a separate gov- ernment, with Erivan as capital. St'pUmber-October. From the condition in which Russian treaty left Armenia the country is rescued by the advance of the Allies in Meso- potamia and SjTia, threatening to cut off the Turk- ish forces in Armenia (see Mesopot.\mi,\, Persi.\). Ort. SO. Turkey signs an armistice; to with- draw from Persia and Transcaucasia and to sur- render all garrisons in Asia Minor; but Allied occu- pation of Armenia in case of disorder only. 1919. Armenian question is an important one before the Peace Conference at Paris. Famine and continued raids and outrages by Kurds make up much of the history of the country during the year. They prevent the development of a strong national government. Relief work continues. 1920. January-February. Massacres at Marash (see Syria). Jan. :e6. Republic of (Russian) Armenia recognized by L'mted States. Its natural future is imion with Turkish Armenia. April 11. ijoague of Nations decides it cannot accept mandate for Armenia. May 11. Treaty of peace is handed Turkish delegates. It makes Armenia an independent state with such boundaries as President Wilson assigns to it, including access to the sea. Council of premiers has asked United States to accept a mandate for Armenia. June 1. United States Senate adopts resolution refusing consent of Congress to acceptance of mandate. AUSTRALIA. See under British Empire, page 74. AUSTRIA. Historical Outline. The title Emperor of Austria, is a modem term and was assumed in 1804 by Francis II, who, in 1806, divested liimself of the ancient title derived from the Holy Roman Empire, The state of Austria, how- ever, is of ancient origin. The territory now called Austria was inhabited by Celtic tribes who were conquered by the Romans about 14 b. r. Vindobona, modem Vierma, became an important Roman settle- ment. North of the Danube dwelt the Marcomanni and the Quadi, who threatened the peace of the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aiu^lius Tliis region was frequently invaded by trities from Russia, among whom were the Hiuis; and in 590 a. d. the district was settled by the Slovenes, who subse- quently became members of the kingdom of the Avars. After Charlemagne had estabhshed his au- thority over the Bavarians he began a campaign against the Avars, and finally incorporated them in his empire and erected a border state called the East Mark l" Oc.^ireich"). The real founder of Austria, however, was Otto the Great, who in 955 overtlirew the Magyars, freed Bavaria, and refoimded the East Mark for the de- fen.se of his kingdom. The control of this region was entrusted to Leopold, a member of the family ofBabenberg, which admmistered it imtil the middle of the thirteenth century. In 1156 Austria was raised to the rank of a duchy and given special priv- ileges; its territory increased imtU it occupied sub- stantiaUy the botmdaries it had in 1914. TheDanube trade was large and profitable, and Vienna became one of the most important Oennan-speaking cities. In 12S2 Austria came into the possession of the family of the Hapsburgs, who continued to rule it luitil the forced abdication of the last Austrian em- peror, Charles I. (191S). The first great period in Austrian history was that of Maximilian I. He suc- ceeded in recovering Vienna from the Himgarians, and greatly added to the Austrian territory, until it mcluded nearly 50,000 square miles. In 1518 repre- sentatives of the various Austrian provinces met at Innsbruck, a proceeding wliich marks the beginning of the unified orgamc government of -Austria. Maximilian was succeeded by his grandson. King Charles of Spain, who became emperor imder the title of Charles V, The Austrian lands were given to Ferdinand, the brother of Charles, and thus Spain and .Austria remamed divided. Ever since the Turks appeared north of the Danube, Austria had been the bulwark of Europe, In 1526 Solj-man the Magnifi- cent defeated and killed the king of Bohemia and Himgary, thereby obtaining the greater part of Hun- gary, In 15.'!0 the Turks besieged Vienna, and Fer- dinand agreed to pay them tribute for the small por- tion of Himgary wliich he still held. During the early years of the Thirty Years' War .Austria gained ground against the northern Protes- tant states of Germany. With the entry of France in 1635 the war became a struggle between France and the House of Hapsburg. After the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, Austria was forced to allow Alsace to pass to France and to permit the states of the empire to make Independent alliances. The Holy Roman Empire, as a political force, practi- cally ceased, although it was not formally abolished until 1806. In the latter half of the seventeenth century .Austria, imder Leopold I,, was involved in wars with Turkey and was only saved from the loss of Vienna and the destruction of the state by the intervention of the Polish kmg, John Sobieski. In 1699 peace was finally made at Karlowitz by which Slavoma, Transylvania, and practically all of Himgary were ceded to the Austrian crown. By the acts of the Diet of Pressburg the Himgarian crown was made hereditary in the Hapsburg family, and in 1697 Transylvania was united to the Hungarian monarchy. The personal union between Austria and Hungary contmued, though Himgary was not a part of the empire. During the eighteenth century Austria, in com- mon with the rest of Europe, was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession, as the result of wliich Austria received the Spanish Netherlands. Sardinia, and Naples, In 1740 Emperor Charles VI, died and was suc- ceeded in the Austrian and Himgarian kingdoms by his daughter, Maria Theresa. This was the signal for an attack upon the Austrian dominions, begin- ning the War of the Austrian Succession Frederick the Great of Prussia, with the support of France, seized Silesia; England supported Austria. The war ended in 1748 with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Austria ceded Silesia to Prussia, In 1756 an alliance was made between France and Austria to withstand the aggressions of Frederick the Great, and the Seven Years' War began. Great Britain now supported Prussia. By the Peace of Hulwrtsburg, in 1763, Germany was practicafiy di- vided between Austria and Prussia. In 1772 came the first partition of Poland, by which Austria re- ceived the great province of Galicia, The French Revolution brought Austria and France again into conflict, although Queen Marie Antoinette was an Austrian princess. In 1792 France declared war, and Austria, in alliance with Prussia, began a twenty years' struggle. The first phase of the war came to an end with the Treaty of Campoformido (or Campoformio) October 17, 1797, by wWch Austria lost the Belgian provinces, but gained Venice. In 1793 had come the second parti- tion of Poland, which marked the end of that buffer state, and brought Russia, Prussia, and Austria in touch with one another. The rise of Napoleon caused a renewal of the war, and after the decisive battle of Austerlitz the Treaty of Pressburg (1805) deprived Austria of Venice and Tirol, while the Con- federation of the Rhine was formed to break the unity of Germany. Six months later Francis I. , who since 1804 had borne the title of Emperor of Austria, ab- dicated the title and functions of " German Em- peror in the Realm," Austria, always hostile in spirit to Napoleon, in 1813 joined the Grand Alli- ance and shared in the battle of Leipzig which opened the way for a victorious advance into France. The congress which was to resettle the affairs of Europe was held at Vienna in 1814 and 1815. Un- der the guidance of Count Metteraich, its prime min- ister, Austria received all the territories lost since 1792, except Belgium and Breslau, and was restored in Lombardy, Tu-ol, and Venetia. Until 1848 Met- temich dominated the Austrian policy and established a system of repression and reaction, wliich extended to Prussia, France, and the German state. So suc- cessful was he that the Revolutions of 1830 hardly affected Austria. Durmg this period Himgary was kept in semi- dependence. In 1848 Hungary, imder the lead of Kossuth, broke into open revolt and woidd have secured independence but for the armies of Russia wliich came to the rescue of Francis Joseph. Durmg the next fifteen years Austria dominated Hungary and was the leading power in Germany. Slowly the rival, Prussia, forged ahead and, after 1860, foimded its system of universal military serv- ice. In 1864 Austria was aroused by the Prussian victory over Denmark, but could not rise to the danger of war and was overwhelmed by Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866. By the Peace of Prague .Austria agreed to withdraw altogether from German affairs, and was allowed to retain all her territory , In 1867 a workmg arrangement was reached with Himgary, resulting in the formation of the Dual Monarchy. The German victory of 1S71 over France and the establishment of a German Empire still further diminished the power of Austria in Eu- rope. Meanwhile the Austrian Empire was strug- gling with its racial problems. The -Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was composed of two equal, distinct, and independent composite states with two capitals, Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary. Each had its own parlia- ment and its own ministry and administration. The two kingdoms were united in the person of the mon- arch, who was emperor of Austria and king of Hun- gary. Certain affairs were also regarded as common for both and they were administered by a joint min- istry with three departments, foreign affairs, war, and finance. The only common deliberative body was a Delegation of 60 members from each part of the monarchy, which met alternately at Vienna and Budapest, In both kingdoms there was racial heterogeneity; in eacii there was a dominant race. In Austria the Germans were the largest single race element (9,000,000), but were outnumbered in the total by large groups of Czecho-Slovaks (6,000,000). Poles (5,000,000), Ruthenians (3,000,000), and Slovenes (1,000,000). In Hungary the Magyars numbered 10,000,000, but they were outnumbered in the total by Roumanians (3,000,000). Gemians (2,000,000), Slovaks (1,900,000), Croatians (1,800,000), Serbians (1,100,000), Ruthenians, and others. Many of these mmority races were separated from their kinsmen in other states and there was constant striving for auton- omy witlun the monarchy and aspirations for union witli their kinsmen outside. In Galicia the Poles, though in a minority, gained control of the Diet and enjoyed greater autonomy than did their kinsmen who suffered under Prussian or Russian rule. In Bohemia the struggle was more severe and the Czechs were kept m cultural subjection as well as political Ixind- age to the Germans Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 2,00O,(X)O. were practically .Austrian dependencies, making 17,000,000 people ruled by 9,000,000 Germans. In foreign policy, the Dual Monarchy has had a. varied history. By the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Austria-Hungary received the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, nommally under Turkish suze- rainty. Although forced to consent to the continu- ance of the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Roumania, and Serbia, Austria looked askance at the establish- ment of Slav states, lest the Slavic peoples witliin her borders should desire to unite with them. Thus she regarded with no friendly eyes the growing senti- ments of nationality in Serbia. In 1908, after the Turldsh Revolution, she formally annexed the prov- inces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thereby arousing the hostile feeling of the Slavs. At the close of the first Balkan War of 1913, Austria persuaded the great powers to establish the kingdom of .Albania, thereby preventing Serbia from otitaining an access- to the sea. As a result, Serbia was inspired with hit- ter hatred and a passionate desire to unite all Serbs, whether in Austria or elsewhere, in one state. This was one of the direct causes of the World War. The German-Hungarian ruling statesmen had long sought an occasion of war with Russia. The imme- diate break came from the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, by an Austrian subject of Serb race. For this act .Austria held the Serbian government responsible, and in a 1648 - 1747. NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA. 43 brutal ultimatum demanded abject reparation from Serbia. Acting upon the advice of Russia, Serliia consented to tliese demands, but Austria, whicli had already secured tlie bacliing of Germany, alleged that the submission was not sufRcicntl>' complete, and declared war upon Serbia. This caused Russia to mobilize in defense of her Slavic kinsmen. Ger- many was seeking a cause of open war and mobilized against both Russia and her ally, France During the World War. Austria fighting for herself was unsuccessful. The first invasion was repulsed by Serbia. The Russians were able to penetrate Galicia. to capture Przemysi. and to threaten an in- vasion of the great Hungarian plains. The Austrian Slavs realized that they were fighting against their own cause, and in some cases went over to the enemy. During these campaigns Italy in 1916 was able to capture Gorz and to win a foothold on the Carso (Karst) plateau and threaten the road to Laibach (1917). The Germans had to come to the aid of the Aus- trians. With combined (.;erman and Austrian forces they completely vanquished Serbia and Montenegro in 1915-16. threw back the tlu-eatened invasion of Russia, and, in 1917. regained from Italy the lost ground and drove the Italians behind the Pia\e River. Until 1918 the Allies had not considered the dismeml'crment of Austria-Hungary: but the de- mands of the Czecho-Slovaks were finally answered by the recognition of their independence (France. Jime 30. 191S). and Italy approved of the aspirations of the Jugo-Slavs for an independent state. The collapse came suddenly in September, 1918. The Austrian armies, no longer reenforced by the Germans, were driven from their positions in Mace- donia and Bulgaria, and made imconditional sur- render September 30, 191S. In the last week of October the Italians broke up the Austrian armies on their territory. November 3, Austria accepted an armistice, dictated by the Italians. Tliree days before, revolutions broke out in Budapest and Vi- eima. and on November 11 the Emperor Charles abdicated, next day the German-Atistrian republic was proclaimed. In February. 1919. a national constitutional assembly was elected on the basis of imiversal suf- frage, in this chamber the Social Democrats ob- tained 70 seats; the Clu-istian Socialists, 64: the Liberals, 23. In spite of rumors that the monarchy was to be reestablished, no head was chosen for the state, the executive power being placed in the hands of a cabinet, headed by Dr. Karl Renner. Tlirough- out the summer of 1919 there were serious outbreaks and communistic demonstrations, but these were Anally quelled and the government accepted the treaty drawn by the Alhes. Organization. Government. Until the overtitfow of the Dual Monarchy. Austria was governed by a Reichsrath. or legislature, consisting of two houses. The upper house was composed of princes of the imperial family (14); nobles in whose family by nominations of the emperor the dignity was hereditary (81); archbish- ops (10); btshops (7); other life members nominated by the emperor (1.59); a total of 271. The lower house, of 516 members, was chosen on the basis of tmiversal. equal, direct suffrage by Austrian male citizens over 24 years of age. The powers of the Reichsrath were those which ordinarily belong to a parliamentary body. All laws, including the budget, must have been passed by both houses; and all treaties, which placed a fiscal burden upon the monarcliy or the citizens or in- volved any change in the territorial status, must have been ratified by it. Either house might inter- pellate the ministers and investigate the administra- tive acts of the government. Each of the 17 prov- inces of the Austrian half of the monarchy had its parliament and local administration. The sovereign power of the monarchy was vested in the emperor, and all ix>wers. not expressly con- ferred elsewhere, remained in his hand. The powers of government were exercised largely through minis- ters who were supposedly responsible to the Reichs- rath. Certain important powers were expressly con- ferred upon the emperor and mdirectly exercised by him; these included the appomtment and dismissal of ministers, the management of all public ofl[icials, the command of the armed forces, together with the power of declaring war and concluding peace, the power of granting titles and appointing hfe peers, the power of pardon, the right to summon, adjourn, and dissolve various legislative lx>dies. and to issue ordinances and to conclude treaties with consent of the Reichsrath, where such consent was necessary. The ministers were nominally responsible and the parliamentary system was nominally in operation; actuully, the ministers were more dependent upon the emperor than upon the Reichsrath. The politi- cal parties in the Reichsrath were so numereus, and, because of racial divisions, so hostile to one another, that the government foimd little difflculty in playing one group against another. The Czechs were al- ways an irreconcilable body of members. In 1920 Austria was a repubUc, but foimd diffl- 1 culty in keeping up a government and plainly ex- pects to imite with Germany. Industry and Labor. Within the diversified territory of Austria the natural productions vary ac- cording to the latitude and still more according to the altitude. Some parts of the country reach up the Alpine slopes beyond the snow line, other jjarts descend to the level of the Adriatic and to semi- tropical conditions. The chief industries are agri- cultiu-e and mining, and the cultivation of the soil fiuTiishes employment to nearly half of the popu- lation. The leading agricultural crops are rye. oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, wme, and pulse. There were in Austria m 1910 over 1,800,000 horses, for which Austria was deservedly famous, and \ ast herds of cattle, sheep, and pigs. The produc- tion of silk cocoons was also important. In the south, Austria possessed rich and varied mineral wealth, although with the loss of Bohemia and Moravia this has been diminished. Neverthe- less, there are deposits of coal and iron, copper, lead, zinc, sulphiu-, manganese, and petroleum, and rich salt mines in Upper Austria. The value of the min- ing products in 1913 amounted to over $75,000,000 and the steel production in 1917 amoimted to over 2.(X)0.000 metric tons. There were numerous fac- tories of pottery, textiles, food and table deUcacies. woodwork and metal, and large and important brew- eries and distilleries and tobacco factories. The old government gave much attention to roads and thoroughfares, to canals and telegraphs and all means of communication and commercial inter- coiu"se. The navigation of the rivers had been im- proved, especially of the Danube, wliich is the main artery of the country; the rapids of the Iron Gate were corrected and the Danube was made free in 1856. Trieste, the main port of the Adriatic, is an outlet and inlet for commerce. The general condi- tion of labor, however, was poor and improgressive. the miners were still almost serfs of the operators. Ignorance and semislavery prevailed among the in- dustrial classes. For these reasons labor agitations were common. Religion. While the monarchy was Cliristian in profession er. 1879—1917. NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA. 45 1879. October. Andrdssy resigns from the premier- ship, and is succeeded l>y Baron Haymerle. Oct. 7. Austria and Germany conclude a secret alliance of mutual defense against Kussia. 1881. Austria maizes a close alliance with Serbia. October. Baron Haymerle dies, and in the fol- lowing month KiUnoky is made minister of foreign affairs. Insurrection occurs In Dalmatla, in November, and the government issues a decree that the citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be subject to military service. In the following year there is a rising in Herzegoiina. 1883. May SB. Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy formed. It continues with renewals until the World War. 1883. Austro-German alliance is renewed. Austria makes an alliance with Roumanla. 1884. Sept. 16-17. Emperor meets the rulers of Russia and Germany at Skierniewice. Dreikaiserbund vThree Emperors' League) is re- constituted. 1885. August. Emperor has a conference with the czar at Ivremsier. 1887. Austria, Italy, and Great Britain make two Mediterranean agreements. 1889. Jan. 30. Crown Prince Rudolph commits suicide. Emperor sternly refuses to entertain pro- posals looking to tlie establishment of home rule in Bohemia. Latx^ring classes in Austria, par- ticularly m the cities, share the discontent wliich is prevalent throughout Europe. A period of jealousy against Russia ensues on account of Slavic influence in Serbia and on the Galician frontier. 1890. AndrAssy, the leading statesman and diplo- matist of the empire, dies on February IS. The empire is disturbed by agitations in the Balkan states and by riots and labor strikes in many cities. The Home Rule party in Bohemia is ac- tive: Tisza. the Hungarian prime minister, resigns and is succeeded liy Szapdry, 1891. Bitter strife occui-s in the Diet between the Radicals and the Conservatives. Austria and Germany conclude a commercial treaty. 1893. Taaffe ministry (in office since ISSl) is driven from power on the question of electoral reform; the emperor closes the Diet; anarchistic upris- ings and radical outbreaks in Prague and other cities follow, 1891. Anarchistic and lalx)r riots occur in many parts of the empire. The Hungarian patriot Louis Kossuth dies in exile in Italy, March 20. Civil Marriage Bill, which makes the civil cere- mony compulsory. I)ut permits a subsequent reli- gious rite, is passed. 1895. Wlndischgriitz ministry falls and is suc- ceeded by one headed by Badeni. 1898. Millenary of the national existence of Hun- gary is celebrated witii imposing ceremonies, A new electoral law increases the number of voters in Austria proper from two to five miliions. 1897. Austria and Russia reach an agreement on the Balkan question. Prolonged struggles in the i^ustrian Parliament over the renewal of the Ausgleich, or the apportionment of general ex- pense between Austria and Hungary, Minority in the lower house opposes Prime Minister Badeni, who favors the official use of the Bohemian lan- guage in Bohemia, This the Germans m Bo- hemia consider a violation of the constitution. The commercial union is maintained on the basis of reciprocity. 1898. Sept- 10. Empress Elizabeth is assassi- nated by an anarchist, Dec. 2. 50th anniversary of the Emperor Francis Joseph's accession is celebrated. 190?. June 3S. Austro-German alliance re- newed (see Germany). 1903. January. A new tariff goes into operation, with duties greatly increasecl to meet the German tariff, Austria and Russia draw up the so-called Murzsteg program on Macedonian affairs. 190i. November. Serious disturbances occur in the lower house of the Hungarian Reichsrath, re- sulting in the suspension of its sessions. December. Student riots at Innsbruck, because of the purposed addition of Italians to the uni- versity faculty, cause strained relations with Italy, 1905. Grave crisis in the affairs of the Dual Monarchy, endangering its continued existence. The party of independence in Hungary gains great strength. January 4 the Hungarian Parliament is dissolved, but the ministry is defeated in a general election. June IS Count Tiszas resignation is accepted and Fej^rviry is appointed premier The adoption of the Hungarian language in the Hungarian regiments is demanded by the oppo- nents of the government, and is met by offers of universal franchise. 1906. Feb. 10. The emperor as king of Hungary dissolves the Hungarian Parliament, the leaders having refused to form a cabinet unless the words of command in the Hungarian portion of the army are given in Magj-ar. May 32. Alexander Wekerle is made premier. December. Austrian Reichsrath passes bill granting universal sufiTrage. 1907. May 14. Elections for the new Austrian Reichsrath. imder the new suffrage act. show the remarkable strength of the various socialistic parties. Of the 225 seats allotted the Germans, the Clericals win 117 and tlie Radicals 53. The Ausgleieh is renewed. In Hungary the Croats show themselves violently opposed to the Ian guage program. 1908. Revolution in Turkey complicates Austrian relations in the Balkans. Sixtieth anniversary of thecoronation of Francis Joseph (celebration June 12; Aug. 18. emperor's 7Sth birthday; and Dec. 2, anniversary of his accession). Oct. 7. Government announces its intention formally to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. Excitement follows in Serbia. Montenegro, and • Turkey. Powers consult concerning the assem- bling of a European conference. 1909. Jan. 13. Turkey accepts the Austro-Hun- garian offer of $10,500,000 in retiuTi for the ex- tinction of nominal Turkish rights of suzerainty, claimed since 1S7S in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Protocol signed February 26. March 31. Serbian note, agreeing to the an- nexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; severe humiliation to Serbia, wliich had hoped to become a great Slav power. 1910. Jan. IS. Hedervary forms a Hungarian cabinet. He advocates a National Labor party, but. lacking support, dissolves the Parliament March 22, A riot follows in which the premier is injured. Reaction in favor of Hfedervdry gives the government 246 out of 413 seats. Aug. IS. Eightieth birthday of Francis Joseph celebrated with great festivities throughout empire. 1911. Jan. SO. At Cracow University, students strike in protest against the appointment of a Cierman professor; authorities close the university. June 38. Von Blernerth, the Austrian premier, resigns, the general elections held Jime 13-20 re- sulting in the defeat of his ministry by the Chris- tian Socialists. Baron Paul Gautsch von Fran- kenthumi succeeds him. Sept. IS. Vienna is placed under martial law on account of food riots. Oct. 31 . Cabinet resigns and Count Karl Stlirgkh is in\ited to fonn a ministry. 1912. March 31. Francis Joseph threatens to ab- dicate as king of Hungary unless the difficulties regarding the army law are overcome. April 16. Hungarian ministry resigns; Ladislas Lukdcs forms a new cabinet. April 21. May 23. Socialist proclamation of a general strike, as a demonstration in favor of universal suifrage and against the election of Count Tisza as speaker of the lower house, results in riots and bloodshed at Budapest. [lies defeat Turkey. I October. War ijreaks out in the Balkans. Al-I Oct. 31. Grave apprehensions are raised in Eiu-ope by the attitude of Austria-Hungary toward Serbian claims for seaports on the Albanian coast. 1913. March 1 1 . Austria objects to Serbian troops assisting Montenegro in the capture of Scutari (see Turkey). Tension between Austria and Russia is reheved by an understanding between the em- peror and the czar, March 20, ultimatum is delivered to Montenegro in regard to Scutari. Russia advises King Nicholas to yield. April 10. the powers join Austria in blockading the Mon- tenegrin and .Albanian coasts. April 23, Austria- Hungary asks the powers to intervene in regard to the continued siege of Scutari by Montene- gro. Troops are moved to the southern border. May 14, a landing party from the allied squad- ron occupies Scutari. June 3. Lukdcs ministry falls in Hungary, after corrupt practices of the premier are exposed incoiut. New cabinet formed by Tiszaon JuneS. J uly 36. Provincial constitution of Bohemia is temporarily suspended by the emperor I^ecause tlie \vranglings of the Czechs and Germans inter- fere with the normal administration of tlie kingdom. Oct. IS. Austria sends an ultimatum to Serbia demanding the evacuation of Albanian territory by Serbian troops within eiglit days. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. April 25. Emigration of males under thirty-four is prohibited unless full military serv- ice has been performed. June 5. Understanding of Berchtold with Ger- man emperor that Austria is to chastise Serbia. June 28. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne, and his wife are killed at Sara- jevo by a Bosnian. The government of Serbia is held responsible by Austria, though no proof of participation is ever produced. July 33. .Austrian ultimatum to Serbia. Two days later diplomatic relations are broken off. July 3S. Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. (For the World War, see that title.) Aug. 6. Austria declares war on Russia. Aug. 7. Montenegro declares war on Aus- tria. [England does likewise. I Aug. IS. France declares war on Austria.! Aug. 23. State of war between Japan and Austria declared. Aug. 27. Austria declares war on Belgium. Sept. 23. Cholera breaks out in Austrian army. Oct. 30. Gavrio PriuEip and 23 accomplices in the assassination of the archduke and his wife are pronounced guilty at Sarajevo. Five are sen- tenced to death, and others to penal servitude. None executed. 1915. Jan. 13. Berchtold resigns, and is succeeded by Buriiin von Rajescz as foreign minister. Jan. 3S. Mobilization provokes violent upris- ings among the South Slavs, especially in Bosnia and the Herzegovina. [is called out. I Feb. 13. Entire Austro-Hungarian LandsturmI Feb. 24- Government takes over all grain and flour, and in March a system of per capita distri- bution is inaugurated. Strong Gennan pressure brought to Ijear on Austria to induce her to cede to Italy Trentino and a portion of the Istrian peninsula, for the pur- pose of keeping Italy neutral. March 20. Austria declares herself ready to make large concessions to Italy. The Italian reply proves disappointing. March 34. Half a million troops are massed on the Italian frontier. Many villages evacuated and houses destroyed to afford better range for the guns. April IS. Bread riots occur in Vienna and at points in Bohemia. April 26. Field Marshal von Auffenberg, ex- minister of war and former chief of staff, is arrested and convicted of plotting to sell military secrets to the Russian government for $1,500,000. Secret treaty of Italy with Allies (see Italy). May 3. Italy formally abandons the Aus- tro-Italian alliance. May 19. First meatless day in Vienna; twodays in the week are set apart by the government on which no beef, pork, or veal may be sold. May 24. War is declared by Italy on Austria^ Hungary. June 24- Food crisis becomes acute, many articles quadrupling in price. Panic in Budapest. J uly 34. Government takes over the 1915 vege- table crop. November. Ministers of the interior, of com- merce, and of finance resign, being unable to solve the economic situation. Hungary is practically in a state of famine. 1916. July. New taxation system devised by Him- gary to meet the interest (about S72,000,000) on her four war loans. Kdrolji forms a new party in Hungary, with immediate peace as its platform. August. Boumania declares war on Austria. October. 10,000 munition workers strike in Bohemia and demand flour. Oct. 21. Count StUrgkli, premier of Austria, is assassinated at Vienna; succeeded by von Korber on October 27. Nov. 21. Francis Joseph dies after a reign (beginning Dec. 2, 1848) exceeding in length that of any previous Hapsbm'g: his grandnephew Arch- duke Charles Francis Joseph succeeds as Emperor Charles I. December. Owing to the shortage of coal and difficulties of transportation all shops are ordered closed at 7 p.m., restaiu-ants and cafes at 11 p.m.; all electric or gaslight signs are proliibited, and the hghting of shop windows is to l^e reduced one third. Dec. 13. Austrian mhiistry under von Korber resigns; Clam-Martiniz forms new cabinet. Dec. 22. Czemin succeeds Buridn von Rajescz as foreign minister. Dec. 26. For reply to President Wilson's " peace note," see World W.\r. 1917. January. Acute food crisis; demonstrar- tions and riots in Graz and elsewhere. March S. Clam-Martiniz aimounces that the government will provide food for the poor at reduced prices. March 27. Restricted potato rations go into effect. Food Bureau orders introduction of meat cards and forbids the restaurants to ser^'e sugar. May 33. Tisza. who has favored intimate co- operatior) with Germany, tenders his resignation. He is succeeded by Count Moritz Esterhdzy, a Magyar Liberal. May 31. At the opening of the Austrian Par- liament, the Emperor indicates his readiness to make a separate peace with Russia. June 10. Clam-Martiniz. unable to make head- way against the Slav opposition, resigns. Von Seydler succeeds as premier. June 25. Karolyi, leader of the Independent party in the Hungarian Parliament, declares that responsibility for the war rests with the Teutonic leaders. He demands independence for Hun- gary and a democratic constitution. July 14- Speaking amid great uproar in the Austrian Reichsrath. a Czech member, Praschek, demands separation from Germany. Aug. 20. Wekerle becomes premier of Hungary upon the resignation of Esterh^zy. Sept. 21. For the reply to the pope's peace message, see World War. 46 NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA — BELGIUM. 1917 — 1919. N U 1917 (continued). November. Severe food crisis in Vienna. Hungary is reported to have refused supplies. Dec. IS. Czemin leaves for Brest-Lltovsk to negotiate with Russia. Dec. 2it. A reform bili introduced in the Hun- garian Parliament wouid not only extend fran- chise to women, but make them ehgible to office. 1918. J an. S. Subscriptions to Hungary's seventh war loan fall off heavily. Jan. 18. Serious Strikes and riots in Vienna and other Austrian cities, due to shortage of food- stuffs and desire for peace. Jan. 19. General strike begins in Austria, 100,000 workers joining in Vienna alone. Jan. 20. In the face of widespread lieace agita- tion, von Seydler cabinet resigns in Austria. Res- ignation refused by Emperor Charles. Jan. 24- Czemin, the foreign minister, ex- presses general agreement with the peace sugges- tions of President Wilson, but qualifies his ap- proval of some points by declaring that Austria- Hungary must support Germany. Ja7t. 26. Emperor Charles, as king of Hungar>', accepts the resignation of the cabinet and directs the premier, Wekerle, to effect a reorganization, March. Strike movement reported spread- ing to Hungary. Communication between Buda- pest and Vienna cut off. A-pTil 2. Czemin discusses the four points laid down by President Wilson in his address of Febru- ary 11 (see United States), but doubts if the Allies will accept them. A pril 1 1 . Report spreads that Emperor Charles, in a letter to his cousin. Prince Sixlus de Bourbon, acknowledges the justice of French claims to Alsace-Lorraine. April 15. Czemin, minister of foreign affairs, resigns: Baron Burian von Rajescz succeeds him. May 20. Martial law proclaimed in Prague. Rioting crowds denounce the government. June 1. British government recognizes the Czech National Council (see Czecho-Slovakia). June 17. Hungarian government seizes all grain crops and fiour mills. June SO. 100.000 numition workers strike as a result of reduction of bread rations. Tisza. former premier, in a speech before the Hungarian Parlia- ment, declares that there is only a third or a fourth of the food necessary to keep population in health. June 29. Emperor Charles summons the Reichsrath. July 16. BuriAn von Rajescz. Austro-Hun- garian foreign mmister, approves " heartily to a great e.vtent " President Wilson's principles an- nounced July 4, and declares " we are prepared to discuss everything except our own territory." July 25. Von Hussarek succeeds von Seydler as Austrian premier, and declares his country pre- pared to make peace on favorable terms. Sept. 14- The government invites all belliger- ents to participate in a confidential and unbinding discussion, in a neutral country, on the basic prin- ciples of a just peace. Sept. 25. Italy approves of the aspirations of the JTugo-Slavs for independence (see Jugo-Slavia). Sept. 27. Panic on the Budapest bourse. Oct. 4' Von Hussarek resigns as premier. Oct. 17. Kdrolyi, opposition leader, demands absolute autonomy for the Magyars, and the immediate institution of peace newtiations, Oct. 18. Emperor Charles issues to his sub- jects a manifesto which declares for a confeder- ate state in which each nationality shall have its own k)cal autonomy. Oct. 19. President Wilson informs Austria- Hungary, in reply to its note, that he cannot now entertain that government's acceptance of his earlier peace proposals. Oct. 23. Karolyi mores a resolution for the independence of Hungary and a separate peace. He demands the resignation of the Wekerle cabinet (see Huxg.\ry) Oct. 25. Andrassy succeeds BuriAn von Ra- jescz as foreign minister. Apponyi succeeds Wekerle as Himgarian premier. Oct. 26. Prof. Heinrich Lammasch accepts of- fice of Austrian premier on condition that he may proceed to make a separate peace with the Allies, Oct. 27. Andriissy, replying to President Wil- son, recognizes rights of the Czecbo-Slovaks and the Jugo-Slavs. Oct. 29. Andrassy asks the United States to conclude an immediate armistice. Nov. 1. Revolution breaks out (see Czecho- Slov,\kia, Hungary, Juqo-Slavia). In Vienna mobs demand the abdication of the emperor, who escapes to Godollo. The red flag of Bol- shevist Socialism is hoisted in Vienna; a national assembly meets there and adopts a new constitu- tion without the monarchy. Republican cab- inet is formed, including a number of Socialists. Nov. 3. Armistice is signed; Austria agrees to retire her troops behind a certain line, to de- mobilize, surrender a portion of the navy, and permit occupation and passage of Allied troops. Nov. 10. From all part? of the empire come re- ports of serious disorders; rioting, destruction of mihtary stores, and sinking of war vessels. Nov. 11. Emperor Charles announces his abdication. State Council declares German Austria part of the German Republic. A' or. 13. Anarchy is spreading rapidly in all regions of the country. Disintegration of the old Dual Monarchy is still m process. Nov. 25. First woman to be appointed as minister to a foreign country named by the new Hungarian government; Miss Schwimmer accredited to Switzerland. 1919. For international negotiations, see World War; for Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Jugo-Slavia, see those titles. Feb. 16. Elections to the Constituent Assem- bly, women voting, result in a plurality for the Socialists. March 4, Assembly meets and approves of a union with Germany. March 14- Food Conditions are reported as desperate by the interallied commission. March 15. Temporary ministr>' is appointed by the Assembly; Karl Renner premier. March 23. Ex-emperor Charles is compelled to leave Austria; he goes to Switzerland. Aprxl 17. Bolshevist attempts at outbreak in Vienna are entirely unsuccessful; necessity of stability for food relief is fatal to the agitation. June 2. Peace treaty is handed to the Aus- trian delegates. June 15. Communist demonstration in Vienna, with fatal rioting. Sept. 10. Treaty of Saint-Germain is signed after Austrian attempts at modification have failed. Dual Monarchy is abolished; Austria must not unite with Germany without per- mission of the League of Nations; Atistria loses the territory claimed by Italy and Jugo-Sla\ia (see Jugo-Slavia) receives a small slice from Hungary on the eastern border, and is deprived of Bohemia, Moravia (see Czecho-Slovakia), Ga- licia (see Poland), and Bukowina (see Roumania); army reduced to 30,000 effectives; navy to be surrendered; various artistic and historic ob- jects to be given (restored) to other countries; ra- cial minorities protected; amount of reparation to be fixed by the commission. The treaty also contains the provisions on labor found in the German treaty and in the covenant of the League of Nations, which league Austria may join. Renner heads a reorganized ministry. Condi- tions in the restricted nation are still reported as desperate, and continue so during the winter and spring, especially in Vienna; with relief measures conducted under American auspices. Oct. 25. National Assembly ratifies the peace treaty. Dec. 17. Supreme Council at Paris places a ban on separatist movements in the Austrian provinces, Tirol wishing to join Germany and Vorarlberg to unite with Switzerland. BASUTOLAND. See under British Empire, page 66. BECHUANALAND. See imder British Empire, page 66. AZERBAIJAN. Tbis northwest province of Persia on the Russian border was included in the operations of the "World War. and heavy flghting occurred r<"ix>atedly in the neighborhood of Lake Urmia (Unmiiah), although Persia as a nation attempted to maintain neutrality. In May, 1918, the Republic of Azerbaijan was set up. apparently to prevent the Armenians from claim- ing that territory, which has some Armenian popu- lation. The Republic comprises a portion of the former Persian province of Azerbaijan and the two former Russian provinces of Baku and Elizavetpol. with the capital at Baku. It was recognized by the Conference at Paris and by Great Britain in 1920 The area of Azerbaijan is about 40.000 square miles, and an estimate, based on defective Russian statistics, gives it a population of about 4.615.000 people. 1918. Afay SS. Independent republic established. 1919. April S7. Joint meeting with Georgians and Armenians at Tiflis. September. Bolsheviki e.xpelled. 1930. January. De facto administration recog- nized by Great Britain. BAHAMAS. See under British Empire, page 74. BALTIC PROVINCES. See under Russi.a., page 143. BALUCHISTAN. See under British Empire, page 65. BARBADOS. See under British Empire, pa^e 74. BELGIUM. Historical Outline. The geographical position of Belgium has from earliest times given the country an imiwrtant stand- mg among the nations of western and central Eu- rope. From the days of Ciesar, the Belgic territory has been the line of racial division between the Teu- tonic and the Latin and Celtic races. During the Middle Ages the provinces which now form the mod- em kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium were brought under the control of the dukes of Burgundy, and m 1516 on the accession of the Emperor Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain) they were attaci.ed to the Spanish croyn. Charles V. was succeeded by his sou. Philip II., whose tyranny led to the War of Liberation, finally brought to a close in 164S by the Treaty of Westphalia by which Netherlands gained its indci^endence, but Belgium remained under the control of Spain. The attempt of Louis XIV. of France to place his grandson upon the throne of Spain produced the War of the Spanish Succession, at the close of which, by the Treaty of Utrecht (17l3j. the Belgian ^prov- inces were assigned to Austria and became known as the Austrian Netherlands. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France invaded the countrj- and by the treaty of ISOl (Lun6viJle) it was hicorporated in France. At the fall of Napoleon, Belgium was against its will united with the kingdom of the Neth- erlands. Although the population outnumbered that of Holland by nearly a million, the two parts of the kingdom had equal representation in the legislative assembly. The seat of the government was in Hol- land and the king was a Protestant m religion and a Dutchman by birth. In the ministry and in the civil service the Belgians did not receive what they considered their share of the offices. The attempt to make Dutch the official language aroused great opposition. Nevertheless the Belgians were pros- perous, and measures for improving and extending the educational system were undertaken. In 1S30 the Belgians revolted. In the civil war that followed, the Dutch were unable to pievail; and on the intervention of the great powers, an inde- pendent kingdom of Belgium was set up, under Leo- pold of Saxe-Coburg as Leopold I., king of the Bel- gians. The Treaty of London (1831) signed by Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia recog- nized Belgium as an independent state and guaran- teed its mdependence and permanent neutrality. Leopold I. turned the attention of the government to private industry' and mtemal communication. Com- mercial treaties were negotiated with different coun- tries to provide outlets for the industrial products. The king attempts to remove irritating questions from politics, and was so successful that the revolu- tions ot 1S4S hai'dly affected Belgium. In 1S65 Leopold I. was succeeded by his son. Leo- pold II., WHO was a figure in Europe throughout his reign, and was chiefly responsible for tlie atrocities in the Belgian Congo. During the first years of his reign there were almost annual outbreaks, riots and strikes against the Catholic clergy and demands for equal sulTrage. The guarantee of neutrality was carried out in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. In 1909 Albert succeeded as king. At the out- break of the World War on August 2, 1914. Ger- many presented an ultimatum to Belgium demand- ing passage for Gennan troops. The king at once appealed to Great Britain, who demanded that Ger- many observe the neutrality of Belgium, which she and Great Britain had guaranteed, and, on refusal, entered the war. In the meantime the German troops entered Belgian territorj-. The small Bel- gian army held the Germans in check at Li^ge and thus gave the Allies time to concentrate their forces. The overwhelming numbers of the German army, however, broke down all resistance and sw^pt tlu'ough and occupied all but a small strip of the Bel- gian territory. From 1914 to November. 1918, Belgium suffered imder military occupation, including wholesale mili- tary arrests and executions of n on combatants, the most noted instance being that of Edith Cavell. Tlie Germans levied heavy taxes, fhies, and indemni- ties u(K)n the coimtr>', and (1916) decreed the whole- sale deportation of Belgians to Germany for forced labor. The suffering of the population was some- what mitigated by the Belgian Commission for Re- lief, tlirough which practically all the rest, of the Al- lied world distributtN^ food and supplies under the direction of Herbert Hoover. In 1918 the Belgian government declared that it was no longer willing to accept a status of guaranteed neutrality. 924—1915. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BELGIUM. 47 Organization. GoTernment. Belgium is a constitutional mon- archy, the legislative power being vested in the king. Senate, and Chamber of Representatives. No act of the king, however, can have effect unless signed by one of his ministers, who is responsible to the le.gislature. The Senate consists of 120 mem- bers, chosen for eight years, partly by direct and partly by indirect election. The Chamber of Rep- resentatives, consisting of 186 members, apportioned according to population, is chosen by direct election for four years, one half retiring every two years. By the system of proportional representation, minority parties are represented. The Electoral Reform 'Bill of 1919 provides for imiversal one-man, one-vote suffrage for males of 2 1 , for widows, and for mothers of soldiers killed in battle or of civilians shot by Ger- mans, thus doing away with plural voting. Religion and Education. Most of the inhabit- ants are Roman Catholic, but the salaries of minis- ters of all denominations are paid by the state. Four universities exist, of which those at Ghent and Liege are state institutions, while^those at Brus- sels and Louvain (ruthlessly destroyed by the Ger- mans) are church institutions. Connected with the universities are special scliools of engineering, art and mining. The secondary sch(X)ls of Belgium are well organized and administered; but tlic primary schools, because of the low salaries of the teachers and the inadequate inspection, do not rank high Education is free for those who cannot afford to pay but is not compulsory. Industry. The principal mineral production of Belgium is coal, the mining of which gave employ- ment to over 150,000 people before the war. The product has exceeded 32,000,000 tons a year. The iron mines do not produce as much as formerly and large imports of iron are made from France and Lux- emburg. Liege is the center of the metal industry. The soil of Belgium originally was unfavorable to production, but like Holland, the coimtry has been reclaimed, until at present the agricultiu-e and horti- culture of Belgium are hardly exceeded by any na- tion. The lands are divided into small holdings and brought to a high state of cultivation. In 1913 the <;hief crops were oats and rye. wheat and potatoes, aad sugar beets. Xext after agriculture and mining is the production of live stock. Belgian horses are chosen by purchasing agents of many countries for cavalry service, and sheep and cattle industries flourish. The Belgian manufactures enjoy a high reputa- tion. Many fhie fabrics are produced, particularly ■woolen, linen, and cotton goods, laces and hosiery. Belgium has two ports of entry, Ostend and Ant- werp, and has a large export trade in raw materials and manufactured products. Defense. The exposed position of Belgium has made the country from earliest times a battlefield. Although its neutrality was guaranteed by the great I)Owers it was thought necessary to fortify several chief cities. Until recently the army was recruited by voluntary enlistment, but on May 30, 1913, a military bill passed the Ch^.mber of Deputies, impos- ing compulsory military service, and providing an effective field army of 170,000. The total length of service is eight years in the active army and five years in the reserve, which latter can be called out only in the event of war or threatened invasion. The area* including the cessions from Germany. is 11,7.59 .square miles and the population, as es- timated in 1918, was 7.620,576. Chronology. 924. What later becomes Bolgiumis divided; Flan- ders remains a French fief, the rest is in the duchy of I^orraine under the Holy Roman Empire. Feudal states and. later, great city communes develop. 1468. Incorporation with the rest of the Nether- lands, under Burgundian rule* is completed. 1477. Netherlands passes to the House of Haps- burg by Burgundian marriage (see Austria). 1555. It becomes a province of Spain. 1579. Jan. 5. League of Arras is signed; southern Catholic Netherlands severs connection with northern Protestant Netherlands and remains loyal to Spain. Iconfirms separation-l 1648. Jan. 30. Peace of Westphalia (Mimstertl 1713. April 11. By the Treaty of Utrecht Span- ish Netherlands becomes Austrian Netherlands, 179*2. Belgium overrun by France, becomes a de- pendency of France. 1801. Belgium incorporated into France. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1815. June 9. By the Congress of Vienna Hol- land and Belgium are reunited as the King- dom of the Netherlands. Ju'i€ IS. Napoleon defeated at Waterloo, on Belgian territory. 1830. Differences, especially of religion and lan- guage, promote dissatisfaction; under the influ- ence of the July Revolution in France, a revolt against the union. Dec. 20. A congress of the powers at London recognizes the independence of Belcrium. 1831. Feb. 7. Constitution of Belgiimi is adopted. June Jt. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg elected king of the Belgians; on July 21. he ascends the throne as Leopold I. French army stops the threatened advance of the Dutch troops. Nov. 16. The powers sign a treaty with Bel- gium at London, giving it part of Luxemburg and Holland, a territorial indemnity in Limbiu-g, and declaring independent Belgium a ** perpet- ually neutral state,*' guaranteed by Great Britain. Austria. France, Prussia, and Russia. 1832. The French besiege the Dutch m Antwerp, who capitulate December 23. By this conquest the Belgic revolution is completed. 1839. April 19. The powers reaffirm the treaty of 1S31. On the same day Netherlands and Bel- gium sign a treaty of separation in same terms 1848. Two parties. Liberal and Catholic, de- velop; the Liberals gain control (1S47) and, in sympathy with the popular revolts elsewhere in Europe, the responsible ministry causes the Par- liament to enact an Electoral Reform Bill. 1852. The Liberals are overthrown, but the Catho- lics do not gam control until 1854. 1857. The Liberals regain the majority, following an attemjjt to give the clergy control of charities. 1865. Dec. 10. Leopold I. dies, and is succeeded by his son, Leopold II. 1870. Flemish is recognized, with French, as an official language. On the outbreak of the Franco- German War Belgium takes measures to guard her frontier, but Great Britain annoimces an m- tention to uphold the guarantee of neutrality and induces France and Prussia not to Tiolate it, 1876. Leopold II. calls a conference of geographi- cal experts at Brussels to consider Africa. The International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Africa is started. 1878. Nov. 25. A special committee of the associ- ation, called finally the International Association of the Congo, is formed. It is mainly supported by Leopold, and gradually becomes strictly a Bel- gian affair- 1 1 develops the territory of the Congo and its tributaries. 1879. A bill for improving the primary educa- tional system is passed by the Liberals. By it religious instruction is abolished. The Bel- gian bishops protest, and refuse absolution to teachers and parents. Catholic private schools are established, attended by a majority of the children. Diplomatic intercourse with the Vatican is temporarily suspended. 1880. The fiftieth anniversary of Belgian inde- pendence is celebrated, 1884. The clerical reaction leads to the overtlirow of the Liberal ministry, and the Catholic party regains control, retaining it until the outbreak of the World War. A law is passed permitting the communes to choose between CathoUc or uii- sectarian schools, both being publicly supported. Socialists become important as separate party. April 22. The United States recognizes the Congo Association, with Leopold at its head, as a properly constituted state. Other powers fol- low suit and the limits of the new state are fixed. 1885. Feb. 26- The General Act of the (Congo) Conference at Berlin is signed by the participat- ing nations. It provides for freedom of trade in the Congo Basin, the neutraUty of the territories of the basin, and the navigation of the river, and also settles other matters pertaining generally to Africa Aug. 1. Being authorized to do so by Parlia- ment, Leopold amiouuces to the powers who signed the Congo Act that he has assumed the title of Sovereign of the Independent State of Congo, which will have with Belgium an exclu- sively personal union. The government is an ab- solute monarchy, and becomes practically a mo- nopolistic trading concern. 1886. The spread of sociahsm among the laborers and the deplorable condition of tlie miners lead to disastrous strikes and riots, with demands for better conditions and freer suffrage. The agita- tion continues for years and is the vital question in Belgian politics. 1890. July 3. A convention is made with the Congo Free State, by which Belgium advances a loan and is authorized to annex- the Free State after ten jears 1891. The first international Socialist Labor Congress meets at Brussels in August. Great strikes prevail during the year, and recur during the next two years, the purpose being to force mii- versal suffrage. Meanwhile, the Parliament is unable to reach an agreement on tlic subject. 1893. April 27. Constituent Assembly adopts as a compromise manhood suffrage with plural voting for the clergy and property holders. 1895. A new school law requires compulsory and religious primary education. 1896. Sept. 19. Charges by missionaries and oth- ers of gross cruelties in the Congo causes the king to appoint a supervisoo' Committee of Protec- tion, wliich is ineffectual. 1899. December. Proportional representation is adopted. 1903-1905. Criticism of the treatment of natives in the Congo and the commercial methods em- ployed there excite discussion in Great Britain and elsewhere as contrary- to the acts of the Congo Conference. Leopold denies the charges and re- fuses to permit an international investigation. He appoints (July, 1904) a conmiission of inquiry, but reforms later inaugurated by its effort prove illusory. Belgium's option of annexation not ex- ercised. Inter\'ention by Great Britain feared. 1908. Nov. 15. Congo Free State is annexed. The original treaty (November 28, 1907) reserved the crown domain to the king, but this imsatis- factory feature was later elimmated. 1909. Dec. 17. Leopold II. dies and is succeeded by his nephew Albert I., who, in his speech from the tiirone, promises radical reforms in the Congo. 1911-1913. The severe political strife of these years turns again upon the ministry's educational bill, which favors the Catholics and clerical con- trol, and on the demands against plural voting ("one man, one vote"). The Cathohcs retain the ascendancy in the elections of June. 1912. but anticlerical riots break out in Brussels, and the protests of the Socialists are voiced by strikes. In April. 1913. half of the male workingmen are supi)osed to be idle. A compromise is reached. 1913. May 30. Military bill passes Chamber of Representatives, imposing compulsory univer- sal military service and providing for an effec tive field army of 170,000 and a reserve of 200,000. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. ,4 ug. 2. Germany, in violation of her guarantee of Belgian neutrality, demands pas- sage for her troops through Belgium and on re- fusal invades and subjugates the country. In conformity with the German policy of terror, the conquest is accompanied by many acts of atrocity. (See World W.\h for military events.) Aug. 17. The seat of government of Bel- gium is transferred from Brussels (1) to Ant- werp. (2) to Ostend on October 5, (3) to Havre, France, on October 13. Sept. 5. Baron von der Goltz becomes the first German governor-general of Belgium. He is succeeded by Baron von Blsslng in De- cember. The jjretense of civil government and observance of Belgian law is observed over all of the country not in the army zones, but the arbi- trary military courts supplemented by ** mili- tary necessity " practically nullify this. The Hague Convention is violated by the imposition of collective penalties, local and national, levies in excess of legitimate requirements, the substitu- tion of German for Belgian authority, and per- sistent efforts at Germanizatlon and the sap- ping of Belgian national spirit. The attempt is made to split Belgium on a linguistic basis. Oct. 9. Antwerp falls. This completes the occupation of Belgium, except for a small section in the west, including Ypres, wliich remains in Belgian control tliroughout the war. October. Commission for Relief In Bel- gium, composed of .-Vinericans and other neutrals, is organized, with Herbert C- Hoover at its head. In connection with a Belgian organization within Belgium it collects, transports, and distributes food and other necessities to prevent starvation in Belgium, where industrj' has ceased because of German occupation and the Allied blockade. Belgium's raw material and much of her food sup- pUcs normally come from outside. The Allies permit the passage of supplies through the block- ade, and the Germans refrain from seizure of the imports as well as from requisition of the supple- menting Belgian produce, which the commission also handles. The commission has a quasi inter- national status and a separate fiag. It sells sup- plies to those able to pay. and distributes the rest. The necessary funds are raised mainly by loans to the Belgian government, from Great Britain. France, and, later, the United States, and the difficulties due to the irredeemable paper money in circulation within Belgium are over- come by the commission's taking complete con- trol of Belgian finances, becoming the sole agent of exchange Ix-tween the people and the exiled government. The loans are supplemented by contributions, m which the British Empire and, the I'nited States bear the largest share, but to which many Belgians also contribute. The commission " mobilizes the benevolence " of the whole world — money, supiJlies, and personal service — tlirough a complete and higJily efficient organization. Separate organizations care for Bel- gian refugees, esp. in Great Britain and Holland. December. Cardinal Mercier issues a pas- toral letter, in which he outspokenly condemns German methods of invasion and occupation. Efforts to silence him fail. Throughout the war he is a mainstay in preserving the Belgian spirit of resistance. 1915. Feb. 15. Report of the Rockefeller Foundation Fund Commission on Belgium is issued. This and other reports show that under 48 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BELGIUM — BOLIVIA. u w 1915 (continued). ^ , . the German rule there has been great depopula- tion destruction of buUdings and mdustry, and vast requisition ol money, supplies, animals, ma- chinery, raw materials, and finished products. May 15. German decree for forced labor within Belgium. Oct 12 Miss Edith Cavell, an English- woman, lately the head of a training school for nui-ses in Brussels, is executed with others by the German authorities, on the charge of harbormg British French, and Belgian soldiers and helpmg them to escape from the country. The Umtod States minister, Brand Whitlock, does all he can to save her. It becomes an outstanding example of German methods. 1916. Oct S. Decree issued for the deportation of Belgians to Germany and the front. Idle- ness is the excuse, but persons are taken without respect to this. The expatriates are kept m con- centration camps as a reserve supply of labor, and sent to factories, mines, the front, etc General denunciation by the civilized world fol- lows and the Germans declare that deportations have ceased and expatriates are to be returned; but tins is largely fictitious. . . 1917. Januiry. A new form of forced laboris m- augurated in the demand for auxiliary service by Belgian civiUans in the army zone. 1918. Ociober-Notember. .\llies recover large parts of Belgium. , , Nov n The Belgian government declares that the country wiU no longer submit to a status of guaranteed neutrality. It aspires to com- plete independence and the rights common to all free peoples. jVo» 22. King Albert enters Brussels es- corted by Allied troops amid scenes of great en- thusiasm. Speaking from his throne m Parlia- ment, he promises equal suffrage to aU men of mature age. A coalition ministry of Catholics. Liberals, and Socialists starts the process of re- construction. , ^ , }}°Z'^-\ Nov 2S The country is cleared of German! 1919 AprU 11. Chamber of Representatives adopts Electoral Reform Bill, universal ' one- man. one-vot« ■• suflrage for males of 21, for wid- ows, and for mothers of soldiers kiUed in battle or of civilians shot by Germans. Jiinel 8-1 President Wilson visits Belgium. June H Supreme Council of Peace Confer- ence grants Belgium priority in reparation up to $500,000,000 and substitution of German bonds for Belgian war obUgations. June 2S. In the treaty of peace Germany renoimces to Belgium the small territory of Mo- resnet. and the inhabitants of the circles of Eupen and Malmedy are to vote on their futiu-e status, the League of Nations to make the final decision. Germany also promises to reimburse all smns Bel- gium has borrowed during the war, make restitu- tion of all things of which she despoiled Belgium and to make such other reparation as is assigned by the Reparation Commission. The damage done to Belgium by the tiermans is officially esti- mated (May 17) at S7.600.000.000, Belgium desires additional territory at the mouth of the Scheldt and in Limbiu-g, and negotiations with HoUand for this purpose are started, but with no success. „ . . , ^ July By agreement with Great Bntam, later ratified by Supreme CouncU, northwest portion of German East Africa (Ruanda, Urundi) attached to Belgian Congo. iug S Belgium ratifies peace treaty. Sept. 9. Cardinal Mercier begins his visit to the United States. Oct 2-31 King Albert, with the queen and crown prmce. visits the United States to convey his country's thanks for services during the war. Oct 9 Report of experts of Dutch-Belgian Commission on territorial disputes. Bel- gium as Treatv of Versailles states that treaty of 1839 no longer conforms to existing conditions, makes claim to Limburg, also to economic control of the Scheldt, use of it in time of war, and Dutch territory south of it. Experts declare claim contrary to Dutch neutraUty. „ ,. ,. Nov 19 New Chamber to have 71 Cathobcs. 70 Socialists, 34 Liberals, besides small groups. CathoUcs lose 24 seats, due to abolition of plural voting Senate, CathoUcs 59, Liberals 36, Social- ists 25. Delacroix continues as premier of coali- tion cabinet. , , , , ^ ,,„ i^^0. Sovereignty over Eupen and Malmedy De- ^"/aii 31. Text of Dutch treaty imofflcially published. .Toint control over navigation of Scheldt; militarv use to be decided by League of Nations; better canal connection for Belgium. BELGIAN CONGO. The basin of the mighty Congo River was first made known to ci\1lized nations by the explorations of Stanlev in 1876-77. King Leopold II. of Belgium saw the possibUities of the tropical area and aided in founding the Congo International Association. In 1SS4-S5 a congress of European nations by a general act declared (he navigation of the Congo and its tributaries free, and suppressed the slave trade. The area is estunated at 909.654 square mUes and the population is variously estimated from 7,000,000 to 15,500,000. In the World War the neighbormg districts of Ruanda and Urundi were taken from the Germans and added to the Belgian area. 1483 or 148S. Mouth of the river discovered by Portuguese. ■ [course. I 1816. Tuckey's (English) exploration of lower | 1873. Livingstone on upper maters. 1876-1877. Stanley's expedition fromeast to west. 1878. International Association of the Congo formed. . 1884. Boimdary controversies. [State. April 2i. United States recognizes Congo I November Congo Conference begins at Berlin; lasts until Feb. 26, 1885. [Congo. | 1885. -4prti. Personal union of Belgium and I 1891. War with Arabs. 1907. Nov. 28. Annexation by Belgium. 1919. Enlarged by Treaty of Paris. BERMUDAS. See under British Empire, page 73. BHUTAN. Bhutan (area 20.000 square miles, population about 250.000) is an -independent" state m the eastern Himalayas, east of Sikkim and south of Ti- bet. Practically it is a dependency of Great Brit- ain from which, since 1865, the " penlops " or chiefs receive an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees in return for good behavior. 1774. April 23. Treaty between Bhutan and East India Company. 1836. Treatv, following a pimitive expedition; Bhutan loses Assam passes (dwars), but receives annuity during good behavior. 1864. Nov. 12. Bengal passes incorporated m British India. 1865. A'oi> IS. Treaty of peace. 1910. January. Treaty With Great Britain; nomnterference with Bhutan domestic affairs, but British advice to be followed in foreign rela- tions. BOLIVIA. years. Seventy deputies are elected for four years, one half changing every two years. The repubUc is divided into eight departments, m each of wluch a prefect appointed by the president heads tlie pohti- cal, administrative, and mUitary authority. Keligion and Education. The recognized reli- gion of the state is the Roman CathoUc, although the exercise of other forms is permitted. Primary mstruction, which is normally free and compulsory, is under the care of the municipality. Two univer- sities exist and there are schools of commerce in some departmental capitals. Production and Industry. About 5,000.000 acres are under cultivation, but agriculture is back- ward Some irrigation by means of artesian wells is attempted. Wheat, corn, barley, beans, and pota- toes are produced for home consmnption; and coffee, cocoa, and cmchona are exported. Bolivia ranks second of South American countries in exports of rubber, BrazU bemg first. Bolivia is rich m mmer- als and produces one quarter of the total tin output of the world. After tin come copper and antimony. About two fifths of the total area of Bolivia lies in the tropical zone withm the Andean cordiUeras. These mountains, divided into two great parallel 'chams with flanking ranges running to the east, reach their greatest breadth in Bolivia. Below the moimtainous area the ranges open out and mclose extensive loftv plateaus which attam an average ele- vation of about 12.000 feet, but descend alxjut a thousand feet toward the south. Between the east- em moimtain range and the " CordUlera Oriental " is a confused mass of rough intersectmg ranges. The soil is fertile and bears every variety of product, from the subtropical fruits at the base of the moim- tams to the products of the temperate zone higher up. Three fifths of the territory of Bolivia, how- ever, is composed of great aUuvial plains, flooded bottom lands and forests, much of it lacking dram- age, so as to be of little value for crops and grazing, but there are considerable areas which lie above this flooded region and furnish excellent pasture. The tributaries of the Amazon and La Plata dram the greater part of Bolivia, wliile Lake Titicaca receive* the waters of several small streams flowing through the great central plateau. Since the war with Chile, Bolivia has no seacoast. Defense. A permanent force of 3.577 men is pro- vided by the law of 1915; and mUitary service is com- pulsory for aU males between the ages of 19 and 50. The army is a militia with a service in the first line of six years. The area is 514,155 square miles and the popula- tion in 1915 was estimated at about 2.890.000. Historical Outline. BoLivi \, named in honor of Simon Bolivar, " the Uberator." possessed a ci\ilization as far back as the first centuries of the Christian Era. In the Titicaca Basin rums are found which antedate any others of like character m America. Before the age of Charle- magne, an empire, under a djiiasty culled Pirua. had been created hi this moimtamous region. This was succeeded by the kingdom of the Ajmiaras, which m turn was conquered in the 14th century by the Incas of Peru, and the history of the ooimtry was merged in that of Peru. „ . „■ , i When the Spaniards imder Francisco Pizarro had destroyed the empire of the Incas, they timied theu- attention to the Aymaras. In 1538 Pizarro sent his brother Ileraando to reduce tliis region, wluch was thereafter organized as the dependency of Charcas, or Upper Peru The native population rapidly de- cUned as the resiUt of forced labor in the mmes. Euro- pean diseases, and alcohol In 1776 Charcas was detached from Peru and joined to the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. In 1780 an uprising occurred m Charcas, wluch was suppressed by the authorities of Peru and Buenos Aires Other rebellions broke out in 1S09, which lasted until 1S15. The final struggle for inde- pendence extended from 1S21 to 1S25, when Bolivar sent a part of his forces mto this region and, by a wonderful march across the tropical mountams of the Andes, drove out the Spanish authorities. A new republic was proclaimed, and General Sucre was elected president, but stiU the coimtry was mvolved n almost continuous war with its neighbors and was torn by insmrection. UntU 1873 almost all the pres- idents" came to power by revolution supported by armed factions. In 1879 Bolivia and Peru engaged in a disastrous warfare with Chile. The seacoast of Boli^^a was forcibly annexed, and finally ceded to Chile in 1905 In 1920 the controversy was revived. Organization. Government. The constitution of Bolma (1880) vests the executive powers in a president elected for foiu- years by direct popular vote and not eligible for reer\ise all executive acts, the authority by vote of want of confidence to force the withdrawal of any ministers or the fall of the whole cabinet. Par- liament is much under the control of the cabinet. This is due in part to the development of the two- party system. Since the cabinet ministers are the chiefs of their party, members of Parliament are chosen by their parties to support the cabinet in whatever it imdertakes. Hence, since 1886 only one cabinet has faUen because of an adverse vote in the House of Commons. The cabinet and the minis- ters are more and more looking not to the legal sover- eign — Parliament — but to the political sovereign, the electorate; and more and more public opinion is able to control the action of the ministers. In local government, Parliament is also stipreme. Municipalities, counties, and smaller subdivisions, exercise a considerable measure of self-government by virtue of acts of Parliament; but most of their ac- tivities may be supervised by ministers chosen by the Commons and nominally responsible to it. Industry and Labor. The establishment of free trade and the repeal of the corn laws in the mid- dle of the nineteenth centiu'y hastened the decline of English agriculture. Much of the land had a value beyond its income-producing power, because of the social importance connected with its ownership. Great estates were kept up for pleasure and display, rather than on an economic basis. It was cheaper to import than to raise agriciJtural protiucts. I3e- ginning in 1908, provision was made by act of Parlia- ment to increase the small holdings, and the David Lloyd George budget of 1909 attempted to tax idle land so as to increase the acreage under cultivation. Nevertheless, on the outbreak of the World War the agricultural condition of England was serious. Since a considerable part of the food had to Ije im- ported, every effort was made to increase the area under cidtivation. The price of wheat was guaran- teed and a minimum wage was fixed for agricidtiu-al laborers and thus the acreage imder wheat increased by nearly one half over 1914. In manufactures England has for a century ex- celled, particularly in textiles. Of late years, how- ever, German competition came in and Germans were able to undersell some products in England and there was an agitation for " fair trade," that is, some form of protective duties. The condition of British labor is better than in any Continental country. The pressm-e to ameliorate its condition has come from trade-imions rather than from theoretical socialists; and up to the outbreak of j the war, they won many substantial privileges. In the twentieth century the trade-unions were en- ; forcing their demands by strik&s on a scale so large as to tend to paralyze some of the national indus- tries. This brought about government intervention and the establishment in certain industries of mhii- mimi wages fixed Ijy law. As a result of the experi- ences in the war, the English laborers formed a politi- cal party which presents formidable opposition to the coalition government of David Lloyd George. It also urges radical changes in the capitalistic or- ganization of society and looks toward the estab- lishment of some form of state socialism. In commerce Great Britain is still far superior to any other nation. Her merchant fleet is the great- est and her trade more widespread and profitable. Before the war London was the clearing house of the world's commerce, and Great Britain still remains the chief carrying nation of the world. Religion. Complete religious toleration in Great Britain has been the rule since 1866, and there are no political disabilities on accoimt of religion. The Church of England is established by law in England and is supported by the government. Nominally, the king appoints the bishops and other ecclesiastical dignitaries, but in reahty the ministry in power at the time selects them . In Wales the English C hurch was disestablished in 1914, but the enforcement of the act was postponed until the close of the war. In Scotland the Presbyterian Church is established by law; alongside exists the Free Church of Scotland. In Ireland there is now no church establishment. Nonconformist denominations, especially the Wes- leyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists, the Congregationalists, and the Baptists, arc strong. In all, the dissentmg churches coimt 2,000.000 mem- ters; and there are about 1,900.000 Roman Catho- lics in England and Wales. The total official mem- bership of the Anghcan Church is 2.359,599 (1919). Education. L'ntU very recently England was backward in pubhc education. For the well-to-do there was ample provision in the historic endow- ments for schools, coUeges, and imiversities: and both the estabUshed chtirch and the dissenting churches gave some gratuitous education to the poor. In 1906, a broad provision was made for the establish- ment of free schools, the government in some cases contributing to the support of church and other pri- vate schools on condition of certain tests and exami- nations, and in others estabhshing " toard schools " that were purely pubhc. The system is comphcated and has involved frequent disputes, especially on the difficult question of religious teacliing. Elementarj" education is now free, and attendance at school is compulsory between the ages of five and fourteen. Provisions are also made for courses in advanced instruction. On July 31, 1917, there were in England and Wales over 21,000 schools for ele- mentary education, with over 5,979,000 pupils on the iMoks. By the Fisher Act of 1918, county and coimty borough cotmcUs are required to provide at once free continuation schools for pupils imder six- teen years of age and subsequently for those imder eighteen. Vocational schools are also provided for, and the emploj-ment of pupils in industry must be suspended if required by the Education Authority. Provision is made for medical mspection, physical trainmg, and amusements. Higher education is provided for by the imiversi- ties, of which Oxford and Cambridge were foimded in the Middle Ages. Others, as Manchester. Bir- mingham, and London, are of modem origin. Defense. Before the World War. the land forces of the United Kmgdom consisted of a regular army recruited by voluntary enlistment for twelve years, from three to nine of wliich were spent in active ser\-- ice and the rest in the army reserve. The greater part of the regular army was stationed in the domin- ions. On mobilization for war the regular army at home was absorbed into the " expeditionary force," with a total strength of about 165,000. The terri- torial army was intended for home defense and was recruited by voluntary enlistment for terms of four years. The total forces of the regular army and ter- ritorial army in 1914 were alxjut 727.000; but only about 100.000 were in the United Kmgdom and available for immediate service. During the war conscription was adopted by the Military Service Act of 1916. wliich was amended and extended except to Ireland. The United King- dom furnished about 3.500.000 troops. Great Britain's strongest defense, however, has been her navy, maintained on the "two-power" principle; that is, that the British navy must at all times be equal to the two strongest foreign navies combmed. Not satisfied with this, the attempt was to double the combined strength of any two foreign navies. In 1914, the navy consisted of 16 super- dreadnoughts, 15 dreadnoughts, 40 battleships, 50 cruisers, 248 destroyers, and 85 submarines, besides other boats; in 1919, there were 46 dreadnoughts, 21 battleships, 34 cruisers, 340 destroyers, 147 torpedo toats, and numerous submarines. Area and Population. The area of the United Kingdom m square miles is; England, 50,874; Wales, 7,466; Scotland, 30,405; Ireland, 32,586; Isle of Man, 227 ; Channel Islands. 75 — a total of 121 ,633. The population is; (1911) England, 34.045.290; Wales. 2.025.202; Scotland, 4,760,904; Ireland. 4.390,219; Isle of Man, 52,016: Channel Islands, 96,899 — a total of 45,516,259, mcluding enlisted men abroad. These figures have been much disturbed by the losses of the w-ar. Chronology — Great Britain and Ireland. For earlier events in the liistory of Great Britain and Ireland, see ]\1edieval Period and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 1649. Jan. SO. Charles I. put to death, and England is declared to be a commontvcaltli. Army of Independents under Oliver Cromwell becomes the controlling power, the Long Parlia- ment is the formal legislative authority and a council of state, of forty-one memljers, is the formal executive. The office of kmg and the House of Lords are abolished. Charles II. pro- claimed king in Edmburgh, February 5, and a ris- ing in Ireland supports his claims; Cromwell leads a force into Ireland in Augast and captures Dro- gheda and massacres the garrison, September 11. 1650. Settlement of Gold Coast begins about this time. Cromwell returns to England in May. while Ireton and later Ludlow remain in command of Ireland ; insurrection there continues for nearly three years. Montrose lands with a royalist force in Scotland, but is defeated, captured, and put to death. May 21. Charles lilmself reaches Scotland. Jime 24; 52 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1650 — 1689. 1650 (continued). ^ he subscribes to the Covenant, and is hailed as king. Cromwell on September 3 marches into Scotland with 16,000 men, and ovenvhelras the forces of Leslie at Dunbar; Edinburgh and Glas- gow surrender. 1651. Charles is crowned at Scone, January 1, en- ters England in August, but is routed by Cromwell at Worcester, September 3, and flees to France. O First Navigation Act is passed, October 9. for- bidding importations into England except by Eng- lish or colonial vessels or those of the country pro- ducing the goods. St. Helena Island is settled. 1652. Navigation Ordinance leads to a Waf,with the Dutch, the chief carriers of Europe; a, series of naval engagements in the Channel in wluch the English, under Blake, are victorious over p Tromp. Treaty of peace is made at Westminster on April 5. 1654. 1653. Cromwell dismisses the so-called Rump Par- Uanient and the Council of State, April 20. and as- sembles the *' Barebone's " Parliament of 140 members, appointed by himself, July 4. Decem- ber 1 1 , this parliament resigns its powers to Crom- well, and on December 16 he becomes Lord Pro- Qtector of the CommoD wealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland imder the Instrument of Government, wliich provides for an executive in the Protector and an independent coimcil of twenty-one, named for life in the Instrument: a parliament of one house and restricted powers; and a standing army of 30,000 men. 1654. New parliament meets on September 3: -^ Cromwell excludes those unfavorable to a new R constitution giving the power to the Protector and Parliament, but breaks with the remainder over control of the army. 1655. On January 22 Cromwell dissolves Parlia- ment, and resorts to military and arbitrary rule. Blake, in April, leads the English fleet to an at- tack on Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Jamaica is captured in the same month by a force sent to O make reprisals in the West Indies. During ^ March, April, and May there is an uprising in Salisbm^' under Penruddoek, but it is sup- pressed and the leader put to death. On October 24 an alliance is made with France, by wliich it is agreed that Charles shall be banished from French soil. November 27, severer measures are proclaimed by Cromwell against Catholicism ,._ and Episcopacy. Censorship of press also de- I dared. These measures but feebly enforced. 1656. War breaks out with Spain and, September 9, the English fleet captures treasure ships near Cadiz. September 17, a second parliament meets, from wliich Cromwell excludes opponents. 1657. Plot against the Protector discovered. First constitution is now amended, tlirough the Bumble Petition and Advice; a second house instituted and the Protector denied author- ity to exclude members of the Parliament; tolera- tion in religion granted, except to popery and prelacy; title of king offered to Cromwell; he re- fuses to accept it, but is installed on June 26 as Lord Protector, with right to name his successor. Blake is victorious against the Spaniards off Santa Cruz. April 20; he dies August 7, at sea. V1658. Feb. 4- CromwcUdissolvesthesecond parlia- ment, in which he has no longer a majority. June 17. Dunkirk is surrendered to Enghsh and French forces after defeat of Spanish at battle of the Dunes (June 4). Sept. 3. Cromwell. dies, and his son Richard Cromwell becomes Lord Protector. 1659. Jan. 27. New parliament meets, but its disagreements with the army cause the Protector ^^ to dissolve it, April 22: when 42 members of the Rump Parliament meet at the invitation of the soldiers. Protector, finding his position among opposing factions too difQcult. abdicates. May 25. Army officers expel the parliament, October 13. and a military committee is placed at the head of affairs. It fails and the Rtunp is again restored. December 26. X1660. Monk marches from Scotland and enters London on February 3. and on February 13 takes sides against the Rump, which, under pressure, dissolves itself on March 16. End of Long Par- liament. By the Declaration of Breda, April 4. Charles grants a pardon to all not under special condemnation and promises religious toleration; the Convention Parliament (so called because though otherwise regular it was not summoned by Y the king) meets on April 2.5; approves the procla- mation. May 1 ; May S, Charles II. announced as king; he enters London May 29, but is not crowned imtil April 23, 1661. Monk becomes captain general and the Earl of Clarendon chancel- lor. Feudal dues and purveyances done away with, and in their place a yearly income of $5,800,000 is granted to the king. Bishops re- -jf stored to their sees, and an act of indemnity ^ passed, the regicides and others being excluded from its provisions. Army is disbanded. Par- liament dissolved, December 29. U 1661. Insurrection of the Fifth-Monarchy Men in London in January. January 30. ixxjie.s of Cromwell and others are exhumed and shameftilly dishonored. In Scotland a Royalist parliament assembles and the Covenant is abolished; all legislative acts of the last twenty years repealed. Argyie executed. May 27. New parliament meets, May 8; November 20, the Corporation Act passed, compelling all magistrates and munici- pal officers to take the sacrament according to tlie Church of England, 1662. May 20. Charles II. weds Catherine, daughter of John IV. of Portugal. Bombay is part of her dowry. .4 119. ^.{. Act of Uniformity comes into force, requiring that all the clergy, fellows of universities, and teachers must assent to all the Book of Com- mon Prayer; by this act 2.000 nonconformists are deprived of their living. November. Dunliirl£. the property of Eng- land, is sold to France. Dec. 20. Charles declares in favor of tolera- tion wliich is meant to include Catholics. 1664. Maij. Conventicle Act passed; decrees that more than five persons shall not meet for wor- ship miless in household or according to the rites of the established church. Aug. 29. New Amsterdam in America cap- tiu-ed by the English. Other acts of hostility take place against the Dutch. 1665. Feb. 22. War with Holland declared; de- sired by Charles to help elevate Prince of Orange, and by all England through envy of commercial prosperity of the Dutch. War exhausts both com- batants; France joins against England in 1666. Plague rages in London. Parliament meets at Oxford in October and by the Five-mile Act tor- bids dissenting clergymen to approach towns. 1666. British settlement of the Bahamas begins; also, the Virgin Islands are acquired. Sept. 2-6. Great Fire of London desolates a thickly populated area of five himdred acres. Nov. 2S. Covenanters in Scotland revolting are overcome at the battle of Pentland Hills bv Dalyell. 1667. July SI. Dutch War ended by Treaty of Breda; France receives Acadia and cedes to Eng- land Montserrat, Antigua, and part of St. Cliris- topher; England retains New Amsterdam, but cedes Surmam to the Dutch and modifles the Navigation Act in their favor. Aug. SO. Earl of Clarendon dismissed; im- peached, October 10, and flees to France, No- vember 29, New ministry formed by Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley Cooper, and Lauderdale, known as the Cabal, from the ini- tials of its members. 1668. Jan. IS. England, Holland, and Sweden, alarmed by the victories of France in her war for the possession of Spanish Flanders, form a triple alliance against Louis XIV. War is ended by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, on May 2. 1669. Charles, however, negotiates secretly with France for personal aid. Duke of York avows liimself a Catholic and Charles does so secretly. 1670. June I. Secret Treaty of Dover is signed with Louis XIV.; Charles to declare liimself a Catholic when he sees fit. receiving a subsidy and support against his subjects if necessary, and to aid France against Holland and Spain. July 18. Treaty of Madrid with Spain. Eng- lish colonies in America for tlie first time recog- nized by Spain. 1673. Charles closes the Exchequer in order not to pay his debt.s of $6,800,000; his action creates a panic. March 15, he issues the Declaration of Indulgence, a measiu'e favorable to Catholics, but rescinds it, March 8, 1673, owing to opposition of Parliament. March 17. War with Holland begins Drawn naval battle of Sole, or Southwold. Bay is fought on June 7. Nov. 1 7. Earl of Shaftesbury (Ashley Cooper) becomes Lord Chancellor. 1673. March 29. Test Act; officeholders ordered to take oaths of allegiance and supremacy, to ab- jure transubstantiation, and to take the sacra- ment according to the Church of England. Par- liament forces this anti-Catholic act before grant- ing King Charles any money. By it York and Clifford are forced to resign their positions. Shaftesbury dismissed for supporting the act. York, who is Charles's heir and whose two daugh- ters are Protestants, marries again on November 21, with a Catholic princess. 1674. Feb. 9. Treaty of peace with Holland signed at Westminster. 1675. March. Organization of Lords of Trade, committee of the Coimcil for Colonies. 1677. York's daughter Mary weds William of Orange on November 15. 1678. August. Alleged Popish Plot to assassi- nate the king and set up Catholicism declared in a perjured confession of Titus Oates. Five Catho- lic peers imprisoned and Coleman, secretary of the Duchess of York, executed. Soman Catholics excluded from Parliament by the Disabling Act of November 30, a measure destined to remaui in force for 150 years. 1679. Jan. 24. Charles dissolves Parliament, which has sat since 1661, to save ills minister Danby from impeachment. New parliament meets, March 6; impeachment proceedings are renewed, butdropped on his dismissal and imprisonment. April. Charles suddenly institutes a new privy council of 30 members for the old one, with Shaftesbury as president; a small committee does the important work. May 26. Habeas Corpus Act stops royal evasion of the writ. Charles dissolves Parliament on May 27, to prevent passage of a bill to exclude York from the succession. Lauderdale causes the persecution of Covenanters in Scotland, but Archbishop Sharpe is assassinated. May 3. Cov- enanters imder Balfour defeat Claverhouse, Jime 1, at Drumclog; but are overcome by Mon- mouth at Bothwell Bridge, Jime 22. 1680. Shaftesbury, again dismissed In October, 1679. heads the opposition which favors the suc- cession of Monmouth, the king's illegitimate son, and petitions for a meetmg of Parliament; wliile the supporters of York and divine right express their abhorrence of it. " Petitioners " and " ab- horrers " received the nicknames of ** Whigs" and " Tories." New parhament meets on Oc- tober 21; Commons passes the E.\clusion Bill, but Lords reject it, as it cuts off York's Protestant daughters. Parliament is dissolved, Jan. 6. 1681. 1681. March 21. Another parliament meets, but is dissolved within a week; Louis's pension makes the English khig Independent of parliamentary grants. People, fearing civil war more than a Catholic king, rally to support of Tories. Shaftes- bury accused of treason in November, but grand jury of Whig London refuses to indict him. December, Argyie condemned, but flees; Scottish Covenanters and Cameronians are persecuted. 1682. October. London getting Tory magistrates, Shaftesbury flees to Holland to escape indict- ment, and dies there. 1683. London deprived by judicial procedure of its charter of self-government; other corporate towns sufler similarly, the purpose being to secure a Tory parliament. Rye House Plot to kill the king "discovered, also a Whig conspiracy in- volving Essex, Monmouth, Russell, Sidney, and others. Essex kills himself, Sidney and Russell executed, but Monmouth pardoned. 1685. Feb. 6. Charles dies; succeeded by York as James II. Tory parliament meets. May 19. Argyie returns to Scotland, but is apprehended and e.xecuted, Jime 30. Monmouth lands in Dorsetshire, Jime 11, and declares himself king; he is defeated at Sedgemoor, July 6, and exe- cuted on July 15, His supporters are ruthlessly condemned by Chief Justice Jeffreys in the Bloody Assizes, and James makes Jeffreys chancellor as his reward. 1686. By exercising the royal dispensation, James appoints Catholics contrary to the Test Act, and is supported by the courts. Catholic worship Is permitted; Protestant divines are prohibited from preaching against Catholic doctrines. New court of ecclesiastical commission suspends Comp- ton. Bishop of London, for failure to enforce the decree. 1687. James orders the fellows of Magdalen Col- lege, Oxford, to choose a Catholic as president; they refuse and are expelled, April 4. James issues a Declaration of Indulgence proclaim- ing liberty of conscience to all denominations, but Dissenters do not rally to him, and Parliament, becoming hostile, is dissolved. 1688. Second Declaration of Indulgence issued and ordered read in all the churches. June 10. a son is bom to James, making probable a Catholic succession. Seven bishops, headed by Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, are arrested for remon- strating against the declaration, but on June 30 are acquitted. Verdict causes widespread rejoic- ing and William of Orange-Nassau invited to deliver England. He lands at Torbay on Novem- ber 5, with 14,000 men, December IS, he enters London and James is permitted to escape to France five days later. 1689. Jan. 22. Convention Parliament meets and on February 12 declares that the king has at> dicated and the throne is vacant, and offers joint sovereignty to William and Mary, with regula- tion for Protestant succession. Offer is accom- panied by a declaration of rights and liberties of the subjects and oaths of allegiance and suprem- acy. Certain bishops and clergy, refusing to take the oaths, lose their positions and are known as nonjurors. April S. Mutiny Act passed, which has to bo renewed yearly; this gives Parliament control over the army. Toleration .4ct, May 24, gives free- dom of worship to all Protestants except Unitari- ans. Declaration of rights and succession enacted as a Bill of Bights on December 16, which also debars the crown to papists. 1689—1780. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1689 iconlinued). James, backed by France, reaches Ireland, March 12. He lays unsuccessful siege to Londunderry, April-July, and the Irisli are also defeated on July 30 at Newton Butler. In .Scotland. Parliament declares for William and Mary and establishes Presbyterianisni ; Dundee (Claverhouse) raises a force for James and is victorious at KiUlcrankle on July 17. but is liimself slain. 1690. March £0. Second Parliament of William and Mary first meets. June SO. English and Dutch fleet is defeated at Beachy Head by the French under Tourville With 36.000 men, William personally marches against James in Ireland, defeating liim at the Boyne, Jidy 1; James flees to France. 1691. For thewaron the Continent in this and suc- ceeding years, see France. Jiili/ 12. Irish are defeated at Aughrim, and Limerick stirronders, October 3. bringing the war to an end. Scotch Highlanders are pacified, chiefly by money: but William's chief representa- tive there, the Master of Stair, taking advantage of the delayed submission of Maclan, chief of a MacDonald clan, causes the clan to be massacred at Glencoe, February 13, 1692. Lowlanders join in the protest and the minister is dismissed. 1692. May ig-2S. English and Dutch under Rus- sell defeat Tourville in battle of La Hogue, which ends Louis XIV. 's attempts to invade England. 1693. January $.5,000,000 borrowed, heslnning of the national debt. On July 27, 1604, Bank of England Ls chartered, wliich loans S6.000.000 to the government. 1694. To stop disorders in Parliament, a Whig ministry led by the Junto of Somers, Russell (Or- fordi, Montagu (Halifa.x), and Wliarton succeeds a bipartisan one, and becomes the beginning of the modern cabinet. Triennial Act, passed De- cember 22, hmits life of a parliament to three years. Mary dies on December 28, and William reigns alone as William III. There is much cor- ruption during this period. 1695. Parliament by refusing to renew the licensing act establishes liberty of the press. [meets I Not. Si. Third Parliament of William III. I 1696. Feb. 14. Plot to assassinate William, of which James II. is cognizant, betrayed. 1697. Sept. go. Treaty of Byswick (Rijswick) ends Franco-English war: Louis recognizes Wil- liam as king, (meets I 1698. Dec. 6. Fourth Parliament of William III. I 1700. Aprilll. Act against the Catholics; non- jurors to forfeit estates for life. Catholic priests and schoolmasters liable to life imprisonment. 1701. Feb. e. Fifth Parliament of William meets, with a Tory majority: ministry is also Tory. By the Act of Settlement. June 12. the cro\vn is to pass after Mary's sister Anne and her issue to So- phia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I., and her issue, being Protestant. Act shows jealousy of a foreign sovereign and also of growing power of cabinet: contains a provision against ministers and placemen sitting in Parliament. James II. dies, September G, and as the Grand Alliance to which England is a party is just then formed against France, Louis recognizes James's son (James III., or the Pretender) as king of England. Sixth Parliament of William III. meets, Dec. 30. 170?. March S. William dies and Anne, a Tory, ascends the throne. War is declared against France by the Grand .\lliance. May 4. Marlbor- ough being captain general, and having, tlirough his wife, great uifluence over Anne. (See France for events of War of the Spanish Succession: and United St.\tes for Queen Anne's War.) October 20. First Parliament of Aime meets. 1704. July 24. Gibraltar is captured 1705. Oct. S,5. The new parliament (second of Anne) is Whig; Marlborough and Godolphin. Lord Treasiu'er, make advances to it, and the Place Bill of the Act of Settlement is so modified as to permit members of Parliament who accept places created before 1705 to retain their seats if reelected. 1707. May 1. England and Scotland are united under the name of Great Britain; union provides for one Parliament, with 16 Scottish peers in the Lords and 45 members in the Commons: Union jack becomes the national flag. First Par- liament of Great Britain meets. October 23. In Ireland the Protestant parliament continues to subject the Catholics to severe penal laws, while England suppresses Irish commerce to the advan- tage of her own merchants. 1708. The Pretender lands in Scotland, but with- draws. November 16, Second Parliament of Great Britain meets. During the year the royal veto ii. exercised for the last time. 1710. Marlborough and Godolphin have become Whigs and a ministry of this party has been forced on Anne. Sacheverell, having preached a ser- mon (November 5. 1709) denouncing the princi- ple of resistance and toleration established by the . Revolution of 1688, is impeached by the minis- try, but public opinion supports the Tories, and .-Vnne seizes the opporttmity to form a Tory min- istry under Harley (Oxford) and Saint-Jolm (Bol- ingbroke). supported by a Tory parliament, wliich meets on November 25 (third of Great Britain). Overtures of peace are made to France. 1711. Feb. 2S. Parliament passes the Property Qualification Act, by wliich only landliolders can have seats in Commons. It also passes the Occasional Conformity Act, December 22. directed against dissenters in office; but the Lords con- demn the foreign policy of the Tory ministry. Anne creates Vi peers, giving the Tories a major- ity in Lords as well as in Commons. December 31, Marlborough deprived of all his offices. 1713. March SI {Apnl 11, N.S.). Peace of Utrecht concluded. Pretender renouncec' by France, and Hudson Bay country. Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, St Christopher, Gibraltar, and Minorca ceded to Great Britain by France and Spain. By the assiento Great Britain secures a monopoly of slave trade to Spanish America. In general, the treaty favors the English commercial class, which is wiiig. 1714. Fourth Parliament of Great Britain meets on February 16. Last measure of tlie Tories to strengthen their hold is the Scliism Act (June 25). wliich re<:iuires a bishops licease of conformity to teach. Anne dies, August 1 : the crown passes to George I., son of Sophia 1715. March IT Fifth Parliament of Great Brit- ain meets and impeaches Boiingbroke. Ormonde, and Oxford; Ormonde imprisoned; others escape Jacobite riots occur. Earl of Mar heads a rising of Scottish Jacobites in September and on Decem- ber 2 the Pretender reaches Scotland, but accom- plishes nothing, returning to France in February. 1716. Maij 7 Septennial Act increases the life of a parliament, including the existing one, to seven years. 1717. Feb. 18. Occasional Conformity and Schism Acts repealed British Parliament on April 7 passes an act asserting its right and power to make laws to" bind the kingdom and people of Ireland. ' 17'iO. Failure of the South Sea Company, started by Harley in 1711 and the subject of wild speculation. Fall rmns many, and government officials are implicated in it and other " blue-sky " operations. 17?1. April 3. Walpole (Whig) becomes virtu- ally prime minister; his administration contm- ues for 21 years, upheld by systematic corruption and intent upon keeping both foreign and domes- tic peace at any price. Imeets i 1122. Oct. 9. Sixth Parliament of Great Britain! 1727, June 11. George I. dies; son succeeds as George II. lain meets i 1728. Jan. 2.3. Seventh Parliament o( Great Br(t-I 1735. Jan. 14. Eighth Parliament of Great Brit- ain meets. 1739. War with Spain over smuggling and search in Spanish America (War of Jenkins's Ear), and Georgia's encroachment on Florida. Vernon cap- tures Porto Bello in Darien. 1740. Vernon fails in attack on Cartagena, Sep- tember, Anson begins a cruise, during which he de- stroys a city in Peru, captures a $1,500,000 plate ship, and circumnavigates the globe, returning June. 1744, [assembles | 1741. Dec. 1. Ninth Parliament of Great Britain I 1742. Feb. 17. Walpole falls; succeeded nomi- nally by Earl of Wilmington, but Carteret (for- eign minister) and Newcastle are the chief men of the new administration. 1744. March Id. France declares war on Great Britain, bringing her into the War of the Austrian .Succession (see Germany and United States). Carteret retires November 23; Henr.\- Pelham (Newcastle's brother) becomes prime minister. 1745. France sends the Young Pretender (grand- son of James II.) to Scotland; he lands on July 25 and wins several battles. 1746. Feb. 22. William Pitt joins the ministry. April 16. Duke of Cumberland defeats Mur- ray and the Pretender at Culloden. Leading Jacobites are executed; Pretender flees to France. This ends the Stuart attempts to regain the tlirone 1747. Sot. 10. Tenth Parliament of Great Britain meets. 174S. Oct. IS. Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle; Eng- land neither gains nor loses. It includes peace witli Spain. 1752. Gregorian calendar (see calendar, in the Did.) is adopted in Great Britain and the colonies. 1753. British Museum founded 1754. Newcastle succeeds his brotlier as prime minister, and Henry Fox becomes Secretary of State, also leader of Commons in 1755. Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain meets. May 31. French and Indian War begins in America (see Ignited States). Formal war is not yet declared, however. Newcastle, indisposed to a vigorous policy, dismisses Pitt on Nov. 20, 17.55. 1756. May 17. War is declared, being known in Europe as the Seven Years' War (see Germ.int). France captures Minorca in July. Newcastle re- signs, October 26, and Devonshire and Pitt suc- ceed, December 4. Latter, an ardent imperial- ist, has the support of the commercial interests and those weary of rule through corruption. 17SJ. .\pril 6. George H. dismisses Pitt, wiio. however, regains power on June 29 in a coalition ministry with Newcastle, who controls the Commons and gives Pitt the means of carrying out his policy, while himself manipulating the pat^ ronage. Pitt subsidizes Frederick tlie Great on the Continent and devotes himself to building up the Empire in America and elsewhere, sea power being his chief instrument. Clive, June 23. wins the victory of Plassey in Bengal. India (see India) . 1759. August. English fleets under Boscawen and Hawke defeat the French off Lagos in August and at Quiberon Bay. on November 20, frustrating preparations to invade England. Sep . IS. French defeated at Quebec; fall of Canada in 1760. (grandson as George III. I 1760. Oct. 26. George II. dies; succeeded by hisi 1761. Pondicherry, French post in JNIadras, surren- ders to Great Britain, which secures British pre- dominance in that country (see India). Pitt in- sists on war with Spain and, disregarded, resigns October 5. Newcastle Is premier, Egremont. Bute, and George Grenville in the ministry, the last becoming leader of the Commons. Twelfth Parliament of Great Britain convenes on Nov. 3. 1762. January. War declared on Spain. New- castle resigns. May 26. and is succeeded by Bute, a personal appointment by the king, who is bent upon destroying Whig control and being him- self a party leader. Bute holds office only until April 8. 1763. when Grenville succeeds. 1763-1783. For American relations, see United States. 1763. Fib. 10. Peace of Paris by Great Britain. France, and Spain. Great Britain gains from France Minorca. Canada, Louisiana east of the Mississippi, Dominica. Grenada. St. Vincent, and Tobago in the West Indies, and Senegal in Africa; and from Spain. Florida. Great Britain restores Cuba and Manila (captured in 1762) to Spain; she cedes St. Lucia to France and restores to her Goree in .\frica. Guadeloupe. Martinique. Saint- Pierre, and Miquelon in America and the cap- tured towns in India, but retains ascendancy there. John Wilkes is arrested for publisliing articles in the North Briton insulting to the king; expelled from Commons. January 19. 1764, and outlawed. General warrants issued for others, but they are declared illegal. Wilkes receives popiUar support. 1765. July 10. The Marquis of Rockingham (\VTiig) becomes prime minister, with Conway and Grafton as secretaries of state. Earl of Chatham (Pitt) succeeds on July 3t). 1766. as liead of a heterogeneous ministry, but becoming incapacitated (May. 1767) the Duke of Grafton is nominal head with Charles Townshend leader of the Commons and moving spirit. Chatham re- signs on October 1,5, 1768 1768. May 10. Thirteenth Parliament of Great Britain meets. 1769. Feb. 4. Wilkes, who has been returned to Parliament for Middlesex (London), expelled again; he is thereupon tlirice reelected, with much mob violence (" WUkes and liberty "). and as many times rejected, his opponent being finally seated by the House. Publication of the Letters of Junius in the Pubhc Adrerltser begins; they continue for tlu-ee years, .supporting Wilkes and attacking the ministry and the king himself. Au- thorship is now generally assigned to Sir Philip Francis. (See Junius, in the Dictionary.) 1770. January. Lord North becomes premier. This is a selection by the king; North is a supporter of the iiersonal rule and the king is practically his own premier. 1771. The Commons endeavor to prevent the re- port of debates m the newspapers, but fail. 1774. Oct. 4. Wilkes elected Lord Mayor of lin- den, and on October 29 again retm-ned for Middle- sex and seated without opposition on December 2. the Fourteenth Parliament of Great Britain meeting on November 29. 1778. June S. Under the leadership of Sir George Savile, the Catholic Penal Act of 1700 is repealed. July 10. France, having entered into an alli- ance with the revolting American colonies (United States), declares war on Great Britain. 1779. June 16. Spain withdraws her ambassador from London, issues a manifesto, and soon begins an imsiiccessful siege of Gibraltar, wliich lasts until peace is made. 1780. Feb. 1^1. Edmund Burke introduces his bfll for the economic reform of government, abol- ishing sinecures in the civil list, reducing pensions and other extravagances which have made possible the ministerial (royal) corrupt control over Com- mons. Bill defeated, but it voices a growing public discontent (shown also in the Wilkes affair. Letters of Jiuiius, and mob violence) with the king's efforts to rule as well as reign, and de- mands for manhood suffrage and electoral reform in Parliament; and some of its reforms are finally 54 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1780 — 1819. 1780 (continued). M enacted on June 19. 17S2, under the Rockingham ministry, of wliich Burke is a member. June a. Lord George Gordon, a fanatic, heads a mob demandmg that Parliament rescind the repeal of the CatlioMc Penal Act. The " no- popery" cry is made the excuse for riots which devastate London for six days. [assembles. I Oct. 31 . Fifteenth Parliament of Great Britain | OAn Armed Neutralitf is formed by Denmark and Sweden with Russia to resist British infringe- ments on neutral rights, raising the new slogan of •■ free ships, free goods." Holland adheres to the same principle and Great Britain declares war on her, December 20. 1J83. March W. North, in spite of the king's in- sistence, resigns because of disasters in America and the West Indies. Rockingham again be- P comes premier, with Shelbm-ne, Charles James Fo.x, and Edmimd Biu-ke in the ministry- June 21, an act repeals that of 1717 wliich asserted the power to make laws for Ireland, and also repeals the control of the privj- coimcil, under Poj-nings's law, over the making of laws there. In July Sliel- burne succeeds Rockingham, and Fox and Burke resign, while William Pitt, the younger, at the Qage of twenty-tliree, becomes Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the Commons. April IS. Rodney's great naval victory over De Grasse in the West Indies restores British pres- tige sufficiently for an acceptable peace, especially after the failure of the final attack on Gibraltar on Septemljer 13. 1183. Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris _^ signed with the United States, France, and Spain; R independence of the first is recognized, with terri- tory to the Mississippi; Tobago and Senegal ceded to France, and Minorca and Florida to Spain. Meanwhile the Shclbimie ministry, having started the peace, is forced out, February 23. by a coali- tion of North and Foi, who, April 2. become secretaries of state, with the Duke of Portland as nominal premier. Pitt introduces. May 7, a bill Sfor parliamentary reform, directed especially against the rotten boroughs and bribery; Fox supports it, but North opposes, and it is defeated. November 20, Burke's India Bill (see India) is introduced by Fox; though opposed by Pitt, it passes the Commons, but is defeated in the House of Lords on December 17 by the king's personal influence. King George dismisses the ministry on ._ December 19 and names Pitt as premier, though I the latter is not backed by the Commons, and is repeatedly defeated by the coalition majority. 1781. March 25. Parliament is dissolved and public opinion rallying to Pitt, he has a majority in the new Commons, which meets on May 15 (Sixteenth Parliament of Great Britain), and being strong enough to disregard the king's wishes, be- comes premier in fact as well as in name. Pitt's own bill for reform in India (see India) passed on .\ugust 13. May to. Peace is signed with Holland, that coimtry yielding to England the right of commerce in the East Indies and also Negapatam in Madras, India. 1785. Penang is ceded to the East India Company; beginning of the Straits Settlements. Singapore • . is added in 1S19 and Malacca in 1824, the union V taking place in 1826. April 18. Pitt introduces another parliamen- tary reform bill aiming at the erection of a fimd to buy off the owners of virtually private seats; it fails and he abandons his advocacy of the reform. His attempt to introduce free trade with Ireland passes. July 29. in a resolution of such restricted form that the Irish Parhament rejects it. ^y 1786. May gS. Sinking Fund Act, Pitt's meas- ure for paying the national debt. Sept. 26. Commercial treaty with France; an important step, tlirough the reciprocal reduc- tion of custom duties, toward the overthrow of the mercantile system. 1787. Settlement of Sierra Leone begins; hinter- land is developed, but proclamation of prot«ctor- Xate over it is not made imtil August 21, 1896. 1788. For trial of Warren Hastmgs, see India. Oct. l£. The king becomes insane and the ques- tion of the regency becomes important. As the Prince of Wales is Fox's friend, Pitt insists upon, and carries through the Commons on February 12, a restrictive regency bill. Recovery of the king makes consideration by the Lords unnecessarj'. 1799. Nov. 25. Seventeenth Parliament of Great Y Britain opens. 1791. Irish question becomes important. The Irish Parliament is elected by and composed of Protestants, mainly from "rotten boroughs" ministry is responsible to the lord lieutenant only and he In turn can be independent of Parliament or make it subservient to him through patronage, and is responsible only to English ministry and crown. ^ In October the Society of United Irishmen is ^ started by Wolfe Tone, a Protestant, to open the franchise to Catholics and agitate for reform in Parliament and elsewhere. u 1793. June IS. Libel Act, proposed by Fox, de- crees that the jury shall judge as to the whole matter at issue. 1793. Feb. 1. War Is declared by the French republic. (For British participation in the Con- tinental wars 1793-1815, see France; and for the controversy and war with United States, 1794- 1815, growing out of neutral trade question, see United States.) Reaction in England caused by the Terror in France and later by Napoleon's rule postpones the domestic reforms toward which Pitt is moving. Extent of the early reaction is seen in the harsh enforcement of the Treasonable Correspondence Act (passed May 7). 1795. With the retimi of orderly government in France (Directory) English pubUc opinion veers toward peace and relief from the burden of war; October 29, the king is mobbed on his way to open parhament. Pitt insists on continuing war and the passage of bills to restrain what he consid- ers revolutionary violence. Holland having be- come a dependency of France. English capture Cape of Good Hope colony, l)ut it Is restored ui 1802 by the Peace of Amiens. Disturbances become frequent in Ireland by Cath- olics on one side and Protestant factions of Orange- men on the other. 1796. England captm-es Ceylon from the Dutch; also Guiana, but the latter is restored in 1802. Sept. 27. Eighteenth Parliament of Great Britain first meets. Oct. 8. Spain declares war on Great Britain Dec. n. A French fleet with 20.000 soldiers leaves Brest to invade Ireland, at the appeal of the LTnited Irislmien, but isscattered by astorm atsea. 1797. Trinidad 'is captured from Spam. February 16, off Cape St. Vhicent, Sir John Jcrvis defeats a Spanish fleet and prevents its junction with the French and Dutch fleets to control the Channel during an invasion of Ireland. February 27, the Bank of England suspends specie payments. iSIutiny on April 15 in the fleet at Spithead and the demands of the sailors are allowed. May 22, an- other revolt, with more far-reaching demands, takes place at The Nore ; the mutmeers are sup- pressed forcibly. October 11. Duncan's fleet defeats the French and Dutch off Camperdowu; the victory restores public confidence and reUeves the people from fear of invasion. 1798. May. Rebellion breaks out In Ireland, which is attended by many atrocities on both sides. The Irish are at first successful, but are defeated at Ballinahinch on June 13 and at Vinegar HiU (over- looking Enniscorthy) on June 21 ; a small body of aiding Frenchmen surrenders at BaUinamuck on September S, and the rebellion is completely crushed. Many are executed; Tone, captured, commits suicide. Aug. 1. Horatio Nelson defeats the French fleet at the battle of the Nile and destroys the hope of success of Bonaparte's invasion of EgTr-pt 1800. July 2. Royal assent is given to the union of Great Britain and Ireland, the consent of the Irish Parliament having been venaUy procured by Pitt. Irish Parliament thus ceases; 4 spiritual and 28 temporal Irish lords are to be sent to the imion House of Lords and 100 members to the Commons. Established churches are united. Present union Jack is adopted as British flag, the royal arms and titles changed, and the claim to be " king of France " is dropped. November 5. a royal proclamation declares that the members of the existing British parliament shall also be members of the first imion parliament. 1801. Jan. 1. Union goes into operation. Janu- ary 22. First Parhament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland meets. March 14. Pitt resigns because of the king's antipathy to Catholic emancipation, and the Addington ministry succeeds. March 10. First British census; population of Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland), 10.500,956. April 2. Nelson bombards Copenhagen, the Armed Neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Den- mark having been revived. Jime 17, the Armed Neutrality ends through an agreement between Great Britain and Russia. 1803. March 25. Peace of Amlens is signed with France, Spain, and Holland Great Britain re- stores all over-sea conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon. Malta, which Bonaparte took from the Knights of St. John and England took from him, is to be restored to the Knights. This, however, is not done; England is suspicious of Napoleon's intentions, especially as to Egj-pt (" the road to India "), and other comphcations help to make the peace a short one. [dom opens. Nov. 16. Second Parliament of United ICing-| 1803. May. Rupture of the Peace of Amiens. Napoleon begins to gather a great army at Bou- logne to invade Great Britain. To accomplish this he must have at least temporary command of the Channel and neighboring seas. In Jime the British conquer St. Lucia in the West Indies. Guiana is also reoccupied. July £3. Robert Emmet, a United Irishman, plans another revolt, but his rismg with a handfid of men is suppressed and he is executed Sept. 20. 1804. May 10. On the resignation of Addington the king has Pitt organize a second ministry, excluding Fox. 1805. The third coalition against France is formed by Great Britain, Austria, Sweden, Rus- sia, and Prussia; the British fimction is chiefly to control the .seas and subsidize the Continental nations. Oct. 21. Nelson destro.vs the combined French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar and pre- vents invasion of England, but is Iiimself killed. 1806. Jan. 23. Pitt dies. Lord Grenville heads the Ministry of all the Talents with Fox as for- eign secretary (Fox dies on September 13). Cape of Good Hope is again captured from the Dutch, and Curasao off the coast of South America; the latter is restored in 1814. (opens. I Dec. to. Third Parliamcntof United Kmgdoml 1806-1807. British orders in council in contra- vention of Napoleon's Continental system (see United States). 1807. March 2/f. King George dismisses the min- istry because of the refusal to promise not to pro- pose measures of Catholic relief, and the Duke of Portland, March 31, forms a new one with Cleorge Canning as foreign secretary, and Castlereagh as secretary of war. March 25. Slave trade is abolished. June 22. Fourth Parhament of the United Kingdom meets. Sept. 5. Siu-render of Copenhagen to British and seiziu"e of Danish fleet. 1808. Peninsular War begins when Canning sends an army under Sir .\rthiir Wellesiey to de- liver Portugal and support the Spanish revolt against Napoleon (see Spain). 1809. October. Portland resigns as prime minister and George Perceval succeeds ; Canning and Cas- tlereagh also resign. Government conservative. 1810. George III. goes insane again, and the Prince of Wales (George IV.) becomes regent under an act passed February 5, 1811. ile de France (Mauritius) is captured; also Moluc- cas from the Dutch, but the latter are restored in 1814; Seychelles Islands are occupied. 1811. May 17. Popiflation of England, Wales, and Scotland, 11,970,120. September. Java is taken from the Dutch, but is restored in 1S14. 1812. Perceval is assassinated by a lunatic. Jime S, Lord Liverpool becomes premier with Castle- reagh as foreign secretary and Lord Sidmouth (Addington) as home secretary. June 18. The United States declares war (see United States). [gathers. | Nov. Si. Fifth Parliament of United Kingdom! 1813. Successful British campaigns against the French in Spain. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1814-1815. For the Congress of Vienna, see Nine- teenth-Century Period. For the treaties of peace and commerce with United States, see United States. 1814. May SO. Peace of Paris is signed. Great Britain restores to France all over-sea conquests except Tobago and St. Lucia in the West Indies, Seychelles, and Mauritius (lie de France). Great Britain retains Malta. August 13. convention is signed with Holland on colonial possessions. Great Britain restores all colonies conquered since 1802 except Cape of Good Hope and part of Gui- ana; Holland is given back Banka in exchange for Cochin in India. 1815. For the Hundred Days and battle of Water- loo, see France. Asceasion and Tristan da Cimlia islands occupied. March 23. Amendment of the com law forbids the importation of wheat (see 1st Corn, n. 3, in the Diet.) imless the price is 80 shillings ($19.50) per quarter (8 bushels), thus protecting landowners. 1816. Occupation of Gambia begins. Period foUowing the war is one of much distress; imemployment. bad harvests, falling off of foreign demand for manufactiu-es, heavy war debt, and disregard of the rights of lalrar. Conditions lead to radical demands, led by William Cobbett, for ■ reform of political system, and to violence. 1817. March 4. Remedy of the conservative min- istry for this distress, discontent, and natural de- velopment of new ideas is to suspend habeas corpus tmtil March 1, 1818, and also. March 31, to pass an act against seditious meetings. Revival of busi- ness does not become general and Arm imtil 1S21. 1818. Oct. 20. Commercial and fishery treaty with United States (see United States). 1819. Jan.li. SLxth Parliament of United King- dom assembles. Aug. 16. PoUtical and social agitation cul- minates at Manchester in great mass meeting, which troops disperse with some bloodshed ("Manchester Massacre"). Ministry replies, December 11-30, by the passage of the SU Acts, which forbid training in the use of arms, authorize- 1819-1853. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1819 {continued). search, deprive defendants of certain rights in trials for misdemeanors, provide against seditious meetings and hbel. and put a stamp duty on pamphlets. 1820. Jan. SO. George III. dies, still insane; the regent becomes George IV, April 21. Seventh Parliament of United Iving- dom first meets. May 1. Thistlewood and four others are exe- cuted for plotting to kill the ministers. August. Queen Caroline, consort of George r\'., is tried for divorce, but the Lords abandon the bill after a liearing of tlireo months She re- ceives popular support, but is forbidden to partici- pate m the coronation, and dies on August 7. 1S21. 1821. Bank of England resumes specie pay- ments, [of his career! Robert Peel becomes home secretarj': beginning | May 2S. Population of United Kingdom. 20,- 893,584. 1822. Aug. IS. Castlerea^ih commits suicide- George Canning succeeds as foreign secretary . most brilliant English diplomat of his time. (For Great Britain and the Holy Alliance, see Nine- teenth-Century Period ) 182:$. Several acts emlxxiy Peel's criminal law re- forms; deatb penalty abolished for some 100 crimes. [teenth-Century Period. )j Canning's South American policy. (See Nine-| 1824. June 21. Law against combinations of laborers is repealed; but on July 6, 1825, because of disturbances, the repeal is revoked, though combinations to fL\ wages and hours of work are pemiitt^. 1824-1826. First Burmese "War; no annexations. 1825. Stpt. S7. Opening of the Stockton and Dar- lington railway; cars drawn by Stephenson's loco- motive. (Kingdom opens, i 1826. .\ov. 14. Eighth Parliament of the United | 1827. Feb. 17. Liverpool is disabled and Can- ning becomes prime minister. He dies on August 8 and Goderich succeeds. July 6. Great Britain, Russia, and France unite to mediate or interpose in the War of Greek Independence. October 20. the Turkish fleet is destroyed at Navarino (see Greece). 1828. Jan. 26. Wellington becomes prime minister; Peel continues us home secretary. May 9. Under the leadership of Lord John Russell, act is passed repealing the Corporation Act of 1661 and the Test Act of 1673. so far as they affect Protestants; reciuirement of disbelief in transubstantiation continues to exclude Catho- lics from Parliament and office. 1829. April 13. Catholic Emancipation Act does away with the tests wliich exclude Cathohcs from Parliament and from office, but retains the tests for certam offices and established church and university positions. This AVhig measure agi- tated for years, but now receives the support of AVclUngton and Peel. 1830. June 20. George IV. dies; his brother suc- ceeds as William IV. Stpt. 15. Manchester and Liverpool railway, first important thoroughfare of the kind in the world, is opened. [dom assembles | Oct. 26. Ninth Parliament of the United King-1 Nov. 16. Wellmgton, defeated in Commons, resigns, and the flrst distinct M'hig ministrj' since 1806 begins November 24; Lord Grey, prime minister; Althorp, Brougham, Melbourne, and Palmerston in the cabinet, and Lord John Russell a subordinate member. 1831. Marck 1 . Lord John Russell for the cabinet introduces a parliamentary reform bill. Op- position in Commons leads to a dissolution and on the appeal to the country the new parliament (tenth of United Kingdom), which me^tson June 14, has a large ministerial tWhig) majority, and passes the bill on September 22. Lords reject it on October 8; the action, so contrary to public wishes, causes riots in many places. May S9. Population of United Kingdom. 24,- 028.584. 1832. Settlement of Falkland Islands begins MaTch S4- Reform Bill passes Commons again, and the Lords, imder tlireat of creation of new peers, give in; bill becomes law on June 7. It disfranchises 56 boroughs entirely, and in all 145 seats are taken from the old boroughs, while 42 to\vns receive one or two members and county membership increased from 94 to 159. Suffrage is largely extended. Other act« of July 17 and August 7 reform the representation of Scotland and Ireland, increasing their membership, and much enlarging the suffrage. Effect of the re- form is to enfranchise the middle class. 1833. Jan. 25. First Parliament under the Re- form Act (eleventh of the United Kingdom) meets. Those supporting reform measiwes (Whigs and Radicals) begin to be called Liberals; their opponents. Conservatives. Aug. 24. Act on the temporalities of the estab- lished church in Ireland reduces the number of bishops from 22 to 12. Aug. SS. Act passed abolishing slavery in British colonies; goes into effect August 1. 1834; o^vners to l^e paid SIOO.000.000. Act causes com- mercial disturbance, especially in West Indies; former owners abuse the apprentice system, pro- duction of coffee and sugar falls off. Planters show much disaffection. Aug. 29. Notes of the Bank of England are made legal tender in England and Wales. On the same date Lord Ashley's Factory Act is passed It forbids night labor of children under 9: those under 11 (after a period, under 13) not to work more than 9 hours a day (48 a week), except in silk mills, and those between 11 (later 13) and 17, not more than 12 hours, or 69 a week. Also pro- vides for inspection to enforce it. 1834. July 16. Lord Melbourne becomes prime minister. > Aug. 14. Poor Law reforms bad condition of pauperism; provides for the abolition of local boards, enlarging central authority; also for the union of parishes to support workhouses, the gen- eral administration of the rehef being in the hands of guardians elected by ratepayers. Outdoor re- hef reduced to a minimum. Nov. 14- Tlic king dismisses the ministry, the last instance of such action by a sovereign, and makes Peel prime minister. 1836. Melbourne ministry retimis as Peel does not command a majority in the new parliament (twelfth of United Kingdom) which meets on February 19. Palmerston is foreign secretary' and Lord Jolm RusseU home secretary. Sept. f). Municipal Corporation Act makes rate pacing the basis for burgess-ship. 1837. June 20. William IV. dies; his niece Vic- toria succeeds. As a woman cannot rule in Hanover, the kingship of that country goes to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, and ceases to be luiited with the crown of Great Britain. Rebellion in Canada (see Canada). July 1 7. Number of crimes for which death is penalty reduced to six. Nov. 15. Thirteenth Pariiament of United Kingdom assembles. 1838. May S. The People's Charter, by Wilham Lovett, is first published. It becomes the pro- gram of the Chartists, led by Feargus O'Connor. — a phase of the continuing social agitation. The " sLx points " are: amiual parliaments, imiversal male suffrage, ballot, e for its members. Parliament on Jmie 14, 1839, refuses to consider a monster petition by the Chartists, and there is rioting at Birmingham and elsewhere. July 31 . Poor law is enacted for Ireland. Aug. 15. Irish tithes are transferred from the tenants to the landowners. September. Antl-Corn-Law League is formed at Manchester imdcr tlie leadership of Richard Cobden and John Bright. 1838-1842. First Afghan W'ar (see India). 1839. Jan. 16. Aden is captmed. [system. 1 .4 ug. 1 7. Preparatory act for reform of postal ! 1840. War with China (see China). Feb. 10. Queen Victoria weds her cousin. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who later (1857) receives the title of Prince Consort. May 22. Sovereignty over New Zealand is pro- claimed. July 15. Treaty with Russia, Austria. Prussia, and Turkey to suppress Meheraet All tsee Turkey) Acre is captured on November 4 and Mehemet Ali retires into Egypt. France being left out of the alliance, there is friction between her and England, but it disappears. Aug 10. Under the leadership of Sir Rowland Hill, act is passed for penny postage tliroughout the United Kingdom, prepaid by stamps. 1841. January. Hongkong is ceded by China; confirmed by treaty of August 29, 1S42- June 7. PopiUation of United Kingdom, 27,057.923. Aug. 19. Lord Melbourne, biu-dened by defi- ciency of revenue, having been defeated in Com- mons, a new parliament meets (fourteenth of United Kingdom) with a Conservative majority. Peel forms his second ministry, including Wel- lington as a figurehead and Aberdeen as foreign secretary. 1842. First concessions to Sir James Brooke in Sarawak. Borneo; formal British protectorate not established until ISSS. June 22. Opposition to the protection for food and other products leads to a revision of the tariff; duties on some 750 out of 1200 articles are reduced or abolished; an income tax is imposed to make up the deficit. This policy of reducing tariff duty and extending the free list Peel contin- ues in subsequent budgets; later, Gladstone's budg- ets make even more rapid steps toward free trade. Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty on Maine boimd- ary (see United States). .4 ug. 10. An act fathered by Lord Ashley forbids labor in mines by women, girls, or boys under 10. 1813. May IS. Natal is proclaimed a British col- ony; increased by later annexations and treaties (see South Africa). May IS. Disruption of the established Presby- terian Church of Scotland; withdrawal of a large portion of the ministers, who form the Free Church of Scotland and abandon their benefices. May 19. Gladstone becomes a member of the Conservative ministry'. 1844. Factory Act (AslUey's) forbids the employ- ment of any female more than 12 hours a day (69 a week). It permits children of 8 to labor, but establishes for children half-day or alternate-day labor, with compulsory education. July 19. A separate issue department is estab- lished for the Bank of England and it is made the sole source of futiu-e circulating bank notes. 1845. July SI. Jews made eligible to municipal offices. 1845-1846. Failure of potato crops in Ireland with resulting famine. Tliis adds force to move- ment to repeal the com laws. 1846. Ji-abuan Islatnd is ceded to Great Britain. June 15. Oregon Treaty with United States (see U.nited St.a.tes). Jufie 26. Peel's biU for repeal of the corn laws lowers food duties by a sliding scale on wheat, with duty on other grains and fiom* and meal m proportion. After February 1, 1849, the duty on all grain at whatever price is to be very low. Peel, though a Conservative, carries the act by Liberal aid. On June 24, 1S69, this reduced duty is abolished. June 27. Peel IS defeated on a bill for Irish . relief, by a combination of protectionists and others headed by Benjamin Disraeli. Lord John Russell forms a Liberal ministry on July 6. Palmerston is foreign secretary. 1847. June s. Aslileys work for labor betterment is crowned by an act establisliing a maximum ten- hour day (5S a week) for women and cliildren. Nor. IS. Fifteenth ParUament of United Kingdom meets. Dec. 20. Act for public works for Ireland is first fruit of Russell's efforts to solve the Irish problems. It is disappointing in results and he is forced to a coercion act by disorders. 1848. April 10. A revival of Chartism leads to the plan for a great meeting at Kensington Com- mon. London, to carry a much-padded petition to Parliament. The petition is presented, but gov- ernment preparations cause the failure of the affair as a demonstration. July 29. A rising, connected with the vari- ous revolts of this year on the Continent, takes place prematurely in Ireland; the conspiracy is led by Smith O'Brien (.a Protestant) and oneMitchel, and the movement is quickly suppressed by the poUce. O'Brien and Mitchel are exiled. Aug. 14. Encumbered Estates Act is Rus- sell's next Irish measure. It pro\ides for the sale of such estates to solvent purchasers who presum- ably will not press so heavily on the tenant-s. It is not a success, and the ministrj- not t>eing able to pass further acts of rehef. the incomplete program is a failure. 1849. June 26. Last remnants of the old Navi- gation Acts are repealed: but the coasting trade of the United Kingdom and of each possession (under certain excepting regifiations) is still re- served for British ships. [United States).! 1850. April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (seel Sept. SO. A papal bull restores the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, where since the tolerance of Cathohc worship the Catholic bishops have been nominally missionaries " in partibus mfidelium " (L., in lands of the infidels). "This meets with much popular opposition, and on August 1, lS51,the Ecclesiastical Titles Act lays a fine on anyone attempting to give effect to the bull, but the act is never enforced and is finally repealed. 1851. Electric telegraph connection between Eng- land and France is established First International E.vhlbition takes place in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London. March SI. Popifiation of United Kingdom. 27.745.949. Dec. 10. Russell forces Palmerston to resign be- causeoflatter's independent coursein foreign affairs. 185^. Second Burmese War; December 20, a por- tion of the coimtry is annexed. Feb. 21. Russell ministry resigns. Palmerston having ret-ahated by procuring its defeat in the Commons February 27. the Earl of Derby or- ganizes his first (protectionist) ministry, with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer: but the ministry lacks a majority in the new parliament (sixteenth of United Kingdom) of NoTcmlwr 4; and on December 28 the Aberdeen ministry succeeds, with Gladstone as chancellor of the exchequer. Palmerston as home secretarj% and Russell in charge of foreign affairs. 1853. Aug. 20. Penal servitude is substituted for long-term sentences of transportation, and on June 26. 1857, transportation overseas, which is very objectionable to the colonists, is abolished. 56 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPP;). 1854 — 1886. 1SS4. Kuria Muria Islands ceded to Great Britain. M March iS. Great Britain and France begin war (Crimean War) on Kussia over Turkish affairs (see Russia). Sardinia joins tlie Allies (1855). 1855. Jan. SO. Aberdeen resigns because of criti- cism of the inefficient management of the war. Palmerston becomes prime minister on Febru- ary 6. with a combination cabinet from which, how- ever, Gladstone and other Peelites soon retire. OMny 21. Order in council establishes a com- mission to pass on the qualifications of candidates for the civil service, thus reforming the method of selecting officials. [ished-l June IS. stamp duties on newspapers abol-l 1856. Cocos (Keeling) Islands are taken under British protection, March SO. Peace of Paris ends Crimean War. Great Britain acquires great influence o\er Turkey. P 1857. Arrow War in China (see Chin.^). April SO. Seventeenth Parliament of United Kingdom assembles. Aug. 28. Divorce Act substitutes for the com- plicated system of the ecclesiastical courts a Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, with a limited appeal to the House of Lxjrds. The act goes into operation January 1. 1858. Q1857-185S. Indian mutiny (see India). 1858. Final occupation of Andaman Islands. Frh. 22. Second Derby ministry (Conserva- tive! begins; Disraeli chancellor of the exchequer. June 28. Property quahflcation for Parliament is abolished. [opened to Jews. I July 2S. Membership in Parliament and offices! Aug. 2. East India Company abolished, as _^ a result of the mutiny : the rights are transferred R to the crown (see India). Aug. 16. Communication is established over the Atlantic cable to the United States, but it soon ceases to work. land commerce I Aug. 26. First treaty with Japan; friendship! 1859. May SI. Eighteenth Parliament of United Kingdom opens. Ministry resigns. June IS. Second Palmerston ministry (Lib- O eral) with Gladstone as chancellor of the e.^;- ^ chequer and Russell foreign secretarj'. 1860. Prince of Wales visits Canada and the United States. Jan. 23. Cobden's treaty of reciprocity with France is signed. England cordial to Napoleon III.'s empire. 1861. Great Britain imites with Spain and France a_ in sending an expedition to Mexico to enforce 1 claims; satisfaction being received, England and Spam withdraw. 129.321, 2,SS. I April 8. Population of United Kingdom,! May 12. Declaration of neutrality In Amer- ican Civil War. Aug. 6. Purchase of Lagos begins the present colony and protectorate of Nigeria; growth is tlorough the Royal Niger Company and the vari- ous divisions are amalgamated on January 1 , 1914. November-December. Trent affair (see United States). Danger of war. Dec. 14. Prince Consort dies. 186S. May 1. Second International Industrial E.xposition opens in London. July 29. Confederate States steamer Ala- bama sails from Liverpool (for Alabama Claims V controversy, see United States). Strong pressure on the government to recognize the Southern Confederacy fails. 1803. Oct. 8. Construction of Laird rams for Confederate States isstopped (see United States ). 1864. March 29. British protectorate over Ionian Islands terminates; islands are ceded to Greece. 1865. Oct. 11. Insurrection of blacks begins in Jamaica; rigorously and cruelly suppressed. ^W Oct. 18. Palmerston dies; Russell becomes prime minister on November 6. 1866. Feb. 1. Nineteenth Parliament of Great Britain meets. Feb. 17. Because of Fenian agitations. Par- liament suspends habeas corpus in Ireland. July 6. Russell ministry ha\'ing resigned be- cause of opposition to their Reform BUI, Derby X becomes (Conservative) prime minister for the third time, with Disraeli again chancellor of the exchequer and Robert Cecil (Salisbury) secretary' for India; the last named, with others, resigns on March 10, 1867. because opposed to Disraeli's Re- form Bill. 1867. Abyssinian expedition punishes Iving Theo- dore for his treatment of British officials; Mag- dala is captured and Theodore kills himself. Brit^ Y ish retire from country. (suppressed.! March. Rising of Fenians in Ireland is quickly I Aug. IS. Second Reform Act; Disraeli puts the meastire through, seeing that it is a popular demand. Several attempts at fm-ther reform since 1832 have failed, though only one sixth of the adult males are voters and representation is still unevenly distributed. This act greatly enlarges ^ the suffrage, but continues it on a property or ^ rental basis; some readjustment of seats in Parha- ment is also made. Practically enfranchises the settled working class. u 1868. Feb. 27. Derby resigns; Disraeli becomes prime minister, but resigns when the new parlia- ment elected under the Reform Act has a Liberal majority. Gladstone's flrst (Liberal) ministry begins on December 9 ; John Bright is a member. March li. Basutsland is annexed. July 13. Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland are enacted; suffrage extended and se ts redis- tributed. [Kingdom assembles. I Dec. 10. Twentieth Parliament of United! 1869. British claim to Nicobar Islands is acknowl- edged by other coimtries. July 26. Irish Disestablishment Act ends the established church there; it also discontinues the annual grants to nonconfomung ministers (regium donum: L., royal gift) and to the Cath- olic Maynooth College, certain compensatory sums being appropriated, l^operty of Church of England in Ireland is divided; a portion goes to charity. [ished.l Aug. 9. Imprisonment for debt is abol-| 1870. June 4. Order in council extends civil service reform; appointments in most depart- ments are restricted to those quaUfled imder open competitive examinations. Aug. 1. Irish Land Law is Gladstone's at- tempted solution of Irish troubles; it provides that compensation shall be made to outgoing tenants for improvements made by them; and appropri- ates funds for loans to landlords making such compensations on improvements, or to tenants de- sirous of purchasing holdings. Unsatisfactory; does not establish fair rents or fixity of tenure. Aug. 9. Elementary Education Act, Fors- ter's bill, makes free primary instruction generally possible. Since 1833 Parliament has made small grants to voluntary (denominational) schools; such grants are continued, but toard schools sus- tained by grants and local rates are to be added where needed, with a compromise on compulsion and religious instruction. Progress of education still slow and restricted. 1871. April S. Population of United Kingdom, 31,845,379. [States).! May S. Treaty of Washington (see United! June 16. University Test Act abolishes re- ligious tests for degrees or lay offices at Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham. July 20. System of purchase of commis- sions in the army, which restricts the officers to wealthy families, is abolished by royal warrant, in spite of obstruction by the Lords. 1873. Geneva Arbitration Commission assesses $15,500,000 as the indemnity due the United States for Alabama damages. July IS. Voting by ballot is made obligatory for all British elections 1873. Ashanti War in Africa Aug. 5. Supreme Court of Judiciary Act unites the existing courts into one supreme coiut, to the appellate division of which is transferred the appellate jurisdiction of the judicial committee of the privy cotmcil, and of the House of Lords; but on August 11, 1876, the act is repealed so far as it concerns the Ixirds. 1874. Jan. 20. Protectorate over the Federated Malay States begins with a treaty with Perak. Feb. 21. Disraeli's second (Conservative) ministry begins, Gladstone having been defeated in a general election. "Sir Stafford Northcote is chancellor of the exchequer, and Salisbury is secre- tary for India. For the first time since 1841 the Conservatives have a clear majority in Commons. On March 5 the Twenty-first Parliament of the United Kingdom assembles; two of the members are Labor! tes. [Great Britain. I Oct. 10. Fiji Islands are ceded by the natives to ! 1875. November. Disraeli purchases for Great Britain the khedive's shares in the Suez Canal; beginning of the foothold in Egypt (see Eotpt). 1875-1876. Prince of Wales (later Edward VII.) visits India. 1876. Protectorate over Baluchistan (see India). April 28. Under the Royal Titles Act of April 27 Victoria takes the title of Empress of India. 1877. Laccadive Islands are sequestered. Home Rule Federation of Great Britain is organ- ized with C. S. Parnell as president. Move- ment, organized in 1871 by Isaac Butt, sets off a separate legislature for Ireland, against the Fenian policy of independence. [(see South Africa).! April 12. Transvaal declared Briti-sh territory ! 1878. May 27. Factory Act codifies and extends the legislation on the subject. June 4. Convention with Turkey by which Cyprus is placed imder British administration. The island is annexed on November 5, 1914. 1878-1881. Second Afghan War (see Afghanistan and India). 1879. Zulu War (see South Africa). Antirent agitations in Ireland are followed by the organization of tlie Irish Land League, with Parnell and T. P. Dillon as leaders. 1880. April 18. Disraeli (now Lord Beaconsfleld) being defeated at a general election, resigns ; Glad - stone forms liis second (Liberal) ministry in- cluding in it the Marquis of Hartington, John Bright, W. E. Forster, and Joseph Chamberlain. On April 29 the Twenty-second Parhameut of the United Kingdom first meets. Sept. 7. Employers' Liability Act extends and regulates the liability of eraplojers to make compensation for personal injuries suffered by workmen in their service. December. Revolt of the Transvaal; ended by treaty of peace on March 21, 1881. August 3, 1881, self-government is guaranteed to Transvaal under British suzerainty (see South Africa). 1881. April 4. Population of United Ivingdom, 35,241,482. Aug. 22. Irish Land Act provides for a court to adjust differences and grants a modified form of free sale, fixed tenure, and fair rents (" three F's ") ; but the Liberals also enact a new set of coercive acts against the clironic disturbances in Ireland, and the Irish leaders dcnoimce the new land law and " boycott " it. Parnell and others, though denying connection with violence, are imprisoned in October; the League issues a proclamation against the payment of rents and is suppressed. Nov. 1. British North Borneo Company is chartered; on May 12, 1,888, a formal protectorate over the region is established. 1882. May. Parnell and others, on an agreement with the Liberals, are released ; but on May 6 Lord Frederick Cavendish, chief secretary for Ireland, and his undersecretary are assassinated in Phoe- nix Park, Dublin. Parliament passes the Preven- tion of Crimes Act on July 12, and the Arrears for Rent Act on August 18. In October an Irish Na- tional League takes the place of the suppressed Land League. July 11-12. British bombard Alexandria; following the defeat of the Egyptians, the dual con- trol of France and England is ended and British sole protection (financial agency, Sir Evelj-n Bar- ing) results (see Egypt). 1883. Aug. 25. Corrupt Practices Prevention Act eniunerates the corrupt practices in parUa- mentary elections and limits expendittires. 1883-1884. DjTiamite outrages by Irish revolu- tionists (Clan-na-Gael) are frequent in London and elsewhere. 1884. Nov. 6. British New Guinea (Papua) pro- tectorate is proclaimed ; annexation comes on Sep- tember 4, 1SS8. Dec. e. Third Reform Act adds about 2,000,- 000 voters, mostly agricultural laborers, and ap- proximates to manliood stiffrage. It passes the Lords only after a bill to redistribute seats is framed (enacted Jime 25, 1885) wliich does away with all small-borough representation. - 1884-1885. For Gordon and Sudan affairs, see Egypt. 1884-1886. By ten treaties with native tribes Brit- ish protectorate over Somaliland begins. 1885. January. Dynamite explosions by Irish rev- olutionists culminate in attempt to destroy Houses of Parliament, Tower, and Westminster Hall. Jan. 27. Order in council for British jurisdic- tion over Bechuanaland ; incorporated in Cape Colony on October 3, 1895. Feb. 28. General act of Congo Conference signed (see Belgium). (ohanistan).I March. Russian advance on Herat (see Af-1 June 12. Gladstone resigns, as his ministry has become miiwpular because of foreign and Irish policies. First (Conservative) ministry of IMarquis of Salisbury begins on June 23. Aug. 14. Ashbourne Land Purchase Act forms a fimd from wiiich Irish tenants may bor- row to buy their holdings; a Consen'ative remedy backed by Parnell. Later acts continue policy. December. General elections return 335 Liber- als and the same number jointly of Conservatives and Nationalists to Parliament. Dec. 11. Johore comes within British sphere of influence by treaty. Third Burmese War; rest of coimtry is annexed on January 1, 1886. 1885-1888. Canadian fisheries controversy (see United States). 1886. Jan. 12. Twenty-third Parliament of the I'nited Kingdom meets. January 28 Salisbury resigns. Gladstone forms his third (Liberal) ministry with W. Vernon Harcourt, Lord Rose- bery, John Morley (secretary for Ireland), and Jo.^eph Chamberlain in the cabinet. On April 8 Gladstone annotmces his Home Rule Bill — an Irish legislature in two divisions, differently chosen, witii limited powers, and Irish members excluded from British Parliament, which retains much of the control o^er Irish affairs. Parnell supports the measiu-e, but the Liberal Unionists tmder Hartington and Joseph Chamberlain se- cede. On Jime 7 the bill is defeated and Glad- stone appeals to the people. The elections return a Conservative majority, so Gladstone resigns on July 20 and Salisbury's second ministry suc- ceeds, with Lord Iddesleigh (Northcote) as foreign secretary, Randolph Churchill as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the Commons at first; 1886 - 1905. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 57 1886 {continued). later, Goscben and Balfour enter the cabinet. New pai'liament (twenty-fourth of United King- dom) meets on August 5. ,•1 prii 23. Protectorate established over Sokotra. 1887. Construction of Manchester Ship Canal begins; opened INI ay 21, 1S94. May. Suitan of Zanzibar makes a commercial concession to what becomes the Imperial British East Africa Company: beginning of East African prot'ectorate. Zanzibar itself, another portion of British East Africa, becomes' a protectorate by treaty. June 14, 1890; Uganda, recognized on July 1, 1S90, by Germany as witliiji British sphere of influence, becomes a protectorate on Aug. 27, 1894. May 14- Ziiluland is declared a British posses- sion: incorporated in Natal on December 30, 1897. June. Victoria's golden jubilee (see jubi- lee, n. 3, in the Dictionary); a great imperialistic demonstration. July 19. Irish Crimes Act becomes law. Dur- ing its consideration a series of articles in the Lon- don Times accuses Parnell of complicity in Irish violence. Letters on which charges are based are proved to be forgeries by Richard Piggott. 1888. Jtme. Christmas' Island, in Indian Ocean, annexed. Aug. 13. Local Government Act for England and Wales transfers comity administration from justices of the peace to elected coimty coimcilors; London included. Dec. 24- Affirmation instead of oath legahzed for Commons and law coiu-ts; the result of persist- ent efforts of Charles Bradlaugh, an atheist, long kept out of Parliament for this reason. 1889. June 14- Samoau Treaty (see United States). [Scotland. I Aug. 29. Elected county councils enacted fori Oct. 29. Royal charter is granted to British South Africa Company, marking the beginning of Rhodesia (see South Africa). The region is placed within British sphere of influence by treat- ies with Germany (July 1, 1890). Portugal (June 11, 1891). and Congo (May 12, IS94). 1890. Great labor strilces throughout England. Feb. 13. Special commission on Parnell exoner- ates him on charge of personal complicity in out- rages, but considers him guilty of agitation wliich encouraged such actions. Parnell also receives damages from the Tijne.<:. July 1. Treaty with Germany dehmits respec- tive spheres of influence of the two nations in Africa ; Great Britain, in exchange for concessions there, cedes Heligoland (Helgoland) to Germany. Aug. 6. A simOar treaty with France recog- nizes the latter's control over Madagascar and in northern Africa. December. Division of Irish Nationalists due to charges of immorality against ParnelL The ■majority come under the leadereliip of Justin McCarthy. 1891. March 24. Protocol with Italy fixes respec- tive spheres of influence in Africa. April 5. Population of United Kingdom, 38.104,975. May 14- Nyasaland (British East Africa) pro- tectorate is constituted. June 11. Treaty with Portugal ends contro- versy over African lands and dehmits respective spheres of influence. Aug. 5. Education Act continues and expands policy of the act of 1870, Oct. 6. Parnell dies and John Redmond succeeds as leader of the minority branch of the Nationalists. 189?. Jan. 1 4. Albert Victor, heir apparent, dies. His brother George becomes heir apparent. May 27. Protectorate over Gilbert and Ellice Islands announced: annexed Nov. 10, 1915. June 27. Small Holdings Act authorizes county councils to acquire land by lease or pur- chase for letting or sale in small holdings to those who will cultivate it. and to advance purchase money to such persons. Proves a success. Auq. 4. Tw^enty-fifth Parliament of United Kingdom meets: it has four Laborite members. The ministry is defeated and resigns. Gladstone forms his fourth ministry (Liberal) with Vernon Harcourt, Rosebery, Morley, James Br>-ce, and H. Campbell-Bamierman in the cabinet. Novemher. Great strike of cotton spinners at Lancaster. [United States.)! 189?-1893, Bering Sea seal fishery dispute (seel 1893. Solomon Islands annexed in part; final Brit- ish protectorate November 14, 1S99, imder agree- ment with Germany. Feb. IS. New Home Rule Bill is introduced by Gladstone; similar to earlier one except that it permits Irish representation in British Parliament. Passes Commons on September 1, but is over- whelmingly rejected by Lords on September S. Gladstone tlireatens the House of Lords with loss of its right to veto legislation. Irish question now subsides, due to economic improvement. 189i. March 1. Anglo-Chinese treaty on Bur- mese-Tibetan hmits (see China). March 3. Gladstone resigns because of old age and differences in the ministry; Rosebery be- comes prime minister. March 5. New Local Government Act estab- lishes elected district and parish councils in Eng- land and AVales, instead of appointed ones. May o. Treaty with Italy on spheres of influ- ence in Somaliland. July 31. Vernon Harcotu*t's budget introduces the policy of graduated taxation on estates. 1895. June 22. Rosebery resigns when defeated on a minor matter; Salisbury on June 25 begins his third ministry (Conservative), taking the foreign portfoUo himself. Balfour, Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Chamberlam (colonial affairs), Goschen, Devonshire (Hartington), and Lans- downe are in the cabinet. Parliament is dissolved on July 8. and the new government wins in the ensuing elections. Aug. 12. Twenty-sixth ParUament of United Kingdom meets. [South Africa). i Dec. 29. Jameson Raid on Transvaal (seel 1895-1896. Venezuela-Guiana bomidary (seeLTNiTEo St.vtes). 1896. Jan. 15. Convention with France regard- ing sphere of influence in Siam and independence of that nation, also regarding privileges in south- em China. Aug. 27. Protectorate over Ashanti, after an- other war. On Septeml^er 26. 1901, country an- nexed with same governor as Gold Coast. North- em Territories are under the same go\enunent. 1896-1898. Kitcheners Sudan Expedition (see Egypt). 1897. Jan. 11. As outcome of the Venezuelan boundary controversy a general arbitration treaty is signed with the United States, but the Senate of that coimtry rejects it. May 14. Treaty with Abyssinia on boundarj^ of Somali protectorate: portion of it is ceded to Abyssinia. June 23. Celebration of the sixtieth anniver- sary of Victoria's accession (diamond Jubilee): a demonstration in favor of a wide empire. Colonial premiers hold conference with Secre- tary Chaml>erlain. Aug. 6. H'orkmen's Compensation Act further regulates employers' liability, but permits outside agreements on the subject. 1898. June 13. Canada grants the United King- dom and some colonies a preferential tariff. July 1. In the general scramble for Chinese territory England secures the lease of Weiiialwei : also (Jime 9) additional portion of Kowloon, opposite Hongkong. Aug. 12. Local Government Act for Ireland ex- tends to it the laws for county and district (not parish) councils. September- November. Fashoda incident of African rivalry with France (see Egypt). Dec. 25. Penny postage goes into operation throughout most of the empire. 1899. Reimion of the di\isions of Nationahsts imder leadersiiip of John Redmond. May IS. First Hague Peace Conference assem- bles (see Nineteenth-Ce?:tury Period). July 13. London Government Act; the metrop- olis (outside the " city ") is divided into separate boroughs having the power hitherto exercised by the coimty coimcU. Aug. 9. National Education Act establishes a central board with ix)wer, among other things, to insiject secondary schools. [Africa).] 1899-1903. South African War (see South | 1900. Boxer Rising tsee China). May IS. Tonga (Friendly) Islands are put under British protection. July 9. Commonwealth of Australia Consti- tution Act (see Australia). Oci. 31. Union of the Free Church of Scotland with the United Presbyterian, forming the United Free Church. A small number of the Free Church ministers and congregations refuse to unite and claim all the Free Church property. House of Lords on August 1, 1904, upholds the contention, but on August II, 1905. a committee is appointed to apportion the property- Dec. 3. Twenty-seventh ParUament of United Kingdom meets: Conservative ministry is upheld by a large majority. 1901. Jan. 22. Victoria dies; her son succeeds as Edward VII. He at once begins a policy of understandings with France and Russia, instead of " splendid isolation." [41,976,827.1 April 1. Population of United Kingdom,! July 22- In the Taff Vale Case the House of Lords decides that labor unions may be sued as corporations. Trade-Unions Congress meets in September to devise means to combat decision, Aug. 17.- Royal Titles Act is passed, under which king adds to his official designation (king) " of ail the British dominions beyond the seas." Sept. lS-21. Millenary of Alfred the Great. Nov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty on Pan- ama Canal (see United St.\te8). 1901-1904. An intermittent and indeterminate war conducted by British, African, Boer, Abyssinian, and Indian troops on a mullah in Somaliland. 1902. Jan. 30. Treaty with Japan for defensive alhance in preserving integrity of China and Korea; if either is attacked by more than one na- tion, the other will afford active help. Consid- ered an offset to the Franco-Russian alliance. March 6. Great Britain joins in a general con- vention to abolish bounties on sugar: later she prohibits the importation of bounty-fed sugar. March 26. Death of Cecil Rhodes. \\\\\ pro- vides for scholarships at Oxford for colonial, Amer- ican, and German students (Rhodes scholars). May 15. Abyssmian treaty on Sudan boimdary and railway signed. June 30-Aug. 11. Council of colonial premiers, who discuss metric system, imperial defense, and preferential tariff. July 11. Salisbiu*y resigns: Balfour becomes prime minister (Conservative). Oci. 31. Completion of the all-British ("all- red ") cable around the world. December. Controversy over coercion of Vene- zuela (see Venezuela). Dec. IS. Education Act for England and Wales abolishes the special school boards, giving their power to coimty and ixjrough councils: church schools are placed on an even basis with the board schools as regards public support. Act so increases power of Anglican clergy over education that Non- conformists adopt a policy of passive resistance, refuse to send children to school or pay rates. 1903. Coolie question in Transvaal (see South Africa). [States).! Jan. 24. Alaskan boimdary treaty (see United! May 15. Chamberlain launches hiis campaign for preferential colonial tariff in order to fur- ther imperial unification. Balfour leans toward a pohcy of retaliatory duties in dealing with for- eign countries. Chamberlain's resignation is announced on September 18, as are also those of various free-trade members of the ministry. . July. Edward VII. and the queen visit Ire- land and are warmly welcomed. Irish problem has, however, become acute again. There have been troubles over rent, pro-Boer demonstrations, and obstructions and disturbances in Parhament. July 30. Agreement l^etween the government and Cunard Line inaugurates a new policy for auxiliary cruisers, hitherto provided tlu'ough sub- sidies in time of peace. Money advanced for builduig certain class of vessels and annual sub- sidy for loss in running them, The company agrees to sell or hire its fleet to the government in time of war. and also to have a jxirtion of its offi- cers and crew naval reserve men. Mail subsidy is continued by a fixed annual amount. Aug. 14. Irish Land Purchase Act continues the Conservative policy of the act of 1S85. Aug. 25. Report of the commission on conduct of South African War strongly condemns the military system. Another (Esher) commission is appointed to plan a reorganization. Oct. 14- General arbitration tre^ity with France is signed: first step in the rapprochement, for which the king is largely responsible. 1901. Feb. 1. Esher Commission makes its first report on army reform; plan adopted in the main: — a defense committee headed by the premier; an army coimcil. mcluding some civilians, in place of the commander in chief; and a general staff. April S. Agreement with France is signed (" entente cordiale ") by which French rights in Morocco and British in Eg>'pt are recognized; and notes are exchanged on Madagascar, Siam, and New Hebrides. On same day by convention France gives up some of her fishing rights on the coast of British America and in return Great Brit>- ain makes concessions in West Africa (see New- foundland). Sept. 7. Anglo-Tibetan Treaty (see India). Oct. 28. Firing by Ru-ssian men-of-war, en route to the Orient during Japanese war, on Eng- lish trawlers on North Sea; satisfaction is given by Russia after a commission investigates. 1905. Aug. 12. New Anglo-Japanese Treaty of alliance for t«n years, provides for mutual assist- ance if attacked in the Orient, to defend peace in India, and preserve integrity of China. England recognizes Japan's right in Korea and agrees to as- sist her in Russian war if any nation assists Russia. Dec. 4. Balfour ministry, after holding out against several incidental adverse vot-es, resigns in order to put affairs to the test of a general elec- tion. Campbell-Bannerman forms a Liberal ministry with Asquith, Edward Grey, Lloyd George, Morley. Bryce, Bums (Lalwrite), and Birrell in the cabinet. 1906. Jan. 8. Parliament is dissolved: elections result in a great Liberal victory'. New parha- ment (twenty-eighth of United Kmgdom) meets on February 13: Labor party has 41 members. Feb. 27. Joint Anglo-French protectorate over New Hebrides is established by a protocol; con- firmed, October 20, by a treaty. May S. Advocates of woman sufil^ge (suffra- 58 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1906—1914. N U V W 1906 (continued). gcttes) begin their campaign of keeping the mat- ter before the public attention through militant agitations and sabotage, and by a demonstration before the house of the premier, following it up on June 15 by mobbing Asqnith. July tfO. Education Bill« designed to separate state-aided schools from denominational control, passes Commons. In the Lords it is so amended as to defeat its intention. Xov. 2. London elections against advocates of municipal ownership of public utihties. Dec. £1. Trades Dispute Act reverses the Taff Vale decision, allows peaceful picketing, and pro- hibits suits for torts against trade-miions. At the same time a new Workmen's Compensation Act continues the right of " contracting out." 1907. Feb. 13. " Suffragettes " riot and at- tempt to force an entrance to the House of Com- mons; sLxty are arrested. May £1. Convention of the Nationalist (Irish) party in Dublin refuses to support the Liberal party's bill for an Irish coimcil. wliich provides for an elective body, tliough the lord lieutenant re- tains the veto. Bill is withdrawn. June Id. Second Hague Peace Conference be- gins (see Nineteenth -Century Period). Aug. 23. Bill allowing marriage with a de- ceased wife's sister fmally becomes law. Long a matter of dispute between the Houses because of objections by the bisliops. Amendment of the Small Holdings Act authorizes a commission to investigate and draft schemes for such holdings: county coimcil may acquire necessary land com- pulsorily. Aug. 31. Anglo-Busslan Convention on Asiatic spheres; a rapprochement similar to that of the French treaty of 1904. Spheres in Persia de- limited; Russia declares Afghanistan outside her sphere: both nations agree to keep out of Tibet. Nov. 2. Treaty with France, Germany, Rus- sia, and Norway to preserve the independence and territorial integrity of Norway. 1908. Feb. 26. Commons adopt a resolution urg- ing speedy transfer of Congo from Leopold's per- sonal rule to Belgium (see Belgium). April 4. General Arbitration Treaty with United States; later renewed. April 5. Campbell-Bannerman resigns; Her- bert H. Asquith becomes prime minister on April 8. Winston Churchill (.-liters the cabinet, and Lloyd George becomes chancellor of the ex- chequer. His revolutionary budgets are consid- ered an attack on property. April 23. Declaration of Great Britain. Den- mark, France. Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden to maintain the status quo in territories bordering on the North Sea. June IS, 21. Remarkable demonstrations of ** suffragettes" in London. Aug. 1. Old Age Pension Act is passed. Irish Universities Act permits foimding of two imiversities (Dublm and Belfast) and dissolution of Royal University at Dublin and Queen's Col- lege at Belfast. Religious tests and privileges for- bidden. National University at Dublin with con- stituent colleges at Cork and Galway, and Queen's LTniversity are founded under the act. [effect. I Oct. 1. Penny postage with LTnited States in| Dec. 4. London International Conference on rules of naval warfare opens (see Nineteenth- Century Period). 1909. Suffragette manifestations continue through this and following years: many arrests are made. In the debates on naval defense in Parliament both parties agree to maintain the " two-power " standard. Jan. 27. Fisheries Convention with United States (see United States ) March 10. Through a treaty with Siam four other (nonfederated) Malay States (Johore being the fifth) are brought under British suztrainty, March 23, Report is received from Lt. Shack- leton that his expedition on January 9 reached within 111 miles (97 geograpliical miles) of the South Pole. (Africa).] Sept. 20. L^nion of South Africa Act (see South I Labor Exchange Act is a remedy for unemploy- ment, to bring the " man and the job " together. Nov. /i. House of Commons passes a budget which includes a reform of land taxes. Novem- ber 30, Lords, including great landowners, reject it by 350 to 75; an exercise of its veto wliich has long been in abeyance. December 2, Commons indorse the budget, and on December 3 Parlia- ment is prorogued amid national excitement, and dissolved on January 8, 1910. 1909-1910. " Mad Mullah " in Somaliland r^ news his raids and British retire from administra- tion of interior, confining control to coast towns. 1910. Feb. 1. Parliamentarj^ elections result in seating 274 Liberals, 273 LTnionists, 82 National- ists, and 41 Laborites; a government majority of 124 if aided by the last two. Feb. l.'>. Twenty-ninth Parliament of the United Kingdom opens. Opposition to land taxa- 1 tion by the House of Lords causes a long debate in Commons. foUowed by the adoption of a resolu- tion on April 14 that the Lords be disabled from vetoing a money measure, and any other measure passed by the Commons in three successive ses- sions. A series of conferences held by leaders of the two main parties leads to no results. May 6. Edward VII. dies; his son succeeds as George V, Aug. S. Accession Declaration Act modifies the king's oath by omitting certain matters offen- sive to Catholics. Nov. 2S. Parliament is dissolved, and the gov- ernment appeals again to the people on question of status of the Lords. Kesidt leaves the repre- sentation practically michangetl. 1911. Jan. SI. Tliirtieth Parliament of United Kingdom begins its sessions. It continues during the World War. its dissolution being iX)stponed. April 2. Population of United Kingdom, 45,- 516, 259. May. Announcement is made that hereafter the Dominions would be consulted as far as possible in international affairs which involve their interests. [dia).| May S. Opium agreement with Cliina (see In- | May 15. House of Commons passes, by 362 to 241, the Parliament Bill on the Lords' veto, thus practically repealing the equal legislative power of the Lords enjoyed for centuries. June 22. Coronation of George V. July 7. King and queen visit Ireland. Pelagic seahng trt-aty signed (see United States). Aiig. 10. House of Lords accepts the Parlia- ment Bill. It becomes a law on August IS. By it the life of a parliament is limited to five years. On August 10. also. House of Commons votes to pay the imsalaried members £400 ($2000) a year apiece. Aug. 17-20. General railway strike begins, involving 100,000 men. Nov. 8. Balfour retires and Bonar Law suc- ceeds as leader of Unionist party. Nov. 11. King George and the queen sail for India (see India). Dec. 16. National Insurance Act becomes law: in force on July 15, 1912. It includes provision for unemplojTiient insurance. Objection comes mainly from domestic servants, who desire to be excluded, and physicians, who object to inade- quate remuneration. 1912. Jan. 1. Government takes over the busi- ness of the National Telephone Company (pay- ing S61. 000,000). thus completmg its control tliroughout the United Kingdom. Jan. 6. Sir Edward Carson organizes Ulster, which has a Protestant majority, against Irish Home Rule. Jan. IS. Capt. R. F. Scott reaches the South Pole {discovered earlier by Amundsen, Decem- ber 16, 1911). Scott and liis party perish on the return, March 29. Feb. 26. Coal strike begins; it affects 1.000,- 000 miners and 500.000 from allied industries. Many industries and transportations are greatly affected. Government intervenes to cause a set- tlement, and as the minimum wage is chief ques- tion, on March 29 a Minimum Wage Act for coal miners becomes law. Strilie ends on April 9. March. "Suffragettes" enter Upon an intense window-smashing manifestation In London. Stores are assaulted, and British Museum, Royal Academy, and other likely objectives are closed. Many ' ' suffragettes ' ' are arrested and their head- - quarters are raided (March 5). April 11. Home Rule Bill for Ireland intro- duced: a bicameral parliament of domestic pow- ers, with Ulster safeguarded against religious dis- criminations: executive to remain vested in the representative of the crown; Ireland to have a small representation in the British Parliament; constitutionality of Irish legislation to be decided by the judiciary committee of the pri\-y coimcil; Great Britain to pay an annual subsidy to the Irish exche0,000). Dec. 16. Sir Douglas Haig succeeds Sir Jolm French in command of British troops in France and Flanders. Dee. 2S. Finance Act raises duty on tea, cocoa, coffee and substitutes, sugar, dried fruit, tobacco, gasoline, and medicine; imposes a custom duty on motor cars and parts, musical instruments, clocks, watches, and motion-picture films; in- creases the highest normal income tax and re- duces the exemptions; increases the supertax, and lays a 50% tax on excess war profits. Act is passed restricting during the war increases of rent or mortgage interest on small dweUings. 1916. For World War. see that title. Jan. 4. Protest of the United States on mail seizures (see United States). Jan. 27. Compulsory Military Service Act provides that all unmarried British male subjects ordinarily resident in Great Britain (this excludes Ireland) who were between IS and 41 on August 15, 1915, shall " be deemed ... to have been duly enlisted in His Majesty's regiUar forces for general service with the colors or in the reserve for the period of the war and to have been forthwith transferred to the reserve." Exemptions are given for emplo>-ment in necessary national inter- ests, physical disabiUty. dependents, and con- scientious objection. About 5.100.000 men have voluntarily enlisted. Parhament is prorogued after a session (with some recesses) of 14 months. It reconvenes on Feb. 15. Feb. 22. Eighth war credit of $2,100,000,000 is voted (total war credits. $10.410.(X)0,000). War is costing Great Britain $22,000,000 a day. Feb. 2S. Lord Robert Cecil (already in the ministry-) becomes Minister of Blockades. March 8. House of Commons votes naval esti- mate for 360,000 men. March 30. Doctrine of continuous voyage is applied by orders in council to conditional as well as absolute contraband ; it is declared that a voy- age to a nonblockaded port shall not in itself gain immunity from capture, for vessel or cargo, for a breach of blockade. [380. 884. 000. | March 31. Net debtof United Kingdom. SIO.-I April 3. Reply to American protest on mail seizures (see LTnited States). .4 pril 4. Chancellor of the Exchequer McKen- na's budget statement shows that advances to al- lies and dominions during the fiscal year 1916- 1916 have been $1,580,000,000; total expendi- tures during the year, $7,793,000,000; estimated total expenditiu-es for 1916-1917, S9,n7..5(X),fX)0. April 19. Annual Army Act caUs for 4,IX)0,000 men. Finance Act lays a tax on entertainments, watches, table waters, and cider, in addition to previous taxes. A pril 22. Attempt to land arms and ammuni- tion in Ireland by a German auxiliary cruiser and a submarine is thwarted; a number of prisoners ■are made, including the Irish Nationalist leader. Sir Roger Casement. He is convicted of high treason on June 29. and executed on August 3. Aprtl 24. Bebellion breaks out in Dublin, led by members of the Sinn Fein society; the post office and other buildings are seized, and fighting continues for a week. Martial law is de- clared tliroughout Ireland. May 3. three of the rebel leaders, including Padraic H. Pearse. " pro- visional president of the Irish Republic." are court-martialed and shot. Sixteen of the rebel leaders are con\icted of treason and shot. 1.619 prisoners held, 161 others convicted, and 1,171 re- leased. Because of the revolt, Birrell (secretary for Ireland) resigns from the cabinet on May 3; the lord heutenant also resigns on JVlay 10. May. More than 43% of British merchant vessels have been requisitioned by the govern- ment for war purposes, and about 14% are em- ployed in behalf of the Allied governments, leav- ing only 43% for ordinary commerce; conse- quently the importation of various bulky and dis- pensable wares is prohibited except imder special Ucense. May 17. Advisory joint service Air Board is announced, with Curzon as president. Summer Time (" daylight-saving ") Act puts the clock forward one hour from May 21 to October 1; in later years the privy coimcil to decide on dates. May 24. Ninth war credit of $1,600,000,000 is voted (total war credits, $11,910,000,000). Second American protest on mail seizures (see United States). May 25. Amendatory Act on Compulsory Mihtary Service extends it to married men and to those becoming 18 since August 14. 1915, but for- bids the sending abroad of men imder 19. May 29. Announced that in 44 air attacks upon England smce the beginning of the war. 409 persons have been kiUed and 1.005 injured. May 31. Sir Ernest Shackieton arrives at Falkland Islands after 17 months of Antarctic ex- ploration, during which his ship Endurance was lost ; 22 of his men are left behind in the Antarctic, but later are rescued. June 5. Earl Kitchener is lost when the cruiser Hampshire strikes a mine off the Orkney Islands while en route to Russia. June 23. Convention of Ulster Nationalists adopt proposals of exclusion from Home Rule Act. July 6. Lloyd George becomes Secretary of State for War. July 7. More than 3,5(X).000 workers, includ- ing 666.000 women, are engaged in war industries: 4,000 controlled firms are producing munitions. July IS. Order in council blacklists a number of American firms (see United States). July 19. Finance Act continues previous taxes; increases tax on cocoa, coffee and substi- tutes, sugar, and gasoline; imposes a tax on me- chanical lighters; increases the normal income tax rate and raises the excess war profits tax to 60%. July 25. Tenth war credit of $2,250,000.1X10 (total war credits. $14. 160.000.000). War is cost- ing Great Britain 825.000,000 a day. July 26. Protest of the United States on black- Usting (see July 18, above). July 27. Charles Fryatt. captain of a British merchant steamer, is executed by Germany be- cause of a previous attempt to ram a submarine; execution causes great indignation in Great Britain. .Aug. s. Act temporarily restricts the output of beer. Oct. 10. Reply to American protest on bla,ck- listing (see United States). Oct. 12. Reply to American protest on mail seizures (see United States). Eleventh war credit of $1,500,000,000 voted (to- tal war credits, $15,660,000,000). 60 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 1916-1918. N U w 1916 (continued) . A'oc. IB. Commons adopt a'resoiution author- izing the government to take exceptional meas- m'es to conserve the nation's food supply. Nov. SO. Sir Jolm Jellicoe, commander of the Grand Fleet, is succeeded by Sir David Beatty and becomes First Sea Lord. Dec. 1. Government takes control of the South Wales coal mines. Dec. 5. Asquith resigns; Bonar Law failing, Lloyd George forms a national ministry on December 7. It contains a war cabinet of five members — the I'rime Minister, Curzon {leader of the Lords), Bonar Law (Chancellor of the Excheq- uer and leader of the Commons) , Viscount Mihier, and Arthur Henderson (Laborite) without port- folios. Other members of the ministry are Bal- four (foreign). Long (colonies), Derby (war), Aus- ten Chamberlain (India). Carson (admiralty), Ce- cil (blockade). Addison (munitions). Cave (home). Dec. IS. Twelfth war credit of S2, 000.000,000 is voted (total war credits, $17,660,000,000). The war Is costing Great Britain $28,500,000 a day. Dec. IS. Reelection of Ministers Act suspends the requirement, for Lloyd George's new ministry, of resignation and reelection. Tills is done also with the new war ministries later created. Dec. ^2. Act authorizes new ministries of labor, pensions (separate act), food, shipping con- trol, and air board, most of them to cease within a year after end of the war. Corresponding de- partments already exist in some cases. Parliament is prorogued. Dec. SI. For reply to German peace proposals, see 'WoBLD 'W.iR. 1917. For World War, see that title. Jan. 11. For reply to Wilson's peace note, see World War. Feb. 7. Parliament reconvenes. Feb. 14. Thirteenth war credit of $2,750,000,- 000 is voted (total war credits, $20,410,000,000). Feb. le. Third war loan brings in about .S4,- 866,000,000, with 8,000,000 subscribers. Feb. gs. Naval estimate is for 400,000 men. March 1. Government assumes control of all coal mines; controller of coal mmes ministe- rial officer in charge. March 7. Irish Nationalists demand immedi- ate application of Home Rule Act. March 16. Fourteenth war credit of $300,000,- 000 voted (total war credits, $20,710,000,000). March 20. First meeting of Imperial War Cabinet, attended by representatives of govern- ments of Canada, Newfoundland, South Africa, New Zealand, and India; Australia not repre- sented. Fom-teen meetings are held, and on May 17 Lloyd George annomices that hereafter such meetmgs will be held annually or oftener. March SS. Act for ministry of national service, to control the making of the " best use of all per- sons ... in any industry, occupation, or service." March SI. Net debt of United Kingdom, $19,620,836,000. [5,000,000 men. I -4pri7 .5. Annual Army Act calls for force of I Eeview-of-Exemptions Act calls for reexamina- tion of discharged and rejected men. April 6. For entry of the United States into the war, see United States. April ST. War cabinet accepts the principle of an Imperial preference tariff to be established after the war, but specifies that no taxes shall be laid on foodstuffs. May 2. Chancellor of the Exchequer Bonar Law, in budget statement, says that during the fiscal year $2,970,000,000 have been advanced to allies and the dominicas (total advances $24,250,- 000,000); total expenditures for year have been 810,990,565,000 and estimate of all expenditures for 1917-191.S, 311,451,905,000. May 7. Manifesto issued by 18 Irish prelates afilrming " no partition and no coercion." May 11. Fifteenth war credit of $2,500,000,- 000 voted (total war credits, $23,210,000,000). May 16. Lloyd George proposes to put Home Rule in operation, but excluding six Ulster coun- ties. Irish NationaUsts object and scheme is dropped. June. Gen. J. C. Smuts of .South Africa (not a member of Parliament) sits in the war cabinet, but does not appear on the official list as a member until November. Jxme 15. Government decides to release aU Dublin Rebellion prisoners. July IS. Austen Chamberlain, secretary for India, and Lord Hardinge (former viceroy), under- secretary for foreign affairs, resign when the re- port on the Mesopotamian campaign holds them responsible for disaster. July 16-20. In a reorganization of the minis- try, Carson becomes a member of the war cabinet (now of seven members) ^vithout portfolio. .Sir Eric Gcddes becomes First Lord of the Admiralty, and Winston Churchill Minister of Mimitions. July 17. King George changes his family (house) name from " Saxe-Coburg and Gotha " to ''Windsor**; all German titles of the royal family are dropped, and the connected Teck and Battenberg families are given English titles. Report made by a royal commission on increase of labor unrest; finds it due to the high cost of living, restrictions on personal freedom and of occupa- tion, lack of confidence in government promise to restore after the war the antebeUum trade-imion conditions, government delay in settling disputes, lack of housing, mdustrial fatigue, and inconsider- ate treatment of women laborers. July 2S. Sixteenth war credit of $3,250,000,000 voted (total war credits, $26,460,000,000). An Irish convention of 101 members, represent- ing all shades of opinion and interest 15 seats re- served for Sinn Fern, which refiLses to participate) assembles in Dublin under government sanction. Sir Horace Phmkett is president. It sits with closed doors, and later moves to Belfast. At- tempts to draw up a constitution for Ireland. Aug. 2. Finance Act increases tax on enter- tainments and tobacco and raises that on excess war profits to 80%. Any. 11. Henderson resigns from war cabinet and is succeeded by G.N. Barnes as Lalxjr repre- sentative. Resignation is forced, the Labor party having decided, with Henderson's apjiroval. to send delegates to the International Labor and So- cialist Conference at Stockholm, although the government had refused consent. On September 4 the Trade-Union Congress overwhelmingly ve- toes further consideration of the Conference. Aui). 16. Lloyd George states that the loss of British vessels by submarine or mine has de- creased from 560.000 tons m April and 320.000 tons in Jime to 170,(K)0 tons (estimated) in Au- gust. Taking into consideration new tonnage, the average net loss since February has been 250,- 000 tons montlily. Aug. 21. Corn Production Act fixes a guar- anteed price for British-grown wheat and oats for 6 years, with a miiumum wage for farm laborers Ministry of reconstruction is enacted; to end two years after war closes. Oci. 31. Seventeenth war credit of $2,000,- 000,000 voted (total war credits, $28,460,000,000). Noe. 29. Air Force Constitution Act makes the air force a tliird service and substitutes a coim- cil (like those for army and na^-y) in place of the existing board. Dec. IS. Eighteenth war credit of $2,750,000.- 000 voted (total war credits, $31,210,000,000). Navy estimates call for 450,000 men. Dec. 26. Sir Rosslj-n Wemyss succeeds Jellicoe as First Sea Lord. 1918. For World War, see that title. January. Labor party conference states its demands: (1) imi\ei-sal enforcement of the na- tional minimum (minimimi wage) which is put at 30s. ($7.25) per week; (2) democratic control of industry, including the immediate nationalization of railways, canals, and great steamsliip lines; (3) taxation reform, dependence chiefly on gradu- ated income tax and no encroachment on the na- tional minimum; (4) sequestrating death dues to prevent the passing on of great fortimes. Socialis- tic tendencies in the party cause movement for a separate Trade-Union party. Jan. 21. Carson resigns from the war cabinet in order to be free to act in Irish matters. Feb. 6. Representation of the People Act (Reform Act* establishes virtual manhood suffrage (residence requirement only), gives suffrage to women of 30 years who are occupiers or wives of such, provides for absentee voting, gives suffrage to men of 19 who have been in active service, limits plural voting to two votes, safeguards rights of those in service during registration, disfranchises conscientious objectors for five years after peace, cost of elections to be a pubUc charge and candi- dates' expenditiu'es more strictly limited, imiform nomination and election days tliroughout the kingdom. Seats in Great Britain are redistrib- uted and the membership in Commons increased from 607 to 707, Including six more university con- stituencies (15 in all). A separate act provides for redistribution in Ireland. In Great Britam there is one member to 70,000 people; in Ireland, one to 43,000. Act gives parliamentarj- suffrage to about 2,000.000 men and 6.000.000 women. Lords vote for proportional representation, but this, as well as a Commons' measure for alterna- tive vote in triangular contests, is thrown out finally. Military Service Act abolishes certain exemptions and gives authority to withdraw ex- emptions on occupational groimds ( " combing out "). Parliament is prorogued, but reassem- bles on February 12. Feb. 16. Controversy as to the degree of power which the Supreme War Council of the Allies at Versailles should possess leads to the resignation of Robertson, chief of the imperial staff, who op- poses concentration of authority as against separ- ate commands. Sir Henry Wilson succeeds him. Feb. 2J,. Military reeivforcements are sent to west and south of Ireland in view of disturbances wliich approximate open rebellion. March 5. Sinn Fein revolutionists in Ireland capture liiltamagh. County Mayo. March 6. Jolm Kedmond, leader of the Irish NationaUsts, dies. March 11. Nineteenth war credit of $3,000,000- 000 voted (total war credits, $34,210,000,000). March 12. John Dillon elected leader of the Irish Nationalists. March 26. Board of Trade, to save coal, issues a '■ curfew order," reducing the ordinary con- sumption of gas and electricity, restricting the time of serving of hot meals or cooking in restau- rants, clubs, etc., and the use of lights in theaters, dance halls, etc., and prohibiting the lighting of shop fronts at any time. March SI. Gross debt of United Kingdom, $28,431,000,000. April 5. Majority of Irish Convention re- port (Ulster delegates dissenting) in favor of a bicameral parUament for Ireland, Unionists to have 40% of the Commons; Commons to elect 42 members to British Parliament ; lord lieutenant with an executive coimcil resjronsible to the Irish Conunons. April 7. Scheme for compulsory rationing, started in London on Februar>' 28, is made gen- eral: Sugar, fats, and meat, also tea in places. To keep down price of bread the government subventionizes millers and bakers April 14. Since the outbreak of the war 1.426,000 women have entered eniploj-ment. April IS. Military Service (Man Power) Act raises the age to include 50 years, and in some cases 55. Ireland is to be included by order of coim- cil ; but this is accompanied by the implied promise to put through a new Home Rule measure based on the convention's report. Govemnjent decid- ing this should not be done, and all factions in Ire- land except Carson's followers denoimcing con- scription, no attempt is made to put it in operation in Ireland. Irish members ab.sent themselves for three months (return on July 23). Austen Chamberlain becomes a member of the war cabinet without portfolio, replacing Mihier who becomes secretary for war, Derby going to Paris as ambassador. April 22. Chancellor of the Exchequer Bonar Law in his budget statement says that the ad- vances to allies and domuiions during the fiscal year have been 32.525.000.000, and the advances of United States to Great Britain have been $2,500,000,000; total expenditures diu-ing 1917- 1918, $13,480,000,000; estimate of expenses for 1918-1919, $14,860,000,000. May ,5. Field Marshal Lord French l>ecomes Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Edward Shortt cliief secretary. May IS. Revolutionary movements in Ireland lead to the arrest of many Sinn Fein agitators, including four members of Parliament. May 21. Scottish and Welsh congresses put forward idea of home rule for those cotmtries. June 3. Treaty is signed with United States by which citizens of each coimtry, resident in the other, are liable to conscription, but have sixty days in wliich to enlist in army of own countrj-. Irishmen in United States are excepted. June 11. Second session of imperial war cabinet begins and continues for two and a half months. Australia is represented this time A colonial conference, held at the same time, considers espe- cially questions of reconstruction and emigration. June 19. Twentieth war credit of $2,500,000,- 000 voted (total war credits, $36,710,000,000). July 2S. Several thousand mimition workers, who struck for higher wages on July 24, return to work after the government declares that they must either work or fight and promises an investiga- tion of their grievances. July SO. Finance Act raises income tax, super- tax, and tax on spirits, beer, tobacco, matches, .sugar, and increases stamp duties and postage. Tax on liLxiu-ies is reserved for future enactment, but later withcU'awn. Aug. 2. Twenty-first war credit of $3,500,000- 000 voted (total war credits, $40,210,000,000). Aug. 7. Lloyd George annoimces that the United Kingdom has raised 6,2.50.000 men during the war for the army and na.vy. the dominions 1.000.000. and India 1,250,000. Aug. S. Education Act compels attendance at school imtil 14 (or 15 by local ordmance), com- pulsory attendance at continuation (liberal-edu- cation) schools from 14 to 16 imtil 1925, then 14 to 18, all day, or 8 hours a week if child is at work, the 8 hours to be cotmted in the working hours; no cliild under 12 is to work for wages, between 12 and 14 may work 2 iiours a day on Sunday or school days; social centers are to be created, partly at national expense; all fees for pubhc elementary schools abolished. British Nationahty and Status of Aliens Act per- mits revocation of naturalization and forbids natiu-alization of subjects of enemy nations (with certain exceptions) for 10 years after the war Oct. ie. British navy, including auxiUaries, 1918-1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 61 1918 (co?itinued). has increased from 2,500.000 tons displacement at the beginning of the war to 6.500,000 tons, and tlie personnel from 146. GOO to 406,000. In the trans- portation of 21,500,000 soldiers by sea, only 4,391 have been lost. Oct. 2S. Food controller increases the retail price of meat and reduces the ration to three quarters of a pomid weekly for each person. Nov. II. For the cessation of hostilities, see World War. Nov. 13. Final (twenty-second) war credit of 83.500.000,000 voted (total war credits, $43. 710.- 000.000). Nov. ei. Wages Act provides tliat war wages shall continue for six months of transition and re- construction period. [iiieiit. | Act passes making women eligible to Parlia-I Parliament is prorogued; dissolved 4 days later. Dtc. 6. War cabinet concedes an eight-hour day to railway men to avert a strike; in force on Fel^ruary 1. Labor unrest spreads rapidly throughout the country. Dec. 7-16, strike of 100. (XJO cotton operatives in Lancashire. Dec. 14. General election, first smce 1910. Women are candidates in 14 constituencies; only one, a Sinn Feiner, is elected, and she does not take her seat. Coalition ministry wins 4S5 seats; Sinn Fein {Irish independence society) obtains 73 seats, but refuses to enter Parliament; Labor party with 61 members becomes the official opposi- tion; while the Liberals have 26, Irish National- ists 7, Independent Unionists 28. and Unionists (Ulster) 27. Dec. 26-31. President Wilson is in England. 1919. For negotiations following the World War. see World War. Jan. 10. Lloyd George's new coalition min- istry is annomiccd. War cabinet is continued and consists of the prime minister, Bonar Law (Privy Seal and leader of the Commons). Curzon as leader of the Lords. Chamberlain (Chancellor of the Exchequer), and Barnes (without portfolio). Others in the ministry are Balfour. Milner, Churchill, Long, Montagu. Stanley, and Addison. The undersecretary for India is a nati\'e (Lord Sinlia). Firstadmissionofan Indian tosuch a post. Jan. SI. Constituent assembly of 29 of the Sinn Fein members of ParUament (rest are in confinement) meets at Dublin and issues a Decla- ration of Independence together with a demand for the withdrawal of " foreign " garrisons. De Valera. the " president of the Irish Republic," es- capes from prison (February 3) ; goes to America. February. Great social unrest following the ■war is reflected in strikes throughout the kingdom and dissatisfaction over progress of demobiliza- tion. Strike in Glasgow requires soldiers to guard the tramway, gas, and electric systems. Miners tlireaten a general strike for March 15, demanding a raise of 30% in addition to continuation of the war-time bonus, 6-hour day, and nationalization of mines and minerals, but agree to await a report by a royal commission, promised for March 20. War-time rationing of food is discontinued. Feb. 3-9. Strike on " tubes " and trains In London over the S-hour agreement; fails, as pub- lic supports the govenm.cnt. Other strikes pre- vented by operation of Defense of the Realm Act ('* Dora '*; from the mitial letters). Feb. 4. Thirty-first ParUament of United King- dom meets. Feb. 27. Reelection of Ministers Act repeals, as regards the first nine months after a general election, the requirement that new ministers shall seek reelection. Aerial Navigation Act regulates civilian flying. Princess Patricia, cousin of the king. is. with his approl:)ation, married to a commoner. British Industrial Parliament: Representa- tives of capital and labor meet to investigate so- cial and economic conditions. March 9. American and Canadian soldiers at London riot against the police. March 20. Coal Commission makes prelim- inary reports; that of the independent members allows an advance of 2 shillings (50 cents) a day, a 7-hour day now. and a 6-hour day in July. 1921. if economic conditions permit; also, an allocation from coal revenue for mmers' houses. Later report on nationalization is promised. Report strongly condemns existing system of o^vnership and working of mines. Government adopts this report and wanis mmers that a strike against it will be resisted. Mmers adopt report. March 26. March 31. Gross debt of United Kingdom $36,134,100,000. April 2. Rent Restriction Act continues for a year, with modifications, the war act of December 23. 1915. .4 pril 6-25. Slmn Fein demonstration in Limerick leads to a general strike and military occupation. Martial law is declared there and also at Cork and Tipperary during the month. April 16. Naval. Military, and Air Force Serv- ice Act meets conditions of the period of transition between war and peace. Conscription acts con- tinued for a year. Annual Army Act calls for 850.000 men, due to unrest at home, in Ireland, and in over-sea possessions. April SO. Chancellor of Exchequer Chamber- lain m budget statement says that total war advances to allies and dominions were SS.695.- 000,000; expenditures for 1918-1919, S12.896,- 505,000: estimates for 1919-1020. $7,174,550,000 with estimated revenue at S5, 800,000, 000, leaving a deficit to be made good by borrowing of SI, 375,- 000,000. May. Irish situation is aggravated by pres- ence of Irish-American delegates seeking recogni- tion at Peace Conference to present claim for Irish independence. May 6. Supreme Coimcil at Paris gives Great Britain mandate for German East Africa and Nauru Island (in the Pacific) and jointly with Fi-ance for Togo and Kamerun. British domin- ions get other mandates. May 13. Wliile American naval hydroplanes are attempting a stop flight across the Atlantic (see United States), Hariy Hawker (British aviator, born in Australia, l&SS) and Mackenzie Grieve (bom ISSO) attempt a no-stop flight from Newfoundland to Ireland, but are forced to de- scend. Rescued by a steamer. May 15. Body of Edith Cavell interred at Norwich after memorial services at Westminster Abbey. June 3. Ministry of health established. [ June 14-15. Capt..laterSir,JoIm William Alcock (killed in accident, Dec. 20, 1919) and Arthur Whitten (now Sir Arthur) Brown. British aviators, fly from Newfoundland to Clifdcn. Ireland, in a little over 16 hours; first no-stop flight across the Atlantic. Both aviators are decorated for this flight. June 20. Further reports by Coal Commission. Chairman and Labor members recommend im- mediate national acquisition of coal royalties and complete nationalization of mines after 3 years. Mine-owners' representatives declare nationaliza- tion will not lower prices. Another report favors nationalization of all mineral rights. June 2S. Anglo-Franco-American treaty of alliance signed; Great Britain and United States to assist France at once in case of an un- provoked attack by Germany. Not ratifled by United States Senate. July. Reqiuremeut of food cards for meat, butter, and sugar renewed. Select p arl lament ar>- commission to investigate profiteering. Jitly 2-6. Transatlantic flight of the R34, a British airship (see United States). July 31. Great Britain ratifles Treaty of Ver- sailles, also the French alliance treaty; l)ut ratifi- cation is not deposited imtil October 10, when all the dominions have acquiesced. Housing and Towu Planning Act makes it the duty of a local authority to see that people are properly housed; government subventionizes the activity. General deficiency in housing re- ported; dwellings for 3.000.000, includmg 758.000 in London, are needed. Finance Act raises death duties on estates of $15.- 000. reduces excess-profits tax to 40%, and in- creases tax on spirits and beer. August. Agreement with Belgium over Ger- man East Africa (see Belgium-). Aug. 1-6. Police strike in London. Liver- pool, and elsewhere for right to maintain connec- tion with outside organizations. At Liverpool riots break out, suppressed by military charges. Some sympathetic strilies by other public labor- ers. Pending bill, forbidding outside affiliation, enacted, August 15. Strikers dismissed. ,4 ug. 5. Prince of Wales departs for his tour of Canada. Aug. 9. Anglo-Persian agreement (see Persia). Aug. 15. Ministry of transport (ways and communications) established. [tices. I Act restoring right of prewar trade-unions prac-| Aug. IS. Profiteering Act: Board of Trade empowered to investigate complaints and take proceedings. Sept. 10. Trade-LTnion Congress votes for na- tionalization of the coal mines by political ac- tion, hut is against direct action. Sept. 27-Oct. 6. General railway strike on wage demand, stopping traffic all over Great Britain; settled by continuance of war wages for a year and, also, after that unless cost of living drops 15%. Strike costs government $50,000,000. Oct. £7. Small war cabinet replaced by a larger one of 20 members. Oct. 29. Supplementary' financial statement by Chamberlain places expected deficit for the year at $2,350,000,000. Oct. 30. Defeat in Commons by vote of 405 to 50 of a Labor amendment advocating a levy on capital to meet the deficit. Nov. 15. At a by-election, Lady Astor. Union- ist, elocted to Parliament. First woman to be sworn in. Nov. 12-Dec. 10. First England-Australia flight accomplished by Ross Smith, stopping at various points en route. Nov. 25. Lord Lieutenant of Ireland issues a proclamation of suppression against the Sinn Fein throughout the island. Dec. 1 . Prince of Wales returns from American tour. Dec. 19. Attempt to assassinate Lord Lieuten- ant French at Dublin. Dec. 22. Lloyd George explains the new Home Rule Bill: Two parliaments, one for the whole of Ulster, other for the rest of Ireland; a coimcil as a coimectmg link between them, elected equally by the two parliaments and having private-biU legis- lation and such other powers as the Irish parlia- ments confer upon it; self-government for Ireland hi all domestic concerns, with fufl constituent power within that field, but no separation from the United Kingdom. Bill, formally introduced Feb- ruary 25. 1920, not satisfactory to Ireland, where the smoldering revolt becomes so pronoimced that martial law is virtually in effect. Dec. 23. Government of India Act (see India). 1920. Jan. 15. Government offer on the wage question is finally accepted by the National Union of KailwajTiien. Si n n Fei n makes gains in the Irish mimicipal elec- tions. Jan. 27. Barnes, last of the Laborites, retires from the cabinet. Jan. SO. Organization of local boards, follow- mg the Siim Fein success in the miiiiiclpal elec- tions in Ireland, results in seditious acts by new officials, many of whom are arrested the next day. February. The Mad Midlah is finally defeated in Somaliland and control over the interior re- sumed. Feb. 4. Poimd sterling reaches a mhiimum of S3. 18 (normal exchange value, S4.86) in New York for demand bills of exchange, and then rises somewhat. Feb. 11. In the Commons, a Laborite amend- ment to the address demanding nationahzation of the coal mines is defeated. 329 to 64. Feb. 14. Former Premier Asquith retiuTied to ParUament at a by-election; indication of waning of the coalition rather than of revival of the Lib- eral party. Feb. 16. Jowett, a nonconformist clergyman, preaches in Diu"ham cathedral, March. Situation in Ireland becomes a reign of terror; repeated attacks on police bar- racks, raids on tax officers, cattle drives. British forces largely augmented and cordons drawn aroimd the chief cities. Movement for a British Middle-class Union of salaried persons. March 10. National Conference of Coal Min- ers votes for a strike and direct action to compel nationalization of the mines; but on March 11 the Trade-L'nion Congress rejects this by a majority of 2.820.000. March 16. Prince of Wales departs for Aus- tralia and New Zealand, March 20. Lord Mayor MacCtu-tin of Cork, a member of Sinn Fein, assassinated. March 26. Alan Bell, resident magistrate in Dublin, assassinated. April 4- Sinn Fein prisoners at Mountjoy go on a hunger strike. Irish laborers inaugiu"ate a general strike on April 13 and the government re- leases the himger strikers the next day. BRITISH DOMINIONS, COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, POSSESSIONS, AND DEPENDENCIES. The British Empire includes an area of 12,780,- 380 square miles and a population estimated in 1919 at 441,410,000. The subdivisions are here arranged under the six great divisions of the world: Europe, Asia, .\frica. America. Australasia, and Oceania. In form of government the colonies are divided into three classes: (1) The " crown colonies "' over whicli the home government exercises complete con- trol; (2) Possessions having representative institu- tions, in which the home government has a veto on legislation, and retains appointments and control of the principal public officers; (3) " Responsible gov- ernments." in wliich all the officials except the nomi- nal ones are appointed by the colonial governments ; the home government retaining a seldom-used veto on legislation. These include the great " self-gov- erning dominions " of South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. A special merit of Brit- ish colonial government is its elasticity; it seeks no uniformity, and allows liberty as to details, so far as such liberty does not weaken or infringe upon the central home authority, which is always paramoimt and wliich keeps control of all foreign relations and treaties. The colonies are administered by a colonial ofHce in three departments: (1) The Dominions Depart- ment deals with business connected with the self- 62 NATIONAL HISTORIES : BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE -ASIA). N U W governing colonies and is joined with the secreta- riat of tlie Imperial Conference. (2) The Cromi Colonies Department deals with the admmistrativc and political work of the crown colonies and protec- torates. (3) The General Department, which is also the legal department, deals with matters com- mon to all crown colonies, such as education, tele- graphs, post office, banking, and currency. Con- nected with this department are standing commits tees which deal with promotion, pensions, finance, concessions, and railways. Great Britain expends in connection with the colo- nies and protectorates (exclusive of India) over $4,860,000 amiually. EUROPEAN DEPENDENCIES. ISLE OF MAN. The Isle ofM.^n is a small island in the Irish Sea, which is administered in accordance with its owii laws by a governor and legislative council appomted by the crown. The representative assembly, known as the House of Keys, consists of 24 members chosen for seven vears. The island is not bound by acts of Parliament imless specially mentioned in them. The principal products of the island are oats, barley, turnips, and potatoes. There are smaU de- posits of lead, zinc, and salt. The area of the island is 227 square nules, and the population is 52,016 (1911). CHANNEL ISLANDS. The Ch \NNEL Isl.^nds are a group of small islands off the coast of France, of which Jersey, Guernsey, Aldemey. and Sark are the most important. They are administered according to their own laws and acts of Parliament are not effective unless the islands are speciallv mentioned. They are governed by offi- cials appomted by the crown and representative as- semblies. , The chief industry is agriculture and cattle rais- ing for which the islands are famous. The area is 75 square miles and the population 96,899 (1911). MALTA. M 4LTA, an island south of Sicily, was held by the Knights of St. Jolm after their expulsion from Khodes in 1565, and successfiUly withstood a long siege by the Turks. It surrendered to Napoleon m 1798 passed to tiie British in 1800, and was formaUy annexed to the British crown in 1814. It is one of the most important ports of call in the world and is the naval base for the British Mediterranean fleet. Valletta is the chief town and port. The governor is assisted by an executive council and a council of government of nine official members and eight elective members. The chief products are potatoes, lemons, mandarins, oranges, omons, and grain. . . . The area is 92 square miles (with the neighbor- ing islands, 118 square mUes) and in 1918 the popu- lation was 224,000. GIBRALTAR. GIBR4LT.4R is a rocky area of nearly two square miles at the extreme southern point of Spam with a civil population (1919) of 16,096, and about 1.867 aliens. It was seized by the British m 1704 and though enduring many sieves since, notably m 1782, it has never been retaken. Natiu-e and the most persistent care and skiU have rendered it one of the strongest fortresses in the world. It is also a naval base with a harbor of 260 acres. It is admimstered as a crown colony imder a governor who is at the same time military commander in cliief . BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. ADEN. Aden '■ the Gibraltar of the East," is a peninsular rock, city, and harbor on the extreme southern coast of Arabia, one hundred and five miles east of Cape Bab el Mandeb. The area is 75 square miles. (For population, etc., see imder Pebim.) It first came into British possession in 1839, when the East India Company occupied it. Great Britain now holds a protectorate of Aden, embracing 9,000 square miles. Great sums have been expended on the forti- fications and harbor. A political " Resident " ad- ministers affairs and also commands the troops of Perim, Aden, and the protectorate. Directly oppo- site in' Africa is the British Somaliland protectorate. PERIM. Perim is a strongly fortified island rock in the strait of Bab el Mandeb at the entrance of the Red Sea The strait is 15 miles wide, and its deep chan- nel is divided by Perim. The island was occupied by the British in 1857, because of the proposed cut- ting of the Suez Canal. The area is 5 square miles. The population of Aden and Perim was 46,000 m 1911. Aden produces little, its chief industries being the manufacture of salt and cigarettes. The cliief exports are coffee, gums, hides, skins, tobacco, and sugar. SOKOTRA. SoKOTRA is an island farther east, at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden. It was acquired by Great Britain in 1870. The inliabitants were Christians until the close of the seventeenth century, when they were converted to Islam. The chief products are dates and various gums. The area is 1,382 square miles and the population about 12.000. KURLA MURIA ISLANDS. The Kubia Muria Islands, a group of five rocky islets off the southern coast of Oman, were obtained from the Sultan of Maskat as a landing place of the Red Sea cable. BAHREIN ISLANDS. The Bahrein Islands are in the Persian GuK and have a population of about 103.000 and an area of about 230 square miles. The chief iiidustrj- is the pearl fisheries. Dates are also produced; and the islands ai-e noted for a remarkably fine breed of white donkeys. Sailcloth and reed mats are manu- factured. BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. British North Borneo comprises the northern part of the island of Borneo, wliieh lies southeast of the Malay Peninsula and southwest of the Phihp- pines It has an area of about 31.106 square miles and a population (191 1 ) ot 208,000, and is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo Company. The chief products are lumber (the greatest natiu-al resource of the coimtry), sago, rice, coffee, spices of all sorts, rubber, and tobacco. In 1888 the British government proclaimed a protectorate over North Borneo. BRUNEI. Brcnei. on the northwest coast of Borneo, was made a protectorate in 1888 and in 1900 the admm- istration was handed over to the British Resident. The area is about 4,000 square miles and the popula- tion is estimated at 32,000. SARAWAK. Sarawak has an area of 42.000 square miles and an estimated population of 600.000. The govemnient of part of the present territory was obtamed m 184_ by Sir James Brooke and the present rajah. Charies Vyner Brooke, is a descendant. Coal exists m large quantities, as well as gold, silver, diamonds, qiuck- silver. and antimony. The most valuable exports are rubber and pepper. CEYLON. Cetlon is an island in the Indian Ocean, southeast of the southern extremity of India. Because of its marvelous fertihty and luxuriant vegetation it is called the " peari garden of the world ■ Coast set- tlements which were foimded by the Portuguese m 1505 were captured by the Dutch m the seventeenth century and lost by them to the British in 1-96. Two years later Ceylon was made a British colony_ The governor is assisted by an executive coimcU ot seven high British officers and by a legislative coun- cil of 21 members, among whom are ten persons, six of whom are named by the governor, to represent the various races of the country. The island often serves as a place of confinement for prisoners of war. Arabi Pasha and many of the Boer captives were exiled here. The area is 25,481 square miles and the estimated population (1918) was 4.686,383. tional square miles, including the port of Kowloon and the territory on the mainland in the immediate vickiity; these together with the island now consti- tute the crown colony of Hongkong, Hongkong is a first-class military and naval station and a free port. A larger tonnage enters and clears there than at any other port in the world. The area of Hongkong island is 32 square miles and of the colony 391 square miles; the population of the city of Victoria on Hongkong island is esti- mated (1918) at 299,450 and that of the colony at 561,500. INDIA. Historical Outline. India almost deser\es to he called a continent by itself. Its poUtical history has no unity, but is the story of various races and creeds acting and reactmg upoii each other. The India of prehistoric ages was apparently populated by tlu-ee distinct stocks when it was- invaded by a branch of the great Aryan fam- ily in the second miUennium b. c. Tlie mtermixture of Aryans and aborigines constitutes the bulk of the population there to-day. During 2.000 years, inva- sions of barbarous Tiu-anians from across the Huna/- lavas have added vigorous strains to the blood of the population. To this essentiaUy foreign clement from the North was due the extension of Buddhism which arose in the Ganges valley as a protest agamst decadent Brahmanism. For generations it was a great unifying influence, but declined m the place of its birth, while its sway reached eveiituaUy the utter- most regions of .\sia. The quarrels between the creeds and races of In- dia were interrupted in the eleventh century a. d , by successive invasions of Moslem Tatars and Af- ghans from the Northwest. The invaders had learned to act together and were therefore superior to the native population. By the thirteenth century they had conquered neariy the whole of India, which remained more or less under Moslem rule untU the scepter passed to Great Britain. The most power- ful and effective of tliese Moslem dynasties was that of the Moguls, or ISlongols. descendants of Tamer- lane (Timoiu- the Great), who established them- selves in Delhi m 1556 and reigned witli splendor until 1707 The family of Bahadur Shah, sultan, continued nominal rulers tUl the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. ^ ., r^ The Portuguese found their way around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, and began to trade with In- dia They made no attempt to secure anything more than trading stations, or factories. The French and the English aimed at small territorial bases, wliich enlarged steadily. In 1757, at the bat- THE MALDIVE ISLANDS This group of thirteen coral islands, four hmidred mUes west of Ceylon, has a population of 70.()00 and an area of about 115 square miles. The inhabitants are Mohammedans. The Maldives are a depend- encv of Ceylon. They aboimd in coconut palms, and yield millet, fruit, and edible nuts. The people are civUized and are great navigators and traders. CYPRUS. Cyprus is the third largest island m the Mediter- ranean. It has had a varied history for 2.500 years From 1878 to 1914. it was administered by Great Britain under a convention with the SiUtan of Tur- kev On November 5. 1914, it was annexed and given a representative form of government. The system of education provides that each race shall have its own schools, and in 1917 there were thus 4,9 Greek Christian, 212 Moslem, four Armenian, and lour Maronite elementary schools. Cyprus is es- sentiaUy agricultm-al and its chief products are bar- lev wheat, vetches, and oats, as well as olives and cotton Grapes are produced in large quantities and sponge fishing is carried on . The people speak Greek and incline to union with Greece. ,■! he area 's ^584 square miles and the population (1919) 311,108. HONGKONG. Hongkong was ceded to the British in 1S42. by the Treaty ot Nanking, at the conclusion of the Opium War It is an island off the southeastern coast of China about 90 miles from Canton, In 1898 Great Britain obtained a lease for 99 years of 3/6 addi- tie Of Plassey. the French enterprise was crushed Meantime the British East India Company »-as making itself master, taking advantage of the de- cline of the Mogul supremacy. Its extent and power grew tiU tlie Mutiny of 1857, a desperate and almost successful effort to shake off the British r(Ue. The relations between England and India are un- precedented in history. No previous instance iS to be found of the acquisition and successful govern- ment of a dependency so immense in extent and so popiUous. at such a distance from the central power. This magnificent conquest was made piecemeal. Englishmen at home hesitated to seize the prize while it was impossible to arrest the gravitation of the whole country toward British riUe as one state after another crumbled and fell from anarchy or sheer inanition. Since 1857 there has been a steady pres,ure m India for enlarged rights for the natives, and a share in the government. The country has mcreased in popiUation and wealth under the - Pax Britannica : but even the extension of native influence by the re- form of 1919 fails to satisfy the aspirations of native agitators and leaders. Organization. Government. An account of the government of India practicaUy involves a history of its gradual acquisition by Great Britain. From the three early factories of the East India Company there arose the three vast presidencies of Bengal. Bombay, and Ma- dras each with a governor, councils, and civU service of its o^™ Since 1858, the East India Company has been replaced by a Secretary of State for India, who is a member of the British cabinet, assisted by a coimcil of from ten to fomleen members, of whom a majority must have Uved in India, appointed for seven years by the Secretary of State for India. The Secretary of State and Coimcil control the ex- nenditm-e of the revenues of India, both in India and elsewhere and conduct the business transacted in tlie United Kingdom in relation to the government of India In 1919 the undersecretary of state for India was Lord Smha of Raipur, the first Indian to hold this office. ,,,„„■»„ i„ In India the supreme executive authonty is vested in a governor-general or viceroy, who is ap- pointed by the crown and usually holds office for five years The council of the governor-general is 1498 — 1793. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (ASIA). 63 composed of the commander in chief of the British forces and six ordinary members, who usually hold office for five years. In 1909 the comicil was ex- panded into a legislative council by the addition of otiicr iii('nii)ers nominated by the viceroy or rlected und'T the Indian Councils Act. ''I'ln' Icf^i.sljitivc coun- cil cun.sisis (^f 68 members, including tlir tiovcrnor- general. 36 of whom are officials and 32 nonofficials. Special provision is made for the representation of ]\Iohaminedans. This council, under certain restrictions, has power to make laws for all persons within British India and for all British subjects in the native states and for native subjects of the king in any part of the world. In 1912 India was divided into fifteen administra- tions: Madras. Bombay. Bengal, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Pimjab. Burma. Bihar and Orissa, Central Pro\inces and Berar. Assam, North-West Frontier Province. Ajmer-Merwara. Coorg. Baluchi- stan. Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, In three of these provinces (Madras. Bombay, and Bengal) the executive power is \'ested in a gov- ernor; elsewhere in a heutenant governor or ciiief commissioner. The administrative officers of the more important provinces are assisted by executive comicils There are also legislative coimcils con- sisting of the executive comicils and nominated and elected members; the provinces, therefore, though under the control of the government of India, have some administrative independence. The provinces are divided into divisions under commissioners, and then into districts at the head of each of which is an executive officer who has entire supervision of the district and is responsible to the governor of the province. The control which the government of India exer- cises over the native states varies in degree. They are all governed by Indian princes, ministers, or councils, but are imder the political supervision of a British Resident, who is the actual governing power. The chiefs have no right to make war or peace or to have relations with each other or external states. The size of the military forces is also hm- ited. The total number of Indian states is about 700. varying from Hyderabad with an area of over 82,000 square miles and a population of over 13.000.- 000 to small states consisting of only a few villages. 721 municipalities exist in India, with a total pop- ulation (1917) of over 17.