':!i:!'l''':'lr'i';:fi;: i;!i:Hij'h;.:.:,|ii',j.: ;;!:iyf!;);)^:;:!',iH.:ii. Iff i! i; ij ii^i' ■ill it/li|pkvi(iH;j'. % SHEEP HUSBANDRY In tl)e 00utl): OOMPRISINO A TREATISE ON THE ACCLIMATION OF SHEEP IN THE SOUTHERN STATES, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS. ALSO, A COMPLETE MANUAL OF BREEDING, SUMMER AND WINTER MANAGEMENT, AND OF THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES. toiti) |)ortraits anb olljer 3Uttstrations. IN A SERIES OP LETTERS FROM HENRY S/ R A ND.AL L, . Esq. OP COBILAND VILLaQE,- N. 1'.' ' ' . . . . • TO R. F. W. ALL ST ON, Esq. OF SOUTH CAEOLINA. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY J. S. SKINNER & SON. 1849. •- '^ ■". ' Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1848, by J. S. SKINNER 4- SON, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 1 ^. of Int. Printed by T. K. & P. G. Collins. PEEFACE. So full and complete is the exposition of the subject as discussed in the fiollowing pages, and so clearly are the scope of the work and the circumstances which prevailed with its accomplished author, to pass it through our hands to the public, explained in his own " Intro- duction," that only in compliance with a common custom in book- making, might any thing have been deemed necessary in the way of preface ; were it not to acquit ourselves of the obligation to tender thus publicly to Col. Randall, not our own thanks merely, but those of' the agricultural community, for the great benefit which must ensue to it, in the proportion that this instructive contribution to the stock of our agricultural knowledge and literature may command the atten- tion to which it is, on every account, so well entitled. An agricultural correspondence, reaching far back, and spreading widely over the Southern States, to which has been more recently added considerable extent of personal observation, had with us, already established the conviction, that in no other part of our coun- try, perhaps, does there exist a resource at once so fruitful, and so little availed of, as that which is possessed in that region, for the pro- secution of this — one of the most interesting and important branches of Husbandry that any country can enjoy. But while it has been easy to perceive this defect so apparent in their agricultural economy, amounting in the aggregate to a national loss of no inconsiderable magnitude ; it was not so easy to expose, as Col. Randall has done, the fallacy of the difficulties that were sup- posed to stand in the way, or to indicate how the real impediments which do exist may be overcome, or materially mitigated. Something of these imaginary difficulties, for successful Sheep Husbandry, may, as we believe, be assumed to have their origin in the prejudices engendered in the minds of Southern agriculturists, by the sweeping condemnation of it to be found in the celebrated and deserv- edly popular essays of Arator, by Col. John Taylor — clarum vene- rahile nomen! and it may be that these prejudices are referable in a degree, also, to the concurrent opinions of the no less celebrated John Randolph, "of Roanoke," who, even on the floor of Congress, gave them utterance in vehement and bitter denunciation against the harm- 4 PREFACE. less animal itself — going so far in his animosity to it, and to all en- couragement of the great industry which it was formed to suhserve, . as to declare, that he would at any time go out of his way " to kick a sheep!" Nor would it be unreasonable to apprehend that these im- pressions against the policy and profit of sheep-breeding, as an import- ant object of attention for the Southern land-holder, have taken root the more kindly in the minds of a people unaccustomed, if not na- turally averse to that careful and minute attention Avhich the successful prosecution of this business demands — a people whose sons, it may be feared, still find it easier, if not more commendable, to follow in the venerated footsteps of their sires, than to encounter for themselves the labor of investigation, and the trouble (together with some expense) of new arrangements incident to every new employment of labor and capital. The general impression, in fact, is, (the reader will judge how far it is just,) that cultivators of the soil everywhere are, of all classes, the least apt to embark in any new enterprise, however pro- mising. They talk and talk about it, but rarely go about ; and per- haps it may be better that it should be so ; yet it is well to remember that precipitancy is one thing, and torpor quite another ! We once knew a farmer (so called) in Calvert county, who, being told, as he sat toasting himself in the chimney corner on a cold winter's night, that the house ivas on fire ! without moving from his seat, answered, " call the 23eople .'" In opposition to all that has been urged or imagined against Sheep Husbandry in the South, on the score either of ill-adapted climate, deficiency of suitable forage, want of adequate demand for wool, or other obstacles, the whole subject has been so admirably and thoroughly canvassed in the work here offered, that further argument would be superfluous ; otherwise we might oppose to the hitherto prevailing be- lief, if not prejudice, the experience of some, on a limited scale, and the well-settled opinion of yet many more among the most enlightened of our acquaintances in that region — gentlemen uniting ample oppor- tunities with close habits of observation on all questions of rural economy, and who have not hesitated to express the confident belief, that profitable and interesting as has been the growing of cattle in western Virginia, an equal amount of capital and attention, devoted to sheep and wool grooving in the same section of counti-y, would be yet more remunerating. Looking for reliable information yet further south, and back to a period more remote, even anterior to our decla- ration of independence, it may not be out of place to quote an evi- dently careful and intelligent author of a work on the climate and products of each of the then English colonies. Speaking of Greorgia, and her well-ascertained adaptation to the growth of silk, the vine, the olive, madder and wool, he remarks : " Wool, we [England] take PREFACE. 5 in large quantities from abroad, because it is of a kind we cannot pro- duce in England : our colonies on the continent of North America, South of New York, produce a wool entirely similar to the Spanish. No staple they could produce would, therefore, be more advantageous to Great Britain. It is well known that a piece of fine broadcloth cannot be made without Spanish wool ; it is also known that the Spaniards have of late years made great efforts to work up their own wool ; if they should succeed, or if they should by any other means prevent the export of it, our woollen fabrics, though they might not be stopped, would at least be burdened with a fresh expense and a new trouble ; all which would be prevented by e7icouraging the imjjort of wool from America : and at the same time that this good effect was wrought, another would be brought about, in cramping the manufac- tures of the colonies.'' Unfortunately for the agricultural interest of our country particu- larly, the desire to " cramp the manufactures of the colonies," here so candidly avowed as the settled policy of England, not only survived the Revolution, but has been so well fostered by our own subserviency to it, as to render our independence, in respect of this and other no less important industrial pursuits, rather nominal and fictitious than substantial and true ; nevertheless, with the odds of pauper labor and immense capital against us, thanks to the ingenuity and enterprise of our people, we need not despair of final success with any thing like fair consideration on the part of our own government. For this opinion we need have no better authority than that of Samuel Lawrexcb, the enlightened and liberal proprietor of the Middlesex Mills, at Lowell, who says, " fhe business of manufactui-ing wool in this coun- try is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, skill, and capital engaged in it are such as to defy foreign competi- tion." Occasional revulsions, such as the present, will occur from causes abroad over which we have no control, but let not the wool grower relax in the care- of his flock, for the same- far-seeing manu- facturer has declared that he could point to articles of wool now im- ported, that will require thirty millions of pounds of medium and fine quality to supply the demand. After all, then, on viewing the importance of the inquiry to nume- rous friends for whose welfare we profess to entertain unaffected con- cern, and the great extent of the district which seemed to us to be so well adapted to the growth of sheep and wool — the magnitude of the interests involved swelled upon the contemplation, begetting a conviction that as a question of practical agriculture, it was not to be worthily and well treated by a few hasty and superficial essays, or by more elaborate compilations in relation to the oft-repeated natural history of the ani- mal, its prominence in scriptural annals, &c., unsustained by that 6 PREFACE. laborious and discriminating comparison of facts and authorities to illustrate its uses and its value, and by that fulness of personal ex- perience in the breeding and management of the various races, " in sickness and in health," which constitute the excellence of these let- ters to Col. Allston. Under all these circumstances, the reader of the work here pre- sented may well judge how fortunate that it should have been under- taken, con amove, by a gentleman so well prepared by general scholar- ship, by exact practical knowledge, and by extensive inquiry into the mercantile and manufacturing, as well as the agricultural bearings of the question. It is due, however, no less in justice to ourselves than to truth, to add, that in urging him to undertake it, we had no idea of committing the author to such an amount of labor, even had we foreseen that being, as he says, a " labor of love," it would have thus ended in pro- ducing, as in our judgment it has, decidedly, the best work on the sub- ject of Sheep, that has at any time appeared in our country. May we not refer, for the soundness of this opinion, as well to its originality and strictly American character, as to the comprehen- siveness with which it presents the subject in its various relations, in- structive alike to the merchant, the manufacturer, the political inquirer, and the legislator ; as to the practical farmer ? Nor is it to be characterized alone by its utility in these respects ; for the reader will agree with us that its entire fairness and freedom from narrow views and local prejudices, much enlarge, in a moral and instructive view, its title to general confidence and favor. Finally, as far as the public judgment may be anticipated in refer- ence to a production originally appearing disadvantageously, in de- tached parts, and not until now finished and embodied ; if we may Goncliide from the favorable manner in which such portions have been reviewed and recommended, by some of the leading journals of the country, the writer may well felicitate himself on having rendered a most acceptable service not only to his brother farmers, but to his countrymen generally ; while we may unaffectedly, and, as we think, confidently add, it establishes for Col. Randall himself a claim to stand in front of those whose pens, some of them under high motives of patriotism, have been