The Natural Education Series 
 
 NEW METHODS 
 in EDUCATION 
 
 BOOKS III & IV 
 Modelling with Design 
 
 By J. LIBERTY TADD 
 
 Director of the Public Industrial Art School 
 Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A 
 
 With a Wealth of Illustration 
 
 AUSTRALIAN EDITION 
 
 With Introduction by John Branch, Superintendent 
 
 of Drawing, Department of Public 
 
 Instruction, 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 ORANGE JUDD CO 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 SYDNEY, N. S. W 
 G. A: C. MERRIAM CO 
 
 ,906 
 
LIBRARY o! CONGRESS 
 Two Cooies Received 
 
 MAR 6 1906 
 
 ^^-CosyrlsrM Entry 
 
 KC Si' ' «<\ NO 
 
 1 
 
 CLASS (X. 
 
 13 f 7 
 
 ' COPY 
 
 11; 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1906 
 
 By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S9S 
 
 by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington 
 
 Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England 
 
 
Introduction 
 
 This volume contains two of the five Books which form the whole 
 of J. Liberty Tadd's "New Methods in Education" — a work so well 
 known that it is unnecessary to praise it here. 
 
 The course of study in Modelling prescribed for the Teachers of 
 New South Wales under the Department of Public Instruction comprises 
 " Modelling from Nature and Objects, with Design in high or low relief." 
 
 The first part of this volume consists of a book on Modelling, 
 describing methods and suggesting subjects for study ; the second part 
 is a book on Woodcarving, which has been included, not that the 
 student is expected to learn to carve, but that he may obtain some 
 knowledge of modelled design. The majority of relief ornament is 
 carried out in either wood or stone. Of course ornament in relief can 
 also be applied to metal, — by casting, beating, or by electrotype pro- 
 cess, — to leather and to almost any substance. But as stone, wood, and 
 metal are the substances most commonly ornamented in relief, and as, 
 even for cast metal, the design is first carved in wood, the chapters on 
 these processes will be found useful in the study of design. •» 
 
 . The student should study thoroughly the Modelling here given ; 
 working from Nature or from objects which he can readily obtain ; and 
 basing his designs upon the forms thus learnt, always endeavouring to 
 understand the limitations imposed upon him by the material in which 
 his design is intended to take permanent form, whether it be wood, — in 
 which case undercutting can be allowed to any extent, — or stone, which 
 should have much less, if any, undercutting; or, again, beaten metal 
 work (repousse), which should have none. In ceramics, designs in high 
 and low relief, or in the round, can be carried out. 
 
 If the student should be tempted to take up woodcarving as a 
 
Introduction 
 
 The 
 
 Reasons for 
 Teaching 
 Modelling 
 
 hobby, he or she will find it a most fascinating occupation, a powerful 
 antidote to the mental weariness caused by the absorbing work of the 
 day, and one of the best forms of rest — change of work. Again, if the 
 student can continue till he has a certain amount of dexterity, he will be 
 able to carve parts of household furniture, — picture frames ; tops of 
 chairs ; lids, fronts and sides of boxes ; panels of doors ; the lintel of his 
 fireplace, and such small things as watch stands, bread boards, teapot 
 stands, butter dish stands, etc. These should all bear original designs, 
 and be suited for their purposes. If well designed and well carried out, 
 they will be a source of permanent pleasure, 
 
 " A thing of beauty is a joy forever." 
 
 The Modeller deals with planes. His object is to obtain planes 
 similar, or relatively similar, to those of the surface of the object or 
 specimen from which he is working. The planes will be seen by the 
 light which they catch, and the shapes and density of the shadows which 
 they cast. This " light and shade " should be the same as that caught 
 and thrown by the real thing when placed in the same position, if the 
 modeller is working in the same relief, and relatively similar if working 
 in a lower relief. In the formation of a design, after the disposition of 
 the masses and spaces, next in importance is the harmony of light and 
 shade produced. This, of course, the modeller creates. 
 
 A blind person can judge modelling, and even in the case of per- 
 sons with good eyesight the most delicate modelling can better be felt 
 than seen. If ever the student is tempted to put a scratch for the vein 
 or rib in a leaf, let him subject it to the test of touch. 
 
 The student should always work for the large masses and planes 
 first, then those next in importance, and last of all he should attend, if 
 necessary, to the texture of the surface. Modelling should consist mainly 
 in building up, continually adding, and hardly ever cutting away. Carv- 
 ing is just the reverse: the material is continually being cut away. 
 
 This book ably deals with some of the reasons for teaching model- 
 ling, but I think the time has now come when its power to convey or fix 
 impressions during other lessons should be recognised as of great value 
 in the Primary Schools. Alone, it is a potent means of education ; but 
 when applied to the study of other subjects, in the hands of an able 
 Teacher it is an instrument of unique value. Most Teachers in these 
 days allow their scholars to assimilate their Nature Knowledge through 
 their tactual sense, by modelling. If it were only that an extra sense is 
 brought to bear upon the subject, there would be a distinct gain in the 
 amount, kind, quality and permanency of the knowledge so obtained ; but 
 
Introduction 
 
 it is not only the use of the extra sense, it is the employment of that 
 particular sense which conveys the truest impressions to the brain. A 
 pupil can get through some other lessons without paying more attention 
 than he cares to give ; but in Modelling his observation is compelled — he 
 must think and act for himself. 
 
 Whether the pupil be modelling a relief map or the parts of a 
 blossom, his mind must be in his work ; he is making an investigation, 
 he is obtaining direct impressions. His impressions are being amassed 
 through several senses, instead of through the sense of hearing alone as 
 under ancient methods. Thus his knowledge becomes more definite 
 and permanent, and he is developing a sense and faculties which pre- 
 viously were allowed to lie dormant. 
 
 Modelling in the study of Nature has been mentioned, but the 
 teaching of other subjects can also be greatly facilitated by this means, 
 — e. g., Mathematics, at almost every stage from the difference between 
 i unit and i ten to sections in solid geometry. 
 
 But, in order to obtain the greatest benefit from his modelling in 
 other lessons, it is necessary that the pupil should understand a good 
 process and the best methods for the work he has to do ; and for this 
 purpose a course in Modelling should be framed, which should be 
 graded, varied, and interesting. Such a course (while always keeping 
 in view that the mental process involved in obtaining an accurate 
 impression and compelling the hand to obey and express accurately that 
 impression is of the first importance) should also be designed to teach 
 a certain amount of technique. 
 
 The natural specimens should be chosen from the neighboring 
 flora, and opportunities can be made for imparting some useful knowl- 
 edge of the specimen. In grading the lessons the Teacher should 
 commence with lance-shaped leaves, such as the Moreton Bay fig ; then 
 proceed to cordate leaves as the violet, to trefoils as the oxalis ; then on 
 to the oak, coral, three-pointed ivy, five-pointed ivy ; and, for the sake of 
 variety, he should intersperse blossoms, — four-petaled, five-petaled, 
 simple and more complex. Designs, based on forms already learnt, 
 should also be required occasionally, and if the school is in the vicinity 
 of a factory, perhaps a pottery, where designs in relief or designs of 
 shapes are of commercial value, the Teacher would do well to make a 
 special study of these local requirements, and an endeavour should be 
 made to use the native plants in the formation of such designs. 
 
 Every design, if pleasing, will be found to embody some of the fol- 
 lowing elementary principles of ornament, which the Teacher should un- 
 
Introduction 
 
 derstand, but which the scholar should be allowed to discover for himself. 
 
 Repetition The accurate reproduction of a unit or units already formed, and 
 
 the accurate placing of these units in similar positions. 
 
 Symmetry Making the right-hand half of a figure exactly the reverse of the 
 
 left-hand side. This will include, not only the shapes of the masses, 
 but the inclinations of the various planes. 
 
 Having the masses balanced, but not necessarily symmetrical. 
 Heavy masses on one side of an upright stem, and insufficient mass on 
 the other side, would show want of balance. 
 
 Subordination q^is principle applies to the sizes of the masses, to the amount of 
 
 detail in those masses, to their positions and treatment for the purpose 
 of the design, and in many other ways. Examples of subordination of 
 parts can be studied from Nature. Take a rose leaf of five leaflets, the 
 end leaflet will be the largest, the next pair of leaflets will be medium- 
 sized, and the final pair will be the smallest. Look at the tips of an ivy 
 leaf; the end tip has the finest curves, and the best arrangement of 
 plane, the next pair are not so elaborate, and the tips nearest to the 
 petiole will have very simple curves and planes. 
 
 So in the formation of a design, the best or most beautiful piece 
 should be placed in the most important position, the other pieces all in 
 due gradation. 
 
 Radiation Lines or masses growing from the same point or line suggesting a 
 
 common origin: the masses or lines need not, of course, come away 
 from the line at right angles, but should suggest growth. Radiation of 
 masses can be seen in the marguerite blossom, the pepper leaf, palms, 
 leaves from the root of the freesia, parts of some shells, and in countless 
 other objects. 
 
 Repose A steady and dignified treatment as opposed to the misplacement 
 
 of small masses or details which would catch high lights and cast strong 
 shadows, asserting themselves at the expense of the main portions. 
 Too many similar curves radiating from one place or having the appear- 
 ance of motion, unless sufficient contrast were provided, would also sug- 
 gest want of repose. 
 
 Contrast A very valuable item in any design : the beauties of one form are 
 
 contrasted with those of another and all are enhanced. Masses are con- 
 trasted with spaces (almost as important in design as masses), lines with 
 masses, light with shade, etc. 
 
 Unity The co-operation of every piece in a design to produce some desired 
 
 effect. 
 
 Even if a design embodies every principle here mentioned, and 
 
Introduction 
 
 many more, and yet is unfitted for its purpose, the result will not be a 
 success. A table top might have a certain amount of carving and yet 
 objects might stand upon it, — for instance, the table might be ornamented 
 with a border, small spaces being removed to a very slight depth, 
 and parts of the original surface left to complete the pattern. If, how- 
 ever, the table top were carved all over in high relief, the design might 
 be excellent in itself, but the table would be spoiled. 
 
 It frequently happens that a student spoils his design by working 
 after a certain stage; he is probably paying attention to the details, bring- 
 ing them into prominence at the expense of the main portions, — losing 
 breadth. 
 
 Microscopic detail in design intended for stone-carving, to be placed 
 outside at a height of twenty feet, would be wasted, so in every case the 
 student should keep in mind, not only the purpose for which the design 
 is intended, but also the position from which it will be seen. 
 
 The student should practise working "in the round, " — making and 
 modelling all sides, in "high relief, " modelling the front and sides only, 
 as the work will in this case be viewed from the front, and should also 
 practise in "low relief," the most difficult of all, in many cases. In 
 dealing with high relief the light and shade produced might be the actual 
 light and shade of the specimen, but in low relief the highest light will 
 probably be less in intensity and the deepest shadow will be not nearly so 
 deep as seen on the specimen, yet there should be, if possible, the same 
 range of tones between; — compare the low relief head on a medal or 
 coin with a bust of the same " in the round." Low relief should be less 
 than half the real relief. 
 
 The ornamentation of an object is not the only scope for invention 
 in modelling. Shapes of vases, jugs and other utensils can be designed. 
 The student should not lightly conclude that the formation of any object 
 is perfect. Even an egg-cup can be improved. 
 
 A form, as soon as it is applied as an ornament, ceases to be a 
 picture of Nature and becomes, instead, an item in a scheme of decora- 
 tion. Each item then should be so treated that it will produce the best 
 effects. It will be noticed that symmetry is never truly found in Nature, 
 but symmetry is one of the most beautiful properties in ornament, and 
 it is ornament we shall be dealing with in most designs; therefore one 
 liberty the designer can take with the natural specimen when adapting it 
 to ornament is to make symmetrical what seems to have desired to grow 
 symmetrically. Generally speaking, he should take the beauties of form, 
 growth, etc., and make the most of them, omitting accidentals. The 
 
Introduction 
 
 scholar will generally simplify. This conventionalization should not be 
 carried so far that all trace of the plant from which the ideas were 
 obtained is lost. Neither is it good form to supply a five-petaled blos- 
 som with six petals, nor to show stalks growing from stems if they should 
 grow from the root. Learn Nature thoroughly; then adapt her for the 
 purpose required. 
 
 When modelling a relief map the surface of the modelling board or 
 modelling slate may represent the sea-level. The land can be built 
 from the highest portions to the coast (attending to the coast line last), 
 or the coast line can be drawn in the usual way, and modelling material 
 filled in to represent land. By the use of both methods, fresh ideas 
 will be gained in each case. Care should be taken that the scholar 
 does not make his coast line one continuous cliff shore, as the land 
 generally runs gradually into the sea. Usually the heights should be 
 built to a much larger scale than that employed for the area, and if a 
 mountain of 2,000 feet is represented as half an inch in height, the 
 scholar should be careful to make his 1,000 feet mountain a quarter of 
 an inch in height. These may be measured by means of a pin run 
 through the summit to the slate, representing sea-level. Cotton can be 
 used for rivers, and beads to indicate the position of towns. A plaster 
 cast can very easily be made of a map by following the method given at 
 the end of the chapters on modelling, as there will be no undercutting. 
 
 The student should carefully read this volume and endeavour to 
 master the spirit of it. The best objects obtainable should be used in 
 attempting the work here desciibed, which, however, does not profess to 
 embrace a graduated course of instruction. After the student has 
 mastered a certain amount of technique he should go straight to Nature. 
 If unable to procure casts of animals, birds, or fish; he can probably 
 find a stuffed specimen, which will be far better; if that is impossible, 
 he should neglect animal forms and pay more attention to objects and 
 design. This book furnishes methods and presents the work in its 
 educative form. The enthusiasm displayed by its author will most 
 assuredly affect the student if he goes to work in the manner advised ; 
 and in the school the study will become a keen artistic pleasure alike to 
 scholar and Teacher. 
 
 A further note on design, and an additional suggestion upon 
 Modelling, will be found on the last two pages of this edition. 
 
 John Branch, 
 
 Superintendent of Drawing to the Department of 
 Public Instruction, Sydney, New South Wales. 
 
Another Note 
 on Design 
 
 By Jobs Branch 
 
 As far as design is concerned the tendency in the present day is 
 towards originality. The world seems to be tiring of the attempts at 
 original arrangements of the lotus, anthemion, acanthus and the rest, 
 and is demanding fresh work through fresh minds from fresh themes. 
 Nature in Australia supplies an infinity of beautiful, new shapes and ideas 
 if we will only look — not even for them, but simply at them. They are 
 under our feet, staring at us from the scrub, or, like the eucalyptus, hang- 
 ing down towards us from the skies. A handful of boronia from one 
 plant, perhaps growing by the gate, will supply a class with material for 
 lessons in modelling, line-drawing and brush-work, botany and designing. 
 Families of heaths, epacris (native fuchsia), boronias, grasses suitable 
 for modelling, are heedlessly trampled upon every day by children going 
 to school. The waratah, five-corner, geebung, eriostemon, flannel 
 flower, banksia, wattle, tecoma, and hundreds of other handsome "bush 
 flowers " are waiting to assist in the development of a truly Australian 
 ornament. Their beauty and novelty are a perpetual invitation to the 
 modeller in quest of new and graceful designs. Even if nothing can be 
 done in original design, by modelling in the school from the flora of the 
 neighbourhood the Teacher can interest the scholars in the great and 
 wonderful " bush." In agricultural districts, wheat, oats, barley, maize 
 and edible roots will supply forms for modelling and food for thought. 
 The scholar should first learn Nature as it lies around him before he is 
 introduced to the wonders of districts which he cannot reach, but far-off 
 fields should not be entirely neglected. It should not be taken for 
 granted that the scholar, because he lives in the midst of a sugar plan- 
 tation, knows the form of the sugar cane. It is commonplace to him, no 
 doubt, but so is his spoon, and perhaps he cannot model even the spoon. 
 The scholar should be taught to see and know the things at which he 
 looks, and the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the value of 
 designing lies in the mental processes involved in the originating and 
 creating of a piece of work conceived in the child's mind. 
 
A Note on Modelling by Mr. Branch 
 
 Plasti r 
 Cast 
 
 Treatment 
 of a 
 Plaster Cast 
 
 Material 
 
 for 
 
 Modelling 
 
 At the end of the chapters on Modelling will be found directions 
 for making a plaster cast from a plaster mould. Here is another recipe 
 which will be of service when there is much undercutting in the 
 modelling: — 
 
 Mix carefully and slowly by heating one part of beeswax with 
 about one and one-half parts of powdered resin. While this is dissolv- 
 ing build a wall of modelling material around the work. When 
 the wax composition is thoroughly mixed and partly cooled again, 
 pour some of it over the work, but only sufficient to form a 
 complete, thick skin. When this has set, fill in the undercut parts 
 carefully with clay and when there is no more undercutting, wash 
 over with clay water and pour in plaster to give strength to this mould. 
 When the plaster has set turn it over and remove the modelling. Clean 
 and oil the wax mould, build another wall of clay around the edge of 
 this mould, pour in the plaster for the cast, insert two pieces of bent 
 wire by which to hang it, and when set, turn this plaster down. The 
 advantage of this mould will now be seen. Lift off the plaster support 
 of the mould. Withdraw the pieces of clay from the undercut portions 
 and strip off the wax, if necessary warming the wax in hot water before 
 removing. 
 
 If desired coloured, soak the cast in water first and then when 
 quite damp apply water colour, or while the cast is still damp apply dry 
 powdered colour. 
 
 For school work on a small scale, when one lesson a week is given, 
 some of the modern ever-plastic substances will be found more useful 
 than either clay or modelling wax, but great care should be exercised in 
 the choice, as material which will decompose would be dangerous in tlie 
 school. Germ-proof material should be obtained. Ordinary putty may 
 be useful for modelling relief maps if they are required for preservation. 
 
Clay models of real fish made by 
 grammar grade pupils 
 
 BOOK THREE 
 
 Modeling 
 
 " Perception and memory should be indissolubly associated. Two errors— to expect a child to remember what it 
 has never perceived, and to allow it to perceive without any systematic representation of the object in memory.*' 
 [Jacobi. 
 
 " Good thoughts are no better than good dreams unless they be executed."— [E 
 
 "Without action, thought can never ripen into truth."— [Emerson. 
 
 .; ;V : . 
 
 V v * 
 
 Wood CarviDg by School Boy 
 
E | 
 
 O a 
 
 U. § 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 < si 
 
 "ij r - it 
 
 9 15 
 
 
 
Illustration 249 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Introduction, 
 Plant. Etc* 
 
 THERE IS ONLY ONE WAY TO KNOW FORM— that is by 
 making it, not simply drawing it. If we are to know things as they 
 actually are, and at the same time to cultivate an energetic disposi- 
 tion to perform deeds, then modeling, clay modeling, must become a part 
 of educational work. The greatest artists have been the men who have been 
 able to model, like Michael Angelo, Donatello, Cellini, Leonardo da Vinci, 
 Leighton, Gerome and others. All sculptors have to know form, because 
 they have to make it. There are many artists who know form but slightly, 
 and that is the reason some of them fail in their work. 
 
 In many art schools modeling is now advocated as a means of teaching 
 form, even for painters, engravers and illustrators, for one may draw the 
 shape of an object many times, and still not be familiar with its appearance 
 all around. This is not the case in modeling, for in this you have to make 
 it all around and touch it all over. A vivid impression is gained through 
 
 * All the modeled work in the illustrations, and the tiles inserted in the text, have been modeled by the children 
 of the various grades. 
 
 (187) 
 
i 88 Modeling 
 
 the sense of touch and the muscular sense. I have continually spoken of 
 drawing as a mode of thought-expression. In like manner modeling in 
 clay is a mode of expression, only a more thorough mode than any other. 
 
 Modeling compels the use of both hands continually. The more we 
 use our hands the more control we have over those organs, and the more 
 vital we make the connection between the hands and the brain. In model- 
 ing we use several channels of impression, the sight, the touch, and the 
 muscular sense. All sculptors get a wonderful sense of form through feel- 
 ing or touch; the most beautiful curves and the most delicate portions of 
 some statues being made by the fingers alone. All bronze and marble 
 statues are first modeled in clay, and then cut in marble or cast in bronze. 
 The actual thought of the artist, the real manipulative work, is always im- 
 pressed on this plastic medium, that responds to the slightest touch. It is 
 this wonderful " feeling" that enables the sculptor mentally to grasp almost 
 imperceptible variations and gradations of form that are invisible to the 
 ordinary vision. This seeing-power, as it may be called, is partly the re- 
 sult of the tactual impressions on the mind. Touch has been considered by 
 some to be the master sense, one of the first developed, and few realize its 
 importance as a means of training the mind and the judgment. A great 
 part of the knowledge attributed to the sense of sight is received through 
 the touch alone. 
 
 In these chapters on modeling I have purposely refrained from grading 
 the work too closely. The elementary forms suggested for little children 
 are just as good for adult teachers or others, if they have never handled clay. 
 The exercises on manipulation of course cannot be attempted by very young 
 pupils. The following lessons may be taken in any order desired, and are 
 chiefly intended to indicate the variety of things that can be made and one 
 way of making them. The lessons are the result of experience with large 
 numbers, and the forms given are some of the best for class purposes. 
 
 The Plant Required for modeling is inexpensive. A board 12x14 and 
 about one inch thick, a palette knife to cut and smooth the clay, one or 
 two modeling tools for each pupil, and one or two cups for water for a class 
 are all that is required. Clay can be purchased at any pottery or brick- 
 yard. If it is not convenient to get it at these places, it can be purchased 
 through any art-material store. It should not cost more than a cent and a 
 half a pound, although some dealers charge from three to five cents a pound. 
 