(X)0.000. These mmiici- palities have charge of their own roads, water sup- ply, drainage, sanitation, medical relief, vaccina- tion, and primary education. Under the supervi- sion of the provincial government, they may impose taxes, enact by-laws, and expend money. Since 1SS4, the elective principle has been extended in dif- ferent degrees over all India, the majority of the members of committees in the larger towns and in many smaller towns being elected by the taxpayers. Religion. The creeds of India have been im- portant in the political as well as the spiritual life of its people. The prehistoric cults were crude and gross. In contrast to these the Aryans brought into the coimtry a worship of singular purity and eleva^ tion. without shrines or images or offensive rites. Thf gradual intermixture of the two races resulted in a tleieriorated form of the higher religion known as Hinduism, the creed of three foiu-ths of the inhaljit- ants of India to-day. This has not been evolved, however, without some marked influences from Buddhism, which arose in the sixth century b. c, was made the state religion in Hindustan by Asoka, about 228 B. c, and flourished for about a thousand years side by side with Brahmanism. As a protest against the emptiness of the older creed. Buddhism was at first extremely effective, but finally declined and practically disappeared from the land. It still siu'\ives in Burma, where there are over 10,000.000 adherents of this faith. Jain- ism, an analogous but not an allied cult, still sur- vives, notably in Bombay and Kajputana. Next to the Hindus (217,587,000), the Moslems are most numerous (66,647,299), the great majority of them Sunnites, Adherents of other faiths foimd in India are the Sikhs (numbering 3,000,000), Parsis (about 100,000), and Christians of all churches (3,876.203). Few regions of the earth have shown such an apti- tude and passionate concern for diverse religions as has India. The government permits and protects all forms of religion, except such practices and rites as thuggee and suttee. Industry and Labor. Because of the favorable climate and abundant rainfall. India has some of the most productive land in the world. The mainstay is agriculture, which by scientific methods, irriga- tion, and systematic rotation of crops, now yields more than at any past period. Its chief crops are wheat and other food grains, rice, cotton, opium, tea. sugar cane, tobacco, and indigo. Forests and mines are productive, while manufacture with mod- em machinery-, reljing on the abundant labor sup- ply, is bound to become a great industrial factor in the future. In 1913, the total sea-borne import and export commerce of India was worth $1,381,581,330, of which SS97,115,878 was exports. During the World War, this trade was much reduced, since it was hard to reach markets. Education. The problem of the education of the native population is tremendous and has never been fairly faced. According to the census of 1911, out of the 313,417,081 inhabitants, 18,539,431 were able to read and write. Fewer than 2,000.000 natives have a knowledge of English. The educational in- stitutions are of two classes: (1) Public or private schools, including mission schools wliich conform to the standards prescribed by the department of pub- lic instruction or by tiie universities and which un- dergo inspection. (2) Private institutions wiiicii do not fidffil the conditions prescribed by government, Pul)lic education provides for: (1) Primary Schools in which are taught reading and writing in the ver- naciUar and other elementar>' knowledge; (2) Sec- ondary Schools where instruction is brought up to a fixed standard of graduation. These schools are divided into English or vernaciUar and also into liigh and middle schools; (3) Colleges, where the students are studying for a degree. All the public colleges are affiliated with the five great miivcrsities of Cal- cutta, Madras, Bombay, the Pimjab. and Allaha- bad. New universities have been established at Benares and Patna and for Mysore. In all, there are 192.755 institutions of education, with 7,851,946 students, besides numerous special schools. About four fifths of the children of school age are left unre- garded . Defense. The mihtary forces of India consist of the British troops stationed there, the Indian army, and the imperial-service troops. The army as a whole is divided into a Northern and a Southern army. At the outbreak of the World War (August. 1914) the total of British troops in all India was 79.- 953, but these were mostly withdrawn and their place taken by native imits. The Indian aniiy in 1914 consisted of 2.751 offi- cers, 159.134 other ranks. 45.660 noncombatants and 36,767 reservists. These numbers were largely in- creased dm-ing the war. and on September 30. 191S, the Indian army was 1,161,789. Service in the ranks is voluntary and enlistment is for four years with the option of extending it to 32 years. About a third of the men are Mohammedans and nearly two thirds Hindus. Imperial-service troops are also raised and maintained by the native states, but trained by Brit- ish officers. In 1914 they numbered about 20,000 with a cavalry force of 6,600. The militarj-^ forces in India are administered un- der the supreme control of the commander in chief by a headquarters staff. From August, 1914. to Sep- tember 30. 1918, 1,172,908 troops of all ranks were sent to the various fronts, exclusive of 42,430 British troops. Area and Population. The area of British In- dia is 1.093,074 square miles and its population in 19U was 244,267.542. The Indian states, which are all imder the controi of the Indian government, have an area of 709.555 square miles and a popula- tion of 70,888,854. making a total for all India of an area of 1,802,629 with a population of 315,156,396. Chronology — India. 1498. Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese, reaches Calicut by sea; the beginning c^f direct contact of India with western Em-ope Mohammedan king- doms occupy most of India, but a Hindu power is paramoimt in the South. 1500. Cabral estabUshes Portuguese factories at Calicut and Coc hin 1510. Albuquerque, as viceroy, captures Goa and makes it capital of Portuguese India. 1511. He captiu"es Malacca and the Portuguese are flrmly established, in spite of repeated na- tive attacks, until Portugal becomes a part of Spain, when that nation's enemies, the Dutch and English, invade the East. 15*26. Invasion of India by Baber, foimder of the Mogul (Mohammedan) Empire. 1556-1605, Reign of Akbar, who extends the empire over all of India north of the Deccan. 1600. Dec. 31. First charter of English East India Company, which gradually becomes a ruler of large areas, keeps up a fleet and army, makes war and peace, and annexes territory. 1609. Dutch build a fort at Palghat (PuUcat) ; strife between Dutch. Portuguese, and Enghsh over East Indian trade continues. 1611. English East India Company establishes a factory at MasuHpatam on eastern coast; reestab- lished m 1622. 1613. March 12. Emperor permits English fac- tories at Surat and elsewhere on gulf of Cambay; Siirat becomes headquarters of the English Com- pany. Portuguese attempts to expel Enghsh fail. 1633. English begin a factory in Bengal. 1640. April. Completion by Enghsh Company of Fort St. George; beginning of Madras. 1641. Jai}. 14- Dutch take Malacca from Portu- guese. Power of Portugal in India steadily wanes and is finaUy crushed by the Marathas; Goa, Diu, and Daman are now their only possessions there. 1658-1707. Reign of Aurangzeb, who completes Mogul conquest of India, but witnesses rise of Hindu Maratha power and presages of rapid decline of empire, which is accomplished in next 60 years by Hindu risings. Afghan and Persian invasions, and growth of European occupation. 1660. July. Dutch complete expulsion of Por- tuguese from CeyloD. 1661. June £3. Bombay is ceded by Portugal to England as part of dowry of bride of Charles II. 1674. SfpL 5. French pm-chase Pondicherry; establislied, as a possession, 1687. 1686. Headquarters of Bengal agency moved from Hooghly to Sutanati {lat^^r called Calcutta); abandoned, but reoccupied in 1690. 1687. Seat of English Company*$ government in India is moved from Surat to Bombay. Sui-at, Madras, and Bengal are subordinate agencies or presidencies. 1688. Chandemagore, on the Hoogtily, granted to French by emperor, 1696. Fort William built at Calcutta. 1702. July 22. On union of two rival English com- panies, 27 factories and forts are mentioned. 1739. French at Pondicherry begui to Intervene in politics of southern India and gain great pres- tige, especially through activities of Bussy at Hyderabad. Franco-British contests during European wars (1746-1783); restorations by treaties, but French lose race for ascendancy. 1756. June 19. Surrender of Calcutta to Nawab of Bengal; Black Hole of Calcutta. 1757. Jan. 4. CUve reoccupies Calcutta. June S3. Battle of Plassey; Clive defeats the Nawab and sets up a rival, from whom he demands an enormous pajTuent. Marks downfall of French power in India. 1758. Ju7ie 27. Cllve governor in Bengal. 1759. August. Clive defeats a Dutch fleet and force sent agamst Enghsh Company's advancmg power in Bengal. 1764. Oct. 23. Battle of Buxar leaves English masters of Bengal. 1765. Feb. 20. Chve's treaty with the Nawab commits entire military defense of Bengal to the Company. On August 12 the emperor grants to the Company the financial administration of Bengal. Bihar, Orissa. and northern portion of Madras. Clive institutes a double (English and native) government, and also reforms the Com- pany, stopping private trading, 1769. March 27. Treaty with Haldar All, ending first Mysore War, whicli has lasted two years. Mutual restorations, 1772. Maratha (Hhidu) Confederacy (five branches) has become the paramount power In India. The emperor on surrender of Delhi (De- cember 22) passes imder their control, while a group of independent Mohanmiedan states have been estabhshed by the former governors of the empire. These lie as weak buffer states between the Marathas and Bengal, April 13. Warren Hastings governor in Bengal. May 14. Company decides to abolish dual government, and administer revenues through own servants instead of natives. 1773. June SI. Regulating Act of Parliament; governor-general and council of four for Bengal, with power over the other presidencies; Warren Hastings named first governor-general (as- sumes oflflce October 20. 1774) ; crown to establish a supreme court at Calcutta. 1778-1782. First Maratha War, in Bombay; treaty May 17, 1782. makes no changes. 1780-1784. Second (First) Mysore War; begim by Haidar Ali against Madras presidency, finished by his son Tippoo. French assist Haidar. Treaty makes mutual restitutions. 1783. Fox*s India Bill to deprive Company of exclusive power and reform abuses; defeated by king's personal antagonism to coahtion muiistry (see Great Britain). 1784. Avg. 13. Pitt's India Act; board of con- trol appointed by crown with superintendence over the Company; royal approval of appointment of governor-general and other officials in India. 1785. Feb. 8. Sir John Macpherson governor- general. 1786. Sfpi- 12. Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis gov- ernor-general. 1788. Feb. 13. Trial of Warren Hastings before House of Lords begins; impeached by Commons for alleged oppressive measures in connection with strengthening British position in the Ganges val- ley against advance of Marathas. Lasts until April 23, 1795. when acquitted. 1790-1792. Third (Second) Mysore War. Corn- wallis with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Maratha troops defeats Tippoo. who on March 19, 1792, cedes half of his territory to the allies. 1793. Cornwallis continues Hastings's policy by establishment of European criminal jiu-isdiction and other judicial reforms; 'also, the permanent settlement of law assessment, based on agricul- tiu-al capacity. September. On outbreak of Franco-British war, Pondicherry and other French establish- ments taken for third time: but French intrigue and influence over native princes continues a men- 64 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (ASIA). 1793-1912. 1793 (continued). ^ ace to British advancement, especially while French are in Egypt. French possessions re- stored by Treaty of Ami ens. 1802, again seized; restored by Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1S14. ytill continue; five scattered establishments of about 196 square miles: Pondi cherry seat of government. Oct. 2S. Sir John Shore (Lord Teignmouth) governor-general. 1796. Ceylon captured from the Dutch, coast possession only; first attached to Madras, but soon made crown colony. Interior taken over in 1815 on deposing of king of Ceylon. Possession sanc- tioned by Dutch at Treaty of Amiens, 1802. 1798. May IS. Marquis Wellesley (Earlof Mom- ington) governor-general. He inaugurates policy of British control over all India through dependent native states. P Sept. 1. Wellesley 's treaty with the Nizam (Hyderabad), making him a subservient ally, 1799. Fourth (Third) Mysore War. Tippoo killed in storming of Seringapatam (May 4). Treaty. June 22. divides kingdom between Company, the Nizam, and a dependent kingdom of Mysore. Ni- zam cedes his portion to Company Oct- 12, 1800. 1801. July. Government of the Camatic is taken Qover by the Company. This with Tanjore (ceded October 25, 1799) about completes present Madras presidency. ■ Nov. 14. Treaty of Lucknow extends British rule farther up the Ganges valley. 1802. Dec. SI. Treaty of Bassein; the peshwa (nominal h6ad of Maratha Confederacy) extends British influence in Bombay. __ 180.'{-1805. Second Maratha War, due to resent- R mcnt of peshw^a's action. Sir Arthtu* Wellesley (Wellington) and Lake operate in Deccan and Hindustan; Ahniadnagar captured August 12, 1803; battle of Aligarh Augtist 28; Delhi cap- tured September 14; battle of Assaye Septem- ber 23; Agra captured October IS; battles of Las- wari November 1 and Argaon November 29. Later warfare, against Holkar, less successful. O By treaties British acquire western part of present "^ United Provinces, and Orissa; Berar goes to the Nizam as ally. 1805. July SO. Cornwallis again governor-gen- eral, but dies, October 5. Sir George Barlow act- ing governor-general from October 10, 1807. Earl of Minto governor-general. 1813. Marquis of Hastings (Earl of Moira) gov- ^ eruor-general . NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1814-1816. Nepal War. By Treaty of SegauU, March 3, 1S16, Gurkhas witlidraw from Sikkim and elsewhere (Simla), receive a Resident, but re- mam independent as regards internal affairs. 1817-1818. Final Maratha War with crushing of predatory Pindaris. Peshwa's dominions an- 11 nexed to Bombay' presidency, nucleus of present Central Provinces formed; Rajputana states be- come feudatories. 1823. Aug. 1. Lord Amherst governor-general. 1834. March 17. By Treaty of London Nether- lands cedes all India establishments to Great Britain. 1821-1836. First Burmese War. By Treaty of VYandahu, February 24, 182G, Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim ceded by the king, and claim to Manipur (native state) renounced. 1828. July 4- Lord William Bentinck governor- general; reforms and advancement of condition of natives: widow-burning (suttee) abolished (1829); suppression of thugs. 1833. Aug. 2S. New charter for Company; " gov- ernor-general in council " authorized to make laws ^M for whole of British Iiadia. 1835. March SO. Sir Charles Metcalfe acting governor-general. [general. 1 1836. March 4. Earl of Auckland governor- 1 1838-1842. First Afghan War l:)egim. to install a more subservient ameer and coimteract Russian advance (see Afgh.\nist.\n). After two years of British occupation, army forced to retreat from X Kabul, and is overwhelmed in Khyber Pass (Jan- uary, 1842). Later an advance reoccupies Kabul, but British withdraw from Afghanistan in Octo- ber, and former ameer resumes tlu-one. 1842. Feb. 2S. Lord Ellenborough governor- general. 1843. SInd. War: battle of Miani, February 17 Coimtry is annexed. (governor-general.! 1844. July 23. Sir Henry (Lord) Hardingel ^r 1845. Feb. 22. Danish possessions in India ceded to the Company. 1845-1846. First Sikh War. Sikhs (Hindus of a certain religious .sect) control the Punjab; but on death of Ranjit Singh (1839) dissensions occur, and leaders invac^e British territory. Battle of Sobraon, February 10. 1846; Sikhs driven back and Lahore occupied (Februar>- 22). By treaty, Z March 9, some territory is ceded; Kashmir made a separate native state; protectorate for Punjab. 1848. Jan. 12. Earl of Dalhousie governor- general ; administrative reforms and public works. 1848-1849. Second Sikh War; general rising against British. In battle of Gujarat (February 12, 1849) Sikh army destroyed. Punjab an- nexed, March 29, as British province. 1852. Second Burmese War; Pegu annexed on December 20. 1853. AvTil 16. First railway opened; Bombay to Thana. May 21. The Nizam cedes Berar to the Com- pany on release of certain obligations. .4?/^- 20. New charter for Company, " imtU Parhament shall otherwise provide ' : one third of directors appointed by crown; appointments in service to be on examination. Dec. 11. Nagpur lapses to the Company on death of rajah without heir (right of adoption question) ; becomes Central Provinces. Other minor states taken over on same grounds. 1854. May 14. Treaty with khan of Kalat (Ba- luchistan); alliance and subsidy. 1856. Feb. IS. Oudh (United Provinces) put imder direct British administration because of nati\e misgovemment. [eral. [ Feb. 20. Viscoimt Canning governor-gen- 1 1856-1857. War on Persia for her attack on Herat. Persians defeated and renounce claim to Herat or any Afghan province iINIarch 4, 1857). 1857-1859. Sepoy Mutiny; nationalistic spirit of disaffection played upon by deprived princes ; political and army advancement closed to anibi- tious natives; army reduced and drained of best men. Outbreak begins at Meertit, May 10, whence rebels march to Delhi, andniutinj' becomes general throughout Ganges valley; btit Sikhs and troops of Madras and Bombay remain loyal. States of central India disaffected, except Hyderabad. June 6-27: Siege and surrender of Cawnpore to Nana Sahib: massacre on July 15. July 1-Sep- tcmber 25: Siege of Lucknow; relieved by Have- lock and Outram. September 14-20: Recapture of Delhi by Nicholson; last Mogul emperor is sent to Rangoon. Campaign of Campbell for re- duction of Oudh, where whole people have re- volted, lasts imtil January, 1859. Rose subdues central India during same period. Peace pro- claimed, July S, 1859. 1858. Aug. 2. Act for the better government of India transfers entire administration from Company to the crown; secretary for India and coimcil to constitute home government. New government proclaimed November 1; Canning first viceroy, 1861. Aug. 1. Indian Councils Act authorizes *■ additional" (nonofficial) members to councils of viceroy and provinces for purposes of legislation. Policy to select some of these from among natives. 1862. March 12. Earl of Elgin viceroy. 1864. Jan. 12. Sir Jolin Lawrence viceroy. 1865. Nov. 13. Treaty with Bhutan, after a punitive expedition; subsidy during good be- ll a vior. 1869. Jan. 12. Lord Mayo viceroy; assassi- nated February 8, 1872. 1872. May 3. Earl of Northbrook viceroy. 1875. Nov. S. Prince of Wales (Edward VII.) lands at Bombay; visit lasts until March 3, 1876. 1876. April 12. Earl of Lytton viceroy. April 27. Act authorizing an Indian addition to queen's titles; queen proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi on January 1, 1877. July. New Baluchistan treaty; subordina- tion to British rule and troops to keep order. Be- ginning of gradual development into a province under British Indian rule of direct, administered, and feudatory territory. [India, I 1877-1878. Great famine, especially in southern | 1878-1881. Second Afghan War (see Afgh.\nis- TAN), rising out of Russian intrigue, a British em- bassy being barred from the capital (September 22, 1S7S) . War is declared on November 22. On December 2. Roberts defeats Afghans at Pei- war Pass. May 26, 1S79, treaty is signed; Brit- ish frontier advanced to farther side of passes and British resident at Kabul. But on miu"der of resident, September 3, 1879. war is renewed, and Roberts enters Kabul on October 12, and routs the Afghans on September 1, 1880. A new ameer is installed and subsidized, and British troops gradually withdraw. 1880. Junes. Marquis of Ripon viceroy. Local sclf-govenmient. judicial and revenue reforms, with promotion of agricuJtiu'e and education fea- tm*es of administration. 1884. Dec. 13. Earl of Dufferin viceroy. 1885. Russia and Herat (see Afgh.\nistan). In expectation of war, native princes for the first time offer money and troops to the British. November. Third Burmese War. King Thebau is deposed (December 1) and rest of Burma annexed to India January 1, 1SS6. December. First of the annual meetings of Na- tional Congress {of Hindus) to discuss political mat^ ters Tolerated but not recognized by government. 1888. Dec. 10. Marquis of Lansdowne viceroy. Development of the imperial-service contin- gents, troops kept up by feudatory states for British service in case of war; efforts to reform child marriage and forced cehbacy of widows. 1890. March 1 7. Chinese-British convention; boimdary between Sikkim and Tibet; British pro- tectorate over Sikkim recognized. 1892. June SO. Indian Councils Act; additional members increased, appointments based on local recommendations; right of. legislative councils to discuss budgets and make interpellations. 1893. Dec. -5. Chinese-British convention on trade across SiJddm-Tibet frontier. 1894. Jan. 27. Earl of El^in viceroy. March 1. Chinese- British agreement on Bur- mese-Tibetan boimdarj'. 1895. Frontier campaign agaln«t tribesmen, centering at Chitral; region come^ within lx>und- ary of later North-West Frontier Province. March 1 7. Russo-British agreement on spheres of influence in the Pamir supplements Afghanis- tan agreement. Russia's advances had involved Afghan. Chinese, and Kashn]irian rights. 1886. Bubonic plague violent for several years; native opposition to sanitary measures develops into rioting at times. Famine also in 1897 and 1900, leading to ext'ensi\'e irrigation projects, es- pecially in the Punjab. 1897. Tirah campaign against frontier tribes about Khyber Pass: Mad Mullah Feb. 4. Modified Chinese-British agreement on Burmese-Tibetan boimdary. 1899. Gold standard adopted; value of rupee fixed at about 32 cents. Effort to check falling of value by closing mints to free silver coinage in 1892 had failed. Jan. 6. Lord Curzon of Kedleston viceroy; period of miusual material development and im- proved relations with native princes, but also in- crease of demonstrations of political imrest. 1901. North-West Frontier Province erected ; rough- ly between the Indus and Afghanistan lx>undary. 1902. Jan. SO. Anglo- Japanese defensive alhance (see Great Britain) involves India. 1903. Jan. 1. Coronation durbar at Delhi; Edward VII. proclaimed emperor. 1904. Military advance into Tibet by Yoimg- husband, following refusal of Lama to treat; Rtis- sian intrigues, and prevention of trade and settle- ment of boimdary question. Lhasa occupied, August 3. Treaty, September 7; boimdaries and commerce. Chinese ratification delayed until April 27. 1906. ■March 21. Universities Act, tmifying higher education and reforming its administration; opposition of native politicians on ground that, it " officialized " tmiversities. 1905. Aug. 12. New Anglo- Japanese aUiance (see Great Britain). Resignation of Curzon due to disagreement with Commander in Chief Kitchener and home government over army administration; remains tintil November IS. Oct. 16. Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam set off from Bengal; Bengali opposition and Eastern Bengal restored to Bengal on April 1, 1912, when that presidency, having previously had the viceroy as governor, is given a separate governor. Nov. 9. Visit of Prince of Wales (later George V.) and the Princess; ends March 17, 1906. Nov. IS. Earl of Minto viceroy. Political and anarchistic discontent increases; small but dangerous minority responsible for it: measures to suppress it through deportations and restrictions on freedom of utterance. 1906. All-India Moslem League is established: aimual meetings. Similar to the (Hindu) National Congress. 1907 . Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian Convention : Af- ghanistan outside Russian sphere; British-Tibetan convention recognized. Nov. 11. First Indian member of council of India (in England) takes his seat. 1909. First native member of viceroy's (executive) coimcil takes liis seat. May 25. Indian Councils Act of Parliament provides for election of portion of members of legis- lative coimcils hitherto only nominated by cer- tain bodies. In 1919, 27 elected and 32 nominated (additional) members; all but 2 of elected members natives; 5 nominated members also natives. One of undersecretaries for India is a native, as are 3 of coimcil of India. 1910. January. Treaty with Bhutan; British assumption of foreign relations; increased subsidy. Nov. 23. Baron Hardinge of Penshurst viceroy. 1911. May S. British-Chinese agreement on opium traffic, after long contest ; prohibition of export from India to China, cessation of cultiva- tion in China. Dec. 12. Coronation durbar at Delhi, held personally by the emperor (Geoi^e V.) and em- press. Change of capital to Delhi annomiced, also administrative changes in Bengal. 1912. Dec. 23. Attempt to assassinate \iceroy on his state entry into Delhi to proclaim city as capi- tal of empire. gcale of English Statute Miles at drffcieut Lutitudcs o 000 I'MIO ' OU Nautical Miles =1 at tlie Equator 69.16 Eiigli:<)i Mntiitc Miles = 1 at the E^iiuatoi The distances on the luud are hi Luglibh Istatut'j Miles The distances un the water aie in Nautical Uilcs I SF-niNGFIELO, MASS, THEWS-NOHTMRUP WORKSi BUFFALO, N. Y- Lon-ituue 120 Wt^st « y 01 tl -^J- - - -^^Iiewvf NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EJIPIRE (ASIA — AFRICA). 65 WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. Question of rights of Hindus as Britisli sub- jects In South Africa aud Canada (see South Africa, p. 67 (1913). and Canada, p. 72). August. Enthusiastic support of the World War by people and native princes; large offers of men and contributions; prmces seek service personally. Aga Ivhan. head of Indian Moslems, supports empire; deprecates later Turkish action. Sept. 23. Landing of first Indian contin- gent of 70.000 at Marseilles. At end of 1915 Indian troops are withdrawn from Europe for serv- ice nearer home. [loyal support of the war. I 1915. Renewal of imrest accompanies continued] 1916. April 4. Baron Chelmsford viceroy. December. National Congress joins in demand for home rule: elects Mrs. Besant president. All- India Moslem League elects as president a man in prison for sedition. Rapprochement of the two antagonistic bodies. 1917. March- April. India is first represented at Imperial War Conference; a maharaja. another native, and an Enghshman are delegates. March 2. India Defense Force Act makes military service compulsory to aU British subjects of European origin from 16 to 50 years of age. 1918. March 12. War expenditures of India, $640,000,000. 1.161,789 men have enlisted, be- sides 239,561 available at outbreak of war; 953.374 sent overseas, more than half to Mesopotamia: 33,031 killed. 52.296 wounded. 9.002 prisoners. Aug. 6. Montagu (secretary)-Chelnisford (viceroy) scheme for Indian government pre- sented in Parliament. Compromise measiu-e for gradual development of home rule and respon- sible government, beginning with local affairs; plan for imperial bicameral legislative council and connection therewith of native princes. 1919. Jan. IS. India represented at Peace Confer- ence by Sec. ^Montagu and Maharaja of Bikaner. April-May. Serious home-rule disturbances occur in the Pimjab aud elsewhere, especially as a demonstration against an antisedition act. Se- vere suppression, especially at Amritsar. May. Outbreak of frontier war tlirough in- vasion by Afghan tribesmen, who are defeated and their strongholds bombarded by airplanes. Aug. S. Treaty of peace with Afghanistan, Af- ghans; placed on probation, [on British troops.] November. Frontier Afghan tribes reopen attack | Nov. 19. Joint parliamentary' committee at London reports on the Government of India Bill. Dec. S3. Government of India Act becomes law. Dual provincial governments, with division of duties, consisting of governor and executive council, with governor and ministry appointed from the elected legislature; niinistrj' lo be partly responsible, but. subject to higher veto, legisla- tion may be made by the governor on " reserved subjects " without approval of legislature; increase in financial powerof legislature. All-India govern- ment to have a larger, more representative, and more powerful Assembly, while in the Coimcil. which becomes more truly a second chamber, only a third of the members are to be officials. 1930. Ja7iuary. Frontier fighting continues with increased se\ erity. Jan. 2. All-India Moslem Conference calls for a Mohammedan boycott of British goods if Turkish treaty is not satisfactorj- to Islam and leaves the sultan as caliph at Constantinople. DEPENDENCIES UPON INDIA. Certain states or territories are reckoned as de- pendent upon India. Such are Baluchistan, Sili- kim, the Andaman. Nicobar, and Laccadive Islands. Baluchistan (area 134,638 square miles, popula- tion about S34.000) is a wild region west of India and south of Afghanistan. Since 1876 the British have been extending their rule over this country. Sikkim (area 2,818 square miles, population about 88.000) is a little state in the Himalayas, south of Tibet. Formerly under nominal vassalage to China, the British protectorate was recognized by the Chinese government in 1890. The Andaman Islands (area 2.260 square miles, population in 1919. 16,786) are a group of five large and about 200 smaller islands in the Bay of Bengal, nearly 120 miles from Burma. They contain forests of great value. The Andanians now serve as penal settlements for about 13.000 convicts. The native population of 1.317 is made up of savages of a low Negritoid type. The Nicobars (area 635 square miles, population in 1911, about 8.818) are a group of nineteen islands, south cf the Andamans. The main occupation of the natives was formerly piracy and shipwrecking. Also, they have pUed the coconut trade for 1,500 years. About 15.000,000 nuts are produced annu- ally. Since the British occupation in 1S72, the islands have become orderly. The Laccadives, the " Hundred Thousand Islands" (poptilation about 10,000), are a group of uncounted coral islands and islets in the Arabian Sea, west of the Rlalabar coast. Chronology — Baluchistan. 1739. Nasir Khan, of Kalat. made head prince of all Balucliislan by the Persian ruler. 1795. June. Nasir dies; thenceforward dominion decreases. [retire in 1841.1 1839. British Indian troops capture Kalat, but I 1S54. May 14. British treaty of offensive and de- fensive aUiance with the klian of Kalat (see India). 1857. British agent begins residence at Kalat. 1836, Following a period of anarchy, a new British treaty is signed (see India). Countrj' becomes %irtually a British dependency. 1881. Certain districts in neighborhood of Quetta assigned to Great Britain. 1S84-188S. Boimdary with Afghanistan estabhshed. 1887. November. Enlarged area becomes British Baluchistan, a province of India. Oth^ dis- tricts and native states under a protectorate. 1896. Boimdao' with Persia estabhshed by an An- glo-Persian commission. 1918. British forces operating across Baluchistan to eastern Persia complete the railway from Quetta to Persian frontier at ^lirjawa, giving con- tinuous line from India. FEDERATED MALAY STATES. The Feder.\ted AI.^l.\t St.\te3 occupy a large part of the Malay Peninsula. They are: Perak, Se- langor, Pahang, and Negri Sembilan. Smce 1896, when these states came under the administra- tion of a British Resident-general, there has been a marked decrease in crime. The area is 27,506 square miles. The total population (1911) was 1.036,999. of whom 725.000 were males and 311.000 females. The disproportion of the sexes was due mainly to the influx of Chinese, of whom there are over 433.000. The staple products are coconuts, rice, rubber, tapioca, and pepper. MALAY STATES NOT INCLUDED IN THE FEDERATION. The ;MaIay states of Johore, Kedah, Perlis. Kelan- tan. and Trengganu. are not included in the federa- tion. Johore is governed by a sultan, assisted by a state council on which there are two European mem- bers. The area of the five states is 23,486 square miles and the population was 930.000 in 1911. The rights of protection and control of the other four states were acquired by Great Britain from Siam, March 10. 1909. In all these states the na- tive rulers are assisted in the administration by British advisors or agents. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. The Str-uts Settlements are a crown colony oc- cupying the southern extremity of the ^lalay Penin- sula and including the settlements of Singapore. Penang, and Malacca. The area is 1,600 square miles and the estimated population in 1919 was 846,083. Singapore (area 217 square miles, popu- lation (1919) 387,336) is an island strongly fortified as a naval station, and is a port of entry. Penang, hardly less important, is an island and a strip of mainland, with a total area of 280 square miles and a population of 305.739. Malacca has an area of 659 square miles and in 1919 the population was estimated at 153,008. These settlements have a large trade and the chief exports are gimis. gin, spices, and copra. The following are under the administration of the settlement of Singapore. Cocos, or Keeling, Islands are a group of about 20 small coral islands 1200 miles southwest of Singa- pore. The estimated population (1917) was 819. Christmas Island is 700 miles east of Cocos Is- lands and is nine miles long by nine miles wide, with an estimated population (1917) of 2.040. The sole source of wealth to the island is phosphated lime, which is the article of export. The island of Labuan lies about sL\ miles off the northwest coast of Borneo, and was incorjwrated with Suigapore in 1907. The area is 28 square miles and the estimated population (1917) was 6.8&4. WEIHAIWEI. WEra.MWEi is a fortified seaport and district in the Chinese province of Shantung. It was leased to Great Britain in 1898 as a balance to the German occupation of Kiaochow and the Russian in Port Arthur. "With all the islands in the bay it has an area of about 285 square miles and a population (1911) of about 147,000. "Within a further addi- tional area of 1,500 square miles Great Britain has the right to take such mihtary measures as she deems expetlient. Weihaiwei is a free port. There has been great increase of prosperity since the British took possession. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. ASCENSION ISLAND. Ascension Isl.\nd is a volcanic island situated 800 miles northwest of St. Helena. It is entirely under the control of the British admiralty. It is famous I for its large sea turtles, which weigh between five hundred and eight hundred poimds. The area is 34 square miles and the population 250. BRITISH EAST AFRICA. British East Afric.\ comprises a large area of the continent including the East Africa Protectorate and the Uganda Protectorate, together with the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. It lies between what was formerly German East Africa and Abys- sinia. It is controlled directly by the British colo- nial oflSce. The area is about 358,000 square miles and the population 6,322.000. East Africa Protectorate is crossed by the equa- tor and possesses immense tropical resoiu-ces. Vari- ous Protestant and Cathohc missions are working with success. It is traversed for a distance of 618 miles by the railway from the port of Mombasa to the Victoria Nyanza. Tliis protectorate touches the frontier of the Anglo-Eg>-ptian Sudan. Thus from Mombasa, four d^rees south of the etiuator. British control extends unbroken across the conti- nent to Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea. The area is 246.822 square miles and the population 2.807.000. Uganda Protectorate is situated far inland, north of the Victoria Nyanza. The natural wealth is prodigious. It is said that here are found the richest fiora and fauna in all Africa. lYotestant and Cathohc missions have accomplished wonders. About 600. (X)0 natives have been converted to Christianity by British and French missionaries. The area is 110.300 square miles and the popula- tion (1919) is 3.31S.271. Zanzibar Protectorate comprises the two islands of Zanzibar (area 640 square miles) and Pemba (380 square miles) Their united population in 1910 was 196.000. Nominally the Sultan of Zanzibar still rules through a British prime minister. Notliing important can be done without the consent of the British agent and consul general. Cloves are the chief product. Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are maintained. MAURITIUS. Macritiits, formerly lie de France, is an island in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of Madagascar. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1508, it passed im- der the Dutch in I59S. who named it in honor of Prince Maurice of Nassau. The French held it for nearly a century, losing it to the British in 1810. This is the scene of Bemardin de Saint-Pierre's Paul et Virginie. It is a colony with representative gov- ernment under a British governor, assisted by coim- cils. The Chinese and East Indians are rapidly gaining control of the agricultural and business in- terests. Sugar, aloe fiber, molasses, coconut oil, and vanilla are the chief exports. The area is 720 square miles and the estimated population (1917) about 385.000. Several islands are dependent upon Maiuitius: Rodriguez, with an area of forty square miles and a population (1911) of 4,829. The Cargados Islands, mostly sandbanks: the Eagle Islands; and the Cha- gos Islands, of which Diego Garcia is the lai^est, with 517 inhabitants. NYASALAND. The Ny.\s.\land Protector.\te was known as British Central Africa until 1907. It Ues west and south of Lake Nyasa. Under British control the natives seem orderly, prosperous, and contented. Much is hoped from the attempted cultivation of cotton, and many agricultural experiments are being carried on. The area is 39.573 square miles and the native population (1918) about 1,208.000. ST. HELENA. St. Helena is a volcanic island, in the South At- lantic, distant about 1.200 miles from Africa and 800 miles from Ascension Island, the nearest land. It is memorable as the place of exile of Napoleon from 1815 until his death May 5, 1821. Five thou- sand Boer prisoners of war were confined here in 1900. The area is 47 square miles and the esti- mated population in 1918 was 3.654. TRISTAN DA CUNHA. ThisTAN DA CuNHA is a small group of islands in the South Atlantic, midway between Africa and South America, with 105 inhabitants in 1916. A garrison was maintained here until the death of Na- poleon at St. Helena. They are without govern- ment, being left entirely to themselves, except that a British ship \'isits the group once a year. THE SEYCHELLES. The Seychelles are a group of about 90 islands northeast of Madagascar. First settled by the French, Great Britain has held them since 1794. They were formerly dependent on Mauritius, but since ISSS have constituted a separate administra- tion under a governor and council. They are well supplied with schools, and local exarKlnations are held for Cambridge. The area is about 156 square miles and the population in 1917 was 24,000. 66 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). BRITISH SOMALILAND. British Somaliland (area about 68,000 square miles, population about 300,000, mostly ;Moslem nomads) lies south of the Gulf of Aden and north of Italian SomaUland. Armed resistance to British rule ceased in 1905. With the introduction of or- der, settlements on the coast are springing up and trade is increasing. The exports are ostrich feath- ers, gums, skins, and liides. The coimtrj- is admin- istered by a commissioner, assisted by British army officers. BASUTOLAND. BasutolandIs inclosed by the Orange Free State, Natal, and Cape of Good Hope Province. It is a native reservation. A resident commissioner ad- ministers affairs under the high commissioner for South Africa. It is better adapted for grain raising than any other region of South Africa. The area is 11,716 miles and the population in 1911 consisted of 403,111 natives and 1,396 Eiu-opeans. BECHDANALAND. BECHnANALAND is a protectorate, lying between the Transvaal Province and the former German South- west Africa. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway passes through it. A resident commissioner administers affairs imder the high commissioner for South Af- rica. The area is 275,000 square miles and the population in 1911 was 125,350, including 1,692 Eiu'opeans. RHODESIA. Rhodesia perpetuates the name of the British financier and statesman, Cecil Rhodes. The re- gion extends from the Transvaal Province north- wards. Its neighbors are Portuguese East Africa. Nyasaland, the former German East Africa, Belgi- an Congo, Angola, and Bechuanaland. The British South Ai:rica Company, chartered in 1889, admin- isters the whole territory. It is divided by the Zam- bezi into Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia. Rhodesia is governed by an administrator, appomted by the Company, and an executive council. There is also a legislative council, partly appointed and partly elected by the registered voters. SoutliernRliodesiahasan area of 149,000 square miles, and thecstiinatcd population (1918) was 770,- 000 natives and 37,000 Em-opeans, Tlie coimtrj' is rich in gold and other minerals: the total output in 1917 being valued at over $19,440,000: gold alone being in 1918 312,791,500 The Rhodesian railway system extends from Cape of Good Hope Province northwards to the Belgian Congo. Northern Rhodesia has an area of about 291.000 square miles and an estimated population (1918) of 890,000 natives and 2,400 Europeans. .The govern- ment is vested in a resident commissioner and an ad- visory cotmcil of five members. Timber is plentiful and the agricultiu'al products are com, cotton, to- bacco, and wheat. Rubber is also produced. SWAZILAND. Swaziland is situated at the southeastern comer of the Transvaal. It is imder the control of the British government, which is exercised by the high commissioner for South Africa. Its agricultiu-al crops are com and tobacco. The territory is rich in minerals and in 1017-18 the output of tin was valued at $291,600. The area is 6,678 square miles and the population (1911) 99,959, of whom 98,000 are Zulus. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. The Union of South Africa, established by act of Parliament, September 20, 1909 (actually imited May 31, 1910). consists of the four self-governing colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Trans- vaal, and Orange Free State. The British govern- ment appoints a governor-general, who in turn des- ignates an executive coimcil of ministers responsible to the South African Parliament. The legislative power is vested in a Parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of .Assembly, which may be summoned or prorogued by the gov- ernor-general: and the Assembly may be dissolved and new elections called for. The Senate consists of 40 members, of whom, tmtil 1920, eight were nominated by the governor-general and 32 elected, eight for each province. The sena- tors must be British subjects of European descent, of thirty years of age, and possessing property to the value of $2,500. The House of Assembly consists of 130 members, 51 for the Cape of Good Hope, 17 for Natal, 45 for Transvaal, 17 lor Orange Free State. Members must be British subjects of European de- scent, and resident five years in the Union. Each province is governed by an administrator appointed nominally by the govemor-general of South Africa, actually by a ministry for the time being, and by a provincial council, elected for tliree years, which has authority to deal with finance, edu- cation, charity, municipal institutions, local worics, and other matters delegated to them. Religion and Education. The majority of the white people (693,898) are adherents of the Dutch Protestant churches. There are over 250,000 Angli- cans, 80,000 Wesleyans, 58,000 Presbyterians, 53,000 Roman Catholics. Education other than higher edu- cation is in the control of the provinces, but the fed- eral department of education is concerned with nine luiiversities and colleges, at wliich are 2,077 students. Industry and Production. In agriculture, wheat has been increasingly cultivated and the crop of 1917 was estimated at five and a half million bush- els. The corn crop for the same year was estimated at 36,000,000 bushels. The production of cheese and iiutter is also important and there are vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats The produc- tion of wool for 1917 was 117,000,000 lbs., and of mo- hair 3,000.000 lbs. The growth of cotton is being undertaken with great success. Tobacco and tea are also produced. The chief source of the country's wealth, however, is gold and diamond mining. In 1917 the output of the gold mines was valued at .Sl,84,680,000 and of diamonds at $34,020,000, The total production of diamonds in South Africa up to the end of 1917 is given as $889,380,000 and of gold $2,687,580,000. It is estimated that the Union contains 56 billion tons of coal and in 1917, 10,000,000 tons were mmed. Other valuable mineral products are copper, silver, and tin. Defense. The defense forces consist of the per- manent force — South African moimted riflemen of five regiments. There is also a coast garrison force, a citizen force, the royal naval volunteer re- serve, and special reserves. Soutli .\frica furnished 150,000 troops to the British forces in the World W ar. The area of the Union is 473,100 square miles; the population (1911) was 5,973,394, of whom 4,697,- 152 were native or colored and 1,276,242 European. PROVINCES OF THE UNION. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was origi- nally fotmded by the Dutch in 1652. Great Britain occupied it from 1795 to 1803 and again from 1806 until 1814, when it was formally ceded to Great Britain. It had a responsible go\'emment from 1872 to 1910 when it formed one of the original provinces of the South African Union. It is divided into 119 administrative districts, and there are 126 mimici- palities and 78 village-management boards. The area is 276,966 sq. miles: the population (1911) was 2,564,965, Of whom 619,319 were Eiu-opeans. There were 1,437,688 Christians, and 1,047,233 natives of no religion. Education is compulsory for clilldren of European extraction, and there were 121,000 Euro- pean pupils and 148,000 non-Europeans. Production and Industry. The majority of the diamonds produced in South Africa come from Cape of Good Hope Province. NATAL. Natal was annexed to Cape Colony (now Cape of Good Hope Provmce) in 1844. given a separate gov- ernment in 1845. and responsible government in 1893. The province of Zululand was annexed to Natal in 1,S97. In 1910 Natal became one of the provinces of the Union of South Africa. It has a seaboard of about 360 miles. The climate is well suited to Europeans, being semitropical on the coast and somewhat colder inland. Education. The province maintains 169 pri- mary schools, seven intermediate schools, and seven secondary schools, with various special schools. In 1917 there were over 21,000 Eiu'opeans attending the government and inspected schools, and over 28,- 000 colored children receiving education. About 1,000 children attend private, unaided schools Production and Industry. There are vast sugar plantations on the coast of Ziduland, which in 1917-18 produced 130,000 tons, while tea and cereals of all kinds grow abimdantly. Natal has a small gold production. Its coal production in 1917 was over 2,000,000 tons. The whaling industry is also important. The area of Natal (including ZuliUand, wliich is 10,424 square miles) is 35,291 square miles. The population (1911) was 1,194,043, of whom 98,000 were Europeans. The European population has more than doubled since 1891. TRANSVAAL. The Transvaal was colonized by the Boers in 1836-37, and its independence was recognized by Great Britain in 1852. In 1877 it was annexed by the British government, but after the rebellion of 1880 its independence was recognized tmder certain conditions. The discovery of gold in " the Rand " (see rand, in the Diet.) and the consequent influx of foreigners produced friction leading to the South African War (1899-1902), which resulted, in 1900, in the annexation of the Transvaal. In 1906 it re- ceived responsible government, and in 1910 became one of the provinces of the Union of South Africa. Religion and Education. The Dutch Protestant churches are the strongest religious denomination. The primary and elementary schools are main- tained by the province and consist of 900 primary- schools, with 85,000 pupils: 19 intermediate, and 11 secondary, schools, with over 3,000 pupils; 350 state and state-aided schools for colored, native, and In- dian children, with 28, OCX) pupils. Industry and Production. Transvaal is a great stock-raising country, with vast flocks of sheep and goats. Large areas are adapted for agriculture, and the com and tobacco crops are important. The greatest resources, however, are gold (1917i $184,- 680,000, diamonds $8,103,000, and coal $7,708,000. Transvaal has an area of 110,450 square mUes, and is divided into twenty-four districts. The pop- ulation (1911) was 1,686,212, of whom 420,5t.2 were Europeans or whites. The Etiropean popula- tion is increasing. ORANGE FREE STATE. Europeans first crossed the Orange River in the middle of the eighteenth centiu-y, and made settle- ments in 1810 and 1820. In 1848 the whole terri- tory, including the Vaal, was proclaimed a British possession, but in 1854 British sovereignty was with- drawn. In the South African War the Orange Free State sided with the South African Republic (now Transvaal Province), and as a result was annexed, in 1900, as the Orange River Colony. It was gov- erned as a crown colony until 1907. when it received responsible government, and in 1910 it became a part of the Union of South Africa. Religion and Education. The principal re- ligious denomination i> the Dutch Reformed t hurch, with 175,000 adherents. Primary and secondary education are controlled by the province, wliich is divided into school dis- tricts, for each of wliich there is a school board. In 1917 there were 731 public, and 137 aided private, schools, with 36,938 pupils. Attendance is compul- sory, but fees are charged at all the schools. Both Dutch and English are taught to all children unless objected to by the parents. There are several in- stitutions of higher instruction: a norma, chcol, a polytechnic college, and an industrial schooi. Industry and Production. The province s well adapted for grazing, and stock farming is cut. chief industry, although an increasing quantity Ox grain is being produced. The province produced in 1917, 34,551, ,800 worth of diamonds and $1,056,000 worth of coal. The province has an area of 50,389 square miles, and is di\ided into 24 districts. The population (1911) was 175,189 whites, 352,985 colored. Chronology. Union of South Africa. 1487. Dias rotmds Cape of Good Hope. 165%. April. Dutch East India Company starts a station at Cape Town (Table Bay). 1795. Sept. 16. First English occupation of Cape Colony. Though restored by Treaty of Amiens (1802), colony is again captured in 1806. 1814. Aug. 13. British possession is confirmed by treaty with Netherlands. Colony then had about 30,000 iniiabitants (Boers). 1820. Begiiming of British assisted immigration: about 5, TOO arrive within a year, and are located on new land in Albany. 1824. Beginning of Natal; settlement at Dur- ban of a few Englishmen. 1825. Jan.l. English made the official language. 1834. Dec. 1. Slavery abolished under British act of August 28, 1833. Colonists resent it and suffer from lack of reasonable equivalent: instru- mental in changing coimtry from agricultural to pastoral. 1836. Beginning of the emigration (trek) of the Boers to the region beyond the Orange River and British sphere (see great trek, under great, in the Diet.), where they formed what became later the Orange Free State and South African Re- public. Some go to Natal. 1842. British military force sent against Boers in Natal, and on May 12, 1843, the colony of Natal is proclaimed. Attached to Cape Colony, but made separate colony July 12, 1856, and given a constitution; in 1893 responsible government. 1852. Jan.l?. Sand River Convention acknowl- edges independence of Boers north of Vaal Ri^■er (South African Republic). 1854. Feb. £3. Followuig a defeat by Basutos and conferences with Boer settlers, British acknowl- edge independence of Orange River territory (Free State). June SO. First parliament of Cape Colony meets: representative govemment having been authorized by British government May 23, 1850. 1859. Beginning of railroad construction. 1868. March 12. Basutoland proclaimed British territory: for a while aimcxed to Cape Colony (1871-1883). but later directly governed. 1869-1871. Discovery and development of the diamond fields, especially at Kimberley. Ju- risdiction over the Held contested by Orange Free State, but most of it put imder British control (Griqualand West) and the Free State given a pecuniary indemnity. Field mcorporated in Cape Colony in 1877 ICape Colony.! 1872. Responsible government introduced ln| 1875-1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). 67 1875. Dec, 11. Treaty on bo^mda^ies of Portu- guese East Africa and South African Republic, 1877. April 12. Proclamation declaring South African Republic to be British territory, a phase of Disraeli's imperialistic policy. State of re- public then so low people unable to resist the ac- tion beyond a formal protest. British commission assumes government. Plans for confederation of South African colonies fail. 1879. Zulu War; ends with defeat of Cetewayo, the Zulu king, at Ulundi by Wolseley (July 4). and capture later of the king. [lie begins, i 1880. Dec. 16. Revolt of South African Repub-| 1881. Feb. 27. Defeat of British at Majuba Hill, March 6. Armistice followed by the Conven- tion of Pretoria, August 3, by wliich the Republic secures self-government under British suzerainty. 1884. Feb. 27. Convention of London; practical Independence for South African Republic, ex- cept for British veto on treaties with other nations. 1885. Sept. 30. British jurisdiction proclaimed over (British) Bechuanaland; annexed to Cape Colony, October 3, 1895. 1886. Discovery of gold in the Rand, S. A. R., fol- lowed by development of Johannesburg, and great influx of outside capital and foreigners, to whose demands for equitable political and other rights and treatment the Boer government steadily refuses to yield, being determined to hold political power. ("Uitland'jr" [foreigner] controversy.) 1887. May /-i. Zululand declared a British pos- session: added to Natal, December 1, 1897. 1889. March 2S. Convention for customs imion be- tween Cape Colony and Orange Free State. Union extends also later to Natal and Bechuanaland pro- tectorate. Basutoland, Swaziland, and Rhodesia, Oct. 29. Incorporation of the British South Africa Company (Cecil Rhodes guiding spirit), to operate north of British Bechuanaland and south of the Zambezi; but administration over Bechuanaland protectorate never exercised. 1890. Jinie SO. Order in council for Bechuanaland protectorate; further order on May 9, 1891. July 1- Treaty delimiting German and Brit- ish spheres in Africa; defliies British spheres as to Cape Colony, Bechuanaland protectorate, pres- ent Rhodesia, and Nyasaland. 1891. February. Field of the British South Africa Company extended north of the Zambezi; not to include Nyasaland. [over Nyasaland. I May 14- Notification of British protectorate I June 11. Treaty delimiting Portuguese and British spheres; including Angola and Portu- guese East Africa on one part, and present Rho- desia, Nyasaland. and Natal on the other part. 1893. War with the Matabele. Cape Towii and Port Elizabeth connected by rail- road with Johannesburg and Pretoria. ■ 1894. May 12. Treaty delimiting British and Bel- gian Congo spheres, including present Rhodesia, July IS. Matabeleland, Southern Rhodesia, placed under British South Africa Company. Oct. 3. Railroad from Cape Town north (Cape to Cairo) opened to Mafeking. 1895. Railroads from Lourenco Marques to Pre- toria and from Durban to Pretoria, via Johannes- burg, opened, Dec. 29. Jameson Raid; premature march into South African Republic of 500 horsemen of British South Africa Company with artillery, in connection with conspiracy of Rhodes and foreigners at Johannesburg to rise against Boer government: raiders defeated and captured (Jan- uary 2, 1896). Sixty-four of reform committee at Johaimesburg arrested. Fruitless negotiations between Transvaal and British govemrnmt riisuc; question of British suzerainty and rights of for- eigners (uitlanders); both sides making mihtary preparations. [missioner for South Africa, I 1897-1905. Sir Alfred (Lord) Mllner high com-| 1897. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad opened to Bula- wayo, in Southern Rhodesia. 1899. May I. Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia (Mashonaland) connected by railroad with coast at Beira in Portuguese East Africa. Oct. 12. Boers issue ultimatum demanding withdrawal of British troopsfrom frontier; refused, and the two republics, South African Republic and Orange Free State (in alliance) begin South African War by besieging Mafeking and Kinibcr- ley, and invading Cape Colony, and Natal, where siege is laid to Ladysmlth. British defeated in series of battles for relief of Ladysmith (Colenso, December 15; Spion Kop, January 23, 1900; and Vaal Krantz, Februarj- 5); also at Magersfon- tein (December 10-11) and Stormberg (Dec. 10), Nov. 2S. Northwestern Rhodesia put under administration of British South Africa Company. Dec. IS. Lord Roberts made commander in chief of British forces; Kitchener, chief of staff. 1900. Jan. 29. Northeastern Rhodesia put imder the British South Africa Company. Feb. IS. Relief of Kimberley. February 27, Cronje. Boer commander, surrenders to Roberts at Paardeberg. February 28, Ladysmith relieved; May 17, Mafeking relieved. May 24. Orange Free State annexed as Orange River Colony, later again known as Orange Free State. May 31. Johannesburg occupied. On JimeS, Roberts enters Pretoria. Sept. 1. South African Republic annexed as Transvaal. Roberts goes liome, leaving Kitch- ener in charge, Boers resort to guerilla war- fare, conducted imder Botha and De Wet, com- pelling large British force to keep the field 1902. May 31. Peace of Vereeniging; honorable terms received by the Boers, but independence surrendered. British employ about 450.(300 men in the war; Boers (including Cape Colony rebels), about 95,000. British casualties: 5.774 killed, 22,829 wounded; Boers had about 3,700 killed. War cost Great Britain $1,(X)0.000,000. 1903. Chamberlam, colonial secretary, visits South Africa on matters of reconstruction ; chief problems are labor, the war contributions of the conquered republics, and the language question. Boers also demand responsible government. Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, connected with the Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, giving a continuous line between Beira and Cape Town, Auoust. Convention for customs imion, with preference of 25% to United Kingdom. 1904. Feb. 18. Jameson becomes premier of Cape Colony; his conservative ministry finds Dutch support. April 25. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad reaches Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, June 22. Arrival of first shipment of Chinese contract coolies to work in mines. Deemed tem- porarily necessary by Lord Milner, governor of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, sufficient number of blacks not being available, and whites unwilling to work with blacks. Popular opposition. Number of coolies reaches 50,000 next year, but policy is then reversed and in 1910 last of them sent back to Hongkong. 1905-1910. Lord Selboume high commissioner. 1905. Dec. 6. Responsible government In Transvaal; idea of a war contribution has been dropped. Language question (Taal and Eng- lish) ultimately compromised; higher education to be entirely in English, lower education bilingual. 1906. Dec. 1. Order in council transfers Swaziland from Transvaal to cro\v7i administration, as in Basutoland ; this leaves Zululand alone of the great native reservations under colonial (Natal) control. 1907. July 1 . Responsible government proclaimed for Orange Free State. 1908. Oct. 12. National Convention meets at Dur- ban, later at Cape Town; forms a constitution for Union of South Africa composed of Cape Colony. Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal, which is promulgated February 9. but later amended, and finally approved by the British Par- liament on September 20, 1909. Suffrage prob- lem; Dutch, having a majority in the Union, re- quire that it be limited to men of Eiu-opean origin; native suffrage continues in Cape Colony but can be abrogated by a two-thirds vote of LTnion Par- liament. Other portions of South Africa may be admitted to Union. 1910. May 31. Cnion of South Africa pro- claimed. Lord Gladstone sworn in as gov- ernor-general. Botha, a Boer general, heads first ministry. July 1. New customs union formed; includes Union of South Africa and all the other British possessions in South Africa. Nov. Jf. Duke of Connaught opens first par- liament of Union. 1911. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad crosses Congo border and is completed to Elizabethville in that colony. May 7. Population of Union of South Africa 5,973.394. of whom 1.276,242 are whites. 1913. June 13. South Africa Defense Act; includes a permanent force, coast -garrison force, active and general- citizen force, and naval reserve. Peace training for all men between 21 and 25. 1913. June-July. Strike of white miners in Rand imder sj-ndicahst propaganda: rioting at Johannes- burg on July 4; martial law next day. November. Strike of Indian workers in Natal, due to race discrimination; sporadic rioting, also passive resistance. In 1914 a parliamentary In- dians Relief Act accepted as sufficient settlement of grievances, WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. Jan. S-22. Railway strike, followed by s>-ndicalist call for a general strike. Martial law is proclaimed and leaders arrested. January 24, nine of strike leaders deported to London. Indemnity Act, March 19, protects government officials against pimishmcnt for illegal acts. Other legislation aimed against labor agita- tion, but a Workmen's Compensation Act also Aiigust. Outbreak of World Warinvolves South Africa as part of British Empire. Forces raised. Part of the Dutch seize opportunity to rise. September. Sydney (Lord) Buxton governor- general. October. Several parties of Boers under Ma- ' ritz. De Wet, Beyers, and Kemp revolt through Gurman intrigue; speedily suppressed by Botha with force of 20,000 Dutch and 10,000 British, De Wet captured December 1, later convicted of high treason but released; Kemp also captured February 1, 1915; Beyers killed; and Maritz. es- caping into German Southwest Africa, executed by Germans for treacliery. 1915. February. Botha begins invasion of Ger- man Southwest Africa; some 27,500 British and 22.500 Boer troops participate; Windiuik, the capital, occupied on May 12. and formal surren- der of territory made on July S, Oct. 20. General election; bitter contest; Botha and war policy sustained by 54 seats for his party (South African) and 40 for Unionists; Nationalists, Dutch, led by Hertzog, who keep up a steady opposition to the war and British con- nection, get 27 seats; Independents, G; and Labor- ites. 3. December. First contingent of South African troops for overseas reaches England; about 70,000 are sent out during the war. 1916. South African troops participate in cam- paign against German East Africa; Jan Chris- tiaan Smuts commands. Daressalam, the capi- tal, occupied on September 4. 1917. Campaign continues in German East Africa: Van Deventer succeeds Smuts, who goes to Eng- land and becomes a member of the war cabinet there. At end of year territory is cleared; Ger- man troops driven into Portuguese territory. i918. Population of Union 6,872,164, including 1,467.457 whites. [Congo at Bukama.l May 22. Cape-to-Cairo railway readies the| A' fir. 14. After armistice, German force of East Africa surrenders. Total S. African force in war about 150,000; casualties: 6,533 killed. 11,661 wounded, 1,637 prisoners and missing. Dec. 2. Botha leaves to attend Peace Confer- ence, to wliich Smuts is also a delegate. Smuts draws up a plan for a League of Nations. 1919. March. Strike at Johannesburg with revo- lutionary tendencies. Strikers take possession of pubUc service and set up a board of control. Dies out. [ceeds.l Aug. 2S. Premier Botha dies; Smuts suc-| Sept. 12. Treaty of Versailles ratified by South Africa. 1920. March 10. General elections. Laborites gain. Nationalists (Dutch) do not. Ministry re- tains majority by help of Unionists and Inde- pendents. BRITISH WEST AFRICA. British West Africa includes the colony and protectorate of Nigeria, the Gambia colony and pro- tectorate, the Gold Coast colony with Ashanti and the Northern Territories, and the Sierra Leone col- ony and protectorate. Nigeria lies between Dahomey and Kamerun. The colonies and protectorates in this region were amalgamated, January- 1. 1914, into the colony and protectorate of Nigeria, with the capital at Lagos. It is a cro^vn colony under the control of a governor- general and executive coimcil. Slaver>' was not completely abolished until 1917. In 1917 there were in the northern province over 24,000 Moham- medan schools, with 200, (WO pupils, and in the south- em province there were over a thousand govern- ment and private schools, with an attendance of 53,000, The chief products are palm oU, rubber, groimdnuts, ivorj', ostrich feathers, liides, and cot- ton There are rich deposits of tin in the northern pro\ince and of coal in the southern province. The area is about 332,000 square miles and the popula- tion (1918) about 16.750,000. Gambia is at the mouth of the river Gambia and has an area of four square miles with a population of 8,000. The protectorate has an area of 4,500 square miles and a population of 2(X),000, The chief ex- ports are groimdnuts, liides, palm kernels, and gold. The Gold Coast extends 334 miles along the Gulf of Guinea Ix-tween the French Ivory Coast and To- goland. It is a crown colony, and with Ashanti and the protectorate of the Northern Territories, has an area of about 80.000 square miles. The population in 191 1 was 1,500,000, The chief exports are cocoa, gold and gold dust, kola nuts, lumber, palm kernels, palm oil. and rubber. Ashanti has been under British protection since 1896, and was annexed by Great Britain in 1901. The population (1911) was 287,814, The chief I^roducts are cocoa, nil^ber, and gold, Ashanti is rich in forests, rubber-producing plants, and trees yielding fruits rich in oil. The Northern territories lie between the French possessions and Togoland and were placed imder British protection in 1901. They are said to con- tain wide gold areas. Sierra Leone (colony) is between French Guinea and the republic of Liberia. The original colony was foimded in 1787 for the purpose of making a 68 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). 1517-1915. home for free negroes. Freetown, the capital, has lO an excellent harbor and ranks as the chief seaport of West Africa. The chief exports are palm kernels. kola nuts, and palm oil. The area iL approximately 4,000 square miles and population (1911) 75,572, of whom 702 were whites. The protectorate of Sierra Leone, with an area of 27.000 square miles and a population (191 1) of 1.327.- 560. was established in 1896. The chief exports are ^^ palm kernels, kola nuts, and palm oil. EGYPT. Historical Outline. Egypt was conquered by the Romans in 46 a. d., and its national existence ended with the establish- ment of the Arabian dominion in (i41 a d. For the next six centiu-ies the comitry was one of the cali- P phates of Islam. In 1250, Egypt was conquered by the Mamelukes, origmally Tatars and Tm-ks. who from bemg a race of slaves, rose by insurrection to become the dominant people of tlie counti-y. This line of sovereigns continued imtil 13S2. wlien a new line, the Circassian Mamelukes took their place. In 1517 the Sultan Selim I. invaded and subdued Egypt. In the two centuries following, this depend- Qency lost vitality, though it was never destroyed and the Mamelukes were still a power in Lower Egypt. In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egjpt and almost destroyed the Mamelukes in the battle of the Pyramids. Napoleon took Egypt as a station on the conqueror's road to Asia. After the imsuccessfizl siege of Acre he was obliged to give way. and ui 1801 the French army evacuated the country. __ In 1805 Alehemet All. the thst viceroy of the R coimtry. gained virtual independence. He affected European methods and became a powerful ruler. In 1S30 he made a successful invasion of SyTia. and cliallenged the sultan to open war. In 1839 the Turks were defeated in the battle of Nizib. The Western powers came on the scene and obliged Me- hemet All to resiune his relation as a viceroy of the Ottoman Empire. The sultan, in 1848, appointed O Ibrahim, son of Mehemet, as regent of Egypt. ^ Thereafter, a succession of weak princes ruled Egyi)t till, in 1863. Ismail succeeded to the pashaUc Four years later he was designated by the sultan as khe- dive of Egypt. Ismail tried to westernize his realm by lavish ex- penditure, subsidized the opera, and contracted large foreign debts. The completion of the canal ^ across the Isthmus of Suez in 1869 gave Ismail great I prestige in Eiu-opean coimtries and enaliled liim, in the name of the government, to l:)Orrow enormous Slims of money for his personal use. In 1879 the reign broke down, he was expelled, and his son, Tcw- flk. was established in his stead. Tewflk was obliged to appeal to Western powers for aid. Not even the interest on the public debt could be paid. In this emergency. Great Britain and France m- U tervened, and from 1879 to 1883 Egyptian affah^ were imder the supervision of two controUers gen- eral, appointed by France and England. This hu- miliatmg condition of the Egyptians led to an msur- rection in 1SS2: in a nationalistic movement Arabi Pasha, the minister of war, took the lead and raised a little army. England intervened and bombarded Alexandria, defeated Arabi Pasha, and restored Tew- Vflk. In this intervention France had taken no part and as a result, in 1883. a single English financial ad- visor was appointed without whose concurrence no unportant financial decision could be made. France rather unwillingly acquiesced, but in the Anglo- French convention of 1904 gave her approval to the system. Under Ismail and Tewfik the authority of Egypt was pushed up the Nile. In that distant region ap- ^M peared the Mahdi (see in the Dictionary), one of the fanatical prophets who from time to time became leaders in the Sudan. He all but aimiliilated an Egyptian army tmder English officers, and the rule of the British was shaken. In 1884 General Charles George Gordon (" Chi- nese Gordon ") was sent with a small British force into the Sudan. Left wit'liout support, he was X cooped up in Khartum, and on Januarj' 26, 1885, the town was stormed and Gordon was killed, just as a British relief force was nearing. The British abandoned the Sudan imtil 1898, when General Kitchener defeated the dervishes at Omdurman and reoccupied Khartmn. In 1892 Abbas Hilmi Pasha succeeded his father, Tewflk, and showed considerable independence of, and irritation at, British control. For some of his Y *cts he was forced to apologize publicly in the official gazette. The British were obliged to recognize the desire of the Egyptians for a share in their own gov- ernment. In 1913 a legislative assembly of 89 members (only 66 elected) was set up. In the first year of the World War. the khedive was deposed and Eg>-pt became substantially an imperial colony, though Z nominally Hussein Kamil was recognized as sultan of Egypt. He died in 1917 and was succeeded by Fuad I. During 1915 the Suez Canal was threatened by a Turkish force organized by the Germans. Egypt then became a base for a successful movement on Palestine, which was occupied in 1918. Pressiu-e of the Egyptians for self-government was at once re- newed. Organization. Production and Industry. In the region wa- tered by the Nile the soil is extremely fertile and pro- duces three crops each jear. The chief exports are textiles and yams, cereals, colonial produce (cotton seed, sugar, beans, cigarettes, etc.), liides, tobacco, animals, and animal food products. Education and Religion. In 1919, there were about 200 schools tmder the immediate direction of the Egyptian government, at which there were nearly 35,000 pupils. In addition there were over 3,700 provincial schools, with nominally more than 228,000 pupils. Nine tenths of the population are Moslems and seven per cent Christian, includmg Copts, who are the lineal descendants of the ancient Egj-ptians. Defense. The organization of the Egj-ptian army is in the hands of a British general with the title of shdar. Service is compulsory, but only four per cent of the men liable are called upon. The total strength of the army was (1919) about 17.000. Be- fore 1914. Great Britain kept an army of occupation of about 6.000. The area of Egypt, excluding the Sudan, is about 350,000 square miles and the population (1917) 12,750,918. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. SrDAN extends from the frontier of Egypt to Uganda and the Belgian Congo, and from the Red Sea to Wadai, in Central Africa. At various times a nominal authority was exerted over it by Egypt, but from 1882 imtil the victories of Kilchener in 1898 and 1899 there was no EgjiJtian influence there. It is governed by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, assisted by a coimcil. The Sudan is divided into fifteen provinces, over wiiich are British officers. In 1918 there were 63 elementary schools, with over 5.000 pupils, and Gordon College where pupils are trained for government positions and for teach- ers. A begiiming has been made in the establish- ment of girls' schools. Sudan is the chief source of the world's supply of gum arable and ivory. Other important products are cotton, ostrich feathers, doom palm nuts, dates, hides, skins, and gold. The area is 1.014.400 square miles and the esti- mated population (1917) 3.400,000. Chronology. Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. 151J. ottoman conquest ends nUe of Mame- lukes. A pasha is nominal ruler; much trouble with the army, and m the eighteenth century with the Mameluke beys. 1769. Ali Bey declares Egypt independent. He gains control of Arabia and Syria, but is be- trayed by his general (1772) and nominal Tiu'kish rule is resumed. 1798. Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes at the battle of the Pyramids, July 21, and occupies Lower Egypt, the " road to India "; but defeat of French fleet at battle of the Nile, August 1, makes ultimate success impossible. 1799. Bonaparte's imsuccessful Sj-rian campaign is followed by his return to France without his army in October. 1801. Under compulsion of Tiu'kish and British forces French evacuate Egypt. 1803. Rise of Mehemet Aii, head of Albanian troops in Egypt, who. after conquests for and against both pasha and beys, is made pasha him- self (May. 1805). 1811. Mehemet Ali finally crushes the beys, and rules, practically independent, until 1847: eco- nomic progress and order, but severe repression of the people. [Heja2).| 1811-1819. War in Arabia (see Arabia, underl 1831-1833. Contest between Mehemet AU and Turkey over Syria; former is recognized by con- vention of Kutaia, May 14. 1833, as pasha over SjTia, Aleppo, and Adana. 1839-1841. Renewal of contest. Powers (France excluded) covenant, .luly 15. 1840. to save Tur- itey. Ibrahim. Mehemet All's son and general, driven out of S>Tia: but France saves Egypt for the pasha. Pashalic of EgjTDt is made hereditary in his family, February 13, 1841; later changed. May 27, 1866, to primogeniture. 1854. Nov. SO. Concession for the Suez Canal granted to De Lesseps; amplified on January 5, 1856; construction begins April 25, 1859. 1867. Title of khedive conferred on the pasha. 1869. Nov. 16. Foracal opening of Suez Canai. 1875. Ismail's extravagances compel him to sell his - canal stock, which Great Britain purchases. Subsequent foreign investigation shows impend- ing national bankruptcy. A dual control of the finances by France and Great Britain, and inter- national protection of foreign bondholtlers (C'aisse de la Dette) are instituted. 1879. June B6. Ismail is deposed by Turkey at wishes of France and Great Britain; TewHk suc- ceeds. Evelj-n Baring (Lord Cromer) becomes English agent in the dual control. 1882. Antiforeigu anti-Ctiristian party under Arabi gains control; massacre at Alexandria, Jime 11. British fleet bombards city, July 11. Turkey declining to suppress a Mussulmanic movement and France and Italy refusing to par- ticipate. Great Britain lands an army under Wolselcy, and suppresses the revolt at the bat- tle of Tel el Kebir, September 13. Army con- tmues in occupation. Arabi Pasha sent to Ceylon as a state prisoner. 1883. Jan. IS. Dual control ends; English financial advisor or agent (Baring) instituted; vir- tual power behind the throne. Baring reorgan- izes the nation; great enonomic and social im- provements. Nof. .;. .inniliilation of army of Hicks Pasha in the Sudan, where there is a revolt under a re- Ugious fanatic who proclaims himself the Mahdi. 1884. British government orders Egypt to aban- don the Sudan; Gordon, former governor-general of region, arrives at Khartum, February 18. to plan evacuation. He is environed. British re- lief expedition under Wolseley starts up the Nile, but Khartum is captured and Gordon killed on January 26, 1885. 1885. Troops withch'awn from Sudan, May 11. IMahdi dies June 22. British public opinion much aroused over vacillation and delay of expedition. 1888. Oct. S9. Suez Canal Convention at Con- stantmople for neutralization of the waterway: Great Britain makes reservations which prevent ratification till April S, 1904, when free passage in peace and war is affirmed for vessels of all nations. 1892. Jan. S. Tewflk dies; Abbas Hilmi succeeds. 1896-1898. Renewal of Sudan campaign by Kiteliener, sirdar of Egyptian army. By end of. 1897 advance has occupied Berber (September 5), and railway is constructed from Wadi Haifa across Nubian Desert to that place. British troops are added to sirdar's army in 1S9S. On September 2, khalifa's (caliph's) army defeated before Omdurman, and Khartum reoccupied September 4. Power of rebels entirely destroyed. 1898. Fashoda incident. French flag raised on Wiiite NUe, July 10, as part of plan to form a French belt across Africa at that latitude. Ivitch- ener's advance frustrates it. War threatens, but by agreement of March 21, 1899, France renounces the Nile valley and British sphere is extended over Libyan Desert. 1899. Jan. 19. Agreement for Joint administra- tion of Sudan by Egypt and Great Britain. Dec. 12. Railway between Wadi Haifa and Ivhartum (Cape to Cairo) opened to traffic. 1902. Dec. 10. Formal opening of the Assuan Dam on the Nile; a great irrigation project. 1904. Aprils. Anglo-French declaration recog- nizes dominance of France in Morocco and of Great Britain in Egypt. Other powers recognize British control later. Nor. 2S. Powers approve of a decree restoring Egj-ptian financial independence; Caisse de la Dette abolished. [becomes prominent. | 1905. Nationalist and Pan-Islamic movement! October. Khartum is connected by railway with Port Sudan on Red Sea. 1906. May 14. Turklsh-Egj-ptian jigreement as- signs Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. 1907. April 11. Cromer resigns; Gorst succeeds as British agent. 1910. Feb. 21. Egj-ptian premier killed by a Na- tionalist, because of his British sympathy. 1911. July 16. Kitchener is appointed British agent. 1912. February. Railway opened between Ivhar- tum and El Obeid; Cairo-El Obeid line completes northern portion of Cape-to-Cairo project. 1913. July 21. Changes in parliamentary sys- tem; one legislative assembly, with a majority of indirectly elected members, displaces two former consultative bodies. It possesses some right of initiating legislation, but final legislative power remains m the government. July 23. Khedive is wounded by a Nationalist. 1914. Dec. 18. British protectorate over Egypt is proclaimed and Turkish suzerainty abol- ished, following war with Turkey. Abbas is de- posed, December 20, and Hussein KamH ele- vated, with title of sultan. Protectorate recog- nized by allied and neutral powers. 'Vessels of Germany and her allies not allowed to use the canal for commerce or passage of warships. 1915. January. March of 40,000 Turkish troops under Djemal by tlu-ee routes across Sinai to in- vade Egypt. Force defending canal consists of Egyptians, British, Anzacs, and Indians. At^ tempt to pass canal on February 3 fails, and Turks retreat. 1915 — 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 69 1915 (continued). Xoiember. Invasion of western Egypt by 30.000 Moslems under a Senussi leader; beaten back after a campaign of five months. 1916. Atwust. Attack of 18,000 Turks mider Kressenstein against British force at Romani at the head of the railway being estabhshed across Sinai. Turks defeated and retire, being finally driven from Rafa on January 9. 1917, and Slnal cleared. Railway pushed forward in prepara- tion for Allenby's campaign in SjTia. 1917. Oct. 9. Ahmed Fuad becomes sultan as Fuad I. on death of Hussein. 1918. May. Cairo is joined by railway bridge across the canal with the Sinai -Palestine system, giving rail connection from Central Africa with Constantinople and Europe. 1919. March. Revolt at Cairo. Alexandria, and elsewhere by Nationalists, predatory element, and Bedouins; soldiers off duty are special object of attack. Further rioting occurs later in month when Allenby releases imprisoned Nationalists. Some 2.000 natives sentenced for participation. April ei. General strike and resignation of the president of the council. Following a warning proclamation by Allenby, the civil officials return to their duties. Juti€ SS. In the Treaty of Versailles, Germany recognizes the British protectorate over Egj-pt and renounces all special privileges and rights in the region, including exterritoriality. Nov. 2U. Nationalist rioting and a ministerial crisis occur; Moslem unrest over future of Tur- key is an element in the trouble. Dec. 14. Attempted assassination of the pre- mier by a student. 1920. Jan. 2. Milner mission, sent to study the situation on the basis of autonomy imder British protection, is told by head of the Eg>'ptian Mos- lems that the people demand independence. May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to Turk- ish delegates; by it Turkey relinquishes all claim to Egypt, recognizes the British protectorate, and surrenders to Great Britain all Suez Canal rights. BRITISH COLONIES AND f>OSSESSIONS IN AMERICA. CANADA. Historical Outline. England began to colonize America as early as 1567; and at one time held as colonies the whole area of the present United States east of the Mississippi. That possession was lost in the American Revolu- tion, and in 1846 Great Britain gave up claim to the Oregon country south of 49°. Otherwise, nearly every island and continental area that Great Britain has ever occupied in the two Americas is still British. The Dominion of Canada is a fine example of the colonizing ability of Great Britain. The difficulty of organizing the provinces of Canada into a federation, leaving to the crown the central authority, was great. Ti*e"whole region reaching from Nova Scotia far into the interior was once possessed and colonized by the French. This Gallic foimdation had to be taken into accomit. but English institutions have fixed themselves alike in old French Canada and in those parts colonized by Great Britain herself. Old Canada, often called Quebec, included that coimtry between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Lakes Superior and Hiu-on. The modem Dominion of Canada embraces Quebec. Ontario. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island as well as the great region of the Northwest — Manitoba. Sas- katchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories. The total area, excluding the water surfaces, is 3.603.910 square miles, which is greater than that of the United States inclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. The Hudson's Bay Company's claims to the western half of this domain were in 1869 purchased for 31,400,000. The Frencli who penetrated the valley of the St. Lawrence set up a mild feudaUsm , which had no per- manent effect. The last traces disappeared in 1854. In the latter part, of the 17th centur>^ the city of Quebec became the seat of administration for ^ion- treal, Quebec, and Three Rivers. The governing body was the governor, the bishop of Quebec, five associate judges, and the king's attorney. To this period also belong the discoveries and explorations of La Salle. He explored the Great Lakes and the river systems and reached the Mississippi, which he descended to its mouth. His great and rational plans of colonization drew the attention of France to the possibilities of an empire in the New World. In the struggle between the British and French nations for colonial empire, the first weakening of the French was shown in the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, by which Hudson Bay. Newfoimdland. and Acadia were relinquished to Great Britain. The American possessions of France were restricted thenceforth to the valleys of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. The contest was renewed in 1744, and again in 1754. After seven years' conflict. England was victorious. New France was conquered. Canada was transferred to Great Britain; Louisiana, to Britain and Spain. At thetimeof the Treaty of Paris (1763), the total population of Canada was scarcely more than 65.000. Primitive manners still prevailed. The chief inter- ests of the people were In the fur trade, and hardy and adventurous trappers traversed the forests far into the interior. Nevertheless the Canadians were an agricultural people easily supporting themselves. The transfer to England brought great changes in the social and industrial as well rts the pohtical con- dition of the country-. Within ten years exports increased threefold and amoimted to $1,775,000, and the import trade amoimted to SI. 367, 000. Just before the outbreak of the American Revolu- tion, the British government pas.sed the Quebec Act (1774), by which the province of Quebec was gov- erned by a legislative council appointed by the crown and the Roman Cathohc Church was estabUshed by law. Moreover, the Umits of Quebec Province were extended to include the territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River. This act greatly aroused the Thirteen Colonies, who expected to share in the founding of "' back col- onies," beyond the Alleghenies. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, the Thirteen Colonies vainly solicited the Canadians to make common cause against the mother countrjv A disastrous campaign of invasion was conducted by Montgom- erj- and Arnold in the winter of 1775. Thenceforth, during the great conflict with Great Britain, Canada was a refuge for the American loyaUsts, who were welcomed and received lands. Great Britain, aft^r the Treaty of 1783. closed the ports of her colonies to the trade of the United States wliile granting Canada a valuable privilege in sup- plying the British West Indies with her principal ex- ports. In 1822. the importation of wheat and lum- ber from the L^nited Stat^^s was conceded. From the beginning of her history, the question of trade and of the economic laws by which trade is governed has been one of the leading poUtical questions in Canada. After 1783. Canada remained a royal government. In 1791, however, a constitution was granted conced- ing to the Canadians the right to establish a govern- ment of their own with an elective legislatiu*e. The old French colony was designated henceforth as Lower Canada. Upper Canada, with an English- speaking population, was made a separate province. The civil and religious rights of the French Cana- dians were so well guaranteed by the constitution that the revolution in France did not react upon them or arouse them. In the War of 1S12 the Canadian frontier was the scene of the principal hostilities. Little battles were fought on the line of Niagara, and the St. Lawrence, but the Canadians with some British troops held their own. Later, jealousy grew up between Quebec and Ontario out of conflict of commercial and finan- cial interests. An eflFort was made in 1822 for the union of Upper and Lower Canada, but this was not efl'ected imtil 1840. In the year 1849 the free-trade policy of Great Britain was extended to the colonies, and the old restrictive navigation laws were finally abrogated. At the same time the coal btxis of Vancouver and the gold deposits of the British mainland were dis- covered. The organization of British Columbia, the first British province on the Pacific, followed. Ef- forts were made to do away with ecclesiastical en- dowments and other special interests. In 1854. the reserve privileges of the established clergy and the seigniorial teniu-es in property were annulled in Upper and Lower Canada. In the same year the Great Western Railway was undertaken — a work of the greatest importance in promoting the interna- tional relations and interests of Canada and the United States. The American Civil War showed the strength of federation and, also, brought out the possibility of annexation by the great neighbor. After long dis- cussions and controversies, the people of all the pro\inces came to an understanding, In 1867. the British North American Act was passed, by wliich all the eastern continental colonies were united, in- cluding Quebec and Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. In 1869, the possessions of the Hudson's Bay Company were piu-chased by Great Britain, and in 1870, what was then the vast territory of Manitoba became an independent province of the Dominion. In 1871, British Oolumbia was admitted as a mem- ber of the federation. In 1873, Prince Edward Is- land was admitted. Then, in 1882, came the organi- zation of several northwestern territories. The ter- ritorial organization was completed by an order in co^cil in 1895. By this decree the remaining por- tions of the Northwest Territories were divided into four districts, to which were given the names Un- gava. Franklin, Mackenzie, and Yukon, In 1898, the Yukon Territor>- was made a separate political unit, and in 1905 Assiniboia. Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabaska were reorganized as the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta and admitted to the Union. L'ngava was annexed to Quebec Province in 1912. The Dominion now consists of nine prov- inces, the Yukon Territory, and the Northwest Ter- ritories, w^hich last in 1920 were redivided into the provisional districts of Franklin, Mackenzie, and Keewatin. Organization. GoTernment. The constitution of Canada de- pends upon the British North America Act of 1867, which provides that the constitution of the Domhi- ion shall be " similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom." The executive authority is vested in the crown of Great Britain and Ireland, but carried on by a governor-general and a pri\T council (King's Pri\'j- Coimcil) which is virtually the ministry for the time l>eing. The mmisters are desig- nated by the governor-general and are responsible to the party having a majority in the lower house of Parliament, that is, to the House of Commons. Thus parliamentar>' responsibility is established. The King's Privy Coimcil consists of the prime minister, usually called the premier, the president of the Coimcil. the secretary' of state and minister of mines, the ministers for the departments of Trade and Commerce; Justice; Marine. Fisheries and Naval Service; Militia and Defense; Militia and De- fense (overseas); postmaster-general; ministers of Agriculture; Public Works: Finance; Railways and Canals: Interior: Customs and Inland Revenue: Labor: Immigration and Colonization; Soldiers' Civil Reestablishment ; and two members without portfolios. These ministers form the responsible cabinet; and their chief, the prime minister, is the head of the government. The legislature consists of a Senate nominated for life by the governor-general. It now consists of 96 members. The total numbermust never exceed 104. Senators must be at least thirty years of age and pos- sess property, either real or personal, to the value of S4.000. within the province from which they are appointed. The House of Commons is elected by the people for a term of five years, unless sooner dissolved, one representative for everj- 30,819 persons. The Province of Quebec chooses 65 members and the other provinces proportionally according to their populations. In 1919, the House of Commons con- sisted of 234 members — 82 for Ontario, 65 for Que- bec. 16 for Nova Scotia. 11 for New Brunswick, 15 for Manitoba. 13 for British Columbia. 3 for Prince Edward Island, 16 for Saskatchewan, 12 for Alberta, and one for Yukon Territorj-. At the election held in 1917, the Unionist party obtained 151 seats against 81 for all other parties. Under the constitution, the Dominion govern- ment, unlike that of the United States, is endowed with all the powers not assigned exclusively by this document to the provincial legislatures. Each of the nine provinces has a separate Parliament and ad- ministration, with a lieutenant governor designated [ by the governor-general. The provincial prime min- \ ister corresponds to the governor of a State, with large legislative powers added. The provincial prime ministers have full powers to manage local afl'airs and dispose of their revenue, provided they do not interfere with the action and policy of the Do- minion administration. They may amend their pro\Tncial constitutions (except as regards the office of heutenant governor), le\^ taxes, borrow money, manage the sale of cro\m lands within the province, and exercise general police power except over lines of ships, railways, canals, and telegraphs which extend beyond the orovince or coimect with other prov- inces. The federal Parliament, however, may de- clare certain public works for the general good and thus withdraw them from the control of the provin- cial Parliaments. Production and Industry. Canada is a great agricultural coimtrj-. providing enormous quanti- ties of field crops, the value of which in 1917 was esti- mated at SI. 145,000.000, In 1918, the wheat crop was estimated at 210.000,000 bushels; barley, 83.- 000.000: oats. 456.000,000: potatoes. 105,000.000; flax. 7,695,000: and hay and clover. 14,495.000 tons. There are enormous ranches in Canada and a large amount of live stock. According to the returns for 1918. there were 3.000,000 horses, 3.000,000 milch cows. 6.000,000 other cattle. 3.000.000 sheep, 4.000.- 000 swine. For 1917. the important dairy products were creamery butter to the value of 934,000,000, factorj- cheese valued at $41,000,000, evaporated condensed milk and cream valued at S6, 000, 000, and other dairy products' valued at nearly §12,000,000. It is officially estimated that there are between 500 and 600 million acres of timl^er land, and the* forest products for 1916 were valued at $190,000,000. The Atlantic provinces have a coast line of over 5.000 miles, and on the Pacific coast the meandering line of British Columbia is 7,000 miles. In addition there are 220.000 square miles of fresh water, abun- dantly stocked with fish. In 1917, the total value of the produce of the fisheries of Canada was S52,00O,- 000. The principal kinds of fish caught were sal- mon, codfish, lobsters, herring, halibut, haddock, sardines, and whiteflsh, and the exports in fish were valued at $32,000,000. 70 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 1497-1627. Canada has great mineidl resources, and in 1917 its mineral products were valued at S192,982,S37. The principal products in order of value were coal, nickel, copper, pig iron, and silver. With the consent of the Britisli government, Can- ada maintains a protective tariff with a differential of about 15% on values In favor of tlie mother coim- try. The tariff and the growth of business caused by the war resulted in a threefold increase of manufac- tures in the two years between 1915 and 1917. The following are the largest industries: food products, valued at $388,000,000: textiles, 5144,000,000; tim- ber, $123,000,000; iron and steel, $120,000,000. On December 31, 1917, there were 4,925 sailing vessels and 4,264 steamers registered, witii a total net tonnage of 971.438. The canal, river, and lake navigation of Canada covers over 2,700 miles and 28,000 trips aggregating 20,000,000 in tomiage were made tlirough Canadian canals in 1917. In 1917, the total length of the railways was 38,- 604 miles; an increase of 1.170 miles over the previ- ous year. The government railways in operation are 3,944 miles in length. The Canadian Pacific railway extends from Montreal to Vancouver, and is 2.i.L/3 miles in length. This railway and a line of It -iic steamers bring Liverpool and Yokohama witlun twenty-five days of each other by " The All-Red Line." The Grand Trimk Pacific Railway was completed in 1914, from Moncton, New Brims- wick, by way of Quebec, Winnipeg. Saskatoon, and Edmonton to the Pacific coast at Prince Rupert, British Columbia. It has a length of about 3,600 miles, IS entirely within Britisli territory, and forms a link in the siiortest route between Europe and Asia. Education is controlled by the provincial authori- ties on systems based upon the principle of free edu- cation: although education is more or less compul- sory, the law is not strictly enforced. In Quebec the pubhc schools are partly Cathohc and partly Protes- tant. In Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatche- wan there are separate schools for Roman CathoUcs. Elsewhere the schools are nonsectarian. Each province lias at least one university — 22 in all, with about 16,000 students. Tlie most impor- tant of these are RIcGill University, Montreal, the University of Toronto, and the French Canadian University of Laval. In the school year 1916-17 there were more than 1,300,000 pupils in attendance on 27,000 schools. Defense. By the Militia Act of 1904, the land forces are divided into the active and reserve militia. Service in the active militia is vohmtary for three- year enlistments. In case of need it is compulsory. The permanent force consisted of two regiments of cavalry, a brigade of horse artillery, a battalion of infantry, and other troops. British subjects be- tween the ages of IS and 60 who are not exempt or disqualified by law are liable for service in the militia. The operation of the Militia Act and the organiza- tion of the military forces in Canada were suspended as a result of the World War, during which conscrip- tion was employed. There were, however, in 1919 about 12,000troopsforhomedefense. 418,052troops of all ranks were sent to France up to October 31, 1918, and the total casualties amoimted to 213,586. Area and Population. The area of Canada (in part estimated, owing to lack of definite topographical information with reference especially to the northern stretches of the new provisional district of Franklin) is 3,729,665 square miles, including the water sur- faces, and the population by the census of 1911 was 7,206,643 (1917, estimated, 8,361,000). Between 1914 and 1918, 347,774 immigrants arrived in Can- ada, of whom 188,030 were from the United States. CANADIAN PROVINCES. ALBERTA. The district of Alberta was organized as part of the Northwest Territory in 1875, and admitted as a province of the Dominion in 1905. Alberta is pre- eminently an agricultural province, the area of ara- ble land being 100,000,0(X) acres, about a twelfth of which is under cultivation at the present time. In 1917. the total value of the crops was $177,000,000, of wliich wheat, oats, barley, and flax were the most important. From 1880 to 1900 Alberta was the greatest ranching coimtry in America, but farming has superseded cattle raising. Nevertheless, in 1918 there were over 3(X),000 milch cows, 1,362,000 other horned cattle, and the wool clip was estimated at 2,400,000 poimds, net. There are valuable coal deposits, and 1 1 ,000,000 acres of forest reserve. The area is 255.285 square miles and the population (1916) 496,525. BRITISH COLUMBIA. Bbitish Columbia, first coasted by Spanish navi- gators, and more completely explored by Cook in 1778 and Vancouver in 1792, was for a time known as New Caledonia, and formed a portion of the Hud- son's Bay Company's concession, but in 1858 was made a crown colony. In 1866 it was united with Vancouver Island, and in 1871 entered tlie Cana- dian confederation. British Columbia has vast joineral deposits and the value of the output in 1916 was $42,290,462; gold $5,000,000, copper $17,000,- 000, coal $7,000,000, lead $3,000,000, silver $4,000,- 000. It contains more than half the standing timber in Canada and it is estimated that there are about 50 billion feet board measure imder the control of the Dommion. The area is 355,855 square miles and tlie population in 1919 was estimated at 400,000. MANITOBA. Manitoba, for two centuries the center of the Hudson's Bay Company's activities, then known as the Red River Settlement, entered the Dominion in 1870, Manitoba is the great grain-producing prov- ince of Canada, the value of its crops ln'1917 being $137,471,000. In 1918, it produced over 55,000,000 bushels of wheat, 63,000,000 bushels of oats, 31,000,- 000 bushels of barley, 8,000,000 bushels of potatoes, and 5,(K)0,000 bushels of rye. The province is be- lieved to be rich in gold deposits and the value of the minerals, chiefly coal, produced m 1917 was $2,539,- 000. Manufacturing is prosperous and the value of the products m 1918 was over $01,000,000. The area is 251,832 square miles and the population (in 1916) was 553,860, more than double that of 1901. The capital, Winnipeg, has a population of 103,000, NEW BRUNS'WICK. Settlements were made in New Brunswick as early as 1762, and in 1784 it separated from Nova Scotia. It is one of the original pro\'inces of the Dommion. The value of New Brimswick's agricul- tural crops in 1917 was over $24,000,000, and the timber products were valued at more than S20,- 000,000. Nearly $4,000,000 is invested in the fish- ing industry and the value of the products for 1917 was over $5,000,000. There are deposits of miner- als, but active mining is confined to coal and gyp- simi. The area is 27,985 square miles and the pop- ulation in 1911, 351,889. NOVA SCOTIA. Settlements were made in Nova Scotia, then called Acadia, by the French at the beginningof the seventeenth century. Port Royal was taken by the New Englanders in 1690, but restored. In 1713, the province was ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht and the name was changed to Nova Scotia. It was one of tlie original provinces of the Doimnion. The chief industries of Nova Scotia are agriculture and fisiiing. Fruit growuig is extremely important and on an average a million barrels of apples are raised yearly. The chmate is well adapted for the growth of fodder and pasturage, and the annual wool clip is over a million pounds. There is considerable mineral wealth of coal, iron, gypsum, building stone, limestone, manganese, and timgsten. Nova Scotia has the most extensive fisheries of any of the Cana- dian provinces. More than 38, 000,(100 is invested in this industry and the value of the product in 1916- 17 was over $10,000,000. The area is 21,428 square miles and the population (1911) was 492,338. ONTARIO. Ontario, knowm as L^ppeb Canada from 1791 to 1867, was one of the original provinces of the Domin- ion. The province contains great agricultural and mineral resources, extensive forests, great water power, and valuable fisheries. The cliief industry is agriculture and the value of the crops in 1917 was over $333,000,000, wliich mcluded more than 14,- 000,000 bushels of wheat, 23,000.000 bushels of barley, 116,000,000 bushels of rye, 2,000,000 bushels of peas, 4,000,000 bushels of buckwheat, 2,000,000 bushels of potatoes. The tobacco crop for 1918 was estimated at 10,(X10.000 poimds. The mineral pro- duction of 1917 Included nickel $20,943,000, silver $8,698,000, copper $7,824,000, pig iron $14,201,000. The total value of the minerals produced was over $72,000,000- In 1915, there were nearly 10,000 in- dustrial establishments, the products of which were valued at $715,000,000. The area is 407,262 square miles and the population in 1911 was 2,523,274. The largest cities are Toronto, the capital of the province, with 470,000; Ottawa, the capital of the Dommion, with 102,000; and Hamilton with 101,000 inliabitants. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. Prince Edward Island, once known as the Isle St. Jean, was discovered by Cartier in 1534. It was occupieci by the British in 1758 and received its present name in 1798. It was admitted to the con- federation in 1873. Prince Edward Island is the smallest of the Dominion provmces and lies at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its chief indus- tries are agriculture and fishing. In recent years the provincial government has acquired the oyster beds from the Dominion government , and is rapidly devel- oping them. A imique industry is the raising of sil- ver fo.xes. The province has an area of 2.184 square miles and a population in 1911 of 93.728, which shows a decrease of about 10 per cent from 1901. QUEBEC. Quebec, formerly called New France or Canada (1608-1763), Provmce of Quebec (1763-1790), Lower Canada (1791-1840), Canada East (1841-1867), and again the Province of Quebec from 1867, was first occupied by the French in 1608; taken by the British in 1629 but restored till 1763, when it was surren- dered finally by the French. It became one of the original provinces of the Dominion in 1867. The popidation is sharply divided into two racial ele- ments, 1,605,000 inhabitants being of French origin and 316, (MO of British origin, accordmg to the census of 1911. In order to protect this French majority from oppression by the English majority of the whole Dominion, the province is guaranteed 65 members in the Dominion Parliament. The Roman Catholics are nearly ten times as numerous as all other de- nominations together. All public schools in Quebec are either Catholic or Protestant. The value of the field crops in 1917 was over $153,000,000. There are over 174,000 square miles of forest reserve and Quebec furnislies more than half of all the pulp wood produced ui Canada. The min- eral resources of the province are extremely "varied ; In 1917, the product amounted to over $16,000,000 and included asbestos $7,198,000, copper and sulphur ore $1,205,342, and many rare minerals. In 1916, there were 7,158 industrial establishments whose total products were valued at $387,000,000. The area of Quebec is 706,834 square miles and the population in 1911 was 2,003.232, sliowing an mcrease of 21.45% .since 1901. The principal city is Montreal with a population of 700,000 (1917). SASKATCHEWAN. Saskatchewan was admitted to tlie Dominion in 1905, It is preeminently an agrictdtural province and the principal crops in 1918 were oats 134,000,000 bushels, wheat 106,000,000, barley 161,000,000, po- tatoes 6,951,000. Its mmeral productions in 1917 were valued at $832,000, being mauily coal. The area is 251.700 square miles and the population in 1911 was 492,432, having quadrupled in ten years. YUKON. After gold was discovered in the Klondike district on tributaries of the Yukon River in 1896, Yukon Territory was constituted a separate imit (1898), governed by a commissioner and a Legislative Coim- cil of ten members. "The chief occupation i^mining, coal, gold, copper, and silver beuig the chief min- erals. The total mineral production in 1917 was $4,.380,000, Between 1885 and 1918, $196,000,000 worth of gold was produced. The area of the Ter- ritory is 207,076 .square miles. After the gold ran out. the population in 1911 was 8,512, showing a decrease of about two thirds since 1901. The Northwest Territories comprise the three provisional districts of Franklm, aiackenzie, and Keewatin and have an area of approximately 2,843,- 900 square miles, but a large part of the area for Franklin is estimated without any definite topo- grapliical data, especially with reference to the north- ern stretches. The population in 1911 was 18.481, showing a decrease of about 8 per cent since 1901. The government is in the hands of a Commissioner and a Cotmcil of Four and the administration is car- ried on by the officers of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police. Chronology — Canada. 1497-1498. Cabot's voyages (see L'nited .States). 1534-1541. Cartier's voyages (see LTnited States). 1604. Sieur de Monts under French letters patent settles Acadia (Nova Scotia) on the Sainte Croix River, but next year removes to Port Royal (Annapolis). Samuel de Champlain explores the coast to Cape Cod. [company extends to 45°. I 1606. April 10. English grant to the Plymouth] 1605. Quebec founded by Champlain. 1609. Champlain invades the Iroquois coimtry and begins the interminable warfare between the Iro- quois and New France which so greatly influenced the development of the colony. 1610. Henry Hudson seeking for England the " northwest passage " e-xplores Hudson Bay. lie is followed on the same quest by Button (1612), Fox (1631), and James (1631). Possession is taken for England. 1613. Argall, from Virginia, destroys French set- tlements on Mt, Desert Island and at Port Royal. Champlain ascends the Ottawa River. 1615. Champlain crosses from Ottawa River by way of Lake Nipissing to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron) and also crosses Lake Huron, The Ot- tawa-H uron route becomes the mam one for French exploration and trade, as Iroquois control the lower lake pa.ssage. 1621. English grant of Nova Scotia (so called in the grant) to Sir Wm. Alexander (Lord Stirling). His settlement is absorbed by the French. 1627. April S9. Company of the Hundred Associates (or Company of New France) is or- ganized by Richeheu to control New France. Set- tlement is very slow; fur trading the main interest: Jesuits influential in control; government pa- ternal ; Protestants not permitted to take part in settlement. 1629—1867. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 71 1639. July 2B. English capture of Quebec by the Kirkes; Port Royal also taken; possession held un- til Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (March 39, 1632) restores the country to France. 1C34. Nicolet crosses Lake Huron to Sault Ste. Marie; he reaches the shore of Lake Iilichigan near Cireen Bay and ascends the Fox River (Wis.). Fort built at Trois-Rivieres (Three Rivers). 1643. Montreal founded. 16S8-1662. Radisson and Groseilliers are in Lake Superior region; probably cross to Hudson Bay. 1683. Charter of One Hundred Associates sur- rendered; crown assumes direct control oi colony. 1065. Allouez explores Lake Superior. 1668. Mi-5sion station founded at Sault Ste. Marie. l««it. Uolher de Casson and Galinee traverse Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron. 1670. May 2. Enghsh charter of Hudson's Bay (.'ompany. Fur-trading posts established on tile Bay; control over the whole basin claimed. 1GTJ-16S3. Frontenac governor of New France. 1GJ3. Marquette and Joliet on the Mississippi (see United States). Fort Frontenac (Kingston: built. r67,S. Du Lhut begins liis exploration of the region around Lake Superior. 16S2-1687. La Salle and Louisiana (see United States) . 1684. French post on Hudson Bay taken by Eng- lish. 1686. French, traveling overland, capture Hud- son's Bay Company posts. Struggle for posses- sion continues during King William's War. Later. Treaty of Ryswick (Rijswijk) (1697) leaves control mainly with French. 1687. Fort Niagara built. 1688. Noyon gets as far west as Lake of the Woods. 1689-1697. King William's War (see United States). 1689-1698. Frontenac again governor. 1690. May 21. Port Royal captured by the Eng- lish; restored. Attempt to capture Quebec fails, 1697. Sepi. 20. Treaty of Ryswick. See Early Modern Period. 1699. French settlement of Louisiana. 1701. Detroit and cham of posts founded (see United States). 1703 1713. Queen Anne's War (see United St.\tes). [tured.i 1710. Oct. 6. Port Eoyal (Annapolis) again cap-' 1713. March SI (..April 11 New Style) . Treaty of Utrecht; France cedes Acadia (Nova Scotia) to England and relinquishes claim to Hudson Bay region and Newfoundland. 1720. Hudson's Bay Company builds Henley Hou.se on Albany River; first inland post. 1731-1748. La Verendrye and his sons, seeking for the " Western Sea." explore the region of Lake Winnipeg and lower Saskatchewan River, pene- trate to the Missouri in Dakota, and see a range of the Rocky Mountains. They build various posts, 1744-1748. King George's War (see United States), 1745. June 17. Louisburg captured by New Eng- landers and British navy, but restored by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. Oct. IS. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. See Early Modern Period, 1749. Halifax founded. [States),! Celeron de Bienville on the Ohio (see United I 1754. Hendry for Hudson's Bay Company pene- trates the Saskatchewan region, (States).! 1754-1763. French and Indian War (see LTnitedI 1763. Feb. 10. Treaty of Paris; France cedes all of Canada to Great Britain, as well as Louisiana east of the Mississippi, Oct. 7. Proclamation of 1763 establishes the Enghsh province of Quebec with restricted boimd- aries and the promise of a representative govern- ment; but adaptation of British principles of gov- ernment to a French-Catholic population mostly under seigniories is difficult. Nova Scotia and Newfoundland have separate governments; the first has had an assembly since 1757. 1770. Prince Edward (St. Jean) Island made a separate colony and granted an assembly three years later. 1770-1772. Heame for the Hudson's Bay Com- pany explores the region to the Arctic at the mouth of the Coppermine River, and discovers Great Slave Lake. 1774. Cumberland House near the Saskatchewan River; first Hudson's Bay Company post in that region. June 22. Quebec Act; province extended over the region between the Ohio and the Great Lakes, and the Alississippi, the watershed of the Great Lakes on the north, and Labrador; French civil law recognized, English law to govern in criminal cases; Catholic Chiu'ch recognized; and an assem- bly declared inexpedient. Act reverses earlier attempt to Anglicize colony. Oct. 28. FiFst Continental Congress addresses the Canadians, inviting them to the " fellowship. 1775. Henry, for what later becomes the North- West Fur Company (organized 1783), builds a pest on Churchill River. Rivalry between tlic two companies becomes great ; their explorers push farther west, followed by the founding of posts. Ma rch. John Browii reaches Montreal as agent of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress; influ- ence coimteracted by French-Canadian satisfac- tion with Quebec Act. May 10, 12. Capture by Americans of Ticon- deroga and Crown Point opens way for inva- sion of Canada. Nov. 12. American army under Montgomery captures Montreal. Another force, under Arnold, is advancing through Mame; they imite before Quebec. [Montgomery killed, I Dec. 31. Assault on Quebec repulsed;! 1776. .Ilarch 17. Britisli evacuate Bo.ston and sail for Halifax, taking with them many loyal- ists. Diu'ing and followuig tlie war, settlement of loyalists in Nova Scotia and Canada adds a strong element to these colonies, .4 pril 29. Delegation from American Congress — Franklin, Samuel Chase, Charles and Jolm Carroll (a priest) — reaches Montreal, but accom- plishes nothing, June. Americans driven out of Canada. 1777. Burgoyne's invasion of New York from Canada (see LTnited .States), 1778. Pond for the North- West Company, crosses the Methye portage into the Athabaska Basin and builds a post near the lake, James Cook explores the Pacific coast from Oregon northward; beginning of British claim, 1783. Sept. S. Peace of Paris defines botmdary between Canada and United States; continues American "liberty " to fish on Canadian coast, 1784. New Bnmswick and Cape Breton made separate provinces, latter later returned to Nova Scotia (1,S20), 1789. Mackenzie descends the Great Slave River and Mackenzie River to its mouth, 1791. June 10. Constitutional Act; Quebec di- vided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada (settled by loyaUsts), each with a coimcil and as- sembly; return to principle of Anglicization, 1792-1793. Mackenzie for the North- West Com- pany ascends the Peace and Parsnip rivers, reaches the Pacific Ocean by way of the Bella Coola River, and returns. First transcontinental journey nojth of California, 1792-1794. Vancouver voyages along the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska, 1793 Toronto (York) founded. 1794. Nov. 19. Jay Treaty calls for the relin- quishment by the British of pests within United States boundaries and for settlement of disputed boundary line, 1805. Lewis and Clark cross continent and de- scend Columbia River in advance of Hudson's Bay Company, 1807-1811. Thompson for North-'West Company explores whole length of Columbia River 1808. Eraser of the North-W&st Company descends the Eraser River to Puget Sound, 1812. Red River Settlement (Rupert's Land) founded by Lord Selkirk under grant from Hud- son's Bay Company, 1812-1814. War of 1812 (see United States). NINETEENTH-CENTURIf PERIOD. 1814. Dec. 2.^. Peace of Ghent; commissions to settle disputed boundaries between Canada and United States, right of fishing not restored to United States. 1815. North-West Company destroys Red River Settlement. Hostilities continue for several years, 1818. Oct. 20. Treaty between Great Britain and United States: Fisheries, Oregon country, boundaries (see United States), 1818-1830. Controversy with United States over trade in American bottoms. 1821. Absorption of North-West Company by Hudson's Bay Company. 1822. June 21,. British Trade Acts repeal Navi- gation Acts to extent of permitting trade in sched- uled articles between British possessions in Amer- ica and other places in America in ships of the other places, and direct trade between American possessions and Europe in British ships, Aug. 5. British act permits limited overland and inland water trade between Canada and United States, and regulates apportionment of duties on imports to Upper Canada through Lower Canada, 1824. Canada Company formed: most ambitious of several projects for settlement, especially of Upper Canada, after War of 1812. resulting in ex- tensive immigration, assisted also by government, of English, Scotch, and Irish. 1825. Fort Vancouver, Hudson's Bay Company post on lower Columbia River, founded, Feb. 2S. Anglo-Russian Treaty fixes bounda- ries of Alaska. June 27. Further Trade Act extends Acts of 1S22 to all goods not especially prohibited by the act and permits trade with Europe in vessels of country of goods imported, 1826. Ottawa (Bytown) laid out. 1829. Welland Canal opened. 1836. Champlain and St, Lawrence Railroad; first railroad in Canada. 1837. Feb. 11. Howe moves his Twelve Resolu- tions in Nova Scotia Assenii^ly, demanding re- sponsible government. Maladministration and much legislative conflict have resulted tliroughout; the provinces through the irresponsibility of the council and executive, especially in Upper Canada ("Family Compact"). In Lower Canada the movement is a BYench-Canadian one, involving nationalism. November. Outbreak of rebellion In Lower Canada, led by Papineau; quickly suppressed. Deetmber. Rebellion in Upper Canada, led by Mackenzie; defeated. Caroline affair. 1838. Earl of Durham reaches Quebec as governor- general. 1839. Jan. SI. Durham's report on Canadian conditions; masterly analysis of troubles, recom- mendation of responsible government in purely colonial affairs, and reunion to submerge French- Canadian nationality. 1840. Act of Union; compromise between the de- mands of the rebels and position of oligarchical loyalists and " British-connection " men. Upper and Lower Canada reunited; elected assembly with equal representation of two provinces; coim- cil appointed for life; fixed civil list, but other ex- penditures under control of Assembly; taxes only with consent of Canadian Parliament. Respon- sible government not in act, but Lord Jolm Rus- sell instructs governor-general that wishes of As- sembly must not be opposed unless "honor of the crown or interests of the empire are deeply con- cerned " Principle of responsible government wins recognition within the decade in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as in Canada. 1842. Hudson's Bay Company starts a post on Vancouver Island, at present Victoria; it succeeds Fort Vancouver on Columbia River as western headquarters. (States).! Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty (see United! 1846. June 16. Oregon Treaty (see United States) . 1847-1854. Earl of Elgm governor-general of Can- ada; important services in economic and political development of province. 1849. Vancouver Island is granted to the Hud- son's Bay Company; on July 28 British Parlia- ment authorizes a colonial government for the island ; in 1856 legislature meets. April. Passage by Canadian Parliament of Rebellion Losses Bill leads to riots by loyaUst partisans in Montreal, burning of Parliament buildings, and insults to Elgin. Later in the year capital is removed from Montreal. June 26. Repeal of last vestiges of Navigation Acts (see Great Britain). July 28. British act permitting colonial inland posts; under this in 1851 the Canadian provmces take over the post office. 1851. Population, 1,842,265. [States).! 1854. June S. Reciprocity Treaty (see United) Aug. 11. British act autliorizes alteration of constitution of council under Act of Union ; in 1856 Canadian Parliament makes coimcil elective. Dec. IS. Act abolisliuig seigniorial tenure. 1858. Decimal coinage system goes into effect in Canada. Ottawa is selected as capital of Canada; Parlia- ment meets there on June 8, 1866. Hudson's Bay Company surrenders Vancouver Island to the crown. (Columbia. | Aug. 2. British act for pro\1nce of British! 1860. Winnipeg begins to develop around Fort Garry of Hudson's Bay Company, Prince of Wales (later Edward VII,) visits Canada. Joint occupation of San Juan Islands by British and American troops, 1861. Population, 3,090,661. 1866. Vancouver is founded. (terminates, l March 17. Reciprocity with United States! June. Fenian invasion of Canada from Buf- falo; defeated and turned back, Aug. 6. British act uniting colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, 1867. March 29. Under the British North America Act, in force on July 1, Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Bnmswick are united as the Dominion of Canada. The Dominion com- prises four provinces, Canada being redivided into Quebec and Ontario, The act also provides for: A governor-general with a council; a Parha- ment of two houses, senators being appointed for life, house elected on popiUation basis; provinces each with an appointed lieutenant-governor and an assembly: enumerated powers of provinces, rest lodged in Dominion, July 1. Lord Monck sworn in as first gov- ernor-general of the Dominion; Macdonald co- alition ministry. Isembles.l Nov. 6. First Parliament of Dominion as-l 72 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 1869 - 1915. 1869. Red River Rebellion of French halt-breeds under Louis Kiel against transfer of region from Hudson's Bay Company to Canada; Riel flees be- fore force under Wolseley; reaches Fort Garry (August. 1870). lernor-general.l Feb. 2. Sir John Young (Lord Usgar) gov-l March 9. Agreement for cession to Canada by Hudson's Bay Company of latter's govern- mental and property rights: about 2,3(X),(XX) square miles of territory given for $1,500,(K)0 and certain land grants. June 22, " Better-Terms Aft " ends oppo- sition of Nova Scotia to the confederation; leader of opposition, Joseph Howe, has entered Macdon- ald ministry. [fails. | 1870. Second Fenian invasion from Vermont I July 10. Manitoba admitted to the confedera- tion (act of May 12). 1871. Population, 3,635.024. April iJf. General Banii Act establishes Canadian system. [States).! May 8. Treaty of Washington (see United! July 20. British Columbia admitted to the confederation; agreement that continental rail- way i)e built within 10 years. 187?. JuneH. First charter of Canadian Pacific Railway: land grants and subsidy by Dominion; but plan under charter not carried out. June 25. Earl of OulTerin governor-general. Oct. 21. San Juan award (see United States). Ends Pacific boundary controversy. 1873. May 23. Act for establishment of North- west Mounted Police. July 1. Prince Edward Island enters the confederation (act of May 23). Nov. 5. Macdonald ministry resigns, antici- pating vote of censure on Paeiflc scandal of char- ter of Canadian Pacific Railway. Alexander Mackenzie forms Liberal ministry; sustained in general election (January, 1874). Government decides to construct transcontinental railway. 1874. April 26. Parliamentary Election Act pre- scribes vote by ballot, elections throughout Do- minion on one day, expenses limited, corrupt practices forbidden. Nai'. 17. Proposed tenns for settling con- troversy between the Dominion and Britisli Co- lumbia over conditions of union, esijecially as to railroad. Not carried out. Controversy contin- ues and leads to a separation movement. 1875. Aprils. Act to estabhsh Supreme Court of Canada. 1876. Railroad between Halifax and Quebec opened . [States) . I 1877. Non. 23. Halifax award (see LInitedI 1878. Sept. 17. General election; Conservatives succeed on protective (National or " Canada first ") policy. Government resigns (October 16) and second Macdonald ministry is formed. Non. 25. Marquisof Lome governor-general. 1879. May 15. Protective Tariff Law. 1880. Canadian high commissioner to United Kingdom first appointed. 1881. Population, 4,324.810. Feb. 15. Act for construction of transconti- nental railway; Canadian Pacific Railway com- pany to construct, receiving cash and land dona- tions and portions of road already built by gov- ernment, [general. I 1883. Oct. 23. Marquisof Lansdowne governor- 1 1884. July 22. Decision of judicial committee of British privy council on Manitoba-Ontario boundary^ confirming award of 1878 and settling long-standing dispute. 1885. March-May. Riel leads another half-breed rebellion on the Saskatchewan; captured and hanged. June 30. End of fisheries reciprocity; renewal of controversy (see LTnited States). July 20. Dominion Franchise Act; imiform suffrage and low property quaUflcation. Re- pealeti when Liberals get control. Act putting poll tax of $50 on Chinese immi- grants; British Columbia desires exclusion, and continues agitation as act has little effect. Tax is doubled by act of July 18, 1900, and made S500 by act of May 15, 1902. Meanwhile, issue com- plicated by Japanese and East Indian laborers. 1886. Vancouver laid out as terminus of trans- continental Une. June 28. Canadian PaciHc Railway opened for tlirough traffic. [United States).] 1888. Feb. 20. Proposed flsheries treaty (seel June 11. Lord Stanley of Preston (Earl of Derby) governor-general. 1890-1897. Manitoba school controversy; pro- vincial act (1890) abolishes public denominational schools; question becomes a Dominion political issue, finally settled by some concessions to Catho- lics. Problem of separate and bilingual schools continues here and elsewhere in Dominion. 1891. Population, 4,833,239. Establishment of line of transpacific steam- ships by Canadian Pacific Railway Company. June 6. Death of Premier Macdonald. Sir John Abbott succeeds as premier. 1892. Feb. 29. Bering Sea Treaty (see United States). [premier. I Dec. 5. Abbott resigns. Sir Jolm ThompsonI 1893. Aug. 15. Bering Sea award (see United States). [eral.l Sept. IS. Earl of Aberdeen governor-gen-1 1894. June 2S. Colonial Trade Conference opens at Ottawa, attended also by delegates from Australia and Cape Colony ; discussion of imperial trade preference. Dec. 12. Sir Jolm Thompson dies; .Sir Mac- kenzie Bowell succeeds as premier. 1896. Discovery of gold in Klondike; great rush. Alaskan bomidai*y question becomes im- portant. .ipril 27. Following cabinet crisis, ministry reorganized by .Sir Charles Tupper. July S. Ministry, defeated in general election, resigns and (Sir) Wilfrid Laurier forms Liberal ministry on July 13. 1897. Preferential Tariff Act chiefly affecting British imports, which pay only seven eighths of regular duties for a year, then three fourths. Ger- many deprives Canada (July 7, 1899) of most- favored-nation treatment. Canada denounces treaties with Germany and Belgium, and prefer- ence is confined to the empire, and mcreased to scale of two thirds of regular duty in 1900. June 29. Act for responsible government in Northwest Territories. 1898. June IS. Yukon Territory set off from Northwest Territories. Dominion Franchise Act repealed. [States).] Aug. 23. Joint High Commission (see United 1 Nov. 12. Earl of Minto governor-general. 1899-1903. Canada furnishes several contingents of troops (7.368 men) for the South African War; opposition is offered to the pohcy, especially in Quebec Province. 1901. Population, 5,371,315. September-October. Visit of the Duke of Corn- wall (Prince of Wales, now George V.) and Duchess of Cornwall. Nov. 22. Prohibition Act of Manitoba (1900) declared constitutional by judicial com- mittee of British privy coimcil; act passed after referenda on July 23, 1892, and September 29, 1898. Further referendum on April 2, 1902, is adverse, so law is not proclaimed. Local option (imder Scott Act) makes steady progress throughout the Dominion, already covering Prince Edward Island and most of Nova Scotia. 1902. March 14. Prohibition Act in Ontario: referendum (December 4) shows majority, but not that required. Gel. SI. First message over British Pacific cable, completing the " all-red " (that is " all- British ") line aroimd the world. 1903. Limited tariff preference with New Zealand. Discovery of silver at Cobalt, Ontario. Jan. 24, Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary (see United States). Aug. 17-21. Meeting at Montreal of delegates from chambers of commerce ttooughout the Brit- ish Empire to discuss imperial trade questions. Oct. 24. Act for the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway; a second transcontinental Ime from Moncton, N. B., to Prince Rupert, B. C, to be built jointly by government and Grand Trimk. 1904. Limited tariff preference with South Africa, June 14. Dismissal by Canadian government of Lord Dimdonald, British general officer com- manding the militia, for insubordination to the responsible government. Aug. 10. New Militia Act makes possible a Canadian commander, and recognizes more com- plete Canadian control over defense. Nov. S. General election: Grand Tnmk Pacific Railway main issue, with Dimdonald (militarism) and race questions as minor ones. Government victory. Dec. 10. Earl Grey governor-general. 1905. Sept. 1. Alberta and Saskatcliewan ad- mitted to the confederation (acts of July 5). Question of sectarian education met by privilege of limited religious instruction in public schools. Dec 7. Transfer of defen.ses at Halifax to Canadian control. RegiUars also leave Esqui- mau, B. C. (May 17, 1906), leaving defense en- tirely in Canadian hands. 1906. July IS. Lord's Day Observance Act limits Simday labor, trade, and amusements. In force March 3, 1907. Sept. s. Serious rioting in Vancouver against Japanese and other Asiatics. Canada makes reparation. 1907. March 22. Industrial Disputes Investi- gation Act (Lemieux Act) makes strikes or lock- outs in mines and public service companies illegal imtil the dispute has Ix'en investigated by board of conciliation; act applies permissively to other industries. .Aug. 29. Collapse of portion of great bridge being constructed across the St. Lawrence at Quebec. [northern Ontario. I 1908. Discovery of gold In Porcupine region of | Jan. 1. Government of Manitoba takes over telephone system. Alberta does it on April 1, and Saskatchewan on May 1, 1909. Jan. 21. Report is made in Parliament of a gentlemen's agreement with Japan for restric- tion of impiigration. July 20. Old Age Aimuities Act becomes law. July 20-31. Tercentenary of Quebec: Prince of Wales, Lord Roberts, Vice President Fairbanks, and other notables present. Oct. 26. General election ; government triumphs on general record rather than special issues. ' 1909. Jan. 11. Boundary-waters treaty (see LTnited States). [States).] Jan. 27. Fisheries convention (see L'nitedi 1910. May 4. Naval Service Act, following an Imperial Defense Conference in London in July, 1909, provides for a vohmteer force, naval college, and fleet of 5 cruisers and 6 destroyers to be built in Canada: service at disposal of IJritish Empire in case of emergency. Much opposition to act. Act on combinations and monopolies, not directed against organizations, but against unfair exercise of power; Ixiard of 3 to investigate, tariff protection may be withdrawn or daUy fine imposed. May 21. Treaty on Passamaquoddy Bay boun- dary (see LTnited States). Sept. 7. Award on flsheries rights by Hague Tribimal (see United States). 1911. Population, 7,206,643. July 7. Fur-seal treaty (see United ST.4TEe). Sept. 21. General election: issue is reciprocity agreement with United States (see United St.^tes) : Lam-ier's government is badly defeated and re- signs, thus defeating reciprocity. (Sir) Robert L. Borden forms Conser\'ative ministry. [eral. | Oct. 13. Duke of Connaught governor-gen- 1 1912. April 1. Manitoba extended north to 60° and Hudson Bay, Ontario to Hudson Bay, and Ungava (east of the bay) added to Quebec. .April 9. Trade agreement with some of British West Indies (not including Jamaica): preference of about 20 per cent. July 22. Judicial committee of British privy council on appeal from stated judgment of Su- preme Court, apropos of the Hebert case, decides Dominion has no power to pass a uniform mar- riage law, and that provincial laws may impose conditions affecting validity of contract. Does not decide directlj" whether marriage of two Catholics by other than a priest (forbidden by the church's Ne Temere decree) is binding if performed ac- cording to statute, but Supreme Court so declares, June 8, thus denying legal force of canon law. 1913. .4pri( 24. Closure rule is adopted in Com- mons in order to facilitate passage of government measure to build three dreadnoughts. May 29. Naval Bill (which passes Commons on May 15) is rejected by the Senate. Oct. 7. Oil is discovered in Alberta. 1914. Feb. 2. Parcel-post system is inaugurated. April 7. Last spike is driven in Grand Trunk Pacific Railway between Winnipeg and Prince Rupert. Eastern (government) portion of the Une finished by end of 1915; but the Grand Tnmk does not assume operative control of this portion. May 2. Arrival at Vancouver of ship with 396 Hindus. Admission denied; courts sustain the government. Hindus resist attempt to return them, but finally yield, July 23, and start back. More rioting at Hongkong and seditious utter- ances on reaching India. May 29. Empress of Ireland sinks in the St. Lawrence Elver after coUision; 1,024 fives lost. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. .■iug. 4. On outbreak of the World War financial strain is relieved by order in council making bank notes legal tender and temporarily irreclaimable In gold. A ug. 22. War Measure Act puts the cotmtry on a war basis: authorizes censorship and espio- nage; control of transportation, trading, manufac- . turing, and property. Increase in tariff rates and excise on liquor and tobacco, and power to increase amount of Domin- ion notes are first financial measures. First war credit is for S50,000,000. Great Britain also advances $G0,000,(X)O up to March 31, 1915. Large voluntary contributions of money and sup- plies for many purposes: Canadian Patriotic Fund, estabUshed to care for soldiers and famfiies. Belgian Relief Fimd, Red Cross, etc.; work of wo men done largely tlirough Imperial Order Daugh- ters of the Empire Sept. 22-Oct. 1. First Canadian contingent of 33,000 men embarks at Quebec for England. 1915. March 29. Short-term government loan of $25,000,000 is oversubscribed. July 21, S45,000,- 000 on short-term notes borrowed in New York. Canadiancredit con tin uesexceUent throughout war under financial management of Sir Thomas White. April S. War Revenue Act: tax on bank- note circulation, trust companies, insiu'ance, tele- grams, traveling tickets, wine; also, increase In postage and stamp duties, and in the tariff. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 73 1915 (continued). April IS. Second war credit for SIOO.OOO.OOO, June 9. Dispensary iiquor system ustablislied in Saskatche\^'&n ; in force Jnly 1. July .it. l^rohibitioii approved by referen- dum in Alberta: in force July 1, 191G. Oct. IS. First through train on Canadian Northern Railway reaches Vancouver from Quebec; third transcontinental line, built up since 1896 by construction and absorption of existing lines: government has large interest. N'jt. 1. Expeditionary force raised to author- ized limit of 250,0(JO men, and at end of year to 500,000 men : by end of the year 212,000 are under arms, of whom 118,922 have been sent overseas with loss of but one life in transport. Nov. 22. First domestic loan for 550,000,000 (3%, 10 years); total subscription S114,G00,0O0; allotment, §97,000,000. ]91ti. Feb. 3. Dominion Parliament buildings at Ottawa burned; possibly incendiary origin. March. Loan of S7o,000,000 floated in New Yorii (5%, 5-15 years). March S. Manitoba act prevents more bilin- gual schools, and promotes end of existing ones; considered by French Canadians and foreign ele- ments as contrary to 1S97 compromise on schools. May IS. Act of Parliament prohibits importa- tion of liquor into " dry " provinces. War credit of .$250,000,000 voted. Revenue acts, except for a few tariff changes, chiefly notable for war-profits tax of 25%. InsLU-ance companies to keep cer- tain part of a::sets in Dominion currency, bonds, or debentuie stock. June 1. Prohibition in efl'ect in Manitoba; law of January 28, and referendum on March 13. July 1. Prohibition in effect in Nova Scotia; chiefly affects Halifax as most of province al- ready subject to temperance laws. [accident I Sept. II. Quebec bridge drops span — .second I Sept. le. Second domestic loan for $100,000- 000 (5%, IS years): total subscription, 3195,000,- 000; allotment, S103,C00,C00. Sept. 16. Prohibition goes into effect in On- tario (law of April) as war measure, with refer- endum in June, 1919. Nov. 2. Judicial committee of British privy council upholds regulation in Ontario tor require- ment of instruction primarily in English. Nov. ti. Duke of Devonshire governor- general. Sir Sam Hughes, minister of militia and defense, resigns on request ; friction with premier and others in ministry. 1BI7. Jan. 20. War expenditures to date S444,- 000,000; war costing about $1,000,000 a day. 1 Feb. 7. War credit of $500,000,000 voted, March 12. Third domestic loan (first Vic- tory Loan) for $150,000,000 (5%, 20 years); total subscription .«237, 000,000; allotmentS166,000,000. May 1. Prohibition in effect in New Bruns- wick (act of April 21, 1916). About S0% of province under local option before. June 6. Laurier refuses to join a coalition government, being opposed to conscription. July. SlOCOOO.OtX) borrowed in New York. iuly I. Prohibition in effect in British Co- lumbia; referendum of September 14, 1916. July 14. Prohibition in effect In Yukon Territory. This leaves Quebec only province where sale of liquor at retail is permitted, July 2d. Increase is made in war-proflts tax (one half of profits between 15% and 20%; tliree fourths beyond 20%). Aug. 20. Compulsory Military Service Act; affects men between 20 and 45 ; first class — immar- ried men of 20-34; French-Canadian opposition. Sept. 20. Income Tax Act; graduated from 4% on over $1,500 for unmarried men to 25%, on above $100,000; income tax of 4% on corpora- tions (see also July 25, above). Military Voters* Act provides for voting during the war by aU British subjects ordinarily residents . of Canada, male and female, in active service. War-Times Election Act gives francliise tempo- rarily to near female relatives of men overseas, and disfranchises all of alien enemy birth or tongue naturalized since 1901. As women have suffrage in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, this act disfrancliises a por- tion of them for coming parliamentary election. Act to acquire rest of stock of Canadian Northern Railway. (raised to position 1 Central span of Quebec bridge successfully I Oct. 13. Union ministry is formed with Bor- den premier; 13 Conservatives and 10 Liberals; in- ner war cabinet has 5 Liberals and 5 Conservatives. Nor. 12. Fourth domestic loan (second Vic- tory Loan) for $150,000,000(55 %, 5-20 years) ; total subscription, 8419,000,000; allotment, $398,000,- 000. Drc. 6. Explosion of cargo of ammunition in Halifax Harbor destroys large part of city; 1,200 killed: suffering increased and rescue Impeded by tire and blizzard. Dec. 17. General election; Union government wins 153 seats on issue of conscription and " "^vin the war "; opposition, led by Lam-ier, 82 seats. Dec. 2J,. Prohibition placed on importation of intoxicating liquor into Canada; prohibition of manufacturing held in reserve. Prohibition of interprovmcial transportation issued April 1, 1918. 1918. March 2S- April 2. Anti-draft riots in Quebec, caused by taking of defaulters under MiUtary Service Act ; suppressed by troops. May I-2S. Strike in Winnipeg of civic em- ployees including firemen iimionized), sympa- thetic strikes of other laborers and threat, under 1 W.W. and other radical propaganda, of gen- eral strike. Labor mirest during the year tlirough- out the Dominion, under socialistic incitation; prominent question that of right of civic guardians to unionize. May 24. War Revenue acts; increase in in- come, profits, excise, tariff, and other taxes; tax on matches, playing cards, moving-pictme films, jewelry, automobiles, and mechanical musical in- struments. War credit of 8500,000,000 voted. July. Strike of postal employees in Toronto Aui;. IS. Fifth domestic loan (third Victory Loan) for $300,000,000 (5i%, 5-15 years); total subscription, $687,000,000. Dec. 10-14. Strike of Montreal police and flremen, accompanied by rioting; right to miion- ize demanded by strikers. Association per- mitted, but no affiliation with other imions. To- ronto police strike on same question Dec. 13-20. Dec. 31. Report (as revised Decembers, 1919) that 595,411 men were enlisted or drafted in Canada during the war, of whom 418,0.52 sailed for England and 4,214 for Siberia. Casualties: 63,786 deaths, 148,869 wounded. 1919. .At request of Canadian govenmient, British government ceases to confer titles on Canadians. Jan. IS. Canada has two delegates at the Peace Conference at Paris. Feb. 16. Laurier dies. August, Mackenzie King chosen his successor as leader of opposition. March 19. Budget statement calls for unusu- ally large expenditures for shipbuilding, roads, and railway equipment. March St. Net debt $1,438,000,000, an in- crease of $1,102,000,000 since March 31, 1914. May-June. Strike at Winnipeg, including police, flremen, and other official .servants, made the basis for revolutionary propaganda; all public utilities idle. Volunteers man street cars; re- turned soldiers act as police. Strikes elsewhere, esp. at Toronto. No serious disorders anywhere. Jutie 6. New Immigration law increases re- strictions, developing new policy. July 7. Act to assist returned soldiers in settling on the land provides for government acquisition, by purchase or expropriation, and re- sale to soldiers. A ug. 1 o. Prince of Wales lands in Canada for a tour wliich lasts until Novemljer. Sept. 11. Parliament ratifies the Treaty of Versailles, including the League of Nations, of which Canada is a member. Oct. 20. Election in Ontario. Prohibition retained. L'nited Farmers party assisted by La- borites wins at polls and United Farmers min- istry takes office November 1. Nuiember. Government takes over the Grand Trunk Railway, making about 22.000 miles of government-controlled lines in Canada. Canadian Pacific the only important private line. Victory Loan tor 8300,000,000 o\ersubscribed. NEWFOUNDLAND. Newfoundland is nearer Eiu-ope than is any other land in America. It was discovered by Jolm Cabot in 1497. In 1583 Su- Himipiu-ey Gilbert declared it a possession of Queen Elizabeth, and, though claimed by Franco, it has been held by England ever since. In 1869 the people of Newfoundland, then a sepa- rate island colony of Great Britain, voted against union with Canada. In 1918 it was made a domin- ion of the empire. Responsible government has existed since 1885. The governor, appointed by the crown, is assisted by an E.xecutive Council of not more than 9 members. Parliament consists of a Legislative Council, of not more than 24 members, and an .Assembly of 36 members. The fisheries are the chief industry, producing about $10,000,000 annually. The forests are extensive and valuable. The mineral deposits include iron, coal, copper, silver, lead, and gold. In religion, the population is divided almost equally between Roman Cathohcs, Anglicans, and Methodists, while a few adhere to other communions. Schools and colleges are maintained by the leading religious bodies. The area is 42,734 square miles. The popula- tion in 1918 was 254,587. Labrador. lying farther east than any other part of tlie continent, is a dependency of Ne\vfoimdland. There are latent resoiu'ces of value in its forests, fisheries, and mines. Its area is about 120,000 square miles, and known population (1918) 4,073. Chronology — Newfoundland. 1497. Cabot's voyage (see United States). 1500-1.502. Cortereal's voyages (see United States). These voyages followed by Portuguese, Enghsh, French, and Basque fishermen on the Banks. St. John's developed as a free port, fre- quented especially by English merchantmen. 1583. .iug. 3. Sir Humphrey Gilbert puts in at St, John's, refits, and takes possession of the colony. [island. I 1610-1621. Various EngUsli colonies started on the | 1637. Nov. 13. Grant of island to Hamilton, Kirke, and others. 1638. Kirke comes as governor. 1662. French settlement at Placentia. 1699. May 4. Act to encoiu-age trade to New- foundland; control by fishing admirals. 1713. March SI [April 11, N. S.). Treaty of Utrecht; France relinquishes claim to island, re- tains right to fish and dry fish on coast from Cape Bonavista around northern end to Point Riclie. I'nder tliis and later treaties grows up a French claim to exclusive rights on the " French Shore." 1729. Henry Osborne, first 'governor. 1783. Sept. S. Treaties of Versailles and Paris; French fishing right shifted from Cape Bonavista to Cape St. Jolm and down the western shore to Cape Ray: Americans retain right to fish and dry fish on the island; islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon ceded to France. 1818. Oct. 20. American fishing rights on coast, w Inch were lost by War of 1 8 1 2 , are restored Ijy con- vention as to portions of Newfoundland and Labra- dor, with right to dry fish in imscttled .sections. 1832. .\uf}. 1. Act of Parliament creating a rep- resentative assembly in Newfoimdland. 1855. Responsible government inaugurated. 1867. Dominion of Canada formed ; Newfoundland holds aloof, her interests bemg more dii'ectly with Great Britain and United States. 1877. Nor. 23. Newfoundland's share in the Halifax award (see United States) is $1,000,000. 1890. Nov. 15. Bond-Blaine reciprocity treaty v\ith United States drafted: imperial consent is withlield at suggestion of C^anada. 1893. May 16. Reid contract for construction and operation of transinsidar railway, with large land grant. 1S9S. April. Conference for union with Canada fails over debt question ; island nearly insolvent. 1898. Fiu-ther contract with Reld negotiated, giv- ing him virtual control over development of the island, lands, minerals, telegraph, railway, local sea commimications, docks, and iTOstal service. 1900. Nor. S. Government responsible for Reid contract defeated at election; (Sir) Robert Bond becomes premier, and Reid, for changes in form of his company, agrees (July 19, 1901) to return the telegraph, modify land grant, and permit final reclamation of railroad. 1902. Nov. S. Bond-Hay reciprocity conven- tion with United States. Rejected by U.S. Senate. Newfoundland enacts measures to hamper Amer- ican fishing rights under treaty of 1818. 1904. April S. French-British treaty puts end to " French Shore " controversy, wliich has been source of many reprisals (Bait Act of 1887); France abandons all rights in Newfoundland (ex- cept Saint-Pierre and Miquelon islands), receiving compensation in Africa, and money indemnity. 1909. Jan. 27. Fisheries convention (see United States). (States).! 1910. Sept. 7. Fisheries award (see United! 1914. At outbreak of World War island raises a regiment, also contriliutes men to naval service. Regiment maintained diu-ing war: .some 9,000 men serve in it and the navy. Others enlist in Cana- dian regiments. 1917. Jan.i. Prohibition goes into effect under referendum of November 4, 1915. Most of island under local option previously. 1918. Jan. 5. Colony given title of Dominion by home government. May. Compulsory Military Service Act makes possible maintenance of regiment at full strength. 1919. Jan. IS. Newfoundland is represented at the Peace Conference by the premier. Dominion not formally treated as party to Treaty of Versailles or as a separate member of League of Nations. BERMUDAS. The Bermudas are a group of over 300 islands in the .Atlantic, 5S0 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras. The.\' are not strictly reckoned as a part of the West Indies and were once attached to Virginia. They constitute a crown colony, and are exceedingly im- portant, both as a strongly fortified station of the British fleet and because of their commanding stra- tegic position. The permanent military force com- prises an average of 3,000 men of ail branches. The chief exports are onions, potatoes, and other vege- tables. Of late years these islands, with their delightful climate, have become a tourist's resort much visited from the United States. Area about 19 square miles, population (1918) 21,840. 74 NATIONAL HISTOKIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA — AUSTRALASIA). N U W BRITISH WEST INDIES. Columbus on reaching Guanahani (now gener- ally identifled with Watling Island) supposed he had found the Indies. Thus arose the name West Indies applied to the great archipelago curving from Florida and Yucatan to South America. The group is geographically American, but the polit- ical and international relations of the West Indian islands until the end of the nineteenth centiirj- was chiefly European. The West Indies include tliirty major islands and many groups of islands Among these islands the Spaniards coasted and colonized until no other part of the New World was so well known and so fully occupied by colonists. The easy conditions of the climate, the gentleness of the aborigines, the richness of the islands, and the ease of conquest, made the Spaniards masters for a century. Then other European powers began to dispute these rich possessions. From 1600 to 1650 the French and English occupied several islands not colonized by Spain. Most of the natives of the islands were killed out by Spanish officers: and Negro slaves were intro- duced by all the colonists, thus fi.xing this cmse in one of the fairest parts of the globe. As the Spanish monarchy declined, the islands were detached from herempire. TheBritishseized Jamaica in 1655. Den- mark, France, and Holland took and held islands or groups. In 1S98 the United States annexed Porto Rico. The island of Haiti has had an independent government since about 1795. Cuba — last remnant of the .Spanish American empire — was made nomi- nally independent, actually a protectorate of the United States, by the war of 1898. The greater num- ber of islands have passed into the possession of Great Britain, but the Uniled States is at present the most active and strongest power in the Caribbean region. BAHAMAS. The B.\hamas are a group of about 30 inhabited and over 600 uninhabited islands northeast of Cuba. Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, was the first land discovered by Columbus in his first voyage, 1492. It was named by him San Salvador. The islands were without civilized inhabitants until the arrival of English colonists in 1629. Then they were fought over until their final cession to Great Britain in 1783 Nassau, the capital, on New Providence island, has a fine harbor and was the headquarters of blockade rimners during the Civil War Fruits and vege- tables are exported; also shells, pearls, and amber- gris. There are sponge and turtle fisheries. The area of the group is 4,404 square miles. The popu- lation was estimated at 59,928 in 1918. BARBADOS. Barbados is the most eastern of the West Indian islands. Though geographically one of the Wind- ward Islands it is administratively a colony by itself, having its own governor assisted by a Legislative Council of 9 members, all appointed by the crown, and its own Assembly of 24 members annually elected by the people. Most of the inhabitants be- long to the Church of England. Sugar and cotton are the chief products. Also manjak. a kind of as- phalt, is exported. Violent hurricanes are frequent and destructive. Barbados has been made very prosperous by the high price of sugar. The area is 166 square miles and the population (1918) 191,664 JAMAICA. Jamaica, one of the Greater -Antilles, from its history, size, and relative situation, is the most im- portant of the British West India islands. It was discovered by Columbus in May, 1494. Fifteen years later the first colony was planted by the Span- iards. Columbus called the i'^land Santiago, but the name was soon replaced by the native " Jamaica," signifying the " country of springs." In the time of Cromwell, Admiral Penn at the head of an English fleet wrested Jamaica from the Spaniards. All sub- sequent efl'orts of Spain to reconquer it were failures. The island soon became known for its sugar pro- duction. In 1673 the first pot of sugar was sent to England by the governor of the island. The slave trade furni-slied the means of developing the indus- try. The slaves multiplied and some escaped to the Blue Mountains. These so-called " maroons ' made a descent upon the plantations in 1715 and a servile war continued for 23 years. The authorities were glad to make peace by many concessions. The sugar industry increased in importance. During the first three quarters of the eighteenth cen- tury more than five hundred thousand slaves were imported. In 1795 the slaves revolted, but they were suppressed. The island was very prosperous: some wealthy Jamaican planters settled in New England and elsewhere. The trade between Ja- maica and Great Britain was profitable. In I,S07 the British government totally abolished the slave trade with all its colonies. The antislavery reformers headed by Wilberforce next turned upon slaveholding, and in 1834 secured an act of Parlia- ment for the abolition of slavery in all the British colonies. At that time there were 322,000 slaves in the island. These were first raised to apprenticeship for four years, and then to freedom. The masters were indenmified with a payment of $28,362,000 by the British Parliament. The victory for human- ity was costly to Jamaica and the other sugar-pro- ducing British West India islands. The abolition of slavery and other changes in the trade relations of the West Indies caused a decline from which the island has never recovered. In 1692 Port Royal, the old capital, was destroyed by earthquake and Kingston became the seat of gov- ernment. Another earthquake destroyed the town of Savanna la Mar in 1740. Cholera ravaged Ja- maica in 1846 and some of the principal settlements lost the greater part of their inhabitants. A Negro insurrection in 1865 was put down by Governor E>Te with a strong and brutal hand. Though cleared by an official inquiry, public opinion was against liim. In 1907 an earthquake destroyed a great part of the town of Kingston and killed nearly 1,000 persons. The island is rided by a governor, assisted by a Privj^ Coimcil and a Legislative Council of 29 mem- bers, 14 of whom are elected. Jamaica is divided into 15 parishes, in each of which an elected board administers local affairs. The government main- tains elementary, secondary, and industrial schools : also colleges for training teachers. There is no state church. Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyte- rians, Roman Catholics, Moravians, Congregation- alists, are, as to numbers, in the order named. The cliief exports in 1917 were sugar, S3,421,500: logwood extract, 31,924,600: bananas, $1,105,500; coconuts, $721 ,000 ; cocoa, $572,8(X) ; coffee, $568,500. The area is 4,207 square miles and the estimated population (191S) 891,040. Dependent upon Jamaica are Turk.s and Caicos Islands (area 165i square miles, population (1918) 5,615), two southern groups of the Bahamas. Their chief industrj' is salt making, 1,700,000 bushels be- ing annually exported. The Cayman Islands also are attached to Jamaica. They export coconuts, rope, turtle shell, and cattle. LEEWARD ISLANDS. The Leeward Islands, so called from their rela- tion to the trade winds, are the northern half of the prolonged group known as the Lesser Antilles. The principal British islands are Dominica, Antigua, St, Christopher (St. Kitts), Nevis, Anguilla, Montserrat, Barbuda, and Redonda. The British Virgin Islands, comprising all those not included in the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a part of the Lee- ward group. The Leewards have one governor, ap- pointed by the crown, and one Federal Legislative Coimcii of 16 members, one half appointed and the other half elected. Most of the schools are main- tained by the various churches. Sugar, molasses, lime juice, cocoa, and onions are articles of export. The entire area is 715 square miles and the popu- lation (1911) about 127,000. Less than 5 percent of the population are whites. TRINIDAD. Trinidad lies directly opposite the northern mouth of the Orinoco. Discovered by C^olumbus in 1498, it was held by Spain until its capture by Great Brit- ain in 1797. Most of the inhabitants are of mixed race, descendants of Europeans and Africans, and it is estimated that one third of the population is com- posed of East Indians and their descendants. Three fourths of the people are Christians, nearly one half of whom are .\nglicans and the other half Roman Catholics. From the large asphalt lake, 109, (X)0 tons of asphalt valued at $677,500 were exported in 1917. Other exports were cocoa, $7,821,600: sugar, $7,093,800. The culture of rubber, cotton, and tobacco has been introduced into Tobago and the cacao industry is receiving increasing attention. Trinidad is ruled by a governor, aided by an Execu- tive Council and a Legislative Coimcil. The area is 1,860 square miles and the t«tal estimated popu- lation (1918) of Trinidad and Tobago was 381,309. Dependent upon Trinidad is Tobago, a popular re- sort of American and British pleasiu-e seekers. Area, 114 sq. miles; estimated popiilation (1917), 23,587. WINDWARD ISLANDS. The Windward Islands, so called from their sup- posed situation relative to the trade winds, are the southern half of the prolonged group kno^^Tl as the Lesser Antilles The principal British islands are Grenada, St. Vincent, and St. I ucia. In connec- tion are the group of the Grenadines All are under one governor, but otherwise each island conducts its own affairs. In St. Lucia most of the schools are under Roman Catholic control, aided by government grant: in the other islands they are maintained by the government. Cocoa, nutmegs, spices, and cotton are the chief products. The entire area is 520 square miles and the population (1918) about 179,650. BRITISH GUIANA. British Guiana is situated between Dutch Guiana, Brazil, and Venezuela. It was taken from the Dutch in 1803. A dispute with Venezuela as Ur the boundary threatened complications with the United States in 1895 The matter was afterward settled by direct arbitration with Venezuela. Gold mining and diamond mining are carried on. The chief exports (1917) are sugar, $12.150,000;diamonds. $188,000; rice. $1,440,600. Authority is in the hands of a British governor, who is assisted by an Executive Council and a Court of Pohcy. The area is 89,480 square miles and the popula- tion (estimated 1918) is311,000. The Immigration Department estimated (1917) that there were 138,140 East Indians in the colony, of whom over 105,000 were agricultural laborers, mostly employed on the sugar plantations. BRITISH HONDURAS. British Honduras was originally a settlement of British logwood cutters made about 1638. In reality it was fortified by England as a convenient point from which to attack Spanish commerce. By the treaty of 1763 it was agreed that Great Britain should remove her fortifications from the Bay of Honduras, and in 1783 Great Britain promised to give it up altogether. British sovereignty, however, was established by the defeat of the Spaniards in 1798. This settlement led to difflciUties with the United States, which were enhanced by the Clayton- Bulwer Treaty of 1860. Tills part of Central Amer- ica was called " His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of Honduras." It yieltls large quantities of mahog- any and logwood. It is now a crown colony with an area of 8,592 square miles and a population (esti- mated Dec. 31, 1918) of 42,368. The birth rate (1917) per thousand was 40.3% and the death rate 31.3%. FALKLAND ISLANDS. The Falkland Islands are a group of about 200 islands situated in the South Atlantic, 250 miles northeast of Tierra del Fuego, and constitute a crown colony. They were discovered in 1592, and have been claimed by the French. Spanish, and British. The latter have held them since 1833 The chief industries are sheep farming, raising of horses, and the whale fisheries. The leading ex- ports (1917) were whale produce, $7,581,600; wool, $1,161,500; skins and hides, $103,000. A decisive naval battle was fought off these islands in 1915, re- sulting in the destruction of the German squadron The area of the islands is 6,500 square miles and the population (1918) 3,252. BRITISH COLONIES AITO POSSESSIONS IN THE PACIFIC. COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. Historical Outline. The continent of Australia became known to Europe through the captain of the Dutch ship Duyf- ken in 1606. In 1770 Captain James Cook, the great navigator, landed on the southeast coast, named many places, and hoisted the British flag at Port Jackson ; and the country was accepted as a British possession. In 1788 a penal settlement was established at Botany Bay. Other such settlements were started at Sydney and elsewhere. Opportuni- ties for sheep farming and the natural advantages of the coimtry attracted many other settlers, who bitterly resented the importation of felons. Their resistance was effectual. Few convicts were sent out after 1837, and none after 1867. The sentiment for autonomy grew strong during the administrations of Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling. The discovery of gold in 1851 was followed by a great influx of population. The col- onies of Australia developed into flourishing states. Both the Commonwealth and the various states have tried many experiments in progressive legislation and have adopted invalid and old-age pensions, advanced land legislation, and labor laws. Organization. The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed by Queen Victoria on September 17, 1900, on a con- stitution enacted by the British Parliament at the request of the colonies concerned. It was inaugurated at Sydney, January 1, 1901. The Australian feder- ation is similar to that of the United States, and was accomplished only after much opposition and long discussion. The Commonwealth is composed of the five con- tinental states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and the insular state of Tasmania In 1911 South Australia transferred to the Commonwealth the Northern Territory, with an area of 523,620 square miles and a European population of 1,418. At the same time the Federal Capital Territory (Yass-Can- berra) of 912 square miles, with a population of 1,714, was* transferred to the Commonwealth by New South Wales. In 1917 this Federal area was increased to 940 square miles. It is planned to build a mag- nificent capitol there. Each state has its own local government, presided over by a governor appointed 1605-1858. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AUSTRALASIA). 75 by the crown, who is assisted by a council of minis- ters. Kacli has an upper and lower legislative house. In each state every man and woman over 21 years of age is cnlitled to vote, imless disqualified. Government. By the constitution, approved by popular vote of each state and by the British Parliament, legislative power is exercised by a fed- eral Parliament, consisting of the king, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The king is repre- sented by a governor-general, appointed by the crown, and controlled in most of liis executive fimc- tions through a Council of the state ministers, who constitute a cabinet. These ministei-s in 191S were: Prime Minister and Attorney-General: Minister for the Navy: Public Works and Railways: Home and Territories: Minister of Customs: Treasurer; Post- master-General: Minister of Defense; Minister for Repatriation: Vice President of the Executive Coimcil. and three Honorary Ministers. The Senate is compo.sed of 6 senators from each state, elected for 6 years, one half retiring every 3 years. The House is as nearly as possible twice as mmierous as the Senate, and the members are chosen for three years by imiversal adult suffrage, the number from each state being proportioned to its population, save that no state shall ever be represented by less than five. The legislative powers of the Parliament are ample. In operation the Australian government is carried on by ministers responsible to Parliament, the gov- ernor-general being a flgurchead: a federal court exercises the power to annul statutes of the states and of the union without appeal to Great Britain unless it certifies the case itself for imperial decision. Religion. There is no state church. The Church of England leads in number of commtmi- cants. Then come Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Baptists in the order named. Industry and Labor. Agriculture, cattle and sheep raising, dairy farming, and mining are the chief occupations. The chief exports 1917-18 were wool, $119,492,000: wheat. $29,112,800: flour. S21.- 482.900: butter. S23.835.500: beef. S17.97S.600: copper. S15. 140.000: lead. $15,612,700; tin, S5,321,- 700; skins and hides, $13,864,000. Eduration is in the hands of the various states and is generally free and compulsorj". In 1917 there were 9.197 state schools, with 782.504 pupils. In addition there are numerous private schools, largely denominational or technical, and schools giving spe- cial training. In each state there is also a imiversity. Defense. By the Defense Act of 1903. amended by the various acts since passed, compulsory militarj' training is established, beginning with cadets of twelve to eighteen years of age. This is followed by two years in the citizen forces as recruits and six years as soldiers. Liability ends with the comple- tion of the twenty-sixth year. The actual period of training, however, is veo' short, about sixteen days each year. When the system is tmder full op- eration it is estimated that there will be 150.000 cadets and 120.000 citizen soldiers. Before the World War the militia consisted of 50.000 and there were 90.000 undergoing compulsory training as senior cadets. It is estimated that the annuarcost when this system is in full working order will some- what exceed $14,580,000. The total military forces. June 30. 1917. amounted to 281,942. of whom 3.923 were permanent. During the World War. more than 750.000 men volimteered and 300.000 were sent overseas. Proposals to establish conscription were defeated. The Commonwealth plans to make Australia self- defending, and in 1911 agreed to furnish an Austra- lian fleet unit together with the necessary auxiliaries such as docks and depot ships. In time of peace this navy was to be under the control of the Com- monwealth, but in time of war one of the units of the royal navy. A ship of this imit chased and de- stroyed the German commerce destroyer. Emden. Area and Population. The area of the Aus- tralian Commonwealth (not including New Guinea) is 2.974,581 square miles and the population (esti- mated, 1919) 5.140,153. NEW SOUTH WALES. New .South Wales was the earliest settled and is now the most populous of all the Australian states. In 1840 New Zealand was separated from it and or- ganized as a separate colony Responsible govern- ment was established in 1855. The general election of 1904 was the first in the state in which women were entitled to vote. The permanent capital of the Commonwealth will be located in New South Wales at Yass-Canberra. The state is entitled to 27 members in the Commonwealth House of Repre- sentatives. The area is 3 10,372 square miles. The estimated population in 1919 was 1.960.597. VICTORIA. VicTORtA is the most southern and. in territory, the smallest of the continental states. It was per- manently colonized in 1835. when Melbourne was founded. Respoifeible government dates from 1855. 97% of the inhabitants above fifteen can read and write. Victoria is entitled to 21 members in the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth. Melbourne, with its suburbs, had in 1917 an esti- mated population of 708,240 and is the temporary capital of the Federation. The area is 87.884 square miles, little more than one thirty-third of all Australia. The estimated population in 1919 was 1.467. 188. QUEENSLAND. Queensland is the most northeasterly of the states. It was colonized in 1825 and separated from New South Wales in 1859. when responsible go\emment was conferred. Literacy is high. 98% of the population abo\e 15 years of age being able to read and write. Queensland is entitled to 10 members in the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth. The area is 670,500 square miles; estimated population in 1919, 712,827. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. South Australia occupies the center of the con- tinent, which it spans from north to south. It was made a British province in 1836. Women were granted the franchise in 1S94. A large part of the interior is occupied by the almost limitless and des- ert Austral Plain. It is entitled to 7 members in the Commonwealth House of Representatives. The area is 380,070 square miles. The estimated popu- lation in 1919 was 455,944. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Western .\ustralia occupies all the western part of the continent. The flrst settlement was planted on the Swan River, in 1829. Responsible govern- ment was granted in 1890. This was the last of the states to join the Federation. It has 5 members in the House of Representatives. The area is 975,920 square miles. The estimated population (1919) was 323,220 as against only about 50,000 thirty years ago. TASMANIA. Tasmania is separated from Australia by Bass Strait, about 150 miles in width. In 1642 it was dis- covered by the Dutch navigator Tasman. whose name it bears. He called it Van Diemen"s Land, for a Dutch governor of Java who claimed the island for Holland. The Frenchman Marion-Dufresne visited the island in 1 772. and provoked the natives to hostil- ity. Five years af tenvard Captain Cook anchored in Adventure Bay. Then came a brief contest among repres€*ntatives of different European powers for the right of dominion. Captain Bass circumnavigated the island in 1798. Because of his favorable descrip- tion, the site of Hobart Town was afterward chosen. In 1803 a colony was planted on the Derwent. In the same year a penal colony was established at Port Phillip, Australia, but was transferred to Ho- bart Town in 1804. The natives were constantly hostile, but were brought to subjection in 1830, after which the aboriginal race rapidly dwindled Tasmania was a dependency of New South Wales tmtil 1825. Then the inhabitants declared them- selves independent, and sought to estabUsh a civil government of their own. Next, they successfully resisted the further importation of criminals, which ceased in 1853. In 1856 responsible government was put in operation. In 1901 it became one of the states of the Commonwealth of Australia. Tasmania now has five members in the House of Representatives. The island is rich in metaUic ores and coal. The main crops are oats, wheat, potatoes, and hay. A relatively large state debt has been contracted for public improvements. The area is 26.215 square miles; estimated population in 1919. 210.881. NEW GUINEA OR PAPUA. British New Guinea, now officially called the Territory of Papua, was transferred to the Austra- lian Commonwealth in 1905. Situated on the other side of the island-studded Torres Strait at a short distance from Australia, the political destiny of New Guinea vitally affected the inliabitants of Queens- land and of all the Australian states. It is governed by a lieutenant governor and a council of six. nomi- nated by the governor-general of Australia. It has some valuable mineral fields, particularly of copper and gold. The area is 90,540 square miles and the native population (1918) was about 200,000. Chronology — Australia. 1605. Torres, for Spain, sails through Torres Strait. Dutch vessel Duyfken is traditionally supposed to reach north coast of Australia in March. 1606. [voyages follow. | 1616. Hartog is on the west coast. Other Dutch' 1642. Nov. 24. Tasman discovers Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and lands on New Zealand (December). 1644. Tasman is on north and northwest coast of Australia, which he names New Holland, [coast. I 1699. Dampier is first Enghsh navigator on west I 17J0. March. Capt. James Cook for England. after exploring New Zealand coast, reaches Botanj- Bay on the east coast of Australia which he ex- 1 plores northward to Torres Strait, taking posses- sion for England and naming the region New South Wales. 1783. June SO. Actof Parliament for transporta- tion of criminals. Order in council in 1786 se- lects east coast of .\ustralia as place. 1788. Jan. 26. Arthur Phillip, with 750 convicts and detachment of marmes. begins settlement of New South Wales in Sydney (Cove) of Port Jack- son; military government. 1791. Beginning of transportation of Irish political convicts. 1797. Coal Is discovered and Newcastle founded. 1804. Ffb. 20. Settlement of Van Diemen's Land begun at Hobart Town by Collins. Latm- ceston is started two years later. Island becomes penal settlement. Insurrection of convicts in New South Wales. 1808. January. Military revolt in New South Wales; governor deposed. 1810. Population estimated at 11.500. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1823. July 19. Act for government of New South Wales: Court refonii; jur.v; council, while remaining appointive, enlarged by 3 nonofflce- holding colonists and has consultative legislative and financial power: separate governorship for Van Diemen's Land; favors free emigration. 1826. Moreton Bay (Brisbane) made a penal col- ony, but real settlement of Queensland begins with advance of interior pastoral exploration to the Darling Downs ; not connected with coast imtil 1840. when penal settlement is broken up. 1828. July 25. Act enlarges council of New South Wales to 15, with greater legislative powers. 1829. White population of New South Wales. 35,610. May 14. Act for settlement of Western Australia. In June expedition tmder Stirling lauds; starts Perth as capital. 1834. Aug. Jo. Act authorizing province of South Australia; transportation of convicts for- bidden there: complicated government with land commissioners sitting in London. 1835. Main settlement of Victoria begtm at Mel- bomne and Geelong by Fawkner and Batman. In 1834 settlement by Henty at Portland Bay. 1836. Ju!y 27. Settlement of South Australia begins at Kangaroo Island. 1837. Adelaide founded. 18*0. Transportation of convicts to New South Wales ceases; Van Diemen's Land becomes the chief colony for convicts and is in danger of being swamped. 1842. Discovery of copper in South Australia. June 22. Crown Land Sales Act: uniform sys- tem throughout Australia; survey before sale; auction ; minimum price of £1 (about $5) per acre. Cause of much complaint; repealed, except as to Western Australia, when responsible government is conferred in 1850. July SO. Act for representative government In New South Wales; 24 of 36 coimcilors to be elected : general legislative powers. 1846. Aug. 2S. Act to do away with evils of squatting for pasturage; pastoral leases to be granted with first right of purchase. 1849. Demonstrations in Sydney and Melbourne against the renewal, tmder order in coimcil of 1848. of transportation of convicts. Ministry yields: but a stream of convicts and ticket-of- leave men is directed to Western Australia, along with a home subsidy, and that colony prospers. 1850. Aug. 5. Representative government — elected coimcil — is extended to South Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and Victoria, the last being set off from New South Wales after July 1, 1851. 1851. White population estimated at 430,596. Feb. 12. Discovery of gold in New South Wales; government adopts system of hcense to dig alluvial gold and later demands royalty on rock gold, whether in public or private lands; such taxation causes much controversy; later, export duty on gold is substituted. Gold fields also found in Victoria. Rush of miners similar to that to California in 1849. 1853. Transportation of convicts to Van Die- men's Land ceases; event celebrated August 10, and colony renamed Tasmania. 1854. November-December. Revolt Of miners in Ballaret District. Victoria; discontent over li- censes. Eureka .Stockade stormed by soldiers on December 3. Expulsion of Chinese miners by whites. [matta. I 1855. First railway opened; Sydney to Parra-| 1856. Responsible government with bicameral parliaments and control over revenue and ex- penditures put in operation in New South Wales, Tasmania, and South Australia. April 21. First Eight Hoiu^ Demonstration Day in Melbourne; an annual holiday since. Victoria becomes a leader in labor reform, both private and legal. 1858. Torrens Act on transfer of real property in South AustraUa. (See Tobhens system, in Did.) 76 NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AUSTRALASIA). 1859 — 1920. N U W 18SD. Dec. 11. Under letters patent Queensland becomes a separate colony with responsible gov- ernment. 1861. Nov. 27. New South Wales places restriction and tax on Chinese immigrants. Victoria has a similar act. Early phase of " White Australia " movement ; other colonies support policy. 1863. July 6. British act places Northern Terri- tory under South Australia. 1865. S}st«m of Kanaka laborers begins for plan- tations of Queensland. J868. Britisli government, in answer to complaints of other colonies, ceases to send convicts to Western Australia. 1870. Western Australia is given a legislative council, partly elective. Imperial forces are v.ithdrawn from Australia. 1871. Population. 1,924,770. 1881. Population, 2,253,617. December. Further act in New South Wales against Chinese immigration; limit on number arriving in each vessel; .S.50 head tax. 1883. Plan for a Federal Council of limited legis- lative power. Not a success, though sanctioned by British Parliament (Aug. 14, 1SS5). Council meets fh-st in February, 1884, but New South Wales, South Australia, and New Zealand ignore it. 1885. CJold discovered in Western Australia. April /,. Queensland takes possession of Brit- ish New Guinea (Papua). 1S86. April 6. British-German convention on spheres in Oceania. Under this, British New Guinea is made a crown colony on Sept. 4, 1888. Queensland assisting m administration and support. 1888. New .South Wales's anti-Chinese act is made more drastic; head tax of $500, and num- ber permitted on each ship reduced two thirds; no mining or naturalization. Aug. IS. British Parhament passes Austral- asian Naval Defense Act, carrying out agree- ment of colonies to pay interest on prime cost and also peace maintenance of 7 warships stationed m the region. Later renewed and enlarged. 1890. Great strike involving shearers, dock work- ers, seamen, miners, and others. Shearers strike again in 1891 to enforce union labor, but fail February. Conference of New Zealand and New South Wales delegates with Federal Coimcil to consider federalization. July 25. British act for responsible govern- ment in Western Australia, embodying a re- served colonial act of April 29, 1899. 1891. Population, 3,174,253. March. National Convention at Sydney drafts a constitution for a Commonwealth of Aus- tralia with delegated powers: largely a basis for discussion. 189t. South Avistralia adopts woman suffrage. 1898. March 1 6. Convention of delegates author- ized by the colonies of Australia (except Queens- land) "after prolonged discussion adopts a Com- monwealth Bill. In June it is approved by ref- erendum in Victoria, South Australia, and Tas- mania only. [Australia. I 1899. Woman suffrage established in Western I January. Conference of premiers at Melbourne and compromise reached on question of federal capital and division of customs revenue (" Brad- don clause"); thus amended, the Federation Bill is adopted by referendum in all the AustraUan col- onies but Western Australia. 1900. July 9. Adoption by British Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act. being the Federation Bill with some modifica- tion of right of appeal to privy council. Members are called states, upper house modeled on United States Senate, federal powers enumerated; a Su- preme Court to pass on statutes — no appeal to England except by consent of courts. Western Australia ratifies the federation on July 31, but New Zealand remains outside. 1900-191)3. Australia sends about 21.000 soldiers to South African War; she also has a naval con- tuagent in the Boxer suppression in China. 1901. Population. 3.771.715. Act of New South Wales for conciliation and compulsory arbitration of labor disputes, modeled on New Zealand act. Later. Western Australia and South Australia adopt such meas- lu-es. Systems of wage boards also exist. Jan. t Earl of Hopetoun inaugurated at Sydney governor-general of Commonwealth of Australia; Barton ministry is formed May 9. First parliament of Common- wealth opened at Melbourne by Duke of Corn- wall (Prince of Wales, now George V.). At first the ministry has 42 seats in House and 14 in Sen- ate; the opposition, 32 in House and 21 in Senate. 1903. Woman suffrage adopted in New South Wales. (elections. | January. Woman suffrage adopted for federal I Immigraticn Restriction Act; a "White Aus- tralia " mea-sure also demanded by Lahorit.es, Immigrants must be able to write 50 dictated ■words in prescribed European language: a sham test to cover intended exclusion of Asiatics. Pacific Islands Laborers Act: directed against the Kanakas on the Queensland sugar plantations and the methods of labor traflic. AU such labor- ers to be deported witliin a specified time. In 1903 a bounty enacted for sugar grown by white labor. 1903. Jan. 9. Lord Tennyson governor-gen- eral, having been acting as such since July 17 1902. Iminister.l Sept. S4. Deakin succeeds Barton as primel 1904. Jan. 21. Lord Northcote governor-gen- eral. March 2. Second parliament assembles: m House 27 support the ministry, 24 are in opposi- tion, and 24 are Laborites; in Senate 15 Laljorites, 12 in opposition, and 7 supporters of ministry-. April 27. Watson (Labor) ministry takes over the government on Deakm's resignation over the Arbitration Act. Aug. 17. Reid-McLcan ministry, the Labor- ites having met defeat on the Arbitration Act. Dee. 8. Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act; prohibits strikes and lockouts and authorizes a court of conciliation and com- pulsory arbitration in Interstate controversies. Does not prevent strikes. 1906. July B. Second Deakin ministry begins Dee. 11. Trade-marks Act with a ■' Union- label ■■ clause, which was later declared unconsti- tutional by the federal Supreme Court. Dec. IS. Immigration Restriction Amendment Act removes word " European " because of diplo- matic complications with India and Japan, but policy of exclusion through prescription of lan- guage test continues. 1906. Sept. 1. Papua (British New Gumea) be- comes a territory of the Conmionwealth. Sept. IS. Australian Industries Preservation Act, directed against " dumping " and trusts. October. Excise Tariff (Agricultiu-al Machin- ery) Act, a " new protection " measure, lays an excise on such manufactures when not produced under specified labor conditions. Later declared unconstitutional. Customs Tariff Act provides for reciprocal prefer- ential duties with South Africa. 1907. Bounties Act for boimty during 15 years on production of certain goods. 1908. May 29. Tariff Act increasing protection and giving Great Britain 5 per cent preference on portion of items. June 10. Federal Old Age and Invalid Pen- sion Act; such measiu-es already exist in New South Wales, Victoria, and Qvieensland. Sept. 9. Earl of Dudley governor-general. Nov. IS. Fisher (Labor) ministry succeeds. Laborites having withdrawn support from Deakin (Liberal) mmistry. Dec. 8. Act locating federal capital at Yass- Canberra, in New South Wales. On October 18, 1909, a formal agreement is reached to that effect between the Conmionwealth and state, later rati- fied by the two parliaments, and the district of 900 square miles is transferred to Commonwealth control on January 1, 1911. 1909. March IS. Royal Australian Navy is be- gim in the construction of three destroyers. In August at imperial conference the Commonwealth agrees to provide and maintain a fleet unit. June 2. Third Deakin (antilabor fusion) ministry begins. 1910. First high commissioner for AustraUa at London. April IS. General election: House, 30 Mmis- terialsts, 42 Laborites, 3 Independents: Senate, 13 Ministerialists, 23 Laborites. Two constitu- tional amendments voted on: one for assumption of whole of state debts adopted; other for substi- tute for expiring Braddon clause rejected, but gov- ernment adopts its principle (annual payment to states of $6 per capita) for 10 years. April 29. Second Fisher (Labor) ministry. November. Defense Act; besides the perma- nent and instructional forces, general compulsory trainmg in graded stages between 12 and 26 years of age. 1911. Population. 4.455.005. [toria.l Compulsory preferential votmg adopted in Vic- 1 Jan. 1. Northern Territory passes to control of the Commonwealth. April 26. Popular vote on two constitutional amendments; one givmg Commonwealth control over all commerce and all mdustrial matters^ the other, power to take over and operate any Indus- try deemed subject of a monopoly; both defeated. July SI. Lord Denman governor-general. Oct. SB. Laimching of the Australia, the battle cruiser of the new Australian fleet imit. 1913. Sept.H. Work begim on federal transconti- nental railway to connect Western Australia with rest of country. Oct. 19. Commonwealth Maternity Bonus Act; S24 grant at birth of each child. 1913. March 12. Formal naming of federal capital as Canberra. May. General election: House. Liberals 38, Laborites 37; Senate, Liberals 7, Laborites 29. June 24. Ccok (Liberal) ministry succeeds. Labor govenmient. Oct. 4- Arrival at Sydney of Australian navy; 1 battle cruiser {Australia), 3 cruisers, and 3 de- stroyers; 3 more destroyers and 3 submarines will complete the unit. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 1914. May IS. Su- Ronald Munro-Ferguson governor-general. August. All British possessions Included in declaration of war on Germany and Austria. For the World W.ar. see that title. .\ua. 39. Capture of German Samoa by New Zealand troops and Australian navy. Sept. s. General election; House, 44 Laborites, 33 Liberals, 1 Independent; Senate, 32 Laborites, 4 Liberals. Sept. 11. Australian na\T occupies Bismarck Archipelago. Sept. 13. Solomon Islands taken. Sept. 17. Third Fisher (Labor) ministry; members chosen by Labor caucus. Sept. 2J,. German New Gumea is occupied. Australian vessels also visit other islands and the German wireless system in the South Seas is de- stroyed and raids by German cruisers prevented. Oct. 17. First contingent of over-sea troops, , 20,343, sails. Nov. 9. Destruction of Gei-man cruiser Emden by Australian cruiser Sydney. 1915. January. New tariff continues preference to the United Kmgdom, New Zealand, and South Africa, but not to Canada. Feb. 11. Policy of food control begms by tak- ing over all meat for export ; later, wheat also is controlled by government. Oct. 27. Hughes succeeds Fisher as prime minister, and Labor ministry is reorganized. 1916. August. Hughes, advocatmg conscription, is expelled from Labor party, Oct 28. First referendum on conscription: for, 1,087.918; agamst, 1,146.198. Labor party is disrupted over issue: I. W. W.'s. Reds, pacifists. Sinn Femers. and women voters are active ele- ments against conscription. Dec. SI. Australian voluntary relief contribu- tions to date are about $25,000,000. 1917. January. Conference of state governments (crown lands being vmder state control) formu- lates plan for land settlement of Australian and British veterans. Feb. 19. Hughes resigns, but at once organizes a coalition (Commonwealth-War) ministry. May B. General election: House. 53 National- ists (Hughes). 22 Laborites; Senate, 24 National- ists, 12 Laborites. [Western Australia. I Oct. 20. First train on transcontmental line to I Dec. 20. Second referendum on conscrip- tion: for. 1.013.000; against. 1.178,000. 1918. Hughes again resigns because of conscription vote, but returns to power. June SO. To date Great Britam has advanced $237,000,000 to Australia; and war expenses have been $1 ,074,000,000. Includmg the seventh loan, of 'October 15. 1918. about $945,000,000 has been thus raised. The chief addition to taxes has been a federal income tax; excess-profits tax is laid for one year only. Total enlistments to end of war 415.685; sent overseas. 330.000: casualties: 57.871 killed. 150.241 wounded. 4.264 prisoners. 1919^ Jan. IS. Australia is represented at Peace Conference by Premier Hughes and Ex-Premier Cook May 6. Mandate for German interests in the Pacific south of the equator (except Samoa and Naiu-u) is given to AustraUa. New Guinea is the chief of the possessions. Oct 2 Treaty of Versailles is ratified. December. At the elections, the supporters of the government get 49 seats in the House, to 10 for the LalX)rites. 1930. January. A permanent commissioneris sent to the United States. NEW ZEALAND. Historical Outline. The Dominion of New Ze.\lasd is the largest insular possession of Great Britain. It includes North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, and some dependent groups. In the interior, moimtam ranges rise to considerable heights. Some among them are still active volcanoes and there are glaciers and scenic hot springs. The climate is one of the best in the South Temperate zone. Tasman discovered New Zealand in 1642, and an- chored in a bay of South Island. Captain Cook in North Island in 1769 proclaimed the sovereignty of Great Britain. He introduced swine and European vegetables. Settlements were made by Englishmen, and American whaling ships visited tlie islands. Friendly relations were cultivated with the natives, the Maoris, who were a brave and vigorous race, physically of fine form and mentally well endowed. In"l820 Hongi Ika, the Maori king, visited England and was honored by George IV. TMrteen years 1542-1919. NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE — BULGARIA. 77 later a British Resident was appointed, and in 1S.3S. a lieutenant governor. Tiie New Zealand Company was chartered in 1839. Beginning with 1S44 there were a number of fierce wars with the JMaoris, who were subdued with diflicnlty. Constitutional government was establishsd in 1852, the colony being divided into provinces, each governed by an elected superintendent and provin- cial council. This was succeeded by the parliamen- tary system in 1S76. On September 9, 1917, the designation of the colony of New Zealand was changed to the Dominion of New Zealand. It has declined to enter the Australian Federation, the near- est part of wliich is 1,200 miles away. Organization. CJovernnient. The executive power is exercised by a governor-general, who may assent or refuse to assent to bills or reserve them for the English crown. He may summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Parlia- ment and may retimi bills for amendment to either house The legislative function is vested in the governor-general and a Parliament, which consists of a Legislative Coimcil and a House of Representa- tives. The Legislati\'e Council has 38 members (Jime, 1918). After former life appointments ex- pire, all members will hold seats for seven years. In 1920 an elective Legislative Council of 40, of which the governor-general may appoint three Maori members, is to he established. The House of Rep- resentatives nimibers 80 members, including four Maoris, and is elected by the people imale and fe- male suffrage) for three years. More than half of the population are enrolled as electors. Few coun- tries have carried experiments in stat« socialism and governmental participation in the affairs of capital and labor as far. Industry and Labor. New Zealand is rich in agricultural, grazing, and forest resoiu'ces, and in 1917exported $59,172,000 worth of wool, 829,074,500 frozen meat, 529,066.700 butter and cheese, S9,048,- 500 iiides. skins, and pelts. Its manufactm-es are also rapidly increasing, the most important being connected witli preserving meat, making butter and cheese, grain mills, sawmills, tanning, and wool scouring. Religion. No form of religion receives state aid. The leading church is the Church of England, with 43% of the poptilation, afte. wliich come the Pres- byterian and Roman Catholic. Education. Education is thoroughly systema- tized and wides;ecame a member of the Central American confederation (1823-1839). During this period there were frequent wars and revolutions, and m 1S42 Salvador achieved its inde- pendence, which was recognized by the other repub- lics and by Spain. It is the smallest and at the same time most densely populated of the Central Ameri- can states. In common with the other Central American states, Salvador has been the scene of frequent revolutions, and has also been drawn into the strug- gles between the states desiring a Central American union patterned on the United States and the party desiring local independence for each state. In 1907 Salvador supported Honduras in its struggle against Nicaragua and in 1908 was sued by Honduras and Nicaragua in the Central American Court. Organization. Government. The constitution proclaimed in 1824 has been modified seven times and vests the leg- islative power in a congress of forty-two deputies elected for one year by miiversal suffrage. The executive power is in the hands of a president whose tenure of office is limited to four years. Industry and Labor. The chief occupation of the people is agricultural. The principal product is coffee, to wMch 153,000 acres are devoted. Boun- ties are offered by the government for the production of cotton, and attempts are made at wheat cultiva- tion. The mineral wealth includes gold, silver, cop- per, iron, and mercm-y. Religion and Education. The religion is Ro- man Catholic. Education is free and compulsory. There are about a thousand primary schools, 27 higher schools, including three normal schools and a national university with professional schools. Defense. The military strength of the coimtry consists of first, the available force of more than 16,- 000 officers and men: second, forces which can be made available, 11,500; third, reserve forces, 17,500. In case of war, military service is compulsory be- tween the ages of IS and 50. There is one custom- house cruiser. Ition (1919) 1,298,621.1 The area is 13. 176 square miles and the popula-l Chronology. Central American States. Panama, because of its peculiar international sig- nificance, is separately treated, pp. 81 and 82. 1502. Columbus on liis foiu-th \-oyage skh-ts the Atlantic coast of Central America from Honduras to the GiUf of Daricn. 1510. First settlement of North American mainland on Ciulf of Darien. 1522. Gonzalez de .4vila from Panama journeys by sea and land along Pacific coast into Nicaragua and discovers Lalce Nicaragua. 1524. Pedrarias de Avila (Pedro Arias de Avila) from Panama founds Granada and Leon (site changed m 1610) in Nicaragua. Gonzdlez de Avila makes a settlement on Gulf of Honduras in present Guatemala. Idm-as. !• Cortes sends Olid and Casas to the Gulf of Hon- 1 Aivarado, Cortes's lieutenant, marches from Mexico and conquers Guatemala and Salvador. Guatemala city (Santiago) foimded (site changed in 1.528). |to Honduras. I 1524-1525. Cortes journeys overland from Mexico I 1525. Trujillo, Honduras, foimded. 1527. Dec. IS. Captaincy general of Guate- mala established, including Cliiapas and all of Central America except Panama. Continues dur- ing colonial period. Natives reduced to slavery and in great part exterminated or driven into interior wUds. 1638. Begmnmg of British Honduras (Belize) by logwood cutters. Various unsuccessful attempts by Spanish in next 150 years to drive them away. 1783. .Se;i(. S. Treaty of Versailles concedes to British subjects right to cut logwood in Belize. New treaty on July 14, 1786. ConfUct continues until 1798. No formal acknowledgment of Brit- ish suzerainty until 1859. 1811. Nov 5. Attempted revolt at San Salvador; soon abandoned. Various circumstances keep Central American provinces quiet after revolts begin in jMe.xico and South America. 1821. Sept. 3. Chiapas joins Mexico imder Itur- bide's rule. September 15. Guatemala declares Independence; followed by Salvador and Nica- ragua September 21. Honduras October 16, and Costa Bica October 27. 1822. Jnn.B. Jimtaat Guatemala (city) proclaims union of whole of Central America with Mexi- can Empire imder Plan of Iguala (see Mexico). War between Guatemala and Salvador results. Dec. 2. Salvadorean congress repeals imion with Mexico and places country under protec- tion of United States as an integral portion thereof. Mexican partisans, however, subdue coimtry again, in February-. 1823. 1823. June 2J,. Iturbide having fallen. Central American congress meets. It becomes a con- stituent assembly and, Jidy 1, declares Honduras, Guatemala. Sahador. Nicaragua, and Costa Rica an independent confederated state, the United Provinces (States) of Central America. Ac- tion reaffirmed October 1. Costa Rica's connec- tion is largely formal. 1824. A-pr\l. Slavery abolished by constituent assembly. Not. 22. Federal constitution promulgated. 1825. April 21. Arce elected first president. Conflict between state and federal government soon develops Dec. 5. Commercial treaty with United- States, wliich earlier in 1825 recognized the new nation. 1826. Julie. Panama Congress (see Panama). 1827-1829. War between Sah-ador and federal government supported by Guatemala. 1828. Feb. 14. Informal resignation of Arce. 1829. April. Morazan. leader of victorious Sal- vador Liberal arm.v. assumes powers of federal state on occupation of Guatemala city. Later Barrundia becomes provisional president. Sept. 7. Congress suppresses religious orders. 1830. Sept. 16. Morazan inaugurated president. 1832. Jnn. 7. Salvador secedes, but forced to return after Morazan captures San Salvador. 1837-1838. Revolt, largely of Indians, in Guate- mala led by Carrera and incited by clerical and '* Servile " opponents of Liberal government. 1838. April SO. Nicaragua secedes. May SO. Congress decrees virtual dissolu- tion of confederation by granting states privi- lege of separate action. Oci. 26. Honduras secedes. November 15, Costa Rica follows. 1839. Feb. 1. Morazdn's term expires; no effort to elect a successor. April 17. Guatemala declares its independ- ence. Clerical ohgarchy under Carrera rules. 1839-1840. Honduras and Nicaragua, with Carrera, make war on Salvador and Federalists imder Morazdn. (leaves the country. I 1840. April 5. IVIorazdn, last link of confederacy, 1 1842. April 7. Morazan lands in Costa Kica. He becomes head of that government. Reaction- ists, especiaUy Carrera, promote revolt against' liim; he is captured and executed, September 15. 1842-1845. Attempts to form a new imion fail. During this period Salvador and Guatemala are at war, also Honduras and Salvador against Nica- ragua, revolt in Salvador, and war of Salvador against Honduras. States in lamentable condi- tion. Costa Rica more stable and prosperous. 1846. Concession by Nicaragua to Ij>uis Napoleon for a canal. Nothing done. 1848. British, claiming protectorate o\-er Mos- quito Coast Indians of Nicaragua and Hon- duras, with strong desire to stretch it over Nica- ragua canal route, occupy Greytown (San Juan del Norte). Crisis hi a poUcy of aggression deemed contrary to Monroe Doctrine and American interest in Isthmian transit made important by acquisition of California and dis- covery of gold there (see Pana.ma). 1849. June 21. Draft treaty (Hise) between United States and Nicaragua for exclusive American control over Nicaragua canal route. Repudiated by new American adminis- tration. Sept. ,3. Draft treaty (Squier) between United States and Nicaragua for neutralization of canal and guarantee of Nicaraguan sovereignty. Squier also secures canal concession for the American Compiflia de Trdnsito de Nicarugita. Sept. 2S. Draft treaty between United States and Honduras for cession of Tigre Island, com- manding western end of Nicaragua canal route. Oct. 16. Britisli fleet seizes Tigre Isl-ind. 1850. Salvador, Honduras, and Democrats of Nicaragua ally against autocracy in Guatemala. Carrera invades Salvador, where revolt over- tlirows the government. Peace not made till 1853. April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between Ignited States and Great Britain. 'Mutual con- trol and protection of any ship canal or other means of Isthmian transit, and mutual renuncia- tion of control over Nicaragua or other portions of Central America. British Honduras not em- braced in treaty. Tigre Island given up ; but con- troversy continues over Mosquito Coast and in- terpretation and fulfiUment of treaty. May 10. Spain recognizes independence of Costa Rica; first formal acknowledgment of loss of suzerainty over Central America. 1851. American Accessory Transit Company of Nicaragua absorbs earlier American company (see 1849) and develops route with steamers on lake and river. Important route until Panama Railroad opened in 1855. Jan. 9. New imion of Honduras. Nicaragua, and Salvador, but Salvador and Honduras set it aside in 1853. 1852. April. Greytown (San Juan del Norte) made a " tree city " imder British promotion. Trouble results with the Transit Company. July 17. Bay Islands, off northern coast of Honduras, proclaimed a British colony. 1853-1856. War between Guatemala and Hon- duras. 1854. July IS. Bombardment of Greytown (San Juan del Norte) by U.S.S. Cyane in protection of rights of Transit Company. Oct. 21- Carrera proclaimed president of Guatemala for life. 1855. June IS. Walker, American filibuster with ultimate aim of adding Central America to slave States of United States, lands in Nicaragua. October 13, he occupies Granada and becomes master of the country. [slaverj-.t 1856. July. Walker decrees the restoration of| October. Central American forces unite, and after months of fighting force Walker to sur- render. May 1, 1857. He leaves on an American naval vessel. 1857. Oct. 19. Costa Rica declares war on Nica- ragua; thought to be for conquest. Peace made January 16, 1858. Nov. 16. Martinez becomes president of Nicaragua. Interval of internal peace and pros- perity resifits. Dec. S. Walker, attempting another expedi- tion, intercepted and sent back by an American naval ofllcer. 1858 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. 81 1858. April 16. Boundary treaty between Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The latter disavows it later. May. Canal concession by Nicaragua and Costa Rica to a French company imdei Belly. American protest nullifies it. Attempt of Na- poleon III. to revise it fails. 1859. April SO. British-Guatemalan treaty; British suzerainty over British Honduras acknowl- edged by delimitation of boimdaries. Xov. 2S. British treat j- with Honduras; Bay Islands ceded to Honduras and protection over Mostjuito Indians within borders of Honduras transferred to Honduras. 1860. Jan. ^S. Nominal sovereignty over Mos- quito Coast ceded to Nicaragua by Great Britain, Aug. 6. Walker lands at Trujillo on a tliird expedition. Siu-rendered by British to Honduras and executed, September 12. 1863. War of Nicaragua and Guatemala against Salvador and Honduras. 1865. April 14. Death of Carrera. Corna suc- ceeds as i-uler over Guatemala. (Nicaragua. I 1867. March 1. Martinez retires from office in| June 21. Dickinson-Ayon Treaty between United States and Nicaragua: right (not exclusive) to build canal or other means of transit given in return for guarantee of neutrality and Nicaraguan sovereignty. It is probably contrary to Ciayton- Bulwcr Treaty, which United States desires to abrogate, 1SC9-1873. American Interoceanic Canal Com- mission appointed by President Grant to survey routes. Report made. February 7, 1S76, in favor of Nicaraguan route. 1871. June. Overtiirow of Cerna's oligarchical government in Guatemala by Liberals. Severe anticlerical decrees follow: archbishop, bishop, and Jesuits expelled: religious communities sup- pressed or limited; ecclesiastical legal privileges abolished; religious freedom established. 1871-1876. New attempt at union. 187*i. War of Salvador and Guatemala against Hon- duras, now the chief reactionary government. 1873. Jxnif If. Rufmo Barrios inaugurated con- stitutional president of Guatemala. Economic and social advancement, but unfavorable political conditions follow. 1876. "War between Guatemala and Salvador. Peace terms. April 25. compel change in Salva- dorean government and Zaidivar t>ecomes presi- dent. July 19, and continues in office for nine years. Barrios also secures m Hondiu-as a government favorable' to his plans for reunion. 1879. Provisional Interoceanic Canal Company organized in United States; concession for canal from Nicaragua (see Panama for French con- cession). 1881. Jesuits from Guatemala have settled in Nicaragua. Fanatical Indian insurrection laid at their door and they are expelled. Jubj 2. Emperor of Austria as arbiter decides that Nicaragtian sovereignty over Mosquito Coast under treaty of 1S60 is limited by the self-govern- ment of the Indians conceded in the treaty. Fa- vorable to British policy and connected with Amer- ican efforts to abrogate Clajlon-Bulwer Treaty. 1884. Dec. I. Draft treaty between United States and Nicaragua negotiated by President Arthur for canal constructed by United States to be owned jointly with Nicaragua. Guarantee of Nicaraguan territorial integrity. Violates Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, President Cleveland, March 13, I8S5. withdraws it from Senate, thus reversing policy of predecessors for canal imder American control (see Panama). 1885. Fib. SS. Barrios, on his own initiative, proclaims consolidation of the five states. Hondiu'as appro\es, ^larcii 7, but other states do not, and foreign mmisters disapprove of action. March 30. Barrlos invades Salvador; de- feated and slain, April 2. End of attempted reimion. 1886. Dec. £.',. Nicaragua and Costa Rica submit validity of boundary treaty of 1858 to Presi- dent Cleveland, who, on ilarch 22. 1S8S. de- clares it valid. 1889. Feb. 20. Incorporation by United States Congress of the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua. Oct. 2. Opening of the first Pan-American Congress at Washington (see United States). All the Central American states send delegates. 1890. June 8. Construction of Nicaragua Canal begun. Barrundia, a fugitive revolutionist, takes refuge on board an American steamer in the harbor of San Jose; his surrender is demanded by Guate- malan authorities; he resists and is killed. Secre- tary Biaine censures United States officials for failing to protect him. 1893. Zelaya raised to presidency of Nicaragua by a revolt. He remains in control and as a disturb- ing factor in Central American affairs imtil 1909. in spite of various risings against him. Aug. 30. Nicaragua Canal Company fails. Work never resumed. Attempts for American governmental aid during next ten years fail. Concession expires and Nicaragua also cancels that of another American company. 1894. Feb. 12. Nicaraguan forces occupy Blue- fields on JVIosQuito Coast and assume control. British marines landed. Diplomatic contro- versy between United States and Cireat Britain. November 20, Mosquito Indians recognize abso- lute sovereignty of Nicaragua over the region. 1895. April 1. Tlu-ough American mediation. Mexican-Guatemalan boimdary dispute settled and armed conflict avoided. 1895-1898. Short-lived Greater Republic of Central America, with which all the sta.tes are associated, altliough Costa Kica does not join un- tU 1897. 1898. Feb. S. President Jose Barrios of Guate- mala assassinated. Barillas provisional presi- dent. Estrada Cabrera inaugiu-ated president, September 25. In power until 1920. Admmis- tration. practically a dictatorship, promotes eco- nomic development. 1899. March 3. New American Isthmian Cana! Commission authorized to report on routes. 1960. Feb. .5. Draft ifirst) Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (see Panama). Sept- 13. Arbitration of Costa Rican-Colom- bian boundary by president of France. Not final, \ov. 30. Preliminary report by Canal Com- mission recommends Nicaraguan route, but chiefly because of supposed difficulty of obtaining control of Panama route and construction; but on January 18, 1902, after the French company agrees to sell to United States, the Commission recommends the Panama route (see Panama for fiu*ther history of the canal). 1901. Nov. IS. (Second) Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (see Panama). 1905. April 10. British-Nicaraguan treaty: ab- solute sovereignty of Nicaragua over Mos- quito Coast recognized; Indians to have cer- tain special privileges. 1906. March. Ex-President Barillas invades Guatemala. Civil war results, the other states aiding Barillas against Cabrera. Presidents Roosevelt and Diaz (of Mexico) mediate and armistice, July 20, leaves Cabrera in control. Dec. 23. Award of king of Spain on Xicara- guan-Honduras boimdary. Not satisfactory. 1907. February. War of Nicaragua against Hon- duras and Salvador. Nicaragua victorious by April. American marines land and prevent pro- longation of the war. March. Flgueroa inaugurated president of Salvador. Aug. IS. Davila becomes president of Hon- diu-as. Dec. 20. General treaty of peace and amity with seven supplementary conventions on extra- dition, communication, etc.. signed by all of the Central American states at Washington. Pro- visions fora Central American Court of Justice (opened May 26, 190S), an International Central American Bureau, and a Pedagogical Institute. Measiu-es particularly dii-ecled toward promotion of peace by pretention of imneutral use of one na- tion by political refugees of another. 1909. Jan. 20. Meeting of delegates of the five states at the first Central American Congress. Conventions signed for miification of money, cus- toms, weights and measiu-es. consular services, and fiscal laws. Not carried out. Dec. 16. President Zelaya of Nicaragua forced to resign following a revolt and threatcni'd diffi- culty with United States. Madriz succeeds as president, but revolt continues. 1910. May 8. Jimenez inaugiu-ated president of Costa Rica. Aug. 22. Estrada, following flight of Madriz. proclaimed president of Nicaragua. 1911- Jan. 10. Loan convention between United States and Honduras; United States to sponsor and guarantee loans for rehabilitation of Hondm-as finances ("dollar diplomacy"). Not ratifiecl by American Senate. March 1. Araujo inaugurated president of Salvador. March 2S. President Ddvila of Honduras re- signs to calm an insurrectionary aiovement Ber- trand succeeds provisionally, and regularly on No- vember 3. May II. Estrada resigns presidency of Nica- ragua: succeeded by Diaz, who becomes regular president. Januarj-^ 1, 1913. June 11. Loan convention between United States and Nicaragua, similar to the Hondiu-as one. Also not ratified. Put in operation with control of customhouse by President Taft without ratification: a virtual protectorate. 1912. Feb. 1. Bonilla inaugurated president of Honduras. August. Mena revolts in Nicaragua. Amer- ican marines assist to suppress revolt and Mena surrenders to them. September 25. Ma- rines remain until after presidential election, when Diaz is reelected. 1913. Feb. 3. Treaty negotiated imder President Taft with Nicaragua by which for S3,000,000 the strategic islands of Little Corn and Great Corn and a naval station in the Gulf of Fonseca are leased to United States along with exclusive canal rights by the Nicaraguan route. It is later modified by Prt-sident \Vil.son so as to estab- Ush a virtual protectorate over Nicaragua. Be- cause of the protectorate the American Senate re- fuses to ratify the treaty. Feb. 9. President Araujo of Salvador assassi- nated. Melendez succeeds. March 13. President Bonilla of Honduras dies. Bertrand resumes the chair. 1914. May S. Gonzalez Flores inaugurated president of Costa Kica. Aug. 6. New American-Nicaraguan treaty like that of 1913, liut without the protectorate. Ratified by American Senate February 18, 191G. Aug. 2if. Molina becomes president of Salva- dor on resignation of Melendez. Sept. 12. Award of Cliief Justice White of United States Supreme Court on the Costa Rican- Panama boundary. Panama repudiates it (1915). 1915. March 1. Melendez again president of Salvador. 19ie. M'jy 26. Costa Rica brings suit in Central American Court of Justice against Nicaragua for infrmgement of rights by canal treaty with United States. Salvador and Honduras also bring suit against the treaty. Court decides in favor of Costa Rica. Nicaragua refuses to accept decision and denoimces convention of 1907 creat- ing the court. Conventions expire in December and court ceases. 1917. Jan. 1. Chamorro inaugurated president of Nicaragua. Jan. 37. President Gonzalez Flores of Costa Rica deposed. Frederico Tinoco Granados provisional president, and regular president after April 11. American government refuses him recognition. April 28. Guatemala severs diplomatic in- tercourse with Germany. May 17, Honduras does likewise. Nicaragua on May 19, and Costa Rica on September 21. 1918. Jan. 6. Destruction of Guatemala city by earthquake. April 21. War declared on Germany by G uatemala. also by Nicaragua (May 6), Costa Rica (May 23), and Honduras (July 19). Nicaragua also declares war on Austria-Hungary (May 8). 1919. Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua have each a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. May. Exiles invade Costa Rica from Nica- ragua; Nicaraguan aid reported. American ma- rines landed to protect property. August 12, President Tinoco Granados departs. Quiros. later Barquero, provisional president. Acosta elected regular president, December, and in- augurated on May 9, 1920. August. Revolt in Honduras against Presi- dent Bertrand. American marines land. Ber- trand lea\es the coimtry in September; Bogran becomes provisional president. Oct. I. Guatemala ratifies the Treaty of Ver- sa illes. 1920. Feb. 2. L6pez Gutierrez inaugurated presi- dent of Honduras. March 10. Salvador joins the League of Na- tions. Costa Rica not requested to join. April. Revolt in Guatemala overthrows Estrada Cabrera (president since 1898), who is captured April 14. PANAMA. Historical Outline. In 1513 Vasco Nufiez de Balboa had his first view of the Pacific Ocean from a moimtain in Panama; and from that tim.e the transit across the Isthmus made Panama important as the main canal route from Spain to the Pacific coast and the Piiilippines. It was one of the first provinces to revolt from Spain and was a portion in succession of the republic of Co- lombia, the repubhc of New Granada, and the United States of Colombia. The development of California made Panama a trade route between East and West, and led to projects for a canal and to the constnjc- tion of a railroad across it. In 1SS6, as a result of a revolution, the constitution of Colombia abohshed the sovereignty of the province and reduced it to de- partments imder governors appointed by the presi- dent of the republic. The trade through the Isthmus was an important source of revenue to Colombia, but the people had little or no share in their own government, and de- rived little benefit from the traffic. The French project 0' a canal in 1879 and the interest of the United States in it aroused Panama, especially after the British withdrew their claims (1901). Colombia prepared a canal treaty, then refused to ratify it, and. with the good will of President Roosevelt, Pan- ama revolted from Colombia m 1903. The revolu- tionarj- government was at once recognized by the United States etnd a treaty negotiated by which the 82 NATIONAL HISTORIES: CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES — CHILE. 1502-1920. United Stat-es obtained perpetual occupation of a ^J zone (Canal Zone) Ave miles wide on either side of the Canal route and was given jurisdiction over the cities of Panama and Colon as to quarantine and sanitation. The islands in Panama Bay were ceded, as was the coast line of the Canal, for such works of defense as might be necessary. On the ratification of tlie treatj' (1904), the United States paid Panama ten million dollars; and undertook to make a per- Opetual annual pa^inent of two hmidred and fifty thousand dollars, beginning nine years from that time. Organization. Government. By the constitution of 1904 the executive functions are exercised by a president, who is elected for four years, as are the tliree vice presi- dents (or designados). and the legislative functions by P a Chamber of Deputies of (1919) 33 members (one for every 10,000 inhabitants), meeting biennially. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five mem- bers. No action is taken by the government or the electors which it is believed would be unwelcome to the United States. Agriculture. Agriculture is still of a primitive order and although the soil is of great fertility only Q about five eighths of the whole area is occupied and only a small part properly cultivated. The chief products are bananas, caoutchouc, cacao, and ma- hogany. All ordinary minerals but coal are foimd. Religion. Most of the inliabitants are Roman Catholics. The population is Spanish American with Indian admLxture. Education. The government maintains 398 public schools at which are enrolled 22.000 cliildren. R A university has been opened at the cost of about one and a half million dollars. Defense. Panama, being imder the protection of the United States, has no army or nav-y- The area is 32,380 square miles and the popula- tion (estimated 1917) is 450.000. Chronology — Panama. 150?. Columbus skirts the Atlantic coast of the ^ Isthmus. 1510. Governors of provinces of Castella de Oro and Nueva Andalucia found Darlen and Nombre de Dios upon the Isthmus. 1513. September. Nuiiez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus and discovers the Pacific Ocean. 1514. Provinces united as province of Tierra .^ Firma, later New Granada (sec Colombia). 1 Isthmus never associated with rest of Central America in captaincy general of Guatemala. 1519. City of Panama founded. Becomes great Pacific port for the transshipment of treasures and other cargoes to and from Peru. Porto Bello (for which Nombre de Dios has been abandoned) becomes the Atlantic port of the transisthmian route and emporium of Peruvian trade, with great fair. 15!39. Saavedra Ceron credited with earliest plans for transisthmian canal. Darien. Pan- ama, Nicaragua, and Tehuantepec routes indi- cated by Galvao later. 1570. Philip II. forbids canal plans as contrary to will of God. 1671. Morgan, the buccaneer, sacks Porto Bello . - and entirely destroys city of Panama. Pan- V araa rebuilt, 1763, on new site. 1698. Scotch Darlen Expedition, planned by Paterson to give British control of the Isthmus. Soon abandoned. Paterson advocates a canal, 1718. Panama included in viceroyalty of New Granada, later in republics of Colombia and New Granada (see Colombia). 1835. Humboldt publishes obser\'ations on canal ^M routes across Central America from Tehuantepec to Atrato River. 1836. June 20. Assembly of Panama Congress, called by Bolivar for Pan-American advancement. Colombia, Central America, Peru, and Mexico at- tend. President Adams desires participation and leadership by United States, but complications due to slavery question prevent American dele- X gates arriving on time. Congress without practi- cal results (see also Cuba). 1841. First secession of Panama from Colombia. State of Isthmus of Panartia short-lived. 1846. Dec. 12. Treaty between United States and Colombia on isthmian transit (see United States). 1848-1849. Acquirement by United States of Cali- fornia increases pubUc interest in Isthmian transit. Y Controversy between Great Britain and United States over control (see Centr.^l America). 1850. Asplnwall (later renamed Colon) founded by Panama Railroad Company, an American cor- poration. Takes place of Porto Bello as Atlantic terminus of Isthmian transit. April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (see Cen- tral America). Z1855. Completion of Panama R-allroad across the Isthmus between Aspinwall and Panama; the chief route until the completion of the canal. 1856. Blots in Panama threaten the safety of U transit. American government endeavors to obtain further treaty. I'nlted States naval demonstration in protest of a Colombian ton- nage tax. 1857. Second short secession by Panama. 