engaged in illustrating one of the most impor- tant of all our industrial pursuits; nay, one Avhich may be considered essential, in an eminent degree, to our national independence. J. S. SKINNER, Late Editor of the Farmers' Library, (now of The Plough, the Loom, and the Jinvil.') July 4, 1848. INTEODUCTION. The subject of Sheep Husbandry has recently attracted more attention in our Southern and South-western States, than at any previous period. The want of a staple or product, the cultivation of which should render productive the capital in- vested in millions of acres of mountain and other lands, which do not now yield a farthing of income, and which, from their soils, situation, or other circumstances, are unadapted to the growth of any of the present Southern staples, has struck every Southern man, as well as every traveller of ordinary intelligence, who has passed through the regions indicated. The want, too, of some class of domestic animals to constitute the basis, or pivot an it were, of a system of convertible husbandry on the tillage lands of the South, to take the place of the present imperfect rotations of crops, and new and old field-system, has become apparent to many of her more investigating agriculturists. The fact that the mountain and other unproductive lands alluded to cannot be made to profitably yield any vegetable products but pasturage ; that for the present, and for a long time to come, at least, the bulk of them will not afford a pasturage adapted to the support of large animals ; could not but suggest the growing of wool, as their best, if not their only available staple. The similarity of their general cli- mate, too, with that where wool is most cheaply grown on the Eastern Continent, was a consideration promising favorably to this husbandry. And, finally, it had not failed to strike men of ordinary commercial intelligence, that of those animal staples, to the production of which a Southern climate is adapted, the Sheep fur- nishes a vastly more marketable one than any of the larger grazing animals. The superiority of the Sheep over other animals for supporting the fertility of tillage lands, by converting a portion of their products into manure, was not so apparent. But the well-known fact that they receive the preference for this pur- pose, in some of the best agricultural countries of the world, made it sufficiently probable to demand a full investigation, before adopting an adverse conclusion, espe- cially as what has been said in relation to climate and the marketableness of animal staples, was as applicable to these lands, in the South, as to those adapted only to grass. But Sheep Husbandry as a system, and especially a system tested by experience, was scarcely known in any of the Southern States excepting in western Virginia. "Whether the theoretical considerations and natural circumstances which apparently favored its introduction would be met, in practice, with unforeseen obstacles, was a matter calling for grave circumspection. The Southern agriculturist is ever wary of innovation, and very properly averse to rash experiment. He knew, it is true, that his roving and untended " native" sheep obtained subsistence, and found no 7 8 INTRODUCTION. enemies to their health but the wolf and cur, on all the Southern zones. But whether the local climate and herbage of those different zones — the low, level, Tertiary sands of the Atlantic plain — the granite hills of the middle, and the ele- vated Paleozoic or Transition regions of the mountain zone — would be found to agree with the more valuable breeds of sheep ; whether their wool would retain its qualities or degenerate in these several localities ; whether a greatly increased sup- ply of wool would find a remunerating price in market; whether the mountains could be converted into sheep-pastures, and wool produced on them without an expense which would absorb all the profits ; whether Sheep Husbandry could be made a substitute for " resting," or expensive artificial manures, in restoring to the cotton, tobacco, and grain lands of the middle and tide-water zones the fertility withdrawn by tillage ; and various other important correlative questions were all problems to him. And to add to the difficulties of forming a correct opinion, and especially of instituting safe and satisfactory experiments, he was ignorant of all the practical details and manipulations of Sheep Husbandry : he knew little of the various breeds, and their respective adaptation to his wants. For information on the subject of practical Sheep Husbandry and breeds of sheep, there are a multitude of European, and several American works, of great value. But for the answers to the questions in the preceding paragraph, which involve the particular bearings and adaptxition of this husbandry, of the different breeds, etc., to the agricultural circumstances and wants of the various regions of the Souths where was the inquirer to find the desired information] Some well-written letters, embracing portions of these topics, have appeared from time to time in our agricul- tural journals. They have been of great value in drawing attention to the subject. But they have not usually occupied limits sufficient for the examination of more than a single phase of the general subject, or they have been mere coup (Tmls of that subject, omitting all but a few important facts and considerations of a general character. They have, too, usually been replied to, or published contemporaneously in the same or other agricultural journals, with contradictory statements — some- times with crude and erroneous speculations — calculated to confuse or mislead the inexperienced inquirer. Beyond these occasional Letters in the agricultural jour- nals, nothing, so far as I am aware, has appeared on this subject. A practical farmer, I have bred nearly all the approved varieties of almost every kind of domestic stock — of every kind commonly kept on Northern farms — and have been familiar with the details of their management and husbandry. I have owned flocks of sheep, and been more or less familiar with them, from my child- liood ; and for the last fifteen years have made their economy, their habits, their comparative profitableness with other kinds of stock, and the comparative value of their breeds, matters of careful and constant observation and experiment. "When Corresponding Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, a few years since, the facts drawn out by me in an extensive correspondence with eminent Southern agriculturists, united to what knowledge I had previously ob- tained by reading and personal observation of the Southern States, led me to the impression that there were numerous considerations and natural circumstances strongly indicating the expediency of introducing wool-growing extensively into those States. But at that time, my attention, in common with that of many if not most, of the Northern flock-masters, was turned towards the prairies of the North- west, as a region capable of sweeping away all American competition in this branch of husbandry. Glowing estimates and calculations had been predicated on very partial experiments. The value of the natural grasses, the character of the winters and general climate, and the general facilities of the prairies for wool-growing, were then little understood here, and had been made the subjects of much favorable exag- INTRODUCTION. geration. Facts subsequently ascertained, have, it cannot be denied, materially changed the impressions of our flock-masters on this subject. Whether correctly or incorrectly, they no longer fear Western competition in growing fine wool. My own coincides with the popular impression on this topic, if we consider that com- petition in its relations to a period not far distant in the future. The adoption of these views led me to again turn my attention, never entirely withdrawn, more particularly to the capabilities of the South for this branch of hus- bandry. My conclusions and the reasons for them will be found in the following Letters. In a letter to Hon. Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, pub- lished in his Treasury Report of 1845, and in a series of letters published in the Virginia " Valley Farmer," the same year, I stated some of the general conclu- sions I had then arrived at on this topic. These publications were followed by letters from gentlemen residing in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, making farther inquiries, and usually impart- ing more or less local information on the subject. Some of these were practical men, only seeking information on practical points ; others, eminent for intelligence and legislative experience, embraced a more comprehensive field of investigation, and sought from me, as probably from other sources, to ascertain by a wide range of general facts and statistics, the probable bearing, now and in future, of an exten- sive system of wool-growing on the Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, domes- tic consumption — in short, the whole domestic economy of our Southern States. Answers to these questions demanded careful investigation, and involved a great variety and complexity of details in the practical department of the subject, ren- dered far more numerous by the wide differences existing between the soils, esta- blished husbandry, and even the climates, of the three distinct and well-defined zones already alluded to. The location of some of my correspondents was on the mountains of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee — others on the hilly zone of the same States — others on the Tertiary sands of the tide-water zone, and the Cre- taceous plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas. To give opinions on all the topics referred to, and in reference to natural circumstances so various, supported by even a respectable show of corroborating facts, was an undertaking requiring considera- ble time and labor : to repeat them separately to each correspondent, was wholly out of the question. Requested by Mr. Skinner, a little more than a year since, to prepare a series of Letters on Sheep Husbandry, and especially on Sheep Husbandry in the South, for The Farmers' Library, it occurred to me that a compliance with his request would enable me to answer each of my correspondents by once writing; and moreover, I could feel, under such circumstances, that I could properly afford to bestow an amount of time and elaboration on my communications which I should otherwise find impracticable. And I confess, I also thought if the information I could impart would prove of value to my personal correspondents, it might also prove so to many others among the numerous readers of a popular agricultural magazine. The liberal offer of the Publishers to provide all such cuts as I should choose to direct, was an additional inducement to adopt this medium of communication. I have often felt the want of these in agricultural letters of my own, and in reading the works of others. In describing a breed of sheep, for example, to a person who has never seen them, the best chosen words convey but a vague impression. In many other cases also, cuts exhibit at a glance what it would require much circumlocution to describe ; and they in many instances convey ideas to the mind with a definiteness, correctness, and exemption from possibility of misunderstanding, which words alone never could. The cuts include portraits of all the breeds which I supposed could of possibility possess, or claim