«o I % 
 
 I 3 =i 
 
 Q 
 
 ^S x £ 3 <K 
 
 a • 
 
 «•%»> 
 
 ♦ IT* 4 ' 
 
 It ** J , 
 
 'Ml >v # 
 
 S 3 
 
 sag". 3 
 
»90 Modeling 
 
 It can be purchased in quantity at any pottery for about $20 a ton. This 
 clay, used in making pottery, is very fine, clean, sifted and screened, and is 
 the kind used by sculptors. Clay in some localities is gray, in others red or 
 yellow or blue. The gray clay is the best, but good work can be done with 
 the red, blue or yellow. If possible, however, procure the ordinary gray 
 clay. 
 
 Good clay is one of the cleanest mediums of which we have any knowl- 
 edge. It is antiseptic. If disease germs are placed in the clay and it is 
 allowed to remain in the sunlight to dry, the germs become devitalized.* It 
 brushes from the clothing with a very few touches, and if the pupils are not 
 allowed to scatter it on the floor, when the modeling boards are put away 
 no one need know that clay has been used. The children should be al- 
 lowed to wash their hands after using it. Like flour in mixing dough, it 
 has a tendency to make the hands feel a little dry in the beginning. This 
 soon passes away. 
 
 Many teachers object to the use of clay in schools because they say " it 
 makes a mess." Only in the hands of an ignorant teacher can it do so. 
 No one should attempt to teach clay work who is unable to model. The 
 clay must be in good condition every time it is given to the children. Only 
 an expert, one accustomed to model, can tell when the clay is in good con- 
 dition. It must not be too hard, it must not be too soft, it must not be 
 rotten, it must be just right. This can be " felt" only by one who himself 
 models. In this series of lessons I propose to illustrate, by means of a few 
 exercises, the manipulation and care of clay, the use of tools and appliances, 
 and then the making of a series of easy, simple elementary forms suited for 
 the very youngest children in primary schools, the exercises increasing in 
 difficulty up to the ordinary work of the grammar grades. 
 
 Teachers must not give these series of forms to the children one after 
 
 •The following is an extract from the report of the committee of hygiene of the Philadelphia board of public 
 education as to the value of clay modeling, made in 1S95 : 
 
 " V.,ur committee would urge as a matter pertaining to the health of the children attending our public schools t 
 the most extended introduction possible of the present system of clay modeling, believing that such manual training 
 is in every respect valuable and likely to be followed by the best results to mind and body. As the Director of the 
 Public School of Industrial Art has said, ' No medium better than clay will ever be devised to fulfill the plastic require- 
 ments of educational thought-expression, as is witnessed by its universal use in the arts and industries of all nations 
 since the beginning of history.' 
 
 "(Signed) Alexander H. McAdam, M. D., Chairman. 
 
 •'(Signed) Thomas G. Morton, M. D. 
 
 "(Signed) William K. Mattern, M. D." 
 
Introduction, Plant, Etc 
 
 19J 
 
 the other in quick succession. Many of the shapes need to be made a num- 
 ber of times, and others of like nature should be given. The series are 
 taken from a variety of forms used in my classes, and with some classes of 
 normal pupils the entire number can be made in a few weeks. Teachers 
 must not cease to remember that the children have several vears to become 
 
 Illustration 250 
 
 Geometric Fo 
 
 nd Bird Forms 
 
 Be 
 
 rigs at Modeling 
 
 This picture at the right represents the first attempts of a beginner ten years of age and made at one sitting. 
 First the large rosette, then the starfish, then the rosette with loops and then the small cantaloupe. The hands can 
 be seen making the loop. The clay has been rolled out to about the thickness of a lead pencil and then is bent into 
 position as desired. These pictures illustrate the simplicity of the work and the little plant that is required. 
 Almost any object in the garden or the yard can be modeled. 
 
 proficient in this work, and that it is unreasonable to expect fine results at 
 the first attempt. This is a constant failing with some teachers; they ex- 
 pect too much from little fingers. 
 
 A Good Box for the Clay. — In constructing clay boxes, see that 
 they are made without any metal or slate lining. There is no sub- 
 stance better than wood or clay. In some schools I have seen zinc-lined 
 boxes and slate, used through ignorance of this fact. Clay will not stick 
 to a wooden surface, it sticks to metal or porcelain-lined boxes like wax. 
 
192 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Any carpenter can make suitable boxes. Of course the form can be mod- 
 ified to suit any sized space in the class room. 
 
 I have found it useful to use a case that runs up like a book-case, with 
 shelves that are removable. It should be possible to put the shelves close 
 together or far apart, as desired, according to the size of the work. If the 
 work is on flat tiles, they can be put within two inches of each other; if it 
 forms a large mass, several shelves can be taken out and the work put in 
 without trouble. Doors can be put to the case to keep the work secure. 
 Its lower part may open with lids. This is for the mass of clay, which 
 should be easy of access on account of its weight. A spade can be used 
 to keep it in good condition. The box may be made large or small, accord- 
 ing to the size of the class or the number of pupils. A box 5x6 feet and 3 
 feet deep for the clay part will serve for a class of 200. The clay can be 
 kept moist by means of pieces of flannel or blanket spread over it. 
 
 Illustration 251 
 
 Portion of the Modeling Room, Public School oflndustrial Art, Philadelphia 
 
 The room accommodates fifty pupils, five at each table. Eight hundred grammar grade pupils and various 
 teachers' classes rotate into this room each term. 
 
-Making a Ball ol Clay 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Elementary 
 Courses in Modeling 
 
 It MANIPULATION OF CLAY.— Take a piece of clay in the hand. 
 / i/g I want you to learn something about its manipulation. Roll it out 
 between the palms of the hands until it is as thick as the finger and 
 about four inches long. Notice when you hold it by one end that it is limp, 
 and will not stand erect. Now observe that I pinch the clay together 
 and "wedge" it, making it a little firmer in consistency. "Wedging" 
 is a potter's term for soldifying the clay in this way. When I hold 
 it up you perceive that it will support quite a weight, that it is strong. 
 In every piece of work that we make we should endeavor to keep 
 the clay wedged. Now I will take the same piece of clay and roll it 
 out again two or three times on the board or betwen my hands. I rub 
 it out and then roll it out again. You will now see that the clay is no 
 longer plastic, but rigid, and that if I bend it, it breaks. This clay is now 
 " rotten," unfit for use. It has ceased to be elastic or pliable. Do not let 
 children use it when it is of a consistency like this. " Rotten" is the tech- 
 nical name given to clay that crumbles like bread, instead of being tempered 
 and pliable, or plastic. It can be improved very quickly by moistening and 
 kneading over again, and it is then what is technically called " tempered 
 clay. 
 
 13 (193) 
 
J 94 
 
 Modeling 
 
 The Spiral. — Take a piece of clay about the size of the last joint of the 
 thumb. Roll it out between the palms till it is about as thin as a slate pen- 
 cil, allowing it to be pointed at one end. Then try to make a spiral (Illus. 
 
 Illustration 2^, 
 
 The Spiral 
 
 The form shown in this picture and the next is an exercise to test the texture and temper oi clay. If the 
 form can be made with a few turns of the fingers, the clay is just in the right state for manipulation. 
 
 2 53)- ^ r ° u cannot d° this at fi rst > but with a little practice you will be able 
 to do it well. I have had pupils try to make this form for weeks before they 
 suceeded. Others can make it in a few minutes. The more you practice, the 
 more skill you will get. It is good exercise in enabling you to determine the 
 texture and the temper of the clay. When with a single touch and two or 
 three turns you can make this form so that it will stand erect, and remain 
 without falling, it shows that you can manipulate the clay when it is just at 
 the right temper and texture. If it is a little too hard it breaks in a most 
 
Elementary Courses 
 
 195 
 
 aggravating fashion. If it is a little too soft it does not stand up. There 
 is a happy medium, and the sense of touch must become educated until it 
 can feel the proper quality and produce it without any trouble. If you find 
 that the clay breaks, put it to one side and try another piece. Do not use 
 the same piece twice. When you can make a good spiral, you understand 
 the texture of the clay. 
 
 Leaf Forms. — Take a piece of clay about as large as the last joint 
 of the thumb, and roll it out in the palm of the hand until it is spear-shaped 
 or resembles a spear head. Now take the form between the fingers and 
 thumbs, as illustrated in 254, and beginning at the tip, with both hands make 
 
 Illustration 254 
 
 Leaf Forms 
 Exercise for manipulation of clay. 
 
 a leaf form. This is a little difficult at first, but with practice each pupil 
 can make a midrib, show each of the veins and the serrations on the edge 
 of the leaf, leaving it thick in the center and thin on the edge. At first there 
 
J96 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 25; 
 
 is a tendency to break and crumble tbe edge, but when it has been attempted 
 a few times the fingers will respond and a very good leaf will be the result. 
 This is a good exercise in manipulation. It compels the use of both hands, 
 and the complex form is the product. 
 
 Circular Forms, — Take a piece of clay about as large as the thumb 
 and roll it out between the palms until it makes a good, slender roll about 
 
 four or five inches long. Now bend it 
 and make both ends meet till it forms 
 a ring. Then by the use of the fingers 
 alone manipulate the clay so that the 
 joint will not show and so that the 
 ring is true and even all around. This 
 is another good exercise, and one 
 that requires skillful handling. It 
 is still more difficult to make an- 
 other ring interlacing with this one. 
 M ung a cireiiiar Fonn Hints to the Teacher. — When 
 
 the children are making these forms do 
 not allow them to break the clay in pieces; let them keep it in a lump except 
 the portion they are using. Allow no crumbs to fall about the board, the 
 desk or the floor. All the pieces must be put back in the main lump. If 
 they are rotten, they can be placed at the left by themselves. From the 
 very beginning, resist the tendency of the beginner to " make a dirt." In 
 a few lessons it will be found that pupils can model elaborate and complex 
 forms without dropping or scattering the clay at all. It is simply a habit 
 of neatness that must be taught, and if insisted upon from the beginning 
 there need be no trouble with the " propensity to make dirt" that is wrongly 
 attributed to clay-work. 
 
 When the children begin to make good forms do not allow their work 
 to be destroyed. Place all pieces made on a shelf to dry. Then if they 
 are not kept permanently, they can be sorted out, the good ones given to 
 the pupil to take home and the bad ones mixed with the main mass in the 
 clay-box. The same mass of clay can be used for years in this way, and 
 continue perfectly healthful and free from any odor. Never allow the clay 
 to remain for long periods in a damp state unused. If it is not to be used 
 for a few months, permit it to dry. It can readily be moistened again when 
 
Elementary Courses 
 
 J97 
 
 required. The damp from the clay yields a musty and moldy odor which 
 is not pleasant. If the clay is constantly used, it will keep fresh and sweet 
 indefinitely. Covering with a moist, clean cloth will prevent drying. 
 
 Do not attempt to keep the clay in a crock or a tin vessel. A wooden 
 box is far better. I have clay boxes in some of my schools that have been 
 in use for fifteen years, and except that the bottoms are a little decayed, they 
 are as good as new. 
 
 Tiles and other unfinished work should be kept on wooden shelves 
 in the clay-box or closet. If possible in the class room devoted to 
 modeling, shelves or ledges should be put around the room, on which 
 finished work can be placed. In this way in a very short time the rooms 
 
 Illustration 256 
 
 First Exercises, Making Bails, Rosettes, etc. 
 
 can be decorated with creditable work produced by the pupils. This is 
 inspiring to all and makes the place look like an art workshop. 
 
 Elementary Forms. — The following are suggestive of the simplest 
 forms that can be made from clay without the use of tools, for the most 
 elementary classes. Make some balls, by rolling the clay in the hand, about 
 
J98 
 
 Modeling 
 
 the size of a large marble. Groups of these can be made. Make groups 
 of three, groups of four, groups of five. Make a pyramid, make a star, and 
 so on. Children of six years of age and upwards take pleasure in making 
 these forms. 
 
 Illustration 257 
 
 First Exercises in Modeling 
 
 Other forms can be made by taking a piece of clay and rolling it out 
 about as thick as a lead pencil and about four or five inches long. Make a 
 little loop. This can be combined with others, making the following forms. 
 (Illus. 257.) Little rosettes can be made by adding a center. Do not let 
 the children make crumbs or pieces. Instruct them continually to keep 
 their clay together and see that it is in perfect condition. It must be quite 
 soft for very little fingers, and still not soft enough to stick. Make no at- 
 tempt to do anything with the clay when it is sticky. Disgust is sure to fol- 
 low if it is handled in that state. 
 
 Many simple rosette forms can be made. Make a form about the 
 size of a small marble and then press it till it is nearly flat. Make a 
 little disk or center. Combinations of these can be made. Make the 
 
Elementary Courses J 99 
 
 same form a little pointed at one end. A large series of rosettes can be 
 made with the addition of a little ball or boss for a center. Bend the 
 leaves up, make them cup-shape. Make some with points. With some 
 thought an endless variety of these forms can be devised which will give 
 a great deal of pleasure to the child and variety to the lesson. Be care- 
 ful not to let the children tire of any of the forms. A teacher of course can 
 make one of these forms in a half-minute, but for very young children two 
 or three of the forms are quite sufficient for one lesson. 
 
 A number of natural forms can be made. Roll out a piece of clay into 
 a ball, about the size of a marble. Press it till it is nearly flat, make a little 
 stem by rolling out another piece, and we have a very good imitation of a 
 mushroom. Bend the top over the stem a little and stick it on the board in 
 a standing position. Make several sizes, forming a group. Easy fruit 
 forms can be made by rolling out pieces till they form a ball about the size of 
 a marble, then putting long stems to them, making bunches of two and three 
 like cherries. Plums can be made with the small stems. 
 
 Animal Forms. — An interesting series can be made from various 
 animal forms. Of course these must be reproduced from memory. It is 
 wonderful how quickly the children grasp the idea of form after a few lessons 
 in making these elementary shapes and how soon they get an amount 
 of detail. But do not expect them at the first few lessons to master detail, 
 since they begin to apprehend this only after they have taken notice of 
 things, through the desire to make them in clay. Do not mind how pool 
 the forms are the first few days. 
 
 Let us begin with a chicken. Take a piece of clay about the size of a 
 small hen's egg. This will form the body. Now take another piece of 
 clay and roll it in the palms till it is about the size of a small marble. Place 
 this on the large piece for the head. Next add a little piece of clay for the 
 bill, two dots or two little balls for eyes, and a few marks on the side for 
 wings. If desired, a very short tail can be pinched out at the end. This 
 can be made with a few touches to look like a very small chicken. 
 
 Next we can attempt a little duck form. This is more complex than 
 the chicken, and can be made about the same size. Make the neck longer 
 and give it a nice curve, make the bill a little longer and thicker. The tail 
 can be made longer, and the wings marked a little more carefully. 
 
 A somewhat similar form can be made to represent the swan. It has 
 
200 
 
 Modeling 
 
 a body of the same shape as the duck, rather a little larger, with a long 
 curving neck, which needs to be made separately and fastened on the body. 
 See that there is a double curve in the neck and that it bends back over the 
 body. Give it a nice swan's neck curve. Two wings can be made by 
 
 Illustration 258 
 
 All of these fori 
 
 Elementary Forms 
 suitable for very young childrer 
 
 Clay 
 
 : first attempts made by begii 
 
 flattening out some clay, and they can be pressed onto the sides of the body 
 so that they stand out. The result looks much more elaborate, but it is 
 quite as simple to make as the chicken or the duck. 
 
 Understand the object of these lessons. It does not matter how 
 grotesque these forms are at the start. The early art work of all races of 
 people is grotesque and their products are often examples of how children 
 should or do draw in the beginning. Very many adults, as well as chil- 
 dren, cannot recall the shape of a duck in the beginning, but no one can en- 
 deavor to make it from memory without memorizing, the next time he sees 
 a duck, a swan or a chicken, some part that he had never noticed before. 
 
Elementary Courses 20J 
 
 A specially valuable part of the lesson is the fact that it compels one to mem- 
 orize form. If I am modeling a frog from memory, and do not know the 
 number of toes, I may make three, four or five, but the next time I see a 
 real frog I will satisfy myself on that point and fix that knowledge so firmly 
 in my mind that I am not likely to forget it. 
 
 Usually I do not tell my children details of this kind. I prefer 
 that they should learn the truth by investigation. Some people do not 
 know how many toes a dog has, or a chicken, or a canary. If they are 
 compelled to draw or model the form from memory, they discover 
 their ignorance, and by observation of the real form they learn to 
 grasp the detail. So it is with little children. At first the forms 
 will be very crude, but when they begin to make things that they 
 have investigated, it is wonderful what an amount of detail they will em- 
 body. Remember, these are simply generalized forms. Imagination is 
 the result of a series of impressions. It is only when we have received a 
 sufficient number of impressions through the different sense channels that 
 we begin to be able to represent the essential facts of form. This work I 
 sometimes call compulsory memory work. 
 
 Children should be encouraged to make clay figures of any kind they 
 desire, clay horses or sheep or men and women, like the Mexican toys which 
 imitate these figures. They should be allowed to give expression to their 
 feelings and imagination with the pencil in making horses, buffalo, Indians, 
 etc., ships, war vessels, etc. They will often be found to draw them with the 
 same character and simplicity that the Indians do. They grasp essentialities 
 and ignore details — the first thing desired in good work. 
 
 Other Animal Forms. — A starfish is a good form to model. Make 
 the five tapering members first, about the same size, by rolling out to a 
 point, and then join them in the center. Bend the form till it assumes a 
 natural position and make the detail with the tool. Make several sizes of 
 this form. Do not make them so large that they cannot be modeled with 
 the fingers. 
 
 A snake about six or seven inches long is very good practice. Roll 
 it out first in the hands and then on the board. Let it taper to a fine point, 
 make the head a little thick, the neck a little thin, flatten the head, make 
 the features, mouth and eyes with the tool, and then bend in a natural posi- 
 tion. A good plan is to coil it with the head standing erect as though it 
 
202 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 259 
 
 Modeling the Snake 
 
 were going to strike. Another good position is to curve it, as though it 
 were moving along the ground. A snake makes a series of beautiful 
 curves in moving, and very nice forms can be made by modeling. Make 
 
 two or three. In the begin- 
 ning, of course, only the 
 most elementary kind of 
 forms can be made to sug- 
 gest a snake, but as the 
 lessons progress w i t h 
 practice the body can be 
 thickened a little in the 
 middle, tapering to the tail, 
 scales can be modeled, a 
 forked tongue can be placed 
 in the mouth, and so on. 
 Children are fascinated by 
 thesesmall living forms, and afterafewattemptsgraspmanyunnoticed details. 
 The fish form is one of the best of all shapes to make. Roll out a piece 
 of clay about the size of an egg till it is a little pointed at each end, flatten 
 slightly between the two hands, then add the pointed tail, making it quite 
 sharp and thin on the edge. (Illus. 261). Let the body be thick in the 
 middle and taper to the tail. Make the two dorsal fins thick near the body 
 and tapering to a thin edge. Do the same with the pectoral fin on the side, 
 and with the anal fin underneath. The gills can be marked with the tool 
 and the eye can be pressed in with its point, or a little ball can be made to 
 represent the eye, stuck on and then modeled. The mouth can also be 
 made with the tool. 
 
 There is an endless variety of beautiful fish forms. In making this 
 elementary fish form, however, a very simple shape can be selected, a gen- 
 eralized fish, or a typical fish form if you wish. A very realistic effect can be 
 made by putting the rays and spines on the fins and tail with the tool. The 
 scales can also be marked, and if the fish is curved a little it will look quite 
 realistic. Numerous pictures of modeled fish ocur in this work. 
 
 A small frog can be made. Take a small piece of clay, roughly shape 
 it with the fingers about the size of the body of a medium-sized frog. The 
 mouth can be made with the tool, two little balls can be stuck on for eyes, 
 
Elementary Courses 
 
 203 
 
 the rough places on the back can be modeled with the tool, then the two 
 hind legs can be made. Make the legs bent in the position of a frog sitting 
 down. Then make the two little fore-feet with smaller pieces of clay, add- 
 ing the toes last. 
 
 Next make a small turtle. Do not mind if some of the children have 
 not even seen a turtle or cannot recall the number of feet it has. Make the 
 body about the size of an egg, flatten, cut the division between the two 
 shells with the tool, make the cavities for the four legs, a cavity for the head 
 and another for the tail. Make a pointed tail, make a head something like 
 a snake's head, partly flattened, and then the four flippers. Of course the 
 teacher should be able to make each one of these forms quickly as a sug- 
 gestion to the class, giving some idea of the size, and as much detail as pos- 
 sible. The pupils, however, are not to copy this model. They can look 
 at it and recall the mental image, as far as they have gained one, of the turtle 
 or tortoise. 
 
 A lizard makes a good form to model. Roll out the body just as we 
 
 Illustration 260 
 
 Modeling Various Natural Objects 
 
 form the body of a snake, make the tail taper to a point, make the neck a 
 little thin, flatten the head, form the mouth, eyes, etc., with the tool. Then 
 the legs can be formed by smaller pieces of clay bent and added onto 
 the sides. 
 
204 
 
 Modeling 
 
 A little mouse can be made. Model the body, then add the long tail, 
 the two ears, make the detail with the tool. If desired the feet can show 
 peeping out from beneath the body. 
 