1859-1863. Mosquera's civil war (see Colombia) repeatedly threatens safety of transit. 1869. -American Interoeeanic Canal Commis- sion (see Centr.\l America). Earlier sur\'eys have been made by United States, especially under President Buchanan. Jitn. llf. Draft treaty between United States and Colombia superseding that of 1846. giving I'nited States sole riglit to construct and control a sliip canal (contrary to Clayton-Bul- wer Treaty) and a zone tw^enty miles wide across the Isthmus American Senate fails to ratify it. 1870. Jan. 26. Further draft of American-Co- lombian treaty: similar, but less favorable, terms; never ralitled. Tlie.se treaties part of effort to abrogate or nullify Ciayton-Buiwer Treaty for joint control, a part of American policy for half a centtu-j- (see Central America). 1878. May 2S. Colombia grants concession for a canal to Wyse, who organizes the (French) In- ternational Interoeeanic Canal Society. Panama route adopted. De Lesseps put in charge. 1879. May 15. Meeting at Paris of the Interna- tional ** Engineering " Congress imder De Les- seps, a remnant of wliich ratltles the French scheme for an ocean-level canal. 1S80. March S. Message by President Hayes of United States on canal declares that the " policy of this country is a canal under American con- trol . . . virtually a part of the coast line of the United States." Colombia warned against in- fringing American rights imder treaty of 1846 Posssesion taken of coaling stations in pro.ximity to French route. 1881. Feb. I. Construction work on French canal started. Company becomes involved in great extravagances, lack of sanitation at Isth- mus, corruption in affairs at Paris. 1885. .American marines landed to protect transit route diu-ing Liberal re\'olt in Colombia. 1888. Dec. 13. Banliruptcy of French Canal Company. 1893. Ocl. SI. New French Panama Canal Com- pany organized; construction continued, but com- pany Inadequate. 1895. Revolt in Panama. 1899. March 3. New .American Isthmian Canal Commission authorized to report on routes. 1900. Feb. e. Draft (first) Hay-Pauncefote Treaty to permit canal construction and opera- tion by United States alone. Amended by American Senate, falls through. Nor. SO Preliminary report by Canal Com- mission favors NIcaraguan route (see Central America). 1901. Kov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (.second) signed. It supersedes Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, and provides for canal construction and opera- tion and regulation by United States alone; neu- tralization, but American right of military police protection Ratified by United States Dec. 26 and proclaimed Feb. 22, 1902. 1903. Jan. IS. French Canal Company agrees to sell its rights to United States for S40,(X)0,000. Canal Commission now recommends Panama route (see 1000. Nov. 30. above). March. Revolt in Panama causes United States to send warships to the Isthmus. Septem- ber, more serious rising followed by landing of American marines, who forcibly prevent obstruc- tion of transit or use of railroad by combatants. Marines withdrawn November 19. June es. Hepburn Isthmian Canal Act of American Congress. Purchase of French rights and right of way from Colombia and con- struction of Panama route authorized, with construction of Nicaraguan Canal as alternative. 1903. Jan 22. Draft Hay-Herran Canal Treaty between United States and Colombia. Colombia rejects it. November ,3, expecting to force better terms on expiration of French concession. Nov. 4. Panama declares its Independence. Under treaty of 1S46 Ignited States " preserves order " on transit route, which prevents any at- tempt of Colombia to regain control. Nov. 6. United States recognizes Panama Kepublle. Other powers follow suit. Nov. IS. Bay-Bunau-Varilla Panama Ca- nal Treaty between United States and Panama (see United States). 1904. Feb. IS. Constitution of Panama promul- gated. Amador Guerrero first president. Feb. 29. American commission to construct the canal appointed. April 2S. Canal Zone Act of American Con- gress (see United .States). 1905. March 29. Reorganization of Canal Com- mission (see United States). 1906. June 29. American Congress authorizes a lock canal. [Zone and Panama | Nov. 16. President Roosevelt visits Canal] | 1907. Feb. 26. Construction of canal placed in hands of Engineer Corps of United States Army under Goethals; Gorgas in charge of sanitation. 1908. Oct. 1. Obaldia inaugurated president. 1909. Jan. 9. Draft treaties between Colombia and United States and Panama to settle contro- versy growing out of revolution, American recog- nition, and canal. Not ratified; imsatisfactory to Colombia. 1910. President Obaldia dies, March 1; Mendoza becomes acting president, and later (Oct. 5) -Arosemena is inaugurated. 1912. July n. .American officials, at request of Panama, supervise the election. Porras elected president; inaugurated October 1. Aug. 24. Act for operating Panama Canal (see United States). 1914. April 7. Treaty signed between Colombia and United States to end Panama and canal controversy (see United States). Not ratified by American Senate because of " expression of re- gret." (traffic. I May 18. Panama Canal opened to bargel Aug. 15. Formal opening of canal to steamer traffic. Sept. 2. Treaty with Umted States modifying boundary of Canal Zone, and treating of con- trol of harbors, certain islands, and a battery site. Sept. 12. Panama-Costa Rica boimdary (see Central America). October. Slides temporarily close the canal. 1915. Sept. IS. Great slide in Culebra Cut closes canal until April 15, 1916. 1916. February. Opening of National Exposi- tion of Panama, commemorating Ballxia's dis- covery. Ocl. 1. Valdes inaugurated president. Elec- tion again supervised by American officials. 1917. April 7. War declared on Germany. May. Constitutional amendments: capital punishment abolished: election of president by direct popular vote. 1918. June 3. President Valdfis dies; Crriola, later Porras, acting president. 1919. Jan. IS. Panama has a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. 1920. Jan. 30. Lefevre assumes presidency. Por- ras resigns to qualify for regular election to office. CEYLON. See imder British E.mpire, page 62. CHILE. Historical Outline. Chile extends from the extreme southern point of South America along the western coast for nearly 39 degrees of latitude, or 2.700 miles, while nowhere is it more than 250 miles wide, averaging only a hun- dred. The land was originally occupied by Indians who were above the stage of savagery, but far below the level of culture of the races in Mexico and Peru. In the 15th century, previous to European discov- ery, northern Chile was conquered by the Peruvians and a higher civilization introduced which tended to weaken the resistance of the Indians to the later Spanish conquerors. Beyond the territory con- trolled by the Incas the Indians of Chile were fierce and warlike. The first Spanish Invasion was in 1535, when Di- ego de -AJmagro was sent by Pizarro from Peru. In 1540 a centm^' of continuous warfare began imder Pedro de Valdivia, who founded Santiago. The In- dians desperately resisted the conquest and settle- ment and were m possession of the territory south of the Biobio River. The constant warfare with the Indians and the fact that lack of gold compelled the settlers to engage in hard, continuous work, pro- duced a stronger and hardier race than is foiuKi in most of the other South American repubUcs. But these conditions did not bring about the material prosperity wliich characterized many of the Spanish colonies in South America. During the period of Spanish control the thirteen provinces of Chile were under the administration of a governor appointed by the Peruvian viceroy and the Spanish system of restricting colonial trade worked against material development. When the Spanish monarchy was overthrown by Napoleon the Chileans were among the first to revolt (1810). The government, however, was not easily overtlirown and after a tliree years" conflict the Spanish rule was restored. In 1817 a patriot force wliich had been organized in the .Argentine by San Martin, an .Argen- tine officer, and by 0"Higgins crossed the .Andes and defeated the Royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. During the eight years following, the Spanish occu- pied certain strongholds, especially on the coast, from which they were with difficulty expelled. .After the revolution, the government was organ- ized imder the dictatorship of O'Higgins, who be- lieved that firm and orderly government was more important than liberty. His policy aroused opposi- tion, and in 1823 he was compelled to resign. During 1535 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHILE — CHINA. 83 the next seven years three different constitutions were proclaimed and ten governments set up, but in 1830 the Conservatives, supported by a military up- rising led by General Joaquin Prieto, gained the power. Prieto was elected president and a new con- stitution promulgated in IS33, wliich with some modifications is still in force. During the next thirty years there were only tlu-ee small and unimportant uprisings and. imder the firm rule of the Conservatives. Chilu made rapid progress. Schools and libraries were established, tlie foreign debt consolidated, and finances were im- proved. In 1S36 war broke out between Chile and the confederation of Peru and Bolivia. Cliile was successful and the confederation was cHssolved. In 1S65 an alliance was made by Chile and Peru in a war with Spain. The conflict lasted for four years and was ended through the inter\ention of the United States. In 1879 war broke out between Cliile on the one side and Peru and Bolivia on the other, in wliich Ciiile was successful and occupied the nitrate fields of Bolivia along the seacoast (1882). A formal treaty of peace, however, was not made imtil 1905. Bolivia ceded all claims to a seaport and a strip of the coast, on condition that Chile would construct at her own cost a railway from La Paz to the port of Arica, giving Bolivia free transit across Chilean ter- ritory to the sea. In 1886 Jose Manuel Balmaceda was elected pres- ident. His pohcy involved heavy expenditures and corruption. The president in 1891 atteniptrd to set up as dictator. Civil war broke out. and Baliiuii-fda showed himself very cruel. His forces were defeated and he shot himself. Diuing the Civil War (1891) the Congressional, or anti-Balmaceda, party attempted to forward arms by the steamer Itata from San Diego. California. The United States government ordered the detention of the Itata. an order subsequently held invalid by the Federal courts. The Itata escaped and reached Chile. Wliile negotiations for the surrender of the Itata were pending, a party of American sailors from the ship of war Baltimore went ashore at Valparaiso. They were attacked by a mob, many wounded and one killed. This affair produced great excitement in the United States. Delay in examining into the affair caused a threat of war by President Harrison. Chile at last offered an apoiogj'. Otherwise, the relations between Chile and the United States have been amicable. Since that time the internal condition of the coun- trj' has been peaceful and prosperous. In 1902 a long-standing boundary dispute between Chile and the Argentine Repubhc was terminated by arbitra- tion. A terrible earthquake in 190fi almost entirely destroyed Valparaiso and did much damage to other cities. In 1914 Chile, with Argentina and Brazil, the three being commonly caUed " the ABC pow- ers," attempted to mediate between the United States and Mexico. Chile is divided into three zones. The desert re- gion in the north is rainless, barren, and absolutely destitute of vegetation, but rich in mineral and sa- line deposits. The agricultural region, lying between the coast range and the Andes, is known as the Vale of Chile. It is a higlily fertile region and tiiickly populated. South of the forty-first parallel thecoun- tr>' is mountainotis. heavily forested, and subject to almost continuous rainfall. The coast of northern Chile is singularly deficient in good harbors. Organization. Government. The constitution (1833) vests the legislative power in a national congress. A Sen- ate of 37 is popularly elected by the provinces for a term of six years, a Chamber of Deputies of 118 is chosen directly by the departments for tliree years. The suffrage is open to all men of 21 years of age who are able to read and write. The executive power is vested in a president chosen for five years by indi- rect vote. The retiring president is not ehgible for reelection. Religion and Education. The Roman Catholic religion is maintained by the state, but the consti- tution guarantees free exercise of all religions. Edu- cation is free, but not compulsory. There are 3,000 public primary schools. The higher institutions of learning are two universities and the National Insti- tute at Santiago, besides professional and technical schools- Industry and Labor. Agriculture and mining are the chief occupations. "Wheat and other cereals are produced in considerable quantities, and cattle and sheep are numerous. Before the AVorld War, Great Britain obtained the greater share of both the export and import trade. Since 1916, however, the commerce with the United States has far surpassed that of any other cotmtrj'- The chief source of wealth is the trade in nitrates from the districts con- quered from Peru and Bohvia. Defense. All able-bodied citizens are liable to service from the ISth to the 45th year. Recruits are called up in their twentieth year and trained for one year. After that they are enrolled for nine years. The total strength of the active army in 1916 was 17,283. The air force consists of foiu*leen seaplanes and 50 airplanes. The navy consists of one pre- dreadnought, two armored cruisers and four pro- tected cruisers, together with eleven destroyers and five modem torpedo lx>ats. Area and Population. The area of Cliile is 289,- 829 square miles and the popidation (1918) 3.945.- 538. the greater part of wliich is of Eiu-opean origin. Chronology. 1535. Spanish, under Almagro. first invade Chile, 1541. February. Santiago is fomided. Incessant war with natives continues for a centur>-. 1810. Sept. IS. Beginning of Independence; governor forced to resign and power invested in an elected junta. 1814, Oct. V. Independence forces crushed by Spanish troops from Peru at Rancagua. 1817. Feb. 1j^. Patriot army from Argentina, un- der San Martin and 0*Hlggins, routs Loyalists at Chacabueo. O'Higglns made dictator-general. 1818. Feb. 1:2. Independence formally declared. 1833. O'Higgins forced to resign. Period of con- fusion and many brief governments ensues. 1831. Prieto elected president. Conservatives secure power; narrow government, but stabihtj- and economic progress. 1833. May 22. Permanent constitution adopted. 1836. War against confederated Peru and Bolivia. 1841. Bulnes becomes president. [Chile. I 1844. ,4 pril 2S. Spain recognizes independence of | 1851. Manuel Montt succeeds as president. 1861. Perez begins his presidential term. Liberal reaction sets in. 1866. War with Spain; Valparaiso bombarded. 1871. Sept. 18. Errazuriz Zanartu inaugurated as president. 1876. Sept. 18. Pinto inaugiu*ated as president. 1879. February. War with Bolivia and Peru breaks out. Underlying cause is Chile's desire for enemy's nitrate and guano fields. Peruvian navy annihilated and Bolivia coast province of Antofa- gasta and Peruvian province of Tarapacd occu- pied by end of 1879. Further conquests in 1880. 1881. Jan. 17. Lima is occupied, after Peruvian defeats at ChorriUos (January 13) and Mirafiores (January 15), Callao surrenders. January IS. Cliile occupies and administers coast region. Guerrilla warfare continues in interior. Sept. IS. Santa Maria inaugiu-ated as presi- dent; a Liberal who antagonizes tlie Clericals. 1883. Oct. 20. Treaty of peace with Peru; Tarapacd ceded to Chile. pro\Tnces of Tacna and Arica to be occupied for ten years, then a plebi- scite m the provinces to decide connection. Pleb- iscite has never taken place; diplomatic contro- versy, with occasional clashes, over it continues.- 1884. April 4. Truce with Bolivia; Chile to con- tinue to occupy Antofagasta. Bohvia cut off from the coast . 1886. Sept. IS. Balmaceda, Liberal, inaugurated as president. Program of extensive public worlcs; corruption, and violation of rights of Congress. 1889. Oct. 2- First Pan-American Congress opens at Washmgton 'see United States). 1891. Jan. 6. Civil war begins. Congressional party controls most of the na^T and gains jwsses- sion of northern pro'vinces. August 28, decisive victorj' before Valparaiso by Congressional army. City occupied, also Santiago. No further fighting : end of war. September IS. Balmaceda commits suicide. [United States). I Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors (seel Oct. IS. Jor^e Montt. leader of Congressional party, inaugurated as president. 1892. Jan. 21. Crisis in controversy with L'nited States (see United States). 1896. Sept. 18. Errdzuriz Echaturen inaugurated as president, [tina (see Argentina).! 1899-1902. Boundary controversy with Argen-| 1901. May 1. Errazuriz Echaurren resigns be- cause of ill health. Vice Pres. Zaiiartu succeeds- Sept. IS. Riesco inaugurated as president. 1904. Oct. 20. Bolivian treaty of peace ends truce of 20 years: coast province ceded to Chile; in return Chile pays an indenmity and builds a free-transit railroad (opened August 6, 1912) from port of Arica to La Paz. 1906. Aug. 16. Great earthquake at Valparaiso. Sept. 18. Pedro Montt inaugurated as presi- dent. 1908. Dec. 26. First Pan-American Scientific Congress meets at Santiago. 1910. Rail connection with Buenos Aires com- pleted, Aug. 16. Montt dies; Vice President Albano succeeds. Sept. 6. Albano di^; Minister of Justice Fi- gueroa becomes acting president. Dec. 23. Barros Luco inaugurated as president. 1914. April-June. ABC m^ation (see United States) , 1915. March 14. British squadron attacks Ger- man warship Dresden in Chilean waters. Later an apology is extended, and accepted by Chile. May 25. ABC tripartite treaty (see Argen- tina). Dec. S3. Sanfuentes inaugurated as president. 1917. Chile persists in neutrality after renewal of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. 1918. Nov. 5. Government takes possession of 84 interned German ships to prevent their de- struction by the crews. 1919. Nov. Jf Chile joins the League of Nations. 1920. January. Peru said to intend submitting Tacna-Arica controversy to League of Nations (see Peru, 1909). March. Bolivian question (see Bolivia). CHINA. Historical Outline. China, in the broadest sense, includes Manchuria, Mongoha, and Tibet. But the name is more strictly applied to the eighteen provinces occupying the southeastern part^ of the republic. This vast region is separated from the rest of Asia by lofty table-lands and rugged moimtains, from which the great rivers descend eastward. Western China consists of high lands which are generallj' only sparstiy populated; eastern Cliina, of lowlands densely populated, — the province of Shantimg is estimated to have a popu- lation of 528 per square mile. The Chinese regard themselves as the original inhabitants of the soil, but foreign scholars believe that they are descendants from wandering tribes of Tatars or from the ancient peoples of Tibet and Farther India. They are members of the Turanian (Ural-Altaic) family and belong to the Mongohan race. Cliinese tradition regards Fu-Hi as the first historical emperor and places his lifetime between the years 2852-2738 b. c. but this early history is foimded on. and may in part have been invented to explain the origin of, some institution or culture. Thus Fu-Hi is reputed to have invented the plow, to have introduced matrimony, and in general to have brought order out of chaos. Not until the Chow d>-nasty, 1123-255 b. c, do we reach liistoric ground. At tliis time a feudal sys- tem was introduced; since the imperial domain lay in the middle of the population, the name Middle Kingdom was applied to the empire. During this dynasty was bom Confucius, the founder of the na- tive religion of China (Confucianism). During the Tsin djTiasty (255-206 b. c.) the empire was ex- tended to, the sea, the Mongols were defeated, and the great]Chinese Wall built as a protection against the raids of Tatar horsemen. This vast structure, of wliich several branches and parallel lines still stand, was over 1,400 miles long, from 30 to 50 feet high, and 15 to 25 feet thick. From 206 b. c. to 221 a. d. was a brilliant period in Chinese liistorj-. Feudahsm was checked by the de- velopment of the royal power, and the empire was consolidated. Conquests extended the rule west- ward to Russian Turkestan ; and in the east north- em Korea was conquered. This epoch was followed by a period of confusion, but finally, in 590 a. d., Yang Kian. prince of Suy in the northern kingdom, extended liis conquest southward, brought the whole empire under his control and founded the Suy dy- nasty. In 618 the usurper Li Yuen brought an end to the line of Suy and founded the dj-nasty of Tang, wliich lasted for over three hundred years. Its fame spread westward, and in 643 embassies arrived from Persia and Constantinople. During this time came the golden age of Chinese literature. During the last two himdred years, Tatar raids distressed the country', and by the end of the tenth centiun,' Chi- nese emperors suffered the humiliation of pajing tribute to the Tatars, Ciradually the Tatars occu- pied the northeastern provinces of Cliina and estab- lished an empire wliich was overtliro^Ti in the thir- teenth centm-y, partly by the great conqueror Gen- ghis Khan. The Mongol emperor Kublal Khan (1259-1294) included China in his empire, which spread over most of Asia save Hindustan and Arabia. It was during tliis reign that Marco Polo, a Venetian, visited the Cliinese court and brought back to Europe the fhst extended authentic knowledge of Chinese life and customs. In the fourteenth century the Ming dy- nasty was founded as a native Chinese power and Tatary was conquered. During the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries China had little to show except rebellions and Tatar invasions, ending in the estabhshment of the Manchus as rulers of China (1644). This Tatar or Manchu dynasty ruled the Chinese Empire imtil February 12, 1912. when it gave way to a repubhc. The foreign relations of the Manchu dj-nasty de- serve mention. Although one empire in form, the different provinces of China were ruled by civil vice- roys and by " Tatar generals " directly representing the military power of the Empire. These princes were often engaged in civil wars and insurrections. Under Manchu rule. China made little progress in culture or wealth, except under pressure of foreign powers. That influence was almost always resisted by the Chinese themselves and in particular by the Manchu rulers. 84 NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. Not till near 1800 was a British ambassador re- ceived at Peking, and the first Protestant mission- ary, Reverend Robert MoiTison. readied Canton a little later. Foreign intercourse was confined to one port. Canton, where a large European trade had de- veloped. This trade, chiefly in opium, tea, and silk, in the hands of the British, Dutch, and Portuguese was subject to many restrictions and exactions. Disputes arose about the importation of opium which was forced by Great Britain upon the Chinese in the face of an imperial decree. In 1S40 the Brit- ish declared war upon China. As a result of this so- called Opium War Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain and the Five Treaty Eorts of Canton. Amoy. Fooctiow. Ningpo. and Shanghai were opened for general commerce In 1.S44 the United States made its first treaty witli China on similar lines. Six years later broke out the frightful Taipmg re- bellion, which lasted for nearly twenty years. In 1S56 England and France again declared war upon Cliina to obtain redress for alleged injiu'ies to their commerce and citizens. In 1858. by a general] treaty with Great Britain. France. Russia, and the United States, the Chinese government yielded its claims in the Amur region in favor of Russia. The practice of Christianity was officially permitted. Other wars occurred between Cliina and Great Brit- ain and France ; Peking was occupied in 1860. and the imperial Summer Palace was looted. Finally the Taiping rebellion was broken, partly tlirough the victory of tlie imperial troops under ttiarlcs George Gordon and General Ward, an American, and partly through the elTorts of LI HuDg Chang, a statesman just coming to the front. In 1872 thirty Chinese boys were sent to the United States for education. This was the begin- ning of China's direct touch with Western cultm-e. Thousands of Chinese students have since been sent to the United States and to Eiu-opean countries, and later many to Japan, in order that Western ideas and methods might be introduced into the empire. In 1S04 Japan made an alliance with Korea and declared war upon China. After a brief struggle Cliina was abjectly defeated. Port Arthur and other territory being captured. Japan demanded the ces- sion of Port Arthur, which w'as close to the heart, of the Chinese Empire, and an immense indemnity (see J.^PAN). As the result of a protest by Russia, France, and Germany, Japan was forced to give up Port Arthiu- and to consent to a reduction of the in- demnity (see Russia). In the meantime Russia, which had begim the Si- berian railway, obtained (1896) from China the right to exploit the mines, industries, and forests of Manchm-ia and the Liaotung peninsula, to import goods from Siberia on spe-cial terms, to construct a system of railways in Manchuria, and also in connec- tion with them to establish military guards for the stations and Unes. The effect was practically to place Mancliiu'ia in Russian control; thus was begiui a systematic movement for the dismemberment of the Chinese Empire. Other European powers came into this process. In 1897 Germany, as reprisal for the murder of two missionaries, seized the town and bay of Kiaochow in southern Shantimg and received a lease for ninety- nine years of the territorj- occupied and the right to administer the surrounding territory, together with the railroads and coal mines of tlio province. The following year. Russia obtained tlie ports of Port Arthur and Talien (Dairen). which gave her an arsenal of great strength and the advantage of an ice-free port. Great Britain obtained additional territory in Kowloon and received a lease of the fortified harbor of Weihaiwei. France obtained privileges in the island of Hainan, and the right to extend a railway from Tonkin into the southern provinces of China. The United States demanded no forced concessions from China and tirged that the European powers should recognize the policy of the " open door " — equal rights of all nations to trade in all parts of China. In the meantime two internal movements arose in China. On the one hand the more progressive of the yoimger generation demanded Western education and Western knowledge, hoping that China might benefit by a transformation similar to that which had taken place in Japan thirty years before. The yoimg emperor supported tills movement and prom- ised many reforms both in e'i/^«) of 596 members. Since the establishment of the republic, however, there liav^e been almost continuous insurrections and civil wars. The aim was to form a strong central government exercising great control over the pro- vincial governments. In each province there was to be a supreme governor appointed by the president and removable by Iiini. but this led to local rebelUons, 1644-1885. NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. 85 and in the struggle between the " North and the South " the central government has lost control over both. In 1919 the students at Pekmg made a dem- onstration agauist certain officials wlio they be- lieved had been bribed to betray their coimtryto Japan. Industry and Resources. China is essentially an agricultural countrj-. The land is held in small freehold estates on pajraent of an annual tax. The soil is generally fertile and the people are most in- dustrious, but the holdings are so small and the im- plements so primitive that the Chinese are rather gardeners than farmers. Wheat, barley, corn, and other cereals are chiefly cultivated in the north, and rice, sugar, and indigo in the south. Cotton is ex- tensively grown and tea is an important product. Silk cultm'c is one of China's most es.sential indus- tries and site produces about a fourth of the world's supply. Manufactiu'ing was rapidly developing in China before the World War, partictilarly in the cotton, woolen, and silk industries in Shanghai and Canton. In large centers floiu- and rice mills are being estab- lished and at Hanyang near Hankow there are im- portant ii-onworks- China is immensely rich in minerals. The coal supply is almost mirivaled and the ammal output of about 15.000,000 tons can be indefinitely enlarged- Iron ores are abuntlant. In the Yangtze valley exist rich deposits of petroleum; tin and antimony are foimd, as well as gold and silver. Religion. The Chinese acknowledge three reli- gions as indigenous: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Mohammedanism and Christianity have been introduced. Mohammedans are found in every province, and it is estimated that they number be- tween five and ten million. Roman Catholicism, introduced more than three centuries ago, now has two million converts. The Protestant denomina- tions began their work in 1S07 and coimt about half a million native Cliristians. There is aLso a Russian OrthcKio.K mission which dates from 1GS6. Education. Until 1905 education in China was of a piu-ely Chinese character, ba.sed on the study of Chinese classics and tested by public examinations. success in wiiich opened the way for government employment. Some of the Chinese had been edu- cated in the mission schools, and a few had studied in Europe and the United States. In 1905 the old system of examinations was swept awaj* and a new- educational system wa.s initiated. Primary education is to be compulsory in the hands of the provincial authorities: and schools are to be establi.sln-d throughout the coimtry. Second- ary and higher education is given over to the board of education of tlie central government. There are to be foiu" national imiversities with preparatory colleges attached, besides technical schools and nor- mal schools. The Peking government imiversity. established in 1898 and completely reorganized In 1917. has now over 1500 students. There are nu- merous mission schools, both Protestant and Catho- lic, tliroughout China. In addition the United States retiUTied to China the .siu-plusof the Boxer indemnity, amoimtiilg toovcr $8,000,000. and China agreed to spend the income of this sum in preparing and sendmg students to the United States for education. The number of schools has increased: but China is still far beliind its needs in education. Defense. The army is recruited on the principle of modified conscription for terms of tliree years in the first line, tlirce in the first reserve, and foiu* in the second reserve. In theory the mihtary forces are imder the ministry of war and are paid by the central govenunent; and theoretically the civil gov- ernors have no authority over the army. Since the death of Yuan Shih-kai, however, the military gover- nors have been practically independent of Peking and have raised armies which gravely menace the peace of the republic. The Chinese navy consists of foiu* old cruisers and some torpedo boats. Area and Population. The area of China is estimated at 4.277.170 square miles and the popula- tion at .320,050.000. No exact census has ever been taken, as it would probably cause a revolution. Chronology. For earlier dates, see Mediev.^l and Early Modern Periods, Chronology. 1614. Ta-Tsing, or "Great Pure," Dynasts' es- tablished at Peking by the victorious Manchu Tatars: Shun-chi Is proclaimed emperor. Ming dynasty is extinguished. 1653. Russian embassy under Baikov arrives at Pekmg, but is rejected because of a refusal to perform the ceremony of kotow, or obeisance to the emperor. 1653. Dutch embassy imder Goyer and Keyzer arrives m Peking. They seciu-e the privilege of sending an embassy once in eight years, and of employing fom- ships in the Chtaese trade. They are soon followed by the French, English, and -Portuguese. 1661. Slum-chi succeeded by his son, Kang-hi, who is instructed In scientific and literary pursuits by Jesuits at the emperor's court. 1666. Albazin. the first Russian settlement on the Amiu". founded. 1670. English open trade in .4moy and Formosa, and 19 years later in Canton. 1689. By the Treaty of Nerclilnsk Cliinese compel Russians to witiidraw from the Anuu- \ ulley. ITZ'i. Kang-lii dies: diu-ing liis reign the empire is extended from Siberia to Cochin China, and from the China Sea to Tiu'kestan. 1J?4. Imperial edict prohibits the propagation of Clu-lstianlty in Cliina and expels the mission- aries, with the exception of a few whose services are required for scientific pm-])oses at Peking. 1735. Kien Ltmg, .son of Emperor Yimgching, ac- cedes to the tlirone. He makes warlike invasions into III, Turkestan. Burma, and Cociiin Cliina. Uighur Tm-ks establish themselves in Kansu. 1755. Russian caravan trade with China is rele- gated to the frontier town of Kiackta, where it remains until 1895. [pressed by Aknei. I 1781-1784. Tiu"ks m Kansu rebel, and are sup-l 17»"i. Emperor completes his victorious war against the Gurklias and receives the formal submission of Nepal and Tiljet. 1793. Lord Macartney, the first British am- bassador to Pekmg, is riceived by Kien Liuig. 1795. Kien Limg alrficates In fa\or of Kia-khig, his fifteenth son, who reigns for twenty-five years, diu-ing which Cliina is in a distracted condition on accoimt of the weakness of the government, successive rebellions, and invasions by pirates. 1807. Robert Morrison, the flrst Protestant missionary, reaches Canton. NINTEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1816. Lord Amlierst. ambassador of Cireat Britain, arrives at Peking: the mandarms insist that In order to secure an interview he must do the tradi- tional obeisance (the kotow) . Declming to do .so, Lord Amherst is dismissed from the imperial pal- ace on fhe day of his arrival. 18"J0. Kia-king dies and is succeeded by Taou- kwang . he begins his reign with promises of reform (unfulfilled): rebellions break out in Formosa, Kwangsi, Honan, and other provinces. 18?3. Morrison's translation of the Bible into Chinese is published. 1834. Monopoly of the East India Company ceases, and the British government sends Lord Napier to Canton as its representative. China forbids the importation of opium. In the following year tiie Chinese seize the ship At- gyle and Its crew: the stores of opium at Canton are surrendered and destroyed. 1840. Emperor issues a decree forbidding all inter- course with England forever. With this act the so-called Opium War begins. 1841. The British capture the Bogue forts, on the Canton River, also the fortifications of the city, and occupy .-Vmoy 1843. Shanghai and Chinkiang are seized by the English. In August, a treaty is made at Nan- king, by wliich it is stipulated that the five treaty ports of Canton. Amoy. Foochow. Ningpo. and Shanghai shall be opened to commercial rela- tions with Great Britain; Hongkong is ceded to Great Britain. 1844. July 3. First treaty between China and the United States is signed by Caleb Cushing at Macao. Other treaties with European nations are concluded in this, and foUowmg years, 1850. The Taiping rebellion begins. 1851. Hung Siu-tsuen, leader of the Taiping rebels, is proclaimed king by them. 1852. June 19. Reliels are victorious and destroy a large part of the imperial army imder Lou- 1853. Rebels capture Nanking March 20; .\moy is taken May 19, and Shanghai faUs September 7. The insurgents fail, however, in a siege of Canton. 1854. Collection of customs duties from foreign vessels is put in charge of Europeans at Shanghai: the system, proving profitable and satisfactory, is made permanent. 1855. Imperial forces retake Amoy and Shanghai. 1856. Oct. S. Chinese oflBcials of Canton Ijoard the lorcha .Arrow, Carrying freebooters and the British flag, and take off fourteen of the crew as pi- rates: whereupon the British resort to measures of retaliation and Canton is attacked, beginning the so-called Arrow War. 1857. EngUsh. with French allies, bombard Can- ton, and it is occupied i>y them. In December. China Is torn liy rebellion, being then defenseless. 1858. English and French troops capture tlie forts at the moutli of the Pel River, and the emperor consents to a treaty of peace at Tientsin with Great Britain, France, Russia, and United States: the Amur is ceded to Russia. In all these treaties the practice of Christianity is allowed m China 1859. .4i/(7. 1'^. Commercial treaty with the United States is signed at Pcli-tang, after the Americans had been conducted to Peking but re- fused an audience there because unwilling to per- form the kotow. Great Britain and France be- come engaged in another war with (^hiua, owing to their refusal to go by land to Peking. They insist on going tlirough the Pci River, which the Chinese have closed. 1860. A force of English and French advances on Peking, wliich is occupied in October. The Summer Palace is deatrojed by order of Lord El- gin, the British commander, to terrorize the Chi- nese government. Oct. 2i. Treaty with Great Britain by which China cedes part of Kowloon. allows the •establish- ment of permanent legations in Peking, and pays an mdeumity : treaty is known as the " Conven- tions of Peking." 1861. Emperor Hien-fimg dies at Chengtehfu (Jehol), wliither he had lied from the aUics, and is succeeded by Timg-chi imder tlie regency of Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi An. 1863. The French and English give aid to the government against the Taiping rebels, who have made a considerable advance. 1863. In October, the imperial army under the command of Colonel Charles George Gordon overwhelms the rebels, and on November 28 Gordon coptures Soochow. 1864. Gordon takes Changchowfu on March 23, and Tseng Kwo-fan captures Nanking. Hung Siu-tsuen, the rebel leader, kills himself Jmie 30. 18B5. " Nien "" rebels are successful in the north, but are suppressed two years later by Li Hung Chang. 1867. China sends her flrst diplomatic mission to Western nations imder the American ex-minis- ter, Anson Burlinganie. 1868. Ju'y 'S Burlingame Treaty between Cliina and the United StaSes is signed at Wash- ington: it allows Immigration. 1869. Tso Tsimg-tang suppresses the Mohamme- dan rebellion in the northwest. 1870. June ei. French consul and many Cliris- tians at Tientsin are massacred by a mob. An oflicial apology Is made to France in 1871. 1872. Thirty Chinese lx)ys are sent to the United States by their government to be educated. 1873. Emperor, coming of age. receives aU the for- eign ministers in audience at Peking without de- manding the objectionable kotow. 1874. iLirch i.y. France makes treaty with An- nam without consulting China, the suzerain. 1875. On the death of Tung-chi. Tsai-tien becomes emperor, with the title of Kuang-hsii. 1876. Chefoo convention with the British minister opens foiu" new ports for trade, and settles opium, transit duty, judicial, and other matters between Great Britain and ( 'liiiia. First railway, with a Une of 12 miles, is com- pleted between Shanghai and Woosung; is after- wards destroyed because of popular prejudice. Feb. 26. Japan concludes a treaty with Korea without consulting Cliina. the suzerain. 1877. Terrible famine occurs in the pro^vinces of Kiangsu. Shantimg, Chilili, and Shansi. Stu- dents sent to England and France. Chinese troops re-conquer Kashgar from the Usbeg rebel, Yakub Beg. 1878. Famine continues; ten million people re- duced to the verge of starvation. Insurrection in Kwangsi led by Li Yimg-clioi. 1879. Hakkas of the island of Hainan rise in re- bellion, but are overwhelmed. May-June. General Grant, ex-president of the United States, visits Peking and other important cities, and is received with great distinction. Li Himg Chang, grand secretary of the empire, rises to distinction, superseding Prince Kimg as official representative of China In foreign affairs, 1880. A'oc. 17. Treaty is concluded between China and the United States, permitting restric- tions on Chinese immigration. 1881. Treaty concluded at St. Petersburg between China and Russia for the retrocession to the former by the latter of the province of Hi. As a reciprocal concession, Russia is granted an im- portant extension of commercial privileges in the Chinese Empire. Chinese youths sent to the United States for edu- cation are recalled: they are given inferior posi- tions in the arsenals and civil service of China. 1882. The obstacles to intercourse between China and the Western nations are hi a measure removed through the influence of "Viceroy and Grand Secre- tary Li Hung Chang. May e. Immigration of Chinese into the United States Is forbidden by act of Congress. 1883. September. Serious riots occur in Canton. Criminals take refuge in the foreign consulates. A mob fires and plimders warehouses belonging to EngUsh, German, French, and American compa- nies. A fleet of gunboats, British, French, and Cliinese, suppresses the insurrection. 1884. Cliina becomes involved in a war with France: the French destroy the arsenal and fleet at Foochow. (See France.) 1885. Franco-Chinese War continues, and the re- sistance of the government to the foreign invasion weakens. The national spirit, however, is strong and patriotic. After a somewhat ineffective invasion of Formosa the French withdraw, and 86 NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. 1885-1912. 1885 (conlinued). pf peace is concluded. American Government re- turns the balance of 1858 indemnity as excessive. 1887. September. Most disastrous overflow of the Hwang (Yellow) Blver kiioma in modem times, inundates a region estimated at 50,000 square miles ; more than a million lives lost. 1889. Another famine in northern Cliina affects 12,000.000 people. ^\ Serious rebellion in Formosa. '^ 1891. Riots against the Cliristians occur in parts of China: mobs attack the churches, dri\'e away or murder the missionaries, and e.\pel the Cliristians. 1893. Rebellion in Mongolia and Manchuria. Spe- cial decree prohibits antiniissionary movements. 1894. Aug. 1. Formal declaration of war by Ja- pan against China. Counter declaration of the _ Chinese government. Treaty of alliance against P China is made between Japan and Korea. Japan- ese fleet and army begin an uivasion. Pingyang is captured, and Manchuria is invaded, Sept. 1 7. Decisive naval engagement of the war off Haiyang island; Japanese fleet is victori- ous. Port Arthur is taken, November 21. Im- perial government is obhged to sue for peace. 1895. Antimissionary riots are renewed. QFeb. t2. Japanese take Weihaiwei. Further United States " Geary law," against Chi- nese immigration: requires registration. April 10. Peace negotiations begin. Coimt Ito submits maximum concessions, and Li Himg Chang is obUged to accept the ultimatum. The Russian, French, and German governments pro- test against the exacting terms demanded by R Japan, and these terms are modified. The cession of territory is reduced and the indenmity moder- ated to 8280,000,000. Island of Formosa is ceded to Japan. This starts a series of foreign demands for land. Japan compelled to give up Port Arthur by pressure of European powers. [hshed.l 1896. Modem government post system is estab-[ July 21. Commercial treaty signed. Cliina grants to Japan all the rights conceded to the most O favored nation At Kiangyin an anti-Christian riot occurs durmg which the American Protestant mission is sacked. December. On the strength of an agreement l^e- tween the Chinese government and the Russo- Chinese Bank, Russia secures the riglit to con- struct a system of railways in Manchuria, under the name of the Chinese Eastern Railway Com- Tpany, connecting the Siberian railroad with Kirin, Vladivostok, and the Liaotung peninsula. The company is to have the right to guard its stations with Russian troops, to exploit industries of the region, etc. The effect is substantially the trans- fer of all Manchuria to Russian control. 1897. November. Germany secures a foothold in China by the seizure of the town and bay of Kiao- chow, in southern Shantung, for the murder of two M missionaries. Occupation involves the admin- istration of the adjoining territory and is nomi- nally limited to a lease of ninety-nine years. 1898. February. Port Arthiu- and Talienwan (Dairen) are leased to Russia for a term of twenty- five years, thus giving her an arsenal of great strength and strategic value and an ice-free port as terminus for her Siberian railway. Great Britain V insists on a lease of the fortified harbor of Weihai- wei so long as Russia occupies Liaotung penin- sula. By a previous negotiation Great Britain and Germany together agree to provide Cliina with a loan of $78,000,000. In return, the Chi- nese promise to leave the control of their maritime customs service in charge of a British inspector general, never to alienate any portion of the Yang- _ tze basin, to open all internal waters of the empire 1^ to foreign tracle, and presently to open new treaty ports. France is granted the right to extend a railway from Tonkin into the southern provinces of China, and Great Britain that of tapping the upper Yangtze trade by a railroad to penetrate westem Cliina from Burma. Great Britain also obtains (in Jime) a lease for ninety-nine years of a considerable tract surrounding Hongkong, thus yr greatly strengthening her naval base. LTnder the '^ influence of Kang Yu Wei, the emperor initiates a series of reforms for one hundred days, June 1 1 to September 22. September 22, the Dowager Empress Tzti Hsi An effects a coup d'etat, assisted by Yuan Shlh-kai. The emperor becomes a pris- oner. Six reformers are executed. 1899. Boxer societies are secretly formed to train in military and magic arts in various parts of the Y country. Sept. e. Secretary Hay's proposition for the " open door " in China: accepted in principle by several of the powers. 1900. Jan. 2J,. Serious disorders in several prov- inces which lead the powers to demand. April 7, the suppression of the Antiforeign League, or Boiers. Missionaries and native Christians are •y murdered near Peking in May. Jime 17, Euro- *" pean warships attack Taku. June 18, mob mur- ders Baron von Ketteler. German mmister, in Peking, and attacks other legations. Relief expedition of allied forces imder British Admiral Seymour repulsed by Boxers. Allies capture Tientsin, July 13-14. They enter Peking, August 14, after severe fighting at Pei- tsang and Yangtsun. Imperial family flees to Lianfu. 1901. Sept. 7. Peace protocol signed by China and the representatives of the L'nited States. Great Britain. Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Belgium, Spain, Austria, and Italy. October 6, the imperial family returns. November. Imperial decree establishes state education in Westem learning. Nov. 7. LI Hung Chang dies. 1902. Jan. £8. Foreign ambassadors are for the first time received as representatives of sovereigns equal in rank to the Chinese emperor. Feb. 1. Imperial decree abohshes Manchu privileges. April s. Manchurlan convention between Russia and Cliina for the gradual evacuation of Manchuria: withdraws demands pre\'iously made for exclusive mining, industrial, and bankmg priv- ileges. In September and October, the territory south of Liao River is evacuated by Russia. May 3. Serious revolt occurs m South China, due to antiforeign feeling and the heavy taxation for the war indemnity. Himdreds of Roman Catholic converts are killed. December. Foreign garrisons leave Shanghai. 1903. Diplomatic sparring of the powers over Russia's position in Manchuria. April IS. Russia makes demands for exclusive political and com- mercial rights as a condition of evacuation- July 16. Russia agrees to open the ports. Oct. S. Commercial treaty with the United States signed. 1904. Feb. 13. Proclamation of neutrahty issued in the Russo-Japanese War. Russia's claims for compensation reserved to the close of the war. English army under Yoimghusband invades Tibet and concludes a " treaty," September 7, without any regard to China's sovereign rights. China ratifies the treaty on April 27, 1906. 1905. Aug. 29. Commission to visit and study Western parliaments. An American railway concession is cancelled by payment of S6.750.000. Nov. 1. Five American missionaries of the Presbyterian board are killed at Lienchow. Boycott against American merchants due to Chinese Exclusion Act. Since 1902 a large number of Chinese students have gone abroad to study Western learning, en- couraged by imperial edicts and especially by Chang Chih-timg and Chang Po-hsi. 20.000 have gone to Japan as the nearest place to get a " West- em education." 1906. Feb. 26. Fom- English Protestant mission- aries and six French Roman Catholic priests killed at Nanchang in local riots. Sept. 2. Emperor issues proclamation that con- servative constitution will be granted after details cU'e worked out. Sept. IS. Typhoon at Hongkong. Sept. 21. Emperor's edict for diminution of opium growing, traffic, and consumption at the rale of ten per cent a year imtil wholly abohshed. 1907. Jariuary-February. Rising against Mancliu rule in central China. April 1.5. China resumes rule over Manchuria. Russian and Japanese troops having been with- drawn. Sept. 20. Dowager empress orders the organi- zation of an advisory council of state as a step toward constitutional government. 1908. March 22. Agreement with Great Britahi restricting Importation of opium. An edict prohibits the growth and sale of the drug, but al- lows those interested ten years in which to wind up their business. Nov. 1/,. At Peking the death is announced of the Emperor Kuang-hsii. and on the next day of the Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi An. Hsiian-tung (Pu-yi), the tliree-year-old child of Prince Chim, becomes emperor: his father, regent. Dec. Jf. An imperial decree reaffirms the prom- ise of the late empress dowager for the eventual convocation of a parliament and the proclamation of a constitution. 1909. Jan. 22. Hsiian-timg begins formal reign. February. International Opium Conference meets at Shanghai. May 11. Cliina and Russia sign agreement re- garding railway in Manchuria. September. Chang Chih-timg, the scholar- viceroy, dies. [legislative assemblies. I October. Imperial decree creates provincial! December. Imperial decree promises calling of Parliament. 1910. February. Postal agreement with Japan is signed. China recovers mail-carrying monopo- lies on its railways. Government University of Peking opens; the first modem university in China. Feb. 23. Chinese occupy Lhasa, Tibet, and announce their intention to make administration piu-ely Cliinese. Dalai Lama flees to India. May. Decimal currency is decreed. June. English made the official language for scientific and teclinical education. .\ugust. Boycott of American goods in Canton as protest against the ill-treatment of Chinese in San Francisco. Oct. 3. National Assembly (Tzu Cheng Yuan) meets for the first time: 200 members (100 appointed by the tlirone and 100 selected by the governors from a body of 200 chosen by the pro- vincial assembhes). It has power to discuss cer- tam public financial questions, new codes, and other questions, if submitted by the emperor. 1911. Jan. 11. National Assembly is dissolved. April-May. Loans concluded with bankers of United States, Great Britain. France, and Ger- many for the reform of currency and railways. May S. New opium agreement with Great Britain is signed at Peking, for tlie immediate re- duction and final extinction, in 1917, of the opium exports from India. A cabinet, general staff, and privy council created at Peking by imperial edict. Prince Cliing premier. Manchus secure the preponder- ance of power. Friction between them and the Cliinese. and the feeling that the Manchus are im- favorable to the progress of the reform movement, result in the outbreak of a patriotic and radical revolt m southern and central China. Sept. 4. Flood along the Yangtze River drowns many thousands. Great unrest in the districts along the river. Oct. 1. An organized rebel force in Hupeh province is victorious in a battle, October 5-6, with the imperial forces October 11, tlie rebels occupy Wuchang. October 13, a massacre of Manchus at Hankow. October 14. Yuan Shih- kai is recalled from retirement and appointed vice- roy of Hupeh and Hunan. Many vessels of the imperial navy join the revolutionists. October 28. imperial forces recapture Hankow. Oct. 30. The tlirone issues a proclamation apol- ogizing for the evil conditions in the empire and promising reforms The National Assembly meets at Peking, and forces the tlirone to grant immediately a complete constitutional gov- ernment, amnesty to rebels, and the retirement of objectionable officials, Nov. 7. Yuan Sblb-kal is elected premier in place of Prince Cliing, He accepts. November 15. and opens negotiations with the revolutionists. Nov. 16. Yuan Sliih-kai forms a cabinet. Dec. 6. The regent. Prince Chun, retires. Dec. IS. A peace conference between the lead- ers of the revolution and of the imperial forces convenes at Shanghai- December 21, Yuan Shih- kai refuses the plan of a repubhc proposed by the revolutionists. Dec. 29. A provisional republican convention at Nanking, representing 17 provinces, elects Sun Yat Sen provisional president of the Chinese Republic. He accepts and aniioimces a cabinet, with Wu Tmg Fang minister of foreign affairs. 1913. Jan. 2. Sun Yat Sen is inaugurated pro- visional president of the Chinese Republic at Nanking. His first official act is the adoption of the Gregorian calendar (see c.\len-d.- gov- ernment of United States; Wood in charge from December 12. Speedy reconstruction effected; great sanitarj-, economic, and social im- provements made. 1901. March 2. By the Piatt Amendment im- posed by the Congress of the United States a vir- tual protectorate estabUshed over Cuba, with naval station at Guantanamo. Cuba required to incorporate terms of Piatt Amendment in her constitution, which is done on June 12. Oct. S. Cuban constitution framed. Dec. SI. First election: Palma chosen presi- dent. 1902. May 5. First Congress meets. May 20, Governor Wood transfers government to Presi- dent Palma and civil government Inaugurated. May 22. American militar>- occupation of Cuba terminates. Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with tTnited States signed. Senate of United States, because of sugar provision, declines to ratify imtil after passage of an act. December 17, 1903, to prevent fiu-ther reduction of sugar duty. 1905. American inhabitants of Isle of Pines desire annexation to United States: not encouraged. Sept. 23. Elections result m victoiy for Presi- dent Palma and the Moderates; Liberals bring charges of fraud. Some relaxation from condi- tions reached imder American occupation; but general condition of island liiglily satisfactory. 1906. May 20. Palma begins Ills second term. Attg. 20. Liberal rebellion assumes serious proportions. August 23, Palma asks American intervention. September 18, American Secre- tary of State Taft arrives in Cuba to investigate. September 24, armistice declared. September 28, American troops landed and Taft assumes control as provisional governor, Palma and the vice president havmg resigned and Congress re- fasing to fill the offices. October 3. Charles E. Magoon succeeds Taft as American provisional governor. 1908. Nov. 14. Presidential election; Liberals win Congress and their presidential candidate Jose Miguel Gomez elected. 1909. Jan. 2S. Jose Miguel Gomez inaugu- rated. Provisional Governor Magoon withdraws; American military occupation again terminates. 1911. August. Acevedo, a revolutionary veteran, creates antiadministration disturbances: they are soon .suppressed. 1912. Jan. 16. Agitation by revolutionary veter- ans l>ecomes so threatening that United States warns them against disturbance of the peace. March 16. Wreck of U. S. battleship Maine, destroyed by explosion in Havana harbor in Feb- ruary. 189S, raised, towed out to sea and simk in deep water T\ith appropriate ceremonies. May. Negro risings as protest against politi- cal grievances, led by Estenoz. May 25, United States sends fleet of observation to Cuban waters, and though, in answer to President G6mez's pro- test, intervention is disclaimed, marines are landed to " protect property." Rebels defeated June 13: Estenoz killed June 26; and insurrec- tion collapses after defeat of rebels near Santiago, July IS. Alarincs witlidrawn July 25. Nov. 2. Presidential election takes place with- out outbreak, though campaign lias been so heated that American marines are landed as a warning to the factions. Mario Menocal, Conservative candidate, elected. 1913. March 9. President Gomez yields to pro- test of American government and vetoes the Am- nesty Bill, wliich would permit prevention of expected prosecution of certain "grafters " among the Liberals by new administration. Limited bill, covering Negro rising, passed April 25. May 20. Menocal inaugurated president. 1914. August. Cuban industry, esperiully cigar- making, suffers from outbreak of World War. 1917. February. Insurrectionary activity of Liber- als in Oriente province, following indecisive pres- idential election there. Government of Santiago seized. American government warns insiu-gents, and marines landed. Cuban government gradu- ally regains control of region, and American troops withdraw. April 2, new election held; after which Congress declares Menocal is reelected.' April 7. Congress imanimously declares war on Germany, following action of United States. Aug. 21. Interned German sliips seized on dec- laration of war are turned over to United States. 1918. May 25. Recall of Mexican minister. Aug. 13. Obligatory military-service law. October 7 registration of all males between 21 and 28. Food-control laws passed. Sept. 11. Contingent of Cuban troops offered United States for service overseas. Declined. November. United States has loaned Cuba $15,000,000 during the war. 1919. Jan. IS. Cuba has a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. Compulsory mihtarj' -service law repealed. May 24- General strike in Havana and else- where begins, following in the wake of several simi- lar ones of the past year. Government adopts severe measures, including arrest and deportation of strike leaders. Jtme 11, decree issued, enacted by Congress at the request of the president, sus- pending constitutional guarantees. Aug. 11. Electoral reform law; framed by General Crowder of United States army, sent to Cuba to advise in the matter. Dec. IS. Cuban Senate ratifies Treaty of Ver- sailles including the League of Nations. 1920. January. Strike of dock workers para- lyzes Havana shipping. Sympathetic strikes by other unions. Constitutional guarantees sus- pended. Spanish agitators deported. April 8. Official statement that seized German vessels would remain Cuban property, leased to pri- vate companies. CYPRUS. See under British Empire, page 62. 90 NATIONAL HISTORIES: CZECHO-SLOVAKIA— DENMARK. 1526 — 1920. N U W CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. Historical Outline. Czechoslovakia is situated in central Europe and includes the two historic divisions of Bohemia and Moravia, and the mountain mass to the east^ ward, including thcTatra ranges. Boliemia is the most important of these regions and hes on a great iilateau surroimded by moimtains. commanding both tlic liat lands in Germany in the north and the Danube valley on the south. It has sometimes been called the Cit- adel of Europe. Moravia lies east of Bohemia and on its northern boimdary is the famous Moravian Gap through which the Slavic invaders poiu-ed into cen- tral Eiu-ope. Still farther east lies the Tatra region of the Carpathian moun tarns. The recorded history of these regions begins in the si.\th century a. d. At that time the ancestors of the Czechs and Slo\aks pushed through the Moravian Gap and expelled the Teutonic peoples who occupied this region. The Slavs were originally rude barba- rians: but acqtiirmg civilization they built up power- ful states in both Bohemia and Moravia. The Slo- vaks, however, living in the eastern mountains, never developed the same political or cultural standards as the Czechs in Bohemia and Moravia. During the Middle Ages, Bohemia, which had absorbed Moravia, was one of the leading kingdoms of Europe; but in the i;'{th centiu-y the native djTiasty died out and foreign sovereigns came to the tlirone who favored Teutonic influences. At tliis time Ger- man merchants and workmen began to settle in the towns, giving them a decided Teutonic complexion. Bohemia was an intellectual center. In the Ref- ormation it took the Protestant side, but in the Hussite wars gradually returned to the mother church. A Czech nationalistic feeling halted the progress of Germanism for nearly a century. In the 17th century the Thirty Years' War (161S-164S) was a renewal of the contest. This time the Czechs were defeated. Bohemia and Moravia were deci- mated and the old Czech nobility was destroyed and Austrian Germans took their place. For almost three centuries it seemed as if the Czech nationaUty had disappeared. In the 19th century came a revival of nationahsm. which, aided by economic prosperity, caused the rapid growth of a Czech middle and educated class which furnished leaders. Gradually the Czechs gained political control wherever they were in nu- merical majority. This infuriated the Germans, who threatened secession from Austria to the Ger- man Empire. The Czechs demanded autonomy for Bohemia and Moravia within the Austrian Empire and when refused began to demand independence and fixed their hopes upon Russia. During the early years of the World War the Al- lied Powers did not consider the dismemberment of the Austro-Himgarian Empire and Uttle sympathy was given to the Czecho-Slovak aspirations for inde- pendence. In July, 191S, however, France recog- nized the Czecho-Slovaks as an independent nation. This action was followed by Great Britain and the United States; and on October 28, 1918. the independ- ence of the state was proclaimed. Violent controver- sies over boundaries ensued with all the neighboring states, — Austria, Germany, Poland, and the Ukraine. Organization. GoTernment. On November 14. 1918, the Czecho-Slovak assembly met at Prague and formally established a republic. The suffrage is imiversal, including men and women on eqtial footing. The church is separate from the state and the rights of minorities are safeguarded by proportional repre- sentation. A system of parliamentary responsible government was established and Professor Thomas LI. Masaryk was elected president. Industry and Labor. Czecho-Slovakia is a highly favored region possessing a good climate and a fertile land. Before the World War, large crops of cereals and potatoes were raised and the cultivation of the sugar beet was very successfid. The most famous agricultural product of Bohemia is hops. The mountains are rich in minerals, particularly coal and lignite, and in the north are valuable iron mines. Other minerals are silver, lead, tin, anti- mony, graphite, and radium. Since the country is well supplied with water power as well as coal, there has always been a varied industrial life. During the last half century have arisen textile industries, the refining of beet sugar, the brewing of beer, and the manufactiu'e of chemi- cals and glass (see Bohe.mian glass, in the Diet.). Education. Before the war, education was com- pulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 and the illiter- ates inimbered only 2% of the population. In 1914, 13,600 primary schools cotmted an attendance of 2,032,000 pupils; and 1.021 higher primary schools had more than 170.000 pupils. Secondary education was furnished by 216 Gymnasiums and modem schools. Of the many technical schools and four imiversities, the most celebrated is the oldest at Prague with 7,000 students. Until the final determination of the boundaries, it is impossible to give acciu'ate statistics but it is esti- mated that the area is about 56,316 square miles, and the population about 14,000,000. Chronology. IS'iG. Oct. 23. Estates of kingdom of Bohemia elect as king Ferdinand of Hapsburg, brother to Charles V. and. also, king of Himgary. Beginning of the Hapsburg dynasty over Czechs (Bohe- mians.! . first by election, later by hereditary right. Slovaks, a kindred race to the Czechs and Mora- vians, are mider Iltingarian ride. 1619. Jidi/ 31. Czechs, largely Protestant and antagonized by absolutist, dynastic, and reUgious policy of the Hapsburgs, depose their Hapsburg king, Ferdinand, and elect Frederick, already Elector Palatine. Begiiming of Thirty Years' War, during which Bohemia is devastated. 1620. Aoi. S. Battle of White Hill. Austria crushes the Czechs; executions, confiscations, and banishment of Protestants soon reduce Bo- hemians to impotence; absolutism, foreign aris- tocracy, and return to Catholicism result, with suppression of Czech language and polity. Legally, the kingdom of Bohemia and the Diet continue imtil the time of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. 1848. Bohemians support the revolutionary movement, but oppose the pan-Gernianie prin- cipie of the Frankfurt Parliament. Also oppose a separate Himgary, l^ecause the Slavs would be in minority m separate German and Magyar states. 1861. February. Austrian constitution is framed so as to give the German minority a majority in Parliament and even in the Bohemian Diet. 1863. June 1 7. As a protest against the centraliz- ing policy, the Bohemian members of Parhament absent themselves; none sit for 16 years. 1867. In the formation of the Dual Monarchy (see Austria) the Slavs are treated as inferior people; separate Bohemia, the third kingdom, is ignored; Bohemia and Moravia reduced to crownlands m Austria; and Slovakia comes again imder Himgary. 1871. Sept. ^1. Imperial rescript recognizing the rights of the kingdom of Bohemia Effort to put fundamental articles for home rule in operation are frustrated by CentraUsts, aided by Bismarck and Hungary. 1879. Bohemians return to Austrian Parhament and become obstructionists. 1897. April 6. Ministerial decree recognizes Czech as an ofBcial language. Germans obstruct. 1900. July -20. Language ordinance repealed and Bohemians resort to obstruction in Parliament. 1914. Bohemian troops obliged to serve in World War. Himdreds of thousands prefer capture to support of Austrian policy against .SIa^"s. 1915. Noveviher. A Czecho-Slo\'ak National Com- mittee (Council) is organized at Paris; Masaryk heads it. 1917. Jan. 10. Allies' note in reply to Wilson's re- quest on peace terms specifies liberation of Czecho- slovaks as one of war aims. Dec. 10. Clemenceau announces the formation of a Czecho-Slovak contingent m French army. 1918. Jan. G. Declaration m favor of independ- ence for Bohemia, ^Moravia, and Silesia as (zrcho-Slovakia adopted by a convention at Prague. March s. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pro- vides for exchange of Czecho-Slo^aks in Rus- sian army; but these (mostly deserters from Aus- trian army) are suspicious. France offers to take them to the western fronts; Bolsheviki agree to furnish transportation to Vladivostok, on way to Europe. Delays and fear of treachery result. April 10. Congress of the Oppressed Austrian Nationalities meets at Rome ; Poles, Czecho- slovaks, and Jugo-Slavs. Pact of Rome is signed with Italy, including plans for a Czecho- slovak legion in Italian army and imphed recog- nition of (/(■ /aeto government. May. Czecho-Slovaks in Russia capture Kazan, control the Siberian Railroad from the European border eastward, and aid in formation of Siberian government at Omsk. Some reach Vla- divostok and hold it until Allies arri\*e (August). Mai/ 20. Martial law declared in Prague, following Czechic national demonstrations. Mutinies of Czech troops in Austrian army. May 20. United States note sympathizing with the national aspirations of Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia. July 1. France recognizes independence of Czecho-Slovakia and the National Committee as a provisional go^'emment. On August 13. Great Bri tain recognizes Czecho-Slovakia as an aUied and beUigerent unit. On September 2, United States also recognizes the de facto l>elligerent government. Oct. 18. National Council at Paris issues a declaration of independence. Prague occu- pied and a general strike ordered October 28, Austrians, after little resistance, surrender control to National Coimcil. Nov. 2. Constitution is drafted at Geneva. Masaryk elected president. Kov. 14- First session of the National As- sembly ratifies the election. Dec. 20. President Masaryk arrives at Prague. 1919. Jan. IS. Czecho-Slovaicia is represented at Paris Peace Conference by two delegates. February. Clashes with Poles at Teschen, which is desired by both for its mineral wealth. June. Himgarian invasion, assisted by socialist propaganda (see Hungary); driven out. June SS. By Treaty of Versailles Germany cedes a small portion of Silesia to Czecho-Slovakia. Jrily 6. Fall of the Kramer conservative gov- ernment; new mmistry is one of Social Democrats and Agrarian Socialists. Sept. 10. Treaty of Saint-Germain; Austria recognizes independence of Czecho-Slovakia. in- cluding the autonomous territory of the Ruthe- mans south of the Carpathians; boundaries estab- lished Sept. 11. Poles and Czechs agree to refer the Teschen dispute to a plebiscite. 1920. Jan. 16. Hungarian peace treaty is handed to her delegates; by it Hungary agrees to accept whatever boimdaries of Czecho-Slovakia are de- cided upon. Jan. SO. Announcement is made that Poland cedes Teschen region to Czeclio-Slovakia with- out waiting for the plebiscite, receiving territory elsewhere in exchange. Internal conditions indi- cate economic recovery and political stabihty in the new nation. DENMARK. Historical Outline. Danish history, first clearly recorded in the ninth century, includes the disco^eries and settlements made by the Norsemen in England, Iceland, Cireen- land, and America. In 1648 Denmark was impor- tant enough to be recognized as an independent, al- though secondary, kingdom by the Peace of West- phaha. During the rest of the seventeenth century Den- mark was at war with Sweden from time to time. At home, the nobles at last accepted a hereditary sovereign. Charles XII of Sweden, who was able to force the Danes to neutrality; but after his death (1718) the coimtry was freed from outside pressm-e. In the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VII.. in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Denmark reformed her social condition, improved her eco- nomic position, and attempted to remain neutral in the struggle between France and England. With Russia. Prussia, and Sweden she formed the Second Armed Neutrality League for the protection of her commerce and the freedom of the seas (1800). England retaliated, and in 1801 Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet and in 1807 the British bom- barded the Danish capital. This threw Denmark into the arms of Napoleon. By the Congress of Vienna Denmark, as liis ally, was punished by the loss of Norway, which was ceded to Sweden. The retention of the duchy of Holstein brought Denmark into close relations with the Germanic Confedera- tion. The relation of Schleswig and Holstein to the central government became so strained that in IS-IS they broke into a revolt and appealed to Prtissia. In 1863 Sclileswig was incorporated in the kingdom of Denmark. "When Denmark refused to repeal this action, an Austro- Prussian army invaded Sciileswig, and in 1864 Denmark was compelled to make peace and renounce ail rights to the duchies of Schleswig- Holstein and Lauenburg. From 1863 to 1906 Christian IX. was king of Denmark. Although his reign began with a humili- ation, the coimtry de\'eloped both politically and economically and was prosperous. Between 1SS3 and ISOO there was a severe; constitutional crisis over the power of the king to appoint liis ministers irrespec- tive of the majority in the Diet. The lower house refused to accept the budget prepared by the minis- try and the king issued a provisional financial decree for the collection of the taxes. In 1804 some con- cessions were made and the prime minister, Estnip, retired. Since then, although no such crisis has oc- curred, there have been frequent confhcts between the two houses of the Diet. In the meantime the Conservative party had gradually been losing power, imtil in 1913 a radical cabinet was formed. In 1906 Frederick VIII. was proclaimed king and one of his first acts was to visit the insular posses- sions of Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland. Christian X. succeeded in 1912. In 1915 the suf- frage was extended to women taxpayers. Like the other Scan(Iina\ian coimtries. Denmark was neutral during the World War, but suffered greatly for want of the food she ordinarilj' imported, owing to the trade restrictions of the Allies. In 1914 exportation of food to Germany was made a penal offense, and in 191S the LTnited States con- cluded a shipping agreement with Denmark which assured thatcoimtrj' a supply of the necessary* food- stuffs, metals, machinery, and chemicals, on the promise that Denmark would not export them to the Central Powers, or to other neutral countries. 1648 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: DENMARK — DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 91 Organization. Government. The present constitution of Den- mark is based on the charter of June 15, 1915. wlilch is a development of the original constitution of 1S49. The e.\ccuti\e power is vested in a king and his re- sponsible ministers, who have access to both houses of the Diet, but may vote only in the chamber of which they are members. The Diet consists of a lower house, the Folketliing of 140 members, elected by direct luiiversal suffrage, male and female, by proportional representation, and an upper house, the Landstliiiig. or senate, of 72 members, elected by the electors of the Folkething who are 35 j-ears of age, by indirect election and proportional represen- tation. All laws must be passed by both houses and the Landsthing has the duty of appointing the judges and the tr>-ing of impeachments. Industry and Labor. The situation of Den- mark is favoraijle for commerce. The hiunidity of the climate and the modification of the tempera- ture by the sea make possible the production of abimdant crops in a region lying far north. The long occupation of the peninsula has resulted in tlie destruction of the forests and a fair development of the soil. The principal crops are oats, potatoes, barley, rye, and wheat. Excellent pasturage makes dairying and cattle raising one of the important in- dustries. Denmark is divided into small farms, the law prohibiting consolidation into great estates. The Danish fisheries are among the most produc- tive of Europe, the most important being the her- ring, cod, and salmon. Within recent years manu- factures have increased, and in 1914 there were 82.000 industrial factories and shops, employing 346,000 laborers and producing silk, linen, cotton and woolen goods; also leather, lace, gloves, thread, glassware, earthenware, plate wares, weapons, and cutlery. Denmark possesses a large merchant ma- rine for a nation of her size, having in 1917 3,397 vessels, of which more than 500 were steamers. Beligion. The state religion of the kingdom is Lutheran and the national chiu-ch is imder the super- intendence of seven bishops. These, however, have no political status. All other sects and divisions are tolerated, and there are no civil disabilities on ac- coimt of religion. Education. Education in Deimiark has been compulsory since 1814. the school age being from 7 to 14. The public schools, with the exception of a few middle-class schools, are free. More than 3.400 elementary schools and 81 middle-class schools pro- vide for over 400.000 pupils (1917). For higher education there is an agriciUtural college at Copen- hagen, 189 teclmical schools. 21 training colleges for teachers, and numerous special schools, among which may be mentioned 70 popular liigh schools (adult schools) . The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479; the attendance is about 3,000, women being admitted on equal terms with men. Defense. All able-bodied Danish subjects are obhged to ser\'e in the army. Mihtary service com- mences at 20 and lasts for 16 years, though only for the first eight years are men enrolled in the active army. At the time of joining, the recruits are con- tinuously trained for more than five montlis in the Infantry, nine months in the first artillery, and one year in the garrison artillerj-. About a fourth of the men prolong their initial training. Subseciuent training takes place only once or twice diu'ing the re- maining years of the active service. 13.(X)0 recruits are trained annuallj'. The peace strength of the ac- tive army is about 120 officers and 12.900 men. The Danish fleet is maintained for the purpose of coast defense and consists of four monitors, two small cruisers, besides torpedo boats and submarines. The area of Denmark is 16.585 square miles and the estimated population (1919) 3,170.979. Chronology. 16*8. Denmark, adjacent to German territorj-. has be«n engaged in the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, but remains outside most of the wars and complications of Central Em-ope. As posses- sor of the entrance to the Baltic Sea, it lays soimd dues on commerce. 1657. Denmark in warwitb Sweden (see Sweden). 1660. By the Peace of Copenhagen, Denmark cedes to Sweden territories in the Swedish part of the Scandinavian peninstila (see Sweden). With support of the populace. Frederick III. pro- claims monarchy hereditary instead of elective. 1665. " Z/fx regia " signed, defining succession to crown and declaring the monarchy absolute. 1667. Denmark joins in the Treaty of Breda with Great Britain, Holland, and France. Oldenburg is acquired. 1679. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen) is signed by Denmark. France, Brandenburg, and Sweden (see E.iRLY Modern Period). 1700. Denmark joins with Russia and Poland in a war against Sweden, but is forced to make a disadvantageous peace. 1709. Danes invade Sweden (see Sweden). 1713. Danes with Riussian and Saxon allies are victorious at Totmingen (see Sweden). 1721. Great Britain, France, and, later, Russia, guarantee the possession of Schleswlg to Den- mark. Estates of Schleswig accept the " Lexreyia." 1770. Coimt Bemstorff, prime minister of Christian VII.. is dismissed, and succeeded by Coimt Stru- en.see. who. two years later, dies on the scaffold. 1773. Denmark relinquishes Oldenburg to the House of Holstein-Gottorp. 1780. Denmark jouis first " Armed Neutrality." 1784. Prince Frederick becomes regent for Ills father. Christian VII. [NeutraUty." I 1800. Df'cemhtr. Denmark joins " Second Armed 1 1801. April 3. British fleet imder Nelson bom- bards Copenhagen. 1807. Sept. 2-6. Copenhagen again bombarded by British, to prevent seizure of fleet by France. OH. SI. Denmark makes aUiance with Na- poleon, [throne. I 1808. March 13. Frederick VI. succeeds to the I 1814. Jan. 14. By the Treaty of Kiel. Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden, and receives Swedish Pomerania, wiiich is ceded to Prussia in exchange for Lauenbiu-g. Helgoland is given up to the English, who cede it to Germany in 1890. 1839. Dec. 13. Frederick VI. is succeeded by his son Christian VIII. [son, Frederick VII. I 1848. Jan. 20. Clu-istian VIII, is succeeded by his I A revolutionarj- movement in Copenliagen forces Frederick to proclaim the anneiation of Schles- wig to Denmark ; insurrection in the territorj', and a provisional government. Troops of the Ger- man Confederation come to the aid of the duchies. By the Truce of Malmo a common government is established for the duchies, 1849. March. War breaks out again in the duch- ies. July 10, a truce is made, followed by a peace in which Germany joins. [dom of Denmark. I June 5. Constitution granted to the king-l 1850. A third wariswaged by thearmyofSchleswig- Holstein alone against Denmark. By the interven- tion of .-\ustria and Prussia hostihties are suspended. 1853. Holstein assigned to Denmark, on condi- tion that the rights of the duchies be respected. Matj S. Five great powers and Sweden make a treaty at London, by which Christian of Sonder- burg-Glucksburg is made heir to the Danish crown, and also to the sovereignty of the ducliies. 1863. March 30. Royal proclamation establishes separate administration for Holstein. Nov. 1.5. Frederick VII. dies and is succeeded by Christian IX. Frederick of Augustenburg proclaims himself Duke of Schleswig-Holstein. A'oi. IS. Christian IX. signs new constitution for Denmark and Schleswig. Prussia protests. 1864. Jan. 1. New constitution goes into effect. Jmi. 16. Austria and Prussia send ultimatum demanding withdrawal of constitution; refused. Feb. 1. Austrian and Prussian troops enter .Schleswig. April IS. Prussians storm intrench- ments of Duppel and occupy part of Jutland. May IS. Peace conference meets at London, but breaks up on June 26 and war resumed. Aus- tria and Prussia declare themselves no longer bound by the treaty of 1852, and crush the Danes. Oct. 30. Treaty of Vienna. King Christian cedes his rights o^er Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia (see Nine- teenth-Century Period). 1870. March 24. US. Senate fails to ratify treaty for cession of Danish Islands in the West Indies. 1883. Constitutional crisis over the power of the king to appoint the members of the ministry irre- spective of the majority in the Diet. 1884. Elections show large gains for the Liberal party: crisis becomes acute, 1886. King and the ministers, with only 19 votes in the lower house, tmdertake to conduct the govern- ment without regard to the legislative majority. 1888. Deadlock between the executive and legisla- tive departments. 1890. Conflict between the ministry and the people regarding the powers of the Folkething. 1892. Liberal party gains the ascendancy. 1894. In order to presen-e the tradeof Copenhagen from being diverted by the Kiel Canal, a free port is opened in that city. Estrup ministry resigns. Conservative ministry under Reedtz-Thott succeeds. 1896. Law to protect the shore fisheries of Ice- land from British poachers. Great Britain pro- tests, and the difficulty is compromised by a treaty in Augtist. 1902. Oct. 22. Landsthing rejects the second treaty negotiated with the United States autliorizing the sale of Danish West Indies (A^irgin Islands). 1906. Jan. 29. Christian IX. dies; succeeded by son Frederick VIII. 1908. April 14. Parliament adopts a resolution conferring on women taxpayers the right to vote on all matters of local taxation. 1912. May H. Frederick VIII. dies; his son suc- ceeds as Christian X. 1913. June 21. Radical cabinet formed with Zahle as premier; members decide to refuse titles. 1914. June 9. Chamber passes woman-suffrage bill removing property qualifications. Oct. 29. Exportation of food to Germany is made a penal offense. Dec. IS. King Cliristian, with King Haakon of Norway and King Gustavus of Sweden, meet at Malmo to discuss the World War. 1915. Jaw. IS. Government takes over all flour, thus in effect prohibiting its further' export. April 23. Rigsdag approves constitutional amendments extending the right of suffrage to women and abolisliing the special qualifications for membership in the Landsthing. New con- stitution signed by the king June 5. September. Eighth Scandinavian Peace Con- gress meets in Copenhagen; also the Northern Interparliamentary In ion reconvenes. Scandi- naHa's position diu-ing the war. the security of neutral shipping, and the complete coordmation of the three kingdoms are subjects of discussion. 1916. March 9. Conference at Copenliagen be- tween the premiers of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden discusses Scandinavian political relations, and decides upon close cooperation in upholding neutral rights. Dec. 14. Plebiscite held on the question of the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States results in favor of the sale. 1917. A'oii. IS. Minister of Interior declares that the embargo placed by United States on shipments to Denmark threatens the cotmtry with ruin. 1918. May 2S. Denmark's ParUament assembles, with nine women members, the first elected under equal suffrage. Sept. 1 9. United States War Trade Board con- cludes a shipping agreement with Denmark, assuring to that cotmtry a supply of foodstuffs, metals, machmery, chemicals, etc, with the prom- ise that Denmark shall not export them to the Central Powers or to neutral coimtries. [sia.l Dec. 9. Denmark severs relations with Bus- 1 1920. Feb. 10. Plebiscite in first (northeni) zone in Schleswig imdcr Treaty of Versailles favors union with Denmark. [Nations. I March i. Dcimiark votes to join League of | March 14. Plebi.scite in second (southern) zone in Schleswig. including Flensburg, results fortmion with Germany. Folkething decides to accept. King dismisses Zahle ministry; new ministry re- signs on April 4. and a ministry satisfactory to the Radicals appointed. April 28. Elections give Conservative major- ity (combination of peasants with city Conserva- tives) agamst Radicals and Socialists. GREENLAND. It was proved in 1S92 by Lieutenant Robert K. Peary that Greenland is an island. Its area is about 850, (MO square miles, making it the largest island in the world. The area of the Danish colony of Greenland is 46.740 square miles and the inhabit- ants, mostly civilized Eskimos, are supposed to num- ber about 13,000. The first Europeans to touch Greenland were Eric the Red and his band in the tenth century. These people called it Greenland, hoping that an at- tractive name would draw colonists. A respectable immigration from Iceland followed. After the dis- covery of -America by Columbus and others Green- land was visited by Davis, Hudson, and Baffin, whose names have remained attached to the waters they explored. The Danes landed on the west coast in 1721 and established missions. The more recent explorers have been many, among them Norden- skjold, Greely, Nansen, and Peary. Most of the cotmtry is buried under eternal snow and ice. It is almost everywhere moimtainous, but the motmtains have been blotted out as the vaUeys have been filled through the centuries by accumu- lated masses of snow. Pctcrmann Peak, reckoned as 9,000 feet in height, is tlic loftiest elevation. Ot the thousands of enormous glaciers in Greenland, the Humboldt is the vastest, with an imbroken front on the sea of from forty to fifty miles. Nevertheless, along the coast during the summer months there is a profusion of vegetation, and gar- den vegetables grow in the south. The Royal Dan- ish Greenland Company has a monopoly of trade, imder a system designed rather for the protection of the natives than for profit. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (SANTO DOMINGO). The Dominican Republic occupies the middle and eastern part of the island of Santo Domingo or Haiti. (See Haiti.) Since 1884 it has existed as a more or less independent republic with frequent revolutions and periods of anarchy. In 1899 the repubhc was practically bankrupt and certain Euro- pean powers in 1904 intimated that tmless the United States took charge of the Dominican cus- toms and would guarantee an equitable distribution to satisfy their claims they would land forces. In 1905 President Roose^■elt negotiated a treaty by which an American commissioner should collect and hold 55% of the revenues for foreign creditors. 92 NATIONAL HISTORIES: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC — ECUADOR. N U w With certain amendments this was ratified by the United States Senate in 1907. In 1916 United States forces occupied tiie republic and proclaimed a military government similar to that in Haiti. Organization. Government. The constitution, which is in abeyance, provides for a president chosen by an electoral college for six years, a national Congress consisting of 12 senators, and a Chamber of Depu- ties of 24. Tiie government is actually carried on by military and financial oflicials from the United States. Industry. Agricultiu-c is the principal source of wealth and the chief products are tobacco, sugar, coconuts, cocoa, and coffee. Cattle raising is also a promising industry. Religion and Social Conditions. Ail faiths are tolerated, but the state religion is Roman Catho- lic. The population is practically all of African Ne^ gro descent. Education. Primary education is free and nominally compulsory. In 1916 there were 402 schools with 14,000 pupils. Since the establishment of the military government attempts have been made to reform the .sj-stcm of education by introduc- ing manual training and agricultural mstruction. Defense. Native constabulary, officered by Americans, is the only defense apart from the Ameri- can marines. The area is estimated at 19.332 square miles and it had a population (191S) of about 955,150. Chronology. 1493. Die. 6. Columbus lands on the island, nam- ing it Espanola (Hispaniola). 1496. Santo Domingo (city) foimded by Bartholo- mew Columbus. [crop. I 1506. Sugar cultivation introduced : becomes staple I 151'^. African slaves come to take the place of the exterminated natives as laborers. 1697. Sept, SO, By Treaty of Ryswick Spain cedes western part of island to France (see Haiti). 1795. July 22. By Treaty of Basel Spain cedes rest of the island to France (see Haiti). 1806. Spain regains control of her portion of the island: colony named Santo Domingo. 1831. Independence established imder Colombian auspices; Spanish withdraw. 1823. Conquest of Santo Domingo by Haiti. 1844. Feb. 21. Independence from Haiti declared: made good by battle on IVIarch 14. Contest one of Spanish wiiites and mulattoes against French Negro rule. Dominican Republic established; Santana first president. Santana favors annexa- tion to United States. President Tyler of United States favors recognition, if not closer relations; agent sent to investigate, but matter dropped. 1848. War renewed by Haiti. Santana, no longer president, commands defense. 1849. Baez, mulatto, becomes president. For 24 years, in the cliair or in exile, he is an outstand- ing figiu^. He favors aimcxation to France. 1850. Feb. 22. Baez solicits intervention of United States, Great Britain, and France to stop Haitian war. 1851. American special agent sent to Haiti who, in conjmiotion with British and French agents, attempts peace: but Haitian government rejects overtures, though war is not resumed. No at^ tempt at coercion made. 1856. Haiti renews the war; defeated by Santana. 1861. March IS. Incorporation of Santo Do- mingo with Spain proclaimed; Santana. again president, has invited it. United States protests. 1864. Revolt against Spanish rule, led by Cabral, makes headway. 1865. April 30. Spanish Cortes passes a law formally abandoning Santo Domingo, from which Spanish have virtually been driven out. 1866. Sept. 17. Formal recognition of Domini- can Repubhc by United States. 1867. July 20. Preiiminary.treaty of peace, amity, and commerce with Haiti. Definitive treaty November 9, 1874. 1869. Nov, 39. Draft treaty of annexation fvith United States. Baez, again precariously president, hopes to absorb some of the $1,500 .(XX) to be paid by the United States for the territory. Also treaty for lease of Samana Bay. United States Senate fails to ratify treaties. 1873. Final overthrow of Baez. Civil disorder with various rulers continues for a decade. 188?. Ueureaux, a Negro, becomes president. He continues, in and out of office, absolute ruler lor 17 years. Peace, but no progress. Public debt and foreign claims mount rapidly and foreign complications follow. 1899. Jidy 2f>. Heureaux assassinated. Another period of confusion ensues. 1904. June. Morales liecomes president. Debt has rxm to $32.(K)0.000 and interest regularly de- faulted. Foreign goveiTiments press for payment and protection of the interests of their subjects in the republic. July. First installment of an adjudged Ameri- can claim against Dominican government not be- ing paidi possession is taken by United States of customhouse at Puerto Plata. Other creditor na- tions protest. 1905. January. Morales appeals to United States to save his countrj' from European intervention. Feb. 7. Protocol signed with United States, estabhshing a flnanoial protectorate; United States to adjust all obligations of Santo Domingo, foreign and domestic: take charge of custom- houses, paying adjusted claims out of percentage of proceeds; and grant such other assistance as Santo Domingo shall deem proper to restore credit, promote order, and aid material progress. Pubhc debt not to be increased without permis- sion of United States. United States Senate fails to ratify it; substance of it put in operation as a modvs Vivendi. Works well and brings quiet. 1907. Feb. s. New convention with United States, which American Senate ratifies. Foreign debts and claims have been adjusted, but con- ditioned on United States assuming control of the customs for payment of such adjustments. No increase in public debt without American perm.is- sion. [Cdceres. I 1908. Morales fills out his term; succeeded by| 1911. Nov. 19. C^ceres assassinated. New period of revolutionary disturbances in spite of warnings from United States. 1914. JuJie 26. American warship compels rebels to cease bombarding Puerto Plata. President "Wilson of United States sends a personal commis- sion to the island and a compromise is made by which Baez becomes provisional president. October. Congress elected under supei'iision of American marines. Jimenez chosen president: inaugiu-ated December 3. 1915. April. New revolutionary outbreak causes reappearance of American cruisers. 1916. May. Jimenez impeached for budget irregu- larities. A revolt follows, but American marines land and Admiral Caperton. U.S.N., orders rebels to leave the capital. Jimenez resigns May 7. May 17. With American marines on hand to insure quiet, Congress elects Henrlquez y Carva- ja! provisional president. Inaugurated July 31. American occupation continues. Nov. 29. American commander proclaims a military government, which has shice contin- ued. Occasional clashes between natives and marines, but increasing order and internal im- provements. Native officials carry on the ad- ministration, being responsible to the American commander. Dominican national guard, similar to the native constabulary of Haiti, organized. 1919. June 2S. Dominican Republic {Santo Do- mingo) omitted in Treaty of Versailles from list of neutral nations invited to join League of Nations. DUTCH EAST INDIES. See under Netherlands, page 129. DUTCH GUIANA. See under Netherlands, page 129. EAST AFRICA. See under British Empire, page 65; and under Germ.\ny, page 105. ECUADOR. Historical Outline. The country now included in the republic of Ecua- dor has been known from the early daj's of Spanish discovery. The ancient name of the coimtry was Quito, so called from the Quitus. These people held the country from time immemorial until they were overcome by the Caras in the tenth century. At a later time the Peruvians conquered Quito and made it a part of their empire. In 1533 Quito was conquered by the Spaniards. The country was made a dependency of Peru, and was ruled by an un- derpre^ident appointed by the viceroy. The subversion of the royal government in Spain by Napoleon (1S07) led to a series of insurrections among the Spanish American colonies, one of wliich broke out in Ecuador in 1809. Three years after- wards there was a general insurrection, but the Span- ish forces from Peru put it down. In 1S20 a revolu- tion again gathered head at Guayaquil, and to this Genera! Bolivar gave a cordial support. The patri- ots with forces from Colombia ui 1822 gained a great victory on Mount Pichincha and immediately en- tered into union with New Granada and Venezuela, which states had already adopted the republican form of government. This imion formed the consti- tutional basis of the United States of Colombia. In 1830 Ecuador seceded from the union. T'lie new state took the name of Republica del Ecuador, that is, Republic of the Equator. General J. J. Flores was president until 1845. He administered as virtual dictator. Revolutions compelled General Flores to retire from ofiBce on a lai'ge pension. One administration followed another, with revolution al- wajs in the wake. Scarcelj' any president was per- mitted to ser\'e out his official term. In 1S66 came the league of Ecuador with Peru and Chile in a war with Spain. General Antonio Flores commanded the Ecuadorian army and was elected to the presi- dency in 1S8S. The country has been distracted with terrible earthquakes. There were revolutions in 1906 and in 1913, the latter lasting for two years. Organization. Government. The present constitution (1900) vests the executive power hi a president, elected for four years and the legislative power in a Senate of 32 senators, two for each province, chosen for four years and a House of 48 deputies chosen for two yeare on the basis of one deputy for ever>- 30,000 inhabitants. All adults who can read and write can vote. ReligiuD and Education. The state recognizes no religion, but the greater part of the population are Roman Cathohcs. Primarj- education is free and compulsorj' and higher education is conducted by the central imiversity at Quito, professional schools, and by two other imivei-sities. There are 12 schools of higher education imd 1,266 primarj- schools. Industry and Labor. On the coast regions tropical farming is carried on and the staple products are cocoa, coffee, and rubber. In the foothills graz- ing, dairying.andthe production of hay, grain, fruits, and vegetables are the chief industries. The coun- try is rich in minerals and limber. The area of Ecuador is about 116.000 square miles and its estimated population in 1915 was 2.000,000, the bulk of wliich is Indian. Chronology. 1533. Quito conquered by the Spaniards and be- comes a presidency of viceroyalty of Peru. Later imder New Granada (Santa Fei. 1809, 1S13, Attempts to revolt from Spain fail. 1833. May 22. Independence finally won at battle of Moimt Pichincha. Ecuador unites with Venezuela and New Granada in Republic of Co- Bombia. 1830. Republic of Colombia breaks up: Ecuador a separate republic. Constitution adopted. Juan Jose Flores becomes president and remains, in and out of office and in exile, the chief figure of the coimtr>- imtil 1864. 1840. Feb. 16. Treaty of friendship with Spain; Independence recognized. 1861-1865. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, Conservative leader, president. His religious and educational reaction finally causes his retirement. 1865-1867. Carrion president. Alliance with Peru and Cliile agamst Spain (see Peru). 1868. January. Espinosa elected president. August. Great earthquake in Ecuador. 1869. Garcia Moreno leads a revolt and again be- comes president. 1875. August. Garcia Moreno assassinated. 1876. Veintemilla, Radical leader, heads a revolt against Garcia Moreno's successor. Borrero, and is proclaimed president. 1877. Veintemilla elected president: later he as- sumes dictatorship and represses the church. 1883. Veintemilla driven into exile. 1884. Caamaiio elected president. [ideucj'. [ 1888. Antonio Flores regularly succeeds to pres-j 1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress meets at Washington (see United States). 1893. Cordero becomes president. 1894. Alt'aro heads a revolt and on driving Cor- dero hito exile becomes anticlerical dictator. 1897. Alfaro elected president. 1901. Aug. 31. Plaza Gutierrez succeeds consti- tutionally as president. He continues the anti- clerical policy, estabhshes religious eonality before the law and promotes nationalization of church property. [president. I 1905. Aug, 31. Garcia, a Clerical, inaugurated! 1966. Jan. 6. Alfaro leads another revolt and de- poses the president, Januar>- 20. Dec. 23. New constitution adopted. 1907. Jan. 1. Alfaro inaugurated constitutional president. 1908. June IS, Railroad between Quito and Guayaquil opened. Does not pay: foreign ovMier- ship and bonds cause international complications. 1909. National Exposition commemorates cen- tenary of independence. 1911. Jan. 2.9. Proposed lease of Galapagos Is- lands to United States as a nav^al station refused. Avg. 31. Estrada becomes president. He dies December 21; Freile Zaldumbide serves as active president. Alfaro starts a revolt and army pro- claims IVIontero president. 1913. Alfaro and Montero murdered. July. Under pressure from United States. Ecuador agrees to pay part and arbitrate rest of debt to Quito- Guayaquil railway. [president.! Aug. 31, Plaza Gutierrez again inaugurated! 1913. October. Concha revolts. He takes the port of Esmeraldas, which changes hands several times in following months. 1915. Feb. 26. Concha captured; revolt collapses. NATIONAL HISTORIES: ECUADOR— FRANCE. 93 1916. Aug. 31. BaQuerizo Moreno inaugurated as president: disorderly election. 1917. Dtc. 7. Diplomatic intercoiurse with Ger- many severed. 191S. July, United States Sanitary Commission begins extinction of yellow fever at Guayaquil. 1919. Jan. IS. Kcuador lias a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. July 19. Final agreement on Colombian boundary signed. \920. Jan. tl. Dr. Jose Luis Tamayo, Liberal, elected president. April 4. Joint celebration of settlement of Colombian boundary controversy. EGYPT. See under Bkitish Empire, page 68. ENGLAND. See British Empire, page 50. ESTHONIA. EsTHONiA, or the region inhabited by the Estho- nians, claims substantially the northern third of the former Russian province of Livonia, and resisted the troops of Soviet Russia tuitil December 31. 1919, when an armistice was signed. By tliis armistice Russia recognized the right of self-determination for the Esthonian nationality, and. apparently, the in- dependence of Esthonia. Government. Esthonia is governed by a pro- visional constitution, adopted by a constituent assembly on June 4, 1919. The power is vested in the Constituent Assembly of 120 members. The chief executive is the president of the Assembly, who is assisted by a cahinet of 1 1 ministers. Industry and Labor. The cliief occupation of Esthonia is agricultiu'e, the important products be- ing rye, barley, oats, and hay. In 1910 there were 363,263 head of cattle. 436,259 sheep, 213,002 pigs, and 155,262 horses. Twenty per cent of the siu'face is forest land. The chief exports are flax, lumoer, and meat. Kellgion and Education. Five sLxths of the population are Lutherans. Elementary education is obligatory. According to the boundaries fixed by the armi- stice agreement with Russia, December 31, 1919, and later with Latvia, the area is about 23,160 square miles. The population is 1 ,750,000, of whom nineteen twentieths are Estlionians. Chronology. See also Baltic Provinces, imder Russia: Lithu- A.viA, Poland, Russia, and World War. 1591. Esthonia becomes Swedish. 1731. Annexed by Russia. 1905. Eevolt. as a protest against Russiflcation. 1917. March 30. Russians set up an elective Council for Esthonia. May. The Esthonian army makes a drive on Petrograd. 1917. .Vol'. 3S. Independence of Esthonia is proclaimed Ijy a national coimcil, following the revolution in Russia. 1918. Feb. 2i. Esthonian Republic is pro- claimed and a provisional government set up, wliich retires to Stockliolm when the Germans occupy the cotmtry. March S. By the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Esthonia is to be occupied by a German poUce force " xmtil their security is restored." May. Allies recognize the exiled Esthonian Assembly as de facto independent. 1919. January. Bolsheviki capture Riga and invade Esthonia. .Von. w. Conference of Baltic states at Yurev (see Lithuania). Dec. 31. Esthpnian-Bolshevist armistice is signed; Esthonian independence recognized. 1929. Jan. SO. Peace of Yurev (Dorpat) be- tween Esthonia and Bolsheviki. FALKLAND ISLANDS. See inider British Empire, page 74. FEDERATED MALAY STATES. See under British ExMpire. page 65. FIJI ISLANDS. See imder British Empire, page 77. FINLAND. Historical Outline. Finland is a coimtry lyinp 'between Sweden and Russia and extending from the Gulf of Finland on the south almost to the Arctic Ocean, from which it is separated by Norway. On the west it is boimded by the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the east by the water- shed between the Arctic Ocean and Baltic Sea. The original inhabitants of Finland were people of a Mongolian stock, and the Fiimisii language is L.ral- Altaic. In the 12th century the coimtry was in- vaded by the Swedes, and Finland became an in- tegral part rather than a dependency of Sweden. Swedish became the language of the liigher classes. In 1809 Sweden was forced to cede Finland, to Russia, though the upper classes have remained Swedish. To avoid a long struggle Alexander I. granted the Finns complete autonomy, and Finland existed as a separate country with the Czar of Russia as Grand Duke of l^'uiland. In 1S99 Russia de- termined upon the Kussiflcation of F'mland. This aroused the Finns, who met the Russian poUcy with passive resistance, and a period of Russian oppres- sion and Finnish retaliation followed. The Russian revolution of 1905 gave the Finns the opportiuiity to obtain their old liberties. But when the czardom had recovered, it again undertook the Russiflcation of Finland. Such was the condition in 1914. In 1917 the Keienski government restored the constitution to Finliind. The Bolshevist party in Russia attempted to spread its doctrines to the sur- roimding countrj' and that led to civil war between the Finnish " Red " and " White " Guards. In December, 1917, Finland declared its independence and from that time on there was civil war between the Radicals and Reactionaries. In the begiiming the Radicals were successful, but by Jime, 1918, through German aid, the Conservatives obtamed the power and proposed to estabUsh a monarcliy with a German prince as king, and even elected Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse. With the collapse of Germany a peaceful revolu- tion occurred (Dec. 13, 1918) and General Mamier- heim freed the coimtry from aU Bolshevist activities. The Repubhc of Finland was recognized by the British and .American governments, in 1919, and the Diet elected Professor K. J. Stalilberg president. Organization. Government. Fuiland is a repubhc with a legis- lative power veste anarchy. The only way out was to form a Directory, a dicta- torsliin of a group. Military support was necessary. In 1795 tbe^vouSg Napoleon protected the Conven- tion agamst "a Royalist uprising and presently be- came the victorious leader of the French armi^.re- peUing invasion and spreading the ideas of the Revo- lution in conquered lands. In 1803 Napoleon declared himself Emperor of the French In a series of wars he defeated Austria crushed Prussia, occupied Holland, destroyed Spain, and threatened Russia. In 1809 Austria at^ tempted to throw oB the French yoke, but was de- f^SSl at Wagram; and m 1812 Napoleon declared war upon Russia, invaded it, and occupied Moscow in triumph The Russians, however, destroyed the city and the French were forced to a disastrous and frightful defeat. In 1813 the German nations ralhed ^d at the great battle of Leipzig the French were defeated and Napoleon retreated to the Rhme. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. U The alhes invaded France's territory entering Paris March 30, 1814, and Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. In March, 1815, Napoleon landed in France and began his wonderful Hundred Days •■ The alUanee was renewed agamst bim; on June 'is he was overwhelmingly defeated at Water- loo and the empire was abolished for the second tune The House of Bouriwn was restored, but without V enthusiasm or hope on the part of the French people. The reigns of Louis XVIII. and his brother Charles X were but interludes between the past and the future Then came the Revolution of 1830 and the substitution of the Orleans monarchy of Loms Philippe modeled on the English basis. The C itizen King was tolerated by the nation imti! the Revolution of 1848 when the short-lived Second RepubUc served Was a stepping-stone for Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, on which he mounted to the empire in 1851. The temper of France showed itself to be imperial and the coup d' elal of Napoleon III. was ratified with enthusiasm. For 19 years he ruled France, partly by diplomacy and partly by military power. His court was the most glittering in Europe. After the Crimean War, the opening of the Suez Canal, X* and the International Exposition of 1867, his prestige X ■ was greater than that of any other i-uler of lus time. From 1852 to 1860 this riUe was autocratic and repressive; from 1860 to 1870 it was forced into a form which paid some attention to the rights of the people Napoleon III. was an intensely modem man, mterested in works of utility and improvement and humanity. Hospitals and asylums and rehef agencies were founded, laborers were given the nght Yto strike, banks were organized so that the farmers might improve their holdmgs, railways were built and canals begtm. In the midst of tliis prosperity the court was openly and tmblushmgly corrapt^ The Empire was losing thousands of the troops and mihtary credit in the effort to make Mexico a de- pendency. The rise of Prussia, partictUarly after the success- •v ful war with Austria in 1866, seemed to the French 2 to upset the balance of power. " Revenge for Sa- dowa '■ — the critical battle m that war — was the cry of the French press. This meant that France must increase in area and power to counterbalance the growth of Prussia. The diplomats and the press harbored the idea that ultimately a war must come between France and Prussia. Not so the people. The pretext was found in 1870 in a controversy over the Spanish throne, skillfully aggravated by the Ems dispatch which Bismarck so edited as to arouse German popular opinion. The emperor took the bait OUivier, the French minister, announced that he accepted war '■ with a light heart." The em- press declared that " tliis is my war." A few days of actual war brought down this house of cards The scandalous lack of preparation of the French was revealed before the efficiency of the Prussians. Fightmg began August 2, 1870, aiid on September 1 at Sedan a whole French army of 120,- 000 men was destroyed or captured, includmg the surrender of Emperor Napoleon III. The empu-e at once coUapsed and a republic was proclaimed. Fighting contmued untU February. 1871, and m- cluded the siege and final capitulation of Metz and of the capital city of Paris. For this war Germany exacted from France the then unprecedented money indenmity of five billion francs (about $1,000,000,000) and tore away the two French provmces of Alsace and Lorraine, mcludmg the unportant military fortress of Metz^ Alsace was German in origm and speech, but had been French for two centuries, and in 1870 was French m spirit and nationaUty. The possession of Lorraine bv Germany gave control of rich coal and iron de- posits as weU as a point of departure for future mva- sion of France. To France the loss of these prov- mces was an affront and an injury which never coiUd be forgotten and which someday must be redi-essed. The Third French Repubhc was proclaimed Sep- tember 4, 1870, and its first act was to renew the war. When victory proved impossible it had to bear the odium of the hard terms of the German peace. Even greater difHculties faced it. In Pans the an- archistic Commune in 1871 seized the city Civil war was waged for six weeks, during which Pans suffered even more than durmg the German bom- bardment. The Republic regained the city and overthrew the Conmume amid frightful bloodshed. Thousands of the Commmiists were deported. Although the republican govemment of France was thus restored, it had no constitution. The sole power was in the hands of the National Assembly, which exercised aU legfelative and executive powers. It was also the only body capable of niakmg a con- stitution The Assembly was not in favor of a re- nublic- and the old Bom-bon line would have been restored but for the refusal of the heir to the t_lirone to accept the tricolor flag. Bon apartists also hoped and plotted. In 1875 the constitution of the Tlurd ReoiibUc was formed, which stiU left the way open for a monarchy. In 1879 the repubUc was accepted as permanent and Jules GrevT was elected president. This republic has lasted for neariy fifty years, and m spite of dangerous crises has proved acceptable to France and has fought tlirough the World War. There seems Uttle likeUhood of a change m the form of government. The history and development of the repubUc may conveniently be grouped around six important movements; (1) church and state; (9) the amiy ; (3) colonial empire; (4) civd control of the miUtary; (5) sociaUsm and labor; (6) relations with Germany. , In the long stmggle between repubhcans and monarchists the Roman CathoUc Church supported the monarchists, which caused Gambetta to ex- claun " ClericaUsm, that is our enemy. In 1880 the Jesuits were expeUed from France and the new free and compulsory educational system, estab- Ushed 1881-1882, attempted to free the schools from clerical control. In the struggles over the Drej-fus case the Clerical party sided with the army, wluch caused the formation in the Chamber of Deputies of the coalition called the "bloc," composed of Radi- cals and Socialists, wliich attacked the church. Under the leadership of Waldeck -Rousseau, laws were passed stippressing aU reUgious orders except those authorized Ijy the govemment, and no religioiis order was aUowed to teach. In 1905 the Concordat, or treaty with the Pope, dating from 1801 , was abro- gated and thenceforth cluu-ch and state m France were separate. LegaUy organized " associations of worship " were given the privilege of occupymg the chtu-ch buildings. Bishops and priests were deprived of state aid; but, on the other hand, the church was free from state interference in ecclesiastical affairs. The army has twice iwen the cause of political crises From 1886 to 1889 General Boulanger, a high officer m the amiy, attempted by securmg elec- tion to the Chamber from different constituencies to prove his popiUarity; and he watched the opportu- nity for a military coup d'etat. He failed to raise the necessary foUowing and ignominiously broke doi,™^ The Dreyfus case, wluch lasted from 1894 to 1906, began in the conviction and degradation of an ob- scure artillery captain. He insisted that he w-as the victim of a combination of enemies. Gradually evidence accmmUated that the traitor was not Drey- fus at aU. but a protege of the cliiefs of the army a^d perhaps a minister. Dreyfus was a Hebrew and the anti-Semites in France charged that his race a.=;soci- ates were controUing the poUticians and the army by their money. The monarchists jomed in the hunt, eager to discredit the repubUc. The Clerical party was against Dreyfus. On the other side the bloc of radical republicans insisted that the army should be subordinate to civil authority, that clerical infiuence should be kept out of politics, and that the republic should be preserved. A series of investigations showed that Dre^'fus was an mnocent man, his ene- mies were held up to public scorn, and the attacks on the army were checked. . Dmlng the eariy years of the repubhc a distmct movement was made to carry trade-imiomsm over to sociaUsm. During the eighties the sociaUsts lost groimd and disintegrated into groups. About 1900, however, the various socialist elements milted and m the mmistrv of Waldeck -Rousseau an " independent socialist " received a portfoUo. In 1905 a formal Socialist party was formed, on the platform of trans- forming the capitaUstic organization of society into a coUectivist or communistic organization, through the political organization of the working classes (proletariat). In the elections of 1910 the popular vote polled by the SociaUsts was 1,200,000 and 105 Socialist deputies were elected. The election of 1919, the first after the Worid War, showed a reac- tion 'and the Socialists and Radicals lost 126 seats in tlie Chamber of Deputies, wliile the Republicans of the Left and the Progressives gained 122 and the Liberal Action party (CathoUc), 42. From 1871 until 1892 France stood almost alone in Europe. Through the defeat by Germany, she sank for a tune to the position of a second-rate power The loss of Alsace-Lorrame was not seri- ous in a territorial sense, but the policy of revanche (revenge) was never abandoned. The French al- ways hoped that the lost provinces might some day be restored Nevertheless, France accepted the loss as an accomplished fact for the tune being, and tiuTied her energies to buildmg up a colomal enipu-e. As far back as 1830 France had sent a fleet to threaten Algiers; war foUowed, and by 1847 France controUed the whole of Algeria. Under Napoleon III the Senegal vaUey in Africa was annexed, and in Asia Cochin Cliina was acquired (1 862). Durmg the Tliird Republic, Tunis was made a " protector- ate " (1881), and the French possessions m West Africa were expanded tmtil France controUed most of the westem coast of Africa from the Mediterra- nean to the Congo. The region thus brought under French influence is nearly eight tunes as large as France and has a population of over 14,000,000. In Asia the kuigdom of Annam became a protectorate in 1883 and Tonkin was annexed m 1885. In 1896 Madagascar was declared a French colony. The French long looked with desire toward Mo- rocco but Germany was a rival contestant for terri- tory both m the Ulterior of Africa and on the north- em coast In 1906 the emperor asserted the inter- est of Germany. Tliis was contested by France and Great Britain! and by the Conference of Algecu-as French primacy In Morocco was acknowledged — a settlement proposed by the representative of the United States. Again, in 1911, Germany sent the Panther to Agadir, an act which almost caused war. Once more Germany was forced to yield and to recog- nize the French interests; in retum France ceded extensive territories in Kamerun and the French These incidents showed that France had powerful friends m Eiu-ope; the long isolation was broken. The change goes back to 1892, when an aUiance was made with Russia. Thenceforward the two powers were united, if need be, agamst the Triple AUiance of Germany. Austria, and Italy. France's position in Europe "was made more seciu-e. The rivahy with Great Britam contmued and became senous in 1898 over conflicting colonial claims m Afnca (the Fa- shoda incident). Neither party desired war, and the matter was settled by compromise. In 1901 Edward VII. became Kmg of Great Bnt- ain and used aU his mfluence to brmg about a miU- tarv understanduig between France and England — the" Entente Cordiale of 1904. France recognized England's special interests in Egypt, and England the special interests of France in Morocco. Tlie ad- justment of colonial questions was the smaller part of the result Without any formal pubUc aUiance, England became the fimi friend of France; then set- tled old differences with the ally of France, Russia; and thus the germ of a rival Triple Entente was formed to offset the famous Triple AUiance. The eariy years of the twentieth centiuy saw Eu- rope divided" mto two camps. Germany's universal military service compeUed her neighbors to adopt the same poUcy in self-defense. In spite of propos_- als made at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 190/ to disarm or to Umit the mihtary estabUshments, a contest in miUtary preparedness went on. In this Germany set the pace and France perforce had to foUow There is no evidence that France had m her aUiances and the increase of her armies any ag- gressive design ; she aimed to protect herseU. Nor is there evidence that France planned attacking Germany or her alUes. NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 95 WORLD -WAR PERIOD. Nevertheless, when m 1914 Germany, asserting that she was surrounded by an "iron ring" of enemies, seized the Austrian demands on Serbia after the murder of the Austrian Crown Prince as the occasion for war on Kussia, France was deeply in- volved. She was bound to defend lier ally against a two-power war: and she could readily see that Ger- many would seek her destruction. Hence on August 3. 1914, German troops being already in French terri- tory, war was declanxl on Germany. Germany recognized tiiat France, well armed and close to German centers, was the most immediately dangerous opponent. Therefore, leaving tlie eastern frontier weakly defended, Germany struck through Belgium directly at France. By the end of August Germany had almost reached Paris; but by the battle of the Marne she was tlirowai back on lines wliicli still included a large part of the industrial section of France, threatening the Channel and the capital. During the war France suffered as almost no other coimtry. She was deprived of a large portion of her most valuable industrial resources, a large part of the male population was mobilized in the army, and industry was paralyzed. In the territory occupied the Germans were guilty of frightful devastation and destruction beyond wliat was necessarj- for mihtary purposes. Their clear and avowed purpose was so to cripple the economic resources and organization of France that she should cease to be a trade rival after the war. In the early yeare of the war there were frequent changes of ministry; but just as in military affairs the war produced one supreme leader, Foch. so in politi- cal affairs, Clemenceau became the most powerful influence in France. With no thought of surrender, in spite of reverses and in the face of a defeatist party, Clemenceau maintained his steady course and up- held the policy of Foch. At the close of the war France demanded com- pensation, not only for the " crime of 1S70 " and for the enormous mihtary losses, but also for the devas- tation which the Germans had wrought. The treaty restored Alsace-Lorraine to France, gave to her an midetermined sum by way of reparation, and in par- ticular assigned the occupation of the valuable coal mines in the Saar region as a compensation for the willful devastation of the Lens and other French coal fields. Thus, after bemg deprived of her provinces for nearly half a century, France was able to redress the wrong of 1870 and to receive partial compensa- tion for her losses. Organization. Government. The Constitution of France does not consist of a single document submitted for ap- proval to the electorate, but of a series of statutes passed by tlie Assembly. The foimdations are five laws, sometimes referred to as the Constitution of 1875, which provide for the organization of the pubhc powers, the relations of the public powers, the elec- tion of senators, and the election of deputies. To these have been added the Laws of 1879, fixuig Paris as theseatof government; of 1884, for the abohtionof life senators; of 1885, 1889, and 1913, for the election of deputies. The power to amend and alter this con- stitution is vested in the National Assembly, which consists of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies sit- ting in joint session. The executive power is vested in a president chosen by the National Assembly for a term of seven years. Nominally the president has wide and im- portant powers; practically, like the king of England, he personally exercises few of these powers, all real executive acts being performed by ministers. The ministry in France, while nominally appointed by the president, is directly responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, and thus a cabinet system of government is established, similar to that in England. In actual practice the French parliamentary sys- tem is quite different, since the Chamber of Deputies is divided mto numerous groups, no one of which generally possesses a clear majority; hence, every mmistry is responsible not to one organized party, but to a temporary coalition. Since the election of 1898, which result-ed in the formation of the bloc, or coalition of the Radical and Socialist parties, some- what more consistent support has been given to the various ministries. Yet, as compared with England the ministries in France are short-lived and shifting. The legislative power is vested in a bicameral legislature. The Chamber of Deputies is appor- tioned, one for every hundred thousand inhabitants. After various experiments between the election of each member from one district (scrutin d'arron- dissement) and of all the deputies from a department upon a common ticket {scrutin dc li^te) or general ticket, the latter was accepted in 1919, combined with proportional representation. It was hoped thus to check the control which the local politicians and the prefects of the departments exercised, and by proportional representation to give to minorities more adequate representation. The Senate is at present composed of 300 members elected by an indirect method for terms of nine years, one third retiring everj- three years. By the original constitution some seats were allotted to hfe members; but by the amendment of 1884 vacancies in life memberships were filled as they occur by elec- tion in the ordinary manner for the nine-year term. It was hoped that tlie Senate would serve as a bal- ance wheel to the Chaml^er of Deputies, and to some extent that has been accomphshed. Although tiie ministers are not responsible to the Senate, it has not simk to the position of the British House of Lords, and still exercises considerable influence on legisla- tion and administration. The Assembly has full legislative power and when in joint session as the National Assembly may amend the constitution, without reference to the electorate. The imit of local government in France is the com- mune, which varies in size. In the whole country there are 36,241 communes, each electing a mimici- pal comicil. which council elects a mayor. A num- ber of commimes, twelve on an average, are grouped in a canton: several cantons make up a district, or arrojidissement (Paris, however, is divided into 20 arrondissements); a group of arrondissements consti- tutes a department; and of these departments there were 87 before the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine. Through al! this gradation the strong hand of the central go\'emment is felt. Even the local mayor is its agent, and the prefect at the head of each depart- j ment and the subprefect over every arrondissement I are the powerful representatives of the executive I branch. Paris itself has a mayor for each of its 20 1 arrondisseme/its, while the place of mayor of the city I is taken by the prefects of the Seine and of pohce. I This centralization of governmental power in a I single national organization has prevafled in France, ^ alike under monarchy, empire, and repubhc. The power of the people manifests itself in a frequent change of the head, whether by revolution or imder constitutional forms, rather than by a distribution of authority among many individuals and bodies, as in the English-speaking nations. Industry and Labor. France is an important agricultural country. Out of an area of 132,000.000 acres, 98,000.000 acres are cultivated, 24,000,000 are in forests, and only 9,500,000 are classed as moorland or uncultivated land. As in most other countries in modem times the ratio of agriculturists to those engaged in other industries is decreasing. In 1910 more than 5,000,000 people were engaged in manu- factiu-es, 375,000 in mining and metal work, and 500,000 m fisheries. The soO of France is rich and of varied quaUty and produces readily all the vegetables, grains, and fruits of the north temperate zone. Tlie more important crops as returned in 1913 were potatoes, wheat, oats, sugar beets, rye, and barley. The vineyards of France have always been famous and nearly 4,000,- 000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of the vine, wliich m 1914 produced 1,316,849,000 gallons of wine. Cider is also produced in large quantities. In addition the production of nuts, fruits, and par- ticularly of oUves is very important. Silk culture is encouraged by the goverament and is carried on in 24 departments. In 1913 there were 90.000 pro- ducers and the total value of the product was over 15.000,000 francs (about .?3,C00.000). France possesses valual)le metal deposits, and in 1913 produced 40,000.000 tons of coal and lignite and 21.000,000 tons of iron ore. In addition lead, silver, zinc, antimony, arsenic, and gold were pro- duced in smaller amomits; and in 19i3 the value of the output of the quarries amounted to 358.000,000. The French manufactures are among the finest and most profitable in the world. The handiwork of the French has always been celebrated, and their skill and taste are shown in the manufactiu-e of deli- cate machinery- and beautiful articles. The indus- tries of France are varied. Measured by the num- bers of persons employed, the more important (apart from agriculture, mining, commerce, and transport) are the manufacture of clothing; the textile indus- tries (manufacture of cotton, wool, lace, and silk goods, etc.); woodworking; manufacture of iron, metal, and leather goods; building; and baking. The most important exports of the coimtrj- are woolen, silk, and cotton goods, raw wool, raw silk, wine, Parisian goods, automobiles, skins, and furs. The industrial condition of France is a matter of constant concern to the government. The fact that four mmistries of the government out of four- teen have to do with industrial questions shows the preeminent importance of mdustr>' in the consider- ation of the repubhc. The general condition of the laborer in France has long been above that in any other country- of Eiu'ope. Hence there was no exodus of French workingmen from their o^vll coimtry. The French laborer, though a peasant, is generally a small landowner. One of the beneficent results of the French Kevolution was the breaking up of vast estates and the creation of more than 4,000,000 -small holdmgs. The French laborer is generally contented and happy. If he be prosperous he has his o^\ti house and vineyard. He retains to a passionate degree liis attachment to his own land and his devotion to France and his obstinate determination not to emigrate. i Religion. For ages France has usually stood by a policy of regarding the church as a national rather than an international institution. Kings of France maintained a Galhcan church as against the claims of Rome to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The church imder the old regime was closely aUied with the no- bility and its privileges. Hence the Revolution attacked it, and for a time proscribed it. AVhen France returned to a settled government, the chtu-ch was restored. Even Napoleon found it expedient to make terms with the pope, by the Concordat of 1801 . One of the watchwords of the restoration and reac- tion in 1815 was " to strengthen the altar and the throne."' After various fiuctuations, the poUcy of France under the republic was to secularize the state, but to make a grant of fimds to any sect numbering 100.- 000 adherents. The Roman Cathohc Church, the Protestants both of the Reformed, or Calvmist. Church and of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confes- sion, and the Jewish Religious Commimity all re- ceived these grants. By the law of 1905 all the com- mimions were put upon the voluntary or self-sup- porting basis, the state paying no more stipends, except that clergy over 45 years of age, or who had served over 25 years, were to receive a grant for a time. Of late years the government has come into friendly relations with the papacy. Education. The most important laws concern- ing education were those of 1881. when primarj' edu- cation was made free; and of 1882. when it was made compulsory- between the ages of sLx and thirteen. Later laws have made it entirely secular; no religious instruction is given in the state schools, and all the teachers are appointed from the laity. Even private schools and tutors must be certified by the state. There were, in 1913, in France and Algeria more than 69.000 primary and higher schools, of which 57.000 were pubhc and 12.000 private, with a total attend- ance of 5,669,000 pupils. The effect has been re- markable. lUiteracy has dropped from 25% to 4 9^, and in 1913 only 2Cc, of the conscripts could neither read nor write. The annual cost of tliis primarj- education in 1913 was about 225,000,000 francs (S45.000,000). Secondary- education for boys is supphed in two ' tj-pes of schools, by the state in lycies and by the ! commimes in coUeges, both corresponding nearly to American high schools. The coiu^e extends for ; seven years. In 1913 there were 112 lycees, with [over 62,000 pupils and 231 communal colleges, with jover 37,000 pupils. For girls there were in 1914 1 52 lycees, with 14.000 pupils and 70 colUges, with I 7,000 pupils. Higher education is provided for by ■ the state in universities and special schools. A de- cree of 1885 created a general coimcil of faculties and I the creation of universities was accomplished in 1897. i There are 14 faculties of law, 8 of medicine, 16 of sci- I ences, 16 of letters. The state faculties confer the .degrees. In addition professional and teclmical in- I struction is given in special courses, including ad- mirable normal schools, and institutions for training j teachers. Defense. France has a coast line of 1,304 miles I on the Atlantic and 456 on the Mediterranean. Be- |fore the World War its land frontier of 1,575 miles ' touched the borders of Belgium, Germany, Switzer- land, Italy, and Spain. An army and na\T and in- ' temal fortifications are a prime necessity to France. ' Paris is the center of defense, and along the boun- daries is a belt of fortifications wliich up to 1914 were supposed to be formidable barriers, the most important line being A'erdun. Toul, jfipinai, and I Belfort. This line was held against the Germans in J the World War, Verdun being subjected to repeated attacks. j Militarj' service in France is compulsor>' and imi- versal, no exemptions bemg aUowed except for physi- cal disability. Liability for service extends from the twentieth to the forty-eighth year and involves ac- ', tive service in the army for tliree years, eleven years . in the reserv^e, seven j'ears in the territorial army and ' seven years in the territorial reser\-e. The active I army is mobilized for training and maneuvers twice ! in the period of reserve service, for four weeks on each occasion. The peace establishment of the army m 1914 was 846,188. During the World War, however, more than 128.372 officers and 5,064,000 men were mobilized. The casualties were 1.385,300 dead, 2,675.000 wounded, and 446,000 prisoners or missing. No great army in history has ever made such a sacrifice of man power in the defense of its land. The minister of marine has the supreme com- mand of the navj'. In 1919 the na\T consisted of seven dreadnoughts, 13 predreadnoughts, numerous cruisers and gunboats. 80 destroyers, 153 torpedo boats, and over 100 sbmarines. The navy was not equal to the British in quality of ships. In the World War its service was almost wholly in the Mediterranean. Area and Population. The area of continental France is 212,659 square miles and the population (1911) 41,475,523. These figures include the re- covered provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which have an area of 5,605 square miles and which in 1910 had a population of 1,874,014. 96 NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. u V w FRENCH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. France in the eighteenth century possessed a vast colonial empire. Almost tile whole was transferred to Great Britain in 1763. Napoleon Ijuilt up a great complex empire of subject and protected lands in Europe, and attempted to take over the Spanish American empire. All that was forfeited in 1814. In 1S30 France began a third and successful drive for external territory ; and in 1920 possesses 4.660,000 square miles with an estimated population of about 50,000,000. Alperia is not regarded as a colony, but as a part of France. Most of the colonies enjoy some measure of self-government and have elective coimcils to assist tlie government. The older colo- nies also have direct representation in the French i population (1917) of about 12,000.000. Tlie histori- legislature, usually liy functionaries. The colonial 1 cal nucleus of this region is the French colony of empire is not seIf-su|)porting, and Beligion and Education. The natives are Mos- lem; the foreigners, Koman Cathohcs and Jews. There are 287 pubhc schools, 8 lacies and collides. and 23 private schools, all together harboring 30,000 pupils. A Mohammedan imiversity exists in the Great Mosque at Tunis, and there are numerous Moslem schools. The area is about ,50,000 square miles and the population (1914) is estimated at 1,940,000. MOROCCO. See Morocco, as a separate country, page 128. FRENCH WEST AFRICA. South of the western Sahara is a region belonging to France of about 1,682,000 square miles with a France in 1917 expended on itovcr 200,000,000 francs (S40,000,000|, of which 190,000,000 francs was for military services. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. ALGERIA. Algeria, lilce all northern Africa, was conquered by the Arabic Moslems in the seventh centiu-y. In the sixteenth century Khaireddin Pasha, the great admiral of Sultan Solyman I., imposed for a time the authorit^■ of the Ottoman Empire. This control was never more than nominal and was repudiated in 1705. Piracy was the chief occupation of the Al- gerines, as of their neighbors. Great Brnain and other states paid protection money. The United States in 1S01-1S05 made war on the Algerines, who, however, soon returned t« their evil practices. In 1815 Commodore Decatur with an American squad- ron ptmished them; and a joint British and Dutch squadron then destroyed the Algerine navy and a great part of the capital. This ended the freebooting era. A little later came tlie French conquest by war lasting till 1847. Resistance continued until 1870, when France es- tablished a civil administration of the coimtry Government. Algeria is considered a part of France, and each of the tliree departments into which it is divided sends one senator and two depu- ties t« the National Assembly. A governor-general at Algiers represents the French government and exercises large authority. He is assisted by an ad- visory council. There is no other legislative author- ity for Algiers than the Assembly in Paris. Industry and Labor. A small area of highly fertile land near the coast is cultivat«d scientifically, but the greater part of the coimtry is of little value for agriculttu-e. The northern portion is moimtain- ous and better adapted to grazing and forestry. Some tropical fruits grow abimdantly and the pro- duction of olive oil is an important industry. The cork oak is cultivated and, in 1916, 4,000 tons of cork were obtained. The chief exports are wine, sheep, wheat, wool, fruit, and tobacco. Education. There are over a thousand primary schools, with 146,000 pupils, 16 secondary schools, and a imiversity in the city of Algiers, besides numer- ous Moslem schools. Beligion. The native population is entirely Moslem. The French population is Roman Catho- lic, with the exception of about 60,000 Jews. Defense. Before the World War the military force consisted of one army corps. French residents are imder the same obligation to serve as in France, and natives are required to give three years' service imder the colors and seven in the reserve. The area of Algeria is about 222,180 square miles and its population (1911) 5,563,828. TUNIS. Tunis was long a vassal state of Turkey. As with Algiers, its main industry was piracy. In 1871 the Turkish sultan released the bey from payment of tribute. The French had long coveted the coun- try, and in ISSl it was forcibly made a protectorate. Government. The former reigning family still nominally occupies the throne, but the government is carried" on by a special department of the French foreign office. The French minister resident is also the Tunisian minister of foreign affairs. For ad- ministrative purposes Timis is divided into 19 ci\il and military districts, each imder a French governor. The subordinate ofBcials, however, are natives. An army of occupation of about 17,000 men is made up of a nucleus of French troops supported by native regiments. During the World War, 35,000 native troops served in Europe under the French colors. Industry and Labor. In the north the moim- tains shelter fertile valleys, suitable for intensive cultivation and the raising of citrous fruits and olive trees. In the center the high table-lands aflcrd pas- tures, while the south is famous for its oases and gar- dens and dates. The chief agricultural products are ■wheat, barley, and oats. In 1918 the wine yield was 14,000,000 gallons; olive oil, 3,000,000 gallons. The date crop for 1918 was estimated at 88,000,000 pounds. The important mines are of lead, zmc, iron, and manganese. The fisheries are valuable. Senegal, wliich dates back nearly tliree centuries. The French occujiation of tliis region was bitterly resisted by the natives. In 1904 French West Africa was reorganized and divided into Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, the territories of Senegambia (now Upper Senegal-Niger) , the Military Territory of the Niger, and the " Civilian Territory " of Mauretania. Government. A governor-general, assisted by a council, has authority over all French West Africa In each of the colonies there is a lieutenant governor imder the direction of the governor-general. Industry and Labor. In all the colonies tins is of a similar character; — primitive agriculture in a rich region of spontaneous tropical products. Religion. Tliroughout French West Africa Mo- hammedanism and the Negro faiths predominate, although there are many Cliristian missionaries. Education. Schools are founded in large num- bers by Catholic and Protestant missions under the French government. Everywhere the French have attempted to civilize and benefit the country by force while reaping the material advantages. Some progress has been made hi the introduction of rail- roads, telegraphs and telephones, and highways. Senegal is the most western part of Africa. For administrative purposes it is divided into four mu- nicipal communes, whose inhabitants are regarded as Frenchmen and elect one deputy to the French National Assembly, and about a score of districts m which the government exercises absolute authority and whose natives are not French citizens. The soil is generally sandy and the natives cultivate groundnuts, corn, and some rice. Other products are castor beans, gum, and rubber. The area is 74,- 000 square miles and the population 1,444,621. French Guinea lies on the Atlantic coast be- tween Portuguese Guinea and the British colony of Sierra Leone. The chief product is rubber. The area is 93,000 square miles and the population 1,812,000, The Ivory Coast extends between Liberia and the British Gold Coast and reaches inland to the colony of Upper Senegal-Niger. There is an ex- cellent harbor. The natives cultivate com, plan- tarns, and other fruits. In the uiiands the mahog- any forests are worked, and gold is foimd near Grand Bassam. Rubber is a valuable export. The area is about 125,000 sq. miles and the population 1,562,000. Dahomey lies on the coast between Togoland and Nigeria. France obtained a footing in 1S51 and an- nexed tlie kingdom in 1894. The colony has only seventy miles of coast, but spreads out as it extends inland. The natives are of pure Negro stock and are mdustrious agriculturists in the coast regions. The forests abound in coconut and oil palms which fur- nish the chief exports. The area is 39,000 squn.re miles and the population 911,000. The colony of Upper Senegal-Niger was founded in 1904. It includes more than two thirds of the course of the Niger and a large part of the Sahara. The chief exports are groimdnuts, cattle, and rubber. The area is 473,273 square miles. The colony of the Upper Volta wasformed by a de- cree of March, 1919, from the southern section of Up- per Senegal-Niger. It lies within tlio bend of tlie Niger and has an area of 95,000 square miles. The total population of the Upper Senegal-Niger and Up- per Volta colonies is about 5,600,000. The !tlilitary Territory of the Niger comprises that part of the Sahara to the east of tlie Niger and was established in 1904. It has an area of 533,000 square miles and a population of 850,000. Mauretania, the western end of the Sahara, was formed into a protectorate m 1903, and in the fol- lowing year established as a " Civilian Territory." It has an area of 344,967 square miles and a popu- lation of 256,0(K), mostly Moslem. For administrative purposes nearly all of the region is divided between Algeria and throe of the colonies of French West Africa — Upper Senegal-Niger. Mihtary Territory of the Niger, and Mauretania. FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA (FRENCH CONGO). French Equatorial .\frica lies on the Atlantic coast, south of what was formerly the German Kam- erun and of the territory of the Belgian Congo, French occupation be«an m 1841. This possession is divided into three colonies, each imder a lieutenant governor, who in turn fs under the governor-general for French Equatorial Africa. Little has been done to develop the natural re- sources of forests and mines, but whale fisheries were started in 1912. The area is about 672,000 square niUes and the: estimated population (1915) 9,000,000. FRENCH SOMALI COAST. French Somali Coast lies on the east coast or Africa between the Italian colony of Eritrea and British Somaliland. The country has scarcely any industries, but the coast flslieries and inland trade are important. In 1912, 11,000 tons of salt were exported. Many of the exports from Abyssmia pass tlirough the colony. It has an area of about 5,790 square miles and an estimated population of 206,000. MADAGASCAR. Madagascar was claimed by the French on the basis of a grant of Louis XIII. to a French trading company, which the nati^•es refused to recognize, Protestant missions had good success in the early nineteenth century. The French secm-ed conces- sions from the different native chiefs; and at length, m 1885, after severe fighting, obtained control of the island. A formal protectorate was established m 1890; and in 1896 Madaga,car was recognized as a French possession and the Island and its dependen- cies declared a French colony. Government. Madagascar is ruled by a French governor-general, assisted by a council of adminis- tration, but has no elective assembly, nor is it repre- sented in the French National Assembly. Natives are employed to a large extent hi subordinate posi- tions, in both civil and military administration. Industry and Labor. Madagascar is largely agricultural. The chief vegetable products are rice, sugar, coffee, vanilla, and rubber. The forests abound in valuable woods and there are profitable mines of graphite. Silk and cotton weaving and the manufacture of Panama hats are carried on. The chief exports are hides, rice, gold dust, and wax. Religion and Education. The Christian popu- lation, imder numerous missionar.\' societies, is esti- mated at 450,000 Protestants and 60,000 Roman Cathohcs. The outlying tribes are still heathen. Ed- ucation is nominally compulsory from 8 to 14 years of age and there are 745 official schools, w ith 76,000 pupils, and 432 private schools, with 43,000 pupils. The children areobliged to learn the French language. Defense. In time of peace the troops in Mada- gascar consist of 2,41 1 Europeans and 0,376 natives. . Durmg the World War Madagascar sent to France a large contingent of native officers and men. The area is estimated at 228,000 square miles and the population (1917) at 3,545,000. THE SAHARA. This name is given to the enormous region ex- tending from the Nile basin west to the Atlantic and [ pounds south from the Mediterranean colonies. In 1.S9S Great Britain recognized this vast territory of over 1,500,000 square miles — half the size of the United States — as French. It contains numerous oases and some grazing country, but immense areas are sterile. The population of nomads has never been counted. Mayotta and the Comoro Islands are north of Madagascar, and are admmistered under the gov- ernment of tliat island. Sugar cane and vanilla, spices and perfume plants are cultivated. The area is 790 sq. miles; the population (1914) about 96,000. REUNION. Reunion, or Bourbon, discovered by the Portu- guese in 1545, occupied by the French in 1049, and conceded a French possession since 1767, is an island 420 miles east of Madagascar, contrqlled by a gov- ernor-general, with the assistance of a privy council and an elective comicil-generai; it is represented in the French Assembly by two deputies and one sena- tor; The amiual rainfall is very high — 150 inches. Sugar, rum, coffee, tapioca, and vanilla and spices are the chief exports. The area is 970 square miles and the population (1912) 173,822. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. French India is made up of the pettj' fragment of the \ast colonial empire which was attempted by Dupleix and broken to pieces by Clive in 1757. It comprises widely .separated to\™s on the coast of India and is represented in the French Assembly by one senator and one deputy. Pondicherry is the most important of these towns and has a population of 47,000. The principal crops are paddy, groimd- nuts, and raggee. In 1917 there were over 50,000 acres of rubber trees, which produced over a million The total area is about 196 square miles and the estimated population (1918) 266,000. FRENCH INDO-CHINA. French Indo-China consistsof five states. Cochin China, Cambodia, Annani, Tonkin, Laos, and ihc port of Kwangchow. The entire territory is midet Development of the Merchant Marine from the Earhest Phoenician Time. [In part this picture is supplementary to the picture showing the development of the Navy, as the captain of the early Merchantman was compelled at times to defend his ship and goods from attack.] 1. The Pharos. Lighthouse at Alexanch-ia, Egypt. 2. Egyptian River Boat. Source of reconstruction same as Egyptian Alan-of-War. 3. Modern Chinese Junk. 4. Phoenician Fifty-Oared Boat. Oars at rest. Vase painting. 5. Greek Merchantman. Open in the middle, showing cabin at bow and stern. 6. Viking Trader. Covered cabin around mast. Decoration on sail Odin's cight-leggetl horse. 7. The Colossus of Rhodes. (Statue of Apollo) in the distance. Used as a lighthouse. Inserted here to correct the common error, for which there is no authority, that the figure was placed astride the entrance to the harbor. It was beside the harbor and was one hundred and five feet high, above a lofty pedestal. 8. French Merchantman. Fourteenth century. 9. Hanseatic Merchantman (Kogge). Fourteenth Century. Basket beacon on headland. 10. Venetian Galley. 11. The "Santa Maria." Flagship of Admiral Christopher Columbus. Decoration on sail F(erdinand) Y(sabell), with the crown and coat f)f arms of Castile and Leon between the letters. 12. The "Mayflower." Conveyed Pilgrim Fathers to Plymouth, Mass. 13. American Clipper Ship. 14. The "Clermont." Built by Fulton and used on the Hudson River. 15. The "Savannah." First steamship to cross the Atlantic ocean. The paddle wheels were so arranged as to enable the captain to unship them when the wind was fair. 16. An Ohio or Mississippi River Steamboat. Flat bottom and stern wheel. 17. Modern Five-Masted Steel-Built Sailing Vessel. Sails hoisted by steam. 18. A Long Island Sound Boat. 19. Grain Elevator. Loading a whaleback. 20. A Whaleback. Latest type of freight carrying steamboat. 21. An Ocean Greyhound. Latest type of ocean passenger and freight steamship. N Q R A \\ ■| i' *'*'' \ ^ W :& If: ■ '^^. « ' ^ !■ FROM THE EARLIEST PHOENICIAN TIME. v.op'i HK.HT by G. A C. MkhhiaM !..<». Registered at Stationers' Hall. London. England' 1648 - 1714. NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 97 a go\ ernor-gen©i!^l, assisted by a secretary-general. Each of the states has a resident-superior, except Cochin China, which, being a French colony, has a governor. The area is about 256,000 square miles and the population (1914) was nearly 17,000,000. Cochin China. The chief occupation is rice cul- ture. River and coast fishii^ is also extensively carried on. As a French colony it sends one deputy to the French Assembly. The capital is Saigon, which possesses wharves, repair and dry docks, and a navy yard which makes it one of the important ports in Asia. The estimated area is 20,000 square milas and the population 3. 000, 0(H). Cambodia is north of Cochin China. The chief products are rice, betel, tobacco, and indigo. Pep- per is an important article of export, and the grow- ing of cotton is increasing. - The province contains amazing ruins of vast temple-cities built by an un- known race. The area is 45,000 square miles and the population 1,634,000. Annam lies nortiieastof Cochui China and Cam- bodia. The French occupation began in 17S7 and the protectorate was established m 1SS4. Mines of iron, copper, zinc, gold, and coal are worked. Sugar, rice, spices, cotton, and sillv are produced and exported. The area is 52,100 square miles and the population 5,200.000, Tonkin was annexed to France in 1S84. It is situated south of the Chinese Empire and north of Siam and Annam. Since 1902 its chief town, Hanoi. has been the capital of French Indo-China instead of Saigon. There is a school of medicine for natives, wliich united in 1917 with the European college into the University of Indo-China. The cliief crop is rice, but much siUi is raised, wliich is woven by the natives. Maize, animal products, sugar, cardamoms, cotton, cofTee, and tobacco are also exported. The area is 46.-100 square miles pnd the population 6,119,720. Laos has been a French protectorate since 1893. The soil is very fertile, producing rice, cotton, indigo, tobacco, and fruits, and vast teak forests from which the logs are floated down to Saigon. Gold, tin. lead, and precious stones are also found. The natives, however, are so opposed to foreigners that for com- mercial purposes the coimtry is almost inaccessible. The area is 98,000 square miles and the population 640.877. Kwangchow was leased from China in 1S9S as an offset to the Russian. German, and English annexa- tions in the north. It is a valuable seaport. lying on the China Sea, but is little used at present. It is under the authority of the governor-general of Indo- China. The area is 190 square miles and the popu- lation 168.000. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA. French Guiana lies between Dutch Guiana and Brazil. It is the only French possession on the mainland in the Western Hemisphere, and was first occupied by the French in 1604. Since 1855 Guiana has been a penal settlement for habitual criminals, and the penal population 'lumbers o\er 4,000. On the lie du Diable. Captain Dreyfus was confhied from 1895 to 1899. There is little agricul- ture in the colony, and the most important industr>' is gold mining. Silver, iron, and phosphates are also found. The area is about 32. 000 square miles and the population (1911) about 49.000. Martinique is one of the West Indies. It was settled in 1635 by the French, who soon extermi- nated the natives. It has twice been taken by the British during wars, but restored at the conclusion of peace. It is represented in the French Assem- bly by one senator and two deputies. Sugar, rum, and cocoa are the chief productions, after wliich come tobacco, coffee, and cotton. The island has suf- fered terribly from tornadoes and eartlKjuakes, not- ably twice in 1902 from eruptions of Mont Pelee. Tlie area is 385 square miles and the population (1916) 193,087. Guadeloupe is the name commonly given to two closely adjacent islands (Guadeloupe proper and Grande-Terre) in the West Indies. Dependent on it are the five smaller islands of Marie-Galante. Les Saintes, Desirade, Saint-Barth^lemy. and Saint- Martin. Guadeloupe was occupied by the French in 1635; they lost it several times in war. but always r^ained it when peace was made. It is represented in the French Assembly by one senator and two deputies. The chief products are sugar. cofTee. and cacao. The total area is 722 square miles and the population (1912) 212.430. Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, each the largest of a small group of islands, with an area altogether of 93 square miles and a population of 4.652, are the last remnant of the once magnificent colbny of New France. They lie in the north Atlantic, south of and near the coast of Newfoundland. The islands are hardly more than bare rocks. The catching and drying of fish is the sole occupation. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN THE PACIFIC. New Caledonia is an island lying east of Aus- tralia with an area of 7,650 square miles and a popu- lation (1911) of 50.000, 5,671 of whom were of con- vict origin and 28,0(X) black. The transportation of con\icts to New Caledonia wa^ discontinued in 1898. The chief agricultural products are coffee, copra, and cotton. Attention is being giv'en to local industries, such as grain storage and meat-presefving works : and furnaces for smelting nickel ore have been erected. Valuable minqp exist of nickel and chromium ores. Five" groups of islands are dependent upon New Caledonia, with a total area of about 898 square miles and a population of less than 7.000. Of these the Loyalty Islands are perhaps the most important. The New Hebrides, situated northeast of New Caledonia, are imder a joint Anglo-French com- mission of naval officers. The area is about 5,000 square miles and the population about 50,000. ]\Iost of the natives are Papuans, formerly cannibals, but converted by the missionaries. Com. copra, coffee, and kauri wood are exported. FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN OCEANIA. Sc.\TTERED in the eastern Pacific are a number of island groups belonging to France; Society Islands, Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotu Archipelago, the Leeward Islands, the Ganibier, Tubuai, and Rapa Islands. The entire area is about 1.544 square miles and the popidation was supposed to number (1911) 30.600. In 1903 these various is- lands were united to form a single colonj under a governor. The Society Islands were discovered in 1606 by Spanish navigators, were several times visited by Captain Cook, but were claimed by no one till France annexed them in ISSO. Tahiti is the largest and most important of the group. AU the natives are Christians, and practically all can read and write'. Tropical fruits are raised in abundance, and the chief exports are copra, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, coco- nuts, and oranges. Chronology — France and French Possessions. For earlier events, see Mediev,\l Period and Eahly Modern Period, Chronology. For French in America and India, see Canada and India. i64S> France takes part in the proceedings leading to the Peace of Westphalia. The kingdom is still imperfectly organized. The Huguenots have a legal status as a privileged religious community. The comito' is drawn into conflicts in Germany by rivalry with Austria; and in Italy by rivah'y with Spain. A child is on the throne. Civil wars of the Fronde distract France; an insurrection occurs in Paris agaiiist Mazarln, and the faction of the people and of the Parliament constructs barricades, August 27, Normandy and Provence revolt. 1649. March. Peace of Bueil ends first war of the Fronde and quiets Paris. 1650. Leaders of the opposition to the French com-t , Conde and Conti, and the Diike of Longueville. are seized and imprisoned by the direction of Mazarin. Revolt hi south, Spaniards approach Paris from the north. 1650-1680. Exploration of the upper waters of the St. Lawrence and enlargement of settlements in Aca States). Prince Eugene, imperial commander, at first successful over the French, but his victorious career is soon checked. 1703. An insurrection among the Protestants of the Cfevennes, kno\%Ti as tlie War of the Caml- sards; suppressed by 1705 after much fighting. 1704. Aug. 13. English imder Marlborough with the forces of Prince Eugene defeat the French at Blenheim. Louis loses Bavaria. 1706. May 23. Marlborough defeats Villeroi at Ramillies; the Spanish Netherlands are lost to France. Allies invade France and lay siege to Toulon. Conquests of France in Italy given up. 1707. March. French fleet dispatched to enforce the claims of the Pretender James; it is cut off by the English. 1708. July 11. Allied armies of Marlborough and Prince Eugene overcome the French at Oude- narde; Lille is captmed. 1709. Sept. 11. Villars leads the French to a bat- tle with the allies at Malplaquet; French retreat. 1710. In Spain, Charles of Austria has been placed on the throne by the allies; the Duke of ^'endome defeats Charles and restores the crowTi to Philip of Anjou. grandson of Louis. 1711. April 11. Emperor Joseph dies. Charles now heir of all Hapsburg possessions. Grand Alliance dissolves, and allies favor Philip as against Charles in Spain. August. Fall of Whig ministry in Great Brit- ain brings in the peace party, enemies of Marlbo- |ough. - , 1713. April 11. (aeneral treaty of peace is signed at t'Irecht. Louis renoimces all claims to the o. u 1855. The first French International exhibition is held in Paris. 1856. Paris center of the diplomatic world: Peace of Paris (see Nixeteenth-Centcry Period). 1357. Anglo-French expedition against China (see Chixa). 1858. Jan. 14. Orsini makes an attempt to assassin- ate Napoleon III. as recreant toearly vowsasone of the C irboniri. .Shakes the emperor's absolutism. 1858-1860. Napoleon HI. and Italy (see Italy and Ni.neteexth-Cexturv Period). 1860. Privileges of the legislative body are much increased. 1861-1865. French imperial government unfriendly to Union government of the United States durmg the Civil War. 1861-1867. French forces in Mexico, nominally to collect debts, actually to foi-m a colony (see Mexico). (France by Annam.l 1863. June 5. Lower Cochin China ceded tol 1866. Napoleon neutral in war between Prussia and Austria (see Nixeteenth-Century Period). 1867. Frencli extend dominion in Cochin China. An expedition sent against Garibaldi at Civita- veccliia in October (see Italy). 1869. Emperor grants seme of the demands of the Liberals, 1870. Ministry of OUivier begins, January 2. Na- poleon HI. submits new laws of importance. May 8, a plebiscite expresses confldence in the Empire by a great majority. May 15, Gramont made minister of foreign affairs. July 2. Spain decides to offer the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzoliern. France protests, and Bismarck (" Ems dispatch ") fans French excitement into the war for which he has prepared Prussia. July 19. France declares war on Prussia. August 2, advanced forces of the two cotmtries meet at Saarbriicken (Speicheni). August 6, Mac.Mahon is defeated by Frederick William, cro\\Ti prince of Prussia, at Worth. Another battle, disastrous to the French, is fought at Cour- celles, August 14, and tlie French under Bazaine encounter the Germans tmder Prince Frederick Charles at Mars-la-Tour, August 16, Bazame defeated at Gravelotte, August IS. September 1, MacMahon and the emperor in person van- quished at Sedan. MacMahon's army surren- ders and Napoleon III. is made a prisoner. Sept. 4. In Paris the catastrophe results in the proclamation of a republic; a temporary gov- ernment for the defense of the nation is estab- lished. September 19, Paris is surroimded by hostile forces and a siege begins. Toui surren- ders, September 23, and Strassburg, September 27. Gambetta gets out of the city and makes a proclamation from Tours. October 11, von der Taim occupies Orleans, October 27, Bazaine siu"- renders Metz and a large army to Prince Freder- ick Charles. Revolutionary outbreaks occur in Paris. Through November and December vain efforts are made by France to head off the Ger- mans in the west. 1871. January. Renewal of desperate attempts to hold the Germans in the south and cast : all in vain. January 28, Paris capitulates, and a temporary armistice is signed. Feb. S. A National Assembly is elected and be- gins its sessions at Bordeaux. February 12. Feb- ruary 17, Thiers cho.sen as chief of the executive. Feb. 26. Prehminary Treaty of Versailles is signed by France and Germany, and on March 1 it is ratified by the French Assembly', Alsace, German Lorraine, and Metz are ceded to Ger- many. France to pay a billion dollars: German occupation tmtil the money is paid, March 1. the Germans make a triumphal entry into the French capital. May 10, definitive treaty of peace is signed at Fraiikfurt. March IS. Two days before the meeting of the Assembly at Versailles, the War of the Com- mune breaks out. The Red Republicans make themselves masters of Paris, and another epoch of confusion and slaughter ensues, MacMalion made commander of the military forces of the gov- ernment. Forces of the repubhcan government enter Paris, May 21. Montmartre jields. May 23, and on the following day the Commtmists bum the pubhc buildings of the city: Archbishop Dar- boy and other hostages are slaughtered. May 28, civil war ends with execution or deportation of the radicals. [pubhc, I Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the re-l 1873-1875. Efforts to restore the Bourbon mon- archy: Coimt de Chambord, heir to that line, re- fuses to accept the tricolor flag. 1873. May 24. Thiers resigns the presidency: succeeded by MacKlahon. September 16, evac- uation of France by the German troops com- pleted. November 19, term of MacRIahon's presidency fixed by the Assembly at seven years. Bazaine tried on a charge of treason, and found guiltj'. 1875. National legislative bddy composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies created by vote of the Assembly, thus establishing a republi- can constitution. 1875-1883. France and Egypt (see Egypt, mider British Empire). 1878. International exhibition of arts and in- dustries lield at Paris. 1880. March 19. Ferry educational bill be- comes a law. March 30, Freycinet cabinet pul> lishes an ordinance against the Jesuits. July 10, amnesty is granted to the Communists. In Sep- tember. Ferry, on the resignation of the Freycinet ministry, forms a cabinet. Society Islands amiexed to France. 1881. May 12. Protectorate over Tunis estab- lished by treaty, wliich- Tiu-key reluctantly ac- knowledges. Italy, estranged, forms Triple Alliance (1882) with Germany and .\ustria. France isolated. [Ferry. 1 October. Gambetta njinlstrysucceedsthatofl 1883. Gambetta resigns; Freycinet succeeds as premier. In July, Freycinet gives place to Du- cierc. ■ Gambetta dies, December 31. Tonkin War begms. French storm Hanoi, April, in attempt to secure delta of the Songka, but encoimter the " Black Flags, " pu-atical Clii- nese rebels. Annam assists the " Black Flags " and seeks Chinese aid. 1883. January. Duclerc resigns: Fallieres pre- mier. In February, Ferry succeeds FaUieres, May 19. French defeated by " Black Flags," In August, the French storm Hue, capital of An- nam, and, August 25, Annam by treaty becomes a French protectorate. December 17, capture of Sontai b.v French brings Cliina mto the war. War begins in Madagascar: Jime 13, Tamatave bombarded. 1884. June. Defeat of French by Chinese at Langson. August 23, French fleets destroy fleet and arsenal at Foochow. Formosa blockaded. Augu.^t. Revision of French constitution; princes no longer eligible for the presidency. 1885. March 23. French again defeated at Lang- son, which causes fall of Ferry ministry: Brisson minlstrysucceeds. In Jime, treaty of peace with China; French protectorate over Tonkin and Annam recognized. June 8. Scrutin de liste adopted, Dec. 17. Treaty with Madagascar; French protectorate. Dec. 2S. Grevy elected president. Brisson cabinet resigns. 1886. January. Freycinet again premier. Ex- ile of Orleans and Bonapurto princes decreed. In December, Goblet succeeds Freycinet as premier. 1887. April 21. Germans arrest Schnabele, a French police officer accused of spying, after having invited him to a conference across the border. French aroused, but war is averted, .May. Goblet resigns and Rouvier forms a cabmet, November. Rouvier goes out. Decem- ber 2, resignation of President Grevy. Decem- ber 3, Carnot elected president, and Tirard becomes premier. 1888. Attempts to form a party on basis of a revi- sion of the constitution, supposed to be a Bonapart- ist plot: headed by General Boulanger. Tirard resigns in March, and a month later FIOQuet is named as premier. 1889. February. Tirard again premier. At- tempt to malie Boulanger cliicf power in the state: an order for his prosecution by the Senate, and he flees from France, International exhibition of the industrial and- fine arts is held at Paris, Eiffel Tower erected. 1890. Elections result in victory for the Repub- licans, 325 members of the Chamber against 246- in opposition. Boulangists reduced to ridicule. Alinistry of Tirard resigns in !March. and Frey- cinet again becomes premier. 1891. France enters into relations of friendship with Russia : French fleet received with enthusiasm at Kronstadt. .iugust 22. Secret defensive alliance signed between Russia and France, thus restoringr France to the position of a great power whose friendship is sought. Anti-German demonstration in Paris on the per- formance of Wagner's Lohengrin, September 16. Order is issued by the government for stoppmg pilgrimages to Rome: French pilgrims in Italy are attacked by the Itahan populace for alleged insidts to the tomb of Victor Emmanuel. 1893. Excitementover anarchist outrages. Fel> ruary, ministry of Freycinet overttiro\sTi: Loubct becomes premier. Cholera reaches Paris. Seplember-Octolier. French troops make a vic- torious campaign in Dahomey. November. Frauds in connection with the finances of the Panama Canal Company are discovered. De Lesseps and his associates are arrested. In the year following, a^ trial results in their conviction and the revelation that many s-en- ators, deputies, and ex-ministers have been per- sonally and poUtically dishonest. In December, Loubet ministry is overthrown and sticceeded by that of Ribot. 1893 — 1914. NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 101 1893. Conflict and treaty with Slam (see Siam). January. Government reconstructed under Ribot witli a view to eradicate Panama scandal. 1894. May. iMinistry overtiirown; Dupuy minis- try succeeds. June 2Jt. President Carnot assassinated at Lyon. June 27. Casimir-Perier elected his suc- cessor. October. Agitation begins over arrest, trial, and condemnation of Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army, charged with selling secret information regarding the army and tiie mil- itary service to the agent of a foreign government; Drej-fus sentenced to transportation for life, Jan- uar>' 5. 1S95. 1895. Jear French investors take up a Russian loan of S160.000.000. February 20. rumors of a general European war. March 6. Court of Cassation grants a new trial to Dreyfus. March 2S. Bill prohibiting all teaching by the monks and nuns except in private passed by a vote of 318 to 230. April S, October 3. British and Spanish agree- ments tsee Nineteenth-Century Period). April 24. President Loubet visits the king of Italy at Rome; a defiance of the pope who has for- bidden Catholic rulers to do so. July 29, diplo- matic relations with the Vatican cease. October 22, Chamber of Deputies supports Combes min- istry against the Vatican by a vote of 318 to 230 Xov. 16. War Minister Andre resigns after a bitter debate on the espionage of army officials (reflex of Drej'fus affair). 1905. Jan. IS. Combes ministry resigns; Rou- vier becomes premier, January 24. March 1 7. Chamber votes to reduce the active term of military service to two years. March 29. Difficulty with Germany over the Moroccan question becomes acute (see Mo- rocco). German chancellor insists on mamtenance of German commercial interests in Morocco, in di- rect commimication with the sultan. March 31. German emperor lands at Tangier, and pubhcly criticizes the French policy. Jime 3. Foreign Min- ister Delcasse resigns under German pressure. Rouvier taking the office. Sultan, imder German inspiration, and against the wishes of France, in- vites the powers to an international conference. July 8. the French and German governments come to an agreement to hold the conference. July 3. Chamber of Deputies iiasses the gov- ernment bill for the separation of church and state by a vote of 181 to 102. 1906. January-April. Moroccan Conference at Algeciras. United States represented, and sug- gests a settlement which is adopted (see Nine- teenth-Centubt Period). Feb. 1-3. Rioting occurs in many Paris churches over separation law providing that churches and other religious establishments may be owned and used only by associations formed according to the civil law. Feb. 17. Fallieres elected president. Pope issues encyclical against the sei)aration law. March 7. Rouvier ministry resigns, having been defeated over taking of churcli inventories imder separation law. IVIarch 12. new ministry with Sarrien as premier. July 13. Supreme Court reverses convic- tion of Dreyfus and exonerates hmi completely. He is restored to the army with advanced rank, and on July 21 is decorated with the Legion of Honor. — a triumph for law and justice against military arrogance. A ug. 10. Pope issues encyclical instructing French Roman Catholics to offer passive resist- ance to the separation law. Oct. 17. Sarrien ministry resigns. October 21, Clemenceau becomes premier; Picquart. de- fender of Drej-fus, minister of war. Dec. 11. Separation law goes into effect, with almost no disorder. Pope orders clergy not to . make declarations under the law. During remain- 1 der of the year a few churches are closed ; others are kept open through declarations filed by lay- men. Government ousts Cardinal Richard from his palace, and arrests and deports the secretary j of the papal nunciature at Paris, but acts slowly in enforcing the new law. 1907. March 2-5~2S. In exacthig reparation for the murder of Mauchamp by Moors, France oc- cupies Oudjda. August, Casablanca is occupied (see Morocco). June 9. Vast demonstrations demanding gov- ernment action to relieve situation caused by low price of wine. A strike of civil employees, mutiny of a few troops, and a promise by the government to check adulteration result. 1908. June 13. Parliament almost unanimously adopts tiie secret ballot system. June 25. War balloon. La Ripublique, makes successful ascent at Nantes. June 26. Parliament passes a bill for the pur- chase and operation of the Chemin dc Fer de I'Ouest (Western Railway). International Woman's Suffrage and Equal Rights Congress opens at Paris. Aug. S. Wilbur Wright, of Ohio, flies three kilometers in one minute and forty-six seconds at Le Mans in a heavier-than-air machine. Sept. 25. Casablanca incident; German ships and authorities undertake to protect certain Germans in French military service (see Morocco). 1909. Feb. 9. Agreement with Germany as to administration of Moroccan affairs (see Nine- teenth-Century Period). March 15. General strike of government postal and telegraph employees. Government employs soldiers to fill strikers" places and refuses concessions. Its attitude is sustained in the Chamber of Deputies by 368 to 211. Strike gradually collapses, but is later revived and again suppressed vigorously. May 13, Deputies again sustain tlie course of the government by 4.>4 to 59. June 7. Cabinet approves a naval program mvolving expenditure of $600,(XX),000 in ten years. July 20. Clemenceau ministry is defeated and resigns; new cabinet formed under Briand. July 23. Louis Bleriot, in a monoplane, first to cross the English Cliannel. 1910. Feb. 20-29. Southem-central France suffers from floods; Paris suffers, also. March. Old Age Pension Bill passed; in ef- fect January 1. 1911. Pension to wage earners after 30 years of service. [for the government. I April 24- General election results in a victorj'l Oct. 11. Strike on the state railroads be- comes so serious that Premier Briand calls the striking employees back as,arnjy reserves. His action is sustained by the Deputies. 1911. Serious riots in the champagne districts. Feb. 27. Briand cabinet resigns. Monis forms a new ministry. March 10. Meridian of Greenwich is adopted as the prime meridian of France. April 12. Prier flies in monoplane from London to Pai'is without a stop. April-May. Renewed outbreak of Moroccan tribesmen. French troops scatter them and oc- cupy Fez. [forms new ministry. l June 23. Monis ministry resigns; Caillauxl July 1. German gunboat Panther anchors at Agadir, Morocco, signifying Germany's imwilling- ness to give France a free hand in that country. Indignation in France; Great Britain lends moral support. France's claim to a protectorate in Mo- rocco is recognized on November 3. Germany re- ceiving as compensation 96.520 square miles in northern French Equatorial Africa (see Nine- teenth-Centcry Period), [inces.l September. Food riots in the northern prov-l Sept. 25. Battleship La Liberti is destroyed in Toulon harbor by the explosion of one of her magazines. 1912. Jan. 13. French ministerial crisis ends in the formation of a strong cabinet under Poincare. March 19. About half the coal miners of north- em France are reported on strike. Settlement reached March 24. April. The French troops in ^Morocco quell a Moorish uprising, and overtlirow the southern pretender El Hiba. Fez is recaptured. The city is fiercely attacked May 26. May. Aiuiounced that France will concentrate her naval strength in the Mediterranean (see British Empire). May 2S. Birth rate for 1911 (742.114) is lowest on record in recent times. Sept. 10. Teachers' unions are dissolved by government, on accoimt of antimilitary and syndi- calist tendencies. Sept. 27. First review of an airplane ar- mada, held at Villacoublay, 72 military air- planes passing before the minister of war. Nov. 27. Franco-Spanish treaty regarding Mo- rocco is signed (see Morocco). Tribesmen con- tinue interminable war against foreign control, 1913. Jan. 17. Poincare elected president; in- augurated February' IS. January 21, new cab- inet, headed by Briand, takes office. March IS. Briand cabinet is defeated in Sen- ate on electoral reform bill and resigns. New ministry formed by Bartbou, ISIarch 21, adopts a vigorous defense policy and increased appropri- ations. Army bill with provisions for a three- year term of militarj' service is bitterly opposed by Socialists. By May the antlmllltarist agi- tation l>ecomes formidable, and finds expression in a twenty-four horn- general strike, threats of mutiny in the army, and widespread disorders. June 24. President Poincare visits England as the guest of the nation. Aug. 7. Army bill is adopted by Senate, pro» viding for three-year service and increasing the peace strength of the army to 673.000 at an in- creased cost of S35.(X)0.000 annually. Families whose sole supporter is in the army to receive sub- ventions. The passage of the law arouses fresh opposition. Sept.\23. Garros. French aviator, flies across the Mediterranean from France to Tunis (558 miles) in 7 hours. 53 minutes. Nov. IS. Electoral reform bill adopted by the Deputies, restoring in modified form the clause providing proportional representation. Dec. 2. Fallowing die government's defeat in ^le Chamber of Deputies on the question of ex- empting the new rentes from taxation, Barthou ministrj' resigns. ^ Dec. S. Doumergue forms ministry, made up of Socialists. Radicals, and Radical SociaUsts. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. ' 1914. For military and diplomatic events during the year, see World W.^r. Jan. 15. Aviator Legagneux breaks world's altitude record by ascending to height of 6,150 meters (20.177 feet). March 16. Madame Caillaux, wife of the minister of finance, kills Calmette, editor of Fi- garo, because of his caustic criMcism of her hus- band. She is acquitted of murder on July 28. /y 102 NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE — GEORGIA. 1914 — 1920. u w 1914 (coniinued). April 21. ICing George and Queen Mary of England enthusiasticaUy welcomed in Pans, on the tenth anniversary of the estabUshment of the Entente Cordiale. May 9. French column occupies Taza, in Morocco (see Morocco). June 1 Cabinet under Douraergue resigns. Ribot accepts the premiership, Jime 8, but four days later resigns on being defeated in the Cham- ber Viviani (Socialist) forms cabinet, Jime 13. July SS'Aug. 1. Crisis between Austria-Him- gary and Russia. France desires peaceful settle- ment, but acknowledges engagement to aid Rus- sia (see World War). lassassmated.l July SI. Jaurfe, leader of the Socialists, isl Aug 3. State of war acknowledged to exist between Germany and France; ambassadors arc withdrawn and each nation accuses the other of hostile acts (see World W.\r). . ^ -,,. . Aug. 26. Cabinet is reconstructed with A'lvi- ani still premier; Delcasse, who was dismissed at Germany's desire in 1906, foreign minister; Mille- rand, war minister; Briand, minister of justice; Ribot, minister of finance; Doumergue, colomal minister. Cabinet is considered the strongest in the history of the Third Republic. Sept S. Government withdraws tempora- rily from Paris to Bordeaux. Germans witliin a few miles of Paris. Sept. .5. France, England, and Russia agree not to make peace separately. Dec. 9. Government returns to Pans, Germans having been defeated on the Mame. Dec. IS. French protectorate over Morocco formally recognized by Great Britain. Dec. 22. National Assembly votes SI, 700,000,- 000 for the war, the greatest sum pledged up to that time by any legislative body in the history of the world. . 1915. For military and diplomatic events dtiring the year, see World War. (prohibited, I Jan. 7. Sale and transportation of absinthe is I February. Stringent regulations governing the sale of all alcoholic liquors. A pril 22. Cabinet decides that children made orphans by the war shall be cared for by the state. June 25. Deputies, by vote of 492 to 1, adopt an appropriation of $1,120,000,000 to cover war expenses durmg the ensuing three months. July S. Decree is published prohibitmg the ex- port of gold except by Bank of France. Aug. 21. Following England's example, cotton is declared contraband. .4119. 27. Every traveler leavtag the country is now required to declare the amount of com in his possession. Oct. 13. Delcass^, minister of foreign affairs, resigns. Premier Viviani assumes the portfolio. Oct. 2S. Viviani coalition ministry, formed shortly after the outbreak of the war. resigns. Briand (Socialist) forms new cabinet, with liim- self as foreign minister; GalUeni, minister of war; Viviani, minister of justice; Ribot, minister of finance; Doumergue, colonial minister. Briand aimounces (Nov, 3) that France is determined to carry the war to victory and diu-able peace. Dec. 31. War expenditures amount approxi- mately to $6,089,760,000. War loan of 15,000,000,000 francs (.S3,000,000,- 000), "the loan of victory," is raised by over 3,000,000 subscribers. The country thus far has not resorted to taxation in order to finance war. 1916. For military and diplomatic events during the year, see World War. March 27-28. War conference held in Paris by the premiers of Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, and Serbia, and the foreign minister of Russia, together with military leaders. May 7. Rove Tunnel on the Marseilles- Rhone Canal completed, opening a way for the canal through a ridge into the Bay of Marseilles. Greatest tunnel in the world. June S. Daylight-saving bill is passed, legal time being advanced one hour from Jime 14 to September 30. June H. Economic conference of the Allies in Paris. Plans for economic solidarity after war. June 22. Chamber of Deputies reiterates its conadence in the Briand ministry, and agrees to refrain from mterlering with the direction of mili- tary operations; but will supervise industrial and military preparation. June SO. Total expenditures from August, 1914, amount to $9,400,000,000, including $7,400,- 000.000 for purely military purposes. Noe. 9. Appropriation bill for the first quarter of 1917 is introduced, carrying a total of $1,894,- 600,000 (.$21,000,000 a day): the second national war loan amounts to $2,300,000,000, with 3,000,- 000 subscribers. Nov. 20. Post of director-general of transports and importations is created, with control over all traffic by rail or water. Dec. 12. Parliamentary crisis ends with the formation of a smaller ministry, headed by Premier Briand war council of six is established, con- sistmg of Briand (premier and foreign affairs), Ribot (finance), Lyautey (war). Lacaze (marme), Pamleve (labor), Thomas (national industry — including munitions and transportation). Dec. IS. Joffrc hands over command of the French armies of the north and nortlieast to Ni- velle, the commander at Verdim, newly appomted commander m chief. Joffre becomes consultative technical adviser to the war coimcil of the cabinet, and president of the Allied mUitary councU. Dec. 29. For reply to German peace proposal, see World War. . 1917. For military and diplomatic events durmg the year, see World War. Jan 11. For reply to President Wilson's' peace note," see World War. Itive tactics. I March 17. Briand retires because of obstruc-l March 19. Ribot forms a new cabinet, some- what more conservative than its predecessor. May IB. Pctain replaces NivcUe as com- mander in cliief. ^ June S. By a vote of 453 to 55 the Deputies declare that peace terms must mclude the restora- tion of Alsace-Lorraine and reparation for the damage done in occupied territory. „.u * Sept. 10. Painleve (minister of war m the Ribot cabinet) becomes prime minister. Sept IS. Painleve declares that France will require guarantees against future aggression. Sept 19 Deputies vote confidence In the Pain- leve cabinet, 378 to 1 ; Unified Socialists abstain from votmg. Sept. 29. Arrest of Bolo Pasha as a German spy and propagandist; information from the United States shows liim to have had control of enormous sums of money. Nov. IS. Painleve resigns as premier, havmg been beaten in the Deputies by 277 to 186. Nov. 15. Clemeneeau at the age of 76 forms a new cabinet, preponderantly Radical-Socialist, but composed of younger men who have not been actively associated in the conduct of the war. Nov '20 Deputies sustain the new Clemeneeau cabinet by a vote of 418 to 65. [1918 to 1920.1 Nov. 22. General elections are postponed from I Nov. 29. Fifteen nations are represented in a conference of the Allies at Paris. Dec. 22. The Chamber of Deputies withdraw- ing parliamentary privilege authorizes the trial of Caillaux, former premier, for treasonable dealmgs with the enemy (" defeatist " propaganda). Final trial does not take place until 1920; convicted, April 21, 1920. ^ . 1918. For military and diplomatic events durmg the year, see World War. Jan. IS. War minister puts postal, telephone, and telegraph services under military control. Jan 14. Caillaux arrested on the strength of new evidence; fiu-ther evidence m Intercepted dispatches of Ambassador BernstorfT. Jan. SO. German air raid over Paris. Many such follow, with destruction of life and property. Feb 15 Bolo Pasha convicted by comt-mar- tial of treason against the French government, and sentenced to death. 1 mile guii. I March 23. Germans Bist shell Paris with 76-1 March 26. Foch, chief of staff of the war mm- istry. becomes commander in chief of the Allied armies in France. Hess days a week, 1 April 27. Government proclaims tliree meat- 1 April 2S Ouval, director of the newspaper Bonnet Rouge, brought to trial by coiu-t^martial on charges of treason in connection with Bolo Pasha and is sentenced to death, Jlay 15, and executed, July 17. . May 19. The government threatens to with- hold shipments of coal should Switzerland main- tain her recent commercial agreement with Ger- many imder which Swiss cattle are to be exchanged for German coal, iron, and steel. July 15. Maivy, minister of the interior unaer three war premiers, is brought to trial before the Senate sitting as a high coiu-t of justice. Found guilty of communicating with the enemy, Aug. 5. Foch awarded a marshal's baton. Nov. a. Armistice and victorj- m the war. Dec S French "Liberation Loan " cam- paign, extending from October 20 to November 24, realizes S3. 950.000.000. Dec. 9. President Poincare receives an official welcome at Strassburg, capital of Alsace-Lorraine. Dec. 14. President WUson enters Paris attended by Poincare. Clemeneeau, and others. Dec 16 President Wilson presented with the gold medal of the city of Paris. [Academy. I Dec. 19. JoHre made a member of the French I Dec 30 Clemeneeau indicates his adherence to the ■• old system of alliances, called the ' balance of power.' " J • ,1, 1919. For international negotiations durmg the year, see World War. Jan. 14. Henceforth German prisoners to be em- ployed in reconstruction work in liberated districts. Jan IS Peace Congress opens in the Salle de la Paix (Hall of Peace) in Paris. Clemeneeau chosen permanent chairman; address of welcome by Poincare. and brief speeches by Wilson, Lloyd George, and Sonnlno. For subsequent proceed- ings, see World War. Jan. 22. Paris reports a " wave of crime ; thought to be due to the activities of former pris- oners recently freed from the army. Jan. 25. General strike on the transporta- tion lines of Paris ended only by tlireat of the gov- ernment to take over and operate aU lines. Feb. IS. Clemeneeau, wounded by a youth- ful anarchist. Recovers quickly. March 21. Commission on Reparation states that Germans left 7,000,000 acres of France un- productive; work of reparation being carried on, soldiers and prisoners of war assistuig. April 23. .\n eight-hour-day law enacted. In effect July 2; carries mcrease of 25% in wages. May 1. May Day demonstration passes with- out serious disorder, troops being prepared for emergencies. , ,„ June. Strikes are numerous; due largely to adjustments under new eight-hoiu- law. June 26. Electoral Reform Act; restores scrutin de lisle, or general ticket; also compromise on proportional representation. June 2S. Treaty of Versailles with Germany signed (see World War). Franco-Anglo-American treaty of alliance; Great Britain and United States to go immedi- ately to assistance of France in case of an impro- voked attack by Germany. Signed by^President WUson but not ratified by United States Senate. July H. Bastille Day and victorious peace celebrated bv a great parade In Paris. July 21 Damage by German occupation of France placed at $40,000,000,000. Oct. 13. France ratifies Treaty of Versailles, including League of Nations covenant. Censorship is terminated. Nov 11-30. Newspapers of Paris durmg a strike combine to publish a single paper caUed La Presse de Paris. Nov 16. Elections of Deputies result m over- whelming defeat of Socialists; government upheld. Dec. SI. National debt announced as $40, 772,- 000 000, gold; about SIOOO per capita. 1920.' Jan. 17. Deschanel elected president; Clemeneeau defeated as candidate at a prelimi- nary caucus. Clemeneeau ministry retires, January 18. Millerand becomes premier. Deschanel inaugurated, February 18. Jan. 27. Supreme Council of Natality created to encourage increase in birth rate. Feb. 4. Francs quoted in New York at 15.15 to a doUar (normal rate of exchange, about 5.18 to a dollar). GEORGIA. Georgia is the region extending from the eastern end of the Black Sea eastward into the Caucasus, includmg the city of Tifiis. It has been a part of many different territorial organizations and is re- noNvned tor the piu-ity of the race and the beauty of its women, many of whom have become the wives of Turkish princes. For more than two thousand years (from 300 b. c.) the Georgians had a kingdom if their own; but in 1801 they were annexed to Russia though the Russians were obliged for years to make their claim good by fighting. They at- tempted to Russianize the population and the Geor- gian Chiu-ch, and they included the region in their provinces (governments) of Tiflis and Kutais. In 1917 when the Russian Empire broke down, the Georgians set up a temporarj- government, and a rear later, 1918, declared themselves a republic imder President Noah Zhordania. The coimtry m- cludes many race elements each strongly maintain- ing its language and national spirit. Georgia has well-developed educational institu- tions, comprising about 4,000 elementary schools, 150 secondary and professional schools, and the University of Tiflis, with 1,500 students. The agricultural resources of the coimtry con- sist of wheat, barley, maize, cotton, tobacco, and tea The production of grapes for wine is a leadmg industry and. the coimtry is rich in other fruits. Many minerals are found, the most important be- ing manganese. The area is 35.500 square miles and the popula- tion about 3,176,000. 1917. November. Transcaucasian Republic formed; made up of Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbai- janians. ., . „ . , 1 J Nov. 22. National Council of Georgia elected bv Georgian National Assembly. 1918. February. Diet, Or Seim, of Transcaucasia convoked at Tiflis. May 26. Republic dissolved, owing to diver- gent political tendencies of the three nationalities. Georgia forms a separate, independent state. 1919. March 12. Act of Independence of Georgia ratified by the Constituent Assembly. [Allies. I 1920. Jan. 16. Georgia receives recognition from I NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 103 GERMANY. Historical Outline. The German Republic was proclaimed Novem- ber 9. 1918. In order to imderstand its peculiar constitution and the events which led to the World War, it is necessary to trace the successive st«ps wliicii transformed the empire of Charlemagne into the Holy Roman Empire and that m tiUTi into the German Empire under the hegemony of Prussia, and finally resulted in the present republic. Of the later Teutonic invaders, the Franlts were the first to establish a kingdom with the attributes of a modem state. Under Charlemagne, this kingdom became an empire and in gratitude for his assistance against the Lombards, the Pope, I^eo III., on Christ- mas Day. 800, crowned Charlemagne Roman em- peror. His empire extended from the Elbe across the PjTcnees, and from the Baltic to the states of the Church in Italy. Although in name a Roman em- pire, ill fact it was Teutonic in race and ui culture. The successors of Charlemagne foimd it impossible to preserve intact the territory of the empire he had created, and by the close of the ninth century the dis- integration was complete. In the early years of the tenth centurj-, Henrj- I., a Sa.\on, founded a German monarchy. He was succeeded by his son. Otto I-, who went to the aid of the pope and, in 962, was crowned emperor of the " Holy Empire of the German Nation. " Thus be- gan the iU-fated influence of Germany in Italy which was continued by Austria imtfi the World War. Un- til the begimiiiig of the nineteenth century, when the imperial dignity was finally abolished, the em- peror was almost the sole unifying element in the rivalry of the petty kmgdoms, duchies, states, and cities which went to make up Germany. -Although the imperial dignity was elective in form it tended to become hereditary. The election was made by seven great princes of the empire kno\^Ti as electors. They were, before the Peace of West- phalia (1648), the archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne, king of Bohemia, coimt palatine of the Rhine, duke of Saxony, and margraveof Brandenburg. In theory, any Christian prince was eligible to the imperial dignity, but aU the emperors belonged to reigning German houses, except the two contesting claimants: Richard, Earl of Cornwall (son of King Jolin of England), who was elected in 1257 by a part of the electors; and Alfonso of Castile, elected at the same time by the rest of the electors. This in- ternational character of the emperor accoimts for the hopes of election cherished by Francis I. of France and Henry YIII. of England. MODERN PERIOD. In 1.519 Charles I. of Spain became emperor imder the title of Charles V.. and there ensued not merely the struggle with France but the far more terrible religious wars, which closed in 1048 with the Peace of Westphalia. By the terms of this treaty the em- pire was thorouglily reorganized, but still presented many anomalies. For example, during the eight- eenth century the archduke of .\ustria was usually emperor. At the same time, as king of Bohemia he was an imperial elector, and inside the empire he was ruler of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). Out- side the empire he was king of Hungary and duke of Milan. Again, the margrave of Brandenbiu-g was an electoral prince in the empire, while outside of it he was king of Prussia and later duke of Silesia. The duke of Brtmswick-Llineliiu-g was made an imiierial elector in 1692, being commonly called the Elector of Hanover; and in 1714 the Elector of Hanover liecame king of England. This empire, a political abnormality, at one time about 300 sovereign states, was powerless tO resist the onslaught of Napoleon. By the Treaty of Lime- \1Ue (1801), the states on the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France. Ttiis dispossessed many princes who were promised compensation elsewhere. At the dictation of Napoleon, in 1803, the process of consolidation was carried still further and the terri- tories of the ecclesiastical states (those ruled by bishops and abbots) and aU but six of the free cities were added to the possessions of the more important princes. Napoleon also allowed Austria and Prussia to take over portions of the empire. In 1805 .\ustria was crushed at the battle of Aus- terUtz, and m the foUowing year Napoleon organized the Confederation of the Rhine. This Confedera- tion included practically aU the Holy Roman Em- pire except Austria, Prussia, Bnmswick. and Hesse. The Coiifederation entered into an alliance with France. This was the death blow to the old empire, and Francis II., the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, resigned the office of Roman emperor and was thenceforth known by the title of hereditarj- emperor of Austria, which he had assumed in 1S04. Although resigning the title, Austria still hoped to exercise leadersliip in the German states. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. The Congress of Vienna (1815) estabhshed a con- federation of German states. This new body con- sisted of 38 sovereign states, including one empire (.\ustria), Ave kingdoms, of which Prussia was the largest, one electorate, seven grand duchies, and foiu- free cities. By the territorial settlement of the Con- gress, Austria lost in German lands and gained in Italy. The ciuestion of the future was to be whether a new and stronger imion of German states should grow up aroimd Prussia or aroimd Austria as the leadmg and central power. An important stage in the development of the Ger- man Empire imder Prussian leadership was the formation of customs imions among groups of states which estabhshed free trade and, consequently, close commercial relations inside the group. The first group, including Prussia and several smaller states, took shape in the years 1819-1830. In 1824 a second customs imion was formed by Bavaria and certain of the smaller states. In 1833 members of both these groups united, forming the basis of the Zollverein (customs imion), which was fully organized in 1837 and comprised the Prussian group and eight other states (among them Bdvaria, Saxony, Wiirttem- berg), with a total population of 26,000,000. It was significant and prophetic that Austria was not in this nucleus of the later German Empu'e. In 184S the Liberals of Germany held an assembly at Frankfm-t and offered the title of German emperor to Frederick Wilham IV. of Prussia, who declined the honor miless all the prhices of Germany should give then- assent. In 1862 Count von Bismarck be- came president of the Prussian ministry, and the process of the imiflcation of Germany began to move more rapidly. In 1866 Prussia proposed a Ger- manic confederation which should exclude Austria and when the Diet rejected tliis plan, Bismarck per- suaded William I. to proclaim that the old German confederation was dis.solved. This brought on war between Austria and Prussia, in which Prussia was overwhelmingly successful. As a result the North German Confederation (Bund) was established, in which Prussia was all-powerful. Although the southern states of Germany were not included, they soon formed customs unions with the new Bund, and after Prussia's successful war with France (1870-71) joined the new empire which was then created. The struggle of 1870-71 between the Gaid and the Teuton, in which Prussia took the leadmg part, brought the Germans together as the machinations of statesmen and years of peace could not have done. It was a flttmg cUmax when, on January 18. 1871, in the palace of VersaiUes, built by Louis XIV.. the archenemy of Germany, the German Empire was constituted and King William of Prussia proclaimed German emperor. From its foundation imtil his resignation as chan- cellor in 1890, the history of the German Empire cen- ters around the activity of Bismarck. It was his mind which put in form the imusual federal institu- tions of the empire and it was his manipulation that gate them their development. As soon as the em- pire was fairly estabhshed, Bismarck was involved in two constitutional conflicts, m neither of wliicli he was successful. In the new German Empire a small majority was Protestant and the large Catholic population had long looked to Catholic Austria rather than to Pro- testant Prussia for leadership. In the first elections of the empire the Catholic party, called the Center, won 63 seats. Apparently the Chiuch meant to in- terfere m politics. This aroused Bismarck, who in- augurated the struggle known as the Kulturlcampf. The Reichstag forbade the rehgious orders to en- gage m teachmg; in 1872 the Jesuits were expelled from Germany, and by the " May Laws " of 1873 to 1875, the Roman Catholic clergy were forbidden to interfere in civil affairs, were required to study their theology at a state imiversity and to pass state ex- aminations; the state took over the power of inspec- tion of all CathoUc seminaries, and suppressed the religious orders. Bismarck sunmied up his policy in the .saying; " I shall not go toCanossa." PohticaUy the pohcy was a failure, for m 1877 the Center grew to 92 votes, the largest fraction in the Reichstag. Con- vinced that the policy of suppression was useless, Bismarck tried conciliation. The anticlerical legis- lation was little by little repealed; and the Center, from being the irreconcilable party, became one of the supporters of Bismarck's measures. A second and lasting domestic problem was social- ism. The Socialist party, foimded by LassaUe in 1848, was broken up: but it reappeared in 1863 in two groups which united in 1875. In its original platform the party demanded the abolition of capi- tahstic society and the foundation of a socialist state I wliich should control the instrtmients of production. It also demanded a free state in which there shotild be universal suffrage for men and women of the age of 20, the secret baUot, free speech, free association, and a free press. The growth of the party was phe- nomenal. In 1871 it cast a popidar vote of 142,000; in 1874 it more than doubled: and in 1877 it grew to nearly 500,000. Owing to the artificial distribution in the Reichstag, by wiiich the great cities were 'im- derrepresented, the Socialists obtained only nine seats: but outside among the people the party was the growing and popular one. Bismarck determined to crush the Socialists by a two-fold poUcy — repression and " inoculation." By a law of October. 1878, associations, meetings, and publications having for their object " the sub- version of the social order " were forbidden. Police officers received large powers of arrest and the right to expel Sociahsts from the country. If martial law were proclaimed — an easy matter — the ordinary courts ceased to protect the hberties of the Social- ists. This law was vigorously applied; over 14,000 publications were suppressed. 1,500 Socialists were imprisoned, and 900 were banished. The first effect of the law seemed to justify its passage, for in the election of 1881 the Socialist vote decreased by about 190,000; but m 1884 it rose to nearly 500,000, m 1887 to over 760,000, and in 1890 to 1,427,000. Suppres- sion of the Socialists, like that of the Catholics, meant only a larger number of more active opponents. Bismarck's policy of inociUation consisted in try- ing to break the force of the movement by improving the coftdition of the working class. He drafted and secured a comprehensive system of insurance against accident, sickness, old age. and uicapacity. He aimed to prevent pauperism by pensions to the de- pendent. This was virtuaUy a kind of state social- ism. The Socialists stiU refused to support the gov- ernment. .They were democrats, while Bismarck was an absolutist. Tliree other features of Bismarck's policy shotdd be mentioned. .The first was his system of protec- tive duties. He" believed that Germany to be strong must be rich and prosperous, and. therefore, framed tariffs which assiu-ed to the Germans greater control of German markets : thus he encouraged the agrarian party of agricult lu-al Prussia and the industrial party of the rapidly developing manufacturing centers. The second great state policy was that of foreign alliances. After a period of the Dreikaiserbund, Three Emperors' League (Germany, Russia, and Austria), m 1879 he definitely adopted the policy of a close alliance with Austria, which provided that if either power were attacked by Russia both countries woifld cooperate with the whole of their military power and conclude no peace except conjointly. If either Germany or Austria should be attacked by any other power, the ally might remain neutral, un- less Russia should take part, when both would act together. In 1882 Italy, irritated at the French seizure of Timis. joined Austria and Germany, thus forming the Triple .Alliance which imtil 1914 was one of the dominating features in European diplomacy. A third policy of Bismarck's was the acquisition of colonies. Long after 1871 he was opposed to coloni- zation or colonial conquests, but energetic merchants began to trade in Africa and the Pacific, and German settlements were made in the tropics. In 1880 the Colonial Society was founded: and in 1884 Bismarck himself adopted a vigorous colonial policy, which after liis retirement resulted in the establishment of a colonial empire in Africa and the Pacific. The spirit of German colonization differed from that of England. With little regard for the rights or wel- fare of the natives, the Germans concentrated their attention upon the development of the material re- sources and the making of the colonies as profitable to Germany as possible. Emperor William I. died March 9, 1888, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III., who reigned only imtil Jime 15. Had Frederick hved, it is sup- posed that more hberal ideas might have been adopted. He was succeeded (Jime 15, 1888) by his son, William II., a young man of twenty-nine years, as Emperor and King of Prussia. The German con- stitutional system gave to the sovereign of Prussia tremendous power and influence; the federal consti- tution gave the kingdom of Prussia predominance, and the personality of the ruler was significant. William II. was a man of active mind and fertile im- agination, self-confident, ambitious, versatile, and vigorous. He attempted to excel in everything; in war, in music, in art, and in literature; and he con- centrated in his own hands the vast political power which William I. had exercised tlirough his chan- cellor. In 1890 Bismarck was dismissed, and from that time on, although there were seven chancellors, there was but one ruling personality — the emperor. The reign of William II. is remarkable for the wonderful economic development of Germany. The high protective tariff gave German merchants the advantage in the domestic market, and state aids and subsidies helped to build up a vast export and sliipping trade. Germany prospered ia a ma- terial way, and began to rival England in commerce. The colonial empire founded by Bismarck was de- veloped and exploited for the benefit^of the Gerpian merchants. The army, the strongest in Europe in 1870, became even stronger and was the most per- fectly eciuipped, driUed, and prepared military force which the world had seen. Not content with posses- sing the strongest, land force in the world, the em- peror attempted to rival England's naval power, in particular by the law of 1897, wiiich instead of sim- ply providing for the building of a certain number of ships adopted a comprehensive naval program that was designed to be oermanent and which was later greatly increased. 101 NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. N Q U w The prosperity of Germany and her desire (or " a place in the sim." lalien in connection with tliis over- whelming military and naval force, made her arro- gant in dealing with other states. Thus she joined in the protest whicli deprived Japan of the fruits of her victory in the war with Cliina. while in China she was the most ruthless in exacting the reparation that resulted in the virtual annexation of Kiaochow. Witli ]'"rance in 1906 and again in lOil relations were strainef.l because of Germany's attitude over French influence in Morocco. Secure in her own strength and in that of her allies, Italy and Austria, Germany felt able to defy the rest of Europe. On Bismarck's retirement (1890) Emperor Wil- liam II. refused to renew the oppressive laws; and the Socialists rapidly gained both in popular vote and in representation in the Reichstag. In 1893 they polled 1,800,000 votes and elected 44 members; in 1890 over 2,000,000 votes and elected .57 members; in 1903 the party polleecause Prussia has not the necessary prestige. In May, the office of executive is abolished, and a central power is established, its execution going to Prussia and to Austria alternately. 1850. Jan. SI. King of Prussia grants a constitu- tion to the kingdom. Suffrage so ari*anged as to give the superior power to landed nobility. Con- stitution lasts till 1918. March 20. Parliament assembles at Erfurt, and on April 27 a new German union is formed. A congress of the princes of the states is held at Berlin In May. In Hesse strife arises over the con- stitution, and country Is declared In a state of war. A'oii. 29. After an open rupture. Prussia and Austria meet in Conference of Olmiitz. Prus- sia yields to Austria, agreeing not to strive for the headship — a great himilllation to Prussia. 1851. May IS. German Confederation, with the Diet, restored. 1858. Prince William of Prussia made regent for his brother. Frederick William IV. 1861. Jan. 2. Prince William becomes king of Prussia as William I. [ister in Prussia. I 1862. September. Bismarck becomes prime mln- 1 1864. Prussia united 'with Austria in another war over Schleswig-Holstein with Denmark (see Den- mark) ; by Treaty of Vierma, Oct. 30, Denmark re- nounces Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg. 1865. Sclileswlg-Holsteln Is divided by the two powers, Prussia controlling Schleswig and Austria iiiling Holsteln. wliile Lauenburg goes to Prussia. 1866. Crisis and war between Austria and Prus- sia for control over the confederation brought about by Bismarck. June 14. confederation de- clares Prussia to be In opposition to the union and designates Austria to force It to obedience. Prus- sia maintains that this vote Is imconstltutlonal, and she secedes from the confederation and in- vades Hanover and Hesse; Dresden is occupied on Jime IS. Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover. Baden, Hesse, and Wiirttemberg side with Austria. Italy forms military alliance with Prussia (see Italy). June 2S. Prussian troops having invaded Bo- hemia at Miinchengratz. the army of allied Aus- trians and Saxons Is routed. July 3. battle of Kiiniggratz results In a complete victory for the Prussians; Prague is occupied and an advance made on Vienna. July 26. Through French mediation the Truce of Nikolsburg is signed. August 23, Prussia and Austria sign the Peace of Prague. Austria recognizes the dissolution of the German Confederation ; consents to the formation of a new North German Confederation north of the river Main. Schleswig-Holstein. Hanover. Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfurt are Incor- porated with Prussia, thus building the territorial bridge needed to connect Brandenburg with the Rhine Province, completing a solid Prussia. 1867. Feb. 2j. First Diet of the North German Confederation assembles, and a constitution Is adopted; the presidency of the confederation is united with the crown of Prussia, and Prussia represents the confederation In all International relations. In the Bimdesrath Prussia has 17 votes, the total of the other votes being 26. An imperial Diet, or Reichstag, Is constituted by man- hood suffrage. The centralized military system is mider the command of the king of Prussia, and universal military service is made compulsory. Bismarck made chancellor of the confederation. March. Diplomatic difficulty with France ; she Is about to annex Luxemburg when the German Diet Interferes. Luxemburg remains practically a commercial dependency of Germany, but its neutraUty is guaranteed by the powers, May 11. 1870-1914. NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 107 1870. July 19. War between France and Ger- many (Franco-Prussian War) begins by a French declaration. The occasion is the. election of a Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain. A confer- ence of tlie French ambassador with King William is made by Bismarck's manipulation to appear an insult to France. Real cause of war is the con- viction that Napoleon III. is the obstacle to the acceptance of the German Union by the south German states. Most of the frontier fortresses and the city of Paris are taken. The Second Empire falls and the Emperor Napoleon III. is macie a gtate prisoner (see France). November. Treaties are made by the North German Confederation with the states of south Germany. December 10, the unification of Germany ha\'ing been thus secured, the Diet de- crees the restoration of the empire. 1871. Jan. IS. All the sovereign princes and the tliree free cities having offered the crown to Wil- liam I. of Prussia, he is proclaimed at Versailles German Emperor. Feb. -26. Preliminaries of peace signed with France at VersaiUc^. France cedes to Ger- many, Alsace (with the exception of Belfort) and part of Lorraine, witli Metz and Diedeiiliofen, besides agreeing to pay an indemnity of a billion dollars, the pa>Tnent to be secured by German occupation of French territory. March SI. First session of the Reichstag of the ^ new German Empire opens. ^ May 10. Definitive Peace of Frankfurt am ' IVIain signed by France and Germany., - 1872. Juiu. Reichstag passes an act abolishing all houses of the Jesuits and of aflBliated religious bodies m Germany. A rupture of relations with the Vatican foUows this legislation, and it is not until 1S7S that modifications of anti-Catho- lic legislation are secured. August. Dreikaiscrhund, Or Tliree Emperors' League (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 1873. May 15. Prussian government proclaims laws against the Catholics ("May Laws"): the resistance of the clergy to these enactments leads to the passing of tlio civil- marriage law and the civil registration of births and deatlis. These laws are confirmed by the empire. January 1, 1876. Sept. 16. Last of the German troops withdraw from France. 1878. May 4. An attempt is made upon the Hfe of Emperor William by one Hodel, a German working lad. and on June 2, Karl Nobiling, an educated man, succeeds in inflicting a womid on the sover- eign. These attacks are followed, in October, by legislation against the Socialists. June 13. After the Turco-Russian War (see Turkey and Ritssia) a congress of the powers assembles at Berlin, under the presidency of Bis- marck and a general treaty is signetl. July 13. 1879. Oct. 7. Defensive alliance signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary aimed at Rus- sia and France. iin Germany. I 1880. An anti-Semitic movement is set on foot I 1880-1910. Unceasing efforts by the German gov- ernment to Germanize Alsace-Lorraine, which is treated as a dependency and for years has no local legislature. 1883. May 20. Treaty of tlie Triple Alliance — Germany, Anstria-Himgary, and Italy — signed at Vienna. 1883. May 31. Law providing for insiu-ance of workingmen against illness passed by Reichstag. 1884. German colonization In Africa begins. March 21. Revival of Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperors' League). [against accident passed. I June 27. Law for the insurance of workingmen I Sept. 15-17. William I. confers with the em- peror of Austria-Hm^gary and the czar of Russia at Skiemiewice. 1886. Landtag of Prussia enacts measures for Germanizing the Prussian territories in Poland. 1887. After fourteen years of conflict with the Vatican, the Prussian government is compelled to abandon the severest of its measures against the Catholic Church. Alliance with Austria-Himgary and Italy re- newed, the first of several renewals continuing the alliance down to the World War. Baltic ship canal from Kiel to Brimsbiittel is begun by the imperial government. Increase in German armaments. 1887-1890. Alienation of Russia (see Nineteenth- Century Period). 1888. March 9. William 1. dies, is succeeded by his son, Frederick III. After a reign of ninety- nine days, Frederick dies, and his son William II. becomes German emperor. 1889. May 24. Reiclistag enacts a law compelling the insurance of workingmen from disabilities caused by old age or accidents. June 14. Treaty on Samoa signed by Ger- many. Great Britain, and United States, for inde- pendence and neutrality of the islands and autono- mous government imder joint control. Check to German aggression, but does not work satisfac- torily. pSlEsopoTAM I A ) . I Nov. 27. Bagdad railway concession (seel 1890. March 15-19. International conference in Berlin to consider questions a0"ectLug the working classes. March IS. Disagreement with the emperor leads to the resignation and retirement of Bismarck; Caprivi becomes his successor. Great gain is made by the Radicals and Social Demo- crats in the elections; also an increase in the rep- resentation of the Clericals, or Church party. July 1. Anglo-German treaty; Africa and Helgoland (see Africa and Great Britain). 1893. Government makes strenuous endeavors to pass a severe army bill against the Liberals and Parliamentary Center, backed by the influence of Bismarck. Agitation known as the Anti-Sem- itic War revived on account of the supplying of arms to tiie army by the Jewish Loewe Company. The emperor defends the government. Augu.^t. Asiatic cholera becomes epidemic in Hamburg and Antwerp. 1893. German Socialism emerges with great vigor and asserts itself in the Reichstag. Reichs- tag rejects the army bill and is dissolved by the emperor, May 6. Labor troubles abound throughout the empire, and the anarchists riot in Breslau, Jime 20. July 15 new Reichstag passes the army Ifill. 1894. Jan. 26. Formal reconciliation effected be- tween emperor and Bismarck; the latter by special request visits the Kaiser. Feb. 10. Commercial treaty with Russia re- duces duties on German mantif^ctures and Rus- sian grain. Oct. 26. Emperor's autocratic temper leads to a break with Chancellor \-on Caprivi, who resigns to be succeeded by Hohenlohe-Schillingsftirst. 1895. May. Interference in Chinese- Japanese Treaty (see China). June 29. Baltic ship canal (Kiel Canal) formally opened with an international pageant. 1896. Jan. 3. Emperor William congratulates President Kruger of the South African RepubUc on his victory- over Jameson's force; the message is interpreted as hostile to Great Britain. .4 pril 14. The emperor welcomed in Vienna by the emperor of Austria. October 20, he receives a visit from the czar of Russia. Dec. 7. Prosecution of the German newspaper editors for libeling the minister of foreign affairs. Bieberstein, and others results in the conviction of aU the accused except one. 1897. Feb. 9. Strikers in thedockyards at Hamburg riot, two men killed and nineteen seriously injured. Nov. 14. Seizure of Kiaochow (see China). 1898. October- November. Emperor WiUiam visits Constantinople and the Holy Land. 1899. Dec. 2. Second Samoan treaty. Ger- many and United States divide the islands. Great Britain compensated elsewhere. 1900. Boxer uprising in China (see China). Jan. 1 . New German legal code goes into effect. Oct. 17. Von Billow succeeds Hohenlohe as chancellor. 1901. June. Failure of the Leipziger Bank, fol- lowed by a series of failures and severe financial depression. Bad harvests add to the trouble. 1902. February-March. Prince Henry of Prussia, emperor's brother, visits United States. Dec. 14. New tariff bill passed. It places higher duties on farm products, and is in many ways favorable to agrarian interests. 1903. February. Government decides to readmit the Jesuits, who have been excluded since 1872. In the Reichstag elections of Jime the Socialists gain 25 seats. March 5. Further Bagdad railway convention signed at Constantinople. July 28. Conunercial treaty with Russia. E\idence of official sjTnpathy with Russia causes sharp debates m the Reichstag. 1904-1911. Moroccan difficulty with France (see Nineteenth-Century Period and Morocco). 1905. Government takes advantage of war in the Far East to strengthen friendly relations with Russia. Colonial affairs cause anxiety, especially in connection with the revolts of the natives in East and Southwest Africa. January-February. Strike of 200,000 miners in Westphalia; finally settled by the promise of remedial legislation. 1906. Feb. 23. Reichstag votes to extend existing tariff arrangements with the United States tem- porarily. April 7. Algeciras Convention (see Nine- teenth-Centubt Period). Dec. IS. Emperor dissolves the Reichstag be- cause it refuses to appropriate S7,500,000 addi- tional for the war in German African colonies. 1907. Jan. 25. Elections for the Reichstag result in large gains for the supporters of the emperor's colonial, mihtarj', and naval policy. 