to possess, superior value, for any region or B 10 INTRODUCTION. locality within the United States ; all the necessary anatomical figures, with those of the less known insect and parasitic enemies of the sheep ; and finally, represen- tations of every implement, fixture, or process employed in Sheep Husbandry, where I thought they would convey important information — and particularly new information — more clearly than it could be done by words. Many of the latterJ class of illustrations have never before been, so far as I am aware, attempted ; and,! representing as they do the results of years of inquiry and experiment, I trust theyj may prove of service to beginners — particularly in regions where Sheep Husbandry! has been hitherto little known. The Letters were begun and concluded exclusively as a " labor of love." To possess the consciousness that even a limited portion of my fellow-men have been benefited by my labors, would be all, and the noblest recompense to which I could aspire. Nor do I feel, that in attempting to benefit the agriculturists of one section of our country, by urging them to appropriate a branch of industry now giving sub- sistence to those of another section, I am seeking the good of the former at the expense of the latter. Every region has natural advantages, or those resulting from the natural course of events, for different branches of industry. A right to these advantages enures from a right to the soil ; and the former is just as natural and sacred a right as the latter. To attempt to wrest them from the holder by legisla- tion, is oppressive ; to withhold from him any knowledge necessary to the enjoy- ment of them, is unfraternal and unmanly. If Virginia can grow wool, or any other staple, more cheaply than New York, let her do it. She will only force New York to fall back on the production of some other staple, or to adopt some other branch of industry. And why not 1 Why should there not be a division of production, where it is called for by natural circumstances, at least within the limits of a com- mon nation ? It is doubtless well for every region, whether extensive or limited, to produce its own necessaries of life to the greatest economical extent. But an attempt to force Nature against her manifest capabilities, for the sake of attainino-a fancied local independence, is to inflict a real evil, in the hope of attaining an ima- ginary good. History is full of instances where the prosperity of large masses of individuals, and even whole nations, has been crippled, in futile eftbrts to upbuild this or that branch of industry, in spite of natural obstacles, or against the compe- tition of regions possessing greater natural advantages. Among the foolish, selfish, and even iniquitous legislation of past ages, there has been none perhaps productive of more real mischief to human industry than the intermeddling enactments of go- vernments, ostensibly designed for its benefit. Masses of men, because divided by a rivulet, speaking a different language, or owning the sway of different potentates, have aspired to that physical independence of each other, and of the whole world, which the God of nature rendered economically, if not absolutely impossible. The vexatious restrictions on trade and commerce imposed in pursuit of this object by one government, were met by retaliatory ones by others, until international com- mercial legislation became a confused labyrinth of enactments — their absurdity only equaled by their mischievousness. And like the elephants formerly used by bar- barian nations in battle, they nearly as often trampled down their friends as their enemies. The era of these things is rapidly passing away. That patriotism which includes only a province or State, among one common people, is beginning to be recognised as narrow and sordid : nay, among intelligent men, that philanthropy is beginning to be thought meagre and unexpansive which stops even at the boundaries of Nations. In preparing the following Letters, I have labored under disadvantages insepara- ble from the circumstances under which they have been prepared. I have written them from month to month, amid the hurry of other pursuits, with little idea of what INTRODUCTION. 11 would be their ultimate limits — usually with one or more of the immediately pre- cedino- numbers in the hands of the printer, and consequently not under my inspec- tion. I have not therefore had that opportunity to proportion the space devoted to the several topics, avoid repetition, and correct errors, possessed by him who com- pletes and revises, before any portion of his manuscript is rendered unalterable by stereotyping. Reliance on insufficient authority has in a very few instances led me into errors, but fortunately, so far as discovered, they have been of trifling importance, and in relation to matters of no especial moment. Those thought worthy of notice have been corrected in subsequent parts of the body of the work. The causes I have named, therefore, affect rather the literary character of the Letters, than their general accuracy. In stating important facts and conclusions, I have consulted such writers of repu- tation as were within my reach. Among the foreign ones who have prepared works on Sheep Husbandry, or expressed important opinions on some of its separate topics or facts, or who have alluded to the Sheep Husbandry of particular countries or nations, reference has been had to the following, either by consulting their works, as I have in most instances been able to do — or by quotations from them found in the works of other writers of reputation ; — Anderson, Bakewell, Barnes, Barrow, BischofF, Blacklock, Bourgoing, Bright, Carr, Coventry, Culley, Cunningham, D'Arboval, Darwin, Daubenton, Dick, Ellman, Gasparin, Gilbert, Goese, Harrison, Hogg, Hood, Howitt, Hubbard, Jacob, Lang, Lasteyrie, Leeuwenhoek, Lichsten- stein, Linnffius, Low, Luccock, Maitland, Malte-Brun, McCulloch, Moffat, McKenzie, Paget, Parkinson, Parry, Petri, Pictet, Powell, Reaumur, Rodolphi, Sinclair, Slade, Southey, Spallanzani, Spooner, Stephens, Swaine, Trail, Trimmer, Valasnieri, Vanderdonk, Von Thaer, Walz, Western, Willmer & Smith, Youatt, Young, and some others. Of our domestic writers, I have aimed to consult all of the most prominent ones. It is not necessary to enumerate them, extending, as the list would, to hundreds. The examination of these writers, foreign and domestic, has been no recent under- taking with me. For years, I have found it a source both of instruction and plea- sure, to peruse their works. Where they have proposed any thing new to me, which I thought promised favorable results, I have usually sought the first opportunity to put their propositions to the experimentum crucis of actual trial. I have often thus learned valuable flicts. But I have nearly or quite as often ascertained that what may be true of one breed, in one climate, or under one set of circumstances, is not true when all or a part of these conditions are changed. The English and German systems of management, for example, I regard as almost wholly inapplicable here, on account of the entire different relation which the prices of land and labor boai toward each other in those countries and our own. And I sometimes have had the conviction forced upon me, that writers even of reputation have assumed positions in relation to practical matters, which they must have derived from other sources than direct personal experience. While I have carefully reviewed and collated the opinions of other writers on doubtful practical points, I have in all instances, as will be seen in the following pages, preferred the results of personal experience and observation, to adverse authority, however eminent. Compilations, it seems to me, are sufTiciently abun- dant, and I have thought it better to give my own opinions, leaving them to stand or fall, as they shall be found accurate or inaccurate. Where I have found it necessary to rely on others for any fact, or have quoted their opinions, I have uniformly given them credit. To my kind correspondents, particularly my Southern correspondents —many of whose communications are not published on account of their reluctance 12 INTRODUCTION. to be cited as authority for facts, where their modesty leads them to underrate their own comparative knowledge and experience — I tender my thanks for their assistance. I have addressed the Letters to Col. R. F. W. Allston, of Waccamaco Beach, near Georgetown, South Carolina — a gentleman to whom I am indebted for muchJ valuable information on the subject of Southern Agriculture, and who has ever] evinced a most earnest desire to contribute to the improvement of that Agriculture. HENRY S. RANDALL. Cortland Village, N. Y., April 3, 1848. I CONTENTS. LETTER I. Effect of Climate on the Health akd WooL-PHODuciifG Qualities of Sheep. 15 LETTER 11. Effect of Climate (continued) 33 LETTER IIL Adaptatioit of the Soils, Herbage, &c., of the Southerst States to Sheep HCSBANDKT. 1. Of THE LoW OR TlDE-WATEU RegION. 30 LETTER IV. The Adaptation of the Soils, Herbage, &c., of the Southern States to Sheep Husbandry, (continued.) — 2. Of the Middle or Hilly Zone. — 3. Of the Mountain Region , 42 LETTER V. Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 1. Direct Profit on Capital invested 52 LETTER VL Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 2. As the Basis of Amelioration in Naturally Sterile and Worn-out Soils 66 LETTER Vn. Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 3. By Giving to Southern Agriculture a Mixed and Convertible Character. — 4. By Furnishing the Raw Material for the Manufacture of Domestic Woollens , 78 LETTER Vm. Prospects of the Wool Market — Future Demand and Supply 94 13 14 CONTENTS. Paga I LETTER IX. Pbospscts of the Wool Mabket — Future Demand and Supply 108 LETTER X. Breeds of Sheep in the United States 129 LETTER XL The Most Profitable Breed of Sheep fob the South— Principles of Breeding , , I53 LETTER XIL Summer Management of Sheep ........173 LETTER XIII. Winter Management of Sheep I97 LETTER XIV. Anatomt and Diseases of Sheep 219 LETTER XV. Anatomt of the Sheep, (continued.)