 These small life forms are suggested because children are especially 
 fond of them, and although the product will be very crude at first, impres- 
 sions are being made that cause the children to become very attentive to the 
 forms when they meet with them again. Their ideas unconsciously become 
 clearer and more vivid. Remarkable instances of observation of detail will 
 constantly be made by pupils from particular forms that interest them. 
 
 Illustration 261 
 
 Elementary Modeling of Animal Fo 
 
 Vessel Forms. — A good exercise is to make a little vessel form. 
 Take a piece of clay about the size of a small egg, press it in the center till 
 you form a cavity, bending up the edge all around at the same time with the 
 fingers, till it forms a hollow, cup-shaped form. (Illus. 261.) Do not let 
 it become flat like a saucer. Make the base by pressing it on the board, 
 and, by rotating it a little between the four fingers and thumb, it can grad- 
 ually be made small and cup-like. Do not let it be thick and thin in places. 
 Smooth away the little hills and hollows, and resist the tendency of the cup 
 to spread out. Let it be about 1 inch or 1 \ inches in height and perhaps 2 
 inches in diameter and about f inch thick. This is a splendid exercise for 
 manipulation. Work with it till the rim or top is a good circle. Let the 
 
Elementary Courses 205 
 
 base form a true circle. This requires a little more manual dexterity than 
 one would think to make it good in shape. Endeavor to make the inside 
 smooth and the rim a nice flat edge all around. Make different sizes. With 
 a little practice small vessels for various purposes can be made, — little basins, 
 bowls, vase forms and so on. If these forms are allowed to dry, they can 
 be fired and glazed in any pottery for a few cents each. Beautiful little 
 vessel forms suitable for pin trays, flower receptacles, salt cellars, match 
 safes, etc., can be made. 
 
 Next take a piece of clay a size larger than that used for making the 
 cup, and make a small shoe. The pupil can imitate a wooden shoe, or 
 slipper or boot. Press in the cavity for the foot with the thumb and fingers. 
 The point can be made to turn up, in the usual manner of a wooden shoe or 
 Turkish slipper, or any other shape can be made as desired. Draw the at- 
 tention of the children to the fact that the foot is wider in front than at the 
 heel, and so on. It is wonderful what a variety of shapes the children can 
 make after a few lessons. They will put rosettes of different kinds or 
 buckles on the front, and sometimes make the shoe to button or lace. It 
 requires the merest kind of suggestion to make the children observe in a 
 very little while all kinds of shoe shapes, and to reproduce them. That is 
 the object of the lesson, — to compel observation. A very good plan, if the 
 children are making realistic shoes, is to draw attention to their own. Let 
 them look at the foot and the shoe. Let them see how narrow it is at the toe or 
 the instep. Let them look at the shape of the heel. This form also makes a 
 nice little receptacle for pins or flowers, if fired. Allow the pupils to keep it 
 when it is satisfactory and is not too rough. 
 
 The next form may be a bird's nest. Take a piece of clay, roughly 
 shape it by making the cavity with the thumbs and fingers, working it 
 around in the hands until it assumes a cup-like form. Now place it in the 
 middle of the desk or modeling board, and with the tool make the ragged 
 edge. Try to imitate the texture of the sticks and grass, and then bend the 
 edge over till it is about the size of a nest. Do not let it be too regular, 
 make the form irregular. Allow some pieces to stick out in an accidental 
 fashion. Three, four or five eggs can now be made and placed in the nest. 
 Be sure they are of the same size. (See Illus. 260.) 
 
 Take a piece of clay and make a rough tree stump. Pull up the edges 
 to form the ragged stem of the tree. Let it be hollow and cup-shaped. Let 
 
206 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 262 
 
 the edge be very irregular. Pull out a few roots, or model one or two more 
 pieces of cla\ and add them for roots. Be sure they stick on, and that 
 the clay is incorporated with the main mass. Do not simply press the piece 
 on, but incorporate it with the tool so that when it is dry they will not fall 
 apart. Do not make the roots or rootlets look like legs. Let them be ir- 
 regular, one on one side and two or three on the other. Make the texture 
 of the bark with the tool by a series of short, irregular marks. This also 
 forms a very nice little receptacle for flowers, pins or matches. 
 
 A small basket may be made. Take a piece of clay, press in the cen- 
 ter, making it hollow, and raise the edge; let this be about as thick as the 
 cup form that we made. The basket can be made square, oblong, or ellip- 
 tical, as desired. Roll out a piece of clay, bend it over, make a strong 
 handle. Do not make these handles too thin. In modeling never make 
 anything thinner than the handle of a small teacup, — a fine China teacup. 
 
 Anything smaller than this is sure to 
 break with handling. The texture 
 of the basket can be imitated with the 
 tool. This makes a nice receptacle 
 for various purposes. All of these 
 forms can be placed on tiles, slabs or 
 plinths. 
 
 In making a tile (Illus. 262) take 
 a piece of clay, press it in the center of 
 the modeling board, then take another 
 piece and add to it, incorporating 
 one with the other. Do this contin- 
 ually, turning the piece of clay and 
 pressing it flat till it is about the de- 
 sired size. Do not allow the clay to 
 stick to the board, fingers or tool. When you have a rough piece made 
 about the size or a little larger than the size you desire, take the knife and 
 flatten it. Keep turning the tile continually and give it plane surfaces by 
 pressing it against the board with the knife. When it is flat enough and of 
 even thickness, draw with the point of the knife on the top the size of tile 
 you desire. It can then be cut with the end of the knife blade. Do not 
 cut with the entire blade of the knife; use the end of the knife and let it pass 
 
 The pupil has 
 now trimming th 
 
 A Modeled Tile 
 
 :omp!eted the design in clay 
 dges from the tile. 
 
Elementary Courses 
 
 207 
 
 through the clay so that there is little friction. (Illus. 262.) When the 
 children have a little more skill and desire to keep the forms they make, it 
 is a good plan to mount them on tiles,— the animal forms, the fruit forms, 
 rosettes, etc. 
 
 Illustration 263 
 
 Modeling in Clay from Birds 
 
 The panel below has been mod- 
 eled, from the real bird shown at 
 the left, by a pupil of the grammar 
 
 grade. It is quite a good tile for 
 such a young pupil. Perfection 
 must not he expected from the chil- 
 dren, especially when they have 
 had but little experience. But the 
 eagerness with which the children 
 Strive to faithfully imitate nature, 
 and their enthusiasm over this con 
 tact with the real thing, are by no 
 means the least valuable character- 
 istics developed in the young by 
 the natural education. 
 
 The Real Bird 
 
 Directions for modeling birds from the real, or 
 
 other animal forms, are given in Chapter VI of 
 
 this section. Work of this kind is much more 
 
 advanced than the elementary exercises in this 
 
 In making these elementary 
 forms simplicity of work is one of 
 the things to consider. Remem- 
 ber, the entire work is chiefly to 
 compel the children to think of 
 and to memorize form. Children 
 instinctively endeavor to give 
 expression to thought in all directions. The mind is worked upon 
 and developed through the senses by externals, and it is to compel this union 
 of thousrht and action that we make these seemingly trilling exercises.* 
 
 The Clay Model 
 
 » Ideas are, on the efferent or motor side, nascent movements— that is, intuitions of such movements as have 
 been performed; on the afferent or sensory side, they are images of the sensory impressions which have been expe- 
 rienced, the revival of such sensory impressions on the occasion of a suitable external stimulus being perception.— 
 [Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, page 443. 
 
208 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Many adult minds are paralyzed or wanting in certain directions at maturity. 
 Never having been required to perceive accurately, they do not remember 
 correctly, and so they cannot judge soundly or imagine truly. As I have 
 repeatedly quoted, " accurate perception and exact memory are the funda- 
 mental liases of sound reasoning and imagination." Do not be troubled 
 if the results are not artistic. They are sure to be pleasing to the children, 
 for children are like savages in some of their stages of development. 
 
 Many people speak of the necessity of art atmosphere in the school 
 room, and in some places or cities fragments of the antique, — statues like 
 the Elgin marbles, the frieze from the Parthenon, the Venus of Milo. etc., 
 — are placed in the school room. 
 
 I find, however, that these forms do not impress the children. I would 
 rather see the same money spent on natural forms — real butterflies, birds, fish, 
 shells, good specimens of minerals, etc. We must make the children love 
 nature at first hand. We must inoculate them with the desire for beauty 
 through the real living forms in nature. Then, later, we can expect some 
 result when they come in contact with the great art works, — the thought 
 of great minds expressed in concrete forms. But it is useless to put before 
 their eyes the perfection of Greek art unless we first give them the hunger 
 and thirst, the vital love for beauty as it is exhibited in every natural flower, 
 leaf, and shell, and in the various living forms that attract and fascinate the 
 young. 
 
 Various Leaf Forms, Models 
 
Illustration 266 
 
 Clay Modeling 
 
 Modeling original design 
 
 • grade childr 
 
 CHAPTER IH 
 
 Modeling Fruit and 
 Vegetable Forms 
 
 Tp RUIT FORMS MAKE A GOOD SERIES OF OBJECTS to work 
 J* from. Endeavor to have the real fruit if possible. We can start 
 
 with an apple. Let the children take up the apple in their hands 
 first and observe its shape. Draw their attention to the stem end, how deep 
 it is; to the blossom end, how shallow it is. Let them continually handle 
 the form, during the lesson. It is good to study the colors of fruit forms. 
 Draw their attention to the beautiful shades and hues of green or red or 
 i« (209) 
 
2J0 Modeling; 
 
 yellow, as the case may be, on the apple. Make them aware of the facts 
 before them by speech as often as possible. Take a piece of dry clay and 
 roughly shape it in the fingers. Do not let be too large, — make an average- 
 sized apple. Some of the apples will be large and some small, but it is best 
 to choose one of medium size. Do not let the children make any of the 
 forms in miniature. It is very absurd to see a lot of apples modeled by a 
 •lass, as small as cherries, to see grapes modeled as small as peas or currants, 
 ind pears as small as strawberries. In every case let the children make the 
 'onus about the average size of real fruit. 
 
 Use the tool now to make the form smooth, working it all over the 
 apple without scraping the clay. Mold it. Do not allow clay to stick to 
 the tool or to the fingers. Be very particular about this. It is a sign of 
 error if the children have clay on the wrong side of the fingers or sticking to 
 their hands anywhere; or if it is sticking to the board, the tool or the knife. 
 The clay must be made compact, by often caressing it with the tool. 
 It is somewhat difficult at first to prevent the tool from scraping the 
 clay, but with a little practice it can be done. Do not mind if the form 
 is a little rough or shows the tool marks, in the beginning. Remember, 
 this is simply to get dexterity with the hands and the tool. We do not 
 care for the product of the first efforts. 
 
 Make the cavities at each end with the tool and endeavor to keep the 
 convex curve like the model. One or two little touches with the tool will 
 give the appearance of the blossom end, and then a little piece of clay rolled 
 out and inserted will form the stem.' Let it stick to the side of the apple 
 so that it will not break off when dry. There is a great deal of character in 
 the stem of an apple. It is usually short and thick, therefore do not make 
 the stems too long, as is frequently done. It is absurd to see apples with 
 stems almost as long as cherries. Do not let the children use the stem of 
 the real apple in the clay apple, as they are frequently taught. This is sim- 
 ply trickery. Any child able to make an apple will take pride and pleas- 
 ure in making a good stem to it. The only people 1 have found who com- 
 plain of certain of these exercises being too difficult for the children, are the 
 teachers who could not make the forms themselves. 
 
 Continually draw the attention of the children to the minor facts of 
 form visible on the apple, and by degrees they will perceive, apprehend and 
 reproduce these forms. Do not, except in special cases, perform the work 
 
Fruit and Vegetable Forms 2JI 
 
 for the pupils, but make them consider the form for themselves. It is the 
 idea of an apple that you wish them to assimilate. The clay form or prod- 
 uct is not of much consequence. Think of this continually. It is the 
 concept of apple firmly locked into the mind in all its various aspects 
 
 Illustration 267 
 
 Plaster Casts for Modeling 
 When the real fruits or vegetables are not available. 
 
 through the senses that you desire to produce. It is a very good plan at 
 the end of the lesson to let the pupils, if the lesson has been satisfactory, ac- 
 tually assimilate the apple and test its gustable qualities. This adds to the 
 permanent impression, remember, and is a very good lesson, and one that is 
 usually enjoyed. It will do no harm to speak of the structure and the text- 
 ure, the color and the taste of the apple at this stage. 
 
 Illustration 268 
 
 Vegetable and Fruit Forms for Modeling 
 
 Another point to speak of before we leave the apple is, not to allow 
 the children to make freak forms. Usually in a large number of apples 
 there are one or two that are very much distorted. Draw attention' to the 
 typical apples. It is not necessary in the beginning for the child to make 
 
2J2 Modeling 
 
 all the accidental kinks, creases or curves that are on the apple. It will be 
 sufficient if they make a good generalized form in the beginning. 
 
 The Pear — Is more complex than the apple and requires a little 
 more thought and care. See that the pupils have good models, nicely 
 shaped pears. It is better to have a few good ones for the class, even if 
 they cost more, than to give out a lot of poor shapes that are perhaps cheap. 
 Take a piece of clay, roughly shape it like the pear, depressing it at one 
 end. Use the tool to smooth the surface, as described in making the apple, 
 always getting the main form of the pear first with the hand's. Do not 
 make the forms too large. It is the tendency with all beginners. to exag- 
 gerate the size. 
 
 Do not hesitate to take the tool in the left hand continually. It- feels 
 very awkward in the beginning, but in all modeling the tool has to be used 
 sometimes with one hand, sometimes with the other. Later on, in large 
 forms, the tool is held a great deal with both hands. Notice that the blos- 
 som end is not so deep as in the apple, that the stem end has a distinct 
 character, and that the stem is usually a little longer than the apple stem. 
 Of course there may be exceptions. Notice also the difference in color of 
 the pears and in the texture of the skin, some pears being quite rough in 
 texture, others smooth. 
 
 With a little practice texture can be imitated very successfully. The 
 smooth chubbiness of a tomato can be rendered; also the texture of cloth, 
 velvet, fur, and so on. Of course at first the children can not try for any of 
 these qualities. I simply mention them to show the possibilities in clay, it 
 being the most plastic medium of which we have any knowledge, and one 
 which, for that very reason, has been used by sculptors from the beginning 
 of history. 
 
 Hints to Teachers. — Make the children handle the model, let them 
 look continually at it and compare it with the one in their hands. Invite 
 them to observe other pear shapes, show them the typical ones from the 
 number that you are using. By this time you will find that the children 
 are unconsciously using either hand and that they are actively busy with the 
 touch, the vision, the muscular sense, in the work of assimilating impres- 
 sions. In doing this work, also notice that they are overcoming awkward- 
 ness, for at first, when the tool is used in the left hand, it will feel and look- 
 very awkward. That, however, is soon overcome. 
 
2J4 Modeling 
 
 It is habit only that compels the arbitrary use of the right hand in many 
 operations; and the habit of using both can be just as easily taught.* Par- 
 ents begin the wrong way by compelling children to " take the spoon in the 
 other hand, dear;" to hold the pencil or fork a certain way; to change the 
 scissors if they happen to pick them up with the left hand. Surely it is 
 good to be able to cut with one hand as well as with the other. I have 
 never yet found a doctor, dentist or scientist, or skilled user of instruments, 
 who does not agree with this. In fact, they say that to be able to use both 
 hands is a very valuable capacity. 
 
 The Ba.na.na.. — Take a piece of clay, roll it out, make it four or 
 five inches long. Some bananas are very large, but the large sizes are dif- 
 ficult for the children to handle. As we have learned by experience, 
 the medium sizes are the best for practice. Try to make the planes by- 
 drawing the tool or the finger from one end of the banana to the other. 
 Sometimes they are four, five and six-sided. Try to grasp the character, 
 to apprehend the main forms. The shape is a little difficult to make at 
 first. Draw the attention of the class to the color aand other characters. 
 Other forms that can be made are the peach, the lemon, the plum, the 
 grape, and in fact any available fruit. 
 
 Fruit Tile. — A good lesson and a very simple one is to model a tile 
 with a branch of fruit forms on it, making the twig, the fruit, the stems 
 and the leaves. Make the tile about eight inches long and about four 
 inches wide. Do not trim the tile till the fruit forms have been modeled. 
 If you trim the tile in the beginning the edge will be scarred or marred be- 
 fore the form is finished, and then it has to be trimmed again. Leave that 
 for the last thing to do. Take a piece of clay, roll it out about the size of a 
 lead pencil, about three inches long. Shape the end of the branch, allow- 
 ing it to be a little thick at the lower end and tapering to the top. Place 
 this in position on the tile. Then add another piece about the same length 
 and also tapering, and bend it to form the shape of a branch or twig. Con- 
 tinue this from one end of the tile to the other. 
 
 • llihit— self-respect, self-help, application, industry, integrity, all are of the nature of habits, not beliefs. Prin- 
 ciples, in fact, are but the names which we assign to habits, for the principles are words, but the habits are the 
 things themselves— benefactors or tyrants, according as they are good or evil. It thus happens that as we grow 
 older i portion of our free activity and individuality becomes suspended in habit— our actions become of the nature of 
 fate, and we are bound by the chains which we have woven around ourselves.— [Smiles, Self-Help, page 404. 
 
Fruit and Vegetable Forms 
 
 215 
 
 Next make one or two branches. Make these branches fork out in a 
 realistic fashion. Be sure the clay is thoroughly incorporated with the 
 main branch. Use the tool to do this, also to incorporate the stem or 
 branch on the tile. A few little digs with the sharp end of the tool will 
 unite them and then the marksmadecanbe removed by a little modeling. Im- 
 itate the ba'rk of the cherry tree on the stems or branches and allow the 
 branch to bend up in one or two places. Next make two or three cherries 
 of the natural size. Place them in position to form a group. Then make 
 the stems; let them be of the right length, 2 inches or 2\ inches long from 
 the cherry to the branch. The cherry stems of course must be made much 
 thicker than they are in nature, about as thick as the handle of a very fine 
 teacup. It is a little difficult to incorporate these thin stems to the main 
 branch and to the cherry without breaking, but with a little practice it can 
 
 Illustrations 269-271 
 
 — — " — 
 
 1 
 
 <"Wt| 
 
 W i 
 
 :-M 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 wPK*'* 1 
 
 a 
 
 r~±*x^ 1 
 
 
 ^\> 
 
 
 -*J ' : 
 
 Casts of Leaf Forms 
 
 be done. Bunches of three cherries can be made, placing one on top of the 
 other two, and the stem placed in the same way. Make one or two bunches 
 of cherries, as desired. 
 
 Lastly, make leaves as described in " Elementary Modeling," and en- 
 deavor to get the fine points, the serrations, the midribs, and other features 
 with the fingers before placing the leaves in position. Bend each leaf so 
 that it will look as natural as possible. Allow the edge to curve up in one 
 
2J6 Modeling 
 
 or two places. Make several leaves in this way. Cherry leaves are long 
 and slender, two, three and four inches long and about one inch wide. Place 
 the leaves in different positions to see the effect before incorporating them. 
 This is quite important. 
 
 Make a Composition. — Four or five leaves will be enough for this 
 small tile. Then take a tool and incorporate the leaves carefully with the 
 branches and with the background of the tile. See that they are well sup- 
 ported underneath. If necessary, block them up with clay so that they have 
 a solid backing connecting them, though invisibly, with the background. 
 .Allow the edges of the leaf to be quite thin, but let the body of the leaf be 
 thick and strong. A leaf can be made to look as thin as paper by making 
 the edge sharp though it really may be half an inch thick. Allow the 
 leaves to curve naturally, and do not place them at regular intervals. It 
 is a little difficult at first to prevent their looking like pieces of tin. This is 
 a very good exercise for young people, because even though it is roughly 
 done, the product usually pleases them. 
 
 An apple with a branch and several leaves on a tile is a very good ex- 
 ercise (Illus. 272). Make the tile first, then the apple, as described in our 
 first exercise; place the apple in a natural position on the tile. Then in- 
 corporate it so it will not drop off when the clay dries. To do this, press 
 part of the apple firmly into the tile, and then remodel with the tool the 
 parts marred. Next make the piece of branch of the apple tree about three 
 inches long and place it in a natural position near the apple, making the 
 stem reach the apple. 
 
 Next model a few broad simple leaf forms and attach them in a group 
 to the branch. Take care to make the leaves look as natural as possible. 
 Let them be thick in places, and where the edges show, allow them to be 
 sharp to suggest thinness. To give strength make all the parts solid that 
 cannot be seen. Never attempt to make things too thin in clay, like leaves 
 or stems or twigs. It is better to make them solid clown to the 
 slab, rather than to have them so thin that with a touch or two in hand- 
 ling they break. Try to show the curved surface of the leaf and the serra- 
 tions with the tool. It is a very good practice in composition to arrange 
 these little groups. 
 
 Two peaches, with branch and leaves, also make a very good exercise. 
 Make the peaches on the tile first, side by side. Next make the 
 
Fruit and Vegetable Form 
 
 217 
 
 branch and then the leaves. Try to grasp the character of the leaf^ forms 
 and the arrangement. 
 