1908. Jan. 4. Alaximihan Harden, Socialist, con- victed of hbeling von RIoltke ("Eulenburg scan- dal "). vSupreme Court orders new trial. Januarj- 10, Socialist crowds in Berlin demand universal suffrage; are suppressed by the pohce. January ! 21. parade of 50.000 unemployed in streets of Berlin. Jime 3. five Socialists elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies for the first time. July 1. Zeppelin remains in the air twelve hours in his dirigible balloon, carrj-ing fourteen men and maintaining an average speed of about thirty-four miles an hour. A national subscrip- tion enables Zeppelin to continue his experiments. Oct. 2S. Accoimt appears of an interview with Emperor William, which arouses intense indignation througliout the empire. He sets forth his friendship for Great Britain, and his mihtarj' suggestions for carrj'ing on a war against the Boers. Chancellor von Bulow tenders his resignation, which is declined. November 10, for the first time a German emperor is made person- ally the subject of debate in the Reichstag. No- vember 17, emperor formally promises that he will not henceforth act or speak on matters affecting the foreign relations of the empire except through the chancellor and his associate ministers. 19Q9. Feb. 9. Agreement with France regarding ad- ministration of affairs in Morocco; impracticable. May Sl~June 1. The Zeppelin dirigible balloon makes a flight of more than 600 miles, re- maining in the air about thirty-foiu" hours. July 14. Bethmann-Hollweg appointed chancellor to succeed Btilow. 1910. Jan. 27. Severe rioting in Bnmswick during a Sociah.st demonstration in fa\or of electoral re- form. Similar troubles occur elsewhere. Aug. 25. The emperor in a speech at Konigs- berg declares his belief in the rule of the Hohen- zollems over Prussia by " divine right." August-October. Great shipyard strlke;22,000 men idle. 1911. May 16. Prussian Diet passes a Greater Berlin bill; extended city to have about 3,500,000 inhabitants. May. Alsace-Lorraine made a member of the Federation; practically still remains mider Prussian influence. September. Socialist Congress at Jena imani- mously protests against any attempt to pro- voke a war between Germany, Great Britain, and France. 1912. January. General election. Success of the Socialists increases; they elect about a third of the members of the Reichstag, one from the Potsdam district, the residence of the emperor. Mainte- nance of position of the Clerical (Center) party. Jan. 28. National Defense League {Wehrver- ein) inaugurated in Berlin for promoting the in- terests of the army. March 11. Coal strike begins in Westphalia. Ends March 24. May 21. Reichstag passes naval bill providing $28,500,000 annuaUy till 1920. November. INlecklenburg Diet imposes a tax on bachelors of 30 years of age and upwards. 1913. April 21. Charges that mantffacturers of arms and ammimition stimulate milit-arism with a view to selling war material. This leads to the Krupp trial in Beriiii, July 31; several militarj' officials and two high officials of the Krupp Com- pany foimd, guilty. May 24- Marriage of emperor's only daughter, Victoria Louise, to Prince Ernst August of Cumberland (England), son of exiled Hanove- rian claimant, ends ad^Tiastic feud. J une SO. By passage of army bill, peace foot- ing increased to 661,176, claimed to be forced by adoption of 3-year service in France. Augu&t. Centenary of the War of Liberation celebrated. Oct. 27. Federal Council votes imanimousily. in spite of the crown prince's opposition, to place Prince Ernst August of Cimiberland on the throne of the duchy of Brunswick. Oct. 31. Bavarian Diet passes a bill for replac- ing the insane King Otto by the regent. Latter ascends the throne as Ludwig III., November 5. Dec. 1. Controversy in the Reichstag caused by brutalities practiced on civilian population of Zabern (Saveme) m Alsace-Lorraine by army officers, who, commended by the crown prince and backed up by the emperor, go unpimished. De- cember 4, vote of " no confidence " in the govern- ment adopted in the Reichstag by 293 to 54 to mark disapproval of the action taken in regard to Zabern affair. Dec. 14. Crown prince recalled to Berlin from Danzig to join the general staff of the army, thus ending his exile from the capital since 1911. 1914. March. Socialists hold a " red week " throughout Germany, the aggressive campaign bringing in thousands of new members. March 22. Emperor leaves for Vienna on a visit to Francis Joseph, afterwards proceeding to Venice to meet the king of Italy. April. Consequent to the Zabern episode, new army regulations are promulgated forbidding the miUtary to intervene in civil disorders except " when in cases of urgent danger for public safety." June 24. Reconstructed Kiel Canal formally opened by the emperor. 108 NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 1914 — 1918. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. M 1914 (continued). July-August. For outbreak and progress of World War, see that title. August. Paper eurreney is made legal ten- der, thus relieving the Reichsbank of obligation to redeem its notes in gold. September. Fir.st War loan of $250,000,000: more than four times oversubscrilwd. 191S. January. Second war loan of $1,125,000,- 000; almost 100% oversubscribed. Feb. 1 Government seizes all private stocks of com, wheat, and flour, and municipalities ordered to lay up stores of preserved meats. Limited bread ration, applicable to the entire population of the empire, fi.xed. Official order issued that all stocks of copper and other metals used for war purposes be reserved for miUtary use. P March no. Budget of $3,250,000,000, four times greater than any estimates ever before pre- sented, adopted. May. Many Americans leave the country owing to the imfrieudly attitude of the nation at large and the fear of an actual nipture Ijetweeu the United States and Germany. Sept. 2Ji. Subscriptions to third war fund Qamoimt to almost $3,000,000,000. Oct. 10. Estimated that the cost of necessi- ties for a workingman's family has increased 75 to 100 per cent. 191C. Jan. 1.5. Direct passenger service between Berlin and Constantinople resmncd. February. Food difficulties in Berlin and else- where in Germany. _ February. Bulgaria turns over to Germany the H copper mines in Serbia to exploit diu-ing the war. Feb. 26. New taxation methods armoimced, including imposts on war profits and increases ui the rates on tobacco, in stamp taxes, and postal, telegraph, and telephone tolls. [gal. I March s. Germany declares War OQ Portu-I March 1.5. Tirpitz resigns as minister of ma- rine; succeeded by C^apelle. S March 24. Subscriptions to the fourth war loan amoimt to $2,650,000,000. April 7. Commercial treaty concluded with Roumania, to facilitate the purchase of Rou- manian grain by the Central Powers. May 1. AH timepieces in Germany are set for- ward one hour as a daylight-saving measiu'e. Au!t. 27. Ualyformally declares herself at war ^ with Germany from August 28. I ' Aug. 29. Hindenburg succeeds FaJkenhajTi as chief of staff of the German armies. [000. 1 September. Fifth war loan realizes $2,650,000,- 1 Oct. 28. Reichstag authorizes a new war credit of $2,856,000,000, with only the Radical-Socialist vote in opposition. Nov. 5. New kingdom of Poland is proclaimed by Germany and Austria-Ilimgary (see Poland). U Nov. 21. Von Jagow resigns office of minister ^^ of foreign affairs : succeeded by Zimmermann. Dec. 12. Germany and her allies (Austria, BiUgaria, and Turkey) propose to enter into peace negotiations witii the Entente powers. Dec. 29. Joint reply of the Allies (Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Montenegro, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, and Serbia) to Ger- Vmany's peace note of December 12 rejects the offer as " a sham proposal lacking all substance and precision. "_ 191J. Feb. 27. Chancellor declares that the United States has forced Germany into isolation, while favoring the Allies and permitting illegali- ties on the part of Germany's enemies. A pril. Sixth war loan brings in $3,280,000,000. April 3. By a vote of 277 to 33, the Reichstag ^M appoints a committee to recommend changes in the imperial constitution, with enlargement of the powers of the lower house. April 7. The emperor issues a rescript promis- ing changes in the electoral system of Prussia, to become operative after the war. July 6. Erzberger, a leader of the Catholic Center in the Reichstag, attacks the Pan-German Xand antidemocratic factions, declaring himself for a ** peace without annexations.*' July 11. The emperor instructs the Prussian ministry to submit a bill, before the next elections, revising the electoral law " on the basis of equal franchise." July 14. As a result of tlie political crisis which follows the Erzberger speech, von Betlimann- Hollweg retires from the oflBce of chancellor. Y Foreign Secretary Zimmermaim also resigns. July 19. Reichstag, by a vote of 214 to 116, declares that, while repudiating forced annexa- tions of territory, Germany will fight " as one man " against the .Miles' tlireats of conquest. New chancellor, Michaelis, tells the Reichstag that Germany will not continue the war for con- quests and that she desires an honorable peace. Z September. Seventh war loan amounts to $3,156,000,000. Sept. 21. For the reply to the pope's peace message, see under Italy. Oct. s. Chancellor Michaelis declares that so long as the enemy seeks German territory or ar- tempts to separate the people from their emperor, Germany will not make peace. No concessions can be made in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, but other controversies could be settled bj- negotiation. Oct. 10. Details given in the Reichstag regard- ing a naval mutiny which occurred at Wilhelms- haven several weeks earUer. Oct. 30. Hertling, premier of Bavaria, succeeds Michaelis as imperial chancellor. Nov. 29. The chancellor expresses to the Reichstag his hope that peace will result from negotiations with the Russian goverimaent. Dec. 6. Govermuent bill introduced in the Prussian Diet for the reform of the antiquated electoral system. 1918. Jan. 7. Mutiny among submarine crews at the Kiel naval base; 38 officers are reported to have been killed. Jan. 24. Chancellor von Hertling, considering the peace terms suggested by President Wilson's recent address to Congress (see United States, Jan. 8, 1918), rejects some of the most vital points. Cession of Alsace-Lorraine camiot be considered. Jan. 26. Peace demonstrations reported from various parts of Germany. Scheidemann leader of the Majority (less radical) Socialists, warns the military party that it will be hiu-led from power if it fails to make peace with Russia. Jan. so. Strike in essential war Industries in Berlin, Hamburg, Essen, and Kiel. Workmen demand peace without indemnities or annexa- tions, labor representation at the Peace Confer- ence, electoral reforms, and full right of public meeting. February 4, strong action by the miU- tary authorities in putting an end to the strikes in various parts of the coimtry. Feb. 2o. Chancellor von Hertling, in the Reichstag, declares that he " can agree fimda- nientally " with the principles laid down by Presi- dent AVilson in his speech before Congress on February 11 (see United States). March 3. Treaty of Brest-Lltovsk with Russia (see Russia). April 10. At Limbm'g, Prussia, mutinous sol- diers kill tliree officers. April 15. Reichstag majority accepts the chan- cellor's new proposed peace terms, which sub- stitute a war indenmity and annexation of parts of Belgium and France. May 2. In Prussian Diet Reactionists defeat adoption of equal manhood suffrage 235 to 183. Meeting at German army headquarters, the em- perors of Germany and Austria-Hungary revise the terms of alliance between their coim- tries; provision for closer economic relations and for miUtary cooperation for a period of 25 years. June 12. Annotmced that the eighth German war loan produced $3,750,000,000. June 22. Ludendorff. quartermaster-general, amioimces that no more food may be sent to .4ustria-Himgary in view of the shortage of army rations. Proposal that the clothing of dead per- sons should be taken over liy the government. June 24. Dysentery and Spanish influenza have spread rapidly m various parts of Germany, especially among the undernourished classes. Von Kulilmaim, foreign secretary, admits that peace caimot be expected by " miUtary decisions alone." June 25. The chanceUor pledges himself to a firm prosecution of the war, thus rebuking von Kiililmann. [toral reform bill. I July 5. Prussian lower house passes the elec-l July 9. Von Kiihlmann resigns because of continued criticism; succceeded by Admiral von Hintzc. (vote the budget. | July 10. Socialists in the Reichstag refuse to I July 11. C^hanceUor von Hertling denoimces the recent utterances of President Wilson and the British foreign secretary, who apparently demand the destruction of Germany. Peace must secure German territory, economic expansion, and secur- ity. Russian treaty must stand; but Germany- has no intention of keepuig Belgium. Aug. 7. Fresh mutinies reported among Ger- man sailors at Wilhelmshaven. Aug. 16. Belmcke becomes minister of marine, succeeding Admiral von CapeUe. Sept. 3. At Plauen in Saxony only 12 of 6,S0O women employees escape when a powder factory is destroyed by explosion. Sept. 24. The chanceUor, addressing the main committee of the Reichstag, declares that " the deep discontent wliieh has seized wide circles of the population . . . far exceeds justifiable limits," Sept. 28. ChanceUor von Hertling and Foreign Secretary von Hintze resign. October. Nmth war loan realizes $2,608,000.- 000; total war loans, $24,519,000,000. Later, war debt is offlciaUy aimoimced at 157,700,000,000 marks (nominally $39,400,000,000). Oct. 2. Prince Maximilian of Baden takes of- fice as imperial chancellor. Prussian upper house passes electoral reform bill. Oct. B. Solf, colonial secretary, appointed secretary for foreign affairs; Erzberger, Catholic leader, and several Socialists enter the cabinet, Oct. 5-Nov. 11. For the di|>loinatic exchanges between Germany and other beUigerents which preceded the close of hostUities, see World War. Oct. 21. Socialist newspapers demand the abdication of the emperor. Oct. 26. Quartermaster-General Ludendorff, the real directing genius of the German forces in the later years of the war, resigns; succeeded by Goetner. Oct. 28. Emperor William, in a letter to the ChanceUor, approves of transfer of " the fimdamen- tal rights of the Kaiser's person " to the people. Nov. 3-5. Mutiny spreads throughout Ger- man naval bases, begimiing at Kiel; there they organize " cotmcils " (Soviets), after the Russian plan, and refuse to obey orders. Nov. 7. Almost the whole fleet has passed into the hands of revolutionists. The first detachments of soldiers sent to restore order at Kiel join the revolutionists; later detachments are driven back by machine-gim fire. In Berlin many deserters from the army march through the streets. In Bavaria, after the Diet has deposed King Lud- wig, a republic is proclaimed. Nov. S. Emperor William refuses to give way to the demands for his abdication made by the Socialists. ClianccUor Maximilian, miable to maintain himself against the SociaUst opposition, resigns. Revolutionary movement in the great industrial district atout Essen. Nov. 9. Revolutionary movement among the sailors, soldiers, and workmen, which began at Kiel, spreads over nearly the whole northern por- tion of the empire. A Workmen's and Soldiers' Cotmcil, establishing itself in Berlin, orders a general strike. Berli 11 banks, i:)ecause of general panic, stop payment. ChanceUor Maximilian aimomices that Emperor William has decided to abdicate and that Fried- rich Ebert. the leader of the Majority Socialists, has been appointed chancellor, pending the con- vocation of a National Assembly. Having formed a cabinet composed mainly of Majority Social- ists, Chancellor Ebert states that he proposes to form a popular government, confirm the liberty which has just been gained, and bring about peace as soon as possible. Nov. 9-14. Establishment of the republic In Bavaria; foUowed by similar action in Bruns- wick, Wiirttemberg, Sa.xony, Oldenburg, Mecklen- burg, Reuss, Saxe-Weimar, Lippe, Waldeck, .'\n- halt. and Baden. Nov. 10. Emperor William flees to Holland, becoming the guest of Count von Bentinck, twelve miles from the frontier. Nor. 11. Armistice declared. End of active fighting on the western front and at sea. Trouble develops with Poles in Posen and Silesia (see Poland). Field Marshal von Hindenburg places himself and the German army at the disposition of the new German government. Nor. 12. Socialist government in BerUn exercises authority. A'or. 13. Ebert government appeals to President WUson to send foodstuffs to Germany. Nov. 15. Berlin government asks peasants to form local coimcUs and regxUate distribution of food. Ebert reconstnicts Ills cabinet and imder the in- fluence of Liebknecht, admits Independent (Mi- nority) Socialist. Nov. 20. Former crown prince makes his resi- dence on the island of Wieringen, in the Zuider Zee. Nov. 22. Spartacldes, as the extremists fol- lowing Liebknecht are called, attempt to seize police headquarters at Berlin. Nov. 24. Conference of Workmen's and Sol- diers' Councils proclaims Oldenburg, Oestfries- land, Bremen, Hamburg, and Schleswig-Holstein a republic, with its capital at Hamburg. Does not continue. Ebert, after negotiating with the Spartacldes, re- fuses to give way to them and reaffirms his deter- mination to summon a national assembly. Nov. 25. Ebert cabmet, making an agreement with the Workmen's and Soldiers' Council, ad- mits it to a share of |)olitical power. A'oi). 28. Luden(l(}rtl' takes refuge in Sweden. A'oii. 27. AU Cermaii soldiers, except the 1898 and 1899 classes, are being discharged. Nov. 29. Government makes pubUc the text of a document m which the former Emperor Wil- liam renounces his rights as king of Prussia and German emperor. Nov. SO. German government proposes to the AUies that responsibility for the war shaU be fixed by a neutral commission. Dec. 1. Hindenburg, by proclamation, forbids conflicts with the Workmen's and Soldiers' Coun- cUs. He requests the central government to re- quest the councils not to interfere with army com- manders. 1918- 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES^ GERMANY — GREECE. 109 1918 (continued). Dec. 2. In Berlin, a plot is discovered for the restoration of the Imperial regime after demo- bilization had been completed. Markriisrn among those implicated. [food riotlni; in Cuiotinc I Dec. 5. Machine guns are employed to check 1 Dec. 6. Turbulence of the Spartaeides leads to great disorder in Berlin, where a considerable nimiber of persons are killed. Dec. 16. Delegates from Workmen's and Sol- diers' Coimcils tlii-oughout Germany assemble in Berlin, the extremists being outnumbered. General strike, fomented by Liebkiieclit and the advanced Socialists, or Spartaeides, assumes seri- ous proportions. Dec. 17. Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Coimcils shows itself hostile to radical attacks on the Ebert government and declines to bar the bourgeoisie from pohtical recognition. Dec. 19. By a vote of 400 to 70, the congress resolves to have a national assembly called for January 19. 1919. Dec. S3. Radical sailor groups, called to Berlin by Liebknecht, after guarding the government buildings, resist soldiers sent to replace them and are besieged in the palace and royal stables. Dec. 30. Moderate elements added to the Ebert cabinet after the resignation of Haase {for- eign minister), Barth, and Dittmann, Minority SociaUsts. Dec. 31. In Posen (German Poland) the Poles gain the ascendancy. Workmen's and Soldiers' Coimcils at various places proclaim imion with the Pohsh nation. [eastern Germany. I Bolshevist republic estabhshed in Silesia, south- 1 1919. Jan. 1. German authorities in German Po- land declare Posen imder martial law. Chancellor Ebert and Foreign Secretary- Scheide- mann annoimce the program of the newly con- structed ministry. Jan. 5. Cabinet deposes Eichhom, the Berlin chief of police, the only Independent Socialist re- maining in an important post. Eicliliom defies the authorities. Jan. 7. Spartaclde revolt breaks out In Ber- lin. Many are killed and woimded in street fight- ing: public buildings seized by the revolutionaries. Jan. 10. The Spartacide revolt spreads in German cities. Jan. 11. Spartaeides are defeated in Berlin. This is mainly due to a steady increase in the number of the government forces. Jan. 12. Fighting resumed in Berlin, but the revolutionary leaders are duly arrested and their followers made prisoners. Hindenburg arrives in Berlin , Jan. 13. In elections to the Bavarian National Council, the extremists {Independent Socialists and Spartaeides) meet with defeat. In the elec- tions to the WiJrttemberg Diet the Independent Socialists poll less than one tenth as many votes as the Majority Socialists. Spartacide forces are temporarily in control of the govenmient of Bremen. In all other cities outside Berlin revolt has been suppressed. Jan. 15. Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, leaders of the Spartaeides. killed in Berlin. This loss of leaders helps stop more serious disturbances. Jan. 16. Bolshevists In full control in Bre- men, Cuxhaven, and Diisseldorf. Jan. 19. Elections for National Assembly. Out of 403 members Majority Socialists get 166, Centrists (Clericals) 93. Democrats (Liberals) 75, Conservatives (^lonarchists) 34, Miuority Social- ists (Radicals) 24. 34 women delegates. [otic. I February. Labor and political conditictns cha-1 Feb. 6. National Assembly nii-cts at Weimar. Feb. 11. Ebert, chancellor since the overtlirow of the empire, elected president of German Re- public. Coalition cabinet, with Scheldeniann as premier,, and composed of Majority Socialists, Centrists, and Democrats, formed February 13. Spartacide rising in Bremen put down. Feb. 15. Officially aimounced that war cost Germany $40,000,000,000. Feb. 21. Eisner, SociaUst premier of Bavaria, assassinated by a reactionary officer. Auer, minister of the interior, and Rosshaupter, minister of war, killed in a mtlee in House of Deputies at Munich. Both Reactionaries and Spartaeides start revolts there. Feb. 25. Spartacide rising in Saxony. March 2. Government appeals to the people for support. in repressing the radical agitation. March 3. General strike in Berlin, wliich spreads to other cities and becomes a revolt. Noske, government minister of defense in charge, declares a state of siege at Berlin. March 5, fighting between troops and Spartaeides, who have been joined by some marines; continues for several days, with much destruction of proper- erty. March 10, strike called off. Spartaeides not suppressed until March 13. Acute imrest and disorder reported from all over Germany. April 7. In Munich a soviet government is proclaimed for Bavaria, which the national gov- ernment refuses to recognize. Rival communist government also startpt. and even India, by Greek conquerors, merchants, and traders. From 1483 to 1830 Greece was an integral part of the Turkish Empire, and like the other Turkish pos- sessions in Europe, suffered from the extortion of the pashas and the misrule of the Turkish officials. During tliis period Greece was frequently raided by Christian fleets. During the ISth centm-y the con- dition of the Greeks improved. Personal service was commuted into money pajTnents and the tribute of children wliich the Turks exacted for the Janizaries was allowed to fall into abeyance. To- ward the end of the 18th century, Greek commerce Increased rapidly and spreading tlirougliout the Mediterranean developed a sense of Greek imity. The Turks, moreover, employed Greek officials in the civil ser\ice and granted special privileges to the Greek clergy. Finally, education improved, new schools and academies were founded, and Greek na- tionality began to re\ive. , The Greek struggle for mdepcndence began with several insurrections which broke out tlu'oughout the coimtry without plan or connection. The real revo- lution dates from Annimciation Sunday, April 6, 1821, when all the Peloponnesus burst into flames. The Turks, unaided, were imable to put down the revolution and caUed in the tributary Egji)tians. who committed aU manner of atrocities. This aroused Europe, which had begun to take an interest in the re%nval of Greece; and Great Britain, France, and Russia ordered an immediate armistice. Tur- key refused to obey, and the battle of Navarino was fought October 20, 1S27, in which tlie Turkish and Egj-ptian ships were destroyed by the British, French, and Russians. In 1830, Greece was de- clared an independent kingdom, but with only half the territory the patriots had fought for. The European powers, moreover, refused to aUow Greece to choose her own sovereign and ((1832) designated Prince Otto of Bavaria as king (Otho I.)- Otlio began in an arbitrary' manner, but in 1843 by a peaceful revolution the people obtained a consti- tution: a national assembly was called in 1844 and a constitutional monarchy was estabhshed. Self- government did not bring quiet. Society was in a disturbed condition, and pohtics kept Athens in a turmoil, while the European powers frequently inter- vened, often to the detriment of the Greeks. In 1862 Otho was deposed by a revolution, and the crowTi was ofl'ered to Christian William of Sonderbtu-g- Gliicksburg, who ascended the throne as George I. During the reign of George I. (1863-1913) Greece saw material prosperity and development, generally peaceable. Politics often caused local disorders in Athens, and there were frequent changes of the cabi- nets and accusations of corruption. The significant events were the extension of the boundaries in Epirus and Thessaly (1881), and the long insurrection in Crete which began in 1889. As a part of tliis Cretan movement, the Greeks declared war against Txu-key in 1897. but were disastrously defeated. Prince George, however, was appomted by the powers high commissioner for Crete. In 1910 Venizelos, the Cretan leader, was called to Athens to form a cabi- net, and in 1911 a re^ised constitution was adopted which provided for judicial and administrative re- forms and increased the military' and naval efficiency. Tlirough tlie activities of Venizelos, the Balkan League, consisting of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece, was formed in 1912, and war was de- clared upon Tiu'key (see Turkey). In this war the Greeks Invaded Macedonia and occupied Saloniki and Janina. As a result of the second Balkan War (July, 1913) and the Treaty of Bucharest, Greece gained Doiran, Demir-Hissar, Seres, Drama, and Kavala, as well as Vodena and Fiorina. The outbreak of the World War foimd Greece al- hed with Serbia but occupying a precarious position. King Constantine, who succeeded at the death of Ills father, was the brother-in-law of the German em- peror and beheved that it would be disastrous for Greece to throw her lot in with Serbia The leading character in Greece, however, was the Cretan pa- triot, Venizelos, who accompUshed the union of Crete with Greece and was the real foimder of the Balkan League. Venizelos, as prime mmister, with a strong popular following, commanded the confi- dence of tlie Parhament and urged support of Serbia and alliance with Great Britain and France. In 1915 (March 6) Venizelos resigned, as a protest against the king's foreign poUcy, and forced the resignation of his successor, whom tlie kmg hoped to find more compUant. The king dissolved parlia- ment, but the election again showed a majority for Venizelos, and he assumed power, only to resign a second time in protest against the pohcy of the king. October 5, 1915. the AUiedforces occupied Saloniki. Through the connivance of Kmg Constantme, Ger- man influence increased, and Venizelos established a provisional government at Saloniki. On June 12, 1917, King Constantine was forced to alxiicate and was succeeded by his second son, Alexander; on July 26 Venizelos reconvened the parliament dis- solved m 1915, and Greece entered the war on the side of the AUies. Organization. Government. Greece, properly the Kingdom of the Hellenes, is a constitutional monarchy based upon tlie constitution of 1864, revised in 1911. The legislative power is in the Boule, which consists of 184 representatives elected by manliood suffrage for 4 years in the proportion of one to every 16,000 in- habitants. This chamber must meet annually for not less than three months. A Council of State was established in 1911 for the purpose of examining legislative propositions and annulling decisions and acts which may be contrary to law. The executive branch of the government consists of the king, assisted by 14 ministers, who are responsible to the BouJe, Industry and Labor. Greece is an agricultural country, but only one fifth of the soil is cultivable. 110 NATIONAL HISTORIES: GREECE. 1821-1917. The land is largely in the bands of peasant proprie- tors and is divided into small holdings. On the whole agriculture is in a backward state. The most important crop is the currant; after which come olives, figs, and cereals. Greece contains a variety of mineral deposits such as iron, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, aluniiuiimi, and antimony, mostly in small quantities. The general condition of labor in Greece is more prosperous than that of the surroimding regions. The variety of the industrial life and the promo- tion of education by the government, as well as the natural character of the Greeks, make tor a high degree of intelligence. From antiquity the long seacoast and numerous harbors have encouraged commerce: and now, as then, Greek merchants and traders have spread tliroughout the MediteiTanean region, bringing wealth to their coimtry. Religion. Most of the inhabitants l^elong to the Greek Orthodox Church, which is declared the state chiu'cli, though complete toleration and liberty of worship is assured. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 12, but the law is not well en- forced in the country districts. In 1910-11,3.551 primary schools had 250,000 pupils, and besides these there were 41 high schools, 248 middle schools, and various special schools. There are two univer- sities at Athens. Defense. Mihtary service is imiversal and compulsory and few exemptions are granted. The service begins in the 20th year and lasts for 31 years, only tliree of which are in the active army. The annual contingent of recruits is about 25.000. The Greek army was reorganized in 1917, and nine divisions took part in the offensive of September. 1918. Before the World War the Greek navy con- sisted of three old cruisers, two battleships, pur- chased from the United States, and one cntiser, pur- chased from Japan, together with 13 torpedo-boat destroyers. WTien the war broke out the Greek navy was in a state of transition and two cruisers were being built in England. In 1917 a British commission was appointed to reorganize the navy. The total area of Greece is 41,933 sq. miles and the estimated population (1914) 4.821,300, Chronology. For Modem Greece before 1820, see Turkey and BuLi;.\Ri.\, 18S1. Revolution against the Ottoman rule Ije- gins in Greece. In March insiu-rection is headed by Aleksandros Ypsilanti at Jassy in Moldavia. Georgakis rebeUion in the North is quelled. Rev- olution also begins in the Morea, where the patri- ots are successful under Germanos. Kolokotronis, Demetrios Ypsilanti, Mauromichalis. Bozzaris. Odysseus, and Maurokordatos. A rising in the Archipelago is successful. 1823. A national assembly is convened by the patriots, and in January the independence of Greece is proclaimed at Epidaurus. Ttu"ks mas- sacre the inliabitants of *Scio. In Jtme the Greek revolutionists storm the Acropolis at Athens. Turks are vanquished in the Morea. 1833. In August, Markos Bozzaris, the Suliote leader, makes an attack on the Tm-kish camp at Karpenisi, but is slain. 1824. Lord Byron, who has embraced the cause of the Greeks, dies at Missolonghi, April 19. An Egyptian force tmder Ibrahim Pasha sails to aid the Sultan, but Miaulis thwarts the movement. 1835. Ibrahim Pasha makes a victorious cam- paign in the Morea. 1826. Missolonghi falls hi April, and the Turks besiege the Acropolis in August. The patriot goverimient thereupon withdraws to .-Egina. WeUington and Nicholas I. urge the powers to intervene. [capitulate. I 1827. June. Greek defenders of the AcropolisI July G. England, France, and Russia make a treaty at London for the pacification of Cireece. Oct. 20. The fleets of the powers destroy the Turkish and Egyptian ships at Navarino. 1828. Capo d'Istria assuipes the administration of the Greek government. French troops enter the Morea and Ibrahim Pasha retires. Russia begins a war against Turkey (see Russi-A.), [of the patriots. I 1829. The revolution in Greece ends with success I 1830. In February, the London protocol of the powers declares Greece an independent king- dom. The decree is accepted by Tiu'key. Poor botmdaries given the new kingdom. 1832. Powers imite in electing Otto, a son of Lotiis I. of Bavaria, to the throne of Greece, as Otho I. 1835. Otto (Otho) attains his majority and the re- gency is dissolved. 1813. People of Athens rise, and Otho promises to promulgate a eonstitution. This promise is ful- filled in the following year. 1850. Government of Greece agrees to pay mdem- nity for losses sustained by subjects of Great Britain, kno^vn as the Don Pacifleo claims. 1862. Ocloher. Revolution; Otho is deposed. 1B83. March. Thecrown is offered to Christian Wil- liam, son of Prince Ctoistian of Sonderburg-G liicks- burg. He accepts the sovereignty and ascends the throne as George I. New constitution granted. 1864. Treaty is concluded with Great Britain, on October 31, by which the Ionian Islands are aimexed to Greece. 1866. Relations with Turkey are strained to the point of ruptiu*e on accoimt of the assistance given by the Greeks to the Cretans, in revolt against the Ottoman authority. 1877. The outbreak of the Tureo-Russian War creates intense excitement tliroughout Greece. The government maintains its neutral attitude. 1878. Greece is encouraged by the Congress of Ber- lin to hope for a boundary readjustment. These hopes, however, are disappointed by the action of the congress, and the Sultan's circular denying the reported project produces a feeling of anger. 1870. January. Turco-Greek Commission, ap- pointed by the Congress of Berlin to rectify the boundary between Turkey and Greece, assem- bles. Sittings contmue mitil November. 1881. May. Tiu'key formally consents to the an- nexation of a large tract in Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 1883. Financial condition of the government m- volved. Roimieljan revolution; mobilization of the army and navy- 1886. Difflculties between Turkey and Greece be- come acute; Greece threatens to declare war; the powers mediate. 1888. Macedonian disturbances, tlireatening a rebeUion in Bulgaria, lead to strained relations between Greece and Turkey. 1889. Revolution in Crete drives an army of Christian fugitives mto Greece. 1890. Cretan rebellion leads to a pohtical crisis ; the ministry of Tricoupis is overthrown, and that of Delyannis substituted. 1891. Anti-Semitic riots in Corfu. 1892. Outbreak of religious fanaticism against the Protestants in the Piraeus. Delyaimis ministry overtlirown and Tricoupis again becomes premier. 1893. .iugust 6. Canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, begtm in 1882, Is opened. 1895. Delyaimis mmistry Ls formed, foUowinghis triumph at the elections. 1896. Aimiversary of Greek independence is cele- brated on April 6, by the reinstitution of the Olympian games; one htmdred atliletes from foreign coimtries. including twenty-one ^\merican competitors, participate in the contests in the manner of antiquity. 1897. Cretan insurrection of the preceding year leads the powers to interfere in behalf of Turkey. Greeks espouse the cause of the Cretans against Turkey and become involved in a brief war with that power in which they are disastrously defeated. 1898. Prince George of Greece is appomted high commissioner of the powers in Crete. Nov. 26. 1905. Proposal from Greece to annex Crete is refused by the European nations. On June 13. Delyaimis. the premier, is assassinated. 1906. .ipril 27. Olympian games at Athens. The American team wins large pliu'ality of events. 1908. May 12. France, Great Britam, Italy, and Russia agree to withdraw their troops from Crete. .4 119. IS. Greece and Persia resume diplo- matic relations after intermission of 2,399 years. Oct. 7. Union of Crete to Greece is proclaimed by popular assemblies. The Cretan Chamber, or Boule, ofHcially ratifies this action on October 14. 1909. July 17. New cabinet formed with Rhallis as premier. Powers in concert, compel Crete to lower the Greek flag and resume its former status. 1910. February. New ministry tmder Dragoumis formed; ascendancy of Military League. March 3D. The king decrees the revision of the constitution, thus terminating the regime of the Military Leagtie. Hepl. 14. 'The king opens the new National As.scmbly. October 23, Venlzelos, the Cretan leader, is requested to form a cabinet. 1911. June. Revision of the constitution is completed and adopted by the Chamber. The changes make for judicial and administrative reform, and increased military and naval efficiency. 1911-1912. War between Italy and Turkey. Italians occupy Dodecanese, inhabited by Greeli. 1912-1913. For Balkan Wars, see Turkey. 1913. Feb. IS. Island of Crete Is handed over to Greece by the protecting powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy). Captured by Turks 1669; semi-independent government set up 189S; de- clared part of Hellenic kingdom October, 1912. March IS. King George is assassinated at Saloniki. and is succeeded by Crown Prince Con- stantine, popular on accoimt of his victorious lead- ership dui'ing tlie Balkan War. [Bulgaria.! June~.\uyust. For second Balkan War, see| N'ud. is. Treaty of peace is signed at Athens, ending the war with Turkey. Dec. 14. Island of Crete is annexed to Greece. 1914. June 13. Annexation of Scio (Chios) and MytUene is aimoiuiced. July 8. United States battleships Idaho and Mississippi are purchased. August. Outbreak of war in Serbia, ally of Greece, compels decision as to status of Greece. 1915. March 6. Venlzelos and cabinet resign, because of the king's disapproval of their foreign policy, which fa\ors the immediate entrance of Greece into the war on the side of the Alhes. New cabinet is formed by Gounarls, March 9.- April 4. Bulgarian raid on Doiran is repulsed. June 13. Elections: Venlzelos gains a decided majority. Aug. 18. Assembling of Parliament. Sept. 2.5. General mobilization of the army is ordered in reply to Bulgaria's mobilization. Oct. 5. Allied forces land at Saloniki with ' the consent of Greek government, to aid the Ser- bians. (See World War and Germany.) Oct. 6. Premier Venlzelos again resigns because the king, a iDrother-in-law of the German emperor, cannot support his pro-Ally policy. New cabi- net is formed with Zaimis as premier. Oct. 12. Government declines to help Serbia, holding that the treaty (a defensive alUance) with Serbia does not call for Greek intervention. Oct. 20. Government declines Great Britain's offer to cede the island of Cyprus as an inducement to enter the war on the side of the Alhes. Noc. 4. Zaimis forced to resign after a dispute with Venlzelos. November 7, Skoulondls ac- cepts the premiership, retaining the members of the Zaimis cabinet. King Constantine dissolves the parhament. German propaganda increases. " Peaceful blockade " of Greek ports is threat- ened by Allies. 1916. Jan. 18. King Constantine protests infor- mally to United States against " the imheard-of high-handedness of the Allies toward Greece." March. Controversy with the Allies is caused by annoimcement of the virtual annexation of Upper Epirus by Greece. May 26. Bulgarian troops enter Greek territory and occupy several Greek forts north of Demir-Hlssar. June 1. Allies take over the control of Saloniki. replacing the Greek police and establishing mar- tial law. June S. Commercial blockade of Greek ports is adopted by the Allies; the cabinet decides upon partial demobilization. June 21. Great Britam. France, and Russia, as protecting powers of Greece by the treaties of 1863. present a collective note. Skouloudls declines to meet the demands and resigns the premiership. June 22. Government yields to the demands of the Allies. Former Premier Zaimis is in- vited to form new cabinet. New elections are ordered. Deniobillzation ordered on Jime 27. Aug. SO. Greek revolutionists at Saloniki seize the infantry barracks and proclaim a provisional govenmient. Sept. 13. Zaimis mmistry resigns; new cabinet is formed by Kalogeropoulos .September 16. The Allies refuse to recognize the new cabinet. September. Venlzelos establishes provi- sional government at Saloniki with the object of defending Greek Macedonia from the Bulgarian invaders and of intervenuig on the side of Allies. Oct. S. New cabinet formed by Lambros. Oct. 11. Greek fleet and seacoast forts are turned over to Allies or dismantled, m accord- ance with demand of Great Britain and France. Oct. 16. Allied fleet. " to insure its safety," takes over the tliree warships remaining under Greek control; demonstrations against the AUies take place in Athens, and Allied sailors are landed to preserve order. The provisional government set up by the Venlzelos revolutionists is recog- nized by the Allies. Nov. 17. Commander of the Allied fleet orders the German, Austrian, Bulgarian, and Turkish ministers and their staffs to leave for their respec- tive coimtries. Nov. 23. Provisional government headed by Venlzelos formally declares war on Germany and Bulgaria. Dec. l.j. Demands of the Allies are agreed to by the government, at the expiration of a 24-hour ultimatum. Dec. 31. Allies present collective note, de- manding guarantees. 1917. Jan. 9. Alhes present ultimatum, giving Greece 48 hours to comply with the demands made on December 31. (!iOvemment accepts ul- timatum with certain reservations Januarj^ 11. May 24. Zaimis assumes office of premier once more and adopts a conciliatory attitude. June 12. King Constantine abdicates; suc- ceeded by his second son. Alexander, who is well disposed toward the Allies. June 2B. King Alexander asks Venizelos to form a new ministry. June SO. Diplomatic relations between Greece and the Central Powers are broken oflf. For the World War, see that title. NATIONAL HISTORIES: GREECE — HAITI. Ill 1917 (conlinued) . July 2e. Venizelos convokes the Parliament of 1915. illegally dissolved by Constantine. Aua- is. Venizelos lays evidence before Parlia- ment to show that Greece might easily have occu- pied Constantinople in February, 1915. but for the opposition of King Constantine. [Slavia signed. I 1919. April IS. Treaty of alliance with Jugo-| 1930. April 26. San Bemo Conference of the Allied iiremiers assigns the portion of Tlu-ace taken from Bulgaria by the Treaty of Neuilly (November 27, 1919), and also Smyrna, to Greece. May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the Turk- ish delegates (see Turkey for terms). [Ijelowi.l May 20. Treaty signed (see muler Smybn.4,1 SMYRNA, OR AIDIN. AiDiN has for a long time been a name of the southern Turkish provmce of Asia Minor, to wliich the name Smj-ma is also applied, from the prin- cipal city in the provmce. The comitry is fnutful and tlie coast abounds in excellent harbors, wliich caused the early settlement of such great cities as Smj-ma and Ephesus. It was subsequently a part of the Persian Empire, and has passed through the hands of Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks and. Anally, the Ottoman Turks, who held it for nearly five hundred years. From ancient times Smyrna has had a predominant Greek population, particularly in the city of Smyrna. During the World War the Turks attempted to ex- tirpate the Greeks, who organized to defend them- selves. At the end of active hostilities Greek troops occupied the province, and by the Turkish treaty with the Allies (May 20, 1920) it was provided that the province should be put imder the control of the Greek government for a period of five years, after which the people should vote upon their future. Smyrna has therefore practically ceased to be a part of tlie Turkish Empire and is a dependency of Greece. The area is about 2,600 square miles and the popula- tion m 1911 was estimated at 2,500,000. 191?. Ocl. 15. Turco-Italian peace terms leave Italy in occupation of a nujuber of the .^gean islands (Dodecanese) pending certain conditions, which are not fulfilled by Tiu-key (see It.\lv). 1913. Mrty SO. By the Treaty of London, follow- ing the Balkan War, Turkey cedes the .Egean is- lands to Greece (see Turkey). 1914. World War breaking out, Greece and Italy remain in occupation of the islands pending its decision. 1915. April 28. By secret Treaty of London Great Britain and Franceproraise the Dodecanese toltaly. 1917. August. Secret agreements twtween Great Britain, France, and Italy on partition of Turkey assign Aidin (Smyrna) to Italy. 1919. May. Greece, with concurrence of Supreme Council at Paris, occupies city of Smyrna, and pushes inland. Conflict with the Turks; devas- tation around Smyrna. Italians occupy Adalia, east of Smj-ma, and Konia, controlling the Bagdad Railroad at this point. November. Report of commissioners sent to investigate conditions in Smyrna severely indicts Greek troops for their conduct m occupation. 1939. February. Greece given mandate in Smyrna. May 11. Peace treaty handed to Turkey gives Greece certain .■Egean islands, and authority overthecity of Smyrna and its circle(see Turkey). May 20. Treaty of peace between Allies and Turkey signed. Greece given Smyrna and the islands except the Dodecanese and Rhodes, which remain in Italian possession, but the Dodecanese is promptly turned over to Greece (see Italy). GREENLAND. See under Denmark, page 91. GUAM. See under United States, page 209. GUATEMALA. See under Central America, page 79. GUIANA. See British Guiana, xm^GV British Empire, page 74. See Dutch Guiana, under Netherlands, page 129. See French Guiana, under France, page 97, HAITI. Historical Outline. The Republic of Haiti occupies the western third of the West Indian island sometimes called by the Spanish name Santo Domingo, but more often by its native name of Haiti. The island was dis- covered by Columbus in^492 and named Hispaniola, or Little Spain; colonization began in 1496, and Haiti developed more rapidly than the other Span- i.sh-American possessions, Tiie desire to exploit the rich soil and gold mmes led the Spaniards to estab- Usli slavery, and tlie population rapidly declined. Negro slaves were substituted and became the most numerous element in the population. In the early part of the 17th gcntury. pirates took possession of a large part of the territory of Haiti, which was ceded to France in 1697 by the Treaty of Ryswick (Rijswijk). As the settlements expanded and became populous, they grew rebellious. When the French Revolution broke out, the Negroes and raulattoes were ten times as numerous as the whites. Conflicts arose between negroes and mulattoes, and then came a terrible insurrection. In 1793 the aUied British and Spaniards sent a force to Haiti. As a coimter measure the French Convention issued in the same year a decree of emancipation for all slaves. In 1795 the Spanish colony on tlie island passed to France. Toussaint L'Ouverture then appeared as leader of the blacks, expelled the British forces, and made himself dictator of the govemment, wliich pro- fessed nominal submission to France; but in ISOl lie demanded uidepcndence. In 1802 a French army under Leclerc overtlirew the Negroes and cap- tured Toussaint and sent him to France, where he died in capti\ity. His successor, Dessalines, de- feated the French and expelled them in 1S03, thus blocking Napoleon's plans for taking over Louisiana. Dessalines declared himself emperor. When he was assassmated in 1S06, Cliristophe, a fuU-blooded Negro, succeeded him with the center of his power in the northwest. Petion, another leader, started a temporary republic m the southwest. Boyer suc- ceeded Petion and was able to organize the people of both sections of the island into the Republic of Haiti, but after ruling for twenty years be was overthrown. In 1844 the eastern and Spanish-speaking dis- tricts, comprising about two thirds of the island, separated from the western part and set up the Do- minican Republic. In the western portion, or Haiti proper, anarchy prevailed. Two years later a re- publican constitution was proclaimed imder Presi- dent Riche This did not bring peace or estabUsh order and tlie liistory of Haiti continued to be one of ci\il war, revolt, and anarchy, during wliich obliga- tions were incurred to the United States and Euro- pean powers for damages to their citizens. In 1911 a joint note was submitted by the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy insistmg on prompt settlement of clamis. This pre- cipitated a revolution which continued intermit- tently imtil 1914, when a British cruiser arrived to enforce the overdue claims awarded by arbitration. The government at Washington thought it time to take action. American marines landed and con- trolled Cap-Haitien for nearly a month. In July, 1915, a reign of terror was maugurated by President Guillaume Sam, and Rear Admiral Caperton landed marines at Port-au-Prince; since that time the United States forces have controlled the country. In 1916 a treaty was signed between Haiti and the Unittxl states which provides for the establishment of a receivership over Haitian customs imdcr American control. Tills administration includes not only the distribution of funds for the payment of foreign debts, but the expenditure of the balance for domestic pur- poses. Thus, tlirough the supervision of the finances of Haiti, the United States controls the operations of the govemment and has established a protectorate. Organization. Government. The present constitution, ratified Jime 12, 1918, provides for a Senate of 15 and a Chamlier of Deputies on the basis of one member for each 60,000 inhabitants, chosen for two years by direct popular vote. Production and Commerce. The industries of Haiti are mainly in tropical products, of which the most important are fruit, coffee, cocoa, and sugar; the cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Haiti also possesses resources of gold, silver, copper, iron, and antimony, and in the last few years concessions have been granted for mining coal, iron, and copper. Keligion. The rehgion is Roman Catholicism. Education. Public primary education is tree, and in 1918 there were 854 primary schools, with 61,000 pupils, 29 secondary schools, one normal school, a school of law, and one of medicme. Defense. An armed constabulary, both urban and rural, was estabhshed in 1916. The officers are drawn from the United States Marine Corps and the force numbers 2,6SS. The reserve force and old line regiments anioimt to about 19,000. The coast- guard service is three auxiliary schooners. The area is about 10,000 square miles and in 1912 the population, almost entirely Negro, was esti- mated at 2,500,000. Chronology. For earlier history, see Domixican Republic. 1630. Buccaneers, French and English, begin to frequent inland. They obtain a firm footing. 1697. Sept. SO. By the Treaty of Ryswick (Rijs- wijk), western part of the island, occupied by buccaneers, ceded to France by Spain and called the colony of Saint Dominique. It becomes prosperous: sugar production by slave labor. Many free mulattoes. 1791. May IB. French Convention gives the mu- lattoes right of citizenship. W'liites object and right revoked. In August, the slaves, aided by mulattoes, revolt. Sanguinary contest ensues; white planters slaughtered and driven from the colony: fierce reprisals by the wlutes. 1793. British invade the island and mamtain a hold for five years. Commissioners sent from France abolish slavery, but fail to secure letuni to peace. 1795. July 22. By Treaty of Basel Spain cedes her part of the island to France. 1796. Toussaint L'Ouverture becomes head of the blacks and drives out the French commis- sioner, though acknowledging French suzerainty. 1798. British surrender posts to Toussauit. 1799. Toussaint, recognized by Napoleon as com- mander in chief, establishes a government. 1801. Toussaint conquers Spanish portion of island and proclaims himself president for life. 1803. Napoleon, having actiuli'ed Louisiana as step in development of a colonial empire, needs con- trol of Saint Dominique as a base of operations. Leclerc lands with troops to subdue it. In May, Toussaint submits imder guarantees, but is treacherously seized and sent to p'rance as a pris- oner. Blacks, under Dessalines, renew the war. 1803. November. French, completely defeated by yellow fever and black rebels, evacuate island. 1804. Jan. 1. Independence declared, with Dessalines governor of the Republic of Haiti for Ufe. Massacre of remaining w'hites. Mulattoes also reduced and coimtry controlled by full- blooded Negroes. Iperor. I Ocl. S. Dessalines proclaims himself em-| 1806. Ocl. 17. Dessalines assassinated by his own followers. Period of contention and confu- sion follows. Spanish renew their control over eastern end of the island, and call the colony Santo Domingo. 1820. Boyer estabhshes Ills power and gains com- plete control over 1-rencli end of the island. 1823. Boyer conquers Spanish colony and remains president imtil 1843, when he is driven from the island. 1838. Feb. 12. France by treaty formally recog- nizes Independence of Haiti. FoUowmg a statement in 1825 of renmiciation of suzerainty, a treaty is negotiated April 2, 1831, but not rati- fied by Haiti. 1811. Santo Domingo regains Independence. Haiti relapses into a series of short-time presi- dencies and civil wars. 1849. Soulouque proclaims himself emperor. 1859. Geffrard, a mulatto, drives Soulouque out and becomes president. 1864. Nov. S. _ First treaty of amity (recognition) and commerce with United States. 1867. Salnave overtlirows Geffrard. 1870. Jan. IS. Salna\e shot. Several short-term presidencies and revolutions follow. 1879. Oct. 22. Salomon elected president. 1888. Salomon deposed, and civil war rages be- tween Legitime and Hippolyte. 1889. Whites for first time permitted to hold land and become citizens. Oct. 2. Haiti hasdelegationat first Pan-Amer- ican Congress at Washington (see United .States) . Oct. 6. Hippolyte elected president. He rules arbitrarily but with comparative peace imtil his death. (successor. | 1896. Aprill. Simon SamelectedasHippolyte'sl 1902. Simon Sam's flight followed by civil war. December. Alexis becomes president. Disturb- ances and crooked finances promote Interna- tional complications. 1908. Dec. 7. Alexis overtlirown after a turbulent rule. December 17, Simon elected his successor. 1911. July S. Continued financial dcreUction re- sults in a joint note from United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy insisting on prompt settlement of claims. Haiti has long been protected from foreign control or coer- cion, similar to that on Venezuela in 1902, by the Monroe Doctrine and attitude of United States. .Aug. 2. President Simon fiees. August 16, Leconte inaugurated president. 1913. Aug. S. Leconte killed by explosion in the palace. Auguste chosen president. 1913. May 4. Orestc elected president followmg death of Auguste. Conditions become eves more chaotic than before; national bankruptcy and permanent anarchy impend. 1914. Jan. 27. Oreste abdicates. February 8, Zamor elected president. May. Great Britain, by presence of a cruiser, forces payment of an adjudged claim. Germany and France make a formal demand for control of customs. August. On outbreak of World War, Haiti promptly suspends payment of all govemment obligations. October. Another revolution. October 19, American marines land at Cap-Haitien to main- 112 NATIONAL HISTORIES: HAITI — HUNG ARY. 1914 {con'.inued) . ^ tain order. Zamor flees. October 22, Theo- dore, leader of the revolt, succeeds as president and is regularly elected Nov. 7. Negotiations with United States for a fiscal protectorate 1915. Feb. 23. Theodore, defeated by Guillaume Sam, abdicates and flees. March 1, Guillaimie Sam proclaimed president, and is speedily con- fronted by another revolt. French marines ^\ land at Cap-Haitien to protect foreign interests '^ June, United States sends a cruiser imder Caper- ton, an ofHcer superior in rank to the French commander, and talies over the protection. July. Reign or terror inaugurated by Guil- laume Sam. July 28, he is himself slain. Aug. 5. American marines talio possession of the fort dominating Port-au-Prince, the capi- _- tal, and Caperton, on August 18, takes control P of the customhouse. Cap-Haitien and other towns also held by marines. August 12, under American auspices, Dartiguenave elected provi- sional president by Congress. September 4, Ca- perton declares martial law at Port-au-Prince. Sepl. 16. Treaty with United States signed, establishing a virtual protectorate; control of customs and general finances, including aU e.\- Qpenditures; native constabulary force officered by Americans. American control talien without waiting for ratification of treaty; Haitian Con- gress ratifies promptly, American Senate on Feb- ruary 28, 191G. Skirmishes between marines and natives follow, but country tranquil by end of October and remains so. Of the 25 rulers of Haiti down to American occupation only two filled Q out their terms; 15 were driven from power, 8 t\ were killed or died in office. 1916. May. Parliamentary crisis over refusal of Congress to be dis.solvcd in accordance with plan for new constitution harmonizing with treaty with United States. Caperton supports decree of dissolution, which prevails. 1917. April. Constituent assembly meets to con- sider the new constitution. [Germany, j O June IS. Rupture of diplomatic relations with! 191S. June 19. New Constitution receives popular ratification. July IS. War declared on Germany. 1919. Jan. 18. Haiti has a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. Feb. So. Admiral Snowden, U.S.N., assumes military charge. American marines in occupa- Ttion assist in sanitary betterment and internal improvement. Native constabulary operates successfully. 1929. The coimtry still impacified. Conflicts be- tween "bandits" and marines said to be due to forced labor on the roads. HAWAII. See under United States, page 209. HEJAZ. The Kingdom or Hejaz was recognized as an in- dependent state during the World War. It includes the most important portions of Arabia and in it are found the Holy Cities, Mecca and Medina. Otto- man control in the past was recognized chiefly through the payment of an annual subsidy, but in 1916 the Emir Husein assumed the title of the King of Hejaz and threw off Turkish control. Hejaz has an estimated area of about 100.000 square miles and an estimated population of 750,000. ARABIA. FoK ages this part of the world has been known as Arabia, an enormous peninsula of over a million square miles lying l^etween the Red Sea on the west, the Indian Ocean on the south, and the Persian Gulf on the east. .Since the keys of the two Holy Cities, Medina and Mecca, were brought to Sultan Selim I-, in 1517, it has been regarded as a tributary of Turkey; but the Turks have never exercised au- thority except in the provinces of Hejaz and Yemen, which stretch alonp tlie Red Sea. In the extreme southwest comer is the British protectorate of Aden and in the southeast comer is the sultanate of Oman, in which British political influence is predominant. The interior of Arabia is a wide semidesert. region given over to nomadic tribes, embraced under the comprehensive name of the Bedouins, some of whom, however, have fixed dwellings. The greater part are sheplierds and herdsmen whose favorite pastime is the sacking of villages and the robbing of caravans. Each tribe, whether nomad or settled, is ruled by its sheik. Slavery is a deep-rooted institution, and the slave trade is still carried on. The majority of the Bedouins are orthodox Moslems. The organized parts of Arabia have been included in the new liingdom of Hejaz. Chronology. 670. This is the approximate date of the birth of Mohammed, at Mecca. Before this the Arabian peninsula had seen many small kingdoms vari- ously imder Jewish. Roman, Persian, Abyssinian, and Byzantine influence. 62%. Mohammed's flight (hegira) to Medina with the followers of liis new creed of Islam. 632. Mohammed dies, having accompUshed the spread of liis religion throughout Arabia, and also made important steps toward political imity. 632-1258. Caliphate. Under the rule of the suc- cessors of Mohammed. Islamism is extended by conquest tlirough Asia, northern Africa, and into Spain. At first Medina continues to be the politi- cal capital of this increasing empire, but Damas- cus displaces it in 658. and Bagdad succeeds in 766. Mecca and Medina, however, remain the Holy Cities of the Mohammedan faith. Arabia resumes its earlier condition of disorganization and intertribal contests. Except for the holy pilgrim- ages and tlie hold retained by its language through- out ihr Mo.slfin world, the coimtrj- becomes again politicall.N' inii>ot<'nt. a province owing nominal allegiance to the Bagdad or Egyptian caliphate. Mecca and Medina are governed by local shereefs. lieutenants of the caliphs, and bound to provide protection for the pilgrims. 1200. One line of the descendants of Mohanmied is hereafter recognized as supreme in Mecca, the heads of it being successively the Grand Shereef of Mecca, preceded in official prayers by the ca- liph only. Between the shereefs and the repre- sentatives of the suzerain power there is constant friction. 1508-1651. Eiu-opean connection with Arabia be- gins with the Portuguese occupation of Maskat and siuTOunding regions of Oman, on the Persian Gulf. 1617. Turkish sultan, Selim I., having conquered Egj-pt. recognized as caliph and spiritual head of Islam, with control over the Hejaz, the strip of coimtry stretcliing along the northern half of the Red Sea and containing the Holy Cities. Nominal Tiu-kish suzerainty is acquired over other portions of the peninsula. Oman remains inde- pendent; there is no effectual control over the ul- terior. 1742. Beginning of Wahabiism. a puritan move- ment which gains control over much of Arabia and takes Mecca and Medina, but grows corrupt. 1798. Sultan of Oman treats with the British East India Company, the beginning of British sphere of Influence there. British intervention at vari- ous times upholds the independence of the sultan- ate, though it is tor a while tributary to the earlier Wahabi empire. 1818. Wahabi rule finally overthrown by an Egyp- tian army under Ibrahim, the son of Mehemet All. 1824. Wahabi state begins again and continues to the present time. It acquires practically inde- pendent control over central Arabia and El Haza on the Persian Gulf, consisting sometimes of one and sometimes of two emirates. 1838. September. Aden is ceded to Great Brit- ain by its sultan. Protectorate over the hinter- land develops. 1845. Egyptian army finally withdrawn from Arabia, and nominal Turkish control and ad- ministration of the Red Sea littoral is resumed later, but is resented and obstructed as much as possible by the Arabs. 1854. Sultan of Oman cedes to Great Britain the Kuria Muria Islands. 1857. Great Britain occupies the island of Perim. at the mouth of the Red Sea. 1902-1905. Turko-British commission delimi- tates the British sphere in southern Arabia, placing Oman and the coast between Oman and Aden within the sphere. Great Britain has ear- lier engaged the nflers of the southern coast not to cede any territory without British consent. Great Britain also subsidizes the sultanate of Koweit, on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf; ex- pected terminus of Berlin-to-Bagdad railway (see Mesopotamia). [of Mecca. | 1908. Husein Ibn All becomes shereef and emirl Railroad connection between Medina and Damascus opened. Line is later extended north- ward to junction at Aleppo with the German-con- trolled Bagdad railway. This Hejaz railway a great aid to the Turkish military control over the region. 1916. Junes. Shereef Husein, taking advantage of Turkish preoccupation in the W'orld War, de- clares his independence. August. He issues a proclamation to the Mos- lem world giving the reasons for his actions; de- noimces the control of the Yoimg Turks as sap- ping the foundation of the Mohammedan faith, for maligning the Prophet, for murder, and for profanation, especially in shelling the Caaba at Mecca. | September. France, with British approval place of the Prophet, as evidence of the continu- ance of their claim to the liegemony of Islam. Under Arabic and Allied protection the holy pil- grimages are resumed. Nor. 16. The emir assumes the title of King of the Hejaz, and is recognized by the AUies 1917-1918. The Hejaz army, imdcr Emir Felsal, the king's son, operates in connection with the British-Egyptian invasion of Syria. Feisal's forces advance northward in the region of the rail- road. 1918. Sept. SO. Damascus is occupied by both British and Arabian troops. After the formal en- try, the next day AUenby turns the city over to the Hejaz administration. Oct. SO. Armistice with Turkey calls for the withdrawal of her troops from all places still held in the Arabian vilayets, including Medina. 1919. Jan. 18. Hejaz is represented at the Peace conference by two delegates. 1920. For relations of Arabia and Syria, see Stria. May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the Turkish delegates. It recognizes independence of Hejaz. HERZEGOVINA. See imder Jcgo-Slavia. page 123. HONDURAS. See under Central America, page 79. HONDURAS, BRITISH, See under British Empire, page 74. HONGKONG. See under British Empire, page 62. HUNGARY. Historical Outline. The Kingdom of Hungary owed its foimdation to the invasion of the non-Aryan tribe of Magyars. This people, probably akin to the Finns, imder the leadership of the semimythical king Arpad. reached the great plain of Hungary at the close of the ninth century and completely overthrew the empire of Moravia. The Bulgarians. Serbs, and Croats in the southern provinces were quickly reduced and a non- European djTiasty and kingdom were established between Teutonic Europe, the Turkish Empire, and the Slavic territories to the east. Christianity from the Roman Catholic Church was introduced by Stephen I., who was recognized king of Hungary in the year 1000 by Pope Sylvester II. Immigration from other parts of Europe took place and Hungary became the refuge of thousands of immigrants from central Europe, especially Germans. Other move- ments from the east and south brought in Roumani- ans and a few Serbs. From the time of Stephen down to comparatively recent times, little attempt was made to weld the kingdom into a united nation. During his reign the political power was entirely in the hands of the Mag- yar freemen, who were nobles; and until 1848 the whole burden of taxation was borne by the msiss of peasants. In 1222, during the reign of Andrew II., the " Golden Bull " was promulgated, which has been compared to the Great Charter of England and which served as the first basis for the written constitution of the Magyar kingdom. The purpose of the Golden Bull was to strengthen the crown by uniting with it the interest of the mass of the Magyar nobihty. who like the crown were threatened by the great barons. It also confirmed the principle of exemption from taxation of aU nobles and theh' right to refuse mili- tary service abroad. The Arpdd dj-nasty came to an end in 1308 and during the four liimdri-d years of its rule, in spite of the terrible Tatar invasion, had founded a Cliristian state and a national monarchy based on a Western model. Himgary came imder the House of Anjou (1308- 1382); and under the rule of Louis the Great the PoUsh crown was added to that of Himgary. Sigis- mimd (1387-1437) of the House of LiLxemburg suc- ceeded Louis the Great. As king of Hungarj-, Sigis- mimd fought bravely against the Turkish peril and prevented fiu-ther mroads of the Turks, But on the whole the greatness of the kiiigdstitution; Cavour labored to strengthen its industrial and economic condition so that it might be fit to play its part. With magnifi- cent audacity Sardinia joined France and England in declaring war upon Russia in 1855. As a result Piedmont was given a place at the Congress of Paris in 1856 and won the sympathy of Emperor Napoleon III. of France. In 1859 Cavour secured the powerful alliance of France for the price of Nice and a strip of Savoy. Austria was provoked to declare war upon Pied- mont, and Napoleon came to its aid. The allies were successful and won the battles of Magenta and Solferino. Then Napoleon weakened and, to the wrath of Cavour, refused to carry out the full pro- gram. The hasty peace of Villafranca transferred Lombardy with Milan to Piedmont: but Austria was not expelled from Venice nor was Italy united. Within a year came a great popular movement throughout Italy. The simple plam Garibaldi, without tlie support of Cavour, led the Legion of the Thousand which overtlirew the Bourbons in Sicily and Naples. The people of the kingdom of the Two Sicihes voted to join themselves to Sardinia (Pied- mont). In 1860, Italy allied with Prussia in the war against Austria and although the Italians were de- feated by land and sea, Austria was compelled to hberate Venice. Thus Italy was at last imited, ex- cept for Rome, which would have gone into the combination but for a garrison of French troops. In 1870. during the Franco-Prussian War. Rome was occupied by Italian troops and by popular \'Ote joined Italy. It at once became the Italian capital. The entire peninsula thencefonvard formed a imited and independent kingdom under Victor Emmanuel and his successors. Nevertheless, Italy was still a small and weak power. The pope refused to accept the loss of his temporalities and to come to living terms with the Italian government. As the " Prisoner of the Vati- can " he might still furnish a cause for intervention by one of the great Roman Catholic powers. The 1548-1713. NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY. 115 Italians, however, recalled the glories of the past. They had restored the center of the old Roman Em- pire and now looked forward to occupying its posses- sions in the Mediterranean. Tunis was the national ambition; and the French seizure of Tunis in 1881 gave a shock to the friendship and gratitude of the ItaUan people. Hence, in 1SS2, Italy joined the al- liance already formed between Austria and Ger- many — the famous Triple Alliance which domi- nated Europe in most crises until 1914. The pro- tection offei-ed by this alliance had its price; if Ital>' claimed the prerogatives of a great power, she must organize a military and naval program on a large scale. The result was heavy expenditure and grow- ing debt. Italy also embarked on colonial expansion. In 1SS5 she seized the port of IMiissaua on the Ked Sea and set up the colony of Eritrea in East Africa and a protectorate of Somaliland. The colonies proved valueless, and led to war with Abyssinia and a disas- trous defeat at Adowa (189(5). In 1912 Italy went to war with Turkey for the possession of Tripoli ; as a part of the hostilities, Italy occupied the Dodecanese, twelve islands in the .-Egean Sea which were coveted by Greece, and which Italy agreed to sun-ender to Greece. Peace in 1913 confu'med tliese losses of Turkey. In 1917 Italy occupied Albania and set up a government at Durazzo; and in 1918-19 occupied parts of Dalmatia and Fiunie. and still retained the Dodei^anese. At the outbreak of the World War Italy remained neutral, standing on her rights in holding that she was obliged to aid her allies only in a defensive war. Negotiations took place with both sides. Austria offering considerable territory. The decision was made to adhere to the Entente on the basis of the promise of Adriatic territory made in the secret Treaty of London of April 26. 1915. On May 4, 1915, she denounced the Triple Alhance, and on May 23 she joined the other powers and declared war against Austria and later (August 21) against Turkey and (October 19) against Bulgaria. Durmg the war, after some defeats, Italy won a great advantage in 1917 and almost reached Trieste; but on October 24 the Germans and Austrians began a formidable offensive and drove the Italians back to the Piave. Not imtil October in 1918 could Italy, with the aid of the Allies, make headway. Then, in a victorious campaign of about a week, 400, (X)0 Aus- trian prisoners were taken and on November 4 Aus- tria-Hungary accepted an armistice dictated by the Italians. As a result of the war Italy " redeemed " Italian territory by adding a region mhabited by Italian-speaking people and beyond that by pushing the political boundaries to the main divide of the Alps. These successes encouraged a hope for fur- ther advances, for the possession, in short, of all the rest of the eastern Adriatic coast from Trieste to southern Albania. Organization. Government. The constitution of Italy is an expansion of the charter granted by Charles Albert, king of Sardinia (Piedmont), in 1848. The execu- tive power is vested in the king, but may be exercised only tlirough ministers who are responsible to a par- liament of two chambers. The Senate is composed of adult princes of the royal house and of an unhm- ited number of senators, nominated by the king for life. They must be 40 years of age, must have filled a high office or have acquired fame for the benefit of the nation, and must pay taxes of $600 a year. In 1917 there were 376 senators and seven members of the royal family. The Camera de Deputati is chosen by imiversal manhood suffrage, but men less than 21 who. have performed military service during the World War may also vote. The numl>er of deputies is 508, or one for every 71.000. The duration of Parliament is five years and it must meet annually. Under the parliamentary system the king has the power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies but is compelled to order new elections and convoke a new meeting within four months. Politics in Italy have been much affected by individuals and by combina- tions rather than by genuine differences of pohtical opinion. Two difficulties have stood in the w^ay of real popular government. The first is the influence of a small group of irrcconcilables. the " CathoUc " group who long abstained from participation in the national life and denied the right of the Italian gov- ernment to control them. The second is the rapid growth of the Socialists, who are numerous and well organized. Industry and Labor. From time immemorial. Italy has been one of the fertile regions of the earth. Only 7.9% of tlie whole land is waste land, while 48.8% is tilled. 28.1% is in pasture, and 5.8% is de- voted to vineyards and orchards. Land is held on one or another of three tenures: (1) Peasant proprie- torship, wliich is most common in Piedmont and Li- guria. although found in many other parts of Italy: (2) Partnership holdings, by which the peasant culti- vates the land on shares, a system found in Tuscany, the Marches, and Umbria; (3) Rent, which exists in Lombardy and Venetia. Throughout Italy the land is generally divided into small holdings. The chief agricultural crops in order of quantity produced in 1918 were wheat, com, potatoes, sugar beets, oats, rice, and beans, while olive oil and wine were produced in large quantities. Tiie silk culture is also important and in 1918 the silk cocoon crop amomited to more than 29, OCX), 000 kilos. The re- fining of sugar is also becoming increasingly impor- tant, having grown from foui" sugar factorie^s m 1899 to 34 m 1918, with an output sixteen times greater. The iiroducts of the forests are also imjwrtant. Many valuable mmerals are foimd in Italy, the more important according to value of product being mineral fuel, sulphur ore. iron, zinc, mercury, lead, boric acid, and the output from the quarries of build- ing and decorative stone. Italy, however, lacks coal and iron in paying quantities. Tlie birth rate of Italy is higher than that of any other country in Europe, and this has led to a condi- tion in which not enough food is raised to support the population, which in less than fifty years in- creased by two fifths. The insufficiency of home- grown food proved a great drawback during the World War. Emigration has helped to readjust the balance: between 1876 and 1905 over 8,000.000 per- sons emigrated: but the hope of Italy was in becom- ing an industrial nation, so as to give employment at home and thus check emigration. Therefore Italy began to develop industries and German capital hastened the process. The industrial expansion proceeded so far that by 1908 emigration practically ceased except from southern Italy and Sicily. In 1911, 243,926 industrial establishments were enu- merated which employed over 2,000,000 persons. The chief exports of Italian manufacture are raw silk, cotton and silk manufactures, and wines. Religion. The state religion of Italy is the Roman Catholic, but freedom of worship is granted to all denominations, nineteen twentieths of the peo- ple professing to be Roman Cathohcs. In 1855 a law was passed providing for the suppression of re- ligious corporations, wliich was extended in 1873. The most difficult question wliich Italy has faced is the relation of the kingdom to the papacy. Since Itahan imity was accomplished by the overtlirow of the temporal authority of the pope m the Papal States, the pope regards the khig and his govern- ment as a usurper in Rome. Although the govern- ment treated the pope with generosity and courtesy, granting liim a quarter of Rome to be entirely under his control and an ammal pension of over 3.000,(X)0 francs, he still considers liimself the " Prisoner of the Vatican " and refuses to leave its precmcts and thus subject himself to the sovereignty of a "robber king." In the early years of the kingdom, more- over, the pope forbade all devout Catholics to take any part in the political life of the state, thereby creating the class of irreconcilables. As time has gone on some of the bitterness has disappeared and most Catholics to-day do not feel themselves de- barred from voting or from political life. Education. At the formation of the kmgdom. the most pressmg problem was that of education. In Piedmont and Lombardy. wliich were the most advanced sections, about a third of the men and more than one half of the women were illiterate, whilfe in Naples and Sicily the number of iUiterates exceeded 90%. In 1877 a compulsory educational law was passed, but because of the expense was not ver>' thoroughly enforced. At present the state regulates public instruction, wliich is supported either entirely by the state or in conjunction with the towns and provinces. PubUc schools are of every grade, and every teacher must have the quali- lications required by law. Four tj-pes of schools are maintained by the kingdom : ( 1 ) Elementarj' schools, of lower grades with compulsory attendance; everj- comniime must have at least one for lx>ys and one for girls. Higlicr grade elementary- schools are re- quired of the larger communes, and those having normal and secondar>' schools, and attendance is compulsory to the age of twelve; (2) Secondarj- classical schools, which provide instruction leading to the universities; (3) Secondarj' instruction in teclmical subjects, provided by special schools; (4) Higher education, met by twenty-one public uni- versities, the oldest of which is the University of Bologna, foimded in 1200. and the largest, that of Naples which has over 6.300 students, while the University of Rome has 4,100. Padua 2900. Bologna 2,600. Turin 2,400, Palermo 2,100. In the elemen- tary" and secondary schools there are over 4.000.000 pupils. The effect of this system of education is remarkable. In 1911 illiteracy was highest in Ca- labria (69.6%) and lowest in Piedmont (11%,): cer- tain districts reported that no young man or woman twenty years 'of age was unable to read and wTite. Defense. Italy has an extensive seacoast, meas- uring about 2,000 miles, exclusive of the Italian islands. The land frontier bordering on France is 300 miles in extent: on Switzerland, 418: on Austria and Jugo-Slavia. 566: and on San Marino, 25. The routes into Italy from central Europe on the north are easily defended. The Alps are a sufficient bar- rier except for a few passes, mostly fortified. The boimdary to the eastward between Jugo-Slavia and Italy is more open. The new boundary places Italy on the summit ridge of the high Alps. The Italian seaboard at all accessible points was well fortified under the conditions of warfare down to 1914 as were the islands and the Strait of Messina. The Italian militarj- system is modeled upon that of Germany. Service hi the army and navy is uni- versal and compulsory. The total period is 19 years, l^eginning at the age of 20. The young men of each annual contingent are divided into tliree classes: the first Isehig drawn for the permanent army, the second for the iiermanent army " with unhmited leave," and the third of those exempted from military service, but assigned to the territorial mihtia. The term of service in the ranks of the permanent army is two years wliich is followed by eight years' service in the reserve, four years in the mobile militia, and seven years in the territorial militia. The Carabinieri. or militar>- poUce force, are selected from the army and serve for three yeaTs; after which they are transferred for four years' serv- ice in the reserve of the Carabinieri and then to the territorial militia. The normal strength of the Itahan field army is about 400,000 men. of the mo- bile mihtia, 326.(X)0. From 1915 to November, 1918, over 5,600.000 Italians mobilized of whom 507.- 000 were kihed, and 962.000 wounded. The Italian navy (1920) consists of six dreadnoughts and six predreadnoughts and five armored cruisers, besides monitors, submarhies, and destroyers, Before the opening of the war, Italy was building four super- dreadnoughts, but with her entrance into the war, work was discontinued on these ships. Area and Population. The area of Italy is 110,632 square miles and the estimated population in 1915 was 36,120,118. The density of the popula- tion in 1915 was 326.5 to the square mile. It is esti- mated that the new territory gained by Italy from Austria by the Treaty of Sauit-Germain will add about 12,500 square miles to the area and 1,900,000 to the population. ITALIAN DEPENDENCIES. The colony of Eritrea on the coast o! the Red Sea has an area of about 45.000 square miles and a population, largely nomadic, estimated at 450,000 The tropical climate and the scarcity of water make agriculture without irrigation impossible. Pastur- age, however, is abimdant. Camels, oxen, sheep, and goats are conmion and the produce supplies the local trade. Pearl fisheries are carried on and a prom- ising trade in palm nuts is being developed. There are 74 miles of railroad, a telegraph line of 514 miles, and 863 miles of telephone lines. Italian Somaliland. The colony and protec- torates of Italian Somaliland extend along the east- em coast of Africa from British Somaliland south- ward to the Juba River and comprise 139,430 square miles with a population of about 650,000. The prin- cipal occupation of the people is cattle raising and agriculture. The exports, which are cliiefly agricul- tural, amotmted to more than 6,000,000 lire (1918). Tripolitanla and Cyrenaica (together called Libya or Libia Itallana). These colonies formed out of Turkish Tripoli were acquired by Italy as the result of the war with Turkey in 1912. The area of Libya is estimated at 406,000 square miles and the population from 523,000 to 1 ,000,000 and even higher. Tripolitanla is divided into four zones: (1) along the sea, covered with palms, olives, lemon and fruit trees; (2) in the highlands, where oUve groves, palm and fig trees flourish, and cereals and rich grasses are raised; (3) oases which are rich in palms; (4) a region covered with palms, figs, vines, and almonds. In CjTenaica olives and cypresses are common, pasturage is abundant, and cattle can be bred on a large scale. There is considerable caravan trade between Tripoli and central Sudan, an important article of which is ostrich feathers to the value of S350,CK)0 a year. Sponge fisheries were started in 1885 and are now very profitable. Chronology — Italy and Dependencies. For earlier events, see Mediev.\l Period, ChTonolvgy, and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 1648. Italy weak, divided, and oppressed by foreign dynasties. Ancient free cities practically extinguished, except Venice and Genoa. Only Italian dj-nasty is that of Savoy. Rome ruled by the pope as a temporal sovereign. Literary and artistic life declines. People brutaUzed by war and oppression. 1669. Venice, after prolonged warfare with the Turks, is obliged to abandon Candia (Crete). 1674. Leaders of revolt at Messina oiler Sicily to Louis XIV.. of France, who deserts them when peace is made in 1678. 1684. The Venetians, imder the lead of Francesco JSIorosiiii, wrest the Peloponnesus from the Tiu-ks. Venetian ascendancy in Ionian Islands maintained. 1707. The armies of Louis XIV., frequently de- feated by Prince Eugene of Savoy, are driven out of Italy. 1713. April 11. By the Treaty of Utrecht, Sicily, with Montferrat and Alessandria, is assigned to Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy who takes the title of King of Sicily. 116 NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY. 1714-1906. 1714. Elizabeth Fanit-su is married to Philip V. of ^ Spain. Tliis marriai-'e.*gi\rts excu-r to Pliilip for breaJiing the peace of Bhiropeby iii\;«ling Sardinia. Naples, Sardinia, JViantua, and Milan ceded to Austria. 1720. Victor Amadeus compelled to exchange Sicily for Sardinia. Head of House of Savoy, destined to become the djTiasty of United Italy, assumes title of King of Sardinia. O1730. Victor Amadeus abdicates the tlironc in favor of liis son Charles Emmanuel III. 1731. Duchy of Parma passes .to Prince Charles (later Charles III ) of Spain. 1733. Victor Amadetts makes an tmsuccessful at- tempt to recover liis authority in Turin; over- tiirown and imprisoned. 1734. Naples and Sicily conquered by Spain. 1737. Gian Gaston, last of the Florentine Medici, P dies, and liis riglits pass to Frimcis of Lorraine. 1740. Lombardy in a war in wliich the claims of Maria Theresa are met with the coimterclaims of France: the king of Sardinia takes sides with tlie House of Hapsburg-Lorralne. 1745. Charles Emmanuel and his army of Sar- dinians are defeated by the combined forces of France and Spain. Q1746. Army of Francis of Lorraine (Francis I. of Germany) gains a victory over the French in the battle of Piacenza. 1748. Oct. IS. By the Treaty of Aix-la^Chapelle, Italy Is redivlded among Austria, France, and Savoy; Austria retains Milan and Tuscany, Parma and Piacenza are assigned as a duchy to Philip, brother of Charles III. Charles is confirmed in - the possession of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. R IVIodena passes imder the protection of the French. Italians enjoy a period of repose. 1765. Francis I. dies and transmits Tuscany to his tliird son. Peter Leopold, wlio reigns as an inde- pendent sovereign. 1789. At outbreak of French Revolution, Italy is divided into 10 states, of wliich all are hereditary monarcliies except Venice. Genoa, Lucca, and the e Papal States. ^ 1790. Peter Leopold becomes the Emperor Leo- pold, and transmits the kingdom of Tuscany to his son Ferdinand, who, with Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia, furnishes the motive for the revival of the independent spirit among the Italians. Italian writers, in sympathy with the Encyclope- dists of France, promote the spirit of liberty. ,_ 1797. Ocl. 1-7. The status of Italy is determined I by the Treaty of Campoformido, in wliich Napo- leon establishes the Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy. Venice is assigned to Austria. (See Fr.^nce.) 1798. Roman Republic established. All the so- called republics are mider French domination. 1799. The Parthenopean Republic is created in southern Italy, having Naples for its capital. U Charles Emmanuel FV. resigns, and Pope Pius ^^ VI. flees from Rome into France, where he dies soon afterward. French driven out of Italy by Austrians and Rus- sians. 1800. June 14. Napoleon, returning from Egypt, is victorious over the Austrians in the great battle of Marengo. V1804. Napoleon, having become Emperor of the French, decrees a new settlement of Italian affairs. He crowns himself with the iron crown of the Lombards, restores Rome to the pope, and drives Ferdinand from Naples. Tuscany and Ven- ice become the kingdom of Etruria. The Ligurian and Cisalpine republics are combmed as a vice- royalty under Prince Eugene de Beauhamais. 1806. The French emperor transfers the kingdom ^A/ of Naples to his brother Joseph, and afterwards (.\ugust 1, ISOS) to his brother-m-law, Murat. 1809. Pius VII. is deposed and Rome becomes a part of the Frencli Empire. Kingdom of Etruria is assigned to Napoleon's sister, Eliza, as duchess of Tuscany. [out of Italy. 1 1813-1814. Forces of the allies drive the French I -. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. ^ 1815. June 0. By the Treaty of Vienna, the Na- poleonic conditions in Italy are swept away, and the preceding political arrangements are. as nearly as practicable, restored. Austria receives Lombardy and Venetia; Genoa assigned to Pied- mont (Sardinia). The returning sovereigns of the old order regard the restoration as a warrant for tyranny and oppression Y 1820. Revolution in Naples. 1821. Congress of the powers (see Nineteenth- Centitry Period) is held at Laibach: Austria is authorized by the body to crush the Revolu- tion. Revolution in Piedmont. Austrians win battle of Novara (April 8) and aid Charles FelLx to restore absolutism. 1831. A popular insurrection begins inModenaand Z spreads to Parma, Bologna, and Romagna. Aus- trian troops bear down on the insurgents, and the rebellion is quelled. [with an army. I 1832. Louis Philippe of France occupies Anconal 1833. Society of " Young Italy," organized by Mazzmi, attempts revolt in Piedmont. Mazzini publishes a book on the " Moral and Civil Pri- macy of the Italians." 1846. Pope Gregory XVI. dies; succeeded by Pius IX. Pius imdertakes many reforms and is regarded with hope by the moderate liberals as a leader of the national cause. 1848. Italy, in sympathy with revolutionary France, breaks into revolt. Sicily declares in- dependence, A radical administration is estab- lislied in Naples. Lombardy rises, and Milan and Venice expel the Austrians. Ducliies free them- selves. Pope Pius IX. escapes from Rome in dis- guise. Charles Albert of Piedmont declares war on Austria. Radetzky, at the head of an Austrian army, wins battle of t'ustozza, July 24-25. 1849. A republic is established in Rome, with Garibaldi and Mazzini as leaders, but after a resolute defense the city is taken by the French in July. Rome, Venice, and Milan are taken by the Austrians, and in the battle of Novara, March 23, 1S49, the power of Piedmont is seemingly de- stroyed. Charles Albert abdicates, and is suc- ceeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel II. By liim the spirit of nationality is encouraged. Pied- mont becomes the basis of ItaUan tmity. Rome is held by French troops to prevent its absorption. 1850. Legislative reforms are instituted in Pied- mont (Sardinia), culminating, in 1854, in an eccle- siastical reform decree. Count Cavour joins the government and becomes minister of commerce. 1853. Cavour made prime minister, and the for- times of Italy revive imder his skillful diplomacy. 1855. Sardinia becomes a participant with the allies against Russia in the Crimean War. 1856. Cavour represents the kingdom of Sardinia at the Congress of Paris. He secures the sympathy of the Emperor Napoleon III. 1858. July 11. Cavour makes the secret agree- ment of Plombieres with Napoleon III., who promises to help drive Austrians out of Italy (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 1859. Victor Emmanuel declares that the govern- ment is not insensible to the " cry of dolor " aris- ing from Italy. The Franco-Italian War with Austria ensues. The allies triumph at Magenta on Jime 4, and at Solferino on Jime 24; the Treaty of Villafranca is concluded July 9, by which the Mincio is made the boimdary between Sardinia and Austria. Modena, Parma, and Tuscany expel their rulers and in 1S60 vote for union with Piedmont. 1860. Garibaldi leads a successful insurrection in Sicily and Naples. The Sardinian government allies itself actively with the insurgents, and the king takes the field with Garibaldi, who. on the completion of the victorious campaign, resigns Ills position as dictator. Sicily and Naples are by popular vote annexed to Sardinia. 1861. First Italian parliament meets, and Vic- tor Emmanuel is made king of Italy. Count Cavour dies, Jime 5. 1862. Garibaldi leads a force against Rome; he is wounded and captured in a skirmish at Aspro- monte. He and liis followers are given amnesty, and he remains the popular hero; but the govern- ment, out of deference to France, leaves Rome under the power of the pope. 1864. Capital of the kingdom is fixed at Florence. 1866. Italy joins Prussia In war against Aus- tria. Her army is beaten at Custozza, June 24, and her navy near Lissa; but victorious Prussia secures the liberation of Venetia, which is united with Italy. Except Rome, the whole of Italy l>e- comes united and independent. French withdraw troops from Rome and then return them. 1867. Garibaldi heads attack upon Rome, but he is finally defeated at Mentana, and sent Irto retirement at Caprera. 1869. Ecumenical council meets at Rome, and in July, 1S70. afBrnis the dogma of the Infallibility of the pope. 1870. France, absorbed in the war with Germany. withdraws her troops from Rome; the Itahan troops enter almost without opposition ; union with Italy is accepted by a popular vote, and Victor Emmanuel makes Rome his capital; Pope Pius IX. (though calling liimself a prisoner) is permitted to retain the Vatican and its dependencies. 1878. Jan. 9. Victor Emmanuel dies and is suc- ceeded by his son. Humbert I. (Umberto). Fet)- ruarj' 7, Pope Pius IX. dies; is succeeded by Leo XIII. The new pope, while strongly main- taining the papal claims to temporal dominion, is regarded as a liberal, and more disposed than Pius IX. to harmonize the ecclesiastical force with the popular and democratic spirit, 1881. French occupation of Tunis results in fall of Cairoii ministry. Suifrage is extended and reformed. 1882. Miiy il. Italy joins with Germany and Austria in the Triple Alliance. June g. Garibaldi dies. 1884. Asiatic cholera appears in Italian ports, and spreads with great rapidity into the provinces. 1885. Italians occupy Massaua on the Red .Sea; beginning of Eritrea. 1886. Antagonism of Church and State be- comes acute. Pope issues an allocution filled with accusations against the government. The Clerical party is accused of conspiracy to over- tiirow the existing order. The pope's letter in praise and support of the Jesuits arouses the Lit>- eral party, and a commission is appointed to in- vestigate the monastic institutions. 1887. Feb. 20. Renewal of Triple Alliance. Germany in separate treaty agrees to support Italy against France if the latter tries to extend her power in northern Africa. 1888. Pope Leo puts forth positive assertions of temporal sovereignty, denoimces the government of iving Humbert as a usurpation, and calls upon the clergy and the Clerical party to repeat and mamtam his protest. Senate replies with the en- actment of stringent laws to prevent the clergy from demonstrations in favor of restoring the pope to temporal power. The celebration of the pope's jubilee intensifies the animosity. Foreign relations of Italy are strained. Italy a,s- stmies a determined attitude in resisting the am- bition of France to extend her frontier line In Africa. In July, Italy takes possession of Zuila in tlie Egj-ptian Sudan. 1889. Crispi, by the reaction following an attempt to assassinate him, strengthens his govern- ment and confirms his ascendancy. 1890. Jan. IS. Italy's African possessions organ- ized as Colonia Eritrea. In the elections Crispi is indorsed by an over- whelming majority. Financial embarrassment of the kingdom leads to a sudden popular reaction against the Crispi ministry. 1891. Crispi government is overthrown, to be succeeded by that of the Marquis dl Rudlni. The new government pm"sues the same policy as its predecessor, particularly in respect to the maintenance of the Triple Alliance. Labor troubles, general throughout Europe, be- come acute in Italy; distress of the people is in- tensified by the closing of the French ports against Italian commerce. 1892. Discontent arising from the biu-den of debt upon the people leads to tlie overthrow of the Rudlni ministry; Giovanni GlollttI becomes prime minister. Exposure of astoUHdlng corruption and frauds among the go\'eninient officials. The prime min- ister involved and is deposed. Giuseppe Zanar- delli succeeds him. Credito Mobiliare suspends, and the government is shaken to its fotmdations; Crispi is recalled from Sicily to assume control and restore political order. 1893. March. Jubilee of the pope, this being the fiftieth anniversary of Leo's consecration as Archbishop of Damietta. The ceremonies attract midtitudes of distinguished strangers to Rome, among them WilUam II. of Germany. Dec. 31. Italian troops rout the enemy in a campaign against the dervishes, near Massaua in Africa. A severe battle occurs near Kassala in the Sudan, July 17, 1894. 1895. Tlie government, notwithstanding the finan- cial scandals in wliich it is involved, oblauis a ma- jority in the elections, chiefiy by the action of the pope in forbidding Catholics to go to tlie polls. 1896. March 1. Italians defeated at Adowa, by King Menelik of Abyssinia. October 26, Italy abandons claim to protectorate over Al^yssinia. March 5. Final overtlirow of the Crispi minis- try follows further exposiu"0 of government fraud in the bank scandals and the defeat of the army in Abyssmia; Rudlni becomes premier. 1898. May. Formidable riots in Milan are sup- pressed only with much bloodshed; similar distur- bances occur in other large cities, caused by high price of bread, hea^T taxation, and alleged republi- can conspiracies. End of tariff war with France. 1899. June -23. Law against socialistic and repub- lican activity. Great popular opposition. 1900. July 29. King Humbert is assassinated; succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel III. 1901. Census shows a population of 32.475,000, with a ratio of increase the greatest in Europe. June li. Campanile of St. Mark's, Venice, falls. Restored. 1912, by J. P. Morgan, the Amer- ican banker. 1903. Feb. SO. Leo XIII. celebrates his 25th an- niversary as pope. July 20. Death of Leo XIII. .411;;. 4. Giuseppe Sarto, patriarch of Venice, is elected pope as Pius X. 1904. March 27. Conference between the king and Kaiser William. May. Vatican protests against visit of Presi- dent Loubet of France to King Victor Emmanuel. 1905. Feb. SJ,. Simplon tunnel between Italy and Switzerland completed. July 1, the state assumes control and management of nearly all railway lines. 1906. Feb. e. Ministry resigns. Sidney Sonnino as premier forms new ministry. MODES OF TRAVEL. 1. Ascent of the Andes. Republic of Colombia. 2. Ski Runner. From a drawino- in tlio Norwegian edition of "Farthest North," by Fridtjuf Nanscn. 3. Eskimo Dog Sled. From photograph furnished by V. (larde. 4. Eskimo Kayak. Mock Suns. Photograph furnished by V. Garde. 5. Reindeer Caravan. Amur River, Eastern Siberia. 6. Yak Caravan. Tilx-tan Highlands. Photo In- Henri, Princ^e d'Orleans. 7. Llama Porters. Village of Palca, Peru. 8. Russian Tarantas. 9. Siberian Tarantas. Driven by iMongols and Mongol Khalkhas, Thian Shan (Mountains); after X. Przheval.ski. 10. Mail Carrier. Indo-China. 11. Japanese Transport of Goods. 12. Japanese Jinrikisha. 13. Cochin-China Buffalo Wagon. 14. Indian Buffalo. Taken near Bombay. 15. Teke Turkomans. Merv, Central Asia. 16. Mongol on Dromedary. With I'rayer Whe<.l in his hands. Tibetan Frontier. 17. Camel with Atatich (covered saddle for women). From photograph furnished Ijy M. Zeys, in charge of a Mission sent out by the French Minister of Public Instruction. 18. Elephant with Howdah (canopied seat on liack). Bangkok, Siam. 19. Trekking in the Transvaal. Boer traveling by ox team. 20. Pampas Wagon. La Plata River, South America. 21. Sicilian Charrette. 22. Interurban Trolley Car. 23. Modern American Express Train. 24. Touring Car. X. I'Or clescnpuuii see previous pa^ie. MODES OF TRAVEL OF SAVAGE, BARBAR S, SEMI-CIVILIZED, AND CIVILIZED MAN. Copyright by G. & C. Mf.rriam Co. Registered at Stationers' Hall. London. England, 1906-1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY — JAMAICA. 117 1906 (.continurd) . April 1,-15. The most severe eruption of Vesu- vius since destruction of Pompeii, a. d. 79, occurs. May. Sonnino caljinot resigns, and new cabi- net is formed witli Giollttl as premier. 1907. May 15. Minister of foreign affairs, Tom- maso Tittoni, in the Chamijorof Dcputirs furmaily details the Itahan program in regard lu fdrrign re- lations. 1908. Aprils. Strike riots at Rome. April 23. First Women's Congress ever held in Italy, opens in Rome. Dec. SS. Earthquake in Calabria and Sicily destroys Messina, Begglo, and several villages. Loss of life is estimated at from 125,000 to more than 200.000. The property loss is incalcidable. 1909. April IS. Elaborate ceremonies lield at St. Peter's, Rome, at the beatiflcation of Joan of Arc. Dec. S. Giolitti ministry resigns: on December 10 a new ministry under Sonnino. 1910. March 21. Disagreement over a ship sub- sidy bill wreclis the cabinet of Sonnino, l5ut tlie bill is later passed (May 28) as a temporary meas- ure imder premier Lulgi Luzzatti. March 21,. Mount Etna Inirsts into violent eruption, continuing for weelis. iiepl. 20. Speech by Mayor Nathan of Rome on the anniversary of tlie entry of Italian troops into Rome intensifies the contest between the government and the "Vatican. Sept. 23. George Chavez, a Peruvian, flies in an airplane over the Alps near the Simplon Pass. 1911. March 16. Trial for murder of thirty-si.x members of a crimmal secret society, the Ca- morra, is Ijegim S,t Viterbo. Hearings marlsed by great disorder. March IS. Premier Luzzatti resigns, owing to the rejection of ills scheme of electoral reform with compulsory voting. April 6. New ministry is formed by the Radi- cal ex-premier, Giolitti. Seplemher. Italy demands from Turkey con- cessions in Tripoli amoimting to a protector- ate, and on Septemlier 2.S delivers an ultimatum wliich is at once rejected. War is declared by Italy September 29, Tripoli captured Octoljcr 5. D'Olmo is appointed first Italian governor of Tripoli, and decrees the alxilition of slavery. Ad- vance into the interior fiercely resisted. First war in wliich the airplane is used. Italians ac- cused of cruelties. 1913. Jan. 7. ItaUan cruiser squadron sinks seven Turkish gtmboats in the Red Sea. [Bill. I Feb. 25. King signs Tripoli AnnexationI March IS. Bengazi captiu'ed from tiie Turks. April IS. Italian warships lx)mbard forts at entrance to Dardanelles, thus ciosmg tiie straits, which calls fortli a strong protest from the powers. They are reopened May 1. April-June. Italian fleet seizes Stampaha at entrance of /Egean Sea, and occupies many of the iGgean Islands, mostly uiliabited Ijy Greeks. May 12. Chamber of Deputies extends fran- chise to iihterates when more than 30 years of age. July S. Camorrlst trial at Viterbo ends with the conviction of 26 men and their sentence to im- prisonment for terms of from five to thirty years. A ug. 6. Italian troops occupy Zoara, last Trip- oli coast town of importance. Sept. 17. Tiu-kish attack on Itahan position at Dema is repulsed ; last important Ijattle of the war. Oct. 16. Treaty of Lausanne, Ijy wliich Tur- key renoimces all sovereignty over Tripoli and Cyrenaica, and Italy agrees to return the captured jEgean islands (Dodecanese) when certain con- ditions are carried out : islands remain in Italian hands. No indemnity on either side. .?f Dec. 6. Triple Alliance renewed. ,| 1913. May. Pacification of Tripoli is interrupted by Arab outbreaks. Sept. 11,. Professor Malladra descends to a depth of 1200 feet in the crater of Moimt Vesuvius, and records a temperature of 626*^ F. , ,. October. First general election imder wxv franchise law is held, the number of voters lieing now increased from .3i to 8i millions. The fran- cliise is extended to all males over 21 years of age. with tlie exception of illiterates imder 30 who have not served in tlie army. Nov. 1 . Naval agreement for joint action in tiie Mediterranean by Itahan. Austrian, and German navies goes into effect. Dec. 12. Leonardo da Vinci's world-famous paintuig Mona Lisa, stolen from the Lou\Te in Paris, August 22, 1911, is recovered in Florence. 1914. March 10. Giolitti caljinet resigns, following the witlidrawal of Radical support. New cabinet formed by Antonio Salandra, March 17. May 5. Italo-American general arbitration treaty is signed at Wasiiington. June S. General strike proclaimed tlirough- out Italy as a protest against the killing of two anarciiists durmg the recent rioting at Ancona. Government caUs strikers to the colors and rees- tablishes railway and telegraptiic commimication. Strike is called off within two days. WORLD-'WAR PERIOD. 1914. Aug. 6. Italy declares slie is not botmd to join in World War liy terms of the Triple Alliance as Germany and Austria-Hungary are engaged in an " aggressive war" Aug. 20. Pope Pius X. dies. Sept. s. Giacomo della Cliiesa elected pope as Benedict XV. O-t. 1. Government protests against Austrian mine-laying in the Adriatic. Oct. 28. Italian naval force occupies Avlona. Albania. Dec. 29. Sir Henry Howard presents his cre- dentials as British amtjassador at the Vatican. No similar appointment has been made for more tiian 400 years. 1915. Jan. 13. Earthquake devastates south- ern and central Italy; many eluu-ches. statues, and pubUc buildings are destroyed. Feb. 1 9. Opening of Parliament is accompanied liy scenes of disorder in tiie streets Iiy molis de- manding intervention on the side of the Allies, and the recovery of Italia irredenta (see Irredentist, in tlie Dictionary) . March 21. National defense law is passed. Drastic measures are taken against espionage, contraband, and publication of military move- ments. Government is authorized to appropriate for military purposes inventions made by Italians. April 26. Secret Treaty of London, under wiiicli Italy enters the war on the side of the Allies. She is to recover the Trentino. southern Tirol, Gorizia (Gorz), Trieste, Istria (not including Flume), Dalmatia, various islands off tlie liiyTian coast, certain possessions in and control over Al- bania, witli prescribed neutralization of otiier por- tions of the east side of the Adriatic, and also is to retain the Dodecanese, to share in the partition of Asiatic Turkey, and to get compensation for any -\nglo-French gains from German possessions in ; Africa. The Boislieviid make tliis treaty public on November 28, 1917. For the World W.\r, see that title. May 4. Italy denoimces lier alliance with Germany and Austria-Himgary. May 10. All reserves back to the class of 1876 are called to the colors. May 12. Government receives final proposal of Austria for territorial concessions. War demon- strations are lield all over the countrj-. May 16. Premier Salandra consents to retain office notwithstanding opposition of the antiwar party led by Giolitti. Country is in a turmoil, populace clamoring for war. May 19. Green Book is issued giving the Ital- ian view of Austro-Italian relations. Italy holds that Austria has violated the Triple Alliance, by declaring an offensive war against Serbia, and occupying Balkan territory without Italian agree- ment or compensation. May 22. General mobilization is ordered. Martial law is proclaimed in northeastern Italy. Tlie king signs the bill giving pleneiry powers to the cabinet. May 23. Government formally declares that a state of war with Austria-Hungary will exist from May 24. July 7. Government is authorized to use com pulsory measures in increasing the output of war materials in private numition factories. Aug. 21. Italy declares war on Turkey. Oct. 19. Italy declares war on Bulgaria. Nov. 30. Government subscribes to Allies' agreement of " no separate peace " and the Quad- ruple Entente becomes the Quadruple AUiance. 1916. For the World War. see that title. February. Importation or transit of all Ger- man or Austrian merchandise tlirough Italy is pro- hibited. On February 29, German merchant ships, to the number of 34, mtemed iu Italian ports are requisitioned liy the government. May 16. Austrians liegin drive in Trentino. June 11. Salandra caliinet resigns : eight days later, Paolo Boselli forms a coalition ministry, representing all factions except the intransigeant .Socialist group. July. Decree rendering citizens of nations al- hed to Austria-Himgary liable to internment as enemy aliens and their goods subject to seques- tration. Aug. 10. Italy institutes a blacklist similar to that of Great Britain, foriiidding Italians to deal with enemy subjects or agents wherever resident. Aug. 27. Italy declares herself at war with Germany from August 28. Dec. 4. Italian steamship Palermo, with 25 Americans on board, torpedoed off coast of Spain. Dec. 31. For reply to German peace proposal, see Germany. 1917. For the World War, see that title. Jan. 6. Premiers of France and Great Britain. with statesmen of other Entente nations, meet at Rome for consultation witli Italian government. Jan 11. For reply to President Wilson's " peace note," see World Wab. Aug. 1. Pope Benedict XV., in an appeal to the belligerent powers, suggests the base« of an enduring peace; "simultaneous and recip- rocal decrease of armaments " with arbitration: evacuation of Belgium and northern France: resti- tution of the German colonies and on disputed territorial questions " a conciliatory spirit, consid- ering tlie aspirations of the population." Aug. IS. Secret Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- ment by which Italy is to participate m the par- tition of Turkey (see Symma under Greece). Aug. 27. President Wilson, replying to the pope's peace message, declares that the nation can deal only with a government representative of tlie German people themselves. Sept. S. Great Britain adheres to the presi- dent's reply to the pope. Sept. 21. German and Austrian replies to the pope are pubhshed accepting proposals for peace, disarmament, and arbitration but say nothing as to territorial adjustments. Oct. 24. German-Austrian offensive begins: pushes back the Italians till Novemlier 13. Oct. 28. Boselli cabinet resigns. Oct. SO. Vittorio Emanuele Uriando forms a new cabinet, retauiing Sonnino as foreign minister. Nov. 9. Premiers of Great Britam, France, and Italy, in view of the invasion of nortiiem Italy, decide to create a Supreme War Council for the western front, wliich shall mcludo political repre- sentatives and Generals Cadorna, Foeli, and Wil- son (Great Britam). General Armando Diaz succeeds Cadorna in command of ItaUan army. 1918. For tlie World War, see that title. March 2S. General Vittorio ZupeUi succeeds Aldieri as war mmister. June 10. Premier Orlando announces to Parlia- ment that he has rejected an Austrian olfer of peace wliich contemplated the cession of certain territories to Italy. Oct. 27. In final operations of the war, Italians cross Piave: Austrians in rout. Nov. S. Armistice with Austria (see Austria). Italians occupy Trent, Rovereto, and Trieste. Nov. 10. Victor Emmanuel makes a triumplial entry into Trieste. Dec. 2S. Leonida Bissolati, a Socialist member of the ministry, resigns in protest agamst Italy's peace poUcy. For the Flume controversy, see Jugo-Slavia. 1919. For peace negotiations, see under World War: for Italy and Ail^ania, see Albania; and for Italy and Asia Minor, see Smyrna, under Greece. January. Pope Benedict removes the proiiibi- tion on CathoUcs participating in Italian elections. Jan. IS. Reorganization of Orlando cabinet. April 24. Italian delegation leaves the Peace Conference because of the Flume con- troversy. Parliament, by a vote of 382 to 40. supports Orlando in his attitude on April 29. Delegates return to conference on May 6. June 19. Orlando ministry resigns, due to dissatisfaction over high cost of food and labor im- rest:Nltti ministry succeeds. Strikes and dem- onstrations against high cost of living continue. June 2S. Great earthquake in Tuscany. August. Italy continues to suffer for lack of raw materials, and transportation facihties, and because of the employers' refusal to agree to col- lective bargaining. Sept. 1. The king announces his intention to relinquish the crown domains for the benefit of peasants and soldiers. Sept. 4. Chamber adopts woman suffrage for national elections. Sept. 17. D'AnnunzIo enters Flume (see Jugo-Slavia for continuation of tills controversy). Oct. 7. The king ratifies the peace treaty with Germany, but Parliament does not act until later. Nov. 18. Elections to Parhament: Catholics for the first time vote as an organized party. Ministry (Liberals) get 161 seats, Socialists 156, Cathohcs 101, others 79. 1920. Jan. 15. Strike begins wliich ties up tlie entire railway system, but it ends on February 4 with a complete triumph for the government. Feb. 4. Lira is quoted in New York at IS. S3 to the dollar (normal par value about 5.18 to the dollar) . May 11. According to the treaty of peace handed to the Turldsh delegates. Italy is to retain the Dodecanese. May 20. Treaty of peace between Allies and Turkey signed. Dodecanese and Rhodes granted to Italy, who promptly turns over the former to Greece. Rhodes to hie occupied by Italy for 15 years, when a plebiscite will decide its dis- posal. IVORY COAST. See under France, page 96. JAMAICA. See under British Empire, page 74. 118 NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. N U W JAPAN. Historical Outline. The Japanese Empihe occupies the numerous islands which he off the coast of Asia between the twentieth and flltieth degrees of latitude. There are five principal islands in this group, nearly 500 im- portant ones, and about 3000 others. The Pacific coast line of these islands is indented with numerous harbors, and to the west the ocean bottom descends to its greatest known depth. It is probable that at tliis point there is a subterranean volcano, which causes the freciuent earthquakes that visit Japan. The eastern coast of the islands is more regular, and the Japan Sea, which separates the islands from Korea and China, is comparatively shallow. A mountain range nms north and south throughout all the islands; the most famous peak is Fuji (12.440 ft.). In the islands the summers are hot and humid, though short, and the winters long, cold, and clear. The original people of Japan were the Atnus, of whom a few thousands still exist. They were prob- ably driven northward by the Manchu-Koreans and the Malays, and in some ways suggest a closer affin- ity with Europeans than with the other types. The modem population of Japan is the result of a fusion of tlirce stocks; the Manchu-Korean type, the Mon- gol type, and the Malay tj-pe. The fusion of these races has gone on for so many centuries that at pres- ent, although different origms may be recognized, the population of Japan is singularly homogeneous. Japanese chronicles trace the liistory of Japan from 660 b. c. when the first mikado, Jimmu Tenno ascended the tlu-one. It is better to classify the period between 660 b. c. and 500 a. d. as the prehis- toric period. In 552 Buddhism was introduced into Japan from Korea and China. This meant not simply the introduction of a religion, but the bring- ing of the Japanese mto contact with Chinese civih- zation and culture and the accelerating of immigra- tion from China and Korea. Probably m the sixth or seventh century the be- ginnings of the shogunate were established. This was the result of social and political forces wliich must have been working for centuries, and wliieh produced a system somewhat similar to the feudal system of western Europe. It was associated with several changes; (1) The growth of a numerous court nobility, who, by intermarriage with the family of the mikado, claimed divine descent. This class gradually absorbed all the civil offices, but became enervated, and, although retaming titular authority, lost the actual power. The mikado himself, though treated with great respect and reverence, was re- moved from the scene of actual government and existed simply as a puppet in the hands of the miU- tary class. (2) The daimm, or feudal lords, were heads of dnimio clans wliich oppressed or contended with each other, like the similar class in Europe. (3) The military class, or samurai, were supported by the rations delivered to them by their cliiefs. Their sole occupation was war. They were the only mid- dle class, had the privilege of wearing the sword, and considered themselves the guardians of the coimtry's welfare. They felt contempt for money and gam. insisted on the strictest code of honor, and developed stoical endiu'ance and indifference to pain and suffer- ing. (4) The shoguns, as the generals were called, were great daimios who took possession of power, and gradually made the title and the office hereditary in a single family. They were mayors of the palace. In 1U03 lyeyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa dy- nasty, succeeded to the office of sitouun, and the power remained in that family until the revolution of 1868. The famous policy of isolation was not a tra^ii- tional matter. Until about 1600 Japan enjoyed m- tercoiu'se with Korea and Chma. lyeyasu rigidly excluded foreigners and forbade native Japanese to emigrate, because he believed that the missionaries and Christian converts were opposed to liis govern- ment. Under the edicts of the two and a half cen- tiu'ies thereafter all trade with Europeans was in the hands of the Dutch, who maintained a post at Naga- saki, where they were practically prisoners. The Japanese continued to develop their native art and industries. Untiring industry, uncomplaining pa- tience, scrupulous attention to minute details, and strict obedience to authority were their chief charac- teristics. NINETEENTH-CENTORY PERIOD. The awakening of Japan was probably due to the success of the Europeans in breaking into China. It came about in 1853, when Commodore Perry ap- peared in Tokyo Bay and proposed a treaty of amity and commerce between the two nations. The Japa- nese feared armed invasion and granted their first treaty with the West (1854). Treaties followed with Great Britain, Russia, France, and Holland and foreign influence began to be felt in all directions. Between 1S67 and 1871 Japan chajige' set up. The national government slowly develoiied into a system which, if not democratic, at least brought about rep- resentative government. The subsequent history of Japan reaches out in three main directions: (1) the enthusiastic adoption of Western ideas and culture; (2) the development of a modem government; (3) the expansion of the for- eign relations of the empire. Nothing could be more remarkable than the enthusiasm with wliich Japan set out to modernize herself. The entire nation went to school. The leaders of the state called from European nations and .'Vmerica experts in different fields. Thus. Englishmen constructed the railways and trained the workers on them; Frenchmen re- framed the laws and at first trained the army; Americans superintended educational affairs, the postal service, and agriculture; Germans codified the commercial methods, and ultimately took over the military framing; wliile ItaUans were engaged to teach painting and sculpture. The Japanese showed their remarkable liberalism and eclectic instmct m choosing what was needed for their condition with- out doing violence to theu- own traditions and con- ventions; and withm one short generation proved that a nation of Asiatic cultiu-e might adjust itself to progressive Western ideas. The overtlu-ow of the shogimate left the mikado in theory- absolute. His power, however, was shared by an appointed ministry, the geuro, an imofflcial comicil of seven heads of great famihes. In tliis min- istry developed a liberal group who advocated the adoption of reprasentative government and the es- tablishment of the parliamentary system. Tests were made in local affairs, and assemblies were called in the various cities and provinces of representatives chosen by the people. In 1889 the Imperial Constitu- tion, the work of Prince Ito, was promulgated; it established a Diet, together with a cabinet. This cabinet, however, is not responsible to the Diet, but is appomted and removed at the sole pleasure of the mikado ; although pressure from the Diet often causes resignations. The history of Japan's recent foreign relations centers roimd the idea of expansion, — a policy which was forced upon her. The population in 1872 was about 30,000.000, but has increased rapidly. Between 1899 and 1907 the population increased 11.6 per cent, while the food-producing area mcreased by only 4.4 per cent. Thus the question of the support of a dense and rapidly increasing population was a vital one. Moreover, Japan does not possess all the raw materials necessary tor modem industrj' ; and m the desire to obtain aii outlet for her population, a market for her manufactiu-es, and a source of raw materials she has acquired territory and fields of in- fluence at the expense of her neighbors. In the early years of the restored empire, Japan was involved in disputes with Russia conccrnmg the island of Sakhalin, which was awarded to Russia in 1875. Japan came into collision with China con- cemmg Formosa and the Riuliiu (Okinawa) Islands, which were aimexcd in 1895 after victorious war. The first serious foreign comphcation, however, came over Korea. From the sixteenth centiu-y, when Japan had overrun the Korean peninsula, it had been the custom for the Koreans to send con- gratulatory presents to each shogun on his acces- sion. This custom was disconthiued on the over- throw of the shogimate, much to the displeasiu-e of Japan. In 1875 Japan and Korea were nearly in- volved in war, and Japan, by threatenhig a naval demonstration, extorted a favorable treaty with Korea (1876), by which tliree ports were opened to foreign trade, while the independence of Korea was recognized. It was China's policy, liowever, to sur- roimd herself with states wliich were nominaUy inde- pendent, but actuaUy vassal states, to serve as buf- fers against foreign aggression. Korea was one of these, and China resented the acknowledgment that Korea was mdependent. The government of Korea was weak, inefficient, and corrupt, and China had oftentimes dispatched military forc^ to support it. Japan now claimed the same privilege and dis- patched troops to support the reform movement. The War with China in 1894 was a series of tri- umphs for Japan. In the first pitched battle at Pingyang (September 16, 1894) the Cliinese, armed withKrupp gmis and repeating rifles, were driven from their fortified positions with a loss of 6,000 men. Next day a detachment of foiu-teen warships and six torpedo "boats of the Chinese navy was encoimtered by eleven small Japanese men-of-war off the Yalu River. The Japanese sank four of the Chinese ves- sels and drove the rest into refuge. The sea route was now open and Jaiian captured the fortified naval stations at TaUen (Dairen), Port Arthur, and Wel- haiwei. In this war, although the Japanese had 120.000 men engaged, only a thoasand were killed and less than five thousand were woimded. A treaty of peace was negotiated by the American, Foster, in behalf of China in April, 1895, by which the independence of Korea was established and Japan was given a part of Manchuria, the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores, and a large indemnity. Pending the payment of tliis hidemnity, Japan occu- pied W eihaiwei, and four new ports were opened to foreign trade. Russia, Germany, and France resented Japan's success. A joint note was presented recommending that the territories given to Japan on the mainland should not be permanently occupied, as such a pro- ceeding would be detrimental to peace. Although couched in diplomatic terms, the powers gave every indication that they were prepared to enforce their recommendation by arms. Japan was in no condi- tion to resist, and on the day of the pubhcation of the treaty an imperial rescript was published in which the mikado announced that he had yielded to the ad- vice of the three powers. The next foreign war in wliich Japan was involved was also with China, for the relief of the legations at the time of the Boxer Rebellion (1900). Japan some- what imwiUingly engaged in this expedition upon the request of the European powers and the United States. The conduct of her officers and troops won much praise and gave her a high military reputation. In 1904 Japan came into inevitaiile cuUision with Russia. Russia's Asiatic empu-e lacked an ice-free port and convenient access to the Pacific. In 1898 Russia acquired Port Arthur and gamed special privileges hi Manchuria, but after the Boxer Rebel- lion had made a point of withdrawing from Man- churia. In 1903 she attempted to gain a foothold in Korea so as to flank the access of China to the sea, precisely what had been prohibited to Japan. But whereas Russia was only indirectly opposed to Japanese expansion, Japan was vitally interested m the bar to expansion in Korea. Moreover, Japan had thousands of settlers in Korea, had investetl in the railways, and had developed a trade. After five months of fruitless negotiation, Japan declared war (February 10, 1904). On sea and land Japan had imexpected success. In the first operations eight Russian cruisers were disabled. Port Arthur, after a siege lasting from May until January 1, 1905, was taken. The Rus- sian forces were driven back in southern Manchuria and defeated in several pitched battles. From Feb- mary 20, 1905, to March 15 raged the battle of Muk- den, the greatest in history up to that time. On May 27 and 28, 1905, the Russian Pacific fieet was amiihilated off Tsushima hi thestrait between Korea and Japan. The Russians were checked audi ■locked. Both parties became exhausted ; Japan hinted to Pres- ident Roosevelt a willmgness to negotiate. Russia was ready to meet halfway in the consideration of peace terms under the auspices of the United States. A peace conference was held at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, as a result of which a treaty was ratified which recognized Japan's preponderant mfiuence in Korea, transferred Russia's lease of Port Arthur to Japan, divided the island of SakliaUn between Russia and Japan, and provided for the jomt evacu- ation of Manchuria by both armies. This went mto effect October 15, 1905. Japan had fought two wars for Korea and was re- solved that her mfluence should be supreme m that coimtry. The Koreans had made no progress in improvmg either their government or finances. Japan mstituted many reforms in 1906, and m 1908 organized it as a dependency. FmanciaJ reforms in- cluded ta.\es, currency, and banks. Industry was fostered by the estabhshment of printhig, brickmak- ing, forestry, coal mining, the laying out of model farms, and cotton cultivation. Pubhc works like waterworks, hospitals, and medical schools were opened, and reforms were made in the government. An efficient body of pohce was established and a ju- diciary, of which the majority were Japanese, was established. Finally in. 1907 the Korean standing army was disbanded. This resulted in an msurrec- tion wliich lasted for two years. Japan had prom- ised to respect the territorial integrity and sover- eignty of Korea, but held that the conditions made further independence impossible; and in 1910 Japan proclaimed the formal annexation of Korea. The position of Japan in Asia was that of a Western military and naval power, with the intense mterest of the strongest Oriental nation. In 1908 through an exchange of notes between Secretary Root and Ambassador Takahira wliich was not submitted to the Senate for ratification, the United States recognized the mterest of Japan to the prmciple of the " open door." Both parties pledged themselves to observe the independence and integ- rity of China. In 1915, however, Japan presented the " 21 demands " to China, which looked to- ward a Japanese monopoly of some lines of trade, and an influence mconsistent with Chinese hide- pendence (see China). In an exchange of notes (November 2, 1917) between Secretary Lansing and Viscount Ishii it was recognized that Japan had " special interests " in Chhia, but disclaimed dis- crimhiation against other nations or infringement of the independence or territorial integrity of China. Both Japan and the United States declared that they adhered to the policy of the " open door " and equal opportimities for trade for all nations. 1542-1894. NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. 119 WORLD-WAR PERIOD. Already in alJiance with Great Britain, Japan quickly recognized the opportunity to take a place among world powers by entering the World War. After a few months' campaign. Japan compelled the German forces to surrender the fortified port of Tsingtau in Kiaochow. Japan thus obtained the dominant place in the Cliinese province of Shantimg, and also occupied all important islands previously German in the North Pacific. In the conference and treaty which brought the war to an end. Japan ranked with Great Britain. France, Italy, and the United States as one of the five world powers by whose decision the perplexing questions were settled. For herself, Japan secured the Shantimg peninsula and the privileges wliich Germany had previously held, as well as the German Pacific Islands north of the equator. The Shantimg concession so offended Ciiina that she refused to sign the treaty. During the World War Japan prospered greatly. Her manufactured products and her raw materials were in great demand. But the wealth was by no means evenly distributed, and there was great suiTer- ing and considerable disorder among the lower classes. For the first time in the history of the empire, labor began to organize and to state its claims. A move- ment for popular government also gained headway. Orga gamzation. Government. The constitution asserts the em- peror's rights of sovereignty and all the executive power of the state. The genro down to 1919 made most of the great decisions of state policy. The ex- ecutive power, however, is exercised by a cabinet, whicli is not responsible to Parliament, but solely to the emperor. The emperor nominally can declare war and make peace and treaties. In legislation, all laws require the assent of the Imperial Diet, which may be called, prorogued, or dissolved by the em- peror. The Diet consists of two houses: a House of Peers of 373 members consisting partly of hereditary nobles and persons nominated by the emperor for meritorious services, who sit for life, and partly of a group of lesser nobilitj' and representatives of the prefectures, who are chosen for terms of seven years; and a House of Representatives consisting of 381 members chosen from electoral districts by Japanese subjects of 25 years of age and upwards who are taxpayers. In local government the coimtr>' is di\ided into prefectures {fu and ken) and into mimicipaUtics. In each prefecture there is a governor and an assembly which gives decisions chiefly on financial matters. Industry and Labor. About tliree fifths of the arable land is cultivated by peasant proprietors. The chief crops are rice, barley, rye, and wheat. Scarcely less important than the cereal crops is the production of silk and tea. The important mineral and metal products in order of their value (1918) are: coal, steel, copper, pig iron, petroleum, silver, and gold. A large industry in cotton goods has developed; other important manufactures are silk, paper, matches, earthenware, lacquer ware, knit goods. Japan's merchant marine has developed rapidly since 1898 and consists of over 2,700 steamers and 12.236 sailing vessels. The government subsidizes sliipping companies for foreign trade, and Japanese steamers now run on four great routes to Eiu-ope, JSlorth America, South America, and Australia. In addition there are lines between Japanese ports and Korea, Northern China, and the Yangtze River. There are over 7,800 miles of railway, of wliich 5,999 miles are state railways. Religion. There is absolute religious toleration in Japan. The state religion, however, is Shinto, wiiich has neither dogma nor moral code, but com- bines mythology and a politico-religious ritual. Its supreme tenet, however, is the inculcation of im- plicit obedience to the heaven-descended mikado. Buddhism was introduced from Korea in the sLxth century, and has a strong hold on Japan. Confu- cianism, accepted by the educated classes, was formerly the basis of the educational system. There are numerous Christian missions of the Roman Catholic, Greek CathoUc. and Western Protestant Churches, with about 137,000 converts. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of six and fourteen. There are more than 25.000 eleraentar>- schools, with nearly 7.500.000 pupils; more than 700 middle, high, and normal schools, with more than 260.000 pupils; 7,600 special and technical schools, with 394,000 students. The four imperial universities of Tokyo. Kyoto. Tohoku (at Sendai and Sapporo), and Kiushu, have an at- tendance of nearly 10,000 students. Defense. Service in the army and the navy is compulsory and imiversal, I^eginning at the age of 17 and extending to the age of 40. Service in the ranks is on the former German plan, two years in the in- fantry, and three years in other branches, then five (or four) years and four months in the reserve. The reserves are called out twice for training for 60-day periods during their term of ser\ice. Ser\'ice in the second reserve lasts for ten years, with two periods of training of sixty days each. After this the men are enlisted in the home defense army or territorial reserves. The total strength of the field army in 1920 was about 600.000 combatants. The Japanese navy consisted (1920) of nine dreadnoughts, 13 pre- dreadnoughts, 100 destroyers, 43 submarines, besides armored cruisers and other boats. The area of Japan is 148,756 square miles and the population by the first census (1920) was 55.- 961,140. The area and population of the impor- tant Japanese dependencies are as follows; Korea (Chosen) 84,738 square miles, 17,284,207 population; Formosa (Taiwan), 13,944 square miles, 3,654,000 population; and Sakhalui (Karafuto), 13,253 square mile5, 105,765 population; for the whole Japanese Empire a total area of about 260.700 square miles and a total population of 77,005,112. Chronology. 1542 or 1543. Japan flrst visited by a European vessel (Portuguese). 1549. St. Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit missionary, arrives at Kagoshima. Visits Kyoto and other places, remauiing in Japan for more than two years. 1603. lyeyasu, founder of the Tokugawa dy- nasty, becomes shogun, or regent, of the empire. The dignity remains in that family till 1S68. 1605. lyeyasu resigns in favor of liis son Hidetada. 1611. Dutch begin a trade with Japan which is maintained during the period before the country is opened hy treaty in 1854. 1614. Violent persecution of the Christians im- der an edict of lyeyasu on the charge of aiming at the overthrow of the govenmient. [Nagasaki.! 1623. Terrible massacre of the Cliristians occurs in| 1623. Hidetada succeeded by his son lyeraitsii. who completes the dual system of administra- tion instituted by his grandfather. 1639. Portuguese expelled from Japan; Dutch re- stricted in trade and residence t-o Nagasaki. 1651. lyemitsu dies after having completed the extermination of the Christians. Japan re- mains imder the actual government of the sho- gun; the mik^o, the "Divine Emperor," living in Kyoto, is s^oimded by a retinue of daimios, or nobles, and regarded as the foimtain of all honor and power, but without authority in pubhc affairs. Shogun has the actual power in military affairs and state policy. 1659. Edicts prohibiting Christianity. 1700, Episode of the 47 Ronins, classical Japanese example of devotion to one's lord. 1707. Last eruption of Fuji. 1797-1803. Several American vessels sent to Japan by the Dutch, who do not themselves dare trade during the European wars. 1820-1850. A few sliip wrecked Japanese are brought up in Europe and America. 1853. Perry commands an expedition sent by the United States to Japan. 1854. March 31. Perry concludes a treaty of commerce. Like treaties with Great Britain and Russia signed soon afterward. [States | 1860. First Japanese embassy sent to the United I 1860-1S99. Europeans admitted only to "treaty ports," under principle of exterritoriahty. I 1863. Four treaty powers of France, Great Britain, ' Holland, and United States join in pimishing the daimio of Choshi for firing upon their vessels. They demand damages from the shogim, though government disavows actions of its subordinate. 1867-1868. Civil revolution, by which the Jap- anese shogimate is abohshed and the supreme au- thority is vested in the mikado only. Mikado promises a new imperial constitution. Civil war ensues between the imperialists and the partisans of the shogun, which ends in the complete suprem- acy of the former. 1868. Mutsuhito, the mikado, accepted as riding emperor. Beginning of the "Meiji era,*' from the title of the emperor's year period. 1869. Mikado removes his capital to Yeddo, the name of which is changed to Tokyo; he takes be- fore liis nobles the " charter oath." By a decree of the emperor the old daimio and kvge nobihties are abohshed and their revenues assigned to the imperial treasury. 1871. Feudal divisions of old Japan abolished, and administrative prefectures take the place of daimiates. Imperial commission is sent to the United States; a permanent Japanese em- bassy established at Washington. Mint opened at Osaka. First treaty with China. 1872. Mikado dresses in foreign style and informs himself of conditions by personal inspection. Tokyo- Yokohama Railroad, flrst railway in Japan, opened. System of mihtarj' conscription introduced and the army remodeled. July. Imperial proclamation abohshing the old Ji-Gisho, or Board of Religion, and declaring the new religious code of the empire to be foimded 5imply on honor to the gods. love of country, reverence to the emperor, and obedience to duty. Law against nudity in cities. 1873. General post office established and other reformatory measures for the improvement of the civ'l and social administration mtroduced. I Gregorian calendar accepted; prohibition of Chris- tianity withdrawn by an edict of the emperor. 1874. Expedition into interior of Formosa, an island belonging to the Chinese Empire, where the natives had killed ship\\Tecked Japanese sailors and defied the authorities. In Decemlier, Japan- ese troops are withdrawn. Convention con- cluded with China; Formosans pay S700,000 as " consolation money." 1875. Mitsubishi Steamship Company established. Orders of knighthood introduced. July. New treaty concluded with Russia; the island of Saklialin ceded to Russia in exchange for a portion of the Kurile Islands. Proclamation ■ issued by the emperor declaring the final extinc- tion of feudalism. Council of Elder Statesmer (genro) created; becomes the extraconstitutiona body that makes decisions. 1876. Reorganization of the Japanese army com- pleted; the wearing of swords interdicted. February. Treaty negotiated with Korea se- cures satisfaction for outrages or Japanese sub- jects there and recognizes Korea as an autono- mous nation. 1877. Conservatism in Japan produces a tempo- rary reaction against the progressive poUcy of the imperial administration, with alarming symptoms of revolt. In the island of Kiushu the Satsuma clan rises, but is defeated. In September the re- bellion ends. A national exhibition of arts and industries held in Tokyo. Japan joins the Pos- tal L)nion. 1878. Censorship of the Japanese press relaxed. May 14, Okubo Toshimichi, minister of the in- terior, assassinated in Tokyo. Serious mutiny of the soldiers occurs. As a preparation for the anticipated parliamen- tary government of the nation, local assemblies authorized for the discussion of minor adminis- trative matters in each kcti, or prefecture. United States indicates willingness to withdraw exterritoriality, if other powers agree. 1879. Ex-President Grant (U.S.A.) visits Japan. 1880. Serious difficulty with China respecting Japanese rights in the Okinawa (Riukiu or Liukiu) Islands terminated by a peaceable settlement im- der which China resigns her claims to the group. A new ministry is formed as a concession to the conservative reaction. The flrst legal code published; drafted by French publicists. 1881. Department of Agriculture added to the ad- ministrative offices. Postal and telegraph service developed in accordance with European and American methods. Police board created. 1882. Steps by the imperial government for the holding at Bern, Switzerland, of an international conference with a view to revising the harsh and unjust treaty stipulations imposed on Japan by the Western powers. The Kaishinto (Progressive party) and Jiyuto (Lit^eral party), organized. 1883. Commercial treaty with Korea concluded. 1884. Orders of nobility on the European pattern instituted. Americans help to shape coumion school and imi- versity instructibn. English language Intro- duced into the common school curriculum. Consequent upon the rivalry between the Conserv- ative and Liberal parties, pohtical riots break out in wiiich many persons are killed. Owing to the extension of Japanese influence in Korea, two political parties spring up in that kingdom, a pro-Japanese and an anti-Japanese party; and these break into open hostility at Seoul. Koreans agree to pay indemnity for the de- struction of the buildings of the Japanese legation. 1885. Treaty with China ratified. May 7. An international money order agreement made with the United States. German Influence begins to predominate in Japanese reform measures. Cabinet formed by Premier Ito. Department of Posts established. 1886. Law creating Imperial University at Tokyo promulgated . Japan joins International Red Cross. 1887. Building of a war fleet and the work of constructing coast defenses continue with great activity. Peace establishment of the army is in- creased to 59,000. Inoue's negotiations for re- \ision of treaties with European powers fail. 1888. Commercial treaty with Siam. 1889. Fib. 11. New imperial constitution, promised under oath by the mikado, in 1S6S, is promulgated. Constitution, consisting of 76 arti- cles, revolutionizes and modernizes the ancient system, but preserves the empire imder constitu- tional forms, establishing an imperial Diet on the representative plan, and securing to the people the rights of citizenship. Arinori, the progressive minister, assassinated. 1890. July 1. First national election under the new constitution. New government goes into operation imder the direction of a ministry not selected by or responsible to the Diet. [perish. I 1891. Oct. 2S. Great earthquake; about 8,0001 1894. June. China, by invitation, sends troops to Korea, to put down an insurrection: June 9, Japan, protesting that Korea is independent, also 120 NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. 1894-1920. 1894 (continued). ^ sends troops; China refuses to abandon claims of suzerainty. July 25, war begins witli a naval vic- tory for Japan. August 1, both nations declare war. Sept. 15, Japanese capture Pingyang, Chinese fleeing across Yalu River. Sept. 17, in the naval battle of Yalu River Japanese disperse the enemy's fleet. Oct. 25, Japanese army forces the Yalu and invades Manchuria. Nov. 21, O Japanese capture Port Arthur on Liaotung prom- ontory, (see China). July 16. Treaty with Great Britain: flrst release from exterritoriality. Preceded by treaty of 1878 with United States. Both agreements in elTect July 17, 189U. 1895. Feb. 12. Fleet of Admiral Ting surrenders to the Japanese at Weihaiwei. Li Himg Chang sues for peace. Foster, an American, associated as P negotiator. Li Himg Cliang wounded by a Jap- anese. April 17, treaty of peace at Sliimono- seki; China acknowledges the independence of Korea; cession of Formosa, Pescadores, and Port Arthur; money indemnity. Russia, Germany, and France Intervene and prevent the cession of Port Arthur; Japan receives e.xtra indemnity for relinquishing it. QOct. 8. Murder of Queen Mln of Korea, who has espoused reaction against Japanese " re- forms," affects Japanese prestige. Japanese steamer line to Australia established. 189J. Oct. 1. Gold standard adopted. 1898. January. Marquis Ito, assisted by the per- sonal intervention of the mikado, forms a cabinet independent of party lines. In Jime this ministry resigns. Okuma cabinet succeeds, but gives way R to one headed by Yamagata in November. April So. Agreement with Russia on Korea, which is temporarily placed outside Russia's sphere. 1899. JnJy 17. Treaties recognizing Japan as one of the " family of nations " go into effect Courts are reorganized and legal codes revised on the German model, foreigners no longer Umited to treaty courts or enjoy exterritoriality. S1900. Bo.xer rising (see China). September. Yamagata ministry gives place to one headed by Ito. 1901. Premier Ito, with all his cabinet, except the minister of war, resigns on May 1, owing to the failure of the fhiance minister to carry out ex- pected puljlic works. Succeeded as premier by Katsura Taro. Owing to the failure of the Clii- ^ nese market and heavy expenditures for pubUc I works, a serious financial stringency results. Remarkable revival of interest in Christianity. 1903. Jan. SO. Treaty with Great Britain. First alliance with a Western power. Japan recog- tiized as occupying special status in the Orient; mutual promise of military and naval aid in case of Asiatic complications, if either is attacked by more than one nation. U 190.3. Russia attempts to gain a foothold In ■^ Korea. Japan's vigorous protest leads to negoti- ations. Japan insists on tfie maintenance of sov- ereignty of China in Manchuria and a recognition of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea; Russia proposes a neutral zone in Korea, and in- sists that Japan recognize Manchuria as outside her sphere of interest. Each prepares for war. . . 1904. Feb. 6. Diplomatic relations with Rassia V severed. February 8-9, the Japanese attack the Russian Beet near Port Arthur. February 10, war formally declared. Active naval operations in which Japan has the advantage. Several ships smxk by mines. Au- gust 10, Japanese injure the Port Arthur fleet. August 14, Vladivostok fleet badly damaged by the Japanese. A/ Feb. S. Land operations. Occupation of Iforea begins by the landing of Japanese troops at Chemulpo. April 28, Japanese force under Kuroki crosses the Yalu into Manchm-ia. In May, a siege of Port Arthur begins. August 13- November 30, series of desperate assaults on Port Arthur. August 25, Japanese attack on Kuropat- kin at Klaoyang; a Japanese victory. Russian Karmy conducts an orderly retreat. October 2, battle of Shakho River begins; ten days' hard fighting. July. Russians seize several British merchant- men in the Mediterranean and sink a British steamer off Tokyo. British protest causes release of the captured vessels and a revision by Russia of her classification of contraband of war. Oct. li. Baltic fleet sails from Revel, Russia, for the Par East. Octoter 21, near the Dogger Y Bank it flres on trawlers from England. War with Great Britain seems possible, but the matter is referred to an international commission, which, in 1905, decides that Russia must indemnify the trawlers. Baltic fleet proceeds and in December reaches Indian Ocean. [Arthur.] 1905. Jan. 1. General Stossel surrenders PortI Feb. 20. Japanese under Oyama begin a series Zof engagements lasting imtil March 15, known as the battle of Mukden. About 400.000 men are engaged on the Russian side and .500,000 on the Japanese. Battle line extends over 100 miles. Japanese occupy Mukden on March 10. Rus- sians fall back 150 miles. Kuropatkin resigns and is succeeded by Linevich. July 31, the Russian forces on Saklialin siu-rendcr. The Baltic fleet, under RozhestvenskI, after meeting the second squadron imder Neljogatov, sails northward. Togo, in command of Japanese fleet, makes his attack off Tsushima island in the eastern channel of Korea Strait, May 27-28; prac- tical annihilation of the Russian fleet. 20 ships captiu'ed or sunk. Russia and Japan both weary of war, and find difflculty in raising money. Hence they suggest or welcome (June 8) President Roosevelt's identic note suggesting a peace conference and offering his services. First meeting August 9. Ports- mouth, New Hampshire. Peace is arranged upon the basis of recognition of Japanese pre- ponderant mfluence in Korea, evacuation of Man- cluu'ia by both armies, the transfer to Japan of Russia's lease of Port Arthur, return of civil ad- ministration of Manchuria to China, transfer to Japan of Chinese Eastern Railway, and the posses- sion of southern Sakhalm by the Japanese. Treaty a great disappointment to the Japanese masses, and riots break out in Tokyo, which are sup- pressed by martial law. Aug. 12. Treaty between Japan and England renewed; agam renewed JiUy 13, 1911. Recog- nizes Japan as an Asiatic power. 1906. January. Famine develops in the northern provinces; enormous loss of life. Generous finan- cial aid received from the United States. 1907. Feb. 20. Anti-Japanese legislation California and gentlemen's agreement with the United States government on emigration (see United States). July IS. At the suggestion of Japan, the em peror of Korea abdicates in favor of the crown prince. Rioting of Koreans in Seoul and else- where. July 24. agreement at Seoul by which all legislation and all important executive acts are subject to the approval of the Japanese residents general, Korea's autonomy thus coming to an end. 1908. Jan. 25. Emigration of laborers to Hawaii discouraged by the government. Feb. 29. Japan demands and receives of China indemnity and apology for seizure of Tatsu Maru, a Japanese vessel with a cargo of arms. June 16. Japan confiscates the property of the emperor of Korea. October. Visit of I'nited States fleet of war vessels. Nov. SO. Exchange of notes (Root-Takahira) with United States on common poHcy of develop- ment of Pacific and integrity of China. Not sub- mitted to tlie United States Senate, but considered as establishing a pledge. 1909. June. Prince Henry of Prussia visits Japan. Oct. 26. Ito, retiuTiing from Korea, assassi- nated by a Korean. 1910. July. Japan gives notice that all commer- cial treaties will be terminated a year hence. July 1. Port Arthur opened to all nations. July If. Russo-Japanese entente treaty concluded; status quo in Manchioria. July 22. Treaty is signed with Korea by wliich Korea is annexed to Japan as the provmce of Chosen. 1911. Jan. IS. Twenty-foiu' conspirators against the lives of the crown prmce and officers of the imperial household condemned to death. July 13. New Anglo-Japanese treaty, to last ten years, signed in London. Aug. 25. Katsura resigns the premiership; a new cabinet formed by Saionji. 1912. July 30. Mutsiihito dies and his son, Yo- shihlto, ascends the throne. Sept. 13. Simultaneously with the fimeral ceremonies of the emperor. General NogI and his wife, in accordance with an ancient custom, com- mit suicide as a final tribute to the emperor. Sept. 22. Worst typhoon for half a century sweeps Japan, himdreds of lives being lost and $20,000,000 damage bemg inflicted. Dec. 4. Premier Saionji and cabinet resign. December 17, Katsura is directed by the emperor to form a cabinet. 1913. Feb. 5. Vote of censm-e on the government imder Katsura carried amid great tumult. Em- peror suspends the session of the Diet. Feb-. ruary 10, political rioting in the streets of Tokyo; Premier Katsiu-a stoned, btu'eaucratic newspaper offices and the dwellings of the minis- ters attacked. Feb. 12. Yamamoto appoints premier, and forms coalition ministry. April. Proposed California antlallen land legislation bitterly resented in Japan ; war threats by extremists. Formal protest to the United States, May 9. Bill signed May 19, the United States replying to Japan that the measiu*e in no wise infringes treaty rights. Renewed protests are made on June 4, August 26, and September 30 (see United States). Sept. 26. Japan sends ultimatum to China, demanding satisfaction within three days for at- 1 tack at Nanking; several Japanese killed and tho Japanese flag insulted. September 28, formal apology and reparation. 1914. Jan. 11-is. Sudden eruption of Saku- rajlma, after being quiescent for 130 years. Feb. 10. Naval scandal, growing out of com- missions to naval oflJcers for influencmg admiralty contracts m favor of a German firm. Serious rioting In Tokyo. Vote of no confidence re- jected by the Diet after a turbulent debate. In -■^pi-il, Okuma forms a cabinet. Aug. 15. Japan sends an ultimatum to Ger- many to deliver up Kiaochow to her; Japan to hold it in trust for t.'luna tmtil the end of the war. Receivmg no reply, Japan declares war on Germany, August 23 (24, Tokyo time). Diplo- matic relations severed with Austria-Hungary. (For the World War, see that title.) Oct. 7. Japanese force occupies Marshall Is- lands in the Pacific. 1915. January. Japan presents demands for con- cessions in China (see China). March 18. Japan informed by Great Britam, France, Russia, and mdependently by the United States, that diplomatic relations will be diflScult to maintam if she msists on pressmg more demands upon China (see China). March 25. Government party returned at the elections with mcreased strength. Women participate in the electoral campaign for the flrst time in Japanese liistory. June 1. House approves the government's militarj' program, increasing the standing army. July SO. Okuma cabinet resigns, following the investigation into bribery charges in connection with March elections. August 8, resignation with- drawn at request of emperor; cabinet reorganized. Nov. 10. Emperor Yosblhlto crowned at Kyoto. 1916. Jan. 13. Premier Okuma narrowly escapes two bombs in Tokyo. June I. New factory law becomes effective, markmg the flrst step in the protection of women and children workers. Oct. 3. Okuma resigns premiership; Terau- chi requested by the emperor to form a ministry. Nov. 3. Hirohito, eldest son of the emperor, installed as crown prince. 1917. April 20. House Of Representatives having refused to vote confidence in the Terauclii cabinet, new elections give the government 217 seats, the opposition 161. Nov. 2. Lansing-Ishii agreement regarding American and Japanese policies toward Cliina is made at Washington, recognizing Japan's "spe- cial interests." Not submitted to ratification by United States Senate. 1918. May. Sino-Japanese military compact im- der which Japan secures many privileges in China. July. Japan accepts American proposals for intervention In Siberia. Aug. 17. Government takes over the rice supply of the country after several days of rioting. Sept. 21. Terauchi resigns as premier. Sep- tember 30, Hara, leader of the Seiyukai party, be- comes premier. 1919. Jan. IS. Japan has five delegates at the Peace Conference at Paris. She is admitted as one of the five principal powers. Jan. 20. Emperor of Korea dies in Tokyo. February-April. Korean peasants rise in a " passive revolution," demandmg independ- ence. Put down by Japanese troops. Many atrocities are reported. Provisional revolutionary government for the " Republic of Korea." April 19. Publication of proposed secret Ger- man-Japanese treaty. April SO. Supreme Cotmcil at Paris jields to Japan's claims in the Chinese province of Shan- tung, Japanese peace delegates havmg threatened to withdraw from the conference. May. Anti-Japanese movement begins in China ; boycottmg of Japanese goods. May 6. Japan given a mandate for the Ger- man islands in the Pacific north of the equator. Aug. 26. Japanese make demonstration against peace delegates for not securing provisions of racial equality m Treaty of 'Versailles. Oct. SO. Ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. 1920. Jan. 14. Announcement to China that Japan has succeeded to the German rights in Shantung by virtue of the Peace Treaty and de- mands direct negotiation in accordance with the demands of 1915. Jan. 18. Representatives of Japan participate in the opening ceremony of the League of Nations. Jan. 19. Renewed demands on China for direct negotiations in regard to Shantung. China refuses to parley, Januarj' 26. Feb. 9. Russian Bolshevists said to foster re- beUion in Korea. Feb. 14. Uproar in Japanese Diet on universal suffrage. Demonstrations in Tokyo last for two weeks. Feb. 28. Diet dissolved by an imperial decree leaving Premier Hara In power. NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLAVIA. 121 JUGO-SLAVIA: KINGDOM OF THE SERBS, CROATS, AND SLOVENES. Historical Outline. At the outbreak of the World War the Serbs in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were geographically subdivicled. and in a position of political inferiority to the Germans in their half of the empire and the Him- garians in then- half. A proposition to rearrange the empire into three groups — German, Himgarian, and Slav — was supposed to be favored by Francis Ferdi- nand, heir to the throne, at the time of his assassina- tion The Slavs numbered 27,000,000 out of 51,- 000,000 in the empire ; yet were in a minority in both the Austrian and Himgarian diets. In the Himga- rian part of the empire, the Slavs with the adjacent Bo.snians and Herzegorinians numbered 7,300,000, besides 2,800,000 Roumanians, out of a total popula- tion of 23,000,000. Yet the Himgarians were work- ing systematically to root out their languages, tradi- tions, and nationality. Only the Croatians received any favor at the hands of their masters. A Slav propaganda went on under the surface. In 1903 a set of treason trials at .^gram revealed a se- cret organization. The Serbian kingdom across the Drave was gaining ground and had the ambition to draw away the Serbs out of Himgary into a large Serb state. The Bosnians and Herzegovinians, who emerged from their age-long tliralldom to Turkey in '1878, were also Slavs and they joined forces with their blood brethren. The war of 1914 was directly due to the growing fear on the part of the empire that the Serbians would imite with the Serbs in Himgary, and was aimed at the destruction of the fountain of such in- fluence. In the World War the Croat, Slav, and Bosnian troops, forced into service, had no desire to fight tlie Russian Slavs, and surrendered in large numbers. They felt no such hesitation with regard to Italy, wliich as soon as she came in (1915) began to plant herself in Albania. By the secret Treaty of London (April 2(5, 1915), the Italians were promised a large slice of territory inhabited by Slavs, in- cluding the coast of Dalmatia. No opportunity came for a combined Slav move- ment till Austria-Hungary coUapsed, in 1918 Then the fragments came together. Serbia, as an organized state, was the nucleus. The Montene- grins, who are Serbs in all but name, threw in their lot with Serbia. The Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, and Dalmatians were at last free to imite with them in a Jugo-Slav nation organized under the name of the " Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and .Slovenes," headed by Prince Alexander of Serbia as regent. Their state is popularly known as Jugo-Slavia. Many difficulties and rivalries developed inside this combination of peoples, whose only common na- tional bond for ages had been the former va.ssalage to Turkey. The great obstacle to imion was the Italian demand for the whole coast of Dalmatia imder the Treaty of London ; and then their still more serious claim to Flume, the natural port of Croatia, and the only port, on that part of the coast coimected with the interior by a first-class railway. Government. No constitution has been adopted for the new imifled state. The legislative Assembly consists partly of Serbian deputies, who were elected before the first Balkan War, and partly of delegates appointed from the new territories. According to the constitution of the former Serbian kingdom, no measure can become a law imless adopted by one half of the Assembly. As it has been impossible to obtain such a majority, there has been almost a con- tinuous conflict between the legislature and the suc- cessive cabinets. The estimated area of Jugo-SIavia is 101,254 square miles and the population is about 14,361 ,000. Chronology. For earlier history of the states and peoples com- posing Jugo-Slavia, see Serbh, etc., below. 1915. ApnlJO. Secret Treaty of London between the Allies and Italy before the latter enters the World War promises to Italy the territories of Gorz (Gorizia), Trieste, Istria (without Plume), most of Dalmatia, and most of the islands along the lUyrian coast: rest of Dalmatian coast to be neutralized, saving existing rights of Montenegro: Italy to have Bay of Avlona and virtual control over rest of Albania : rest of coast north of Albania to be in Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro. 1916. Aug. 17. By the treaty under which Rou- niania enters the war on the side of the Allies, she is promised the region of the Banat. 1917. Jan. 10. The reply of the Allies to Wilson's peace note mentions liberation of the Slavs from foreign domination as one of the aims of the war. JuUj iO. Derlaration of Corfu for the free and independent kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (commonly called Jugo-Slavla) : equal religious and alphabet rights, Gregorian cal- endar, freedom of Adriatic Sea, territory to extend over all the region where Jugo-Slavs are " living in compact masses," Declaration is signed by Pashic, premier of Serbia, and Trumbic, president of the Jugo-Slav Conmiittee of the Austrian States. 1918. March 2. Meetuig at Wagram, Including Jugo-Slav members of Austrian Parhament and also of Croatian Diet, demands a national and in- dependent state of Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs. April III. Pact of Rome, drawn up by a Con- gress of Oppressed Austrian Nationalities; declaration that unity of Jugo-Slavs is vital to Italy and the deliverance of the Adriatic Sea from any enemy is vital to Jugo-Slavs and ItaUans. May 2'J. United States expresses earnest sympatiiy with the national aspirations of Jugo- slavs. June 4. Supreme War Coimcil at Paris adheres to the above expression. Sept. 9. Italian governnient addi-esses a note to the Allied governments approving of Jugo-Slav movement for independence. Oct. 11. Emperor Cliarles issues manifesto of intention to unite Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina in one state. Oct. -^u. Croatian Diet declares tile inde- pendence of the " kingdom of Dalmatia. Slo- venia, Fiume, and Croatia." After the armistice Italian troops occupy Fiume and other places not included in the armistice, and friction begins. Oct. SI. Bosnia and Herzegovma join Serbia, Nov. S. Austrian armistice reciuires the evacu- ation of Gorz (Gorizia), Trieste, Istria, and Dal- matia, which Itahan troops occupy for the Allies. Nov. 7. Meeting at Geneva of .Serbian minis- ters, leaders of Serbian opposition, and delegates from the National Coimcil of the Austrian Slavs : recognition of Serl>Croat-Slovene nation as a ijiel- ligerent and friendly power to be asked of the Allies pending formalities of final union with Serbia. Nov. 2^ National Coimcil at Agram appoints as regent Prince Alexander of Serbia (acting sovereign) and votes for imion with .Serbia; protest is made against Italian occupation of Fiume. Dec. 1. Great National Assembly (Skupshtina) of Montenegro deposes King Nicholas and votes to unite with Serbia. Delegation from National Council protects Itahan occupation of Jugo-Slav territorj-, dechning to ac- knowledge validity of Treaty of London Jugo- slav ministry is formed with Pashic as premier. Dec. is. OfHcial statement of Jugo-Slav claims: asserts right to Dalmatia (767,708 Slavs, 108,147 Italians): Istria (224,000 Slavs, 145,516 Italians): Gorz, and Trieste, which, though itself Itahan, is considered a component and indivisible part of the whole Jugo-Slav hinterland: also the Bdndt, wliich Roumania contests. 1919. Jan.B. United Serb-Croat-Siovene King- dom Is formed at Belgrade by representatives of Serbia, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herze- govina, Croatia-Slavonia, and Slovenia, Fchruary- March. Following an incident at Laibach, Italy estabhshes a partial blockade of entry of food supplies into Jugo-Slavia: trouble is adjusted by the Supreme Coimcil at Paris. Like- wise a contest within Jugo-Slavia over question of erecting a federalized state or a centralized one under control of Serbia, [Siavia. I Feb. 7. United States recognizes Jugo-I April S.i. Wilson issues a statement on the Fiume controversy, supporting Jugo-Slav claim to it and eastern part of Istria. with various is- lands: denies vaUdity of the Treaty of London as no longer applicable, Italy claims the city and suburbs because of Italian majority in the city and need of protection against Jugo-Slav aggression, Jugo-Slavs claim the city because it is their main and only advantageous port (Italy having Tri- este) and the suburbs and hinterland are over- whelmingly Slav. France and Great Britain in- clined to yield to Italian claim, Jugo-Slavia to be compensated from Dalmatian claim of Italy under Treaty of London. April g4. Itahan delegates leave the Peace Conference because of Fiume controversy, but re- turn on May 6. Sept. 10. Peace of Saint-Germain between Austria and Allies makes the boundarj- with Italy and Jugo-Slavia approximately the Drave River, Austria recognizes independence of Jugo-Slavia. Klagenfurt area to hold a plebiscite on question of attachment to Austriaor Jugo-Slavia. Hungarian treaty is delayed by lack of stable government. Sept. 17. Occupation of Fiume by irregular Italian troops imder d'Annunzio without orders from the Italian government, to prevent abandon- ment of the claim. Occupation, strongly sup- ported by Italian opinion, continues in spite of verbal threats of Italian government, Nov. 16. D'Annimzio seizes Zara in Dalmatia, 1930. Jan. 7. Agreement reached by premiers of Great Britain, France, and Italy for giving Is- tria to Italy: Fiume to be a free city of Italian character, with neutralization of port, and railway under control of League of Nations: Italy to give up most of the islands and Dalmatia, except Zara, Jugo-Slavia given the choice between this and the Treaty of London. Jan. 15. Peace Treaty of NeuUly handed to Hungarian delegates. Himgary to agree to accept such boundaries with Jugo-Slavia as are assigned. Supreme Council assigns most of the Bdndt to Roumania, but southern portion to Jugo-Slavia. Jan. 20. Jugo-Slavia agrees to the neutraliza- tion, but adlieres to M'ilson's boundaries. Feb. I J. Wilson threatens to withdraw the peace treaty from the Senate if the Allied gov- ernments settle the Adriatic problem without American conciuTcnce. April 24. Though Italy and Jugo-Slavia agree at San Remoupon Fiume as a bulTer state with- out continuity of territory with Italy, the French and British premiers do not agree, and the negoti- ations continue. JTJGG-SLAVIA: COMPONENT PARTS. SERBIA. Historical Outline. Two of the sections of Jugo-Slavia. Montenegro and Serbia, have had a testing as independent king- doms. Serbia was in 1914 an inland kingdom of southeastern Europe, in the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The population was chiefly Slav, but included some Croats, Bulgars, Slovenes, Monte- negrins, Albanians, and Turks. The history of the Serbs dates from the middle of the 7th century, when they became settled in the Balkan Peninsula. By the 12th century they acknowiedged the suze- rainty of 1 he Byzantine emperors. The most glorious era of Sert »ia, however, was in the 14th century when, imder Stephen Dushan (1331-1355), " Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks." an attempt was made to establish a Serbian empire, wliich should include Serbia. Greece, and Bulgaria. Stephen's object was to prevent the Turks from gaining a foothold in Eu- rope, for wliich he ijlamied to secure Constantinople : but he died in 1355. His successor was overwhelmingly defeated by the Turks (1389) in the battle of Kossovo. For the next three centuries and a half Serbia was a Turkish de- pendency, suffering all the evils of the rule of the' lawless and corrupt pashas. The Serbians' struggle for independence began in 1804 with the election of Czemy Djordje, or Kara Georg ( " Black George "), as commander in chief of the Serbian nation. Under his command the Serbs succesded in exTpelling the Turks, and by 1807 the sultan was forced to otTer them self-government. On the advice of Russia tills was refused: but when Russia, attacked by Napoleon in IS12, was forced to conclude the Treaty of Bucharest, no provisioc was made for Serbia, which was reconquered by Turkey. Another insurrection occurred in 1S15 and two years later Serbia regained her autonomy, wliich was recog- nized by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829. Between 1830 and 1879 Serbia was becoming uni- fied and was struggling for independence. Under Prince Michael in 1867, after an imderstanding had been arrived at with other Balkan states and prov- inces for an attack upon the Turkish power, Serliia demanded that Turkey should withdraw from Bel- grade and all other Serb fortresses. To prevent a general uprising. Great Britain intervened and com- pelled Turkey to submit. As a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) a greater Bulgaria was created. This dissatisfied and alarmed the Serbs. Although tlie Congress of Ber- lin reduced the territories assigned to their neighbor, it failed to satisfy the ambition of the Serbs. From 1879 Serbia developed her internal resources and al- though defeated by Bulgaria in a brief war in 1SS5. she prospered. In 1903 King Alexander, who had suspended the constitution of 1889 and was ruling despotically, was assassinated, together with Queen Draga: and Peter Karageorgevich. who had planned the murder, was proclaimed king. In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. These provinces contained a large Serb population: and since Austria under the terms of the Congress of Berlin was entitled only to " occupation and admin- istration." Serbia hoped that they might become a part of a greater Serbia. In 1912 the Balkan League, consisting of Monte- negro. Serbia. Greece, and Bulgaria was formed, and war was declared by Serbia on Turkey. October 17 (see TrRKEv). The leading spirit in Serbia was the premier. Pashic. The allies won every pitched bat- tle and captured every besieged fortress and occu- pied Monastir and other strongholds in Macedonia, and on the Adriatic occupied the port of Durazzo in defiance of Austria. Together with the Bulgarians, the Serbians captiu-ed Adrianople (March 26. 1913). which forced Turkey to accept their terms. By the Treaty of London. Turkey was expelled from the Balkans : but by the terms dictated by the great pow- ers, the so-called independent kingdom of Albania was planted upon the Adriatic. Bulgaria, appar- ently imder the Instigation of Austria, treacherously attacked her former allies, but was defeated, and Serbia gained a large portion of Macedonia. Serbia felt that Austria had prevented her legiti- mate expansion in Bosnia and on the Adriatic. Austria regarded Serbia as a dangerous neighbor who 122 NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLAVIA. was attempting to unite all the southern Slavs in M Austria-Hungary under her protection. On June 28 ' 1914. the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, together with his wife, was assassi nated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Although the crime was done by an Austrian subject. Austria held the Serbian nation responsible and on July 23 presented a humihating ultimatimi of ten demands wliich commanded Serbia to suppress all Pan-Ser^ Obian propaganda and all newspapers and societies ^^■hioh fosU*red hatred and conttnipt for the Austrian t-'nvcrnnient. ]\Ioreo\'er, Au.stria demanded that Scrliia should accept Austrian assistance in investi- gating and punishing the perpetrators of the crime of Sarajevo. Although England attempted to obtain a modification of the terms, Austria refused. Even after Serbia submitted. Austria mobilized her forces and declared war. This step led directly to the p World War of 1914-18. In the first year of the war, the Austrian armies of invasion were repeatedly thrown back. In 1915 a combined force of Austrians and Germans, fresh from their success in Russia, invaded Serbia. Greece, wliich was boimd to come to her aid. refused luider the unconstitutional influence of King Constantine. the brother-in-law of the German kaiser. Thus Ser- Qbia, deserted by her allies and attacked on the north, and by the Bulgarians on the cast, was conquered and utterly crushed with indescribable cruelty. What was left of her army was transported to the island of Corfu, where it was refitted and in 1918 joined with the Allies in the attack upon Bulgaria, which surrendered September 30. Organization. R Government. Before the World War the consti- tution of Serbia provided for a king, assisted by a council of ministers who were individually and col- lectively responsible to the National Assembly. The National Assembly (Narodna Skupshtina) was composed of 166 deputies elected by male citi- zens of 21 years of age who paid a small tax. Elec- tions took place every four years and the assembly Smet annually. This assembly, includmg popidar elements, was verj' representative of national feeling. The leading Serbian statesman was Pashic. Industry and Labor. More than four fifths of the Serbians are peasant farmers, the great majority of whom cultivate small farms of their own. Indian corn is the principal crop and is used for food and as fodder for the swine, which are the principal export. Wheat, flax, hemp, and tobacco are also raised, and I the sugar beet was successfully introduced in 1900, Religion. The state religion is the Greek Ortho- dox, which has nearly 3,000,000 adherents. There are 8,000 Roman Catholics, SOO Protestants. 6,000 Jews, and 14,000 Moslem Turks and Gypsies. Com- plete liberty of conscience is allowed. Education. Education is compulsory and free in all primary schools under the ministry of educa- tion. In 1900, however, less than 17% of the people could read and write. In fact the country has al- most no schools. The luiiversity at Belgrade had (1920) SO professors and 7.250 students. Defense. Before the World War, military serv- ice was compulsory and universal between the ages of 18 and 5.5, but the recruits joined at 21 and com- plet-ed their military service at 45. Serbia was able - _ to muster an army of 500,000 men. During the V World War 757.000 troops were raised and the casu- alties were 369,000. After the Treaty of Bucharest, which closed the second Balkan War, the area of Serbia was 33,891 square miles and its population 4,615,567. Chronology. For Serbia before the 19th century. \A/ see Bulgaria and Turkey. 1804. Under Czemy Djordje (Kara Georg), founder of the Karageorgevich family, the Serbi- ans rise against the Janizaries, then against Turk- ish rule. Interest in their great national past is revived. 1813. Serbian rebellion crushed* following the withdrawal of Russian aid. X1830. Milos Obrenovii", foimderof the Obrenovic family, after fighting the Turks fifteen years and assassinating Czerny Djordje, is recognized by the Porte as prince of Serbia, which is made an autonomous province. 1831. National Chmxh established. Serbia now free from Turks in politics and from Greeks in re- ligion, [pressed. I 1835. First constitution granted and then sup- 1 Y 1839. Forced abdication of ]Milos Obrenovic. His son Michael succeeds. 1842. Michael deposed and replaced by Alexander, son of Czerny Djordje. 1858. Alexander deposed, and Milos recalled. 18G0. Milos dies, and is succeeded by his son Mi- chael, who is a.ssassinated in ISGS, and is suc- ceeded by Milan, a minor, who, as IVfilan I., be- Z comes Serbia's most able modem ruler. ISfi?. Turks still maintain garrisons in Serbia. Belgrade is bombarded. For this the Turks have to withdraw entirely in 1SG7. U 1869. Jvhj 11. A constitution is proclaimed. 1876. July 1. Serbian troops cross the frontier to attack Turkey, but are crushed at Aleksinac, Oc- tober 31. 1878. July 13. Independence of Serbia recog- nized by the Congress of Berlin. 1883. Serbia declares itself a kingdom. 1885. Novembfr. Serbia, attacking Bulgaria, is decisively defeated at the battle of Slivnica, November 17-19. Austria saves Serbia from in- vasion. 1889. New constitution is granted Milan ab- dicates (March 6) in favor of his son Alexander. 1894. April 13. By a coup d'etat. King Alexander takes personal charge: on May 21 he restores the less liberal constitution of 1869. 1901. Conservative constitution: bicameral As- sembly. 1803. June 11. Army oflScers assassinate King Alexander and Queen Draga for benefit of Peter. Obrenovic family is extmguished. June 16. Peter Karageorgevich. grandson of Czemy Djordje (Kara Georg), is declared king. 1906. Customs imion with Bulgaria. June i-'i. King Peter declares radical consti- tution of 1SS9 restored. 1908. Serbians excited by the action of Austria- Himgar>- in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina and by proclamation of Bulgarian independence. 1909. January 16. Cabinet resigns for the third time within a fortnight. March IS. Great Britain, France, and Russia demand that Serbia enter upon peaceable ne- gotiations with Austria-Himgary. March 25, Crown Prince George resigns his right to the suc- cession in favor of his brother Alexander. March 30. Serbia accepts the proposals of the powers, thus ending the political crisis. 1912-1913. For first Balkan War, see Turret. Austria keeps Serbia from an outlet to the sea. 1913. For second Balkan War, see Bulgaria. 1914. Feb. 17. Diplomatic relations with Bulgaria are resumed. March 14- Treaty of peace is signed with Turkey at Constantinople. Juhj 3S. Austria declares war on Serbia. For the World Wah, see that title. 1915. February. Epidemics of tj-phus and typhoid extending over the whole of Serbia are reported. April 1. American Red Cross sends experts from New York to fight the disesise devastating Serbia. April 3-5. Bulgarian irregulars raid the fron- tier. Bidgaria disclaims responsibility. Mny 24. Army reorganized: Great Britain and France supply it abimdantly with artillery and ammunition. October- December. The country is entirely overrun by the troops of the Central Powers; the remnant of the army escapes through Monte- negro and Albania to the coast, whence they are conveyed to Corfu and there reorganized; later they participate in the Saloniki advance. Gov- ernment also establishes itself at Corfu. 1917. June 26. Cabinet is reorganized, Pashi6 re- maining premier. 1918. Nov. 1. Serbian armj' reoccupies Belgrade. 1919. July IS. King Peter returns to Serbia. The country is incorporated into the new king- dom of Jugo-Slavia. CROATIA AND SLAVONIA. Historical Outline. Among the Slavic tribes that settled in central Ger- many the Croatians found their way into the land south of the middle Drave. Alongside of it to the eastward was the similar settlement of the Slavo- nians. In recent times the two were imited as a double province of the Hungarian portion of the Austro-Himgarian Monarchy. The territory ex- tends from the Drave and the Danube to the in- closed reaches of the Adriatic above Dalmatia. The twin peoples were blood brethren of the Serb- ians, Bosnians, and Montenegrins. Their common liistor>' is that they were won for Christianity through the Roman Church in the ninth century. In the tenth century they were con- quered by the kings of the Hungarians, who gave themselves the title of Kings of Croatia and Dalma- tia. Later a king of Croatia. Dalmatia, and Sla- vonia was set up by the Himgarian sovereign (who was also sovereign of Austria) in order to organize the frontier against the Turks. Nevertheless. Bos- nia and its sister provinces Herzegovina. Croatia, and Slavonia were conquered and occupied by the Turks. The Venetians succeeded in holding the strip of Dalmatian coast. Slavonia was till 1745 a military province. Napoleon, by his crushing \ictories in Italy and Austria, forced the Austrian government to >ield to him, by the Treaty of Schonbrunn, or Vienna (Oct. 14, 1809), the Dalmatian coast and a broad belt extending inland which he called the " Il!>Tian Provinces." This was the most enlightened gov- ernment that these lands had ever known, but it was their misfortime to be restored to Austria by the Treaty of Vienna, in 1815. From that time onward for a hundred years the Hungarians made it their policy to Magy arize their Serbian subjects. The result was that when, in 1S4S. the Hungarians were fighting for their inde- pendence against Austria, the Croats sided with the tifrmans. For this service they received no rew^ard. Every effort was made to break up their national traditions. After the defeat of Austria by Prussia in 1S66. the Dual Monarchy was formed, and Hun- gary reluctantly granted to Croatia (1808) an organ- ized government with ministers and a legislature. A similar system was set up for Slavonia. In 1908 the Himgarian government prosecuted, convicted, and put to death several of the Croatians on a charge of plotting for the independence of their coimtry. The Croatian-Slavonians ardently sympa- thized with the protests against the formal incor- porating into the monarchy of Bosnia and Herzego- vina, wliich they had hoped to see develop into a part of a new Serb state. They were much aroused by the Serbian victories over the Turks in 1912 and 1913. The double province of Croatia-Slavonia is a re- gion which in the midst of barren momitains incloses considerable areas of fruitful soil, and there are vari- ous minerals in the mountams. The inliabitants are a lively agricultural people. In the European wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Croat cavalry was celebrated for its braverj^ and its cruelty to noncombatants. The area of the double province is about 16.000 square miles. Before the' World War. the population was about 2,600,000 people, nearly all of them of Serb stock. Chronology. 1648. Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, Slavic tribes of the san^e speech and customs, have been sepa- rated by difTerent rule, religion, and alphabet. Slovenes and Croats, Catholics and using Latin alphabet, are under the Hapsbui^s in Austria and Hungary. Some Serbs, Orthodox (Greek Church) and using the C>TilIic alphabet, are far- ther east in the Bdnat and elsewhere imder Hun- gary. The remainder of the Jugo-Slavs are imder Tm-key; mostly Orthodox, but some Mohanmie- dans. Montenegro and Ragusa are independent. Dalmatian coast and islands are imder Venice; farther inland the Turks govern. Fiume. formerly part of Croatia, is a separate royal Hungarian city. Croatia is autonomous, under Himgar>', in domestic affairs. (See Serbia and ^Montenegro.) 1690. Aug. '21. " Privileges of the Serbs " in Hun- gary issued, forming a legal basis of autonomy; not put in operation. 1718. July 21. By Peace of Passarowitz (Poz- arevac) Turkey cedes her portion of Dalmatia to Venice. 1797. Oct. 17. Venetian Republic being sup- pressed by Treaty of Campoformido, Dahnatia is ceded to Austria. 1809. Oct. 14. By Peace of Schonbrunn (Vienna) Austria cedes Camiola, Dalmatia. Istria, Fiume. Gorz iGorizia). Trieste, and parts of Cartnthia and Croatia, w'hich are formed into the Sia\ic Prov- inces of Illyria, part of Napoleon's kingdom of Italy. Ragusa is added in 181 1. Region is reoc- cupled by Austria in 1813 and returned to her rule by Congress of Vienna. 1840. Evidence of intention of Himgary to intro- duce Magyar as official language in Croatia-Sla- vonia is counteracted by promotion of a union of " IlljTian Slavs." 1844. Hungary abolishes the prerogatives of the Serbian (Orthodox) Church m and aroimd the BduAt, and requires Magyar as official language of church administration. 1848. Revolutionary year offers opportunities to the Serb people. Himgarian revolt is anti-Slav, and Serbs and Croats imite ip demanding recogni- tion ; Austria humors them imtil Hungary is sub- dued and then continues the policy of repression. Croatia-Slavonia and Fiume are separated from Hungary in 1849 and ruled as a single Austrian crownland. 1867. By the Dual-Monarchy Ausgleich the Serbo-Croats of Dalmatia and Istria, and the Slo- venes of Caniiola, Carinthia, St>Tia, and Gorz (Gorizia) are grouped in Austria: and the Croats of Croatia Slavonia and the Serbs of the Bdndt, Bacs-Bodrog, and Baranya are included in Hun- gary; Germans and Magyars dividing the Slavs in order the better to keep them repressed. 1868, June 25. Hungary agrees to a local Diet In Croatia-Slavonia, and to Serbo-Croatian as official language; Croatia-Slavonia acknowledges "Himgarian sovereignty, pays part of revenue to Himgary. and is represented in the Parliament. Resistance to Hungarian control continues. 1870. Fiume is separated from Croatia-Slavonia; becomes again a royal free town of Hungary. 1878. July 13. By Treaty of Berlin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, inhabited by Catholic, Orthodox, and Moslem Serbo-Croats. are continued nomi- nally under Turkish sovereignty; but Austria- Hungary is given a mandate of administration; NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLA VIA — LIBERIA. 123 1878 (continued). this checks plans for Greater Croatia as well as Greater Serbia and helps to develop a united Jugo- slav sentiment and movement. 1908. Oct. .5. Austria-Hungary annexes Bos- nia and Herzegovina (see Nineteenth-Century Period, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, below). MONTENEGRO. Historical Outline. Montenegro, as an independent state, dates from the battle of Kosso\o in 1389. .Some of the defeated Serbians took n^fuj^e in Cmagora. tlie " Black Moim- tain" (Venetian Italian ■'Moiilfnegro"), a higlily de- fensible upland region. There they maintained a heroic resistance for over 500 years — the only people in the Balkans who never yielded to the Tiu-k. Their independence was acknowledged by Tm-key and Europe at the Congress of Berlin in I87S. The popu- lation of Montenegro is a primitive, peasant people, delighting in war and impatient of peace. Since 1S60 they have been ruled by Prince Nicholas, who in 1910 took the title of king. In 1912 the Montenegrins were the first to declare war upon Turkey and marched upon Scutari, the capital of Albania. This they continued to besiege in spite of the opposition of Austria and the great powers who blockaded the coast, and Scutari finally surrendered to them with Serbian aid, April 23. 1913. King Nicholas was obliged by the opposition of Aus- tria to surrender Scutari to the great powers, who then established the so-called independent kingdom of Albania- August S. 1914. Montenegro declared war upon Austria to aid Serbia, and together with the Serbians carried the war into Bosnia. After the subjugation of Serbia, the Austrians attacked Montenegro in 1916 and occupied its capital. Cetinje. Bemg hard pressed, the Montenegrins sued for peace, but would not accept the ttTms and the war was resumed. The chief ports and towns were occupied by Austri- ans. many of the Montenegrins retiring into Albania. Scutari was reoccupied by the Austrians, and the Italians were forced to evacuate Durazzo, so that Austria was everywhere successful on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. By the surrender of Bulgaria, in September. 1918, and the withdrawal of Austria, the Montenegrins re- turned. The National Assembly on April 20. 1919, voted for the union of Montenegro with Jugo-Slavia. In 1919 Serbian troops occupied Montenegro and King Nicholas {not in the coimtry) appealed to tlie Peace Conference for protection and restoration of his royal power, which was not accorded. Chronology. 1648. For Balkan Peninsula in 1C4S. see Bulgaria. Turkish invaders or border raiders enter Monte- neg:ro almost every year till 1913. IJOO. Though never subdued by the Turks. Mon- tenegro's independence was not acknowledged by the Turks imtil the close of the ISth century. 1830. Peter I. dies after reigning nearly 50 years, during which time the size of the coimtry had been doubled and its organization entirely rebuilt. 1851. The ancient connection of princely and ec- clesiastical fimctions is abolished and the ruler- ship made hereditary. 1860. Prince Danilo is assassinated, and his nephew Nicholas succeeds. 1876. For Montenegro in the Russo-Turkisli War, and the Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin, see Turkey. 1881. Privileges secured by the Treaty of Berlin are attained, after the powers force tlie Turks to withdraw. 1896. Elena, daughter of Prince Nicholas, marries Victor Emmanuel III. of Italy. 1905. Parliament and a liberal constitution granted: not a success. 1910. Aug. 2S. Montenegro is proclaimed a kingdom, with Nicholas I. as king. Army Improved by French instructors. Russian teachers reorganize education; close commercial relations witli Italy. 1912-1913. For first Balkan War. see Turkey. 1913. Anril 6. Montenegro's refusal to withdraw from before Scutari caixses a naval blockade by the powers. April 23. Scutari surrenders. Maij .5. King Nicholas, in spite of popular opposition, agrees to evacuate Scutari; city is handed over to an international force on May 14. June-Atigust. For second Balkan War, see Bulgaria. August. Montenegro receives from Serbia, in return for assistance in the two Balkan wars, about hall of Novibazar sanjak, 1914. Aiu). S. Montenegro declares war on Austria in support of .Serbia (see World War). 1915. April 6. Government appeals to American Red Cross for assistance to flght epidemic of typhus. December. Country is entirely ovemm by the Central Powers and government driven into exiie. 1919. April 20. National Assembly votes to unite with Jugo-Slavla. BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA. Historical Outline. The province of Bosnia, once part of the Roman Empire, wasorgauized about 1200 a. d. tmder a ban or sovereign, who later incorporated the neighboring district of Herzegovina. For a time this region was included in the empire of Serbia. Then it was inde- pendent ; but in 1463 it was conquered by the Tm-ks, wiio lield it nearly four centuries. A considerable part of the population accepted the Moslem religion In 1S75 a retjeUion called the attention of Europe to the sufferings of the Christian population. By the Treaty of Berlin in 1S78 the double province, in- stead of being put on the road to independence, was placed imder the control of the Austrian government without being annexed to either part of the empire. A pohcy of subjecting the region to Austrian laws, ideals, etc.. was followed, and order was restored by military force. Nominally, there was still a feudal relation to the sultan, hut after the insurrection of the Young Turks the Austrian government assumed that this suzerainty had ceased and in 1908 formally annexed the provinces to the empire. This was a great disappointment not only to the Bosnians, but also to Serbia, wliich had looked forward to including the blood brethren in a large Serb kingdom. The assassination of the heir to the imperial throne at the capital, Sarajevo, in 1914, was tlie pretended occa sion for the World War. The Bosnians were com- pelled to serve in the Austrian armies. The Serbs made unavailing efforts to get a permanent foothold in the country. At the end of the war the Bosnians and Herzegovinians entered into the new state of Jugo-Slavia. The population is chiefly Serbian by race, but in respect to religion it comprises about '.idO.tNio creek C^atholics. half a million Roman C'alliolics. and (iCX).- 000 Moslems, the last named lia\ ing maintained their faith notwithstanding their separation from Turkey. The country, which covers an area of 19.- 762 square miles, is mountainous and considerable parts are sterile, but there are broad and fertile val- leys and in normal times a considerable production of foodstuffs, timber, and salt. Herzegovina mider the ayite helium system was cut off from the sea by the coastal province of Dalmatia. Chronology. 958. Croatian kings in authority in Bosnia. 1000-1200. Subject to Hungary, with brief inter vals of independence. Bogomilian heresy adopted by the Bosnians (see Bogoiwile. n., in the Diet.). 133?. Stephen Kotromanic, ban of Bosnia, ex- tends authority to the sea. Reigned till 1353 Last and greatest of Bosnian bans. 1376. Stephen TvTtko " King of Bosnia. Serbia and all the Seacoast." 1398. Invasion by the Turks. 1448. Stephen Vukcic, created Duke of St. Sava (wlience comes the name Herzegovina, that is, "the Duchy "). 1463. Conquest by the Turks, who permit the Ro- man and Greek Christians to continue as peasants 1500-1790. Part of the region conquered by the Himgarians. 1831-1851. Insurrections against the Turks. 1875-1878. Rising against the Turks, aided by Russian campaign in Bulgaria. Result: separa^ tion from Turkey. 1878. Treaty of Berlin gives Bosnia and Herze- govina to .\ustria. which leads to a rising. 1908. Oct. T. Austria proclaims incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1910. Feb. M. Fundamental statutes for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Personal rights and a Diet. 1919. Jan. 5. Incorporated In Jugo-Slavia. Roman Catholics. Before the war there were only 98 secondary schools and the percentage of iUiterated was 21.5. The area of Latvia is about 24,440 square miles and the population (1914) a little over 2,500,000. KA.MERUN. See under Germany, page 105. KIAOCHOW. See imder Germany, page 105. LATVIA. Latvia is tlie name now given to the southern two thirds of the former province of Livonia and the province of Kurland. Tliis region is inhabited by the Letts, who have resisted the Bolshevist aggres- sions and attempted to establish a national state. Government. Before the adoption of the con- stitution Latvia was governed by a coimcil of state of 102 members to whom the cabinet was responsible. Industry and Labor. Latvia is primarily an agricultiu-al countrj-. although an increasing number of the population are turning to industrial life: be- fore the World War there were nearly eight himdred factories. The cliief exports, are flax and limiber. Religion and Education. The majority of the population are Protestant, although there are many See also Baltic Provinces (imder Russia) , Esthonia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and World War. 1918. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Latvia is to be occupied temporarily by the Ger- mans (see Esthonia). 1919. June. Treaty of Versailles annuls Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. and binds Germany to accept arrangements later to be made as to former Rus- sian territory. LEEWARD islands. See under British Empire, page 74. LffiERIA. Historical Outline. Liberia is situated at the upper angle of the southwestern coast of Africa. Its coast line is about 350 miles in length and extends from the British col- ony of Sierra Leone to the French colony of the Ivory Coast. In 1816 the American Colonization Society was organized in Princeton, New Jersey. The avowed object was to establish in Africa a colony to be peo- pled with American freedmen and captured slaves. The first coloni.sts arrived in 1S20 and, in course of time, the Society sent 18,000 American Africans. Civil government was established in 1824, and in 1828 a regular constitution was prepared. For nearly twenty years the home society retained the control and then surrendered everytlilng into the hands of the Liberians. Liberia, while nominally independent, is actually under the tutelage of the United States. Thus, in 1910 an agreement was made with France and Ger- many by wliich the American government was to take charge of the financts. military organization, agriculture, and boimdaiw disputes. And thus Li- beria in sympathy with Ihr Tnited States declared war upon Germany August 4, 1917. Government. The constitution of the republic is modeled on that of the United States. The execu- tive power is given to a president (elected for four years), vice president, and a council of six ministers. Legislative power is in the hands of a House of Rep- resentatives of 13, elected for four years, and a Sen- ate of 8. elected for six years. Industry. Although Liberia is rich in agricul- tural, mining, and forest resources, industry is in a backward state. The chief exports are rubber, palm oil, coffee, and cocoa; and in 1913 the export trade was a little over a million dollars. There are no railroads, and transportation is carried on by ox- carts and on the rivers. Religion. The Americo-Liberians are all Protes- tants and there are several American missions at work, and one French Roman Catholic. Education. In 1910 there were 113 government elementary schools, with more than 4.000 pupils. There were also 87 mission schools, with about 2,000 pupils. The Methodists maintain a college at Mon- rovia, and the government established a college (1916) with 3 professors and 20 students. Defense. Every citizen between 16 and 50 is lia- ble for military service, and the organized militia, volimteers. and police number about 400. There is one armed revenue cutter. The total area is about 40.000 sq. miles: the popu- lation (estimated) between 1,500,000 and 2,100,000. Chronology. 1816. December. American Colonization So- ciety is organized at Princeton. N. J. 1822. April 25. First Negro colonists land at Monrovia. American government assists finan- cially in the project. After initial trials, settle- ment prospers and others are started. 1824. Name Liberia adopted. 1847. July 26. Declaration of Independence and constitution framed; Society gives up control. J. J. Roberts, a Negro, first president. 1848. Nov. 21. British treaty of recognition and commerce ; similar action by other countries later. 1862. Oct. 21. Treaty with United States; no guarantees, but United States frequently uses its good offices to protect Liberia. 1885. Nov. 11. Treaty delimiting Sierra Leone bomidary is forced by Great Britain. 1892. Dec. S. Boundary treaty with France. 1909. Investigation by an American commission leads, some two years later, to American super- vision of financial, military, agricultural, and boimdary, questions. International loans con- cluded, with America in charge of customs and additional French, British, and German receivers. 1912. Jan. 1. D. E. Howard inaugurated as- president. November. Germany coerces Liberia for Ir.- 124 NATIONAL HISTORIES: LIBERIA — MESOPOTAMIA. N U W 1912 (continued) . suits to German merchants and ofBcers. Trade chiefly in German hands. [Germany, I 1917. May S. Liberia severs int^TCOurse with| Aug. 4- War is declared on Germany. 191S. April 9. A German- siiljmarine siulis the Liberiaii patrol vessel and bonibartls Monrovia. 1919. Jan. IS. Liberia is represented at the Peace Conference. June 28. By the Treaty of Versailles Germany renoimces all her special rights in Liberia and participation in its rehabilitation. [president.! 1920. January. C. D. B. King is inaugurated asl LIBYA. See under Italy, page 115. LIECHTENSTEIN. Liechtenstein, a small principality, situated on the upper Rhine between Switzerland and the Aus- trian province of Vorarlberg, was one of the constitu- ent states of the Holy Roman Empire and a member of the German Confederation from 1S15 to 1S66. It was left out of lx)th the Austrian and Prussian reor- ganizations of 1S67, and is nominally independent, though a satellite of Austria till the World War. The sovereign in 1920 was Prince Johann II . The area is 65 square miles and the population (1912) 10,716. 1613. Count of Hohenenis acquires the region. 1713. Coimty passes to llie Liechtenstein family. 1719. Jan. i?i. Emperor makes it a principahty in the Holy Roman Empire. 1806. Part of Rliine Confederation. 1815. June S. Made a member of the German Confederation. 1866-1867. When the Confederation faUs it is left out of the new Union: is theoretically independent, but is included in Austrian Customs Union. 1918. A'or. 7. With the break-up of Austria- Hungary the Diet resolves to establish complete Independence. LITHUANIA. The Lithuanians he south of the former Baltic Provinces of Russia, east of Germany and Poland, and are foimd chiefly in the former Russian prov- inces (governments) of Ko\iio, Suvalki, Grodno, and part.s of Vitebsk, Minsk, and Vilno. They rep- resent a brancli of the Aryan race wliich from time immemorial has inhabited this region near the Baltic. They were the last of the native European races to accept Christianity. In alliance with the Poles they occupied a large part of Prussia and defeated the Germans in a decisive battle in 1410. When Rus- sia dismembered Poland. Lithuania practically ceased to exist; but during the 19th century a feeling of race consciousness was aroused, and an idea of an inde- pendent Lithuania took root. Lithuatua is an imfertile coimtry with low-lying, marshy land. Only in the province of Ko\iio is agri- culture carried on to any extent. The raising of live stock and the utilization of the forest resomx»s are the other industries. During the overthrow of the Russian government and the defeat of Germany the new repiitilic nf Po- land claimed a large part of tliis region, and whether it will be attached to Poland or remain an independ- ent state is still imcertain. GoTernment. Pending the convocation of a constituent assembly a provisional constitution was adopted. April 4, 1919. The state council, the cabinet, and the president exercise the authority. The president conducts all foreign relations and is commander in chief of the army. The state coun- cil, of 40 members, exercises the functions of a legisla- ture. The cabinet is responsible to the state coimcil. Industry and Labor. The chief industry of Lithuania is agriculture, important products being rye, wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. The coimtry is also rich in live stock. Poultry farming, particu- larly geese rearing, is carried on. The chief articles of export are com, cattle, lumber, hides, and wool. The approximate area of the prt?sent Lithuanian Republic is 30. .532 square miles, and the popula- tion in 1914 was 4,6.51,000. In the compUcations due to the World War Kurland was grouped with Lithuania, not claiming a separate existence. Chronology. See also B.\ltk- Provinces (imder Russia), Estho- NiA, Latvia, Poland, and World W.\r. Personal union with Poland. Practically annexed by Poland. Annexed by Russia. Joins in Polish Revolution against Russia. Convention demands self-government. German invasion of Lithuania and Kur- 1386. 1S69. 1795. 1863. 1905. 191«. land. 1915. Russia orders the peasants to evacuate: population of Kurland reduced from 674,000 to 230,000, but in Lithuania emigration is stopiied by the nationalists and the Germans are welcomed. Baits are not restored to power in the province, and in Lithuania a national council is permitted. 1917. Dec. 11. National government proclaims independence and alliance with Germany. 1918. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Russia renoimces sovereignty over Lithuania, Kurland, and Riga. March ;^3. Germany recognizes Lithuania as an independent ally. Plans for instaUing a German king. Nor. SO. Republic proclaimed in Lithuania. 1919. April. German and German-Baltic troops, on pretense of lighting the Bolslieviki, overtlirow pro\-isional Lithuanian government at Libau, Poles advance In Lithuania against the Reds. May. Bolshevik! are driven out, ail the states combining in the offensive. June 10. French General Focb orders Ger- man troops in the Baltic states (" Iron Division " under von der Goltz) to retire. Order is ignored. Sept. 28. German government profe^^es inabil- ity to enforce the retirement of the " insubordi- nate " troops in the Baltic states. Oct. S. A Russian army (nominally WTiite) mider Bermondt, with von der Goltz's assistance, makes an attack on Riga and sets up a dictator- ship at Mitau. In November it finally begins to evacuato the region. Vol'. 10. Conference of Estbonlan dele- gates at Yurev (Dorpat) attended also by dele- gates from Lithuania, Latvia (Livonia-Kurland), Finland, Poland, and UTiraine. Red delegates attend and make drastic demands on Esthonla. Nov. 29. Armistice, made ttirough the Allied commission, provides for retirement of all the German troops by December 13. LUXEMBURG. This, the only independent duchy in Europe, is situated between France, Belgium, and Germany. In 1384 it became a duchy, and its dukes several times occupied the imperial tlirone. It passed by turns to Burgimdy, Spain. France, Austria, and again to France. After the fall of Napoleon, it was created a grand duchy and given to the Netherlands. On the rise of Belgium in 1830, half of it was assigned to the new kingdom. The other half, now the duchy, was neutralized in 1S67, and in 1,S90 its connection with the Nether- lands was severed. A mountamous region, occupy- ing an important strategic position, the possession of the duchy has long been coveted both by France and Germany. The duchy of Luxemburg was occupied tiy the Germans in 1914 and until the close of the World War. By the Treaty of Versailles, Germany re- noimced all the rights she had gained to the exploi- tation of the railways and recognized that Luxem- burg is no longer a member of the German Customs Union and accepts neutrality. Government. The reigning princess is the ex- ecutive, and there is a Chamtwr of Deputies of 48 elected by the cantons for six years, one half renew- able every three years. In 1919 the duchy was formally continued by popiflar vote. Industry and Labor. Mining and smelting are the iiKtst important occupations. Religion and Education. AU but 5,000 of the population are Roman Cathohcs. In addition to primary and secondary schools, Luxemburg has a seminary and one institute for tlie deaf and dumb. The area is 999 square miles and the population (1916) was 263,824. Chronology. 1551. Luxemburg is part of Spanish Netherlands. 1697. Sept. SO. By Treaty of Ryswick (Rijswijk) Luxemburg is restored to Spain. 1713-1714. By Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, ceded to Austria. (a department. I 1795. June .5. Captured by French: organized asl 1815. June 9. By Treaty of Vienna, Luxemburg raised to rank of a grand duchy and given to king of the Netherlands; fortress of Luxemburg to be occupied by Prussian troops for the German Con- federation. 1830. Aug. 1. LiLxemburg. except the capital, re- volts against the king of the Netherlands, 1839. April 19. Ratification of Treaty of London (see Belgium), Luxemburg divided; western half becomes Belgian, eastern is restored to king of the Netherlands. 1842. Feb. 8. In spite of local opposition. Grand Duke WiUiam II. adlieres to the German Zolherein. 1867. March. Napoleon III. negotiates for the purchase of Luxemtjurg, as offset to aggrandize- ment of Prussia. Danger of war between France and Prussia over this question. May 11. Treaty of London: Luxemburg de- clared perpetually neutral, under " collective " guarantee of the powers. 1871. By treaty, Frankfurt railroad ceded to Ger- many : not to be used so as to endanger neutrality of Luxemburg. (duchy and Germany. | 1872. June 11. Railroad convention between the I 1890. Nov. 2S. Deathof king of the Netherlands; succeeded in Luxemburg by Adolph of Nassau. 1912. Feb. 26. Marie Adelaide succeeds as grand duchess. 1914. Aug. 1-2. German troops occupy the duchy in violation of its guaranteed neutrality, and continue in occupation during the World War. 1918. Nov. 21. United States troops enter the city of Luxemburg. 1919. Jan. 9. Luxemburg denounces railroad and Zolherein treaties with Germany. Agitators de- mand estabhshment of a republic. Jan. 12. Marie Adelaide abdicates. Jan. 15. Charlotte Adelgonde succeeds as grand duchess. Sept. 28. Plebiscite resiUts in favor of reten- tion of dynasty, and of economic alliance with France, rather than with Belgium. Oct. 26. Elections for the Chamber are held under scrutin de liste and proportional representa- tion; women vote. MADAGASCAR. See under France, page96. MALAY STATES, FEDERATED. See under British Empire, page 65. MALTA. See under British Empire, page 62. MAURITIUS. See under British E.mpire, page 65. MESOPOTAMIA. The plain through wliich flow the twin rivers, Ti- gris and Euphrates, extending from the mountains of eastern Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf , is the seat of some of the earliest empires. The flat plain was very early fertihzed by irrigation waters from the rivers, and supported a large population, which de- veloped immense cities with vast walls, temples, and public buildings. Two centers of mtensive national life sprang up — Babylon near the present Bagdad, and Nineveh near the present Mosul. About 2300 B. c. Babylon became a great commer- cial city. It was brought into relations with the ris- ing Hittite power to the westward. About 1100 b. c. the Assyrians became powerful and for a time they held Babylon. Judea was drawn mto the wars and conquests of this i)eriod. In 639 b. c. the Persians took Babylon, which had revived, and held Meso- potamia till the Persian Empire went down before Alexander (331 b. c). The kingdoms set up by Alexander's generals and the rising nation of the Parthians contended for the region. The Romans long disputed the Partiiian rule, and eventually, at the beginning of the third century a. d., came into possession of the valley, only to confront a revived Persian Empire, which for ages was the enemy of Rome's successor, the Byzantine Empire. The rising tide of the new religion and the Mo- hammedan power in the eiglith century prevailed over the Persians, and Bagdad lx>came the capital of the eastern Mohammedans. In the thirteenth cen- tury the nomadic Arabs ruled the country and the canals fell out of use. In the seventeenth century the Turks became the masters, and did notliing to restore it to fertiUty . Just before the World War the Germans were pushing their project of a " Berlin- to-Bagdad " railroad which was to give them control of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. During the war the country fell wholly into the hands of the Enghsh, who expect to keep it, lest it become a gateway to- ward India for enemies. There is no evidence that the inhabitants desire any rule except that of their own contending trilx^. The coimtry contains valuable oil fields and could probably be made a cotton-producing region. The area is 143,250 square miles and the population is, according to the 1920 census, 2,849,282. Chronology. B. C. 3000-539. Mesopotamia is the seat of Baby- lonian and AssjTian civiUzation. B. C. 539. Conquest of Babylon by Cjtus the Per- sian. During the following centuries Macedo- nians, Parthians, Romans, Sas.sanians, and Byzan- tines by turn control and contend for the region. A. D. 762. Bagdad founded; cliief city of Meso- potamia (Euphrates-Tigris Valley) ; capital of the cahphate and center of the Islamic world. 1258. Bagdad captured by Mongols and ceases to be the religious center of Mohammedanism. Ca- nals abandoned and coimtr>- loses importance. 1638. City and region become part of Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1798-1914. For British interests in Persian GuU, see Arabia, under Hejaz. 1845-1851. Layard's explorations in AssjTian ruins. NATIONAL HISTORIES: MESOPOTAMIA — MEXICO. 125 1888. Concession to a German company for a short railway east from Constantinople; beginning of tlie " Berlin-to-Bagdad " plan for German in- terest in Asia. 1899. Xov. 37. Concession to Germans to con- tinue tlie Anatolian railway from Konia to Bagdad and Persian Gulf, witli a branch to the Persian frontier. Further convention March 5, 1903. By 1914 the Imc extends from Constantinople to Karabimar in Cilicia, with various disconnected sections farther on. 1903. Jan. 2i. Official British annoimcement of intention to preserve ascendancy in the Persian Gulf; repeated May 5. 1903. 1911. Aug. 19. Convention between Russia and Germany (" Potsdam agreement "), recognizing German control of the Bagdad railway in re- turn for a free hand in building railways in Persia to Unk up with the Bagdad line. 1914. June 29. Official British annoimcement of agreement with Germany and Turkey for the Ger- man plan of railway to Busrah, but German line not to extend beyond that point toward the Persian Gulf. Furtherunderstanding with Turkey respect- ing British ascendancy in ilir Gulf :uid control of Koweit. Not made formal ; World War intervenes. Nov. 6. British Indian army l>egins the Meso- potamian campaign. On November 21 Busrah is occupied. Kunia is captured December 9. 1915. Oct. 24. Great Britain in agreement with Husein on Syrian state (see Syria) reser\-cs provinces of Bagdad and Busrah. Nov. 23-24- British advance repulsed below Bagdad; Townshend retreats to Kut-el-Amara, where on December S, he is besieged by the Turks, 1916. A pril 39. Townshend surrenders at Kut- el-Amara, tlu-ee reUef expeditions having failed. May 9. Secret agreements between ,Great Britain and France. Lower Mesopotamia (from Persian Gxilf to a point north of Bagdad) assigned to the British: northerly portion an Arab state di- vided into British and French spheres. 1917. Fib. 34. Kut-el-Amara recaptured by General Maude. March 11. Bagdad taken. Economic restora- tion of the region goes steadily forward imder Brit- ish control. Busrah-Bagdad railroad completed. 1918. Oct. 23-30. Final operations in Mesopo- tamia; surrender of the Turkish force below Mosul. Mosul is occupied on November 14. 1919. Great Britain given a mandate for Meso- potamia by the Supreme Coimcil at Paris. 1930. May 11. By peace treaty handed to Tiu-key. Mesopotamia is recognized as an Independent state with British mandate. MEXICO. Historical Outline. The earliest Spanish discoverers learned that in the central plateau of southern North America lived a people who had a considerable degree of culture. Tliis was the empire of the Aztecs imder Montezuma, whose principal city was on an island in the lake of Tezcoco. Like the Peruvians in South America, the Aztecs had reached the upper stage of barbarism. They dwelt in vast commvmal houses of red stone coated with white stucco, which were divided into rooms by cedar partitions himg with tapestries. The city of Mexico was connected with the mainland by three stone causeways, each nearly five miles in length, and by a solid masonry aqueduct. The temple was surroimded by walls eight feet high and in the coiu-tyard were twenty pyramids not far from one himdred feet in height, on which were of- fered human sacrifices to the war god. From this strategic position the Aztecs waged war and levied tribute upon the surrounding tribes and were able to oppose the Spanish conquests with some success by assembling an organized army . By making an alliance with neighboring tribes who hated their Mexican masters and by taking advan- tage of the belief that the Spaniard was the God of Light, Cortes succeeded in obtaining an entry to the city (1519"). from which, however, he was expelled in a memorable night battle. He reformed his forces and in 1521 after a terrible siege the city of Mexico surrendered, the Aztec empire was conquered, and the chieftain Montezuma was executed. During the long colonial i>eriod, Mexico was the seat of the viceroyalty of New Spain, wliich included Guatemala, Manila, and Santo Domingo and was the center of the Spanish colonial power in North America. During this period four classes of popu- lation developed: the native Indians; the Creoles, of Spanish descent but Mexican birth; " Peninsulars," Spaniards bom in Europe: mestizos, or half-breeds, who were crosses between the other classes and In- dians. To these classes should be added the Negro slaves and the various crosses which resulted from their intermarriages with other races. The Spanish rule of Mexico was like that of the other Spanish colonies, and the Spanish language and culture and the Roman Catholic religion were introduced and material improvements made in the city of Mexico. The overtlirow of the Bourbons aroused the Mexi- cans and a revolution was started in 1810 under Morelos-Pav6n. In 1813 a national congress was summoned and Mexico was declared independent, but tiie old government rallied, defeated the popular party and after three years of guerrilla warfare re- stored order. In 1820 a new revolution broke out imder General Itiu-bide who captured the capital and m 1821 the last viceroy. O'Donoju, formally recog- nized the independence of Mexico. Iturbide de- clared himself emperor of Mexico. At the end of a year the mipirr gave way to a repubhc, proclaimed by Lopez de Santa Anna. No stable government was possible, and the land went through a series of revolutions. In 1S36 the Anglo-Saxon settlers of Texas revolted and the forces of Santa Anna were defeated at San Jacinto. Texas therefore declared independence, which was recog- nized by the United States. In IS45 at her own re- quest Texas was annexed tothe Union. The transfer of Texas and the desire of the United States for Cali- fornia led to war between the United States and Mexico. General Zachary Taylor captured Mon- terey and defeated Santa Anna at Buena Vista while General Winfiold Scott captiu-ed Vera Cruz and the city of Mexico. The war was termiziated hy the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, by wliich Me.xico gave up not only Texas but New Mexico and California as well. In 1S61 Spain. England, and France invaded Mexico in order to force a settlement of their claims for uijiu-ies against their citizens and property. Spain and England witlidrew, but Napoleon III. declared war upon Mexico.. occupied the city, and established a so-called empire under Maximilian of Austria (1864). The United States protested against anj- alti-nipt to found an empire against the will of the Mtxicans; hence, the French troops were withdrawn, Maximilian was overwhelmed, and exe- cuted (1867). After a period of prosperity under President Judrez. a full-blooded Indian, broken by occasional insmrections. General Porfirio Diaz led a revolt and secin-ed the presidency in 1877. From this time milil 1911 the development of Mexico was almost wholly the work of Diaz who was reelected from time to time and permitte- were developed. Steps were taken to establish a stable ciu'rency on the gold standard, railways were built, and the harbor of Vera Cruz was improved. There were few Insiurec- tions of importance and a rebellion of Yacjui Indians, who had never l>een sui)dued since the Spanish con- quest, was ended in 1907. But the political power was in the hands of a few who exploited the lower classes for their own benefit and pledged the re- sources of the country' to foreign capitalists. The long administration of Diaz came to an end in 1911 when a revolt headed by Francisco J. Ma- dero spread over the northern section of the coimto'. Diaz resigned and Madero was elected president. During the next two years there were relx>llions against the Madero government in all parts of the count.r>' and on February 18, 1913, Madero was de- posed and Victoriano Huerta proclaimed president. On February 23 Madero was shot, wliile being trans- ferred from one prison to another by the order of Huerta, and although some of the rebel leaders sub- mitted to Huerta's government, the " Constitution- alists" mamtained their resistance and won im- portant victories. The United States refused to recognize General Huerta. who refused to resign, declared liimself dic- tator, and was then nominally elected president. In the meantime the Constitutionalists under General Francisco Villa won important victories. The administration of President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta and followed a policy of " watch- ful waiting." In 1914 some American sailors were arrested and the Huerta government refused to apol- ogize and salute the flag. American' marines and sailors were landed at Vera Cruz and after some little fighting took possession of the city. The real piu*- pose was to prevent militarj' supplies from reaching Huerta. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, the "ABC " states of South America, offered to mediate in the dis- pute, and a conference was held at Niagara Falls which attempted to settle the international compli- cations and hoped to arrange the internal disputes of Mexico. However, as General Carranza, the first chief of the Constitutionalist forces, refused to con- sent to an armistice, little progress was made in the internal settlement. The conference had some good effects, for it showed that the United States was actuated by no selfish motives, and did much to allay the feeling of resentment which the American occupation of Vera Cruz had aroused in the South American repul)lics. Huerta gave up the struggle, resigned the presidency, and left the coimtry. A period of anarchy and war followed, in wliich the city of Mexico changed hands four times. Fmally. the conflict narrowed down to one between the forces of Carranza and Villa. The United States formally recognized Carranza (October 19. 