— Diseases and their Treatment 234 LETTER XVL Diseases and their Treatment, (continued) 254 LETTER XVIL Sheep Dogs, Wool Depots, &c 278 APPENDIX 23^ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER I. EFFECT OP CLIMATE ON THE HEALTH AND WOOL-PRODUCING aUALITIES OF SHEEP. Introductory Remarks. ..Wool-Growine; and Manufacturing Statistics of the Southern States compared with those of New-York. ..Eft'ect of Warm Climates on the Health of Sheep. . .Sheep in the Southern States below latitude 32"... Effect of Climate on Wool-Producing Qualities of Sheep — on the Quantity of the Wool . . .Weight of Fleeces in the Southern States indicated by U. S. Census of 1840 — Important Omis- sions in that Census — Other important Errors in it. ..Table of Weights of Fleeces in Four Counties where they average highest in each of the Southern States and in New.York — Latitude, Topography and Climate of those Counties . . . Warmth of Climate conducive to the Production of Wool— Reasons. R. F. W. Allston, Esq — Dear Sir : That spirit wliicli prompts communities and States to at- tempt to render themselves independent, so far as the supply of physical wants is concerned, of other communities and States, is an eminently proper one, up to certain limits. Beyond these, it degenerates into mere sectional selfishness, as deserving of reprobation in the community as in the individual — nay, more so, for it militates more widely against the in- terests and happiness of mankind. Agiiculture supplies the most of our physical wants which are not administered to spontaneously by Nature. In this great department of human labor,it is not difficult to decide how far tho inhabitants of each particular region are called upon to rear from the earth what their wants require. Nature herself has, in the distribution of soils and climates, both indicated and limited the production of many of the agricultural staples, by geographical boundaries, sometimes topically 15 16 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and sometimes by whole regions. This compels those practicing Agricul- ture, both as individuals and masses, to make that " division of labor " which, as in the mechanic arts, gives a better knowledge of its principles and a greater expertness in its practical manipulations. It also creates the necessity of exchange. Exchange is commerce, and commerce begetd and diffuses civilization. Agricultural production, then, should be controlled by the demand or want, and by the adaptation of the country to such production. It would be absurd, for example, for New- York to attempt to raise its own rice and cotton, instead of exchanging the surplus of what it can most readily produce for that rice and cotton, or selling its surplus where it is wanted, and buying the rice and cotton with the proceeds. But, on the other hand, it would be equally absurd for New-York to be dependent on South America or Australia for her wools, when she can raise that staple just as well as those countiies, and thus save paying for transportation and the hire or commission of the agents of exchange. Though Nature both indicates and limits the production of staj^les by soils and climates, she too rigidly enforces the primal cui"se, or perhaps we should say blessing, of labor, to bring forth each, indigenously, in the regions adapted to it, or ever to place them there, unless transported by the enterprise and industry of man. The potato and maize were a recent gift from this continent to the eastern. The debt has been repaid by rice, the sugar cane, the horse, the cow, the sheep, and a multitude of other plants and animals. How singular is the history of some of their deporta- tions ! The sugar cane, now furnishing an important staple in some of our own Southern States, originated in the eastern confines of Asia ; was not vouchsafed to the Greek and Roman ; traveled into Arabia about the last of the thirteenth century ; passed thence into Africa ; was carried by the Moors into Spain ; by the Spaniards and Portuguese into the West India Islands ; and thence we received it. Rice, the gi'eat staple of your own State, sir, a plant of which it has been said that it " has altered the face of the globe and the destiny of nations," originated also in Asia, and has traveled by the same slow stages, until it has reached that low zone which skirts our south-eastern shores, to render its vast marshes, oth- erwise useless, as profitably productive as the best grain or cotton lands of the Southern States. Here, sir, we find an instructive lesson. Other regions there are in our Southern States, now, nearly as useless as Avould be her " hammocks " without rice, inviting the introduction of some other great staple to sup- ply, if feasible, a home demand, and a sui-plus for profitable exportation. If this great object can be achieved, and by the same means, the husbandry of the regions now under cultivation be made to assume that mixed and convertible character which will both add to their present proceeds, and better sustain their fertility, for future demands on them, a benefit will be conferred on the South the present and final results of which it would be difficult to overestimate. Repudiating theoretic speculation and vague conjecture — advancing just so far and no farther than we find our way illumined by the broad and certain light of facts, let us inquire what im- portant staple there is, not now extensively produced at the South, which would come within and at the same time fill the requirements I have men- tioned. Woolen fabrics constitute an important item in the imports of the South- em States, and for these they exchange the proceeds of no inconsiderable proportion of their industry with the Northern States and with Europe. The following table will exhibit the population, and the amount of home SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 17 production in these staples, according to the U. S. census of 1840, in the States south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Mississippi, (in- cluding Louisiana,) in 1839. To these are added, by way of comparison, the statistics of the State of New-York, under the same heads, for the same year : r' TABLE No. 1. States. Population. No. of Sheep. Lbs. of Wool. No. nf Woolen Factories. Value of If'oolen Manufactured Gauds. 1,239,797 753,419 594.398 691,392 .^4,477 590,756 37.5,651 3,52,411 829,210 779,825 ], 293,772 538,279 232,981 267,107 7,198 163,243 128,367 98,072 741,593 1,008,240 2,538,374 625,044 299,170 371,303 7,285 220,3.53 175,196 49.283 1,060.332 1,786,847 41 3 3 1 26 40 147,792 3,900 1,000 3,000 14,000 151,246 Noi-lli Carolina. .. South Carolina . .. Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky Total 6.^61,336 4. 478,8.32 7,133,187 114 320.938 Now- York 2,428,921 5,118.777 9 845.295 323 3,537,337 The above is only given to indicate approximate general results ; for, as I shall subsequently show, the returns of the product of wool are inac- curate to the last degree. The question now arises, whence the immense dispaiity in the growth and manufacturing of wool in the State of New-York, comprising 46,000 square miles of territory, and less than two and a half millions of popula- lation, and the ten States above enumerated, covering an area of 495,000 square miles, and exceeding six millions of population 1 Is the growing of wool, (for we will first consider this, as the main question, leaving the sub- ject of manufacturing for subsequent examination,) to its present extent, profitable or unprofitable in the State of New-York ] I contend, and shall attempt to pi'ove, that taking a term of say ten or fifteen yeai's, it has been the most profitable branch of industry carried on in the State. If this is true, why is it not equally profitable in the Southern States 'I* Is there anything in their climate which rendere them less favorable to the health or wool-producing qualities of the sheep — or is there anything in their topographical features, soils, herbage, or other circumstances, which unfits them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry ] Or have they other staples so much more profitable that it is not an object to gi'ow wool 1 Having bestowed some attention on these points, and having been prac- tically familiar with the most minute details of sheep husbandry from my childhood, I have thought that the conclusions I have an'ived at, and the facts on which I have based them, might not be uninteresting to you. To bring these facts connectedly before you, I shall necessarily be driven to repeat some matter from my own and the writings of others, which you have doubtless before seen in the publications of the day. ' Let us now take up the first of the two preceding questions ; and first I will call your attention to the effect of Climate. Sheep have been bred, time out of mind, on the Eastei'n Continent, from the Equator to the 65th degree of north latitude, from the burning plains of Africa and Asia, to the almost perpetual frosts cf Iceland. The Merino, (the different families of which, as wall be shown, constitute the only varieties suitable for wool growing on a scale of any considerable extent,) has been bred in Europe, for ages, as far south as between the * When I use the words ". 'Southern States," without farther specification, you will understand me to mean the ten enumerated in Table 1st. (651) C 18 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 36th and 37th parallels of latitude, and has, within the last few years, been acclimated with perfect success as far north as various points in Sweden. If any difficulty exists in the climate of the United States, rendering it unsuitable for the rearing of sheep and wool, it must be its heat ; and this must afl'ect the wool-producing qualities of the animal alone, and not its health, as the following facts will show. There were upward of 060,000 sheep in the five most soxithern States, in 1839. In Florida, they have been acclimated as far south as the 29th degree. In Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, they not only flourish in the northern and more elevated sections, but on the low, fenny, tide-water region which skirts the Gulf of Mexico. In the above five States there were, in 1839, upward of 190,000 sheep below the 32d degree of latitude, viz. : in Georgia 32,986, Florida 7,198, Alabama 22,053, Mississippi 56,780, Louisiana 81,627.* They graze with equal impunity the vegetation on the margin of the Great Okefinokee Swamp (in Georgia and Florida) and on that which rankly flourishes among the ooze at the mouths of the Mississippi. It may interest sojnc less acquainted than you are, sir, with this subject, to know that in 1839 the county in which New-Orleans stands (Orleans) contained 1,807 sheep; Jefi'erson, on the opposite side of the river, 6,871 ; St. Ber- nard, extending from Orleans to the Gulf, 1,154; Plaquemine, almost sur- , rounded by the waters of the Gulf, and comprising the delta of the Missis- sippi, 1,832 ; Lafourche Interior, on the Gulf, 1,253 ; Terrebonne, another Grulf county, 1,013; St. Mary's, another, 8,211 ; and La Fayette, another, 2,622.t No portion of the United States is lower, hotter, or more unhealthy, than much of the preceding, and none, according to commonly received notions, would be more unsuited to the healthy production of sheep. Yet, that they are healthy in these situations is a matter of perfect notoriety to all conversant with the facts. So far as health is concerned, then, we are assuredly authorized to assume the position that no portion of the United States is too warm for sheep. We come now to the effect of climate on the wool-producing qualities of the animal. Assuming the census returns of the United States in 1840 as reliable data, they would furnish strong proof that the wannth of the climate has a marked effect in diminishing the weight of wool per sheep ; and they have been adduced as furnishing conclusive evidence to that ef- fect, by persons more accustomed to broad assertion than patient investi- gation. The following will give the weight of wool per head in the States enu- merated in Tabic No. 1, estimated from the census returns of 1840 : TABLE No. 0. Lis. Oz. Vircrinia 1 7 845 Norlli Carolina 1 2 2C!1 South Carolina 1 3 539 G.'ori.Ma 1 4 4S7 Florida 1 410 Lbs. Alabama 1 Mississippi 1 Louisiana Tennessee I Keniuckv 1 Oz. 4 146 4 227 8 040 4 809 6 971 New-York 1 lb. 7 680 But an examination of the census will show that so far as several of these States are concerned, it is entitled to very little credit, in this par- ticular, and that it is correct in relation to none of them. In Louisiana, in fouj-tecn counties from which 30,261 sheep, or nearly one-third in the whole State, are returned, not a pound of wool is returned. In Florida, four counties, returning 228 sheep, return no wool. Let us U. S. Ceneus, ISIC. t lb. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 19 examine the comparative products, per head, as set forth in some of the counties from which i-eturns of sheep and wool are both made, with a view of testing their accuracy. Escambia returns 485 sheep, and 837 lbs. of wool ; Walton 386 sheep, and 575 lbs. of wool ; Leon 1,798 sheep, and 3,360 lbs. of wool — or an approximation to 2 lbs. of wool per head. Nas- sau returns 436 sheep, and 1,200 lbs. of wool, or about 3 lbs. per head. On the other hand, Gadsden returns 1,875 sheep, and 512 lbs. of wool; Jefferson 752 sheep, and 300 lbs. of wool ; Madison 223 sheep, and 50 lbs. of wool; Jackson 960 sheep, and 376 lbs. of wool, or not quite a third of a pound per fleece ! Now Leon is bounded on the west by Gadsden, and on the east by Jefferson, and all lie in the same latitude, and do not differ essentially in their soil, herbage, or temperature ! Madison lies imme- diately east of Jefferson, (though its southern angle extends somewhat farther south,) and Jackson joins Walton. Nassau is in the same latitude. Hamilton, returning no sheep, returns the product as 20 lbs. of wool ! In Mississippi, eight counties returning 15,227 sheep, return no avooI; and there are repeated instances of the same glaringly obvious errors that have been exhibited in the statistics of Florida. For example. Smith county returns 741 sheep, and 1,067 lbs. of wool; Wayne 921 sheep, and 1,466 lbs. of wool. Jasper, bounding Smith on the east, returns 1,848 sheep, and 418 lbs. of Wool; and Clarke, bounding Wayne on the north, 1,199 sheep, and 188 lbs. of wool ! By this, the sheep of Clarke shear loss than 3 oz. per head, while those of the next county shear over a pound and a half per head. There are various other instances of under returns in the State. In Alabama, two counties returning 2,138 sheep, return no wool; and in eight counties there are the same glaring instances of under returns with those given above. In Georgia there is but one omission to return the wool, where the sheep are returned. In that county there were 3,360 sheep. There are eight or nine instances of obvious under returns, but these in the aggre- gate of the State are partly balanced by two gross cases of over returns. Cobb county returns 3,524 sheep, and 36,057 lbs. of wool ; and Richmond 758 sheep, and 3,032 lbs. of wool ! In South Carolina there are at least six instances of under returns. In North Carolina there are no returns of wool in one county, contain- ing 2,163 sheep, and in another 7,260 lbs. of wool are returned, and no sheep. There are ten cases of obvious under returns. In one of them 46,340 sheep are made to yield but 12,686 lbs. of wool. In Virginia there are no omissions, and no obvious under returns. There are several over returns. In Tennessee there are no omissions, but there are seven obvious undei returns and two or three over returns. In Kentucky and New-York there are not sufficient eiToneous returns to materially vary the aggi-egate. The foregoing facts show that the INIarshals in many counties in the most southern States entirely neglected their duty in returning the pro duct of wool ; and where over or under returns have been made, it is pi'obable that, by a misapprehension of duty, the amount of wool on hand was ascertained and noted down, instead of the annual clip. And there is another and general error in these statistics, throughout all the States, by the census including in the number of sheep the lambs of the current season, which had not, of course, been sheared at the time of taking the census. A, at the time of taking the census, owned a flock of 200 sheep over one year old, and 100 lambs. He would give in his flock 20 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. / to the Marshal as 300, of course, for the census makes no distinction be- tween lambs and grown sheej^. He gave in 600 lbs. of wool, which would be 3 lbs. per head for those which had been sheared. But by the lambs being included in the census returns, it is made to appear that his sheep sheared but 2 lbs. of wool per head. In the next census the lambs and sheep should be separately returned, not only to obtain accuracy, (without which such statistics are valueless,) but the annual increase thus indicated would be, of itself, an interesting and valuable statistic. In the preceding enumeration of erroneous returns, I have set down none as under returns where the product of wool has not been given as less than a pound per head ; and where it has fallen under that amount, the retui'ns from contiguous counties, possessing the same natural features, exhibiting a far superior product, as well as the general complexion of the returns throughout the State, have authorized me beyond a reasonable doubt so to consider it. I may add, that it is a fact of universal notoriety that there is no variety of sheep in any section of the United States, whick shears but a pound of wool per head.* A careful inspection of the census, moreover, will not fail to satisfy any one that there are a multitude of under returns, (not specified by me, as the product is given over 1 lb. of wool per head,) in most of the States. This is shown by the same kind of compari- sons which have already been alluded to. These are far more common in the extreme Southern States, where wool gi'owing had not yet (in 1839) been reduced to any system, and where sheep had been little looked after or regarded. These eiTors grow less, as we approach the wool-growing regions of the north and north-west. Taking those returns which we are authorized to consider con-ect,f it will appear that there is no gi-eat difference in the average product of wool, per head, in States separated by fi-om ten to fifteen degrees of latitude, and no more than is clearly referable to incidental or extraneous causes, unless we come to the conclusion that the difference is in favor of the Southern States. In proof of this, the following table is offered, giving the products of some of those counties in each of the States enumerated in Tables No. 1 and No. 2, which exhibit the highest averages per head, (excluding those obviously over returned.)| TABLE No. 3. State. County. C Fauquier — J Hanison } Ohio (_ Rockingham f Currituck . . J Person . — j Perquimans [Tyrrel Average Weight of Wool per Sfietp, Total average of the Counties givenW Virginia North Carolina. Lbs. 2 2 2 9 Oz. 912 5.0 '^7011 n_?_0_5_6_ "35 119 9JLQ_5i>_ '^26 689 ■14 6 49 ^4 7 91 9 7i.l3^ "^ '459 9 'i_9JL3_ "^ ^^302 7 1 -192292 ^ -^"23^3 ^ '^ 1 9 4 7 2 11 * I consider such to be under returns, independent of the mistake made by including lambs in the enumeration, t With the exception of the error arising from the return of lambs — which perhaps would not greatly vary the proportionable result. Jit is proper to say that though I designed to i^Ve the hishest avcraces, I did not go through a formal reckoning of the average in every county in the eleven States. I took those which appeared the highest, after a somewhat careful general inspection. U Excluding the fractions of the ounces in preceding column. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 21 TABLE No. 3— (Continued.) State. County. Average VVeiglU of Wool per Slieep. :/'o«ai average of the Counties given. r Beaufort c, - ^ V Darlington South Carolina <( ^ ° I Georgetown / Richland Lbs. Oz. 9 1910 9 4 2 1 19118 ^ -^-"isii Lbs. Oz. 2 3 r Bibb 9 o 30G 2 10^V3 9 133 -^^ -^49 2 31- ^ . 1 MuiTay ^^°^g^^ i Twiggs [Ware C Escambia Florida •{ Leon C. Nassau 1 11 -'^ 1 1 O809 ■^ -'•'^¥9 9 9 ^'i '^0 2 If C Blount . , , J Jackson ^1^^^™^ i Autauga (^ Greene 1 15-1-^ 2 6f3.ao 6 o o 1 1 15JL9_3_ 9 2 6 8 '^ '^4 74 9 2 1 C Claiborne ,,.... j Hinds Mississippi i pg^^.y (^ Warren 9 72111. ■^ '65^7 3 2 2 nil 2 71 - . . J St. Helena |j ninsi ana, ...... ..."N ri m 2 15iH 1 71361 ^ ' 1 51 3 9 123 -^ ^25 1 14J-^ ^ ^^21 2 11 j^uuibidud, gj_ Tammany . . (_ Washington . . . r De Kalb rr, j Franklin Tennessee ^ g^j^^^ 9 918 2 '^ '^T2'9' 9 7617 9 9 0^91 9 915 4 6 ^ -^TaTog 2 2f r Bourbon ,^ , 1 Clarke K^^t'^^^y ^Lawrence Scott 9 113 897 -^ J-23 719 9 11 9133 "^ ■*^-^20953 9 102955 2 6t^«tV9 2 7f L '-'^"^'' C Westchester . . New- York < q ^ V^ (_ Orleans 2 10^W3 2 5^/5 9 5 7 6 6 ^6041 9 94 2 15 4 -^ -^6 9 5 63" 2 5 Taking these averages as a test, it would appear that the difference between the average products of the Southern States and New York is, in some instances, in favor of the former. Kentucky in the middle, and Mis- sissippi in the extreme South, exceed the average of New York. It is proper to say, however, that various local circumstances may have eifected these results, and that taking the average of a considerable num- ber of counties, in the several States, would essentially vary them. Not- withstanding this, the testimony which they ofter is important, and be- comes more so regarded in connection with another circumstance. The comparative statistics of the extreme Southern States themselves show that in a majority of cases their best products of wool come from their Southern and warmer counties. Of the four counties in Louisiana, the product of which is given above. 22 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the most northern lies between the Slst and 32d degrees of latitude, and all of the other three south of latitude 31°. St. Tammany, which exhibits the second best product, borders on Lake Pontchartrain. The State ex- tends north to latitude 33°. In Florida, all the counties given lie in the same latitudes. Mississippi extends north to latitude 35°. All the counties given are south of 32° 30', and one in latitude 31°. I' In Alabama, extending north to the same latitude with the above, two of the counties given ax'e in the noitheni or mountain region, and two of them south of 33°. In G eorgia, (same northern line,) one of the counties given is in the ex- treme north, two south of 33° and one in latitude 31°, being the county in which lies the major portion of the Great Okefinokee Swamp ! In South Carolina, two of the counties (both bordering on the ocean) are in the low, marshy, tide-water region ; and the other two are in the central region. In North Carolina,two of the counties given join the ocean ; one is on Albe- marle Sound, while one lies inthecentral and northern portion of the State. In comparing the product of wool in the Southern States with that of the Northern — and more particularly with that of New-York — we must not lose sight of the fact that in the latter wool gi'owing has become an important business, and is reduced to a system. The sheep are kept in pastures, and are sheared at regular intei-vals. In the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States, precisely the reverse of all this was generally ti-ue, at least up to the year 1839. The sheep were little cared for; were suf- fered to breed promiscuously ; and they roamed at large through forests, where, as the warm season advanced in the spring, their wool, beginning to detach itself, was left on shrubs and brambles, and in not rare instances considerable portions of it were thus lost prior to shearing.