 These exercises are very good in learning to fit form on a surface, and 
 also for giving the children a great deal of pleasure. For these forms, of 
 
 Illustration 272 
 
 Modeling Fruit from Nature 
 This picture illustrates another child modeling an apple on a branch, with leaves, from the real form 
 out in the open air. The table is a box with a board upon it; two modeling tools and a knife only being 
 used. First the tile is made, about seven inches square, then the apple is modeled in the hand. As soon 
 as it is the right size and with a certain amount of finish, Lt J is incorporated on the tile in the usual 
 fashion ; then the stem is made, and lastly the leaves. It is very good practice making the character of 
 the branches ; they are quite rugged and have distinct textures. The same is true ot the leaves ; the apple 
 leaf is a broad one and finely marked. In making a tile like this, the leaves can be made solid, then the 
 edges can be slightly raised and undercut. 
 
 course, models may be used. If you cannot secure the real fruit, stems and 
 leaves, casts can be purchased at a very low price. The teacher should 
 have models of this kind that she has made from real forms herself to show 
 the pupils. 
 
 Vegetable Forms.— Let us begin with the potato. A potato has a 
 rough, irregular shape, but still it has its own essential character. Have the 
 
2J8 Modeling 
 
 children make a typical one; take away the unreal shapes. Make the 
 eyes of the potato with the tool. Let them study the model in their 
 hands, and draw their attention continually to facts. Do not let them 
 miss any of the characteristic features of the potato. The form will stick 
 in their minds when they reproduce it with the tool. I cannot resist the 
 tendency myself when I am talking to my class to interject a stream of facts 
 and fancies about the forms we handle. Splendid ideas can be grasped if 
 the teacher is awake. It need not be a lesson in modeling only, but in many 
 other things. The surface texture of a potato is quite different from that 
 of fruit. Make the children apprehend this. But because potatoes are 
 familiar forms and easy to get, do not tire the children with them. Lead 
 them to appreciate the tints or coloring of the potato. 
 
 The carrot is a little more complex. Do not let the carrot look like a 
 parsnip or a radish. Let the form be of a handy, medium size, and make the 
 texture marks with the tool. See that the children apprehend the texture. Do 
 not let them make simple cuts or jag marks. Give them a little time to 
 grasp the detail. Have them handle the model as much as possible, since 
 much information is conveyed to the mind through the touch. Do not try 
 to model the top or the leaf part of the carrot. Let it be cut off, just 
 showing the stem. This can be modeled with the carrot or added on. 
 
 The Tomato. — Take one that shows the typical form. Some are 
 very much distorted and some do not have the features clearly marked. 
 Make the divisions with the tool. The stem end will be found a little 
 difficult. Have the children make the leaflets separate and add them on. 
 It is difficult in making the ridges to prevent the form from looking like a 
 little cantaloupe. Do not place the ridgestoo regularly. Use the tool asmuch 
 as possible in making the texture. It is very smooth and gives good prac- 
 tice. 
 
 These vegetable forms may seem trifling in their value as a mode of 
 compelling thought, but very few adults realize the shape of even the most 
 ordinary vegetables, simply because they have never consciously assimilated 
 through the different sense channels all the facts about them. Their im- 
 agination is not vivid because their impressions have not been distinct or 
 clear. The slight percepts that they have fade away, and it is surprising to 
 find how many pupils there are even in adult classes who show that they 
 have not the beginning of an idea as to the shape of an egg or a grape, if 
 
Fruit and Vegetable Forms 
 
 219 
 
 they are requested to shape it without the model. We can create talent and 
 capacity in the dullest people by teaching them observation in this way. 
 There are plenty of people with good eyesight who go through the world 
 
 Illustration 273 
 
 A More Complex Form for Modeling in Clay 
 
 It is wonderful with what fidelity the children may reproduce even a whole branch in clay, with all its fruit and 
 leaves. One work of this kind will impress the pupil with many of the fascinating lessons Nature offers so bounti- 
 fully. When an important composition has been well modeled, it should be fired, and may also be multiplied by 
 plaster casts. 
 
 without seeing anything, and there are many with very poor eyesight who, 
 aided by observation, notice many things. Modeling compels observation, 
 perception, reflection and conception. 
 
 The Turnip.— Make a medium-sized one, pinching out the root and 
 modeling on the opposite end a part of the leaves. The variety of form we 
 have among root crops is wonderful, and it is by receiving these vivid im- 
 pressions, through making them, that we are fully impressed. The 
 texture, structure, color and form of the commonest, simplest vegetables 
 are valuable as lessons, if we can organically and permanently register them 
 without wasting the time and energy of the pupils. Some turnips have 
 
220 
 
 Modeling; 
 
 beautiful tints of color and shading; some are a little rough in texture, and 
 others, like the Swedish turnip, are quite smooth. 
 
 Hitch on to your lesson as many facts as possible. Do not let the work 
 become drudgery. Many other vegetable forms can be given, but do not 
 let the pupils tire of any one. Give them variety. We all need it to keep 
 our faculties and our interest in trim. It is a natural craving that we have 
 for new fields to conquer. It is not right to teach only a few set forms 
 continually instead of the variety that Providence provides for our special 
 study and delight. The children cannot readily eat the raw vegetables, so 
 that you must make up to them for it by giving them more food for thought, 
 taking extra pains to make the accompanying talk both interesting and 
 instructive. 
 
 Plaster Model of Shield 
 
Moduls of Plaster Capitals 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Modeling 
 Geometric Forms 
 
 rHE SIMPLER GEOMETRIC FORMS can be readily modeled 
 into shape. They are not very pleasing or interesting, but they 
 yield useful and necessary lessons, and in teaching little children 
 this is the only palatable way in which these uninteresting exercises can be 
 served. The child's awakening mind can grasp only what it sees, — an abso- 
 lute thing, and here we give it the opportunity to grasp geometric form 
 itself directly, not through a needless definition. 
 
 It is wrong to tire the children with these abstract shapes. The 
 geometric forms are essential and necessary at certain stages of education, 
 but to present them continually all through the various grades creates in- 
 tense dislike. Except for modeling a few times, they should not be used 
 in the early stages. I have known children to be completely spoiled for art 
 work by having these unmeaning forms presented to them so often. 
 
 Experience teaches that there is a feasible size for these geometric 
 forms. In some schools they are made very large, and in others much too 
 
 (221) 
 
222 
 
 Modeling 
 
 small. The best way will be to make the forms of a size that can be readily 
 grasped by little children and made without the use of tools by the two 
 hands alone. Many of the geometric forms can be seen in the pictures in 
 Chapters I and II of this section, also on page 231. They are shown about 
 the proper size they ought to be made. 
 
 The Sphere. — Take a piece of clay and roll it in the hands till it forms a 
 ball about 1 \ inches in diameter. It is quite difficult to make this a true 
 
 Illustrations 278-280 
 
 Models of Pilaster Panels, Italian Renascence 
 
 sphere, but by manipulation with the thumbs and forefinger, rubbing away 
 the hills and making the rough places plain, and then rolling it between the 
 palms again, a good sphere can be produced (Illus. 252). In making this 
 series of forms it is advisable to have the pupils place the forms as finished 
 along the top of their modeling board or desk. 
 
 The Cube. — Next make another sphere similar to the first and of the 
 same size. This can only be done by comparing the two. Place them 
 side by side and take away or add clay till they are equal. Now take the 
 second sphere, and tap it on the board till a plane about one inch in diameter 
 is made. Next turn it over on the opposite side, parallel to the first plane, 
 and make another plane in the same manner. Be very particular to have 
 the pupils endeavor to get these planes really parallel through observation. 
 Let them continually look at the form in their fingers. 
 
Geometric Forms 
 
 223 
 
 Next tap two more planes opposite to each other, and then two others, 
 making the six-sided cube. It is a very good exercise now to make these 
 planes merge together by tapping on the flat board until the form is a 
 true cube, with sharp, clean corners and each plane equal. To do this with 
 any accuracy requires constant attention. Make the children pay attention. 
 This is an excellent form for teaching a number of very desirable qualities. 
 Resist the tendency, especially if there is a large class, to tap the cube care- 
 lessly on the board. Be sure that it is grasped correctly, and that the 
 children continually look at the form. Pay strict attention to position. 
 See that the pupils sit constantly erect, keep their heads level and take 
 inspiration. 
 
 If they have to look at the cube in their hand, let them hold it up. Do 
 not let them tip and turn the head to look under it. If you wish to see 
 
 Illustration 281 
 
 Reducing Acanthus Leaf Forms 
 Antique model. The work is placed upright on an easel, for convenience. 
 
 things straight, you must look at them with the head level. Do not expect lit- 
 tle children to make very sharp corners or very correct cubes in the be- 
 ginning. With practice a perfect cube can be made if the clay is in right 
 condition, with sharp edges and fine corners. Any teacher can perceive 
 
224 Modeling 
 
 that to get these six planes equal in size with the hand and eye alone is good 
 training. To do it a few times is also pleasing, but it is not wise to tire the 
 children by giving them the geometric forms continually, as is so foolishly 
 done in many schools and even in the kindergarten. 
 
 In this work of modeling, we are using the master sense of touch, aided 
 by all the others working in unison. This form of representation produces 
 a healthy activity of the perceptive faculties that is valuable. Here we are 
 dealing with form itself, actually making it. We are getting all around our 
 subject and are in this way made conscious of all its peculiarities. We are 
 getting accurate perception, which precedes exact memory, by performing 
 deeds. It is this quality in sculpture which raises it above painting and 
 drawing and places it at the head of the creative arts. It is for this reason 
 that sculptors' drawings often possess those characteristics of strength, bold- 
 ness of line, truth, which can come only from a thorough knowledge of the 
 subject, gained during many years of contact with form, not simply by look- 
 ing at it, but by actually making the forms. 
 
 We never really know form until we have attempted to reproduce it a 
 number of times in the solid. One of the chief objects of these lessons is 
 to impress this fact on the pupil while studying and trying to make these 
 objects; even though the object is not well made, you are really gaining 
 mental development, you are making these things a part of you to the ex- 
 tent that you gain just perception of the thing modeled. You are assimilating 
 concrete knowledge through several sense channels and must become richer 
 in mind for it.* 
 
 The Cylinder. — Take a piece of clay and roll it out between the palms 
 until it is about one inch in diameter. Gently tap each end on the model- 
 ing board. Let the cylinder be about two inches in height. It is quite 
 difficult to get the ends smooth and flat in the beginning. If it is rolled 
 too much, a hole will form in the end. Use the tip of the finger or the 
 thumb and fill the hole, and gently pat again until you have a true circle 
 at each end. Resist the tendency to make it too long. If it is too long, 
 pat down until it is- short and roll again. Place the cylinder next to the cube. 
 
 •"The human brain is an organized register of infinitely numerous experiences received during the evolution oi 
 life, or rather, during the evolution of that series of organisms through which the human organism has been 
 reached," — fSpencer, 
 
Geometric Forms 
 
 225 
 
 The Square Prism. — The next operation is to repeat the same 
 cylinder. It is a little more difficult to make this one match the 
 other. Then take the second one, and hy tapping on opposite sides, as in 
 forming the cube, make four planes, converting the cylinder into a square 
 prism. Do not make it too long, but let it match the cylinder in size. The 
 chief difficulty will be that it tends to become too long. Keep tapping it, 
 and continually observe each plane, till it becomes a good square prism, then 
 place it by the side of the cylinder. If you have a large class, notice that 
 
 Modeling a Head 
 
 This picture shows one position ot the hands in modeling a head. The thumbs are 
 "feeling" the form near each eye. Sculptors frequently model portions of the figure with the 
 fingers alone. 
 
 there is a tendency to rap the forms on the board without looking at the re- 
 sult. Make the children look to see what they are doing. Do this con- 
 tinually. 
 
 Ihe Cone. — Take a piece of clay, roll it out in the hand so that it be- 
 comes of a cone-shaped form, and pat it on the end, to form the base. Make 
 
226 Modcline 
 
 the form in the hands roughly first, and then use the flat board. It must be 
 rolled till it makes a perfect circle on the base. This form is difficult and 
 compels the use of a good deal of manual dexterity. Do not make the 
 cone too high. The tendency with all beginners is to make spear points 
 or little steeples. A great many of the cones used as models have this 
 fault of form. 
 
 Let the cone be the same height as the cylinder and square prism. As 
 soon as it is finished to your satisfaction, place this product beside the square 
 prism. Then start another cone and make it of the same size as the first 
 one. Notice in making these forms that we have made a pair and turned 
 the second one each time into something else. It is very good practice for 
 gaining size and proportion, to make one like the other. The second cone 
 we will turn into a square pyramid by tapping the planes on the board. This 
 is still more difficult to keep in shape than the square prism or the cube. 
 The base must be a good square, and the four sides must taper to a point 
 and the pyramid must be of the same height as the cone. 
 
 Many other geometric forms can be made. The series given, how- 
 ever, will be sufficient to illustrate the process. The forms suggested are 
 the result of many years of experience with numbers of children and teach- 
 ers, and, if the operations are performed properly, must result in valuable 
 training. Do not tire the children with these forms. Remember con- 
 tinually that they are abstract forms. In the higher grades, when the 
 children are studying geometry, they will have plenty to do with them, but 
 do not disgust them with abstractions, as is so frequently the result in those 
 schools where geometric forms are reproduced year after year till even the 
 sight of them is abhorrent. 
 
 Notice that I have made this series of models to present a series of 
 transitional steps, each one a little more difficult, and that the forms can be 
 made without the use of any instruments or tools. Children will take great 
 pleasure in modeling these forms a few times, and that is the reason we give 
 them in the beginning, just as we give blocks to play with. But the essen- 
 tial things are natural forms. 
 
 In teaching, never mind the abstractions, continually think of the im- 
 pression that you desire to make on the mind through the eye and the 
 hand. If the impression is clear and distinct, the form will be clear and 
 distinct. If not, it will be cloudy and nebulous. In talking to teach- 
 
Geometric Forms 
 
 227 
 
 ers, continually speak of the co-ordination of the mind and senses, the tac- 
 tual, the muscular and the visual, and of the power of observation this work 
 gives one, thus enforcing the acquisition of exact knowledge. Teachers 
 must realize that they are not simply working in clay, modeling common 
 forms in common clay, making " dirt pies," as some ignorant teachers say, 
 but they are molding the human mind, they are shaping the " stuff" out of 
 which immortal souls are made. 
 
 ptfffTH, 
 
 Model* of Various Borders 
 
A Shell Form for Modeling 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Modeling for 
 Grammar Grades 
 
 /N MODELING THIS SERIES OF FORMS the pupils will pay 
 particular attention to making fine curves, and getting clean, sharp 
 detail and perfect hackgrounds, — that is, making the tile of even 
 thickness, with sharp, true edges, and so on. These forms are also good for 
 grammar-grade pupils, and have heen tested for many years with thousands 
 of children. The entire series is the result of much care in selecting forms 
 that will do the most good in the shortest space of time. The forms are 
 graded in accordance with their increasing difficulty, and include the 
 elements of the best styles. 
 
 The single forms must be made thoroughly well by the children, and 
 then they can be used in combination. It is not necessary for the pupils to 
 make the whole series. As soon as they have grown expert with the scroll 
 
 (229) 
 
230 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 288 
 
 and the leaf, combinations in the way of decorative tiles can be made, using 
 both leaf and the scroll. As soon as the anthemion and scroll have been 
 made, these can be similarly combined. As soon as one of the rosette forms 
 has been mastered, it can be used in combination with other forms. The 
 same may be done with shells, the Moresque unit, the Saracenic unit, etc. 
 
 In Making the Scrolls (Illus. 288), build up a good solid tile at least 
 one inch thick and six or eight inches square. Do this with the hands alone, 
 
 piece by piece, as described on Page 206. 
 Do not allow it to stick to the board. 
 When it is about the right size, make it 
 plain and smooth by means of the knife, 
 but do not trim the tile till the form is 
 finished; let the rough edge remain to pro- 
 tect it. The last thing done should lie to 
 cut it square and true when the entire 
 ornament has been modeled. Now take the 
 end of the tool and draw on the tile a good 
 scroll, similar to the one illustrated. 
 Practice doing this many times. It can be 
 _„. a srcoii in ciay rubbed out with a touch of the palette 
 
 W ith another scroll Rowing out from it. ' 
 
 knife. The freehand drawing on the clay 
 surface is excellent practice, and with all my classes, adults and children, in 
 the beginning I invariably have them sketch the form for five or ten minutes 
 freehand, since at first it may be a little too large, then again it may be too 
 small. Illus. 289 shows a child making the single scroll in clay. 
 
 Make the scroll so that it fits and fills the space. Let the ball come 
 near the center of the tile. As soon as you have a satisfactory drawing, 
 take a piece of clay, roll it out about two or three inches long and about as 
 thick as the finger, and place it on the drawing. Then take another piece 
 and place it in the same position, continuing until you have the scroll 
 roughly formed with the clay. Next, take the tool and press it into the 
 piece of slab and endeavor to get the curves. The raised edge in the mid- 
 dle of the modeled form is the first thing to get. That is called the " mod- 
 eled line." Press away the surplus clay and try to swing the tool around 
 the whole length of the curve from one side to the other. Make long, con- 
 tinuous touches. The clay must be exactly right in consistency. If it is too 
 

 ■ Q. 
 
232 Modeling 
 
 soft it will stick to the tool. It is better for it to be a little too stiff in the 
 first place than too soft, especially for the tile itself, although of course the 
 harder the clay the more difficult the form is to make in the beginning. 
 
 Grasp the tool in both hands as illustrated in most of the pictures show- 
 ing pupils modeling. Of course the hands move about in different posi- 
 tions as the tool moves. At first it will be quite difficult to sweep the 
 curved end of the tool from one side to the other, making half the circuit or 
 even*the whole circuit with a single sweep, but with very little practice 
 manual dexterity will be acquired that will enable you to make a single 
 touch continuing all around the scroll with ease, swinging the tool back and 
 forth on the curve. Notice in doing this that you are actually drawing in 
 material. Do not mind how rough the work is if you can get this swinging 
 movement. Resist the tendency to scatter clay crumbs on the work, keep 
 all pieces in the hand or in the main lump. The form or raised edge must 
 be equal in height all over the tile; do not let it be thick in one place and 
 thin in another. It is quite difficult to get this quality at first. As soon 
 as the curved surface of the scroll has been made, then the form can be 
 clearly cut out by vertical cuts on each edge of the scroll and the sur- 
 plus clay removed, keeping the tile flat and smooth. 
 
 It is not easy to work in the center around the ball, to get into 
 the corners, to keep the edges sharp, at first, but with practice this can be 
 done. Do not mind the tool marks showing at first. We do not want 
 the work finely finished or polished. Try to make the curves as true as 
 possible. Eventually, the longer the swing of the tool, the truer and better 
 the curve will be. Do not let the curved lines look as though they were 
 bent. 
 
 This is excellent practice in getting the hands to swing curves, and it is 
 by modeling and carving these forms that we enable our children to draw 
 them with such boldness and facility that it surprises outsiders who do not 
 know of the work they have been through. All our children make these 
 forms. I cannot recall now, among the many thousands of pupils I have 
 had, one who was unable to draw, model or carve these conventional forms 
 if he learned how to do it in this way. Of course if pupils have been al- 
 lowed only to draw, or to model, or to carve, I ani sure many would be un- 
 able to draw, the forms; but being required to do the three things in rota- 
 tion, one after the other, they get a manual dexterity that makes the form 
 
Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 233 
 
 But 
 
 organic, and enables the hand in the end to make the form automatically 
 — without conscious thought — as can be seen from the various illustrations 
 showing forms modeled by pupils, where the scroll is shown in combination 
 with other forms, sometimes ten and twenty times over. All the units of 
 styles, and most of the drill form units, are modeled and carved as well. 
 Any one can see what a great help this is in making forms organic, 
 when we have actually, through the 
 sense of touch, made the form in soft 
 material and then actually by hard 
 struggling made the same form in 
 tough wood, it is a very easy matter to 
 draw it on paper or the blackboard with 
 the hand as firm and with a line as clean 
 as though it were being made by a steel 
 bar. This facility of hand, this manual 
 dexterity, this control over the nerves 
 
 and muscles of the hand, so that 
 
 these instruments shall do as they 
 
 are directed bv eve and mind, — 
 
 One Position in Holding Modeling Tool, while Turning a Scroll 
 Both hands are used and work equally, the tool changing position constantly— sometimes the concave side being 
 used, sometimes the convex. Endeavor to make free swinging touches as long as possible ; do not allow the hands 
 to rest on work. In the above picture, one hand rests to enable photograph to be taken. 
 
 are among the highly desirable objects of manual training that can never be 
 attained by the limited exercises of mere shop practice. Wood carving is of 
 wonderful value in accomplishing this hand training and character growth. 
 
234 
 
 Modeling; 
 
 Illustration 290 
 
 The Rosette Form. — The next form illustrated (page 235) is the 
 rosette. Make a tile eight inches square, as described before. First draw 
 the rosette with the tool freehand, making it to fit the tile. Make the center 
 of the rosette in the middle of the tile and then the four leaf-like forms 
 one after the other. Do this entirely freehand. Do not make construc- 
 tion lines. Rub out the drawing with the knife and practice the drawing 
 of the rosette several times. Then start with the center boss. Let it be 
 about one inch or one and one-half inches in diameter. Be sure that 
 the clay is incorporated in the tile by mixing 
 the boss with the substance of the tile, so that 
 it will not drop off when the form is dried, then 
 model the surface with the tool till it is a true 
 hemisphere. It is quite difficult at first to swing 
 the tool over from one hand to the other in 
 making this curved surface, but by persisting a 
 little it can be done almost from the beginning. 
 Next we make the four leaf-like forms, 
 shaping them roughly in the hand first. Let 
 them be about one inch thick, sloping down to 
 the center or boss, shaped almost like a large 
 tongue. Make all the four forms before 
 you place them in position and see that they are equal in size. When this 
 is done they can be placed around the center boss. Squeeze the forms into 
 position, being sure that the clay is roughly incorporated into the tile. If 
 it is simply pressed on the tile, it will be sure to drop off when the tile 
 dries. All these directions are not only essential to making a good tile, but 
 such thoroughness helps mind and memory. 
 