1915) and considerable progress was made in establisliing order. Villa alone stood out in active, spasmodic warfare against the government. But Carranza was unable to control the bandits and Villa (March, 1916) attacked a United States post at Columbus, New Mexico. General Pershing led a pimitive expedition into Mexico to capture Villa. It remained nearly a year without reaching Villa and was at last withdrawn (1917). A revised constitution was promulgated February 5, 1917, wliich established, on paper at least, a demo- cratic form of government and Carranza was chosen president. His policy was to establish law and or- der, to reform the disordered finances, and to restore the industries and credit of Mexico, m which task he subjected certain foreign interests to almost confis- catory taxation. He set himself against foreign con- cessions and interests, beUeving that much of Mex- ico's troubles have come from such intervention. During the World War the German residents and official representatives attempted to put obstacles m the way of obtaming petroleum, and Mexico was the seat of German plotting. Although Carranza himself was not accused of mmeutra! action, certain of his decrees were certainly favorable to Germany. In 1918 a new form of tax on oil wells aroused opposi- tion in the United States. Organization. Government. The constitution of 1917 estab- lishes a federal republic of states which manage their owii local atfairs, but are subject in national and in- ternational affairs to the control of the central gov- ernment. The executive power is in a president elected by direct popular vote for a term of four years. The legislative power is in a congress con- sisting of a House of Representatives directly elected for tw^o years by imiversai suffrage at the ratio of one meml>er for every 60,000 inhabitants ; and a Senate of 58 members, two for each state, elected in the same way as the deputies. In practice the states are sub- ject to the national executive in office at the time. Industry and Labor, .\lthough Mexico has a fertile soil and one of the most favorable chmates in the world, her agricultiu-e and industry- are back- ward. The principal products are com, cotton, wheat, coffee, and a large oiUput of sugar and mo- lasses. The oil fields of Mexico are widely distrib- uted and very important, and in spite of the dis- ordered condition of tlie coimtry, the production has mcreased from 12,000.000 ban-els in 1911 to S0,(X)0,- 000 in 1919. Mexico is rich in mines, yielding gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and antimony. Religion and Education. The prevailing re- ligion is the Roman Catholic, but according to the new constitution of 1917 there is toleration for all religions and the church is separated from the state. To prevent ecclesiastical influence in politics it is provided that no religious body can acquire landed property. Education is free and obligatory and con- troUed by the national government in the Federal District and in the territories. Elsewhere it is regulated l)y the state authorities. In 1912 primary education was nominally extended so that it might reach the native population. The National Univer- sity of Mexico, established in 1910, is situated in the city of Mexico. The area of Mexico is 767,198 square miles. The census population of 1910 w'as 15,115,612 and the estimated population in 1912 was 15,501,684. Chronology. 1517. C6rdoba explores coast of Yucatan and dis- covers Maya culture. 1518. Grijalva trades along the coast as far as site of Vera Cruz. 1519. February. Veliisquez, governor of Cuba, sends Cortes to make a settlement. Vera Cruz foimded and Cortes enters Mexico City in No- vember. 1620. June 30. Cortes obliged to retreat from Mexico City (Noche triste; Spanish, " Sad night "). 1521. Aug. 13. Final capture of Mexico City by Cortes after a prolonged siege. Complete over- throw of Aztecs and foundation of a Spanish col- ony. Cortes made governor and captain general. He sends expeditions to the South Sea. and also into Central America, but Central America is not attached to Mexican government. 1535. Cortes superseded in civil power by a viceroy, Mendoza; viceroyalty of New Spain. Natives reduced to serfs, but gradually freed. Negre slavery' never of much importance. Interm&r- riage of natives, Negroes, and Spanish produces complex mixture of races and castes. Clei-gy gain great influence. 1537. Lower California discovered. 1539-1542. Coronado explores the southwestern portion of the present Linited States, which be- comes a part of New Spain. 1512-1543. Cabrillo and Ferrer sail along the west- ern coas( as far as Oregon: beginning of Spanish clainin Tliis region also is attached to New Spain. 1598. Beginning of settlement of New Mexico, a province of New Spain. 126 NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO. 1604-1859. N U W 1604. Acapiilco becomes the port of Spanish Ori- ental and Philippine trade, and for transship- ment of goods across Mexico to Vera Cruz. Used also for Peruvian trade. Great fairs at Vera Cruz and Acapulco. 1607. Beginning of drainage of the capital, which is subject to disastrous overflow from the surround- ing lakes. System not completed until 1896. 1090. Beginning of Spanish settlement of Texas, a part of New Spain. 1767. June 26. Arrest and deportation of the Jesuits: Mexicans resent it. 1769. Beginning, at San Diego, of settlement of California, a province of New Spain. Gdlvez arrives in Mexico as visitador general (com- missioner) to devise reforms in administration. lSOG-1807. Burr conspiracy and New Spain (see United States). 1808. Influence of overtlirow of Bourbons iji Spain felt in New Spain. Conditions favor revolt; influence of example of United States and of French thought and revolution; Creole hatred of the Spanish (" Gachupine ") oligarcliical rule: In- dian hatred of both Spanish and Creoles. Viceroy Iturrigaray shows a disposition to grant the Creoles a voice in the government. Gachupines over- throw him, which crystallizes spirit of revolt. 1810. Hidalgo, a priest, raises a revolt of Indians whose fanatic excesses prevent aid or sympathy from substantial elements of society. Hidalgo betrayed and executed (1811). Guerrilla war continues; Lopez de Santa Anna and Iturbide gain prominence on royal side; Bravo, Victoria, Guer- rero, and Morelos-Pavon on partisan side. Parti- sans subdued by 1S19. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1819. Feb. 22. Treaty between Spain and United States (see United States). Territorial claims of New Spain limited to region south of 42° and west of present Kansas and eastern line of Texas. 1821. Feb. 24. Plan of Iguala. Gachupines, especially the clergy, under Iturbide, fearing effect of liberal Spanish constitution o!i their privileges, conspire. Bases of new state were independence, old privileges {/ueros), religious intolerance, Um- ited monarchy under a Bourbon prince. O'Don- oju, Spanish commander, yields August 24, and Iturbide enters Mexico City, September 27. Sept. S. Chiapas, part of captaincy general of Guatemala, joins Mexico. [tlenient of Texas. December. Beginning of Anglo-American set- 1823. Jan. 3. Rest of Central America proclaims union with Mexico. July 21. Iturbide crowned emperor, Con- gress imder military and mob pressiu-e having elected him. Santa Anna, alienated by the em- peror, starts a repubUcan revolt, aided by Victoria, Guerrero, and Bravo. Army deserts the emperor. 1823. Ja7i. 27. Jackson commissioned first Ameri- can minister to Mexico: does not accept. Poin- sett, first actual minister, not sent until 1825. March 19. Iturbide abdicates. July 1. Central America, not including Chia- pas, declares its separation from Mexico. Nov. 23. New Congress meets. IneflBcient J but finally adopts a federal constitution, modeled chiefly on the United States constitution; those of Spain (1812) and of French Repubhc also drawn upon. 1824. July 19. Iturbide, who has returned to Mexico in spite of a prohibition, executed. Oct. 4. Constitution of the I'nited States of Mexico proclaimed. Oct. 10, Victoria becomes president, witli dictatorial powers. Foundations for foreign complications laid by pubhc loans, es- peciaUy from British. Development of Federalist and Centralist (oligarcliist and monarchist) parties. 1825. Santa Fe trail between the Missouri River and New Mexico opened; increases American in- terests in that portion of territorj' of Mexico. 1827. December. Revolt of aristocrats under Montano and Vice President Bravo. Put down by Guerrero. 1828. Expulsion of Gachupines ordered by Congress. Many depart, Mexico losing a strong element somewhat like the American loyalists. Jan. 12. Boimdary treaty with United States, confirming treaty of 1819. September. Presidential election. Guerrero, popular (Federahst), and Pedraza, moderate Fed- eralist, but with Centralist support, the candi- dates. Pedraza declared elected. Santa Anna heads a revolt in favor of Guerrero. Acordada Insurrection at Mexico City, December 2, drives out Pedraza and Congress declares Guerrero president. Inaugurated April 1, 1829. 1829. Spanish army lands, but surrenders to Santa Anna. Last effort to reestablish Spanish rule. Sept. 16. Abolition of slavery proclaimed. December. Vice President Bustamante deserts the Federahsts and leads a Centralist revolt. Guerrero flees; captured and shot. 1830. Jan. 1. Bustamante assumes control. Ala man real head of government. 1832. Santa Anna " pronounces " for Pedraza. Ignoring Congress, he and Bustamante reach an agreement; the latter retires and Pedraza in- stalled to finish Guerrero's term, December 26. 1833. April 1. Farias, vice president elect and radical Federalist, takes over the government and attempts economic and social reforms, attacking both army and church. May 16. Santa Anna, president elect, assumes oflflce and checks reforms. June 16, Santa Anna declared dictator by the army. He receives sup- port of the Clericals and Centralists, ousts Con- gress, and drives Farias into exile. 1835. Jan. 2S. Santa Anna retires on leave of ab- sence; Barragdn, ad interim successor, liis puppet, 1836. Feb. 27. Barragdn dies; Corro becomes act- ing president. March 2. Texas declares independence. At battle of San Jacinto, April 21, Texans defeat and captiu-e Santa Anna, and make good their claim to mdepeudence. They desire annexation to United States, but receive recognition only (March 3, 1S37). Mexican irritation against United States increases, as northern repubhc is accused of supporting and promoting Texan ac- tion, as well as of desiring California. Dec. 2S. By treaty, Spain recognizes inde- pendence of Mexico. Dec. SO. Seven Laws proclaimed: a central- ized constitution, adopted by Congress. 1837. Papacy recognizes independence of Mexico, on the miderstanding that antiecclesiastical laws have been repealed. April 19. Bustamante inaugurat«d presi- dent for eight years after an election. Finances in deplorable condition, army given all available cash to keep it loyal; chaotic poUtical conditions amoimting almost to anarchy. 1838. March. French squadron appears off the coast to enforce payment of claims (Pastry War). April 16. blockade proclaimed. Various revolts break out against the government. November 27-28, bombardment and capture of San Juan de Ulua, the fortress of Vera Cruz. December 5, French occupy Vera Cruz. Santa Anna loses a leg in the fight, becomes again the national hero, and proceeds to undermine the president. 1839. March 9. Peace convention with France; certain payments promised. April 11. After many delays, Mexico signs a claims convention with United States. 1841. Sept. 2S. Bases of Tacubaya issued under Santa Amia's control; new Congress to draft a new constitution; meanwlnle a provisional presi- dent. Santa Anna virtuafly dictator again. October 5, Bustamante submits and goes into exile. Corruption rampant. 1842. New Congress, not proving amenable, barred out and dissolved. New constitution, called Or- ganic Bases, framexi under Santa Anna's control. 1843. Jan. 30. Mexico evading payments under the awards of the American claims convention of 1839, a new convention grants her more indulgent terms, which she again fails to carry out. July. Governor of California and other nortli- ern departments ordered to expel all Americans. 1844. January. Santa Anna becomes president under the new constitution, but suspends Con- gress, and loses control of the people tlu-ough his graft and evident mtention of ruling absolutely ; the army revolts on DecemlxT 6. and he flees. Janu- ary 11, 1845, captured and banished. 1845- Herrera, president of the Council of State, becomes acting president. Reforms attempted, but fear of the army and chiu-ch and approaclmig war with United States over Texas maie condi- tions hopeless. March 1. American Congress passes a joint resolution for annexation of Texas. Nov. SO. Slidell, special American minister sent to reach a satisfactorj^ settlement with Mex- ico, arrives at Vera Cruz. Mexican government refuses to receive him. Dec. 29. Herrera overthrown by a revolt headed by Paredes, who becomes temporary president. New government reiterates the re- jection of Slidell. [United States. I 1846-1848. For war with United States, see | 1846. May 20. Discontent against Paredes breaks into revolt. To calm it Paredes starts to take the field against the Americans, leaving Vice President Bravo as acting executive. Aug. 6, Bravo yields to Salas, who has pronounced for Santa Aima. Aug. 16. Santa Amia lands at Vera Cruz.' His return has been permitted tlirough the Ameri- can blockade after an " understandmg " with President Polk's representative. [stored. I Aug. 22. Federal constitution of 1824 re- 1 Sept. 17. Santa Anna appointed com- mander in chief, craftily refusing civil responsi- bilities. Salas continues acting executive with Farias as dictator. December 22, Congress, composed largely of radical Federalists {Puros), elects Santa Anna president ad interim and Farias vice president. Latter assumes charge of administration. 1847. Jan. 11. Act (called Law of January 11) to meet financial demands by pledging or selling property of the church. Kismg, fostered by the church and an American agent, follows. Alarch 23, Santa Anna returns from battle of Buena Vista and supersedes Farias. Santa Anna compromises with clergy and annuls the law. His prestige restored. Sept. 16. Santa Anna resigns presidency and assigns executive power to a triumvirate, Pena y Peila, Herrera, and Alcorta. Peiia y Peiia be- comes acting president, October 7, Santa Anna ordered to relinquish command and submit to a military trial because of reverses. 1848. Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with United States; California and New Mexico ceded, Rio Grande boundary recognized; United States to pay Mexico $15,000,000 and assume claims. April. Santa Anna permitted by American and Mexican governments to leave the countr>'. April 29. President Polk of United States in- forms Congress that Vucatan, where the Indians are in revolt, considers itself independent and de- sires protection or annexation to United States, which he favors, especially as British interven- tion is feared. No action taken. Indians do not submit imtil 1853. June 3. Herrera inaugurated president. Financial and other reforms attempted. July. Paredes, w^ho has been in revolt, de- feated. He leaves the coimtry. 1851. Jan. 15. Arista constitutionally succeeds as president, carrying on Herrera's policies. Jan. 25. Convention with United States for construction of a canal on the Tehuantepec route. Ratified, but denounced by Mexican Congress in 1852. [of Santa Anna. I 185^. Sept. 13. Blan carte starts a revolt for recall | 1853. Jan. 6. Arista resigns; Chief Justice Cebal- los becomes head. He dissolves Congress as first movement in a peace plan, but resigns himself, February 7. MUitary leaders elevate Lombar- dini, a stop-gap until Santa Anna is elected presi- dent, March 17. Sept. 21. Santa Anna, again dictator, cen- tralizes the government. State militia system also submerged. However, internal improve- ments and education are fostered. [States).! Dec. 8. Gadsden Purchase (see United] Dec. 16. Santa Arma issues a decree prolonging his dictatorship indefinitely and bestowhig title of " Most Serene Higlmess " on liimself. 1854. March 1. Flan of Ayutla issued by revo- lutionists; grievances of Santa Anna's despotism recited, basis for a provisional government elimi- nating him. Alvarez becomes head of the move- ment, wliich makes headway quickly. 1855. Aug. 9. Santa Anna leaves the capital, after appointing a triiunvirate to succeed liim. City proclaims the plan of Ayutla, August 13. Santa Anna leaves the country, August 17. never to regain power. Alvarez becomes acting presi- dent imder the plan; September 24, he orders an assembly of delegates who elect him president ad interim, October 4. Liberal reforms attempted; clergy and army hostile. December 11, Alvarez siurendei-s office to Comonfort, who continues efi'orts for reform. 1856. June 2S. Ley Lerdo, striking at mort- main, and permitting tenants of ecclesiastical and civil corporations to become owners of their leased land. Church revolts at Puebla, but reaction- ists defeated by end of year. 1857. Feb. 12. New federal constitution pro- mulgated, drafted by constituent assembly. Much borrowed from United States Constitution: privileges (fueros) of clergy and army abolished, equality before the law a fmidamental right, bill of rights. Comonfort continues in power under plan of Ajoitla imtil government is organized im- der new constitution. • Oct. S. Meeting of first Congress under new constitution. Comonfort elected re^Uar presi- dent, installed December 1. Already conserva- tive reaction has set in. December 17, Plan of Tacubaya issued to set aside the constitution and restore Comonfort's dictatorial power pending formhig of a new one. Congress declares Comon- fort's presidency at an end. December IS, Zuloaga enters capital and dissolves Congress. 1858. Jan. 19. Chief Justice Juarez, a fidl-blooded Indian, becomes head of the constitutional gov- ernment, Comonfort having ended his vacillation by siurendering authority to Iiim as the person legally entitled to receive it. February 7, Com- oniort goes into exile. Jan. 23. Zuloaga chosen president by reac- tionists under plan of Tacubaya. Civil war and virtual anarchy for tliree years. Dec. 23. Zuloaga resigns following revolts among his own followers. January 30, a junta elects Miramon his successor. 1859. July 12. Judrez decrees confiscation and nationalization of property of the clergy; he follows it by other decrees for ci\il marriage, sep- aration of church and state, control of cemeteries, and abolition of mission to the Vatican. 1859-1914. NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO. 127 1859 (continued). Dec. 14- Draft treaty p.nd convention be- tween United States and Juarez on transit and commerce and " to enforce treaty stipulations." Earlier efforts under Southern pressure for more territory from Mexico abandoned: but for money payment and assumption of claims Mexico grants right of transit by Tehuantepec and other routes. Protection by United States and right of inter- vention. American Senate declines to ratify agreements. 1860. Dec. 22. Decisive victory of Juarez over Miramon. Mexico City occupied; Miramon flees. 1861. May 9. Second Congress under constitu- tion of 1S57 assembles.' June 11, Juarez de- (^lared elected president; inaug-urated Jmie 15. Oct. 31. London Convention by Great Brit- ain, France* and Spain for joint intervention to enforce claims in Mexico. I'nited States re- fuses to join, while giving warning of seeing that its own rights are not injureti. December 14, Vera Cruz occupied by the allied forces. Reac- tionists rally to the invaders. 1863. April 22. British and Spanish forces retire from Mexico because of evident French intention to turn the intervention into a conquest. France begins war on Juarez's government. 1863. June 10. French occupy Mexico City. Judrez retires to the north and continues the light. Almonte, Salas, and the Archbishop of Mexico become provisional executive imder the French. July S. Appointed assembly meets. July 11, assembly promulgates decree for a hereditary Catholic monarcliy, with Maxiniiiian. brother of the emperor of Austria, as emperor of Mexico. 1864. April 10. Maximilian accepts the crown (under French guarantees). He and his consort land at Vera Cruz, May 29, and enter Mexico City. Jime 12. His policy is concUiator>' and liberal, but supported only by French arms and financt« and unable to harmonize factions. Church disaffected l>y decree of religious freedom. Juarez holds out in spite of continued reverses. 1865. United States, freed from the Civil War. becomes peremptory in demand for with- drawal of French forces. American army sent to Mexican border. 1866. April. Napoleon orders withdrawal of French troops, to begin in November. Repubh- can forces advance as French withdraw. 1867. February. French evacuate Mexico City; Mexican soil cleared of them by IVIarch 12. June 19. Maximilian, refiLsing to leave, is overwhelmed and captm*ed; executed by the Re- publicans. Dec. 19. Juarez again elected president. Minor revolts continue but make little headway. 1868. Restoration of diplomatic relations with Europe begins. Measures decreed for payment of British and Spanish claims. 1S71. Oct. 12. None of the tiiree presidential can- didates (Juarez, Diaz, Lerdo de Tejada) receiving the required majority. Congress reelects Juarez. Followers of Diaz (Porfiristas) revolt; Diaz issues a manifesto. November 8. Not successful, but yet not crushed. 1873. July IS. Judrez dies: Lerdo, by right of his chief justiceship, succeeds as president. Diaz submits, October 26. amnesty being proclajmed. Lerdo elected by Congress, regularly inaugurated, December 1. 1873. Jan. 1. Opening of the railroad between Vera Cruz and the capital. May 29. Reform laws as additions to consti- tution of 1857; separation of church and state, freedom of religion, marriage a civil contract, no monastic orders. Incorporated in constitution, September 2.5. Efforts of clergy to arouse old- time fanatic disturbances as protest fail. 1876. Jan. 15. Plan of Tuxtepec promulgated, denoimcing L/erdo for usurpations and centralism and pronoimcmg for Diaz. Jan. 31. Joint American-Mexican claims com- mission imder convention of lsi>s tinishi-s its work. Oct. 26. Lerdo fraudulently rlrrlnrrd n-i'k-cted. Ingleslas, as chief justice, ignores tht- election and assumes provisional presidency himself. Diaz defeats the Lerdistas, November 16, at Tecoac. Lerdo flees the country. January 25. 1877. Nov. 2S. Diaz assumes the executive power. 1877. Jan. 17. Inglesias, refusing to accept Diaz, but unable to resist, goes into exile. May 2. Diaz declared elected constitutional president; inaugurated May 5. Hostile move- ments continue for some years, but are suppressed. Economic advancement, improved foreign rela- tions and social progress, but public finances weak. 1878. May 5. Constitutional amendment prohib- its reelection of a president. [France.! 1880. October. Diplomatic relations resumed with | Dec. 1. Gonzalez succeeds Diaz as president. 1883. July 29. Convention with United States permitting troops to cross the border in pursuit of Indians. Frequently renewed. Sept. 27. Boimdary treaty with Guatemala, which, however, does not end the controversy. 1883, Jan. 20. Reciprocity convention with United States. Ratified and proclaimed in 18S4, but American Congress fails to pass neces- sary legislation and it ceases to be operative. May 20, 1887. 1884. .4 pril 10. Opening of Mexican Central Rail- road between Mexico City and El Paso, giving rail connection with United States. (ish-huld debt. I Novernber. Convention for conversion of Brit- 1 Dec. 1. Diaz inaugurated for a second term. By repeated reelections he continues president until 1911; period of relative internal peace, promoted by Diaz's organization of the guardias rurales irural guards) made up of men who had formerly been bandits; greatly increased financial and economic progress with much development of resoiu'ces tlirough foreign concessions. Govern- ment, while preser\Tng the forms of federalism and constitutionahsm, virtually central and per- sonal. Hea\T taxation of lower classes, land monopoly, and corruption cause discontent, wliich, however, is long unable to make headway. 1887. Oct. 23. Constitutional amendment to per- mit reelection of a president to successive terms. 1888. Dec. 1. Diaz begins his third term, being eligible imder the amendment of 1S87. 1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress opens at Washington (see United St.vtes). 1892. Dec. 1. Diaz begins his fourth term. 1893. Various rebelhous uprismgs occiu", but are put down: some concessions granted, 1895. Indian uprising in Yucatan; Mayas resent white settlement. April 1. Tlirough American mediation the Mexican-Guatemalan boundary dispute settled and armed conflict avoided. 1896. Dec. I. Diaz begms his fifth term. 1897. Ju.ie. Yaqoi Indians, imsubdued since Spanish conquest, agree to a treaty with Diaz. 1900. Dec. 1. Diaz's sixth inauguration. 1901. Restoration of diplomatic mtercourse with Austria, broken off since execution of Maximilian, Oct. 22. Second Pan-American Congress meets at Mexico City. Project adopted for voluntary arbitration and Internationa! Bureau of American Repubhcs (later Pan-American Union) organized with seat at Washington. 1904. May 6. Because of Diaz's age, a constitu- tional amendment adopted restoring office of vice president. Terms of president and vice president made six years. Dec. 1. Diaz begins his seventh term as presi- dent. Corral installed as vice president. Lib- eral sentiment in antagonism to centralized and autocratic power develops more rapidly as the elec- tion of Corral indicates the perpetuating of per- sonal rule and its attendant corruption. 1907. Jan. 23. Railroad across Tehuantepec IsthmiLs opened. Ambitious plan for a ship rail- way, de\'ised by Eads, has never been cairied out. 1910. September. Celebration of centenary of declaration of independence. Nov. 22. Madero, a Liberal, who has been a presidential candidate against Diaz, arrested for sedition until after the election and then ordered to leave the country; proclaims a provisional government. Revolt in north makes progress. Dec. 1. Diaz and Corral inaugurated. 1911. March 7. Because of the Mexican rebellion, American troops ordered to the border to check filibustering and lighting on American side of the line. Diaz fears intervention and makes conces- sions, then negotiates with the rebels. May IS. Peace proclaimed, Madero having agreed to the government's proposals of surrender. May 25. Diaz resigns and goes into exile. De la Barra. with Madero's support, elected by Con- gress provisional president . M adero the real head . Nov. 6. Madero inaugurated president after having received a unanimous electoral vote. SudreE vice president. Reyes, opposing candi- date at popular election (October 11), withdraws. Disturbed conditions continue. Rebels in south under Zapata keep the field. Reyes attempts a revolt in December, but fails and surrenders. 1913. Zapata continues in revolt in the south throughout the year. Madero finds it impossible to control his followers and secure the peace neces- sar>' for his program of reforms. Property and lives of foreigners, especially Americans, endan- gered and lost in the disturbances. Feb. 12. Orozco. a Madero leader, revolts and captures Ciudad Juarez. March 2. President Taft of United States warns American citizens against taking part in the Mexican disturbances, March 14. Taft. underauthorityof a joint reso- lution of Congress of same date, puts an embargo on export of arms or war supplies to Mexico. Later modified to permit supplies to Madero. Oct. 16. Felix Diaz, nephew of the ex-president, heads a new rebellion against IVladero, Surren- ders, Oct. 23. Sentence of execution commuted. 1913. Feb. 7. Military cadets at Mexico City mutiny and liberate Reyes and Felix Diaz. Reyes killed in subsequent street fighting . Huerta, Madero s commander in chief, goes over to the rebels, who arrest Madero and Suarez. Februar>' IS. Huerta proclaimed provisional president. February 19. Orozco and other op- ponents of Madero adhere to new government. Feb. 23. Madero and Suarez shot. Huerta personally responsible. March 26. Constitutionalists repudiate the provisional government and start a coimter-revolt imder Carranza. Villa is one of his officers. Revolt, like Madero's, fimdamentally an agra- rian one. Constitutionahsts gain possession of much of the north diuing the year. Zapata also continues his depredations. Aug. 10. Lind arrives in Mexico City as per- sonal representative of President Wilson to medi- ate for restoration of peace with elimination of Huerta, whom Wilson refuses to recognize, though accredited by various European nations. Lind fails; Huerta declines to be eliminated. .4i/f;. 27. Wilson addresses Congress on the Mexican situation, stating his poficy of ** watch- ful waiting.** Oct. 10. Huerta executes a coup d*etat, arrest- ing 110 congressmen and dissolving Congress. Oct. 26. Farcical election under Uuerta*s plan, results in his election as president. Wilson declines to recognize it as legal. Felix Diaz re- signs from the army and later seeks refuge abroad. Nov. 15. New Congress refuses to consider presidential election constitutional, but continues Huerta as provisional president. 1914. Constitutionalists continue their successes. Huerta s government, mauily because of lack of American recognition, camiot get fimds, and is obliged to resort to drastic measures, including a moratorium and defaults on interest payments. Feb. 3. Wilson lifts embargo on munition exports' to Mexico; this aids Constitutionalists. April 9. American naval men ashore at Tam- pico for suppUes arrested. Released next day. American admiral demands as partial reparation salute to American fiag, which Huerta refuses. April 21. American marines occupy Vera Cruz because of Tampico incident, and by seiziu-e of the customhouse attempt to prevent landing of cargo of arms for Huerta from Germany. Mex- icans oppose the marines; casualties on both sides. April 22. American Congress supports the Vera Cruz occupation by authorizing use of force against Me.xico. April 23. American embargo on war supplies for Mexico restored. April 25. Representatives of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile at Washington offer their good services on Mexican difficulties (ABC mediation). Accepted by Wilson and Huerta, but Carranza refuses to suspend hostilities. April 30. American army imder Funston takes over possession of Vera Cruz from the navy. May 20. Sessions of ABC representatives regarding mediation begin at Niagara Falls. Carranza not represented until Jime 12. Junt- 24, mediators announce plan for a provisional government established by agreement of Huertista and Constitutionalist delegates, which United States should recognize witliout demandmg satis- faction for Tampico affair. Huerta and United States approve this protocol; never made active. July 4. Torreon Conference of Constitutional- ists called to consider ABC protocol and breach between Carranza and Villa. Protocol rejected; breach healed for the time being. Constitution- alists continue their victories. July 15. Huerta resigns and leaves the coun- try. Carbajal provisional president; he fails to reach an agreement with the Constitutionalists. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. August. At outbreak of World War many Germans and large German investments in Mexico, and much German sympathy from Mexicans. Aug. 15. Constitutionalists imder Obreg6n occupy the capital. Carranza arrives, August 20, and assumes provisional presidency. Enmi- ties within Constitutionalist ranks at once become active; Carranza rules arbitrarily. September. Zapata resumes his depredations near Mexico City. Orozco and others lead re- volts; and Villa, September 23. declares war on his chief, demanding that Carranza be ehminateJ from candidacy for public office. Oct. 10. Convention at Aguascalientes of dele- gates chosen by Constitutionalist soldiers. As- sumes sovereign powers. Villa and Zapata dele- gates dominate. October 30, convention decrees retirement of Carranza and Villa, and, November 2, elects Gutierrez provisional president. Neither Villa nor Cai-ranza willing to retire. Nov. 23. American troops withdrawn from Vera Cruz. Nov. 24. Carranza withdraws from Mexico City; Zapata occupies it. December 3, Gutier- rez takes possession. Villa dominates the govern- ment and holds northern Mexico; Carranza holds southern portion. 128 NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO — MOROCCO. 1915. Jan. 16. Convention disowns Gutierrez. ^ wlao flees, and makes Gonzalez Garza provisional president in name; itself the real ruler. Jan. 2S. Obregon, Carranza's general, compels the convention to leave Mexico City. March 10. Zapatistas drive Obregon from the capital. Fighting continues in northern jMe.xico with indecisive results, but with violation of American rights. OJiine £. Wilson warns the factions that the United States will intervene to bring about order, if not otherwise accomplished speedily. June 9. Convention deposes Gonzdlez Gai'za and makes Lagos Chazaro figurehead. July 10. Carranza occupies Mexico City again; evacuates it July 17, and Zapatistas reoccupy it July IS. August 3, the capital again occupied by Carranza* who continues to hold it thereafter, P meanwhile enlarging his control in central and northern Mexico. .\uii. 0. Pan-American Union delegates repre- senting seven states appeal to the Mexican fac- tions to hold a peace conference. Villa accepts, Carranza rejects the appeal. Oct. 19. United States recognizes Carranza as head of de facto government, following a imani- Qmous vote by the seven Pan-American delegates in his favor. Great Britain and other powers as well as the Pan-American ones recognize him. Dec. 20. Most of the Villistas surrender to Carranza. Villa continues in the field as head of a bandit force and is outlawed. 1916. Jan. 11. Villa stops a train at .Santa Isabel, takes from it 19 Americans, mostly mining engi- neers, and slioots them. February 17, Wilson re- R ports to the American Senate that during 1913- 191.5, 76 .4merlcans had been killed in Meiieo: and during the same period 20 American civilians, 16 American soldiers, and 62 Mexicans had been killed on American side of the border. March 9. Raid of ViUistas on Columbus, New Mexico; eight American soldiers and nine civilians killed. S March 16. American punitive expedition under Pershing crosses into Mexico in pursuit of Villa. Carranza, after raising objections, gives conditioned consent and promise of cooperation. Some bands dispersed, but Villa not captured, .'^pril 12, clash between Americans and Carranza's troops at Parral. Carranza on same day de- mands withdrawal of American troops. Troops ^ not withd^aw^l, but no further active operations. I May 2. Following a conference at El Paso of American commanders with Obregon, Carranza's minister of war, conditional agreement to with- draw troops is reached. May 6. Villistas make another raid across the border, killing three soldiers and two civilians. American soldiers pursue far into Mexican terri- tory. Wilson, May 9, orders out militia of border U States and sends more regulars to the region. ^^ May 22. Carranza renews his protest against presence of American troops on Mexican soil. This and other evidences of; hostilities lead Wil- son, June 18, to order all the National Guard to mobilize for service on the Mexican border. June 20. American reply to Carranza's protest refuses flatly to withdraw American troops V Carranza troops treacherously attack and kill or capture an American detachment at Carrizal. Jime 25, United States demands release of the prisoners. Complied with, June 29. J idyl. American Congress authorizes president to draft National Guard into Federal service. Sept. 4- Conference of a joint commission of American and Mexican delegates begins. Oct. 22. Elections for a constituent assembly; ^^ voting limited to supporters of de jacto govern- ment. Assembly convenes, December 1. Nov. S.',. Joint commission reaches an agree- ment on withdrawal of American troops and patrol of border. Carranza refuses to approve. 1917. Felj. 4. Last of American troops with- drawn from Mexico. Feb. o. Kevised constitution promulgated; X president and bicameral congress elected by imi- versal male and female suffrage; radical demo- cratic provisions such as justice without cost , mini- mum wage, compulsory arbitration, profltr-sharing, eight-hour day; severe measures against Catholic and Protestant churches; agrarian reform, but not so radical as expected ; regulation of foreign capital, all national resources public property. Feb. 2S. Publication of dispatch (dated Jan- Y "ary 19) by German foreign office to ambassador at Mexico, lu-ging that Mexico make war on the United States (see United St.vtes). May 1. Carranza inaugurated president (election imder official pressure, March 11). He also controls Congress. 1918. Raids by ViUa and other bandits continue, including some across the border with retaliation 2 by American forces and loss of life. Mexico lie- lieved to be under German influence, but neu- trality is preserved. Feb. 19. Decree placing heavy taxes on for- eign-owned oil lands and contracts, which hamper operations of the Allies, Protests and warnings by American and British governments agamst con- fiscatory measm-es. Some modification. May 24. Diplomatic relations with Cuba severed, probably to show pro-German sympathy. June 7. Notable address by Wilson to Mexi- can editors on visit in L^nited States; smcere help- ful friendship, no interference in internal settle- ment, no forcible " big-brother " attitude, but Pan- Americanism by agreement and coiiperation. 1919. April 10. Zapata, southern bandit, killed, Felix Diaz operates against the government in the southeast. April 23. Official statement that Carranza does not recognize the Monroe Doctrine, June 14. American troops cross the border at El Paso and disperse a body of Villistas operating against Ciudad Juiirez. Carranza protests, possi- bly pro forma. June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles Mexico omitted from list of neutral nations invited to join the League of Nations. July. Conditions show a weakening of Car- ranza's control. Four or more rebellious forces in the field against him. Report of 317 outbrealis of disorder against him between April and July. Associates in the victory of the Constitutionalists aUenated, especially Olaregon. Finances in pre- carious condition. Outrages on Americans and their property continue. July 22. State Department of LTnited States threatens a "radical change of policy" imless outrages cease. Carranza's reply, July 28, elusive ; caustic reference to disturbances in L^nited States. July 25. American embargo against export of arms and munitions to Mexico tightened. Aug. IS. Bandits capture and hold for ran- som two American aviators. Ransom paid b.v American army authorities and later repaid by Carranza. Unsuccessful punitive expedition crosses the border after the bandits. Oct. 19. Abduction of Jenkins, American consular agent at Puebla. Released on payment of ransom, he is arrested for cormivance in his own abduction in order to discredit the government. American government demands his release, No- vember 20. Released, December 4, after a mo- tion to sever diplomatic intercourse is introduced in American Senate. Jenkins threatened with expulsion; exequatur revoked. A'oii. 2e. Execution, after captiu'e and trial bycom-t-martial, of Angeles, whom Villa had pro- claimed president. Dec. 24. Ban against export of arras to Mexico made yet stronger by American government. 1920. Jan. 1. Export duty on crude oil made 10 per cent; with lighter diu.v on refined oil. Jan. 12. Decree for smaU-denomination paper money on deposit of gold; due to shortage of change from hoarding and melting of silver coin. Feb. 11. First United States-Mexico Trade Conference opens in Mexico City; 125 American representatives attend. MONACO. The Princip-\lity of Monaco has an area of eight square miles. It is the smallest state in Europe, It is inclosed between the French department of Alpes-Maritimes and the Mediterranean. The population is 22,956. There is no elective assembly, the prince acting as absolute master. Its reputa- tion is due to its casino, which is the gambling center of Eiu'ope. A joint-stock company controls the gaming tables, having obtained a concession which does not expire until 1947. The company pays the prince .5400.000 annually, besides occasional bonuses which run into the millions. In reality Monaco is a dependency of France. 1337. Ranier II. as head of Monaco, a feudal pos- session of the Grimaldi family, begins the regu- lar succession of princes. His son, Charles I.. acquires Menton and Roquebrune. 1534. Allegiance transferred from France to Spain. 1641. Allegiance returned to France. 1793. Feb. 14. Monaco formaUy annexed by the French National Convention. 1814. May 30. By Treaty of Paris region restored to Grimaldis. 1815, by Congress of Vienna placed imder protection of Sardinia. |is resumed, I 1S60. March 14 French protection of Monacoi 1861. Monte Carlo is leased as a gambling re- sort; thenceforward the profits are sole revenues of the country, [France. | Feb. 2. Menton and Roquebnme sold to I 1911. Jan. 7. A constitution with representa- tive government proclaimed, 1914. Monaco protectorateof Franceand a.ssociate during World War. (left in Europe, I Prince of Monaco one of the few titular sovereigns I MONTENEGRO. See under Jugo-Sl.wia, page 123. MOROCCO. Historical Outline. Technically and geographically Morocco is the westward extension of Algeria, but it is the home of a diverse popiUation — Berbers, Arab-Bedouins. Moors, Jews, and Negroes. Morocco was the last of the North African coimtries to fall before the Mos- lem invasion of the seventh centiu-y. In 1058 an independent kingdom was founded on what had been the dominion of the caliphs. At the middle of the sexenteenth century Ali Shereef, bom in Arabia, gained ascendancy and foimded the dynasty of the Alides. Morocco was one of the group of north African states from wliich came the Barbary pirates over whom a victory was won by the United States a century ago. Christian slavery was abolished and piracy suppressed. From 1859 to 1873 there was war with Spain, and Morocco was obliged to pay an indemnity and to siurender territory and certain commercial advantages. Sidtan Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz succeeded in 1904. His reign was troubled and full of confusion. Brig- ands infested the land, and an American citizen, Perdicaris, was captiu-ed and held for ransom by the bandit leader Raisuli. which led President Roosevelt to dispatch a squadron to Tangier and demand " Perdicaris aliveor Raisuli dead." Great Britain and France negotiated a joint convention for tlie policing of Morocco, April 8, 1904; but Ciermany was greatly irritated by this and maintained that the German com- mercial interests demanded protection. On March 31, 1905, the German emperor landed at Tangier and antagonized the French policy in a public address. This resulted m the calling of a conference at Alge- ciras, Spain, .January 15, 1906, in wliich the United States hail Krcat influence. The result was a conien- tion for the joint control of Morocco by France and Spain. Acting upon this, Casablanca was bom- barded by French and ,Spanish vessels and occupied by Frencli troops, to the wrath of Germany. In 1908 relations were straine^l by the arrest of certain German deserters who were members of the French foreign legion, and the matter was submitted to the Hague Tribwial for arbitration. Revolts occurred in 1911, and in 1912 a French protectorate was es- tablished over Morocco, assented to in the Franco- Spanish treat.v by wliich Tangier was declared inter- national. The French protectorate was recognized by Great Britain also in 1914, and reaffirmed by the Peace Treaty of 1919. Organization. Government. The go\ernnient is in the hands of a sultan, who is absolute and irresponsible save as affected by foreign influence and fear of revoltition. Since 1912, however, the sultan is obliged to follow the advice of the French resident-general, who is ap- pointed by the French minister of foreign affairs. There is a grand vizier, who also is under the control of the French resident-general, and a minister of fhiance who acts imder the control of the French di- rector-general of finance. Production and Industry. Agriculture is in a primitive state, but the soil is suitable for agricul- tural production. Grapes and a great variety of fruits are grown, and in 1911 cotton was introduced. The fisheries are very valuable, especially the sardine and tunny fisheries. There are rich but little devel- oped mineral deposits of copper, iron, lead, anti- mony, sulphur, silver, gold, and petroleum. In 1917 the imports amoimtetl to over $70,000,000 and the exports to S25,(X)0,000. The area is about 231,500 square miles and the population may be rouglily estimated at 6,000,000. Chronology. 1649. Establishment of present (Filali) djTiasty. 1769. Portuguese expelled from Mazagan, their last possession. Policy adopted of as little inter- course as possible with foreigners; but in com- mon with other Barbary powers, Morocco preys oncommerce, makes slaves of white persons, and demands tribute. Tliis lasts imtil alx)Ut 1S20. 1844. War with France over Algerian boimdary; treaty on March 18, 1845. [claims. I 1851. French bombard Sale to secure settlement of 1 1859. Oct. 22. Spain declares war, captures and holds Tetudn. [demnity of $20,000,000 paid. I 1860. April 26^ Peace treaty with Spain; in-l 1894. June 7. Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz becomes sul- tan; his predilection for foreign ways and reforms makes him unpopular. 1902. September. Revolt in behalf of the sultan's brother, Mohammed; sultan seeks French aid. 1904. April S. Anglo-French agreement on paramoimtcy of French interests in Morocco (see Nineteenth-Century Period). May IS. Shereef Raisuli, who controls region around Tangier and kidnaps foreigners for ran- som, takes one Perdicaris, an American. Ameri- can squadron is sent to Tangier, but Perdicaris is released, June 24, when sultan yields to Raisuli's demands Secretary Hay .secures results through French channels. Habitations of Mankind. 1. Interior of Eskimo Hut. Owing to the excessive heat generated by the oil lamp in these small snow houses, the inhabitants as a rule discai-il all clothing in their huts. They mostly live in polyandry. 2. Greenlanders. Eskimos. Moss-covered hut and circular snow liousc in background. 3. Ostyak Hut. 0.styak in winter costvune; Northern Siberia. 4. Fuegian Hut. Natives in front. Though the cold of the climate is intense, the natives go about nearly nude, shifting a sealskin robe, fastened around their neck, from one side to the other, according to the direction of the wind. 5. Arab Tent. Tunis. 6. Kirghiz Tent. Western Siberia. Owner, a man of means. Bride on horseback. 7. Kurdish Tent. Western Asia, Kurdistan. 8. Sioux Indian Tent. 9. Pueblo Dwelling. Built of adobe— sun-dried brick. See Carl Eik- meyer, "Among the Pueblo Indians," Nordennkjold, "Cliff Dwellers," "Fifteenth Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology," Washington, from which latter the figure of the Kachina Mask No. 9a is copied. Figure in doorway is a Taos Indian. Woman with child is from a Hopi village. 10, 11, and 12. Mambu Huts. Central Africa. Women at work con- structing dwelling; sick man and sorcerei's in front of huts. 13. Guahariba Huts. Amazon River. 14. Sambioa Hut. Central Brazil; after Paul Ehrenreich. 15. Kamayura House. Bororo Cazik, in front Kamayura woman carry- ing seven-year-old child on hip; after Karl von den Steinen, " Unter den Naturvolkern Central Brasiliens." 16. House in MalbatO. island of Luzon, Philippines. 17. House from Village of Pertoemboken. island of Sumatra. 18. Communal House of the Bahnars. Savages of the South of Anam. 19. Aerial Dwelling. Memiaou, New Guinea. 20. Tree Dwellers. East Coast of New Guinea. At the foot of the tree two women mourners in front of the House of the Dead; Kalp, Kemp Welch River. 21. Lake Dwellers. Sowek, New Guinea. 22. Anamese Floating Village. 23. Skye Crofter's House. Scotland. 24. Modern American Dwelling House. 25. Modern Business House. "Skyscraper." For description see previous page. HABITATIONS OF MANKIND— SAVAGE, BA iOUS, SEMI-CIVILIZED, AND CIVILIZED. CuPYRiGHT by G. A C Mkhjiiam Co. Registered at Stationera' Hall. London. England. NATIONAL HISTORIES: MOROCCO — NETHERLANDS. 129 1904 {continued). Oct. 3. Franco-Spanish agreement on inter- ests in Morocco (see Nineteenth-Century Pe- riod). 1905. Germany and Morocco (see Nineteenth- Century Period), 1906. Algeolras Convention (see Nineteenth- Century Period). 1907. July Si. fialsuli kidnaps Sir Harry Maclean, commander of the sultan's bodyguard. Great Britain pays ransom of SIOO.CXX), most of wtuch Kaisuli is later forced to refund. August. Frencia, Spanish cooperating, bom- bard and occupy Casablanca. foUowiug attacks by tribesmen. 1908. Jan. 4. Mulai-Abd-el-Hafld, in revolt against his brother. Is proclaimed sultan at Fez. Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz gives up the struggle in Au- gust, and Hafld is again proclaimed sultan at Tan- gier on August 23. Sept. 25. Arrest by French of German desert- ers from the French Foreign Legion leads to Ger- man demands, but matter is arbitrated. 1909. Feb. 9. Franco-German agreement (see Nineteenth-Century Period). July 19. Moorish tribesmen attack Spanish at Melilla. By convention of November 16, Span- ish control is increased. 1911. Franco-German controversy and conven- tion (see Nineteenth-Century Period). June 5. Spanish land at EI Araish and occupy district beliind it. 1912. March SO. French protectorate is estab- lished by treaty. Powers recognize it. Treaty is followed by native outbreak and attack on Fez. with massacres. Aug. 14- Mulal Yusef proclaimed sultan, his brother having abdicated on a French pension. Nov. 27. Franco-Spanish convention; Span- ish protectorate within defined boimdaries (Medi- terranean coastal region. Er Rif). French protec- torate over rest, except Tangier, wtiich is inter- nationalized. Plan does not work smootlily. 1913. Oct. 15. Organization of new French judi- cial system intended to replace the exterritorial jiu"isdiction of consular courts. Various nations accept it. and it is imixised on Germany and Aus- tria by the peace treaties of 1919. 1914. May 9. French occupation of Taza makes possible junction of Moroccan and Algerian inter- ests, and promotes extension of railway joining Fez with coast at Rabat eastward to milon with Algerian lines. 1914-1918. Various revolts during the World War, due largely to German intrigue; neutral Spanish protectorate compUcates matters. 1919. June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles. Germany makes a complete surrender of all interests and special rights in Morocco, NATAL. See under British Empire, page 66. NEPAL. Nepal is one of the so-called " independent " states in the Himalayas, on the borders of British India. It stretches, a narrow mountainous belt, for 500 miles between Tibet and India as far east as Sik- kim. The government is a militar>' oligarchy, and the prime minister, who liolds the rank of a British lieutenant general, has all the power. The regular army numbers 30,000, and there is an irregular force of about the same number. This is the land of the famous Gurkhas, who in- vaded Tibet, and carried on war with China and India. Since the Treaty of Segauli in 1S16, a Brit- ish resident has lived at Katmandu, the capital, and the relations of the Gurlvhas with the British have been friendly. The exports include hides and skins, drugs, gums, dyes, jtite, pulse, and cereals. The people are in general prosperous. Nepal contains Mount Everest, height 29,002 feet, and other of the loftiest motmtains on the globe. The area is about 54,000 square miles and the population about 5,600,000. 1768. Nepal, occupied by mixed Mongol races, is conquered by the Gurkhas, who are Rajputs. (See Gurkha in the Dictionary.') 1J91. Commercial treaty with the British East In- dia Company. 1814-181S. War with British India foUowing a series of depredations (see India). By treaty of December 2, 1.S15, Nepal gives up conquered terri- tory and receives a British resident. 1857. During the mutiny, Jung Bahadur, prime minister and de facto ruler, sends troops to assist the Enghsh: as a reward, portions of territory are restored. Gurkhas are permitted to enlist in the Indian army, where they are highly valued 1914. On the outbreak of the World War the prime minister offers the army to the governor-general of India. THE NETHERLANDS. Historical Outline. The Netherlands, or U)wlands or ' hollowlands." whence comes the name " Holland." popularly" ap- plied to the coimtry (which formerly included Bel- gium and the duchy of Luxemburg), lie between Germany and Belgiiun. The coast is formed by a line of sand dunes and the land, much of which is be- low the sea level, is protected from the sea by a series of dikes. It is necessary to confine the rivers as well, and because of the continual deposits some of the sur- faces of the rivers are higher than the surrounding land. A series of canals more than l.r>00 miles in length extends throughout Holland. A people in- habiting such a territorj' were bound to be a sea- faring race, and the sailors of Holland early gained preeminence. The Dutch became the successors of the Portuguese and Spanish East Indian empire and monopolized a large part of the carrying trade. As a result of the long struggle with Spain (see Spain), the Dutch cities and coimtrj- were welded into a federal union (1579), which by the Peace of Westphalia was recognized as an indejiendent state. When Charles II. of England favored Louis XIV. of France, the enemy of the Dutch, the war was revived between Holland and England, and one of the results was the English capture of New Amsterdam in -■Vmerica. By the Treaty of Breda (1667) England and Holland were imit«d as Protestant powers in opposing Louis XIV. In 16S9 Prince William of Orange was elected to the throne of England, and both countries united in the struggle with France. On the death of WiUiam III. without male heirs, the anti-Orange party in the Netherlands prevented the appointment of a Stadliolder. Wlicn the Stadholder- ship was restored in 1747, the holders — beginning with AVilliam (IV.) Friso, of the House of Orange — were virtually kings of a declining federation. In 1795 HoUand was conquered by the French imder Pichegru and converted into the Bata^ian Re- pubhc. This popular government gave place to the kingdom of HoUand. which Napoleon created for his brother Louis in 1806. A few years later Louis was deposed by the French emperor, and HoUand was incorporateti with France. After Waterloo, Prince WUUam of Orange was declared king by the As- sembly of HoUand. The Congress of Vienna dealt liberally in the con- struction of the new kingdom. In order to prevent the expansion of France in the direction of the North Sea, Belgium was included ^vith HoUand. This arrangement was maintained imtil 1830, when the people of Belgium, sympathizing with the Revolu- tionists in France, broke into revolt and declared independence. In the Netherlands the reign of William I. ex- tended to 1S40, and that of liis son. WiUiam II.. to 1849. The latter was succeeded by his daughter Wilhelmina imder the regency of the Queen mother. Wilhelmina was inaugurated as fuU sovereign in 1898. Since 1S9S the franchise has been somewhat ex- tended, and in 191G women were made eligible to membership in the States-General. In 1908 there was a slight difficulty with Venezuela, and a naval force was dispatched to South America. On the outbreak of the World War the position of HoUand was precarious. Germany attacked Dutch commerce, and the Allies established a virtual em- bargo against her, for fear that supplies would be transported to Germany, As a result there was a great shortage of food, and riots broke out attended by serious loss of life. In 1916 the British and American governments seized the Dutch shipping in their ports and utilized it for the transportation of supplies, promising, however, ample compensation to the owners. At the end of the war Emperor Wil- liam took refuge in HoUand, which refused to sur- render him to the Allies. Organization. GoTernment. The constitution of the Nether- lands was proclaimed in 1815. and was revised in 1848, 1887, and 1917. According to this charter, Netherlands forms a constitutional, hereditary mon- archy. The executive power belongs exclusively to the sovereign, while the legislative authority is exer- cised conjointly by the sovereign and the States- General. The States-General consists of two cham- bers, the upper, or first, chamber and the lower, or second, chamber. By the Reform Act of De- cember 12, 1917, imiversal suffrage, male and female, is extended to aU Dutch citizens 23 years of age; the upper chamber of 50 members serving for terms of nine years is, however, chosen by men only; the lower chamber is made up of 100 deputies, who are elected directly for terms of four years. Industry and Labor. The chief agriciUtural products of HoUand are oats, rj-e. wheat, and sugar beets. It is renowned for its cattle and dain,* prod- ucts. There are a few mines of coal, which consti- tutes t he sole mineral wealth. The fisheries are verj- important. There are numerous shipyards, and Dutch steamers are found in ever>' part of the world. Kellgion. There is entire liberty of conscience, although the royal family and the majority of the people are members of the Reformed Church. Education. Public instruction is compulsory (act of 1900) between the ages of 6 and 13, and is entirely secular. The cost of primary' instruction is divided between the state and the towais. 3,000 public elementary schools and more than 2.(X)0 pri- vate elementary schools care for over 1,000,000 pu- pils, while 113 middle schools accommodate 19,000 pupils. There are numerous special and technical schools as weU as four pubhc universities, with more than 5,000 students. Defense. By the act of 1912 service in the army is partly volimtary and partly compulsory. Every Dutch citizen is liable to service in the army or navy between the ages of 19 and 40. Actual service is determined by lot. The maximum strength of the annual contingent is 25,5(X), including 6(Xt for sea service. The peace strength of the army is 194, (X)0 men. There are 156,000 additional trained men, and 250.000 imtrained men available for mobiliza- tion. The navy is maintained for a double purpose: protection of the Dutch coast, and the defense of the East Indian possessions. The navy consists of six coast defense ships and five cruisers. In addi- tion are gimboats and torpedo boats. A large force was kept under arms during the World War, to protect the border and keep the country in a state of defense. The area is 12,582 square mUes and the popula- tion (1918) is 6,778,699, one of the densest in Europe. DUTCH POSSESSIONS. The kingdom of the Netherlands has colonial pos- sessions in both the West and the East Indies, to- gether comprising an area of more than 780.000 sq. miles, inliabited by more than 47, 000, OCX) people. In the West Indies are Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, and Curacao - DUTCH GUIANA. Since the Peace of Breda in 1667, when Dutch Guiana was assigned to the Netherlands in exchange for New Netherland in North America, it has been twice taken by Great Britain, but both times re- turned to the Netherlands on conclusion of peace. It is a small territorj- of about 46,000 square miles, with 107,827 inliabitants in 1919, exclusive of the Negroes and Indians living in the forests. The gov- ernor and high officers are named by the sovereign, and there is a representative body, caUed the Colo- nial States, the members of wliich are chosen for a term of sLx years, one meraljer for every 200 voters. CURACAO. Curacao is the name given to the colony compris, ing a little cluster of islands north of Venezuela, of wliich the largest is Ciu-a^ao. The total area is 403 square mUes and the population 57,195 (1918). DUTCH EAST UNDIES, In the East Indies the more important possessions are Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the Molucca Is- lands, the Sunda Isles, about three foiuths of Borneo, and about three fifths of New Guinea. Most of these were acquired by the Dutch East India Company, formed in 1602 and dissolved in 1798. On its dissolution the home government took over the control. The entire area is about 735,000 sq. miles; total population (est. 1917) approximately 47,000,(K}0. Java, the most valuable Dutch possession, has an area of 48,854 square miles, and about 34,000.000 in- habitants. With the neighboring island of Madura, it is divided into 17 residencies, each ruled by a resi- dent, assisted by assistant residents and contrdlenrs. Under them is a iiost of fimctionaries, Dutch and native. The Dutch colonial army of about 42.(X)0 of all ranks is entirely separate from the home army. One third are Europeans, including aU the commis- sioned officers, gunners, and a certain proportion of noncommissioned officers. The greater part, of the land is government property. The labor laws are stringent and vigorously enforced. Coffee, sugar, tobacco, rubber, indigo, tea. and spices are the staple productions. There are valuable oU fields. Chronology. The Netherlands and Dutch Possessions. For earlier events see Medieval Period and Early Modern Period. 164S. Jan. 30. At Peace of Westphalia (Mimster) Independence of the Netherlands formally rec- ognized by Spain after 70 years' existence. 1651. Oct. 9. English Navigation Act limits Dutch trade. 165?. War with England over Navigation Act. November, Dutch imder Tromp defeat EngUsh fleet near Goodwin Sands. April. Dutch begin settlement of Capetown (see South Africa). [minster.] 1654. April 3. English treaty of peace at West-! 1655. October. Dutch conquer Swedish settlement (New Sweden) on Delaware River in America, 1656. Dutch destroy Portuguese power in Ceylon (for Dutch in India, see India). 130 NATIONAL HISTORIES: NETHERLANDS — NORWAY. 1664 — 1920. N U W 1664. Aug. 29. Capture of New Amsterdam by English fleet without declaration of war (see United States). [Britain).! 1665. Feb. 2'2. War with England (see Great] 1667. After De Buyter has menaced London. treaty of peace is made at Breda, July 31, in which France and Denmark join. 1668. Triple alliance with Sweden and England against France (see France and Great Britain). 1675. France secures alliance of England under Charles 11. ; war declared by them on Holland. March 17. Dutch make William of Orange leader against French invasion, 1673. Frederick William of Brandenburg aids Dutch, but is forced into neutrality by French. William of Orange with Austrian allies forces French to abandon designs. [year.] Dutch occupy New York, but return it nextl 1674. March 7. Peace of Westminster with England. French war continues. 1676. April. De Buyter defeated by the French off the coast of Sicily. 1677. Nov. IS. William of Orange marries Mary, daughter of the Duke of York (later James II., of England). 1678. Aug. 10. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen) with France: French conquests restored to Hol- land. (See Early Modern Period.) 1689. Following flight of James II., William of Orange, and Mary, his wife, chosen rulers of England (see Gre.^t Britain). Grand Alliance formed against France. 1692. May. Dutch and English overcome the French fleet off La Hogue (see Great Britain). 1697. Sept. 20. Peace of Byswiek (Rijswijk) (see France and Gre.\t Britain) ends struggle with France. Conquests restored. 1702. Holland joins War of the Spanish Succes- sion against France. English and Dutch fleets overcome French and -Spanish at Vigo. March S. Death of William of Orange (Wil- Uam III. of England). Holland pas.ses under administration of the Grand Pensionary Heinsius. 1713. .4pri7 //. Peace of Utrecht ends War of the Spanish Succession; Spanish Netherlands (present Belgium) pass to Austria. 1715. Barrier treaty is signed with Austria and Great Britain; Dutch permitted to garrison parts of Austrian Netherlands. 1717. Jan. i. Triple alliance with France and Great Britain against Spain. 1720. Aug. 3. Heinsius dies; his successors govern for a quarter of a century. 1747. April. William IV. of Orange becomes stadholder; practically a hmited hereditary mon- archy results. 1751. Oct. 2g. William V., three years old, suc- ceeds his father. 1780. Dec. 20. Great Britain declares war on Holland because of membership in the Armed Neutrality and supposed alliance with the United States. Conflict for naval supremacy follows, in which Holland is defeated (see Great Brit.ain). 1782. Oct. S. Treaty of recognition and com- merce with the United States. 1784. Man 20. Peace with Great Britain; British gains in East Indies. 1787. Civil strife occurs in the Low Coimtries, caused by opposition to the House of Orange, but Prussia interferes and restores order. 1795. French Bepublicans, having mvad,ed Hol- land in 179.3, subdue the country, which makes Holland an ally of France. The Batavian Repub- lic is formed. British conquer Dutch colonies. 18*2. March 2.5. By Peace of Amiens Great Britain restores all conquests except Ceylon; but after re- newal of war in 1S03 again occupies Dutch colonies. 1806. Napoleon creates the kingdom of Holland and bestows it on his brother Louis. 1810. Holland annexed to the French Empire. 1814. .4 us. i.3. Peace of Paris with Great Brit- ain; all colonies except Capetown and part of Guiana are restored to Holland. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1815. June 9. Final act of the Congress of Vienna confirms new kingdom of tiie Netherlands, in- cluding Belgium, with personal miion with Lux- emburg: former royal house restored in the person of William I., son of WiUiam V. of Orange. 1830. Belgians revolt (see Belgium). 1840. Oct. 7. William I. abdicates; succeeded by his son William II. 1849. March 17. WiUiam II. dies; succeeded by bis son William III. 1873. Dutch begin a war on Achin, in Sumatra, but are disastrously defeated. Struggle contin- ued, and in 1879 a victorious peace is concluded. 1890. Noti. 23. WiUiam HI. dies; succeeded in HoUand by Wiihelniina, his daughter, with Queen Emma as regent. Adolphus of Nassau succeeds to the .sovereignty of Luxemburg (^ee LuxEMsmiG) . 1891. Elections of the States-General are carried by the Liberals. 1892. Merwede Canal, connecting Amsterdam with Rhine Pro\ince in Germany, completed. 1894. A ug, 26. Dutch contending with the chiefs of Achin surprised and badly routed. 1895. International Exposition of jVrts and In- dustries in Amsterdam. 1896. Sept. e. Electoral Beform Bill, pending for several sessions of the States-General, adopted by both chambers. 1898. Sept. 16. Wilhelraina enthroned. 1899. International Peace Conference at The Hague (see Nineteenth-Centcry Period). 1901. Jan. SO. Hague Court of International Arbitration, formed in accordance with the con- vention adopted Jidy 29, 1899, by the Hague Conference, organized. Feb. 7. Queen Wiihelmina weds Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. June 14. So-called ** monster alliance ** between extreme Catholics and extreme Calvin- ists on separation of church and state defeats the Liberal government in the election. 1903. January. Strike on state railroads. April 12, government passes a law making strikes of state employees criminal and subject to severe penalties. Socialists alone oppose it. 1907. J-unel.^. Second Peace Conference opens at The Hague (see Nineteenth-Century Period). Not. 6. BiU introduced for reclamation of land from the Zuyder Zee. 1908. Venezuelan crisis (see Venezuela). June 15. Representatives from 23 nations are present at the International Suffrage Con- gress in Amsterdam. 1909. April SO. NEWFOUNDLAND. See under British E.mmre, page 73. NEW GUINEA. See under British Empire, page 75; Netherlands (Dutch East Indies), page 129: German-, page 105. NEW SOUTH WALES. See under British Empire, page 75. NEW ZEALAND. See imder British Empire, page 76. NICARAGUA. See under Central America, page 79. NIGERIA. See imder British Empire, page 67. NORWAY. Historical Outline. arcliieological researches have Geological and shown that a fishing and hunting population Inhab- ited Norway as far back as 6000 b. c, but the earli- est tradition attributes the settlement to Olaf, who fled from Sweden. The country was settled by numerous chieftains, whose principal occupation as Queen Wiihelmina gives birth ' described in the sagas was piracy and war. In the to a daughter, Juliana, heir to the throne, 1913. July 1. International Opium Confer- ence opens at The Hague Aug. 20. Universal Peace Congress begins its twentieth annual session at The Hague. Aug. 2S. Palace of Peace at The Hague, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, dedicated. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. August. On outbreak of World War, mar- tial law is proclaimed, troops are massed on the frontier and other measures are taken to enforce neutrality. Thousands of refugees cross from Belgium. 1915. April 16. Intense public indignation over the sinldng of the Dutch steamer Katwyk by a German submarine. April 27. International Congress of Women convenes at The Hague. July 30. New Landsturm Bill becomes law: provides for a considerable increase in the number of trained soldiers. Oct. 14. Martial law is proclaimed in trades providing militai-y supplies. 1916. April 6. Government forbids the exporta- tion of foodstuffs untU further notice. June 14. Food riots occur in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Sept. 9. Government's offer to care for young children from the invaded districts of France ac- cepted by Germany 1917. Holland suffers much from both Germany and the Allies, the former ravaging her com- merce, while the latter, fearing transmission of supplies to Germany via Holland, establish a vir- tual embargo against her. July. Food riots; troops compeUed to fire on the rioters. Dec. 12. Electoral Reform Act; universal suf- frage and proportional representation, woman suffrage and eligibihty for ofBce, including States- General. 1918. March IS. British and American gov- ernments seize Dutch shipping in their ports, holding that Holland, after entering into an agree- ment, withdrew in response to pressure from Ger- many. Alhed powers promise compensation to the owners and provision to meet the possibihty of losses tlu-ough enemy action. April. Dispute with Germany over trans- portation of sand and gravel for military purposes across Holland. June 14. Project for reclaiming Zuyder Zee becomes law. Amoimt to be reclaimed 523,000 acres. [HoUand. I Nov. 10. William of Hohenzollern enters! Nov. 15. German troops try to return from Bel- gium across Dutch Limburg and are disarmed. 1919. Friction between Holland and Belgium over Belgian claim to Limburg and the Dutch territory on south side of Scheldt (see Belgium). 1920. Jan. 22. Dutch government refuses to surrender the ex-Kaiser as the Allies demanded on January 15. Jan. 31. Dutch press publishes text of treaty with Belgium arranging navigation of the Scheldt (see Belgium). Feb. 12. Great dock strike begins: latei; de- nounced as being a Bolshevist movement. Feb. 20. Holland Joins League of Nations. March 5. Dutdi government, again refusing to surrender the ex-Kaiser, promises to keep a careful guard over him. tenth century Greenland was discovered by Eric the Red, and Vinland (possibly part of America), was visited by Ills son. Christianity was introduced about 1000, and the kingdom became united imder St. Olaf. Iceland was conquered in 1260. and the three kingdoms of Denmark. Norway, and Sweden were imited by the Kalmarian Union (Union of Kalmar), 1397. At the beginning of the 16th century, the king of Denmark gained the ascendancy. A long period of dependency foUowed imtil, in 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden by the kmg of Denmark, who then held the suzerainty. The Norwegians were dissatis- fied with the union, declared theu- independence, and chose a Danish prince for their king. A Swedish army overawed the cotmtry, and Norway was joined in a personal union with Sweden imder the rule of Charles XIII. Tliis continued for over a himdred years, when, in 1915, Norway declared her Independence and chose Charles of Denmark as king, who riUes nnder the name of Haakon VII. During the World War Norway remained neutral Her commerce suffered more than that of any other neutral nation from the depredations of the sub- marines. Although suffering privations almost amounting to famine from her InabUity to import coal and the necessary foodstuffs, her carrying trade, because of the high freight rates, greatly prospered. Organization. Government. Norway is a constitutional monarchy with a king whose authority is exercised by a CouncU of State consisting of one minister of state and at least seven coimcUors, who are heads of the departments of government. The king ap- points the high officials, may issue provisional ordi- nances, declare war and peace, and may exercise the veto twice, but if the same bUl passes tliree sepa- rate legislatures it becomes a law without his assent. The legislature, called the Storthing, assembles every year. The Storthing is chosen every third year by universal suffrage, since 1913, and consists" of 126 members. On assembling, the Storthing divides it- self into two houses, the Lagtiiing. which consists of one fourth of the members of the Stortliing, and the Odelsthing, which consists of tliree fourths. If the two houses do not agree, a joint session is held and the final decision is made by a majority of two thirds. Industry and Labor. Norway is a barren and momitainous country, with Uttle opportunity for agriculture. The chief crops are potatoes, hay, and oats. The forests. and fisheries are the two chief sources of national wealth. Although the comitry lacks coal, manufacturing is carried on successfully because of the enormous amoimt of water power, which in recent years has l^een turned to the pro- duction of electrochemical products. The fisheries furnish more than half of Norway's exports, and there are valuable mines of pyrites, iron ore, and copper. Beligion. The Evangehcal Lutheran Church is the national church, endowed by the state: but all other religions are tolerated. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14, and in 1916 there were more than 6,000 elementary schools, 93 secondary schools, and S9 commimal and private schools. There were 10 normal schools, and a imiversity at Christiania with more than 1,600 students. Defense. The army of Norway is a national mili- tia, in wliich service is compulsory and imiversal for men, liability existing between the ages of IS and 55. The area is 125,001 square miles and the esti- mated population in 1918 was 2,632,010. NATIONAL HISTORIES: NORWAY — PARAGUAY. 131 Chronology — Norway. For earlier iiislory, st-L' Denmark. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1814. -f'tn. 14. By Treaty of Kiel. Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden. Norwegians refuse to acknowledge the treaty. May 17, National Assembly at Eidsvold adopts a liberal constitu- tion for Norway. A prince of Denmark declared king: but negotiations follow with king of Sweden. November 4, Norwegian Storthing agrees to a personal union only, tinder Charles XIII. of Sweden. Ratified by both coimtries in 1815. 1818. Feb. 0. Charles XIV. (Bernadotte) suc- ceeds on death of Charles XIII. 1819. Nobility is abolished. 1844. March S. Oscar I. succeeds on the death of hjs father Charles XIV. 1859. July S. Oscar I. dies; succeeded by his son, who becomes Charles XV. 1872. Sept. IS. Charles XV. dies and liis brother, Oscar II., succeeds, 1896. July. Friiitjof Nansen, leader of a polar expedition, who reached the parallel of 80° 14' north, returns in safety. 1898. llniversal male suffrage adopted. 1901. May i.j. Parliament confers the franchise on women taxpayers. 1904. Feb. SS. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark open negotiations for a northern alliance. 1905. May '21. King Oscar vetoes Norway's bill for separate consular service. As a result. Jime 7. Norway, tlirough the Storthing, declares her- self separated from Sweden. Jime 22. Swed- ish Riksdag (Diet) refers the government's pro- posal of settlement with Norway to a special com- mittee. August 13, popular vote in Norway is practically tmanimous in favor of separation. Sept. 2S. Agreement of Karlstad by Swedish and Norwegian delegates stipulates: dissolution of personal imion: formation of a neutral zone be- tween the two coimtries, and demolition of cer- tain fortresses therein by Norway: freedom of transit traffic from ta.xation : safeguards for certain vested rights in waterways ; disputes to go to the Hague Tribunal. Octoter 9, Norwegian Stor- thing adopts agreement; Swedish Riksdag (Diet) does so on October Hi. October 27. King Oscar relinquishes Norwegian crown. Nov. 13. By a large majority of the popular vote. Prince Charles of Denmark elected king; on November 18 imanimously elected by the Storthing, and takes the name of Haakon VII, November 27. the king takes oath to ob- serve the Norwegian constitution. 1900. Jime 22. Haakon VII. and Queen Maud cro^vned. 1907. June 14. Suffrage is granted to women of Qualified class. 1908. .Ipril 23. Joint declaration by Great Brit- ain. Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden for the maintenance of the territorial status quo on the North Sea. 1910. Jan. 18. Stortliing passes law admitting women to public office, [mimal elections. I Jmie. Woman suffrage granted in all com- 1 1911. Dec. 16. Amundsen, Norwegian explorer, reaches South Pole. 1913. June 11. Woman suffrage extended, allowing all women to vote in parhamentary elec- tions. Women also allowed to serve on Juries. June 26. Royal veto abolished by Storthing. ■WORLD WAR PERIOD, 1914. May 1.5. One-himdredth aimiversary of the separation of Norway from Denmark celebrated. Dec. 18. King Haakon, with King Christian of Denmark and King Gustavus of Sweden, meet at Malmo to discuss the effect of the World War on their countries. 1915. January. Government embarks upon the policy of developing imder state ownienship the priDcipal water powers of the comitry, primarily for generating electricity for state railroads. 191C. Feb. 3. Constitutional amendment makes women eligible to the Council of State. 1917. Norway suffers severe loss of shipping, but maintains her policy of neutrality. At the end of November the kings of Norway. Sweden, and Den- mark meet at Cliristiania and adopt as policy during the war close cooperation and mutual aid. 1918. April 30. Under an agreement with the United States. Norwayguarantees that imports from the United States shall not reach Ger- many, and limits her own exports to Germany. 1919. June 10. Labor party votes to adhere to the Third International of Moscow. Oct. 7. Prohibition of strong drink adopted by popular referendum. Nov. 21. Spitzbergen commission having made a report favoring Norse sovereignty of the islands, the Supreme Council at Paris grants it. Treaty with Norway to that effect. Feb. 9. 1920. 1930. March 6. Norway Joins the League of Nations. NYASALAND. See tmder British Eiipire, page 65. OMAN. Oman is an independent state situated on the Giilf of Oman, extending from the entrance of the Persian Gulf to the extreme point of Aral)ia. The coast line is nearly a thousand miles long and the area S2.000 square miles. Great Britain and France have guar- anteed the integrity of Oman. The population is estimated at 500,000. chiefly Arate. The capital is Maskat. The exports are chiefly dates, fish, limes, cotton goods, hides, and skins. A mail boat runs to Bombay and there is cable commmiication. ORANGE FREE STATE. See under British Empire, page (56. PALESTINE. Historical Outline. The name Palestine is applied to the territory ly- ing between the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and the line of the Jordan River, with somewhat indeflnite boundaries to the northern and southern ends. It has been celebrated for ages as the seat of the Jewish people; and as the scene of the birthplace, iiome. and death of Jesus Clirist, and hence the " Holy Land ' ' of Christian coimtries. Palestine has gone through many mutations; it has been part of the Egjiitian, Babylonian. AssjTian. Seljiik. and Ottoman empires. It was the scene of the great struggles of the Crusades, and it once in- cluded a kingdom of Jerusalem with a Western sover- eign. It has been the bridge for the march of armies l^etween Asia and Africa, and is at present the object of a movement for the resettling of a Jewish com- munity who expect to become an independent state. The Jews who came into the land about 1160 b. c. eventually were divided into two kingdoms — Israel and Judah. Their sacred city oi Jerusalem was many times taken, notably by the Roman general Titus (70 A. D.), by the Crusaders in 1099, and by Saladin in 1187. It remained thereafter under Mos- lem pc^tver till 191S. The population of Palestine contains many races, of whom the majority appear to be Bedouins, or set- tled Arabs, and a few of Persian and Kurdish descent. A Jewish population is made up in part from colonies planted from outside during the last fifty years. The cliief products of the country are olives, wine, fniits, and other semitropical products. There are no workings of valuable minerals. During the World War a railroad line was com- pleted from EgyiJt to Jerusalem, from which there are connections by rail north and northward to Damascus, Beirut, and Aleppo. The area of the former Tm-kish vilayet of Jeru- salem is about 6,600 square miles, and the popu- lation, in 1915, about 350,000: but the borders of the state of Palestine, which is imder the mandate of Great Britain, contain about 9.000 square miles and a total population (1919) of about 650,000. Chronology. 1099. July 15. Jerusalem taken by Crusaders, 1100-1391. Kingdom of Jerusalem. City re- captured by Saladm, 1187; held agam by the Cru- saders 1229-1244: kingdom ends with Moslem capture of Acre. 1516-1917. Turkish domination. 1860. Massacre of Christian Maronites of Mt. Lebanon by Mohammedan Druses (see Stria). 1864. Sept. 6. Autonomy granted to Lebanon imder a Cliristian governor. 1878. Beginning of Jewlsli emigration from the Pales and elsewhere in Europe to Palestine for agricultural settlement, assisted first by the Cho- vevi Zion Society and later by Hirsch's Jewish Colonization Association. 1893. Jewish Colonization Society founded. Takes over Rothschikl colonies in 1809. 1896. Publication of Herzl's Jewish State, advocat- ing Zionist movement for a tribute-pajing Jewish sta&e in Palestine tmder Turkish suzerainty. 1897. International Zionist Congress held at Basel. Others follow, but no practical resiilts. 1914. About 15,000 Jewish agriculturists in Pales- tine in about 40 colonies, with more or less local self -government. 1916. May 9-16. Secret agreement between France and Great Britain for partition of Tur- key; provides for an international administration over Palestine. (War) . | 1917. Allenby's Palestine campaign (see World I Nor. 2. Balfour, British foreign secretarj', declares the government's sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations. Dec. 9. Occupation of Jerusalem. 19?0. Feb. 27, March 8. Anti-Zionist demonstra- tions in Jerusalem by Arabs, other Moslems, and Christians. April 25. Supreme Council meeting at San Remo gives Great Britain mandate for Pales- tine, estabhshed as a home land for the Jews. May 11. Peace treaty handed to Turkey m- corporates British mandate in Palestine. PANAMA. See under Centr.^l America, page 81. PAPUA. See under British Empire, page 75. PARAGUAY. Historical Outline. Paraguay is one of the .South American states not touching the ocean. Its cliief city, Asuncion, was founded by Ayolas in the fall of 1536. After the abandonment of Buenos Aires by the Spaniards, .\sunci6n became the capital of the whole region of the Plata. Paraguay was a dependency of Buenos Aires, when, in 1811, it rose against the Spanish authorities and defeated the Argentine leader Bel- grano. The consulate, established in 1812, wa£ sup- planted two years later by the dictatorship of Gen- eral Francia, who held tmdisputed sway until 1840- A second brief consulate was succeeded by the presi- dency of Don Carlos Lopez. After him his son Don Francisco Lopez ruled from 1862 for seven years over what was called the Republic of Paraguay. His ambition and egotism involved Paraguay in wars with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, but on April 1. 1870. Lopez was killed and Paraguay crushed at the battle of Aquidaban. From that date Paraguay, although troubled by revolutions in 1!)0S, 1911. 1912, and 1915, has shown great industrial progress. Organization. Government. By the constitution (1870) the legislative power is vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate of 20, one to every 12,000 inhabitants, and a Chamber of Deputies of 40, one to every 6.000. Both senators and deputies are chosen directly by the people. The executive power is in the hands of a president chosen for four years, who exercises liis fimction through a cabinet of five ministers respon- sible to Congress. Social Conditions. The native races of this part of South America were the Guaranis, whom the wliites first conciliated, then subjected, and with whom they intermarried. The modem Paraguay- ans are the descendants of this relationship. The Roman Catholic is the established religion, but the free exercise of other reUgions is permitted. Educa- tion is free and nominally obligatory, but not every- where available. Defense. The army consists of atout 2,500 men : the nav-y of three small converted merchantmen. Industry. The coimtry is predominantly agri- cultural and supports vast herds of cattle. Mate, or Paraguay tea, is one of the chief articles of export: tobacco is also exported. The area is estimated at 65.000 square miles and the population at 1,000,000, Chronology. 15S7-1628. Exploration of the Paraguay and Pa- rana rivers by Sebastian Cabot. 1536. Aug. IS. Asuncion founded. Region comes tmder viceroyalty of Peru. 1605. Jesuit missions established: become a power in the laud. 1769. Jesuits espeiied. [Aires | 1776. Paragtiay put imder viceroyalty of BuenosI 1811. July 5. Independence declared both from Spain and Argentina. Not contested. 1814-1840. Dictatorship of Francia; anticlerical, opposed to foreign commerce, but favorable to internal development, 1840-1862. Dictatorsliip of Carlos Antonio Lopez, Francia's nephew. 1855. Feb. 1. Paraguayans fire on U.S.S. Water Witch on Parand River. 1858. June 2. Congress of United States author- izes a commission to settle Water Witch and claims controversies. Naval force also sent to La Plata. 1859. Feb. 4. Paraguay apologizes and pays indemnity: also treaties of commerce, free naviga- tion of Parand and Paraguay rivers, and arbitra- tion of claims. [ceeds as dictator.! 186S. Lopez's son, Francisco Solano Lnpez, .sue- 1 1865. March IS. Lopez's ambition for conquests leads to declaration of war on Argentina; but Brazil and Uruguay form alliance with Argen- tina (May 1), and Paraguay is invaded, devas- tated, and depopulated. War lasts five years. 1870. March 1. Paraguayan forces crushed and Lopez killed at battle of Aquidaban. Rivalry among alUes preserves Paraguay's independence. Nor. 25. Constitution proclaimed; Rivarola first president. Bevolt.s are frequent; down to 1912 few presidents complete their terms. 1872. Jan. 9. Treaties of peace, indemnity, and boundaries with Brazil. 132 NATIONAL HISTORIES: PARAGUAY — PERSIA. N U W 1876. Feb. 3. Treaty of peace, indemnity, and boundaries with Argentina; EI Chaco territorj' to be arbitrated. 1878. Nov. IS. President Hayes of tlie United States decides El Cliaco controversy in favor of Paraguay. 1883. April iO. Treaty of peace with Uruguay; Paraguay recognizes war debt. 1903. January. President Aceval (in office since 189S) forced to resign by a cabal of " generals." Not. 2.i. Juan Ezcurra inaugurated presi- dent; military control. 1904. August. Almost bloodless contest between Conservative government and Liberal party under Ferreira begins. 1S05. February. President Ezcurra resigns; Liber- als make Gaona provisional president. December. Gaonaresigns; lialz provisional presi- dent. 1906. December. Ferreira inaugurated regular president. 1908. July 2. Revolt at Asuncion. Two days later Ferreira resigns ; Naveiro becomes president. 1910. Nov. 2o. Gondra inaugurated regular president. 1911. Ja7i. 19. Gondra having been forced to re- sign, Jara succeeds as president. Disturbances continue. July 5. Centennial of Independence cele- brated. On same day President Jara expelled; Rojas made provisional president, deposed in December, restored the next January. 1913. January. Brief controversy with Argentina involving severance of diplomatic relations. In- tercom-se restored m February. March 1. Pefia takes place of Rojas as provi- sional president: latter in hands of rebels. March 22. Revolution forces Feiia to flee. Navero provisional president. April 27. Jara revolts. Captured and dies. May 17. Anarchy prevails. July 19. Eduardo Schaererelected president; inaugurated August 15. Law and order finally prevail; industrial and financial progress result. 1915. January. Uprising by Escobar quickly sup- pressed. 1916. July 19. Treaty with Bolivia: step toward settlement of boundary controversy. Aug. IS. Manuel Francosucceedsconstitution- ally as president. 1919. June 7. President Franco dies; Vice Presi- dent Montero succeeds. Nor. IS. Paraguay joins the League of Na- tions. PERSIA. Historical Outline. Few existing nations go farther back for their origin than does Persia. Ancient history takes note of Iran as one of the earliest seats of civilization. Following the old empire of Bactria came that of the Medo- Persians. Under the Acliaemenian kings (559-330 B. c.) Persia was a conquering power, the dominion of wliich was extended westward to Greece, east- ward to the Indus, southward to Ethiopia, and northward to the countries above the Caspian. The Persians made successful war with almost every kingdom upon their borders, imtil Alexander the Alacedonian tiuTied the tide of conquest. The brief Greek ascendancy was succeeded by the dy- nasty of the Seleucidae, and that by the Parthian Empire. The Romans held the country for a time, includmg the conquest of Persia by Trajan and the subsequent campaigns of Sevenis. The Sassanian Empire followed, from the third century to the period of the Moslem conquest. The Persians repeatedly conquered parts of western India, and have left a mark on its religion and literature. Under the Ab- basside caliphs Persia again became a great empire, the transformation of wliich into modem Persia may be dateti from the death of Abbas III., in the year 1736. At that time the ambitious Nadir became shah. His northern conquests and wars in the west justified his reputation as one of the greatest of the shahs. The history of Persia dtiring the latter half of the eighteenth century is largely an account of feuds and revolutions. The Kajar dynasty was estabhshed with the accession of Aga Mohammed in 1794. who since 1779 had contended for the throne in a civil war. Fath Ali Shah was proclaimed in 1798; then followed a war with Russia, which led to diplomatic relations between Persia and England, and Persia and France. Napoleon I. cultivated friendly relations with the shah. Persia, however, has never entered into the Euro- pean system; and the Western states have not much concerned themselves with the course of Persian events. Mohammed Shah sent an army against Herat in 1.S37, and thus came into collision with the British. His son, Nasr-ed-Din Shah, during the Crimean War (1854-56), entered into secret relations with Russia, and it was only after the treaty of peace that friendly relations were again declared be- tween the shah and the Western governments. Great Britain in the nineteenth century adopted the poUcy of maintaining an envoy at the Persian court. In 1862 the Anglo-Indian telegraph was carried through Persia from London by way of Te- heran and Bagdad. In 1873 and again in 187S the shah visited l^)n(lon ;uul other Western cities, where he was reci'i\ed willijircal distinction. In 1881 the intematiouul boimdary between Persia and Russia was peacefully estabhshed. Nasr-ed-Din held the throne for forty-eight years, and was then, in 1896, assassinated by a fanatic. The Persian rule passed without controversy to his son Muzaffar-ed-Din. Between 1899 and 1907 Russia and Great Britain were rivals for the control of the kingdom. The Russian Bank lent Persia $20,000,000 of wliich more than half was squandered by the shah. In return Russia obtained a valuable concession and tlireat- ened Great Britam's naval supremacy in the Persian Gulf. In 1899 Ijord Lan.sdomie staud in the House of Lords that Great Britain would resist by all means in its power the attempt of any other nation to ob- tain a naval base on the Gulf; and in 1903 Lord Cur- zon. viceroy of India, made a naval demonstration. The rivalry of Russia and England in central Asia extended to Persia. As a part of a general clean-up of the situation they came to an agreement in 1907 in which Persia was not consulted, by wiuch Great Britain agreed not to seek any political or commer- cial concessions or to interfere with Russia in the northern zone; while in the southern zone which bordered upon Afghanistan, Great Britain was to have free hand. The central zone was regarded as a neutral belt in which either comitry might obtaui concessions. In case Persia should fail to meet her liabilities in regard to loans previously contracted, Great Britain and Russia reserved the right to as- .sume control of the Persian revenues within their respective spheres of inlluence. In addition Russia admitted the special interests of Great Britain in the Persian Gulf. This was virtually a partition of the ancient land. In 1907 Mohammed Ali Mirza succeeded to the tlirone and a self-constituted Assembly demanded that he rule as a constitutional monarch. To this he agreed. Revolution broke out, the shah was de- throned and his eleven-year-old son proclaimed shah and a representative government estaijlished (1909). In 1911 W. Morgan Shuster, an American, was made treasurer-general with full powers of direction and control. The ex-shah invaded Persia with consider- able forces, but was defeated. Russia demanded the dismissal of Shuster, and the Persians were forced to comply. Russia nevertheless invaded the coimtry and occupied Tabriz. In 1913 the British and Rtissian governments agreed to advance $2,000,- 000 to Persia and in return each received conces- sions for railways. Alimed Mirza was then crowned shah and in 1918 Persia informed Holland that she regarded the treaties imposed on her in recent years, especially the Russo-British treaty of 1907 fixing the spheres of interest, as no longer binding. Organization. Government. Until 1906 the shah, witliin the limits imposed by the Mohammedan religion, was an absolute ruler. The only limit upon his power was the influence of the leading doctors of the law. In 1906 a repre.-i('nt;iti\e government, called National Council, w;is in tlieorj- established but never prop- erly constituted; and siure 1915 it has ceased to exist as a legislative or adnunistrative body. The govern- ment is in the hands of a self -designated cabinet. Religion. 8,500.000 of the population are Mo- hammedans of the Shiite sect. 850,000 of the rival Sunnite sect. There are about 10,000 Parsis or fol- lowers of Zoroaster, 50,000 Armenians, 30,000 Nes- torians, and 40,000 Jews. Education. Various Moslem colleges are sup- ported by public funds in which the students are in- structed in the Mohammedan religion and the Per- sian and ^Vrabic literature. In 1849 a polytechnic school was opened at Teheran and there are also military colleges. Within recent years many schools modeled on military lines have been established and the whole educational system is undergoing radical changes. Industry and Labor. Persia has from time im- memorial been regarded as a garden countrj', not^ withstandmg the vast areas of desert. The products range from those of the north temperate zone to those of tile tropics. Next to Arabia, Persia leads in the production of medicinal gums. All cereal grains and many of the common fruits, such as apples, peaches, apricots, plums, quinces, figs, dates, and oranges, are produced in abimdance. The oil fields of the Caspian region are extremely rich and m 1916-17 more than $17,000,000 worth of oil was exported. There are considerable mineral deposits, iron, lead, copper, and coal — none of them developed. The most important exports of Persia, besides petroleum, are, in the order of their value, as follows: dried fruits, opium, animals (live stock), cotton, rice, and skins. Defense. The army consists of a small force at the capital of not more than 2,000 men and two brigades with their headquarters at Shiraz and Ker- man. The police force is organized and com- manded by Swedish officers. The area of Pereia is estimated at 628,000 square miles and the population at between 8,0(X),000 and 10,000,000. Chronology. 1499. A native Persian dj-nasty, the Sophi, over- throws foreign rule. 1586-1638. Abbas Shah makes Persia again a great power in southern Asia ; afterwards the Sophi djTiasty declines. 1J21. Persia conquered by Afghans. 1739. Nadir (shah after 1730) reestablishes the Persian power and greatly extends it; but the em- pire faUs to pieces on his assassination (1747). 1794. Aga Mohammed of the Kajars, a Tiu-kish tribe, secures the tlirone ; Kajar dynasty has since ruled. 1800. Georgia, a subject state, joins Russia; war follows (see Rcssia), in which Persia loses. 1828. Feb. 22. By the Treaty of Turkomanchai, Russia makes further advances and secures ex- territorial privileges. 1856. Nov. I. Great Britain declares war on Per- sia because of her seizure of Herat. Peace is made at Paris, March 4, 1857. Persia giving up Herat. 1884. Russian conquest of Turkestan places her on the whole of Persia's northern frontier. Persia becomes the objeet of European diplomacy: as a field for controversy between Russia and Great Britain; as a sphere, for commercial concessions; as in the way of British ascendancy in the Persian Gulf; as a stepping-stone for Germany on the way to India. 1896. May 1. Nasr-ed-Din Shah is assassinated, succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-Din. 1906. .4 ug. 5. The shah assents to the formation of a representative national coimcil ; end of abso- lute rule. Coimcil meets on October 7. Decem- ber 30, the shah and crown prince issue a consti- tution on the powere and duties of the council. 1907. Jan. S. The shah dies; succeeded by his son IVIoharanied Ali Mirza, who attempts to ignore the constitution. Aug. SI. Anglo-Russian convention ends the rivalry in Persia; a phase of the Entente Cor- diale and advantageous to Russian interests. Persian mdependence and territorial integrity to be upheld, but coimtry divided into tliree zones: the northern, a Russian sphere; the southern, a British one: the middle neutral zone, open to the influence of both. 1909. July 16. Revolution against the reaction- ary policy of the shah leads to his practical abdica- tion ; the council proclaims as shah his son Ahmed Mirza, who is 11 years old. 1911. June 13. Shuster, an American, is ap- pointed treasurer-general in an effort to bring order out of the financial chaos ; but December 28, Russia, by a tlireat of armed intervention, com- pels Ills dismissal. Misgovemment and general disorganization, with Russian and British loss of prestige, gives Germany an opportimity to gain influence. 1914. July 21. Shah is crowned. November. Persia declares neutrality when Turkey joins the Central Powers. (For conflicts in northwestern Persia, see Armeni.^.) 1915. November. Persia the seat of rival In- trigues. Crisis at Teheran, due to the attempt of the Central Powers to force the shah to side with them. Great Britain becomes firmly estab- hshed in the south, where her position follows the fluctuations of the Mesopotamian campaign; and the Russian advance south of Teheran breaks up the Turko-Gerraan force. Persia's gendarmerie is reorganized by Sir Percy Sykes. 1917. November. Peoples of northwestern Persian province of Azerbaijan join those of Baku and Eli- zavetpol in forming new state of Azerbaijan; for a while this is part of Republic of Transcaucasia, but in May. 1918. becomes Independent. 1918. On withdrawal of the Russians from north- em Persia, British extend their operations and oc- cupy Meshed in the northwest as a guard against the Bolsheviki. May 3. Persia denoimces Anglo-Russian agree- ment of 1907. 1919. Aug. 9. Anglo-Persian agreement: Great Britain to furnish administrative advisers, niili- tarj' officers and equipment, encourage develop- ment of commimication, and lend Persia sufficient money for the.se purposes, customs being pledged for payment and precedence given over other loans. Agreement meets with much outside op- position as contrary to the League of Nations, but British deny all designs on Persian integrity. Oct. 31 . Shah visits England. 1930. Persia's adlierence to League of Nations an- noimced. Feb. 8. Permission is given a British syndicate to survey a railway from the railliead near Bag- dad on Mesopotamian frontier to Teheran and the Caspian Sea. 1527 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: PERU — POLAND. 133 PERU. Historical Outline. In Peru was clcvclopud the highest native civiliza- tion in either of the Americas. In the luglilands wliich extend into Bolivia the kingdom of the Piruas was estabhslied, probably as early as SOO a. d., and ruins of vast masonry edifices are foimd at Tiahiia- naco near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca and at Cuzco. This empire was overthrown aliout ICKX) A. D.. and about 1230 the Inca Empire was estab- lished at Cuzco. A wonderful syst«m of roads and bridges was Ijuilt tlirough the moimtains, temples and fortresses were built with marvelous sliill. The workers in metals showed great varietj' and original- ity of design, while the textiles wliich have survived show perfection of teclmique and pattern. A care- fully plarmed system of land tenure and colonization provided for aU the wants of the people. The native government, however, was fierce and tyraimical. The Spaniards entered Peru in 1,527. Just before their coming a civil war Jiad raged between Huas- car and Atahualpa, and tlie people were divided. By 1533 the Spanish conquest was completed. Quito, northern Ecuador, part of New Granada, Charcas (modem Bolivia), and northern Chile had been m- vaded and conquered. In 1535 Pizarro foimded Lima and made it his capital. The abimdance of gold excited the Spaniards and they treated the na- tives with cruelty imusual even for them. Peru was made a viceroyalty which included the whole of Spanish South America, but in 1718 New Granada was set off; in 1776 La Plata, and even Chile and Quito, were not wholly subordinate. In 1780 tlie Indian natives, always niunerous, but as a rule not formidable to the Spanish ascendancy, rose in rebellion imder their hero, Tupac Amaru. The insurgents, however, were not able to hold their own against the Spaniards and were left in a worse condition than before. When the insiu-rections against Spanish rule broke out in the north and east, Peru was the center of the Spanish power in South America and the Spanish military strength was concentrated at Lima. Con- sequently the risings in the more distant provmces such as Chile and Buenos Aires were successful. In- dependence, however, depended on destroying the power of the viceroy at Lima. San i^Iartin, the Argentine general, brought a con- tingent of the Argentine army across the Andes and the Chilean troops landed on the Peruvian coast in 1820, protected by a fleet of armed ships under the command of Lord Cochrane, an Englishman. San Martin was enthusiastically received and proclaimed the independence of Peru at Lima, July 28, 1S21. The Spanish rallied aft-er one defeat, but Bolivar ar- rived at Lima to organize an attack upon the .Span- ish viceroy in the interior. In 1824 the final battle of Ayacucho was fought, in which the viceroy and all his officers were taken prisoners and the Spanish power finally wiis overtlirovvn. In 1826 Callao, the last Spanish port in Soutli .\merica, was evacuated. For five years Simon Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial power. When he retired in 1826 a revolt broke out and a disastrous war was waged with Colombia. From 1835 to 1839 Peru was joined with Bolivia imder the rule of Andres Santa Cruz, who was overtlu'own by the intervention of Chile. It was only after 1S45 that order was restored in Peru, but here, as in the other coimtries of South America, the people divided into factions and presi- dents were made and deposed by military violence. No stable government was secured in Peni. In 1864 Spain seized the Chincha Islands which had valuable guano deposits, intending to hold them imtil the Spanish claims against Peru should l)e sat- isfied. Although the islands were restored, a body of Peruvian revolutionists declared war agauist Spain, and the Spanish admiral bombarded Callao. In 1868 an era of speculation began wliich continued until 1876 when a financial crisis produced general bankruptcy, and then war with Chile broke out. Chile alleged that Peru and Bolivia had formed an alliance against her, but the true object was to ob- tain possession of the rich deposits of guano and the nitrate beds on the Bolivian and Peruvian coasts. Severe fighting occiured between 1873 and 1883 and both Bolivia and Peru were crushed. By the treaty of 1883 Chile obtained absolute cession of the province Tarapacd and ten years occupation of the districts of Tacna and .\rica, the ovvnership of wliich was to bo decided by a popular vote at the expiration of the period, a vote wliich was never taken. From this war Peru has not yet recovered. Boimdary disputes with Bolivia, 1908, Brazil, 1910, and Ecuador, 1911, have been settled by arbitration, and revolutions have been frequent, the last in 1919. In 1918 war tlireatened between Chile and Peru, but through the influence of the United States the differ- ences were settled and the United States acted as mediator in the boimdary dispute. Organization. Government, .\ccording to the constitution (1920), the legislative power is vested in a Senate of 57 elected by direct vote and a House of Representa- tives (128) composed of deputies of the provinces hi the proiJortion of one for every 30,000 inliabitants. Everj- two years one tliird of the members of each chamber, as decided by lot, retire. The executive power is m the hands of a president elected for five years and not immediately reeligible The peace establislunent of the army is 11,000, the pohce force organized as soldiers is 8,000, the navy consists now of six vessels. In no Lathi-Anierican state do the actualities of despotic military government differ more from the paper constitution. Education and Religion. By the constitution there is absolute political and religious liberty. Ro- man Catholicism is the religion of the state. Ele- niemary education is by law compulsorj-, but the law is not enforced. In 1919 there were 2,880 primary schools with 195,000 pupils, and in 1916 5,000 pupils were registered in the government high schools, for which a moderate tuition is charged. There is a central imiversity at Lima with 1,500 students. Industry and Labor. The cliief agricultural products of Peru are cotton, cotfee, and sugar. The coffee cultiu'e, under the management of the Peru- vian corporation, is leading to the development of the country by the construction of roads and bridges. Rice and cocoa are also produced and cocaine is manufactured at Lima. Peru is rich in minerals and produces over $20,000,000 worth of copper, SIO.OOO,- CKX) worth of petroleum, SS.OOO.OOO worth of silver, although the gold mines have almost ceased to be profitable. The area of Peru is 722.461 square miles, but the boimdaries of some portions are not yet determined. The last census was taken in 1876 and showed a population of 2,660,881 ; the IJina Geographical Society estimated in 1.896 that the population was 4,620,201, but there are grave doubts whether the population is actually increasmg. Chronology. 1527-1533. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro and Almagro. Overtlirow of Inca (iua.si civihzation. 15.33. JunegS. Atahualpa, the Inca, murdered by Pizarro. 1535. Jan. IS. Lima founded. 1538. April 26. Pizarro executes Almagro. 1541. June S6. Almagro's followers assassinate Pizarro. Civil wars between factions of con- querors and between conquerors and Spanish gov- ernors continue imtil 1554. 1544. Viceroyalty of Peru established. 1555. July 6. Hurtado de Mendoza arrives as viceroy. He restores order. 1J18. New Granada separated from Peru. IPeru. I 1J76. Buenos Aires (La Plata) separated from] 1780-1783. Native revolt led by Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Incas. 18?1. July 28. San Martin proclaims the Inde- pendence of Peni. 1824. Bolivar dictator. Decemljer 9, independ- ence won by defeat of Spanish at Ayacucho. 1826. June. Panama Congress (see Panama). Sept. S. Bolivar returns to Colombia. 1827. Aug. 24. Lamar elected president. 1828. March 31. New constitution. 1829. June 7. Lamar deposed. AugiLst 31, Ga- marra elected president- Disturbed conditions continue imtil 1845; during which control is held by Gamarra (1829-1833, 1839-1841), Orbegozo (1833-1835), Salaverry (1835-1836), Santa Cruz (1,836-1839), andMenendez (1841-1844). 1835-1839. Santa Cruz and Bolivia (see Bolivia). 1845. April £0. Castllla elected president. He inaugurates a period of peace and prosperity. 1852. Echenique succeeds to presidency. | 1854. Revolt drives Echenique from power. Cas- tilla again president, January, 1855. 1862. San Romdn succeeds as president. 1863. April 3. President San RomSn dies; Vice President Perez succeeds. 1864. April 14. Spaniards seize the Chincha (Guano) Islands as security for a claim. Chile and other states support Peru. 1865. Jan. 2S. Perez signs a peace with Spain. Very impopular: Perez overthrown by a revolt and Prado made dictator. November 26. December 5, treaty of offensive aUiance with Chile against Spain. Ecuador also joins it. 1866. Jan. 14. War declared on Spain. .Spanish fleet bombards CaUao, May 2, but is repulsed. No further Peruvian hostilities. 1867. New constitution continues establishment of Catholic Church with Intolerance; but practi- cally Protestantism is permitted. May. Castilla heads a revolt, but his death ends it. In December Balta leads another one, and Prado resigns in January, 1868. 1868. Aug. 2. Balta inaugurated president. Policy of extravagant public works. 1872. July. Minister of War Gutierrez imprisons Balta, has liim assassinated, and is himself IjTiched. August 2, Manuel Pardo inaugurated constitu- tional president. (dency. 1 1876. Aug. 2. Prado succeeds regidarly to presi- 1 1879. Dec. 22. Pierola proclaimed dictator, with Prado having fled. Government is in complete cortfusion during the war and after. 1879-1883. Chilean War (see Chile). 1883. January. Iglesias elected president under Chilean control. C^aceres resists his authority. 1885. Dec. 2. Both Iglesias and Caceres renounce control; junta rules. 1886. June 3. Caceres elected president. He gradually restores order. 1887. Aug. 1. Treaty with Ecuador for arbitra- tion of boundaiy dispute. Not effectual. 1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress opens at Wasliington (see United States). 1890. Aug. 10. Bermiidez succeeds as president. 1894. March 31. Bermudez dies. In May Caceres proclaims liimself president. Civil war breaks out under Pierola. 1895. March 21 . Foreign legations mediate a peace after fierce fighting for Lima. Cdceres retires. Provisional jimta governs. Sept. S. Pierola uiaugurated constitutional president. Reforms and a few outbreaks. 1899. Sept. 8. Romaua histalled president. 1903. Sept. 8. Candamo Iwcomes president. Nov. 14. Boundary treaty (Acre) Brazil (see Brazil). 1904. May 7. Candamo dies. September 24, Jose Pardo inaugurated president. 1908. Sept. 24. Legula succeeds to presidency. 1909. Decision in Bolivian boundary dispute (see Argentina). April 21. Colombian treaty to settle boimd- ary. Controversy with Ecuador over boundary remains, while the question of Tacna and Arica with Chile is a constant irritation. 1912. Sept. 24. Billinghurst becomes president. 1914. February. Military revolt under Bena- vides; Billinghurst imprisoned, deposed, and ex- iled. Benavides provisional president. May IS. 1915. Aug. IS. Pardo again inaugurated president. October. Congress finally passes a religious liberty amendment; but President Pardo neit'iCi' signs nor vetoes it. 1917. Oct.S. Peru severs diplomatic relations with Germany over sinking of Peruvian ship Lorton. 1918. June 14. Possession is taken of 8 interned German ships (.50,000 tons). November. Anti-Peruvian riots in Chile over Tacna- Arica question tlireatenwar. Good serv- ices of United States quiet matters. 1919. Jan. 13. General strike at Lima and CaUao inaugurates a year of industrial unrest. Jan. I s. Peru has a delegate at the Peace Con- ference at Paris. May. Another general strike at Lima. Lasts a week, then called off. Martial law, suppression of a newspaijer and other actions cause controversy between judicial and executive departments. July 4. Because of a disputeci presidential elec- tion Caceres heads a revolt. Pardo exiled. Leguia. Independent candidate for presidency, claims election and assumes provisional control. September. General Gorgas of Panama Canal fame agrees to plan and supervise a sanitary sys- tem for Peru. Sept. 27. Congress legalizes all of Legula's acts. Oct. 10. Government, followhig further strikes, promulgates a decree of compulsory arbitration. Oct. 12. Leguia, after a further election, in- augurated, under a constitutional amendment, president for 5 years. Nox>. 17. Peru ratifies Treaty of Versailles, in- cluding the League of Nations. (Bolivia),! 1920. Chile-Bolivia-Peruvian question (seel Jan. IS. Constitutional reforms proclaimed. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. See under United States, page 210. POLAND. Historical Outline. The state of Poland originated in the Slav migra- tions of the 6th century and occupied the inland plains which are drained by the Vistula River. Here in the 10th century a Slavic state under the Piast dynasty was founded, which checked the Teutonic movement to the east. In the year 1000 a. d. the Emperor Otto III. recognized Boleslaus I. as king of Poland. Diirmg the 12th century the Piast dynasty declined and Poland was broken up into several prin- cipalities. In the 13th century the terrible Tatar invasion ravaged and depopulated the land. The Poles were now so weak that they became a prey to the heathen Lithuanians and Old Prussians. These peoples were a separate branch of the Aryan race, being neither Slav nor Teuton. Thej' lived along the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea. To protect themselves from the invasions of these peo- ple, the Poles caUed in the Teutonic Knights, a Ger- manic crusading order pledged to subjugate or con- vert the Lithuanians. The Teutonic Ivnights es- tabUshed themselves on the lower Vistula, and in a series of ferocious wars almost exterminated the Old 134 NATIONAL HISTORIES: POLAND - PORTUGAL. 1385 — 1920. Prussians, whose territory was resettled by German Kl emigrants. '^ Tliis influx of Germans drew together the Poles and Lithuanians, who had nominally accepted Chris- tianity. In 1386 the Lithuanian Prmce Jagello mar- ried the daughter of the Polish king, and Poland and Lithuania were united against the Germans. This kingdom of Poland-Lithuania waged a terrible strug- gle with the Teutonic Ivnights, whom they Qnally de- ^^ feated at the battle of the Tannenberg in 1410; and \J in 1466 a peace was made by wliich the Teutonic ICnights ceded West Prussia to Poland, but retained East Prussia as vassal of the Polish crown. Poland thus gained access to the sea. Under Polish rule West Prussia became partly Polonized, although the towns, especially Danzig, remained German. Under the Jagellon djaiasty a succession of able kings made Poland-Lithuania a great power. Al- P though the old Polish provinces of Pomerania and Si- lesia were not recovered, the union with Lithuania brought an immense extent of territory to the east. Russia, which had just suffered from the terrible Ta- tar invasions, lost to Lithuania the territory beyond the Dnieper, almost as far as the Black Sea. This immense region was occupied by the Poles and Lith- uanians who crueUy oppressed the Russian peasants Qand reduced them to a condition of serfdom. The Jagellon dynasty became extinct in 1572, and thenceforward the Pohsh nobility, 60,000 in all, had the right to elect a king. The nobles split into fac- tions and the country was plunged into anarchy. The principle of " liberum reto," or unanimous con- sent, crippled the government and led to violence and despotism. Poland's weakness attracted the greed Rof the great powers. In 1772 Russia, Prussia, and Austria united m despoiling Poland by carving out the First Partition. Russia received the eastern part of Lithuania: Aus- tria, EastGalicia: Prussia, most of Polish Prussia. In the .Second Partition (1793) Russia took the greater part of Lithuania; Prussia, Danzig, and Thorn, and the whole of Great Poland, which became Southern Prussia. In 1795, by the Third Partition, Poland S ceased to exist as an independent state; Prussia took the region between the Vistula and the Bug and Niemen and part of Cracow; Austria took West Gallcia; and Russia, all that remamed. Dm-mg the Napoleonic wars the kingdom of Poland was tempo- rarily revived as the Duchy of Warsaw, but the Con- gress of Vienna redrew the lines of division, giving the larger share, including Warsaw, to Russia; while Prussia and Austria got comparatively little. I The annihilation of the Polish state did not extm- guish the Polish nationality. Old Poland had been divided between the tyrannical aristocrats and the peasants. Under foreign control all classes alike suffered oppression and felt a common grievance. In 1S30 the Russian Poles, exasperated by the re- port that the czar was to use their army to coerce the Belgians, broke into revolt. The Russian grand duke Ufled from Warsaw and open war ensued. On the suppression of the rebellion Russian Po- land was made a Russian province and severe meas- ures were taken to stamp out all national sentiments. The universities were closed, the church harshly treated, and the Polish recruits drilled in the Russian army. Alexander II. attempted a more liberal pol- icy, but an insurrection broke out in 1863 and caused . , a return to the harsh methods. However, the sup- V pression of the nobility and gentry has caused an improvement in the economic position of the Lithua- nian and PoUsh peasants. In that part, of Poland which fell to Prussia simUar attempts at breaking down the national spirit were made. The German language was taught m the schools and German colonists were settled in the territory. In Austria, however, the Poles were VV treated "more liberaUy and practicaUy given aut«n- ' omy in Galicia. Yet the Poles of aU sections never lost the hope of a united and independent Poland. The World War was Poland's opportunity. In March, 1915, Russia at last granted to Poland a limited form of self-government, hoping to prevent the Poles from becoming allies of the Central Powers, who had invaded Poland and were rapidly driving y, the Russians back. By the end of 1915, the Ger- A mans and Austrians occupied the whole coimtry, and on November 5, 1916, the Central Powers pro- claimed the independence of Poland, but neither determined the boimdaries nor established a consti- tution. In October. 1918. a constituent assembly was elected to frame a constitution establishing uni- versal suffrage, male and female, direct, secret, and proportional. By the treaties formed at the Peace Y Conference at Paris, in 1919, Germany and the Al- lied powers recognized the independence of Poland and agreed to accept whatever boimdaries the Allied powers should determine. The city and port of Danzig, however, was established as a free city imder the protection of Poland. Organization. -^ Government. Poland is now a republic under a ^ president and a Coimcil of M inisters who are respon- sible to Parliament, Ignace Paderewski was the first prime muaister; Joseph Pilsudsld president. Industry and Labor. Poland is an important agricultural coimtry, her principal crops being rye, wheat, oats, and barley. There are important mines, particularly coal, iron, and zinc; and m Gall- cia oil is found. TextUe mdustries are import.ant, and Lodz m Russian Poland was the center o£ the iron industry. Religion. The great majority of the people are Roman Catholics, but there is no established church and aU denominations are tolerated. Fierce preju- dice against the Jews has led to many attacks. Education. In former Russian and Austrian Poland there were in 1919 over 10.000 public schools, with an attendance of over 1,600,000. The Lmver- sity of Warsaw had, m 1916-17, 2,500 students A PoUsh estimate gives the probable area of the new Republic as 141,854 square miles and the popu- lation about 30,000,000. Chronology. 1386. Feb. 15. Union of Poland and Lithuania by crownmg of Jagello, grand duke of Lithuania; becomes also king of Poland as Ladislas II. Be- gmning of the history of Poland as a great power. 1569. Juhl. Union of Lublin (L^'Ublin) makes Poland one indivisible body politic; brought about by Sigismund II., last of the JageUos. Diet has become very powerful, but the constitution is not practicable," especially because of the elective monarchy and necessity of unanimous vote in the Diet wliich assist in the decline, speeded by the undisciplmed character of the Polish nobility, who are the constitutional members of the repubUc. 1648-1651. Cossack rebellion, first step in the dissolution of Poland. 1654. Cossacks transfer allegiance to Russia; Rus- sia invades Poland. 1655. Charles X. of Sweden also Invades Poland; coimtry is completely overnm by Muscovites and Swedes, but both are finally checked. 166J. Feb. 11. Truce of Andrusovo; Poland jlelds Kiev and left bank of Dnieper to Russia. Coirup- tion. foreign mtrigue, open barter of crown, and factionalcontestshastcndeclineof the kingdom. 1700-1720. Poland is chief sufferer m the Swedish wars (see Sweden). 177S-1796. Tliree partitions of Poland (see Rdssh). Disappears from the map as a nation. 1807-1812. Duchy of Warsaw is constituted by Napoleon out o"f Russian Poland; feeble, and mere recnutUig gromid for French army. 1815. June 9. Fmal act of Congress of Vienna divides Poland again between Austria, Russia, and Prussia on a different basis (see Nineteenth- Centuby Period), except the minute republic of Cracow Main portion of Russian share (except Lithuania) is formed into kingdom of Poland with czar as ruler, in personal union, Nov SO Constitution granted by the czar; includes national Diet, Polish language, flag, and army. Catholic religious establishment; but king and Diet soon at odds, . 1830-1831. Polish revolt (see Russia), foUowmg which the kmgdom loses its autonomy and be- comes a mere province of Russia, where Russifl- cation becomes an estabhshed but not successful policy, just as in German and Austrian Poland Germanizing is attempted, 1846. Nov fi, Austria occupies Cracow, with consent of Prussia and Russia; Poland entmjly extinguished again. 1863-1864. Second Polish revolt (see Rcssia). Contmued policy of Russiflcation; always unsuc- cessful. of three, with an administrative council and a limited parliament (which does not meet). Real control remains with the Central Powere as before. Pilsudski is imprisoned in Germany, and greater repression is exercised. 1918. Jan. S. United independent Poland is one of Wilson's " fourteen points." Feb. 9. Ukraine peace treaty with Central Powers gives PoUsh Ivholm to U"kraine. Polish protest is so great that the provision is modified, February 18. , „ , , Mareh S. In Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Bolshe- viki surrender aU of Russian Poland to the control of the Central Pov/ers. June 22. Polish army in France is made an independent organization mider its own officers. Od. 10. Great Britam recognizes the Polish National Army, made up of various detach- ments in France, Italy, and Russia, as autono- mous, allied, and cobelligerent. Other Allies and United States do likewise soon afterwards, Nov. S-11. Austrian and German armistices call for evacuation of Russian Poland, with free access of Allies, Ruthenians m Galicia declare for union with UTkralne, and Poles there jom Po- land ; armed conflict results. In Posen (Prussian Poland) there is also strife between Germans and Poles, (For other contests and relations, see Czecho-Slovakia and Lithuania.) Nov. H. Regency Comicil resigns in favor of Pilsudski, who becomes dictator. 1919. Jan. 18. Pilsudski, while remahimg head of the state and army, surrenders control to a coali- tion ministry under Paderewski. Poland is represented at the Peace Conference. Jan. 29. United States recognizes the provi- sional government of Poland. Feb. 9. Constituent Assembly meets, elected by a wide suffrage Includmg women and Jews. Majority supports the ministry. Feb. 12. Special mission arrives at Warsaw from Peace Conference to investigate various con- flicts between Poland and Germany, Czechs, Ruthenians, Ukramians, and Bolsheviki, Con- flicts continue. Feb. 21. Supreme CouncU at Paris decides to recognize Paderewski's government. May. Conflict to Galicia Is favorable to Polish arms; control is gained of the oU fields. June 28 Bv Treaty of Versailles Germany cedes Posen and West Prussia to Poland; plebiscites to be held in Upper Silesia and southern half of East Prussia. Danzig a free city, but practically a Polish port. Vistula River is mter- nationalized. Poland's eastern boimdaries left unsettled pendmg reconstitution of Russia. At same time Poland signs the treaty required of aU new eastern nations to protect minority races agamst discrimmation; especially important be- cause of the accusation of anti-Jewish agitation and pogroms. August. Armed conflict between Poles and Germans in Upper Silesia. Sept 10. In the Saint-Germain peace treaty Austria agrees to such Galician boundaries as are assigned to Poland. Nov. 21. Supreme Council gives Poland con- trol of Eastern Galicia for 25 years. , , , . Dec. 7. Paderewski ministry resigns; Skulski becomes premier. Pilsudski leading spirit. 1920. April. Poles advance m connection With the Ukrainians, and take Kiev. Look to establishmg power over large non-Polish territory. Are thrown back and evacuate their conquests. WORLD -WAR PERIOD, For the World War, see that title. 1914. Aua. IS. Czar promises autonomy and other privileges to retaui allegiance of Poland. 1915. Russians in retreat lay waste Poland. Aug. S. Germany occupies Warsaw. This control is at first in some respects propitious; Po- lish is ordered taught in the schools; but req- uisitions and taxation are laid on the already devastated coimtry; Germanizing and checking of PoUsh industries encourage emigration of PoUsh laborers to Germany. , ,, „ 1916. Nov. 5. Central Powers proclaim the Po- lish State," to be erected out of Russian Poland oiily and requiring the raismg of an army to be under the control of the Central Powers, Pilsud- ski, chief Polish leader, prevents the formation of any such army. The new " State " does not meet 'with Polish approval. Austrian plan of a imion of Russian Poland with Galicia as a third Hapsburg group is rejected by Germany. 1917. Jan. 22. President Wilson advocates a imited independent Poland. , March 29. Revolutionary Russia proclaims Poland independent and asks for a " free mihtarj' union "; no more acceptable to the Poles than the German plan, „ ,. , June if. Prance creates an autonomous Polish army under French command at the western front, s'ept. 12. Central Powers drop the " Polish State " project, and organize a regency council PORTO RICO. See under United States, page 211. PORTUGAL. Historical Outline. Portugal is one of the oldest states of Europe, the Partus Galorum of the Romans, yet it has had a very recent political development. Under the Roman Empire the country, then occupied by GaUic peo- ples was called Lusitania, Afterwards it was a Visigothic dependency. Later it resisted the sur- rounding Moors. In the eleventh century it came into the hands of the Duke of Burgimdy. and wa^ recognized in 1143 as an independent kingdom under Alfonso I The Burgundian dj-nasty ended in 1385 with the accession of John I. of the House of Aviz. This was the age of discover5^ Prmce Henrj- the Navigator, the son of John, initiated and supported a series of voyages along the coast of Africa, which culminated in the voyage of Da Gama to India (1497) This expansion went on diu-ing the reign of Emanuel, the Great or Happy (1495-1521), and the Portuguese Empire was founded which included valu- able possessions in India, the East, Africa, and Brazil. In 1581 Philip II, of Spain forced Portugal to recognize his authority: for nearly 60 years it was a Spanish dependency and Spain took possession of much of the Portuguese eastern empire. In 1640 1650 — 1911. NATIONAL HISTORIES: PORTUGAL. 135 the nation rebelled, and the Duke of Braganza was proclaimeci king under the title of John IV. Inde- pendence was won by the decisive battle of Monte Claros (1665). During the seventeenth century the Spanish Bourbons long hoped to reestablish the Spanish ascendancy and their policy was hostile toward Portugal in 1737 when formal indeix^ndence was proclaimed. At this time the reigning sover- eign was Jolm v., whose high character and uillueuce were recognized tlu-oughout Europe. Meanwhile the seafaring and adventures in the East reactsuin^j; a decree reducing the amotmt then due to foreign bondliolders by two thirds. The political condition of Portugal was imliealthy. The two re-gidar parties were run by professional politicians, who manipulated the election retiuns and kept out Republican and Independent candidates. Finally, in 1906, a dictatorsliip was established under Joao Franco, a man conspicuous for his integrity, energy, and com-age, who set out to reform the na- tional finances and administration. Kmg Carlos was accused of financial irregularity and attacked by the Republicans. Passion rose ^to the point where the king and the crown prince were assassinated (1908) and the .second son. Manuel, became king. A coalition ministry representing all parties was formed and Manuel swore to uphold the constitution. In 1910 the Republican soldiers at Lisbon, aided by the warships, attacked the mimicipal guards and after severe street fighting became masters of the capital. The king fled to England and a republic was proclaimed, which was oflBcially recognized by the powers. The life of the new repubUc has not been tranquil. The separation of church and state was decreed and j the monks and nuns expelled. Monarchist out- breaks occurred from time to time, and one presi- dent. Doctor Sidonio Paes. was assassinated (1918). With the outbreak of the World War, Portugal an- noimced its intention of fulfilling its treaty obliga- tions to Great Britain in 1916. The German ships lying in Portuguese harbors were seized. Germany declared war. and Portuguese regiments were sent to the lines in northern France. Organization. Government. The constitution of 1911 provides for two chambers: a National Council of 164 elected by direct stiflFrage tor three years; and a second cham- ber of 7 1 elected by the municipal coimcils and renew- able half at a time everj' tlu*ee years. The president of the republic is elected by both chambers for four years, but cannot be reelected. The president ap- points the muiisters, but they are responsible to and may be removed by Parliament- Industry 'and Labor. The industries of Portu- gal are all about the same as those of Spain, but on the whole the methods of production are less ad- vanced. Agriculture is backward. There is a bad system of land ownersliip. Only recently has free ownership become the right of the people. The cliief agricultural products are wheat, rj-e, and oats; wine is also produced m large quantities, as is ohve oil and figs and other fruits. A fifth of the area of the coimtry is covered bj' forests ; the cork f lUTiishes one of the principal sources of wealth. Portugal has minerals, but because of the lack of coal and cheap transportation many of the most valuable mines are im worked. The fisheries are important, especially of sardines and tunny fish. The most characteristic Portuguese industr>- is the manufacture of azuhjos, or porcelain tiles, an art inlierited from the Moors. Religion. Before the establishment of the re- public the national religion was Roman CathoUc, although other forms of faith and practice were tol- erated. The great number of monasteries and con- vents exercised influence not only in religion, but in politics. With the estal^li.slinient of the repubUc .stale support for the maiiUeiiauce of the church was abolished. The conventual establishments of Por- tugal were nominally suppressed by a decree in 1834 and their property was supposed to be confiscated for the benefit of the state. Nevertheless, several such estabhshments were formed in later years, and later suppressed by the RepubUcans. Education. There are tlu^e kinds of education in Portugal: (1) Primar>', which is compulsory and rigorously enforced. In 1915 there were more than 6,700 elementary schools. (2) Secondao'. which includes 32 secondary schools, with more than 11.000 students, the teachers for which are trained in the normal departments of the imivei*sities of Lisbon and Coimbra. (3) Higher, wliich was reorganized in 1911. There are now tlu-ee universities — at Lis- bon. Coimbra, and Oporto — with various faculties. There is also a teclmical school at Lisbon, special colleges for music and art, and a mihtary academy. Defense. The ai'my of Porttigal is raised by con- scription and all adidt males are liable to service be- tween the ages of 17 and 45, but practically service begins at the age of 20. Service is required in the active army for ten years, ten years in the reserve, and eight in the territorial army. In the active army the recruits undergo a prehminary training from 15 to 30 weeks. Afterwards there are two weeks of training durmg the annual mobilization. The peace establishment of the active army con- sists of 30,(X)0 men, but during the World War 65,- 000 men were sent to France, and 35.000 European troops served in Angola and Mozambique. The Portuguese nav>' consists of tliree protected cruisers, a variety of old gimboats, five destroyers, and foiu* submarines. The area of Portugal (includmg the Azores and Madeira) is 35,490 square miles and the population in 1911 was 5.957,985. PORTUGUESE DEPENDENCIES. The colonial empire of Portugal comprises 936,000 square miles with a population of about 8.735,000. It includes possessions both in Africa and Asia. On August 15, 1914, partial autonomy was granted to all Portuguese colonies : they have the right to estab- lish their o^ti codes of laws. POSSESSIONS IN ASU. In. India Portugal still holds Goa, on the Mala- bar coast, captm-ed by Albuquerque in 1510 and formerly the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East; Daman, north of Bombay, and Diu, a small island west of Daman. Besides the salt works in these colonies, in 1906 deposits of manganese were discovered. In China Portugal holds Macao, situ- ated on an island at the mouth of the Si (West) River, near Canton. In the Malay Archipelago Portugal still controls the eastern portion of the is- land of Timor, the chief exports from which are coffee, sandalwood, and copra. POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. These comprise; (1) the Cape Verde Islands. fourteen in nujnber. which produce coffee, medi- cinal produce, hides, and millet. (2) Portuguese Guinea on the coast of Senegambia. which pro- duces rubber, wa.x. oil seeds, ivor>', and hides. (3) The islands of Saint Tiiomas (Sao Tliome) and Principe in the Gulf of Guinea. The islands are hilly and the vegetation is rich, the chief commer- cial products being cocoa, coffee, and rubber. (4) Angola (Portuguese West Africa), which has a coast line of over a thousand miles, lies between the French Equatorial Africa and British South Africa and has a population of more than 4.(X)0,000. The chief products are coffee, rubber, sugar, vege- table oils, and ivory. The rubber supply is becom- ing exhausted, but cotton growing is increasing. There are also valuable mineral deposits. (5) Mo- zambique (Portuguese East Africa) lies between British Central and South .Africa and what was formerly German East Africa. Three distinct prov- inces occupy the total area of 426,000 square miles. The chief products of the pro\'inces are sugar, coco- nuts, beeswax, and mining products. Valuable gold deposits and coal have been discovered. The chief port is Loiirenfo Marques. Considerable progress has been made in building railways. For Portuguese possessions and interests in India, see India. Chronology. For earlier events, see Medieval Period, Chronol- ogy, and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 1650. War with Spain, begun in 1640 for the re- covery of independence of Portugal, carried on by John IV. III. of England.! 1662. Catherine of Braganza espoused by Charles I 1668. Feb. 13. Treaty of Lisbon. Spain recog- nizes independence of Portugal. 1693. Discover}' of gold in Brazil; brings in vast revenues to the crowii. 1697. Last meeting of Cort«s for over a century. 1703. May. Portugal enters War of the Spanish Succession as ally of England. December 27. Methuen commercial treaty with England. 1713. April 11. Portugal a signatory of the Treaty of Utrecht. [Utrecht. I IJIS. Feb. 6. War with Spain ended by Treaty of I 1750-1777. Marquis of Pombal chief mmister. Period of reform. 1755. .Voo. 1. Earthquaiie almost completely destroys Lisbon. (Joseph 1. 1 1758. September. Assassins attempt to kill Kingl 1759. Jesuits expelled from Portugal. 176?. Force of Spaniards with French allies invades Portugal, but the British interfere, and a treaty is signed at Fontainebleau, November 3, by Spain. France, Great Britain, and Portugal. 1801. Short war with Spain. Portugal loses dis- trict of Olivenza. 1807, November. Junot leads the French in an invasion of Portugal, and John VI. and court set sail for Brazil (for relations with Portugal, see Brazil). Lisbon is occupied by the French army. (For Wellington's campaign in Portugal, 1S0S-1.S12, see France.) 1814, Portugal cedes Guiana back to France. 1830, Revolution breaks out in Oporto and a con- stitutional junta established. 1821. John VI. returns from Brazil, and makes modifications in the constitution. Brazil becomes independent (see Brazil). 1826. Marrh 10. Jolin VI. dies and is succeeded by his son Pedro I. of Brazil, who abdicates the Portu- guese ttoone in favor of his daughter, Maria II, 1828, Miguel, the regent, usiu-ps the tlu-one. Portugal calls on Great Britain for aid, and Brit^ ish troops are sent against the usurper. 1831. Pedro of Brazil returns to Portugal to oppose Miguel. 1834. April Si. Treaty signed by Great Britain, France, Spam, and Portugal, in opposition to Miguel. In May the regent makes his submis- sion. Maria being declared of age in September. 1S46. Revolution, fomented by Liberals: queen calls for aid. Spain enforces a temporary peace. 1851, Insurrectionists imder Saldanha force the queen to dismiss her minister, Costa Cabral ; Sal- danha becomes administrator of the government. 1853, Nov. 15. Maria II. dies; succeeded by her son, Pedro V,, with the prince consort as regent. 1861. Nov. 11. Pedro V. dies; succeeded by his brother. Luiz I, lis overthrown.! 1870, Saldanha leads a military insurrection, buti 1872. Fire destroys a great part of Lisbon. Con- spiracy is discovered in the army. | Carlos. I 1889. Oet.19. Lulz I. dies; succeeded by his son. I 1892. Failure of the Royal Portuguese Railroad to pay the interest on its bonds precipitates a finan- cial crisis, involving the overtlu-ow of the min- istry and commercial troubles. 1896, Rebellions in the Portuguese colonies. Insurrections in East Africa and in Goa and Timor. 1907. May 10. King dissolves the Cortes; Premier Franco thereafter acts without reference to the Assembly. Great dissatisfaction, riots, and other disorders. 1908. Feb.l. Carlos I. and Prince Luiz assassi- nated. Febniary 2. siu-viving son proclaimed king as Manuel II. Premier Franco resigns and a generally liberal ministry formed. 1909. Jan. 8. Plot to detlirone Manuel II. A pril 7. Telles forms a new cabinet, but Dec. 22. under Belrao a new Liberal ministry comes in. 1910. Oct. J,. Eevolutlon at Lisbon begins with an attack from the warships in the harbor. The king escapes to England. Republic proclaimed October 5, with Braga as president, October 8, the provisional government at Lislxin decrees the expulsion of monks and mms, and, October 28, the total separation of church and state. Oct. 30, ex- premier Franco arrested for alleged abuse of power. 1911. Jan. 20. Pension granted to King Manuel. May 2S. Assembly elections result in an over- whelming victory for the Republican government. Jtme 19. first constituent assembly opened. August-September. Republic ofilcially recog- nized by the United States and European powers. Aug. 24. Arriaga electni president. Sept. 2. Cabinrt fornitfi by Premier Chagas. In September and October, royalist demonstra,- 136 NATIONAL HISTORIES: PORTUGAL — ROUMANIA. 19H icotitinued) . M tions occur, chiefly in the northern mountainous country. November 8, Premier Chagas and liis cabinet resign. Vasconcelios heads the new m inis try [ues. More bishops e.xpeUed. I 191'i. January. Hostility to the clergy contiu-[ Jan. 29. Martial law declared in Lisbon on accomit of strike riots ; transit f acihties suspended and theaters clo.sed. OJune. Ministerial crisis overcome by forma- tion of a coalition ministry with Leite as premier. 1913. January. Severe treatment of political prisoners calls fortii the censui'e of tlie foreign and domestic press. Jan. S. Cabinet under Costa, leader of tlie Democrats, succeeds the Leite ministry. June-July. Outbreaks of anarchists or syndicalists. Iguese legation at the Vatican. I P June lu. Parliament votes to abolish Portu-| Oct. 20. Monarchist outbreaks in Lisbon. E.xpected stipport from the north not arriving, movement fails. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. .Ins. S. On outbreak of World War gov- ernment annoiuices intention of fulfilling its treaty Q obligations to Great Britain. A'oi). 22. Parliament authorizes the govern- ment to aid Great Britain " at the proper time " in the war with Germany. 1915. Jan. 23. Continho ministry resigns, and Castro forms nonpartisan cabinet. March 5. Revolutionary government, known as the " Republic of Northern Portugal," proclaimed, with Barreto as president. May 15, R revolution e.itends to Lisbon and other cities against Premier Castro. May 16, President Ar- riaga continued in office by revolutionists. Cas- tro ministry overthrown, and a new cabinet headed by Chagas is formed. Premier is shot and seriously woimded a few hours after assuming ofBce. May 20, revolutionary committee dis- solved; general quiet prevails. May 2,5, Chagas S resigns premiership. May 27, President Arriaga resigns, and two days later Braga imanimously elected president by Congress. June 13. Elections pass without disorder with a majority for the Democrats over the Revolu- tionists, [president by Congress I Aug. e. Braga resigns, and Machado elected! Aug. 27. Monarchical uprising in the north. ^ Dec. 1. New cabinet headed by Costa. I 1916. Feb. 23. Portuguese navy seizes 36 German and Austrian merchant ships in Portuguese ports. March 8. War is declared by Germany, pri- marily because of the seizure of German merchant ships. March IB. War cabinet formed, with Almeida as premier. [mier. I 1917. April 25, Costa succeeds Almeida as pre- 1 Dec. s. Paes, leading a revolutionary movement, overthrows the Costa cabinet and arrests President Machado. 1918. Jan. 9. Mutinies on warships in Lisbon harbor, but the sailors Anally consent to return to their barracks on shore. April 2S. Paes, leader of the December Revo- lution, elected president. VDec. 14. President Paes assassinated in Lisbon. On December 16 Canto e Castro becomes provi- sional president. Barbosa ministry organized. 1918. Portugal mobilized 200,000 men during World War, of whom 8,367 were killed. War cost Portugal $140,000,000. January. In the north monarchist forces meet with success. Barbosa ministry resigns, Relvas ministry succeeding; but people rally to support of ^M the government and the revolt fails in Februarj'. Jan. IS. Portugal has one, later two. dele- gates at the Peace Conference in Paris. March 30. Pereira ministry formed. Aug. .'). Almeida elected president. 1930. March 6. Silva ministry formed, Pereira ministry being forced out by Labor opposition. Castro ministry succeeds shortly afterwards and in Xtiun gives place to Baptista ministry within a week. Labor trouble continues to be the great problem. u QUEENSLAND. See under British Empire, page 75. RHODESIA. See under British Empire, page 66. ROUMANIA. Historical Outline. The modem kingdom of Roumania comprises the former principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. It also includes the territory of Dobruja (Dobrogea) ceded by Tm-key at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. The coimtr>' lies between the Carpathians. thePruth, the Black Sea. and the Danube. The overwhelming majority of the population are Wallachians or Roumanians, descendants of Walla- chians who includt; some of the descendants of Latin colonist-s of the Roman province of Dacia and of the Molda\ians who were of Slavic stock, Roumanian historj' begins with the foundation of the Wallachian state by Kadul Negru in 1220. By 1526 Wallachia was conquered by the Tiu'ks. Mol- davian histor>- begins with the reign of Stephen the Great (1458-1504), after whom the coimtry was made tributary to Turkey . By the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) Tiukish troops were withdrawn from the two principalities, and Russian influence became strong. In 1848 a revolutionary- movement opposed Russian domination and for a time a Rus- sian army occupied the territory to restore order. The native princes fled to Vierma and Austria, in- duced the Russians to withdraw, and occupied the provinces with a force to restore order. The Treaty of Paris (1856) estabhshed local au- tonomy free from Turkish uifluence and rectified the frontier; and in 1801 the miion of the two provinces was accepted and the election of Colonel Couza as Prince Alexander Joan I. was ratified. In 1866 a revolution forced Prince Alexander to abdicate, and Prince Charles of Hohenzolleni-Sigmaringen was elected domn (lord) of Roumania as Carol (Char]es)I. Roimiania joined the Russian troops aft^r Russia declared war upon Turkej- in 1877. At the Treaty of San Stefano, however. Russia demanded the ces- sion of Bessarabia by Romnania, though it was largely inhabited by Roumanians, and offered com- pensation in the form of the Dobruja as far as Con- stanta. The Congress of Berlin revised the Treaty of San Stefano. As far as the territorial cessions were concenied Roumania's position was imchanged — she lost Bessarabia, but gained Dobruja. Her independence was recognized by the great powers and Prince Carol (Charles), who had ruled as domn since 1866, was crowned king (^lay 22. 1881). During the long reign of King Charles I. (as prince. 1866-1881: as king. 1881-1914). Roumania steadily progressed and developed a lively conscious- ness of nationality. The fact that large numbers of (>eople of the Roumanian race lived luider Aus- trian rule in Transylvania and under Russia in Bessarabia led to the desire for a greater Rou- mania. Inthefh*st Balkan War of 1912 (see Turkey, Bulgaria. Greece, Serbi.\), Roumania took no part. In the second Balkan War (1913). however, Rou- mania attacked Bulgaria in the rear and forced the cession of a strip of territory south of the Dobruja (Dobrogea). At the outbreak of the World War, Roumania, in common with the other Balkan states, was in a dan- gerous position, which was increased by the en- trance of Bulgaria on the side of the Central Pow- ers. Iving Charles died and his son was anti-German in sympathy. On August 27, 1916. Roumania en- tered the war on the side of the AUies. She invaded Transylvania and achieved some initial success. But the Dobruja was ovemm by General von Mac- kensen with a force of Bulgarians, Turks, and Ger- mans, and the armies from Transylvania were re- called. Von Falkenliaj-n, the German commander, fell upon these armies in their retreat. Bucharest was abandoned, and the whole coimtrj' fell into Ger- man control. May 6, 1918, Roumania was forced to sign a definitive peace with the Central Powers, thereby losing her Black Sea coast and many im- portant mountain passes. On the overtlirow of the Central Powers, the Roumanian people reasserted themselves. New elections were held for Parliament and a Liberal ministry was installed. The new government pro- posed many pohtical and social reforms, among which were the establishment of universal suffrage and the distribution of land to the peasantr>- by the expropriation of the large estates, Moreover, the Liberal government sought to reaUze Roiunania's ambition for a combination of all Roumanian people and a union was established with Transylvania, while almost constant warfare was kept up with Soviet Russia and Bolshevist Hungar>', largely, however, for territorial purposes. In 1919 a Rou- manian army invaded Himgary and occupied Buda- pest in defiance of the wishes of the Allied Pow- ers, retreating only when Roumania had extorted territorial compensation and partial reparation for some of her suffering during the war. Organization. Government. The constitution of Roumania was adopted by a constituent assembly elected by tmiversai sufltage in 1866, and has twice been modi- fied (1879. 1884). The Senate consists (March. 1920) of 170 members elected for 8 years; the Chamber of Deputies of 347 members electa for 4 years. Since 1918 these have been elected by uni- versal suffrage. The king has a suspensive veto over all laws passed by the Assembly and the ex- ecutive power is vested in a council of ten ministers. Industry and Labor. A good part of Roiunania is like the American prairies, fertile and flat, and most of the people are engaged in agriculture. Nearly half the land, however, is held by proprietors of vast estates. There is no middle class between the large landholders and the smaU peasants. The important crops are wheat, com, barley, and oats. Romnania is rich in deposits of coal, possesses a very productive oil field, and therefore was regarded as a valuable prize by the Central Powers. Religion. The overwhelming majority of tiie people are adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church, although there are about 269.000 Jews and 43.tX)0 Mohammedans. Only the clergy of the Orthodox Church are supjwrted and recognized by the state. There is nominal toleration, but tlie United States government has several times protested against the discriminations applied to Jews. Kducation. Education is nominally compulsory and free " wherever there are schools," but has been greatly neglected, and m 1910 only 41% of the army recruiti^ could read or write. In 1912, how- ever, there were over 5.000 elementary schools, with more than 600, (XX) pupils. The peasants are among the poorest and most ignorant in Europe. There are two universities, with nearly 4.000 students. Defense. Before the AVorld War military service was imiversal and compulsorj' between the ages of 21 and 46, with two or tlu-ee years of active service in the ranks. By the Treaty of Bucharest the Ger- mans reduced the army to 30.(K)0 men and took con- trol of the war material. After the fall of the Cen- tral Powers, the army was reorganized and 400,000 men were placed in the field. Roumania has one cruiser, several gunboats and coast-guard vessels. and a few torpedo Ijoats. After the second Balkan War the area of Roumania was about 56,000 square miles and the population 7,700,000. Should the annexation of Transylvania be ratified by the powers, Roimianian territory and population would be substantially increased. Chronology. For Roumanian history before 1860, see Bulgaria and Turkey. 1861. Dec. 23. The two principalities of Walla- chia and Moldavia unite and take the name of Boumania. 1866. Feb. 23. Revolution forces Prince Alexander Joan I. (Colonel Couza) to abdicate. April 20, Prince Charles of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen is elected domn. or lord, of Roumania. 1871. After Franco- Prussian War Charles tries to abdicate. Popular sympathy with France. 1877. April 16. Secret treaty with Russia allows the Russian troops to cross Roumania against Turkey. (For Russo-Turkish War. see Turkey.) May 21. Roumania declares its independence and sends troops to join Russian forces in Tiu-key. 1878. July IS. Koumanian independence is recognized by the Congress of Berlin. Bessara- bia lost to Russia and Dobruja gained from Bul- garia. In Dobruja, the great naval port of Con- stanta built. 1881. 'March 26. Prince Carol (Charies) pro- claimed king, as Charles (Roumanian Carol) I. 1889, March 18. Prince Ferdinand, nephew of the childless Charles I., declared heir to the throne. 1903. Sept. 17. United States Secretary of State, John Hay, sends a note to the powers, urging that Roumania be compelled to amehorate the condi- tion of her Jewish subjects. Dec. 27. Roumanian Senate adopts a measure providing for naturalization of the Jews. 1913. For second Balkan War, see Bulgaria. Lower Dobruja gained from Bulgaria. 1914. Oct. 10. King Charles I. dies- is succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand. Dec. 22. Roumania agrees to restore to Bul- garia most of the territory acquired after the second Balkan War. 1915. July 7. Austro-Himgarian minister pre- sents proposals for neutrality and facilities for supplymg Turkey with mimitions of war. 1916. March 2. Queen Elizabeth (Carmen Sylva), consort of Charles I., dies. Aug. 17. Secret treaty with the Allies, imder which Roumania is to enter the war; she is to re- ceive Bukowina and most of Himgary south and east of the Tisza, mcluding the B^ndt. Aug. 27. Roumania enters the war on the side of the Allies, but Ix'ing assailed by Austria. Bulgaria, and finally by German troops, is dis- astrously defeated. Large part of the country occupied by the enemy and resources looted before the end of the year. 1917. Agrarian reform; aU estates larger than 5CK) hectares to he divided. July 27. Cabinet is reorganized, Bratiano re- maining premier. 1918. Feb. 17. Russian government demands the evacuation of Bessarabia and the right to trans- port Russian troops through the territory. March 5. Roumania. signing a preliminary peace with the Central Powers, agrees to surren- der Dobruja and to accept certain economic ar- rangements and frontier rectifications. May 6. Definitive peace with Central Powers signed at Bucharest : control of Black Sea coast and important passes lost. NATIONAL HISTORIES: ROUMANIA — RUSSIA. 137 1918 (continued). July SI. Agreement with the Ukraine pro- vides that Bessarabia shall be incorporated with Romnania. 1919. May 3S. Royal decree emancipates the Jews, making them citizens. Occupation of Hungary (see Hungary). Aug. 1. Crown Prince Carol renounces the tlirone rather than give up a morganatic marriage contracted on August 27, 1918. Aug. 20. Roumanian civil government is es- tablished in Bessarabia, where the Roumanians are in conflict with the Russian Bolsheviki. November. New " cabinet of generals," headed by Vaitolano. includes members from Bessarabia, Biikowina. and Transj Ivania. In general elections both Jews and peasants vote for first time. Nov. 1. Bessarabia is formally annexed. Dec. 9. Roumania finally signs the Austrian treaty of peace (see Atstria) : delay due to oppo- sition to the protection of racial minorities required of all the Eastern states. Siie is then permitted to sign the Bulgarian treaty. On the same day the Vaida-Voe\ed mini.stry is organized. 1920. March 15. Averescu ministr>- succeeds the i Vaida-Voeved cabinet. March 17. Agreement with the Soviet govern- ment is reported, involving recognition of Rou- mania's right to Bessarabia and cessation of Bol- shevist activity within her territory. RUSSIA. Historical Outline. The history of Russia may be said to be^in in 862, when Rurik and his two brothers, who were prob- ably Northmen, entered Russia at the invitation of the Slav and Finnish tribes and founded a capital at Novgorod. They at once began to conquer the countr>'. and in two centuries had established themselves at Kiev, threatened Constantinople, checked the nomadic tribes of the steppes, and formed alliances with Poland, Hungary, Norway, and France- During this period, Russia consisted of a large number of independent principalities ruled over by the descendants of Rurik, of whicbNovgorod was the most important. From 123S to 1462 Russia was overrun by the Mongols and Tatars, one tribe of whom, kno^^-n as the ■' Golden Horde," built a capital at Sarai on the lower Volga. Their chief. Genghis Ivhan, created a vast empire stretching from China to the Danube. In 1380 a coalition of Russian princes under Dimitri Donskoi defeated the " Golden Horde " at Kulikovo and later (1462) the Russians under Ivan III. founded the czardom of Muscovj-, the first three rulers of which had a united reign of 122 years. They established an absolute autocracy on the Asiatic model and suppressed the independent principalities. Of these rulers Ivan IV., commonly known as Ivan the Terrible, niled for over fifty years and first took the title of Czar of all the Russias, He unsparmgly put down all movements toward independence within the empire and pushed the frontier eastward at the expense of the Tatars. Here was settled a class of Russian colonists whose descendants became the Cossacks, the best fighters in the Russian military force. Russia also attempted to expand to the west at the expense of Lithuania and tbus came in con- flict not only with the Lithuanians, but also with Poland and Sweden. Ivan was succeeded by his son, Feodor I., in whose reign the agricultural laborers were forbidden to mi- grate from one estate to another, thereby fixing on the coimtrj^ the institution of serfdom, There fol- lowed a period of civil war and disorder, ending with the election of Mikhail Romanov as Czar in 1613. who founded the Romanov d>Tiasty. This native djTiasty was much Germanized by marriages with Germans. In the reign of Alexis (1645-76), the successor of Mikliail. Russia intervened in the Ukraine, and as a result of the war with Poland gained territory to the middle course of the Dnieper Ri^'cr. which thus became the boundarj- between Russia and Poland. The great sovereign of the Romanov djTiasty was Peter the Great (16S2-1725). who more than any other monarch brought Western civilization to Rus- sia. With autocratic high-handedness he abolished some of the most cherished customs, and abandoned Moscow for his newly created capital of St. Peters- burg (now Petrograd). which was founded on the Neva to serve as " a window through which his peo- ple might look into Europe." In foreign afl'airs Peter the Great was an expansionist. At first he desired with the aid of the European powers to drive the Turk from Europe; but finding no response to this idea he turned his attention to the problem of reaching the Baltic. He made an alliance with the king of Poland by which Russia. Denmark, and Poland should acquire the Swedish provinces along the Baltic. But he had not counted upon Charles XII. of Sweden, who came to the defense of the Swedish possessions and carried on the Northern War for more than twenty years. Finally, by the Treaty of Nystad (1721). Peter acquired for Russia the prov- inces of Ingria, KareUa, Livonia, Esthonia, and part of Finland. On the death of Peter the Great without male heirs, the crown passed to several sovereigns in the female line who married Cierman princes, and Ger- man influence greatly increased. In 1762 Cather- ine II,, a German by bh-th. came to the throne and followed a strong and ruthless policy which caused Russia to be recognized as one of the great powers. Peter the Great had attempted to establish some essentials of good government, to introduce the arts, and to develop the natural resoiu-ces of Russia. Catherine did the same, and attempted to raise Rus- sia to an intellectual level with western Europe. Secondary' schools were foimded in the principal towns, an academy was established at St. Peters- biu-g, and a taste for French literature spread rapidly throughout Russia. In foreign atfairs Catherine pushed the frontiers of Russia south and west. Her first step was to ac- quire Kurland in 1795. She joined with Austria and Pnissia in the first partition of Poland in 1772 (see Poland); in the second partition of Poland, in 1793, by which Russia acquired the eastern provinces, in- cluding the Ukraine; and in the final partition, in 1795, by which Poland disappeared from the map. To the south Russia also was successful in acquir- mg, by the Treaty of Klichiik Kamarja (1774). the liberation of the region of the Bug. of Crimea and Kuban, the opening of the Bosporus and Darda- nelles to Russian vessels, and the right of intervention in the Danubian provinces. Catherine had even more ambitious plans, and desired to partition Tur- key as Poland had been di^■ided. In alliance with the Emperor Joseph II., war was declared upon Turkey in 1787. Although Russia was successful. Austria signed a separate peace; and in 1792. by the Peace of Jassy, Russia gained additional territory be- tween the Bug and Dniester and privileges in the Danubian Principalities, although the Turks re- mained at Constantinople. When the French Revolution broke out Catherine abstained from joining the opposing coalition, hop- ing to be able to solve the Eastern Question unre- strained by other European powers. Before such an opportunity presented itself, she died and was suc- ceeded by her son, Paul, whose reign of four years left little mark on Russian histor>'. Paul was suc- ceeded by liis son, Alexander I. (1801-25), in the early part of whose reign, liberal movements took place, certain oppressive measures were repealed, and schools, colleges, and universities were founded. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. Alexander I., however, is best known for his oppo- sition to Napoleon. At first he believed that his aims were not irreconcilable with those of the First Consul, and made the Peace of Tilsit after the defeat of Austria in 1807. Russia would not carry out Napoleon's Continental system, and Napoleon in- vaded the country and was frightfully defeated in 1812 in the memorable retreat from Moscow. From this time on Alexander was head and front of the coalition against the French emperor; and after 1814 became, with Coimt Mettemich. the apostle of reaction in the restoration of Europe. ' During the reign of his successor, Nicholas I. (1825-55), Russia again attempted to settle the Eastern Question, but was thwarted by the interven- tion of Great Britain. France, and Sardinia in the Crimean War and forced to sign the Peace of Paris (1856), which ended her advance in that quarter. The reign of Alexander II. (1855-81) was an epoch of great reforms. The serfs were liberated, the courts reformed, the elected provincial and dis- trict councils were given charge of the roads, schools, and hospitals; the natural resources of the country were developed, and a considerable amoimt of lib- erty allowed to the press. These reforms, however, were all from above downward. The people had no share in their government, no representative assem- bly, and no one was safe from secret " administra- tive proceedings " which resulted in death or banish- ment. The courts, though an improvement over the old tribimals. did not always administer justice. The liberty of the press was dependent on the temper of police officials. Revolutionar>' societies were formed, spreading at first piu-ely academic doctrines, but later preacliing Nihilism. To meet this move- ment a secret police was organized, arbitrary arrests and banishments took place, and an era of oppression was established. After fretjuent attemjits upon his life Alexander was assassinated March 13. iss], on the eve of annoimcmg a representative constitution. In foreign policy Alexander attempted to expand both south and eastward. In the south he fought the successful Turkish War (1877-78) and dictated the Peace of San Stefano. in sight of Constantinople, but was deprived of the fruits of his victorj- by the Congress of Berlin, He was brilliantly successful in Asiatic expansion, and began a movement by which a large part of the Amur basin was acquired; then he made Russia master of practically all the territory between Siberia on the north and Persia and Afghanistan on the south. The reign of Alexander III. (1881-94) was one of reaction. The local self-government in the towns and villages was restricted, and the literalism which existed in his father's reign was suppressed. He at- tempted to estabhsh Russian nationality throughout his vast domains, and therefore suppressed the local institutions and. as far as possible, the native lan- guage of the various national groups wlijch went to , make up his empire, especially in P^inland and the Baltic Provinces. Russias foreign pohcy was also changed. Al- though at first Alexander joined the secret revival of the Dreikaiserbund, or Three Emperors' League (1884-87), he gradually tiuTied toward France, with which coimtrj' a military convention was made in 1894. Not until 1895, however, was the word " alliance " used of the imderstanding between France and Russia. In Asia he extended his influ- ence to the south, even entering Afghanistan, but was checked in that direction by the energetic prep- aration of the British, and a boundary convention was signed in 1887. Nicholas II. (1894-191S) was somewhat more liberal than his father, but he held the same ideas concerning the spread of Russian nationality. Thus he pushed to the extreme, but imsucce-ssfully. the attempted policy of Russificatiou in Finland. In the Balkan afl'airs Nicholas II. re\ersod the policy of aloofness and acted as the protector of the Balkan states. In Asia, however, he continued his father's policy of expansion, and by the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway he attempted to dominate northern China and the little kingdom of Korea. Thus, in 1895 Russia deprived Jai)an of her con- quests in the successful Japanese-Chinese War (see China, Jap.^n), and subsequently acquired from China a lease of Port Arthur, which became a fron- tier fortress. As a result of Russian expansion Japan declared war 1904). The Russo-Japanese War (see Japan) was a defeat for the Russians, who were beaten at sea. driven from northern Korea, de- prived of Port Arthur, and pushed back in Man- churia. After peace was made Russia, by diplo- matic and peaceful means, attempted to acquire a doniinant position in Manchuria, but was thwarted by Japan. From its very beginning the war with Japan was denoimced by some Russians as the work of a small minority for their own benefit ; the sufl'erings of the war revealed the inefficiency of the government. The maintenance of peace and order within Russia was in the hands of the minister of the interior, de Plehve. who pitilessly prosecuted the Liberals every- where. In July. 1904, he was assassinated, an act approved by the revolutionary socialists, who maintained that in Russia violence was the only means possible to fight t>Tanny . The emperor some- what mitigated the policy of repression — allowed more freedom of the press and permitted the pro- vincial assemblies, the zemstvos, to send representa- tives to St. Petersburg to discuss the needs of the coimtrj'. The Liberals demanded a constitution for Russia by which the people should have a share in making the laws of the empire and should control the officials. These demands the czar refused to grant as a whole; but in December. 1904. he issued a mani- festo in which he granted some of them, but denied the right of a national assembly to frame a constitu- tion, i The agitation continued, and on January 22, 1905, occurred " Bloody Sunday." when an inmiense niun- ber of workmen imder the leadership of Father Ga- pon attempted to approach the palace and present their demands. They were attacked by the Cos- sacks and a great number slain under the eyes of the emperor. Disorders continued tlu-oughout the sum- mer, and on August 19. 1905. the czar announced that he would summon a Duma, to be merely a con- sultative lx)dy. Feeling that this concession was not sufficient the Liberals organized a general strike; and throughout the month of October Russia was cut off from the outside world, industrj' and com- merce were paralyzed, and the schools, stores, and courts were closed. Finally, on October 30, the czar annoimced that he would summon the Duma and would guarantee that no law should come into force without its approval, but he refused the popular demand for a consti- tutional assembly. Moreover, he instituted the Council of the Empire, which consisted largely of ap- pointed officials, as the upper chamber of the legisla- ture. Then, before the Duma met. he issued certain decrees, organic laws which were beyond the power of the Duma to alter. The Duma met May 10. 1906, and was in sessioD for two months before it was dissolved by the em- peror. It demanded amnesty for political offenders, reformation of the Coimcil of the Empire, the grant- ing of the town lands to the peasants on long-term leases, and, finally, the appointment of a ministrj* which should be responsible to it rather than to the emperor. This the czar refused to grant and dis- solved the Duma July 22, 1906. A second Duma was summoned March 5, 1907, but failed to satisfy the government, and sixteen of its members were arrested and many others uidicted 138 NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. N U W for carrying on revolutionary propaganda. On June 16, 1907, tills Duma was dissolved and the czar contrary to Ills promise made on tlie summon- ing of tlie first Duma, altered tlie electoral law, tliereby giving to the landowners the power to choose a large" majority of the members. A third Duma was summoned November 14, 1907, and continued until Septemljer, 1912; it was unsuccessful in clieclting the power of the autocracy. Its greatest act was the law of 1909, which broke up tlie historic form of coUective ownership of land (the mir) and substituted individual ownersliip. But neither the third Duma nor the fourth, which was summoned in 1912, were much more than consulta- tive bodies, the power of initiation remaining in the autocracy and the power to checli the acts of the Duma in the Council of tlie Empire. The policy of Eussiflcation steadily continued, and although cer- tain concessions were made in 1905 in Finland, and ancient liberties were restored in 1909, the Russian government deterrumed to end the autonomy of that country and to incorporate it within the state. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. On the outbreak of the World War, August 1, 1914, domestic aflfairs were in imstable equilibrium. The government ordered mobilization in answer to the mobilization of Austria and let it be known that it was the champion of the Slavic states m the Bal- kans Refusing Germany's peremptory demands to demobilize, Russia accepted the war declared by Germany, invaded East Prussia, and won some mi- tial successes; but was defeated at the Tannenberg and after some success was driven back to Warsaw. Russia was more successful in dealing with Austria and captured Przemysl (March, 191S), but later m the same year was defeated to the north of Warsaw by Hindenburg and driven back in the south by von Mackensen, Warsaw and Vilno iDClng finally cap- tured. In 1916, imder Brusilov, a great oflfensive took place. Hungary was invaded and consider- able Austrian territory occupied. These reverses and these victories were accom- panied by great sacrifices and sufferings; and tlie government showed itself neither efficient nor free from German influence. The Duma, which just be- fore the war had been dissatisfied with the repressive measures of the government, in 1915 gained the right to choose five members of the mmistry and passed measures extending the franchise to tlie peas- ants. It was becoming extremely critical of the policy of the government, and on March 12, 1917, refused to dissolve on the order of the czar. This was the signal for revolution and the flrst complete change of government since the first Romanov. March 15 the czar abdicated. The Duma, in conference with the labor leaders, appointed a provi- sional cabinet headed by Prince Georges Lvov and Paul Miljiikov as ministers of foreign affairs, and Aleksandr F. Kerenski, a Social Revolutionary, as minister of justice. The provisional government announced a program of reforms wiiich included freedom of speech, universal suffrage, the election of a constituent assembly, and a general grant of am- nesty; and assurances were given the Allies that there would be no slacking on the part of Russia in the common struggle. A week later, however, the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates de- cided to hold a peace conference in some neutral country, and in June appealed to the labor organiza- tions of the world for a peace without annexations or indemnities. They flnaUy declared the Duma abol- ished and invested Kerenski with unhmited powers. Kerenski attempted to carry on the war against Germany, but was thwarted by a decree of the Coun- cil on April 30, 1917, which vested the discipline of the army in soldiers' committees. Nevertheless, in July he launched an offensive along the Strypa and in three weeks captured 40,000 prisoners; but in the full flood of success the troops mutinied and fell into disorderly retreats. This was practically the end of the effective resistance of Russia to Germany. On November 8, 1917, the extreme Social Demo- crats — the Bolsheviki — who believed in carrying the doctrines of socialism to their farthest logical conclusions, overtiu-ew Kerenski and his govern- ment, and declared that the final public authority rested in the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. They promised immediate peace, dis- tribution of land among the peasants, and the con- vocation of a constituent assembly. November 10, Nikolay Lenin was made prime minister and Leon Trotski, who had been a journalist in New York, minister of foreign affairs. In order to accomplish tlieir first promise the Bolsheviki signed an armis- tice on December 17 and in March. 1918, signed the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk with the Central Powers, by whicli Russia gave up all claim to the Ukraine, Po- land, Kurland, Lithuania, Finland, and western half of Livonia and Esthonia. In addition Russia relin- quished the region of Batuni, Kars, and Erivan to the Turks. The promise of the Bolsheviki to call a constituent assembly was redeemed in January, 1918. How- ever, finding themselves outnumbered by the less radical elements, the Bolsheviki dissolved the as- ' sembly by force and forbade it to meet again. Tlie functions of the government were carried on by the " people's commissioners " supported by a congress of delegates from the Soviets. The actual power, however, was in the hands of Lenin and Trotski, who through their control of the treasury and the army ruthlessly suppressed all opposition. Before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Finland had declared its independence and it had been recog- nized by the Bolshevist government (January, 1918) . The Ukraine region did likewise, and its independ- ence was recognized later (May 23, 1918). Ger- many proclaimed an autonomous Poland and an in- dependent Lithuania. The Allied Powers, fearing that Germany might utilize the resources not merely of the ceded territory but of Russia itseff, dispatched troops to the Mur- man Region on the northern coast of the Kola peninsula, and American, Japanese, and Czecho- slovak troops, wlio occupied Vladivostok to protect the military stores, came in conflict with the Bol- shevilii. August 9, Lenin declared that Russia was at war with the Allies. Thus, for more than two years, Russia, shorn of some of her most important possessions, was cut off from the Western world and under the unchecked control of the most extreme adherents of Socialism, the Bolsheviki. Under the rule of the Bolsheviki Russia suffered ail the liorrors of a social revolution. Thousands of the upper and middle classes were executed, property both in the form of capital and real estate was ruth- lessly confiscated. Communism was attempted, the capitalistic industrial system was overthrown, and the theories of extreme socialization of Industry established. Cut off from the rest of the world, un- able to export her products and to import the neces- sary machinery, the transportation system in con- fusion, economic life was almost destroyed. Thou- sands upon thousands perished from starvation and in the disorders which attended the overtlirow of the old system. Possessing a paper constitution, ap- parently of the most democratic sort, and passmg many laws of a most liberal character, the power was concentrated in the hands of Lenin and Trotski and utilized for the fulfillment of their extreme social theories. Resistance to the Bolshevist government was or- ganized outside the center of the empire. In the east Admiral Kolchak, and in the south General Denikin, attempted to hold the fronts; while on the west the Poles, and farther north the Esthonians and Letts, attempted to check the Bolshevik power. In the extreme north the British troops on the Kola peninsula, and the Russian troops around Archangel, held their own. Yet at the beginning of the year 1920 httle progress had been nia* in tiie Caucasus. 17S5. Catherine I. succeeds her husband. Peter the Great, on the Russian throne. In the follow- ing year Russia joins with Austria and Spain in a triple allianee (see Austria and Spain). 1J?J. t'attierlne I. dies; slie is succeeded by Peter H., grandson of Peter the Great. 1730. Peter II. is succeeded by Anna, a niece of Peter the Great. 1733. Augustus II. dies and Stanislas Leszczynskl is elected king of Poland. Frederick Augustus II.. claims tlie title of Augustus III. Russians emd Austrians support Augustus, while France under Louis XV. (son-in-law of LeszczjTiski) as- sists his relative. 1735. By preliminary Treaty of Vienna the War of the Polish Succession ends in victory for Au- gustus III. Stanislas Leszczynski abdicates, but is granted the duchy of Lorraine. (See France.) 1736. Russia and Austria renew the war against Turkey, and Azov is captiu'cd. 1739. Russiaris under Miinnich make a victorious campaign and conclude the Peace of Belgrade. 1740. Anna, empress of Russia, dies and is suc- ceeded by the infant Ivan VI., with Biron as regent. In 1741 Ivan VI. is deposed and the throne is taken by Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. 1741. Russia again engages in a war with Sweden (see Sweden); a treaty between the two coimtries is signed two years later at Abo; Russia gets a con- siderable slice of southeastern Finland. 1747. Elizabeth of Russia forms an alliance with Maria Theresa of Austria and sends an army to the aid of the Austrians. (See Austria.) 1757. Russia participates in the Seven Years' War and. after a victory at Gross-Jagersdorf. over- runs East Prussia ; the army imder Soltikov assists the Austrians in crushing the army of Frederick the Great at Kimersdorf, August 12, 1759. The next year they enter Berlin with the Austrians. 1761. Aug.-Stpl. Russians luider Buturlin. with aid of Austrians, attack Frederick the Great. 176?. Jan. '2. Empress Elizabeth dies; she is succeeded by Peter III., of the House of Holstein- Gottorp. He changes the pohcy of Russia and supports Frederick the Great. Catherine II., German by birth, the wife of Peter III , usiu-ps the tlu'one, Jiily 9; July 17 Peter is assassinated; and the brief alliance with Frederick is broken off 1763. Augustus III. of Poland dies; in the following year Stanislas Augustus (Stanislas II.), aided by Catherine II., is chosen as his successor. 1766. Catherine calls a great Legislative Assembly at Moscow. 1768. The Poles form the Confederation of Bar to resist the encroachments of Russia. At the same time the Turks begin a war against the Em- press Catherine II. 1770. The Russians are victorious in Wallacliia and the fleet imder Orlov and Elphinstone over- comes the Tm-ks at Scio. 1771. Russians under Dolgoruki attack the Unes of Perekop and gain possession of the Crimea. 1773. Catherine II. of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, ond Maria Theresa of Austria imite in first partition of Poland. A large territorj- on the Dvina and upper Dnieper is taken by Russia; Polish Prussia, except Thorn and Danzig, is ap- portioned to Prussia along with other tracts; a vast area on the borders of Himgary is added to the Austrian Empire and erected into the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. The residue of Po- land, includmg Warsaw, continues as a king- dom imder the sovereignty of Stanislas Augustus. 1773. The Russians in the war against Turkey advance through Bulgaria. Pugaehcv leads a great rising in southea-stem Russia. The revolt spreads through the whole Volga basm Ijefore the leader is finally captured (1775). 1774. Negotiations for peace with Turkey; a treaty is made at Kiichilk-Kainarja, by which Turkey yields up her suzerainty over the Crimea. 1780. Armed Neutrality of Russia, Holland, and other powers against Great Britain. 1783. The Crimea is formally annexed to Russia. 1787. Turkey again goes to war with Russia, and the following year Sweden also begins hostilities. Russia makes a commercial treaty with France. John Paul Jones, the American, be- comes a Russian admiral. 1789. Russians with Austrian allies defeat the Turks at Foc?ani, and make an advance. Russia and Sweden conclude peace at Verela 1793. January. Peace between Russia and Turkey is signed at Jassy. Austria having already concluded a treaty; Ochakov added to Russian domain and empire extended to Dniester. 1793. Second partition of Poland; Russia ac- quires a large part of Lithuania, part of Volhj-nia. Podolia. and Polish LTkraine; Prussia annexes the western territory and Danzig, a free city since 1772. 1794. General uprising of the Poles occurs, with Kosciusko as its leader, but Russia, Prussia, and Austria unite to suppress the insurrection; Kos- ciitsko is taken at Alaciejowlce, Oct. 10. Warsaw surrenders, Nov. 8, and the rebellion is at an end. 1795. Polish kingdom is divided for the third time, and with this partition its independence definitely ends. Pinissia gains Warsaw, and Rus- sia annexes the rest of Lithuania and all of Kiir- land. Stanislas Augustus formally abdicates. 1796. Catherine II. of Russia dies and is succeeded by her son Paul, November 17. 1798. December. Russia forms an alliance with England agahist the French. 1799. Suvarofr, commander in chief of the allied Russian and Austrian armies in Italy, defeats Moreau at Cassano, April 27 (see France). 1801. Russia makes a treaty of peace with France in October. Gruziya, or Georgia, Is annexed to Russia. A conspiracy is formed in the capital against Paul; on March 23 he is assas- sinated; succeeded by his son, Alexander 1. 1804. War breaks out with Persia and continues till 1813. 1806. War with Turkey again breaks out 1807. Russia joins Prussia in the war against France. After a defeat at Friedland, Jime 14, Alexander concludes with Napoleon the Treaty of Tilsit, by wliich the grand duchy of Warsaw is erected. Vast plans of world power are accepted by both potentates. 1808. Finland is taken by Russia from Sweden l>y force of arms; in the following v-ear the con- quered territory is ceded to the czar. 1809. Russia declares war against .\ustria. May 3. (See France, also Austria.) 1810. In war with Turkey. KamenskI leads his army on a victorious campaign into Bulgaria. John Quincy Adams, received as first Amer- ican minister to RiLssia. He finds Russia begin- ning to turn against Napoleon. 1811. Kutuzov makes a campaign against the Turks along the Danube. 1812. On May 28 Russia concludes a treaty of peace with Turkey, at Bucharest, by wliich the Pruth is established as the boimdary between the two nations. June 22, Napoleon declares war against Russia and prepares to make an invasion. He is victorious at Smolensk in August. Kutuzov is defeated at Borodino, Sept. 7, and the French enter Moscow, Sept. 14. The city is fired by the Russians, and in October the French begin a re- treat; they are harassed by the Russians imtil the Grand Army is virtually destroyed. 1813. By the Treaty of Gulistan Persia is forced to cede to Russia Dagestan. Shirvan, Baku, and other regions; these domains are formally trans- ferred by the Treaty of Tiflis, m the following year. Russia Joins Prussia and Austria in the great war against Napoleon. NirfETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1815. Congress of powers at Vienna, in Jime, confirms Russia in the possession of Finland and the bulk of Poland, which is granted autonomy In September of this year Russia imites with Austria and Prussia in forming the Holy Alliance (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 1825. Alexander I. dies, Decemlwr 1. After a rising known as the ** December revolution *' (see Decembrist, in the Did.), he is succeeded by his brother. Nicholas I. 1826. Treaty of Akerman with Turkey. Per- sians begin a war. lof the Greeks. I 1827. Oci. 20. Naval battle of Navarlno, in aid! 1828. February. Peace with Persia by which Persian Armenia is ceded to Russia. April. Russia imdertakes another war against Turkey. 1829. Russians under Paskevich enter Adrianople September 14. and the Peace of Adrianople fol- lows. Turkey cedes to Russia the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and renounces the suze- rainty over the tribes of the Caucasus. Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia is also permitted; the district of Aklialtsikli is ceded to Russia, and Turkey acknowledges the Inde- pendence of Greece. (See Turkey; Greece ) 1830. A revolution begins In Poland, on Novem- ber 29, and the Russian troops withdraw from Warsaw. Chlopicki made dictator in December. 1831. Chlopicki resigns in January. Czartoryski, at the head of the national government, proclaims the Independence of Poland, January 25. Warsaw capitulates. September S. and the liberty of Poland Is lost. In the following year the czar proclaims Poland an integral part of the Rus- sian Empire. 1832. A new law code is published. 1833. July S. Russia agrees to help Turkey against Meheniet All. and concludes the Treaty of Un- klar-Skelessl. 1846. February. Polish Insurrection. The leader. Mieroslawski. is arrested by the Prus- sians. Peasants in Galicia rise against the Pol- I ish nobles; Austria aime.\es Cracow. 1848. The Poles in P»sen rebel again imder Mieroslawski. but the movement collapses. 1849. Russian expeditionary force under Paske- vich assists in suppressing revolution in Hungary. 1853. March. The czar through liis special en- voy. Prince Menshikov. demands that a Russian protectorate shall be extended over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The demand is refused, and England and France prepare to aid Turkey in resistance. In Jmie the AJlied fieets of these powers are sent to Beslka Bay. In July the Rus- sians enter the Danubian Principalities. Three' months afterward the ships of the English and French sail tlirough the DardaneUes. Hostilities begin. November 4. the Russians are defeated at Oltenita. but the Russian fleet under Admiral Nakliimov annihilates the Turkish squadron at Sinope. November 30. In December, at Vienna, a protocol of the great powers is directed against Russia. 1854. The fleets of England and France enter the Black Sea in January. In March the Baltic fleet of the English sails, under the command of Sir Charles Napier. Prince Gorchakov leads a Rus- sian army across the Danube. The English and French now formally declare war against Russia (March 27). thus precipitating the conflict historically knov\Ti as the Crimean War. In March and April the British and French armies are landed in Turkey, and the French fleet in the Baltic sails for the scene of war, in April. Odessa is bombarded by the allies. Bomarsimd forts in the Baltic surrender to tlie allies, August 16. Aus- tria presents an ultimatum to Russia demand- ing that she evacuate the principalities. Russia yields and Austria, by an agreement with Turkey, replaces Russia in Moldavia and Wallachia. September 14, the English and French reach the Crimea mider the command of Lord Raglan and Saint-Amaud (later underCanrobert); they defeat the Russians imdtT Menshikov in the battle of* the Alma, September 20. In October, the Allies besiege Sebastopol, which is defended by Tot- leben. The battle of Balaklava, in which the charge of the Light Brigade occurs, is fought October 25. November 5. the Russians are routed at Inkernian. An embassy is sent under General Perovski to the klian of Khiva; a treaty greatly in favor of Russia is negotiated, 1855. Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia allies himself with France and England against Russia in Jan- uary. In March. Nicholas I, dies and is succeeded by his son. Alexander II. Gorchakov is sent to take command of the Russian troops in the Crimea. In April a protracted bombardment of Sebastopol is made by the allies, who are reen- forced by Sardinians. Marshal Pelissier succeeds Canrobert in the command of the French. Rus- sians move forward to relieve Sebastopol. but are defeated at the Chemaya. August 16. September 8. the French storm the Malakoff and the English the Redan; Sebastopol falls. November 27, Kars surrenders to Muravev. 1856. March 30. Treaty of Paris is signed, and with it the Crimean War ends. Black Sea is declared to be neutral. Russia cedes a part of Bessarabia and it is added to Moldavia; Russia also renounces her protectorate over the Danu- bian PrincipaUties. An international Danubian commission is instituted. New principles of in- ternational law are declared on April 16 by the Declaration of Paris. 1868. May S8. By the Treaty of Algun with China. Russia acquires the region along the Amur. 1859. Sept. 6. At Gimib. Schamyl, chief of the Caucasians, surrenders; by tins act authority of Russia over the moimtain tribes fully establislied. 1860. Nov. U. By the Treaty of Peking, Chma cedes to Russia the whole coast region east of the Usuri River, south to where Vladivostok now stands. 1861. March 3. Alexander II. issues a decree by which 22,000,000 serfs are freed. 1863. Poles make a disastrous attempt to rise. The committee of the revohuion issues a summons callmg the patriots to arms ; those who respond are routed by the Russian troops. Insurrection ends (1864) in disaster to the patriots. 1864. Russians complete the subjugation of the Circassians. [are Instituted.! Jan. 13. By imperial decree the zemstvos] 1865. Tashkend captured by the Russians. 1868. Samarkand Is subdued by Russia, and the emir of Bokliara becomes a vassal. 1870. Ru.ssia declares her refusal to abide longer by the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris as to the neutrality of the Black Sea. In the following year a conference of the powers is held in London. Januarj' 17. to consider the question of the Black Sea. and a new treaty is formulated and signed. March 13. This second agreement omits the clause declaring the neutrality of the Black Sea. Ru.ssia reorganizes her immicipal government, 1872. The emperors of Russia, Austria, and Ger- many reach an agreement known as the Drei- kaiserbund (League of tlie Three Emperors). 1873-1908. NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 141 1873. General Kaufmann leads an expedition against Khiva, which is taken (June 10). Peace is made in August. 1874. Uuiversal military service is introduced. 1875. Annexation uf Kokand. 1876. Oct. :S0. The czar insists on Turkish reforms in the Christian provinces and issues an ulti- matum to the Porte tsee Turkey). 18J7. April -?^. Turkish rejection of the czar's proposals leads Russia to declare war against Turkey (see Turkey). December 10. the Rus- sians take Plevna. In the following year the Russians, after a victorious campaign, occupy Adrianople, January 20. January 31. an armi- stice is signed, and Alarch 3, the Treaty of San Stefano is concluded isee Turkey). Discontent in Russia against tlie autocratic and oppressive government takes the form of an anarchical or- ganization advocating Nlliillsm. 1878. Congress of the powers meets at Berlin on Jime 13, and the Treaty of Berlin is concluded on July 13. Russia receives the larger part of Turkish Armenia, with Kars and Ardahan, and also Batum and that portion of Bessarabia for- merly ceded to Moldavia. In general the terms are unfavorable to Russia. (.See Turkey.) General Mezentsov, director of the tliird section of the imperial chancellery, falls a victim to a plot of the Nihilists and is murdered. 1879. Feb. 21. Krapotkin, the governor of Khar- kov, is assassinated. April 14, Soloviev tries in vain to kill Alexander II. December 1. the Niliilists endeavor to blow up the train on which the czar is going to Moscow, but are again foiled. 1880. Feb. 1 7. Nihilists trj' to blow up the im- perial family of Russia in the Winter Palace- February 24. General Lx)ris-Me!ikov is made chief of a supreme eommlssion, with autocratic au- thority, to suppress Nihilism. Commission abolished in August. 1881. Geok-Tepe is captiu-ed by the Russians on January 24. and in the following month a treaty with China is concluded, respecting Hi (Kulja). March 13, Alexander II. is assassinated by a Nihilist; he is succeeded by his son, Alexander III. In April, a persecution of the Jews begins. May 16. Ignatiev is appointed minister of the interior, to succeed Loris-Mehkov. 1882. Count Dmitri Tolstoy succeeds Ignatiev as minister of the interior, 1883. May 27. Alexander III. crowned at Moscow. 1884. The czar meets the emperors of Germany and Austria at Skierniewice. September 15. for a conference of three days and revives the defimct Dreikaiserbund (League of the Three Emperors). Tekke-Turkomans of Merv yield their allegiance to Russia. 1885. Russians gain possession of the Ztilfikar Pass on the road to Herat; England fears a Rus- sian charge on Herat and makes a settlement of the boundaries between Turkestan and Af- ghanistan to the advantage of Russia. 1887. Russia and Germany conclude the so-called " Reinsurance Treaty." 1888, Trans-Caspian railway is opened as far as Samarkand. 1891. Trans-Siberian railway is begun. April 2'J. The go\'emment orders the expul- sion of the Jews from St. Petersburg, and they are later banned from the greater part of the empire. July. The French fleet arrives at Kronstadt and is accorded an enthusiastic welcome: at the same time a preliminary entente is signed between Russia and France. 1893. Russia is afflicted with famine and Asiatic cholera; the latter breaks out again in 1S93-1S94. 1893. May. Nihilist plot discovered and 1.500 implicated in the conspiracy are sent to Siberia. October. Russian fleet visits Toulon, and is magnificently welcomed by the French. 18*94. The Franco-Russian alUance is definitely concluded. Russia makes a commercial treaty with Germany. Nov. 1 . Alexander III. dies.; he is succeeded by his son, Nicholas II., who weds Princess Alix of Hesse on November 2G. 1895. In conjunction with Germany and France, Russia effects a revision of the Treaty of Sbimo- nosekl, to Japan's disadvantage (see China). 1896. Russia said to have concluded the so-called Cassini Convention with China. May S6. The czar is crowned at IMoscow. May 30. a panic among the crowds outside the city causes the death of more than 1,000 persons. 1898. Wide suffering from famine prevails in nine- teen provinces. Russia leases the Liaotung penin- sula and Port Arthur from China for 25 years. 1899. Feb. lo. Imperial manifesto annulling autonomy of Finland. In May. Peace Con- ference, at invitation of czar, meets at The Hague to consider int-emational disarmament, war re- forms, and arbitration (see Nineteenth-Centtry Period). 1900. For Boxer rising, see China. July S. Imperial ukase abolishes, in large measure, banishment to Siberia. Sept. ss. Count Tolstoy, the author, is ex- communicated. December. A serious outbreak of students in Kiev. 1901. Crop failure and resulting famine in western Siberia. Bogolyepov, minister of instruction, is fatally wounded by a student. The oflicial annoimce- ment of Tolstoy's excomimimication, March 9, arouses the students anew. The riots are sup- pressed with great cruelty by the Ct)ssacks. Pro- tests are signed by leading Russian writers. Re- forms in the scholastic system are granted in April, and the czar pardons the soldier students and other absentees from the universities. Feb. 16. Russia retaliates on the advance of the United States duty on Russian sugar by addi- tional duties on certain American goods. July. Another step in the denationalization of Finland is taken by abolishing Finland's na- tional army and converting it into a body of Rus- sian troops officered by Russians. Nov. S. Rail laying on the Northern Man- churian Railway is completed, giving tlirough rail service from Moscow to Vladivostok except for the break at Lake Baikal. 190?. For Cliinese relations, see China. Continued disorders at the University of Kiev are accompanied by peasant outbreaks in South Russia. In April Shipjagin, minister of the inte- rior, is assassinated. Venceslas de Plehve is ap- pointed to replace him. 1903. March 12. The czar, in a manifesto, promises to grant freedom of worship to his sub- jects; a degree of self-government in tlie com- munes; and opportmiity for the peasants to escape some commimal restrictions and taxations. April 19, the Russian Easter, taxes unpaid by the peasantry amounting to $100,000,000 are can- celed, and the peasants are in part released from service to the commune. April 19-20. At Kishinev a mob kills 45 Jews, injtires nearly 500. and destroys 700 houses. The government takes little action. May 20. Bogdanovich, governor of Ufa, is assassinated. May 29. Bicentenary of the foundation of St. Petersburg is celebrated. Antl-Jewlsh outbreaks occur at Tiraspol. Gomel, Lodz, etc., in ^lay and June. June. In Finland the sale of guns, ammuni- tion, and explosives is practically prohibiteropriation of large land holdings for the Ixnelil of the peasantrj\ June 15. A savage massacre of Jews occurs at Bialystok. instigated by government officials. July 21. Czar dissolves Duma. Goremykin is removed as premier and Stolypin is appointed. Great excitement. July 2S. Many members of Duma meet at Vi- borg, Finland, and issue manifesto urging Russian people to refuse to pay taxes or submit to con- scription until Parliament is again given power. July 31. Garrison at Sveaborg mutinies, also the troops at Kronstadt. Aug. 25. A bomb is tlirown into the residence of Premier Stolypin during a reception, killing 27 and woimding 34. [Syedlets.! Sept. S-9. A great massacre of Jews occurs at | October. The government grants further rights to the peasants and makes concessions to the Old Believers. 1907. Jan 9. General van der Laimits. prefect of St. Petersburg, and General Pavlov, chief mifitary public prosecutor, are assassinated. March 5. Second Russian Duma is opened. Golovin. a Constitutional Democrat, is elected president. June 16. Duma is dissolved by the czar's edict, after accomplishing practically nothing. A new electoral law is established by imperial decree. July 30. Russia and Japan sign a treaty de- fining their position as regards China. Aug. 1-7. Czar meets the German emperor at Swinemijnde. Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian treaty on spheres in Asia; beginning of the entente cordiale. Nov. 14- Third Duma meets, having been elected imder such severe restrictions of the suf- frage that the " INIonarchists " and " Octobrists " are in a majority. Ivhomyakov, an Octobrist, is elected president. 1908. Feb. 12. Finnish Diet reassembles. Fin- nish governor is replaced by a Russian. Feb. 20. Court-martial on the defense of Port Arthur condemns General Stossel to death, with the recommendation (later accepted) of commutation to imprisonment. Feb. 26. The Duma is received by the czar, who urges certain measures. March 15. The minister of justice asks an ap- propriation of 81,000,000 to enlarge the prisons. April It. Finnish Diet Is dissolved as a result of remarks made as to the Russian Revolution. April 23. Russia, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden sign a convention providing for the preser- vation of the status quo in the Baltic. 142 NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 1908-1917. N U W 1908 {continued). May Si. President and many members of the Duma arc arrested and conflned in prison until August 24. [Revel. I June 0-10. The czar and Edward VII. meet atl June 17. Duma offlcially censures minister of finance for negotiating a loan witiiout its consent. June i7. Coimcil of the Empire votes the bat- tleship bill which had been rejected by the Duma. Sepl. 4. Tlie czar issues an edict, ordering all imiversity professors to withdraw from opposition political parties. September. Outbreak of Cholera; 1,000 new cases are reported daily. Dec. 30. Duma imanimously rejects a minis- terial bill which mtroduces new regulations in land sales in Baku. 1909. Jan. 31. Lopuldiin, a former director of police, is arrested on a charge of high treason. Opposition leadei-s in the Dtima sharply attack the government for this arrest. Feb. gg. Order from the czar dissolves the Finnish Diet. May 4. Russia decides to dismantle her forts on the Polish frontier. Ilievers. I May gs. Duma legalizes sect of the Old Be- 1 1910. March 9. The trials of Nikolay Chaykovskl and Mme. Breslikovskaya for conspiring against the government result in acquittal of Chaykovskl and conviction of Mme. Breslikovskaya, who is exiled to Siberia. I Duma, resigns.! March IT. Ivliomyakov, president of the I June St. Construction of a new Southern Siberian railroad is proposed July 2.5. 8.000 Jews said to have been ex- pelled from Kiev. July 2S. Spread of cholera; 90,000 deaths re- ported during the summer. (Potsdam. I Nov. J,. Czar visits the German Kaiser at I Nov. £0. Coimt Tolstoy dies at Astapova. 1911. Aug. 19. Germany and Russia reach an agreement on the Bagdad Railway and Persian questions. (theater at Kiev. I .Sepl. 14. Premier Stolypin is shot in a| Sept. 23. Kokovtzov, minister of finance. becomes premier. Dec. 22. Duma introduces a bill providing for a tariff war against the United States. 1912. April. Russia agrees to recognize Italian sovereignty in Tripoli in return for support of the czar's Balkan policies. September. Duma, which has Ijeen sitting since 1907, is dissolved, and new elections are ordered. Fourth Duma inaugurated November 28. Dec. SI. Treaty of 1832 with the United States goes out of existence by action of the United States, because of the refusal of the Russian government to recognize passports of American citizens of Jewish descent. 1913. Jan. 1. Council of the Empire confirms the law passed by the Duma aboUshlng serfdom in the Caucasus. March. Bomanov tercentenary is celebrated. Amnesties are granted to various political offend- ers, including the exiled writer Maksim Gorki. April £3. Panslavists hold great demonstra- tion in St. Petersburg to celebrate capture of Scu- tari by Montenegrins. June 8. The Czar reminds Bulgaria and Serbia that he is the arbiter to whom they are to appeal on Macedonian controversy. (See Buloaria.) September. Busslflcatton of Finland pro- ceeds steadily against a storm of protest. October- Norember. Outbreaks of anti-Semi- tism occur during the trial at Kiev of Mendel BeiUss, a Jew. accused of ritual murder of a Chris- tian boy. Trial ends in an acquittal. A'oii. B. Russia and China conclude an agree- ment as to Mongolia. (See China for relations on Outer Mongolia ) 1914. June-July. Repressive policy of the govern- ment toward the working class results in general strikes, notably in St. Petersburg. June gg. British squadron under Beatty visits Kronstadt. Evidence of secret imderstanding. July gs. Austrian ultimatum to Serbia which is recognized as a tlireat of war on Russia. July 29. Diplomatic mtercourse with Austria- Htmgary is suspended. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1911. .411(7.2. Germany declares war on Russia. (See WoELD War for military events ) Aug. 15. Russia proclaims reconstniction and autonomy of Poland. Sept. 1. St. Petersburg is renamed Petrograd by imperial edict. Sept. 6. Russia, France, and England agree not to make peace separately. Oct. 21. Czar prohibits state sale of alcoiiol. December. In consequence of the Russian de- feats, disorders break out In Petrograd, neces- sitating the institution of martial law, measures against Socialists, closing of the imiversity, etc. 191.3. Closing of the Dardanelles makes impos- sible the exportation of the wheat crop. Feb. 1. Appropriation for a government railroad to Aleksandrovsk, an ice-free port on the Kola peninsula. Feb. 9. Duma opens with a imanimous resolu- tion to carry on the war. March. Decree conferring upon Poland local self-government on the limited scale obtaining in Russia, and permitting the use of the Polish lan- guage in the local zemstvos thus established. May. Port of Archangel is closed to private business. Ju7ie 14-2B. Anti-German mobs in Moscow. Commission of six Russians and six Poles is ap- pointed to work out Polish autonomy. Aui). SI. Enlargement of the cabinet by ten members, five to be chosen by the Diuna and five from the Coimcil of the Empire. Sept. 7. Czar Nicholas takes command of the army, transferring Grand Duke Nicholas to com- mand of the army in t lie Caucasus, in consequence of defeats on the eastern front. Sept. 15. The czar proclaims an amnesty of all political prisoners. Sept. If). Duma is prorogued. Strikes follow and 18 Duma members are arrested. Oct. 11. Riots break out in Moscow. Oct. 17. A state of war is proclaimed. Oct. $4. Foreign credit loan of .$2,750,000,000 is authorized. Oct. 31. Jewish relief societies report that in territory swept by Germans 1,. 500, 000 Russian Jews are without means of support, homeless, and starving. 1916. Feb. 1. Stiirmer, an alleged pro-German reactionary, succeeds Goremykin as premier. Feb. 22. Duma opened with the czar attendmg for the first time in history-. Feb. 26. Kuropatkin appointed commander in chief of the Russian armies on the northern front. Duma passes a bill calling for four meatless days per week. April 20. Russian expeditionary 'force lands at IMarseiUes. More contingents arrive during the summer. July 2. Duma passes bill conferring upon peas- ants the same civil rights as other classes possess; since 1890 the peasants have not been entitled to elect deputies to the zemstvos. July 3. Duma is suspended till November 14. July 22. Foreign Minister .Sazonov resigns. Premier Stiirmer takes over the portfolio. September. Transfer of the Russian troops in France to the Saloniki front. Oct. 1. Protopopov succeeds Kivostov as minister of the interior. December. Women admitted to Moscow uni- versity in full equality with men. Dec. 2. Premier Trepov informs the Duma that the .\llies have agreed that Russia shall have Con- stantinople and the Dardanelles. Dec. SO. The Duma and Council of the Empire pass resolutions condemning the " Dark forces " opposed to victory. Dec. 31. For reply to German peace proposal, see "World Wab. 1917. March 11. Food riots break out m Petro- grad and elsewhere. March 12. Duma refuses to dissolve on the order of the czar. It demands reforms, prose- cution of the war, and stamping out of pro-German influences. March IS. Czar Nicholas, under arrest, abdi- cates in favor of his brother Michael, who refuses tu accept the tlirone, unless authorized to do so by a constituent as.sembly. Duma in conference with labor leaders, appoints an Executive Committee, headed by Prince Lvov, with Miljoikov as minister of foreign affairs and KerenskI (Social Revolutionary) as minister of justice. March 16. The provisional government an- noimces a program of reforms including freedom of speech, imiversal suffrage, and the election of a constituent as.sembly. March IS. Miljiikov sends a circular to Rus- sian representatives declaring Russia's imalterable resolve to carry the war to a successful conclusion. The ex-czar retires to his estates in the Crimea March 21. Provisional government orders the arrest of the ex-czar and his wife. Constitution for Finland is confirmed. United States grants partial recognition to the new government. March 26. The government removes all the civil and political disabilities of the Jews. March 29. Women declared eligible for all government posts. April 4. Provisional government repeals all laws abridging religious freedom. April SO. Minister of war accepts new regula- tions, proposed by the soldiers, wiiich practically take the power of discipline out of the officers' hands and mtnist it to elected committees. May 1. Assurance is given to the Allies that " there will be no slackening on the part of Russia in the common struggle of the Allies." This I causes riots in Petrograd. May 11. Council of Workmen's and Sol- diers' Delegates decides to appeal to the peoples of the world. May 13. General Komilov resigns from the command of the Petrograd army. May 17. Guchkov and Milyukov having been forced out of the cabinet, four Socialists are given portfolios. Tills change marks the grow- ing radicalism of the revolution. KerenskI becomes minister of war and leader of the government upon the resignation of Guch- kov, who found liis hands tied by the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. May 19. The government issues a declaration of policy rejecting " all thouglits of separate peace," but welcoming a general peace. June 2-3. Outbreaks of armed anarchists in Petrograd and elsewhere. June s. United States commission, headed by Eliliu Boot, reaches Vladivostok. June .5. Council of Workmen's and Sol- diers' Delegates, addresshig labor organizations tliroughout the world, appeals for a peace without annexations or indemnities. June 2S. Ukraine Military Conference calls on the Ukraine National Assembly to sever rela- tions with Russia. June 27. Coimcil of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates denounces " every policy tending to- ward the conclusion of a separate peace and ar- mistice." Provisional government abolishes the court-mar- tial. June 2S. Council of Workmen's and Soldiers, Delegates abolishes the Duma and Council of the Empire. July 19. Finland virtually proclainos her independence. (See Finland.) July 20. Socialists, forcing Prince Lvov to re- sign, make KerenskI premier in his place. Regiments affected by Bolshevist propaganda begin to desert from the front m large numbers. July '23. The Coimcil of Workmen's and Sol- diers' Delegates invests KerenskI with " unlim- ited " powers. July 2.'i. The death penalty for desertion is re- established. Komilov issues orders to fire upon deserters. Aug. 1. KornilOT succeeds Brusilov as com- mander In chief of the Russian armies. Aug. S. Provisional government declares that, without the consent of the Russian people, Fin- land cannot legally separate itself from Russia. General Gurko is arrested on the charge of spread- mg Bolshevist propaganda. Aug. 1,5. The ex-czar and his family are re- moved to Tobolsk, Siberia, after the discovery of a royalist plot. Aug. 23. General Soukliomlinov. former minis- ter of war, is placed on trial for high treason, be- ing accused of witliliolding ammunition from Rus- sian armies and commimicating information to the enemy; he is found guilty on September 26. Aug. 30. Kerenski annoimces the partial re- establishment of tlie death penalty. Sept. 10. Komilov marches toward Petrograd with armed forces. Sept. 13. Komilov movement collapses. Alek- syeev appointed commander In chief. Sept. 14. General Kaledin arrested and dis- missed for attempting to proclaim himself dictator of South Russia. Sept. 16. Provisional government of KerenskI proclaims Bussia a republic. Sept. 21. Increasmg chaos in the army leads Aleksyeev to resign as commander in chief. Sept. 27. Democratic congress from the Social Democratic and Social Revolutionary parties meets at Petrograd. Oct. 4. Kerenski forms a coalition cabinet, notwithstandmg the fact that the Democratic con- gress, by a vote of S13 to ISO, opposed coalition. Oct. 10. Kerenski leaves for the front. Oct. IS. In the municipal elections, with uni- versal suffrage and secret vote, the extreme So- ciahsts called Bolshevik! have little success. Oct. 20. Government dissolves the Fourth Duma and announces that the Constituent As- sembly will be elected on November 25. Nov. 8. Bolshevlkl having seized the tele- graph, tlie state bank, and public buildmgs. over- throw the Kerenski government and declare final authority to rest in the Coimcil of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates They promise immedi- ate peace, distribution of the land among the peasants, and the convocation of a constituent assembly. Nov. 10. Nikolay Lenin is made premier by the Bolsheviki; Leon Trotskl minister of foreign affairs. Nob. 12. General Kaledin temporarily as- sumes the govemment of the Cossack Territory and refuses to recognize the Bolshevist »Dvem- ment. Nov. 14. Kerenski escapes from Petrograd in disguise. 1917 — 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 143 1917 (conlinued). Nov. w. The I'kralne proclaims itself a sep arate state. See Ukraine, under Kissia, above. Nov. 27. Delegation of Bolslieviki visit tlie German lines to arrange for an armistice of all belligerents. Dec. J,. Commander in chief Dukhonin, who has opposed negotiations with Germany, is killed by a Bolshevist mob. Officers and troops at the front recognize the Ukrainian Bepublic. Dec. 9. Kaledin, the Cossack hetman, and Koniilov lead a movement against the Bolsheviki in southern Russia. Dec. 17 Representatives of the Bolsheviki and Central Powers sign an armistice at Brest-Lltovsk. Dec. is. Russian delegates meet tlie delegates of the Central Powers and their allies at Brest- Lltovsk and begin peace negotiations. Dec. Si. By order of Kryleiiko, the com- mander m chief, all rank is abolished In the army. Dec. 30. Bessarabia proclaims itself a separate state as the Moldavian Republic. 1918. Jan. 10. Republic of the Don is pro- claimed, with Kaledin as jircsident. Jan. 19. The Bolslieviki withdraw from the Constituent Assembly when they find themselves greatly outnumbered by less radical elements. Lenin then dissolves it. Jan. 2e. A congress of the Councils (.Soviets) of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates (625 in numlDer) meets at Petrograd, and on January .30 adopts the constitution of the Russian Soviet Bepublic. [lations with Roumania. | Jan. 2S. Bolshevist government breaks off re- 1 Jan. 30. Revolutionary movement gains headway In Finland in opposition to the govern- ment which declared independence from Russia. Feb. 1. Constituent Assembly of the Tatars meets and proclaims the Crimean Republic. Feb. 3. Lenin, at the head of the Bolshevist government, issues a decree separating church and state. Feb. 8. Bolshevist government ofBcially pro- claims its repudiation of the national debt. Feb. 9. The Ukraine signs a peace treaty — the flrst of the war — with the Central Powers at Brest-Lltovsk. Feb. 11. Government, declaring that war with the Central Powers is ended, orders complete de- mobilization on all fronts Feb. IS. Bolshevist government adopts the modem (Gregorian) calendar. March 1. Generals Kaledin and Kornllov are defeated by the Bolshevist forces at Rostov on the Don River. Russian government having recognized (Jan. 91 the independence of Finland signs a peace treaty with the new stat« (see Fini..\.nd) March 3. Peace treaty signed at Brest- Litovsk whereby Russia submits to all Ciemiany's demands; cession of Riga, Kurland, Lithuania, and Poland; Esthonia and Livonia to be guarded by Germany until their self-determination; Rus- sians to evacuate Finland, also Erivan, Kars, and Batimi; the Ukraine recognized. March 11. President Wilson sends a message to the Congress of Soviets expressing sympathy with the Russian people. March 14. Congress of Soviets, sitting at Mos- cow, ratifies the peace treaty with Germany by a vote of 4.53 to 30. March IS. Premiers and foreign ministers of the Entent* countries, meeting at London, de- nounce the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Lltovsk, calling it " a political crime against the Russian people." April 5. Japanese and British troops land at "Vladivostok. Bessarabian National Assembly proclaims the union of Bessarabia and Roumania. April 10. The Russian commissioner of com- merce states tliat the treaty with Germany has taken away 300,000 square miles of territory, with 56,000,000 inhabitants (a third of the coim- try's popiUation), and one third of her railways, 73 per cent of her iron, and S9 per cent of her coal. A pril 20. Silierian Provisional Duma proclaims the formation of the " Government of .Autono- mous Siberia." Armenia and Georgia, refusing to recognize the Brest-Lltovsk treaty, resist the attempts of the Turks to occupy Batum. Kars, and Ardahan. April 21. British and French troops land on the Murman Coast on the northern side of Kola Peninsula on the .\rctic Ocean. April 22. Federal Republic of Transcau- casia is declared, composed of Georgia, Azerbai- jan, and Russian Armenia. It dissolves in a few weeks, and the three sections form separate and conflicting governments. (See Armenia, Azerbai- J AN, Georgia.) May 14. Germany proclaims the independ- ence of Lithuania and assumes that, " being al- lied to the German Empire," the new state will " participate in the war burdens of Germany " (see Baltic Provinces Ijelow, and Lithuania). Caucasia proclaims its independence. May S3. Treaty of peace is signed with Ukraine: the Russian government recognizes the independence of the region. General Semenov sets up an autonomous govern- ment, opposed to the Bolsheviki. in Transbaikalia. July I. American forces land on the Murman Coast. July 4. New provisional government for Siberia is estabUshed, the Czecho-Slovaks (see Czecho-Slovakia) assisting; the program includes liberation from Bolshevist rule. July 6. Cotmt von Mirbach, German ambassa- dor, is assassinated at Moscow. July s. Counter-revolution in Moscow sup- pressed by the Bolsheviki with hea-\-y loss of life. July to. General Horvath forms" an anti-Bol- shevist government at Novo-Nikolaevsk, Siberia. July 10. The ex-czar and family are exe- cuted by order of the Ural Regional Council at Ekaterinburg, according to later well-estabUshed reports. July 29. Lenin declares informally that a state of war exists between Russia and the Allies. Aug. 3. United States amiounces its plan to aid the Siberian govenmients with a small force and a large amoimt of material, in cooperation with Japan, France, and Great Britain. Aug. 7. Chinese and French troops land at Vladivostok. Aug. 25. Estbonia declares its independence (see Esthonia). ■ Aug. 27. Three supplementary treaties be- tween Soviet government and Germany include provisions for great indemnity by Russia. .4115. 30. Lenin is seriously" wounded by a member of the Social Revolutionary party. Aug. 31. Bolshevist troops sack the British embassy at Petrograd. Sept. 4. American troops, landing at Arch- angel, join French and British troops in a march soiithnard to effect a junction with the Czecho- slovaks and maintam control of the trans-Silierian railway. Jimction is not made. Sepl. 14. United States gives out a series of documents obtained in Russia which, if authentic, show that the Bolshevist leaders, Lenin and Trot- ski, were in close relations with the German gov- ernment and receiving large sums of money from it. (Sisson documents.) Sept. 23. Directorate of five of the All-Russian Government results from a coalition of the pro- visional government of Siberia with other poUti- cal bodies. Sept. 26. Serious conditions In eastern Russia; imprisonment without trial, executions, and mas- sacres — fruit of Bolshevist rule. Oct. IS. Japanese troops arrive at Irkutsk. November. For Polish affairs, see Poland. Nov. IT. British forces occupy Baku on the Caspian and remam until the end of 1919, during which the formation of the republican govern- ment of Azerbaijan proceeds. Nov. IS. Kolchak, minister of war and marine ■imder the Siljerian directorate, succeeds to the power of the directorate. Nov. SO. Republic of Lithuania proclaimed. Dec. 24. Allies decide against dispatching a large force to aid Russian opponents of the Soviet government. 1919. History of Bolshevist Russia during 1919, so far as known outside, is chiefly one of retreating and advancing armies. Jan. 4. Bolsheviki capture Riga. Jan. 1.5. Peasant uprising against Bolshevist rule in interior reported ; due to excessive taxation imposed by " Committee for Fighting Poverty." March-April. Bolsheviki fighting on four fronts: in the north they oppose Russian and Al- lied forces advancing from Murmansk and -Arch- angel ; on the Baltic and PoUsh front the Reds are pushed back; in Ukrame and Caucasus (Denikin's Cossacks) their opponents have some aid from French and Greek troops, and also from Roumani- ans in Bessarabia, yet the Bolsheviki advance and take Odessa early in April ; in Siberia they yield before Kolchak, behind whose troops in Siberia are some 118,000 Allied and associated forces. April. L'kraine government appoints a minis- ter of Jewish affairs. May-June. Converging movement of the forces opposing the Bolsheviki advance on aU fronts; Fiims and Esthonians tlireaten Petrograd. June 12. Supreme CoimcU at Paris partiaUy recognizes Kolchak, promising aid and support. June 1.5. Last American troopson Archangel front are relieved and sail for home. June-July. Though the Finns continue their advance, the Esthonians are pushed back. In the south, Denikin, in a sustained advance, captures Ivliarkov. In the east Kolchak retreats to the Si- berian border. On the Archangel front the Allies prepare to retire, leaving the anti-Soviet Russian government to carry on the campaign. July-August. Denikin continues to advance and Kolchak to retreat. President Wilson in- forms Congress on July 23 that the presence of American troops in Siberia (8,400) continues to be necessary while the Siberian railway is in charge of American engineers tmder J. F. Stevens. August-September. A new government (ITude- nich) is organized over the northwestern prov- inces Hghting against the Reds, and there and on the Petrograd front the Bolsheiiki continue to retreat, but on August 27 capture Pskov from the Esthonians. The Allies blockade Baltic ports; the United States refuses to assist in tliis, but in- terdicts food exports to Soviet Russia. British forces in the north begin to withdraw. Denikin continues his success; he takes Odessa on August 18 and Kiev on September 4. Reds continue to drive Kolchak. Representatives of the Allies and United States hold a conference at Omsk, the seat of Kolchak 's government, on his affairs. September-October. Yudenich's White army gets to the suburbs of Petrograd on October 18, but then retreats. Dcnikui gets within 175 miles of Moscow, but the L'krainians, whose independ- ence he opposes, harass his rear. October-November. Yudenich's force col- lapses, and the Esthonians begm to negotiate witli the Soviet govcrnnient (see E.sthonia). Fac- tions and rear attacks hinder Denikin, while the Reds drive Kolchak out of Omsk. November-December. Red advance Continues on all fronts; Kharkov and Kiev are taken from Denikin. 