* Giving their due weight to the preceding facts, the defects in the census, etc., it is, I think, undeniable that they account for all the deficiency in the average product of wool per sheep in our most southern States, com- pared with that of New-York, as set forth in Table No. 2. Indeed, sir, my OAvn convictions are decided, and the facts reported appear to fully sustain them, that warmth of temperature, at least to a point equaling the highest mean temperature in the United States, is not injurious, but abso- lutely conducive to the production of wool. The causes of this are in- volved in no mystery. Warm climates afford gieen and succulent hei'b- age during a greater portion of the year than cold ones. Sheep plentifully supplied with gi'een herbage keep in higher condition than when confined to that which is dry. High condition promotes those secretions which form wool. Every one at all conversant with sheep well knows that if kept fleshy the year round, they produce far more wool than if kept poor. A half a pound's difference per head is readily made in this way. AVithin the maximum and minimum of the product of a sheep or a flock, the ra- tio of production always coincides with that of condition. I have dwelt on this point at great and perhaps tedious length, sir, as the results set forth in the United States Census, unexplained, would clearly point to a different conclusion from that to which I have arrived. To invalidate testimony, ostensibly so certain and reliable, as well as to combat deep-rooted prejudices, I have deemed it necessary to scan thor- oughly the accessible facts in the case. * I make no account of difference in breeds, as affecting the product of wool between the South and North. The ijrade Merinos, not uncommon in New-York, would produce far more wool than the " na. lives," the principal sheep in the South in 1839. But the latter would equal or exceed the product of the Bumeroua Saxon tlocks of New-York. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 23 LETTER n. EFFECT OF CLIMATE, CONTINUED. Kffectof Climate on quality of Wool... Warmth of Climate renders VWooI coarser — Reasons ... Eftect of Herbage. ..Opinions of Youalt — Doctor Parry — English Staplers — Writer.. .Can the tendency to gro\v coarser be resisted ?.. .Opinions of Youatt — Lasteyrie — Mr. Lawrence. . .Experiment in Australia— Cape of Good Hope — South of niinois— Kentucky — Tennessee — Mississippi— New-York. ..Warm Climates render Wools softer and lonser, thus adding materially to their value. . .Proved to be the case in Australia. . .Tes- timony of English Wool-factors and Staplers. ..Same effect produced in the United States... Testimony of Mr. Cockrill. Dear Sir : We come now to discuss the effect of Climate on the quahty of Wool. There can be but little doubt, other things being equal, that the pelage of the Sheep and some other animals, becomes finer in cold climates and coarser in warm ones. This is usually attributed, by theoretical writers, to the effect of cold and heat in contracting or expanding the pores. This may have some effect, but to suppose that the delicate tissues of the skin can act, to any great extent, mechanically, in compressing the harder and highly elastic ones of the hair or wool, or compel their attenuation so as to permit their escape through diminished apertures, like the process of wire drawing, is, it seems to me, to assume that matter acts contrary to its ordinary laws. I am rather disposed to look for the causes of this phenomenon, in the amount and quality of the nutriment received by the animal. It was stated, in my preceding letter, that warm climates, by affording succulent herbage during a greater portion of the year, maintain in greater activity those secretions which form wool, and thus increase the quantity or weight of the fleece. The weight is increased by increasing the length and thickness of the separate fibres, just as plants put forth longer and thicker stems on rich soils than on poor ones. Mr. Youatt, in his excellent and much quoted work on Sheep, after dis- cussing and admitting, to a certain extent, the influence of warm temper- atures in rendering wool coarser, says : " Pasture has a far grep^ter infliieuce on the fineness of the fleece. Tlie staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not aifordeil. When little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the sheep yield an abimdant crop of wool, but the fleece is perce]itibly coarser as well as heavier. When frost has been severe and the gi-otiud long covered with snow — if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness and a proportionate increase of value. Shoidd, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this prolongation of cold weather, the fleece as weU as the carcass is thinner ; and although it may have pre- served its smallness of filament, it has lo.st in weight and strength and usefulness. These are self-e-vident facts, and need not be enforced by any labored argument."* Doct. Parry, a connect and able English writer, remarks : " Sheep breeders have observed a sort of gross connection between the food and quality of the fleece. . . . The fineness of a sheep's fleece of a given breed is, within certain limits, inversely as its fatness, and perhaps also (although I am not certain on this point) as the quickness with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from want of food or disease, has the finest wool ; and the very same sheep may at diflerent times, accordnig to these circumstances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from exti-eme fineness to comparative coarseness." Youatt on Sheep, p. 70. 24 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. In an examination before the English House of Lords, in 1828, various eminent staplers* testify, most decidedly, to the deterioration (in fineness) of the British wools and their increase in length of staple, " since the introduction of artificial food and the adoption of the forcing system." ]My own observations fully coiToborate these positions. I have exam- ined, in repeated instances, with a good microscope, the wool of individ- ual sheep in my flock, taken in seasons when they have maintained a high condition, and in others, when, from some incidental cause they have been in ordinary or poor condition, and the difference in length and fineness is, uniformly, distinctly perceptible If the sheep breeder in warm climates can take advantage of the ten dency to produce greater quantities of wool, following that supply of suc- culent herbage throughout the year which Nature has placed at his disposal, and at the 'same time, by any unexpensive means which he can employ, combat the correlative tendency to increased coarseness of fibre, he has most assuredly, other things being equal, an entire advantage over the breeder in colder regions. We come now to the important inquiiy. Can this latter tendency be successfully combated ; or, in other words, can wool of any desirable fineness be produced in countries as warm, for example, as Louisiana, Mississippi, &:c. 1 Let us examine IMr. Youatt's testimony on this point also. He says : " Temperature ami pasture have influence on the fineness of the fibre, and one whicli the farmer shoulcl never disregard ; but he may, in a great measure, counteract this influence by careful management and selection in breeding. ... A better ilhislration of tliis cannot be found than in the fact that tlie Merino has been transplanted to every latitude on the temperate zone, and some beyond it — to Sw^eden in the North and Australia in the South — and has retained its tendency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal fineness and value. "t Mr. Lasteyrie, equally good authority, uses the following language. When he speaks of the preservation of the breed in its " utmost purity," we are undoubtedly to understand him to refer as much to the fineness of the wool as any other point, this being the distinguishing mark or excel- lence of the breed. " The preservation of the Merino race in its utmost ]>ui-ity at the Cape of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, and under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional support of this, my nnalteralile principle : fine wool sheep may be kept wherever inteUi geiit breeders e.xist."}: Samuel Lawrence, Esq. the head of the great Lowell Manufacturing Company, in Massachusetts, who, by his vast purchases of fine wool in all parts of the LTnited States for a long term of years, and his intimate prac- tical acquaintance with the quality of the article, is entitled to have his opinion on this point regarded as of as great weight as that of any other individual, says : " That the properties of wool are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and •were it not invidious, I would name some sections where wool gi'owers are gi-eatly favored by Nature. One thing is certain, whatever may be the character of the soil, where there are good shepherds there is sure to be found good wool. By judicious selections and cross- ing. I believe a breed may be reared which wUl give fom* pomids of exquisitely fine wool to tlie fleece. "II This last sentence of this important extract, though not bearing so par- ticularly on the point under examination, is recorded in its original con- nection for subsequent reference. Australia and the Cape of Good Hope being cited by the distinguished * Yoaatt on Sheep, p. 71, where the names and testimony of these individuals are given ; and more at lenpth in Bisohoff on Wools. &c., vol. ii. pp. lis— 200. t Pp- 69—70. j Lasteyrie on Merino Sheep, p. 101. 1| Letter of Mr. L., published in " American Shepherd," p. 436. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 25 English and French writers above quoted, as offering instances of the per- fectly successful acclimation of Merinos, without deterioration of their wool, in warm climates, it may be well to inquire a little more particularly what the climate of those countries is ; and what, if any, the other cir- cumstances connected with them, having an influence on the quality of the wools grown in them. Port Jackson, in Australia, in the vicinity of which the Merinos were fii'St introduced, and are now extensively bred, lies in 33° 55' South lati- tude, corresponding as nearly with the latitude of Georgetown, South Carolina, as that of any othei important point in our country.* In de scribing this region (New South Wales) Malte Brun says : " The coast itself is high but not mouutainous ; tuid it is partly shaded by trees of gigantic size. Toward the south-cast a great part is covered with coppice ; much also is occupied ■with marshes. About Botany Bayt the soil is black, rich and exceedingly productive in plants. The north-east part seems lower. The coast is covered with mangroves. . . . The heat of December rises to 1 12^^ Fahrenheit. The forests and the grass have been knov^'n spontaneously to take fire.t The North-west wuid, like the Khamseen of Egj'pt, scorches the soil and reduces it to a light dust. . . . Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the climate is very healthy, and veiy favorable to population. . . . Those parts in which different ti-ials have been made have rather too wann a climate for common barley and oats, though these grains have been found to succeed tolerably well on the poorer soils. . . All the vegetables grown in Eugland are produced in the English colony. . . Peaches, apricots, nectarines, oranges, lemons, guavas, loquets, cherries, wahiuts, almonds, grape*, peai's, pomegranates and melons attain the highest maturity in the open air."|| The country, most of it, is remarkably deficient in water, § though many portions are subject to destructive inundations.^ Its drouths are unequaled for their duration and intensity in, perhaps, any inhabited portion of the globe.