 Remember this: The clay must always be incorporated, one piece of clay 
 worked into the other, if you wish it to hold together. It is very exasperat- 
 ing to make a number of forms and then when they dry up to have them 
 fall apart. This is usually the case unless care has been taken every time to 
 incorporate the clay with the main mass. Each piece as it is put on should 
 be made one with the parent piece. 
 
 Now the rosette must be tooled into form. It has been roughly 
 shaped with the finger, and now we take the tool and make the cup-shaped 
 
 A Complex Rosette 
 
3 n 
 
 
236 Modeling: 
 
 hollow on each leaf with a single stroke if we can. Pass the tool over the 
 surface of the leaf many times and then over each of the other leaves. Do 
 not turn the tile. ' 
 
 The object in this exercise is to make the four leaves in four different 
 directions while the pupil keeps the same position in relation to his work. 
 See what a wonderful amount of muscular co-ordination is required to turn 
 the hands, both hands guiding the tool, in such diverse positions. Perhaps 
 we can make the leaf quite readily and easily on the right side, while it is 
 very difficult to make it on the left side. Perhaps we find the lowest leaflet 
 quite easy to make, then we find it quite difficult to make the upper ones, 
 with the same movements reversed. We must, however, resist the tend- 
 ency of the pupils to turn the tile around, thus making all the leaflets in the 
 same way, and allowing the hands to make only those few movements 
 which tluw find easy to acquire. Remember, this work is educational, and 
 the object of this lesson is to enable the hands to make the physical co- 
 ordinations all over the complex surface in the different directions. When 
 your hands can move readily with ease all over these four leaflets without 
 awkwardness, it indicates a great amount of manual dexterity. 
 
 Do not mind the form being rough in the beginning. Make the edges 
 sharp and clean, let the tile be smooth and flat. Make a good broad edge 
 on the leaf. Do not hesitate to make the touches all over the leaf many 
 times. Do not expect it to be finely finished with a few touches. 
 The touches must be repeated. Do not finish up one leaflet at a 
 time, making it very fine and smooth all over. Roughly finish the whole 
 series, and then go over them again. Avoid finicky, small, feeble touches. 
 Avoid picking the clay and making small pieces. Model or mold it into 
 shape with a few free touches. In modeling a form of this kind, if clay has 
 to be removed from the tool, we do not pick it off and place it in the main 
 lump every time, but add it rather to a piece which we keep in the hand. 
 When we need to add more clay, or have to remove it from the model, it 
 can be taken from or added to the lump in the hand. The last step is to 
 trim and square the tile. 
 
 Position of Tools.— I have purposely made a number of pictures to 
 show the different positions of holding the tool in modeling and carving. 
 There is no one special hold. The tool is changing from one hand to the 
 Other constantly. Experience will give the natural hold. Of course it is 
 
Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 237 
 
 difficult to get the movement from the pictures and the print alone. See- 
 ing it done by an expert is the best way. In teaching, the teacher should 
 go from seat to seat illustrating movement on each tile or slab, if necessary 
 making one leaflet or part of one leaflet occasionally, the pupil looking on 
 and learning. 
 
 The Leaf Units. — For the three-pointed leaf form (Illus. 291). make 
 a tile, on the tile draw the leaf with the point of the tool, making the ribs 
 first and then the double curves forming the outline. Practice this a num- 
 ber of times. Make the leaf to fit the tile. Encourage children as much 
 
 as possible to make these quick drawings on 
 illustration 291 t j ie c]ay> for p OS i t ion, before beginning to 
 
 ~~ 1 model. Next take a piece of clay, and 
 
 Vf working with both hands, make the leaf 
 
 M form about three-eighths of an inch thick 
 
 § in relief. Make the stem also. Get the 
 
 ^ entire shape in the rough, with the fingers, 
 
 ^ § in the beginning. Be sure that the clay for 
 
 the leaf is thoroughly incorporated with the 
 main mass, and that each piece you add is 
 *• J I ^^— also incorporated with the adjoining surface. 
 
 5* I See to this in all cases, so that the model will 
 
 a Leaf Tiic not come apart in drying. 
 
 Properly worked together this way, the 
 clay tiles and models should be durable, quite strong and lasting. Unless 
 they are struck or allowed to drop, they can be kept any length of time. It 
 is good to have shelves in the class room on which to place these forms. In 
 most of my schools all the walls are completely covered with the work of 
 the pupils. We do this so that they can get ideas from the work exhibited, 
 and at intervals we allow them to take their productions home and place 
 others in their stead. 
 
 Next take the tool and roughly make the depressions on the leaf, first 
 for the midrib and then for the side ribs. Let these touches be bold and 
 free. Then model from the center towards the edge, making the undula- 
 tions on the leaf. Next make the double curves on each side, beginning 
 with the middle leaflet. Do not finish one part, — work all over the leaf. In 
 shaping the leaflet on one side, do not completely finish it, but make almost 
 
238 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 292 
 
 every other touch on the opposite side. In this way you will find that you 
 gradually model balance. 
 
 It will help a beginner to look at the pictures of some of the modeled 
 leaves in this book, to see how the texture is produced and also how the 
 carved leaves are made. Do not put in very fine detail in the beginning. 
 In making the serrations on the leaf, model each leaflet separately, first on 
 one side and then on the other. Hold the tool in both hands in doing most 
 of this work. Very rarely is the tool held by one hand alone, it is nearly 
 always guided by the other hand. The same is true of the chisel in carv- 
 ing. This form can be varied, a five-pointed 
 leaf can be made in the same way and quite 
 a number of other shapes can be based 
 on it. 
 
 The Moresque Form is quite difficult, 
 although it looks so simple in outline. In 
 making this, first spend some time in draw- 
 ing it. It is a little difficult to make this 
 form fit the tile. Do not make it too small, 
 let it be about the proportion of Illus. 292. 
 
 The Moresque Unit . ,,■»,,. ,, , r 
 
 lake a piece of clay, nil in the surface of 
 the form piece by piece with the fingers until it is about three-eighths of an 
 inch in bight. Allow the form to be a little larger than the one you intend 
 to make. Try to keep the double curve on the large blade showing clearly, 
 letting it taper to a fine point. With very little practice you will find that 
 you can get good forms with the fingers alone. With the fingers the clay 
 can be thoroughly incorporated and made into a solid piece. Now take the 
 tool, and, beginning with the stem, make a single plane from one end to the 
 other with a sweeping touch. I want you to draw this double curve repeat- 
 edly on the soft clay, compressing and flattening it at the same time. Repe- 
 tition will in time compel accuracy, until the hand is able to make these 
 swinging lines quite automatically. 
 
 Next we will make the other plane, allowing the modeled line to show a 
 beautiful double curve, the modeled line being the raised edge in the middle 
 of the form. Swing over this curve a number of times, then try the curve 
 on the inside or short blade, swinging around from one end to the other 
 repeatedly. Next on the outside edge. As soon as these planes are satis- 
 
Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 239 
 
 Illustration 293 
 
 factory, then with a single touch cut out the form, beginning with the large 
 double curve, then making the other side of the blade, and lastly the short 
 curve. This is one of the most difficult forms to get properly and still one 
 of the most satisfactory to make when practice gives facility. The entire 
 form should be made with a few strokes when dexterity has been acquired. 
 Do not make finicky touches. Allow the tool to swing from one end of 
 the unit to the other each time, holding it in both hands and pushing away 
 the surplus clay or adding on, as is needed, from a piece in the hand. Feel 
 the form with the tool and draw it out. Next clean up the background 
 and see that the stem is narrow. Much attention must be given to the 
 raised edge, the modeled line; for although when the model is flat on the 
 table this does not show very plainly, it is the most important line on the 
 model, and when it is in position standing up, it shows more distinctly than 
 any other. 
 
 The Scroll and Crocket. — Make the drawing of the complete scroll 
 first (Illus. 293), allow it to fill the tile, and then add the crockets, one to 
 each corner. Make this form repeatedly till 
 it fits the tile. At first it will be a little too 
 small and seem a little crowded. Give five 
 or ten minutes to the drawing. Then take a 
 piece of clay, roll it out about the size of the 
 little finger and place on the drawing, incor- 
 porating the clay piece by piece till the entire 
 scroll is covered about three-eighths of an 
 inch thick. Make the form a little thicker 
 than it is intended to be. Now add on the 
 crockets, forming the curve and the tip with 
 the fingers. Let every member of the class Scroll and Crorket 
 
 block in the entire form with the fingers 
 
 before using the tool. Then take the tool and place the plane or curves on 
 the surface from the tip of the crocket, gradually merging them with the 
 curves of the scroll. Notice that finally the concave curve of the crocket 
 must meet the convex outer curve of the scroll; and the convex curve of the 
 crocket, the concave line of the scroll. Pass the tool repeatedly up and 
 down till a nice curve is made all around the scroll, curving out each tip at 
 the right place, pushing away the surplus clay with the tool, and adding it 
 
240 
 
 Modeling 1 
 
 to the main lump in the hand. The curve around the center boss is dif- 
 ficult to produce in the beginning, but with practice it can be done with a 
 few touches. Then make the curve inside the scroll. This can be very 
 much curved or almost flat. At first it would be better to make it a little 
 flat. Try to swing this from one end to the other with as few touches and 
 with a movement as continuous as possible. 
 
 Next cut out the form down to the tile with the tip of the tool, draw- 
 ing the shape of the form repeatedly and removing the surplus clay. The 
 pupil must be very attentive in doing this work, otherwise the scroll can be 
 spoiled very quickly. The crockets make the form much harder to model, 
 owing to the curve being interrupted, but with a little practice crockets can 
 
 kM?i 
 
 
 W : 
 
 ^'' - 
 
 , 
 
 l 
 
 V J^ 
 
 W^f- .>> i 
 
 \\ J*,. ■ -J \ 
 
 Plaster Models Tor Drawing, Modeling and Carving 
 
 be thrown out in any direction without any trouble. Later on the double- 
 curving crocket and other forms can be introduced on the scroll in the same 
 way. 
 
 Combination of Scrolls and Leaflets. — To make two scrolls in clay 
 flowing one from the other, is good practice. A leaf tip can be modeled 
 coming out of the center. To make this form fit the tile, and to curve the 
 scrolls gradually, one from the other, with single sweeps of the tool, is capital 
 manual training. Combinations of different forms can then be attempted, 
 and balanced designs made for various purposes. 
 
Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 241 
 
 The c/lnthemion is perhaps the most difficult of all the elementary 
 forms and takes the most time in the beginning. (Illus. 298.) Make a full- 
 sized tile. Make the drawing a number of times first, endeavoring to get the 
 form to fit it. Roll out the lobes in the hand, beginning with the center 
 lobe. Numerous lobes can be made as illustrated in Book Two, Chapter 
 IV. Be sure that they taper to a fine point, and as they grow slim towards 
 the base let them also grow less high in relief. Bend the side lobes so that 
 they curve and balance nicely. Make the lobes match. This is a little dif- 
 ficult at first. Try to get a good curve to each one; show the gradation 
 in the form. Try to feel with the fingers the magnitude of each lobe. 
 
 Begin tooling with the center lobe, push away the surplus clay, and 
 make it taper to a fine point. It is difficult to prevent the stems or pipes of 
 the lobes from running into one another. Beginners cannot help this at 
 first. To keep all these stems gradually curving in to the center and to 
 get them to diminish gradually requires a great deal of skill. Do not ex- 
 pect fine results in the beginning. Hold the tool firmly with both hands 
 
 Illustrations 297-298 
 
 Scroll and Leaflet 
 
 Anthemion in Clay 
 
 and model each lobe from side to side. The widest part of the lobe will be 
 the thickest. The form must be blocked out roughly in the beginning 
 with a few large touches to get the approximate bulk, and then it must be 
 modeled over again several times, each time getting a finer finish. 
 
242 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Do not expect good results the first time.* Any one making this form 
 can realize what excellent discipline it gives in attaining dexterity and phys- 
 ical co-ordinations. Do not allow the children to turn the tile, keep it in 
 one position throughout the entire lesson. Of course if I were to move it 
 from one side to the other and to keep my hands in the same position all 
 the time in making each lobe, it would be much easier to model. But re- 
 member, the object of the lesson is to get the skill that is given to the hands 
 when they become able to move with facility all over the complex form. 
 Pay particular attention to the stems, clean the spaces between the lobes, 
 cut the tile true. This form is much used in carving, modeling, and draw- 
 ing, and it is one of the best of all the units of design for its union of beauty, 
 balance, proportion, grace, etc. 
 
 Illustrations 299-301 
 
 Various Arrangements of the Anthemion 
 
 The Curved Leaf. — (Illus. 302.) First, make this fit the tile. Make 
 the drawing a number of times. Do not • make it too small; allow 
 it to fill the tile. Block in the form with the fingers, as described in makingthe 
 other forms; be sure to keep the effect of the double curves. Allow the leaf to 
 be nearly half an inch thick in the thickest part, while the back of the leaf 
 tapers down to the tile. Model a large double curve on the back of the 
 leaf first with the tool. Try to make the surface undulate. Keep the 
 double curves of each leaflet true and try to make them with a single touch 
 
 •"The repetition of good action get. erases the habit of doing well, function developing construction, and the 
 habit of doi ral feeling in regard to said action, which it becomes it last ;i pain to go against." 
 
Courses for Grammar Grades 
 
 243 
 
 of the tool. The spaces between the leaflets should also be made with a 
 single touch of the tool. Get the texture on the surface of the leaflet 
 representing the small ribs, then finish with a narrow stem. To make this 
 leaf with graceful curves, so that it appears to swing nicely, requires practice. 
 Try to prevent a thick and clumsy appearance of the leaf. The tool marks 
 will give very good texture to leaf form. This can be made much more 
 complex, showing more leaflets. 
 
 Simple Shell Forms, — The real scalloped shell (page 235) can be con- 
 ventionalized as desired. Make the drawing, get about the proportion and 
 size, and then add on the clay, making the shell curve up, being sure that it 
 is incorporated on the tile. Repeatedly speak of this to your pupils. It 
 is very uncomfortable to find a shell form like this, for instance, come off 
 the tile, when it dries, especially if a lot of careful work has been placed upon 
 it. Try to get the halves of the shell to balance with the thumbs and 
 forefingers, working at both sides at once. The thumbs are very useful in 
 this work. With a little practice one can make an entire shell form with 
 the fingers and thumbs alone ; of course, roughly. 
 
 Practice this movement continually. Feel the balance of things. Then 
 you will be able to draw balance. Sculptors 
 often find the thumbs their best tools. We 
 
 must use the fingers as much as possible, 
 
 but do not expect to make the sharp edges, 
 
 the fine detail expected in woodwork, metal 
 
 work, stone work, and so on, with the 
 
 thumbs alone. The tool must be used for 
 
 this. As a person becomes more skilled he 
 
 will find the fingers more useful, and in 
 
 making the human figure sometimes the 
 
 thumbs ami parts of the fingers are the main 
 
 tools us^cl. (See Plate Eighteen, page 235.) The curved Lear 
 
 Use the tool to make the ribs on the shell. 
 
 It is very difficult to make these taper. The shell is a wonderful piece of 
 
 architecture. There are no finer lines or curves in nature than may be found 
 
 on a good-shaped shell. Try to make the lines all converge and 
 
 taper gradually. Model on each side. Do not finish one side first and 
 
 then the other. It is much easier to model both sides, to make all the ribs 
 
 Illustration 302 
 
Modeling: 
 
 Heal Shells for Models 
 
 All kinds of shells are suitable to be reproduced in clay. They are cheaply pur. 
 chased if n<'t otherwise available, and offer endless variety in form, proportion, L-tc. 
 The accompanying text describes the shell work illustrated on page 215, not the making 
 ol these .shells in Illustration 303. 
 
 and serrations first, in the rough, and then to shape them up and make them 
 still finer. The lines of growth as well as the lines of texture show on a real 
 shell. If you are copying from a real shell endeavor to get these. 
 In some conventional shells and models of shells the lines of growth 
 are left out. The suggestion of a spiral in most shell forms where the lines 
 meet together is very beautiful. Try to make a true spiral instead of a 
 bent line. The last part to model will be the serrations on the edge of the 
 shell. Cut these out with a few simple touches. 
 
 It must be constantly remembered that, at best, word descriptions of 
 how to model are inadequate, compared to the actual doing. The reader 
 who will try modeling, who begins with the elementary work and follows 
 
Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 245 
 
 along into the more difficult forms, will quickly realize the merit of each 
 point advanced in these pages. Experience is the best teacher. 
 
 The student will find many suitable forms for modeling suggested in 
 the drawings in Book Two, and the carvings in Book Four. Many of the 
 plaster casts contain also suitable forms.. After making a few of the simple 
 units, designs should be made, consisting of some of the units combined in 
 different ways, as illustrated in the picture of tiles on page 231, and on page 
 189 in first part of book. 
 
 Gothic Rosettes Models 
 
jfl S 
 
 a ■» * * 
 "S. c ■£ N 
 
 M ^ <« 
 
Advanced Clay Modeling 
 These boys are making large original designs and animal forms in clay for architectural purposes. Advanced 
 class, R. C. High School. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Modeling- 
 Animal Forms 
 
 y^NIMAL FORMS. — After the children have modeled several com- 
 ^~l paratively elaborate tiles and can produce simple forms with good 
 balance, proportion and fitness, they should be allowed to model 
 some of the various animal forms illustrated. Small heads are suitable to 
 begin with. Allow them to make their choice of the sheep, dog, tiger, 
 horse, lion, or other animal. The teacher will find by experience that pupils 
 work with a great deal more energy if they are allowed to work on some 
 form that pleases them. The series of head forms illustrated in 306 has been 
 made for this express purpose. Some of them are quite difficult and some 
 comparatively simple, but if a boy like a horse's head better than a dog's 
 head, although it is much harder to model than the dog's head, he will suc- 
 ceed better with it. So it is with girls. The girls will sometimes select the 
 tiger's head, in preference to the sheep's or the dog's head, although it is 
 much more difficult. 
 
 (247) 
 
24S 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Do not, however, let them attempt the very complex forms till they 
 have made several of these heads. Let each pupil have a separate model, 
 and never allow two or three pupils to copy from one model, if they are seated 
 at tables. The pupils must be able to handle the form all over, whenever de- 
 sired, or to put it in any position desired, to compare it with their own work. 
 This cannot be done if two or more are working from the same model. 
 Build up the form in the rough first, being sure that the clay is thoroughly 
 incorporated, that it is a solid, well-wedged piece. Do not allow cavities 
 
 Illustration 306 
 
 
 
 1 W jl 
 
 J^ 
 
 W : W^ 
 
 '^ri 
 
 ■ ^2 
 
 
 ■ *m 
 
 * * 
 
 1 * 'jpH 
 
 d 
 
 Casts of Animal Forms 
 
 This set was specially modeled for school purposes, and then duplicated by making plaster casts therefrom. 
 There are about twelve heads in the set; some lire pictured on page 181. They form a fine series of models for va- 
 rious classes. For further remarks on these and other plaster models of Aarious forms, see pages 1S0-1S4. 
 
 to form in the clay. If there are many air spaces in the lump, it is apt to 
 crack in firing, or even in the drying when it is put on the shelf before firing. 
 I earnestly desire every one reading this book who wishes to get sug- 
 gestions on the work of modeling, to examine carefully the pictures given 
 of the class rooms. Notice the variety of models around the walls and on 
 
Animal Forms 249 
 
 the shelves. All of these pieces of work, except the very white ones, which 
 are plaster casts, have been modeled by the pupils. By studying these 
 plates carefully, ideas can be received as to the best way to work. 
 
 Do not allow the pupils to make details in the beginning. Blocking 
 out means to be able to get the large shape roughly first without any detail. 
 This is one of the most difficult things for beginners to do. Nearly always 
 they will begin to make the features- before the size of the head is gained. 
 Also try to prevent exaggeration of size. Beginners, especially in making 
 heads, will almost invariably enlarge the size. It takes time to overcome 
 this disposition. If the illustrations accompanying this chapter are carefully 
 studied, you will find by looking at some of the pupils working, that they 
 have produced first the general form in the clay, and on this the careful 
 working for detail is done. 
 
 Very little can be said in print on this subject. The model is the best 
 teacher. Till the form is like the model, the pupil can go on working, 
 changing and altering. Allow the pupils to measure if it helps them in 
 the beginning. Rough dimensions can be formed by means of the tool. 
 Usually the plaster models are much smoother than the forms from which 
 they are produced. The plaster casts have been made by pouring the 
 liquid plaster into molds. This, of course, leaves the smooth surface usually 
 seen on plaster casts. The pupils very soon notice the texture of different 
 substances, the texture of wood when it is carved, the texture of metal, the 
 texture of original models in clay. They soon find that it is not always 
 necessary to make the smooth surface of the plaster cast. The required 
 surface varies with the different forms. There is no one kind of modeled 
 surface. On the head forms the tool marks can show, as they do in some 
 of the illustrations. It is far better to show the tool marks all over than 
 to make the form so smooth that it looks like a piece of jelly or pudding. 
 Any good modeler or sculptor will give advice about his work at any time 
 to a student who is unable to work in a school. 
 