1920. January-February. Georgia and .Azerbaijan form a defensive league against the Bolsheviki, who now tlireaien thtir territory, having regained almost complete control over European Russia, mcluding Odessa, and give evidence of a world- wide propaganda. Their success brmgs them to the Indian and Chinese border, and the control of the Siberian railway as far as Irkutsk, early in March. February 7, Kolchak who liad Ijeen suc- ceeded in command by Semenov, is executed by Tebels at Irk-utsk. February 20, Bolshevild oc- cupy Archangel. Jan. IS. Supreme Council at Paris recognizes Georgia and .Azerbaijan as de facto governments; but later revelations indicate Turkish sympathy and intrigue, if not attempted alliance. Jan. 16. Supreme Coimcil of the League of Nations annoimces permission to trade with the Bussian people tlirough their cooperative socie- ties, without, however, modifying its attitude toward the Soviet government. Bolsheviki, while desirous of opening negotiations, refuse to permit trade under such conditions. Feb. 1. Withdrawal of American troops and engineers from Siberia is ordered. Last leave on April 1 . Also the Czecho-Slovaks and other non- Russian Slavs in the Siterian forces are w ithdrawn . March 6. Reds begin a drive on Poland, but are repulsed; Poles aided by UTo-ainians advance and capture Kiev on May 8. April 8. Japan, deciding not to withdraw her forces from Siberia, seizes Vladivostok. FORMER BALTIC PROVINCES OF RUSSIA. Historical Outline. The Baltic Provinces are situated on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, touching on the north the Gulf of Finland. The " provinces " tmder Russia were Esthonia, Livonia, Kurland, and St. Petersbiu-g. .Ancient Lithuania was incorporated into Kovno and Vilno, no official district retaining the name. The liistory of this region begins with its conquest diu-ing the 12th century when the Teutonic ICnights of the Sword attempted to Christianize the fierce Lettish. Fiimish, and Esthonian trites. The result was the tstablishmcnt of an ecclesiastical state gov- erned hy the Teutonic order, wliich not only Chris- tianized the natives but imposed German civiliza- tion upon them The Teutonic element, though never composing more than a tenth of the popula- tion, has succeeded in dominating the economic and political life of the region, and in the towns consti- tutes the majority of the upper class. In the middle of the 16th century Ivan the Terri- ble attempted to wrest this region from the Teutonic order, but was unsuccessful. In 1721, however. Peter the Great, after a long struggle, succeeded in incorporating tlie provinces in Russia. Until the latter half o[ the 19th century the Baltic Provinces enjoyed a considerable degree of home nile, but with the grovi'th of Pan-Slavism the Russiflcation of the provinces was imdertaken and an attempt was made to set the Lettish and Esthonian peasantry against the German upper clas,ses. Tliis was tairiy success- ful, and by 1914 the Germans had lost their political supremacy. As a fiuther result of the movement the inhabitants became conscious of a nationaUty distinct from that of the Russians. In spite of the severe climate and poor soil, the peasants have succeeded in producing large crops, especially of rye. oats, bariey, and flax. The vast meadow lands make stock raising an important in- 144 NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA — SIAM. N U W dustry. The industrial life is centered at Riga, Libau, and Revel, and in the last half century numer- ous textUe and flax-spinning mills, tanneries, brewer- ies, sugar reflneries, and distilleries have been estab- Ushed The World War swept backward and forward over much of these lands; and fighting contmued at inter- vals for nearly two years after the armistice of 1918. The provinces resisted Russian attempts to form a consolidated province; and could not form a federal imion They were aCfectcd by the Bolshevist propa- ganda and even fought each other. The cliief com- mon interest was the determination to be neither Russian, Polish, or German. The combined area of the three Russian provmces — Esthonla, Kurland. and Livonia — was about 35 CHIO square miles labout the size of Indiana) and the population lioforc the World War was 3,000,000. The native population of Letts and Esthonians was about 2,500.000. Tlie Letts of Kurland and part of Livonia are peasants and town worlimen of fairly high mtelligcnce, and with growing economic pros- perity are rapidly gaining poUtical power. The Esthonians are mostly peasants, sailors, and fisher- men, more steady and energetic and prosperous than the Letts, but not so quick inteUectually. They are devout Protestants. Withm this region were settled about 2 10.000 German and German-speaking people and about 142,000 Russians. Chronology. 1030. Yurev (in Livonia) is founded by Russians. Inhabitants of Livonia, originally Livs. a Finnish race, are gradually displaced by Letts from the south and Esths (Esthonians) from the north. 1168. Riga is founded by German merchants, and a century later becomes a part of the Hanseatle League, refusing allegiance to the bishop or the Teutonic Ivnights. 1202. German Bretloren of the Sword, located at Wenden (Livonia). Ijegm a long-continued strife with the native Slavic Wends for the control of the region. 1219. Danes conquer the Esths, a Finnish race, and found Bevel. Revolts are incessant. 1237. Ducliies of Kurland and SemgaUen, inliabited by the Letts imder the Brethren of the Sword, pass to the Teutonic Knights. Virtual serfdom tmder feudal rule. 1250. Mendowg. a cliief of the Lithuanians (a kin- dred ethnic stock to the Letts), accepts Christian- ity and is crowned king under protection of the Teutonic Knights. 1325. Alliance of Poland and Lithuanians against the Teutonic Knights. 1345-1S7J. During the reign of Olgierd. the Lithu- anian grand duchy extends as far as the Black Sea. 1346. Danish king sells hisconquest to the Brethren of the Sword. 1386. Feb. IS. Olglerd's son Jagello is crowned khig of Poland as Ladislas II. Tliis personal union of Poland and Litbuania contmues (except during 1401-1447). 1410. Bishop recovers control over Riga, but his fief is aboUshed in 1566. Subsequently the Esths and Letts become Lutherans; the Lithuanians remain Roman Catholic. 1521. Noljlcs and cities of Estlionia put coimtry under protection of Sweden. 1561. Nov. 2S. Bretliren of the Sword and the bishop of Riga place Kurland and Livonia under Lithuania (Poland); but Russia has occupied Yurev region. ILitliuania.l 1569. July 1. Organic union of Poland and! 1621. Livonia is conquered by Sweden. 1721. Aug. 30. By the Peace of Nystad Esthonia and Livonia are ceded to Russia. 1772-1796. Lithuania passes to Russia in the various partitions of Poland; but the portions of the grand duchy especially considered as Lithua- nian, i.e., Kovno. Suvalki, and Vilno are tmder Rus- sian administration and do not remain as a part of Poland, though the nobles are Polish and also the langu;igiMX(c|itthat of the peasants. Theclergy are chielly responsilile for keeping the language and national spirit alive. 1795. Nobles of the duchy of Kurland place the coimtn.' imder Russian control. The landholdmg nobility of the Baltic Provinces is mostly German, the government is in their hands, and though serf- dom is abolished in 1817 the condition of the peasants is Init little improved thereby. The privileges of the provinces are gradually curtailed and Russiflcation promoted. 1863. Sept. 6. A decree permits the peasants to purchase and hold as hereditary property the land on which they have worked. This creates an in- termediary class between the German nobles and the landless peasants; the landless continue to constitute the btilk of the inhabitants. 1886. Pan-Slavism and Russiflcation policy is greatly increased. 1896. Yurev University is closed ; final step in forc- mg the use of the Russian language. Both Baits and natives resent the Russiflcation ; the lat- ter are forced by it into nationahstic movements. 1905. Revolt throughout the provinces and Lithu- ania. In the provinces it is a desperate sociahst and landless peasant uprising; suppressed and followed by a reaction. The landlords, favoring Pan-Germanism, adopt the poUcy of bringing in and settling peasants from Germany, there behig none else to support them. In Lithuania the revolt is mild; a national assembly pronounces for autonomy. Russia raises the ban on the native language and adopts the pohcy of playmg the nationalists against the Pohsh nobles. She tries the same method of Pan-Slavism in the prov- inces; in neither case successfully. 1914-1917. For the Baltic Provinces in the World War, see Esthonia, L.itvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and World War. SAHARA, THE. See under France, page 96. SALVADOR. See under Central A.merjca. page 80. SAMOA ISLANDS. See under Germanv. page 105. and under the United St.^tes. page 210. SAN MARINO. San Marino is an mdependent republic situated near the Adriatic, in the northeastern part, of Italy. It has existed for over a thousand years. It has a leg- islature, made up of the Grand CouncU of sixty members and of another Council of twelve members Two of the Grand Councilocs are appointed every six months to act as Regents and exercise executive functions. The little army consists of 950 men and 39 officers. The State has no public debt. Agricul- ture is the main occupation of the people. The chief exports are wine, cattle, and stone. Actually San Marino is a dependency of the kingdom of Italy. The population (1919) was 11,944 and the area 38 square miles. 885. Monastery of San Marmo exists; traditionally founded bv patron saint of same name. 1631. Papacy, on acquirmg Urbino. recognizes the independence of San Marino, which has been gradually established tlu-ough several centuries. 1797. Bonaparte respects the mdependence. at this time and later. 1815. Congress of Vienna makes no attempt to dis- turb San Marino, and two years later the pope confirms the independence anew. 1862. March 22. Treaty with Italy; undepend- ence recognized and protection given. Practi- cally a dependency of Italy SANTO DOMINGO. See Dominican Republic, page 91. SCOTLAND. See British E.mpiee. page 50. SENEGAL. See under France, page 96. Bangkok by the successful general Phaya Chakkri. In 1856 a treaty with Great Britam was negotiated by Sir Jolm Bowring, by the terms of which Siam was opened to foreign residence. The conditions ot trade were made conformable to the usages of civilized nations. The recent rulers of the kingdom have shown breadth of view and attainments. The reign of Maha Mongkut extended from 1852 to 1868. In the latter year he was succeeded by his eldest son. Chula- longkom I., whose long reign was marked by a broad pdlicy that attracted the attention of the Western peoples. The great misfortime of the kingdom is its weak geographical position, as Siam is wedged between British and French possessions in the East and both Great Britam and France occasionally " rectify " the frontier. France took in 1907 almut 7,iKio square miles. Great Britam in 1908 an cqiKilly large area, and in 1909 an additional area ot 15,000 square miles. By the last treaty British jurisdiction in Siam proper practically ceased, thus suggesting the aban- donment of exterritorial rights by the other Euro- pean powers. In recent years Siam has given great attention to internal reform. Two successive American advisers, Strobel and Westengard, received almost absolute power to estabhsh a proper financial system and to adjust difficulties with European powers. The government has lieen unified and trade expanded. A progressive railway policy has attracted to Siam European trade and capital. Organization. Government. The executive power is exercised by a king advised by a cabmet. The Legislative Coimcil consists ot the ministers of .the state and oth- ers, not less than twelve In number, appointed by the crown. The present number of the council is forty. It meets at least once a week and may promulgate laws without the royal assent incase of any temporary disabiUty of the crown. Religion and Education. The prevailing reli- gion is Buddhism. Very little mfluence upon the popular faith has been exerted by foreign intercourse and there are nearly 7.000 Buddhist temples with a total of 170.000 priests. In each province there is a commissioner of education and the government pri- mary schools in 1917. numbered 329. with more than 25,000 pupils. There were more than 3,100 non- government primary schools, 1 16 government sec- ondary schools and six special governmental schools. Production, Industry, and Commerce. Forced labor is still demanded from the rural population, but this service is decreasing and Chinese coolies do the chief part ot both the skilled and imskilled labor. Waste tracts of land are bemg developed by irriga- tion. Tlie chief product of the coimtry is rice, which forms the national food and is the most important article of export. Other products are liides. cattle, cotton, and tmits. Defense. Universal UabiUty for mihtary service is now in force in all the provinces. The peace strength ot the army is 20,000 men. There is a navy of 21 vessels ot small size, but they have no flghtmg value. The area ot Siam is about 195.000 square miles and the population (1916) S.S19.6S6. ' SERBIA. See under Jcgo-Slavia. page 121. Chronology. SIAM. Historical Outline. The kingdom ot Siam is ancient, having a history reaching back to the early years ot the Christian Era. The city of Lampim is reputed to have been foimded in 575 A. d. Before this time, Siam is said to have been under the dominion of Cambodia. There are inscriptions antedating the close ot the thirteenth century, in which the boundaries of the country are declared. When the Portuguese and other Euro- peans reached southern Asia, the court ot Siam at- tracted them. During the eighteenth century, warfare was made upon the so-called Laos States on the north and northeast, and Siamese supremacy was established m these coimtries. The great cities of Luang Pra- bang and Wieng Chan were transferred to Siam m 1828. Meanwhile, trade intercourse had sprung up between the kingdom and several of the Western nations. Commercial relations were begun with France as early as the close of the sixteenth century. About the same time, similar relations were estab- lished by the Japanese. The Dutch traders visited Siam, and m 1752 trade was opened with the Dutch factories in Ceylon. The present dynasty ot Siamese rulers was estab- I lished in 1782, when the capital was transferred to 1350. Siamese have gained ascendancy over the whole country; beginning of national history. 1611. First contact with western European traders, the Portuguese. Dutch and English East India companies follow in seventeenth cen- tury; but English factory discontmued in 1688. 1782." Present dynasty is estabhshed by Phaya 1826. Jti'ie 26. Anglo-Siamese treaty ot friend- ship and commerce; beginning of direct European contact. Similartreatieswith otlierpowers toUow. 1855. April iS. Anglo-Siamese treaty provides for a consul at Bangkok, exterritorial rights, and other limitations on Siam's siizeramty. Similar treaties follow with other powers. 1867. July IS. Siam recognizes French protector- ate over Cambodia. 1868. Feb. S. Settlement ot the Burmese bound- an- line with Great Britain. Oct. I. Chulalongkorn becomes king. He adopts Western ideas and improves conditions in spite of foreign aggressions. Foreign (especiaUy American) advisers assist liim. 1893. Contest with French Indo-Chlna over boundary on upper Mekong River. French block- ade Bangkok; Siam. October 3. yields to enlarged French demands, ceduig aU territory east ot the Mekong, with special privileges west of the river, and occupation ot Chantabon. 1896. Jan. 16. Anglo-French agreement on Siam; neither nation to occupy, or permit any other power to occupy, the central portion of Siam, but the regions east and west of the Menam valley are within their spheres of Influence; advanta- geous to France, but also increases Siamese sta- biUty. Development of the World's Navy from the Earliest Phoenician Time. 1. Chinese Junk. Propelletl by oars and by sails made from reeds matted together. Rudder so arranged as to be lifted out of the water when desired; decorations; flags, etc. 2. Egyptian Boat. Reconstructed from a Bas-Relief on the walls of the Terrace Temple of Der-cl-bah'ari (West of Thebes) representing a fleet which was sent out by the Egyptian Queen, ]Makara-Ha-t-shop (17th cen- tury B. C). Sails colored, and decorated with cither religious or other emblems. Design and color of the sails copied from the tomb of Ramses III., at Thebes. F. Stcinitz, The Ship. Bench of rowers protected from enemy by broad gunwale. Boat steered by two steering oars, one on each side at the stern; Military mast, etc. Sir J. (i. Wilkinson. 3. Phoenician Bireme. Reconstructed from a few remaming coins, ami from a relief in the Palace of Kuyunjik, built by King Sennacherib. Lay- ard, Monuments of Nineveh. 4. Greek Galley. Battle of Salamis. Reconstructed from a Bas-Relief found near the Erechtheum, and a Bronze Votive Boat found at the same place. Stern, Icnnographic Encyclopcedici. 5. Roman Trireme. Punic War. Reconstructed after a drawing by Lemaitre, and from relief found at Porto near the mouth of the Tiber. The special type shown here, known as "Navis turrita" (Winckelmann), carried attached to the yardarm of the military mast a heavy weight (dolphin) worked by rope and pulley, which by its sudden descent upon the deck of the enemy caused havoc there, the force of the fall often being sufficient to drive the weight through the ship and sink it. Board- ing bridges were also carried by these boats to enable the military force to get rapidly upon an enemy's deck when held to the ship's side b\' grappling hooks. Sails decorated with the Roman She-Wolf. The posi- tion of the Trireme in this picture was especiallj' cho.sen with a view of showmg the arrangement, of the three benches of oars, to which the galley slaves were chained. Conclu'Icd three paces in advaneo For description see previous page DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S NAV IFROM THE EARLIEST PHCENICIAN TIME. Copyright by G. & C. Merriam Co. Registered at Stationers* Hall. London. England. 6. Drakar, or Norse Dragon. Reconstructed from: (a) the rock-cut pic- tures at Kyrkoryk and Bohuslan, and (6) the fragments of a vessel of the Viking period, taken from a tumulus near Fredrikstad, Norway; (c) the 30 oared boat found in the turf of Nydam, Slesvvick, and preserved in the Museum at Kiel; (d) the Gokstad, Norway, boat; (e) the Viking ship at Sandefiord, with (/) the Bayeux tapestry carefully considered. These Viking boats carried as many as sixty pairs of oars, had a length of 300 feet, a breadth of 32 feet and a depth of 10 feet. 7. Venetian Galleass. With 26 oars. After Dorr's engraving in DiUich's " Kriegsschule," 16th century. Sail decorated with the winged Lion of St. Mark. Guns carried in the bow of the boat. 8. French Man-of-War. Beginning of 14th century. Reconstructed from the model of the so-called "Nef." (A large table ornament for holding all manner of table utensils.) See Viollet-le-Duc " Mobilier fnnt- gais," and the MSS. " Statuis de Vordre du Saint-Esprit au droit desir, 1352.'' Sails decorated with the fleur-de-lis and the Cross of the Crusaders. Bow and stern of boat carry strongly fortified towers. First appearance of stern rudder in European seas. 9. English Three-Master "Great Harry." One thousand tons, 122 guns, built at Woolwich 1514, burned 1553, — after a painting in Wind- sor Castle. 10. Ship of the Spanish Armada. Sails decorated with all manner of emblems. Saints, and Coats of Arms. Jdhns " Handbuch der Geschichte des Kriegswesens." 11. Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson's "Victory" forcing her way through the French Men-of-War. 12. Fight between the "Constitution" and the "Guerriere." 13. "Monitor" and "Merrimac" in Hampton Roads. 14. The U. S. Battleship "New Mexico." 15. The Spanish Protected Cruiser "Vizcaya." 16. U. S. Seagoing Monitor "Puritan." 17. The Spanish Torpedo Boat "Pluton." NATIONAL HISTORIES: SIAM — SPAIN. 145 1904. Dec. 9. Territory west of the upper Mekong and north of Cambodia is ceded to France. 1907. MaTck 23. Territory north of Cambodia is ceded to France, some territory restored; exterri- torial rights modified. 1909. July 9. AngIo-Siamesetreaty;8(amcedes suzerain rights over the four nonfederated Malay states; Great Britain renounces exter- ritoriality and other restrictions. 1910. Ort. 'JS. Chiilalonglvom dies; succeeded by his son Maha Vajiravudh (Rama VI). educated in England and widely traveled. 1913. March 14. Revolt against Rama's reforms is put down. Conscription for army and police is enforced. 1917. July 22. Siam declares war on Germany under pressure from France and Great Britain; Ger- man refugees checked and German shipping seized. 1919. January- June. Siam represented at the Peace Conference. June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles Germany recognizes that all her treaties and agreements with Siam. including exterritoriaUty are null from July 22, 1917. and waives claims for seized ships or other property. SIBERIA. See under Ri ssi.t, page 139. SIERRA LEONE, See under British Empire, page 67, SLAVONIA. SeeCroatia anrf S/aromci.uncler Jugo-Slavia, page 122. SMYRNA. See under Greece, page 111. SOCIETY ISLANDS. See under France, page 97. SOMALILAND. See British Somaliland, under British Empire, page 66; French Somali Coast, under France, page 96; Italian Somaliland. under Italy, page 115. SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF. See under British Emtire, page G6. SOUTHWEST AFRICA, GERMAN. See under Germany, page 105. SPAIN. Historical Outline. The history of Spain falls naturally into four peri- ods. In ttie first, Spain was a frontier of Roman culture. In the second, Spain stood as the baiTior which defended Christendom against the assaults of the Moors, who were the advance wave of the Mos- lem power. The Moors at one time succeeded in conquering the cities of Spain, but the native popu- lation never surrendered and ultimately drove the Moors from the peninsula. \Mien Spain emerged from the conflict and became a united kingdom with the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1479, the Spanish character reflected the military characteristics of the age-long struggle. In religion the conflict made Spain the most Catholic of all European nations. The third period of Spanish history falls in the age of discovery and expansion. Here Spain, as a com- mercial and seafaring nation, played a leading part. She established the Spanish American Empire, which continued for over four lumdred years. Like Rome, Spain impre^ssed upon Iter conquests her culture, her language, her religion, and her political institutions and did more than any other European nation lo Christianize and civilize the natives. The wealth Spain derived from the gold and silver of the New World gave her the position for a time of the leading power in Europe. True to her tradition Spain remained passionately attached to the Catholic religion and Protestantism gained no foothold, (.in the contrary, Catholicism increased in fervor. The Inquisition had its stronghold there and such types as Loyola and Saint Tlieresa were there developed. At the battle of Lepanto (1571) the Spanish ships were the strength of tlie fleet which saved Europe from the Turks. But the same naval skill was in vain when she attempted to crush the heretics in the Netherlands and ia England. In 1516 Charles I. of Spain united in himself the Spanish kingdom, the archduchy of Austria, the duchy of Burgundy, and the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and in 1519 he became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V. For nearly forty years he dominated the affairs of Europe and con- tended with his great rival. Francis I. of France. On his abdication in 1556 the imperial dignity went to the house of Hapsburg and the Spanish pos- sessions were ruled by his son, Philip II. of Spain. The fourth period of Spanish history begins with the unsuccessful wars with England at the end of tlie 1 6th century, and with the decline of sea power. In tlie three generations following Charles V.. Spain steadily declined — partly from the stern exclusion of the skiUed Jews and Moors, chiefly from the bad economic system which was due to the influx of the specie of the New World. In 1700 Charles II. died and a long controversy arose over the succession. Philip of Anjou. grand- son of Ix)uis XIV. of France, had married the elder sister of Charles II. of Spata, and was backed by France. Ferdmand, the grandson of Leopold I. the Emperor, had married a younger sister of Charles II., and was supported by Austria. More important, however, than the legal claims of the aspirants was tlie question of the balance of power in Europe. England and Holland, the leadmg naval powers, re- solved that the strength of the Spanish monarchy should be imited with neither the power of France nor the power of Austria. Notwithstandmg the acts of disavowal made by Philip IV. and Charles II., by his will Charles left the crown of Spain to Phihp of Anjou. Louis XIV., electmg to follow the will rather than to be bound by the treaty he bad just signed, pro- claimed his grandson, Duke of Anjou, as Phihp V. of Spain and was resolved to seat him in a position which would have made Spain a dependency of France. This produced the Grand Alliance of Eng- land, the Netherlands, and the Emperor, and in- volved Europe in twelve years of war. From August, 1704, to September, 1709. the aUies won the battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. In 1711, Archduke Charles became Emperor and thus ceased to urge his Spanish claims. Philip of Anjou was at last accepted as kmg of Spam in 17ia by the Treaty of Utrecht; but his country was m no condition to give aid to France. The recognition of Philip V. was balanced by the Spanish loss of Naples, Sardinia, Parma, Milan, and the remainder of the Spanish Netherlands. Sicily received Savoy and England gained Minorca and the title to Gibraltar. The reign of Phihp V was marked by a serious loss of the constitutional rights of the people in Spain. \Vliat was left of the old liberty that Aragon, Valen- cia, and Catalonia formerly enjoyed was now ignored. Meanwhile the ambitious queen. EUzabeth Famese, and her conspirmg mmister, Cardinal Alberoni, usurped the authority of the state. The political decay of Spain became apparent. After Philip's death in 1746 the crown passed to his son, Ferdi- nand VI., and then Charles III. held the throne. Naples was already in the power of Charles, who brought that dominion with him back to Spain. In 1761 Charles III , acting for Spain, entered into the Family Compact made by the Bourbon princes of Eiu-ope. He thus involved Spain as an aUy of France hi the Seven Years' War, terminated by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. As a result of this conflict France was driven from Canada and ceded to Spain the vast region west of the Mississippi known as Louisiana, but Spain lost the Floridas. Charles III. was supported by capable statesmen; commerce, agriculture, and the arts showed symptoms of re- vival, and there was a considerable mcrease in the population of the kingdom; yet tiiere was little sub- stantial and permanent gain. One of the notable events of the reign was tlie expulsion of the Jesuits from the Spanish dominions, in 1767. Charles IV. became king in 178S. He fell under the influence of his minister, Manuel de Godoy, duke of Alcudia, the astute " Prince of the Peace." At the outbreak of the French Revolution Godoy at first opposed the revolutionary government of France; but in 1706 he maj&o a league and entered into the Treaty of San Ildefonso. Hence Spanish fleets johied the French agauist the English . The fortimes of Spain swayed back and forth as those of France rose or fell, imtil Spanish independence was for a time extinguished. Napoleon formed an ambitious plan of restoring a colonial empire to France, and proceeded to con- quer Spain, expecting thus to acquire Spanish America. Hence at a conference at Bayonne in 1.S0S. the French emperor forced Ferdinand VII. and the infantes, Don Carlos and Don Antonio, to resign their claims to the Spanish throne. A junta of 150 subservient members offered the crown to Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon entitled " King of Spain and India." The Spaniards as a nation never ac- cepted this arrangement. An anti-French party appeared m the kingdom, and was supported by Eng- lish forces under Moore and Wellington. England and her European allies henceforth strove to restore the Bourbon house, and early recognized the prince of Asturias as king (Ferdinand VII ). The Spanish colonies refused to accept French rule, and in 1803 Napoleon's cession of Louisiana showed that he had given up his American plans. During this period the best patriotism of the peo- ple ralUed around their native prince as representing, at least, their national riglits as against the usurpa- tion of France. The Spaniards gave more or less effective support to Wehington, m Ills long, and at last successful, struggle with Napoleon's marshals in the Peninsular campaign. In 1814, when the French emperor was hard pressed, he agreed to recognize Ferdinand, on condi- tion that he would take an oath to support the re- formed constitution of 1812. This promise was not fulfilled and after Waterloo there was none to en- force it. Ferdinand was restored and became as arbitrary as he pleased. His reign, moreover, was marked by the revolt of the Spanish colonists m America and in 1821 the last Spanish colony on the mainland of America was lost. In 1819 Spain signed a treaty with the United States, by which the Floridas, temporarily recovered by Spain, were for- mally surrendered, Ferdinand VII. died in 1833 and was succeeded by his daughter. Infanta Isabella, with the queen mother as regent. Durhig the next seven years Spain was torn by revolts mtended to place DonCar- los, the brother of Ferdinand VII.. on the throne. In 1840, owing to a new revolution, Maria Christina, the queen mother, withdrew from Spam; General Espartero assumed control and in 1841 was ap- I»mted regent. Isal»lla II. was declared of age in 1843. During her reign even the court of Spain was shocked by the scandals of the queen's private life. Revolutions broke out and in 1868 Isabella fled from Spam; in 1870 she formally abdicated the throne m favor of her son, Alfonso. From the departure of Isabella imtil 1874 Spain was m a state of msurrec- tion and also of civil war. The crown was offered to Amadeus. the son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, and for three years he attempted to exercise some authority, but abdicated m 1872. For two years Spain was a republic, and presidents followed each other in rapid succession. At length Isabella's son was proclaimed kmg under the title of .\lfonso XII. and some sort of order was established. During this period the island of Cuba had been in re- volt for ten years, but ui 1878 Spanish authority was once more established and in 1880 a measure was passed abolishing slavery there. Alfonso XII died November 25, 1885, and his wife, Maria Christina, l:iecame the regent for their son, who was bom May 17, 1886, and was given the title of Alfonso XIII. During the early years of his reign Spain lost the remains of her over-sea empire. In 1895 a revolution convulsed Cuba which the Spanish authorities foimd impossible to suppress, and in 1S96 insurrections broke out in the Philippine Islands, In both Cuba and the Philippines the Spanish authorities showed great cruelty in dealing with the revolutionists and were not always careful to distinguish American citizens from natives. The Ignited States remonstrated with Spain and a party in the United States demanded tlie recognition of Cuban uidependence. In 1898, because of the failure of the Spanish administratioti in Cuba, the United States demanded the immediate withdrawal of Spain from the island . War was declared. Ameri- can squadrons defeated one Spanish fleet in the Bay of Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands, and another at Santiago, Cuba. On July 14, Santiago surrendered, and on August 12 the war was ended. By the Treaty of Paris in the following December, Spain ceded Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States and withdrew her authority from Cuba. Cuba became nominally an mdepend- ent republic, but actually a protectorate of the United States. In the following year, Spain sold to Germany the Caroline, Pelew, and Mariana or La- drone Islands (excepting Guam) for ,S4,00O,000, and thus, after an experience of four centuries ceased to possess American or Oriental colonies. In 1902, Alfonso XIIL was enthroned and four years later married Princess Victoria of Battenlierg, "the granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England, Throughout his reign there have been frequent mani- festations of anarchy and he has twice narrowly es- caped assassination. The industrial condition of Spain has not been good and freeing ^ the leading product of Spain since the Middle Ages, attracted the patronage of the government to the discouragement of agriculture. The silk interest ranked next to that of wool. This industr>- has been greatly improved and the excellence of both fiber and fabric is recognized throughout the world. Spain has large manufactories of cotton goods, prin- ^ cipally in Catalonia, where in 1910 there were 2,600,- I 000 spindles. There are also large woolen manu- factories with nearly 9.000 looms. In recent years more attention has been paid to the development of the resources and indiistries of Spain. The production of wheat has. under the stimulus of the war, greatly increased. After wheat rank barley, com, and rye. The vineyard industry is extremely important and produced more than 11 54(),(X)0,000 gallons of ordinary wines in 1919. More than :i. 800, 000 acres of land are devoted to the cultivation of olives which produce about 1,400,000 tons of olives and over 255,000 tons of oil. Spain is very rich in minerals and in 1918 the more important productions were iron, copper, coal, lead, lignite, and zinc. Beligion. The Roman Cathohc Church if the V national church of Spain and practically the entire population are Catholics, with the exception of about 30.000, including 7,000 Protestants and 4.000 Jews. The clergy and buildings are supported by the state and large sums are annually appropriated which the reformers are attempting to reduce. There are 3.800 religious houses in Spain and the total number of monks is over 9.000. while there are over 38,000 nims- There are 66 Spanish cathedrals, more than YV 1^0,000 parish chiu-ches. and 35.000 priests. Education. Spain at an early date was one of the foremost states in the matter of education. Her universities, in particular that of Salamanca, were famous. Under the Moors. Spain was the leading educational center of Europe. The spirit of Moor- ish art and learning was somewhat transfused into the Christian states. After the close of the Middle XAges, however, this educational preeminence was lost. Medieval methods were long continued in Spain until by the middle of the 19th century- Spain ranked in illiteracy as one of the most backward states in Europe. In 1H57 an elaborate system of primary education was established. Education was made compulsory and r. primarj* school was planned for ever>- five him- dred inhabitants, while instruction was to be on a Y rigidly uniform plan. This system, however, was not carefully enforced, although various improve- ments have been made. The country- is divided into 11 educational districts with the imiversities as cen- ters. Since 1902 public and primary- schools have been supported by the government and most of the school children are educated without cost. There are 26.000 public schools and 5.000 private schools, ^ with over 2.600.000 pupils. Secondary- education ^^ is entrusted to " institutions." of which there must be at least one in ever>' province. Therti are 11 uni- versities attended by 23,586 students. The govern- ment also supports various special schools. Since 1902 the government has sent scholars, teachers, and professors to study in foreign countries. In 1910 there was establislit-d a Board of Scientific Research which oversi-cs ttiu work done abroad and the organi- zation of m-w !al>oratories in Spain. Defense. Military' service in Spain is compul- sory. The total length of service is 18 years, divided as follows: one year the recruits are kept at the miU- tary depot; three years in the active army (first standing); five years in the active army (second standing): six years in the reserve; three years in the territorial reserve. The peace establishment for 1920 was 216,000 men and the total strengtii of the field army would be alx)Ut 300,000. The reserve troops amount to about 90,000. In addition the military police and constabulary amount to about 30.000. The Spanisli navy consists of three dread- noughts built between 1912 and 1914. one old pre- dreadnought and seven cruisers, the most recent of wlaich was built in 1916. In 1915 a new program for six years was adojjted which provided for 4 cruisers. 6 destroyers, 2S submarines, and 3 gunboats. Area and Population. The continental area of Spain is 190,050 sciuare miles, but tncludiuL' ttie Bale- aric and Canarj' Islands and the Spanish i>.s*ssii>ns (Ceuta. Melilla. etc.) on the African coast opposite Gibraltar, the total area is 194,783 square miles. The population of Spain is increasing very slowly. The total in 1910 was 19,950,817; estimated in 1918 at 20.719,598. SPANISH COLONIES. Little remains to Spain of her former colonial em- pire except the Canary Islands and territoo' in Africa, wliichamoimt to about 128,000 square miles and have an estimated population of about 844.000. CANARY ISLANDS. The Can.\rie3 consist of seven larger and seven smaller islands. The principal are Teneriffe, Palma. Fuerteventura, and Ferro or Hierro. Their total area is about 2,800 square miles and it was estimated that in 1918 they supported 513.959 mhabitants. They are mountainous, of volcanic origin, and their coasts rocky and precipitous. They are supposed to be the Fortunatae Jnsulne of the Romans. Unvisited by Eiu-opeans until near the end of the Middle Ages, most of them were subdued by the Norman. Jean de Bethencourt, a navigator and adventurer, early in the fifteenth centurj-. The kingdom of Castile ac- quired them from his successor. Many geographers formerly reckoned longitude from Ferro as from the original meridian, dividing east from west. POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. Spanish Morocco comprises a zone in the north of Morocco extending for about 200 mUes from the Algerian border to the Atlantic, with an average breadth of 60 miles. The rights of Spain to this re- gion were aclcnowledged in the Franco-Spanish treaty of 1912. The zone is administered by a Span- ish High Commissioner. Spanish Morocco uicludes the region known as Er Rif, but by the treaty of 1912 Tangier and surrounding territor>' of about 140 square miles was declared international. The area of Spanish Morocco is about 7,700 square miles and the population is estimated at 600.000. Ifni is a region of about 965 square miles and 20,- 000 population in the southwestern comer of Mo- rocco on the Atlantic and was ceded to Spain in 1860. Rio de Oro and Adrar is the name given to an area of more than 109,000 square miles at the west- em end of the Sahara on the Atlantic Ocean opposite the Canar>' Islands. The population is urLknow^l but the region is tliinly settled. Spanish Guinea is a r^on of 9,470 square miles on the west Coast of Africa between Kamenm and French Congo. It includes also the island of Fer- nando Po in the Bight of Biafra. and several other smaller islands. Lying almost on the equator, the vegetation is luxuriant and there are vast forests; but the low. marshy coast and the entire lack of harbors have prevented the development of conunerce. The population, including the islands, is about 224,000. Chronology. For earlier events, see Medieval Period, Chronology, and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 1648. Peace of Westphalia (Mimster) ends Thirty Years' War. Spain recognizes independ- ence of Holland, 1659. Nor. 7. Treaty of the Pyrenees between Spain and France; Spain yields territor>- — Artois, Roussillon. Cerdana (Cerdagne). and the Spanish fortresses in the Netherlands. Pyrenees are fixed as the boundary l>etween the two kingdoms. 1665. Sevt. 17. Philip IV. dies; his son, Charles II., succeeds. 1667. Mail. French invade Spanish Netherlands. War of Revolution. 1668. Man 2. Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle. 1672. Spain joins Austria in a coalition against France. 1675. Charles IT. assumes the government and takes as chief ad^^ser his half brother, Don John. 1679. By the Treaty of Nimnegen fNijmegen) Spain surrenders Franche-Comte and her for- tresses in Flanders, Charles II. marries Maria Louisa, niece of Louis XIV. (See Early Modern Period.) 1698. Oct. 11. European powers make a treaty of partition concerning Spain, to take effect on the death of Charles II. With him the Spanish line of the Hapsburg family ends. Three claimants are m the field: (1) Louis XIV, of France, as son of the elder daughter of Philip IV., although the inher- itance has been renounced. (2) Leopold I. of Austria, as son of tlie younger daughter of Philip III. and husband of the younger daughter of Philip IV. (3) Electoral prince of Bavaria, as great- grandson of Philip VI. and grandson of the yoimger sister of Charles II. 1699. Charles II. of Spain, not having been con- sulted m the treaty of partition made by the pow- ers, makes the electoral prince of Bavaria his sole heir, but the prince dies, February 6. 1700. March 13. Second treaty of partition by the other powers. November 1. Charles II. dies. aft«r making Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis of France, his heir; soon afterward Philip proclaimed as Philip V. 1701. Sept. 7. Grand Alliance formed by the naval powers and the Emperor in order to secure the Spanish Netherlands and the territories in Italy. France forms an alliance with the elector of Bavaria. Prussia supports the Emperor. Troops of the alliance are led by Prince Eugene of Savoy, chief of the imperial army, and by the English Duke of Marlborough. The war is fought almost entirely outside of Spain, — in Italy. Germany, and the Netherlands. In Spain, the Duke of Anjou is recognized as king. Prmce Eugene invades Italy with an imperial force. Italian campaign indecisive. In the four years following the French have the advantage. 1703. Prince Eugene moves on Germany: Marl- borough invades the Spanish Netherlands. The Archtluke Charles of Austria enters Cata- lonia. Imperialists are routed by the French j>nd Bavarians at Hochstiidt, September 30. 1704. English capture Gibraltar. At battle of Blenheim, August 13, French and Bavarians t.re overwhelmed by Maiibort>ugh and Prince Eugene. 1706. May JS. Marlborough defeats the French at Banilllies. Prince Eugene with the Prussiu.s routs the French at Turin, September 7, Lon - bardy submits and Charles is proclaimed kmg of Spain as Charles III., at Milan, and the French are expelled from Italy. (See France.) 1707. April S5. Battle of Almansa. Archduke Charles ("Charles III,") loses Spain. 1708. July 11. Allies again defeat the French at Oudenarde. [French at Malplaquet.j 1709. Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough) defeat | 1711. Emperor of Austria, Joseph I., dies, and tl e Archduke Charles succeeds him. whereupon the powers change their support from Charles to Philip of Anjou. the candidate of Louis XIV. 1713. April 11. Peace of I'trecht; Philip V.. foimder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons, recognized as king of Spain. 1714. Spanish force with French allies capti;rcs Barcelona: the city loses its liberties. Philip V. espouses Elizabeth Famese. 1717, Alberonl, minister of Philip V., causes in- vasion of Sarduiia and (171S) of Sicily. As a re- sult Great Britain. France, Austria, and Holland form a quadruple alliance against Spain. 1719. French army moves against Spain, and Philip dismisses All)eroni. 1724. Philip V. abdicates the throne of Spain in favor of liis son Luis, but on the death of the latter he resumes the sovereignty. 1735. Spain enters into an alliance with Austria, and a counter alllanre is formed by France, Great Britain, Prussia, and (1726) Bussia. 1729. Nov. 9. Treaty of peace witli France and Great Britain at Seville. Gibraltar ceded to Great Britain. 1731; Charles, son of Philip V. and Elizal3eth Far- nese. on the ending of the male line of the Famese family, receives Parma and Piacenza. 1733. First Family Compact signed with France. 1734. Spanish seize Naples. [Sicilies. I 1735. July. Charles crowned king of the Two| 1738. Nov. 18. Austria and France form a defin- itive treaty at Vienna, and a year later Spain ac- cedes to the conditions of this peace. 1739. War declared by Great Britain; Porto Bello (America) captured by Vernon. 1740. Spain claims a part of the territories of Aus- tria on the death of Charles VI and becomes in- volved in the War of the Austrian Succession (see Germ-iny. Austria, and France). 1741. Spain joins France in support of the claims of the Elector Charles All>ert and in May con- cludes an alliance at Nymphehburg. 1744. Spaniards with the FYench defeat the Sar- dinians near Cimeo (see France and Italy) 174fi. July n. Philip V. dies; succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI. 1748-1914. NATIONAL HISTORIES: SPAIN. 147 1748. Oct. IS. By the Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle. which ends the War of the Austrian Succetision, Austria cedes Parma and Piacenza (seized in 1746) to Pliihp, the brother of Ferdinand VI. 1759. Ferdinand VI. succeeded by his brother, Charles 111., as king of Spain, and Ferdinand IV., son of Charles, becomes king of the Two Sicilies. 1762. Spain becomes involved in the Seven Years' War (see Ger.m.\ny). Great Britain declares war against Spain, wliich attacks Portugal, the British ally. In August, the British capture Havana. October 5, Manila occupied by British and indem- nity demanded. 1763. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris signed by Spain, France, Great Britain, and Portugal. Spain cedes Florida to Great Britain hi exchange for Cuba, and receives tby previous treaty, November 3, 1762) western half of Louisiana from France; British evacuate Manila. 1767. Charles HI., under guidance of premier Aranda, banishes Jesuits. 1775. Concessions made to Spanish American colonies m matter of trade. [alliance. 1 1777. American minister vainly seeks Spanish] 1779. June 16. While Great Britain is involved in war with her American colonies Spain declares war and unites with France m a siege of Ciibraltar. 17H1, 1782. Two attempts to storm Gibraltar fail. 1783. Sept. 3. Treaty of Versailles. GreatBritain restores Florida and Minorca to Spain, the Spanish having taken possession of Florida in 17S1. 1786. Controversy with United States over navi- gation of Mississippi River (see United St.^tes). 1788. Sept. 13. Charles III. dies; succeeded by liis son, Charles IV. [lution.l 1789. Spanish relations disturbed by French Revo- 1 1790. Oct. 2S. Nootka Soimd Convention with Great Britain for joint rights on Oregon coast. 1793. War with France. 1795. July 22. Treaty of Basel. French republic recognized. Santo Domingo ceded to France. Era of Godoy, " Prince of the Peace." Oct. 27. First treaty with the United States: commerce, boundary of Florida, and navigation of the Mississippi. 1796. August. Spain and France make treaty of San Ildefonso; Spain l>econies French ally. October. Spain declares war on Great Britain. 1797. Feb. 14- English fleet under Jervis defeats Spanish off Cape St. Vincent. 1800. Oct. 1. Spain forced by Napoleon to cede Louisiana by second (secret) Treaty of San Ildefonso. 1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens between France and Great Britain, includes also Spain and the Batavian Republic, the allies of France. 1803. Spain drawn into war by Napoleon, who de- sires to use the Spanish fleet. [at Trafalgar. I 1805. Oct. £1._ Spanish and French fleets defeated! 1807. Napoleon resolves to conquer Spain. 1808. March 17. ^harles IV. compelled, by ris- ing among his subjects, to abdicate; his son, Fer- dinand VII-. becomes king. [army. I March 23. Murat enters Madrid with a French] May 5. Conference at Bayonne. Charles and Ferdinand compelled by Napoleon to renoimce the throne, and are made state prisoners. June 6. Joseph Bonaparte declared king of Spain. The country rises and begins a guerrilla and regular warfare on the French. Napoleon presses the campaign in person. December, Madrid capitulates to his army. 1808-1821. For revolts and independence of Amer- ican colonies, see South American states by name. 1808-1812. Peninsular campaign in Portugal and Spain. British army imder ]Moore, and later Wellesley (Wellington), resists the French; aided by national Spanish government. 1812. January. Wellington storms Cludad- Bodrigo. March, the Spanish Cortes promul- gates a liberal constitution. In April, Badajoz stormed by Wellington. July 22. he defeats Marmont near Salamanca; in the following month the British army enters Madrid. 1813. June 21. Wellhigton defeats French at Vltoria, and drives them out of Spain. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1814. May. Ferdinand Yll. annuls the constitu- tion of the Cortes and enters Madrid. 1815. June 9. By the Congress of Vienna Spain restored to the House of Bourbon. Lucca bestowed on the Spanish infanta, Maria Louisa, and her son, Charles Louis, she being the heiress of the last duke of Parma. 1819. Feb. 22. Spain signs treaty with the United States for the cession of (West and East) Florida. Two years later the territory is form- ally surrendered. 1820. Insurrection led by Riego breaks out in Spain : King Ferdinand is obliged to restore the abrogated constitution. 1822. Liberal supporters of the constitution in Spain victorious over the Conseiratives. and a congress of the powers convenes at Verona to take measures for suppressing them. 1823. Under mandate of the powers, a French army marches into Spain to restore the authority of the king. Enters Madrid in May. Cortes withdraws to Cadiz, where an armed defense is made. In August, the French forces storm the Trocadero and soon succeed in overthrowing the power of the Liberal party. 1833. Sept. 2'j. Ferdinand VII. dies; his daugh- ter succeeds to the throne as Isabella IL, with Maria Christina as regent. Insurrection breaks out under Don Carlos, the uncle of Isabella, who declares himself king of Spain. 1834. April 22. Great Britain. France, and Por- tugal unite in a treaty by which the claims of the Carlists are condemned. 1836. August. Radical insurrection against the queen regent, Maria Christina; she is forced to swear allegiance to the constitution of 1812. Army, with aid of British allies, defeats Carlists. 1839. Aug- 31. Espartero makes a convention with Maroto, leader of the Carlists, at Vergara. Power of Don Carlos broken and he flees to France, September 13. 1840. Revolutionar>' spirit Ijreaks out again, and Maria Christina withdraws from Spain, Espar- tero assuming control of the government as her administrator, in October. 1841. Espartero appointed regent by the Cortes. 1843. Narvaez incites a risuig by which Espartero is deposed from the regency; the yoimg queen, Isabella II., declared to be of age. 1846. Isabella II. marries Francisco de Asis; and her sister, Louisa, weds the Duke de Montpensier, Louis Pliilippe's youngest son. 1848-1858. Affairs in Cuba (see Cuba). 1854. June. New revolution. In July Espartero is restored to power. 1856. Espartero succeeded by O'Donnell. who is attacked by insurrectionists and quells the insur- gents with severity. O'Donnell resigns and is succeeded by Nai^iiez; country agitated with out- breaks and insurrections. 1859. War against Morocco declared by Spain, and in the following year Tetudn is compelled to capit- ulate, ending the war (see Morocco). Carlists attempt a rismg. 1861. Spain joins coercion of Mexico (see Mexico). Santo Domingo, once a part of Spain, but now an independent republic, seized by Spain. A-Ction considered imfriendly by United States. After four years of effort, Spain gives it up, May 5, 1865 {see Santo Domingo). 1864-1865. Controversy and war with Peru and Chile (see Peru and Chile). 1866. Jan. 3. IMilitarj- insmrection in Aranjuez, imder the leadership of Prim. Riots in Barce- lona break out, January 9, and New Castile, Cata- lonia, and Aragon, are declared to l>e in a state of siege. January 6-12. January 20, Prim takes ref- uge in Portugal. 1868. September. Revolution breaks out again in Spain imder the direction of Prim and Serrano. September 28, troops of the queen defeated at Alcolea. Isabella II. leaves Spain, and Serrano becomes president of a provisional government. 1868-1878. Insurrection in Cuba; complications with United States (see Cuba), 1869. June. Monarchy decreed by the Spanish Cortes and Serrano established as regent. Ef- forts of the radicals thwarted. 1870. Nov. 10. Prmce Amadeus, Duke of Aosta and son of Victor Emmanuel, chosen king by the Cortes; accepts December 4. Dec. 28. Prim attacked by an assassin; dies. December 30. Ilosas Charles VII. I 187?. Carlists rise in force and proclaim Don Car-| 1873. Feb. 11. Aniadeus abdicates the throne and a republican form of government insti- tuted. Figueras becomes president of a mun'stry in which Castelar is minister of foreign affairs June S. Cortes proclaims Spain a federal republic. Francisco Pi y Margall president of the executive- Revolutions in Andalusia and Valencia and much bloodshed caused by the ris- ings of the Internationals in Alcoy. July 10. July 19. Nicolds Salmeron made the premier with a new cabinet. September?, Castelar president of the executive. Carlists continue their operations 1874. Jan. 3. Castelar resigns, and Pavia exe- cutes a roup d'etat. January 4, Serrano again at head of government. Dec. 29-30. Son of Isabella II. proclaimed king by the armies, as Alfonso XII.; a ministry- for the regency is created, with Antonio Cdnovas del Castillo at its head. 1875. Jan 9. King Alfonso reaches Spain. 1876. Feb. 19. Carlists defeated; Don Carlos flees to France. 1880. January. Cortes passes a measure for the abolition of slavery in Cuba within eight years. 1881. February. Cdnovas del Castillo and his cabi- net resign; Praxedes Mateo Sagasta becomes premier. 1883. Augtist. Revolts of the military. Resigna- tion of Sagasta, October: Jose de Posada Herrera becomes premier. 1884. January. Canovas del Castillo supplants Posada Herrera. 1885. NoL'. 25. Alfonso XII. dies, and his wife, Christina, becomes regent, with Sagasta as head of the administration. 1886. May 17. Christina bears a son, who. imder the regency of his mother, becomes Alfonso XIII. 1887. May. Negotiations with Italy and Austria- Himgary for a Mediterranean agreement. 1890. Sagasta resigns and Canovas del Castillo agam becomes premier. 1891. Extension of the Mediterranean agreement with Italy and Austria- Himgary for a period of four years. 1893. Nov. 3. Cuban rebellion begins (seeCuBA). Nov. 22. One hundred anarchists arrested In Barcelona. 1895-1898. Comphcations with United States, due to sympathy with revolting Cubans (see Cuba and United States). 1896. Insurrection in the Philippine Islands. 1898. War with United States over Cuba (see Cuba and United States). Dec. 10. Treaty of peace with United States. Cuba, Porto Rico, Philippines, and Guam lost (see United States). 1903. Feb. 26. Great distmbances in Barcelona ended by troops. May 17. Alfonso XIII. enthroned. Nov. 14. Sagasta forms a new cabmet. Nov. 17. Supposed ashes of Christopher Co- lumbus, taken from Havana in 1898, deposited in Seville cathedral. 1903. Controversy between Conservatives, who favor army and navy expenditures, and Liberals, who favor economic reform, causes numerous cabinet changes. June, Villaverde, a Liberal, becomes premier; m December another change. 1905. Year marked by numerous cabinet changes, the result of political unrest. Spain acts in accord with France on the Moroccan question (see Mo- rocco and Nineteenth-Century Period). ICing Alfonso visits Paris in June; is received with great cordiality. President Loubet makes a return visit in October. 1906. May SI. Alfonso XIII. and Princess Vic- toria of Battenberg. niece of King Edward VII., married at Madrid. Anarchist throws a bomb at their carriage, killing more than 20 bystanders. Nov. 28. Moret mirristrj' resigns. Dec. 4. New cabinet is formed with Armljo de la Vega premier. 1907. Jan. 24- Cabinet under Armijo de la Vega resigns: one imder Maura succeeds. May 10. Crown Prince Alfonso bom. 1909. July 22. Rioting in Madrid over the send- ing of reenforcements to Morocco (see Morocco). July 26. fierce rioting at Barcelona. July 28, martial law proclaimed throughout Spain. Oct. 13. Professor Francisco Ferrer executed at Barcelona, after trial under martial law, as an in- stigator of sedition. [Liberal ministry. I Oct. 21. Ministry resigns and Moret forms a| 1910. Jan. 14. Plot to overthrow ministr>-. Feb. 9. Moret cabinet resigns and is succeeded by a Radical and Anticlerical cabinet with Jos6 Canalejas as premier; sustained in the elections. July 29. Rupture between the Vatican and the government, caused by pohcy toward the Roman Catholic orders, leads to withdrawal of the Span- ish ambassador to the Vatican. 1911. April 2. Resignation of Canalejas and cabi- net follows a debate on the Ferrer controversy; later withdrawn. Sept. 19. Martial law declared throughout the kingdom on accoimt of revolutionar>' riots. 1912. March 11. Canalejas cabinet resigns: re- constructed. March 12. Nov. 12. Premier Canalejas assassinated by an anarchist. Nov. 14. Count Alvarado de Romanones appointed premier. Conservative opposition forces him to resign. December 31: but support of the king ena]>les him to form a new ministry. Nor. 27. Franco-Spanish treaty signed, settling the Moroccan question (see Morocco). 1913. Jan. S. Premier Romanones announces the government's decision to resume formal relations with the Vatican, interrupted in 19J0. April 13. King Alfonso narrowly escapes assassination while riding through the streets of M adrid . June 11. Romanones resigns a second time, because of disagreements among the Liberals. Jime 14, he forms a new Liberal cabinet. Aug. 7. General strike at Barcelona throws 75,000 men out of work and closes 260 fac- tories. August 22, strikers accept the govern- ment's terms and agree to return to work, Oct. 25. Romanones and his cabinet resign on refusal of a vote of confidence. October 27, E. Dato forms a representative Conservative ministry. 1914. Feb. 13. Cortes dissolved. It has had the longest life of any parliament in 30 years. New Cortes openf in April. 148 NATIONAL HISTORIES: SPAIN — SWEDEN. u w WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 19U (conl.). At outbreak of World War Spain re- mains neutral, though suspected of sympathy with Germany. Great demand for foodstuft's and minerals makes country prosperous tliroughout war. , . , 1915. June 4. Loan of $150,000,000 authonzed. Ju7ie 22. Cabinet resigns, failure of new loan being considered tantamount to a vote of lack of confidence, but resignation withdra^vn. Sept. 2. German government pays t« Spam indemnity for the deaths of seven Spaniards at Liege in August. Dec. 6. Cabinet resigns through a dispute on the priority of economic measures over miUtary. December 9, Romanoncs forms new ministry. 1916. July. Industrial crisis caused by the proclamation of a general strike; martial law pro- claimed throughout the country ; strikers agree to refer their grievances to arbitration. Sept. 28. Spain protests to BerUn against the torpedoing of Spanish steamers by German sub- marines. Further protest. Decemlwr 29. 1917. March 29. Martial law declared because of labor disturbances and a secessionist move- ment in Barcelona. April 19. Romanones resigns because of sedi- tious propaganda in military circles and imrest among the workmen. Succeeded by Garcia Prl- eto, a moderate Liberal. June 13. Dato, a liberal Conservative, suc- ceeds Prieto as premier, his poUcy being strict neutraUty in the war. Aug. H. Rioting and revolutionary move- ments occur in various cities during the course of a general strike. Oct. 7. In view of the continued political dis- turbances, the Dato cabinet resigns. Nov. 2. Coalition cabinet formed by Prlcto, Marquis of Alhucemas. 1918. Jan. 0. Government discovers a new revo- lutionarj' movement inspired by army officers. Fch. 7. Protests made to Germany because of the destruction of the coastwise steamer Giralda. March 23. New cabinet formed by Maura. Aug. SI. Government decides to seize an in- terned German vessel in retaliation for tlie sinking of a Spanish ship caiiying coal from England. Oct. H- Government annoimces that Ger- many has ceded seven merchant vessels to re- place Spanish ships sunk by submarines. Noe. 17. Alhucemas forms a new ministry. December 5. Romanones becomes premier. 1919. Jan. IT. Radical movements In Barce- lona lead to the suspension of constitutional guar- antees in that city. Feb. 2S. Martial law in Madrid results from rioting against profiteers. March S. Tunnel, nearly 20 miles long, under the Pyrenees between Puigcerda. eastern Spain, and Ax (or Da.x). France, completed. April. Maura forms a coalition cabinet. Disorders in Barcelona have figured in resignation of Romanones. [majority. | June 1. General election gives Conservative! July. Maura cabinet resigns; Sanchez minis- try succeeds. Aug. 17. Spain joins the League of Nations. Nov. 4. Lockout begins which Congress of Spanish Employers voted a month before. Affects over a million workers. Employers claim movement necessary to offset s^■ndicalism of General Federation of Labor. Agitation con- tinues through winter and spring, producing a con- dition bordering on anarchy in Barcelona. Dec. 12. Allende-Salazar ministry succeeds that of Sanchez; eighth ministry in two years. 19^0. Jan. 20. Government orders dissolution of General Federation of Laljor and also termination of lockout; does not result in return to normal conditions. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. See under British Empire, page 65. SUDAN, ANGLO-EGYPTIAN. See under British Empire, page 68- SWEDEN. Sweden intervened in Germany in the Thirty Years War and made herself the strongest power m the north, acquiring coBtrol over Pomerania, the island of Riigen, and the bishoptics of Bremen and Verden. During Gustavus Adolphus' campaigns, liis great minister, Coimt Axel Oxenstiem, estabiished-a-SCPong and successful government at home. Gustavus Adolphus was succeeded by his daughter Christina, under whom a colony was planted on the Delaware. She was forced to abdicate m .1654 and was suc- ceeded by Charles X., who undertook a war with Poland which was at first successful, but later re- sulted m disaster. Charles also successfully crossed the frozen Belt and attacked Denmark and for a time controlled tliat coimtry. He was succeeded by Charles XI. in 1600, who maintained peace for six- teen years. War broke out m 1675 between Sweden, in alliance with France, and Denmark, supported by the elector of Brandenbm-g. For a time Sweden was hard pressed, but by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (confirmed by the subsequent Treaty of Lund) re- covered what it had lost to Denmark. In 1697 the cro^vn descended to Charles XII., one of the most remarkable characters in history. He plunged Sweden into a great northern war, in which he was successful against Russia, then tm-ned back, defeating the Poles and Saxons and placing liis candi- date on the Polish throne. In a second invasion of Russia he was successful imtU his reentorcements were cut off and his army surrounded and destroyed. In 1714 he returned to Sweden and faced an alliance of the powers hostile to liim. In 1718 he was killed on an expedition to Norway. By the Peace of Ny- stad (1721) the war was brought to an end. Sweden had to abandon all her conquests on the Continent, but western Finland was restored to her. The next sovereign was his sister Ulrica Eleonora, who turned her sovereignty over to Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, tmder whom some of the territorial losses were recovered. The power of the crown de- clined, however, and civil war broke out between the two parties of the nobiUty, the " Hats " and " Caps." Under several weak kings the royal power continued to decline. During the French Revolution peace was made with Russia by the surrender of Finland, and Russia induced Sweden to make peace with France and join the Continental system. Charles XIII. adopted and appointed as heir to the crown the French marshal, Bemadotte; and at this time Norway was added to the Swedish domam (1814) . In the struggle against Napoleon Sweden fiu-- nished an army of 30,000 men. At the Congress of Vienna (1815) Sweden retained possession of Nor- way, and no objection was made to Bemadotte when, in 1818, he succeeded to the throne imdcr the title of Charles XIV. He ruled until 1844 and under him prosperity began to revive. Oscar I. (1844-1859) attempted parliamentary reform, but failed and was succeeded by liis son Charles XV. mider whom genuine parliamentary re- form was established. In 1863 it was decreed that the Riksdag was to consist of two chambers; an up- per house, being a sort of aristocratic senate; and the lower house to consist of representatives elected bi- ennially by popular suffrage. Oscar II.. the brother of Oscar I., reigned from 1872 to 1907. During his reign a system of protec- tive duties was established and caused dissatisfac- tion. From 1890 francliise reform was agitated and the final composition of the two chambers deter- mmed. Towards the end of Oscar's long reign came the separation of Norway and the estaljlislmient of that kingdom imder a separate sovereign (see Noh- wat). The franchise question was finally settled in 1907 by the establishment of proportional repre- sentation for both chambers, tmiversal manhood siLffrage for election to second chamber, and the re- duction of the quaUfications for the first chamber. In 1907 King Oscar died and was succeeded by his son Gustavus. In 1909 the franchise was still further extended by ^Tantmg the vote to all inhabitants over 24 years of age without distinction of sex. During this reign the general tendency has been towards a more demo- cratic, it not radical, policy. Like the other Scandi- navian coimtries Sweden remained neutral durmg the World War, and, although suffering from food shortage because of the embargo laid by the Allies, found a ready market for her siuplus products m Germany. roots (sugar beet and fodder roots), hay, potatoes, oats, and com. Minmg from tune inmiemorial has been one of the leading industries of Sweden and the Swedish iron ore is abundant and of the best quality. Although hampered by tine lacli of coal, the mitroduc- tion and use of electricity produced by water power liasqpened new possibUities. Woodworking is also an industry'-of great importance, the forests of Sweden covering more than half of the area and furnishing valuable timber. Religion and Education. Lutheran Protestant- ism is recognized gas tlie state religion. The king must be a member of tliis church. All other religions are tolerated. Education is well advanced in Sweden. Elemen- tary education is fpee and compulsory and in 1918 there were more than 16,000 elementary schools be- sides many secondary schools and special vocational schools. The two imiversities of Upsala and of Ltmd have more than 3,700 students enrolled. Defense. There is universal service supple- mented by volimtary enlistment. Military lial)ihty extends from the age of 20 to the end of the forty- second year. The peace establishment in 1920 com- prised 86.000 men. The navy was eriginally in- tended entirely for coast defense. In recent years several cruisers of considerable speed and gun power have been added. ^ The area is 173,035 square miles and the esti- mated population in 1918 was 5,813,850. Chronology. Historical Outline. The authentic history of Sweden begins in the ninth century with the mission of Ansgar and the practical conversion of the people to Christianity. From the tenth century to the end of the fourteenth there were numerous civil wars, in which the free peasants practically disappeared. In 13S8 the no- bles deposed the king and offered the crown to Mar- garet of Norway and Denmark, and in 1397 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Kalmar. The Golden Age of Sweden, however, was in the seventeenth century under Gusta'-us Adolphus. Organization. Government. Sweden is a constitutional mon- archy; the king as executive exercises his powers in conjunction witli a coimeil of state, and has absolute veto upon legislation. The legislative power is in a Diet of two houses, both elected by the people. The first chamber consists of 150 members elected for six years by the provincial a.ssemblies. They must sat- isfy a high property qualification The second cham- l>er is composed of 230 representatives, chosen for three years by universal suffrage, men and women alike. There is proportional representation for both chambers. Industry and Labor. About half the popula- tion depend upon agriculture, the chief crops being For earher events see Medieval Period and Early Modern Periob, Chronology. 1648. Oct. 24. By the Peace of Westphalia, Pomerania, RUgen, Bremen, and Verden ceded to Sweden. 1664. July 6. Queen Christina abdicat«s; suc- ceeded by her cousin, Charles X. 165S. Swedes overrun Poland. 1657. Sweden in war with Denmark. 1658. Brief peace at Roskilde. War renewed and Charles X. besieges Copenhagen. .Swedish fleet overcome by the Danes with their Dutch allies. 1659. Charles routed by Frederick William of Brandenbtu-g. 1660. Feb. IS. Charies X. dies; succeeded by his son, Charles XI., a child five years old. Peace with Brandenburg. Germany, and Poland, by which Livonia and Esthonia are ceded to Sweden.. Treaty with Denmark: Danish terri- tories in Swedish Scandinavia acquired. 1669. Sweden joins England and HoUand in an alliance against the French. 1673. Treatv of Stockholm signed with France. 1675. Swedes invade Brandenburg; overcome by Frederick William, the Great Elector of Bran- denburg, at Fehrbellin, June IS. Foimdation of later Prassia. 1679. Treaties with Brandenburg and Denmark; Louis XIV. forces the elector to yield conquests except East Friesland (see Earlt Modern Period). 1697. Aprils. Charles XII. succeeds Charles XI. 1700. Denmark joined l)y Russia and Poland m war against Sweden, but compelled to make the Peace of Travendal. Swedish troops rout the Russian army of Peter the Great at Narva, November 30, 1701. Polish War. Charies defeats Poles and Saxon allies. 1702. Charles enters Warsaw and occupies t racow. 1703. Charles routs Augustus at Pultusk. 1704. Charles deprives Augustus of the Polish crown and secures election of Stanislas Leszczynski. 1708. Charles XII. Invades Russia. 1709. July S. His army destroyed by Peter the Great at Poltava. Charies flees to Turkey, and the Danes invade Sweden. 1710. Swedes imder Stenbock expel the Danes. 1713. Stenbock smrenders at Tbnningen to allied Russians. Danes, and Saxons. 1714. Charles XII. retums to Sweden. 1715. War against Swden by Frederick William I. of Prussia, who takes Stralsund. m December. 1716. Swedes invade Norway. 1718 Charles XII. again mvades Norway; he perishes in the siege of Frech-ikshald. December 11- his sister I'lrica Eleonora succeeds. 1719! Ulrica inaugurates a liberal reign, but exe- cutes the prime minister, Gortz. Treaty with George I. of England (as Elector of Hanover) by which Sweden cedes Bremen and Verden 1730 Treaty signed with Pmssia at Stockholm by wliich most of Hither Pomerania is yielded. Ulrica abdicates in favor of her consort, Freder- ick of Hesse-Cassel. New constitution strips the kmg of power, wliich faUs into hands of the nobles. Two parties: " Caps," favonng policy of peace; " Hats," favoring alliance with France and hostiUty to Russia. „ .. j -.,, t5„„ 1721. Iwff 30. By Treaty of Nystad with Rus- sia Sweden loses Livonia, Esthonia, Ingna, and KareUa o "aW 1741 War with Russia: peace at Abo. two yearsi 175l'. March. Adolphus Frederick, Of the House of Holstein-Gottorp, succeeds Frederick. 1755 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: SWEDEN — SWITZERLAND. 149 1756. Sneden takes part of Austria In the Seven Years' War, but in 1762 withdraws (see Austria; . 1771. Feb.l^. Adolplius Frederick dies; succeeded by his son Gustavus Ul. 1773. By a coup d'etat, Gusta^nisputs tlirougha new constitution changing Sweden from an anarchical republic of nobles to a constitutional monarchy. 1778-1786. Period of internal reform. 17S8. War declared on Russia. 1789. Feb. 1 7. King secures constitutional control of war, peace, and foreign affairs, becoming practi- cally an absolute monarch. 1790. July. Gusta-vus wins success in the Gulf of Finland. August, treaty of peace. 1792. March 29. Gustavus III. dies from woimd by an' assassin. His son, Gustavus IV. (Adol- ptius) succeeds. 1807. Napoleon subjugates the Swedish territories in Germany (see France). 1808. Finland conquered by Russia. 1809. March 29. Gustavus IV compelled to abdi- cate ; the son being passed over, he is succeeded by his uncle, Charles Xlll. June 9. Charles signs a new constitution making Sweden a limited monarchy. Sept. 17. Treaty of Fredrikshamn : formal cession of Finland to Russia. 1810. Jan. e. Peace of Paris with France. Swe- den joins the Continental system and receives Swedish Pomerania Bernadotte. a general of Napoleon, chosen as crown prince of .Sweden. 1813. Sweden joins in the alliance against Napoleon. 1814. Ja7i. 14. By the Treaty of Kiel with Great Britain and Denmark, Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden, receiving Swedish Pomerania in return. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1815. June 9. Possession of Norway is conflrmed to Sweden by the Congress of Vienna (see Nine- teenth-Century Period. For resulting personal union with Norway, see Norway). 1818. Feb. S. Bernadotte succeeds to the tlirone of Sweden and Norway as Charles XIV. John. 1844. March S. Charles XIV. John dies; suc- ceeded by his son, Oscar I. 1855. Nov. 31. France and Great Britain sign a treaty guaranteeing Norway and Sweden against Russian aggression. Abrogated April 23, 1908. 1857. Charles, son of Oscar I., becomes regent for his father. October. Decree of banishment against Catho- lics who have been converted from the Lutheran faith promulgated; but religious toleration in a modified form is allowed by the laws of 1860. 1859. July S. Charles succeeds his father as Charles XV. (Charles XV I 1872. Sept. IS. Oscar II. succeeds his brother, I 1905. Sweden acknowledges the independence of Norway (see Norway). [Gustavus V.I 1907. Dec.o. Oscar II. dies; succeeded by his son, 1 1908. April -2.3. Joint declaration by Great Britain, Denmark, France, Germany, Nether- lands, and Sweden to maintain the status quo in territories bordering on the North Sea. Also similar one for the Baltic Sea by Denmark, Ger- many, Kussia, and Sweden. Aug. 27. Congress of International Patent Vnion meets at Stoekliolm. 1909. Feb. 13. Bill pas.ses both houses, permitting all males over 24 years of age to vote, with pro- portional representation in the Diet .Auijust-September. Great strike paralyzes in- dustry- and commimication. 1910. .4110. 1. Eighteenth Universal Peace Con- gress opens at Stockholm. Five himdred are in attendance from twenty-two nations. 1911. Sept. 30. General election results in over- throw of the Lindman ministry, and establishment of Liberal government under Karl A Staaff. 1912. July 1. Fifth revival of the Olympian games opens at Stockholm. At their conclusion, July 22, Sweden heads the lists with 133 points, United States is second with 129 points. Great Britain third with 76 points. 1913. July 3. Old age pensions law passed. 1914. Feb. 6. More than 30,000 peasants and landowners from all parts of Sweden parade before the king at Stockholm to demand an increase of armaments. Staaff cabinet regards as uncon- stitutional the king's free expression of political opinion on the armament question, and resigns Fehruaiy 10. Feb. 16. K. H. L. de Hammarskjiild forms new cabinet, succeeding the one imder Staaff. March 3. Parliament dissolved owing to the armament controversy, WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 1914. At outbreak of World War Sweden remains neutral. Is throughout the war open to direct commerce with Germany, who obtains Swedish iron ore and other supplies. Dec. IS. King Gustavus, with King Haakon of Norway and King Christian of Denmark, meet at Malmo in regard to the World War. 1915. May 5. Shipment of all kinds of war mate- rial across Swedish territory prohibited. Jime 3, raw cotton is added to the Ust subject to embargo. Ju7te SO. British official commission arrives in Stockholm to devise measiu'es to avoid the diffi- culties in regard to trade caused by British war regulations, Sept. 10. Government prohibits export of all meat, canned goods, and live stock. Sept. 20. Arrangement with Germany for small sale of goods in exchange for coal. 1916. January. English mail for Russia detained in retaliation for Great Britain's interference with .Swedish mails and neutral commerce. Jan. 1. Tobacco becomes a state monopoly. Jan. 3. National Bank resumes payment of notes in gold, which has been suspended since Au- gust, 1914. Feb. 33. Understanding with Great Britain reached on subject of imports; tension relieved. 1917. March a. Hammarskjiild cal>inet resigns when Parliament refuses to vote credits for the maintenance of neutrality. Oct. 2. Swartz cabinet resigns after a pro- tracted political crisis resulting principally from the revelation of diplomatic intrigues between Swedish and German agents in neutral coimtries, Oct. 19. -As a result of elections, showing radi- cal tendencies. Nils Eden forms a cabuiet with Hjahnar Branting, leader of the Social Demo- crats, as minister of finance. The cabinet includes six Liberals, four Socialists, and one Independent. 1918-1919. For Sweden and Fuiland, see Finland. 1919. May 26. Parliament grants women full national suffrage. Sweden sends note to Peace Conference asking for a plebiscite in the Aland Islands, wliich are con- tested for between Finland and Sweden. June 16. Swedish Congress of Independent Socialists at Stockholm votes to join the Third International of Moscow. 1920. March J,. Decision to join the League of Nations. [of Socialists, formed I March 6. Branting ministrj-, composed entirely 1 SWITZERLAND. Historical Outline. Switzerland has neither geographical, ethnic, lin- guistic, nor rehgioiis unity : yet it is a verj' individual countr>' with a positive nationality. Geographi- cally, the country consists of the upper valleys of the Rhine, Rhone, and Danube, with some outlying areas; and the whole country is embedded in the great masses of the Alps. Ethnically the Swiss con- sist of French. Gennan. Italian, and Romance-speak- ing people. The linguistic divisions are well marked and the constitution recognizes French, German, and Italian as the three national languages in which debates in the legislature may be carried on. In relig- ion there is a sharp division between the Roman Cath- olics and the I*rotestants w ho are the more numerous Most of Switzerland was Romanized and traces of I Roman civilization remain. Passing by the legend- ary histor>' with the names of such heroes as William Tell, the actual modem history of Switzerland began j in 1291. In that year a league was formed between | the men of Uri. Schw^-z, and Unterwalden for de- ' fense and the maintenance of their privileges. At once the confederates engaged in a struggle for exist- ' ence with the House of Hapsburg. In the famous ; battles of Sempach, Morgarten. and Nafels they won j their independence. This struggle lasted until 1412. During the 15th century the league expanded and, | after a civil war about 1450. adopted a constitution for the enlarged confederation of the " Eight Old Places." In the latter years of the 15th century it successfully fought Charles the Bold, and added some French-speaking districts to tlie Confedera- tion. In the 16th century Swiss infantr>-. tlien the best in the world, won glorious victories in the Italian wars, but were at last defeated at the battle of Marig- nano in 1515 and made a peace with France. During the Reformation most of northern Switzer- land was under the influence of Ulrich Zwingli. politi- cal and religious reformer, a rival and theologically an opponent of Martin Luther. He opposed the al- liance with France and desired to secure for Zurich and Bern the cliief power in the Confederation. The countn." sufTered little from religious wars, but was split into two religious camps. By the Peace of Westphalia in KMS. the indeperidence of Switzerland was formally acknowledged. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Con- federation was practically a dependency of France. The aristocracy of the cities continued, particularly in Bern. Lucerne. Freibin^ and Solothum. where the voting power was vested in the hands of a small class, which refused to admit any new burgher: and within the small voting class a'still smaller class monopo- lized most of the offices. During the French Revolution the troops of the republic overthrew the aristocratic parties causing the fall of the Confederation: and the Directory estal> lished the Helvetic Republic which was highly central- ized and ran counter to local independence in the Confederation. When the French troops were with- drawn, civil war broke out; and Bonaparte, by the Act of Mediation (1803), granted a constitution in which the federal system was partly reestablished. "While the rest of Europe was in war and com- motion, Switzerland enjoyed comparative peace, although party feeling ran high. The Congress of Vienna {1S15) accepted a revised constitution, sub- mitted by the Swiss Diet, by wliich the new cantons of Geneva, Valais, and Neuchatel were added to the republic. Switzerland was also enlarged on the side of France. The new constituiion set up a federal or central government, and a division of sovereign rights was made l^etween the powers of local govern- ment retained by t)ie cantons and the nat ional powers. The revolutionary movement which swept Europe in 1S30 affected Switzerland slightly and the people in several cantons compelled the authorities to give them more liberty. Religious differences led to the War of the Sonderbimd ( 1S46) , which brought about a new constitution in 1S4S: this lasted imtil 1S74, when the present constitution was adopted. Throughout her historj-, Switzerland has Ijeen the asyhmi of political refugees and at times the protec- tion given them by the government has led to pro- tests from other states. Particularly was this true in 1836 and in 1838 when Louis Napoleon sought protection. In 1844 and 1845. campaigns w^ere con- ducted against the Jesuits, who were finally expelled. Ten years later war was threatened by the king of Prussia to regain Neuchatel, but was settled by the intervention of England and France. In 1888 and 1889 the Socialists and Nihilists were prosecuted and the latter were expelled from the coimtrj'. In recent times the institutions of Switzerland, both the federal and cantonal sj stems have become more and more democratic. Through the use of the initiative and referendum the people obtained direct mntrol, not merely over their legislation, but also over the constitution. Because of the protective pol- icies of France and Germany, Switzerland has been obliged to adopt a high tariff which has brought in a large revenue. This has been spent in the purchase of the railways and the extension of government ac- tivities in commerce, as well as in the physical im- provement of the cities through the erection of pub- he buildings. Until the outbreak of the World W^ar. Switzerland was contented poHtically and prosperous economi- cally. Although the federation was able to main- tain its neutrality, the great interruption of external trade prevented the importation of the necessary foodstuffs and dried up the main source of federal revenue. To maintain its neutrality the govern- ment felt obliged to mobilize the Swiss militia at a cost of more than $36,000,000, which had to be met by loans. Organization. Government. Switzerland is a federal republic. It consists of 22 cantons, three of which are politi- cally divided. These, like the states of the United States, possess sovereign powers in all fields which are not assigned to the federal government by the Constitution of 1874 or subsequent constitutional amendments. The government of the cantons varies both in structure and procedure; but each possesses its own legislature, executive, and ju- diciary. In four of the cantons, Uri. Unterwalden, Appenzell. and Glaras, the ancient democratic as- semblies (Landesgemeinden) are preserved. These assemblies are held in the open air in April or May and attended by the voters in person. They elect a sort of standing committee, like the selectmen of the New England towns, a chief magistrate, and a judi- ciary. In the other cantons there are representative councils which exercise the legislative fimctions. All the cantons save Freiburg have the referendtim and the initiative. The federal government is vested in two houses: the National Council, numbering at present 189, composed of deputies chosen for tliree years by direct manhood suffrage in the proportion of one to every 20,000 or major fraction; and the second assembly, the Cotmcil of States, consisting of 44 members, two from each canton. Unhke the members of the Sen- ate of the United States, the qualifications for the members of the Swiss Council of States, as well as the teniue of office, are not regulated by the constitu- tion or by the federal authority, but are left entirely in the hands of the cantons. As a result the upper house lacks uniformity and morale and does not have the influence of the American Senate or of the Swiss National Council. The executive power is vested in a Federal Coun- cil of se\-en members, who act as heads of the execu- tive (iepartments and who are chosen by the two bodies of the federal legislature sitting together: one of the seven, chosen as President of the Confedera- tion, presides at its meetings, but has no independent executive powers. The Swiss executive does not hold itself pohticaUy responsible to the legislature, and hence does not resign when its plans are not adopted, but attempts to carr>' out the desires of the legislature. 150 NATIONAL HISTORIES: SWITZERLAND — SYRIA. 1648-1920. u w The most intbresting feature of the Swiss system is the control by the people of the affairs of the go\'- emment tlirough the initiative and referendum. On the demand of 30,000 citizens, or eight cantons, the Assembly is obhged to submit for popular approval any of its acts. An amendment to the constitution must also be submitted on the demand of 50,000 voters In 1891 the Confederation also adopted the initiative which applies only to the constitution. By this 50,000 voters may propose an amendment, either in general terms to be drawn up by the As- sembly, or in specific terms to be submitted to the people The different cantons have adopted these institutions in different degrees. Zurich submits all the acts of the Coimcil to the popular vote at semi- annual elections, and any citizen may propose a law to the Council; if one third of tliat body votes favor- ably, it must be submitted to the people. Industry and Labor. The cUmate of Switzer- land favors a variety of products. Ticino enjoys the general conditions of north Italy. From this region the ascent to the Alps and to the more northern can- tons brings increasing cold imtil the range of snow and arctic climate is reached. The natural wealth of Switzerland lies singularly enough in its snows, wliich make superb pasturage m the summer and also attract the tourist. The agricultural products are those common to central Europe, but in no part of Switzerland is there op- portunity for wide or extensive cultivation. Every- thing is local and incidental. About two thirds of the productive soil is devoted to agriculture or graz- ing; tlie breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, and swme are of'tlie best, and the animals and dairy products are famous throughout Eiu-ope. Valuable standard products are cheese, condensed milk, and chocolates. The chief agrictUtural products are rye. oats, and potatoes, but the supply of these and of other grains is insufficient, and Switzerland is partially dependent for its food upon imports. The ciUtivation of sugar beets has recently been atU-mpted. The forests of Switzerland cover nearly a fifth of the territory and produce quantities of excellent timber. Of the min- eral products the most important is asphalt. The saline deposits along the Rhine are also of importaiice. Metals exist in Switzerland, but are hardly worked at all. True coal is entirely absent. Recently the gov- ernment has set out to make the waterfalls available, so as to furnish power and cut down the coal bills. In spite of the lack of coal, manufacturmg has prospered, and there are nearly 9,000 factories, the more important being engaged in the manufacture of machinerv, silk, cotton, and watches, for wliich Switzerland is famous. One of the industries of Switzerland is the entertainment of foreign visitors, which produces larger gross receipts (m 1905 over $33,000,000) than any other. Education. There is no central educational ad- ministration in Switzerland. By the constitution of 1874 education was made obligatory and placed un- der the civil authority of the cantons. Primary in- struction is free. In 1916 there were 4,578 primary schools, with over 500,000 pupils, 548 secondary schools, with 50.000 pupils, and 126 middle schools, with 36,000 pupils. There are also commercial and teclmical schools and special vocational schools. Seven universities exist in Switzerland: Zurich, Ge- neva, Neuchatel, Bern, Lausanne, Freiburg, and Basel. Beligton. Religious freedom and perfect liberty of conscience and creed are guaranteed by the con- stitution. There is no established church. Since 1874 legislation has been directed against the Catho- j lies, and in 1848 the Jesuits were expelled and pro- hibited from exercisuig their functions. More than half of the Swiss people are Protestants. Defense. Old-fashioned fortifications exist on the southern border and protect the St. Gothard tunnel. There is no standing army, but a national militia in which the ser\-ice is compulsory and uni- versal, extending from the twentieth to the forty- eighth vear. The traming is carried on in the re- cruits' schools for 65 days for the uitantry, 75 days for the artillery, and 90 days for the cavalry. The subsequent tra'inmgs occupy 11 days annually up to a total of about six montlis. Twelve years are spent in the first line, eight m the first reser\-e, and eight in the second reserve. Altogether, Switzerland can mobilize nearly 200,000 men, not including the sec- ond reserve, which amounts to about 60,000. The area is 15,976 square miles and the popula- tion in 1916 was 3,937,000 1798. Switzerland overrun by French troops. An- cient Confederacy dissolved. April, France es- tabhshes the Helvetic Republic. Geneva (not part of Switzeriand) annexed to France. 1799-1803. Switzerland a battleground for Aus- trian, French, and Russian armies (.see France). 1800-1807. Napoleon constructs strategic roads across the Alps to Imk up Italy. 1803. Feb 19. New Swiss federal constitution drawn up in Paris under Napoleons direction. Number of cantons increased to 19. 1811. Switzeriand sends a force to the aid of the French, and the aUies agamst France enter Swit- zerland in 1814. Chronology. For earlier events, see Mediev.^l Period, Chronology, and E.iRLY Modern Period, Chronology. 1648. Separation of Switzerland from the German Empu-e formally recognized. Switzerland devastated by a civil war, in which the oligarchical part.y is successful against the de- mocracy. During the remainder of the century the cantons retam their federative form of govern- ment, but are practically recruiting grounds and dependencies of France. 1786. First ascent of Mont Blanc by Balmat and Paccard. [to the death. I 1793. Aug. 10. Swiss Guard defends Louis XVI. I NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1815. By the Congress of Vienna the independ- ence of the countrj' is secured and the number of cantons mcreased to 22. New areas aimexed. Aug. 7. New federal constitution, without right of mterference by outside powers, (powers. | Nov. 20. Neutrality guaranteed by thel 1830. More lilieral constitutions m several cantons. 1839. A law to make education independent of the clergy passed and a series of civil strifes over re- ligious matters ensues. 1843. Sept. IS. Seven Catholic cantons form separate. league, the Sonderbund [literally, " Sep- arate League"]. 1844. February. The Sonderbund demands resto- ration of all monasteries. 1845. December. The Sonderbund arms and pre- pares for war. 1846. Effort is made by the CathoUc cantons to se- cure education by the Jesuits, but this is resisted by the Protestants. October 7, an insurrection in Geneva, and a provisional government estabUshed by the Protestants. 1847. July 20. Diet pronotmces the Sonderbund Ulegal, and dissolves it. In September, an order is issued for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Sonder- bund makes an appeal to arms, October 21. In the civil war that follows, the forces of the Diet under Dufour are victorious near Lucerne, Novem- ber 23. November 29, the Sonderbund submits and consents to expulsion of the Jesuits and the secularization of the property of the monasteries. 1848. Sept. 12. New constitution adopted, strong- ' ly Influenced by the example of the United States, 1850-1900. Switzerland becomes the vacation ground of Eiu-ope. System of scenic mountain roads, hotels, and moimtain climbing developed, which becomes a permanent soiu-ce of revenue. 1857. Neueliatel controversy. The canton has long owed feudal allegiance to the kmg of Prussia, but disclaimed it in 1848. War threatened. Under mediation of Great Britain and France, the king renoimces liis claim. 1860. Switzerland protests against annexation of Sa- voy to France; small force attempts to enter Savoy, 1861. French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes. whereupon the Swiss declare their territorial rights violated. 1863. Dec. S. Treaty with France; mutual ces- sions and no militan- works m the ceded territory. 1864. Aug. 22. Geneva (Red Cross) Conven- tion for care of sick and wotmded in war [Bern | 1865. International Social Science Congress atl 1873. Geneva arbitration of the Alabama claims between the United States and Great Britain. (See Alab.^ma claims, in the Dict\onary.^ 1874. Boundary dispute with Italy settled in favor of Italy, by award of American minister at Rome. May 29. New federal constitution caused by conflicts over personal status of the inhabitants and external commerce. Federal government much strengthened. Introduction of ■' Swiss sys- tem " of universal military service. Extension of system of referendimi, long practiced in some can- tons, to federal government. Initiative does not become a federal institution tmtil 1891. 1877. Law regulating the hours of labor for women and cliildren confirmed by popular vote. 1878. National elections for members of the Coim- cil result in the triumph of the Liberal party. 1879. Act adopted by the Council restoring, at the option of the several cantons, death penalty as a punishment for crime. 1880. August. Conference of the International Association for reform and codification of interna- tional law held at Bern. 1883. Opening of St. Gothard tunnel and rail- way, cotmecting Italy with Germany. Question of pubUc instruction finally settled by the passage of a compulsory-education law, wliich is ratified by the people. 1883. Pope renews his efforts to reverse the anti- Catholic legislation of previous years. 1884. Elections result in a reaction in favor of the Conservative and I'ltramontane party. International Peace and Arbitration Association meets in Bern. 1885. Sept. 7. International conference at Bern to promote a universal copyright among nations. Spread of anarchistic socialistic opinions not«d with alarm. 1887. Movement for an international copyright law resiUts in the preparation of a projet; signed by representatives of Germany, Great Britam, Belgium, Spam, France, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Switzerland, and Tunis. 1888. Proceedings begun against the Socialists. Institute of mternational law is held at Lausanne. 1889. A company of Niliihsts residing near Zurich expelled from country by the Federal Cotmcil. 1890. Switzerland becomes the seat of administra- tion of mteniational trade-marks, posts, tele- graphs, etc., imder general agreements of nations. Religious agitations lead to riots in Ticmo. Insurrection restrains the aggressive policy of the Clerical party, September, and order restored by federal troops. 1893. August. Session of the International Peace Congress held at Bern; a resolution passed for the creation of a confederation of the European states in the interest of universal peace. 1893. Severe law for the suppression of anarchis- tic outrages passed. 1896. May-October. National exliibition illustrate ing the various branches of Swiss trade and indus- try held at Geneva. 1898. Federal government takes over most of the important railroads. Img people. I 1899. Law for compulsory insurance for work-| 1906. Jan. 25. First train passes through the Simplon tunnel. 1908. June 20. Alps are crossed by the balloon Cognac, owned by the Swiss Aijro Club. 1913. Feb. I,. Referendum is held on sickness and accident insurance bill: measure adopted. 1913. April h. Federal Coimcil ratifies St. Goth- ard Railway Convention; also ratified by Ger- many and Italy. June 23. Lot schbere tunnel formally opened. WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 1914. August. At outbreak of World War Swit- zeriand places her army on German frontier; her neutrality is respected. War almost destroys profitable tourist business, and Interferes with food supplies and exports. 1915. Sept. 21. Expenses for mobilization to Sep- tember 1 amount to $28,000,000. 1917. June 19. Hoffmann, a member of the Fed- eral Council, resigns when liis activities m promote ing a separate peace between Germany and Russia are exposed. 1918. Feb. 2. Socialists demand immediate de- mobihzation of the army. 1919. Feb. 4. Federal Council rejects overwhelm- ingly motion to reduce military budget for year. May 11. Vorarlberg provmce (Austrian) votes to join Switzerland. Not received. Supreme Coun- cil at Paris vetoes all secessions from dimmished Austria. June 28. Guarantee of Swiss neutrality con- tinued bv Treaty of Versailles. [plurality. I Oct 26. Elections give Radical Democrats al 1930. May 16. Plebiscite favors joining the League of Nations. SYRIA. Stria is the strip of territory extending from the frontiers of Egypt northward to the middle valley of the Euphrates', along the Mediterranean Sea, geo- graphically includmg Palestme, though the two lands are now to be separated. As the natural high- way between Asia and Africa it has been many times swept over by conquermg armies from the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians to the Saracens and Turks; and has been part of the Mesopotamian, Greek, and Roman emph-es. It has like'wise been for long periods independent. Syria has been for ages the point of contact be- tween Eastern and Western commerce tlirough its famous ancient ports at Tyre and Sidon; and their proxhnity to Antioch and Damascus. It was also a meeting pomt for the civUizations of Africa and Central Asia. For ages it was traveled by visi- tors to the " holv places " of the Christian faith; and the crusades involved the conquest of Syria. SjTia passed mto the hands of the Turks and m 1914 was still organized mto vilayets of the Moslem For niore than a centiUT France has shown a strong desire to acquu-e S>Tia. In the Worid War SyTia, because of its nearness to the Suez Canal, became a battlefield between Turkish and British troops, who drew into aUiance neighboring Arab tnbesmen. The new king of Hejaz has claimed S>-ria as a part of his countrv- but in 1920 France received from the AUies a " mandate " for Syria and her armies were seek- ing to pacify the land. The boundaries of the new state have yet to he determined, but if it extends to what, imde'r Turkish rule, was the northern part of SvTia. including the vilayets of Aleppo Zor Syria and Beirut, the estimated area will be about 106, i40 square miles and the population about 3,000,000. Among manv race elements the people of Lebanon are a Christian community, which since 1864 has had 1 a claim to protection from France. 634 - 1920. NATIONAL HISTORIES: SYRIA — TURKEY. 151 Chronology. 631. Syria wrested from the Byzantine Empire by the Saracens. lOJO. S>Tia incorporated in the Seljuk Turkish Empire. 1260. Tatar invasion. 1291. Fall of Acre marks end of Christian Kingdom of Jenisalem (see Palestine). [pire.l 1516. S jTia incorporated in Ottoman Turkish Em- 1 1740. May -28. Capitulations with Louis XV-; Cliristians in Turkey (especially at " holy places ") to be under protection of French flag 1774. July 21. By Treaty of Kuchtik Kainarja Russia given indefinite rights to protect Orthodo.x Christians in Turkish Empire. 1798-1599. Napoleons army in Syria (see Egypt, under British Empire). 1821. Beginning of Protestant missions. 1831-181U. Mehemet Ali in 8>Tia (see Egypt, under British Empire); intervention of the powers. 1860. Tlireatened inter\'ention l:»y France, due to massacre of Cliristian Maronites of Mt. Leb- anon by Mohammedan Druses. 1861. Sept. 6. Autonomy granted to Lebanon under a Christian governor. 1901. Porte recognizes French protection of Cath- olics in the East. 1915. S>Tia base of Turkish attack on Suez Canal (see Egypt, under British Empire). Oct. 2i. British promise to recognize Arabian independence from Aleppo southward e.vcept Bag- dad and Busrah. for aid against Turkey (see Hej.^z. Chronology of Arabia ) 1916. May 9-16. Secret agreements between FraDce and Great Britain; S>Tian coast north of Palestine assigned to France, with an Arabian state over the rest of the region, and to be divided into French and British spheres. 1917. Oct. 31. Opening of British SjTian campaign from Egypt. Dec. 9. Allenby occupies Jerusalem; liis ad- vance assisted by Arabians. 1918. Oct.l. Damascus captured by Allenby and Arabian Prince Feisal. (cut | Oct. 25. Aleppo captured and Bagdad railway I 1919. Sept. 16. Annoimcemcnt of agreement between Great Britain and France; France as special protector of SjTian Christians to place French troops for British in occupation. Ex- change completed in November. 1920. January-FebTuary. Turks massacre Ar- menians at Marash ; part of opposition to French occupation. French troops compelled to retire. Arabs farther south revolt. March 8. Pan-Syrian Congress declares Syria an Independent (Arab) state, including Palestine and northern Mesopotamia. Later in March, however, Feisal, presumptive king, re- ported to have renotmced his prerogative, as well as the independence of SjTia. April 25. Supreme Council at meeting at San Remo makes France mandatary for SjTia. M'iy II. Peace treaty handed Turkey provides for Independence of Syria, with France as man- datary; also for the independence of the Hejaz. TASMANIA. See under British Empire, page 75. TRANSVAAL. See under British Empire, page 66. TRINIDAD. See under British Empire, page 74. TRIPOLI. See under Italy, page 115. TUNIS. See imder Fr.ince, page 96. TURKEY. Historical Outline. The Ottoman Turkisii Empire had its origin in the migration of a Turkoman band in the 13th centurj-, from their home in central Asia. They founded a settlement at Erzerum. near the Black Sea. Their first leader was Osman I. (I2SS-1326). During the 14th century they spread through Asia Minor, as the Seljuk Turks had spread before them, and attacked the Eastern Empire. This bulwark of Christendom and civilization was threatened when, in the 14th cen- tury, the Turks crossed the Bosporus into Europe and began the conquest of Thrace and Macedonia. Little by little they reduced the Empire to a small territory around Constantinople, They were a hardy race of peasants, well-adapted to military dis- cipline and capable of great endurance. I At first they had no standing army, but in 1330 I the Janizaries were founded. This troop at first i consisted of Christian children who had Ix'en cap- tured and brouglit up in the Mohammedan faith, but was recruited later from various sources. As the Janizaries received no pay during peace, they were always ready and eager for war. and furnished a nucleus for the militarj- power of the sultan. In 1453 Constantinople, to the shame and woe of Christendom, was captured, and the Turks soon reached the Danube. The golden age of the Ttu-k- ish Empire was during the reign of Solyman II. ; (1520-1566). At this time the Turkish Empire ex- j tended from the frontiers of Germany to Persia, and , the Black Sea was a Turkish lake. The whole of the Euplirates valley and Bagdad was conquered, the Venetians were driven from Greece, and the whole , Balkan Peninsula, with the exception of the little . state of Montenegro and a little strip of the Dalma- tian coast, was in the hands of the Turks. In the ; Mediterraneail. Crete and Malta were still held by ; the Christians: but the northern coasts of Africa i from Egypt to Morocco were under the supremacy of the sultan, whose sea power was a factor to be reckoned with. Occupj'ing tliis position Turkey be- came an iiifluence in European pohtics and inter- vened not simply in eastern Europe, in the Balkans, and in Himgarj-. but at one time was allied with ; France against the emperor Charles V. I The subsequent nistorj' of Turkey is that of grad- ! ual decline broken only by momentarj- attempts i at reform and military' successes. Her position has ! been maintained and her empire prolonged by the ' jealousies of European states which feared that in the , disintegration of Turkey a general war might ensue which would alter the balance of power in Europe. In the 16th centurj', Turkey suffered her first great defeat at the battle of Lepanto (1571). Tur- key took advantage of the wars of the Reformation to push northward till Wallachia, Himgar>", and Croatia were occupied. Austrians, Russians, and Poles still stood against them. They failed before Vienna in 16S2 and at the Peace of Karlowitz (1699) were compelled to admit their losses. The Hun- garian provinces were restored : Azov went to Russia, Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and Morea (the Peloponnesus) and Dalmatia to Venice. During the first part of the ISth centurj', Ahmed III. attempted with considerable success to regain some of the lost territorj-. He succeeded in wresting the Greek peninsula from the Venetians, but failed disastrously tn his war with Austria and was obliged to cede Belgrade, Wallacliia. and Temesv^r. In 1730 Mahmud I. came to the throne and captured Belgrade. In 1768 Txu-key declared war upon Rus- sia, but was defeated and by the treaty of Kiichlik Kainarja was obliged to surrender the Crimea. In 1789 Selim III. made heroic efforts to recover what his predecessors had lost. He instituted many internal reforms. He was successful in dealing with Russia and secured the Dniester as the frontier; but his pashas began to revolt, and the conquest of Egypt by Napoleon precipitated a war with France. In 1S07 the Janizaries dethroned Selim and after an in- terim of a year placed Mahmud II. on the throne. In 1812 peace was made with Russia by the Treaty of Bucharest, and the Pruth was established as the boundarj' line, The acquisitions of Russia at the expense of Turkey aroused the jealousy of the other European powers, and from this date Turkey be- came the protege of the western powers and their pawn to check the advance of Russia. The disintegration of the Turkish Empire contin- ued rapidly during the 19th centur>'. In 1821 the Greek revolt began. Contrary to their policy of suppressing revolutions, European powers inter- vened, and the Turkish fleet was defeated at Nava- rino by a joint Western fleet in 1827. Russia took tills opportunity to declare war and in 1829 wrested some additional territor>' from the empire, while in 1830 the independence of the Greeks was acknowl- edged. In 1832 Eg>-pt revolted and in 1841 l^ecame autonomous under Mehemet Ali as hereditary tribu- tary prince. Since 1829 the Turkish question has centered aroimd the attempt of Riissia to reach the Mediter- ranean and the efforts of the European powers to ; prevent Russia from disturbing the balance of power in the East. The first evidence of this policy and counter policj' was the Crimean War (1854-1856) wliich involved not only Russia and Turkey, but also France, England, and Sardinia as allies of Turkey. As a result of the Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856). Russia was forced to abandon her pretensions to ex- ercise a protectorate over the Christians in Turkey, and to the exclusive right of interference in the Da- nubian pro\inces. The navigation of the Danube was made free; the Black Sea was closed to warships; and Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe. All the contracting powers pledged themselves to re- spect her independence and the integrity of her terri- tory. On her part Turkey made promises of a large measure of autonomy for the Christian communities, none of which were kept, and submitted to certain reforms in her internal administration intended to safeguard the holders of her bonds. \ In 1876 Abdul-Hamid came to the throne and pro- claimed a liberal constitution, not simply for the European provinces but for the whole Turkish Em- pire. In 1S78. however, he suspended the constitu- tion, which was never in operation, and established a despotism more efficient and oppressive than that of his predecessors. Russia took the occasion, along with Roumania, to declare war in 1877; and after sufTering some re- pulses she ovenvhelmingly defeated the Turks and concluded the Treaty of San Stefano (March 3. 1878) within sight of the minarets of Constantuaople. Bulgaria was declared an autonomous tributary principahty extending from the Black Sea to the -Egean ; and Turkey was forced lo recognize the inde- pendence of Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and to introduce reforms in Bosnia and Herzego\1na. To Russia Turkey ceded Bessarabia and the Do- bruja. This treaty aroused the jealousy of the Eu- ropean powers and a congress was called at Berlin in 1878. as a result of which the Treaty of Berlin was signed. By this agreement the territorj- assigned to Bulgaria was greatly reduced; Montenegro. Serbia, and Roumania were declared independent; the Asi- atic frontier of Russia was adjusted; and Great Brit- ain received the control of Cyprus as a reward for standing by the Turk. On the restoration of peace, some attempt was made by the European powers to compel Turkey to fulfill her promises. Financial advisers were sent from Germany, English officers were engaged to re- form the poUce. and some attempt was made to re- establish order in Turkish finances. In 1881 the great powers compelled the sultan to consent to the establislmient of a public debt commission, to wliich was given the collection of certain taxes and the ad- ministration of certain portions of the finances. A large part of the Turkish debt was repudiated, and the remainder secured by revenues administered by the commission. Almost the only advance in agri- culture or industrj' which has taken place in Turkey during the 19th centur>- has been due to the activi- ties of tliis commission. The failure of the settlement of Turkish affairs by the Congress of Berlin was seen in the revolt of Crete in 1890 and the imsuccessful war of Greece against Turkey in 1897. Moreover, the condition of Mace- donia was intolerable. Here were found representa- tives of all the Balkan nationalities and representEi- tives of all religious sects, Cliristian and Moham- medan. The Turkish authorities could neither guarantee order nor control their officers, and Mace- donia was the scene of massacres and atrocities. The sultan, Abdul-Hamid, was a despot of Ori- ental type, cunning, cniel. and suspicious. He was an adept at balancing European nations against each other. He massacred Armenian subjects, tyran- nized over the Turks; yet was flattered and favored by European diplomats. Among the objects of his favor were the Albanians, nominally subjects, really independent. Abdul-Hamid alienated them and in 1908 Albanians supported a successful revolution or- ganized by the Young Turks, a group holding princi- ples of constitutional government and animated by ideas of Western culture. They demanded that the constitution of 1876 be restored, including the prom- ised elective parliament with a responsible ministry, which could put an end to the despotic rule of the sultan. The sultan, overborne by force, granted their de- mands, and on December 17 a Tiu-kish parliament was opened. It was felt that this revolution would modernize and liberalize Tiirkey and that perhaps the old racial and religious feuds would disappear; but the Young Turks were not able to carry out their policies. The revolution, however, disturbed the delicate balance in the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzeg:ovina. since 1878 under Austrian control, were now defi- nitely incorporated into the Austro-Himgarian Em- pire, inasmuch as the Turkish suzeraintj' had ceased in the revolution. Bulgaria proclaimed her inde- pendence from the nominal Turkish suzerainty and Prince Ferdinand, the German sovereign of the state, assumed the title of Czar. Later, the Greek popula- tion of Crete declared for a union with Greece. These territorial changes constituted a breach of the Treaty of Berlin and strengthened Austria at the ex- pense of the Sla\ic Balkan states, thereby weakening Russia's influence. The new Turkish parliament met in December, 1908. and refused to support the ministries appointed by the sultan. Meanwhile, AbduJ-Hamid plotted a counter-revolution, was thereupon deposed, and his brother placed on the throne with the title of Mohammed V. The Young Turks were in complete control but failed to take advantage of their oppor- tunity. Although they might be liberal in theory, in practice they oppressed the subject races as the old regime had done. >, Their policj- was " Turkey for the Turks." and they tried to suppress the liberties which had. been granted to the OrthodOK Greek Church and to reenJorce the Moslem element. In so doing they alienated not only the Armenians, but also the other large Christian elements — the Greeks^ Bulgarians, and Serbians. 1663 — 1839. u w X NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. H thp old con- 1 1C84. Venice joins the aUies a«ainst the Turks^ In 1908 an imperial decree restored the old con lOM^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ defeated J A\ay^in 1 In 1908 an imperial aecree i^oi^w.^^ v.... — .1 tauR Turks are driven from Buda and deieatea m Italy chose this moment of unea^me^and^^^^^^^^ ^^, P „.,, ^^^^, «-^S' wi the ''t'eJZf tion to send her warships to Tnpoh « hich »r >ea ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ parliamentary governn ent wa^ tne t tion to send her wat^hips to Tripoh which for^ean, ^tution o,^^^ parliamentary government wa^ the- she had desired as a possession on the northern , ^™ established. PracticaUy, however, a seU- coast of Africa to balance England s h" ■? o" ^gj^pt o^ ^, „, „,e Young Turks, of «hom the ind France's on Tunis and Algeria. Although iiai> , ut_ o i,,„,.„^ Pn..ha was the chief, were the real had no difficulty in obtaimng the coast cities, she naa no oimuun-j ■" ^^^ — — = ,— ; - . ^„_:„- to was imable to make progress in the ^f^^ ^° hrine Turkey to terms, she seized the 'fana oi Rhodes'^^d 'the eleven other Turkish islands whi^h with it constitute the Dodecanese. Tm;^' ^^Sch and on October 15, 1912. a treaty wa.s -'8^ ''^ ™^^' Turkey sun-endered Tripoli, a.ul Italy "greed W with draw her troops from the D™'^''*"';?"; ^'"S! ie^s^. ever, as late as 1920 had not been done. T e s^ niflcance of this war lies m the tact that the dis memterment of Asiatic Turkey had begnn and that Turkey was unable to protect its "itegnty . The Balkan War may be considered "1 the direct consequence of the failure of the Young Turks. An aman^e of Bulgaria. Serbia, and Oreece was formed to spite of raciil and religious differences and tern- tnrial iealousies. Premier \emzelos. a man ol Crefan bfrth who had been instrumental in r^.cumg Crete from Turkish control and Jommg it wi« Greece, was the soul of this combmation. In Octo l!S^r\SriiLhrv;r;^;S:f:'were the real "".TdustTrand Labor. The land laws of Tt.key are such that the greater part of 'he agricul m al land is held by the cro^™. another part by^^-l'l"'"^"^^ ders while freehold property is found chiefly m the to^s and neighboring villages. The agrictOttu-al methods are primitive and the natural '^^rtUit^y of the soil is not utilized by the tenant farme.^_ Moreover, the principal source of state revenue is tithti. on a«ri cultural produce. These are levied by contractors who bid for the privUege of coUecting rev^"^^'™"^ certain localities. The principal Products are to- bacco, which is everj-where found, cereals, cotton. Bgs. fruits, nuts, and coffee. Ki;=hori Eeligion. Mohammedanism^ is the^estabhshed Beligion. Mohammeaamsm i» i.uo \."r"r::;~ .r.g reUgion of the state, and tl^_,sulta. as caliph is the ^ in6. 1687 Turks are routed at Mohacs by Charles of Lorrame; Venetians capture Athens. jBaden^i 1691 Turks aredefeated at Slankanien by Louis otl 1696". Russians take Azov (see Rissia). and in the foUowing year, Sept. 11. Prince Eugene of Savoy crushes the Turkish army in the battle of Zenta. 1699 Peace of Karlowitz with Austria. Poland, and Venice Turks relinquish Hungary, between the Danube and the Tisza, and Leopold 1. receives Transylvania; Poland recovers a large portion of the Ukraine, and Venice receives the Morea. 1 ur- kev, once the terror of Austria, now gives groimd^ 171l" Tiu-ks espouse the cause of Charles Xll. oi Sweden against Russia and recover Azov from Pe- ter the Great by Treaty of the Pruth (see Russn). 1715. Turks capture the Morea from \ enice. Native rulers of Roumania are supplanted by Turkish governors. kisil guveiiiuis. , War with Austria breaks out, and the reUgion oi tne siaie. auu ^..^ =«. — — , ''.^ri The supreme head; but other religions are tolerated. The Mohammedans -Turks. Kurds, and other races are a majority of the PoptUaUonin Asiatic Ttirke^^ Crete irum iu.»j.j.. ^„..,.-. — - t„ octo- ' are a majority oi me yutJLuai-i-^ii ." . - Greece, was the soul of this combmation. ^ Octo , are a ^ ^ \ ,^^^,,.^^ „ave always been a decided ber, Montenegro, Serbia, BtUgaria, '^"d Greece de but u^^^ population. The Christian popti- clared war on Turkey, demanding autonomy for mmom ^ Cathohcs, Orthodox Greek Macedonia, Christian governors for *e provinc^ lations mem ^ Armenian Catholics, Ni^to- ^?itf^Vr!!srrtra[,re,;^efminJtriurpVfrrl^ians, BtUgarian Cathohcs, Jews, and Protestant the aUies; Turkey made a peace (May 30, 1913) '»■ i ^ej "eation. Education is nominaUy compulsoo' which she lost practically all her European poss^- 1 ^^^Xdren of both sexes between the ages of 7 sions save Constantinople and the territory m its im- ^o"- ^ ''h ^^^ ^^^g„ed to the mosque rh^^^^^s^bSacJd^c^iif :'^Ttilfr o^^^^^ o^r l :clk a large nm^iber of madrasahs or theologi- the r aims, out ^Niaceuui..* .,^^^. j" .„,„„:„ ,„ troversy whUe Austrian influence caused Albania to STded^ed an hidependent state, shuttmg off Serbia from any Adriatic port. Bulgaria opposed the de- t^ands of Serbia in Macedonia and the second BaU.an War broke out (July, 1913) . Dmnng this war Tur- key was allowed by Bulgaria to reoccupy Adrianople^ S Roumania attacked Bulgaria in the rear, fore ng a neace by wliicli Tiu-key received back some of the a peacL ui " H„i„Tm in tlie first Balkan War. territory eained by Bulgaria in Liie lust ijti '' Long^before the two Balkan wars Germany and '"DeTnsc'^The most important fortress in Euro- nean Turkey is Adrianople, while Constantinople is S'enl^ by the lines of Chatalja^ and the Bosport. and DardaneUes are strongly fortified. By the law of Febmary, 1917. universal mUitary service was etawShed between the agas of 20 and 45. with two N^are of active service in the line and the remamder upTo the age of 40 in the reserve^ Those between i,Biiii-u., so,,..... -.. ---=.- r-^-m^nv and 40 and 45 were enroUed in the temtorial army, ine Long before the two Balkan wars, Germany and 4"^™^^ ^ ^f j^g Turkish army should have been Austril-Hungary were extending the.r influence in peace strengwo^ _^^^ „,obiUzation should have the Turkish Empu-e at the e^Pct^«°' ^"f.^'^,,^^^ p^od^c^d 750,000. Under the terms of the arini- England and were checkmg the growth of strong i P™duce'i ^ ' igig. all Turkish ships and vessels Slavic states in the BaU^ans. Gennan caP'tal. tmder st'ce^Ucto ^^^^^^^ ,^ ^^^^ Allies. , ^ ^ . . favorable concessions, was poured '"to Turkey^ ol war ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^1 ^^^^ ^, Turkish The German embassy was all but the seat of Turkish " ^^ ^"^?^^° t^e World War was 613.724 square government. On the outbreak of the World War Ss and the population about 20.973.9(10. By ^ntmen to the Black Sea and then^bom^bardee, fl^^t BalUan^^^^ar in an estimated area^f 438,7^.0 square miles and a population ol l-^-^O^and wiU have remaining an area of only f °^ 1!,?,'0°° "'>""'''' miles and a population of about S.OOO.OOO. FORMER TURKISH POSSESSIONS. The empire of Turkey was once a vast area includ- ini-theeStern part of Austria-Hungary, large areasof Russia and an Uie Balkans, Egypt and tlie fo^ other North African states, Crete, and Cyprus^ Most of These territories were lost before 1914. Tripoli wa^ Odessa. Therefore (November 5) England, France, and Ru-ssia declared war upon Turkey. to Febmary and March, 1915. a British-French fle^ tried to force the Dardanelk^. but w^ re- Dulsed In April a landing was made on the^Galli- Si^ninsula and a foothold was maintamed until the end of the year. Then the AUies flnaUy aban- don^ the attempt at a direct capture of Constanti- noDte Farther east a composite British and Indian ?or™ invaded Mesopotamia and after a disastrous s^^nder at Kut-el-Amara flnaUy captured Bag- surreimei .. ^ara flnaUy captured Bag- these terrenes «e,.->.-^^^ ^d March 1 L 1917. Another force under Genend ceded to Itab. 9^^^^^^^^^^^,^^^^, i,aly continued to SfenKVanced through Palestine an^^^^^^ Tiu-ks are beaten at Petenvardein. August 5, by the forces of Prince Eugene. He overcomes the Turks at Belgrade, August IG, and enters the city two days later. ^ „ ~% 1718 The Treaty of Passarowitz (Pozarevac) with Austria and Venice, July 21. Tmtey re- tains the Morea, but loses to Charles M, the Banat parts of Serbia and Bosnia, Belgrade and WaUacliia. Dahnatia ceded to Venice in return for the Morea. . 1737 Austria renews the war against Turkey, but two years later agrees to Treaty of Belgrade, by wliich the Turks regain Belgrade and terntory in Serbia Azov granted to Russia on condition that Russians make no use of the Black Sea 1768. Tiu-key declares war agamst Russia at tne titne of a Polish insurrection (see Russia). 1774 The Russians besiege Shumla. and a peace is made at Kiichiik Kainarja, by wliich Turkey gives up her suzerainty over the Crimea and Sther Tatar territories. By famous Article V II. Russia is allowed an embassy chiirch '" Constan- tinople and becomes Protector of (he Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. 1787. Turkey renews the war against Russia; Aus- trian force moves against Belgrade. 1789. Turks are defeated by the Austrians and Russians at Focsani. and Belgrade is cap ured. 1791. August. Peace with Austria is concluded at Sistova, and in January, 1792, with Russia at Jassy (see Russia). . t, 1798. Bonaparte in Egypt (see Eff»p(,unde^Bm™H ^'''"Tlne Treaty signed with France (seel ... Czertiy Djordje leads the Serbians in a re- ;;it agamst Turkey . Two years later Russia de- clares war (see Russia). . 1807 Serbian rebels succeed in overcommg the Tm"kish authority. . __ . 1808. Mahnuid II. ascends the throne of Turkey. 181' A peace with Russia is signed at Bucharest, May 2S: by which the Pruth is made the bound- ary llni ^tween the two countries. Thus, Rus- Isl'r^TurS'succ^d in rei^stablishing their rule ov;r Serbia, but a second insurrection occurs t^w^ years later imder the leaderslup of Milos Obre- novic- tersai;r(DTcemi;;r, 1917): Damascus (October 1 19m and Aleppo (October 25, 191S., thus shattering Jhe Turkish Empire in Syria. Arabia had long before revolted and founded the kingdom of the Hejaz. OctSier 31, Turkey withdrew from the war and announced her acceptance of any conditions the Alhes might propose. Warships appeared in the Bospoms and Allied troops landed in Asia Mmor For a year and a half in-egular hostilities went on; Italy Greece, and France seized Tm-kish temtorj-^ The Turks revived the massacres of Armenians and in March, 1920, AUied troops occupied Constanti- nople Organization. Government. Until the constitution of 1876, Ti^kev was an absolute despotism^ The riile of the siUtan: however, was tempered by tradition^ In Dractiie he appointed ministers who exercised the executive power in divan, but he could disavow them, „rtliem, or execute them. The great doctors of the Moslem law might exercise some restraint but there was no legislature or attempt to constih the will of the subjects. The constitution of 1876 would have provided for a Chamber of Deputies, one for every 6 000 electors, and a Senate of members ap- Sed byt.he sultan; instead, Abdul-Hamid es-tal> ' lished an autocracy even more complete than that of j his predecessors. j„;„„ ' From remote ages the Western merchants doing business in Turkey were entitled to Pr'V'lfges of ; exterritoriality under ^o-caUed " Capitula ion which relieved them from the junsdiction of Turkish i courts. These privileges, on which the citizens of the United States stand, were declared by the Turk- ish government to be nuUifled ui 1915. line UUiiev^aiii..^*-. ..•"-.- . occunv The Turkish rule in Arabia was disrupted bv the rise of the independent kingdom o Hejaz and shadowy rights over the interior of Arabia alone remahT toiler Tiu-kish control over Syria Pales- tine Cilicia. the Aidin region ,SmjTna). and Armema was threatened if not already lost. In the World War. Turkey took the losing side, and the emp're has been disrupted The following ?erritorierhave been transferred to other countries: Tlirace to Greece; Aidin to Greece; Mesopotamia to Great Britain; Eg>-pt (under nominal suzeramty) to "'Tnlddlrio'S; the foUowing areas have been created to estabfch themselves as independent im.ts (winch seeV \rmenia (originally intended for American mandate which was decUned by the Um^ted States T^Zr Sejaz - formeriy the Turk^h province i^\lvet] of Arabia; Palestine (British mandate). Syria (French mandate). Chronology. 166S. Kuprili leads the Turkish forces in an inva- sion of Hungary (see Austria). In the, loi i tow"ng year tlTey are defeated at St. Gothard. Anmst 1, bv Montecuccoli. 1669 Candla is wrested from Venice by the Turks. i 1673 Tuikish invaders are repulsed at Kliotm by John Sobicski, afterward king of Poland. 168? Turks become aUies of Himgarj. m the revolt ^ a^Linst Austria (see Austria), In July of the Swing year the Tiu-ks imder Kara Mustafa be- s^egrvTe^na, which is defended by Stahremberg, but they are routed by the armies of Sobieski, Charles duke of Lorraine, and the electoi^ of Ba- varia andtaxony, September 12. Farthest ex- tent of Turkish power. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 1817. Milos Obrenovic is elected Prince o^ Serbia (see Serbia under Jugo-Slavia). [Greece) 1821 1830. Greek war for independence (seel Use. Mahmud II. causes a massacre of the Janizaries, who have made themselves kmgmak- ers and that body is abolished. lireaty with Russia is signed at Aiennan by which the Black Sea is made free to aU navigation. 18'8 ipr.i Reforais are promised in the Rou- 18T'Xp'5"J7''a peace favorable to Russia is signed at Adrianople, by which Russia Promises to nrm^de the siUtan with troops hi case o need S Turkey agrees to close the Straits if the iZ"" indlpeii^ence of Greece declared by the poweHee GREECE) and is recognized by Turkey. IS-^r^TiSrs^arrrou^elrylbrahlm Pasha (see i«^i''**The Russians come to the aid of Turkey ag;iiJt Eg^pt but peace is established w th the ^ceroy the sultan ceding Syria and other re- Sons A treaty is concluded with Russia at Un- ■^Xjflr' convention of Miinchengratz (see Nineteentb-Centurv Period^ jhrahim 1S19 Turkey renews war on Egypt. Ibrahim, !™ of Meliemet Ali, defeats the Tm-ks and makes s^chhea^ demands on the Porte that the powers I Sere and force Ibrahim to relinquish Crete and S5Tia (see Egypl. mider British Empire and 1839 — 1909. NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. 153 1839 iamtimied) . Nineteenth-Centcbt Period). War concluded in 1S41. July 1. Mahniud II. dies and Ls succeeded by Abdul-Mejid. Nov. 3. By the advice of Reshid Pasha, the sultan promulgates a hatii-sherij, proposing con- stitutional reforms within the empire. \ 1811. Peace is made with Egypt and Meliemet j All recognized as a hereditary tributary prince (see Egypt) . A treaty with the powers ie also con- cluded by which the Dardanelles are closed to foreign warships when the Porte is at peace. Druses mm-der Maronitcs in Lebanon. 1850. An insurrection breaks out In Bosnia, but it is quelled in the following year by Omar Pasha. 1853. Montenegrins begin a war against Turks. 1853. Omar Pasba conducts a campaign against the Montenegrins; interrupted by imminence of the Crimean War. Hostilities break out with Russia, Turkey having tlic support of Great Brit- ain and France (see these coimtries.) 1854. England and FruTu-r sentl armies and navies to the Black Sea, and the Crimea becomes the principal seat of a war lasting for three years. 1855. Feb, 18. Abdul-Mejid proclaims a haUi- humayun, a Statute promising administrative re- ferms and equal rights to all nationalities and re- ligions. March SO. Treaty of Paris terminates the Cri- mean War (see Russia). 1860. Druses again massacre the Maronltes in Lebanon; many Ctiristians at Damascus are slain. The powers hereupon interfere and French troops are stationed in Syria. 1861. Insurrection breaks out in Herzegovina, aided by the Montenegrins. In June, Abdul- Mejid is succeeded by Abdul-Aziz. At the de- mand of the powers a Christian is appointed to serve as governor of Lebanon. Montenegrins are defeated by Omar Pasha. ISK'J. Turks and Serbians in Belgrade wage a bloody war. 1866. insurrection breaks out in Crete, but the Turks in the two years following vanquish rebels. 1867. Turkish troops are withdrawn from Serbia after 500 years. An " Organic Statute " of government is granted but is too elaborate to work well. 1871. May. Abrogation of certain clatises of the Treaty of Paris by which Russia had been refused the right to have vessels or fortifications on the Black Sea (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 1875. July. Insurrection in Herzegovina; and (August) in Bosnia. 1876. Jan. 31. Powers send a note to the Porte demanding reforms. Insurrection continues. May 6. ConsuI.s of France and Germany are murdered at Saloniki, and in the same month massacres oc(hu* in Bulgaria by bashi-bazouks. English people aroused (see Bulgaria). May 12. A revolution occurs in Constantino- ple, whereupon the Berlin Memoranduin is drawn up (May 14) by Gorchakov. Bismarck, and Andrdssy, proposing a mixed commission to in- vestigate grievances and propose reforms. Fails through the refusal of Disraeli to participate on behalf of England. May 29. The sultan Abdul-Aziz is deposed (later assassinated) and Murad V. is placed on the Turkish throne. July 2, war is declared by Mon- tenegro and Serbia. Aug. 31. IMurad V. is deposed, and is suc- ceeded by Abdul-Hamid II. October. The Serbians are conquered but are saved from utter ruin by Russia. Oct. 30. Russia issues an ultimatum to Tm*- key. and on the following day a general armistice is signed. December 19, Midhat Pasha is created grand vizier. Dec. 23. Constitution for the Turkish Empire promulgated. On the same day a conference of the great powers begins at Constantinople. 1877. Jan. IS. The propositions of the conference as to reforms in Turkey are rejected. Two days later the conference ends. February 5. Midhat Pasha is dismissed from office. IVIarch 1, a peace with Serbia follows. The powers make a protocol at London, March 31, but the Porte rejects it. April 9. April 16. Russia and Roumania conclude a convention. April 24. Russia makes a declara- tion of war against Turkey. Russian troops in- vade Roumania and Armenia. May. Roumania becomes engaged in the war against the Porte, and on May 21 proclaims her independence. June 27. The Russians cross the Danul^e at Zimnicea (Simjiitza). July 9. Mukhtar Pasha compels the Russians to give up their siege of Kars. July 13 and 14, Gurko passes the Balkans, and on July 16, Nicopolis falls. Osman Pasha is victorious at Plevna, July 20. and on July 30 a part of the Grand Duke Nicholas's army is overcome before that city. August 21, Solyman attacks the Russians in the Shipka Pass. September S, Niksic yields to the Montenegrins, October 15, Mukhtar Pasha, routed in the battle of Alaja Dagh, retreats. November IS, Kars is stormed. December 10, Osman Pasha, evacuat- ing Plevna and making for Sofia, is attacked and surrenders. December 14, Serbia declares war against Tui'key. 1878. Jan. 9. Turkish troops in Sblpka Pass; captured. Jan. 17. Army of Soiyman is utterly routed near Phllippopolls. Jail. 20. Adrlanople is occupied by the Rus- sians. The victors move toward Constantinople and an armistice is made, January- 31. The Brit- ish fleet enters the Sea of IVlarmora. February- 13. March 3. Treaty of San Stefano forced on Turkey. Montenegro is trebled in size, Serbia enlarged and granted an outlet to the sea, and the large new state of Bulgaria created. April. Great Britain enlists a division of se- poys at Bombay to ser\'e as troops against the Russians. Jmie 4. England concludes a secret agreement with Tiu-kej', by which she promises to maintain Integrity of tbe Turkish Empire in Asia, while the Porte permits occupation of Cyprus by British soldiei-s; results in annexation, 1914. July IS. Treaty of Berlin by a congress of powers. Roumania. Serbia, and Montenegro are declared to be independent principalities, while the larger part of Turkish Armenia, with Kars and Ardahan. Batum, and a portion of Bessarabia, go to Russia; Turks promise reforms in Asia Minor; not carried out. The Pact of Halepa makes another imsuccessful attempt to settle Cretan discontent 1880. Ju}ie. Another conference of the powers is held in Berlin, and in September a naval demon- stration is made off the Albanian coast to enforce the decree of the Congress of Berlin. 1881. May 12. French treaty with Timis; France to conduct foreign afl'airs. A virtual protectorate against which Turkey protests. 1883. Policy of Abdul-Hamid, reorganization of liis empire on Islamitic principles, ends m failure 1883. Troubles in Armenia Ijecome acute. The promise of the Porte to reform the abuses is not fulfilled. The oppressed Armenians, relying upon the active sj-nipathies of Russia and England, be^ gin agitation which breaks into an actual insiurec- tion. The Ottoman government destroys the in- surgents. A resolution is passed by the Cretan assembly de- claring that the land taxes known as the vacouf (wakf) shall no longer be paid to the Turkish government. Von der Goltz aUowed by Germany to go into Turkey as an adviser, chiefly military; the begin- ning of the growth of German ascendancy in the Ottoman Empire. 1884. The efforts of Abdul-Hamid to nationalize his admhiistration bring him into fresh difficulties with his Cliristian subjects. Outrages are com- mitted by Mussulman fanatics in Macedonia. A rebellion occurs in Yemen. Difficulty arises on the frontier of Montenegro. 1885. Insurrections in different parts of the em- pire, and foreign comphcations. especially the diffi- culty with Bulgaria, lead to the mobilization of the Turkish army and to the assembUng of the repre- sentatives of the great powers in a conference at Constantinople. In this conference, Great Brit- ain and Russia are brought into sharp controversy. An agreement is reached with England for the man- agement of Egyptian affairs by two commis- sioners appoint«l one by the Porte and the other by the British government. 1886. An extradition and naturaUzation treaty with the United States. 1888. The Christian party in Armenia agitates the Question of nationahty, invohing the reestablish- ment of the ancient kingdom of Armenia. Turk- ish administration answers with repressive meas- ures and cruelties. An appeal of the Armenians to Great Britain for protection is refused on the ground that interference is forbidden by the Treaty of Berlin. Oct. 29. Suez Canal Convention (see Egypt). 1889. Turkish outrages In Armenia shock the na- tions. The Porte attempts to justify by necessity of suppressing insurrection. 1890. Outrages in Armenia continue; the ques- tion becomes international. A campaign begins for the subjugation of the Dnises of Hauran. 1891. Insurrection among the Asirs of Yemen; Turkey is influenced thereby to friendly relations with Russia ana France as against Great Britain. 1893. The Armenian Nationalists establish com- mittees in the various capitals of Europe for the purpose of rousing public opinion. Political trials of the Armenians are prosecuted, and a measure of justice is secured under the criticism of Europe. 1895. Reign of terror in Armenia breaks out with greater violence. The half-savage Kurds of the vilayets attack the Armenian towns. April 23, a commission is appointed by the sultan (who is protected by the Treaty of Berlin) which, driven by the civilized opinion of the world, begins its sittings in Constantinople to devise a scheme of adminis- trative reform. 1896. A rebeUion headed by native revolutionists and other filibusters breaks out in Crete. Effort- is made by the National party to transfer Crete to Greece. The Porte promises reforms, and the consuls at Kanea are appointed a commission to carr>' them into execution. 1897. Greece declares war on Turkey, on behalf of the Cretans, but is defeated. 1898. WiUiam II. of Germany makes a second offi- cial visit to the sultan. From this time on, Ger- man officers and commercial agents reorganize Turkisli military and conmiercial life. 1901. Owing tu long-continued delays in the settle- ment of French claims, France withdraws her ambassador from Constantinople, August 27, and late in October sends a fleet to enfoice her claims. It seizes Mytllene, November 5, and takes possession of the customs. Ttu'key then yields to all the French demands. Sept. S. Miss Ellen M. Stone, an American niissionarj', with Mrs, Tsilka, assistant, is cap- tured by brigands, in the moimtains between Bulgaria and Turkey. 190?. Fco. 2S. MissStoneand Mrs. T?ilka released after the payment of ransom of neai'ly S75,U00. 1903. Serious outbreaks in Macedonia, said to be fo- mented by the Macedonian committee in Bulga- ria. In Februar>-. Austria and Russia demand re- forms in the administration of jNIaccdonia, wliich the sultan pronuses to grant. April 30, the Otto- man bank at Saloniki is blown up and martial law declared. Powers, notably Russia and Austria, remonstrate both at Sofia and Constantinople and insist on reform measures. Marih 5. An agreement is made with Germany allowing the latter to build the Bagdad railway. 1904. Jan. 6. Bulgaria complains that the prom- ised reforms in Macedonia are not being carried out. Januarj' 13, the Porte accepts Macedo- nian reform scheme of Austria and Russia (Miirzsteg Program). April S, the Tin*ko-Bul- garian convention pledges Turkey to tr>- the re- form plans and Bulgaria to check revolutionary movements in Macedonia. .4 ugust. American schools are granted the same rights as other schools, thus settling a long dispute. In bringing tliis about an American squadron is ordered to Smyrna. 1905. May 8. Powers demand international con- trol of the finances of Macedonia. November 15, they present an ultimatum to the Porte de- manding financial reforms, with notice that re- fusal will be followed by naval demonstration. November 21. an international fleet is ordered to Pirajus. November 25, Mytilene is seized; the Porte formally yields, and. December 15, the fleet withdraws. 1908. The Young Turks, a party headed by men educated in Western Europe, who beheve that Turkey can develop a strong national government on a more or less popular basis, secure the support of troops. July 2if. ReTOlutlon In Constantinople. The sultan yields in a panic and proclaims the re- vival of the Constitution of 1876. July 27. Sultan publicly takes oath of alle- giance to the constitution and orders the election of a parhament. In the election the subject Chris- tian races have little opportunity. Ang. 20. Turkey and Persia settle the bound- ao' dispute. All Austrian officers in the Turkish service are ordered home. Aug. 21. Government appoints a British ad- viser for the naval department and a French ad- viser for the finances. Aug. 22. Tui'kish representatives are recalled from Belgrade. Berlin, and Vienna. Sept 23. Turkey appeals to the powers against the occupation of the Oriental railway by Bul- garian troops. Oct. 10. Boycott is begun at Constantinople against German and Austrian goods. Der 17. Sultan opens the Turkish Parlia- ment amid general rejoicing. 1909. J a n 1 2. Turkey accepts the offer of Austria- Himgary to pay S10.5(X),000 and grant certain concessions as indemnity for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A protocol is signed on February 26. Feb. 13. Parliament votes no confidence in Kiami! Pasha, grand vizier, who at once resigns. February 14, the sultan instrticts Hilmi Pasha to form a cabinet. A pril 13. Garrison in Constantinople mutinies, forcing the resignation of the grand vizier, the minister of war, and the president of the Chaml>er. On the whole, the mutiny i.5 accompanied by little bloodshed. It is suppressed, April 24. April 14- Tcwfik Pasha as grand vizier forms a new cabinet. April 17. the " Committee of Union and Progress " influences the Third Army Corps to march on Constantinople from Saloniki. April 19. Turko-Bulgarian agreement is 154 NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. 1909 — 1920. N U W X 1909 (eonlinued). signed at Constantinople. Bulgaria agreeing to pav $16,400,000 for her independence. 'April S4. Constantinople garrison surrenders to the troops from Saloniki. April 27. Abdul-Hamld II. is deposed, his brother, Mohamnaed Reshad, being proclamied sultan as Mohammed V. The next day the de- posed Siiltaii is removed witii a poriion of his harem to Saloniki, where he is liept a prisoner. April £9. Alter summary court-martial, 250 persons are executed at Constantinople. Diu-ing next few days many other e.xecutions take place. May .5. Hilmi Paslia becomes grand vizier and MoUah Saliib, sheik ul Islam. Meanwhile there are riots and atrocities in Asiatic Tiu-key, especially at Adana. June 10. Turkey asks the powers to reconsider their decision to evacuate Crete at the end of July, which request is granted on June l-i, but on Jidy 13 the four protecting powers notify the Turkish government that on July 26 they will withdraw their garrisons from Crete and station four war- ships in Cretan waters to maintain the slnius quo. 1910. Jan. 6. The Porte sends a note to the pow- ers remonstrating against Cretan officials swearing allegiance to the king of Greece. Feb. 1£. Cretan government is cautioned by the powers; followed by an ultimatum on July 3. Oct S. Over 800 Druses killed by Turkish forces sent into northwestern Syria to collect arms. Nov. 9. Contracts for a loan of $22,000,000 made with an Austro-Hungarian syndicate. 1911. April 20. Eebelllon against Tiu-kish rule in Albania. The insurgents severely dealt with. To conciliate foreign opinion, the Turkish govern- ment in August concedes nearly all the demands of the rebels, and grants a general amnesty. September. War with Italy (see Italy). Trip- oli and Dodecanese conquered by Italy. Oct. 4. New cabinet is formed by Said Pasha, who resigns December 30. 1913. For the war with Italy, see Italy. Jan. S. Cabinet is reconstructed by Said Pasha. Jan. IS. Chamber of Deputies is dissolved by imperial decree. Feb. 2S. Great Britain, France, and Russia de- cide to send warships to Crete; reported attacks on the Mohammedans by Christians. March. CretaB Assembly elects delegates to the Greek Assembly. Foreign warsliips prevent the delegates from reaching Athens. July. Albanians revolt; Albanian commis- sion is appointed and extensive reforms promised July 17. Said Pasha's cabinet resigns. Mukh. tar Pasha is made grand vizier, July 21. Army officers demand dissolution of deputies, July 25. Parliament is dissolved. August 5. Aug. 0. Martial law is proclaimed in Constan- tinople. Aug. 10. Great earthquake. Gallipoli prac- tically laid to the groimd, and many villages on the shores of the Sea of Jlarmora seriously dam- aged. Sept. SO. Critical situation in the Balkans cul- minates in tlie confederation of Bulgaria. Serbia. Montenegro, and Greece (Balkan allies) against Turkey, and in the mobilization of the allied armies. October. Balkan War breaks out. Monte- negrins formally declare war October 8. advanc- ing on Scutari, the capital of Albania. An identic note is presented to the Porte by Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece, demanding autonomy for Macedonia and withdrawal of Turkish troops. October 17, Turkey declares war upon Bulgaria and Serbia October 18, Greece also declares war on Tiu-key. Fijihting now becomes general, the allies penetrat- ing thf OHoman territory and sweeping the Turks before thrm. October 25, the Bulgarians cap- ttire Kirk Kilise. October 31, Turkish army is routed in the great battle of Liile-Burgas. Greeks invade Macedonia. Oct. IS. Treaty of Lausanne with Italy (see Italy). Oct. 26. In the northwest the Serbians take tjskilp, the former capital of old Serbia. Oct. 29. Muklitar Pasha resigns and is suc- ceeded the next day by Kiamil Pasha, who for the fifth time forms a cabinet. Nov. 3. Porte asks the powers to mediate. Turks prepare to make their last stand at the Chatalja lines, which guard the approaches to the capital. Cholera breaks out in the ranks of the opposing armies. Macedonia is overrun by the allies. November 8, Greeks occupy Saloniki, and, November 10, the Serbian and Bulgarian forces also enter. King George of Greece enters amid great enthusiasm, November 12. Nov. n. Armistice is signed by Turkey and Bulgaria. Nov. 18. Monastir, the remaining Turkish stronghold in Macedonia, surrenders to the Ser- bians, (cess I Biilgarians attack the Chatalja lines without sue- 1 Nor. 28. Serbia occupies the Adriatic port of Durazzo. in defiance of Austria and ignoring the Albanian declaration of independence. Dec. S. Armistice Is concluded between Turkey and Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro. Dec. IB. Peace conference opens in London attended by plenipotentiaries of Bulgaria. Serbia. Montenegro, Greece, and Tiu-key. 1913. Jan. 0. Tlie peace conference in London breaks up, having reached a deadlock over the cession of Adrianople and the ^gean islands. Jan. 17. Collective note of Etu'opean powers is presented to Tiu-kish government, advising acceptance of terms of the aUies. Jan. 23. Young Turks seize reins of power. Led by Enver Bey they force Kiamil Pasha and his cabinet to resign, and Mahmud Shevket is ap- pointed grand vizier. The populace declares for war rather than give up Adrianople. Nazim Pasha, minister of war and conmiander in chief, is shot dead during the demonstrations. Jan. 29. Peace negotiations ate finally broken off by the plenipotentiaries of the allied Balkan states, and next day the armistice is denounced. Feb. 3. Tlie Balkan War is resumed. Adri- anople again bombarded. Severe fighting on the Gallipoli peninsula, the allies trying to open the Dardanelles for the Greek fleet. March 6. The Tm-kish fortress of Janlna near the Greek border capitulates to the Greeks. March IS. Balkan allies offer to accept media- tion by the powers upon condition that the ^Egean islands and all the Eiuopean territory except the Gallipoli peninsula are ceded by Turkey. March 2S. The powers deliver ultimatum that war must cease. March 26. Adrianople is taken by Bulgarians and Serbians after a five montlis' siege. March 29. Bulgarian forces press the attack on I the Chatalja lines. In Albania the Montenegrins carry on the siege of Scutari, taking the outlying fortress of Tarabosh on April 1. The powers, in | deference to Austria-Himgary, agree to incorpo- rate Scutari in an autonomous Albanian state and to grant Serbia commercial access to the Adriatic over a neutral railway. The northern and eastern boundaries of the new Albania are agreed upon March 26, thus relaxing the Austro-Russian ten- sion. (See Montenegro, under Jdgo-Slavia.) Ai>ril 1. Turkey accepts the terms of peace proposed by the powers, the Eiu-opean boundary- being fLxed in a line from Enos to Midia. April 19. Armistice Is signed by all the bel- ligerents except Montenegro. April 23. Scutari surrenderstoMontenegrins after a six months' siege with aid from Serbia. April 27, Essad Pasha. Turkish defender of Scutari, proclaims himself King of Albania, but he is ignored. May H. Scutari is imwillingly evacuated by Montenegrins, and occupied by an international force from the blockading fleet. May 30. Treaty of peace is signed in London by representatives of Turkey. Bulgaria. Serbia. Monteneijro. and Greece, ceding to the allies all territory west of the Enos-Midia line, as well as Crete; the future of Albania and the /Egean islands left to the adjudication of the powers, and financial questions to the decision of an International Com- mission at Paris. This treaty is short-lived. June 11. Mahmud Shevket Pasha, grand vizier, is assassinated at Constantinople. He is suc- ceeded by Prince Said Halim. July 20-22. Taking advantage of the war of Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, and Roumania, Turkish forces reoccupy Adrianople. Sept. 29. Treaty of Constantinople is signed, settling tlie Turko-Bulgarian boundary question. Turkey regaining Adrianople and siurotmding territory. Following the conclusion of the Balkan 'VVar, elaborate plans are perfected for the construction of a new Turkish navy. Dec. 13. Euphrates barrage from Hindieh north to Bagdad is opened. It is the first com- pleted part of the irrigation scheme designed fqr the Ottoman government by Sir 'WiUiam Willcocks. ■WORLD -'WAR PERIOD. 1914. At outbreak of the World War Turkey is imder German influence, against which the Allied Powers struggle in vain. Sept. 10. The sultan annotmces his intention to abrogate the conventions known as the Capitula- tions, imder which foreigners have been exempt from local jtu-isdiction and have enjoyed other special privileges. Oct. SO. Turkish warships, led by the Goeben and Breslau imder German officers, intercept Russian merchantmen in Black Sea and bombard Odessa. Nor. S. War is declared against Turkey by England, France, and Russia. (See Would W'ar.) Dec. 24. German General von der Goltz be- comes adviser general to the Turkish army. 1915. Feb. 27. At a cabinet council in Constan- tinople it is decided to transfer the seat of govern- ment to Brusa in Asia Minor when necessity arises. March. Appallmg conditions in Armenia (see Armenia). April 27. Appeal for relief of Armenian Chris- tians is made by United States. May 23. A joiait official statement issued by Great Britain. France, and Russia, states that Kiu-ds and Turks are massacring Armenians with the connivance and help of the Ottoman au- thorities: AUied governments announce that they will hold all members of the government, as well as such of their agents as are implicated, person- ally responsible for such massacres. Oct. 3. Committee of distinguished jVmericans makes public a report of its investigations into charges of Turkish atrocities in Armenia; more than 800,000 Armenians have been done to death by the Turks and Kiu-ds since May, 1915. Oct. J,. Messages from United States secretary of state urging tJiat steps Ije taken by the Turkish government tor the protection and humane treat- ment of Araienians. 1916. February. Chamber of Deputies votes to adopt the Gregorian calendar. (See calendak, in the Dictionary.) May 9, 16. Secret Anglo-French agreement on the partition of Turkey (see Syria). June. Arab revolt (see Hejaz). June-July. Wholesale executions of Syrians at Damascus and Beinit. Dec. 26. For reply to President Wilson's " peace note," see World War. 1917. Jan. 1. Ottoman government repudiates the treaties of Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878); Insists on all the rights and prerogatives of an en- tirely independent government. Feb. 10. Cabinet crisis results in the ministry of Talaat Bey. Enver remains minister of war. Aug. IS. Secret Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- ment, by wliich Italy is to participate in the parti- tion of Turkey (see Smyrna, under Greece). 1918. Jvly 3. Moharanled V. dies; succeeded by his brother as Mohammed VI. on July 6. Oct. S. Talaat mmistry retires; Tewfik Pasha heads a new one. Oct. 14. Turkey informs Austria that she will be forced to conclude a separate peace with the enemy. Turkish imperial government requests President Wilson to take immediate steps for cessation of hostilities. Turkey accepts as a basis for negotia- tions the program laid down by the President in his message to Congress of January 8. 1918. and in his subsequent declarations (see United States). Oct. 30. Armistice signed; Turkey agrees to open the Straits to the Allies, demobilize army, surrender all warships, surrender Asia Minor gar- risons, and permit AUied occupation of strategic points. 1919. Great meetings in Constantinople protesting against the expulsion of the Tiu-ks from Europe. March 7. New cabinet is organized, headed l)y Damad Ferid Pasha, and composed of men not coimected with earlier politics. Some 500 officials of the old regime are removed and Constantinople ordered cleared of seditious persons. July 11. Court-martial sentences to death Enver, Talaat, and Djemal. pro-German Young Turks. All were supposed to be in Germany at the time. October. Damad Ferid ministry succeeded by one tmder Mustafa Reshid Pasha, maintaining the ter- ritorial integrity of the empire in Europe and Asia. . Mustafa Kcmal with a large and growing force sets up a Nationalist goverrmient at Konia, and dominates much of Asia Minor. He is especially inimical to the British. 1930. Jan. 21. Massacre of Armenians at Ma- rash (see Syria). Feb. 15. Coimcil of premiers decides to leave the Turks in Constantinople, while putting the Straits imder uitemational control. Attitude of Moslems in British and French possessions largely instrumental in the decision. March 16. Because of the intrigues in favor of Kemal and other dangers to the existing govern- ment, tlie Allies occupy Constantinople, forc- ing the resignation of the just-formed Salih minis- try, which is pro-Kemal. May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the Turkish delegates. Constantinople remains the seat of the Tiu-kish government and the caliphate, but with an international force there as well as in control of the Straits. Thrace and rest of Turkey in Eiu-ope, except region hi immediate vicinity of the capital, is given to Greece, as also the control of Smyrna. Various yEgean islands go to Greece and tlie Dodecanese to Italy. Turkey recognizes the independence of the Hejaz. and of S^Tia. Meso- potamia, and Palestine under mandates. All claim to Egj-pt is renounced, and French protec- torate over Morocco and Timis is recognized. Independent Armenia is to have such bounda- ries as President Wilson assigns to it. (See Ar- menia. Hejaz. etc.) May 20. Treaty signed. (See Italy.) NATIONAL HISTORIES: UGANDA— VENEZUELA. 155 UGANDA. See undtT BHixitsu Empire, page 65. UKRAINE (UKRAINIA), See under Rossia. page 13'J. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. Sue under British Empire, page 66. URUGUAY. Historical Outline. Uruguay wasorigiiially settled by a Spanish colony from Buenos Aires. Portugal claimed the territory, to which it abandoned pretensions only after being defeated in war by Spain. After tiie overthrow of Spanish authority in South America, Brazil, as heir of Portugal, by force asserted rights to the country. The war lasted two years. CJreat Britain intervened and peace was secured by the cession to Brazil of the territory called the " Seven Missions." Then came a bitt'Cr war with Buenos Aires. This time both Great Britain and France interfered and a treaty of peace was made At last, in 1859. both Brazil and the Argentine Confederation recognized the inde- pendence of Uruguay. The state was dragged into war with the dictator Lopez, but othenvise in the last fifty years there has been little in its liistory that is important to the rest of the world. Organization. Govornment. The constitution {last amended in 191S) establishes universal male suffrage at the age of 18, with proportional representation. The legislative power is vested in a Parliament consisting of a Senate of 19, one senator for each department chosen for six years by an electoral college, one third retiring every two years;. and a Chamber of Repre- sentatives chosei) for three years in the ratio of one to every 12,000 male adults who can read and write. The present number is 90. The executive power is divided l)etween the president and a national ad- ministrative council. The president is elected for four years by direct vote. The National Council consists of nine members chosen by direct popular vote, six from the majority party and three from the largest minority party; three retiring every two years- Religion and Education. State and church are separate, and there is complete religious liberty. The majority of the people are Roman Catholics. There is a university at Montevideo; and there are prepara- tory and secondary schools, and more than a thou- sand primary schools, at which attendance is com- pulsory. There are also many religious seminaries throughout the republic, and a imiversity for women. Industry. The chief occupations are agriculture and cattle raising. The main crops are wheat, barley, oats, and flaxseed. Wine is produced; also, tobacco and olives. Several gold mines are worked, and silver, copper, lead, magnesium, and coal Oignite) are all found to some extent. Defense. The standing army has a peace strength of 10.000 and a nominal war strength of 50.000. The National Guard is a militia, service in wliich is com- pulsory, and numbers 15.000 to 20,000 men. The navj' consists of tliree vessels. The area is 72.153 square miles and the estimated population (191S) 1.429.5S5. Chronology. 1516. SoUs discovers Rio de la Plata for Spain. 16'i4. First permanent Spanisii settlement, on Rio Negro. Portuguese enter region from Brazil and claim it. 17^3. Portuguese fortify Montevideo. Spanislt capture it. Contest continues intermittently during the century. 1810. Uruguay revolts with Buenos Aires, but foimds a separate state vmder Artigas. 1817. Brazil captures Montevideo and reclaims the region (Cisplatine, Banda Oriental). 1826-1828. Struggle for Independence from Brazil. In 1S27 Argentina assists Uruguay. Brazil. ls2S, recognizes independence of Uniguay. 1830. Reptiblica Oriental del Uruguay organ- ized: Rivera first president. 1835-1851. Civil war between Rivera and Oribe factions, aided by Argentina and Brazil. Rivera party fhially triumphs. 1854. Flores elected president. 1855. Renewal of domestic strife between Colo- rado and Blanco parties. Continues with fre- quent armed outbreaks for more than 50 years. Coloratios usually in power, 1864. Brazil intervenes; establishes order and re- stores Flores. 1865-1870. War with Paraguay (see P.\r.\guat). 1868. Frb. 9. Revolt against Flores. He is as- sassinated, February 19, but revolt crushed. Lorenzo Batlle t>ecomes president, March 1. 1872. March 1. Gomensoro inaugurated presi- dent. 1873. March 1. Ellaurl becomes president. 1875. March 1. Varela becomes president, fol- lowing a conspiracy of Latorre against EUauri. 1876. March 10. Latorre retires Varela and pro- claims himself dictator. Later he is formally elected president. 1880. March. Latorre resigns. Vidal succeeds. March 15, as Santos's figurehead. 1882. March 1. Santos elected president. 1883. April 20, Treaty with Paraguay (see Para- guay). 1886. Sov. IS. Santos's arbitrar>' and plimdering rule finally turns his own party, the Colorados. against him. He resigns, and is exiled later. Tajes succeeds. I8H9. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress meets at Washington (see United States). 1890. March 1. Herrera y Obes becomes presi- dent, continuing Colorado control. 1894. March I. Borda inaugiu"ated president. 1896. Blancos rise mider Saraiva against Borda. 1897. Aug. 2.5. Borda assjtssinated. Cuestas, president of the Senate, succeeds and a pohtica! truce is efi"ected, with promises of reform; but mi- rest continues. 1903. Feb. 28. On election of Jose Batlle y Or- donez as president. Blancos start another civil war; but it is finally suppressed. 1907. March 1. Willi man becomes president. Social and economic reforms inaugurated. 1911. March 1. Batlle y Ordonez l)egins a second term as president. Economic progress. 1915. March 3. Viera inaugurated president. 1916. March 17. Elght-bour-day law goes into effect. 1917. October. Diplomatic Intercourse with Germany severed on general principles. 1918. Jan. 3. Constitution of the republic amended; to go into effect in March, 1919. 1919. Jan. IS. Uruguay has a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. March 1. Brum is seated as president. Radical constitutional change goes into operation ; dual executive, president and commission, both popularly elected, and with division of powers; per- manent committee of Congress represents it dur- ing recesses; Congress may interpret and expand constitution. May 15. Old-age-pension law goes into effect. Oct. 15. House of Representatives ratifies the Treaty of Versailles. VENEZUELA. Historical Outline. Venezuela was the first part of the mainland of the New World sighted by Columbus on his third voyage. 1498. In the following year Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci traced the coast line and finding houses built on piles called it Venezuela (" Little Venice "). Las Casas, the missionary to the Indi- ans, founded a little colony at Cumand, wliich was destroyed by the natives in 1522. Caracas was founded in 1567 and became the seat of the captaincy general. The pro\Tnce itself was attached to the viceroyalty. New Granada, and this relation was maintained during the Spanish American rule. In ISIO Venezuela revolted, and a democratic government was about to 'oe established imder the leadership of Miranda, when a great earthquake (March 26, 1812) destroyed Caracas. The people believed that the earthquake was a divine judgment on account of their rebellion and for a time the patri- otic movement subsided. The patriots rallied, how- ever, obtained control of the state, and made it a part of the Colombian imion. Simon Bolivar, him- self a Venezuelan, was elected president ; but the Spanish authorities did not yield imtil Bolivar won the battle of Carabobo (June 24. 1821). Venezuela seceded from the confederation (December 8, 1829) and during the next fifteen years, although there were attempts at revolution. Venezuela was less dis- turbed than Colombia because of the control of Gen- eral Pdez. who exercised practically dictatorial power. From 1849 to 1870 there were frequent revolu- tions till the supreme power came into the hands of Guzmdn Blanco, who for the next twenty years was " elected " president at every alternate election, while nominating and electing an adherent of his own for the inter\ening term In 1SS9 a revolt oc- curred wliich resulted (1892) in the triumph of Gen- eral Joaquin Crespo, who became president in 1894 and for four years dominated the state. The boundary dispute with Great Britain is the most significant recent event in the history of Vene- zuela, Definite boundaries had never been drawn between it and British CUiiana and in 1835 the Royal Geographical Society authorized Robert H. Schom- burgk to draw a map of the British possessions, based on his explorations. He made the river Ama- curo the northern boundary and the Cotinga the divisional line from Brazil. This map Great Britain subsequently claimed as correct and authoritative. Venezuela, alarmed at the British claim, pre- sented the counterclaim of the republic (1S41). In 1882 Venezuela, hoping to end the long dispute, pro- posed arbitration and asked the good offices of the ITnited States, but Great Britain refused to arbi- trate. The government of British Guiana laid formal claim to the disputed ten-itory and Venezaela seemed miable to defend her rights. In 1S95 Presi- dent Cleveland of the United States interfered and in a message to Congress, in whicli he invoked the Monroe Doctrine, practically stated that any at- tempt on the part of the British government to enforce its claims on Venezuela without resort to arbitration would It considt-red as a cas\is belli. The UTiitfd Siiiics apiminted a commission to de- termine what were tlu- triK' t)Oimdaries of Venezuela; but before it reported Great Britain agreed that the matter should be decided by a court of arbitration. In 1899 an award was made wliich practically con- firmed the British claims as embraced in the Schom- burgk line. In 1S99 General Cipriano Castro, as the result of a successful revolution, became president and was the dominating figure in Venezuela until 1909. His administration was challenged by domestic rebel- lions and threatened by the condition of foreign affairs. In 1902 Germany. Great Britain, and Italy united in demanding an early settlement of the claims for indemnity to their nationals who had suffered at the time of the revolution. President Roosevelt forbade the Germans to occupy territorj'; some ports were blockaded, but the claims were submitted to an arbitral commission which made its award in No- vember, 1903- There were also disputes with the United States because of failure to satisfy American claims, and for a time diplomatic relations were broken off. In 1908, while President Castro was in Germany, a revolution put an end to his rule, and al- though he attempted to return and start a counter- revolution in 1913 his party was defeated. Venezuela did not take any part in tlie World War, even to the extent of severing diplomatic relations with Germany, but in 1920 joined the League of Nations. Organization. Government. The constitution (1914) vests the legislative authority in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of 40 members elected for three years, two for each Venezuelan state, and a Chamber of Deputies elected for tliree years, consisting of one deputy for every 35.000 inhabitants in each state and one more for an excess of 15.000. The executive power is in the hands of a president, elected by Congress for seven years, who acts through his cabinet ministers practically as a militarj' despot. Production and Industry. There are three dis- tinct zones in Venezuela; the agricultural, in which coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, corn, and cotton are pro- duced ; the pastoral, whicli affords fine grazing groimds for large herds of cattle; and tlie forest zone, m which caoutchouc, baiata la gum resembling nib- lier). tonka beans, and vanilla growing wild are worked by the inhabitants. Venezuela is rich in minerals, chief among which is gold, although cop- per, coal. salt, and asphalt are also produced. The asphalt is exported to the United States, the output for 1918 being 46.4.53 tons. The principal exports in 1917-18 were coffee, cocoa, hides, gold, cattle, and baiata and rubber, named in order of value. Education and Religion. Roman Catholicism is tlie state religion, but all faiths are tolerated. The educational system vas reorganized in 1915. so that free and compulsory education from the age of seven to the completion of the primary grade was estab- lished, and a imiform course of study for all grades in the schools and state examinations provided. The central university is at Caracas and the uni- versity of Los Andes is at Merida. Defense. The active army consists of 9.600 and the naval force of an armored cruiser and several small vessels. Area and Population. Venezuela has an area of 398,594 square miles and an estimated population (1917) of 2.844.618. This official estimate, however, has been much questioned and probably 2,250.000 is more nearly correct. Chronology. 1498. Columbus discovers South American main- land at the delta of the Orinoco. 1499. Coast of Venezuela (" Little Venice ") devel- oped and probablj- named by Ojeda and Vespucci. Settlements along the coast follow. 1523. Second settlement at CumanA (first destroyed in 1522) , under the name of NuevaToledo. by Diego Castellon. The oldest existing European settle- ment on the South American continent. 1528-1555. Exploration of the region by the Welser family. German bankers, who have a grant from Charles V. 1567- City of Caracas founded. 1718. Venezuela a province of viceroyalty of New Granada (Santa Fe). 1731. Captaincy general of Caracas erected. 156 NATIONAL HISTORIES: VENEZUELA — YAP. 1806 — 1920. N 1806. Miranda's unsuccessful fllibustering expe- dition from United States. 1810. April Hi. Rising at Caracas against Franco-Spanish rule. Jiuita controls. Commis- sions sent to United States and Great Britain. 1811, July 5. Independence of United Prov- inces of Venezuela declared. Miranda and Bolivar leaders: Miranda dictator. 1813. March 26. Great earthquake destroys Ca- racas. July 25. Capture of Miranda by Royalists. Bolivar continues the struggle. 1819. Venezuela unites with New Granada and Ecuador (Quito) to form Republic of Colombia. 1831. June 2^. Independence won at battle of Carabobo. 1830. Jan. 13. Union dissolved. Venezuela in- dependent state; Paez first president and practi- cally dictator until 1S46. 1847. Monagas becomes president: he asserts his independence of Paez. Civil war results. 1849. Aug- IS. PAez imprisoned; later he leaves the coxmtry. Monagas rules arbitrarily, but civil war continues Ix^tweeu the Unionists and Feder- alists. 1854. Slavery abolished. 1858. Monagas forced to abdicate. 1859. Man 6. Boimdary treaty with Brazil. Delimitation not started imtil ISSO. 1863. Falcon becomes head of the government. 18B4. New constitution is triumph for Federalists. 1868. A ugusf. Monagas drives Falcon from jiower, but dies on November 18. Civil war continues. 1870. December Federalists finally secure com- plete control of territory. Guzman Blanro, president during alternate terms, but the real ruler at all times, continues in power for almost 20 years. 1881. Sept. lit. Treaty with Colombia for arbitra- tion of boimdary by king of Spain. 1889. OH. 2. First Pan-American Congress con- venes at Wasliington (see United St.^tes). 1890. Feb. 20. Following a revolt against Presi- dent Rojas Pai'il, Guzmdn Blanco's deputy, Pala- cio is elected president. 1891. March 16. Colombian boimdar>' award by Queen regent of Spain. Not accepted. 1893. Crespo drives Palacio into exile. 1894. March 5. Crespo becomes constitutional president. 1895. April. Crisis in the long-standing bound- ary dispute with British Guiana, which Great Britain has refused to arbitrate. United States intervenes. Dec. 17. Message of President Cleveland of 1 United States on Venezuelan-Guiana boundary I (see United States). ' 1897. Feb. 2. Boundary arbitration treaty with I Great Britain. I 1898. March 4. Andrade succeeds as president. ! 1899. Oct. 3. Guiana boundary award; most of disputed territory given to Guiana. Oct. 21. Castro Ijecomes provisional president, ha\ing driven Andrade from power. He assiunes a dictatorship. 1901. Strife with Colombia. 1903. Civil war, in which the insurrectionists are headed by Matos, continues durhig most of the year, but is suppressed. (claims. I April. Agreement for arbitration of French | Dec. 7. Coercion of Venezuela by Germany and Great Britain, who issue an ultimatimi on private clauns of their subjects. United States declines to protect Venezuela against just claims but refuses to permit occupation of teiTitorj-, so that the coercion is hmited to a naval demonstra- tion. Venezuelan vessels seized, some sunk. " Peaceful " blockade instituted. Deceml:)er 10, in which Italy joins. Puerto Cabello bombarded, December 13. Customhouses seized. 1903. Feb. 13. Through good offices of I'uited States protocols signed with coercing powers. Provision for immediate payments and later in- stallments, for which customs receipts are pledged. Hague Tribxmal to decide whether claims of coerc- ing powers shall have preference o^'er other foreign claims. Blockade raised. Febniary 15. 1904. Feb. 22. Hague Tribunal ' decides that claims of coercing powers have preference. April 27. New constitution adopted. 1905-1908. Castro continues to irritate various foreign nations, includmg United States, by action toward foreign concessions. 1907. Oct. IS. Convention of Second Hague Con- ference limits use of armed force to recover con- tract debts, an outgrowth of the coercion of Vene- zuela. 1908. June 23. Diplomatic relations with United States severed. November. Castro leaves for Europe for medi- cal treatment. December. Breach with Netherlands over commercial restrictions, during which (July) Dutch minister is expelled, culminates in a Dutch naval demonstration on tlie Venezuelan coast, wliich United States permits, and seizure of vessels. Dec. 21. Following popular manifestations against Castro, Vice President Gomez dismisses Castro's cabinet. Better foreign relations are now sought. 1909. Feb. 13. Claims protocol with United States. March 23. Castro suspended from presidency and threatened with arrest if he returns. Neigh- boring countries refuse to receive him and he re- turns to Europe. July 12, he renounces claim to presidency; Gomez succeeds. June 2. Bases signed with Colombia for bound- ar>' agreement. Never made final. 1913. July. Castro attempts an insurrection; speedily put down. 1914. April 9. Bustlllos elected provisional president, Gomez having Ijecome commander of the army. New revolt breaks out. 1915. May 3. Gomez elected president. He does not take the oath, but remains in command of the army. Bustillos continues to act as presi- dent. Revolt is suppressed. 19^0. March 13. Venezuela joins the League of Nations. VICTORIA. See under Briti.^h Empire, page 75. WALES, See under British Empire, page 50. WEIHAIWEI. See under British Empire, page 65. WEST AFRICA, BRITISH. See under British Empire, page 67. WEST AFRICA, FRENCH. See imder Fr.\ni k, lui^e 90. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. See under British Empire, page 75. WEST INDIES, BRITISH. See imder Briti.'^h Empire, page 74. WINDWARD ISLANDS. See under British Empire, page 74 YAP. See under Germany, page 105. u w THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Historical Outline. Discovery of America. The ftr^ record of the discovery of the Western Continent is found in the Icelandic Sagas, handed down for centuries by oral tradition. In S74 a Norse colony was established in Iceland and in 985 Eric the Red discovered and then settled a barren land which he called Greenland, hoping that a pleasant name would attract settlers. The Sagas tell of a voyage made by Leif Ericson in the year 1000 beyond Greenland, where he discov- ered an unknown land on which grew " grapes " and " self-sown wheat." whence he called it Vlnland and where he established a little trading post. No authentic remains of these explorations and occupa- tions have been foimd. but there is no reason to doubt that Norsemen landed on the Atlantic Coast of North .America, south of Labrador. Enthusiastic archgpologists thinii they have identi- fied Vinland with the Massachusetts Bay region. There is also a tradition that two Venetian brothers, Zeno by name, made two vo>'ages from the Orkneys just previous to 1400 and foimd new land in the West. The actual practical discovery of America was due, however, not so much to chance voyages as to the economic, intellectual, and political condition of Europe at the end of tfie fifteenth centiuy. The outlook of Europe was toward the East, toward India and far Asia, from wliich came products, such as spices, silks, and precious stones, greatly desired by Europe since ancient times, and since the Cru- sades in popular demand. A small supply of these products trickled into Europe through the overland caravan trade for ages, but by the fifteenth century Turkish conquest had all but closed this trade. Constantinople fell into the hands of the Tiu-ks in 1453: and trade with the East was much impeded in that city and the other termini of trade routes in Asia Minor, in which European traders were estab- lished. To tlnd a new route for this commerce was a compelling motive which brought about the age of discovery. Another reason for penetrating the Western seas was the revival of learning in Europe, which stimu- lated men's thoughts and imagination. Keen minds roused by the Renaissance did not hesitate to ques- tion the mysteries of unknown seas, wliile the use of the compass and the invention of rude nautical in- struments made voyages possible far off the coast. A third influence was the improved condition of western Europe, which had emerged from the dis- orders of the Middle Ages and was organizing into strong national xmits. Conscious of themselves, these seafaring people were ready to seek new outlets and acquire new resources. Portugal first initiated the search for a sea route to India. The sailors dispatched by Prince Henry the Navigator and his successors began a systematic exploration of the west coast of Africa, which re- sulted in the passing of the Cape of Good Hope in 14S7 by Bartholomeu Cias and prepared the way tor the first sea voyage from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama in 1497. The actual historic discovery of America was made by Christopher Columbus, in 1492. Colum- bus, son of a Genoese wool carder, was bom in 1446 or 1447 and after some slight education went to sea. As a result of his voyages, his reading, his study, and the tales of sailors, he became convinced that the world was roimd. and that the eastern coast of Asia was not far from the western coast of Europe. He was strengthened in his theory by the writings of the ancients and the teachings of the geographers of his time, but he alone of the sailors of his time was ready to put his theor>' to a test. He vainly sought support for his idea and backing for his voyage in Italy, in Portugal, and in England. Finally he persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of the re- cently united kingdoms ©f Castile and Aragon. to become his patrons. He sailed from Palos. Spain, August 3, 1492. with a little fleet of tliree vessels, the largest of not more than 100 tons biu-den. In spite of the discontent of his crew, almost resulting in mutiny, he pushed on, and on October 12. 1492. landed on a small island wliich in pious gratitude he named San Salvador. He continued his voyage to the coasts of Cuba and Haiti, and on liis return it was declared that he haa found a short route to the Indies. Although he made tliree other voyages, reached the north coast of South America, and touched the borders of Nicp,- ragua and Honduras, he died with no conception that he had opened up two unknown continents, but con- vuiced that he had reached land and islands off the coast of Asia. In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian sailing under the authorization of Henry VII. of England, reached the northern coast of North America, perhaps at Newfoundland. In 149S, with his son Sebastian Cabot, he made another voyage which may have traced the coast as far south as Carolina. The name America was suggested by an Alsa- tian geographer, Hylacomyius, from Amerigo Ves- pucci, who claimed in 1497 to have discovered a large section of the western coast of South America and probably the coast of Central and North Amer- ica. He described this and later voyages in hvely style in accounts printed before the narrative of Columbus's later voyages. The name was gradually extended to all South America and thence by popu- lar usage to the northern continent. The coast of North America was slowly deter- mined. In 1506 Jean Denys, of Honfleur, ex- plored the Gulf of St. Lawrence; in 1512 Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1513 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the Pacific Ocean, and in 1519, the fleet of Magellan started on a tliree years' voyage to South America, sailed tlirough the Strait of Magellan, and across the Pa- cific Ocean. One of the vessels rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and thus proved by experience that the earih is round, and that a vast ocean separated the newly discovered continents from Asia. In 1524 Verrazano explored for France long stretches of the coast of what is now the United States. In 1535 Jacques Cartler sailed up the St. Lawrence. By this time it was established that the land was continuous from the Strait of Magellan to Labrador. Now began an era of interior explorations. In 1540 De Soto, on an overland expedition, passed from Florida tlirough the region now occupied by the Southern States, crossed the Mississippi, and penetrated as far north and west, as Arkansas. In 1540 Coronado, setting out from Mexico, explored what is now New Mexico, went as far north as Okla- homa, and .sent on an advance party wliich reached the center of Kansas. In 1579 Sir Francis Drake, the English sea dog. coasted South America, and bore up northward as far as California. From 1^>03 to 1608 the French under the leadership of the inde- fatigable Champlain explored the St. Lawrence, foimded Quebec, and determined the coast line of New England. In 1609 Henry Hudson made his way up the river which has smce bonie his name. I Thus, the coast line of the Americas was determined as far as 45° north latitude. The First Colonies. The first settlements made by Europeans in North America were made by the Spaniards, and the oldest town within the limits of the United States which has had a continuous exist- ence is Saint Augustine, Florida, founded in 1565. The Spaniards were attracted by the richer regions of Central and South America, in which they estab- lished a great colonial empire that enriched the home coimtry with its precious metals. Another current of civiUzation wasthe French in Canada. Cham- i plain and hissuccessorsestablished posts at Quebec and Montreal, on the St. Lawrence, and in Acadia I at Port Royal. Ventiu-esome explorers, priests, and I traders reached the Great Lakes, pushed across the watershed, explored the Mississippi in 16S2, and foimded Louisiana in 1699. thus giving France good title not merely to the St. Lawrence region, but to the Great Lakes and the whole central plain be- tween the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains. English Colonization. What proved to be the most significant colonizing movement came from England. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there sprang up a national jealousy of Spain and a con- test against the Spanish claim to exclusive rights in the New World- The Elizabethan seamen, chief of whom were Hawkins, Drake, and Raleigh, harried Spanish commerce in illegal and in open wars and roused the interest and enthusiasm of the English- In 15S4 Raleigh sent out an expedition which ex- plored a stretch of the Atlantic coast now called Virginia for the " Virgin Queen." In 15S5 a settle- ment was maintained at Raleigh's cost on Roanoke Island for a year, and in 1587 a second Raleigh col- ony was founded, all trace of which was lost. The defeat of Spain's Invincible Armada in 15SS opened the way for the i)ermanent settlement of Vir- ginia. Tills was carried out not by gentlemen ad- venturers of the Elizabethan Age, but by a group of capitalists, headed by Sir Thomas Smythe. From the Queen they received a charter for the Virginia Company, which in 1607 planted the tirst perma- nent English settlement at Jamestown. The early life of the colony was beset with difficulties and dan- gers and death. The colony was almost starved out, but a profitable crop for export was discovered in tobacco, and slowly the little colony became self- sustaining, though never profitable to the founders. In 1620 a little band of religious exiles, the '* Pil- grims," who had fled from England to Holland to escape persecution, planted a second English colonial nucleus at Plymouth, the first settlement in New England. Because of the endurance and persever- ing nature of these settlers, and the abundant natu- ral resources of timber and fish, they were able firmly to establish an important colony. English emigration to America on a large scale began in 1630, when a powerful company sent the " Great Emigration " to Massachusetts. These were Puritans, men of wealth and substance, who settled first on the coast aroimd Boston under a royal charter giving them practical self-government. Other Puritan settlements were made in New England, both from England directly and from col- onies already established in Massachusetts, and these resulted in the colonies of Maine. Connecticut^ New Haven, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. The southern colonies were increased by Mary- land (1632) and later by the Carollnas (1663) with similar conditions, except that the Carolinas fur- nished ■* naval stores," rice, and indigo. Slavery flourished in them all. fed by a slave trade from the West Indies. Between the northern and the southern group of colonies a middle group was slowly developed, after the Dutch were dispossessed (1664): New York on the basis of the former New Netherland; then East and West New Jersey (1665). afterward united; then in 16S2 the magnificent colony of Pennsyl- vania, founded by William Penn. which soon became the most prosperous and richest of the colonies, with a population drawn from the Welsh. Scotch-Irish, and Germans, as well as from the English. Colonial Growth. In the main the economic foimdation of all the colonies was agriculture. In the South tobacco, rice, and indigo could be raised on large plantations worked by Negro slaves. In the middle colonies, where the winters were more severe, slavery took root in a milder form. The rich soil of Pennsylvania and the sober, hardy, and industrious character of the settlers soon made tliat Stale the largest grain-producing colony. In New England, where the soil was less fertile, the fisheries provided food and an export of dried fish which developed a trade with the neighboring con- tinental colonies, the West Indies, and even with Africa. An important trade was built up with the Indians, from whom were obtained furs and skins, especially heaver skins. Although all the colonies on the Atlantic seaboard were either founded or conquered by the English, there was always a non-English element in the population. Huguenots and, latei, Acadian French were found in New England, South Carolina, and elsewhere. In New York the Dutch were long the dominating element, and in Pennsylvania there were Swedes. Scotch-Irish, French, and a large German element, which also settled along the Mohawk Val- ley in New York. In all the colonies there was some Negro population, which was largest in the South, and in South Carolina was more numerous than the white population. Although representing difi'erent races, nearly all the colonists were Protestants and held similar ideas concerning personal liberty and self-government. English political institutions and the English common law, with all its safeguards, were easily transferred to this western England. Government of the Colonies. The colonies were classified according to their form of govern- ment into tliree groups. The royal colonies or provinces had no charter and took the government framed for them by the English authorities. The proprietary colonies were held by a charter granted to an individual or group and hiherited by their fam- ilies. The proprietor arranged the colonial govern- ment. The charter colonies had a documentary grant to a stock company which, in the case of the New England colonies, was made up of the colo- nists themselves. Notwithstanding these variations, all the colonies developed similar political institutions. In each there was a governor, appointed by the king in the royal colonies, by the proprietor in the proprietary colonies, and elected by the company in the chartered colonies. In each there was a legislature, consisting of a Council appointed in the royal and proprietary colonies and elected in the chartered colonies; and a lower hotise elected in all colonies by the freehold- ers. Suffrage was nowhere universal; property and tax qiialifications and religious tests much lim- ited the voters. These colonial legislatures claimed for themselves much the same powers in colonial affairs that Parlia- ment exercised in the Enghsh system. This gave the colonists invaluable training in self-government, and they did not hesitate to brave their governors and (157) 158 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. even disputed with the EngUsh authorities. They ^J stood by the English principle of the control of the legislatures over local taxes and appropriations; this power of the purse to a large extent made them mak- ers of the policy of their government. In local aflfairs there were three systems of govern- ment. In the South the county system, with a board of justices appointed by the governor. In New England the township, with the meeting of Ofroemen in a primary assembly, known as the ** town meeting." In a few of the places in the middle colonies was a borough or city government. In all cases the control of the local government was never far from the people governed. English Control. To the English government the colonists were Englishmen across the sea who had no representation in Parliament. England ex- P ercised her control over these scattered subjects, first by the right to grant ownership and control of lands; then tlu'ough the appointment of governors for the royal provinces and pressure upon the proprietors of the proprietary- provinces; then by instructions to the governors. At the time of the Revolution only Connecticut and Rhode Island were full chartered colonies outside the sphere of royally appointed Q officials Besides the governor England appointed officials, inspectors of customs, collectors of revenue, and the like, to enforce or to inspect the enforcement of the laws. Appeals could be, and sometimes were, taken from colonial courts to the Privy Council in England. As for legislation, the charters were generally held to be l>eyond the authority of Parliament; and Parlia- __ ment passed no local laws for individual colonies, but R in matters of trade and the foreign policy of the mother country an act of Parliament was binding on all the colonies. Indian and Colonial Wars. The three prmcipal nations, the Spanish, the French, and the English. who settled in America, had each its own methods with the Indians. The Spaniards practically en- O slaved and baptized the Indians; the French baptized the Indians, traded and intermarried with them; the English crowded them out of their hvmting gi'oimds and avoided them, and only now and then a man, like Jolin Eliot, attempted to Cliristianize them. The French soon gained an ascendancy over the Indians, who proved invaluable allies in the stem conflict with the English. ^ •— In almost every English colony the relations I with the Indians were the same. At first the na- tives looked on the settlers with tolerant curiosity. Later, when it was foimd that the English took rather than shared the himting grounds, war broke out. In these wars, whether the Pequot War of 1637 or the terrible fights of 1622 in Virginia, the colo- nists were everywhere successful, except against the Five Nations of the Iroquois, who held their own 11 till the Revolution of 1775. The second stage came in each colony twenty to fifty years later and was far more serious. In Vir- ginia in 1644 Opechancanough led a successful raid, while New England was scourged by King Philip's War in 1675. In Virginia in 1676, under the leader- ship of Nathaniel Bacon, the Indians were finally de- feated. Of a similar sort were the Tuscarora War Vin North Carolina and the Yaraassee struggle in South Carolina. Intercolonial Wars. In the series of European wars from 16S9 to 1763. the English colonies were always drawn in against the French on the north and the Spaniards on the south. During King Wil- llam*s War Port Royal. Acadia, was captured, but returned to the French by the treaty of 1697. In yV 1701 began the War of the Spanish Succession, called in America Queen Anne's War, which included In- dian raids upon the New England settlements, the second capture of Port Royal and. by the Peace of Utrecht (1713), the transfer of all Acadia, thereafter known as Nova Scotia. The Austrian Succession in Europe led to King George's War in America (1744). in which the French fortress of Louisbui^ on V Cape Breton Island was taken (1745). ■^ In 1754 the outbreak of the French and Indian War was the first gim in the European Seven Years' War. One of the episodes was the expedition against Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh) and the defeat of General Braddock (1755). Fort Du- quesne was later captured, and also Quebec (1759t and Montreal (1760), By the Treaty of Paris y- (1763) France surrendered to Great Britain all I claims to territory east of the Mississippi, while to compensate her ally. Spain, for sharing the war and losing the Floridas, France transferred to her western Loui.siana. including the city of New Orleans. Thus, by the middle of the eighteenth centur>' the English had eliminated all foreign claimants to the region east of the Mississippi and from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Movements toward Union. The English col- onies in America were individualistic. Many of tliem were founded by small religious sects, others by mercantile companies, but all had a keen sense of their own interests and significance; nevertheless, the idea of colonial imion was in the minds of the colonists as early as 1643, when a union was formed between Massachusetts. Plymouth. Comiecticut, and New Haven. Ttiis New England Confedera- tion, as it was called, aided the colonists in their struggles with the Indians and controversies with the Dutch, but was looked upon with disfavor by the Enghsh government and came to an end in 1684. The difficulties of colonial intercourse tended to put each colony back upon itself for its own protection and defense. The home government forced the New England colonies to consolidate under the tyranny of Andros, and in 1686 New York was joined to this government. But at the " Glorious Revolution '* of 16S8-S9 this temporary imion fell apart. During the struggles with the French and Indians from 1689 to 1763 the British government attempted to bring about cooperation in military affairs; but the colonists were jealous of their own prerogatives and were slow to come to one another's aid. In 1754. at a Congress of Commissioners called at Al- bany, Benjamin Franldin presented a scheme fori colonial miion called the Albany Plan. , This was objected to by the colonists because it gave the king too great power and by the Enghsh authorities be- cause it was felt to l^e too democratic. Not imtil the Revolutionary era did the colonists succeed in sink- mg their internal differences and forming an effec- tive union. The Revolutionary Era. The causes for the American Revolution begin to api)ear distinctly soon aftt-r tlie accession of Cieorge III-, in 1760. The English government had always claimed legal supremacy. An act of Parliament was superior to all colonial statutes in general matters, especially in trade. The so-called Acts of Trade w^ere meant to restrict the commerce and manufactures of the colo- nies. In local matters the danger from the French in Canada made the home government cautious im- til England was better able to enforce her ideas upon the colonies. Both home British and colonial Brit- ish looked upon England as the center and head of a great colonial empire. ' The only central authorities were a hereditarj- king and a Parliament in which the colonists could have no representation. By the colonial system embodied in the Acts of Trade Great Britain had long sought to secure for home merchants the profits of the colonial empire and at the same time to grant protection to all of its members. This policy was first put into the form of law by the Ordinance of 1651 and the subsequent navigation acts down to the Molasses Act of 1733 and the Sugar Act of 1764, By this policy the colonies were protected against competition in the British markets m certain products; but were com- pelled to make their direct purchases only from the home or colonial members of the empire. Thus. Virginia was given the tobacco monopoly as against tobacco farms in England, but had to buy hardware and cloth from England. Thus, New England had a profitable share in the carrying trade of the British Empire, but was compelled to buy its molasses only from English colonies. With certain exceptions all commerce with foreign nations must go through Great Britain, and was there subject to taxation. The execution of this policy was lax, and smuggling and other forms of illegal trade were habitual in the colonies. In 1763 Great Britain felt the enormous cost of the war with France and thought it reasonable to divide the cost of the military protection of the colonies. The policy as adopted included taxation to be laid on the colonists by act of Parliament — the proceeds to he used for colonial defense. Opposi- tion at once arose in the colonies. For years they had enjoyed forbidden trade with the French West Indies, the Spanish possessions, and with the Dutch. Under the protective Sugar Act the English M'est Indies were able to raise the price of sugar and mo- lasses, upon which there were taxes, while Etiropean goods coming through England both cost more and were also taxed. The colonists felt that since they maintained at their own expense their colonial gov- ernments and had burdened themselves with debt in the wars with the Indians and French, which were for the defense of the British Empire as well as their own protection, they had contributed their share to the imi>erial expenses, A second ground of colonial opposition lay in the fact that the British government was proi)osing, not simply to enforce this commercial policy, but to use the proceeds of the taxes for the payment of British officials in the colonies. As has been shown, the colonists, through their control of local taxation and appropriations, directed the action of their govern- ments and of the officials. If the officials were paid from taxes levied by Parliament they would be sub- ject to English rather than colonial control. The issue was brought to a head by the passage of the Stamp Act (176o), which laid stamp duties on deeds, notes, bills, and other docimients. Local op- position appeared in every colony, and 28 delegates, representing nine colonies, assembled in New York at the Stamp-Act Congress. There a Declara- tion of Rights was adopted, wiiicn claimed for the colonists freedom from all internal taxes not laid by their representatives. Intense opposition to the Stamp Act caused its repeal, but the reiieal act re- asserted a right of taxation. It was then deter- mined in the Townshend Acts (1767) to raise rev- enue by duties on colonial imports, thus avoiding the issue of internal taxation without representation. The answer of the colonies was unmistakable. Massachusetts sent a circular letter to the other colonies which, while disavowing any desire for in- dependence, suggested concerted action. The \'ir- ghiia Assembly passed resolutions asserting that the Virginia Assembly had the sole right to lay taxes upon the i>eople. These theoretical statements re- ceived practical force by the establishment of Non- Importation Agreements, by wiiich the colonists agreed not to use the taxed goods. Thiis the Towii- sheud Acts were defeated. Committees of Correspondence (fh-st organ- ized by New York in 1764) were aijpointed by Massa- chusetts and Virginia in 1772 and 1773 respectively. Tlirough the means of these conmiittees the different colonies were informed of public opinion in the other colonies, and a solidarity of mterest was created. Although the Townshend Acts were partially re- pealed, a light duty was maintained on tea, wliich was sold cheaper than in England. The colonists refused to purchase the taxed tea Ix-canse it would then become an admission of the right of Parhanient to tax the colonies. The tea in Boston was de- stroyed in a riotous gathering known as the Boston Tea Party (1773). The English answer to this de- fiance was aimed directly at the people of Massachu- setts. The port of Boston was closed by statute, the charter of Massachusetts was suspended, trials outside the colony were provided for, and the quarter- ing of British troops sanctioned within the province. The colonial reply was the First Continental Congress, summoned at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. Tliis assembly, representative of twelve col- onies, formulated in the name of all the colonies a Dei^laratlon of Rights. It accepted and drew up the Association, which was in effect a boycott of British goods and slaves, including an article against taxation without representation. ' Great statesmen in England, including Lord Chatham, worked for conciliation The king and his subservient ministers stood for repressive meas- ures and the majority in Parliament supported them. Collisions occiured between the British troops and tiie citizens of Boston. Military stores were collected by the leaders of the people at Con- cord and elsewhere. The Revolution. The first armed clash of the Revolution took place at Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. At Lexington the minutemen stood firmly tmtil fired upon by the British, when they re- tired; at Concord, a few hours later, they rallied and their force, now augmented, drove back the British to Boston- On Jime 17. 177.5, the colonists, attempt- ing to fortify Bunker Hill, were finally driven from tlie field. It was a dear victorj\ for it cost 1,000 British troops and pro\ed that militia could hold regulars. The Second Continental Congress assembled May 10, 1775, at Philadelphia, and at once placed itself at the head of military and naval affairs. George Washington was chosen Commander in Chief of the American army and took command at Cambridge. On March 17. 1776. he forced the evacuation of Boston by the British. On July 4, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Inde- pendence, in which it declared the colonies inde- pendent of Great Britain and stated their ctise to the European nations. The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years, during which time Gieat Britam employed not only English troops, but also hired Hessians from Ger- many. During the first period of the war the con- flict centered lietween the Hudson and the Dela- ware. New York was capttired in 1776 and Wash- ington was obliged to retreat across New Jersey. Philadelphia was captured by the British in 1777. In 1777 the British mider Burgoj'ne marched south from Canada, but were defeated, and surren- dered at Saratoga. As a result the French govern- ment, in 1778, recognized the independence of the VnUed States and made a treaty of alliance by which supplies, troops, and above all, the French fleet, were sent to aid the colonists. The last period of the conflict was in the South. Here the British were at first successful, but by a series of masterly engagements General Nathanael Greene cleared the territor>'. Comwallis returned to Yorktown; and while a French fleet held up the British relief expedition, a consolidated American and French army besieged him and captured his whole army. By the Treaty of Paris (1783) Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the Vnited States and agreed to formulate boundaries; on the north, substantially as at present; on the west, the Mississippi: on the south, the Floridas, which the Spanish had regained during the war. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 159 The Critical Period, Although the colonies had achieved independence, they had not secured stabiUty. They were burdened with debt, their trade disorganized, their ciurency hterally "not worth a ' Continental.' " as the bills of credit issued by Congress were called. During the war the Sec- ond Contmental Congrfss framed Articles of Con- federation 11777), wliirli |)ri.\ ided for a league lie- tween the colonies and whieli made a division be- tween the powers to be exercised by Congress, repre- senting the central government on the one hand, and the States, representing the local governments, on the other. Several faults revealed themselves in this plan : It operated not upon citizens, but upon States; it gave Congress no power to tax individuals, but only to make requisitions upon the States; it did not au- thorize a general regulation of foreign or interstate commerce; it could not be amended without the unanimous consent of all the States, nor could Con- gress pass important legislation without the assent of tliree fourths of the States. AVeak as this instru- ment was, several States delayed to adopt it in defi- nite form until 1781 ; nor could they be persuaded to amend it by gi\ing Congress more power in the years wliich followed. Tlie Constitutional Convention of 1787 was simimoned ostensibly to propose amendments to the Articles of Confederation. Actually, after four ; months' debate it produced a new constitution, by wliich the confederation or league was trans- formed into a federal state. The question of federal power was adjusted on a new basis. Neither Congress nor the States were recognized as sovereign, but the great doctrine of the sovereignty of the people of the United States was assured by the first words of the preamble, " We the people of the United States . . . ordain and establish tills Constitution." No longer could States enact laws in conflict with the Constitution or acts of Con- gress, for, by Article VI.. " This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pui'suance thereof; and all Treaties . . . shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in ever>- State shall be boimd thereby, any Thing in the Con- stitution or Laws of any State to the Contrarj- not- withstanding," In the specific division of powers between the fed- eration and States, Congress was given the power to levy taxes, to control commerce, to raise an army and a navy, and to declare war, — in fact all powers necessary for the regulation of foreign affairs and most concerns which affected the nation as a whole. The States were forbidden by explicit proliibitions to interfere in some of these spheres. Congress was to consist of a House of Repre- sentatives and a Senate. In the Senate each State has equal representation — two senators — and no State may be deprived of this equality of representa- tion in the Senate without its consent. Thus State pride is satisfied, and the fear that the small States may be oppressed is removed. In the House of Representatives the people are represented in pro- portion to the population in each State, as shown by the decennial censuses. The head of the executive branch of the govern- ment is the president, who has great power, since he possesses a suspensory veto over legislation ; may ap- point the principal officers with the consent of the Senate; directs the foreign relations; instnicts diplo- matic representatives; controls the negotiation of all treaties; commands the army and navy; and above all. enforces the laws of the United States. At the summit of the judicial department is a Supreme Court and below it inferior courts, all of which uphold the laws of Congress and the Constitu- tion of the United States against all infringements, even those by the States themselves. By amendments (I.-X.). which were quickly added to the Constitution, the great Anglo-Saxon rights of personal liberty — such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and the right of jury trial — are guar- anteed against usurpation by Congress; and the States are forbidden to deprive any person of life, literty, or property without due process of law. The Supreme Court of the United States therefore acts as a reviewing authority upon State legislation. Two other amendments iXI.-XII.) were added to the Constitution in 1798 and 1804, respectively, but after these no other amendments were adopted up to the time of the Ci\1l War. The Convention at Philadelphia transmitted this Constitution to Congress with the recommendation that it be submitted to conventions called within the various States and l>e declared in force when ratified by nine States. The campaign for ratification was bitter and during it many political pamphlets were WTitten: the most famous, appearing serially in a New York journal and later published as The Fed- eralist, were composed by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, and are still the most authoritative interpretation of the document., On June 21, 17S8, New Hampshire, the ninth State, rati- fied the Constitution. Virginia and New York fol- lowed soon, but North Carolina delayed imtil 1789, and Khode Island until 17^10- Organization of the Government. During the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution those groups which were in favor of the Constitution and the extension of the powers of a central govern- ment were known as Federalists. Those who be- lieved in maintaining the States as the chief agencies of government and who were thus opposed to a fed- eral state were called Antifederalists. In these differences is found the germ of the first two great political parties. The coimtry was imanimous in choosing George Washington as first president, and Jolm Adams received 34 of the 69 electoral votes for vice president During Wasliington's first administration he at- tempted to sink party differences and called to liis cabinet men of such diverse opinions as Thomas Jef- ferson and Alexander Hamilton. In spite of the at- tempt to ignore parties, both domestic and foreign questions revealed a genuine difference of political opinion and strengthened tlie party spirit. Thus the question of the assumption of the debts of Congress and of the States was favored by Hamilton and his group, who also favored the establishment of a na- tional bank and a mildly protective tariff. These measures, however, were oppo.sed by Jefferson and the Antifederalists. Little by httle Washington was forced t-o l^ecome a party president and liis second administration was frankly Federalist. Foreign affairs disturbed the coimtr>' and drew party lines tighter. The outbreak of the French Revolution (17S9) and the later war of France with Great Britain forced a decision as to whether the United States should aid her former ally. France, and thus subject her commerce to Britisli reprisals, or attempt to stand neutral. Wasiiington, Ilamilton, and the Federalists, while favoring England, believed that the best interests of the United States required absolute neutrahty. Thus this position, never be- fore so clearly stated, set forth the true principles and established the proper rules of neutrality which later have become a part of international law. In order to settle the controversies between the United States and England, Washington authorized a treaty with England known as the Jay Treaty, wliich after a bitter struggle was ratified in 1795. In strong and powerful language Washington in the Farewell Address (1796) put before his comitrymen the de- sirability of keeping out of European complica- tions. During the administration of John Adams (1797- 1801) the parties were still more thoroughly divided; and the impossibility of avoiding a share in the troubles of Europe was shown by a brief naval war with France (1799). Thomas Jefferson was chosen president in ISOO, after a contest over a tie with Burr. The Jeffersonian party, the old Antifederal- ists, now called the Democratic Republicans, were in control of the government, but attempted no serious changes. They took over the national government as they foimd it organized, and applied their own pohcy to it, rather than to attempt to alter the es- tablished sj'stem. The army and navy were re- duced and the money saved was expended for the pa>-ment of the debt. On the other hand, Jefferson, in 1803. boldly purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon, thus extending the power of the pres- ident and enlarging the territory of the United States beyond all expectation of the framers of the Consti- tution. The renewal of war between England and France in 1803 again showed that the United States could not live for itself alone, for its commerce suffered from both belligerents. The paper blockades de- clared by the Emperor Napoleon upon the English ports, the French decrees for seizing neutral sliips, and the equally illegal orders in coimcil issued by the British, caused the capture of 1.500 American vessels. In addition, Great Britain insisted upon her right of search and impressment, which greatly irritated the United States. Moreover, her cruisers, reacliing the coast of the United States, attempted to enforce her pretensions in American waters. The United States attempted to meet these aggressions by a boycott policj' which shoidd avoid war; it was expressed by the embargo (1S07) and the Nonintercourse Act (1S09). Both were failures. In Madison's administrations (1S09-1817) the United States tried to balance one aggression against the other, only to be tricked by Napoleon and ignored by Spain. For several years the United States seemed on the brink of war with Great Brit- ain. As no redress was obtained for the British cap- tures till the last moment, and thousands of Ameri- can citizens were held by British action, the United States declared war on England, June 18, 1812. The War of 1812. On land the United States set out to capture Canada, but was unsuccessful. On the other hand. Maine was invaded and Castine occupied by the British. The capital, Washington, was burned by a small British force in 1S14, and the distant settlement of Astoria was occupied. On the sea the United States was more successful and the victories of the ConstituHon over the Guer- ri^re, the Wasp over the Frolic, the United States over the Macedonian, the Constitution over the Jaia, and the Hornet over the Peacock in naval duels did much to raise the prestige of the United States. American privateers harried British commerce and captured 1.344 prizes. The final battle of the war was at New Orleans, January 8. 