** Its vast plains, occasionally highly fertile, but more usually, only in detached spots, afford pasture throughout the year. The physical features of this country, its system of sheep husbandry, etc. will be more particularly alluded to hereafter. The English first introduced into this remote possession the coarse hairy sheep of Bengal. In the short space of three years these were so far changed by the effect of the climate and other circumstances, that their hair was entirely gone, and was succeeded by a fleece of wool.tt The South-Down and Leicesters were subsequently introduced, and their crosses with the Bengal sheep soon became as fine as the pure bloods of the former. At length some Merinqs were imported by the colonists, and, says Mr. Youatt, " The experiment was satisfactory beyond their ex- pectation. The third or fourth cross with the then prevalent sheep of the colony produced an animal with a fleece equal to that of the pure Merino in Europe ; and the wool of the pure blood seemed to improve as rapidly as the native breed had done."|| In 1810, the export of wool from Aus- tralia and Van Dieman's Land was 167 lbs.; in 1833, it had reached 3,516,869 Ibs.llll In 1843, it amounted to 16,226,400 lbs.§§ The following, from a table in McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, will show the cuiTent prices (reduced to American currency) of some of the imported and domestic wools, in London, March, 1834 : Spanish....,., $ CtS. $ Ct8. . . per lb. — 60 to — 77 English : $ cts. $ eta. North & South-Down, per lb. — 44 to — 48 Portuguese — 44 '• — 62 German, Saxon, &c . Australian — AS " 1 15 - . — Hfi " 1 no Lincoln, Cotswold, Ilomney Marsh 40 " 44 * Georgetown is perhaps half a degi-ee nearer the Equator, t This place is twelve miles south of Port Jackson. X Malte Bran cites Collins (on author frequently quoted in relation to New South Wales) for this strong end, perhaps, exaggerated assertion. || Malte Brun, vol. i. pp. 600—605. § Spooner, Youatt, etc. TJ Malte Brun. ** See McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, ft Youatt on .Sheep, p 184. Spooner, Diseases of Sheep, p. 62. tt lb. p. 184. III! lb. et Spooner. §§ Spooner. (659) Y) 26 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. It will be 8een from this, that the best Australian wools already excelled, the best Spanish, and were more than midway between them and the best Saxon. When we consider the almost infinite difference in the care, both in breeding and management, bestowed on the Saxon and Australian sheep, it shows most conclusively the adaptation of the climate of Austi-alia to the production of the finest wool — or, at least, that the adverse effects of its warm temperature, and the incidents to that temperature, are easily overcome. Iri-Saxony, sheep are numbered, oftentimes their separate ped- igrees registered, and each breeding ewe is stinted to a ram carefully se- lected with reference to her individual qualities. In Australia, where less capital and labor are employed, flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes* — where the country is destitute of timber, sometimes a thousandt — loam from one fertile and watered spot to another over the vast plains, in charge of the convict shepherd ; and this system is followed throughout the year, including the tupping season. Three flocks are always penned together at night,| so that as many as nine hundred breeding ewes, of va- lying quality, must be promiscuously bred to, say, fi-om thirty to thirty-five lams, running promiscuously among them. The Cape of Good Hope is in south latitude 34"^ 23' 40". Mr. Youatt, in describing the sheep husbandry of this region, overesti- mated, I think, the heat of the climate. Separated by lofty mountain ranges from the interior of Africa, the fertile I'egions adjoining the coast are not swept by its scorching winds, and the lemperature is comparatively mild. " In a meteorological register kept at Cape Town, from Sept. 1818 to Sept. 1821, embracing a period of three years, the highest heat marked is 96^, the lowest 45°, Fahrenheit. The mean and annual temperature scarcely 68° — of winter 61°, of summer 89°. "|| But sheep and their wool suffer from the fine sands which are lifted and driven by the prevailing winds. Says Make Brun, " the wind blows often from tlie south-east with great violence. Nothing can be secured from the sands which it drives before it ; they penetrate the closest apartments and the best-closed trunk?. At this time it is not prudent to go out without glasses, lest the eyes should be injured. "§ Though the climate can scarcely be designated a " torrid " one, as Mr. Youatt speaks of it, the mean temperature of its v/inter (61°) conclusively shows that cold can have nothing to do here with rendering the wool finei by a contraction of the pores, if, therefore, it can be shown that the wool of the fine breeds does not deteriorate in quality, it sufliciently proves that Australia is not an incidental exception in the testimony which it presents on the point under examination, but that it illustrates the uniform opera- tion of the physical laws which pertain to the gi'owth of wool. After one or two unsuccessful attempts, the Merinos were acclimated at the Cape by the English colonists. In 1804, the colony numbered 536,- 634 sheep. In 1811, there were 1,293,740. In 1810, the iinport of wool into Great Britain was 29,717 lbs.; in 1833, it was 93,325 Ibs.^f j In Willmer & Smith's " Liverpool Annual Wool Report," for 1846, it ' is stated, " The shipments from this quarter (Cape of Good Hope) show •* gi"eat improvement, amply testified by the high rates the best flocks have commanded during the season. . . The best parcels now take rank with those from Australia."** The system of breeding and general man- agement at the Caue closely correspond with those of Australia. Let us now, sir, turn to the expeiience of our own countiy. I do not * Cnnnintrham'8 "Two Years in South Wales." t lb. J lb. II Malte Brun, vol. ii. p. 112. ^ Jb. vol. ii. p. IIO. If Youatt on Sheep, p. 184. ** Willuier & Smith's European Times of Jan. '1, 1S16. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 27 know that a sufficient number of experiments have been made as near the Equator as Cape Town and Port Jacksop, to have their testimony regard- ed as entirely decisive on the point under consideration, but those have been made which throw much Hght on this question, if, indeed, any more is considered necessary. In the south of IlUnois (Edwards county), in about latitude 38*^ 30', the finest varieties of sheep were introduced by Mr. George Flower, about twenty years since, from which he has bred up an extensive flock. That gentleman says :* " No deterioration in the wool has taken place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre is somewhat finer." I have myself seen various specimens of Mr. Flower's wool, of the clip of 1844, and it bore an excellent character for fineness and evenness. In a letter which I received from Hon. Henry Clay, in 1839, he says : " I have for some years had only the pure Saxony at my residence ; but I am now satisfied that I should have derived more profit from sheep pro- ducing a wool less fine.t The climate of Kentucky is, however, well adapted to the Saxon sheep." Mr. Clay's residence is in about latitude 38^. Mr. Mark R. Cockrill, of Nashville, Teimessee, in a letter published in the American She23herd,| says : " I have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and from 400 to 500 lonsf-wooled or mutton sheep. My Saxon sheep were iinj)orted m 1824 or '26 — I caiuiot say which — and I find as yet no falling oif m quantity or quality of their fleeces ; on the contraiy, I believe a little improvement on both points, and a little more yolk, when well provided lor, which, you know, does not abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a little more compact than formerly — hence more weight ; and, from our mild climate, the xtaple has be- come longer. . . I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region I am now in [Mr. Cockrill dates from Madison county, Mississippi, where a part of his sheep are ke{)t], in about lati- tude 32° nortli, is better than any country north of it to grow wool, as the sheep can be kept all the time grazing, by sowing small gi'ain ; for, if grazed off, it quickly grows again in a few days ; and the wool of the fine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like than any I have ever seen, although I have samples fi-om all parts oi' the world. I have ti-aveled from this very place to Boston, sampling all tlie sheep of note on the way, and I found nothing on my jouniey or at Boston as good as the wool I had grown, and so said all the wool stiiplers whom I met with, and they were not a few. I presumed, in reaUty, that the blood of my sheep was no better than niMiy I saw, but the superiority of my wool I as- cribed to our climate, and the provision fjr the sheep of succulent food the year round. — The weight of my fleeces is fiiir — say from 3 to 5^ lbs. each. . . Tennessee is not the ti'ue frass clunate ; about 28° north is the most congenial for gi-ass : notwith.-itanding, our State is lir for pasture ; blue and orchard grass, white and red clover, prosper pretty well. . . There is much country in Temiessee and other Southern States not fit for the plow, and would do admirably well for fine-wooled sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small capital thus appropriated here in Mississippi would do better than cotton gi'owuig at present prices." Nashville is in about latitude 37'^ 15' ; and Madison county, Mississippi, is about half a degree farther north than mentioned by Mr. Cockrill, viz. extending from 32^° to 33^; its county seat (Canton) being more than a degree nearer the Equator than Port Jackson in Australia, and about two degrees nearer than the Cape of Good Hope ! Mr. Morrel, the compiler of the " American Shepherd," has obtained specimens of Mr. Cockrill's wool, and he says of them, " Judging from the samples, the conclusion is inevitable that little or no deterioration has been produced by the climate."|| This testimony of Mr. Cockrill is very important, both from the length and extent of the experiment. I have no doubt of the perfect coiTectness of his assertion that his wool has improved in those low latitudes ; but the cause assigned by him cannot be received as the correct one, so far as the increased fineness of the fibre is concerned. The imprc ^ ^ment in this par- ticular, under a system of feeding which has "increased" both the " quan- * In a letter published in the Prairie Farmer. t Mr. Clay here alludes to the Merinos. J P. 409. II American Shepherd, p. 41. 2^8 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tity" and the " yolk" of the fleece, cannot be ascribed to the climate, nor to the feeding itself. It is undoubtedly owing to Mr. C.'s system of breed- ing and selection, a point Avhich will be fully discussed hereafter. If feed or condition exercise the principal influence on the fineness of wool (that is, within the range of variation to which it is subject on the same individuals), it follows that the effect may be produced in any climate, for high condition throughout the year is attainable in the most rigorous ones, by the supply of plentiful and rich food. The wool secretions are incident on condition — fatness, however superinduced.