 For variety, after one or two heads have been made, the pupils can at- 
 tempt the Barye casts (page 213). These are used in all my schools. They 
 are perhaps the most perfect examples of beautifully modeled animal forms 
 that can be procured. There is a great variety, and all of them seem to 
 interest the children, many pupils being able to duplicate even the most 
 elaborate of them. 
 
250 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 307 
 
 Modeling from Birds 
 
 The panel below is :i model in 
 clay from the real bird 
 the left. The panel was made by 
 a pupil of the grammar grade, who 
 had had more training than the 
 pupil that modeled the bird illus- 
 trated on page .'..;, an,! we there, 
 fore line here a better product. 
 This panel is about lb inches long. 
 The pupil has had only two hours 
 a week in the Public Industrial 
 Art School for drawing, modeling 
 
 ind 
 
 ng. It 
 
 ust In- 
 
 stantly remembered that the se 
 three branches of work are taken 
 in rotation by all pupils. Excel. 
 lent as is the training afforded by 
 modeling in clay, this training is 
 still better when combined with 
 appropriate exercises in drawing, 
 designing, carving and wood con- 
 struction. 
 
 The Real Bird 
 
 The Animal Forms. —The ped- 
 estal or plinth is usually made first, and 
 then a rough form about the size of 
 the body is put in the required position 
 by a very solid prop under the abdo- 
 men. Let this prop be thick and 
 substantial. It does not matter if it 
 fills the whole space under the body, in 
 the beginning. The first day the form 
 can only be very roughly built up. mak- 
 ing a kind of core. After the second 
 • lay. this clay will be found to be much more solid. It shrinks and 
 hardens so that about the second or third day it is quite substantial, 
 
 The Model in Clay 
 
Animal Forms 
 
 25J 
 
 and clay can readily be modeled onto this core, making the form 
 the required size and putting the legs in the required position. Every 
 day the clay will shrink. If a model is to be made of the same size 
 as the original from which it is copied, it must be started a little larger. 
 The shrinkage is about one inch in eight. Remember, the clay shrinks 
 while the form is being made till it is quite dry, and then it shrinks again 
 when it is tired at the pottery and turned into stone. See Plate Thirteen, 
 on page 186. 
 
 Do not let the core dry too much. It must be only a little harder 
 than the clay that is added to it. If it is too hard, the clay will shrink un- 
 evenly and cracks will result. If the core, or the form in the rough, is 
 moistened too much when it is put away, it is apt to fall down. Nothing 
 but experience will teach the proper manipulation. Of the two states, it 
 is better to keep the clay a little too hard than too soft. As the model 
 approaches completion, it should be allowed to become harder, and the 
 props or supports under the body can be gradually cut away. It is a little 
 difficult to get a large model to shrink evenly all over, but after two or three 
 attempts on forms that are not too difficult, like the animals that are sitting 
 on their hind quarters, it will be found quite easy to model the more com- 
 plex forms that have a number of supports. If the props are cut away too 
 soon, and before the clay is stiff enough to support its weight, disaster will 
 
 Illustrations 308-309 
 f 
 
 Modeled by Gr; 
 
 result. The remedy, if the forms fall down, is to build them up again with 
 new props, being sure that the broken surfaces have been made wet, so that 
 they will stick together. This frequently happens even to good workers. 
 
252 Modeling 
 
 For all of the small forms illustrated in our ordinary class work, it is bet- 
 ter that the pupils should make their models without any interior supports, 
 that is, without pieces of wood, or of lead pipe, or of iron and wire. We prefer 
 to omit these so that the clay models can be fired at the pottery and the 
 child can keep his original work. — his model when fired showing every 
 tool mark and being very durable and strong. This is much better than 
 to have a cast of the model made, which is done in a great many schools. 
 In our art school over 900 pupils model each winter, and it would be 
 very expensive to cast all their models. The children get a great deal 
 more skill in being able to build up their forms with such solidity. It re- 
 quires more skill to keep the clay of a regular consistency, so that it will 
 shrink evenly without falling down. 'Of course, if a plaster cast only is de- 
 sired, supports can be used inside, or lead pipe can be bent into the required 
 shape. This makes it more easy to model the forms. A plaster cast, how- 
 ever, breaks very readily, chips easily, and, if handled very often, looks quite 
 dirty in a short time. I recommend for school purposes keeping and firing 
 the original models. 
 
 Many choice forms suitable for modeling can be found in the pictures 
 of the carving department. All the conventional forms of the different 
 styles make suitable subjects for modeling. 
 
 Before dolphins, griffins, grotesques and other complex forms are 
 carved, they should be modeled. 
 
 cModeling Natural Forms. — It is only possible in a book of this char- 
 acter to give suggestions for work on a few subjects. As many natural 
 forms as possible should be studied. When I speak fully and at length 
 about shells or fish, it must not be understood that I mean only those forms. 
 Birds, crabs, and animals of various kinds should be studied in the same way. 
 My idea is simply to suggest suitable forms and ways. 
 
 Each year we find it feasible to try new subjects before thought not 
 attainable in the school rooms. Shells and fish, butterflies and birds, have 
 been. seldom used by large numbers, as they are now used for some of our 
 classes. I find them durable and lasting to a remarkable degree. Stuffed 
 birds in the studio, that have been roughly handled for 18 years by private 
 pupils, are still fit for use. The colors especially seem to be quite permanent. 
 
 The fish forms illustrated in Book Two, beginning on page 143, are all 
 used for models in the art schools, with many others. They are mounted on 
 
Animal Forms 
 
 253 
 
 panels of wood and are very durable. They are used in the modeling room 
 as much as in the drawing room. 
 
 Modeling the fish in clay seems to make a very enduring impression 
 upon the mind. The children are really fascinated, for the time being, with 
 
 Illustration 310 
 
 Modeling Fish Forms 
 Real mounted fish are used as models. Birds, fish, butterflies, shells, etc., are also kept for general use in the 
 drawing, modeling and carving rooms, as well as casts of various art and nature forms. Conventional forms are 
 also made, embodying fish forms, such as dolphins, grotesques, etc. 
 
 the strange and sometimes beautiful forms and colors. The inspiration is in 
 the natural forms, as it should be, and the mere contemplation of the forms 
 seems to influence the pupils to action. It is inspiring to the true teacher to 
 
254 Modeling 
 
 realize the moving force and power of nature. Bring something into the. 
 class room like a new bird form, or fish form, and all of the children follow 
 it with their eyes, which seem to almost stick out; there is no lack of atten- 
 tion here, the magnetic influence is at work, the divine energy is flowing. 
 \Ye should flow with it instead of trying to thwart it, as is too often done. 
 This magnetic and energizing power of nature has a splendid influence on 
 the physical, mental and moral development of the young. It also fills the 
 children with interest, imbues them with vigor, inspires them to think and 
 work, while at the same time giving them an appreciation of beauty that 
 adds vastly to the ability of the young to enjoy life.* These are certainly 
 most desirable attributes to develop in youth, for whatever one's vocation 
 may be, the individual should be the better for this training. It is thus dis- 
 tinctly practical, and commends itself to the most materially inclined, as 
 well as satisfying the more ethical aspirations of our nature. "The emotion 
 accompanying every generous act adds an atom to the fabric of the ideal 
 man." By working direct from beautiful natural forms we unite the emo- 
 tion with the action, and thus still more thoroughly educate. 
 
 The tile is first made, as in Illus. 310, and then the fish is built up piece 
 by piece, taking care to keep about the general proportion. Then the tool 
 is used to get the surface and fine curves. When the bulk of the body is 
 about right in proportion, then the spines, fins, eyes, etc., can be added and 
 the details made upon 'them, the scales usually being the last thing repre- 
 sented. Fish can be readily cast in plaster, and are very easy forms to begin 
 
 *"F.cauty is not :l luxury, as some seem to believe. It is not the exclusive privilege of the few but the common 
 heritage ot the many. The rich cannot monopolize it, and persons of taste cannot appropriate it to themselves. There 
 is in every human hrca-st a sense of responsiveness to the beauty of the external world, and the difference is only in 
 the degree to which that sense is developed and cultivated. It is confined to no class, to no age, to no stage ol civiliza- 
 tion. It is an universal hunger, and its cravings demand satisfaction as urgently in the cabin as on the throne. 
 
 "And yet this sense of beauty is too often repressed and crushed instead of being nourished and educated as it 
 deserves. Much happiness is thus lost out of life, for the sense of beauty, wisely administered to, is .1 wellspring oi 
 pleasure It is even more than this. It is a fountain of lite itself. It adds to its fullness and energy, it- refinement 
 and delicacy, its sweetness and purity. The life from which it is ungraciously pushed out grows inevitably harder 
 and rougher, coarser and colder, and its influence Over other minds dctcrioriatcs in the same way. 
 
 "How shall this sense of beauty be saved and educated, for rich and poor, for old and young? One way is by 
 contact with its presence. Another and still .surer means of cultivating the sense of beauty among us is to accustom 
 ourselves to create it in daily life. This is a part of education and of self culture that is sadly neglected. 
 
 "Then there is the beauty of truth and of character. Perhaps we dwell too much upon the dry and stern aspect o f 
 duty and forget to exhibit or t.) admire the beauty of goodness. But as last as duty, instead of a sacrifice, becomes a 
 desire, and the love of righteousness becomes the ruling motive, does the character become noble, admirable and 
 beautiful. So all beauty is bound together and leads up from the smallest things of life to the greatest; from th; 
 most materia] to the most spiritual; from the simplest and humblest to the most exalted."— [Anonymous. 
 
Animal Forms 
 
 255 
 
 upon in doing plaster casting. The forms are comparatively simple and 
 can be removed from the mold without difficulty. 
 
 This work of modeling looks simple, and it is easy when you know how. 
 That is to be learned by actually modeling, rather than by reading about it. 
 The suggestions given in these pages will help, but you must do the work- 
 to realize its educational power. The more you model, the more facility 
 and accuracy you will obtain, and the more you will be fascinated with this 
 mode of thought expression. 
 
 Griffin, Original Design 
 Modeled by a R. C. high school boy, for : 
 
 chitectural use. 
 
< Iriginal Design Modeled in Wax 
 The design is afterwards cast in plaster and the wax used again. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Wax Modeling- 
 
 CTT' HE DESIGNS SHOWN IN THE PLATE on the opposite page 
 g are modeled in wax, and were made by grammar grade pupils. 
 
 They are either their original patterns or heads, antique forms and 
 bird forms which they have copied. For convenience, boards 8x14 inches 
 are used to model on, as illustrated above. The pupil first makes a drawing 
 or sketch in chalk on the board. When this is satisfactory it is then lined in 
 with the pencil. 
 
 The wax is much stirrer than ordinary clay. It is sometimes also quite 
 sticky and not so pleasant to use as clay. We use it simply be- 
 cause it can be kept an indefinite time, and very fine complex pieces of work 
 requiring a long period of time can be kept from month to month on shelves 
 without their having to be moistened, as is the case with clay. Unless the 
 clay models are wet at frequent intervals they dry up and crack and are of 
 course spoiled. With the wax a piece of work can be labored upon for 
 months if necessary. Real modeling wax is worth about $1 a pound, the 
 best kind. There are several very good substitutes, however, on the mar- 
 ket under several names, which are quite as good for general use. Com- 
 position clay is used frequently, costing about 30 cents a pound. The 
 
 17 (zvl 
 
258 
 
 Modeling 
 
 same tools are used as in clay modeling, and if the wax is a little sticky it 
 is advisable to have a cup of water to moisten the tools and fingers occa- 
 sionally. 
 
 Wood of a little roughness in texture is the best to model upon. Wax 
 must be rubbed into the surface so that it will stick firmly. On this sur- 
 niustration 3 i 3 * ace tIie forn i can be built 
 
 up into the desired shape, 
 planing off with the tool 
 and forming it as described 
 in the clay modeling. Wax 
 is used for modeling very 
 fine forms to be cast in 
 metal and other materials. 
 Medals and coins are usu- 
 ally modeled in wax. Very 
 fine and beautiful work can 
 be made with small tools. 
 A common slate with a 
 wooden rim is a useful sur- 
 face to model upon. 
 
 It is advisable to allow 
 some of the advanced pupils 
 in each class at intervals to 
 work in wax. For general 
 purposes, however, it is not 
 so good as clay. Do not 
 allow pupils to make very fine work all the time. Let them occasionally 
 make a large, bold piece for contrast. Wax can be purchased in a number 
 of colors, — bronze-green, brown, red, gray. For general purposes gray is 
 best. Bronze-green is very suitable for figure work, having somewhat the 
 appearance of a bronze when finished. 
 
 Wax or composition clay is also more portable than common clay and 
 has been used with success in several of my summer schools. Models of 
 animals, figures, designs, can be boxed and carried with safety when modeled 
 in wax, when a clay model would be broken. The clay when dry is very 
 brittle, and any sudden jar or shock will break large and heavy work unless 
 
 Original Panel in Was 
 The form is modeled in an upright position hy being clamped 
 to a hoard. The same form with different lighting is shown oppo- 
 site. By viewingthe model with the light and shade changed it 
 can be improved. It is important to get good light and shade. 
 
"Wax Modeling 
 
 259 
 
 it is fired. For this reason wax is a good substitute. When the wax has 
 been used many times and becomes discolored or dirty, it may be cleaned 
 by melting it. 
 
 The plate or designs made by grammar grade children, page 256, has 
 been taken from casts made from the wax models and then the wax is used 
 
 Illustration 314 
 
 Modeling a Dolphin in Wax 
 The form can be rapidly chnaged and improved when viewed in a different light. Use the ringers 
 and thumb as a tool, as illustrated in the above picture, as much as possible. Fine curves and swinging 
 lines can be made this way. 
 
 over again many times. Simple designs of this character can be readily cast 
 by the pupils or teacher in the following manner : 
 
 When the wax pattern is finished, build a wall of clay around the edge 
 of the design about one inch high. This wall, or fence, of clay, must entirely 
 inclose the design with desired margin. Next take a tin vessel and put in 
 enough water to more than fill the inclosed space. In this water sprinkle 
 the dry plaster with a large iron spoon, stirring it slowly until about the con- 
 sistency of thin cream. When in this state, pour over the wax model, taking 
 
260 
 
 Modeling 
 
 care to see that the liquid fills all the pattern and space without any large 
 bubbles; this will soon set and harden, and should be about one inch thick. 
 The clay rim can then be removed, the plaster tile lifted from the board, and 
 it will be found to retain the form of the wax model. When the plaster 
 mold is hard, the wax can be pulled out, leaving the exact shape of the 
 model reversed in the plaster. This is the mold. 
 
 From this mold another cast may be made that will repeat the form of 
 the wax model. To do this, a clay wall must be built around the mold, 
 and the surface and all parts of the impression upon it must be brushed with 
 sweet oil; this prevents the new plaster, when poured in, from sticking to 
 the mold. The liquid plaster can now be poured in. When it is hard the 
 cast can be separated from the mold by tapping it gently or inserting a 
 blunt knife as a lever. If successfully done, the cast should be a complete 
 copy of the wax model. 
 
 Of course this can only be done with flat forms that do not project on 
 the edges to prevent the mold and 
 cast from separating. If any edge is 
 undercut, it must be filled with wax, 
 to insure good results. This is a good 
 way to make some of the class work 
 permanent and also interests the chil- 
 dren. Sometimes the mold is slight- 
 ly colored by mixing red clay or 
 other coloring matter with the plaster 
 before it sets. 
 
 Enlarging Animal Forms 
 These low relief forms are modeled in wax from small casts. 
 
BOOK FOUR 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 "The hand, destined to become the instru- 
 ment for perfecting the other senses, and for 
 developing the endowments of the mind itself, 
 is, in the infant, absolutely powerless."— ["The 
 Hand," Sir Charles Bell, K. G. II., F. R. S. 
 
 "Awkwardness of limb and inability to use 
 the fingers deftly, continually entail small dis- 
 asters and occasionally great ones; while ex- 
 pertness frequently comes in aid of welfare, 
 either of self or others. One who has been well 
 practiced in the use of his senses and his mus- 
 cles, is less likely than the unpracticed to meet 
 with accidents; and when accidents occur, is 
 sure to be more efficient in rectifying mischiefs. 
 Were it not that the obvious truth is ignored, 
 it would be absurd to point out that, since 
 limbs and senses exist to the end of adjusting 
 the actions to surrounding objects and move- 
 ments, it is the business of everyone to gain 
 skill in the performance of such actions."— 
 [Spencer, Principles of Ethics, page 515. 
 
1) i : 
 
 O £ ^ 
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 file 
 
 Ijl 
 
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 IP 
 

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 v. 
 
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 Designed and Carved by High School Pupil 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Tools for Wood Carving 
 Design in Wood * 
 
 W ~M~7QO~Q CARVING is one of the most beautiful of arts. It requires 
 pp a real knowledge of form, therefore its educational value 
 
 lies in enabling pupils to receive fixed or permanent impres- 
 sions. Just as pupils acquire dexterity and skill in drawing on blackboard 
 or paper, and just as they gain similar dexterity and skill in soft clay, so I 
 wish them also to obtain dexterity in tough wood. 
 
 The tools required in carving are very simple. A few gouges and 
 chisels and a mallet, with clamps to hold the work on the table or bench, 
 will be enough. In wood carving, as in carving in marble or other si one, 
 few tools are needed; the fewer the tools used, the better the workman. A 
 
 ♦The carvings anil similar work illustrated in this chapte 
 
 (263) 
 
 : all done by the children of the i 
 
 ! grade 
 
264 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Illustration 51 
 
 mallet and a few chisels are the only toolsused in sculptured work, and as far 
 back as we can trace in history the toolsappear to have been similar in shape. 
 On the back of the Venus of Milo rough tool marks may be seen that in- 
 dicate to us the kind of edge and size of chisel used in that period of the 
 greatest Greek art. 
 
 The Tools. — In carving, the simpler the chisels and the fewer in num- 
 ber that are used the better the 
 result. Some carvers have 
 rows of 50, 60 or 70 different, 
 chisels, but these are usually 
 not very good carvers. Again 
 some of the finest carvers will 
 do all their work in wood, 
 even the most intricate and 
 most elaborate sculpture work, 
 with perhaps no more than 
 half a dozen. My sets for or- 
 dinary school purposes usu- 
 ually consist of about 10 tools. 
 It is far better to become thor- 
 oughly familiar with all the 
 capacities of a few tools than to handle a great variety. 
 
 Age at Which to Learn. — As soon as children are big enough 
 to swing their elbows freely above the table or bench, they are ready for 
 carving. Carving is work; not hard work, but work that compels the ex- 
 ercise of a certain amount of energy. Some women are deterred from 
 carving because they think it is hard, and requires the exercise of main 
 strength continually. This is not so. Like marble carving, wood carving 
 is re-enforced by the use of the mallet.- If the chisel or gouge cannot be 
 readily pushed through the wood, the mallet is used, and any one who has 
 strength enough to drive a tack can cut the hardest wood. Children of 
 eight or nine, therefore, unlesstheyareconstitutionallydefective or veryweak. 
 are quite large enough and strong enough to carve, and usually enter into it 
 with a great deal of energy and joy. It is fun to them to see the chips fly, 
 and they find it especially attractive when they discover that from the be- 
 ginning they can make fit and beautiful forms, — rather than the amateurish 
 
 Clamps and Mallet for W 1 Ca 
 
Tools for Wood Carving 
 
 265 
 
 things used in some schools, where the children spend their energies on 
 feeble imitative constructions in wood. 
 
 Just as our children from the beginning are fit to draw forms of the 
 best style, embodying beauty and grace; and just as in modeling they can 
 make fine forms of the best periods, so in wood we find it to be of ad- 
 vantage that they should from the beginning do the best class of work pos- 
 sible, and become familiar with the forms best suited for this material. It 
 does not follow that because a mind is young, it is less bright and clear in 
 perceiving beautiful and true things. It is just as wrong to give children 
 feeble, aimless forms to model and carve because they are young, as it is to 
 utter baby talk to them when we wish them to speak clearly and to enunciate 
 properly. 
 
 The Wood to Use. — Do not let the pupils use soft wood at first. — 
 such as pine or poplar. ' This advice, it is true, is opposed to the 
 
 Illustration 317 
 
 Including small sharpening stone. With thi: 
 set of tools all ordinary carving can be done. 
 
 nple 1 
 
 usual practice in schools. Usually the pupils are allowed to chip blocks of 
 soft pine or poplar. This is a mistake. From the very beginning our pupils, 
 as can be seen by the illustrations, make in hard wood panels fit to be 
 utilized. My reason for using hard wood is that the children from the first 
 
266 Wood Carving 
 
 may get accustomed to the texture in ordinary use; most carving being 
 done in oak and mahogany, cherry and walnut, while only occasionally are 
 soft woods employed. The best and the cheapest wood for school pur- 
 poses is oak. It is a little tough in texture, and offers just enough re- 
 sistance to prevent it splintering and cutting too freely. If you give a be- 
 ginner a piece of very soft wood, it splinters so readily that when attacked 
 without skill, the forms are soon spoiled. With a piece of hard wood, on the 
 contrary, a great deal of cutting can be done without splintering the work. 
 Of course it requires more labor, but the product is better, — and there is 
 not so much disappointment. The grain being of firm consistency, it does 
 not give way in unexpected places, as it so often does in the soft wood. 
 