1S15, after the treaty of peace had been signed. In this, General Andrew Jackson was over- whelmingly successfid. In the meantime negotia^ tions for peace were in progress at Ghent; a treaty was signed which, although omitting mention of impressments, restored the American territorj' occu- I pied by British troops and provided for the appoint- ment of commissions to settle disputed pomts 1 1814) . -Vithough the United States was not successful in 1 winning her contentions, the end of the European I wars put an end to the issues of neutral trade and impressments; and she had shown herself ready to ' fight for her rights and had won the respect of Eng- ' land and the European nations. From the close of the War of 1812 imtil the elec- , tion of Andrew Jackson, in 1S2S. parties were disor- , ganized. The hve domestic questions were the protective tariff and internal improvements, while the most pressing foreign question was over the recog- nition of the recently re\olted South American re- pubhcs. In dealing with this question Monroe, on the advice of Jolm Quincy Adams, his secretary of state, enunciated the Monroe Doctrine in IS23. In this he dedlared that the American continents are not open to further colonization or to the extension to this hemisphere of the European system of gov- ernment. By implication, the United States re- served the Western Hemisphere as her field of influ- ence and renoimced interference in European affairs. Tliis doctrine has l>ecome the comer stone of AjiiCri- can foreign pohcy; for although the United States has not been able to avoid intervention in European affairs, it has stood by its original position that in both Americas it was to be the determining influence. In 1820 the slavery question for the first time became an issue in national politics. The question arose over the admission of Maine and Missoiu-i as States. If Missouri, wliich was in the same geograph- ical belt as the three we.stem free States, were made fi-ee, the slavery power would begin to decline. If Missouri became a slave State the two sections — free and slave — would be perpetuated in the West. After an acrimonious debate the question was settled by compromise ('* Missouri Compromise"): Maine was admitted as a free State. Missouri as a slave State; but otherwise the territory in the Louisi- ana Purchase, north of .36° 30' {the southern bound- ar>' of Missouri) was ■" forever " to be free. Social and Economic Development of the Country. Between 1783 and 1830 the rising United States was transformed from a narrow strip of terri- tory between the Allegheny ISIountains and the Atlantic Ocean to a country stretching as far west as the Rockj' Mountains; and from a small nation of 3.500,000 to one of over 12.000.000. The most re- markable and significant featiu*e of this growth was the development of the West. In 1790 a civilized population of 109.000 lived west of the Alleghenies. In 1815 there were ten times that number of inhabitants and from 1815 to 1830 the Western population increased to 2,300,000. Cheap pubUc lands and the opportunities to de- velop homes on the fertile soil attracted immigrants from all the Eastern States. Thus there developed a democratic society different from that of the East- em communities. The frontiersmen were substan- tially equal in wealth, and to all equal opportimity was open. Land was inexpensive, easy to obtain, and quickly brought imder cidtivation. Thus even the poorest immigrant, who had the necessary en- ergy, withhi a short time could become the equal of his neighbors in possessions and importance. Tliis social and economic equality produced politi- cal ideas of absolute democracy, which were funda- mentally different from those of Eastern industrial organization. The economic conceptions of this frontier society were crude ; land and food were plenty , but there was no transport obtainable for long dis- tances; surplus products were hard to dispose of, and money was scarce. Like all pioneer commu- nities the Westerners demanded cheap and abun- dant money, and resented the paj-ments they were forced to make to Eastern capitalists. They were intensely patriotic, sure of themselves, and of the futui'e of the countrj'. Thus, with Henrj' Clay as their spokesman, they were impatient at the timid- ity of Madison's government and enthusiastically supported the War of 1812. As the population in- creased through this region, they became a force to be reckoned with in national politics. They nearly turned the scale in 1S24. and in 1828 triumphed in the election of their candidate, Andrew Jackson. Industrial Development. Wliile these changes were going on in the West a new society was develop- ing in the East. In the South the best land, includ- ing much that was not suitable for the cultivation of rice or tobacco, was turned to cotton. This crop, at first of small importance, became through the in- 160 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. N U W vention of the cotton gin by Eli Wliitney in 1793 the leading export of the United States. The new type of cultivation transformed Southern society. Slavery in many parts of the South was still patri- archal and unprofitable. The slave system on the rich cotton lands tended to become capitalistic. Many great plantations in the Southwest were culti- vated by gangs of slaves under hired overseers, and the demand for more land suitable for the cultivation of cotton and the extension of tlie slaverj- sjstem be- came intense. The Southern planter, moreover, was dependent on imports wliich came either from the industrial North or from Eiu-ope. He desired cheap imports and resented the protective tarifT which increased the cost of his goods; and he frequently found himself politically aUied with the Democratic frontiersmen of the West. The Industrial East. Diu-ing the early years of struggle between England and France. American shipping was highly profitable, notwithstanding the losses by captiu-es. Under the restrictive acts after 1S07 it somewhat declined, but it recovered after peace in 1.S14. Another significant develop- ment was in manufacturing. In England, beginning with the invention of Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1767, which was followed by the power loom and other similar developments, the textile industry was transferred from cottages to factories. The same thing happened in other industries; and by 1800 the modem factory system was weU established in Eng- land. In America the development was slower. In 1793 Samuel Slater and Moses Brown set up in Paw- tucket the flrst successful cotton factory. Be- nonprotective basis. Jackson was successful in main- taining the authority of the union ; and tlie nullifiers succeeded in upsetting protection. In a slightly different form the nullification idea was the basis of the later secession movement. A party was already rising made up of " Anti- Jackson men," which grew in l)oth the South and North and slowly coalesced. The mainstay was the manufacturers and the capitalists of the East, who desired a national bank as against the wildcat banks and high protective duties and far-reacliing internal improvements. Webster and Clay were the great- est leaders of this group. In 1832 these men united as National Republicans to support Clay, who was defeated by Jackson. In 1835 they formally adopted the name of Whigs. From its very natiu-e and its geographical support the WTiig party was a party of compromise on the question of slavery. It elected two presidents by nominating military he- roes. William Henry Harrison in 1840 and Zachary Taylor in 1848; then it declined and, in 1856, disap- peared. tion, the old Continental Congress had by the Ordi- nance of 1787 forbidden slavery in the Northwest Territory. Again, in 1820 the Missouri Compro- mise excluded slavery from other territories north of 36° 30'. But Congress made provision for the capture of fugitive slaves and left slavery in the Dis- trict of Columbia. With tills compromise the South was for a time content. The great unsettled areas, especially in the Southwest, apparently afforded ample room for expansion and the establishment of their " peculiar system." Territorial Expansion. The territorial expan- sion of the United States began with the treaty of 1783, by which the western boundaries of the posses- sions which Great Britain had fixed in 1763 at the Appalachian Mountains were extended to the Mis- sissippi. In 1803 Jefferson added the vast Louisiana Territory acquired from France. In 1812-1814 West Florida was aimexed by conquest, and in 1819 East Florida was acquired from Spain, while the southern and western boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase were determined In 1836 Texas became ginning in 1807 the nonimportation acts, and later independent of Mexico and existed as the Lone- the war with England, gave American manufacturers Star State untU 1845, when it was annexed to the temporary monopoly of the home market. The United States. effect was startling. In 1807 there were 8,000 spin- dles in the cotton industry, in 1809, 80,000, and simi- lar progress was made in other lines. At the close of the war these Eastern manufacturers demanded a continuance of tlie protection that their Industries had received; and thus foimd themselves in sharp opposition to the planters of the South and the fron- tiersmen of the West. This industrial growth transformed society. The factory system produced a class of workmen, con- stantly recruited by immigration from Europe, very different from the old colonial type The city popu- lation increased. Between 1800 and 1820 the popu- lation of Boston almost doubled, and that of New York more than doubled. This working class was at flrst debarred from political life by property qualifi- cations. When at last they received the vote they natiu'aUy aligned themselves with the more demo- cratic element in the conmiimity and opposed the Federalists and then their successors, the Whigs. Political Issues and Parties. From 1816 to 1824 was an era of personal politics. By 1824 the democratic movement of the West, South, and East became powerful and by 1830 was almost everywhere successful. Andrew Jackson was its spokesman. Coming from the West, where substantial equality prevailed, he held the theory that no man had a vested right to office. Therefore he made wholesale removals of the federal officers and fastened the spoils system upon American political life. As a spokesman of the Western democracy he distrusted the second United States Bank, which was used to strengthen the financial system of the United States, but had not always kept clear of politics. He di- rected the removal of the deposits wliich the gov- ernment had made in the bank, and successfully exerted his influence to prevent a new charter. An era of wildcat banking had already set in, during which many State banks issued currency wliich proved wortliless. A financial panic oc- curred in 1837, due to loose banking based on spec- ulation in land. Protective tariffs were adopted in 1816 and again in 1824. In 1828 came the so-called tariff of abomi- nations, with still higher duties, some of which were modified by the Tariff of 1832, which, however, re- tained the protective system. In the South and es- pecially in South Carolina this policy was resented. The leaders of that State, headed by John C Cal- !K)un, therefore expoimded the theory of nullifica- tion, — that is, that a State without withdrawing from the Union might by a solemn act " nullify" an act of Congress beyond the powers granted by the Constitution. A State convention which was sup- posed to represent the sovereignty of the State de- War with Mexico Ijegan in 1846 becau,se Polk de- sired California and was glad to make use of the Texan claim to all the territory as far south and west as the Rio Grande. In this war the United States was suc- cessful; not only was the disputed territory annexed, but also California and New Mexico, being all the region south of the 42d parallel and west of the Louisiana Purchase, were conquered. This territory was rounded out by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. In Oregon joint occupation with Great Britain was renewed in 1827, but terminated in 1.S46. By a boimdarj- treaty the disputed region was divided and the part, south of 49° was confirmed to the United States. In 1842 the dispute over the Maine bound ary was settled by the Treaty. Thus, in the seventy years following the Revolution, tlie territory was quadrupled, and the United States obtained fronts on the Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific, and Great Lakes. Problem of Slavery. Back of the various politi- cal problems and policies of expansion was the ques- tion of slavery. Before the Revolution, slavery existed in every colony North and South. At the time of the adoption of the Constitution all of the New England States and Pennsslvania were on the high road toward imiversal freedom. The Constitution of 1787 had to recognize an in- stitution which then existed in eight of the States; two of the great compromises of the Constitution and several other provisions dealt with slavery . In the apportionment of taxes and of representation, slaves were to te counted as tliree fifths of their total number. Congress was forbidden to prohibit the foreign slave trade until 1808. But Congress had power to regulate slavery in the territories, and even in the District of Columbia, and dealt with the ques- tion of fugitive slaves. The word " slave " was a\oided, for many Northerners and some Southern leaders looked to the final extinction of slaverj-. The causes for the decline of slavery in the North were partly moral, partly political, and partly eco- nomic. Its sudden and imexpected growth in the South was due to cotton. In the North neither the soil nor the climate favored the increase of slavery and manufactures gave emplo>-ment to a class of laborers more intelligent than the slaves. In the South the invention of the cotton gin greatly stimu- lated the growth of cotton, for it was a staple which could be easily cultivated by ignorant and unskilled slave labor employed most of the year. Statistics show that in New England the slaves decreased from 3 763 in 1790 to about 200 in 1820. In the Middle States from 45,000 in 1790 to 18,000 in 1816. In the South on the other hand, there was an increase from ^_,^ ^__ ..^ _ ,648,651 in 1790 to 3.9.53,000 in 1860. Of the clared'the tariff acts null and'void, and prohibited | Southern States, Maryland showed a decrease of the payment of the duties levied under them, 16% between 1830 and 1860, Virginia an increase of only 4%, North Carolina an increase of 35%, but in Jackson met the issue squarely. In his nulli- ' Georgia and the Gulf States during the same period flcation proclamation of 1832 he declared " The the increase was 276%,. This declme of the border laws of the United States mast lie executed," and : States as farming commiuiities and the mcreaas of appealed to Congress to enlarge his powers so that | work and prosTierity in the South, led to a rift of m- he might enforce the law. The South Carolinians, terests and feeling within the South, realizing that lie was in earnest, held an informal j Federal Legislation concerning Slavery. meeting to suspend the operation of the nullification | Congress acted upon tlie implied permission in the ordinance. Meanwhile, Clay and Calhoun effected : Constitution and as eariy as possible passed laws a compromise tariff which was adopted by Congress, first restricting and then forbiddmg the foreign slave providing for the gradual reduction of duties to a I trade. Even before the adoption of the Constitu- The Abolition Movement. The AboUtion movement began in the colonics as early as 1700 and never ceased until its purpose was accompUshed. From 1775 to 1830 it was strong in the northern tier of slave States. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison founded a paper called The liberator, devoted to the abolition of negro slavery and established active antislavery societies. In the same year a slave In- surrection, headed by Nat Turner, broke out in Virginia. Although there was no connection be- tween the antislavery movement and this insurrec- tion, still the Southerners became apprehensive and the Southern abolition movement vanished. The Southern resentment at the discussion of slavery by the North was such that the legislature of Georgia offered a reward for Garrison's arrest and conviction. Because of fear of insurrections, tlic system of re- strictions on the Negroes commonly called the Black Code was now revised and made more drastic. From 1816 to 1S4S States were admitted to the Union in pairs, one Southern, one Northern. Thus when Texas was admitted to the Union as a slave State in 1845 it was soon counterbalanced by Iowa (1846). By the war with Mexico the United States gained the immense areas of New Mexico and Cali- fornia. The South confidently expected the new territory to be divided by the 36° 30' line. Hence, when, in 1846, the measure known as the Wilmot Proviso passed the House stipulating that in the new territory to be acquired from Mexico " neither slavery nor involimtary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, except for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly convicted — " there was an uproar. The question was solved by the accidental dis- covery of gold In California in 1848. Within two years more than 80,000 emigrants entered the cotm- try. Most of these " Forty-Nlners " were North- em or Southern men who with their own hands la- Weli's'ter-Ashburton 1 bored for gold and had no intention of competing with slaves. In November, 1849, a convention was held under the advice of President Taylor which drew up a State constitution prohibiting slavery and applied for admission to the Union as a free State. No force in Congress could resist this action of the Cahfomians. For a time the opposition to slavery conducted by the Abolitionists was mainly outside the political parties. In the election of 1840 the growing senti- ment of the North began to take the form of votes. The agitation over the Wilmot Proviso led to the fomiation of the Liberty party (1840). Its succes- sor, the Free-soil party, m 1848 nominated Van Buren for president and cast nearly 300,000 votes, out of about 3.000.000. The successful candidate in 1848 was General Zachary Taylor, a Whig from Louisiana, owner of slaves and father-in-law of Jefferson Davis. Taylor liecame convinced that the aggression was from the South. He planned to hasten the admission of Cal- ifornia and New Mexico as eitlier free or slave States as the people of each territory might determine. In the meantune Henry Clay was called from his retirement to attempt, as he had done in 1820, to settle the matter by compromise. Taylor died in July, 1850, and the scheme put forward by Clay and supported by Webster was adopted. By tliis Com- promise of 1850 California was admitted as a free State extending from Mexico to Oregon; New Mex- ico and Utah weue organized as territories without the Wilmot Proviso, but with a dubious promise that the " rights of property " were to be decided by the Supreme Court Utah was plainly destined to be- come a free State, but it was hoped that slaves could be introduced into New Mexico. The South also gained a new fugitive slave law, which was to be en- forced by Federal commissioners. This compromise was a makeshift. It could not control the sentiments of tlie people, and the at^ tempt to enforce the law in Boston caused indigna- tion and disorder. Popular feeling was still more aroused bv the publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852, Although its pic- tiu-e of slavery was not the average, its description of laiown and probable horrors gave it mipnccileiUed success, more than 300,000 copies being sold in a single year. It exercised an influence in politics be- yond that of any other book ever written in America. In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced into the Senate the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, wluch provided for the organization of the Louisiana Pur- chase north of 36° 30" and west of Missouri and Iowa into the two territories of Kansas and Ne- braska. Provision was made that the States formed EARLY TYPES OF AIRCRAFT OTTO LILIENTHAL S GLIDING MACHINE OCTAVE CHANUTE'S GLIDING MACHINE SIR HIRAM MAXIM'S STEAM FLYING MACHINE WRIGHT BROTHERS' AEROPLANE MET REQUIREMENTS USA SIGNAL CORPS JULY 27. 1909 LOUIS BLERIOTS MONOPLANE FIRST AEROPLANE TO CROSS ENGLISH CHANNEL HENRY FARMAN S AEROPLANE WON ARCHDEACON PRIZE BY SAILING A KILOMETER IN A CIRCLE ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONTS MONOPLANE -DEMOISELLE" REMARKABLE FOR ITS SMALL SIZE ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONTS DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP FIRST GAS BAG TO SUPPORT A MOTOR DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP •SIGNAL CORPS DIRIGIBLE No T BUILT BY CAPT. THOMAS L, BALDWIN RIGID AIRSHIP -ZEPPELIN ll' BUILT BY COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN. ON MAY 29-31. 1909, IT TRAVELED 850 MILES IN 36 HOURS SPAD (FRENCH) SINGLE-SEATER COMBAT BIPLANE 300 H P HISPANO SUIZA MOTOR MODEL K CURTISS AMERICAN TRIPLANE HAS MADE A SPEED OF OVER 160 MILES AN HOUR LATER T AIRG CAPRONI (ITALIAN) TRIPLANE MADE NONSTOP FLIGHT OF 1000 MILES UNITED STATES NAVY GOODYEAR NON-RIGID DIRIGIBLE 1 OBSERVATION BALLOON USED BY ARMIES TO DIRECT ARTILLERY FIRE AND BY NAVIES TO SPOT U-BOATS STANDARD BIPLANE with iso h p, hispano- SUIZA MOTOR USED TO CARRY MAIL "FRIEDRICHSHAFEN" (GERMAN) TWIN-MOTORED BIPLANE U. S..NAVY F_^5 L CURTISS SEAPLANE CURTISS "NCI ■■ UNITED STATES NAVY AIR CRUISER FIRST AMERICAN TRIMOTORED SEAPLANE. CARRIED 50 PASSENGERS FOR A FLIGHT NOV. 27. 1918 PES OF lAFT 4 , is I . if. ij ■ii 1 BLUE BIRD- (AMERICAN) BIPLANE BUILT BY CAPT. JAMES V. MARTIN. WING SPAN ONLY IS FT . WT 350 LBS BREGUET (FRENCH) TWO-SEATER BIPLANE EQUIPPED WITH RENAULT MOTOR NIEUPORT (FRENCH) SINGLE-SEATER BIPLANE EQUIPPED WITH A 120 H. P LEHHONE ROTARY MOTOR POMILIO 'ITALIAN) SCOUT BIPLANE EQUIPPED WITH 300 H P. FIAT ENGINE hii' r?- ■•■'rrr' ■ -tr-'--'"^'^^^-^'*^ ASTRA-TORRES btM i-KiL.iu DIRIGIBLE USED BY BRITISH AND FRENCH NAVIES DE HAVILAND BIPLANE 'AMERICAN DAYTON-WRIGHT TWO-SEATER 400 H. P. 12 CYLINDER LIBERTY MOTOR ACE T,PE AMERICAN BIPLANE IN AERONAUTICS WHAT THE FORD CAR IS IN AUT0M06ILING mmTiL GERMAN A.E.G (GOTHA) TWIN-MOTORED BIPLANE PFALZ (GERMAN) BIPLANE WITH 160 H. P. MERCEDES MOTOR HALBERSTADT (GERMAN) BIPLANE WITH 160 h:;p:' MERCEDES MOTOR AMERICAN BUILT HANDLEY-PAGE BIPLANE TWO LIBERTY MOTORS handley-page AIR CRUISER ibritish) FOUR ROLLS-ROYCE 360 H. P. MOTORS. WING SPAN 129 FT. FLYING BOAT STANDARD AMERICAN MODEL H S 2L •^'^'illi^ FLYING BOAT curtiss pleasure type TWO-SEATER 100 H. P. CURTISS MOTOR ■^k mm Til-' IT "'""■" ' ■ Ik:**"- EXAMPLES OF tniiiiiBKSi 33 I3l-!?'9aa" 9 ll!i.8iBna' Ijannasi" ^Tasana' Til' SEaaiaal TflTisaaia] 1. LAND TITLE AND TRUST CO. BUILDING, Philadelphia. 2. METROPOLITAN LIFE BUILDING, New York. 3. SPRECKELS BUILDING. San Francisco 11^ s "ill 11' '" >■. ruifliUl ;-:;; nil"'" <• lU in 11! ill III ni 111 111 111 111 111 111 II! Ill 111 in lu III lULUlU , 111 111 111 -;; j 111 ill III ' III 111 Ml /:!_, J3l _— lU 111 111 III uiuj lyi 'ni:ni3»; 111 III tV ifi, i^^M III III III 1 1 in in: III in in in i I III III III III III III I I III Ul III III uT ■ 8 ■ I I • HIGH BUILDINGS 1- ^ '%, K" I'-t 4. THIRD NATIONAL BANK BUILDING. St. Louis. 5. SINGER BUILDING, New York. 6. MASONIC TEMPLE. Chicago. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 161 out of this territory should be free or slave " as their constitution may prescribe at the time" This was the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty or Squatter Sovereignty. It left to the people the decision as to who should first organize the State government. It was directly contrary to the spirit and principle of the Missouri Compromise on the specious argimient that the Missouri Act was repealed by the '■ princi- ple " of the Compromise of 1S50. Immigration so- cieties were organized in both the North and the South, and settlers were hurried to Kansas. The North was more successful, and aft^r a period of vio- lence and even civil war. Kansas was admitted as a free State in IS61. In 1S56 the political party op- posed to slavery took the name of Republican party and nominated Fremont. " the Patlifinder," for president. Great enthusiasm was shown, and Fremont polled only 500.000 votes less than the suc- cessful Democratic c-andidate, Buchanan. In 1S57 opinion in the North was still further in- flamed by the decision in the Dred Scott Case. The Supreme Court held: (1) that a slave or the de- scendants of a slave could not be a citizen and, there- fore, had no standing in the United States Courts; (2) that the restriction of territorial slavery by the Missouri Compromise was imconstitutional; (3) that slave owners could carry their slaves and property into any territory. The Republicans were thus m- formed by the highest court of the land that the po- litical principles for wliich their party was formed were unconstitutional and impossible of accomplish- ment, and that even the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which embodied Douglas's principles, was misoimd. Two years later John Brown, an intense anti- slaverj'man and agitator in Kansas, thought he saw. in the possibility of Negro insurrection, a weak spot in the system of slavery. He. therefore, with a score of followers raided the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry and tried to bring in the slaves in the neighbor- hood. He was captured and hanged for treason. Although his plan involved civil war and destruction and his sentence was legally just, he was con\inced that he was doing a great service to himianity. Public opinion in the North raised him to the rank of a martyr. The South was not terrified, but for the first time realized the extent to which the Abolition- ists were readj- to go. In the presidential campaign of 1860 four candi- dates appeared. The Democratic party spUt and the Northern wing nominated Douglas; the Southern wing put forward Vice President Breckinridge. A remnant of the old Wliigs organized the Constitu- tional Union party and nominated Bell and Everett on the platform of the Constitution and the Laws. The growing Republican party nominated Abra- ham Lincoln. In the election Lincoln received 930.000 popular votes fewer than his combined op- ponents, but his majorities and phu-alities in all the free States except New Jersey gave him 180 electoral votes, and he was elected. In Congress the Repul> licans elected nine members less than a majority of the House. Secession. On the news of the election of Lin- coln the legislature of South Carolina summoned a convention which declared (Dec. 20, 1860) that " the union now subsisting between South Carohna and other States, under tlie name of ' The United States of America,' is hereby dissolved." Other Southern States followed. On February 8. 1861, delegates of South Carolina. Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida — a little later joined by Texas — met in convention at Montgom- erj-, Alabama, and established a provisional consti- tution for *' The Confederate States of Amer- ica.** Jefferson Davis was choSen president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. President Buchanan, a State-rights man, a Demo- crat, and a lifelong defender of slaverj'. advised Con- gress that secession was wrong, but that the anti- slavery men had provoked it, and that the Federal government had no right to coerce a State. He took no measures to prevent secession or to maintain the Federal control of the forts, mints, and custom- houses witliin the Confederate States. All efforts in Congress to find a basis of compromise failed: neither secessionists nor Republicans would jield. March 4. 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated. His address was conciliatory, assuring the South that slavery would not be assaulted in the slave States and that fugitive slaves ought to be restored; but he uncompromisingly asserted that the Union was per- petual and secession impossible. As to the forts and customliouses. he maintained that they must be held by the Federal authorities and that it was liisduty to enforce the laws throughout the territoo' of the United States. Major Anderson, the commander of Fort Sum- ter in Charleston Harbor, refused to deliver the fort to the State authorities and April 12, 1861. the Con- federate forces opened fire on the fort. After a two days' Iximbardment it surrendered; but the North, which had refused to believe the tlireat-s of the South, was arou-sed and gave an enthusiastic support to the President's call for 75,000 volunt^^ers. This outbreak precipitated political action in those parts of the South which had not yet seceded. Virginia. North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee at once joined the Confederacy. Delaware. Maryland. Kentucky, and Missouri remained in the Union, al- though in Kentucky and Missouri there were armed factions. The Civil War. It was plain that the region on the border between the two sections would l>e the scene of the conflict. Both the Northern and South- em armies hastened to secure tiie most advantageous positions, especially in the area south of Washing- ton. Richmond had been made the capital of the Confederacy and Northern public sentiment de- manded an attack upon it. A hastily gathered force marched southward from Washington and en July 21, 1S61. fought the battle of Bull Run, called in the South the first battle of Manassas, in which the Union army was defeated and in panic retreated to Washington. This event stimg the North and made clear the terrible gravity of the struggle. Lin- cohi issued a call for half a million men. Jefferson Davis also called for troops and both sides prepared for a bitter conflict. The fail of 1861 was spent by both armies in per- fecting their organization and disciplining their troops, and no important general action t.ook place in the East. In the West a struggle took place in Missouri wiiere. although the Southern troops were generally successful in the field, the State was pre- vented from joining the Confederacy. April 19, 1861, Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of the Southern ports. Tliis was practically a recogni- tion of formal war and at once involved the United States in complications with Eiu"opean powers. The long coast lijie of the Confederacy made the blockade difficult; but after a few months it was tightened, and many captures were made, though blockade nonners continued to enter the Southern ports till the end of the war. Lincoln's action on the blockade brought the great naval powers of France and England face to face with a decision as to the nature of the strug- gle. May 13, 1861, Great Britaui properly recog- nized the war as an actuality and issued a proclama- tion of neutrality; but then and thereafter refused to recognize the independence of the Confederacy. Relations witli Great Britain, however, were brought almost to the breaking point by the seizure of Mason and Slidell, the Confederate commis- sioners, from the British steamer Trent (1861). A conflict was avoided by the prompt retiuu of Mason and Slidell and the disavowal of the capture on a technicality by Lincoln. Nevertheless, a large party in England openly cr secretly favored the cause of the Confederacy and exerted such influence that the British government neglected to enforce its neutral- ity, and several vessels under directions of Confeder- ate agents were built or altered to serve as commerce destroyers, and were allcwed to leave British ports. The most dangerous were the Alabama. Shenandoah. and Florida, which preyed upon Union commerce. In 1872 Great Britain arbitrated the claims arising out of her negligence and paid for the damage done. The Western campaign of 1862 was favorable to the Union. General Grant captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cum- berland. Two months later New Orleans was captured by Admiral Farragut. While the Union forces were still di\ided. Grant was attacked on April 6th by General Albert S. Johnston at the terrible battle of Pittsburg Landing or Shlloh. The first day's fight was a defeat for Grant, but the Confeder- ate general was killed and Buell's army came to the rescue just in time. Two months of cautious ma- neuvering on both sides followed. In the East General George B. McClellan spent the spring in preparation and finally transferred his army to the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, aiming at Richmond. April 4. the Army of the Potomac began to move from Fortress Monroe, and for three months the campaign went on. closing with a series of engagements within sight of Rich- mond, in wliich the more brilliant successes were won by the Confederates. General Jackson, known familiarly as *' Stonewall*' Jackson, especially dis- tinguished himself . The battle of Malvern Hill held the Confederates in check while McClellan withdrew to the protection of liis gunboats. In Augu.st General Lee. now in command of the Confederate forces, moved toward Washington. A terrible battle, known as the second battle of Bull Run or Manassas, was fought on August 29 and 30, in which the Union army under General Pope was severely beaten. McClellan was summoned to Washington and his forces joined with the remnants of Popes army. Lee crossed the Potomac, but was checked at the battle of Antietam, called Sharps- burg in the South. No other decided action took place until December 13, when General Bumside, who had been appointed in McClellan's place, en- gaged Lee's army at Fredericksburg and met with great loss. On the Atlantic coast the Union forces were in pos- session of important ports. Diu-ing the peninsular campaign the new ironclad Mcrrimac. or Virginia. as the Confederates called her, entered Hampton Roads and destroyed the Union ships, Cumberland and Congress; but the next day she was attacked by the Federal ironclad, the Monitor, " a cheese box on a raft," designed by John Ericsson and constructed within a hundred days. This first battle between ironclads ultimately revolutionized naval warfare. The Eastern campaigns of the Union forces had been imsuccessful. but the victories of p-arragut and Grant had more than compensated for these defeats. Emancipation. Early in the war Congress, ig- noring the Dred Scott decision, prohibited slavery in the District of Columbia and the territories. September 23. 1862, President Lincoln issued a pre- liminar>' proclamation which was followed on Janu- ary' 1, 1803, by a formal emancipation proclama- tion, freeing all slaves within the territory held by the Confederate States. This action was based upon the power of the President to conduct the war and to weaken the Southern forces by reducing slave labor. Up to this time the Republican party, or the Union party, as it was sometimes called, put in the fore- ground that it was fighting for the preservation of the Union; and slavery was not directly affected in the foiu* lojal border slave States. By the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1865. slaverj- and involuntarj^ servitude were prohibited tluoughout the United States and all places subject to its jurisdiction. This was the first amendment to be added since 1804. The Western war in 1863 turned to the advantage of the North. The battle of Murfreesboro, Ten- nessee (January 1. 1S63), left the Union force in pos- session of the field. The great object in the West was now the opening of the Mississippi, and General Grant began a series of operations for the capture of Vlcksburg. which surrendered on July 4, 1863, so that the Mississippi ran. as Lincoln said. " unvexed to the sea." Meanwhile, under General Hooker, the Army of the. Potomac in the East suffered a great reverse at ChancellorsTille (iSIay 2-3, 1863); and Lee shortly after invaded Pennsylvania Meade was placed at the head of the great Union force which confronted Lee at Gettysburg. During the first three days of July was fought what is generally regarded as the decisive battle of the war. Lee was repulsed and fell back across the Potomac. In the West the Union army commanded by Rosecrans was badly defeated at Chlcbamauga (September 19-20). Grant was placed at the head of the Western armies and organized a powerful movement which led to the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge and drove the Confederate forces out of southern Teimessee. Grants success led to his appointment as lieuten- ant general and commander of all the Union forces, leaving the Western army in command of Sherman, Grant opened the campaign in the East by attacking Lee's army in the terrible battle of the Wilderness, May, 1864. During the next six weeks Grant fought a series of battles which resulted in heavy losses, es- pecially on the Union side. Lee was driven back to Petersburg, the key to Richmond, but held his tines for many months. But the Union losses could be replaced by fresh troops, while the strength of the Confederate army was permanently diminished. In the West Sherman started a movement south from Chattanooga. He was opposed by Johnston, a general second only to Lee in ability. After three months of almost continual fighting Sherman suc- ceeded in reaching Atlanta. On November 16 began his famous ** March to the Sea" across Georgia, ending at Savannah, December 21. Sherman's campaign cut the Confederacy in two. besides devas- tating some of its most fertile territory. February" 1. Sherman started northward, while Grant, whose army had been strengthened, attacked Lee. Hoping to divert Grant. Lee dispatched Jubal Early with a body of Confederate troops through the Shenandoah Valley across the Potomac, and they reached the defenses of Washington, but were halted there. Grant dispatched Sheridan to flank Early and devastate the Shenandoah Valley. Early in April Lee was forced to abandon his de- fenses, and a few days later was stopped and sur- rounded by Grant and Sheridan at Appomattox Court House. Here Lee. seeing further resistance hopeless, surrendered his whole army. April 9. A few days later Johnston surrendered to Sherman (April 26) . The terms of surrender were such as had never before l)een granted to the defeated party at the end of a great civil war. The Confederate sol- diers were required to lay do\vn their arms and to cease from hostility. Grant generously allowed the men wiio had horses to retain them. Reconstruction. At the outbreak of the war Lincoln and the Republicans generally denied that a State could secede and leave the Union. The war forced the seceding States to accept the contention of the North as a physical fact ; but the emancipation of the slaves was a profound change in the social and economic conditions of the South, both in the Confed- erate States and the loyal slave States. The Thir- teenth Amendment put both regions on an equality in this respect ; but three other questions pressed for 162 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. N settlement: (1) the status of the seceded States; (2) ' expecting to make a test case for the Supreme the status of the Southern whites; (.3) the status of ' Ootut. For tliis Johnson was impeached by the the Negroes. j House of Representatives, but after a long trial was Were the secedmg States out of the Union? Or acquitted by the Senate. His real offense was in were they simply regular States in wliicii insurrec- i obstinately differing with the party m power, tions had occurred and unlawful governments been j The Fourteenth Amendment went into force in founded? If they were States then tlie a-ssent of 27 July, 1868. General Grant, the Kepubhcan candidate u w states was necessary for the ratification ol the Thir- teenth Amendment. If the States were out of the Union and had been reduced to a territorial basis. Congress might require them to ratify as a requisite for readmission. President Lincoln held that the discussion of the question of whether the States were out of the Union or not was " bad as the basis of controversy and good for nothing at all." The States in question were " out of their practical relation with the Union " and the sole object of the government should lie " to get them into that proper practical relation." His plan for reconstruction, proposed in 1S64, also took accomit of the personal status of participants In the Confederacy. He offered amnesty to aU per- sons (except certam classes) who would take the oath to support the Constitution and the new state of things. Whenever one tenth of the voters m any State should organize a genuine republican form of government, the president was ready to recognize them. Tile tw^o houses of Congress, however, could not be denied the privilege to act as sole judge as to whether they would admit senators and representa- tives from such State governments. It was a frightful misfortime to both North and South when (April 14, 1805) President Lincoln was assassinated by the agent of a band of con- spirators embittered by the failure of the South. The immediate result was to deepen a sense of the peril wliich still lay in the system of slavery. The presidency went to the vice president, An- drew Johnson. He had l)een a Democrat before the war and still believed in State sovereignty, but he beheved also in the Union. He was a man of great courage, with good intentions which he ex- pressed with such violence that he alienated many who would othenvise have supported him President Jolmson worked on the lines of Lincoln's reconstniction policy and had succeeded in most States. By the time Congress assembled ( December, 1865), Johnson had ready a new group of Southern State governments which had joined in ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment, so that slavery was extinct throughout the United States. At first the large Republican majorities in both houses were inclined to proceed in harmony with the President. But the radicals, under the leadership of Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, caused Congress to break with the President and omitted from the roll call the names of the newly elected representa- tives from the recognized Southern States. The Republicans held a two-thirds majority in both houses and were therefore able to override any presi- dential veto- They turned their attention especially to the status of the Negroes, whom they feared the recon- structed States would keep in a conditicn of vassal- age. These fears were strengthened by the passage of State " Vagrant Acts " which discriminated against the Negroes. To protect the Negroes Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which declared that " all persons bom or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." This directly reversed Taney's decision in the Dred Scott Case. Still further to protect the freedmen the amend- ment included clauses forbiddmg any State " to abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; or to deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." This removed the protection of the freedmen from State to Federal courts. This Fourteenth Amend- ment, which was based on a previous Civil Rights Act, was proposed to the States in Jime, 1866, but was rejected by all the Southern States except Ten- nessee. Congress was ready in the spring of 1867 with a comprehensive plan of reconstruction passed over the President's veto. The act of 1867 divided all the late Confederate States (except Tennessee) into military districts under the command of army officers. Under their direction white and black alike (except those classes excluded by the Four- teenth Amendment) were admitted to vote for dele- gates to State constitutional conventions, wliich must frame a ccnstitution including Negro suffrage. When this was done the voters could choose a legis- lature, which must ratify the Fourteenth Amend- ment. When this process was completed the State was to be allowed to return to the Union. President Johnson, who had attempted by vetoes to check every step in this congressional plan for re- construction, was distnisted by Congress lest through his power of appointment and removal he might thwart its plans. To insure success Congress passed the Tenure of Offlce Act, which made removals con- tingent upon the approval of the Senate. John- for the presidency, was elected on a platform ap- proving the congressional pohcy of reconstruction In 1869 the Fifteenth Amendment was proposed, which declared that " The right of citizens of the United States to vote shaU not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on accoimt of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The ratification of this amendment, as well a.'^ the Four- teenth, was made a conchtion for the readmission of Virgmia. Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia. Al- though the Fifteenth Amendment was declared in force March. 1870, it was not until 1871 that the last of the Confederate States was restored to its full rights. The congressional policy of reconstniction ex- pected Republican supremacy in the South ttoough the Negro vote, which became the prey of imscnipu- lous leaders and some of the governments there organized fell into extravagance and corruption. State debts rapidly increased and State credit de- clined. The Southern whites, although reluctantly accepting the Foiuieenth and Fifteenth Amend- ments, resolved that the Negroes should not control. They organized a secret poUtical organization tliroughout the South, called Ku-Klux Klan, to ter- rorize the blacks, and speedily regained control of most of the State governments. This disturbance continued throughout the administration of Presi- dent Grant. The election of 1S76 was in doubt for more than four months. The imquestioned electoral vote:S stood 184 for Tilden, Democratic candidate, and 166 for Hayes, Repubhcan The IS votes cf Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina and one vote in Oregon were disputed. No method of ter- minating the dispute was provided by the Consti- tution and Congress fuially created an Electoral Commission which declared, by a majority of 8 to 7 on all critical questions, that Hayes was elected. President Hayes withdrew the troops from the South (April, 1877); henceforth the freedmen were left to their own resources and to the courts to ob- tain their civil and political rights. Congress, which was now Democratic, attempted to repeal the various laws wliich protected the Ne- groes in their right to vote. In this attempt they were partially successful, but the last of the Force Laws were not repealed tmtil 1890. A new method of assuring white supremacy was now proposed. Complicated voting systems and registration and poU taxes disposed of most of the Negro vote. In seven States other steps were taken to assure the control of tlie whites. The first was the Missis- sippi Constitution of 1890, ordamed and established without reference to the voters for ratification, which set up alternative conditions for voting, one of which was that the voter should be able to read or understand any section of the Constitution. Provi- sions of this sort when applied by white registration officers effectually disfranchised most Negroes. Since an educational qualification might be en- forced upon the whites, Louisiana, in 1896, adoi)ted a *' Grandfather Clause '* whereby a person who by grants of money, credit, and land by State and local governments. This expansion included fraud and corruption, in wliich some pubUc officials were mvolved. The building of these roads was often a great speculation, and fortunes were made; but in many instances the small investors were wiped out. After the period of construction there followed a period of combination. Begiiming in 1869 with the union of the Hudson River and New York Cen- tral lines, great systems were brought together in both the East and West. This was also an era of Inventions wliich revolutionized transportation and mdustry. For example, air brakes. Pullnian cars, and railway signals were introduced; Bell's tele- phone was put in operation in 1875, arc lights m 1879, incandescent lights in 18S2; and electric street railways were in successful operation in 1885. Social Transformation. This economic revo- lution brought about a transformation in society, which included several significant elements. The first was industrial capital which, as contrasted w ith agricultuie, increased enormously m amount and in poUtical power. The second was a new distribu- tion of the population. The majority were no longer foiuid on farms, but were wage workers. The drift to the cities checked the normal growth of the rural regions. In 1890, 31.6% of the popula- tion lived in towns of over 2,500; in 1900, 40 5% ; in 1910, 46.3% ; m 1920. over one half. In the forty years after the Civil War, New York tripled in pop- ulation, San Francisco uicreased more than sixfold, Chicago more than tenfold. Another altering force was the eflect of demand for labor m stimulating immigration. In 1870 387,000 unmigrants arrived in the United States ; in 1880, 457,000; in 1882, 788.000; while to the three yeai-s between 1905 and 1907 more than a million came each year. In oil more than 33,000,000 immi- grants came to the United States between 1820 and 1920. Great Britain and Ireland furnished more than any single country, s.000,000 in all; Germany came next with more than 5,000,000, and the Scandi- navian immigration added 2.000,000. About 1900, Russia, Italy, and the southern European coimtries began to send large numbers; and in all more than 3,000,000 have come from the coimtries imder the control of the former Austro- Hungarian Monarchy, 3,000,000 from Russia, and 3.000,000 from Italy. On the Western coast about 200,000 have come from Japan and 288,000 Chinese arrived liefore the Exclusion Act of 1883. The industrial revolution and foreign immigration acted together to force large numbers of people into prbietarlat, a large population living in tene- ments and rented houses, suffering povertj- and deg- radation. The emploj-ment of women and children in factories on the one hand, the organization of the working class into trade-imions and other groups on the other, led to demands for legislation to mitigate the evils. At length the opposition to the labor system reached the form of an attack on the industrial system itself. As a result of tliis social and economic revolution the industrial class liecame a political factor. Trade-unions, which came into existence about 1800, were organized in many lines of industry and included millions of members. The Labor Reform party appeared in 1872, and a few years later the Knights of Labor attempted a consolidation o! all trades and classes of workers, and demanded voted in 1867 or before, or the son or grandson of i an eight-hour day and other reforms. In 1877 the such a person, might vote. The Supreme Court first great railroad strike occurred, and Pittsburgh held in 1915 that a similar clause in the Oklahoma i for a time fell almost completely into the hands of the constitution was unconstitutional, but tliroughout the Southern States the whites remain in pohtical control. The Economic Revolution. Long before the Civil War steam and machinery transformed large portions of the North into manufacturing regions, and the creed of protection was made a political is.sue for the benefit of these industries. In tlie fifty years following the Civil War the advance in industry and commerce was tremendous. In 1905 over twelve billion doUars was invested in factories; and the total value of the manufactured products was more than fourteen billion doUars — fifteen times the amoiuit turned out in 18ti0. As late as 1882 hundreds of thousands of tons of steel rails were im- ported annually into the United States, but ten years later mere than fifteen thousand tons were an- nually ex-ported. Railway construction advanced even more rapidly than the growth of the population and the increa.se in manufacturing. In the decade between 1860 and 1870 the mileage of railroads increased by more than two thirds. In the next two decades it increased fivefold; and in 1910 there were 242,000 miles of railroad, more than eight times the mileage of 1S60. The early railroads were constnicted on the important lines of transit; but they soon were pushed Into the West, where there were no large cities. This rapid expansion was not due solely to private enterprise, but was aided and stimulated by lavisli son nevertheless removed Stanton, secretarj- of war, ' grants of pubUc land by the Federal government and strikers. From this time on strikes, often accom- panied by violence, were a regular part of the strug- gles between the employer and the employee. The most significant result of the industrial trans- formation was the rise of enormous combinations in transportation and industry. The largest and most profitable lines of business were passing from individual to corporate ownership. The next step was to combine the corporations mto still larger imits, commonly called trusts, wliich possessed greater resources and exercised greater uifluence. In 1882 the Standard Oil Trust was organized, and the stocks of several competing corporations were placed m the hands of tnistees, who managed the properties as a whole and distributed the profits pro rota. This method proved attractive and was followed by similar organizations in cotton, oil, Ih:- seed oil. lead, sugar, whisky, and cordage. Where the tnist method was not followed, vast new corpora- tions were formed which purchased the securities of other coiiiorations and thus controlled their proper- ties and managed the industry as a wkole. By this method enormous amounts of securities were issued, oftentimes upon purely fictitious values, which en- couraged sj^eculation of the wildest sort. jNIoreover, in the necessity for paying dividends upon these securities the corporations attempted to crush competition and to control, if not to increase, prices. Special privileges were demanded from legislatures, and corporations were in a position to exercise political influence. Attempts were made on the part of the States to regulate and control the trusts, but with little success. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 163 Development of the West. In 1876 the Far Western States. Oregon. California, and Nevada, were separated from tlie States of tlie Middle West by a l)road wedge of territories: Wasliington, Idaho. RIontana, Wyoming. Utali, Arizona. New Me.xico. Dakota, and the Indian Territory. In 1S70 the combined population of these territories was under lialf a niilhsn. This region was devoted almost en- tirely to cattle raismg. but the small farmers were Ijegiimmg to take up government land and to fence off the more fertile fields and watercourses. The building of the great transcontinental railroads opened up this region to settlement, and the territo- ries developed more rapidly than the older States had dene. From 1889 to 1S96. seven new States were formed from this area. Tile Economic Development of the South. The emancipation of the slaves and the devastation wrought by the Civil War made it necessary to re- constmct the industry of the South. The few re- maining old plantations of large size were mostly subdivided. In 1860, the average holding of land in the Southern States had been 335 acres: in 1880 it was 153. and in 1900 it had fallen to 138. The fluid capital of 1860 was invested in Confederate seciui- ties, which became wortliless: and the demand for new capital could only be satisfied by large amoimts from the North. Railroads were reiiuilt, cities ex- tended, and cotton factories, blast furnaces, and ii'on and steel works set up. For the first time the South became an industrial region. In 1860, there were but 300,000 cotton spindles in that section: in 1900 there were 4.000,000, while the number of employees had increased tenfold and the value of the output nearly twelvefold. In West Virginia and Alabama coal and iron and steel indus- tries developed so rapidly that Alabama, which had stood tenth among the i)ig-iron producing States in 1.880. ranked third in 1890. The social effects of the industrial change w*ere significant: political leaders began to be di"awn from industry- :ukI business as well as from agriculture. Thi^ rapid industrial growth and mutual cooperation in l)u>ine'^s and investments did much to heal the breach between the North and South and to imite the country. Changes In Politics and Law. This economic and industrial development in both sections brought in a new type of public otflrial. Statesmen like Clay, Webster, and Callioun were succeetled by men of the type of Conkling, Piatt. Gorman, Quay, and Blaine. Congress was more and more composed of practical men who either had organized or had as- sisted m the organization of great railways and indus- tries and other enterprises which contrnlltd nutnral resources and franchises. They were con\ iiicrl that the prosperity of the coimtry depended upon the development of these industries and resources. They demanded the widest possilile extension of the rights of private property and the narrowe.=t re- striction of the State. They believed that the nat- ural resources of the coimtry should be transferred to private ownership, and that intangil^le assets like franchises should be transformed into private prop- erty. They supported their theory of property by a theory of law and politics, which, while protecting property against disorder and furnishing public aid for private enterj^rises, regarded State interference with this property as an evil to be resisted. Judicial Review under the Fourteenth Amendment. For many years the only attempts to control or regulate the industrial and economic system were made by the States. Some years after the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, efforts were made to apply its terms to restrict the actions of the States. The words " No State shall make or enforce any law which shaU abridge the privileges oi- immu- nities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, lilierty. or property, without due process of law: nor deny to any person within its jirisdiction the equal protection of the laws " were supposedly framed to protect the Ne- groes against injustice by the States. The amend- ment certainly transfeiTcd a great area of power to the Federal government. Hence, property owners appealed to it to protect their interests. Thus, the word " person " was held to include artificial persons, such as corporations, which, therefore, could not be deprived of property without due process of law. Due process of law gradually came to mean that the Supreme Court of the United States would make it a practice to review State legislation and to test its reasonatilene.ss. A serious question was that of rates charged by public- service corporations. The courts held that rates which were so low as to make any retxim impossible were confiscatory and thus against due process of law; then, that rates which deprived the owners of a " customarj' " return were likewise deprivations of property. Gradually it became a settled doctrine Miat all State legislation affecting private property was subject to judicial review, and that private prop- erty should be free from all interference, except such as might be allowed by the Supreme Court of I the United States. This was in reality a novel doc- trine: but the alternative was the regulation of prop- erty and busmess rights by forty-eight different State legislatm-es, which would have led to uidustrial and economic anarchy. The power of judicial review has been applied not only to property, but also to social and remedial legislation. Thus, the Supreme Court has asserted its right to review and occasionally to reverse the de- cision of the State courts and State legislatiu'es upon the hmitations of hours of labor and other laws at- tempting to alter or remedy social and industrial conditions. Parties and Party Issues from 1877 to 1896. From 1861 to 1889 was an era of Kepublican control. Diu-ing it the Democrats held the presidi'ncv- for only four years out of twenty-eight. Tlie Republican party, originally a minorit>' party of protest, was transformed by the Civil War hito the majority party, which felt sure that on its success depended the preservation of the Union and the salvation of society. The liigh tariff required by the financial necessities of the Civil War was graduaUy raised to a party doctrine and was supported by the influence and campaign subscriptions cf the con^orations affected. The skillful and honest management by Republican officials of the national debt caused by the war attracted fuianciers; and the farmers of the West owed their homes to the generous public-land policy ol the Republicans. The Democratic party fcr a time seemed dis- credited by the Civil War. bi|t its principles had such vitality that it succeeded in gaining a majority in the House of Representatives in 1874, and it almost gained the presidency in 1876. The administration of Hayes was colorless, and he was hampered by a Democratic House of Representatives. In 18.80 a section of the Republicans vainly tried to nominate General Grant for a third term, to revive their wan- ing popularity. The next Republican president, James A. Garfield, of Ohio, received a popular vote only 7,000 greater than that of his Democratic rival. General Hancock. After Garfield's death by assas- sination in 1881, he was succeeded (September, 1881) by the vice president, Chester A. Arthur, who ad- ministered the office with dignity and ability, but could not make headway against the rising distrust toward the Republican party. In 1.884 the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine, a man of ability who had had a brilliant career in the House of Representatives and was possessed of a magnetic personality. Unfortu- nately, he had used his political power for the private ends of some of his friends. The Democrats nomi- nated Grover Cleveland, governor of New York. Many reform Republicans, commonly caUed "mug- wumps," refused to support Blaine and went over to the Democratic candidate. Cleveland was elected, though the shifting of a thousand votes in New York woidd have given the victory to the Republicans. Cleveland's first two years were negative rather than positive. He used the veto more freely than any other American president, chiefly to check pri- vate pension bills. He succeeded in recovering more than 80,000,000 acres of public land from illegal claimants. He was the first to treat the labor prob- lem in a special message. The most significant .statute passed in his administration, the Interstate Commerce Lawof 1.887, was not a partisan measure. Throughout his admmistration he was hampered by a Republican Senate and by the divisions within Ids own party in the House of Representatives. Cleveland became satisfied that the tariff was dangerous to the coimtry. and in 1887 he made it an issue on which he hoped to imite his own party and defeat the Republicans in the campaign of 1888. The Repulilicans nominated Benjamm Harrison, whose campaign was managed by a political boss and by a capitalist who raised a large sum from the inter- ests protected by the tariff. Harrison was elected by an electoral plurality of 65, although Cleveland polled a greater popular vote; and the Republicans .succeeded in gaining control of both houses of Con- gress. Their narrow majority in the House of Represent- atives caused Speaker Reed to " coimt a quonim," a practice thereafter embodied in the rules. Thus organized, the Republicans at once prepared a bill called the McKlnley Tariff, after the man who had charge of it. The tariff of 1890, based upon the the- ory of high protection, was the Republican answer to Cleveland's demand for tariff reform In the same year, in response to the outcry against the big corporationsandtruststhe.'ihernian Antitrust Law was passed. An attempt was made to hold the West- ern States and the silver wing of the party by the passage of the Sherman Act, which provided for the purchase of 4,500,000 oimces of silver each month, to be paid for in notes redeemable in silver or gold at the option of the government. In the campaign of 1892 both parties renominated the candidates of 1888, but Harrison was decisively defeated. For the first time since 1872, a third party polled a significant vote — 1 ,000,000 votes cast i for the Populist candidate. Weaver. Cleveland's second administration began in 1S93 with what appeared to lie an era of prosix^rit.y; but beneath the surface were serious financial and indus- trial difficulties. The revenues were declining and the government was facing a deficit at a time when there was a stringency m the gold market. The gold reserve, which the government maintained to redeem United States notes, diminished rapidly. Finally, on October 30, 1893, the Sherman silver law was repealed and some relief obtained. The industrial condition of the coimtry was also bad. Never l^efore had the evil of imemployment been so widespread in the United States; and Coxey's Army of the luiemployed. which plaimed to march to Washington as a protest, was felt to be a dangerous symptom. Reduction in wages pro- duced strikes, chief of which was the Pullman strike of 1894 at Cliicago, which for a time para- lyzed the raih-oads and led to the interference of Federal troops against the protest of Governor Alt- geld of Illinois. In this strike the Federal courts granted an injunction against the president of the union, Eugene V. Debs, who went to prison for per- sistmg in the direction of the strike contrary to the commands of the court. The most important piece of legislation was the Wilson Tariff of 1894, including an income tax designed to make up for loss of revenue by a reduced tariff, a provision which in 1895 was declared imcon- stitutional by the Supreme Court. The tariff bill was so altered in the Senate that President Cleve- land refused to sign it, but allowed it to become a law without his signature. Minor Parties. WhUe the two great parties attempted to concentrate public attention upon the tariff other issues, especially social and economic problems, were constantly being discussed and re- forms urged. Since these questions were ignored by the old parties, minor parties took them up, beginning in the Reconstriiction period. The Greenbacli Party. During the Civil War there were issued about 84.50,000,000 in United States notes, popularly known as greenbacks. Begiiming in 1866, an attempt was made to redeem these, but tills was checked by Congress within a year. The arguments in opposition to the retirement of the greenbacks were those which have always beeii used for the expansion of the currency: to reduce the cir- culating medium would increase the value of coin and cause prices to fall. To pay ah the greenbacks a bonded debt must be substituted, thus increasing the interest charges, and causing increased taxation. The debtor class would suffer, while the holders of bonds or other obligations paying a fixed income would receive relatively much more. In 1.876 a National Greenback convention was held and Peter Cooper, of New York, was nomi- nated for president. The Greenbaekers differed from the old parties, not only on monetary questions, but also on social and economic legislation. Thus, in 1880, when their candidate received over 300,000 votes, they advocated labor legislation of an ad- vanced type, Chinese exclusion, and the regulation of interstate commerce for the benefit of the shipper. This party ceased to e.xist after 1884, but the discon- tented elements which went to make it up were ab- sorljed by the newly formed People's party. The 16-to-l Silver Men held ideas similar to the Greenbaekers'. In 1792 gold and silver were coined at the ratio of 15 to 1 : this proved too low for gold, which was driven out of circulation. In 1834 the ratio was established at 16 to 1, which proved an overvaluation for gold, so that little silver was of- fered for coinage. In 1873, when silver had practi- cally ceased to circulate, silver was demonetized and the gold dollar made the basis of the monetary sys- tem. Meantime, the production of silver increased immensely, while its use in coinage was discontinued. The result was that the price of sliver declined and the silver-mine owners demanded that a govern- ment which protected manufactures should give them aid by resuming the coinage of silver. These demands were rei^nforced by those of the debtor class, who demanded cheap and abimdant money with which to pay their debts. The West was in debt to the East and believed that the gold standard worked against them and for the banker. Both the Republicans and Democrats were di- vided on this issue. In 1878 the Bland-Allison Act provided that the secretary of the treasury should buy not less than two million dollars' worth of silver each month, to be coined into silver dollars. This was altered by the Sherman Act of 1890, which required the purchase of 4,500,000 ounces of silver a month. Silver was overproduced and stead- ily fell in price — gold went almost out of circular tion. and it was with great difficulty that Cleveland accomplished the repeal of this act (1893) which threatened to empty the treasury. Labor Parties. The organization of labor began as early as 1865. In 1870 labor reform parties nominated candidates for governor m Massachusetts and New Hampshire. In 1872 a candidate for the presidency was nominated by a national convention. These attempts to utihze the political influence of 164 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. u labor failed and the labor reformers were absorbed Nby the Greenback party. The Socialist Labor party was organized In 1892, but has never recei\'cd a large number of votes, the maximum being 39.000 in 1900. It was the most radical of all parties and because of its verj- radicalism has failed to unite the working class. The Socialist party, which first nominated can- didates in 1900, is less radical than the Socialist _. Labor party and has attracted far wider support. O In 1900 it received 87,000 votes: in 1908. 420,000; in 1912, 900,000. It has succeeded also in electing oc- casional representatives to Congress, but has had no appreciable effect in presidential campaigns, since it draws its strength from both of the great parties- The Populists. In the sixties was organized a secret society called the " Patrons of Husbandry," P commonly known as the " Grangers," which at- tempted to improve the conditions of tlie farmers. Of itself it accomplished much in the way of State railway legislation, but on national issues it united with the Greenbackers. The first national focus of agrarian discontent was the People's, or Populist, party, which was the combination of the National Farmers' Alliance, tlie Industrial Union, organized Qin Texas in 1875, and the National Farmers' Alliance of Illinois, organized in 1880. The aggregation grew very rapidly and in 1890 claimed a membership of over tliree million. The People's convention of 1S92 put lonvard the most radical platform ever adopted by any American party. Among the planks were free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 : additional United States notes imtil the circulating medium J^ should amoimt to 8,^0 per capita: and a graduated income tax to compel holders of wealth to contribute their proportional share to the expenses of the gov- ernment. In the campaign of 1892 they cast a mil- lion votes and chose twenty-two electors, and the party was represented in Congress by three senators and eleven representatives. SThc Campaign of 1896. Gradually these irregu- lar movements came together for the campaign of 1896. During his second administration. President Cleveland failed to held the confidence of his party and was bitterly attacked by the radical wing. In the Democratic convention of 1896, this wing gained control and adopted a platform favoring the free and imrestricted coinage of silver, denoimcing the tariff, and attacking the Supreme Court for its decision on ^ the income tax case and the lower Federal courts for the use of injimctions in labor disputes. This plat- form was enthusiastically supported by William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, in his famous " Cross of Gold " speech which won for him the nomination of the party. The Populist party also nominated Bryan. The Republican convention was controlled by the conservatives and, although nearly a himdred dele- gates who favored the free coinage of silver seceded, a platform favoring the maintenance of the gold standard was adopted. The Republicans hoped to focus the attention of the campaign upon the tariff, but the radical nature of the Democratic platform and its frank appeal to class prejudice, divided the parties sharply along class lines. The gold stand- ard was made the most prominent issue. The V Republican campaign was ably managed by Marcus A. Hanna, who introduced into the political cam- paign the efficiency he had shown in business. The Republican candidate, McKlUley, was elected by a popular majority of less than 500.000 over the Democrats and all other parties. For Congress, the Republicans elected a safe, but by no means imited, majority. Although the conservatives triumphed, »A/ the large popular vote which the Populist and Demo- '■■ cratic candidates secured showed that new issues were entering into political life; but the solution of these questions was postponed by the Spanish Amer- ican "War and the resulting imperialism. United States as a World Power. The Civil "War altered the international position of the United -- States. It showed that the military and naval re- 7v sotirces of tlie nation were so great that no other state was likely to challenge it. It left several diplo- matic controversies with Great Britain. The long dispute over the northwestern boundary was finally settled by the award of the emperor of Germany in 1872. More important was the question of Great Britain's liability for the damage done to American commerce by the Alabama and other Confederate •y cruisers built or altered in Great Britain and allowed ■ to use the colonial ports. Finally, by the Treaty of Washington (1S71) Great Britain practically ad- mitted Iter responsibihty ; tiiese claims were referred to an arbitration commission wliich met at Geneva, and in 1872 awarded the United States $15,500,000. "With France the United States became involved because of the attempt of Napoleon III. to defy the _ Monroe Doctrine and to establish an empire in Mex- JL ico, imder Maximilian. At the close of the war, France listened to the warning of the United States and withdrew her support, and the short-lived Mexi- can Empire fell. Again in 1895 affairs with Great Britain were strained by President Cleveland's asser- tion that the Monroe Doctrine was international law for the world, and applied to a boimdary dispute in Venezuela. Great Britain was at last aroused to the necessity of an imderstanding with the United States for the safety of the empire. Arbitratiop was accepted, but far beyond tills peaceful adjustment was the changed tone of British statesmco and peo- ple toward the United States. In 1895 the Cubans revolted against the oppres- sion of the Spanish governors; this rising interfered with the business between the United States and Cuba and also forced our government to take strin- gent measures to maintain neutrality. The Span- iards were imable to suppress the revolt, and adopted cruel measiu-es in dealing with the revolutionists, who in their turn depended on guerrilla warfare and destruction and could not win sufllcient success to warrant recognition even as belligerents. In 1898 the American battleship, Maine, was destroyed in the harbor of Havana, by what agency was never re- vealed; and the demand for intervention became ir- resistible. April 19. 1898, Congress adopted a reso- lution recognizing the independence of Cuba, de- manding the immediate withdrawal of Spain from the island, and authorizing the president to use the military and naval forces to carry out the resolution On April 25 Congress declared that war had existed since April 21, the day on wiiich the American am- bassador was dismissed from the Spanish Court. The war was brief, and resiUted ui an overwhelm- ing victor-y for the United States. On May 1 Com- modore Dewey attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. May 25. the American fleet blockaded Santiago and on June 10 the invasion of Cuba was begun at Ciuantanamo Bay near Santi- ago. Jitly 1-2, the outer defenses of Santiago were captured by the American fleet and the ne.xt day Ad- miral Cervera's fleet was destroyed by the Ameri- can fleet imder command of Admiral Sampson. The only niilitarj- officer who attracted public atten- tion was Theotlore Roosevelt, who seired as colonel of a cavalry regiment popularly called the Rough Riders. Santiago surrendered July 17. and General Miles began the easy conquest of Porto Rico; while on August 13 the city of Manila surrendered to General Merritt and Admiral Dewey. The taking of Manila occurred the day after a protocol was signed at Wasliingtou suspending hos- tilities, and on December 10, l.s'.i.s, the Treaty of Paris was signed. By this treaty Spain relinquished all sovereignty over Cuba, and ceded to the United States Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands, while the United States agreed to pay to Spain $20,000,000. As a result of the war with Spain the United States assumed a new position in international affairs. It was in possession of Asiatic territorj% the Piiilipplies. It had become sponsor for the in- dependence of Cuba, and for law and order in that island, thereby establishing a protectorate. E\"en more important, the United States by inter\'ention departed from the traditional policy of isolation and was soon involved in European affairs. February 4. 1S99, the Filipinos attacked the American forces at Manila and began an aimoying guerriUa warfare which lasted until 1902. The Panama Canal. During the war with Spain the spectacular voyage of the Oregon from California around South America to Cuba showed the inconvenience and danger of having the Ameri- can fleet separated by the continent. Demands were made that the isthmus should be cut by a canal which the United States should control. The Clay- ton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with Great Britain pre- vented this, for it recognized the equal interests of the United States and Great Britain in the construc- tion, use, and neutrality of any canal on any route. During the eighties there were frequent diplomatic negotiations with Great Britain, looking to the ex tension of the privileges of the United States in that region, but nothing was accomplished. In 1901, however, the Hay-Paunccfote Treaty aimulled the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and allowed the United ,states to construct and control the canal. The United States of Colombia, of which Panama was a province, refused to ratify a satisfactory agree- ment, and Panama revolted in 1903 and established a republic. This republic was recognized by Presi- dent Roosevelt, and a treaty was negotiated by which the United .States is given full sovereignty over a strip of land ten miles wide. In the Orient, the influence of the United States was lent to the preservation of the integrity of the Chinese Empire, and Secretary Hay in notes sent to London, Berlin, and Saint Petersburg urged that the " open-door " policy be accepted, by which no foreign power should gain exclusive rights in the em- pire. The dangerous condition of China was empha- sized by the Boxers in 1900, when the European powers, Japan, and the United States were obliged to send troops in order to protect their legations. The most serious danger, however, was experienced in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). which was brought to a close through the mediation of Presi- dent Roosevelt. Japan retained control of Korea and the Russian fortress of Port Arthur. "With Latin America the United States had as- sumed new relations. The Monroe Doctrine as in- terpreted by the United States prevented European nations from interfering in the affairs of the South American repubUcs. As interpreted by President Roosevelt, it made the United States the sponsor for their good behavior, and in three instances — Santo Domingo, Nicaragua, and Haiti ^protector- ates were established in order to preserve order and compel the states to make reparation. In the cases of Cuba and Panama the United States felt that their interests were so c!o.sely botmd up with those of the United States that it was justifled in assuming virtual control. Pan-American conferences have been held, the last in 1915, in order to cement the re- lations between the Western republics and to re- move causes of misimdcrstanding. With Mexico, relations have licen strained almost to the point of war. In 1910 Porflrio Diaz was in- augurated president for the seventh consecutive term, but was compelled by a rising tide of re-\olu- tion to resign, and Madero was elected president. He was deposed and miu-dered by General Huerta, whose administration the United States refused to recognize. In 1914 American forces landed and took possession of Vera Cruz, and Huerta resigned. The United States finally lent its influence to the party of Carranza, who succeeded in establishing a government, which, however, was imable to main- tain peace in the face of the rebellion of Villa. In 1916 the United States dispatched a punitive expedi- tion into Mexico, and war seemed likely, but al- though affairs remained in an unsatisfactory state, the United States allowed the Mexicans to attempt to solve their own problems. Prosperity and Discontent. The period from 1S96 to 1912 differs remarkably from other periods of the political and economic life of the coimtrj' in two respects. First, large economic interests, or " big business," very frankly attempted to control the government. Second, this attempt was met by coimtcrmoves to control business, first by the ordi- nary constitutional legislative method, and finally by the attempt to make radical changes in the system of government. From 1896 to 1907 the coimtry was very prosper- ous. In 1897 the RepubUcans used their majority to pass the Dinglcy Tariff, which aimed not merely at a large revenue for the government, but was a re- turn to the McKinley policy cf stimulating manu- factures and raised the duties still higher. Foreign trade rapidly expanded, while manufacturing and business more than kept pace. The destruction caused by the Spanish War created a demand for new commodities and fresh capital, but the real tm- derlying reason for expansion lay in the fact that the coimtry was in an era of rapid expansion of business. The most characteristic feature was the continued organization of trusts. New combinations of rail- roads were also made, and in the attempt to pay dividends on the inflated capital and watered stock, rates for transportation were increased. Business, moreover, meddled in politics, not merely for the general good, but for special privileges, which were sometimes gained by tlie use of cortupt mea.ns. Thus, in spite of the superficial prosperity the coun- try was enjoying, there were warnings of trouble and symptoms of public discontent with its methods. The demand for the regulation of the rail* roads, begun in the Granger movement espoused by the Greenbackers, was partially solved by the pas- sage ol the Interstate Commerce Law of 1887. Tliis law forbade rebates and special favors and 'created a commission to carry out the statute, but its supposed power to regulate rates was denied by the Supreme Court. Prohibition of monopolies was attempted by the Antitrust Law of 1890. which declared illegal every combination in the restramt of foreign or interstate commerce. Little conscientious effort was made to enforce either law imtil the second Roosevelt admin- istration. The Interstate Commerce Law was amended by the Hepburn Act of 1900 which specif- ically gave the commission the power to prescribe reasonable rates for railroads and interstate carriers which were declared to include telegraph and tele- phone companies, pipe lines, express and sleeping- car companies, bridges, ferries, and railway terminals. During Roosevelt's administration, moreover, sev- eral prosecutions of large corporations were initiated imder the Antitrust Law, especially the Northern Seciu-ities Case of 1904. These attempts, however, failed to satisfy the demands of constantly increa-sing elements in both parties for more radical regulation. The election of 1900 triumphantly retunied to pow^r the Republicans under IVlcKinley and seemed to have ended the possibility of serious tlireats from the radicals who composed the Populist party. In both parties the conservative elements were in con- trol and showed little sj-mpathy with the demands made either by the radicals or the liberal elements. The assassination of President McKinley and the NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1G5 accession of President Roosevelt in 1901 made little difference for a time in the power or policy of the organization of the party. The tact that President Roosevelt was able in some measure to obtain legis- lation and to initiate policies lookuig toward more stringent government control failed to satisfy the discontented elements. Since neither of the great parties would adopt a thoroughgoing policy of governmental control, and since the radicals had learned from bitter experience the futility of dependence upon State legislation, they proposed schemes to shake the control of the party organization and to give the people a more di- rect participation in the y {fairs of tlie government. These measures grouped themselves aroimd the Initiative, referendum, and recall: bin they also include movements for direct primaries in place of nominating conventions, tlte subjecticn of party or- ganizations to law, and the limitation of the use of money in political campaigns. Most radical of all was an attack tipon the power of the courts to declare statutes unconstitu- tional. Tliis arose from the feeling that the courts in the exercise of their power of judicial review were more ready to protect property and private interests than to allow the state legislatures t,o iiass sucli regu- latory and remeiliul legislation as the>- felt nei-tssar>'. especially in labor cases To subject the courts to popular control, the device ot the recall of judges or the recall of judicial decisions was proposed, and the former was adopteil by se\'eral Stiitt-s Most of these movements originiitcd in the West, but they spread ea~stward so rapidly that conservative poli- ticians were thoroughly alarmed. President Roosevelt's administrations (1901-1909) postponed the conflict. His personal popularity was so great and many of liis policies so satisfactory to the liberals that no open division appeared in the Republican party, which easily elected Mr. Roosevelt's candidate, William Howard Taft (No- vember, 1908). The administration of President Taft failed to satisfy the discontented elements. The question of the revision of the tariJT, which Roose- velt had avoided, was met l^y tlie Payne-Aldrlch Bill of 1909, but the duties were not substantially lowered. During tliis administration many antitntst prosecutions were successfully concluded, and the Standard Oil Trust and the American Tobacco Trust were dissolved. Many wise and lilieral laws were passed, but the Republican party was still divided. In 1910 discontent in the Republican ranks was reflected by the cutting down of the power of Speaker Cannon, a " standpatter." The Progressives, as the more radical element was called, demanded a solu- tion of the economic and social questions wliich was unacceptable to the leaders of the party. President Taft himself, although lil)eral as regartis particiiliir measures, was resolutely opposed to any eliaimt-s in the constitutional or legal framework of the go\eni- ment which would result in a more democratic con- trol. The second Congress of his administration (elected 1910) was Democratic, thus showing the trend of popular discontent. The presidential campaign of 1913 was inter- esting in many respects. Direct primaries were tried for the first time in many States, thus allowing the voters the opporttmity to express their preference directly in the choice of delegates; and such dele- gates were generally pledged to a particular candi- date. Mr. Roosevelt, who felt that the Republican party had abandoned his policy and was pursuing a course which would lead to disaster, contested the nomination with President Taft. Roosevelt ol> tained the majority of the delegates chosen by the primaries, but Taft was strong in States where the delegates were chosen by conventions. After a bitter struggle, in which nea\ ly all the contests were settled in favor of Taft delegates, the Republican national convention nominated Taft. Roosevelt and his supporters therefore seceded and formed the Progressive party, which nominated Roosevelt. The Democrats nominated Governor Wilson, of New Jersey, on a platform advocating a tarifT for revenue, dissclution of the trtists, and criminal prosecution of the officials of the tmsts. together with such additional legislation as to make private monopoly impossible. The three-cornered campaign was very lively. Taft had 3,484,000 popular votes and 8 electoral: Roosevelt polled 4,119,0(X) popular and 88 electoral votes; Wilson was elected with t5.293,0(X) popular votes and 435 electoral votes. Notwithstanding tlie Democratic and Progressive platforms, which called fcr legislation that up to this time had been considered socialistic, the Socialist party more than doubled its vote over 1908. obtaining 900.000 popular votes. The Democratic party in 1913 wa.s in a tetter con- dition tlian at any time since 1S96. By inviting Bn,'an to tecome his secretary of state. President Wilson succeeded in gaining the support of the Bryan wing of tlie Democracy for the imi)ortant measures he desired to pass. Tlie first of tiiese concemeil the tariff. By tlie ITnderwood Tariff Bill, adopted Octoter 3, 1913, many of the duties were reducefl from a protective to a revenue basis, although con- siderable protection was still accorded. To meet the loss of revenue an Income tax was provided. This was made possible by the ratification in 1913 of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which allowed Congress to lev}' ta.xes on income witliout apportinnment according to the population. Tlie main friii tires of tliis first successfid law were: (1) moderate rtites: (2) exemii- tion of incomes under $3,000; (3) a shding scale nm- ning from 1% to 6%. The next steps were fmancial. The Owen-Glass Currency Bill estabhshed a Federal Reserve Bank system, which put the control of the nicmlier banks under a national board resembling tlie Interstate Conunerce Commission. The purpose was to con- centrate the banking resources of the comitry and to provide an elastic currency. Next came the Federal Trade Commission Bill, by whicii a commission was estalilished to prevent unfair competition in commerce and to in- vestigate tlie affair's of corporations other than Iianks and common carriers. In tlie same direction was the Clayton Antitrust BUI, wliich attempted to codify the various haws and court decisions concerning monopoly and unlawful restraints of trade. The legislative program was in fulhllinent of the Democratic platfnrni and proved satisfactory, both to the more radical rlniirnts ot the country and to the large economic interests. During the first years of President Wilson's admin- istration there was serious industrial depression ; but with the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the de- mands of the telligerents stimtilated manufacttire and trade to a startling degree. Wliereas. in 1913 the United States had imported Sl..^(K).ii00.l)00 worth of products and exported $2.4(Ki.t)O(;,0U0 worth, in 1917 the imports amoimted to .S2,t;0U.000.- 000. while the ex-ports reached the stupendous total of S6.290.0(XI.OOO. In addition, the necessities of the Allies forced them to sell in the American mar- ket the American securities they had lield. and the interest which formerly had been sent abroad was available for investment in the United States Moreover, the Allies floated issues of bonds in the American market, the interest on which was also added to the American resources. Thus, within five years, the United States tecanie tile financial center of the world, controlled the larg- est proportion of the gold supply, and liecame the great creditor nation whose products and wlio.se capital alone were capable of satisfying foreign de- mands. During the year and a half of war, the United States issued 319.000,000,000 worth ol Lib- erty Bonds, which were taken up by all classes of the population. During the war immigration declined, and there was a shortage of labor, which was increased by the enlistment in the United States army of over 3,000,- 0(111 men Labor was not slow to take advantage of tills situation and demanded tetter conditions and increase after increase in wages. During tlie period when the United States was in active participation, the National War Labor Board did much to pre- vent widespread or long-continued strikes. With the end of hostiUties. labor continued to de- mand the high wages it enjoyed during the war, and in many instances even higher. The high cost of liv- ing was made the reason for these demands. More- over, during the war the National War Labor Board, had, wherever possible, recognized and negotiated with the labor imions ; and union lalxir now demanded recognition in more and more industries, together with the right of collective bargaining. In some regions still more advanced demands were made, looking toward the nationalization of the railways and even. the control ot industry by labor. On No- vemter 1, 1919, a strike in the bituminous coal fields began, which the government cliecked through the utilization of the war powers it still had the right to u.se. A part of the war legislation dealt with tlie con- servation and distribution of food; and the president was authorized to prohibit the use of food prodticts for the manufacture of liquors. In the meantime an aniendntent to the Federal Constitution to iiroliiliit the manufacture or sale of alcoholic liquors as bev- erages was in 1917 stibmitted by Congress to the States for ratification. On January 16, 1919, this amendment was ratified by the necessary numiier of States, and proclaimed as the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution; it went into effect January 17, 1920. United States in the World War. AUliough the country sympathized with Belgium and France in 1914, the President issued a proclamation of neu- trality at tlie outbreak of the World War, and tmtU 1917, in tlie face of fireat difficulties and in spite of the promptings of large numbers of the people, main- tained this neutrality. Tlie position, which was difficult enough tecause of the extensions which Great Britain made in the telligerent rights of block- ade and contraband was made still more difficult by Germany througli the destmction of iioth lielliger- ent and neutral commerce by her submarines. The destniction of the Inaitaina, May 7. 1915, brought a strong protest from President Wilson, which was the begiiming of negotiations looking toward the restriction of submarine activity. The destruction of the Sussex, March, 1910, was followed by a qualified pledge of Germany to give up subma- rine warfare, at least against neutrals. January 31, 1917, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare on all commerce within certain zones off the coast of Great Britain and France. Within three days diplomatic relations witii Germany were sev- ered; and war was declared April 6, 1917. By vohmtary enlistment tlie military forces of the United States were increased from 121, 0(X) regu- lars to 475.000, and the National Guard from 76,000 to 400,000- On May 18, 1917. conscription was adopted, all men tetneen the ages of 21 and 31 lieing Uable; on August 31, 1918, the age limits were ex- tended to mclude those Ijetween 'the ages of IS and 45 ; and about two million men were sent to France. The war was fuianced by means of the sale of Lib- erty Bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and thrift stamps. Heavy increases in taxation, particu- larly the income and excess-profits taxes, yielded $2,314,000,000, and other taxes made the total rev- enue over five billion. Even before the United States entered the 'war. President Wilson annoimced that he would urge the United States to enter a World Ptato Federation to guarantee and enforce future peace. During the war, partly because of the disinterested posit ion the United States occupied, and partly because he commanded the resources necessary tor the AlUes' success, the President was able to secure acceptance of his ideas. The Treaty of Versailles, signed Jime 28, 1919, wliich terminated tlie war, included the covenant for a League of Nations. When the treaty reached tlie Senate strong oppo- sition appeared to some parts of it, especially the transfer of the Chinese province of Shantung to Japan Still more bitter was the objection to the League of Nations. Several senators were op- posed to any international imion, many others would not accept this particular text, others were ready to accept the league with " amendments " or "reserva- tions." President Wilson would accept no altera- tions, and the treaty (including the league) failed of ratiflration. In 1920 the Nineteenth .\mendnient, abolish- ing sex qualification for the suffrage, was ratified by 37 States and took effect in the presidential elec- tion of that i ear. The Land. The Country. Tlie development and history of a people are influenced, if not largely determined, by the physical characteristics of the country they in- habit. The United States of America occupies the territory south of the Great Lakes and the 40th par- allel, and north of the Gulf of Mexico, the Rio Grande, and Mexican territory, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Its area is 3,026,789 square miles, which is more tlian tliree fourths as great as that of all Europe. Within this territory there are all varieties of climate and kinds of soil, and most of the products that are found in Europe exist here in abimdance. Temperature and Climate. In tlie various parts of the territory of the United States there ar- great variations of temperature. This is parti due to the effect on the Eastern coast of the col Labrador Ciurent and on the Western coast of the wann Japan Current; while the vast plains extending from the Arctic circle to the Gulf of Mexico permit currents of warm or cold air to circulate freely. Thus. Arkansas has the winter climate of Edinbtu'gh and the stmimer climate of Spain , while in Minne.sota the summers are those of Venice and the winters those of Norway. In like manner tlie summer cli- mate of Maine is like that of France, while the winters are literally as " cold as Greenland." These varia- tions m climate make possible products similar to those distributed from northern Africa to Norway. The occupations of the people are equally varied. In all parts of the United States except the area extending from the eastern front of the Rocky Motm- tains. and their southern extensions, westward to the Sierra Nevadas. the rainfall is sufficient for farming. Portions of this area, and regions in and near the moim- tains, may te reclaimed by irrigation, but tliere are large areas which can never support a population. ^ Physical Characteristics. East of the barrier of the Rocky Moimtains the territory of the United States is singularly uniform. The Atlantic coastal plain is narrow, but is not broken by im- passable rivers. The Appalachian Motmtalns. wliich in central New York and in Georgia sink to a low level, can be easily traversed throughout their extent. Most of the vast interior of the coimtry consists of the valley of the one great river system — that of the Mississippi and its tributaries. The rivers, instead of i^eing barriers, furnish easy means of commimication. The western motmtain regions of the Rockies, the Sierra Nevadas, and the Coast Ranges are steep and difficult, but have all been pierced by railroads. 166 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Natural Resources. The Vnited States has been greatly aided in its development by its vast natural resources. The early explorers and colo- nists were attracted by the Xur trade and the abun- dant timber. The fisheries greatly aided, especially in New England, where they made possible the early development; wliile the rich soil of the South was suitable for profitable crops of grain and tobacco. Almost everywhere in the United States, save in New England, the soil is fertile, and the early set- tlers, once past the initial stage, had no fear of scar- city, but producedasurpluswliich the easy commimi- cations made a solid basis of agricultural prosperity. The staple crops are cereals: wheat, com, rje, oats, barley, and buckwheat. In the warmer re- gions of the south rice and even sugar cane are profitably cultivated, while for many years " Cotton was King " in the seaboard States. The prairie re- gions of the interior proved rich for com, and the plains of the Southwest are unrivaled ranges for cattle. In southern California and in Florida the climate makes tropical fruits profitable. Minerals in great variety are abundant in the United States, especially noteworthy being the rich coal deposits extending from Alabama to New York along the slopes of the Allegheuies and as far west as Iowa. The United States possesses one square mile of coal-bearing strata for every 10 square miles of territory; whereas in Europe the pro- portion is one to every 18S. This coal, together with the immense deposits of iron, a-ssures the United States an imrivaled position in industrj-. This of late has been increased by vast oil fields and a seemingly inexhaustible supply of oil-bearing and gas-bearing shales. The precious metals gold and silver are abimdant and widely distributed. Cop- per, zinc, lead, and tungsten all are available. The rapid-tlowing streams of the Atlantic coast furnish a good supply of water power, while the larger rivers of the South and the interior and the swift streams of the moimtain regions promise a vol- ume of water power tor electrical energy which has hardly been appreciated. The Aboriginal People. When America was discovered it was inhaljited by a race whom the dis- coverers called Indians. Whence they came or how long they had been in North America cannot be de- ' finitely stated. It is probable that Asia and North America, and jierhaps even Europe and North Amer- ica, were once joined, and that human life, wherever it originated, fiowed from one hemisphere to the other. Human remains, deeply biu'ied in geological strata, are proof that man has existed in America at least 30.000 years, perhaps much longer. The Indians. The aborigines of North America all belong to one ethnic imit and all reached about the same degree of culture; none of them were ut- terly savage, none civilized. Those in the southern part of North America and the westem part, of South America were in the middle stage of barbarism ; they nad no phonetic alphabet, nor any idea of the private ownership of landed property, which marks tlie beginning of civilization. Thanks to Indian com, they Imew a rude but productive agricultiu^. They still were in that stage of culture in which the family is inferior to the clan or gens as a recognized group. All things Ix'ing owned by the clan,-all members of the clan and gens traced their descent, not tlu-ough their fathers, Ijut tlirough their mothers. For pur- poses of war and government the clans were united into tribes and some of the more advanced tribes into larger imits. The United States Bureau of Etlmology divides the Indians of the United States into 59 families, tlie most important of whicli were: Tlie Algonquian family, which included the Ojibwas. Ottawas, Crees, Algoiiquins, Micmacs. and Blackfeet; the Iroquoian family, the most important members of which were " The Five Nations"; the Muskhogean family, ivhirh occupied most of Georgia; the Siouan famih-, t lie rliief group of which lived west of the upper Mississippi ;ind the upper Missouri valley: the Shoshonean family, the most important tribes of which were the Coman- ches and Utes. Yet they were few in total numbers — perhaps half a million, within the limits of the present United States. Contact, with the whites caused the Indians to dwindle in the East. Wherever the whites settled, the story is the same. Early uprisings were fol- lowed by more severe straggles in which the trilies were broken or driven westward to contend with the tribes already on the land. French neighbors in the North and Spanish in the South used the Indians against the English, till the English were so firmly settled that there could be but one outcome to the struggle. Through later frontier wars and Indian massacres the whites triumphantly moved westward, and the Indians were either exterminated or confined to reservatlonswhere they lost their inde- pendence, while the govemment attempted to raise them to civilization by education and paternal care. Organization. National Government. The United States is a federal constitutional republic, consisting of forty- eight States. The national Constitution went into force in April, 1789. and has been amended on ten occasions, the total number of amendments being nineteen. Ultimate sovereignty resides in the " peo- ple of the United States," who by the action of three fourths of the legislatures of the States can amend the Constitution, thereby adding tc the powers of the national government cr hmiting the powers of the States. The legislative power is vested in a Congress consisting of two liouses: a Senate with two senators from each State, chosen for sLx years, one tliird of whom retire every two years; and a House of Repre- sentatives (435 in 1919) chosen for two years in pro- portion to the population of the States. No bill can become a law tmtil it has passed both houses of Con- gress and is signed by the president. The president may allow it to Ijecome a law by default, or may sign it, or may veto it, in wliich case it may be passed over the veto by a two-thirds vcte of both houses. The legislative power of Congress, as set forth in the Constitution, includes broad national powers of tax- ation and appropriation, control of foreign and inter- state commerce, military and naval legislation, dec- laration of war, creation of offices, the monetao' system, weights and standards, and finally the gen- eral power to pass all " Laws wiiicii shall be neces- sary and proper for carryuig into Execution the fore- going Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Govemment of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof." Besides these positive powers, negative protection is given tlirough prohibitions laid upon the States which prevent them from Interfering with Congress in the exercise of these powers, and thiough the review of State legislation by the Federal courts. The executive power is vested in a president, who, with the vice president, is chosen by special electors for a term of foiu- years. Each State is en- titled to a number of presidential electors equal to the ntiml)er of its senators and representatives com- bined. These electors may be chosen in any way the constitutions of the States may provide, but at pres- ent are all chosen by popular election (see elector, n., 3 and electoral college, in the Did.). The president is commander in chief of the army and navy, negotiates treaties — wliich require ratification by two thirds of the Senate — and appoints most of the important officers. The president, moreover, is charged with the faithful execution of the laws of the United States and may utilize the army and navy to fulfill his obligation. He is assisted by ten heads of ten departments — the secretaries of State, of the Treasurj', of War, the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the secre- taries of the Navy, of the Interior, of Agrictdture, of Commerce, and of Labor, These officers sit in an informal coimcil. not designated by law, usually called the cabinet. They are subject to the direc- tions of the president mider the law, but are in no way responsible to Congress in the sense of being compelled to resign by adverse vote. Other portions of the executive power are placed in the hands of ad- ministrative commissions and boards. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of the United States and " such inferior Courts as the Congress may . . . establish." The Supreme Coiu^ consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. This cotut has original jiu'isdic- tion in cases affectmg ambassatlors, other public ministers and consuls, and cases to which a .state shall be a party. In all other cases, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Cciu't is appellate. The mferior courts of the United States by acts of Congress consist of a Circuit Court of Appeals, divided into 39 circuits and 89 district courts, a Court of Claims, and a Court of Customs Ap- peal. The jurisdiction of these courts extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the Consti- tution, the laws of the United States and treaties; to controversies to which the L'nited States shall be a party; and between citizens of different States. Two consequences of the American theory of judi- cial power have developed during the life of the Fed- eral republic. From an early date the Supreme Court has constmed its power to receive appeals from the liighest State courts on Federal questions as justifying the annulment of State laws whenever it finds that tiiey contravene the C^onstitution. And since 18,57 the Supreme Court has set aside nu- merous Federal statutes on the same ground. State Government. Each of the 48 States by its own constitution determines its frame of govern- ment, except as it may be limited by the Constitu- tion or laws or treaties of the United States. Each State has a governor . a legislative body of two houses, and a judiciary (see States by name, page 195 IT.). Production and Industry. The United States, from the variety of its soil and climate and the vari- ety and extent of its resoiu'ces, is at once the leading agricultural and the greatest manufacturing coimtry of the world. In 1919 the value of the agricul- tural products was estimated at $24,900,000,000 There were produced 2.900,000,0(50 bushels of com, 1,200,000,000 bushels of oats, 940,000,000 bushels of wheat, 857,000,000 bushels of potatoes. 165.000.000 bushels of bariey. 91,600,000 tons of hay. 41.000.(X)0 bushels of rice. 1,701,000 pounds of sugar, 11,030,(:kX) bales of cotton, 1,389.000,000 pounds of tobacco. The value of the mineral products of the United States was more than .S7,679,000,000 in 1918. The value of the metallic products amoimted to more t han $2,000,000,000, the production of pig iron bemg val- ued at more than 31,180,000,000; copper at $471,- (X;0,000; zinc at $89,000,000; lead at $76,000,000: and gold at $68,000,000. Of the nonmetaUic prod- ucts, bituminous coal was mined to tlie value of $1,465,000,000; coke nearly $200,000,000; petro- leum, more than $690,000,000; and anthracite coal, $336,000,000. In 1915 there were 275,791 manufacturing es- tablishments, with a total capital of more than $22,000,000,000, employhig more than 8,000,000 persons and with protlucts to the value of $24,- 000.000,000. Of these, food and kindred products amoimted to more than $4,000,000,000; textiles. $3,400,000,000; iron and steel, $3,220,000,000; chemicals and allied products, $2,000,000,000. Keligion. The original colonies were settled by people of various beliefs, many of whom desired to perpetuate (heir own peculiar doctrines to the exclu- sion of all others. Gradually, religious toleration won the day. and by the Federal Constitution Con- gress was prohibited from makuig any law concern- ing religion. Freedom of worship is also guaranteed in the various State constitutions. There is thus no estabUshed or state church anywhere in the l'nited States, and all religious denominations are repre- .sented. The Roman Catholics are the largest re- ligious body, with 16,000,000 (1917) comnnmicants (mcluding the confirmed children). The Baptist bodies with 7,236,000 (mostly adults), and the Methodist with 7,165.0(X), have each about as many persons in the families reported as the Catholics. The Lutheran bodies comprise 2.460.000 commimi- cants; the Presbyterian. 2,260.000; the Protestant Episcopal Chiu-ch, 1 ,000,000. There are also 360.000 members of Jewish congregations. The Church of Christ Scientist has 319,000 adherents. Education. From early colonial days great stress has been laid on common-school educa- tion. All States now provide actually or nominally free elementary' and secondary instniction, but the systems vary. In some States attendance between certain ages is compulsory, in others it is optional. In .some, public education is provided only tlirough the high or secondary schools; but all the States maintain some imiversities and schools which give collegiate instraction. In 1916 the 281.000 State common schools coimted more than 20,000,000 pu- pils. In this group were more than 12.000 public high schools, with over 1 ,000,000 pupils ; more than 2,000 private high schools and academies, with 155,000 pupils; 574 tmiversities, with 259,000 stu- dents. In addition tiiere were mmierous profes- sional schools of theology, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, as weU as increasing numbers of teclmical and vocational schools. Spe- cial schools are established for the deaf and blind and feeiile-mindcd. Defense. Before the World War, the military forces of tlie United States consisted of the Regular Army recruited by volimtary enlistment, and a Na- tional Guard, also recruited by vohmtarj' enlistment under the direction of the various State govemments, but subject to Federal control ui case of war. The peace footing of tlie Regular Army was 137,203, and the total enlisted strength of the National Guard, July 30, 1916, was 8,589 officers and 123,605 men. Wlien war was declared on Germany in 1917. conscription was introduced. The object was to insure at least 4,000,000 men available to send to France by June, 1919, In November, 1918, the Regidar Army consisted of 3,665,000 men, of whom about 2,000,000 were in France. Some of the im- portant ports of the United States are piotected by an elaborate system of coast defense. At the outbreak of the World War, the United States ranked below Great Britaui and fitTmany, and possibly Japan, in its naval establishment. In 1916-1917 a great expansion was begmi, and a three-year program of shipbuilding adopted. On the entry of the l'nited States into the war, this program was greatly accelerated, and in 1920 the United States ranked second only to Great Britain in naval strengtii, having 36 battleships as com- pared with Great Britain's 55, 8 cruisers, 13 light cruisers, 4 coast-defense vessels, 105 torpedo-boat destroyers, and 84 submarines. There were build- ing or projected 13 battleships. 9 cruisers. 238 tor- pedo-boat destroyers, and 74 submarines. These official figures show that the United States ranks second among the five great naval powers, being far exceeded by Great Britain, but far surpassing both France and Japan. The German navy, second in 1914, has disappeared. T'ne United States maintains a military academy at West Point and a naval academy at Annapolis for the training of officers for the army and navy. Area and Population. Statistics showing the area and population will be found on pages 220- 222. 1492—1685. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 167 Chronology. DISCOVERIES. Uat. Auij. 3. Columbus sails on Ms first voy- age. On October 12 (Discovery of New World) Columbus lands on San Salvador, probably the island now olten called Watling Island. Later he discovers Cuba and Haiti, which he considers a portion of Asia. 1493. .U.iH S. 4. Pope Alexander VI. issues two bulls of demarcation dividing the exclusive right of discovery and trade of tlie unknown world between Portugal and Spain. The line is moe 0. Proprietary charter granted for col-l VV !'"• Feb. IS. Georgia Is settled by OglethoriJe at Savannah. May 17. Molasses Act is passed by Parlia- ment, an attempt to confine, by prohibitive duties, the West Indies trade of the mainland colonies to the islands imder British control. It is considered a grievance and systematically disregarded. 1739. Oct. 20. War begins between Spain and A^ Great Britain. In the colonies there are resultless '^ contests between Georgia and Florida. The colonial fights merge in King George's War. 1741. Bering sails along the coast of .Alaska, reach- ing Cape St. Elias on Kayak Island (see p. 20, 1728) ; beginning of Bussian intere.st on the main- land of America. Ho is followed hj- fur traders, and Russian settlement begins in 1784 at Kodiak. Sitka is founded 1799. Y !'**• The Verendrye sons, French fur traders, see a range of the Bocky Mountains. 1744-1748. King George's War is the colonial phase of the War of the Austrian Succession. 1745. June 17. Louisburg is captured by the Eng- lish colonists and British navy. 1746. CoUege of New Jersey founded (later Prince- ton University). -y 1748. Oct. IS. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restores ^" all colonial conquests. 1749. Celeron de Bienville voyages down the Ohio River, taking possession for France. The English explorers and fur traders have penetrated into the Ohio valley and English settlement west of the crest of the Appalacliians has begun on the upper New River. The French begin a chain of forts from Canada to the Oliio to check this advance; most important is Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh May 10. Ohio Company is chartered to be- gin the English settlement of the valley. 1751. June S5. Parliament passes an act forbid- ding the New England colonies from making pa- per money a legal tender. 1753. Pennsylvania College founded (Philadelphia; later L'niversity of Pennsylvania). Noaember. Virginia claiming the region of the Ohio valley under lier old charter. Gov. Dinwiddle sends George Wasliington to remonstrate with the French at the new posts. 1754. Georgia becomes a royal province by the surrender of the charter. King's College founded (New York city; later Columbia University). June 19. A colonial congress is held at Al- bany to consider Indian affairs and plans for the expected war with the French. A plan of union, drafted by Benjamui Franklin, is adopted, but is rejected by both the colonies and England. July 3. Washuigton, sent with a Virginian force to the Forks of the Ohio (Pittsburgh), sur- renders to the French at Fort Necessity; the be- ginning of the French and Indian War. 1755. July s. British force imder Braddock ad- vancing against Fort Duquesne is routed by the French and Indians. Washmgton escapes. Ex- peditions against the French positions at Niagara and Crown Point also fail, as do all attempts against the French during the next two years. Septejnher. Removal of the Acadians from Nova Scotia by British troops. 1756. May IS. Great Britain formally declares war on France; the American struggle is thus merged into the European Seven Years' War. 1758. July S. British attack mider Abercrombie on Fort Ticonderoga is repulsed. July 26. Amlierst captures Louisburg. Aug. S7. Colonials, under Bradstreet, take Fort Frontenac (Kingston, Ont.). Noji. 23. E.xpedition under Forbes occupies Fort Duquesne. 1759. July. Montcalm abandons Forts Ticonder- oga and Crown Point before Amlierst's advance. Fort Niagara surrenders to British and Indians imder Johnson. Except the far-western posts, noth- ing is left to the French but Quebec and Montreal. Sept. 1.3. Battle of the Plains of Abraham before Quebec, a French defeat. The opposing commanders, Montcalm and Wolfe, are killed. Sept. 17. Quebec surrenders. 1760. Sept. S. Montreal surrenders to Amherst: practical end of American war. 1763. Feb. 10. Treaty of Paris is signed. France cedes to Great Britain Canada and Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, excepting Isle d'Or- leans including the city of New Orleans. She also cedes New Orleans and the western portion of Louisiana to Spain, and so ceases to hold colonies on the North .\merican mainland. Spain cedes Florida to Great Britain. Oct. 7. British proclamation of 1763, part of a new policy of stricter control, forbids the Atlantic- slope colonies to make settlements west of the watershed; and Indian affairs are placed under direct royal control. The policy is resented; the proclamation is disregarded; exploration and set- tlement push westward, especially into Kentuck-y and Temiessee; and new western colonies are pro- posed. 1763-1765. Pontiac's Conspiracy, a revival of the war against the British by the western Indi- ans, former allies of the French. REVOLUTION AND CONSTITUTION. 1764. St. Louis is foiuided by the Spaniards. April .5 Sugar Act of Parliament revives the earlier Molasses Act, with modifications to make it practical and a revenue producer; active meas- ures to stop forbidden trade with foreign West- Indies and smuggling. April 19. Parliament prohibits the making of paper money a legal tender in all the colonies. 1765. March 22 British Stamp Act, having for its puriMse the raising of revenue within the colo- nies. Object is to have the colonies share in the expenses of their own defense; but as they con- sider any internal taxation an infringement upon the principle " No taxation without representa- tion," they see m the plans for a standing army and other phases of the new' imperialistic policy a cur- tailment of the practical self-government they have so long enjoyed, and under which they have prospered. Public sentiment and mob violence prevent the operation of the act. Oct. 7. Stamp Act Congress meets at New York; delegates from nine colonies The right of Parliament to tax the colonies is denied. 1766. Queen's College founded (New Brunswick, N.J. ; later Rutgers College). I March IS. Stamp Act is repealed, but in the Declaratory Act ParUament reasserts its right to tax the colonies. 1767. June 29. Townshend Act lays duties on tea, glass, paper, etc., imported into the colonies. This is met by nonimportation agreements, formal protests, and vigorous pamphlets. 1768. Feb. 11. Massachusetts Assembly sends a circular letter, ATitten by Samuel Adams, to the other legislatures, suggesting combined action agamst the new duties. Sept. 27. British troops arrive at Boston to enforce customs laws; this is the ministry's answer to the Assembly's action. 1768-1771. War of the Regulation in North Caro- lina; a frontier protest against grievances. 1769. Spanish settlement of California Ix'gms at San Diego. Discover}- of San Francisco Bay. Daniel Boone begins his explorations of Kentucky. Watauga settlement in eastern Teimessee begun. Foundation of Dartmouth College (N!h.). 1770. March 5. The so-called Boston Massacre: Soldiers kill members of a mob attacking them. Popular indignation forces the withdrawal of the troops from ]3oston. April IS. Duties of the Townshend Act, except tea, are repealed. Not. 2. Local Committees of Correspondence come into existence m Massachusetts. "The prac- tice spreads tliroughout the colonies; similar inter- colonial committees, inaugurated later by Vir- ginia, are an important unifymg factor. 1773. The king determines to assert his authority by protecting the importation of tea and collection of duty. At Boston, on December 16, the tea is thrown overboard by the " Boston Tea Party." At other ports it is sent back, or stored without payment of duty. 1774. March SI. Boston Port Act interdicts all commerce there. May SO. Massachusetts Government Act practically nuUifies the charter, centralizes the government, and limits town meetings. These coercive acts are pmiishment for the leadership of the colony in opposing the imperiaUstic policy. Troops again garrison Boston, and General Gage is made governor of the province. June22. Quebec Act is passed, extending that colony over the region north of the Ohio River and west of New York and Pennsylvania, establishing the Catholic religion, and making no provision for representative government; mistakenly considered by the other colonies a menace to them. Sepl. B-Oct. 26. First Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia. Twelve colonies are rep- resented. It sends out in various forms the colo- nial side of the controversy, and adopts the " As- sociation," a nonimportation agreement, against British goods. The local committees enforce this against the Loyalists, who later are greatlj' per- secuted, exiled, and their property confiscated. Oct. 10. Battle of Point Pleasant; defeat of western Indians. 1775. April 19. Defeat of a British force at Lex- ington and Concord inaugurates the American Bevolution. The Massachusetts militarj- begin the siege of Boston, receiving reenforcements from other ccionies. May 10. Second Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia; it continues until 1781 as the national government. Without formal au- thorization it takes charge of the mihtar>', finan- cial, Indian, and foreign affairs of the revolting colonies. May 10. Allen and Arnold take Ticonderoga (American victory). May 12: Crown Point taken by the .Americans. Jime 15: Washington is made commander in chief by Congress. Jime 17: Battle of Bunker Bill (British Pj-rrhic victory). July 3: Washington takes command of the army before Boston. November 13: Mon- treal is taken by IMontgomery. December 31: Battle of Quebec; Montgomerj' is killed. Pennsylvania Society for the .-Xbolition of Slavery is organized. 1776. Spanish presidio and mission at San Fran- cisco are foimded. Jan. 6. New Hampshire adopts the first writ- ten constitution for a State of the Union. During the next four years all the States do like- wise, except Rhode Lsland and Coimecticut, which adapt their old charters. March 17. Boston is evacuated by the Brit- ish. June 18: Canada is evacuated by the Ameri- cans. Jime 28: British attack on Fort Moultrie at Charleston is repulsed. July /f. Declaration of Independence of the United States of America (drafted by Thomas Jefferson) is adopted: signed by John ITancock, president of Congress. Other signatures added August 2 and later. Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island; the British under Howe defeat Washington's army. September. Commissioners are sent to France to obtain aid. 1776 — 1795. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 169 1776 {continued). Sept. IS. British troops enter New Yorli. October 28: Battle of White Plains (indecisive) November 16: Fort Washington is taken (British victory). November-December; Washington retreats tlirough New Jersey. December 26 : Bat- tle of Trenton (.American victory) ends the retreat. 1777. Slavery, which exists m aU the States, is abolished in the imrecognized State of Vermont. By 1S04, all the other seven northern States have adopted immediate or gradual emancipation. Jan. 3. Battle of Princeton (American vic- tory). Lafayette arrives in U. S. and is appointed major general (July 31). August 13: Battle of Oris- kany; American victory which checks an invasion down the Moliawk. August 1(5: Battle of Ben- nington; American victor}- against Biffgojue's army invading from Canada. September 1 1 : Bat- tle of Brandywine, between Howe and Washing- ton (British victor}'). Sept. 19. Battle of Bemis Heights or Sara- toga (indecisive). Septemter 26: Pliiladelpliia is taken by Howe. October 4: Battle of German- town (British victory). October 7: Battle of Saratoga (American victory). October 17: Burgoyne surrenders to Gates at Saratoga. Nov. 15. Articles of Confederation are adopted by Congress and sent to the States for ratification. 136.300.000. | 1777-17.S3. France lends the United StatesI 1778. James Cook explores the Pacific coast from Oregon northward ; a basis tor the British claim to this region. Feb. 6. Independence of the United States is recognized by France, and two treaties made, one of aUiance and one of commerce. April. British commissioners cpme to America to negotiate terms of peace (unsuccessful). Jime IS. PhUadelpliia is evacuated by the British. June 2S: Battle of Monmouth (Ameri- can victor}') ; the British retire to New York, and W;isliington resumes his position on the Hudson. July 3: ^Massacre at Wyoming by Indians. July 10. France declares war against England. July 39. French fleet under d'Estaing arrives in Narragansett Bay. December 29: Savannah is taken by tlie British; beginning of the attempt to conquer the South, which continues to be the main military factor for three years. 1778-1779. George Rogers Clark and a Virginia force conquer the British posts of Cahokia, ICas- kaskia, and Vincennes, giving control of the south- ern half of the Northwe.st. This occupation is the basis of claims to the region in the later peace ne- gotiations. 1779. June IS. Spain declares war against Great Britain, but makes no alliance -with United States. July IS. Wa}-ne captures Stony Point. August 29: Stillivan defeats Tories and Indians at the Battle of the Chemimg, near Elniira, destroy- ing the power of the Iroquois. September 23: John Paul Jones in Bonhomme Richard capttires the Serapis. September-October: Savannah be- sieged by Americans and French. October 9: d'Estaing and Lincoln repidsed at Savannah. 1780. March I. Peimsylvania adopts gradual emancipation. [Henr}' Clinton.] May 12. Charleston surrenders to Sir! June. Massachusetts constitution, first to be adopted by a convention and ratified by popular vote; is against slavery. July. Rochambeau arrives witii a French army at Newport. R. I. August 16: Battle of Camden, S.C. (British victor}-). September 2,5 : Trea,sonal>le purpose of Arnold to surrender West Point dis- covered. He escapes. The British agent, Andre, captured and hanged on Oct. 2. October 7: Bat- tle of King's Mountain (American victory). Oct. 10. Congress passes a resolution promising that western lands ceded by the States should be settled and admitted into the Union as equal States. 1781. Jan. s. Arnold bums Richmond, Ya,. Jan- uar}- 5: Battle of the Cowpens (American victory). January-February: Greene's masterly retreat in the Carolinas. Feb. 3. Five-per-cent Scheme: proposed as amendment of the Confederation: Congress re- quests permission to levy an import, duty; it fails though all the .States but one accept it. March 1. The Articles of Confederation put in effect by ratification by Maryland, the last State, Her consent is given on the understanding that the States which have western claims shall relinquish them to the Confederation, which is gradually done (1781-1802). On this same date New York cedes all claims west of present west- ern boimdary. March IS. Battle of Guilford Court House, N. C; Greene retires, but Comwallis is obliged to leave North Carolina. He goes to Virginia to join Arnold. April 25: Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, S. C: Rawdon defeats Greene, but retires to pre- serve commimications. May: Siu-rcnder of Pen- sacola completes the Spanish conquest of West Florida. September 7; Battle of Eutaw Springs, S. C: a British victory, but Greene forces the vic- tors to retire to Charleston. October 19: Corn- wallls surrenders at Yorktown to Washington and Rochambeau. 17Sl-17.S'i. Spaiji lends the United States S174,000. 1783. July 11. Savaimah evacuated by British. Nov. M. Preliminaries of peace between Great Britain and United States are signed at Paris. Dec. 14. Charleston evacuated. 1783-1789. Holland lends the United States $3,600,000. 1783. .ipril IS. Revenue Plan: Congress makes second proposal of amendment of the Confedera- tion for a federal impost and other revenue im- provements; it fails for lack of imanimous State consent. Sept. 3. Peace of Paris, being the prelimina- ries of 17S2tmchanged. Independence recognized, western boundar}- the ^Mississippi River, restora- tion of the Floridas to Spain by Great Brifain. Nov. 35. British evacuate New York. Dec. 22. Wasliington resigns his commission 1784. February. Connecticut and Rhode Island adopt gradual emancipation laws. March 1. Virginia cedes western claims except Kentucky. April 23. First (Jefferson's) Territorial Ordi- nance; not put into operation. .4pri7 30. Commerce Plan, third proposition for amendment of the Articles ; authorizing a federal navigation act; fails for lack of ratification. Witiiout financial or commercial or coercive pow- ers, Congress is impotent and the Confederation begins to go down. June 2. New Hampshire constitution against slaverj'. 1785. April 19. Massachusetts cedes western claims. Reserves land titles in western New York. May 20. Jefferson's Land Ordinance begins the system of rectangular stirvey and federal management of the western lands ceded by tlie States. 1786. Futile negotiations with Spain for tlie free navigation of the INIississippi River, which the West demands. Trial of John Fitch's steamboat on the Delaware. In the following year James Runisey ran a steam craft of another type on the Potomac. Sept. 14. Connecticut cedes western claims ex- cept Western Reserve. September. Annapolis Convention, called by Virginia to consider imiform trade regulations. Only five States send delegates, so it merely pro- poses another convention. 1786-1787. Shays's Kebelllon in Massacliusetts: the most important of a number of violent disturb- ances wliich occur in several States and are due to social, economic, and financial dislocations follow- ing the war. Congress feebly tries to raise troops, 1787. Feb. 21. Congress issues a formal call for a convention. May 25. Federal Convention meets at Phil- adelphia; all States but Rhode Island eventually represented. An entirely new constitution is drafted, which provides for a government of tliree separate departments, and of adequate powers operating directly upon the people; the constitu- tion within its field to be the supreme law of the land. July IS. Northwest Territory is authorized by Congress for the region north of the Ohio River; the beginning of actual territorial governments, wltich resemble former colonies. Slavery is pro- hibited within the territor}'. Sept. 17. Convention submits the Federal Constitution to State conventions for ratification and adjourns. 1787-1788. Ratlflratlon of the Federal Consti- tution by eleven conventions: Delaware (De- cember 7, 1787); Pennsylvania (December 12); New Jersey (December 18) ; Georgia (Januar}' 2, 1788); Connecticut (January 9); Massachusetts (February 6) ; Mar}'land (April 28) : South Caro- lina (May 23); New H^ipshire (Jtme'21); Vir- ginia (Jime 26); New York (July 26).- 1788. Settlement of the- Northwest begins at Marietta, and the territorial government is estab- lished. Kentuck}' as part of Virginia, and Tennes- see as a part of North Carolina, receive many set- tlers. Cincinnati is settled. EARLY FEDERAL REPUBLIC. 1789. Frencli Revolution; Jefferson, United States minister, a spectator. Feb. 4. First voting for president by the electors; Washington receives all the votes; Jolm Adams, receiving 34 out of 69. becomes vice president. .April .5. First Congress under the Consti- tution is finally organized at New York. .4 pril SO. George Washington is inaugurated at New York as first president. June 1. First act of Congress; regulates oaths. July 4. First tariff act. July 27. Congress creates the Department of Foreign Affairs (State). The same session pro- vides a War Department (August 7), a Treas- ury Department (Seiitember 2), a Postmaster- General (September 22), and an Attorney-General (September 24). The heads of these depart- ments, except that of the Postmaster- General, con- stitute an imofBcial cabinet. Thomas Jefferson is the first secretary of state, and Alexander Hamilton the first secretary of the treasm-y. Sept. 24. Judiciary Act begms the Federal sys- tem of district, circuit, and supreme courts. Sept. 25. Congress submits to the States twelve amendments to the Constitution, formuig a bill of rights. Those adopted by the States become the first ten amendments. (They ap- pear to have been m force from November 3, 1791.) Nov. 21. North Carolina (12th State) rati- fies the Constitution. 1790. Imports, 323.000,000; exports, 320,205, l.'ie. Jan. 14. Hamilton's first report on public credit is laid before Congress. One of four reports presenting a pohcy which is adopted and which re- stores public credit at home and abroad. May 26. Territory South of the Ohlo^dater Teimessee) is authorized. May 29. Rhode Island (13th State) ratifies the Constitution. July 16. Act passes for temporary seat of gov- ernment at Philadelphia; permanent capital to be erected on the Potomac. August. First U. S. census; population shown as 3,929,214 (59,557 free Negroes, 697,024 slaves). A u(i. 4. Act for HamUton's fmiding plan in- cludmg assumption of State debts. 1791. Jan. 1. Amount of outstanding national debt, 875,463,477. Feb. 25. Act to incorporate the Bank of the United States; a Itu-ther portion of Hamilton's plan. March 4. Vermont is admitted (14th State) ; a free State. 1792. April 2. Mint Act provides tor a decimal system of coinage on a bimetallic basis. May 11. Columbia River is discovered by Captain Robert Gray; first step in U. S. claim to Oregon country. Gray is followed by British explorer Vancouver, who sails up the river. June 1. Kentucky is admitted (15th State): a slave State. November. Second presidential election ; Wash- ington receives all of the 132 electoral votes, Adams reelected vice president with 77 votes. Political parties begin to emerge; Washington, Adams, and Hamilton become Federalists, the opponents caU themselves Republicans, with Jefferson as leader. The division is based on broad (nationalistic) or strict (localistic) inter- pretation of the Constitution, but is infiuenced also by foreign relations and social and economic conditions. 1793. Cotton gin is invented by Eli Wliitney; makes cotton so profitable that antislavery is checked in the South. Feb. 12. Fu-st Fugitive .Slave Act. Feb. IS. In Chisholm r. Georgia the Supreme Court holds that a State may be sued in Federal courts. This leads to the Eleventh Amendment (in force Januar}' 8, 179.S). April S. Edmond Genest arrives as minister from revolutionary France, His conduct and the controversies with Great Britain over carrying out the treaty of 1783 and over neutral rights, accen- tuate party division. .April 22. Washington issues a proclamation of neutrality; new principle of keeping out of war. Sept. IS. Washington lays the comer stone of the national Capitol. Dec. 31. Jefferson retires from the cabinet. 1794. Jan. 3. Madison's commercial resolutions presented; threats of legislation against Great Britain, followed by acts to provide defenses for ports (March 20) ; arsenals (April 2) ; increase of army (May 9); and temporary embargo (Jime 4). March 27. Appropriation for feeble beginning of a navy. July-October. Whisky Insurrection in west- em Pennsylvania; a frontier protest against the excise. Its suppression by military force, though without a fight, displays the coercive power of the new government. Aug. 20. WajTie defeats the Indians in Ohio. Nov. 19. Jay Treaty with Great Britain; the terms are humiliating but it prevents war, and is ratified by Senate (Jime 24, 1795) in spite of strong opposition. 1795. Imports, $69,756,268; exports. 347,989,872. Jan. 1. National debt. SS0.747..5,S7. Jan. SI. Hamilton retires from the cabinet. -Aug. 3. Treaty of Greenville with the north- western Indians: most of Ohio is ceded. Oct. 27. Treaty with Spain: Spain acknowl- edges boimdary of parallel 31°, and grants free navigation and right of deposit on the Missis- sippi. This and the Indian and British treaties strengthen the Union in the West. 170 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1796-1814. w 1796. Cleveland Is founded in Connecticut West- ''"'^fa^T'!: In Hylton r. United States first iuternal-revenue decision, the S"f «■»« claimed. Prevents suits against States and ^ a check to broad construction. iPei ™^"™: 4nn( 7 Mississippi Territory created, slavery I 'a pril SO. Navy Department created ; its secre- tary becomes a member of the cabmet^ June 2S July IJ,. Alien and Sedition Acts to crush tlie strong RepubUcan opposition to meas- ures imfriendly to France. r^„„^ August In Calder p. Bull the Supreme Court holds that the prohibition on State ex posl facto laws has reference to criminal laws only. Nov 16, Dee. H. Kentucky and Virginia Besolutions are adopted by legislattu-es of these States, asserting the right of a State to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts or other Federal legislation considered unconstitutional. First official state- ment of the State-rights theory. „„.„„, 1799. March 29. New York passes a gradual emancipation act. 1S0«. Imports, $91,252,786; exports, 8/0.9/ 1,780. Jan. I. National net debt. 882,976,294. May 7 Northwest Territory is divided ana the western portion becomes Indiana Territory. May 10. Public Land Act authorizes sales on credit in any quantity. „i„,.i„„ iuguH. Second U. S. census; population, 5 308 483 (108.435 free Negroes, 893.602 slaves). ' Sevt SO Treaty of peace and commerce with France: imder Bonaparte's influence favorable to the Unitetl States. .,,... t„«„.. jVoDfmt.fr. Fourth presidential election: Jeffer- son and Burr, the Republican candidates, tied with 73 electoral votes each; Adams. 65 votes. House of Representatives elects Jefferson (Fel5- niary 17 1801), and Burr becomes vice presi- dent The Republicans, or strict construction- ists, also gain control of both houses of Congress. Nov. 17. Congress meets in Washington for the first time. . . 1801. Jan. SI. Jolm Marshall commissioned cmet justice ot the Supreme Court. , „ j„,. Feb 13. Judiciary Act pas.ses; the fuial teder- alist effort to strengthen tlie national government. March 4 Thomas Jefferson takes the oath as third president; Madison made secretary of state and Albert GaUatin secretary of the trcasuo"^ May W Tripoli declares war on the tnitea States over the tribute paid by the mited States in common with other commercial nations. Naval exploits, especially the destruction, by Stephen Decatur, of the captured U.S.S. Philadel- phia on Febniary 15, 1804. 180?. March 18. Republican Congress repeals the Judiciary Act ot 1801 ; part ot an attempt to make the judiciary amenable to changes of party^ , April 2i Georgia cedes claim to all land west of present bomidary. The region is added to the territory of Mississippi Territory _ 180S. Feb. 1 9. Congress admits Ohio (1 / th State) , free State. , „ Feb 2i In Marburj- v. Madison the Supreme Court upholds the independence of the judi- ciary and asserts its right to declare Federal acts void Under Marshall the Court continues to main- tain the broad interpretation ot the Constitution. April SO. Louisiana Purchase Treaty. For $15,000,000 United States buys from Fraiice the recently acquired Spanish Lomsiana, with badly defined boundaries. 1804. February. New Jersey passes a gradual emancipation act. completmg group of eight Northern free States. March 26. Act for Territory of Orieans, em- bracmg the Louisiana Piu-cha.sc below 33". July H Vice president Burr kills Hamilton in a duei. This leaves the Federalists without capable leadership. . Sept 25. Twelfth Amendment is pro- claimed. It requires separate votes for president and vice president, so as to prevent a tie. November. Fifth presidential election: Jeffer- son and George Clinton receive 162 electoral votes; C. C. Pinckney and Rufus Kmg, Federalist candidates, 14 votes. 1804-180G. Lewis and Clark Expedition up the Missouri, down the Columbia to the Pacific, and retiuTi; is a further foundation of the claim to the Oregon country. «r,-rKKn'>i 1805. Imports, $120,600,000; exports, S9o,o66,021. Jan. 1 Net national debt, $82,312,15L Jan. 11. Indiana Territory is divided and Micliigan Territory erected. March 1 . Justice Samuel Chase, impeached by the House of Representatives, !^ acqiutted by Ih. | Senate. This strengthens the judiciarj- and stops impeachments for poUtical reasons. June J,. Treaty of peace with Tripoh; no reter- 1806?" Morels: PoUcy of internal improvements at Federal expense is maugiu-ated by an act au- thorizmg the National (Cumberland) Road be- tween the Potomac and the Oliio. , Nov 21 Berlin Decree is issued by Napoleon; part of the violation of the rights of neutra trade by both Great Britain and France Great Britain impresses .American seamen from neutral vessels JcA'crson's retahatorj- policy is limited L peaceful coercion by deprivmg the belhgerents of American products and trade. ,„„^u„« 1806-1807. Z. M. Pike explores the upper reaches of the Mississippi River and penetrates the Bocky Mountains in Colorado. , , ^ w A«rnn Burr Conspiracy; a project led by Aaron Burr mtendhig, probably, an mvasion of Mcxco, orTsettlement'ifVcstem lands. M3"c opimon led by Jefferson, believes it to be a disunion scheme. Burr tried for treason but ; acquit ted, under a ruling by MarshaU (September 1, 180/). l^T March 2. Act to prohibit foreign slave trade; in effect, Januao' 1, 1808. June "'> H.M.S. Leopard fires on, boards, and searches U.S.S. Chesapeake, impressing saUors from it. No reparation tmtil 1811. „,„„.„ -l„c ir Fulton's voyage up tlie Hudson to Albany by steamboat Cle^-monl; first successful use of a steamboat. „„„-;„„ Nov 17 British order in council answenng BerUn Decree; heavier restrictions on neutra ^ [biu-dens neutral trade. Dec 17 Milan Decree by Napoleon turtherl Dec 22 Embargo Act, the supreme measure of Jefferson's commercial retaliatory POhcy- American vessels forbidden »<> l<"ave /or foreign ports, and foreign vessels "»* P"'''™"*" to take cargo Affects New England and New ^ork chilfly ; itVesisted as much as possible; Federalists threaten nulhficat ion and secession. t^^i November. Sixth presidential election : Madi- son has 122 votes for president, George Clmton, 113 for vice president; FederaUst opponents, IS^r^^F^r 7' Sis TTrrtto^^^t created out of '°S"'J"ln°United States .. Peters (Olmstead case) ' the Supreme Court upholds supremacy of F^eral courts over State laws, rebiU.es Pennsyl- vania, and declares that a suit """^aUy agamst a State agent does not necessanly violate the Eleventh Amendment. March I. Jefferson's Eml^argo Act repealed and Nonintercourse Act with Great Britam and France substituted; president may restore mter- course with either belligerent. Mar.A 4 James IWadison (4th president) takes the oath; virtuaUy his own secretao' of state; Gallatin remains secretary of the treasiirj'^ ivril 19 Through the imauthorized act of Er^kine, British mmister, intercoiu-se is restore' U S S. Rattlesnake is captured by the Lmr,/Jer. June 28: U.S.S. Wasp destroys the K""rf«'/ July: Ftaal Niagara campaign begins. Jacob Brown, with Winfleld Scott as eh.ef lieutenant, commands the American forc(«. JiUy \J^^l tie of Chippewa (Amencan victory) Jul> 25. Battle of Lundy's Lane (indecisive). August Is British assault on Fort E"e (oPPO^^e Buf- falo) is repiUsed. August 24: British, havmg defeated the American mUitia at Bladensburg the same day occupy Washington, burn the public buildings, mcludmg the Capitol and White House, and then retire. Septeml^er 1. U.S.S. Wasp sinks the Avon. September 3^ IJ.S^- Adams is destroyed to P^fvent capture. Septem- ber 11 • Prevost's British invasion by way of Lake Champlain repulsed through Macdonoughs naval victorv off Plattsbiu-g. September 13. British, befor?Ba Itiraore, bombard Fort McHenry imsuc- cihUly and retire. During the bombardment the " Star-Spangled Banner is wntten by Key November 5; Fort Erie is blown up and Americans again retire from Cajiada. ■ Dec lA-Jan 6 isin. Hartford Convention cuiniination of New England opposition to the ^and tTe dving party effort of the Federalists. ?olicv of nuliiflcation is approved, various drtt c amendments to safeguard New Eng and s toterests are proposed, and resistance ">t'n>ated. nee "i Peace of Ghent is signed; ^^tal causes o'f the war are ignored, aU conqutjts re- ared Sid commissions to settle disptited tound- ari^lXeenthe United States and Canada an- 1814-1830. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 171 1814 {continued). thorized. American right to fish on the British- American coast, enjoyemidar>- of Oregon Coun- try). Western line of Louisiana Purchase is es- tabUshed. [Congress. | March 2. Arkansas Territorj' is authorized by I March 6. In M'Culloch n. Maryland the Su- preme Court upholds the rights of Congress to charter the Bank of the LTnlted States and holds tmconstitutionai State attempts to tax the bank. May 26. The Savannah, under sail and steam, leaves Savannah for Liverpool. She crosses in 25 days, the first transatlantic passage of a steamship. (slavery. I Dec. 14. Alabama (22d State) admitted, with| 1819-18S0. Major S. H. Long explores the Great Plains between Canadian River and Platte. 1820. Imports, $74,450,000; exports, $69,091,669; immigrants (first official report) , 8,385. Esthnated arrivals 1789 to 1820, 250,000. Jan. 1. National net debt, $91,015,566. March 3. Missouri Compromise Act: Sharp conflict involving the 11 slave States and 11 free States: adjusts first national slavery crisis. At- tempt to prohibit slavery in Missouri as condition of admission is defeated, but balance between free and slave States is preserved liy providing for the admission of Maine as free and Missouri as slave; slavery is prohibited in all the rest of the Louisi- ana Purchase north of 36° 30'. This gives the larger part of cession to tlie North: but tliere are no settlers west of the Missouri for many years. March 15. Maine (23d State) admitted: free. April 24. Public Land Act permits tlie pur- chase of tracts of 80 acres or more at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre; abolishes credit system. August. Fourth U. S. census: population, 9,638.453 (233,634 free Negroes, 1,538,122 slaves). November. Ninth presidential election; Mon- roe and Tompldns are virtually imopposed. 1821. Russian ukase claiming North American coast south to 51° and exclusive rights in North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea. March S. In Cohens r.Virginia tlie Supreme Court reasserts its appellate jiu-isdiction and de- clares that, notwithstandmg the Eleventh Amend- ment, it has jurisdiction on appeal over a case in- volving a Federal law begtm by a State in its own courts against its owTi citizen. .^ng. 10. Missouri (24th state) finally admit- ted with slavery. 1822. March 8. Monroe sends a message to Con- gress advising the recognition of the Spanisli American states. Congress (May 4) appropriates money for missions to them. 1823. Dec. 2. Monroe Doctrine, in large part due to Jolm Quincy Adams, announced in presi- dent's message to Congress. It warns European nations not to assist Spain in subduing her re- volted American colonies: and declares that the American continents are not henceforth " to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." It also objects to their " poUtical system." Intended in part as rebuke to Russia. 1824. March 2. In Gibbons c. Ogden the Su- preme Court lays down the fundamental princi- ples governing Congress's exclusive control over Interstate commerce, holding that it includes navigation and does not stop at the boimdary of a State. March 19. In Osbom ti. Bank of the United States — really a case against Ohio — the Su- preme Court declares that the United States has aright to protect the Bank as its agent against the acts of State ofBcials, notwithstanding the Eleventh Amendment. April 17. Treaty with Russia; no Russian set- tlements south of S4° 40', which becomes the rec- ognized northern boundary of the Oregon Country; Rocky Moimtains remains its eastern line. A pril 30. General .StuTey Act passed, intendeti to prepare the way for internal improvements of national importance. May S. Congi'ess authorizes a national sub- scription to canal stock. Act to continue the Cumberland Boad west of the Ohio is passed. The road is plaimed to rtm to St. Louis, liut, be- cause of the later development of railroads and the reaction against internal improvements, the road is not completed by the United States tieyond Springfield, Oliio, and is finally turned over to the States tlirough wiiicli it passes. May 24. First river and harbor acts of im- portance notwitlistandmg constitutional doubts of Monroe. Tariff Act of 1824: increases protection and, with the survey and river acts, is a part of Clay's Amer- ican system. It is opposed by commercial New England (W'ebster) and the cotton-raising South. Aug. 15. Lafayette arrives as a guest of the na- tion. He remains until September 6. 1825. November. Tenth presidential election: Adams, Calhoun, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson are candi- dates. Callioun is elected vice president. As no one has a majority of electoral votes for president, the House of Representatives chooses Adams, who favors the American system. 1825. Imports, $90,189,310; exports, $90,738,333; immigrants, 10.199. Santa Fe Trail between the Missouri and New Mexico is opened and tiecomes an important fac- tor in Far Western progress. W. H. Ashlev explores the northern Great Plains. Jan. 1. National net debt, $.83,788,4.33. March 4. John Qulncy Adams sixth presi- dent. He makes Clay secretary of state; later unfounded charges made that tliis was done to re- ward Claj' for his sui)purt of Adams for presidency. Oct. 6. Erie Canal is completed. It aids greatly in the development of the West and in the growth of New York City. Its great success en- courages other plans for canals cumiecting the At- lantic waters with those of tlic ]Missis^ipi»i valley, across Pemisylvania, Alar.\iand, and \'irgUiia; also for connecting the valley with the Great) Lakes. Few of them are finished and fewer are financially successful. States accumulate great debts in promoting such works and tlie Federal government adopts a poUcy of laud grants in aid of construction, beginning on March 2, 1837. 1826. June. Panama Congress (see P.\nama) . 1826-1829. Jedediah Snath, a fiu- trader, first ex- plores the CTi-eat Basin, Cahfomia, and southern Oregon Coimtrj'- 1827. Feb. 2. In Martm t>. Mott tlie Supreme Com-t holds that the president is the final judge whether the exigency under which he is authorized to caU out the militia has arisen. March 12. In Brown t. Maryland the Supreme Court declares that a State tax on importers is an interference with Federal control over imports, as well as a regulation of foreign commerce, over which Congress has exclusive control. March 13. In Ogden v. Samiders tlie Supreme Cotjrt, changing somewhat its view, declares that a State Insolvency law does not impair the obliga^ tion of a contract made after the law is enacted. Aug. 6. Treaty with Great Britain continues the joint occupation in Oregon. A'oii. 16. Fmai cession of Creek lands in CJeorgia postpones a crisis between the State and Federal authorities. 1828. Noah Webster publishes his American Dic- tionary of the English Language; an event in Eng- lish hterature. March 15. In American Insurance Company r. Canter the Supreme Court holds that the Fed- eral power to make war and treaties mcludes the right of annexation, and the power of Congress to govern territories cannot be questioned. May 19. Tariff Act of 1828, caUed the Tariff of Abominations. It is strongly protective, and the South, especially South Carolina, declaring that the burden of it fails on the slave States, threatens resistance. Calhoun writes his Ex- position (publislicd anonjTiiously ) , wiiich holds tiiat tlie Constitution is a compact lietween sover- eign States, each of wliich is the final judge whether its reserved rights have been infringed upon. Tills is in direct opposition to the nation- alistic theorj' built up by IWarshall through liis de- cisions in the Supreme Court, and revives the nulliflration theory of the Kentucky and Vir- ginia Resolutions. July 4. Construction begins on the Baltimore and Oliio Railroad. November. In the eleventh presidential elec- tion Jackson receives 178 electoral votes. Callioun 171 votes for vice president, and Adams and his miming mate, Rush, 83 votes. 1829. First locomotive used In America is im- ported from England for the Carbondale and Honesdale (Pa.) Railroad. March 4. Andrew Jackson is inaugurated seventh president. He gradually develops his pohcy, including strict construction of tlie Federal Constitution, and superiority of the rights of the people over those of vested interests. " Jackson men " later become known as Democrats; their opiKinents accept the name of Whigs. Under Jackson the postmaster-general lx:conies the sixth member of the caliinet. The " spoils system " is introduced into national politics. March 12.. In Craig v. Missouri tlie Supreme Court declares State loan certificates intended for circtdation are " bills of credit " and therefore im- constitutional March 17. In Willson v. Blackbird Creek Marsh Co. the Supreme Court accepts a zone of dual comm.ercial control by holding that till Con- gress acts a State may dam a creek which is navi- gable from the sea. March 22, In Providence Bank n. Billings the Supreme Com-t holds that a State tax on a bank chartered by it is not an impairment of the obliga- tion of contract. 1830. Imports of merchandise, $62,720,995; ex- ports of merchandise, $71,670,735: immigrants, 23,322. [since 1S04.| Chicago laid out. A Federal post has been there! Jan. 1. National net debt, $48,565,407. January. Webster-Hayne debate in the Sen- ate Webster ex-pounds Marshall's nationalistic theory of the Federal government : Ha>-ne defends the State-rights doctrine, based on a compact with the United States. April 13. Jackson m his toast, " Our Federal Union: it must be preserved," warns the nuiliflers. Mail 27. Jack.son vetoes the Maysville Road Bill, checking Federal aid to roads and canals. He eventually makes opposition to national in- ternal improvements a Democratic principle. 172 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1830—1845. u w 1830 (conlinued). May 2S. Jackson signs the Indian Removal Act, which emljodies bis poUcy for tlie general re- moval of the Indians to reservations west of the Mississippi. An intermittent war is carried on lor years with the Seminoles m Florida over their removal. Georgia's controversy with the Creeks and Cherokecs involves her loyalty to the Inion. Jane. Fifth U.S. Census; population 12.866,- 020 1319,599 free Negroes, 2,009,043 slaves). iuuiist. Peter Cooper's locomotive rims on the Baltimore and Ohio Raaroad: first successful use in the U. S. of steam in raihoad transportation. SLAVERY CONTROVERSY. 1831 Jan 1 W. L. Garrison establishes the Liberator at Boston. It is the organ of those who demand the immediate abolition of slavery, and is mfluentiai in arousing the people on the evils of the slavery system. Jan 10 The king of the Netherlands makes award as arbiter of the Northeastern Boundary dispute; the award is not accepted by the Umted States nor insisted on by Great Britain. March IS. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia the Supreme Court denies the right of an Indian tribe to sue in the Federal courts, because it is not a for- eign nation. . „ .., A ugust. Nat Turner's Insurrection m South- ampton, Va.; the most important of several Ne- gro risings wliich influence public opmion on the dangers of slavery. 183'J. Oregon Trail from the Missouri River at Independence, via the Platte and Snake valleys to the mouth of the ColunilMa, comes into use as the main route of American settlement of the Oregon Coimtry. , ^,. Black Hawk War in Illmois and Wisconsin re- sults from pressure of the whites on the Indians and resistance to the policy of trans-Mississippi removal. Abraham Lincohi serves as a captam. March S. Marshall for the Supreme Court m ■Worcester i. Georgia declares that the Federal government has exclusive authority over tribal Indians and their lands within a State. Georgia defies the court's mandate and Jackson declines to enforce it The Cherokees are flnaUy forced to cede their lands (December 29, 1835) and remove to Indian Territory where the other foiu- CivUized Tribes (Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Semi- noles) are already located. Jutij in. Jackson vetoes a bill to recharter the Bank of tlic United States for 20 years from l.siitj, thus making the Bank the mam issue of the election. This is an episode in the " Bank 'War." Jackson opposes the power of the Bank in public affairs. The Bank defends itself by literatiu-e and some doubtful methods. In part the Bank be- comes an East t. West question. July 14. Tariff Act of 1S32 continues the pro- tective duties so obnoxious to the South. November. Twelfth presidential election: Jack- son receives 219 electoral votes and Van Buren 189 votes for vice president; Clay and John Sergeant (National Republicans or Whigs), 49 votes. Xov. 2!,. South Carolina Nulliflcation Ordinance against the tariff act; prepares to re- sist collection of duties. Dec. 10. Jackson's proclamation against nulli- fication, which he calls disimion. 1833. February. Debate on nuUification between Webster and Calhoim, who denies that the na- tional government can be a party to a compact with States. Feb. 18. In Barron v. Baltimore the Supreme Coiut decides that the Federal courts have no jurisdiction over State impairment of civil rights by virtue of the first eight constitutional amend- ments, which apply to the Federal government only This construction stands imtil the Four- teenth Amendment (1868) gives the Federal courts such jurisdiction. March 2. Clay's Compromise Tariff Act, calling for a gradual reduction to a revenue basis in 1842. A Force Act is also passed to furnish means for controlling the recalcitrant State. The South Carolinians accept tliis masmuch as other Southern States fail to support South Carolina. Jackson pockets a biU to distribute the proceeds of puljlic land sales which is part of the compromise. March 1,3. South Carolina repeals the Nullifi- cation Ordinance, though adhermg to the doctrine. Ort. 1. Jackson orders the removal of the Fed- eral deposits from the Bank of the United States; Secrctarj- Duane resigns rather than carry out the policy; liis successor, Taney, gives desired order. 23fc-. 4. American Antislavery Society is organ- ized at Boston by Garrison. Becomes a center of antislavery activity. 1834. C. H. McCormick patents the horse reaper. 1835. Imports of merchandise, 5136,764,295; ex- ports of merchandise. $115,215,802; immigrants, 45,374. Samuel Co'.t patents the revolver. Jan. t. National net debt is virtually extin- guished: problem of siutjIus revenue at once arises. 1836. March 2. Tesas declares her independ- ence from Mexico. The settlers are maiiay Americans. She desires " reannexation " to the United States, but receives recognition (March 3, 1837) instead. ,, . „ March 15. Roger B. Taney succeeds MarshaU as chief justice of the Supreme Court. Thereafter the decisions of the court tend toward a stricter construction of Federal powers and an amplifies^ tion of police powers of the States; the funda- mental principles of real Federal authority, estab- lished by Marshall's decisions, are not disturbed. April 20. Wisconsin Territory is set up out of Michigan Territory'; it mcludes a portion of the trans-Mississippi region. May 28. First C;ag Resolution, to prevent the reception of antislavery petitions, is adopted by the House of Representatives, and frequently re- newed until 1844. June 15. Arkansas (25th State), admitted with slavery. June 23. Surplus Revenue Act for the dis- tribution among the States during 1837 of the ac- cumulated surplus of $36,000,000. July. Local postal authorities in several South- em places stop and destroy abolition maU; action is coimtenanced but not offlciaUy sanctioned by the department. July 11. Jackson issues a Specie Circular, re- quiring that public land payments be made in com . Noi-ember. Thirteenth presidential election: Van Biu-en. Jackson's chosen successor, receives 170 electoral votes out of 294. R. M . Jolmson has 147 votes for vice president; Senate elects him. 1837. Jan. 9. Jackson's special message shows interest of the United States in an Isthmian Canal. Jan. 26. Michigan is admitted (26th State); free State. February. Three decisions of the Supreme I Court, mark a retirement from extreme national- ism. In New York v. Miln the court validates a State law requiring sliip captain to present an ac- count of his passengers from abroad. In Briscoe V. Bank of Kentuck-y (February 11), circulating notes of a bank whoUy owned by the State are held noi, to be issued by the State itself and hence are not bills of credit. In Charles River Bridge r. Warren Bridge (February 14) the court declares that a State charter of a toll bridge is not a con- tract preventing a rival charter. March J,. Martin Van Buren becomes the eighth president. May 10. Panic of 1837 begins. It is caused by a period of wild speculation: reckless loans by the "pet banks" wliich have received the Federal funds on deposit, and other State banks; and the mortgaging of the future for internal improve- ments. Sept. 4. Twenty-fifth Congress meets in special session to consider the financial situation. As nearly as can be calculated. 34 Democrats and IS ■Whigs attend in the Senate, and 120 Democrats and 116 Wliigs in the House. Oct. 2. Fourth installment of distribution of the surplus revenue is suspended because of exten- sive bank failures. Oct. 12. $10,000,000 in treasury notes author- ized to tide the government over the crisis. This starts a new debt, which becomes permanent, 1838. Great Western and Sirius cross the Atlantic imder steam power alone. June 1 2. Iowa Territory created out of that part of Wisconsin Territory west of the Mississippi.^ 1839. E. B. Bigelow develops the carpet loom. ' December . In preparation for the national cam- paign, Whigs and, later (May 31, 1840), Demo- crats hold national nominating conventions. Dec. 2. Twenty-sixth Congress meets; in the Senate, 27 Democrats and 20 'Whigs; m the House, 120 Democrats and 113 'Whigs. 1840. Imports of merchandise, $98,258,706; ex- ports of merchandise, $123,668,932; immigrants, 84,066. Jan. 1. National net debt, $3,573„344. June. Sixth V. S. census; population, 17,069,- 453 (386,293 free Negroes. 2,487.355 slaves). July 4. Independent Treasury, or Subtreas- ury, Act; Democratic substitute for a central bank. It provides for the keeping of Federal funds imdcr direct control of government oflicials. Novcviher. Fourteenth presidential election: Harrison and Tyler, -ttliigs, receive 234 electoral votes: Van Buren and Jolmson, 60 and 48 votes; a national antislaver>' party, the Liberty party, casts 7,000 popular votes for Bimey. 1841. March 4. William Henry Harrison, ninth president; first Whig aflniinistration. Webster is secretary of state. April 4. Harrison dies; John Tyler succeeds as tenth president. May St. Twenty-seventh Congress meets in special session to enact a 'Wliig program. In the Senate are 23 Democrats and 29 'Wliigs ; m the House 98 Democrats and 144 ■Wliigs. July 21. A small government loan; others and more issues of treasury notes follow. Except in 1839 expenditures exceed receipts during the po riod 1S37-1S43. .4119. IS. Independent Treasury Act is re- pealed by the Whigs. Aug. le. Tyler vetoes the Whig Fiscal Bank " Bill on constitutional grounds. Indica- tions of a split in Whig ranks follow. Aug. li). Federal Bankruptcy Act, but the same Congress later repeals it. Sept. 4. Act for preiemption of public lands and distribution of the proceeds of pubhc land sales among the States. Settlers once only may prei^mpt 160 acres at $1.25 an acre. The dis- tribution of proceeds is to discontinue 11 tariff rates go above twenty per cent. Sept. a. President's veto of a " Fiscal Corpora- tion ■ Bill causes a split among Whig leaders; aU the cabinet but Webster resign in a body. Sept. 11. Temporary tariff act to increase the revenue. 1843. Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island; a protest against theimdemocratic constitution of the State. Dorr is convicted o| treason, but a new constitu- tion is put through. March 1. In Prigg v. Pemisylvania the Su- preme Court declares that State laws contrary to the' Fugitive-Slave Law of 1793 are void; but that State authorities are imder no obligation to assist in the enforcement of the law. March 4. In Dobbms i. Commissioners the Supreme Court holds that a State cannot tax the salary or emoluments of a Federal officer. Jmie 29, Aug. 9. Tyler vetoes new tariff biUs that are tangled -with the distribution of land revenue. , . , ^ Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty signed with Great Britain. It settles the northeastern boundary dis- pute which threatens war, by a compromise Ime. Axig. 20. Tariff Act of 1842; a protective measure without any distribution of proceeds of public lands. Tvler has prevented the reestab- lishnient of a Federal bank and disrupted the ■^^ lug program; but national internal improvcn tnts continue and the Whigs adhere to their policy of national banking control and protection. 1842-1846. John C. Fremont conducts several expeditions which explore the Great Plains, Rocky Moimtams, Great Basin, California, and southern Oregon coimtr>'. 1843. Dec. 4. Twenty-eighth Congress meets; 23 Democrats and 29 Whigs in the Senate, and 141 Democrats and 82 Whigs m the House. 1844. Jan. 6. Texan Annexation Treaty signed; would make Texas a State, but piibUc lands to go to the national government. May 24. Magnetic telegraph, invented by S. F. B. Morse, is first brought into practical use between Baltimore and Washington, the Fed- eral government having provided the funds for constructing the line. June 9. Senate rejects the Texan treaty, partly because Texas is slaveholding, though the move- ment for annexation is not primarUy intended to extend slavery. June 15. Charics G oodyear patents the process of vulcanizing India rubber. June 27. In a riot against the Mormons at Nauvoo, 111., their prophet, Joseph Smith, is killed. Brigham Young succeeds as lender. The Mormons are driven from the State, and shortly afterwards migrate to Great Salt Lake, then ilexican territory. A'oveniber. Fifteenth presidential election: Texas and sole control over aU of Oregon Coimtry are issues in the campaign; Polk (favoring annexa^ tion) and G. M. Dallas receive 170 electoral votes. Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen, the Whigs, 105; Birncy the Libertv party candidate, polls 62,000 poiJul'ar votes, and his adherents throw their bal- ance of power in New York against Clay, which causes his defeat. „ ,0, ,00 1845. Imports of merchandise, $113,184,322; ex- ports of merchandise, $106,040,111; immigrants, 114,371. „ , ,. March 1. Joint resolution of Congress for the annexation of Texas, less favorable to the United States than the abandoned treaty. March S. Florida (27th State) is admitted, with slavery. .... . j March 4. James Knox Polk is maugurated as eleventh president. July 1 National net debt, $15,925,303, Dec 1 Twentv-ninth Congress meets : 30 Dem- ocrats and 24 Whigs m the Senate, 141 Democrats, 77 Whigs and 6 Native Americans in the House. Dec 09 Texas (28th State) admitted with slavery, making 15 slave States to 13 free. United States' troops under Zachary Taylor have already been sent to protect the region. Polk adopts the Texas claim to the Rio Grande as her boundary. Mexico declines to ackTiowledgc the independence of the new State and hangs back on the payment of adjusted claims. On the annexation of Texas, Mexico threatens war and denies that Texas ex- tends to the Rio Grande. 1845 — 1857. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 173 1845 (cotltinited) . December-March, 1846. SUdell Mission to Mexico, a futile effort to adjust tlie Texan Ijound- ary as an offset to claims, and to purchase Cali- fornia. 1846. March i'S. Taylor's force occupies the strip between the Nueces and Kio Grande. April 24: Mexican War is begun by an attack by Mexicans on the north side of the river. :May S, B; Battles of Paio Alto and Kcsaca de la Palina; Mexicans driven across the Rio Grande. May 9. Polk has decided to send in a war mes- sage when news comes of the fight on April 24. and so he declares in his message of ilay 11 that Mex- icans have " shed American blood upon American soil." May IS. Congress declares that war exists by tlie act of Mexico and authorizes the raising of volunteers. May IS. Taylor crosses the Kio Grande and occupies Matamoros. Jane IB. Treaty is signed with Great Britain adjusting Oregon; the United States confinned in the portion south of 49°. July 7. Commodore Sloat occupies Monterey, California. Later, a military government is es- tablished over California. July SO. TarilT Act of 1846; a reyenue meas- ure with a high duty on luxiu-ies only. Aug. 6. Act reestablishing the Independent Treasury. Aug. S. Wliniot Proviso passes the House; prohibits slavery in any territory to be acquired from Mexico, and though in its origin directly the result of sectional difference in the Democratic party, it is evidence of strong sentiment against slavery; defeated in the Senate, but for the next foiu" years it is a political issue. Aug. 18. Kearny, after an overland march, occupies Santa Fe. He organizes a temporary government for New Mexico. [ciiine.! Sept. 10. Elias Howe patents the sewing ma- 1 Sepl. £4. Taylor occupies Monterey, Mexico, after a three days' battle. Sept. SO. W. T. G. Morton uses ether success- fully as an anaesthetic. Dec. 12. Treaty with New Granada (Colom- bia); freedom of transit on Isthmus of Panama given to United States; in return, neutrality of Isthmus and Colombia's sovereignty over it are guaranteed by United States. Dec. 28. Iowa admitted (29th State) ; free State. 1847. Richard M. Hoe invents the rotary print- ing press. Feb. 22~2S. Taylor's victory at Buena Vista. March 6. In License Cases the Supreme Court hands down the opinion that a State license to sell liquor is legal even though the liquor comes from outside the State. March 9. Army under Winfield Scott lands before Vera Cruz. March 29: Vera Cruz surren- ders. Scott marches against the Mexican capital, defeating Santa Anna in various battles: Cerro Gordo (April 18); Contreras (August 19-20); Churubusco (August 20); Molino del Rey (Sep- tember 8) ; captiu'e of Chapultepec and assault on gates of Mexico City (September 13). Occupa- tion of Mexico City follows. Dec. 6. Thirtieth Congress meets: 32 Demo- crats and 22 Whigs in the Senate and 110 Demo- crats, 117 Whigs, and 1 Native American in the House. Abraham Lincoln a member from Illi- nois. 1848. In West River Bridge Co. t. Dix the Su- preme Court decides that the exercise of the State right of eminent domain which takes over a fran- chise does not impair the obligation of contracts. . Jan. 24. Gold is discovered near Sutter's . Mill in California. Agreat immigration by land , and sea follows (" forty-niners "), with pressure j for quick organization of civil government. | Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed with Mexico. Rio Grande recognized as the boundiiry and New Mexico and California ceded. United States pays Mexico .SIS.OOO.OOO and assimies claims. May 20. Wisconsin (30th State) free; balance of free and slave States restored. [ment laid. I July 4. Corner stone of AVashington Monu-I Aug. 14. Oregon is organized as a territory, slavery being forbidden. Nov. 7. Sixteenth presidential election : Taylor, nominated by the "Whigs as a war hero and on no platform, and Fillmore receive 163 votes; Lewis Cass and W. O. Butler, the Democratic candidates, 127 votes; Free-soil party, composed of former Liberty party, Wilmot Proviso men, and factional New York Democrats ("Barnburners"), nomi- nates Martin Van Bin-en, who polls 29 1 ,000 popu- lar votes, but Carrie^ no State. 1849. Jan. S. In Luther v. Borden, a case arising out of the Dorr Rebellion, the Supreme Court, holds that the question what is a State government im- der the Federal Constitution is political and not judicial; hence the decision of the executive is followed. January-March. Struggle in Congress over or- ganization of the new territory ; South claims the extension of 36" 30' line to the Pacific, dividing Cahfomia. Feb. 7. In the Passenger Cases the Supreme Coiut disallows a State law requiring payment for each alien landed, as a regulation of foreign com- merce. March S. Act for Department of the Interior; its head becomes the seventh member of the cab- inet. Mirmesota Territory is established. March 0. Zaciiary Taylor is inaugurated as twelfth president. September. Volunteer constitutional conven- tion in California asks admission as a free State covering the Pacific coast from Oregon to Mexico. Dec. 3. Tliirty-first Congress assembles: 34 Democrats, 24 Wliigs, and 2 Free-soilers in the Senate, and 112 Democrats, 105 Whigs, and 13 Free-soilers in the House. Main question is whether slavery shall go into the new territorj'; Taylor opposes the extension. 1849-1851. Filibustering expeditions against Cuba; the leader, Lopez, is executed by the Spaniards on September 1, 1851. 1850. Imports of merchandise, $173,509,526; ex- ports of merchandise, 3144,375,726; immigrants, 369.980 (15 months). .\pril 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Great Britain. Acquisition of California has made the transit across the Isthmus important to the United States: and the Britisii show intention of fixing themselves there. Treaty is a recognition of equal interest in any canal or line of transit on the princi- ple of guarantee of neutrality. May S. In Fleming v. Page the Supreme Coiut declares that conquest gives a valid title ; conquered annexed territory is, as regards other cotmtries, a part of the United States, but is not a part of the Union imtil the Constitution and laws have been extended to it. June. Seventh U.S. census; population, 23, 191- 876 (434,495 free Negroes, 3,204,313 slaves). July 1. National net debt. 363,452,774. July 9. President Taylor dies. July 10. Millard Fillmore succeeds as thir- teenth president. Sepieviber. Compromise of 1850 is effected by the passage of several separate acts: (1) Sep- tember 9; Texas cedes her claim to the eastern portion of New Mexico and receives a Federal m- demnity; New Mexico is organized as a territory, without provision respecting slavery, the people of the territory to decide the question when ready for statehood — practically an invitation to slave- holders to carry slaves into the territory. (2) September 9: California (31st State), admitted free and with the botmdaries claimed. (3) Sep- tember 9: Utah Territory erected with the same conditions respecting slavery as those for New Mexico; expected that it will be free. (4) Septem- ber IS: A new and drastic Fugitive-Slave Law; intended to check organized assistance to fugitives (Undergroimd Railroad). (5) September 20: Slave trade forbidden in the District of Columbia. Sept. 20. First act of Congress making land grants in aid of the construction of railroads (Illinois Central) . 1851. Feb. IS. Rescue in Boston of Shadrach, a fugitive slave. March S. Congress reduces letter postage to three cents per half ounce for carriage up to 3,000 miles. June 2. Maine Law prohibits the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors in that State; re- pealed, 1856; reenacted, 1858. July 4. Fillmore lays the comer stone of the extension of the Capitol. Dec. 1. Thirty-second Congress: 35 Democrats, 24 AMiigs, and 3 Free-soilers in the Senate, and 140 Democrats, 88 WTiigs, and 5 Free-soilers in the House. 1853. Harriet Beecher Stowe pubHshes Vnclr Tom's Cabin, a novel which influences North- em public opinion against slavery. Vermont adopts prohibition: in force, with modifications, imtil 1903, when local option is substituted. March 2. In Cooley ti. Port. Wardens the Su- preme Court, declares that State regulation of pilots and pilotage is not beyond the jmwer of the State so long as Congress has not acted. May 27. In Pennsylvania v. "mieeling Bridge Co., however, the court discoimtenances a bridge across the Ohio River, imder State law, as being an obstruction to xmdistiu'bed interstate or foreign commerce, which is subject to interruption by act of Congress only. Nov. 2. Seventeenth presidential election: "Whigs and Democrats accept the Compromise of 1850 as a " finality " and tr>' to suppress the slavery issue. The Whig candidates. General Scott and W. A. Graham, receive only 42 electoral votes, to 254 given Pierce and W. R. King, their Demo- cratic rivals. Free Democrats (Free-soilers) poll ' 156,000 popular votes. 1853. Chicago is connected by links of railroad with New York and Boston. March 2. Washington Territory set ofl from Oregon Territory. March 4. Franlilln Pierce becomes the four- teenth president. In his inatjgtu'al he declares for the amiexation of Cuba. Dec. a. Thirty-third Congress meets; 37 Demo- crats, 21 Whigs, and 2 Free-soilers in the Senate, and 159 Democrats, 71 Whigs, and 4 Free-soilers in the House. Dec. SO. Gadsden Purchase Treaty with Mexico; for SIO.OUO.OOO a strip transferred o^er which the southern route of the proposed Pa- cific Railroad would pass. 1854. Feb. 2S. Steamer Black Warrior seized by Cuban authorities. Southerners trj' to use the in- cident to obtam the island from Spain, but are checked by conditions at home. March SI. Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan is signed ; ends the isolation of that nation. May 2S. In Cross v. Harrison the Supreme Coiut. holds that the civil government estaiilished in conquered territory as a belligerent right legally contmues after peace in acquired territory imtil Congress legislates otherwise. May 26. Burns fugitive slave incident in Bos- ton; attempt of an antislaverj- mob to storm the comthouse. Several new personal-liberty laws are passed by Northern States to hinder the opera- tion of the Federal law of 1850. May SO. Kansas-Nebraslia Act. Framed by Stephen A. Douglas for the organization of Kansas and Nebraska territories on the princiyle of " popular sovereignty ": thus the prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana Purcliase, embodied in the Missouri Compromise, is " suspended " by the " principle " of the Compromise of 1850. This uprooting of the adjustment of 1820 starts another contest over slavery, which ends only vith the Civil War and emancipation. June B. Treaty of reciprocity with Canada is signed ; in return for free entry of Cattadian raw materials the rights of inshore fisheries are con- firmed and increased. July 6. One of the numerous conventions to protest against the Kansas-Nebraska Act, held at Jackson, Mich., gives its attendants the name of Republicans, which speedily becomes the name of a new national party. Oct. IS. Ostend Manifesto is issued by the American ministers to London, Paris, and ^ladrid; declares that self-protection may retiuij-e the seiz- ing of Cuba, in order to mamtain slavery m United States. Noreniber. Fierce struggle in congressional elections. Know-Nothing party organized Many anti-Nebraska and fusion candidates elected. 1854-1856. Struggle in Kansas between free- State and slave-State settlers becomes a miniature civil war. Proslavery clement gets possession of the territorial government and has the support of the administration. Free-State men set up a sep- arate government at LawTcnce, wliich town is twice attacked. Free-State men, esi)ecially John Brown, make reprisals. 1855. Imports of merchandise, .3257,808.708; ex- ports of merchandise. S21S.909,503; immigrants, 200,877. In 1854 there were 427,833 immigrants. Panama Railroad is opened. New Hampshire adopts prohibition ; in force imtil 1903, when local option is substituted. July 1. National net debt, $35,586,957. Dec. S. Thirty-foiu"th Congress assembles. Nearly even balance of forces; contest over the speakership lasts imtU February 2. when Banks of Massachusetts is chosen. In the Senate. 34 ad- ministration Democrats and 25 in opposition. In the House there are at first 116 administration men; the opposition nimibers 117, made up of a few Whigs and anti-Nebraska or Republican party men. Native .-Americans or Know-Nothing men. and antislavery Democrats. The Repub- Ucans stand in opposition to territorial slavery; to annexation of slaveholding regions; and to the ad- mission of slave States; not for the abolition of slaveri- within the existing .slave States. " Bleed- ing Kansas " is the chief topic before Congress. 1855-1S59. Paraguayan controversy (see Para- guay). 1856. Nov. 4. Eighteenth presidential election: 174 electoral votes for Buchanan and J. C. Breck- inridge, the Democratic candidates; ll'Pfor the Republicans. J. C. Fremont and W. L. Dayton: and 8 for Fillmore, who ran as a Know-Nothing and "Whig. 1857. Impending Crisis of the South is published by H. R. Helper, a Southern poor white, appealing against slaverT.- as had for the white man. The rulmg Southern classes now assert that slavery is " a positive good." and entitled to Federal protec- tion in the territories and foreign poUcy. Sugges- tions of reopening the slave trade. March S. Tariff Act of 1S57: follows the plan of 1846, but further reduces duties; is accepted by 174 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1857 — 1862. N Q U 1857 (continued). members voting from Massachusetts and South Carolina. During the years 1S50-1S56 the or- dinai'y revenues have exceeded the ordinary ex- penditures by 880,000,000. March 4. James Buchanan fllteenth presi- dent. March .5. Cliief Justice Taney delivers the de- cision of the majority of the .Supreme Court in the Dred Scott Case, declaring the Missouri Com- promise to have been always unconstitutional, as contrary^ to the inherent right of any man to take slave " property " into a territory. The decision also asserts that no person of African descent can be a citizen of the United States and as such en- titled to bring suit. The decision is also contrary to the popular sovereignty theory of the Kansas- Nebraska Act and opens all teiTitories to slavery. Aug. 24. Panic of 1857 begins; increase of gold and the rapid extension of railroads are under- lying causes. The government surplus becomes a deficit (S63,0OO,00O for 1857-1861), and treasury notes and bonds are issued. Nov. 7. A proslavery convention in Kansas frames the Lecompton Constitution, so worded as to permit slavery either directly or indirectly, no matter how the settlers vote on the document. Dec. 7. Thirty-fifth Congress organizes: Senate has 39 Democrats, 20 Republicans, and 5 Ivnow- Notliings; House, 131 Democrats, 92 KepuIiUcans, and 14 Know-Nothings. A long struggle ensues over the settlement of the Kansas question. 1858. Mormon War: Federal troops suppress the attempt of Brigham Young and his followers in Utaii to defy the general government. May 4. English Act of Congress adjusts the Kansas difficulty; offers admission to Kansas at once with the L,ecompton Constittition ; otherwise it must wait tmtil it has population necessary for one representative. Free-State men having gained control, the constitution is rejected. This act is the high-water mark of proslavery in Con- gress. Later etTorts for annexation of Ciitja and negotiations with Mexico favorable to slavery fail. May 11. Minnesota C32d State) free State (17 free to 15 slave). Aua. 10. Communication establislied over the new Atlantic cable, but it .soon ceases to work. .■iugust-Octobcr. The Lincoln-Douglas joint debates in Illinois over tiie slavery issue attract great attention. Lincoln's argimients make him a national figure and furnish proof that the Republi- can principles are not revolutiinary. Douglas's presentation of the Freeport Doctrine, by wliich the Dred Scott decision may be avoided by adroit use of popular sovereignty costs liim the confidence of the .South. 1859. First oil well is simk on Oii Creek, Pa.; the beginning of the petroletun industry. Silver discovered in the Comstock lode, Nevada. Feb. 14. Oregon (33d State) admitted free; no new slave States in sight, territorial slavery no longer helpful. March 7. In Ableman n. Booth the Supreme Com't declares that Fugitive-Slave Law of 1S50 is constitutional and that tlie jurisdiction over it is entirely in the Federal courts; efforts of State coiu-ts to obstruct it are illegal. Oci. 10-ls. John Brown's raid at Harpers Ferry, Va. A party of 19 Abolitionists seize the government arsenal as an armed position to which slaves may rally ; put down by State and Federal troops. Brown is hanged on Decemlier 2. The South convinced that the constitvuional riglits of State slavery will not be respected by the Republi- can party, which is confoimded with the Aboli- tionists. Dec. S. Thirty-sixth Congress meets. In the Senate are 37 Democrats, 24 Republicans, and 2 Americans; in the House, 101 Democrats. 109 Republicans, 26 Americans, and 1 Wliig; 13 of the Democrats are antiadministration and 22 of the Americans are from slave States. House is not able to elect a Speaker imtil February 1, when Pennington, a Repubhcan, is cliosen. 1860. Imports of merchandise, 8353,616,119; ex- ports of merchandise, $333,576,057; immigrants, 150,237. May 14. First Japanese embassy is re- ceived at Washington. June. Eighth U. S. census; population 31,443,- 321 (448,070 free Negroes, 3,953,760 slaves). July 1. National net diebt, $59,964,402. Nov. 6. Nineteenth presidential election: Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin, the Republican candidates, receive 180 electoral votes. The Democratic party splits on the question of terri- torial slavery; Douglas and H. V. Jolmson receive 12 electoral votes; J. C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane, the Southern candidates, receive 72 votes. John Bell and Edward Everett, nominated as Constitutional Unionists (former Wliigs and Know-Nothings), receive 39 votes. Republicans do not have a majority in the next Congress. Dec. 4. Buclianan in liis annual message de- nies the right of secession, but throws the responsi- bility for disunion on the North, and sees no con- stitutional method of resisting secession. Dec. IS. Crittenden Compromise is intro- duced in the Senate. This and other efforts diu*- ing the session, supported by the Unionists and especially by the Border States, fail because the cotton States are bent upon secession, and on the other side Lincoln, president elect, advises against any concession on territorial slavery or new slave States, and the RepubUcans will not yield. Dec. 20. South Carolina Convention passes an Ordinance of Secession from the Union on the ground that the Federal compact has been violated by Northern antislavery action. CIVIL WAR. 1861. Telegraphic communication is opened across the continent. Jan. 9. A South Carolina battery fires on the Star of the West, whicli is trying to reenforce the Federal garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. January-February. Six Other Cotton States secede: Mississippi (January 9); Florida (January 10); Alabama (January 11); Georgia (January 19); Louisiana (January 26); Texas (February 1). Border States hold off. Jan. £0. Kansas (34th State) admitted free; the witlidrawal of Southern Congressmen makes the vote possible. Feb. 4-27. Peace Convention holds its sessions in Washington, a final effort by tiie Unionists. Congress submits to the States (March 2) the " Corwin Amendment " to the Constitution for tlie safety of slavery within States. It is not ratified. Feb. 4-March 10. Montgomery Convention holds its sessions of delegates of the seceding States, becoming the first meeting of the Pro- visional Congress Confederate States of America established with a temporary govern- ment, and Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens are inaugurated as provisional president and vice president (February 18). A permanent constitution, witli definite recognition of slavery and State-rights, is submitted on March 17 to the States. Feb. 28. Colorado Territory is created. March 2. Morrill Tariff Act marks tile re- vival of protection, under a planlv m the Republi- can platform, and also provides a needed increase in revenue. Nevada and Dalcota territories are established. March 4. Abraham Lincoln sixteenth presi- dent. In his inaugural address he denies the right of secession and promises to protect the Federal property and collect Federal revenue everywhere. WilUam H. Seward as secretary of state, Salmon P. Chase as secretary of the treasury, Gideon WeUes as secretary of the navy, and later, E. M. Stanton as secretary of war, are the important members of the great war cabinet. April 12. Confederates open fire on Fort Sumter. It siu-renders on April 14. On April 15 Lincoln calls out 75,000 militia, .4 pril 1 7. Virgmia begins the secession of the Border States. Slie is followed by Arkansas (May 6), Teimes.see (May 6), North Carolina (May 20) . Similar efforts in ]SIissoiu-i. Kentucky, and Maryland fail. In Delaware, the other slave State, no attempt is made. Federal property in the seceding States is seized, notably the arsenal at Harpers Ferry (April 18) and the NorfoUt Na\'y Yard (April 19). The Union retains control of foiu' coast forts in the South including Fort Mon- roe (Va.) and Fort Pickens (Fla). April IS. First blood of the Civil War is shed at Baltimore in a mob attack on Union militia en route to Wasllijlgton. .April 19. Lincoln proclaims a blockade of the Confederate coast, which is a recognition of the Confederates as belligerents and forestalls opposi- tion to sucli recognition by neutral nations. A pril £7. Lincohi authorizes General Scott to suspend writ of habeas corpus between Philadel- phia and Washington; an illegal or extralegal act wliich Taney sharply condemns in Ex parte Merry- man on May 27. April 2.9- May 21. Second session of the Con- federate Provisional Congress is held at Mont- gomery; a volimteer force of tmlimited size is au- thorized, $50,000,000 worth of bonds and treasury notes voted, a tariff framed, the capital moved to Riclimond, the existence of war recognized, and letters of marque authorized. May 3. Lincoln issues a call for 42,000 voltm- teers for three years, and increases the regiUar army and navy; extralegal acts which later Con- gress sanctions. May 13. Great Britain recognizes the belliger- ency of the Confederate States. France takes a similar step about a month later. June 3. Action at Philippi, W. Va.: initial suc- cess of Union forces in that region imder McClel- lan. Jime 10: Engagement at Big Bethel. Va. : Butler's Union troops are defeated. A few days later he declares slaves who have come within his lines to be " contraband of war." Jime 17: Action at Boonville. Mo.; Lyon disperses the forces of the Confederate governor. July 1. National net debt. $87,718,661. July 4. Extra session of Thirty-seventh Con- gress convenes; 11 Democrats, 31 Republicans, and 7 Unionists in the Senate, and 44 Democrats, 106 Republicans, and 28 Unionists in the House. July 6. Action at Carthage, Mo.; the Union- ists under Sigel defeated. Jidy 11 ; Action at Rich Motmtain, Va. ; Union success. July 17. Federal war financing begins: $250,- 000,000 in bonds and treasurj- notes. July 20- Aug. 31. Third session of Confederate Congress is held at Richmond; issue of treasury notes and bonds is increased to 8100,000,000; di- rect tax of one lialf per cent is laid, and alien enemy and sequestration acts are passed. July 21. First battle of Bull Bun or Manassas. Federal troops under McDowell routed by the Confederates imder J. E. Johnstos and Beaure- gard. No fiu-ther Union advances are attempted for six months. McClellanput in command of the Army of the Potomac. July 22. 500,000 Federal volunteers are au- thorized by Congress. Aug. 5. Direct tax of $20,000,000 on the States; income tax of 3 per cent. Aug. 10. Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo.; Con- federates imder Price defeat Lyon, who is killed. August 29: Hatteras and Ocracoke inlets, N. C, occupied by Union military and naval forces. September 20: Surrender of Lexington, Mo., to Price. October 21: Battle of Ball's Bluff on the Potomac; Confederate victory. Nor. 6. First and only presidential election in the Confederacy; Davis and Stephens elected. Nor. 7. Port Royal, S. C, is captured by the Union forces imder Du Pont and Gen. T. W. Sherman. Battle of Belmont, Mo.; Union troops under Grant capture the enemy's camp, but are forced to retire. Not. S. Slidell and Mason, Confederate com- missioners, are taken from the British steamer Trent by Capt. Wilkes, U. S. N. Great Britain threatens war; Luicoln disavows the action and re- leases the prisoners (December 26). (See Tkent ATFAIB, in the Dictionary.) Dec. 31. General suspension of specie pay- ments by the banks; not resumed until 1S79. 1862. Gold, lowest price for year. 100; highest, 137. Jan. 19-SO. Battle of Mill Sprmgs, Ky.; Fed- erals under Thomas defeat Zolhcofler. Febiiiary 6: Fort Henry, Tenn., captiux;d by LTnion navy and land force imder Grant. Febniary 8: Cap- ture of Roanoke Island, N. C, by Federal troops imder Bumside. February 14-16: Capture of Fort Donelson, Tenn.. by Grant; fall of the two forts opens the way for invasion of southwestern portion of Confederacy. Feb. IS- April 21. First session of regular Con- federate Congress; Draft Act (April 16). Feb. 22. Jefferson Davis inaugurated regular president of the Confederate States of America. Feb. 2S. Federal Loan and Legal Tender Act; 8150,000,000 circulating notes (greenbacks), to t>e legal tender and reissuable; $500,000,000 bonds ("5-20s") also autliorized. Later acts in- crease volume of greenbacks to $433,000,000 at the end of the war. March 3. Federal occupation of Columbus, Ky.; beginning of the opening of the Mississippi. March 7-8; Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark.: Union army imder Curtis defeats Van Dom and secures Missouri. March 9: Mcrrimac-Monitor light in Hampton Roads, Va.; first battle of ironclads; a drawn contest, but the turreted Monitor prevents the exTJected raid of the Mcrrimac on Union ports. March 14: Bumside occupies Ne^vbem, N. C. March 17: Union troops embark for Fort Monroe to begin McCleUan's Peninsular Campaign, March 23: Battle of Kemstown, Va.; Federals under Shields force Jackson up the Shenandoah Valley. April 5-May 3: Siege and capture of Yorktown, Va.. by McClellan. April 6-7: Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. First day. Confefierates mider A. S. Johnston and Beauregard defeat G rant's Army of the Tennessee (Jolmston killed) ; second day. Confederates driven back by Grant and Buell (Army of the Ohio). April 7: Surrender of Island No. 10 in Mississippi River to Federals imder Foote and Pope. April 10-11: Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, captured by Union troops. April 10. Congress, on Lincoln's advice, sug- gests to the loyal slave States gradual emancipa- tion with Federal aid. April 16. Act for compensated abolition In the District of Columbia. .\pril 24. Farragut's Federal fleet passes the forts below New Orleans. April 29: Possession of the city. May 5: Battle of 'U'illiamsburg, Va. , victory for McClellan. May 8 : Battle of McDow- ell, Va. (now W. Va); T, J (Stonewall) Jackson liegins his Valley campaign, to prevent reen- forcement of McClellan. 1862-1865. NATIONAL HISTOKIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 175 1863 (continued). May Id. Congress authorizes the Department of iVgriculture : not a cabmet office imtU 1889. May ^0. Homestead Law is enacted. May 23-3.5. Jackson defeats the Federals at Front Royal, Newtown, and Wincliester, and re- tires up tlie VaUey. May 30: Occupation of Cor- inth, Miss., tjy Hallecli. May 31-Jime 1: Bat> tie of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines; Johnston's at- taeli on McClellan iiefore Riclimond is repulsed, JoLmston is woimded, and R. E. Lee succeeds in command of the Army of Northern Virginia (June 1). June 4: Fort Pillow, Teim., on the Mississippi, occupied by Federals. Jime 6: Naval battle and surrender of Memphis to Federals imder Ellet. June 8-9 : Jackson defeats pursuing forces at Cross Keys and Port Republic: later he marches liis troops to join Lee at Richmond. [territories.! June IB. Congress iibolishes slavery in the] Jnne S.j-July I. Seven Days' Battles before Richmond (Mcohanicsville, Games's Mill, Sav- age's Station, Frazier's Farm, Malvern Hill); Lee forces Mct'lellan to retreat to Malvern Hill (Jtily 1). Federals establish a new base on lower James River. July I. National net debt, 8305,312,752. Internal Revenue .*ct {first since 1802) ; gradu- ated income ta.K, and many excises and duties. Pacific Railway Act ; Federal land grant and loan of bonds to promote the construction of a line be- tween Missouri River points and California. Ad- ditional aid by a later act. July 2. Morrill Agricultural College Act grants public lands to States for the support of col- leges of agriculture and mechanical arts ; origin of most of the existing State agricultural schools. Ironclad oath is passed by Congress for every Federal official; the taker must never volimtariiy have given aid to the Confederacy. July 17. First Confiscation Act (authorizes the employment in the war of slaves of reliels), Jtily 29. C.S.S. Alabama sails from Liver- pool where she has Ijeen built as a sea raider. Makes in all 68 captures and her activity nearly causes war betweim Great Britain and the L'nited States. Tiiree other English-built cruisers take part. .ino 9. Battle of Cedar Moimtain, Va. : Jack- son defeats Pope, who is advancing toward Rich- mond. .iug. IS-Oct. 13. Second session of, Confederate Congress. Treasury notes sufficient to pay ap- propriations authorized and Draft Act extended. .iug. SS-SO. Second battle of Bull Run (Groveton, Gainesville) ; Lee, who lias joined Jackson, routs Pope, reenforced by part of McClel- lan's army, now withdra\\Ti from the Peninstila. August 28; Confederates imder Bragg and Smith start from Chattanooga to invade Kentuclcj'. Federals imder Buell race to reach tlie Ohio River first, and are successful. .iug. 30. Battle of Richmond, Ky.; Smith de- feats the Federals, and occupies Lexington (Sep- tember 2). September 1; ISattle of Chantilly, Va. ; victory for Lee's troops. September 14: Battle of South Mountain, Md. ; McClellan Ijiocks Lee, who is invading Maryland. Septemtier 15: Capture of Harpers Ferry by Jackson. Septem- l>er 16-17; Battle of Antietani; indecisive, but Lee's invasion is checked, and he retires into Vir- ginia. Septemljer 19-20; Battle of luka. Miss.; Rosecrans defeats tlie Confederates imder Price. .Sept. 22. Lincohi's preliminary Emancipa- tion Proclamation; as a war measure lie will on January 1 declare free all the slaves in the States then in rel>ellion, excepting certain loyal or occu- pied sections. Oct. 3-^. Battle of Corinth, Miss.; Rosecrans repulsas an attack liy Van Dom and Price. Octo- t)cr 8; Battle of Perryville, Ky,; Bragg attacks Buell; indecisive, but Bragg and Smith retire to Tennessee. December 7; Battle of Prairie Grove, Ark.; LInion victory. December 13; Bat- tle of Fredericksburg; assault by Bumside (wiio has succeeded McClellan) on Lee's intrenclied po- sition is repulsed. Decemlier 20; Van Dom's raid on the Federal depot of supplies at Holly Springs, Miss., checks Grant's advance against Vicksburg. Decemlier 29; Sherman's assault on Chickasaw Bluffs, near Vicksburg, repulsed. December 31- January 2, 1863: Battle of Murfreesboro or Stone River; Rosecrans ( who has succeeded Buell) and Bragg both attack; the Confederates retire. 186S. Gold, lowest price for year, 122i; highest, 172i. [tlon.l Jan. 1. Final Emancfpatlon Proclama-| Jan. 11. Capture of Arkansas Post, Ark., by Federals imder McClemand. Jan. 12-May 1. Third session of Confederate Congress ; laws for funding loans and issuing treas- ury notes up to$50,(X)0,000 a month : impressment of supplies for the army (March 26) ; income tax, excise, and tax in kind (April 24). Jan. sn. Grant assumes command of the opera- tions against Vicksburg ; for several months tries unsuccessfully to gain rear of the position. Feb. 24. Arizona Territory is created. Feb. 25. National Banks Act; a safe currency of general circulation is authorized on tlie security of Federal bonds owned by the issuing banks. March S. Draft Act; intended to supplement vohmteering: substitutes and purchase of exemp- tion are permitted. Eventual net addition of drafted troops, about 46,000, besides many sub- stitutes. Loan Act for $900,000,000: bonds, treasury notes, and greenbacks, also issues of fractional currency, to replace silver wliich lias disappeared from cir- culation. Congress authorizes the president im- der certain regulations to suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus; tiiis is done to pre- vent the abuse of arbitrary arrests, and also to legalize the war-time need of a rational use of di- rect action. Idaho Territory is erected. April 7. Fort Sumter imsuccessluliy attacked by a fleet of BYderal ironclads. April 10: Federal ironclads and transports nm the batteries at Vicks- iiurg; Grant then crosses the river below tlie Con- federate defenses (April 30). May 1; Battle of Port Gibson, Miss. ; victory for Grant. May 1-4 ; Battle of Chancellorsvllle, Va.; Lee stops Hooker (who has succeeded Biiniside) and compels liini to recross the Rappahamiock ; Stonewall Jack- son is mortally wounded.^ May 12: Battle of Ray- mond, Miss.; Grant's victory. May 14: Capture of Jackson, Miss., by Grant. May 16-17: Battles of Champion Hills and Big Black River, Miss.; Grant drives tlie Confederates within the defenses of Vicksburg and Ix'gins the siege. May 16. Clement L. VaUandigliani, of Ohio, convicted by a military commi-ssion of seditious utterances addressed to the " Copperheads," or Peace Democrats, and sentenced to imprisonment in Fort Warren. Lincoln ciianges the sentence to banislinient to the Confederacy. May 27. Unsuccessful assault on Port Hudson, La., by Banlts's Federal troops; a siege follows. June IB. West Virginia (35th State) admitted with gradual emancipation; comprises the loyal western portion of Virginia. July 1. National net deirt, $1,111,350,737. July 1-S. Battle of Gettysburg, Pa.; Lee, again mvading the North, is defeated by Meade (who has succeeded Hooker) ; Confederates retreat across the Potomac. July 4; Surrender of Vicksburg. July 9: Confederate attack on Helena, Ark., is repulsed. Surrender of Port Hud- son completes the opening of the Mississippi and cuts the Confederacy in two. July 11, 18; LTnioii assaults on Battery Wag;ner i^efore Charles- ton; the battery eventually evacuated (September 7), but aU efforts to capture the city fail. July IS-ie. Draft Riots in New York City: atxiut 1,000 persons killed; subdued by troops sent back from the front. (See Draft Riots, in Diet.) July 26. Capture of the Confederate general, J. H. Morgan, at Salineville, Ohio, after a three weeks' raid tlirough Kentucky, Indiana, and Oliio. Septemlier 1: Occupation of Fort Smith, Ark., by Federals imder Bhmt. September 8; LTnsuccess- ful naval assault on Fort Simiter. Seiitenilier 10: Occupation of Little Rock, Ark., by Federals un- der Steele. September 19 and 20: Battle of Chlck- amauga, Ga. ; Rosecrans is attacked by Bragg; Thomas, the " Rock of Cliickamauga," in com- mand of the left wing, holds, Ijut finally the army retreats to Chattanooga, wliich Bragg liesieges. Grant is made commander of the Military Divi- sion of the Mississippi (Octolier 16) ; Sherman suc- ceeds Grant in command of the Army of the Ten- nessee, and Thomas supersedes Rosecrans in com- mand of the Army of the Cumiierland. Sherman takes liis army to Chattanooga; also two corps transferred to him from the Army of the Potomac. Oct. S. Laird rams, being built for the Con- federacy in England, are seized l)y the British government; serious complication thus averted. Nov. 17-Dec. 4. Siege of Federals imder Bum- side in luioxvilie, Tenn., by Longstrcet; relieved by a force imder Slierman. Novemlier 23-25: Battle of Chattanooga (Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge); Confederates driven from their besieging position. Dec. 7. Tliirty-eighth Congress meets; 9 Demo- crats, 36 Republicans, and 5 Unionists in tlie Sen- ate; and 75 Democrats, 102 Repulilicans, and 9 LTnionists in the House. Dec. 7-Fcb. IS, lS6i. Session of the Congress of the Confederacy; importation of luxuries and private exportation of the main products of the South are forbidden; act for fimding and partial repudiation of paper money, with an issue of new notes (Fel:)ruarT,- 17) : additional taxes on property and profits; draft made to include men lietween 17 and 50; and free Negroes and slaves made hable to noncombatant duty in the army. Dec. 8. Lincoln's Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction embodies his policy of *storation. 1864. Gold, lowest price for the year, 1514; high- est (July U), 2.S5. [victory.] Feb. SO. Battle of Olustee, Fla.; Confederate! March 9. Grant receives commission as lieu- tenant general, and is assigned to the com- mand of all the Federal forces (March 12). Establislies his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac. Sherman in command in the West. March 14. Unionists in Arkansas atiopt a con- stitution under Lincoln's proclamation, abollsliing slavery, and ask readmission. April 8, 9. Battles of Saliine Crossroads and Pleasant Hills, La. ; Banks (Red River Expedition) is defeated by the Confederates imder Smith and Taylor, and retreats. April 30 : Battle of Jenkins's Ferrj-, Ai'k.; Steele repulses Smith and Price. May 2-June 14. Session of the second Congress of the Confederate States. May 4. General advance of Federal armies imder Grant, invoii-ing (1) attack on Lee by Grant; (2) advance toward Richmond liy Butler (Army of the James), from Fort. Monroe; (3) Sherman's advance from Chattanooga toward Atlanta against the Confederate J. E. Johnston. May 5-7: Battle of tlie Wilderness, Va., inde- cisive; Lee checks Grant's direct advance, but Grant presses on by tlie left flank. May S-18: Battle of Spottsylvania Court House, Va.; Lee checks Grant and turning movement is resumed. IMay 15; Engagement at Resaca, Ga. ; Jolmston retires. May 16: Battle of Drury's Blufl". Va.; Confederates under Beauregard stop Butler's advance. May 24; Battle of the North Anna, Va.; Lee repeats liis check, and Grant again moves southeastward. May 25-28; Battle of New Hope Cliurch (Dallas), Ga.; indecisive; Joiinston continues his Fabian policy. May 26. Montana Territory is created. June 3. Battle of Cold Harbor, Va.; Grant attempts to break Lee's line by direct assault, but is repulsed. . Jime 14; Grant crosses the James River. June 15-18; Battle of Petersburg, Va.; Beauregard, joined by Lee, repulses Grant's army, and a regular siege liegtns. June 19: C.S.S. Ala- bama is sunk by the Kearsarge. June 27; Battle of Kenesaw Mountain: Sherman repulsed but out- flanks enemy, who retire to defenses of Atlanta. June SO. New and more searching internal- revenue law; tariff duties are increased. Fugitive- Slave Law is repealed. July 1. National net debt, Sl,709,452,277. July 2. Northern Pacific Railway is incorpo- rated by Congress to run from Lake Superior to Puget Soimd ; it receives a land grant. Line not completed imtil 1883. July 4. Lincoln defeats (pockets) the Wade- Davis Reconstruction Bill, wliich embodies the congressional policy of restoration, contrary to the presidential plan. July 9. Battle of Monocacy, Md.; Early, who has marched down the Shenandoah Valley, defeats the last opposing force and appears in sight of the Capitol at Washmgton (July 11); but fails to oc- cupy the city and retires next day. July 20, 22, 28; Battles before Atlanta (Peach Tree Creek, Atlanta, and Ezra Church) ; Hood, now in Con- federate command, makes imsuccessful attacks on Sherman's encircling army. July 30: Battle of the Crater at Petersburg; I'nion a,ssault repulsed. August 5; Battle of Mobile Bay; Farragut's Federal fleet passes the forts and defeats the Confederate fleet, closing the port to blockade runners. Sept. 2: Atlanta captured by Sherman. Sept. s. Unionists in Louisiana adopt a new constitution witliout slavery. Sept. e-Nov. 7. Price's expedition from the Arkansas into Missouri and return; he is liefore St. Louis (October 1), liefore Jefferson City (Octo- lier 7), at Independence (Octolier 21), defeated at Westport on the Kansas line (Octolier 23). Sep- temlier 19, 22; Battle of Opequan (Winchester) and Fisher's HiU, Va.; Sheridan defeats Early: proceeds to devastate the Shenandoah VaUey. Oct. 13. Maryland aliolishes slavery. Oct. IB. Battle of Cedar Creek; Early's suc- cessful surprise later becomes a victory for the Federals. Oct. 31. Nevada admitted (36th State). Nov, 7-March IS, 1865. Final session of the Confederate Congress; on March 13 enlistment of slaves is authorized. Nov. S. Twentieth presidential election: Lin- coln and Johnson, candidates of the Union party (Republicans and War Democrats), recei\'e 212 electoral votes; General McClellan and G. H. Pendleton. Peace Democrats, 21 votes; J. C. Fremont, nominated by radical Republicans, withdraws. Nov. 16. ShermanleavesAtlantaonhis March to the Sea. He is practically unopposed: Hood moves northward and invades Tennessee. Dec. 6. Salmon P. Chase succeeds Taney as cliief justice of the Supreme Court.. Dec. 15-16. Battle of Nashville, Tenn.; Thomas routs the invading Confederates. De- cember 21; Sherman enters Savannah. 1865. Imports of merchandise, $238,745,580; ex- ports, $100,029,303; immigrants 247.453. Gold, lowest price for the year, 128S ; highest 234i. 176 NATIONAL HISTOEIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1865—1871. s u V w 1865 (continued). Jan. 11. Missouri constitutional convention abolislies slavery. Jan. 15. Fort Fisher, N. C, captured; this closes the port of Wilmington and leaves Charles- ton and Galveston the only considerable ports in the hands of the Confederates. Jan. 19. Lee is made commander in cbief of the Confederate armies. Feb. 1. Thirteenth Amendment, abolisliing slavery, adopted by Congress and submitted to the States. [through the Carolinas.l Sherman starts from Savannah on his March 1 Feb. 17. He enters Columbia, S. C, wliich is burned. February IS, his march forces the evacu- ation of Charleston. Feb. 22. Tennessee abolishes slavery. March S. Loan of 8600,000,000 is authorized. Freedmen's Bureau Act is passed for the control of freedmen, Negro refugees, and abandoned or confiscated lands in the South. A prohibitive ten per cent tax is levied on State bank circulation, leaving the field open for ihe new national bank notes. Mfirrh l:i. Battle of Bentonville, N. C: John- ston defeated by Sherman. March 21 : Sherman joins forces with Schofield, who has advanced from Wilmington. April 1 : Battle of Five Forks before Petersburg; Union success which is followed by an assault along the whole line. April 2; Evacua- tion of Richmond and Petersburg by Lee, who tries to join forces with Jolmston; Grant pur- sues closely and finally heads him off. April 9: Surrender of Lee at Appomattox, Va. April 1 1 : Capture of Mobile by Union forces under Canby. April 1:5; Sherman enters Raleigh, N. C. April 14. Lincoln shot by Booth; dies the next morning. April 15. Andrew Johnson becomes the seventeenth president : he is a former State-rights Democrat, but a strong .Southern Unionist. April 26. Johnston surrenders Ills army tc Sherman. May 4: Taylor siu-renders the south- western Confederate forces to Canby. April 39, June 24- Restrictions on domestic commerce with the South are removed. May 10. Jefferson Davis is captured, charged with treason ; he is never tried and finally is released on bail (Alay. 1S67). May 2B. Smith surrenders the trans-Mississippi Confederate forces, the last of the disunion armies. May -29. Johnson's proclamation of amnesty, extending pardon to the South, but with maiiy exceptions. Presidential plan of Reconstruction is inaugurated on the same day, carried out tlirough proclama- tions for provisional goveniments, with directions to hold constitutional conventions and reconstruct the State governments. Proclamations issued as to North Carolina (May 29); Mississippi (Jime 13) ; Georgia (Jime 17) ; Texas (June 17) : Alabama (June 21); South Carolina (June 30); Florida (July 13). The existing loyal governments of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana are considered as sufficient for the reconstruction of these States. During the autumn and winter the conventions rescind the ordinances of secession, abolish slaven,-, and repudiate war deljts. Under their amended constitutions State officers, legisla- tors, representatives, and senators are elected. Nine of the eleven States recently in the Confed- eracy ratify the Tliirteenth Amendment. Several legislatures place restrictions on the freedmen (blacli codes or vagrant laws) which irritate Northern public opinion. July 1. National net debt, S2,674,S1,5,S57. The national net debt reaches its highest point (imtil 1917) on September 1, 1S6.5, when it stands at .S2,7,58,000,000. Ports of the South are opened to foreign commerce. Dec. 4. Thirty-ninth Congress meets: 11 Democratic and 39 Republican .senators, and 40 Democratic and 144 Republican representatives. The houses refuse to admit the Southern Con- gressmen; instead appoint a Joint committee (December 12) to consider Beconstruction. Dec. IS. Thirteenth Amendment goes into operation. RECONSTRUCTION. 1866. Feb. 22. The Washington's Birthday speech of President Jolm.son makes evident a breach be- tween Congress and him.self . March 17. Reciprocity with Canada is ended. April 9. Civil Rights Act is passed over a veto: it is the congressional answer to the black-code enactments of the Southern States; confers upon all persons bom in the United States the same civil rights and obligations that white citizens have. [authorized. I April 12. Gradual retirement of greenbacks! June IS. Fourteenth Amendment is passed and sent to the States; practically includes the Civil Rights Bill and presents tlie congressional policy of Reconstruction. Negroes and all others bom or naturalized m the United States to possess equal civil rights. Attempts to force Negro suf- frage upon the South, by reducing the representa- tion of a State which hmits the suffrage. Cuts under the president's anmesty power by exclud- mg Confederates from office. The clause guaran- teeing life, hberty, and property against State action " without due process of law," has trans- ferred to the Federal government and its courts final determhiation of many questions of labor and other matters of economic and social welfare. Southern States refused readmittance imless they ratify the amendment. All but Teimessee refuse, and so Congress imposes further and harsher re- quirements. July. Atlantic cable is permanently opened. July IS. Act reducmg internal revenue; pro- posal to reduce the tariff prevented by high-tariff men in the Republican party. July 2S. Act tor gradual reduction of justices of the Supreme Court; mt ended to reduce presi- dent's power of appomtment to vacancies. July 24. Tennessee is readmitte-pewriter, pioneer macliine, is placed on the market. Jan. 21. MorrLson R. Waite becomes chief jus- tice of the Supreme Coiui,. March i. Supreme Court declares hi Barte- meyer v. Iowa that the right to sell liquor is not one of the privileges and immimities of the citizens of the United States wliich the Fourtcrnth .Amend- ment or other portions of the Federal (»'oiistitution protect from State infringement. April 22. Grant vetoes the Inflation Bill to raise the volume of greenbacks to 8400.000,000. Sept. 14. Successful rismg of the White League m New Orleans agamst the State government; it is suppressed by Federal troops. | November. Congressional elections result m a " tidal wave " of Democratic success. About the same time conservative control is restored in Ala- bama and Arkansas. 1875. Imports of merchandise, $533,005,436; ex- ports, 3513,442,711: immigrants, 227,498. Gold, lowest price, for the year, 11 1|: highest, 117|. Jan. 14. Resumption Act; provides for the gradual reduction in amount of outstanding greenbacks to $300,000,000 with a correspondmg mcrease of national bank notes, and resumption of specie payments on Januarj- 1, 1879. [signed. | Jan. SO. Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty isl March 1. Civil Rights Act, to give Negroes equal privileges m travel and pubhc recreation. March 3. The ten per cent reduction in the tariff made m 1872 is repealed. March 30. In INIinor t. Happersett the Su- preme Court decides that the Fomtecnth Amend- ment does not requu-e a State to grant woman suffrage. July 1 . National net debt, $2,090,041,170. Dec. 6. Forty-fourth Congress begins: 29 Democrats and 44 RepubUcans in the Senate; 168 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 14 Independ- ents in the House; Democratic majority in the House for the first time shice 1859. ' [107.1 1876. Gold, lowest price for the year, 102 ; highest, I Overthrow of the MoUy Maguires, a secret society of Irishmen wliich has held the antliracite region of Pennsylvania in terror for years. Jan. 4. Democrats resume control of the Mis- sissippi legislature; the radical governor resigns on March 29. Jan. 17. In Welton v. Missouri a State license tax on the sale of goods from other States not levied on the sale of Missouri products, is declared by the Supreme Coiui to be an infringement on Federal control over interstate commerce. March 2. Scandals during Grant's admmis- tration cause the resignation of Secretarj- of War BeUaiap. to avoid conviction on impeachment. During the year a Whisky Ring to defraud the internal revenue is exposed. ,\/nrr/i 7. Telephone is patented by Alex- ander Graham BeU. March 27. Supreme Comi; in United States ». Resse holds that the Fifteenth Amendment con- fers no right of suffrage, but only forbids certain restrictions in it. On the same day the comt, in the United States v. Cmikshanks. holds that the Fourteenth Amendment protects from State ac- tion onlj-, not from the acts of individuals: much of the Enforcement and Ku-Hux Acts is, there- fore, unconstitutional. April 24. In Walker v. Sauvinet the Supreme Court, decides that trial by jun,- is not necessarily the " due process of law " required by tlie Four- teenth Amendment nor is it a privilege and immu- nity of citizens of the United States. May- November. Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia; it has a great effect on many lines of business. June 2.5. Massacre of Custer's force in Mon- tana by the Sioux under Sitting Bull. Ava. 1. Colorado admitted (38th .State). Nov. 7. Twenty-third presidential elec- tion: on the face of the returns S. J. Tilden and T. A. Hendricks, Democrats, have 196 electoral votes and Hayes and W. A. Wheeler, Republicans, 173 votes. Candidates of the Prohibition, Green- back, and American parties carry no States. State returning boards in Louisiana and Florida, controlled by carpetbaggers, count in the Re- pubUcan electors of these States, which would give Hayes 185 votes and Tilden 184. Intense excite- ment prevails in the whole nation. A'oii. 2S. Conservatives organize the legisla- ture of South Carolhia, but do not secure imdis- puted control for some months. 1877. Edison hivents the phonograph, which, however, is not made practical imtil 1SS8. Gold, lowest price for the year, 102 5 ; highest, 107i. Jan. 1. Democrats organize the legislatine of Louisiana, but opposition to it contmues for some months. [in Florida. I Jan. 2. Carpetbag government is overtlirownl Jan. 29. Electoral Count Law, for settling the disputed presidential election, is enacted. An extraconstitutional commission of five senators, five representatives, and five Supreme Court jus- tices considers disiiuted votes m South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, and one m Oregon: and awards them aU to Hayes by vote of 8 to 7. On March 2 Hayes is declared by Congress elected by 185 votes to Tilden's 184. March 1. In Miinn u. Illinois, and other Granger Cases, the Supreme Court holds that State laws passed to regulate warehouse charges and raihoad intrastate rates, especially when Con- gress has not acted respectmg them, are legal, even though they may mdirectly operate upon com- merce beyond the jurisdiction of the State. March 3. Desert Land Act provides special conditions for patenting such land, subject to proper development and irrigation. March 4. Rutherford Birchard Hayes takes the oath as nineteenth president. His cabinet is notable: WiUiam M. Evarts, secretary of state; John Sherman, secretary of the treasury: Carl Schurz, secretary of the interior. April 10, 20. Hayes withdraws the Federal troops which have been supportmg the radical governments in South Carohna and Loiusiana. This marks the overthrow of the policy of Re- con.struction so far as it is a means of "securing the Kcpulilican party hi the Soiitli, and begins tlie Democratic " Solid South," wliicli is based on the repression of Negro votes in all States where their number is sufBcient to tlireaten white control. After 1890 the earlier methods of repression give way to constitutional, educational, and ancestral quaUfications aimhig at the sane result. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 1877. July. Railroad riots tliruugliout the East, especially in Pennsylvania, are caused by reduc- tion of wages. Mob controls Pittsburgh July 19- 23 and destroys much property. Both militia and regulars are employed in suppressing the riots there, at Baltimore, Cliicago, and elsewiiere. Oct. 15. 45th Congress meets in extra session: Senate, 36 Democrats. 39 Republicans, 1 Inde- pendent; House, 153 Democrats, 140 Republicans. Nov. 23. Halifax Commission orders the United States to pay Canada .S5, 500,000 for the privileges of inshore fishing (Halifax Award). 1878. The Brush electric arc light is developed. Gold, lowest price for the year 100 (December 17); highest, 102 J. A French company secures from Colombia a con- cession to build the Panama (anal. Hayes considers the grant as opposed to American rights and policy; a canal part- of our " coast line." Jan. 14. In Hall v. De Cuir, a State law requir- ing raUroads to give equal accommodations to all passengers without respect to race or color is held by the Supreme Court to be unconstitutional be- cause it affects interstate travel. Feb. 2S. Bland-Allison Silver Law is enact- ed over Hayes's veto; a compromise on the de- mand for unlimited coinage of silver doUars; a new form of the movement for cheap money. Law re- quires coinage each month of a certain numlicr of legal-tender dollars at a ratio with gold of 16 to 1 . March 25. In Pensacola Telegraph Co. v. Western Union Telegraph Co. the Supreme Court declares that power to regulate interstate com- merce embraces all the instrumentahties, includ- ing the telegraph. May SI. Further retirement of greenbacks is stopped by Congress; the amoimt outstanding then (and thereafter) is $346,681,010. Efforts to repeal the Resumption Act are defeated. June 3. Timber and Stone Lands Act provides a further especial means of securing pubhc land. A'oii. U. In Fertilizing Company v. Hyde Park the Supreme Court holds that the police power of a State to restrain a nuisance does not impair the obUgation of a contract even though it prevents the carrjing on of a chartered business. 1879. Edison develops the Incandescent electric light. 178 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1879-1889. 1879 {continued) . Jan.l. Uesumptlonorspecir paynientssuc- cessfuily inaugurated, and thereafter maiuiamed. Jan. 25. Arrears-of -Pensions Act is passed: first great grab engineered by pension attorneys. March 1. Hayes vetoes a Chinese Exclusion Biil. The demand of the Pacific Coast for the bill is on an economic rather than a social basis (" Chinese cheap labor "), but the problem is, on a smaller scale, somewhat similar to that of the South in regard to the Negro. March S. Forty-sLxth Congress is convened by Hayes in special session to consider the appro- priation bills. A Democratic control of both houses, for first time since 1S59. having 42 in the Senate and 156 in the House; Repubhcans. 33 in the Senate and 135 in the House; Independents, 1 in the Senate; Nationals, 2 in the House. April 9. The first of a scries of vetoes by Hayes of appropriation bills bearing riders intended to nullify the Federal Election Law. 1880. Imports of merchandise. $667,954,746; ex- ports of merchandise, 8835,638.658 (beginning with 1S76 the total exports regularly exceed the import-3 except diu-ing the years 18S8. 1889, and 1893) ; immigrants, 457,257. March 1. In Strauder v. West Virginia the Supreme Court pronounces imconstitutional an act excluding Negroes from juries. — a violation of the Fourtit"nth Amcntlment. [155,783. 