 Designing the Form to Carve. — The pupils should from the start 
 make a design that will be of use and value. The first panel can embody 
 the forms that have been given in the modeling. It is not necessary to 
 carve a series of panels, each of which has a separate unit on it. The 
 units may be combined from the beginning, and a panel that will have some 
 value and that can be used for some purpose is the result. In every article 
 printed about carving heretofore, pupils are recommended to practice cut- 
 ting on soft blocks of wood first, apparently just to get exercise. They are 
 advised to use tracing paper to transfer drawings to the wood; sometimes 
 carbon paper is recommended; at other times tracing cloth, or they are 
 taught to use a pattern wheel, — this is a wheel with little spurs on it that 
 prick the outlines through the pattern into the wood. Some even advise 
 the making of stencils, the forms being cut out in stiff paper in order that 
 the pupil may draw around the edges, and so produce the designs. These 
 are very erroneous bits of advice, and such methods must be avoided 
 by the carver who does not wish to be a feeble amateur. 
 
 Let the pupil take a piece of chalk and draw freehand a simple pattern, 
 — say the scroll doubled. Reserve a simple band around the edge of the 
 panel about half or three-quarters of an inch in width. Practice making 
 this drawing till the scrolls balance and fit the space. It is a little difficult 
 to draw freely on rough wood, but with practice it can be done readily. Add 
 a few crockets if desired, each added form making the carving a little more 
 complex. As soon as the form is satisfactorily placed, then with a soft 
 lead pencil — one with a thick lead preferred — make the outline permanent, 
 drawing the line heavily, so that it will not rub off. Any good teacher will 
 
Tools for Wood Carving 
 
 267 
 
 see the absurdity of advising children to trace or to paste on the wood or to 
 produce by artificial means a pattern that ought to be produced automat- 
 ically by the hand of the pupil. It is because from the very beginning we 
 compel our pupils,' on all various surfaces and in the different mediums, 
 
 Illustration 318 
 
 Positions of Hands in Carving 
 This picture represents four hands gripping tools in various positions. In cutting from right to left 
 the left hand will usually be guiding the tool and also resting on the work to prevent the tool from 
 going too far. » 
 
 to make the work freehand, that we get the results we do — uniting hand 
 dexterity with originality of product. I have in one school alone 900 
 pupils carving, and have never had two patterns made exactly alike since the 
 school started. This drawing on the wood, in the beginning with the 
 
268 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 ?WW/mWW : ^MB^M ; 
 
 i WA '■■ 
 
 BrnmMMi£mmii 
 
 chalk and then with the lead pencil, gives very good practice. It reqnires 
 xiily a few minutes to do it, and makes the children feel in the beginning 
 that the work is their own. It is very wrong to allow pupils to cheat ; and 
 it is really a sort of deception when they are allowed to claim as their own 
 work that which has been copied or traced. 
 
 The background can now be scored with the pencil all over. (Illus. 319.) 
 This prevents the pupil from cutting out the ornament instead of the back- 
 ground, — a mistake w h i c h 
 Illustration aiq ... r ,, , 
 
 will frequently occur unless 
 
 proper precaution is taken. It 
 is only by repeated experience 
 that pupils begin to grasp the 
 idea of form on flat surface. 
 Very few can see a back- 
 ground all over and distin- 
 guish it readily from a pattern 
 on the background, unless 
 they have had practice in 
 making these forms. Even 
 adults will frequently cut out 
 part of a pattern by mis- 
 take, and do this several times before they get accustomed to distinguish the 
 difference. It saves trouble, therefore, to score the background in even- 
 case with beginners. Then very little work is spoiled. 
 
 As to Graded Work. — Illustrations are given herewith of graded 
 panels showing the different elements of design separately cut and ex- 
 hibiting the different stages. These are made simply to illustrate the steps 
 in carving, — a first, a second, and a third stage. They must be carefully 
 studied in advance, and then it will be easier to make the first attempt. In 
 our schools the children see all these operations going on at once, on the 
 different panels. They soon take in the idea, and we find in consequence 
 that it is not essential for each one to make the different units separately, 
 but they can begin on panels. 
 
 A number of pictures of panels with graded exercises have also been 
 prepared for those who like to " systematize things." These forms, how- 
 ever, are mainly useful for pupils who have never had any practice in draw- 
 
 U 
 
 Background Marked Over for Cutting Out 
 
Tools for Wood Carving 
 
 269 
 
 ing and modeling. All the pupils in my schools receive the drawing and the 
 modeling from the beginning, in rotation with wood carving, this rendering 
 it unnecessary for them to make the elementary forms. Usually a pupil who 
 can draw a good scroll, and who has modeled the same, can begin to produce 
 it with the chisel in the first lesson. 
 
 Illustration 320 
 
 A Picture Frame Designed and Carved b Gr 
 
 tde Pupil 
 
(J 
 
 to S"ti 
 
 a. " -= 
 
 6. w 
 
 •5 2 
 
 £ x> 
 Hi 
 
Curved by Or 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Instructions for 
 Elementary Carving 
 
 Jf ~Y o\\ J TO CARVE. — Take a gouge, and without removing the lead- 
 
 J~J^ pencil marks from the panel, gouge a channel around the design. 
 
 Grasp the tool firmly in both hands. There is no one position for 
 
 holding the chisel (see Illus. Nos 322 to 326), but in doing this work, the 
 
 chisel should change from one hand to the other, as we work from right to 
 
 left or the reverse, sometimes one hand guiding the chisel and sometimes 
 
 the other, but most of the time both hands grasping it tightly and helping 
 
 to guide it. 
 
 Cutting tough oak is splendid discipline. Unless the tool is held 
 
 firmly, it is likely to slip and cut the wrong place. The wood being easy 
 
 to cut with the grain and hard to cut against the grain, it is difficult at 
 
 first to make the chisel sweep around a curve, because some part of it will 
 
 be hard and resist, while the parts of it that go with the grain will be soft. 
 
 A very few attempts will enable a pupil to find out this characteristic. It 
 
 is one of the things that we can properly learn only by experience. All the 
 
 speech in the world and all the talk of a dozen teachers will not enable one 
 
 to feel these things. If the tool is not very sharp, or if the wood is a little 
 
 too hard to be cut with a simple pressure of the hands, one hand can hold 
 
 the chisel and the other drive it, like a mallet, or the mallet even may be 
 
 used. 
 
 (27O 
 
272 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 It is better, however, in the beginning, to practice as much as possible 
 by pushing the chisel through the wood, so that both hands can get the 
 power to grip the tool tightly, and at the same time to guide it. Do not be 
 too anxious to remove the wood quickly. Endeavor to make free curves 
 from the beginning. It is perhaps better to make slight grooves at first 
 
 Illustration 322 
 
 Wood Caning 
 
 This picture shows method of clamping work to the bench, position of tools and method of grasping tools 
 with both hands. Various pieces of work carved by the boys are in the background. 
 
 and then gradually increase them in depth as one's power increases. It 
 will be found very soon that while one hand guides the tool the other will 
 hold it back as much as possible. These movements must be practiced 
 continually till the wood is entirely removed around the whole pattern. 
 The gouge can then be used to remove roughly the rest of the background, 
 
Instructions for Elementary Carving 273 
 
 working the chisel as freely as possible and taking care not to cut too deeply 
 into the wood. About one-quarter or three-eighths of an inch is quite 
 enough. Do not attempt to smooth up the background in the beginning. 
 
 Other tools can now be taken and the forms can be cut sharp and clean 
 around the edge. This is done by taking a curve that will fit the edge, and 
 cutting it down vertically with a few taps of the mallet. Endeavor to make 
 a continuous clean cut with the tool, fitting successive tools to the altering 
 curve of the outline. Do not let it show irregular marks. Do not try to 
 make a wide curve with a narrow-curved tool. From four to six curves 
 will fit almost any part of a scroll. Where the curve is acute, a chisel of 
 quite an acute curve must be used; where the curve is almost flat, a flatly 
 curved tool is required. 
 
 In using the mallet, the pupil from the beginning must get accustomed 
 to holding it in both right and left hand. Do not let the pupils become 
 right-handed, that is, so that they can use the mallet with one hand only. 
 A good carver should be able to work both ways, changing the mallet from 
 hand to hand just as the tool is changed from hand to hand, according to 
 direction. Sometimes the entire background can be cut out this way, 
 using the tool and mallet. It is a matter of choice to the individual. An 
 expert carver will not consider the line or the drawing, but from the begin- 
 ning will sweep out with a large, deep gouge as much of the background 
 as possible, afterward shaping the different parts of the design. As soon 
 as the whole design stands up clean and well drawn, and as soon as all the 
 background has been removed from every part, the pupil must begin to 
 model the raised part. 
 
 Carving the Raised Surface. — This is the most difficult part of the 
 carving, and to be done skillfully requires that the pupils should feel form 
 in the wood with the chisel, just as we feel it in the clay. Select the gouge 
 according to the curve required on the scroll. Next carefully draw a line 
 on the design representing the modeled edge, or the edge that stands up. 
 Then take the gouge and scoop out the inside curve around each scroll to 
 this line. Do a little at a time, gradually letting the chip grow smaller as 
 we come to the end of the sweep. Usually we carve this out about half 
 the depth of the wood, just as we have in the past modeled the form. Prac- 
 tice swinging the chisel in both bands around the curve, making clean, 
 sharp cuts, the pressure being put on the chisel with one hand, while being 
 
274 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 guided ami held by the other. Most of the time in doing this work one 
 wrist will rest firmly on the work. This support gives a kind of center and 
 leverage that enables one to cut around the curves without much difficulty, 
 
 Illustration 323 
 
 Two other positions of holding tools. Variety of carved panels 
 ing portions of a very handsome piece of furniture. 
 
 1 the background. These boys 
 
 each hand helping, one holding back and the other pushing. Curve out 
 as carefully as possible the inside of each scroll. 
 
 Then take a chisel that is almost flat and bevel off the outer edge. This 
 is a little more difficult and great care must be taken not to chip or break the 
 modeled edge. The inside curve of each crocket must be scooped out and 
 the outer edge beveled with a nearly flat chisel. Take care of the tips of 
 the crockets. Do not under-cut them so that they chip off. It will not 
 matter if some of the crockets are broken in the beginning. They can be 
 
Instructions for Elementary Carving 275 
 
 made smaller, and, if they break again, cut still smaller, or if necessary the 
 design can be rendered without them. Because one crocket is spoiled, do 
 not cut off all the other crockets. Practice on those also. It is very fool- 
 ish to see some pupils, because they have "spoiled or cut off by mistake one 
 crocket, cut off all the others. Practice making each crocket, trying to 
 keep it sharp and to get the curved edge and the bevel edge with facility. 
 
 Poiver in the Hand. — Two or three panels must be carved before 
 one becomes familiar with the grain of the wood. In cutting around a single 
 scroll, the direction of the chisel must usually be changed four times on 
 account of the grain. This seems a little troublesome at the 
 start and puzzles a beginner, but by the time we have cut half a dozen 
 scrolls, the work begins to grow automatic. We no longer have to think 
 about it, and attention can be confined to the shape which we are carving, 
 the hands almost unconsciously having become aware of the texture of the 
 wood in the different positions. This is the power that we wish to get, and 
 pupils must be made to struggle with the wood till they reach this stage. It 
 is an uncomfortable experience to pass through, and the first scroll may 
 take perhaps one, two, or three hours to cut, when later, after facility is 
 gained, it can be done in perhaps fifteen minutes. 
 
 Encourage the Pupil. — Remember, the wood is tough and unyield- 
 ing. The pupils must be encouraged They must be told what to expect. 
 Unless a pupil can see an expert cut the wood, the experience they receive in 
 the beginning of lack of power is very depressing. But the wood will answer 
 to every touch like plastic wax when once the capacity to carve is acquired. 
 Therefore, again I say, encourage the pupils at this stage. Because oc- 
 casionally a panel is spoiled, that is no reason why a pupil should be spoiled. 
 The first stages of a carved panel are also very depressing to look at. It 
 is the last few touches, the smoothing touches and the stamping of the 
 background that make the essential difference. Scores of times in my ex- 
 perience I have found that the pupils who are most stupid in the be- 
 ginning, the ones who make the most awkward attempts, who seem to be 
 all thumbs and despair, are the ones who develop into skilled workers. 
 
 Do not, then, because the wood is hard and brittle and notched, and be- 
 cause struggling and strength and reliance are required, let the pupils fail 
 to use these qualities. I consider that our children have learned a most 
 Valuable lesson when they become able to make a piece of tough wood 
 
276 
 
 Wood Carving; 
 
 assume the desired beautiful shape. In reaching this stage they have had to 
 exercise their patience, they have had to struggle with both hands and 
 arms; they have had to compel their hands to obey their minds; and to do 
 
 Illustration 324 
 
 Work of pupils should be displayed around the cla 
 
 this, thev have had to bring into application a knowledge of form and a 
 care and precision that make them embody these cptalities. They must not 
 do all this once or a few times only, but they must form the habit till it 
 becomes automatic. 
 
 The Value of Cafbing. — I regard carving as one of the best means, 
 with modeling, to impress permanently and quickly fundamental forms, 
 fixed concepts of form, in the minds of the children. It is comparatively 
 easy to swing forms of grace and beauty on a blackboard or on a piece of 
 paper. There is very little resistance offered to the hand. But is is a 
 
Instructions for Elementary Carving 
 
 277 
 
 different matter to swing these things in a tough piece of wood. I want 
 the pupils to be able to look at a flat panel or a rough block of wood and to 
 see its possibilities and potentialities. I want them to be able mentally to 
 see the design in the wood, and with the fewest touches to form this pat- 
 tern, not by picking it out, as too many often model and carve, bit by bit 
 and chip by chip, but by freely drawing with the tools in the wood. This 
 capacity can be acquired, and all good carvers have it, their work looking 
 very different from that of amateurs. 
 
 Use of Finished Work. — It is important for children to see fin- 
 ished pieces of work. In all my class rooms, even in the night schools, we 
 
 Illustration 325 
 
 Position when using the hand as 
 
 Wood Carving 
 nallet. The hands should i 
 
 freely as possible over the 
 
 put all the finished work around the rooms a certain length of time, as may 
 be observed in the illustrations. The pupils thus get ideas. They can see 
 the application of the work, and can follow it in its different stages. 
 
278 Wood Carving 
 
 Another plan that I have pursued, is always to allow the children to 
 own their work. It must not be kept by the school altogether, to be used 
 for exhibition purposes, but should always belong to the child. I in- 
 variably let them take their pieces home for parents and friends to see; then 
 if necessary they can be brought back and hung up a certain length of time, 
 usually till after the spring exhibition, when all work is carried home by the 
 pupils. Those who are the most discouraged in carving, who find that it 
 is almost impossible to work out the backgrounds and to struggle with the 
 tough wood in the hard places and in the corners, where it is so difficult to 
 remove, are the very ones who need the work the most. 
 
 For educational purposes, experience has taught me that a certain 
 proportion of children will dislike drawing on a surface, a certain proportion 
 will dislike clay work, and a certain proportion will dislike carving in wood. 
 Frequently these are the very pupils who do exceptionally well in the other 
 departments. Do not let them for this reason work only in those depart- 
 ments. It is in cases like this that we need the value of the work as dis- 
 cipline. I have never known a pupil, because he liked modeling and dis- 
 liked carving, to stop work altogether because he was made to carve. He 
 does the carving because it is part of the course, and the modeling because he 
 likes it, or the reverse. After a while all the pupils are intelligent enough to 
 realize the value of each department as training, and are willing to pursue it 
 irrespective of their likes and dislikes. 
 
 As a Training. — The bitter must be taken with the sweet. Never 
 allow pupils to elect the branch in which they should work, unless in case 
 of constitutional defect, when exceptions can be made; for instance, when 
 the pupil is a cripple or is physically weak. There is a great disposition 
 among parents, and even among teachers, to let children " do as they will, 
 rather than to make them do as they ought. Moral habits must be formed 
 in children long before you can teach moral principles. In the end the 
 teacher is always justified in the mind of the child when he comes to re- 
 alize the value of the habit, and later of the principle."* Carving compels 
 attention mentally and visually, in combination with a certain amount of 
 
 •Dr. Phillip S. Moxom. 
 
Instructions for Elementary Carving 
 
 279 
 
 muscular energy that must be exerted, a certain amount of disposition to 
 tug and pull the tough, resisting wood into shape. 
 
 Persistent activity that requires the use of a close grip with both hands, 
 and that requires all the muscles of the arm and the thorax to be actively 
 
 Illustration 326 
 
 ally the tools are kept turned i 
 
 One Position of Hand in Gouging 
 
 one direction on the bench, with sharpening stone ; 
 
 engaged, is good for the growing children. They are compelled to exert 
 themselves in the very parts of their being that are but little used and are 
 allowed to be torpid most of the time in schools. The chest muscles, the 
 
280 Wood Carving 
 
 breathing muscles, the muscles of the arm and the upper part of the body, 
 arc all actively exercised in carving. This is doubly valuable to children, 
 because their school work gives them a disposition to lack energy, making 
 them torpid in a measure. I have seen children who are actually too tired 
 through the training they have had, to be willing to grip the handle 
 tight for a continuous period. This is a very bad condition for the pupil to 
 be in, and carving in nearly every case removes it. If a carver has any 
 capacity at all, it will be generally found that he has splendid grip, caused 
 by clutching handles for a certain purpose. We want this capacity in our 
 children, and I believe there is a very firm connection between mental grip 
 and physical grip. 
 
 Carving also is unlike sawing and planing, and a good many other 
 operations that merely require the use of strength without much mental 
 effort, since every touch of the chisel in carving must be guided by in- 
 telligence. There is no mechanical work about it. The pupil cannot use 
 instruments of precision or other mechanical aid. There is no method by 
 which original carving can be done without the use of the mind.* To 
 prevent cutting too far he must exercise continuously the eye, the hand, and 
 the intelligence, and the hands must continually follow certains forms or lines 
 and those only. That is the reason carving, in combination with drawing 
 and modeling, takes a so much higher rank than all the mechanical methods 
 or the mere teaching of a trade, or those amateur systems of knife-work, 
 where a few feeble constructions are made that have been thought out by 
 the teacher, — repetitions of other people's ideas, and where amateur tools 
 are used. 
 
 Finishing the Carving, — "When the carving has been modeled so far 
 as the pupil can do it, the background can be finished by stamping or left 
 exposed, showing the chisel marks. The former is done by going all over 
 the surface with the point of a stamp, of course using the mallet to apply 
 force. A stamp may be made of a big nail filed on the end to the desired 
 shape. Rough or fine backgrounds can be made as desired. This throws 
 out the design and makes the background even. 
 
 Carving and modeling are much superior means of compelling obser- 
 
 • Machines are now constructed that can copy carving very exactly. I?ut the original piece must first he carved 
 or modeled by the hand ami mind, 
 
Instructions for Elementary Carving 
 
 28J 
 
 vation than simple drawing; on account of the forms having been made, 
 they become fixed in the mind permanently, when in drawing or in looking, 
 alone, this is not always the case. After modeling or carving, usually the 
 first time, all the pupils remark the fact that they notice shapes that they 
 have never seen before on the most familiar objects — fences, gratings, build- 
 ings, and so on. 
 
 It is a fact that not one person in a hundred knows the shape of some 
 of the most familiar forms till they have actually made them. By know- 
 ing, I mean, to be able to reconstruct in any way the actual form. They 
 usually have only a partial concept, and the universal peculiarity that is re- 
 marked among modelers and carvers is the new way they have come to look 
 at things. They perceive things that they had never noticed before in 
 their environment, and they cannot help but speak of them continually. 
 This is simply nothing more or less than that they are beginning to ob- 
 serve to some purpose for the first time in their lives, and are also beginning 
 to put their powers of observation into practice. They assimilate the dif- 
 ferences and resemblances of things that they see and embody them in a 
 work of their own hands and minds. In other words, " they have added 
 another weapon to their arsenal of power." 
 
 __ __ „_ 
 
Mm ] 
 
 f^% 
 
 ji < 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 k>v \i 
 
 Carved by High School Boy 
 
 CHAPTER HI 
 
 Carving: the 
 Elementary Units of 
 Design 
 
 /N THIS CHAPTER are given instructions in carving some of the units 
 of design and simple forms used for elementary work in drawing and 
 
 modeling. In most of my carving classes all the pupils are engaged in 
 making these forms in combination, in designs on panels, etc., to be used 
 for various purposes. For convenience in describing methods, however, 
 the units have been carved to show three stages or steps in the work — (i) the 
 form grooved out, (2) the form nearly finished, (3) quite finished. If these 
 cuts are studied attentively, the work of carving can be readily performed. 
 
 The Scroll, — The form is first carefully drawn in chalk until it fits the 
 desired space, then in soft lead pencil to make it show plainly. Then a line 
 is gouged around the form as shown in Illus. 329, being careful not to cut the 
 pattern and to get clean, clear curves. Then the background is partly 
 gouged out. The second step is to cut down around the form to the re- 
 quired depth and then to smooth the background. The raised part can then 
 
 I283) 
 
284 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 be modeled, with a curved surface on the inside of the scroll and a slope on 
 the outside, being careful not to cut more than half-way down to the 
 background. 
 
 One can readily see what valuable training is given to the hand and the 
 
 Illustration 329 
 
 Carving the Scroll 
 
 The first part shows the beginning of the work, the form being grooved out; the 
 second partly completed; the third is the finished carving of this simple scroll. 
 
 eye, when the pupils can swing these curves freehand in the tough, unyield- 
 ing wood. What a valuable training it is, in enabling the hand to swing 
 accurate and true forms on paper or surface of any kind. 
 
 Illustration 350 
 
 Caning the Leaf— Three Stages 
 
 The Simple Leaf. — The leaf in this example (Illus. 330) is made 
 about the same in proportion as the leaf used in drill work and for modeling. 
 When the leaf has been carved the form is more vividly remembered and the 
 
Elemeotary Units of Design 
 
 285 
 
 magnitude grasped better than through merely drawing and modeling it. 
 To know this simple form accurately is a help in making all other forms. 
 The form is first drawn in chalk; when the proportions suit, with soft 
 lead pencil. Then gouge the outline and remove background, as illustrated 
 in the first stage. Now sink the background and partly form the surface of 
 the leaf. Third, finish curves and ribs. Every touch with tool will help the 
 student to embody the shape and draw it better. 
 
 The Spiral "ti>ith Crockets,— -This form(Illus. 331) is more elaborate 
 and is made in the same way as the spiral. The crockets make it harder to 
 carve, because they interrupt the curves, but with a little practice the forms 
 can be made to flow out with fine tangential curvature. It is difficult, at 
 first, to make the corners free and clean; they will chip off, but a little care 
 will prevent it. The raised edge, or modeled line, is hard to make fine and 
 
 Illustration 331 
 
 ng Spiral Crockets — The Thi 
 
 clean the first few times; it is difficult to prevent it being angular,— gradual 
 transition from curve to curve is necessary. Right here the pupil receives 
 experience in persistence, application, patience, combined with co-operation 
 of hand, eye and mind. All this has an important influence in forming 
 habits of industry and a love for work, as well as its influence manually and 
 mentally. 
 
 The cAnthemion. (Illus. 332.)— Let this be drawn in chalk, then 
 in pencil. Then (1) remove background, (2) next deepen the background 
 and partly model the various lobes, and (3) then finish the panel. To keep 
 the long narrow parts of the lobes clean and slender is hard, but with practice 
 
286 Wood Carving 
 
 all the forms can be nicely modeled with the tools. Use a nearly flat curve 
 for this finishing work, and "feel" the curves with the hand continually. The 
 tool should cut convex curves all over the lobes. 
 
 All the various units of form should be carved repeatedly in various 
 designs suitable for use as panels or enrichments for furniture, etc. All the 
 models in the various parts of this work are suitable for carving. 
 
 c Rpsettes are forms frequently required in carving, and to cut some of 
 them in wood gives a wonderful accuracy and fitness. The calipers are 
 used to strike the circle (Illus. $$$), and the little boss in the center of the 
 circle. The wood can then be scooped out with the gouge. On this 
 curved surface the leaflets can then be drawn. With a curved chisel cut 
 down the edges, and with a parting tool make the ribs down the center of 
 each leaflet. Remember, the tips stand up and the background curves in 
 quite deep, the entire rosette being below the surface of the piece of wood. 
 The stages can be seen at 333, first a part lead-penciled, then the midrib 
 partly cut, and the leaflets at the back. These forms are simply intended 
 for suggestions, and the actual forms should be studied from examples that 
 can readily be seen in many places. A second form is suggested at c in Illus. 
 333> partly finished and then completely finished. Pursue the same plan in 
 making this form and its variations. 
 
 Square c Rosettes can also be made (Illus. 334). Mark out the form 
 with ruler, put on the diagonals of the square, make the little circle to rep- 
 resent the boss in the middle of the rosette, and draw the inner square. 
 Next cut around the edge of the leaves with the chisel and sink the middle 
 part of the leaf, then trim out with a nearly flat chisel the points between 
 the leaves; next, sink the background still deeper, and put the finishing 
 touches on with the gouge, as illustrated. In all this work requiring the 
 repetition of similar forms, we allow the use of the ruler and the compass, 
 simply to save time. The actual form is cut with the hand many times, even 
 when the lead-pencil marks have been cut away, so that it is freehand carv- 
 ing, and it is simply for convenience that we space off with the calipers. 
 Of course the spacing also might be done with the aid of the eye alone, but 
 it would never look quite as well. It is only in patterns of this kind, like 
 frets, rosettes and moldings, where there is constant repetition, that we ever 
 use the ruler or the compass. In all other work and designs of different 
 kinds, the eye alone is used. 
 
Elementary Units of Design 
 
 287 
 
 Illustration 332 
 
 Carving the Anthemion 
 
 Illustration 333 
 
 Can-inq- Round Kosettes 
 
 Illustration 334 
 
 Carving Square Rosettes 
 
283 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 The next rosette form in the square is a little more difficult, b. (Illus 
 334.) Place diagonals of the square, as before, make the center boss and 
 then mark out the darts and the scalloped leaf behind the darts. Then with 
 a chisel cut down the outline of the form and remove the background. In 
 making the center of the darts, cut the middle line first quite deep, and then 
 slope down to it with a nearly flat chisel. The curved edges of the form 
 
 Illustration 335 ( . }, a 
 
 Carving Flutud Fi 
 
 can then be made and the ribs gouged out. Pupils should be encouraged 
 to make varieties of these rosette forms. 
 
 The next rosette is still more complex, and represents a conventional 
 leaf running out to the four corners, c, Illus. 334. Draw the form with a 
 soft pencil first, then cut down with a partly curved chisel, remove the back- 
 ground, gouge out the sides of the leaves, as shown in illustration, and 
 round over with a nearly flat tool. The balls can next be modeled and the 
 veins on the leaves gouged out. The background is then finished by 
 stamping. 
 
 Fluted Forms are also used for a variety of purposes in carving. 
 (See Illus. 335.) Mark out the surface to be filled, then the center, then with 
 a parting tool make a set of lines ray out from the center, and curve over 
 with the chisel, lastly making the curved surface at the end of each ray, as in a. 
 
 The fluted form in a circle (b) is more difficult. It is sunk in the wood 
 below the surface, and a concave form must first be made, leaving the center 
 boss standing up Then make the rays around the circle with the parting tool 
 and curve over. Lastly finish the edges with sharp, clean cuts. The next 
 is a still harder rendering of the same form and the ellipse, with the fluting 
 
Elementary Units of Design 
 
 289 
 
 making a double curve, as at c, Illus. 335. The general form must first be hol- 
 lowed in the surface, then the form may be drawn with the pencil and made 
 as before. It is excellent discipline to make each one of these curve and 
 diminish gradually. An exceeding amount of patience is required, which is 
 valuable discipline for any one. A steady hand and a true eye are de- 
 manded, and if these are properly employed there is a sure return, and a 
 product that is valuable, useful, and beautiful. 
 
 Conventionalized Forms for Carving. — The next illustration con- 
 sists of conventioahzed shell forms, 336. These are made the same way 
 as the forms just described. The shape is to be drawn with the pencil, the 
 surface sunk to the desired depth, and then the flutings or lobes are to be 
 carved. Shell forms are among the most beautiful forms that can be made 
 in wood. They seem especially appropriate, and endless is the variety of 
 beautiful results that can be obtained by simply changing the depth and the 
 
 Illustration 336 
 
 Carvings oi Conventionalized Shell Forms 
 
 relief of the carving. Sometimes they look very beautiful when scooped in 
 quite deeply, at other times when they are raised up in high relief. 
 
 After a few simple forms have been made, like those illustrated, many 
 others are sure to be observed, and fine carved work of different kinds, and 
 the pupil will soon have a desire to make them, and the carving of simple 
 forms will readily enable one to grasp the more complex forms when they 
 are seen. Carving, actually making these shapes in the tough wood, is 
 the best means that I know of for making permanent records of form. This 
 
290 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 is the reason that carving is one of the essential branches in this method of 
 training. Many elaborate pieces of carved furniture have been made by the 
 members of the teachers' classes at the art school. They work very faith- 
 fully and it is valuable as an offset to their sedentary work at the schools. 
 
 Carved by Teacher of the Public Schools 
 
Carving on a Curved Surface 
 This piece of work, a heavy frame, is clamped in the bench and shows oosition of hands in i 
 curved surface. The carving is to extend all around the frame. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Carving on Furniture and 
 Other Advanced Work 
 
 XYVRVING IN RELIEF ON CURVED SURFACES.— Pupils must 
 (, get skill in carving in relief and on curved surfaces, as well as in 
 flat carving. They should make several panels in the flat, how- 
 ever, before attempting work in relief. The borders illustrated 
 herewith (339 to 344 are simple and can be used for a variety of 
 
 (291) 
 
292 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 purposes in the enrichment of furniture, as can be seen by the various 
 illustrations. In making the first strip, which consists of a series of beads 
 of different proportions (Illus. 339), it is necessary to use the calipers, — a 
 pair with a screw preferred. The calipers must be sharply pointed, and 
 by fixing it to the size required, being careful to screw it tightly, the length 
 
 Illustration 339 
 
 wlmmmJL 
 
 
 Beaded Surface Bordc 
 
 Illustration 340 
 
 
 miimiiVilA i^t^ri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nd Part Molding 
 
 of each bead can be accurately marked with the point. As soon as this 
 is done, take a flat chisel and make a slight indentation between each two 
 beads. Enlarge this till it is of the size illustrated, and then with several flat 
 tools, of small size, model each ball or curve. It is quite hard to make them 
 even and equal. If one is cut too small, by accident, do not make the rest 
 so. Go on with the work, making them the proper sizes. 
 
 A spoiled one can be cut off and a piece of wood glued on again to be 
 carved. Almost all forms carved in wood can be repaired in this way. It is 
 almost impossible for skilled carvers not to break off occasional pieces. These 
 can be glued on again, or, if lost, another piece of wood can be glued on and 
 then cut to the desired shape. It is very stupid to see a pupil cut off all the 
 elevations or points or crockets, as the case may be, simply because one or 
 two are broken or spoiled in cutting. 
 
Furniture and Other Advanced Work 293 
 
 The cNgxt Tiece of Molding is the tongue and dart, or egg-dart 
 molding, (Ulus. 340.) It is seen frequently in wood and stone, and 
 is considered to be one of the best of all moldings. All of these pieces of 
 wood have been shaped by machinery first, and can be purchased, with the 
 desired curve, at almost any mill. It is not necessary for the student to do 
 this preliminary work; it would simply be a waste of time. This design is 
 also to be marked out with the calipers in the beginning, being sure to get 
 the ovals or tongues equal in size, and to make them of such size that the re- 
 quired number will fill the space. This must be done by marking or 
 measuring off the entire surface first. As soon as it is spaced out with the 
 calipers, take a soft pencil and draw the outline of the raised edges. Next 
 take a parting tool and form the outline of the tongue and the darts. (See 
 cut.) The next step is to deepen this, as illustrated, then to make the 
 curve on the tongue and to form the two slopes, making the dart. The 
 background can next be cleaned out and the further depression made on 
 the dart. This work requires considerable care and accurate cutting to 
 make the darts look even, and is very good discipline. It is best not quite to 
 finish several forms,— simply to block them out and then go over them again 
 when the hand is more accustomed to the form. 
 
 The next molding is made on a single curved piece, and contains the 
 dart and double curves, producing a more elaborate form. (Illus. 341.) 
 
 Illustration 341 
 
 Plain Curved Molding 
 
 This must be marked out with the calipers, picking out all the points and 
 distances, after which the forms should be drawn with a soft pencil. The 
 midrib can next be marked out with the parting tool and the double curve 
 made with a small gouge. A larger gouge can then be used and the form 
 modeled over to the groove with a nearly flat chisel. Next work out the 
 
294 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 dart, keeping- a sharp edge down the center and making- the corners sharp 
 and clean. 
 
 Another Easy Molding requiring great care, however, can be made 
 on the same curve, as illustrated in No. 342. This is to be spaced off with 
 the calipers, after which the form can be drawn with the soft pencil. Use 
 a small gouge to start the outline of the curved forms, and the straight 
 chisel or a parting tool to start the darts. The form can then be fin- 
 
 Illustration 342 
 
 ished as illustrated. The next two forms (343 and 344) are complex, mak- 
 ing use of the acanthus leaf curling- over at the top. This yields a very 
 beautiful series of forms for elaborate work. Mark out carefully with the 
 calipers the size or space to be occupied by each leaf, then draw each leaf 
 carefully with a soft pencil, as illustrated in the first stage. The form can 
 
 then be cut in with a curved chisel, using the parting tool to make the rib 
 up the center of each leaf. Next, lower the surface between each two 
 leaves, the rib of the partly seen leaf to remain raised. Then the pipes 
 and undulations on the leaflets can be modeled with different-sized gouges 
 
Furniture and Other Advanced Work 295 
 
 and flat curves. The top of the leaf can also be cut down and modeled 
 over, allowing the molding to show behind each leaf. It will be found quite 
 difficult to get the edge to run straight. The spaces between the leaves at 
 the top must be made rather deep. The four stages are well shown in the 
 accompanying cut (344). 
 
 Ano'ther style, on the same kind of molding, is shown in the next illus- 
 tration. Some find this a little harder and some find it easier to make 
 than the other one. It is to be done in the same way, marking out with 
 the calipers, as before, the space to be occupied by each leaflet, then cutting 
 down with the curved chisel the edge of the leaflet, as shown 
 in the illustration, then sinking the part around the leaf, allowing the partly 
 seen leaf to stand up in the middle. The surface is modeled by making the 
 ridges and forming two sloping surfaces running to the end of each leaflet. 
 It is a little difficult to make all these pipes equal in the beginning. All of 
 
 Illustration J44 
 
 Acanthus Leaf Molding 
 
 this work should be cut m oak at first. This wood is a little tough and is 
 not so liable to chip as walnut, cherry or mahogany. Disaster is sure to 
 happen in a few places at first, but when the leaflet has been carved a num- 
 ber of times, it can be done with ease. 
 
 The cNgxt Piece of Carving illustrated is elaborate, and should not 
 be attempted unless the pupil has modeled the form in clay a number of 
 times. The shell form is one that is frequently used in carving, and, with 
 the leaf, forms a nice shape to be used for many purposes, for instance, on 
 a cornice, on a chair back or part of a settee, on picture frames, and so on. 
 
 It is best not to copy these very elaborate forms from the illustrations. 
 This would prove a little too difficult. They are simply placed here as 
 
296 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 examples of carving. Students will see carving of all kinds when their 
 eyes become opened through the work, and good examples may be seen in 
 wood, stone and metal on different buildings, which can be reproduced. It 
 is only by frequent observation that pupils become aware of form and ac- 
 
 lllustration 345 
 
 Partly Carved Piece, Suitable for Chair Bads 
 
 tually notice shape. Every time a different piece of work is carved, the 
 student will have increased ability to perceive various forms. 
 
 Forms Suitable for Carving. — Illustrations 346 and 347 show a 
 variety of frames that can be made of different sizes for many different pur- 
 poses. Made with narrow borders they are very suitable for water colors 
 
 Illustrations 346-347 
 
 
 i Carved by Night School Pupils 
 
 and engravings; made much heavier and of thicker wood they are suitable 
 for oil colors and mirrors; made still larger, and with metal hat pins, they 
 are suitable for hat racks, and are convenient pieces of furniture to have in 
 different parts of the house. 
 
Furniture and Other Advanced Work 
 
 297 
 
 The series of chairs illustrated show a variety of shapes. (Illus. 348.) 
 Some of them may appear to be overloaded with carving. This is simply 
 a matter of economy, and though I know the forms in some cases will be 
 better if they were not carved so much, it is simply to provide surfaces for 
 work that they were made originally. Some of these chairs consist of 
 five pieces, each piece of which is heavily carved, thus affording the pupils 
 several hours of work on each. The blanks for the chairs vary in price, 
 some $3 to $5, according to the amount of labor expended upon them. The 
 chairs are usually delivered in the white and doweled together, so that they 
 
 Illustration 348 
 
 Chairs Designed and Carved by Public School Pupils 
 
 can be taken apart with a few taps of the mallet and carved. Two or three 
 chairs will thus furnish occupation for a whole class for a number of 
 periods. 
 
 The designs are in no two cases alike. This will be found true with re- 
 gard to every pattern in any material made by any of our classes, each child 
 according to its capacity creating the forms most suited for use. I do not 
 pretend to defend all the patterns. In some cases they are crude and could 
 be made much better, but being the work that the child sometimes started 
 before the teachers could modify or criticise, it has been finished and must 
 stand on its merits. It is very easy for a good teacher to give good lessons 
 in designing and construction, using as examples the good patterns or the 
 bad ones made by the class. Examples of poor work therefore teach by 
 
298 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Illustrations 349-350 
 
 Female 
 Italian Renascence Carving by Farari, in the Studio of the Author 
 
 contrast. No class of people perceive errors and faults in designing and 
 construction quicker than children. Usually they will be found to select 
 the best. There is an endless variety of forms that afford practice for 
 work in wood. Chests of various sizes can be made with six, eight, ten or 
 twelve panels. Settees also give opportunity for large pieces of work and 
 can be carved liberally all over. A variety of small work can be made, like 
 book-racks, mirror-backs, screens, cabinets, closets, hanging shelves. Clock 
 cases, half size and full length, are in demand and usually find a ready sale. 
 Carving is work especially appropriate for children, for the reason that 
 they are embodying value in the material upon which they work. This 
 
Furniture and Other Advanced Work 
 
 299 
 
 they realize from the beginning. They are also learning the value of per- 
 sistent hard work, and they get a certain amount of knowledge of art forms 
 and real drawing that cannot be acquired in any other way. Their taste 
 and appreciation of common things around them is enlarged, and the works 
 of their hands usually enter into a great many places where taste and ap- 
 preciation are lacking, and thus act as missionaries. This is especially true 
 of the night schools. 
 
 I am much surprised to notice the small number of schools among all 
 the art institutions of the country where carving is thoroughly taught. It 
 
 Illustration 351-354 
 
 3— Carving More Advanced 4— The Finished Work 
 
 Carving a Cupid's Head 
 
 is taught in some, but in the larger number it is entirely neglected. Mak- 
 ing form in tough, resisting material is one of the truest and best methods of 
 
300 Wood Carving- 
 
 gaining permanent and organic ideas of form. Surely this is especially 
 important to the art workers in the higher fields of art. It certainly was a 
 part of the education of some of the greatest of the old masters, who fre- 
 quently carved in stone and other materials. The energy and diligence 
 begotten by carving, where it is properly taught, are also of the utmost value 
 in counteracting the disinclination to manual effort that occurs so often in 
 children whose school hours are largely occupied with book studies. This 
 fostering of an energetic disposition, along with true ideas of elementary art, 
 is by no means the least important benefit of wood carving and real manual 
 training. Most of us have got to work for a living, and education should 
 give us energy for work instead of a disinclination for it. Not only this, but 
 carving compels accuracy, attention to details, the doing of things well, in 
 contradistinction to the carelessness in the work of one's hands which is 
 sometimes begotten in children who learn from books alone. The carver, 
 whether self-taught or learning from an instructor, will quickly see that 
 slovenly work will show, that the carving will reflect something of his own 
 character. The pupil will also recognize the difference between the result 
 when he tries to do his best, or when he is careless. The wood will tell the 
 truth, always an important lesson. 
 
 Carving in the Round. —In this part only a suggestion of what can 
 be done is possible. In another volume I shall give detailed instruction in 
 all kinds of wood carving, with many examples of all the styles. Very beau- 
 tiful examples of wood carving still exist, made by artists of different periods. 
 Wood of different kinds, especially the Italian chestnut, is suitable for sculp- 
 tor's work, and very elaborate work may be seen in Italy of groups of figures, 
 etc. Examples of fine modern Italian carving are given in Illus. 349 and 
 350, made by Farari. 
 
 The series of four cuts on the previous page show the successive 
 stages in blocking out a Cupid's head with wings: 1, the plain block made of 
 several pieces of wood glued together: 2, the same partly carved with form 
 in the rough; 3, the head and wings showing distinctly, but still unfinished; 
 4, the work as it appears finished. 
 
 Two examples are given of winged griffins suitable for the arms of 
 settees (Illus. 355-356). The first is shown partly carved, with the form only 
 just beginning to show the intention. The block of wood is three inches 
 thick and is a piece of mahogany. It is clamped on the benches, as shown 
 
Furniture and Other Advanced Work 
 
 301 
 
 in some of the other pictures 
 of pupils working, and is being 
 made by one of the advanced 
 pupils of studio classes. The 
 second form shows a similar 
 piece of work of different de- 
 sign entirely finished. The 
 body consists of one block of 
 wood, the wing being an addi- 
 tion after the other part has 
 been carved. Work of this 
 character cannot be done un- 
 less the pupils have a vivid 
 memory of form and have had 
 good manual training. 
 
 Dolphins are frequently 
 carved in wood, and the fol- 
 lowing example (Illus. 357) is 
 frequently cut by some of the 
 pupils. The form is changed 
 and modified to suit any pur- 
 pose, and is comparatively 
 easy to cut. Both sides are 
 carved, and it makes a suitable 
 arm for chair or hall bench. 
 
 A great variety of forms, 
 such as iron and brass castings, 
 or gas fixtures, grills and other 
 ornamental objects, are first 
 carved in wood and then used 
 as patterns for making the 
 castings. Several examples 
 are given of forms of this kind, 
 also architectural detail for in- 
 terior work, such as caps, pilas- 
 ters, panels, rosettes, etc. 
 
 This illustrates the block of wood partly c 
 head wings, etc., in the rough. The form is 
 
 i-ith the 
 >n both 
 
 Illustration 356 
 
 Another Arm for Settee 
 another form of similar character completely fini: 
 
 This 
 Illustration 357 
 
302 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Illustrations 358- 565 
 
 Carved Patterns for Metal 
 
 These designs are carved in wood for various purposes, to be cast in metal. Many patterns for brass work, gas 
 and electric liicht fijr -:-es. etc.. arc carved in wood first. 
 
 H 64-84 
 
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