1 June 1, Tenth U. rf. census; poulation, 50,-1 July 1. National net debt, $1,919,326,748. A'oii. a. Twenty-fourth presidential election: Garfield and Arthur, Republicans, receive 214 electoral votes; W. S. Hancock and W. H. Eng- lish, Democrats, 155 votes; Greenback, Proiiibi- tion, and American parties have candidates, but no electoral votes. Nov. 4- Constitutional amendment in Kansas establishes prohibition. Nov. 17. Chinese Exclusion Treaty is signed with China, removing Hayes's objections to an exclusion act. 1881. Jan. 2!,. In Springer ». United States the Supreme Court holds the Federal income tax of 1862 Jo be constitutional, not being a direct tax. March 4. Inauguration of James Abram Garfield as twentieth president. July 2. Garneld is sliot by a disappointed office seeker. He dies Septemlier 19. Sept. 20. Vice President t'hoster .\lan Arthur becomes the twenty-first president. Dec. a. First meeting of the Forty-seventh Congress: Senate. 37 Democrats. 37 Republicans. 1 Indeiiendent. 1 Readjuster; House. 135 Demo- crats. 147 Republicans, 9 Greenbackers, 2 Read- justers. 1882. March. Disastrotis overflow of the Missis- sippi River ; some 85,000 people made destitute. March 22. Antipolygamy Act directed against the Mormons- April S. In Telegraph Company v. Texas the Supreme Court holds that a State tax on telegrams is void so far as it is laid on interstate messages or on those sent by Federal officials. May u. First Chinese Exclusion Act sus- pends immigration of laborers for ten years. The act repeatedly renewed and strengthened, and the policy still in force in 1920. Aug. 3. First act to restrict general immigra- tion excludes defectives and convicts and imposes a head tax. 1883. Northern Pacific, Southern Pacific, and Santa Fe transcontinental lines are opened. Jan. 16. Civil Service Reform Act author- izes a commission to prepare and superintend tests for entrance into the "classified service." Arthur classifies about 16.000 positions; the scope of the law later broadened by succeeding presidents tmtil most of the possible positions are brought within it. Law also prohibits political assessments on employees and political activity by them. March 3. Tariff and Internal-BeTenue Act to reduce the surplus. Excise taxes removed from everything but liquor and tobacco; but on the tarifi" the recommendations of a special tariff com- mission which had carefully considered the mat- ter are ignored. An imsymmetrical law framed which increases protection. Little effect made on the surplus. Congress authorizes three crtiisers and a dispatch boat; the beginning of the new steel navy. May 2.',. New York-Brooklyn suspension bridge is opened [a half ounce, i Oct. 1. Letterpostageisreduced to two cents! Oct. IS. In Civil Rights Cases the Supreme Court declares the Civil Rights Act of 1875 im- constitutional, save as it relates to jury duty and interstate travel ; the Fourteenth Amendment does not apply to individual infringements; and the denial of equal accommodations at inns, etc., is not a badge of slavery. Nov. 23. New York City celebrates the cen- tennial of British evacuation in 1783. Dec. .S. Forty-eighth Congress begins: Senate. 36 Democrats, 38 Republicans, 2 Readjusters (Repubhcans); House. 196 Democrats, 118 Re- publicans. 1 Greenbacker. 5 Readjusters, 3 Inde- pendents. [City. I 1884. Electrictroliey street cars operate in Kansas I June 27. Congress authorizes the Federal Bureau of Labor; enlarged to a department on June 13. 1888. to a cabinet office on Feb. 14, 1903. Nov. 4. Twenty-fifth presidential election; Cleveland and Hendricks, Democrats, supported by many Republicans (" Mugwtmips "), receive 219 electoral votes; J. G. Blaine and J. A. Logan, Republicans, 182 votes; candidates of Prohibi- tion and Greenback parties get no electoral voles. Dec. IV. Cotton Centennial Exhibition is opened at New Orleans. 1885. Imports of merchandise, $577,527,329; ex- ports of merchandise, $742,189,755: immigrants, 395.346. Feb. 21. Washington Monument is dedi- cated at Wasliington. (See Washmulon Monument, imder Washington, in the Dictionary.) Feb, 26. Congress forbids the immigration of contract laborers. [twenty-second president. I March 4. Grover Cleveland takestheoathasi April 16. State park at Niagara Falls is cre- ated by New York legislature. June SO. Fisheries reciprocity with Canada under Treaty of Wasliington is terminated by the United States; because of Canadian obstruction of what the United States claims as rights under the Treaty of 1818, controversy becomes acute. July 1. National net debt, $1,375,352,444. Letter postage reduced to two cents an ounce; second-class postage to one cent a pound, causing a continuetl deficit in the department. Dec. 7. Forty-ninth Congress assembles: Sen- ate, 34 Democrats. 42 Repubhcans: House. 183 Democrats. 140 Republicans, 2 Greenbackers. 1886. Jan. 19. Presidential Succession Act, making the members of the cabinet ehgible in case of vacancy of president and vice president. March-May. Great strike on the Gould ej'S- tem of railroads in Missouri and neighboring States,' promoted by the Knights of Labor. It fails. The year is one of many labor disturbances ; Ivnights of Labor endeavor to force a general eight- liour day. [ing a strike there. 1 May 4- Anarchist riot in Chicago, foUow-l May W. In Yick Wo v. Hopkins the Supreme Court decides that a municipal ordinance designed to make arbitrary and unjust discriminations against Chinese lamidries is contrary to the prin- ciples of the Fourteenth Amendment. April 22. Cleveland sends a special message to Congress devoted to the labor question, the first of its kind and indicative of the growing im- portance of a matter considered originally as en- tirely outside the Federal purview. Aug. 2. Congress places a tax on oleomarga- rine : an early pure- food law. Aug, 31. Severe earthquake on the Atlantic seaboard, especially at Charleston. Sept. 4. Siurender of Geronimo and his Apaches to' General Miles in Arizona ends the last important Indian disturbance. Oct. 12. Gales and floods in Texas and Louisi- ana destroy property and 247 lives. Oct. 2.5. In Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois, the Supreme Court con- strues a State long-and-short^haul act as being a regulation of interstate commerce. The court reconsiders the Granger Cases of 1877. arguing that tlie ciuestion of interstate commerce was there only incidental. Tliis decision shows the need of Federal regulation of the railroads. Oct. 2S. Bartholdi's "Statue of Liberty" (Liberty Enlightening the World, see in the Dic- tionary) is unveiled in New York Harbor. 1887. Jan. 29. Mexican War Pention Act be- comes law; age. dependency, or disabilities are pensionable. Feb. 3. Electoral Count Act is passed to pre- vent a recurrence of the 1876 situation; decision of State machinery to be accepted. Feb. 4. Interstate Connmerce Act passes after an agitation of years. State regulation of railroa^ls by legislation and commissions (Granger movement), though upheld by the Supreme Court, was not powerful enough or uniform and gave place to a demand for Federal regulation. Railroads very powerful and frequently affect or control State governments. Act creates an ad- ministrative commission with power to prevent abuses in interstate commerce (pooling, rebates, etc.); it soon proves that further legislation is needed to make the power an efficient one. Feb. 8. Indian Allotment Law is enacted; tmder stipulated conditions Indians may be given land in severalty and become citizens. During this period the reseri'ations are being rapidly re- duced ui size and number and the land opened to white settlement. Feb, 11. Cleveland vetoes the Disability and Dependent Pension Bill for Civil War veterans. Herelentlessly uses the veto power against private pension bills. March 2. Hatch Act authorizes the establish- ment of agricultural experiment stations in con- nection with Morrill Act coUeges (see 1862, July 2) , United States to contribute funds. Tenure-of-Office Act, previously modified, is re- pealed. A more drastic antipolygamy act is passed, which the Supreme Court in Mormon Church b. I'nited States (May 19. 1S90) upholds as not contrary to the right of rehgious freedom. The president is authorized to retaliate on Cana- dian trade for the obstniction of the fishing rights; no action taken. May 27. In Philadelpliia and Southern Steamsliip Co. i>. Pennsylvania, the Supreme Court holds a State tax upon the gross receipts of a steamship company derived from interstate and foreign commerce contrary to the exclusive power of Congress. Sept. 5. Labor Day is first obser\'ed in New York as a legal holiday. Sept. 15-17. Centenary of the framing of the Federal Constitution celebrated at Pluladelpliia. Dec. B. Fiftieth Congress begins: Senate, 37 Democrats, 45 Kejiublicans; House, 109 Demo- crats, 152 Republicans, 2 Laborites, 2 Independ- ents. In Mugler b. Kansas the Supreme Court decides that a State proliibition act is not contrarj' to the Fourteenth Amendment, but a proper police regu- lation to protect the pubUc health and morals. Dec. 6. Cleveland's annual message is en- tirely dc\-oted to the surplus and tariiT question, making this the one issue of the next campaign. " A condition, not a theory." 1888. Feb. 20. Treaty signed with Great Britain to settle the fisheries dispute; the Senate rejects it (August 21). A modus Vivendi, frequently re- newed, prevents further trouble. March 19. In Bowman v. Cliicago and North- western Railway Co. a State law forbidding the importation of liquor is held void by the Supreme Court as a regulation of interstate commerce. April 9. In PowcU I'. Petmsylvania the Su- preme Court decides that a State law prohibiting the manufactiu'e and sale of articles designed to take the place of butter or cheese is constitutional. April 23. The Supreme Court begins in the Missouri Pacific Railway Company i". Mackey its series of important interpretations of the Four- teenth Amendment as applied to la'bor questions, holding that a State statute abohslitng the fellow- servant doctrine in workmen's compensation for injuries is not contrary to the amendment. July 20. Melville W. Fuller becomes chief jus- tice of the Supreme Court. Oct. 1. Congress authorizes the appointment of commissions of volimtary arbitration between in- terstate railroads and their laborers; begiiming of policy of settlement of labor disputes by national authority. Second Chinese Exclusion Act prohibits the re- turn of laborers who have left the country. Nov. 6. Twenty-sixth presidential election: Hartison and Levi P. Morton, Republicans, re- ceive 233 electoral votes: Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman, 168 votes; Labor, Proliibition, and United Labor parties present platforms and candi- dates. 1889. Bankruptcy of the French Panama Canal Company; of importance to the United States, where the concession is deemed contrary to the nation's policy and welfare, if not to the Monroe Doctrine. Interest in an American canal is stimu- lated; an Amex'ican company organizes for work through Nicaraguan isthmus. Feb. 9. Department of Agriculture becomes an executive department and its secretary a cabinet oflScer. March 4. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated as twenty-third president: James G. Blaine is sec- retary of state. April 22. Part of Indian Territory (Okla- homa) is opened, and a wild rtish to settle ensues. April 20-May 1. Celebration in New York of the centennial of Washington's inauguration. May 31. Breaking of the Conemaugh Dam floods Johnstown, Pa., and destroys 2.295 lives. June 14. Tripartite agreement with Great Britain and Germany for the independence and joint control of Samoa. Oct. 1, Constitution of North Dakota estab- lishes prohibition. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress meets at Washington. Delegates tour the coimtry- and hold sessions lasting imtil April 19, 1890. A bu- reau, later caUed the Pan-American Union, is organized with headquarters in Wasliington. A'oii. 2. North Dakota (39th State) and South Dakota (40th State) admitted. Nor. S. Montana (41st State) admitted. Nov. 11, Wasliington (42d State) admitted. Dec, 2. Fifty-first Congress: Senate, 37 Demo- crats, 45 Republicans: House, 161 Democrats, 169 Repubhcans. Repiibhcan majority later increased by contested-election decisions. 1890-1895. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 179 1890, Imports of merchandise, S7S9, 310,409; ex- ports of merchandise, SS57,S2S,GS4; immigrants, 455,302. Feb. 4. Centennial of the United States Su- preme Court is celebrated at New York. Feb. 14- *' Keed rules " are established in the House of Representatives; provision for counting the quorum; powers of Speaker to refuse certain filibustering motions. The most important change in Congressional practice since the adop- tion of the previous question (see previous question, under previous, in the Dictionary). April 28. In Leisy v. Hardin the Supreme Court supplements an earlier decision by liolduig that State proliibition of the sale hi the " original package " by the importer of Uquor from another State is unconstitutional. May 2. Oklahoma Territory (the last in the continental area) is established out of part of In- dian Territory and later increased. [V»47, 714.1 June. Eleventh U. S. C€nsus: population (52.-1 June 37. Disability and Dependent Pen- sion Act for Civil War veterans and widows is signed. About doubles pension outgo and aids in reducing the siu-plus. Veterans incapable of man- ual labor and dependent widows and children are pensionable. July 1. National net debt, $890,784,371. July 2. House passes a Force Bill to protect Negro voters in tlie South, but the Senate shelves it, by combination of senators from silver-produc- ing States. July 2. Sherman Antitrust Act makes com- binations in restraint of interstate or foreign com- merce illegal. Applies general principle of inter- ' state commerce to transportation and other cor- pwations. July 3. Idaho (43d State) admitted. July 10. Wyoming (44th State) admitted. July 14- Congress enacts the Silver Purchase Act, which supersedes the Bland-. Allison Act of 1878. It is a fiu-ther compromise with the de- mand for free silver and requires the piu'chase each month of 4,500,0(X) ounces of silver and the issue of legal-tender silver treasury notes equal to the purchase value. A ug. S. Original Package Act (see under origi- nal, in the Dictionary) passed to do away with the situation caused by the Leisy v. Hardin de- cision and give the States the right to prevent the importation and sale of hquor. A tcff. SO. Congress passes an act for the inspec- tion of pork products intended for exportation ; the outcome of controversies with foreign nations, es- pecially Germany. President is given power to re- taliate on unjust discriminations against American products. Federal encouragement of agricultural education is increased by an act for an annual grant to the Morrill agricultural colleges (see 1862, July 2, above) . Sept. 29. Act for the general forfeiture of im- eamed Federal land grants to railroads. This has been a popular demand for years, due to the con- viction that the lands were unreasonably tied up. Previous acts have forfeited special grants. Oct. 1. Act for Weather Bureau. Hitherto this work done by the Signal Corps of the army. McKlnley Tariff Act. Increases and systema- tizes protection; revenue is reduced by prohibitive duties and the placing of raw sugar on the free ILst, a sugar bomity being given the domestic producers as an offset. Limit-ed reciprocity authorized, es- pecially with Latin America. Vnder this section arrangements are proclaimed by Harrison with eleven coim tries, but the tariff act of 1894 annuls them. Prices of imported goods suddenly rise. Nov. 1. Mississippi adopts a new constitution, the first to restrict Ne^o suffrage through the " understanding clause." Nov. 6. Congressional election; effects of the McKinley Act cause defeat of Republican party. 1891. March 2. Congress returns to the States the amount paid as direct tax during the Civil War; a sort of surplus- revenue distribution. March 3. A further Immigration and Contract Act is passed, and the office of Superintendent of Immigration created. Great growth of Immi- gration and changes in character of immigrants. Decrease in immigration of Teutonic stocks and increase in Latin and Sla\ic ones. Organized labor favors restrictions. The problem receives serious study and various reports on it are pre- sented to Congress. International Copyright Law is enacted, to go into effect on July 1. The preemption and timber-culture acts are re- pealed, both having been prolific of fraud; and the president is authorized to make forest reserves, such reser\'es being withdrawn from settlement and used to conserve the lumber supply as well as to prevent floods. By 1920 the reserves cover about 273.000 square miles. Circuit Courts of Appeal are created, relieving Su- preme Court of some of the appellate jurisdiction. Ocean Mail Subsidy Act is passed in order to foster the growth of the American merchant marine in foreign trade, which has fallen greatly since the Civil War and with the development of iron steam- ers. Act fails to accomplish much. March 14. LjTiching of eleven Italians in New Orleans causes a protest and demand for repara- tion by Italy, her minister at Washington being recalled. Eventually settled out of emergency fimd of the State Department (April 12, 1892). May 26. In re Ralirer tiie Supreme Court holds the Original Package Law to \-)q constitutional ; the protection given by the Fourteenth Amendment does not interfere with, the i>ower of the States to make the ordinarj- police regulations. Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors by a mob at Valparaiso, Chile. War becomes imminent tlu"ough Chile's delay to make amends. Dec. 1. Fifty-second Congress meetsi Senate, 39 Democrats, 47 Republicans, 2 Independents; House, 235 Democrats, 88 Repubhcans, 9 Farm- ers* Alliance men. 1893. Jati. 21. Ultimatum is presented to Chile, and on January 25 Harrison sends a war message to Congress; but Chile soon apologizes and pays an indemnity. Feb. 2U. Convention signed with Great Britain submitting to arbitration the right of the LTnited States to prohibit pelagic himting of the fur seals In the Bering Sea. The award of the arbitra- tors, signed and published Aug. 15, 1893, favored Great Britain and ended a long controversy during which various Canadian vessels had been seized for killing seals on the sea. (See Bering Se.\ Contro- versy, in the Dictionary.) June-August. Coimtry is affected by many strikes accompanied by much violence, especially in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Wyoming, and Idaho. At the Homestead Steel Works protection of non- imion laborers by private detecti^■es (" Pinker- tons ") leads to a pitched battle. In Tennessee the trouble is an outcome of the emplo>"ment of convict miners. Harrison issues proclamations (July 15, 30) against the striking miners in the West, and Federal troops are used in restoring order and to support injunctions of the Federal courts. These disturbances characterize a season of economic and social unrest. Nov. S. Twenty-seventh presidential election: Cleveland and Adiai E. Stevenson, Democrats, receive 277 electoral votes; Harrison and White- law Reid, Republicans, 145 votes; People's or Populist party, which embodies the Farmers' Alliance, first minor party to cast electoral votes, gets 22 for J. B. Weaver and J. G. Field, its candi- dates. This party aims to remedy the conditions and complaints of the farmmg and laboring classes. Prohibition and Socialist Labor parties also have candidates. 1893. Edison develops the kinetoscope or moTing* picture apparatus. Feb. 14. Treaty of annexation with Hawaii is signed. This follows a revolt led by Americans, assisted by the American minister, and protected by American marines, by wliich the queen is de- posed. Not ratified. March 1 . Congress authorizes the title of American " ambassador " to foreign courts. By 1920, 15 legations have been raised to that rank. March 2. Safety Appliance Act of Congress regulates brakes and couplers on trains in inter- stat*^ commerce. March 3. Dawes Commission is authorized by Congress, to dissolve tribal government among the Five Civilized Tribes, preliminary to the incor- poration of their lands into Oklahoma. Com- mission allots the land in severalty, and the Indians eventually Ijecome citizens of Oklahoma. March 4- Grover Cleveland begins his second administration as president. March 9. Cleveland withdraws the Hawaiian Annexation Treaty from the Senate. He ap- points a special commissioner to consider the re- volt. Offers to restore the queen on conditions which she declines. Hawaii remains independent. May 1-Oct. 30. World Columbian Exposi- tion at Cliicago to commemorate the 400th an- niversary of the discovery of America. Ju7ie IS. Great Northern Railroad is opened; the first transcontinental line to be constructed without a land grant. June 27. Commercial panic is started, the re- sult of complex caiises of which the most apparent to the public is the fear of a silver standard. The redemption of notes in gold, which notes are reis- sued, makes an " endless chain " for draining the gold reserve. A continuous increase of silver notes and a rapid decline in the value of silver. Hard times continue for several years; and there is a treasiu-y deficit of S156,000,000 dining the fiscal years 1894-97. Aug. 7. Fifty-third Congress meets in special session: Senate. 44 Democrats, 37 Republicans, 4 Independents; House, 218 Democrats, 127 Re- publicans, 11 Populists and Independents. There are silver men in both the chief parties, but mainly they are Democrats. Democratic party for the first time since 1859 controls both houses of Congress and the executive. Aug. 16. Award in the Bering Sea Arbitration denies the right of the United States to prevent killing of the seals beyond the tliree-mile limife. Aug. 24. Cyclone on the Atlantic coast does much damage and destroys many lives, especially about Charleston and Savannah. Nov. I. Congress repeals the purchase clause of the Sliver Act (of 1890), but does not stop the drain of the gold reserve. Nov. 7. Colorado adopts woman suffrage. 1894. Jan. 1. Midwinter Fair opens in San Fran- cisco. Jan. 1 7. Issue of $50,000,000 in bonds is offered to replenish the gold reser\'e, which by February 1 falls to $65,000,000, as $100,000,000 is considered the minimum safety pomt. Feb. S. Democrats being in control (" South in the saddle ") the Federal Election Law of 1871 is repealed. March 29. Cleveland vetoes a bill to coin the purchased silver buUion to the amoimt of the seigniorage. (See seigniorage. «., 3., in the Die/.). April 29. Remnant of " Cosey*s Army of the Commonwealth of Christ," a demonstration of tlie imemployed, reaches Washington with a de- mand for the issue of $500,000,000 paper money. Strikes and other labor movements emphasize the hard times, for which " cheap money and plenty of it," especially the free coinage of silver, is prer sented as a panacea. June 26-July 14. Strike of the American Railway Union starts in Chicago with the refusal to handle Pullman cars because of a strike of labor- ers in the Pullman factory. Extends all over the West, accompanied by mtich rioting and com- pletely stops transportation on 50,000 miles of railroads. Debs and other strike leaders are ar- rested on Federal injunctions for interft rence with interstate commerce and carriage of the mails. Local troops are called out in many places, and Pres- ident Cleveland, without waiting for requests from State executives, employs Federal troops, especially at Chicago, to protect the railroads. Strike fails. Aug. 8. Hawaiian BepubUc is officially recognized by the United States. Aug. IS. Carey Act authorizes the granting of arid pubhc lands to States, subject to irrigation and actual occupation by settlers. Act does not prove effective. Aug. 28. Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act l:ie- comes law without the president's signattire. as he does not deem it such a reform measure as that to which his party stands pledged. The act, aside from putting wool and lumber on the free list, makes but slight reduction in protection. Raw sugar restored to the dutiable hst and the sugar bomity repealed. Act levies a second income tax. September. Forest fires destroy 19 towns in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and 500 peo- ple are killed. Nfjv. 5. A second bond issue of $50,000,000 is made to replenish the gold reserve. 1895. Imports of merchandise, $731,969,965; ex- ports of merchandise, $807,538,165; immigrants, 279,948. The automobile comes into practical tise. Jan. 21. In United States r. Knight (Sugar Tnist Case) the Supreme Coiui: limits the Sher- man Antitrust Act by holding that it does not ap- ply to monopolies in manufacturing. Feb. 11 . Gold reserve is reduced to about $41,- 000.000. Cleveland (Februarj^ 8) contracts with a sj-ndicate to buy bonds which they immediately resell at a large premium. Much public criticism. March 2. Bureau of Immigration created and superintendent is made a commissioner-general. May 20. In Pollock v. Farmers' Law and Trust Co. the Supreme Comt by 5 to 4 declares the income tax imconstitutional, being direct and not apportioned. May 27. In re Debs the Supreme Court, de- clares that an injunction to prevent strikers from interfering with interstate commerce or the move- ment of the mails is a legitimate means of exercis- ing the power vested in the United States. Or- ganized labor holds that this " government by in- jimction " is an unjust handicap in favor of capital. July 1. National net debt, $901,672,976. Sept. iS-Dcc. SI. Cotton States and Interna- tional Exposition is held at Atlanta. [suffrage.] Nov. 5. Utah constitution calls for woman! Dec. 2. Fifty-foiuth Congress begins its ses- sions: Senate, 39 Democrats, 42 Republicans, 6 Independents and Silverites; House. 104 Demo- crats, 248 Republicans, and 11 Populists and In- dependents. Dec. 17. Cleveland's message on Venezuela and British Guiana boundary controversy holds that the right of the Ignited States under the RIonroe Doctrine is involved in Great Britain's refusal to arbitrate with Venezuela ("OIney Doc- trine "). He recommends a commission to decide the rights of the controversy. Congress author- izes the commission (December 21). 180 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1895-1901. 1895 (confinued). M Dec. SI. South Carolina adopts a new constitu- tion wliicli contains tlie " understanding clause " for the purpose of disfranchising the Negroes. 1896. Rural free delivery is begim in a small way, and develops quickly into a great system. Jan. 4. Utah admitted (45th State); the con- stitution prohibits polygamy, wliich the Mormon Chiu'ch has earher formally renounced. OFeb. 5. A popular issue of 8100,000,000 in bonds is quickly subscribed at a premium, and the gold reserve rises to a point of safety. April 112. International Arbitration Congress meets at Washington. May IS. In Plessy ». Ferguson the Supreme Court holds that a State law requiring railroads to give separate but equal accommodation to white and colored travelers is not a violation of the Thu'- P teenth or Fourteenth amendments (" Jim Crow " cars). July SO. President's proclamation warning citizens against violating the neutrality laws l)y aiding tlie insurrection in Cuba, which has existed for over a year and has excited much inter- est and sympathy in the United States. A'oii. S. Twenty-eighth presidential elec- Qtlon: Republicans seciu'e 271 electoral votes for JVIcKinley and G. A. Hobart; Democrats, 176 votes tor W. J. Bryan and 149 for Arthur Sewall for vice president. Silver Republicans and Popu- . lists support Bryan and cast 27 electoral votes for Thomas E. Watson for vice president. Though there is an attempt to force the tariff question to the front, the real issue is that of free silver. Re- ^ publicans stand by gold standard ; the Democrats R insist on free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 (market value of silver about 30 to 1). Gold or National Democrats pre.sent separate candi- dates, as do the Proliibition, Sociahst Labor, and National parties. Idaho adopts woman suffrage. UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER. g 1890. Nat. 12. Great Britain and United States reach an agreement for tlie settlement of the Brit- ish Guiana Ijoundary by formal arbitration treaty between Great Britain and Venezuela (made February 2, 1897). 1897. Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty is signed with Great Britain; Senate rejects it (ISIay 5). March 2. Cleveland vetoes a bill for a literacy Ttest of immigrants, (twenty-fourth president.! March !,. William McKinley inaugurated as| March 16. Fifty-flfth Congress meets m extra session to revise the tariff: Senate, 34 Democrats, 47 Republicans, 3 Independents and Silverites, 5 Populists; House, 134 Democrats, 207 Republi- cans, 14 Populists, 2 Silverites. Entire govern- ment returns to Republican control. March 22. In United States ». Trans-Missouri U Freight Association the Supreme Court applies Sherman Antitrust Act to common carriers by rail- road; a comliination in restraint of interstate commerce is illegal without respect to whether the restraint is " reasonable." May 6. Greater New York charter is signed by the governor; goes into effect January 1, 1898, and incorporates into one mimicipahty an area of V326 square miles with a population of 3,400,000. May 30. Senate passes a resolution recognizing Cuban belligerency. July 2i. Dingley TarilT Act augments the protection and furnishes additional revenue ; it re- stores the duty on wool and lumber, and author- izes negotiation of reciprocity treaties. Seven such treaties are eventually ratified, but the policy ... is abandoned by the act of 1909. VV 1898. Feb. 1.5. U.S.S. Maine blown up in Ha- vana harbor; more than 260 lives lost. No ade- quate explanation ever discovered, except that it is due to external cause. Feb. IS. In Holden v. Hardy the Supreme Court holds that a State regulation for an eight- hour day tor certain classes of mining employees, with emergency exceptions, is a proper police yt regulation for the protection and health of citizens and not contrary to the Foiu-teenth Amendment. March 7. In Smjth v. Ames the Supreme Court decides that a corporation is a " person " within meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment, and inadequate intrastate railroad rates fixed by a State deprive the railroad ot its property without due process of law. Coiu'ts have the right to de- Ycide whether the rates are reasonable. March 10. Congress empowers the president to spend $50,000,000 for national defense. U.S.S. Oregon leaves San Francisco, March 19, on a voyage arotmd Cape Horn to join the Atlantic fleet; reaches Florida on May 24. Pi-esident sends to Congress on March 28 report of Cotu-t of In- quiry into Maine disaster, attributing it to ex- ternal cause. On April 11 he suggests that he be 2 empowered to use the army and navy to end dis- orders in Cuba, and places with Congress the re- sponsibility for dealing decisively with " the in- tolerable condition of affairs which is at our doors." Resolutions are passed by Congress, April 20, that the United States intervene in Cuba to enforce her independence, but disclaiming the in- tention to annex the island (" Teller resolution "). Spanish minister leaves Washington on the same day. American fleet sails on April 21 from Key West to blockade Cuban ports. President on AprU 23 calls for 125,(X(0 volunteers. April 25, Congress declares that war with Spain has existed since April 21. May 1, Dewey with Pa- cific fleet attacks and destroys Spanish fleet of ten ships in Manila Bay. May 12. New constitution goes into effect in Louisiana disfrancliising Negroes through the " grandfather clause." Limitations on suffrage not to apply to descendants of those who could vote m 1861. May 25. President calls for 75,000 additional vohmteers. 2,600 soldiers are sent from San Francisco to support Dewey in his operations against Manila. May 2S. In United States v. Wong Kim Ark the Supreme Coiui, declares that native citizen- ship under the Fourteenth Amendment is without respect to race or color; a child bom in the United States ot resident Chmese parents is therefore a citizen and cannot be prevented by the Chinese ExcliLSion Act from reentering the United States. June 1. Exposition of the arts and industries of trans-Mississippi States is opened at Omaha. Erdman Act authorizes governmental mediation and voltmtary arbitration of disputes between carriers engaged in interstate commerce and their employees, and torbids such carriers to discrimi- nate against imion laborers or to blacklist them. June 2. The fleet, tmder Sampson, blockades Santiago, Cuba, preventing the exit ot the Spanish fleet tmder Cervera. On June 3 Lt. Richmond P. Hobson sillies the Merrimac in the channel as an obstacle to the escape ot the Spanish fleet. J mice. Final .\nmesty .\ct removes remainder of Civil War disabilities tmder Foiuteenth Amend- ment. June 10. Invasion ot Cuba by the Americans begins with the landing ot 600 marines at Guant4- namo Bay, near Santiago. Fifth Army Corps, 16,000 men, mider Shatter, sails from Tampa Bay tor Santiago, Jtme 12. They arrive Jtme 20. June IS. War Revenue Act provides for the raismg of revenues by excise duties, tax on tea, and tor a lx)nd loan ot $400,000,000, but only half the bonds are isstied. June 20. Guam seized by U.S.S. Charleston. June 30. First V. S. troops reach Manila. The outer defenses ot Santiago de Cuba are carried by Shatter, in battles ot El Caney and San Juan Hill. Roosevelt's " Bough Riders " in the fight July 3. Cen'era's fleet of six war vessels, escap- ing from Santiago harbor, completely destroyed by American fleet imder Sampson. Question as to responsibility of Admiral Schley. Uution.l July 7. Annexation of Hawaii by joint reso-| July 17. Santiago with all its forces (20.000) is surrendered to Shatter. General Miles lands with an army at Guanica, July 25, and begins the conquest of Porto Rico. On Jidy 28 Ponce smrenders. Spain inqtures, on July 23, on what terms the United States would cease hostilities. On August 12 a protocol is signed at Washington suspending hostiUties. Manila surrenders. Au- gust 13, to General Merritt and Admiral Dewey. .4 ug. S3. The joint High Commission to adjust differences between the United States and Canada meets at Quebec. It accomplishes little, Sevl. SO. John Hay becomes secretary of state. [Rico. I Oct. IS. United States flag is raised over Porto I Dec. 10. Treaty of Peace is signed at Paris; Spain abandons Cuba, cedes Porto Rico, Guam, and Philippines to United States, and is paid $20,000,000. 1899. Feb. .',. Filipinos attempt to capture Ma- nila, but are repulsed with heavy loss. This he- gins the Philippine Insurrection. During the year the warfare is largely desultory and m favor ot the government. Feb. f>. Peace treaty with Spain ratified by Sen- ate; signed by the President, February 10. .1 prit 11. Treaty of Peace is proclaimed. May IS-Jnhj 29. First Hague Conference. Conventions for pacific settlement of international disputes and to ameliorate war. Delegates from the United States sign with a reservation of the Monroe Doctrine. July 19. Sec. of War Alger resigns because of severe criticism ot conduct cf Spanish War. Aug. 8. Hurricane in Porto Rico; 2,000 killed, $75,000,000 lost. (of Dewey. I Naval and land parade at New York in honor I Sept. 6. Secretarj' Hay's open-door policy for China receives recognition by other powers (see China) . [preliminary report. | Nov. 7. Philippine Commission submits a I Dec. 1. Joint treaty with Great Britain and Germany for the division ot Samoa. United States receives Tutuila. Dec. 4. In Addyston Pipe and Steel Co. ti. United States the Supreme Court, diverging from the Imes previously laid down, declares that an agreement for no competition, which operates di- rectly not oidy on the manufacture but on the sale, transportation, or delivery ot an article of inter- state commerce, violates Sherman Antitrust Act. Fifty-sbith Congress assembles: Senate, 26 Democrats, 51 RepubUcans. 4 Silverites, 5 Popu- lists, 1 Independent; House, 160 Democrats, 186 Repubhcans, 25 Silverites, 7 Populists. Dec. 16. Leonard Wood appointed military governor ot Cuba. 1900. Imports of merchandise, $849,941,184; ex- ports, $1,394,483,082; immigrants, 448,672. Boxer trouble in Chma (see China). Jan. 12. Chicago dramage canal is opened. Feb. 0. First Hay-Pauncefote treaty on Ca- nal. Amended by Senate (Dec. 13) and fails. March 6. Council of New York University ac- cepts gift for a building, " The Hall of Fame for Great Americans," to be erected on University Heights, New York City. Dedicated May 30, 1901 . March 14. Gold Standard Act makes gold dollar standard imit of value. March 16. Philippine Civil Commission is appointed by the president, pending action of Congress, to establish civil government in the islands. Members reach Manila in Jtme. April 9. In Petit v. Mumcsota the Supreme Court holds that State regulations on Simday clos- ing are not contrary to Fourteenth Amendment. April 12. Act provides civil government tor Porto Rico and fixes tariff rates between island and United States. [established.! April SO. Hawaiian territorial govemmenti May 14. In ICnowlton v. Moore the Supreme Court decides that the Federal inlieritance tax in act of Jtme 13, 1898, is a constitutional indirect tax. [994,675.1 June. Twelfth U. S. census; population 75,-1 June 6. Alaska is given a civil government and code. Qjroclamation to FUipinos. I June 21. General Mac Arthur issues amnesty 1 J^dy 1. National net debt, 81,107,711,258. Aug. 2. North CaroUna constitutional suffrage amendment with " grandfather clause." Sept. S. Galveston and many Gulf towns are damaged by a terrible hurricane and flood: 6,000 lives lost, $30,000,000 of property destroyed. Sept. 17-Ocl. 25. strike ot 100,000 anthracite coal miners in Pennsylvania ; settlement is favora- ble to strikers. Oct. 29. First Ust of names chosen tor " Hall of Fame " (see March 5, above): Wasliington, Lincohi, Webster. Franklin, Grant, MarshaU, Jefferson, Emerson, Longfellow, Fulton, Irving, Jonathan Edwards, S. F. B. Morse, Farra- gut, Clay, Hawthorne, George Peabody, -B. E. Lee, Peter Cooper, Whitney, Audubon, Mann, Beecher, Kent, Story, Jolm Adams, Channing. Gilbert Stuart, Asa Gray. Others to be added at intervals up to a total of 160 m year 2000. Nov. 6 Twenty-nmth presidential election: McKinley and Roosevelt, Republicans, 292 elec- toral votes; Bryan and Stevenson, Democrats, 155. Free silver and imperialism are the issues: Socialist, Prohibition, Socialist Labor, PopiUist. United Christian, and United Reform parties also appear in the campaign. Nov. 12. Military department of Porto Rico is discontmued and the forces there reduced. 1901. Feb. g. Army Reorganization Act. Pro- vides for a mminumi army of 58,000 men, w'ith a maxunum of 100,000. Feb. 25. United States Steel Cori'oration (■■ biUion-dollar tnist ") organized. March 2. By the Spooncr Amendment Con- gress authorizes the president to establisli tempo- rary civil government in the Philippines, there- by sanctioning his action tmder the war powers. By the Platf Amendment a virtual protector- ate is established over Cuba, the conditions im- posed being incorporated in the Cuban constitu- tion on Jtme 12 lat Buffalo. I May 1-Nov. 2. Pan-American Exposition! May S. Fire in Jacksonville, Fla., destroys $10,000,000 of property; 10,000 persons made homeless. May 9. Panic in Wall Street over control of Northern Pacific Railroad, whose stock tor a moment touches 1 ,000. May 27. In the Insular Cases the Supreme Coiut holds that Porto Rico by the treaty ceased to be a foreign cotmtry Vitliin the meaning of the tariff laws, and a tariff put in force by the presi- dent after the treaty is ratified is tmconstitu- tional; but the island is not yet a part of the United States in which all import, duties must be " imlform," so that the act of April 12, 1900, is constitutional so long as Congress has jiot fully " incorporated " the ten'itory. July 16-Sept. 14. 150,000 .steel workers strike for further recognition of their organizr.tions. Strike fails. July 25. Porto Rico tulfllls conditions and 'f 1901 - 1906. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 181 1901 (.continued). proclaimed to be within the customs area of the United States, enjoying free trade with the States. .4119. 16. Wireless telegram received at Sias- conset, Nantucliet. from Steamship Lucania. Sept. 6. McKlnley shot by an anarchist at Buffalo. He dies September 14. Sept. 14. Theodore Roosevelt takes oath as twenty-fifth president. Amioimces intention to carry out McKinley's pohcies. Oct. 22. Second Pan-American Congress opens in Mexico City. Nov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty is signed; Clayton-Biilwer Treaty abrogated and British consent given to American sole control of the Isthmian Canal. Nov. 2S. Alabama's new constitution disfran- chises the Negroes in a " grandfather clause." Dec. 1. South Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition opens at Charleston. Dec. 2. Fifty-seventh Congress Ijegins: Senate, 36 Democrats, 52 Republicans, 1 Silverite ; House, 150 Democrats, 197 Republicans, 9 Fusionists. Dec. IS. Findings of Court of InquiiT as to Admiral Scliley's conduct m Cuba indecisive; Roosevelt adds a memorandum iFcbruary IS, 1902) declaring that neither Sampson nor Scliley was responsible for the victory at Santiago: it was a " captains' fight." Condition of dependencies in 1901: Hawaiian Territorial Legislature meets February 20. The labor question is prominent. In November ex- Queen Liliuokalani asks indemnification for con- fiscation of crowii lands. In the Philippines civil government is established in many provinces, and the military forces reduced. Emilio .-iguinaklo, PhiUppine leader, is captiu^ed on March 23. By treaty with Spain (March 23), the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, omitted from the treaty, are purcliased. Civil government is es- tablished in JIanila, May 3. July 4, W. H. Taft becomes civil governor of the Philippines. De- cember S. in Batangas, more severe enforcement of military law, with concentration of inhabitants. 1903. Jan. 4. Carnegie Institution of "Washing- ton, for research along many lines, is inconiorated. Starts with an endowment of $10,000,000 from Andrew Carnegie. Jan. 24. Second treaty is signed with Denmark for the purchase of the Virgin Islands: the Rigsdag rejects the treaty (October 22). Feb. 23-March 11. Visit to United States of Prince Henry of Prussia, the kaiser's brother. March 7. Permanent Census Bureau is author- ized by Congress. March S. Act establishing tariff rates between the United States and the Philippines. Unre- stricted trade not granted. April 12. War taxes are repealed. Aprit 29. Chinese E.\clusion Act continues the policy and extends it to the insular territories. Man 12-Ocl. 21. Strike of anthracite coal miners; 145,000 miners stop work. Coal famine results. July 30, Pennsylvania militia ordered to the mines. Roosevelt calls a conference at Wash- ington on October 3. October 13, operators ac- cept the demand of the president for an extralegal commission appointed by liim to make an award, by wliich both sides agree to abide, the miners meanwliile returning to work. May 22. Mihtary occupation of Cuba ends. Brief statement of the " Reformed Faith " is adopted by the Presbyterian General .\ssembly. May St. Army ordered reduced from 77,287 to 66,497. [Academy.! June 9-11. Centennial of West Point Militarj- 1 June 17. Newlands Reclamation Act pro- vides a fmid out of public-land rectripts to con- struct and maintain irrigation works in arid West. June 2S. Isthmian Canal Act authorizes the purchase of the rights of the French Canal Com- pany for $40,000,000. July 1. Philippine Government Act con- firms the acts of the presidential commission and provides for an eventual insular legislatiu-e; com- mission meanwhile serves as the government. Sealing dispute with Russia, dating from 1891, is decided in favor of United States by arbitration. July 4- General amnesty in Phihppines, and insurrection is declared at an end. July 10. Virginia's new constitution goes into operation without submission to the voters. Ne- gro vote much reduced. Sept. 17. Secretary Hay protests against the outrages committed on Jews in Roumania. Oct. 1. International Mercantile Marine Com- pany (" the shipping combine ") is formed: capi- tal, $120,000,000. It controls 114 steamers with a tonnage of ,540,000. Oct. 14. Hague Arbitration Court gives deci- sion in the " Pious Fimd " case of United States against Mexico. The " Pious Fimd " was estab- hshed by pious people of Mexico and Spain 200 years ago for support of missions in California and elsewhere ; pajTuent of income from fimd refused by Mexico on cession of California to the U. S. King Oscar of Sweden decides the Samoan con- troversy in favor of Germany. Nov. 29. Hague Tribimal awards damage against Russia for seizure of American sealers. December. Venezuela episode (see Venezuela). Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with Cuba -is signed, but Senati.' pn-\-.'iits ojn-ration for a year. 1903. Jan. 1. Hawaiiiin cable is completed. Ja7i. 21. Dick Militia Law provides for the op- tional federalization of State troops. Jan. 22. Hay-Herr^n Panama Canal Treaty signed; but Colombian government rejects it on November 3, expectmg to force better terms with the expiration of the French concession. Jan. 24. Treatj' signed with Great Britain for a commission to decide the Alaskan boundary question. Cemada desires a port for the Klondike gold fields. Feb. 11. Act to give precedence to antitrust and interstate-commerce cases in the coints. Feb. 14. Department of Conmicrce and Labor is authorized ; an executive department, its secre- tary a member of the cabinet. General Stafl' of the army is authorized. Feb. 19. Elkins Act; increases the control over interstate railroads, and forbids rebates. March 3. Immigration Act increases the head tax to $2, and imposes further restrictions. March 14. Anthracite Coal Commission re- ports mne-hour day. Increase in wages with sliding scale for further increase, no discrimination against union men, board of conciliation. Aprit 27. Supreme Court in Giles i>. Harris avoids, as it has done before, passing upon the constitutionahty of Negro disfranchisement in Alabama. (its branches. I May-June. Great floods in the IMississippi and! May 4. In James v. Bowman the Supreme Comt holds that the Fifteenth Amendment servos to prevent Federal and State, but not indi- vidual, action restricting Negro suHrage. .Uay 22. Treaty with Cuba is signed em- bodying the requirements of the protectorate. July 4- American Transpacific cable is opened between United Slates and Philippines. .4ut7. 13. Joseph Pulitzer foimds a school of journalism at Columbia University, with endow- ment of $2,000,000. [its foundmg.l Sept. 28. Chicago celebrates the centennial of I Oct. 8. Commercial treaty with China is signed, giving further facilities tor trade Oct. 10. Pliilippine Commission adopts the gold standard for the islands. Oct. 20. Alaskan Joint Commission by vote of English representative decides that the boimdary line does not reach the coast, which prevents any Canadian ports. A'oii. 3. Panama revolts from Colombia- Independence is recognized by the United States on November 6. United States troops land to protect the canal and fend off Colombian forces. Nov. 9. Fiftj'-eighth Congress meets in special session; Senate, 33 Democrats, 57 Repubhcans; House, 178 Democrats, 207 Repubhcans, Nov. IS. Hay-Bimau-Varilla Panama Canal Treaty signed with Panama. Independence of Pan- ama guaranteed; United States to have monopoly of transit across the Isthmus, a Canal Zone 10 miles wide, police rights over cities of Panama and Co- lon, and power to protect the canal; Panama re- ceives $10,000,000 and $250,000 a year after 1912. December. Agreement between the papacy and the Philippine Commission for the purchase of the Friars' lands in the islands. [ation.l Dec. 1 7. Reciprocity with Cuba goes into oper- 1 1904. Jan. 4. In Gonzales r. Williams the Su- preme Court decides that Porto Ricans are not aliens subject to the restrictions of the immigra- tion laws. [ama policy. | Roosevelt's message defending his Canal and Pan- 1 Feb. 7-8. Great fire In Baltimore with loss of $80,000,000. Feb. 8. United States incites the powers to sug- gest to Russia and Japan that their war in China be restricted to a small area and China neutralized. Feb. 26. Panama Canal Treaty is proclaimed. February 29, Roosevelt appoints a commission of seven to construct the canal; J, F. Wallace ap- pointed engineer in chief, on May 10. March 14. In the Northern Securities Case the Supreme Court declares that a combmation of competing railroads tlirough a holding company is contrary to tlie Sherman Antitnist Act. April 15. Andrew Carnegie establishes a Hero Fund of $5,000,000. .\pril 22. French Panama concession is trans- fcrted to United States. .\pril 28. Canal Zone Act authorizes pos.ses- sion and occupancy, and vests powers of tempo- rary government in the president. .■ipril SO--Dec. 1. Louisiana Purchase Ex- position is held at St. Louis to conunemorate the ceuteimiai of the annexation. July 12-Sept. 8. Strike of meat-packing em- ployees in Middle West. Also labor troubles in i Colorado mines during the year. July 25-Jan. 8, 1905. Strike of textile workers at Fall River, Mass. [subway is opened. I Oct. 27. Portion of Now York's rapid transit] Oct. SO. Roosevelt issues a prehminary invita- tion to the powers to hold a second Hague Peace Congress. Nor. 8. Thirtieth presidential election; Roose- velt and C. W. Fairbanks, Republican, receive 336 votes: A, B. Parker and H. G. Davis, Democrats, 140 votes. Silver is no longer an issue: tnists and Roosevelt's administratiou are the main ques- tions. Four muior parties. Populists, Prohibi- tionists, SociaUsts, and Socialist Laborites, present candidates. 1S05. Imports of merchandise, $1,117,513,071; exports. Sl.518.561,666: immigrants, 1,026,499. Jan. SO. In Swift Co. !i. United States the Su- preme Court declares contrary to the Antitrust Act a combination of a dominant proijuriion of dealers in fresh meat (" Beef trust ") llin.uf-'liout the United States to regulate prices, restrii-t sliip- ments, and get special rates in interstate trans- portation. Feb. 7. Protocol is signed with Santo Do- mingo, by which the United States takes charge of the country's customs, adjusts foreign claims, and pays them out of the customs revenue; a vir- tual protectorate and intended to prevent Eiffo- pean hiterierence. similar to that in Venezuela. It goes into operation through a modus vivcndi as Senate postpones ratification. Feb. 20. In Jacobson v. Massachu.setts the Su- preme Court holds that compulsory vaccination does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. March 29. Panama Canal Commission resigns and new one is appointed on April 3. Wallace re- signs : J. F. Stevens becomes chief engineer. Con- sultmg engineers on Nov, 18 favor a sea-level canal. April 17. In Lochner ti. New York the Su- preme Coiut annuls the New York law providing that no employee in a bakery shall be required or permitted to work beyond 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week.' It is held to be contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment and the hberty of con- tract, baking not being an unhealtliful business. April 27. Andrew Carnegie gives $10,000,000 as a pension fund for professors in endowed colleges. Later increased to include professors of State universities. May. Contest in Philadelphia between Mayor Weaver and the ring over the lease of the city gas works, in which the mayor is successful. June 1-Ocl. 14. Lewis and Clark Kxposition is held at Portland. Oregon, to commemorate the centennial of their expedition. June S. Roosevelt offers his good offices to end the Russo-Japanese War. They are accepted and the treaty of peace is signed at Portsmouth, N. H.. on September 5. (See Jap.in.) JuneSO. Jolm D. Rockefeller gives $10,000,000 to promote liigher education in United States. July 1. National net debt, S9SH,S66,772 July 19. Eliliu Root becomes secretary of state after death of Hay. July 22. Yellow fever breaks out in New Or- leans. On August 4 Federal authorities take charge of situation. Epidemic lasts into October with over 3,000 cases and about 400 deaths Sept. 6-Dec. SO. Investigation of life insur- ance companies by a legislative commission in New York (Armstrong Commission), ccnduclcd by Charles E. Hughes, shows many abuses and leads to widespread reform measiu-es. Oct. 9. J. Q. Adams, Lowell, 'Wniittier, Sher- man, Madison, Mary Lyon, Emma Willard, and Maria Mitchell are given places in Hall of Fame. Nov. 7. Fall elections indicate revolt against bossism, especiaUy in Ohio and Pennsylvania and cities of Cincinnati and Pliiladelphia, Dec. 4. Fifty-ninth Congress assembles; Sen- ate. 33 Democrats. 56 Repubhcans; House. 137 Democrats, 249 Republicans. 1906. Jan. 17. Bicentennial of buth of Frankhn is widely celebrated. Feb. 19. In Missouri v. Illinois the Supreme Court decides that the former State has not proved that the discharge of Chicago's sewage through the drainage canal deleteriously affects the water sup- ply of St. Louis, taken from the Mississippi River. March 5. Act granting Alaska a delegate in Congress. April 2-May G. Renewal of strike in Pennsyl- vania anthracite coal region ; ends by agreement to renew award of commission of 1902. The bitu- minous coal miners also strike, but resume work July 13, without increa.se in wages. April 18-20. Earthquake followed by a great fire destroys large portion of San Francisco, in- cluding the business section. Loss about $350,- 000,000. Congress appropriates $2,500,000 for relief and coimtry-wide contributions are made. June 11. Employers' Liability Act passes Con- gress, appUcable to common carriers in interstate traffic. June 16. Enabling .4ct for Oklahoma, includ- ing the balance of Indian Territory, and also for a 182 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1906 — 1910. 1906 icunlinucd). KJ joint state for Arizona and New Mexico. Arizona ' '■ reruscs (November 6) to join witli New Mexico. June 2S. Cable between Japan and United States is opened. ' ■ June 29. Act Creating Bui'eau of Immigration and Naturalization with uniform rules for naturali- zation and a central record. [ama. I Congress votes to authorize a lock canal at Pan- 1 —^ Hepburn Act supplements the Interstate Com- O merce Act of 1887 : it gives the commission control over pipe lines, express companies, sleeping-car companies, and private freight lines ; the power to prescribe maximum rates; prohibits passes, and transportation of products (commodities clause, coal is chiefly meant) mined and produced by the transporting line. jM.ne SO. Meat Inspection and Pure Food P laws. Unsanitary conditions in the great meat- packing plants call for Federal inspection of meat iatended for interstate and foreign transportation. The Pure Food Act (Federal Food and Drug Act) forbids the manufacture of misbranded or adul- terated foods or drugs in the territories, or the in- terstate or foreign transportation of such articles. Does not forbid the manufacture and sale of such Q articles witliin a particular State, wliicli must be regulated by State laws. In effect, Jan. 1, 1907. July 21- Aug. 26. American delegates attend the third Pan-American Congress, at Bio de Janeiro. Sept. 19. President issues an order extending eight.-hour labor law to all government work. Sept. 22-24. Kace riot in Atlanta; eighteen Negroes and tlirce whites killed. 1^ Sepl. 29. Military control over Cuba is re- sumed becatise of disturlDed conditions there. Oct. 7-12. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions celebrates at Williamstown the centemiial of the " Haystack meeting." from which grew the foreign-mission movement in America. Oct. 25. Japanese Ambassador Aoki protests against exclusion of Japanese from the public Sscliuols in San Francisco. iVcr. 2. Robert E. Peary reports that, on April 21, he reached " farthest north " at 87° 6', or 203 miles from the pole. Nov. 6. Roosevelt directs the dismissal of three companies of Negro regulars for disturbances at Brownsville, Texas, on August 13. A'ot. 8. The President sails on battleship Louisiarta for Panama and Porto Rico, thus break- "^ ing the tradition that a president will not leave the territory of the United States. Dec. 10. Eoosevelt is awarded the Nobel peace prize for liis services in brmging about the end of the Russo-Japanese AVar. Dec. 12. Algeclras Treaty as to Morocco is ratified. United States has been the deciding factor in the Conference. Senate declares that it tuniishes no precedent for interference of United States in European differences. 1907. Jan. 2i. Act raising salaries of senators and representalives to .S7,.'j()0 and of vice presi- dent. Speaker of Hoiise, and members of cabi- net to S12,000. United States enters suits in San Francisco to test the action of California school authorities in al- leged contravention of treaty rights. V Jolm D. Bockefeller gives $3'j,000,000 to the General Education Board. (by corporations. | J an. 26. Act prohibiting political Contributions! Feb. 6. Graduated age pensions are granted to veterans of Mexican and Civil wars of 62 years of age or more; following an executive order making 62 years a pensionable disability. Feb. 18. New convention is signed with Santo \A# Domingo for control of customs. Ratified by the ' Senate, IVbruary 25. Under it political control is exercised by the United States. Feb. 20. New Immigration Act increases the heutory negligence." April 24. Tornadoes on the Gulf Coast de- stroy much property and some 1 ,500 lives. May 11. Comer stone of the building of the Pan-American Union at Washington is laid. May IS. Forty-four States are represented at the Conference of Governors called at the Wliite House l)y the president for the conserva- tion of national resources. May 25. Congress passes a joint resolution to remit to China some $10,000,000 of the Ameri- can share in tlie Boxer indemnity; China decides to devote the money (Boxer Ftmd) to the educa- tion of yoimg Cliinese in United States. May 26. North Carolina adopts prohibition. May 30. Act is passed for a flexible ctirrency, an outcome of the stringency in 1907. June S. President appoints a national commis- sion of 57 on the conservation of forests and other national resources. July 22. Circuit Court of Appeals at Chicago reverses fine laid in 1907 on the Standard Oil Company. Oct. 1. Two-cent letter postage with Great Britain goes into effect. Nov. 3. Tliirty-fu'st presidential election; Taft and J. S. Sherman, Republicans, rccci\e 321 electoral votes; Bryan and J. W. Kern. Democrats, 162 votes. Both parties promise tariff and trust reform; the real issue is the continuation of the Roosevelt regime in the person of Ills chosen suc- cessor. Poptilists, Prohibitionists. Socialist La- borites. Independents, and Socialists put forth platforms and candidates. Nov. 19. American Federation of Labor re- jects a proposition to disregard writs of injunction. A'oii. SO. Notes are exchanged between Secre- tarj- Root and Japanese Ambassador Takahira on the cfimmon policy of their cotmtrics for " free and Ijeaceful development of their commerce on the Pacific Ocean." respect for each others territorial possessions, and the Integrity of China. Not sub- mitted for action by Senate. Dec. S3. Supreme Court of the District of Co- liunbia sentences Gompers, Mitchell, and Morri- son, officers of tlie American Federation of Labor, to Imprisonment in contempt for violatmg an in- jtmction against the Ijoycott of the Bucks Stove Company. They appeal. [wide proliibition. I 1S09. Jan. 20. Tennessee adopts virtually State-1 Jan. 27. North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Treaty is signed with Great Britain to end the long-.standing dispute. Tliis subniitstoHagueTri- bimal the American rights tmder Treaty of 1818. Jan. 28. Second mfiitary occupation of Cuba by United States troops terminates. Feb. 4. California Assembly passes a biU to segregate Asiatic children in schools, litit remon- strances by Roosevelt and general protest causes abandonment of measure. Feb. 12. Centennial of birth of Lincoln is widely observed. Roosevelt lays the comer stone of a memorial building at Lincoln's birthplace, near Hodgen\'ille, Ky. Feb. 19. An enlarged Homestead Act permits entry on double the numter of acres of grazing land not susceptible of irrigation. Feb. 22. Roosevelt reviews the returned fleet. March. Los Angeles invokes the recall against its mayor; he resigns before the election. First prominent instance of the use of the measure in the United States. [S75,000 a year.l March S. Act raising president's salary to| March 4- William Howard Taft inaugurated as twenty-sixth president. March 15. Sixty-first Congress meets in special session to revise the tariff; Senate, 33 Democrats, 59 RepubUcans; House, 172 Democrats, 219 Re- publicans. March 21 . In Georgia the system of leasing con- victs, which has residted in many abtises. is ended. March 23. Roosevelt sails for Africa on a htmt- ing trip. April 6. Peary reaches the North Pole. News of the event is received on September 6. May 3. In United States v. Delaware and Hud- son Co., the Supreme Court upholds the constitu- tionality of the commodities clause of the Hepbtim Act if limited to transportation of commodities in wliich the raih-oad has a real interest at time of transportation. [position at Seattle. I June 1-Ocl. 16. Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Ex-1 July 33. Sixteenth Amendment, permitting an tmapportioned income tax is submitted by Congress to the States. Aug. a. Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. Makes httle change in protection except mcrcases in cot- ton and silk schedules. ISIaximum and minimtun rates in place of reciprocity. Lays an income tax on corporatiotis. A Tariff Board is authorized to study the problem of the tariff. Aug. 27. National Conservation Congress meets at Seattle. Sept. 25-Ocl. 9. Discovery of the Htidson River and the invention of the steamboat are commemorated in New York City and along the river (Hudson-Fulton celebration) on 300th an- niversary of discovery of the Hudson (1609) and 100th, approximately, of invention of steamboat. During the year great frauds in customs, espe- ciaUy on sugar imported by the sugar trust, are discovered and pimished, and fines and impaid du- ties amounting to miUions of doUars collected. 1910. Imports of merchandise. SI. 556.947,430; ex- ports of merchandise, $1,744,984,720; immigrants, 1,041,570; aUen emigrants, 202,463. Ja7i. 7. T»f t removes Clifford Pinchot, chief forester, and two of his assistants for insubordina^ tion. This is an incident in the controversy aris- ing from accusations by Pinchot and others that Ballinger, secretarj' of the interior, has favored a sjTidicate which is seeking through illegal land patents to control the coal lands of Alaska. Presi- dent upholds Balhnger. Jan. 9. International Waterways Treaty is signed with Great Britain, providing for use of 1910-1912. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 183 1910 (continued). boundary waters between United States and Can- ada, and a joint commission to decide qtiestions arising along ttie frontier. Jan. 19. Joint resolution for a congressional investigation of the Ballinger-Piachot controversy. Feb. 4. A jiu"y renders a verdict in the Dan- bury Hatters' Case of .'S74.0OU damages against the Ijoycottiug union. The law allows collection of three times the damages. / Feb. 9. More than 4.000,000 acres of lailds held in the forest reserves tlirown open to settlement , February. Cleveland, Ohio, by referendum grants a new street railway franchise with four cents as the maximum fare. March £. Bill is introduVed in the Senate pro- viding for the incorporation of a " Rockefeller Fotmdation." Does not pass. March 17. Roosevelt leaves Khartmn, Africa, on his return to America. During Marcii and April he visits in Europe, and is everywhere re- ceived with notable enthusiasm. March 19. Republican " insurgents " against Speaker Caimon in the House of Representatives, aided by the Democrats, order a reorganization of the committee on rules, leaving out the Speaker, thereby greatly reducing his power. After the beginning of the next Congress, the Speaker also is deprived of his power to appoint the standing committees. April 10. The Interstate Commerce Commis- sion announces a ruling fixing a less rate for upper berths than for lower in Pullman sleeping cars, and a reduced rate for all berths on some routes. May 21. Treaty fixing the boundary in Passa^ maquoddy Bay is signed with Great Britain. June. Thirteenth U. S. census; population 91,972,266. June SO. Act of Congress enabling New Mex- ico and Arizona to form separate State constitu- tions. June IS. Mann-Elkins Act, bringing tele- phone, telegrapli, express, and sleeping-car com- panies under the control of the Interstate Com- merce Commission. It provides for a new Com- merce Court ; prohibits greater charges for a short than for a long haul; and permits commission to suspend increases in rates pending investigation. Roosevelt receives an enthusiastic welcome on his arrival in New York from his travels. June 22. Act permitting siuiace location on coal lands, the mining rights being reserved for special location. June 25. Postal Savings Bank Act provides that certain post offices iiKiy ncrive deposits of $1 to $500 and pay 2'', iniinsi or give govern- ment i3onds bearmg 2J'[, ind rr.sl in exchange. Act authorizing the president to withdraw from entry any public lands and reserve them for power sites, irrigation works, or other purposes. Act requiring publicity of political contribu- tions in election campaigns of rei)resentatives. Mann " White-slave " Act prohibits transporta- tion in interstate or foreign commerce of women or girls for immoral purposes. (See White-slave- TR.u^Fic Act in the Diet., Addenda.) June 29. Interstate Commerce Commission orders substantial reductions in freight rates on many western railroads. Jnhj 1. National net debt, 81,046,449,185. July 31~Aug. 30. American delegates attend fourth Pan-American Congress, at Buenos Aires. Aug. 1. Pennsylvania Railroad's new station in New York City formally opened. Electric trains under Hudson River run regularly after Nov. 27. Aug. 2. Oklahoma adopts a constitutional amendment disfranchising Negroes tlirough the " grandfather clause." Aug. SI. Koosevelt at Osawatomie, Kan., outlines " New Nationalism " as meaning gov- ernment supervision of the capitalizing of inter- state corporations and of combinations controlling the necessaries of life, graduated hicome and in- heritance taxes, labor regulations, etc. August. Forest fires cause great loss of life and property in the Northwest, especially in Montana and Idaho. Sept. 7. Hague Tribimal annoimccs its deci- sion in the North Atlantic Fisheries Arbitra- tion; on the whole favorable to the British con- tentions, though affirming privileges of Americans under Treaty of ISIS. Oct. 1 7. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research is formally opened at New York City. October. The follo\sing names are added to the New York University Hall of Fame (see 1900, March 5): Harriet Beecher Stowe, Holmes, Poe. Roger Wilhams, Cooper, Pliillips Brooks, Brj'ant, Francex E. Willard, Andrew Jackson, George Bancroft, Motley. Nor. 2. A fleet of sixteen American battleships sails, in two detachments, to pay visits at ports of England and France. Nov. S. State and congressional elections re- sult in great gains for the Democrats, due largely to the Progressive instirgency, dissatisfaction with 1910 (continued). the imreforming tarhT, and the effect of the Bal- linger-Pinchot controversy. In Oliio, New York, Comiecticut, Massacinisetts, and New Jersey, Democratic candidates for governor are successful, Washington adopts a constitutional amendment conferrmg the suffrage upon women. , - Nov. 10. Taft sails for Panama on a tour of insijection. Nov. 21. Post-Offlce Department raids many " get-rich-ciuick " investment eompanii-s and pro- moters, and estimates the,\ 1i:l\c swindled ilie pub- lic out of more than .S100,OUO,UUO witliin a few years. Dec. 3. Mary Baker Glover Eddy, the foimder and head of the Cliristian Science Chiu'ch, tUes. Dec. 7. Majority of congressional committee appointed to investigate the BaUmger controversy exonerates him from all charges. Dec. 10. Edward D. White becomes cliief jus- tice of the Supreme Court. First promotion of a justice to the chief-justiceship. General conditions and activities In 1910: Prosecution of many railroads, manufacturing corjjorations, and dealers in food or supiilies alieg- mg offenses agauist interstate-commerce laws or conspiracy in restraint of trade. Uncertainty as to the scope and interpretation of the Sherman Antitrust Law. A general demand from railroad employees for Increased pay and easier hom-s is made early in the year and is met t)y arliilralion. Great progress In aviation in the United States as well as in Eiu-ope. 1911. Imports of merchandise, S1,52J,226,105; ex- ports of merchandise, $2,049,320,199; immigrants, 878,587; alien emigrants, 295,666. Jan. 3. Supreme Court, in Noble State Bank t. Haskell and other cases, sustains the constitu- tionality of State laws guaranteeing i)ank deposits. In Bailey v. Alabama the coiut holds unconstitu- tional the Alabama contract labor law, wliich vio- lates the Thirteenth Amendment by establishing peonage, which is involuntary' servitude. Jan. 10. Pennsylvania recovers $1,300,000 and warrants aggregating $200,000, from the con- tractors for the new State capitol. Further criminal prosecutions are dropped, after several convictions. Jan. 20. Andrew Carnegie gives $10,000,000 more to the Carnegie institution. Jan. 23. National Progressive Republican League is organized. It aims at greater control by the people, adequate con-upt-practices acts, and pubUc regulation of aU great financial interests. Feb. 20. In Chicago, Biu'lington, and Quincy R. R. Co. V. McGuire, the Supreme Court affirms a State workmen's compensation act, which denies the validity of a contract of insurance rehef as a bar to action imder the law. Feb. 23. Interstate Commerce Commission refuses to sanction an increase in freight rates on railroads of the East and Middle West. March 1. Act authorizing piu-chase of forest re.ser\'es in the Eastern States in order to protect the watersheds of navigable rivers. March 7. In consequence of revolution in Mex- ico, the president orders 20,000 troops to San An- tonio and along the Mexican frontier, for division maneuvers and to check filibustering and border fighting on the American side. The troops are recalled June 24. March 29. New York State capitol is partially destroyed by fire; many valuable historical docu- ments lost. .April 4. Sixty-second Congress meets in spe- cial session to consider Canadian reciprocity: Senate, 42 Democrats, 49 Repul^licans; House, 228 Democrats, 163 Republicans, 1 Socialist. May S. Direct telephone communication be- tween New York and Denver is opened. May IS. Supreme Court sustains the decree dissolving the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Law, The court holds that the law must be interiiretcd " in the hght of reason " and that only " imdue " restraint on trade is prohibited. May 29. The Supreme Court also orders the disintegration of the American Tobacco Company for violating the Sherman Law. June S. Convention with Nicaragua is signed, which amoimts to a commercial protectorate. It goes into practical operation, though not con- firmed by the Senate. June 26. Cimningham coal-land claims in Alaska, the subject of the Ballinger-Pinchot con- troversy, arc declared invalid. July'l. National net debt, $1,015,784,338. Interstate Commerce Commission logins an elabo- rate investigation of the express companies.. . July 7. Treaty is signed at Washington be- tween the L'nited States, Japan, Great Britain, and Russia, prohibiting pelagic sealing and pro- portioning the legitimate catch. Ju ly se. Act for reciprocity with Canada passes Congress, but fails in the end liecause Canadians elect a parliament (September 21) which will not pass the necessary complementary statute. 1911 (continued). Aug. 17. Taft vetoes a bill reducing the tarilT on wool, demanding the report of the Tariff Board be awaited. ■Aug. 19. Amendatory act is passed on pub- licity of contributions in congressional elec- tions. Applies to House and Senate, to primary and regular elections, to contributions, expenses, or promises of appomtments. Limits amoimti candidates may personally spend. Oct. 11. California adopts a constitutional amendment giving the full vote to women. It also adopts amendments providing for the initia- tive and referendum and the recall of all elective officials, including judges. Nov. 9. The Lincoln Memorial is dedicated at Hodgenville, Ky., his birthplace. It preserves the log cabin in which, it is supposed, he was born. Nov. 10. Andrew Carnegie amiomices the gift of 825,000,000 toestabhsh and maintain the Carnegie Corporation for the Promotion of Education. Dec. 0. J. J. McNamara, secret ar>--treasurer of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers, is convicted of being a party to dj-namitmg the Los Angeles Titnss build- ing on October 1. 1910, when 21 were killed. Dec. S. Board of army and navy officers ap- pointed to inspect the wreck of the Maine reports that ship was blown tip by an exterior explosion. Dec. IS. The president informs the Senate tliat he has notified Russia of the abrogation of the treaty tetween the two coimtries, because of Russia's refusal to recognize American passports in the hands of Jews, clergymen of certain evan- gelical denominations, and others. General conditions and activities In 1911: The most notable general features of the year are the slow and cautious revival of business and the un- usual political and social unrest. The system of direct nomination for all elective State offices obtains in more than two thirds of the States. Some States adopt the " Oregon Plan " of pledg- ing candidates to vote for the people's choice for Federal senators as indicated at the general elec- tion. Direct legislation in some form exists in twelve States. 1913. Imports of merchandise, $1,653,264,934; ex- ports of merchandise, $2,204,322,409; immigrants, 838,172; aUen emigrants, 333,262. Jan. 6. New Mexico admitted (47th State). Jan. 12. At LawTence, Mass., the textile mill workers go out on strike liecause of reduction in wages following the introduction of the new 54- hour law. The strike lasts for over two months, and is marked by many scenes of violence and by the influence of the Industrial Workers of the World (" I. W. W."). Jan. 15. In second Employers' Liability Cases the Supreme Court upholds the amended act of April 22, 1908, as a proper regulation of interstate commerce and not contrary to the protection of the Fifth Amendment. Jan. 22. First passenger train is nm from Key West to the mainland over the extension of the Florida East Coast Railroad. Supreme Court, in Louisville and Nashville R. R. I'. Cook Brewing Co., holds that a State may not prevent an interstate shipment of liquor to a local option region; Original Package Law does not re- strict until package is m hands of consignee. Feb. 14. Arizona (48th State) admitted, alter the judicial-recall provision has been ehminated from the constitution as required by Taft. It is restored on November 5. Feb. 19. In Pacific States Telephone and Tele- graph Co. t. Oregon, the Supreme Com't holds that the question whether the initiative and referendum destroys the republican form of government is a matter for Congress and not the com-ts to decide. Feb. 24. House of Representatives orders an investigation (Pujo Committee) of the " money trust," with a view to legislation for the control of combinations. Feb. 25. Roosevelt expresses his willingness to accept the nomination for president if offered (" Hat in the ring "). March 2. President Taft directs a strict com- pliance with the neutrality laws in all matters affecting Mexico, and warns citizens to keep out of Mexico till peace is restored. March 7. Senate advises ratification of general arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France, signed on August 3, 1911, after adoption of amendment barring from arbitration questions affecting the Monroe Doctrine, admission of aliens, and State debts. Thus changed, Taft refuses to accept them. March 11. Supreme Coiui; in Henry v. Dick Co. CMimeograph Case) holds that the owner of a patent operation has a right to impose a license restriction on the use of the patented machine, may flx its price, and prescribe its use. March 14. Taft prohibits the export of arms or war supplies to Me-xico. March 19. The first State-wide presidential preference primary is held in North Dakota. 184 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1912—1913. 1913 iconlinued). April. Floods in the Mississippi vailey devastate 200 square miles and reader ao.OOO peo- ple homeless; loss $50,000,000. April 1. Supreme Court, in Standard Oil Co. V. INIissouri, upholds the antitrust laws of Missouri under which the Standard Oil Company ot Indiana and the Republic OU Company of New York are ousted, except as to interstate commerce. Aprils. Esch Match Act imposes a tax of two cents a hundred on interstate trade in matches made of poisonous white phosphorus; causes reform. April IB. Steamsliip Titanic, largest boat ever built, sunlf by ice on maiden voyage; 1,300 perish. May 1. Federal steamship inspection service requires all ocean steamsliips to carry sufficient lifeboats to accommodate all persons on board. May 3. Tercentenary of Champlain is cele- brated at Crown Point. May 11. Graduated Service Pension Act gives to all veterans of the Mexican War of 60 days' service $30 a month (" dollar a day "), and gives all Civil War veterans over 62 years of age pensions graduated to age and service, with $30 maximum. May IS. Seventeenth Amendment for popidar election of senators is submitted to the States by Congress. June S. Minimum Wage Act in Massachusetts provides for wage boards which shall recommend a scale in any industry in wliich women are inade- quately paid. June 19. Congress passes act forS-hour day on all work done for Federal government by contract. June 18-34. Republican National Convention in session; renominates Taft and Sherman. Sup- porters of Roosevelt bolt, claiming that the will of the people has been fraudulently defeated . Roose- velt leads in forming the Progressive party wliicli nominates him on August 7, with liiram W. Jolm- son as vice-presidential candidate. June 2B. Democratic National Convention convenes: on tlie 2,Sth, after an all-night session, first ballot at 7 a.m. gives Clark 4405 votes, Wilson 324; July 2, Wilson nominated for president on 46th ballot (afterward made unanimous) ; July 3, convention adjourns after nominating Marshall for vice president by acclamation. July 1. National debt, less money in the treas- ury, $1,027,574,697. July IS. The seat of Senator WilUam Lorimer of Illinois is declared vacant because of corrupt methods of election. July 16. Herman Rosenthal, a gambler, who had given evidence regarding the Ulegal relations of the police in New York City, is assassinated. Pohce lieutenant Becker is convicted of instigating the crime and executed July 30, 1915. The four miu-derers of Rosenthal executed April 13, 1914 Aug. 16. Radio-commimication Act forbids private wireless installations near certain govern- ment stations. Aug. 22. Under Tariff Act ot 1909 counter- vailing duty is imposed on iijiportations of wheat and rye flour and split peas from Germany, because of a boimty provided by German government. Aug. 23. Act prohibiting false assertions on labels of drugs. Aug. 2 J,. Army Appropriation Act provide^ for a reserve, consolidates the tliree supply de- partments, and restricts detached duty. Act for operating the Panama Canal. It exempts American coastwise shipping from toll. Great Britain protests against exemption as con- trary to Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. Law is passed authorizing surface location on oil and gas lands, reserving mineral rights for sepa- rate location. An act for a legislative assembly and woman sulfrage in Alaska, Act authorizing experimental parcel post; also the Federal regulation of newspapers and periodi- cals, including a sworn statement giving names of editors, publishers, managers, and owners. September. American marines are landed in Nicaragua, at request of local government for time being, and aid in suppressing a revolution. Cliief of revolutionists siu'renders to American admiral on Sept. 26, and marines are withdrawn after Nicaraguan presidential election on Nov. 2. Oct. 1. A fifty-four hour a week law liecomes effective in the industries of New York State. Oct. 10. Roosi'velt is shot by a fanatic at Mil- waukee, but proceeds to a mass meeting and speaks, and recovers in a short time. Oct. 30. Vice President Sherman dies. Not}. 5. Thirty-second presidential election: Wilson and Marshall, Democrats, receive 6.293,- 000 popular and 435 electoral votes: Roosevelt and Johnson, Progressives, 4,169,000 popular and 88 electoral votes: Taft and Sherman, Republicans, 3,442,000 popular and 8 electoral votes. Proliibi- tionists. Socialists, and Socialist Laborites present candidates: Socialists poll more than 900 ,000 votes. A'or. 14. Supreme Coiu-t of M'issouri fines the International Han-ester Company $50,000, for- bidding it to do btisiness in the State. 1912 (.conlinued). Nov. IS. In Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Co. v. United States, the Supreme Court, m order- ing the dissolution of the " bathtub trust," hokls that there can bo no monopoly in the unpatented product of a patented macliine. Nov. SO. Andrew Carnegie, through Carnegie Corporation, gives futiu-e ex-presidonts and their widows (if they do not remarry) $25,000 a year. Dec. 2. In United States v. Union Pacific R. R. Co. the dissolution of the Harriman merger of the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railroads is ordered by the Supreme Court. Dec. 7. 20,00f) skilled laborers in United States navy yards are placed in the civil service. Dec. 16. Governor Donaghey of Arkansas par- dons 360 convicts as a protest against the State's system of leasing prisoners. December 24, Gov- ernor Blease of South Carolina frees 79 convicts on similar groimds. Dec. 28. President of the International Associ- ation of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers and 37 of his colleagues are convicted at Indianapolis of complicity in a series of dynamite outrages during the past six jears. General conditions and activities in 1913: Democrats are returned to power after 12 years of Republican rule. Of 35 State governors elected, 21 are Democrats. A prominent part is taken by women in the election, particularly on the side of the Progressives. The total number of States with systems of direct nominations is now 36; in 12 States the system of presidential preference Ijrimaries is estabhshed: the initiative and refer- indimi are extended; and the recall amendment is further adopted in 5 States. ■Varioas strikes pushed by the Industrial W'orkers of the World (" I. W. W."), an organization in- clucUng unskilled workers wliich aims at the gen- eral strike rather than political nieasiu-es, and is antagonistic to capital, ordinary trade-miions, and the existing government. Various actions are brought and decisions given under the Sherman Antitrust Law. Total num- ber of cases brought tmder that law (1890-1912), 128, viz., imder Harrison, 7: Cleveland, 8; McKin- ley, 3; Roosevelt, 44; Taft, 66. The "money trust " investigation gathers a mass of informa- tion regarding banking and monetary conditions. 1913. Imports of merchandise, $1,813,008,234: ex- ports of merchandise, $2,455,884,149; immigrants, 1,197,892; alien emigrants, 308,190. January. In the garment workers' strike in New York City more than 150,000 workers are affected. In February the strike spreads to Bos- ton. The strike ends in New Y'ork City on March 12, and in Boston on April 21, the employers mak- ing concessions of increased wages, reduced hoiu-s, and recognition ot the union. Jan. 1. Parcel post begins to operate. Jan. 6. Suijreme Court, in United States i'. Patten, holds that an attempt to comer cotton or other commodity constitutes a criminal offense imder the Sherman Antitrust Law. Jan. 7. Investigation is begtm of the " ship- ping trust," alleged to control 90% ot the over-sea traffic of the United States. Jan. IS. Judge Archbald of the Commerce Court is convicted in the impeachment trial tefore the Senate and disqualified to hold any office under the United States. February. Silk weavers' strike at Paterson, N. J., directed by the Industrial Workers ot the World, is marked by violence. After five months the strike is abandoned (July 23) . Feb. 2. New Grand Central Terminal building in New York City is officially opened. Feb. 4. Congress incorporates the National In- stitute of Arts and Letters, a preexisting as.socia- tion whose interior organization, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, consists of a se- lected fifty of the members of the Institute. Feb. lo' Four United States warships sent to Mexican waters to safeguard American interests. Feb. IS. Twenty-nine officials of the National Cash Register Company are convicted byjFederal Court, at Cincinnati of criminal conspiracy imder the Sherman Antitnist Law. (second such veto. I Taft vetoes a literacy test for immigrants;! Feb. 24. United States Supreme Com-t in Hoke c. United States sustains the constitutionality of the Maim Act prohibiting the transportation in Interstate or foreign commerce ot women lor im- moral purposes. Feb. 2B. Sixteenth Amendment, permitting an unapportioned income tax, goes into force, having been ratified by necessary three fourths of the States. Feb. 2S. Democratic majority of Pujo Com- mittee of House of Representatives, to investigate alleged money trust, reports the existence of " a great and rapidly growing concentration of the control of money and credit in the hands of a few men," and recommends drastic measures. March 1. Webb Liquor Shipment Act. for- bidding the interstate sliipment ot liquors intended 1913 Iconlmued). for unlawful use in prohibition States, is passed over a veto. It reverses the principle of the Su- preme Court's decision of January 22, 1912. Act for the physical valuation by the Interstate Commerce Commission of the property of com- mon carriers. March 4. Woodrow Wilson is inaugurated as twenty-seventh president. Department of Labor is created by Act ot Congress (approved March 4) ; its secretary, a member of the cabinet, shall have power to act as mediator and to appoint commissioners to con- ciliation in labor disputes. First secretary of la- bor, William Bauchop Wilson, takes oath ot of- fice March 5. March IS. Wilson disapproves of Tatt's policy of participation in the Joint Powers Loan to China, and American banliers withdraw March 22. A complete wireless message is sent from Arlington, Md., to Eiffel Tower, Paris. March 2B-26. Rivers of Ohio and Indiana in- imdate large tracts of country, causing gi-eat loss of life and enormous damage. Dayton and other cities suffer severely. A pril 7. Sixty-third Congress meets in special session: Senate, 50 Democrats and 44 Republicans: House, 292 Democratic, 141 Republican, 1 Inde- pendent. Several members are elected as being Progi'cssives as well as Democrats or Repubhcans. • A pril S. President Wilson, reverting to Wash- ington's and Adams's practice, delivers his mes- sage orally to both houses of Congress. April IS. Connecticut Supreme Court of Er- rors decides that " the closed shop is contrary to public policy where the agreement embraces an entire industi-y of any considerable proportions in the community." April 24. Wilham Jennings Bryan, secretary of state, presents to the diplomats at Washington a plan for world peace which provides that all controversies shall be submitted to an interna- tional commission before war is declared or hostili- ties begun. May. Charges that slavery exists in the Philippine Islands and that the Assembly has neglected to pass the necessary laws for its sup- pression, are made by Commissioner Worcester and subsequently sustained by the auditor of the islands. May 16. Arizona statute prohibits the owner- sliip of land by aliens who have not declared their intention ot becoming citizens. May 10. California antlalien landowner- ship act; passed in spite ot Japanese protest and Federal disapproval. May 26. Wilson publicly denounces lob- bying at Wasliington, and charges particularly that attempts are thereby made against the tariff bUl. On Jime 2 a special committee of the Senate begins an investigation. Supreme Court, in Bauer v. O'Donnell (" Sana- togen Case "), holds that a patentee, in selling his patented article, cannot fix the price at which it shall be resold. May SO. National monument to the battleship Maine is dedicated in New York City. May SI. Seventeenth Amendment, lor popular election of senators, is proclaimed, having received the necessary ratification of tliree fom-ths of the States. Roosevelt wins a libel suit against Newett, an editor of Michigan, and. on defendant's retraction of charges, asks tor only nominal damages. June. In the Philippine Islands rebellious Moros, led by the Sultan of Jolo, refuse to surren- der their arms: subdued after several days' fighting. June 9, 16. Supreme Coiu-t, in Minnesota and Missouri Rate Cases upholds the right of a State, pending action by Congress, to regulate intrastate railroad rates, pro-vidingthey are not confiscatory, even though thev affect interstate business. June 10. The Supreme Coiu-t in Ijswis Publish- ing Co. r. Morgan affirms the constitutionality ot the newspaper pubhcity law of August 24. 1912. June 26. Wonian-sufTrage law In Illinois pro\1des that women of legal age may vote tor presidential electors and for local and some State officers. „^^ July 1. National net debt, $1,028,564,055. July 1-S. Fiftieth aimiversary of the battle of Getty.sburg is commemorated by 50.000 Union and Conlederate veterans on the battlefield. July 12. Pennsylvania Primary Act abolishes State conventions. Many similar acts in other States. ,,. , . July 21 . Copper miners at Calumet, Michigan, strike to enlorce an eight-hour day and recogni- tion ot their imion; serious rioting necessitates the caUing out ol the entire National Guard ot the State- Federal arbitration is proffered but refused. July 26 Act creating a public service commis- sion in Pennsvlvania, and reducing tiie working hours ot women trom 60 to 54 hours a week. 2 Law to enlorce the " health mar- Aug. riage " system, with a view mainly to prevent 1913-1914. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 185 1913 (continued). transmission of disease, goes into effect in Penn- sylvania. In tliis year, also, similar laws are en- acted in Wisconsin and North Dakota. Aug. 4. Express companies are ordered by the Interstate Commerce Commission to adopt for two years from October 15, 1913, a now schedule of rates providing for an average reduction of 16 per cent. Aug. 7. " Advancement of Peace " Treaty is signed with Salvador, the first under Secretary BryanN plau. In all, some 8U such Inatirs aiv signed by October 13, 1914, but none with Austria- Htmgary, Bulgaria, Germany, Japan, Mexico, or Turkey. Aug. IS. Governor William Stilzer is im- peached by the legislature of New York .State for alleged perjury, bribery, and false statement of campaign contributions. Aug. ie. Japan submits another note in pro- test against California antialien landownership law. The world's largest power dam, cros-sing tlie IVIississippi River from Keokuk, Iowa, to Hamil- ton, Illinois, is dedicated. .•liii;. 27. Wilson proclaims the strictest neutrality betw'een tiie United States and the contending factions in Mexico, and iu"ges Ameri- cans to quit tliat country. Sept. 10. Centennial of Pcrrj-'s victory on Lake Erie is celebrated at Put-in-Bay, Oliio. Oct. . 2. Unprecedented floods in southern Texas cause loss of life and more than .1t50,000,000 damage. Oct. 3. Underwood Tariff Act makes reduc- tions and extends free list of raw materials, food- stuffs, and some manufactures. Income tax e.xeiuption is fixed at $4,000 for married persons and S3. 000 for others. Net incomes over this amount will be taxed 1% per annum on such ex- cess, with an additional sliding scale of rates from 1% on 820,000 to 6% on S500,000. Free sugar is postponed and later repealed. Oct. 4. Roosevelt sails for South America, to lectiu-e in tlie larger cities and explore the interior. Oct. 10. Gamboa dil^e, separating Gatun Lake from CiUebra Cut, and the last barrier to inter- oceanic navigation through the Panama Canal, is blown up by Wilson's pressing an electric button at the White House. Oct. 1 7. New York Senate acting as Cotirt of Impeachment removes Wilham Sulzer as governor; he is not disqualified from again holdmg office. Oct. IS. Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst. leader of the English mUltant suffragettes, is ordered de- ported by a special board of inciuiry^ at Ellis Is- land; but on October 20, follow uig an aijpcal to Washington, she is granted permission to enter the United States to fill her lecture engagements. Oct. 22. Act is passed abolishing the Com- merce Court, but retaining the justices as addi- tional Circuit Court judges. Nov. 3. Supreme Coiu't, in Baltic Mining Co. V. Massachusetts, sustains the Massachusetts law taxing foreign corporations as an excise on the right to do local business within the State. Nov. 4. Tammany is defeated in New Y'ork City elections by the Fusion ticket, lieaded by ! Mitchel for mayor. A'or. y-10. Severe storm sweeps over the Mid- dle West and tlie Great Lakes, causing great loss of life and property. Nov. 10. United States corn crop for 1912 is the largest on record. [lature. I Nov. 22. Antislavery act by Philippine legis- 1 Dec. 1. In Straus v. American Publishers' .As- sociation OSlacy Case) the Supreme Court de- clares that a combination of publishers of copy- righted books for the purpose of refusing to sell to cut-rate retailers is contrary to the Antitrust Law. Dec. 10. Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to Elihu Root in consideration of his work for world peace as secretary of war and, later, as .secretary of state. Dec. 19. Hetcli Hetchy Act grants to San Francisco an extensive tract in Yosemite National Park for the creation of a new water supply. Dec. 23. Owen-Glass Federal Reserve Act creates a system of (12) districts, each with a re- serve bank, whicli national banks must join and otlier banks may ; and a new elastic system of cur- rency, with the gradual displacement of national l^ank notes. General conditions and activities of 1913: The movement for providing allowances for wid- owed mothers, in order that their children may be suitably cared for at home, receives wide indorse- ment, " widowed mothers' pension " laws being now enacted in thirteen States. Labor disputes are frequent and numerous strikes are recorded; other threatened strikes are averted by arbitration, notably in the case of rail- road employees. The I. WW. are associated with the more violent strikes of the year. 1914. Imports of merchandise, $1,893,92.5,657; ex- ports of merchandise, S2. 364, ,579. 148; immigrants, 1,218,480; alien emigrants, 303,338. [increased. I Jan. 1. Theweiglit limit of the parcel post is | 1914 (continued). Jan. 2. The firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. severs its directorial comiection with twenty-seven cor- porations, on accoimt of changed pubhc attitude toward " interlockitig directorates." Jan. 3. Direct wireless comnumication is es- tablished between United States and Germany. Jan. B. Ford Motor Company of Detroit an- nounces a profit-sharing plan, S10,000,000 to be distributed among the employees. Jan. 2'. Wilson, by e.Kccutive order, estab- lislies a permanent government in the Canal Zone ; Chief Engineer Goetbals is made civil governor. Feb. 3. Wilson lifts the embargo placed on the e-vportation of arms and nnmitions of war from the United States into Mexico. Feb. 24. Supreme Court, in United States v. Lexington Mill Co., holds that the Pure Food and Drug Act does not proliil^it tlie use of injurious substances, tmless in sucli quantities as may affect tlie health of the consumer. March 12. Act lor construction of a railroad in Alaska by the government. March IS. United States Express Company de- cides to retire from business after sixty years of ex- istence, mainly because of parcel-post competition. March SO. Wilson authorizes a statement de- nying that his support of the repeal of the Panama Canal Act discriminatory clau.se is the result of an agreement with England. , April 7. Treaty with Colombia is signed by wliich Colombia recognizes Panama; Colombia is to receive .*2.5,000,000 as indenmity, and is to en- joy free use of the Canal in perpetuity ; the United States " expresses regret " for its relation to the Panama Revolution. Up to 1920 it has not been ratified by the Senate. April 9. United States sailors are arrested at Tampico. President Huerta subsequently re- fuses a demand for a salute to the American flag. (See Mexico.) .•1 pril 20. In German Alliance Insurance Co. v. Lewis the Supreme Court upliolds the right of a State to regulate insurance rates, if reasonable. Industrial war in tlie mining districts of south- central Colorado wiiicli began on September 23, 1913, culmmates in a pitched battle betwsen armed strikers and State niiUtia. On April 28 there is further conflict in the southern Colorado coal fields. Wilson orders Federal troops to the strike district to replace the State militia and to disarm the strikers and mine guards. The con- troversy remains tmsettled till November 29, when the operators accept Wilson's plan of settlement. On December 8 the strike is formally called off by the United Mme Workers. April 21. Water is let into the Cape Cod Canal, wliich shortens the Boston-New Y'ork water route by 70 miles. American naval forces occupy Vera Cruz, Mexico, because of the Tampico incident. A pril 22. Congress authorizes the use of force against Me.xico. A pril 23. Wilson restores the embargo on war supplies into Mexico. April 25. Mediation proposal of the " ABC powers " — Argentina, Brazil, and Chile — to- ward the settlement of the Mexican chspute is ac- cepted. A virtual armistice goes into effect. Voimiteer Army Act authorizes enlistment of vol- tmteers for four years, or during need, in time of actual or threatened war. April 2S. Roo.sevelt emerges from Brazilian wilderness, having traversed and traced tlie course of a liitherto unknown river, subsequently named Rio Teodoro. April 30. United States army under Pimston assimies control at Vera Cruz, and the naval forces are withdrawn to their sliips. Mdij 9. Wilson issues proclamation asking that the second Simday in May, 1914, be observed as Mother's Day. See Mother's Day, in the Diet. May 11. In Gompers v. ITnitcd States, after various appeals and rehearings confirming the sentence, tlie Supreme Court avoids passing on the constitutionality of the pimishment of the labor leaders for contempt l^y deciding that the statute of limitation has become a bar to further proceed- ings, [barge traffic. | May IS. Panama Canal is opened for regular I June S. In International Harvester Co. v. Missouri and Same v. Kentucky tlie Supreme Court holds that State antitrust laws are not con- trary to the Foiu^eenth Amendment nor made so because they include venders of commodities and exclude venders of labor and service (imions) ; but the standard of what is to be considered an ujidue restraint of trade must be a knowable one. In Houston, East and West Texas Ry. Co. v. Ignited States the Supreme Court decides that a legal order by the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion on interstate rates releases the company from inconsistent State requirements on intrastate rates. June 14. Lassen Peak in California becomes ertiptive, only Uve volcano in continental U. S. 1914 (.cojitmued) . June IS. Tolls-exemption clause of Panama Canal Act is repealed, but the right to renew the exemption is reserved. June 22. In Pipe Line Cases the Supreme Court upholds the constitutionahty of the Hep- bum Act making pipe Imes common carriers which must carry products of competitors at rates sab- iect to regiilation by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Juue 25. Fire destroys a large part of the city of Salem, Mass., including several thousand homes and large industrial plants. July 1. National net debt, 81,027,257,010. Order prohibiting alcohohc hquors in the navy goes into effect. July 3. Secretary of Treasury armoimces yield from mcome tax to lie $28,306,336, of which $12,523,000 is from New York. July 11. Interstate Commerce Commission pronounces the financial transactions of the New Y'ork, New Haven, &. Hartford R.R. a glaring in- stance of maladministration. Criminal and civil prosecutions are begim by the government, July 23. July IS. Congress creates the aviation section of tile Signal Corps of the army. July 31. Stock exchanges close because of tiireatening war conditions abroad. WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 1914. Aug. 4. President issues neutrality proc- lamation on outbreak of war in Europe (see World-War Period). Aug. 5. He offers ills good offices to the war- ring nations in an effort, to promote peace. Treaty with Nicaragua is signed. $3,000,000 is paid for the control of her canal route, two strate- gic islands (Little Com and Great Cora), and a naval station site. Congress appropriates $2,500,000 for reUef of Americans in Europe. Aug. S. U.S.S. Tennessee leaves .New York ■with SSSOO.OOO m gold tor the use of Americans stranded in Europe. Aug. 12. International Harvester Company is pronoimced by the Circuit Court of Appeals a monopoly in restraint of trade; its dissolution is ordered. Aug. 15. Panama Canal Is formally opened to commerce by the passage of the steamsliip .471- c6n from Atlantic to Pacific m ten lioiu-s. Aug. 18. Emergency Ship Act admits foreign- built sliips to American registry. Cotton Futures Act lays a tax on all dealings for futtu-e dehvery not according to the regulations laid down in the act. (Park in Montana. | Aug. 22. Congress erects the Glacier National I Sept. 2. Treaty is signed with Panama modi- fjing the Zone boimdary and treating of the con- trol of the harbors, certain Islands, and a battery site. Bureau of War Bisk Instirance is authorized as part of the Treasury Department. Sept. 14. United States Red Cross steamship Red Cross sails for Europe. Sept. 26. Federal Trade Commission Act provides for a commission which takes over the work ol the Bm-eau of Corporations, and super- vises competition in interstate and foreign com- merce not connected with carriers or banks. Oct. 14. Clayton Antitrust Act prohibits dis- criminating prices and trade agreements, interlock- ing directorates of banks and large competing corporations, and the holding by one corpora- tion of the stock of another where the effect is " to substantially lessen competition." It limits injunctions and contempt proceedings in labor disputes, and exempts labor and agricultural organizations from antitrust Jaws. Oct. IB. Panama Canal is temporarily closed because of earth slide in Culebra Cut. It is closed for a second time on October 31. Oct. 17. United States District Court signs de- cree dissolving the New York, New Haven, and Hartford R.R. system, compelling the giving up of its holdings in the Boston and Maine, Boston and Albany, and in variotis trolley and steamship lines. [Alaska. I Oct. 20. Act is sign»d for leasing coal lands in I Oct. 22. War Tax Act to meet tlie deficits caused by the decrease Under Underwood Act of tariff proceeds by an increase in internal revenue. November. Rockefeller Foxmdation donates $1,000,000 for Belgian relief, and undertakes to defray the cost of handling and transporting all relief "supplies. November 3, the flr.st relief ship sails for Rotterdam. By January, 1 915, no fewer than 35 ships are engaged in carrying supplies from America to the Belgians. (See Belgium.) Nov. 2. Federal quarantine is proclaimed to prevent the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among cattle in many States. A'oi'. s. Amendmentsfor State woman suffrage are adopted in Nevada and Montana, and rejected in Missouri, Nebraska. Ohio, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Constitutional amendments pro- 186 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1914—1915. 1914 {continued). ^ liibiting trafBc in liquor are rejected in California and Ohio, but adopted in Washington, Oregon, Arizona, and Colorado. Republican goveraors are elected in 14 States and Democrats in 15, a gain 61 3 for the Republicans. Nov. 6. Chicago stockj'ards are closed, for the first time, to permit thorough disinfection on ac- count of the spread of foot-and-mouth disease. ONov. 14. V. S. collier Jason (" Ciiristilias Ship ") sails from New York for Europe with S;i.aO0,000 worth of presents for the children of the belligerents. Nov. 16. Federal Reserve Bank system goes into effect. The coimtrj- is divided into twelve districts, witii their respective Federal reserve cities as follows : Boston ; Is ew York ; Philadelphia ; Cleveland; Kichmond: Atlanta; Cliicago; St. P Louis; Minneapolis; Kansas City; Dallas; San Francisco. Laimch from U.S.S. Tennessee is fired on from Turkish ports at Smyrna. Turkey explains, No- vember 21. Cotton Exchanges at New York and New Orleans resume trading after fifteen weeks' suspension. Nov. 23. Troops are withdrawn from Vera Cruz. QDec. 12. New York Stock Exchange reopens for trading after having been ciose-d since July 31. Dec. 17. Harrison Act regulates the sale of opium and coca leaves and their derivatives. Dec. 18. A flat increase of five per cent in east^ em freight rates, with certain exceptions, is granted by Interstate Commerce Conunission to all railroads operating between the Mississippi and — ^ Atlantic seaboard, north of the Potomac and Oliio R rivers. Additional revenue approximating S30.- 000.000 is exi>ected. Dec. 26. United States government sends note to Great Britain protesting against imwarranta- ble interference with American commerce due to seizures and detention of American cargoes destined to neutral European ports. Generai conditions and activities of 1914: O The World War brings out the interdependence of international trade. Immediate effects are seen in the closing of the New York Stock Exchange, the vast sliJpments to Eiu-ope, the shutting down of the New England cotton mills, the ces- sation or curtailment of exports and imports, the hampering of various industries through lack of raw material. The confusion gives place to ■_ more promising conditions toward the end of I Deceml>er. The direct benefits to United States trade are seen in the increased foreign demand resulting from the war. The completion of the Panama Canal opens the gateway to the Pacific. 1915. Imports of merchandise. SI, 674, 169, 740; ex- ports of merchandise, S2. 70S, 589. 340; immigrants, 326,700; alien emigrants, 204.074. Jan. 1. Panama-California Exposition opens M at San Diego. Jan. 5. In the Danbury Hatters' Case the Supreme Court affirms the $252,000 judgment awarded against the miion. Jan. 8. Wilson makes an address at Indian- apolis in defense of his administration and his Mexican policy of ** watchful waiting.*' Jan. 10. Great Britain's preliminary reply to Vthe United States note concedes the principle of the American government's contentions, and promises not to interfere in bona fide trade be- tween neutral countries, but only " with trade m contraband destined for the enemy's country." Jan. 13. House rejects by 204 to 174, pro- posed constitutional amendment establishing woman suffrage. Jaji. 16. Wheat at Chicago reaches $1.45 a ^^ bushel, the highest price since 1898. Jan. 21. Repl>ing to a German note. United States recognizes the nonpolitical status of con- suls in Belgian tenitorj' occupied by Germany. Jan. 22. State-wide prohibition is adopted in Alabama, to take effect July 1. 1916. It is to go into effect in Arkansas February 5; Idaho, March 1; Iowa, March 6; South Carolina,- September 14, Xlt is already in force in Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Tennessee, Virginia. Washington, and West Virginia. Jan. 25. Wilson inaugurates the first trans- continental telephone system. Supreme Court in Coppage i . Kansas declares im- constltutional a State statute which prohibits an employer from requiring that an employee should Y '^^^ ^^ ^ member of a labor imion as repugnant to the Fourteenth Amendment. Jan. 26. Congress establishes the Bocky Mountain National Park in Colorado. Jan. 2S. American ship William P. Frye, boimd for QueenstowTi, is sunk by a German cruiser in the South Atlantic on the groimd that her cargo of wheat is contraband. Germany admits liability, y but no agreement is reached. ^ Jan. 30. Death penalty is repealed in South Dakota. It is abolished in Oregon February 3; in North Dakota, March 5; in Alaska, April 21. 1915 (continued), Feb. 2. Unsuccessful attempt to blow up with dynamite the railroad bridge over the St. Croix River between Vanceboro, Me., and New Bnms- wick is made by a German named Horn, claiming to act imder German authority. Great Britain announces that foodstuffs sent to Germany will be considered conditional contra- band. Feb. 6. Extensive passport frauds are brought to light, a conspiracy for obtaining fraudulently passports for German reservists and volimteers. Eight are found guilty in March and later. Feb. 7. Wireless communication between mov- ing trains is successfully established. Feb. S. A compromise Ship Pm-chase BQl pro- viding for govenunent ownership and operation of merchant ships. The administration bill is killed in the Senate by Republican filibuster. Feb. 10. Note is sent to Germany warning her that " strict accoimtability " will be demanded of her by this government in regard to the " war zone " decree to go into effect Februarj- 18. Great Britain makes a second and more complet-e reply to jjrotest of Dec. 26; desire to be as lenient as possible with neutral shipping is asserted. Alabama legislature passes a biU prohibiting the advertising of liquor and forbidding the publica- tion or circulation within the State of newspapers carrjing hquor advertisements. Feb. 11. Great Britain seizes as contraband cargo of American sliip Wilhelmina, boimd for a German port with wheat, intending to make a test case, but later orders in council anticipate decision. April 8, British government agrees to piirchase cargo and compensate owners for detention of ship and otlier loss. Feb. 13. Interstate Commerce Commission, interpreting the Panama Canal Act, denies to the Southern Pacific Railroad Co. permission to re- tain possession of the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., so long as the latter has sen ice through the Pan- ama Canal. May 15, commission fiu*ther decides that railways cannot own steamship lines on the Great Lakes. Feb. 16. Note is received from Germany, deny- ing responsibility in regard to " war zone," but offering to recede from decree If United States will induce Great Britain to permit foodstuffs to enter Germany. Feb. 20-Dec. 4. Panama Pacific Interna- tional Exposition is held at San Francisco; par- ticipated in by over 40 foreign nations; the official national and international celebration of the open- ing of the Panama Canal. Government suggests to Germany and Great Britain modified form of putting into practice " war zone " decree. Feb. 21-22. Conflicts between outlaw Piutes and United States marshals near Bluff, Utah, re- sult in the death of five Indians and two white men. Indians escape into the desert. The diffi- culty ends March 20. Feb. 28. American steamship Dacia is seized at sea and condemned in a French prize coiut- on the groimd that transfer of owncrsliip from Ger- man to American citizens during hostilities is con- trary to international law. Cargo is subsequently brought to France. March. During the first six montlis of opera- tion the Panama Canal has handled 496 vessels aggregating 2,-367,244 tons and pajing tolls of S2, 138,442. Cost of maintenance slightly ex- ceeds the income. March 1. Officials of the Hamburg- Amt^ri can Line are indicted for conspiring to obtain false clearance papers for supply ships engaged in coal- ing and provisioning German warsliips. On De- cember 2 Buenz and three other oflQcials are sen- tenced to imprisonment. March 2. In reply to note of February 20, Germany asks modification of Great Britain's sea policy as contained in orders in coimcil. March 3. Naval Appropriation Act provides for 2 battlesliips, 6 destroyers. IS submarines, an oil-fuel ship, and for the development of airplane service. March 4- Congress passes a resolution de- signed to strengthen the powers of the president in the enforcement of neutrality laws and especially to prevent American territor>' from being used as a base for supplying belligerent ships of war. La Follette Seamen's Act, a measiu'e designed to improve the condition of American seamen in the merchant marine of the United States; arrest and imprisonment for desertion is abolished, and provi- sion is made against Asiatic crews. Sixty-third Congress ends after two years of al- most continuotis session. March 5. Identic note is sent to Great Brit- ain and France protesting against their de- clared intention, on March 1, to detain all ships carrying goods of " presumed enemy destination, ownership, or origin," paying for ships or goods not otherwise liable to condemnation. French decree of March 13 and British order in council of 1915 (continued). March 15 l^eing issued according to intention, fiuther protest is made on March 30, because there is no blockade, though trade between neu- tral ports is included: March 7. Rockefeller Foundation annoimces that it will undertake to improve medical and hospital conditions in China. March 8. Supreme Court, in Northern Pacific Ry. Co. V. North Dakota and Norfolk and West- em Ry. Co. r. West Virginia, holds that State reg- ulation of intrastate rates must be reasonable, else they violate Fourteenth Amendment. March 10. German converted cruiser Prim Eitel FriedHch enters Hampton Roads after a com- merce-destro>ing voyage. She is interned. March 28. An Axnerican citizen loses his life when the Falaba is torpedoed by a German sub- marine. April 3. American Red Cross sanitarj' com- mission to fight tjTJhus in Serbia sails from New York. Proves successful. April 10. Wilson annoimces that the Federal railroad to be built in Alaska will extend from Seward on Resiurection Bay tlu"ough Susitna valley and Broad Pass to Tanana River. April 11. Von Bemstorff, German Ambassa- dor, makes public a memorandum, charging the United States with violating the true spirit of neutrality by permitting war munitions to be shipi)ed to the Allies. German converted cruiser Kronprim Wilhelm seeks refuge in Newport News. She is interned. April 21. The government regrets that von Bemstorff seems to impugn the good faith of the United States; the exportation of arms to belliger- ents cannot be prohibited. April 28. German airmen drop two bombs on the American steamer Cushing, whose flag and name are plainly \isible. No damage is done, and on July 15 Germany offers indemnity. April 30. Unrelaycd wireless conunimication is established between Arlington, Va., and the Canal Zone, a distance of 2000 miles. May 1 . Gulflight, a United States freight steamer, is sunk by a German submarine. Three Americans lose their fives. May 7, IVIany Americans (114 men, women, and children) lose their lives when the Cimarder LusilauiaboimdforLivcrpoolis torpedoed with- out warningby a German submarine off the south coast of Ireland. The total loss of life is 1198. May 10. In a speech at Pliiladelphia Wilson says: " There is such a thing as a man being too proud to ligbt. Tliere is such a tiling as a na- tion being so right that it does not need to con- vince others by force that it is right." May IS. First note sent to Germany in re- gard to sinking of Lusiiania and other sul> marine outrages. Use of submarine against n'.er- chant marine impossible without violation of sa- cred principles of justice and humanity, freedom of the seas and rights of Americans to travel thereon (tliis point of view afterward abandoned). May IS. Govermnent warns Cliina and Japan that the United States will not recognize any agreement which impairs the American rights in China or endangers the "open-door" policy. National Polish Relief Association is being organ- ized in the United States. May IS. United States fleet, on exhibition in the Hudson River, passes out to sea in review. May 20. England invites American surgeons to man her newest and largest field hospital. Medical schools of Harvard, Colimibia, and Jolms Hopkins respond. May 23. A jury at Syracuse, N. Y.. returns a verdict for Roosevelt in the libel suit brought by William Barnes. Jr., the Repubhcan leader. May 23. Important delegates from Central and South American repubhcs meet in a Pan-American financial conference at Washington to discuss means for promoting closer biismcss relations. May 24. W'iLson is.sues a proclamation of neu- trality covering the entrj' of Italy into the war. American freight steamer Nebraska is seriously damaged by a t-orpedo fired by a German sub- marine. July 15, Germany sends note of apology and offers to pay damages. May 28. Germany replies to Lusitania note, holding actions of British government sufficient cause. June 3. United States Steel Corporation is held to be a lawful combination by the Circuit Coiut of Appeals. fpedoing of the CuJflighiA June 4- Germany expresses regret for the tor-| Jvne 8. Bryan resigns the office of secretary of state, being out of agreement with Wilson's demand on Germany to alter her submarine war- fare. Lansing his successor. June 9. Second Lusitania note to Germany, denying the German statement of facts and con- tending for " nothing less high and sacred than the rights of humanity." June 14. Supreme Court decides that West Virginia must assume a share of the public debt 1915-1916. NATI0>;AL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 187 1915 {conti7iued) . ol Virginia, from which it separated in 1863. Amount involved is $12,393,929.50, two thirds being accrued interest. June St. In Guinn and Beal v. United States the Supreme Court declares unconstitutional the "grandfather clause" In the Oklahoma consti- tution, which disfranchises a large percentage of Negroes. [staff of the navy. I June 2J,. Secretary Daniels creates a general! June SS. About twenty Americans lose their lives when a German submarine destroys the ATmenian, a British steamer. June S9. Austria-Hungary makes formal pro- test against the sale of munitions to the Allies. Lansing repUes on August 12, affirming the right. June SO. Income tax collections for the fiscal year ending Jime 30, 1915, 580,190.693, of which $39,144,531 is m corporation and $41,046,162 in individual tax. Emergency revenue ta.x of Octoljer 22. 1914, real- . izes $52,069,126 to date. Taxes on wine and spirits amoimt to $144,619,699, a decrease of $14,478,478. Automobile exports for the fiscal year amount to $74,476,422, an increase of more than 100% over the previous year. Production of petroleum greatest on record, aggregate being 290,312,535 barrels. California first, with Oklahoma second. Explosives exported during the fiscal year amount to $41,476,188, as compared with $6,272,197. Under the new law admitting foreign-built vessels to American register, 149 ships of 527,071 tons are transferred to the American rtag. Cost of living is higher than ever before in the history of the coimtry; in September, 1914. seven per cent higher than the average price for 1913. July 1. National net debt, $1,090,148,006. July 2. Senate reception room in the Capitol at Washington is WTecked by a bomb placed there by Erich Muenter. On the following day J. Pierpont Morgan is shot, but not fatally, by the same man. iMuenter kills himself in jail, July 6. July 5-25. E.xposition in commemoration of the achievements of the Negro race durmg the last 50 years is held at Richmond. July 8. United States government assumes control of the German-owned ^Tireless plant at Sayville, L. I., in order to preserve its neutrality. July 10. Germany replies regarding the Lusi- tania, upholding the submarine warfare without notice as proper retaliation for illegal warfare of enemies. July 14. Formal notice is given to Great Britain that the United States holds that the rights of Americans who have cases before British courts rest upon international law and not upon British orders in council. July 16. Panama Canal is used for the first time by United States battleships. July SI. Third Lusitania note, declaring that a repetition of such acts will be considered as '* distinctly unfriendly." July £4. Great Britain replies to the United States with a legal argument to show that Great Britain is adhering to international law, as modi- fied by modem conditions. July 25. American steamship Leelanaw is simk by a German submarine after warning; the crew is towed to safety. Ju'y 27. First direct wireless commimication between United States and Japan. July 29. American Red Cross during the first year of its war activities in Etn-ope has spent SI. 460,306. July 31. Two Americans are killed when the British steamship Iberian is stmk by a German submarine. Aug. o-e. Representatives from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Boliyia. Uruguay, and Guatemala meet the American secretary of state to discuss means of ending chaotic condition of Mciico. Au(}. 11. Interstate Commerce Commission permits increases in carload freight rates on 4 1 railroads in the Middle West; next day it orders reductions in the freight rates on antliracite coal, Aug. IS. Pacific Mail Steamship Company sells five of its transpacific steamships, claiming that the provision against Asiatic crews in the La Follette Act makes it imable to compete with Japanese lines. Aug. 15. New York World begins series of ar- ticles, backed by documents, charging German officials with a \igorous propaganda In United States, directed not only against the Allies, but against the government. Aug. 18. Armed Meiirans cross the Rio Grande into Texas and attack a United States outpost, killing a corporal. Aug. 19. Two Americans lose their live^ when the British liner Arabic is torpedoed by a German submarine. Aug. 24. Eastman Kodak Company is de- clared to be an illegal combination in restraint of trade and is ordered dissolved by the District Coiu't at Buffalo. 1915 (continued) . Sept. 1. German declaration by the informal note of von Bemstorff that hereafter liners will not besimk by Gei-man submarines without a warning, but resistance or attempt to escape wiU provoke inunediate destruction. Sept. 2. IMarauding bands of Mexicans con- tinue to harass communities in Texas and Arizona near the border. Sept. 4. One American is lost as a result of the torpedoing without wammg of the British liner Hesperian. [,4ra6ic case. I Sept. 7. Germany suggests arljitration inl Sept. 9. RecaU of Austro-Hungarian Ambas- sador Dumba demanded, because of his effort to cripple American industries and his employment of an American citizen to carry official dispatches. Dumba leaves on October 5. Sept. 16. Treaty signed with Haiti, virtually establishing a protectorate. Senate ratifies, Feb- ruary 2S, 1916. Seizm-e of American meat products on various American steamers justified by a British prize court, because, though consigned to a Danish port, they are intended for ultimate consumption by German forces. Austro-Hungarians hving in Pennsylvania are warned by their consid not to engage in the manu- facture of munitions of war for the AlUes under penalty of imprisonment or death in the event of their return to Austria-Hungary. Sept. IS. Panama Canal is closed indefinitely on account of slides in Gaillard (Culebru) Cut. Germany sends a new note in regard to Frye ca.=e. declaring that hereafter American sliips carrying only conditional contraband will not be destroyed. Sept. SO. Lord Bryce, formerBritish Ambassa- dor to the United States, urges America to try to stop the fiu-ther slaughter of Armenians. The Committee on Armenian atrocities discloses a propaganda of extermination of non-Moslems. Sept. 29. Wireless telephone raesssages from ArUngton, Va., are received at Honolulu and later (October 12) at the Eiffel Tower, Paris. Veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic, 20,000 strong, march through Peimsyhania Avenue. Washington, in commemoration of th^ grand review after the Civil War. Oct. 1 . Largest self-supporting steel arch in the world (span 1,016 ft. 10 in.), in railroad bridge spanning Hell Gate, New York City, is completed. Oct. 5. German government disavows Arabic sinking. Oct. 6. The following are selected for the Hall of Fame: Francis Parkman, Mark Hopkins, Elias Howe, Joseph Henry, Charlotte Cushman, Rufus Choate, Daniel Boone, Alexander Hamil- ton. Louis Agassiz. Oct. 9. Lansmg reports the tmanimous decision of the Pan-American coimtries to recognize Car- ranza as de facto president in Meilco. Car- ranza is formally acknowledged, October 19. Oct. IS. Directors of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford R R. Co. are on trial in the District Court at New York charged with violat- ing the Sherman Antitrust Law. Oct. 15. Anglo-French $500,000,000 external loan for five years at 5 per cent is conchided. Oct. 19. Woman suffrage is defeated in New Jersey, and. November 2. in Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts. Oct. 20. Embargo on arms to Mexico is de- clared by the president except to the part of the cotmtry tmder Carranza's control. Oct. 21. Note to Great Britain protests the conduct of the blockade and the seizure of Ameri- can ships, and affirms that the United States can- not submit to any curtailment of its neutral rights. A'ou. 1. Supreme Court declares in Truax t. Raich that the Arizona antialien law. which pro- vides that 80% of the employees of any concern must be of American nationality, is unconstitu- tional. Nov. 2. Elections areheld in 8 States. Demo- cratic governors are chosen in Kentucky, Mary- land, Mississippi; Republican, in Massachusetts. Revised constitution for New York State is re- jected by a majority of 470.000 (about 2 to 1). Nov. 9. Nine Americans are killed when the Italian liner Anc'.>na is sunk in the Mediterranean by an Austrian sulimartne. Nov. 11. Teutonic activities in United States are exposed by Joseph Goricar, former Austrian consul-general, who states that the consulates are centers of propaganda against munition factories. Nov. 1 7. First strike in V. S. postal service ties up the mail of Fairmont, W. Va. Nov. 21. Bureau of Mines annoimces a new process of extracting radium which will reduce the cost by more than two thirds. Nov. 24. U.S.S. San Diego is sent to the west coast of ISIexico to protect American interests, in consequence of repeated Indian outrages. Nov. 29. Supreme Court in Heim r. McCall sustains the validity of the New York law against the employment of aliens on pubUc works. 1915 (continued), Dec. 1. Total tonnage of American vessels is 8.444,256; niunber of ships, 26.888. Largest gross tonnage in the country's history. Alto- gether, 171 foreign vessels take American registry imder Shippmg Act of August, 1914, while 98 Amer- ican vessels are transferred to foreign registry. Recall of German attaches Boy-Ed and von Papen is requested by Wilson on accoimt of " im- proper activities in militarj- and naval matters." They are recalled on December 10. Dec. 4. Henry Ford's peace expedition sails for Europe, hoping that a peace conference may be held among neutrals abroad which shall be in- strumental in stopping the war. The expedition proves abortive. [Himgary on the A neonacase. 1 Dec. 6. GovemmentsendsfirmnotetoAustria-t Sixty-fourth Congress convenes: Senate, 56 Democrats and 40 Republicans; House, 228 Democrats, 199 Republicans, 4 Progressives, 1 Independent, 1 Socialist, 1 Prohibitionist. Dec. 7. The main points of Wilson's message to Congress are; Pan- Americanism ; a reaffirma- tion of the Monroe Doctrme; national defense; a govemment-owTied merchant marine; and the pimishment of disloyal naturalized citizens. Dec. 1 7. Tlu-ee German agents are arrested for attempting to blow up the Welland Canal, through which pass grain ships laden for Europe. Dec. IS. President Wilson marries Mrs. Edith BoUmg Gait in Washington. Corn crop for 1915 is ofllcially estimated at 3,054,535,000 bushels, 70,000.000 bushels below the record of 1912; its value ($1,755,859,000) con- stitutes a record. The wheat crop, 1,011,505.000 bushels, is the largest in the history of the coimtry. Oats crop, 1,540,362,000 bushels, is a record both in quantity and value. Dec. 27. Second Pan-American Scientific Con- gress (fh-st was held in Santiago in 1908) opens at Washington. A concrete de\elopment is the for- mation of the American Institute of International Law, composed of 105 leading pubUcists from 21 coimtries. Dec. 2S. Eight alleged German agents, includ- ing a congressman, a former congressman, and a former attorney-general of Ohio, are indicted at New York by a federal grand jury for conspiring to foment strikes in American munition factories. Dec. 29. E. M. House of Texas, not in official United States service, sails for Europe as Presi- dent Wilson's personal investigator and messenger. Dec. SO. British steamship Persia is torpe- doed in the Mediterranean by an Austrian sub- marine. Some 336 lives are lo.st, including that of Robert, N. McNeely, Ameiican consul at Aden. General conditions and activities of 1915: All records in foreign trade are broken. L'nited States becomes an arsenal and the chief storehouse of the Allies. Mimitions ot war, foodstuffs, mili- tary equipment and apparel, copjier and brass, horses and mules, automobiles, and flying machines are exported in large quantities. AU previous ton- nage of steel and iron is eclipsed. Cotton manu- factiirers recover from the depression of a jear before. Imports from Europe show a marked de- crease. Exports to South American and Asiatic markets are greater. A huge harvest yields good prices. Explosions and fires in munition plants are numerous, and aUeged to be the work of alien propagandists. Bank clearings establish a phe- nomenal record. Widowed Mothers' Pension bills, enabling mothers to provide for dependent cliildren in their own homes, are passed in 15 States, making in all 28 States ha\ing such laws. Workmen's compensa- tion laws are introduced in many States. 1916. Imports of merchandise, $2,197,883,510; exports of merchandise, $4,333,483,885; immi- grants, 298,826; alien emigrants, 129,765. Jan. 1. Minimum-wage law in Massachusetts for girls employed in retail stores goes into effect. Those who have been employed one year and are over 18 shall receive at least $8.50 a week. Jan. 4. United States protests to Great Brit- ain against mail seizures; also denies " the right of British authorities to seize neutral vessels plying directly between American and neutral European ports without touching at British ports." Jan. 11. Five explosions in two days occur in one of the Du Pont powder plants near Wilming- ton, Delaware. Jan. IS. Retrial of five former officials of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford R.R, Co. un- der indictment for conspiracy to violate Sherman Antitrust Law, is ordered by attorney-general. Cases against six other defendants are dismissed. Jan. 17. In the Federal court at New York four German-Americans plead guilty to conspir- acy to smuggle crude rubber to Germany. Jan. IS. Secretary' of State Lansing, in a note addressed to the Entente powers, informally suggests that, if submarines adhere to recognized rules of search and seizure, merchant vessels be not armed, adding that the U. S. may class armed merchantmen as auxiliary cruisers. 188 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1916. 1916 (.coiilimied). Jan. J4. Income tax is declared constitutional by tile .Supreme Court in a unanimous decision in Brusliaber v. Union PaciHc R. R. Co., giving the broadest interpretation to Sixteenth Amendment. Feb. 1. British steamer Appam is brouglit into Hampton Koads. Va., by a German prize crew. Government wins fight against National Cash Register Co., under civil section of the Sherman Antitrust Law. The criminal case is dismissed. Feb. 10. Garrison resigns as secretary of war, because the president will not stand by the na- tional army plan instead of mihtia. Feb. 17. Reviewing the Mexican situation, Lansing enumerates the violent deatlis of 112 Americans in the years of the Wilson administra- tion ; 76 of these occurred in Mexican territoi-y and 36 on the American .side of the border. Feb. IS. U. S. formally protests to Turkey against the contiiuiation of Armenian atrocities. Treaty with Nicaragua concerning Corn Islands ratified by Senate. (See Aug. 5, 1914.) March S. Agreement is reached between the bituminous operators and 200,000 workers. In the Pittsburgh district 50,000 men repudiate the agreement and go on strike toward the end of May. March u. ISlexlcan brigands under Villa attack the town of Columbus, N. M., and the camp of the Thirteenth United States Cavalry, killing mne civilians and eight troopers; the raiders are pur- sued into Mexico and more than 100 are killed. March 13. United States agrees to aUow Car- ranza's forces to enter American territory' when necessary, in pursuit of bandits, ni retimi for the imopposed entrance of American troops into IVIexico in pui"suit of ViUa. March 13. Military expedition topunish ViUa enters Mexico, imder Pereliing. (See Mexico.) March 17. Joint resolution authorizing the president to recitiit the army to the maximum strength in case of emergency. March 22. U.S.S. Kenluchy is ordered to Tam- pico to protect American oil interests. March 23. British Ambassador's reply to Lan- sing's note of Jan. 18 declines proposal. March 34. German submarine torpedoes the tmarmed French Channel steamer Sussex, Amer- icans being among those killed. March SO. Representatives of the 400,000 em- ployees of 452 railroads of the United States pre- sent demands for an eight-hour day and time and a half for overtime. April S. Keply of France and England to United States protests against mail seizures Is presented, upholding the general right, but of- fering some improvement. A pril 1 1 . Contract for a loan of S20,000,000 to China for industrial development is signed by Boston liankcrs. April 13. Carranza protests against the " im- permitted " invasion of Mexico by American troops, and asks that the further pursuit of Vilia be left wlioUy to Carranzixl'is. April 15. AVUson notifies Carranza that the United States i^ wUhng to limit tlie punitive opera- tions, and to withdraw, " withm a reasonable time," if ViUa is not captm^d. Panama Canal is reopened after being closed for seven months l>y landslides. April IS. United States sends another note to Germany regarding submarine warfare, with special reference to the Sussex, declaring that imless present methods are abandoned diplomatic relations will l:)e severed. Carranza repeats his wish that the pimitive force now in Mexico be withdrawn. April 24. British reply to the United States protest of October 21 upholds the legality of the system of trade restrictions. May 1 . General strikes in New York City bring to 1,000.000 the total of workers voltmtarily out of work or locked out. A wage increase and an eight-hour day are granted to 176,000 miners in the anthracite coal field, and the price of coal is raised. Mail .',. Germany replies to the American note of April IS saying that naval commanders have been ordered not to sinit merchant ships without warning and without saving life, unless the sliip attempts to escape or olYers resistance; in return Germany expects the United States to op- pose British blockade methods. May 8, United States replies, accepting the ass\irance, but deny- mg the right to impose conditions. Maij a. Bandit followers of Villa make a second raid across tlie border, killing three American soldiers and two civilians. May 9. Wilson calls out 4,000 militia of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona and orders that 4,500 additional regulars be sent to the border. May 13. Elephant Butte Dam, across the Rio Grande 120 miles north of El Paso, is completed, forming the greatest storage resen-oir in the world. More than 1:^0.000 persons take part in a citizen's preparedness parade in New York City. Similar Xxtrades are held elsewhere dimng the summer. miG [eon'.inued). May 24. .Second protest of United States in regard to mail seizures by the Allies. May 26. RockefeUer Foundation appropriates 51,000,000 for the rehef of war sufferers in Poland, Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania. May 30. Wilson issues a proclamation caUing upon the people to celebrate Flag Day, Jime 14, with patriotic exercises. June 1 . Nomination of Louis D. Brandeis as an associate justice of United States Supreme Coiu^ confirmed by the Senate, endmg a bitter contest. June 3. Army Reorganization Act provides for a regular army on a peace footing of about 1 1 ,0(X) officers and 175,000 men, the term of enUst- ment being seven years, three with the colors and four in reserve. A reserve officers' training cori>s is provided. National Guard is federalized and its strength increased to about 17,000 officers and 440,000 men; annual training period is in- creased and term of enlistment is made six years, half in the reserve. Military training camps for students are first held in tlie summer of 1913, but the movement becomes prominent with the cstal> lishment by the War Department of camps for students and business men at Plattsburg in 1915. June 10. Republican National Convention at Cliicago nominates C. E. Hughes and C. W. Fair- banks. Under a new plan of apportionment the Southern delegation is materially reduced. Progressive National Convention, also at Chicago, failing to reach an agreement with the Republi- cans, noniinates Roosevelt and John Parker. June IS. Democratic National Convention at St. Louis renominates Wilson and Marshall- Mexican raiders cross the border at San Ygnacio, Texas, and attack American cavalry troops. June IS. United States warships are ordered to Mexican waters. Wilson orders the National Guard to mobilize for service on the Mexican border. Order is carried out with much difficulty and inefficiency. June 20. Reply to Carranza flatly rejects de- mand to withdraw the American troops. June 21. United States protests to Austria- Hungary against the submarhie attack on the American steamer Petroliic. June 22. Lansing sends an identic note to the South and Central American republics, stating that the United States has had for its object the defense of American territorj' and not interven- tion in Mexican alTairs. June 25. United States demands the release of prisoners taken by Mexican troops at Carrizal. War Department orders militia organizations to be dispatched at once to tlie border withoiU further concentration or training in mobilization camps. June 26. Roosevelt declines the Progressive nommation, and the National Progressive Com- mittee adopts his recommendation to indorse Charles E. Hughes. June SO. Income tax collections for the fiscal year reach the record figure of $124,916,314, of which S56,972,720 is in corporation and $67,943,- 594 in individual tax. Automobile exports for the year reach the record figure of 8125,636,787. July 1. National net debt, $1,006,281,672. Joint resolution authorizing the president to draft the National Guard into the Federal service; in- tended for Mexico. July 9. German commercial submarine Dra(sr/i- Innd arrives at Baltimore from Bremen with a cargo of chemicals and dyestiUTs. July 11. Mexican government proposes a joint commission to discuss matters of difference be- tween the two governments. Wilson accepts, Jidy 28. Good Roads Act anthorizes the expenditure of $85,000,000 in five years by the Federal govern- ment, on condition that the States expend amoimts equal to those apportioned to them. July 17. Rural Credits Act provides for the establishment of a system of Federal loan banks to facihtate the capitahzing of farms by long-time mortgage loans. July IS. British government places ?2 Ameri- can firms and individuals on a blacklist with which residents of the United Kingdom are for- bidden to trade. United States protests, July 26, to Great Britain against the blacklisting. August. Epidemic of infantile paralysis, which broke out in Jime, reaches alarming proportions In New York City and elsewhere. Aug. 1. German merchant submarine Deutsch- land departs from Baltimore on her return voyage to Bremen with a cargo of crude nickel and rubber. Arrives safely, August 23. Aug. S. Some Progressive leaders meet at Inchanapolis and decide not to nominate a candi- date in place of Roosevelt, but to place State tick- ets in the field wherever i)ossible. Aug. 4. Treaty with Denmark is signed, pro- \1ding for the purchase of the Danish West Indies for $25,000,000: ratified by the Senate, September 7, and in Denmark, by a plebiscite on December 14 and by the government on Decem- 1916 {continued). Ijer 22. The islands pm-chased, now officially known as the Virgin Islands of the United Stales, will be used as a naval base and coaling stations for the United States fleet. Aug. 11. Agricidtural Appropriations Act in- cludes a new Cotton Futiu-es Act; a Waifhouse Act to establish a form of receipt which shall lie ne- gotiable; and a Grain Standards Act to facihtate imiform grades in handling grain. Aug. 27. Order sent out for a great nation- wide railroad strike by the four great raihoad brotherhoods to force an eighl^hour day. They refuse to arbitrate. WUson urges favorable legis- lation on Congress, August 29. Aug. 29. Philippines Government Act grants larger measure of self-government to Fili- pinos; independence is promised when the Fili- pinos shaU prove their ability to maintain a stable government; the Clarke Amendment, promising indeijendence in 2 or 4 years, is dropped. Naval Appropriation Act establishes a three- year building program of 10 battleships, 6 battle cruisers, 10 scout cruiscre, 50 destrojers, 18 sub- marines, 3 fuel ships, 1 hospital sliip, 2 amnumition ships, and 7 other vessels, an armor-plate plant, a projectile factorj-, and provision for the Naval Flying Corps. Army Appropriation Act provides for a Coimcil of National Defense, and revises the Articles of War. Sept.l. Child Labor Act excludes from inter- state commerce the products of factories in which childr<'n under speciflcd^ages are emplojed, or in which older children are employed beyond a speci- fied number of hours. New York bankers offer to the public a $250,000,- 000 two-year five per cent loan to Great Britain, secured by bonds and stocks. Sept. 3. Adamson Act establishes a basic eight-hour day for railroad operators, with pro rata pajTuent for overtime. Strike is called off on Sep- tember 4. President Wilson takes responsibility- for the statute. [holds its first m.eeting. I Sept. 4. Mexican- American joint commission I Sept. 7. Shipping Act creates a government- controlled $50,000,000 corporation to build, buy, or lease merchant sliips. Workmen's Compensation Act provides for a gen- eral system of pajTnent to Federal employees. Sept. 8. Emergency Revenue Act increases the income and inheritance tax, puts taxes on the manuf actiu-e of nnmitions, protective tarilT on dye- stuffs, protection of American firms against ' 'dimip- ing," and atithorizesdrastic retaliatoo" steps against foreign interference with United States trade. Oct. 5. Militia organizations still in State mobilization camps (about 8,000 men) are or- dered to the Mexican border. 104,000 National Ciuardsmen are on the liorder. Oct. 7. German war submarine U-5S enters Newport harbor and leaves after a three hours' stay. The foUowing day sbi foreign merchant •sliips are sunk by a German submarine off the is- land of Nantucket. Considered a notice of abil- ity of Germans to destroy American commerce in case of war. Oct. 10. Great Britain upholds the blacklist (see July IS, above), but promises relief to American firms unjustly injured. Oct. 12. Replying to the second protest -egard- ing mail seizures, the British and French govern- ments state that " they are sincerely striving to avoid an encroachment," but that they have a right to " impede any transportation intended to aid their enemy." Oct. 20. Wheat for December delivery reaches $1,713 on the Cliicago Board of Trade, the highest price in gold since the Civil War. Oct. 2S. Six Americans lose theu- lives when the British steamer Marino is torpedoed by Germans. NoiK 1. German merchant submarine Deutsch- land arrives at New London, Conn., on her second voyage. (See July 9, above.) Stock of gold in the United States is $2,700,136,- 976, largest any coimtry has ever possessed; worid's stock is $8,239,500,000. A'oi'. ~. Thirty-third presidential election: Main campaign issue Wilson's record; " He kept us out of war": Wilson and Marshall, Demo- crats, receive 9,129,606 popular votes and 276 electoral votes: Hughes and Fairbanks, 8,538,221 popular votes and 255 electoral votes. Socialist candidates poU nearly 600,000 popiUar votes; Pro- hibition and Socialist I^abor candidates also rtm. Governors are elected in 35 States, IS Eepubhcans being returned and 17 Democrats, a gain of 1 for the Republicans. American steamer Columbian is sunk by a German submarine off coast of Spain ; the crew is rescued. Nov. 24. Protocol is signed by the Mexican and American joint commissioners, providing for the withdrawal of the Pershing expedition from Mexico and for border protection by the armies of the two countries, acting independently until co- operation is necessary. On December 18 Car- ranza declines to accept the protocol. 1916 — 1917. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OP^ AMERICA. 189 1916 (continued). Nov. 21 . Federal Reserve Board warns Fed- eral Reserve banks and American investors to pro- ceed with caution in participating in foreign war loans and foreign treasury bills. Nov. 2S. American steamship Chcmuna is simk by a submarine off the coast. of Spain; no lives are reported lost. Nov. 29. United States enters a vigorous protest to the German government against the wholesale deportation of Belgians for forced labor in Germany, as in contravention of precedents and intomational law and fatal to Belgian relief work. D<:c. I. Nation-wide intiuiry into the high cost of living is begun by the United f^tates Department of Justice. Dec. 12-16. Sharp fall of prices on the New York Stock Exchange is caused by Germany's peace proposals. Dec. l-j. Value of crops estimated by Depart- ment of Agriculture at the record figure of S7.641,- 609,000, although smallest yield in twelve years. Dec. IS. Wilson appeals to the belligerent powers to discuss terms of peace. He suggests that " an early occasion be sought to call out from all the nations now at war ... an avowal of their respective views as to the terms upon which the war might be concluded." Dec. 26. Reply of the Central Powers to the note gives no suggestion of the terms on which peace may be based, but states that " an immediate ex- change of views seems to be the most appropriate road in order to reach the desired result " and begs to propose " an immediate meeting of dele- gates of the belligerent states at aneutral ])laee " General conditions and activities In 1916: Economic progress of the United States is imprec- edented despite labor troubles, small harvest, and rise of prices. Consumption more than keeps pace with production. Iron and steel reach the highest price since the Civil War. Copper sells for 32 ' cents a poimd. as compared with less than 12 cents in 1914. Cotton passes the 20-cent mark, more than three times its price in 1914. Paper soars. Floiu- reaches S12 a barrel, nearly double its normal figure. Potatoes cost .?2.40 per bushel. Coal in New York reaches S15 a ton, more than double the average price of the past five years. The seri- o^^s shortage of freight cars is in part responsi- ble for the abnormal rise in prices. The indebt- edness of foreign coimtries to people of U. S. amounts to nearly $2,000,000,000 since the war began. In the Philippines and Porto Rico the export trade shows a remarkable development, 1917. For the World War, see that title. Imports of merchandise, .K, 6,59, 355, 185: exports of merchandise, $6,290,108,394; immigrants, 295,403; alien emigrants, 66,277, Jan. 10. In the U. S. court at San Francisco, Franz Bopp, German consul-general, von Brincken, and other members of his staff, are foimd guilty of plotting to blow up .Mlied munition ship- ments, and other tmneiUral acts. Allies reply to Wil.son's note of Dec. 18. 1916, outlining their war objects. (See World War.) Jan. 15. In Cusack Co. v. Chicago the Su- preme Court upholds a municipal ordinance pro- hibiting the erection of billboards in residential districts. Jan. 22. Wilson states the following condi- tions under which he would urge the United States to enter a world federation after the war to guarantee and enforce future peace: 1. The peace must provide not only for a balance of power, but a commimity of power; " not organ- ized rivalries, but an organized common peace." 2. It must be a " peace without victory," leaving no sting or resentment; " only a peace between eciuals can last." 3. It mtist make no distinction between the rights of big nations and of small ones. " Right must be based upon the common strength, not upon the individual strength, of the nations upon whose concert peace will depend." 4. It must accept " the principle that govern- ments derive all their just powers from the con- sent of the governed." 5. There should be a " imited, independent, and autonomous Poland," 6. " Inviolable security of life, of worship, and of industrial and social development should be guaranteed to all peoples who have lived hitherto under the power of governments devoted to a faith and purpose hostile to their own," 7. Every great people " should be assured a direct outlet to the great highways of the sea," if not by cession of territory, then by neutralization of di- rect rights of way. 8. '* The paths of the sea must alike in law and in fact be free," giving free, constant, imthreatened intercourse in practically all circumstances. 9. There must be a limitation of both land and naval armaments, to make them a power for order only, 10. " The nations should with one accord adopt the doctrine of President Monroe as the doctrine 191J {continued). of the world : that no nation should seek to extend its polity over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to determine its own polity, its own way of development, im- hindered, imthreatened, imafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." Supreme Coiu-t in the Blue Slcy Cases upholds the right of the States to guard against questionable stock and bond dealers and fraudulent sociu-ities. Jan. B3. Equal suffrage in North Dakota, Ja7i. SI. Germany returns to submarine policy and gives notice that she will wage unre- stricted submarine warfare upon all commerce within certain defined zones off the coasts of Great Britain, France, and Italy. Germany will permit one east^boimd and one west-bound AJiieri- can passenger steamer each week, AMERICA IN WORLD WAR. 1917. Feb. S. Diplomatic relations with Ger- many are broken off by United States. Ambas- sador von Bernstorff is handed his passports, and Ambassador Gerard with his staff and all consuls are recalled from Germany. In an address before Congress, Wilson warns Germany that war will foUow an overt act. (marine after warning, i American steamer Housatonic is simk by a sub-l Feb. 4- Department of State annoimces that it has instructed its representatives in neutral coun- tries that the president invites all neutrals to break with Germany. Feb. b. Immigration Act is passed over a veto. It includes a literacy test; increases head tax to $8; and excludes Asiatic laborers, natives of regions within certain degrees of latitude and longitude (Malays and Hindus chiefly ). imless pro- tected by treaties. Attempt to exclude Japanese is dropped on protest. Cliinese exclusion is not affected. Troops are withdrawn from Mexico. Feb. 7. Senate, by a vote of 7S to 5, indorses the president's course in severing diplomatic relations with Germany. Feb. 9. Indiana passes a Prohibition Act. Feb. 12. American schooner Lyman M. Law is simk by a submarine. Feb. H. Franchise is extended to women in Ohio for the choice of presidential electors. Congress establishes prohibition in Alaska. Feb. 17. French steamer Athos is torpedoed; one American killed. Feb. 26. Wilson recommends to Congress the establishment of an armed neutrality in dealing with Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, i Feb. 27. British liner Laconia is torpedoed with- , out warning ; two Americans are lost. I Feb. 2S. Government makes public a note j signed by Zimmermann, the German foreign ( secretary, proposing that Mexico should make \ an alliance with Germany, receiving in return financial aid and recovering the adjacent States of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Japan is to be invited to join the alliance. Suffrage of women in Indiana is extended to presi- dential elections. March 1 . House by a vote of 403 to 13 empow- ers the president to arm merchant ships, but re- fuses to sanction the more general authority for which he asked. Bill is killed by filibuster in the Senate, and Wilson, on March 4, declares that a " little group of willful men, representing no opin- ion but their own, have rendered the great govern- ment of the United States helpless and contempt- ible." March 2. Congress admits residents of Porto Rico collectively to American citizenship, establishes imiversal male suffrage, and reorgan- izes the framework of government, including an elected Senate. Act imposes prohibition, which is confirmed by referendum on July 16, 1917. March 3. Congress appropriates $25,000,000 for the purchase of the Danish West Indian Islands, now known as the Virgin Islands of the United States. Provision is also made for the temporary government of the islands and com- mercial relations with the United States. Manufacture and sale of liquor in the District of Columbia is prohibited. Liquor may be imported for personal use only. Takes effect November 1. The carriage of liquor advertisements by mail into prohibition States is prohibited, and also the shipment of liquor into such States. Special Preparedness Fund Act provides for an increase of fifty per cent in inheritance taxes and for an eight per cent excess-profits tax laid on corporations and joint-stock companies. March 4. Woodrow Wilson takes oath for his second term as president. March 6. In the Appam Case the Supreme Court- returns the German prize to its British owners, it being a violation of neutrality for Germany to attempt to keep the ship indefinitely in the United States. March S. Senate in special session changes its rules of procedure so as to permit the majority to 1917 (continued). check debate. Closure may be applied afler two days' notice, by a two-thirds vote. Each senator may be allowed to speak for one hour afterwards. March 12. American stean.er Aloonqnin is sunk without wanimg b.y a submarine. March 1.5. Ravh'oad brotherhoods call a na- tion-wide strike to oegin on March 17, because of delay in decision of Supreme Coiu't on the Adam- son Law; but on March 16 agree to postpone it. March 16-18. American steamers Viiiilancia, City of Memphis, and Illinois are sunk by sub- marines: American lives lost, March IS. Trammcn gaui eight-hour day at thv., existmg scale of wages. March 19. Supreme Court (with four of the nine judges dissenting) in Wilson r. New declares the Adamson Law to be constitutional, con- sidering it in effect compulsory arbitration in an emergency by Congress. March 22. American steamer Healdton is sunlc by a submarine: 22 lives are lost. March 31. Wilson iilaces more than 10,000 presidential postmasters in the classified civil service, but such first-class postmasters appointed through competitive method must still be con- firmed by the Senate, April 2. SIsty-flfth Congress meets in spe- cial session, called by Wilson on March 9 and 21 " to receive a commimication concerning grave matters of national pohtics": Senate, 52 Demo- crats, 44 RepubUcans; House, 216 Democrats, 210 Republicans, 2 Progr&ssives, 1 Prohibitionist, 1 Socialist, 2 Independents, .Champ Clark, Demo- crat, is elected speaker. Miss Joamiette Rankin, RepubUcan, of Montana, is flrst woman member of the House. April 6. Joint resolution declaring war against Germany passes the House (373 to 50) and the Senate (S2 to 6). President formally proclaims declaration of war as of that date. Government takes over 90 interned German vessels. [relations with the United Stati i April S. Austria-Hungary severs diplomat el April 9. Government takes over 14 vessels of Austrian registry. Supreme Court in Bunting c. Oregon declares con- stitutional a State law establishing a 10-hour day in factories, with time and a half for overtime, as a regulation of hours and not of wages, tho overtime rate being a penalty to deter employers from exceeding the 10-hour limit, April 14. Wilson creates a Committee on Public Information. April SO. Turkey Severs diplomatic rela- tions with the United States. April 21. British mission, headed by Foreign Secretary A, J. Balfour, arrives in United States. April 24. French mission, headed by Marshal Joffre and Rene Vi\iani, minister of justice, ar- rives in the United States. First Bond Issue Act provides for the borrowing of five billions and the lending of tliree billions of this to governments at war with Germany, May 4. American destroyer fiotilla, to be com- manded by Admiral Sims, reaches the war zone. May 10. ItaUan mission, headed by Prince Udine, reaches New York. May IS. War Army Act passes the House by 397 to 24 and the Senate by ,S1 to 8; provides that the Regular Army and the National (;uard shall be brought to full war strength : the guard shall be called into Federal senice; and 500,000 men (with 500,000 more at the discretion of the president) shall be raised by selective draft from age 21 to age 30, inclusive. Measure passes in the face of strong opposition on the part of Democratic lead- ers, including Speaker Clark, [States. 1 June .5. Belgian mission reaches the United' Registration of males for the selective draft shows nearly 10,000,000 available. June 11. In Adams v. Taimer the Supreme Com't declares imconstitutional the Emplo>'ment Agency Law of Washington (State), which forbids agencies to receive fees from workers for furnish- ing employment or information leading to it. JuitelS. Gen . Pershing and staff arrive in France. June IS. First Liberty Loan ($2,000,000,000 at three and a half per cent) has been oversub- scribed by more than a billion : four million indi- viduals participate. First War Appropriation Act carries over three and a quarter billions for the army and navJ^ Espionage Act provides elaborately for the pun- ishment of espionage and interference with the foreign relations, neutrality, or foreign commerce of the United States, permits the president to lay an embargo, and gives the postmaster-general au- thority to exclude seditious and treasonable mat- ter from the mails. June SO. Interstate Commerce Commission re- jects the plea of the railroads for an increase of 15 per cent in freight rates. [France. I June 26. First American troops arrive In I July 1. National net debt $1,908,635,224. July 2. Race riots in East St. Louis, 111., result 190 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1917—1918. u w 1917 (continued). in the death of more than thirty Negroes; order is restored by the militia. Jul!/ 12. Citizens of Bisbee, Arizona, contrary to law deport 1,200 striking miners and others who sympathize with them, suspected of being connected with the I. W. W. July 2J,. Congress appropriates $640,000,000 for the development of aviation. Denman resigns as chairman of .the Shipping Board and General Goethals as manager of con- struction worli, this being the outcome of a con- troversy as to the respective merits of wooden and steel ships. Their places are filled respectively by Hurley and Admiral Capps. J uly 27. Second contingent of American troops lands in France. Aug.l. Frank Little, a member of the executive board of the I. W. W., is l>-nched by a band of masked men at Butte, Montana. Aug. 5. National Guard, about 300,000 strong, goes into Federal service. Aug. 10. Food Control Act gives the presi- dent very wide powers in fixing tlio prices and reg- ulating the distribution of foodstuffs and fuels: no foodstuffs shall be used in the production of dis- tilled spirits for beverage purposes. Hoover is ap- pointed food administrator on same day. Aug. IS. Armed forces of the United States now total 943,141, of which 233,117 are m the naval service. Aug. 19. Local officials of the I. W. W. are ar- rested by military order at Spokane, Wash., on the charge of fomenting strikes and preaching sedition among employees in the fruit and lumber industries. A ug. 20. Japanese mission, headed by Viscount Ishii, reaches the United States. Aug. 21. President fixes the price for bitumi- nous coal at the mines. Aug. 23. Race riot at Hotiston, Tex., in which colored soldiers take part, results in the death of seventeen persons. Garfield becomes fuel administrator: president fixes tentative prices for anthracite coal. Aug. 26. Plans for an adjustment of labor dis- putes in shipyards are formifiated at a conference between government officials and labor leaders. Aug. 27. Wilson places under the control of an Export Coimcil all articles of commerce destmed for neutral countries, which must guarantee that such exports will not reach Germany. Wilson's reply to the pope's peace message. (See World Wah.) A ug. SO. Food administration fi.xes a basic price for wheat at S?.30 a bushel which will be paid by the United States and the Allied governments. Sept. 4. Drafted recruits for the new National Army assemble at training camps. Sept. 5. Agents of the Department of Justice raid offices of the Industrial Workers of the World who have been active in opposuig the war. Sept. 8. Disclosiu-e that Coimt von Liixburg, the German diplomatic agent at Buenos Aires, has been commimicatmg with his government secretly tlirough the Swedish legation and has recom- mended that certain Argentine vessels be " sunk without a trace " (spurlos versenkt). Sept. 10. Maine rejects woman suffrage by a large majority. Sept. 21. Disclosure of a secret message of Am- bassador von Bemstorfl which asked for authority to use $50,000, " as on former occasions to mflu- ence congressmen." Sept. 22. Governor Ferguson of Texas is con- victed on impeachment for misuse of State fimds and abuse of authority. Sept. 24. Second Bond Issue Act authorizes the borrowing of $7,500,000,000 and the lending of $4,000,000,000 to Allied governments. War Industries Board effects an agreement with steel producers whereby the prices of pig iron and steel are reduced. Oct. 3. War Revenue Act is expected to yield $2,535,000,000 annually. It provides for increases in the income tax, excess-profits tax, inheritance taxes, taxes upon intoxicants and to- bacco, and postal rates. It also imposes many new taxes, and prohibits importation of distiUed spirits. Oct. 6. Military and Naval Insurance Act provides for governmental allowances to the f ami- Ues of soldiers, compensation for death or disabil- ity resulting from service, and additional insurance at low cost. [.500,000,000.1 Second War Appropriation Act carries over $7,-1 Senator La Follette, who has been accused of dis- loyal utterances, defends his conduct. Senate committee eventuaUy fails to find proofs of action and stops the prosecution. Oct. 10. By executive proclamation all large dealers in specified foodstuffs (such as meats, ce- reals, and fruits) are placed imder a license act. Oct. 1.5. Shipping Board requisitions for gov- ernment ser\-ice all American ocean-going vessels of more than 2,500 tons. Constitutional amendment prohibiting the manu- facture and sale of liquor is rejected by Iowa. 1917 (continued). Oct. 16. Fuel Administrator Garfield warns miners and operators in the Southwest that con- templated strikes in coal fields must not take place. Oct. 19. Government plans an embargo on trade with Holland and Scandinavian countries imtil assurance is given that imports will not reach Germany. Oct. 20. Drastic changes in the machinery of the selective draft are announced, the remaining enrolled men to be divided into five classes. Oct. 26. Supreme Court of Indiana declares the State woman suffrage law imconstitutional. Oct. 27. Scco nd Liberty Loan ($3,000,000,000 authorized) at 4% aggregates $4,617,532,300, with 9,400,000 persons participatuig. Nov. 2. Lansing-Isliii notes exchanged by which the United States recognizes that Japan has " special interests in China," but the " terri- torial uitegrity remams unimpaired — a kind of Asiatic Monroe Doctrine." Nod. S. In the first encounters by American troops at the front, 3 are killed, 11 woimded, and 7 taken prisonei-s. Nov. B. Supreme Court in Buchanan v. Warley holds that a city ordinance segregating Negroes is contrary to Fourteenth Amendment. A'oo. 6. Constitutional amendments pro\1ding for woman suffrage are adopted in New York by 90,000 majority, and defeated m Oliio by 136,000. State-wide proMbition is adopted in New Mexico by a majority of 15,000 and defeated in Ohio by 1,700. Hylan (Dem.) is elected Mayor of New York by a very large plurality, defeating Mayor Mitchel who made liis campaign on tlie war issue. SociaUst vote is five times that of 1913. Nov. 7. American War Commission, headed by E. M. House, reaches England on its way to attend the AUied War Conference at Paris. Nov. IB. Admiral Capps resigns as manager of the construction work of the Shipping Board: suc- ceeded by Charles Piez. Nov. 24. To relieve congestion of traffic, gov- ernment orders railroads east of Cliicago to pool all available facilities for movement of freight. Nov. 2B. Government annoimces that, aside from 426 vessels requisitioned wliile xmder construc- tion, contracts have been let for S84 new vessels of 4,724,300 tons. Dec. 1. In view of recent increases in wages, the president permits an advance of 35 cents a ton in the price of anthracite coal at the mines. Dec. 3. Wilson in an address before Congress advises war on Austria-Himgary. Dec. S. Reporting to Congress, the Interstate Commerce Conmaission recommends that the operation of railroads be unified for the period of the war, or, failing such an arrangement, brought under the control of tlie president . Dec. 7. Congress, with only one dissenting vote, declares war on Austria-Hungary. Government directs railroads to give preference to Biiipments of fuel, foodstuffs, and military suppUes. Dec. 10. Supreme Com-t m Hitcliman Coal and Coke Co. V. MitcheU decides that an attempt to imionize a mine and cause a strike, knowmg that emplovees are under a contract with the owners, by which they lose their jobs if they join a imion, is illegal, and owner is entitled to an injimction. Dec. 11. Tliirteen Negro soldiers are convicted by coiut martial and hanged for complicity in the Houston, Tex., race riot. Dec. 12. Senate Committee on Militarj' Aflau's begins to investigate alleged shortcommgs of the War Department. Dec. IS. Eighteenth Amendment providmg for national prohibition is submitted to the States for ratification. It passes, with the proviso that to become effective it must be ratified within seven years, by 47 to S in the Senate and 282 to 128 in the House. Senate had previously voted, Aug. 2, 65 to 20, to adopt prohibition amendment. Dec. 28. By proclamation of the president, the railroad systems of the covmtry pass under Federal control; Secretary of the Treasury McAdootiecomes director-general of railroads. General conditions and activities in 1917: Tlie ascendancy of the executive in legislation is very marked. Congress passes no bill of impor- tance (excepting the Immigration Act), which the president has not recommended, and rejects no bill which he supports: it, however, refuses to intrust him with a censorsliip over the press. The coim- try stands squarely lx>hind tlie president and the war. The two installments of the Liberty Loan are oversubscribed by two and a half billions. The fears entertained at first that German- Ameri- cans Tuay hamper war preparations prove, on the whole, imfoimded. Effects of participation in the war are already felt: The first war taxes give intimation of a growing burden: sugar becomes scarce: "war bread" makes its appearance : the transportation system is brought imder government control, but nearly breaks do'wn. The country especially realizes the war m the en- listment and drafting of yoimg men into the new National Army, and by rejiorts of the first casual- ties on the western front. 1918. Imports of merchandise, $2,945,655,403; exports of merchandise, $5,919,711,371; immi- grants, 110,618: alien emigrants, 94,585. Jan. 7. Supreme Court m Selective Draft Law Cases upholds the constitutionality of the Army Act providing for compulsorj' military service. Jan. 8. In the course of an address made be- fore Congress, WUson names fourteen points essential in considering peace, as follows: " 1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at: after which there shall be no private Interna- tional understandings of any kmd, but diplo- macy shall proceed always frankly and m the pubhcview. " 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike m peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed m whole or m part by international action for the enforce- ment of international covenants. ■' 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all eco-. nomic barriers and the establishment of an equal if y of trade conditions among all the nations consent- ing to the peace and associatmg themselves for -ts maintenance. '■ 4. Adeciuate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the low- est pomt consistent with domestic safety. " 5. A free, open-mmded, and alKoUitely Impar- tial adjustment of all colonial claims, based on a strict observance of the prmciple that in deter- mining all such questions of sovereignty the mter- ests of the poptdations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the govern- ment whose title is to be determined. "6. Evacuation of all Russian territory, and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as wiU secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an tmhampered and miembarrassed opportunity for the independent det*.Tmination of her own political development and national policy, and assure her of a sincere welcome Into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosmg: and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kmd she may need and may herself desire. The treat- ment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of lier needs as dis- thiguished from their own mterests, and of their intelligent and unseffish sympathy. " 7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored without any attempt to limit the sovereignty wliich she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act, the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired. " 8. All French territory shoidd be freed and invaded portions restored; and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace- Lorraine, which has imsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, shoiUd be righted, m order that peace may once more be made secm-e In the interest of all. " 9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. " 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safe- guarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportimitv of autonomous development. "11. Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated: occupied territories restored ; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea: and the relations of the several Balkan states to one an- other determined by friendly counsel along historic- ally established lines of allegiance and nationality; and mtemational guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial mtegrity of the several Balkan states shoidd be entered into. " 12. The Tiu-kish portions of the present Otto- ma n Empire shotUd be assured a secure sovereign- ty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an imdoubted se- curity of life and an absolutely unmolested oppor- timity of autonomous development, and the Dar- danelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. " 13. An independent Polish state should be erected which shoidd include the territories In- habited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independ- ence and territorial integrity should be guaran- teed by international covenant. "14. A general association of nations must be fomied, imder specific covenants, tor the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political inde- pendence and territorial integrity to great and smaU states alike." 1918. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 191 1918 (.CO ttinued). Jan. 10. House of Representatives initiates by vote of 274 to 136 (just over tiie retiuired two thirds) a constitutional amendment providing for woman suffrage. Chairman Hurley of the Shipping Board states that new construction for the year will approxi- mate 5,000,000 tons. Jan. 17. In view of the serious sliortage of coal. Fuel Administrator Garfield issues a drastic order affecting States east of the Mississippi; no manu- facturing industrj- is allowed to operate from Jan- uary IS to 22, and all use of fuel except by consu- mers classed as absolutely necessary is forbidden for ten Mondays. Jan. 19. Senator Chamberlain of Oregon, mem- ber of Senate Militarj- Committee, lisserts that the military estabhshment of America has fallen down, and that there is inefiBciency in every bureau and department. Jan. 21. Wilson issues a statement attacking Senator Chamberlain and defending Secretary of War Baker. Jan. 26. Food Administrator Hoover fixes two " wheatless," two " porkless," and one " meat^ less " day a week, and in addition one "wheatless" and one " meatless " meal each day. Secretary of War Baker defends the work of his department, asserting that the mistakes are of small consequence in comparison with the great re- sults achieved. Jan. SO. Interstate Commerce Commission grants an increase of approximately 15% in rail- road-commodity rates to the Pacific coast. Feb. 1. In the first year of unrestricted subma- rine warfare, the Germans have simk 69 American ships with a gross tonnago of 171,000. [staff, I Feb. 5. General March is appointed chief of| The transport Tusoania, carrying more than 2,000 American troops, is torpedoed off the coast of Ireland : 209 lives are lost : only transport sunk with American troops during the war. Feb. 11. President appears before Congress and in replying to the speeches of German statesmen formulates again his peace principles. These rec- ognize especially the rights of small nations and the aspirations of subject populations. Feb. 13. The Fuel Administrator suspends the general operation of his order for " heatless " Mondays. Feb. IB. By presidential proclamations all for- eign.trade becomes subject to government control imder a licensing system. This step releases ships for transportation of troops and supplies toEurope. Feb. 1 8. Shipyard carpenters return to work after Wilson rebukes them for giving aid and comfort to the enemy. Their grievances, he says, should be submitted to the official wage-adjustment board. Feb. 21 . Economic agreement is signed at Ma- drid, Spain, under which General Pershing will re- ceive army supphes from Spain. Feb. 22. Wilson, tmder act of Congress,, fixes a guaranteed minimum price for 1918 wheat at %1.1S), with a scale of differentials for different mar- kets, (where he arrives March 10. 1 Feb. 27. Secretary Baker sails for France,! March 1. Motion for a new trial is denied Mooney, a radical lalx>r leader, who was convicted of murder in comiection with a lx)mb explosion in San Francisco diu-ing a preparedness parade. March 10. American troops are reported to be operating on four sectors of the Western front : in Lorraine, Champagne, and Alsace, and near the Chemin des Dames. March IJf. Texas adopts prohibition, but the act is declared tmconstitutional on October 24. March 19. Daylight-saving Act provides for advancing clocks one hour in period between last Sunday in March and last Sunday in October. March 21. Railroad Control Act permits gov- ernment control of the railroads in the coimtry for a maximum period of twenty-one months after the close of the war. March 29. Wilson asks the governor of Call- I fomia to extend clemency in the case of Mooney. April S. War Finance Corporation Act creates a Federal corporation of $500,000,000 capital and power to finance private enterprises needed for war. April 10. The Webb Act permits combinations otherwise contrary to the AJititrust Act, for the purposes of foreign trade. April 12. Charles M.Schwab becomes director- general of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. April 19. Bentall. candidate for governor of Minnesota, and Peterson, candidate for senator, are convicted of violating the Espionage Act. I April 20. Sabotage Act imposes heavy penal- ' ties uixjn those who willfully destroy war materials or war premises or utilities used in connection with the war. Navy Department takes control of the Philadel- phia police, suspending the chief, and appomting ' a head to protect soldiers and sailors from vice, j May 1. Michigan goes dry by constitutional amendment and New Hampshire by repeal of old local-option law. 1918 {continued). May J,. Third Liberty Loan (4%), with 17,000,000 subscribers, amounts to $4,170,000,000. May IS. Governor Wliitman of New York signs a " work-or-flght " bill, which requires all able- bodied men between the ages of IS and 50 not ser\'ing with military forces to be regularly engaged in a useful occupation during the war iieriod. May 16. Hughes is appointed by the president to conduct an investigation into charges made by GutEon Borglum, on April 25, that inefficiency, waste, and corruption have led to a breakdown in the aircraft production. May 16. Sedition Act imposes heavy penal- ties on those who liinder the prosecution of the war by ch'cuiating false statements, obstructing enlist- ment, inciting disloyalty among the armed forces, or assisting enemy comitries in other ways. May IS. An explosion of T. N. T. (triiwtrotol- uene) destroys the plant of the jB,tn& Co., near Pittsburgh; nearly 200 are killed; the property loss is $1,500,000. May 19. Director-General of Railroads Mc- Adoo authorizes expenditures of $938,000,000 on equipment and improvements for fiscal year 1919. May 20. Overman Act (an administration measure) permits a readjustment of the existing executive departments, and substitution of new arrangements to meet the e.Kigencies of war. Air service, now separated from Signal Corps, is reorganized, a director of aii'craft production bemg placed in charge of construction and a director of military aeronautics in charge of operation. May 23. Congress prohibits the manufacture, sale, and importation of liquors in Hawaii, subject to a referendimi. May 2^. Provost marshal general issues a " work-or-flght " order directed against all men within draft age not engaged in a useful occupa- tion. Slight attempt made to enforce it. May 27. Director-general of railroads orders a 25 % increase in freight rates and fixes passenger rates at tliree cents a mile. President, appearing before Congress, m-ges pas- sage of a new revenue bill during present session. May 28. American troops in front line at- tack Germans at Cantlgny (see World War). June I. Rose Pastor Stokes, a Socialist of New York, is sentenced to ten years' imi^risonment for violations of the Espionage Act. She appeals, June 3. Supreme Coiu't in Hammer v. Dagen- hart declares the Federal Child Labor Law of 1916, forbidding the Interstate shipment of cliild labor products, tmconstitutional. Treaty with Great Britain for reciprocal military service; citizens of either cotmtry resident in the other liable to conscription, but allowed 00 days to enlist in army of own coimtry. Similar treaties with Italy (August 24), Greece (August 30), and France (Septemljer 3). June 6. Americans and French attack Ger- mans at Belleau Wood (see World W.^h). June 22. Director -general of railroads turns back to private management most of the shorts line roads. July 10. Army Appropriation Act, wliich carries over $12,000,000,000, bases the draft quota on the number of men in Class 1 instead of on State pop- ulations, and authorizes the president to increase size of the army indefinitely by successive calls imder the draft law. July 12. Wilson vetoes the Agricultural Ap- propriation Bill because it fixes a mininmm price of $2.40 for wheat. July 15. strikes occiu" in several large industrial plants in widely separated parts of the coimtry. July 16-18. Americans hold position on river near Chateau-Thierry against renewed German attack. July 21, Germans again driven out of Chateau-Thierry and retire. (See World W.ik.) July 16. Joint resolution of Congress empowers the president during the continuance of war to as- sume control of the telegraph, telephone, cable, and radio systems as deemed necessary. By proclamation Wilson puts all telegraph and telephone wires under government control, with the postmaster-general in charge. Twenty-one indictments are retiuued for army contract frauds. United States Food Administration reduces the su- gar allowance for August to two pounds per capita. Aug. 2. Edward A. Rumely is indicted for per- jury in disguising the true ownersliip of the AVir York Evening Mail, purchased by German agents. Aug. 4. Government suit against the Inter- national Harvester Company, which began in 1912, ends in an agreement tmder which tlie com- pany will adopt certain dissolution measures with- in a year after tlie close of the war. Aug. 11. Man-power Act requires the regis- tration of all men between the ages of 18 and 45, inclusive. Aug. 17. General March, chief of staff, an- nounces that 1,450,000 American soldiers are in Europe, 1,550,000 in training camps at home. Aug. 2S. Seventeen dealers in New York are 1918 {continued). found guilty of violating the food rules, stores are closed, fines Imposed, and sugar Ucenses revoked. Aug. 27. An engagement between Americans and Me.xicans at Nogales, Ariz., over the Interna- tional line, results in the death of two Americans. Aug. so. Federal court at Cliicago sentences to twenty years' imprisonment William D, Haywood and fourteen other leaders of the Industrial Work- ers of the World, convicted of disloyal conduct during the war, and Imposes less severe sentences on eighty othens. September. Epidemic of so-called "Spanish" Influenza spreads through the country. On October 4 it is reported that only five States re- main immune and that there are 127,000 cases in army camps. Sept. 2. By proclamation of the president the guaranteed price of wheat ($2.20 per bushel in the extreme West to $2,395 at New Y'ork City) will remain in force for 1919. Sept. 6. Food Administration, with the ap- proval of the president, orders the closing of all breweries after November 30. Sept. 12. Congress passes a joint resolution which authorizes the president to fix zones of any size around coal mines, munition plants, ship- yards, and other plants engaged in war work and to prohibit therein the sale of intoxicating liquors. T'nder the Man-power Act, 12,966,594 men register for the-ieId $6,000,000,000. According to the estimates of the Treasur>' Depart- ment, it will cost the American people about $1,200,000,000 a year for the next 25 years to pay off the war del^t. Feb. 2-5. Act is passed appropriating $100,000,- 000 for Eiu'opean relief outside of Germany and her allies, following Wilson's cabled appeal for it. Feb. 26. Grand Canon National Park created. Feb. 27. Wilson gives a dinner at the White House to members of the two foreign relations com- mittees, at which heexplains the details of the pro- posed constitution for the League of Nations. 1919 (continued). March 2. Senate passes the Victorj Loan measure in an all-night session. Hoover appointed director-general of the Amer- ican Relief Administration created along with appropriation of Congress to feed hungry Europe. March 3. Conference of governors and mayors at White House on business and labor problems. March 4. Second general strike of 16,000 har- bor workers at New York City goes into effect. Congress appropriates $1,000,000,000 to enable the president to carry out gtiaranty of price of wheat for crops of 1918 and 1919. The last regular session of the Sixty-fifth Congress ends at noon, leaving a large amount of tmfinished business, among which is the appropriation for railroads, army. na\n,'. and smidrj- civil expenses. W^ilson charges that neglect to pass important bills is due to filibuster of Republican senators. Wilson and Taft in speeches at New York City plead for the League of Nations. Palmer succeeds Gregory as attorney-general. March 5. Wilson again sails for France. March S. United States credit to 11 Allies amoimts to $8,841,657,000. March 19. American and Canadian soldiers in London riot with the police. First of several proclamations canceling the need of Federal license of food products, part, of the process of terminating the Food Administration. March 2.5. Parade in New York City of the re- tiuTied Twenty-seventh Division (New York Na- tional Guards). April 25, Twenty-sixth Division (New England National Guards) parades in Bos- ton. May 6, Seventy-seventh Division (INIetro- politan National Army troops) parades in New York City. April 4. Delegationof Filipinos arrives at Wash- ington to present a memorial for independence. April 6. Increase in wages, third since the Adamson Act of 1916, granted railroad crews. April 14. Return to New York Harbor of the Atlantic fleet from the war zone. April 21. Nation-wide conspiracy for mailing bombs to prominent Americans discovered. Many bombs traced in the mail. April 2S. Decision by Federal district court (United Mine Workers v. Coronado Coal Co.) that United Mine Workers must pay $600,000 to a com- pany whose property its members had damaged. Adoption by Paris Conference of provisional Covenant of League of Nations* for which Wil- son is responsible. May. The NC-4, one of three hydroplanes which made the attempt, crosses the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Lisbon by way of the Azores, thence to England. May 1. Cost to the government of operating the railroads during 16 months is $486,000,000 more than receipts. May 2. Marine cables retiuTied to owners. Ma;/ 10. War Department annoimces that $5,600,000,000 outstanding war contracts of No- vember 9 have l^een reduced by termmation and delivery- to $512,000,000. May 12. Fifth (Victory) Loan for $4 ,500.000- 000 closed; 12.000.000 persons participate, sub- scriptions amoimt to ¥5.249,908,000, of which some $4,498,000,000 aUotted. May 19. Special session of Sixty-sixth Con- gress: Senate, 47 Democrats, 49 Republicans; House. 185 Democrats, 242 Republicans, 2 Inde- pendents, 1 Prohibitionist. S vacancies. Gillett, Republican of Massachusetts, elected speaker of House. Berger, convicted Socialist, not per- mitted to take liis seat. Wilson's message, cabled from Paris, read next day: measures for return to a peace basis, mcluding retimi of rail- roads, telegraphs, and telephones; repeal of war- time prohibition; woman suffrage: shipping; re- duction of taxation; rights of labor. Special ses- sion necessary because a filibuster at end of last Congress prevented passage of great appropria- tion bills with piu*pose to force Wilson to call such a session of the new Republican Congress. May 30. Memorial Day has additional mean- ing both at home and abroad ; observed m France and Great Britain wherever American soldiers and sailors are buried. June. Investigation by the Senate of the peace- treaty leak, the text having been brought priv.at€ly to this coimtr>'. June 2. Bomb outrages in eight cities: vic- tims are officials who have been active against Bol- she\ism; Attorney-General Palmer's house partly wrecked. June 4. Woman Suflfragc amendment, which passed the House on May 21 by 304 to 89. passes Senate by 56 to 25 and is submitted to the States. Juve 14. American troops cross the border at EI Paso and disperse a band of ViUistas. Pres- ident Carranza registers a pro forma protest. June 15. All the drafted and National Guard troops sent abroad have been returned: some 65 per cent of war army has been demobilized; 694,745 still in France and Germany on June 3. 1919. NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 193 1919 {cojitinued). June 20. Pessoa, president elect of Brazil, visits United States. Jane 3J,. By proclamation under the Wheat Stabilization Act, Wilson prohibits importation or exportation of wheat or wheat flour. Canceled November 21. June 2S. Peace treaty of Allies with Germany signed at VersaSIIes. (See World War ) Anglo-Franco-AniericaD Treaty of Alliance signed; United States and Great Britain to go im- mediately to assistance of France in case of an improvoked attack on her by Germany. Not ratiHed by Senate. June 30. Pacific Fleet formed, equal in impor- tance to Atlantic Fleet; indicative of growing im- portance of Pacific in nation's external relations. July- August. For Mexican relations, see Mexico. July 1. National debt, $24,479,302,000. War-time prohibition goes into effect under act of November 21. 191S. July 0. Arrival at Long Island of the R-34, a British dirigible which left Scotland July 2; first Atlantic flight of a lighter-than-air machine. Re- tiu-n to England made July 9-13. July S. President Wilson returns from the Peace Conference. July 10. he presents the Treaty of Versailles (including the League of Nations) to the Senate, and debate begins on July 14. Strong opposition develops; demands for rejection of League, also for amendments or reser- vations. Secretar>- of the Treasurj' Glass estimates cost of the war to United States, including loans to ' Allies, at 532,427,469.054. i July 19-22. Race riot.s in Washington. \ July 20. Ex-President Taft presents a list of j " mild " reservations to tlie League of Nations; ! they modify right of withdrawal; reserve ISlonroe \ Doctrine; deny Britisfi dominions separate vote in , League Coimcil; modify Article X. so as to leave ' each nation free to decide question of war in its | own way; withdraw domestic questions, such as [ immigration and tariff, from jurisdiction of the League. July 28, Hughes also suggests reserva- tions on right of withdrawa.L domestic questions, Monroe Doctrine, and Article X. July 23.. Naval cable censorship ceases. July 27-31. Race riots in Chicago. Aug. 1. Strike of shopmen on railways. August 2, the four brotherhoods of railway train- men demand increase in wages, tlir«^at<'ning a na- tion-wide strike in Septomher if not granted. At same time Plumb plan for nationalization of railroads presented to Congress. In Brookl>ii and New York violent strike of street-railroad men during the month. Actors in New York, Chi- cago, and elsewhere walk out for a month. Gen- eral industrial unrest due to high cost of hving and belief in profiteering. Telegraph and telephone systems rettuned to own- ers, following act passed July 11. Aug. 6. Federal Trade Commission reports that methods of meat control show a " clear viola- tion of the antitrust laws." Aiig. 7. Wilson orders Director-General Hines to take tip question of striking railway shopmen, but only on condition that the men return to work, which they do generally. An imauthorizcd strike of trainmen of the Far Western railroads ties up traffic until Wilson orders Director-General Hines to operate roads by military force, if necessary. .-1(((/. S. Wilson sends a special message to Congress on the high cost of living, declaring that improper practices are responsible for the ex- cessive prices. Second (regular) Di\ision parades at New York. on return from overseas. Aug. 12. Senator Lodge, Republican head of the committee on foreign relations, presents his five reservations on the League of Nations, simi- lar to those of Hughes. Aug. 16. Department of Labor reports that general cost of living rose 80% between Decem- ber. 1914. and June. 1919, while advance in cloth- ing and food is much greater. Aug. 19. Wilson holds a public conference with Senate committee on foreign relations. Aug. 20. Daylight-sa\ing Act repealed for future years over two vetoes; farmers' opposition. All the American Army of Occupation, except the permanent force, is out of Germany. France agrees to pay S400.000.000 in l>onds for the prop- erty of the American Expeditionary' Force in France, estimated to be worth S749.000,000 and costing SI. 300.000.000. $360,000,000 paid by other nations for material. Aug. 31. National debt stands at $26,596,- 701,648. S'^pt. 3. Permanent rank of general conferred on Pershing. Wilson starts on a nation-wide speaking tour in behalf of imconditional acceptance of the League of Nations. Speaks first at Columbus, Ohio, Sep- tcmlier 4. 1919 (continued). Sept. S. Pershing welcomed at New York on return from the war. September 10, First (regu- lar) Division, " first to go over, last to return." parades at New York, and at Washington, Sep- tember 17. Sept. 9. Strike of police in Boston, over at- tempt to affiliate with American Federation of La- bor, gives the city over to rioters during that night. State troops soon restore order and remain in charge imtil new police force is organized. Strik- ers all discharged from force. September 14, Gov- ernor Coolidge in a notable letter to Gompers strongly condenms the strike: " There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time." Question of affiliation of policy and firemen with the Federation causes con- troversy in other cities. Cardmal IMercier arrives in United States on visit of thanks for American aid to Belgium diu'ing war, Sept. 10. Republican majority of Senate com- mittee on foreign relations reports the peace treaty with 48 amendments and 4 reservations on the League of Nations. Democratic commit- teemen favor its acceptance without change. Amendments call for vote in assembly in the League equal to that of British Empire (6 votes; United States has one); transfer of Shantimg to China rather than to Japan; and no American representation on commissions in which this nation has no interest- Reservations on right to with- draw from League; on right of Congress to decide on obligations under Article X. {\ital objection); on domestic questions such as immigration; and on preservation of Monroe Doctrine. Debate on the subject continues for months. Sept. 16. Act of Congress to incorporate the American Legion, a " society of the soldiers, sailors, and marines of the Great War 1917- 1918." Inception of the Legion at Paris, March 1.5; teptati^e organization at St, Louis, May 8-10; first annual meeting at INIinneapolis, Nov. 8-14. Sept. 19. Race riot in Omaha. ]Mob injures mayor and bums courthouse in successful effort to lynch a Negro. Federal troops take control. Sept. 21 . Strike of the Steel Corporation em- ployees begins; closed shop main controversy. Radicals control strike and company refuses to treat with them. Violence in various places. At Gary Gen. Wood with Federal troops takes con- trol. October G. and declares martial law. Strike wears out by end of November, but not officially called off until January 8. 1920. Sept. 26. President Wilson's tour is ended abruptly at Wichita. Kansas, by a stroke of pa- ralysis. He is incapacitated from the usual activi- ties of a president, but later becomes able to confer with a few people and to make some decisions. Sept. 29. Joint resolution tendering thanks of Congress to Pershing. [bassy rank.] Congress raises the mission to Belgium to em-J Oct. 1-31. Albert, king of Belgium, with the queen and crowTi prince, visits United States. Oct. 1. Some 250 printing firms in New York City lock out their pressmen, who have gone on a " vacation," have refused to live up to their con- tracts, and have been outlawed by their imions. Many periodicals suspend publication. Lockout ends November 25. Race war in Arkansas results from acti^^ties of an armed Negro society. Put down by Federal troops. Oct. 2. Senate rejects the amendments to the Treaty of Versailles against American participa- tion on commissions. Oct. 6-24. Industrial Conference, called by Wilson, meets at Washington. Groups repre- sent employers, employees, and public. Deadlock results; labor group withdraws when employer group rejects, as fatal to open shop, collective bar- gaining through outside representatives. Oct. 7. Longshoremen in New York City strike; against order of leaders. Shipping para- lyzed. Ends by -compromise, November 4, Oct. 14. War army virtually all demobilized. Oct. 16. Senate rejects proposed treaty amend- ment on Shantung. PMexico).] Oct. 19. Jenkins abduction in Mexico (see! Oct. 22. Act extending the food-control law to clothing and other necessities, penalizing hoarding and profiteering, and establishing a commission to prevent luifair rents in District of Columbia. Oct. 22-24- Senate committee on foreign rela- tions adopts a substitute series of (a preliminary and 15 other) reservations to treaty, 5 of which cover the original 4. Preliminary one requires the acceptance of the reser\ations by the principal powers before the American ratification l>econies effective. Other new ones reserve 1 ihert y of action on Shantimg, restrict Reparation Commission, an- nounce freedom to increase armament in case of need, require participation of Congress and Senate In provisions for the League or appointments under it, and reserve the national honor and vital ! interests of United States from consideration by the League. 1 Oct. 28. Volstead Act, to enforce prohibition I 1919 {continued). under war act and new constitutional ameaid- ment. declares all liquors with more than half of one per cent alcohol to be mtoxicating. Passed over veto. Oct. 29- Nov. 29. First meeting, at Washington of International Labor Conference under the Treaty of Versailles. United States only imoffi- cially represented. Oct. SI. Concurrent resolution of Congress pledgmg support to the administration in the use of constitutional means necessary to meet pres- ent industrial emergency (coal strike). Nov. 1. Strike of 600,000 soft-coal miners, demanding a 6-hour daj-. a 5-day week, and 60% increase in wages. Strike violates contracts. Wilson's attempt to prevent it fails, so also does his denunciation. Temporary Federal injunction, issued October 31, disregarded. November 8, in- junction upheld by Federal court; strike \iolates Fuel Control Act. Strike called off November 12, but order not olieyed m many cases. November 14, Joint conference of miners and owners at Washington. November 19, Fuel Administrator Garfield orders resumption of work. Conference deadlocked, Wilson proposes a raise of 14% to be absorbed by employers with no raise in price of coal and a commission to consider and readjust wages and prices. Accepted, December 10. Gar- field resigns because of transfer to the commis- sion of duties belonging to the Fuel Administrator. Nov. 6. Senate rejects the last of the amend- ments proposed to the peace treaty. Nov. 7. Senate begins voting on reservations to peace treaty. Preliminarj' one requiring accept- ance of reser^-ations by the other powers carried by 48 to 40. November 13, reservation on Article X. adopted by 46 to 33. November 15, imder closure all the others adopted except those on German colonies and national honor, which are rejected Novemlicr 17. Nov. 10. House, by 311 to 1. unseats Berger, Sociahst representative convicted imder the Es- pionage Act. [ton and New York. I Nov. 10-22. Prince of Wales visits Washing-] Nov. 11. Armistice parade of American Legion at CentraUa, Wash., flretl upon by I. W. W. men; 51 of the radicals arrested, one biiched. Nov. 19. Senate refuses to ratify peace treaty with reservations by vote of 39 to 55 (41 to 51 on reconsideration) and by 38 to 53 without reservations. Wilson has informed the Demo- cratic senators that the resenations are tanta- mount to nullification. Knox concurrent resolu- tion that peace exists with Germany introduced in Senate. Special session of Congress adjourns. Nov. 24- Organization at Chicago of a new Na- tional Labor party, radical in platform and hoping for imion with the Socialists, Non-Partisan League, and Committee of 4S. Dec. 1 , Congress meets in regular session. Wil- son's message, next day. advocates a budget, pro- tection of war-developed dye and chemical indus- tries, simplification of taxation, power to combat radicalism, and Federal license of all interstate com- merce corporations. No remedy for industrial imrest that does not recognize right of collective bargaining. Second Industrial Conference meets: general body rather than one of groiips, December 28. in- ference denies the right of government employees or others to interfere with continuous operation of government functions or to affiliate with any or- ganization using strike as a weapon. Dec. 10-12. Conference of radicals held at St. Louis at call of Committee of 48 with view of formation of new party, based on public owner- ship of transportation, public utilities, and natural 4'esom"ces; measures against idle land: equal rights irrespective of sex or color ; imrestricted civil rights; and rights of labor. Dec. 16. J. W. Anderson becomes secretary of commerce, Redficld having resigned. Dec. IS. Attomey-Genenii Palmer annoimce' thai the five great packing comranies t beef trust, have agreed to retire from all business except meat packing and dairj- products. Dec. 19. Berger reelected to Congress. Dec. 22. 249 alien anarchists from all over the country-, including Emma Goldman and Berk- man deported; shipped to Soviet Russia in army transport Bufortl {" Soviet Ark "). Dec. 23. Publication of a letter by Admiral Sims, refusing a Distinguished Senice Medal, begins a long controversy between him and Sec- retar>^ Daniels over administration of the navy during the war, including a congressional investi- gation. Dec. 24'. Act for financing foreign trade. Be- cause of great debt of foreign nations to United States and their active demand for American products purchased largely on credit, with great disturbance of exchange, act authorizes Federal mcorporation of companies to engage in foreign trade or financing of it, under supervision of Feti- eral Reser\'e Board. 194 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1919-1920. N 1919 icoritinued). General conditions in 1919: The year is chiefly one of reconstruction, accomplLslied, or at- tempted. Alost notable accomplishment is the demobihzation of the war army and the return of the navy to a peace basis. Reorganization of the army, with the question of compulsory service, left for future solution. Proposed new three-year naval construction plan dropped. High cost of living and attraction of higlily-paid civil employ- ment seriously affects the personnel of both serv- ices. Agitation for increased pay carries over into 1920. Civil reconstruction proves to be an imexpect- cdly difficult task. Some of the war agencies quickly dissolved; others have to be retained be- cause of industrial luirest and continuous advance in prices. Food administration, censoi'sliip. War Industries Board, Price Fixing Committee, War Labor Board, and War Trade Board go out of existence, tliough iu some cases f mictions con- tinued by other agencies; cables, telegraphs, and telephones returned to their owTiers ; Federal em- ployment ser\ice greatly contracted. Railroad Administration, Alien Property Custodian, Fuel Administration. Shipping Board, Grain Corpora- tion, War Finance Corporation, and Sugar Equal- ization Board continue; wliile the Coimcil of National Defense remains as a reconstiiiction agency. Operations of the Grain Corporation greatly lessened in importance by the fact that crop conditions and foreign demand for wheat nullify the need of the government price guaran- tee. Because of the sugar shortage (rationing renewed) and advance in price, a special act con- tinues tlie operation of the Sugar Board through 1920. War-time fair-price committees revived. Extralegal war powers of the president continue diu'ing the year. Labor the greatest of the reconstruction problems. Active demand for laborers, high cost of living, radical propaganda, evident sympathy of the president with advanced labor ideals, class disre- gard of the rights of the general public, belief in profiteering by manufacturers and dealers, unrest m Europe — these influence the demands of labor organizations on their employers, lead to strikes, and also to a radical labor legislative program, including continuation of war-time government operations of industry and transportation. An aftermath of the war is an alarming decrease in agricultiu-al laborers. Future of American shipping, built up and oper- ated by the Federal government during the war. studied, but not solved. Construction continues mider the Shipping Board; between June. 1914, and June, 1919, American seagoing tonnage in- creases from 2,000.000 to almost lO.OOO.OOO. In politics there is a growing estrangement be- tween the Democratic president and the RepubU- can Congress. Congress resents being ignored in the determination of problems of peace and of re- construction, while the i>resident shows intoler- ance of criticism and a determination to carr>^ out his own plans with all tlie same flxity of purpose as during the war. His long-continued illness, while not relieved of the responsibilities of his office, complicates the situation. The adoption by the States of the prohibition amendment and the sub- mission to them of the female suffrage amendment are important political events. Several new par- ties, all radically inclined, proposed. Influence of the approaciiing presidential election felt; antago- nism of the president and Senate on the League of Nations suggests it as a proniinent issue of the campaign. The coimtry, in spite of its problems, shows wide prosperityt the extravagance which attends this is a disquieting phase of the gejieral tmrest. 1930. January. Fourteenth census taken at the begimiing of the year instead of in Jime. Popula- tion approximately 105,700,000 in the continental area (not including territories and dependencies). Several thousand more alien radicals rounded up and kept in detention pending deportation or other proceedings. No more deportation up to July. Series of bipartisan conferences by leading sen- ators on the treaty problem; Article X. and pro- tection of Monroe Doctrine provQ obstacle to any agreement. Ja7i. 5. Supreme Court by 5 to 4 upholds war- time prohibition act ; recognizes no reservation of State police powers wliich is superior to a con- stitutional amendment. Jan. 9. Last few men of the Expeditionary Forces "withdrawn from France: American troops remain in occupation on the Rliine. On March 2S this force consists of 726officers and 16.756 men. Jan. 10. House by 330 to 6 a second time de- clares Berger hot entitled to a seat. Governor of Wisconsin declines to call another special election. Jaji. 17. Eighteenth (prohibition) Amend- ment goes into operation. Jan. 24- Kansas Act establisliing a Court of Industrial Relations toe.xercise State super\ision for the purpo.se of public peace and health and prevention of " inclustrial strife, disorder, and waste." over manufacture of food products and clothing, mining or production of fuel, transporta- tion, and public utilities. Strikes which affect public utilities are declared illegal. Ja7i. 24- Secretary of TreasuiT Glass opposes further loans to Europe. Jan. SI. Letter of Viscoimt Grey, formerly British minister for foreign affairs and later am- bassador to United States, made pubhc in wliich he upholds proposed reser\'ations to the treaty. February. Foreign exchange suffers an UU' 1920 {continued). precedented decline; poimd sterling falls to S3. 19 (normal exchange value, about S4,86) , francs 15.15 to the dollar (normally 5.18). lire 1S,S2 to the dollar (normally same as the franc), and the German mark (normally worth about 24 cents) is worth less than a cent in gold value. Cana- dian dollar also affected. [Siberia. I Feb. 1. Withdrawal of American troops from] Feb. 2. Secretary of Agriculture Houston be- comes secretary of the treasury in succession to Glass, resigned. E. T. Meredith becomes secre- tary- of agriculture. Feb. 3. Peace treaty reconsidered in Senate. Feb. 7. Ke\ised casualty list of the A.E.F. gives 77. US deaths. 221,050 wounded, and 4,432 prisoners during the war, Feb. 13. Wilson forces the resignation of Sec- retary of State Lansing for usurping authority during the president's illness. Bainbridge Colby succeeds, Feb. 2S. Esch-Cummins Transportation Act for return of railroads to private owners au- thorizes loans to railroads (" revolving fund ") dur- ing next two years up to $300,000,000; guarantees 5^% dividend for same period ; creates a Railroad Labor Board to which all labor disputes must be presented Ijefore a strike takes place (proposed pro- hibition of strikes eliminated from bill) ; rates and wages not to be reduced for six months: powers of Interstate Commerce Commission greatly ex- tended. Government operation has caused a loss of over SfiOO.OOO.OOO. Employees trj- to force a raise before Imes are returned, and shopmen strike for tiiat purpose, February 17, imavailingly. March 1. All railroads and systems of trans- portation returned to owners. Secretary' of the Interior Lane resigns: succeeded by J. B. PasTie. Supreme Court by 4 to 3 declares that the Steel Trust does not violate antitrust laws. March S. Supreme Court decides that stock dividends are not taxable as income. March 11. Majority of commission on coal miners' wages recommends 27% increase and no change in hours; minority recommends 35% and 7-hour day. Consimiers must pay for mcrease over 14%. March 19. Senate again rejects peace treaty, vote of 57 to 37 not being the required two thirds. Previous to this a further reservation adopted of sympathy for the Irish people's aspirations for a " go\'ernment of their own choice " ; another re- fusing to be boimd by decisions of tl:o League when any country and its dominions has more than one vote. March SO. Senator Newberry of Michigan con- victed with others of violating Federal corrupt practices act limiting campaign expenses. THE STATES OF THE UNION IN THE ORDER OF ADMISSION.* DELAWARE (i). Historical Outline. Delaware, popularly called tlio " Diamond State" and the " Blue Hen State," was settled by the Swedes in 1638, but conquered by the Dutch in 1655 and made part of New Netherland. In 1664 the English obtained control, and in 16S2 Delaware became a part of the territory granted to William Penn. In 1703 the coimties comprising the present State were given a separate legislative assembly, and in 1710 a separate executive coimcil. but retained a common governor with Pennsylvania tmtil 1776. Although preeminently a rtiral district, with little trade and less manufacturing, Delaware joined with the other colonies in resistance to Great Britain, and in 1765 entered into the nonimportation agreement, sent delegates to the Continental Congress, ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1779. and was the first State to ratify the Constitution, Decem- ber 7, 1787. Delaware has had four State constitutions, none of which have been submitted to the people tor ratifica- tion but all promulgated by constitutional con- ventions. The present constitution (1897) pro- vides for a governor elected for fotir years, a Gen- eral Assembly, consisting of a Senate of 17 elected for four years and a House of Representatives of 35 elected for two years. The Federalist party and its j successor, the Whig party, controlled Delaware imtU 1852; then the Democrats gained control tmtil 1S96, with the exception of 1872 when the State went for Grant. Since 1896 the presidential vote has been Republican with the exception of 1912, when it was Progressive. Delaware is chiefly an agricultural State, seven eightlis of the land being in farms. Corn and wheat are the chief crops, but peaches and other small fruits are very important. Delaware ranks second in the quantity of tomatoes packed . The chief man- ulactm'ed products are leather goods (the output of which equals all the other mantifactures combined), iron and steel work, and in recent years explosives. The State has two normal schools, agrictdtnral and mechanical colleges at Newark, and Delaware Col- lege, foimded in 1834. The common schools are free, and attendance is comptilsory. Chronology. 1638. April. Swedish settlements (New Swe- den) begin on Delaware River. 1655. October. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 1661. English conquer Dutch. 168^. .iug. 2i. Lower coimties on the Delaware deeded by York to William Penn. Dec. 7. United to Pennsylvania. 1703. Becomes a separate colony imder Penn proprietarj". same governor as Pennsylvania. 1776. Aug. ir-Scpi. 10. First constitutional con- vention. Constitution, not submitted to people, proclaimed September 21. 1787. Dec. 7. Federal Constitution ratified. 1791. Nov. S9. Second constitutional convention meets. Adjourns June 12, 1792. New constitu- tion proclaimed without submission to people. 1831. Nov. S-Dec. i. Third constitutional con- vention. Amended constitution put in operation without submission to people. 1865. Dec. IS. Slavery abolished by Federal Thirteenth Amendment. 1896. Dec. 1. Constitutional convention meets. Adjourned Jime 4, 1897. New constitiition. not submitted to people, effective Jtme 10, 1897. PENNSYLVANIA (2). Historical Outline. Pennsylvania, the " Keystone State," so called from its geographical position in the center of the thirteen original States on the Atlantic seaboard, was founded as a colony by William Penn in 16S1, imder a proprietary charter by which the govern- ment and the land were vested in the foimder. To attract settlers, Penn, himself a Quaker, appealed especially to that sect and other persecuted sects throughout England and Europe, promising them toleration in religion, a liberal frame of govern- ment, and generous land grants. His policy' was successful, and Pennsylvania sooii became one of the most populous colonies. From an early time it at^ traded a large non-English immigration. The first settlers were English Quakers, but they were soon followed by Welsh, Germans, and Scotch-Irish. The political life of the colony was turbulent. Al- though the Quakers were in the minority. Peim ap- pointed Quakers as governors, and the western counties felt that they had not adequate represen- tation, while his land policy aroused opposition. In the treatment of the Indians the Quakers were very successful, but their immiuiity from Indian troubles and their hatred of all war caused them to refuse aid to other colonies who were less fortimate. Philadelphia was the seat of the Continental Congresses of 1775 and 1776 and the Constitu- tional Convention of 1787. Pennsylvania was the second State to ratify the Constitution and exercised great influence in the early history of the cotm try- through its leaders, especially Benjamin Franklin, John Dicldnson, Rol)ert Moiris, Thomas Mifflm, and, later, Albert Gallatm. One president, Bu- chanan, was a Pennsylvanian. During the Revolution the battles of Brandy- wine and Germantown were fought in Pennsyl- vania, and Philadelphia was occupied by the Brit- ish. In the Civil War the great struggle at Get- tysburg was the only action of importance on Pennsylvania soil. The first constitution of Peimsylvania. framed in 1776, was unique in that it provided tor an execu- tive coimcil, a single-chambered legislature, and a coimcU of censors, who were to see that the constitu- tion was observed and that needed amendments were proposed. In the second constitution (1790) these peculiarities disappeared, and a governor with large appointing powers was established. The demand for a more democratic form of government produced the third constitution in 1838, and the present one was adopted in 1873. The governor serves for four years and appoints tlie secretary of the common- wealth, the attorney-general, and the superintendent of instruction: he also has the right to veto items in appropriation bills. The legislature, holding bien- nial sessions, consists of a Senate of .50, chosen for four years: and a House of Representatives of 207, chosen for two years. PajTnent of a State or coimty tax is reiiiuired for voting. Politically, as well as geographically, Peimsyl- vania was for many years the " Keystone State." Beginning in 1797 Pennsylvania cast its electoral vote for tile Jeflersoiiian party and its successor, the Democratic party, until 18R0, with the exception of 1840, when it supported the 'VVliig candidate, Harri- son. Since 1860 it has been consistently Republi- can with the exception of 1912 when it supported Roosevelt and the Progressive party. In State poli- tics Pemisylvania was generally Democratic until the Civil War; since then it has been Republican with but two exceptions. The Republican party is higliiy organized and obtams enormous pluralities — over .500.000 for Roosevelt in 1904. This continued Re- publican triumph and successful organization has been variously explamed as due to the benefits of the tariff to Pennsyhania's industries; to the easily controlled foreign vote; to the strong political organ- izations in the large cities which tend to neutralize independent voting; and to the apathy of certain religious sects. The University of Pennsylvania, foimded in 1740, was the earliest institution of learning in the United States to assume the title of university. Other notable institutions are the Pennsylvania State College: Temple University (Philadelphia), the imi- versities of Pittsburgh, Lehigh, Duquesne, and Bucknell; Dickinson, Franklin and ^Marshall, Alle- gheny, Lafayette, Haverford, Swart hmore.Wasliing- ton and Jefferson, Grove City, St. Vincent, Bea"ver, Pennsylvania, and BrjTi JIawr (for women) colleges ; the Cai'negie Institute of Technology. Drexel In- stitute, and Girard College as technical schools. Once the greatest agricultural colony, and still a rich fanning State. Peimsylvania has become tiie leading State in the production of coal, pig iron, and cement, and second only to W. Va. in natural gas. Its most important industries as reported in 1910 are steel and rolling mills, with products of S500.000,- 000; tex-tiles, 5267,000,000: foimdry and macliine work. 8210.000,000; blast furnaces, 8168,000,000. Chronology. 1638. April. Swedish settlements (New Swe- den) on the Delaware begin. 1655. September. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 1664. English conquer Dutch settlements on the Delaware. 1681. March I,. Royal proprietary charter of Pennsylvania granted to William Penn. [others).! 1682. English settlement begins (Quakers andl 1701. New plan of government (" Charter of Priv- ileges ") granted to the colony by Penn. 1776. Jxdy lo-Sept. SS. First constitutional con- vention iu the United States chosen solely to frame an instrument of government. Constitu- tion not submitted to people. 1787. Dec. 12. Federal Constitution ratified. 1789. Nov. 24. Second constitutional convention meets. Adjourns September 2, 1790. New con- stitution proclaimed without popular vote. 1837. May 2. Third constitutional convention meets. Adjourns February 22, 1838. New con- stitution ratified by people. 1873. Nov. 12. Fourth constitutional convention meets. Adjourns November 3, 1873. New con- stitution, ratified by people, in force January i; 1874. NEW JERSEY (3). Historical Outline. New Jersey was first settled by the Dutch in the northeastern part and by the Swedes along the Dela- ware River. In 1655 Peter Stuyvesant set up Dutch authority over the whole region, but in 1664 -it was surrendered to the English. Charles II. granted it along with New York to his brother James, Duke of Y'ork, W'ho in turn gave it to two of his friends as a proprietary provmce. After various changes, in- cluding division into East Jersey and West Jersey, it came into the hands of William Penn and liis asso- ciates who, in 1702, surrendered the government to the British administration. During the Revolu- tion New Jersey was the scene of Washmgton's battles of Trenton. Princeton, and Moimiouth. The first constitution (1776) established the ordinary tj-pe of State government, except that the governor was elected by joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature, and that the suffrage clause was later supposed to give women the right to vote. The present constitution ( 1844) gave to the governor unusual executive authority, through his power to appoint the secretary of state, attorney-general, su- perintendent of public instruction, chancellor, chief justice, supreme court, circuit, inferior, and district judges, as well as the usual administrative officers. New Jersey has liad a varied party history. At first it was strongly Federalist, then Jcffersonian Re- pubhcan in 1804, RepubUcan 1816 to 1828, Demo- cratic in 1832, and Whig until 1852; from that time Democratic imtil 1860, when it divided its vote be- tween Lincoln and Douglas. From 18()4 to 1896 it was Democratic, except in 1872: Repubhcan tmtil 1912, when it was Progressive. Its public men in- clude General George B. McClellan and President Woodrow W'ilson. Agriculture, market gardening, and fruit raising are important pursuits. The leading industries are the manufacture of textiles, silk, cotton goods, hosiery, petroleum products, foimdry and machine work, and chemicals, the smelting of copper and silver, and, more recently, shipbuilding. The leading institution of learning is Princeton University, foimded in 1746. Rutgers College (1766) is the principal seminary of the. Dutch Re- formed Church and Stevens Institute of Technology, the leading scientific school. Chronology. 1664. March IS. Region, held by the Dutch and already having settlements, included in grant to Duke of Y'ork. June 2J,. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret by Y'ork. Later divided. 1688. April 7. Included in Dominion of New England until 1689. 1703. Reimited as a royal province. 1776. May 2e-July 2. First constitutional conven- tion, Constitution not submitted to people. 1787. Dec. 18. Federal Constitution ratified. 1844. May lJ,-June 29. Second constitutional convention, new constitution, adopted by people, in force September 2. GEORGIA (4). Historical Outline. Georgia, the " Empire State of the South," called also, sometimes, the " Cracl