* It again follows that if wool of the highest degree of fineness (for the breed) can be pro- duced in New- York, although the sheep is kept in a decidedly fat state throughout the year — quite as fat as it would become, grazing on green feed all the year round — that wool of equal fineness can be produced by the observance of the same influencing conditions (apart from feed) by the southern breeder. Here again, undeterred by any considerations of what I deem a false modesty, I shall offer facts founded on my own personal exjDorience as a sheep breeder ; and I would remark, once for all, that throughout the whole of these letters I shall never so far prefer beliefs founded on the as- sertions of others, to actual knoiclcclge, based on facts repeatedly and con- stantly brought under my personal inspection, for a number of years, as to suppress the latter, to rely solely on the former. I have succeeded, in repeated instances, in producing an exquisite qual- ity of wool, decidedly above the average of the breed (Merino) in the heavy fleeces of sheep kept fat the year round. I have made it a sort of a test latterly, in the selection of rams, to choose only those which not only carry heavy fleeces, in any condition, but which, in the highest, yield a wool equaling the choicest samples to be found on this variety. These facts will, by and by, be placed in a definite and tangible form, by the re- corded testimony of the scales and the microscope. But though the natural effects of warm climates and their incidents, to increase the bulk or coarseness of the fibre, is one which can easily be re- sisted, they work a change of another kind in the character of wool. They cause a longer fibre and a greater softness of staple. The effect of succu- lent nutriment during the year in increasing the amount of the wool Avill exhiliit itself; but the skill of the breeder can so far regulate its action, that the increase is in the length, rather than in the diameter or bulk of the fibres. It is not difficult to conjecture why a staple of more rapid growth, supplied to excess with the secretions which enter into its composition, un- exposed to gi'eat and rapid variations of temperature, should retain a greater degi'ee of softness than one produced under opposite conditions. But, whatever the causes of these phenomena, theii" existence is placed beyond a doubt. Tlie increased Icnsfli, of staple, resulting from the nutriment of warm climates, has been sufficiently adverted to. The following statements made by some of the most eminent wool-factors, staplers, etc. in England, before a Committee of the House of Lords, in 1828, place the other point beyond controversy.t Mr. Henry Hughes, wool-broker, London, says : * No one lias assorterl, so far as I am informed, that dry feed will produce less ■wool than preen feed, if the same decree of fatness is kept up. On the other hand, the rich cereal grains, oil-cake, &c. (without some of which a hiirh decree of fatnt^ss cannot he maintained, on dry feed alone, during the four or five months' winter in latitudes north of •l^i'"), might be supposed to be quite as conducive to the production of wool as glasses. t For extended minutes of this very interesting investisation into the state of the wool-trade, &c. &c. in Great Britain, see Bischofl" on Wool, &.C., vol. ii. p. 118 to 200. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 29 ^ » . ,__, " Latterly they (Austi-alian and Van Diemau's Land wools) have been of varied qualities, but all possessing an exti-aordinaiy softness, which the manufactm-ers here so much adaniie that they are sougiit tor more than any otljer description of wools, from that peculiar quality, which is sup[iosed to arise ii-om the climate alone. They ai'e kuowni to require less of the milhug or lulling power than any other descriptions of wools. . . They are better adapted than the Gennan wools to mix with British wools, because the superior soitness which 1 have stilted gives a character, when mixed with English wool, that the other does not, from the hardness of the tibre."* Mr. Stewart Donaldson, merchant, London, says : " I have no hesitation ui pronouncing that the wools of New South Wales and Van Die- man's Land are decidedly prefeired to the apparently similar descriptions of German wool. . . . They have a softness and silkuiess about them which, when worked up into cloth, shows itself more distinctly than hi the raw material. 1 conceive that it is dependent on the climate alone. I am of opuiiou that wool of that quality could not be produced in any pait of Europe. "t Mr. Thomas Legg, wool-stapler, Bermondsey, says : « •' There ai'e some of these wools of veiy beautiful quality, as good as any of the Gennan wools, "t Mr. Thomas Ebsworth, wool-broker, London, says : " The peculiarity of the climate of New South ^Vales apjieai's to have a very great effect on wool, so as to reduce it from a harslmess to a veiy fine texture. "|| This was the substance of all the testimony on this particular point ; and when it is understood that the investigation was an issue between rival interests, where all the facts were thoroughly sifted, the fact that the above assertions were undisputed shows that they were considered of an undis- putable character. Allusion has already been made to the loose and careless system of sheep-breeding, etc. in Australia, compared with that in Germany. Tak- ing this into consideration ; taking also into consideration that the flock furnishing the best wool in Australia (Capt. McArthur's) is composed of grade eheep (Bengal and English, graded up with Merino and Saxon rams), the trifling effect of climate is inade more strikingly to appear. The statements of Mr. Cockrill in relation to the sofi;ness of the wools grown in Tennessee and Mississippi, sustain and are sustained by those above given ; and they go to show that it is the result of a general law and not of any peculiar local influences peculiar to Australia • Bischoff on Wool, &c. vol. ii pp. 182-3. t Ibid. 183-4. % Ibid. 184. I| Ibid. 184. 30 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER in. ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY. U OF THE LOW OR TIDE-WATER REGION. Natural Features of the Southern States— Divided into three Zones... The Natural Features, Soils, &c. of each... The Tide- water Zone— its destitution of Anificial Tastures and Meadows. . .Causes— Small amount of Domestic Stock kept — Unsuccessful Experiments in raising Clover and Grasses. ..Reasons why those Experiments were unsuccessful— Land too much Exhausted by Severe Tillage — System of Tillage com- pared with that of tl|e Grazing Regions of New-York- -Experiments unsuccessful, also, because improper varieties of Clover and Grass were tried. ..Much of the Land adapted to Grass— Shown by its Natural Pas- tures — Statements of Col. Allston — Opinions of Mr. Ruffin— of a Committee of the S. C. Agricultural Soci- ety. ..Land compared with that of Flanders- also with some pans of New- York. ..Climate perhaps unfa- vorable to certain Northern Grasses and to Red Clover — Opinion of Mr. Ruffin — Statements of Milton (S. C.) Agricultural Society- ..Clover not indispensable. ..Experiments suggested. ..Valuable indigenous and acclimated Grasses-Crab Grass — Millet — Bermuda Grass— its great value— Statements of Mr. .4ifleck. .. Peas — Their great value in the Southern States as a Green Crop Manure — Sprengel's Analysis of them — The Value of their Straw as a Manure compared with various substances — Table of the Value of Manures by Payen and Boussingault... Oats, Rye and Barley — Com Blades — Sweet Potatoes. ..Conclusions froM foregoing. Dear Sir : Having discussed, in my previous letters, the effects of vs^arm climates and some of their incidents, on the health of sheep, and on the quantity and quality of their wool, we come now to the second branch of my original inquiry — Is there anything in the natural features, soils, herb- age, &c. of the Southern States, which unfits them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry l The vast region south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Missis- sippi — comprising an area considerably exceeding that of France, Spain and Portugal* — is distinguished, by its natural features, into three distinct zones, parallel to each other and to the Atlantic coast. The lower or tide-water zone, which skirts the Atlantic, is a low, flat, '?andy, and oftentimes marshy plain, from 50 to 100 miles wide, compara- tively recent (tertiary) in its formation, and covered with pine forests ovejc the greatest portion of its extent. The soils on the dry lands are generally light, and sometimes too sterile to admit of profitable cultivation ; that in the swamps and river bottoms, where the sand is replaced by a rich allu- vion, is exceedingly fertile. The middle or hilly zone rises from the level of the preceding, first into gentle hills, and finally into high and oftentimes broken ground, as it approaches the mountains. The width of this does not greatly vary from that of the preceding. The formation is almost ex- clusively primary ;t and the soil varies, sometimes being poor, but more generally ranging, in its natural state, from medium to highly fertile. The forests consist of oak and other deciduous trees. The third or mountain region is formed by the different chains and groups of the great Apalach- ian range of mountains, and occupies not far from 70,000 square miles of the central portion of the territory under consideration.^ It comprises the middle of Virginia, the west of North Cai'olina and South Carolina, the noith of Georgia and Alabama, and the east of Tennessee and Kentucky. Its formation on the eastern declivities of the Blue Ridge (the most east- em chain) is primary, and thence to the Alleganies the rocks belong to * Spain contains 170,000 square miles, Portugal 40,000, France 200,000— in all 410,000. Allowing 10,000 square miles of Louisiana to be east of the Mississippi, the area of the region referred to is 456,000 square jniles. t There are one or two interrupted belts of new red sandstone — vide McClure. J Estimated not far, I think, from correctly, by myself. I can tind no authority on this point. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 31 the Transition order.* Its soil varies from thin and h'ght to that of exu- berant fertility. West of the mountains, the hilly zone rests on Transition rocks and coal measures, and is succeeded west and south of Virginia by the vast rolling or level plains which extend to the Ohio and Mississippi ; and which, instead of the silicious sands of the eastern coast, exhibit rich and varying soils resting on limestone and other Transition and Cretaceous rocks. In Virginia, the hilly region, which is one vast coal measure, extends to the bottom lands of the Ohio ; and its soils, taken as a whole, range from ordinary to meager.t We will now proceed to examine the capabilities and adaptation of each acne, separately, for the pui-poses of sheep husbandry. It has already been shown that sheep are he'Sthy. and produce as heavy, and may he made to produce as fine fleeces as elsewhere, in the tide-water zone. They are easily kept — finding, in a climate so mild, considerable succulent food even in the winter; and, south of North Carolina, large numbers wfTiild subsist during the entire winter on the hardier wild herbage which continues green in the forests and swamps. If this region was stocked with sheep, to the extent alone to which they could find subsistence, summer and winter, on wild herbage — or, in other words, get a living without costing their own- ers anything — the present number would be largely increased, and their wool and mutton would add materially to the annual income of the own- ers of the soil. But a better system would undoubtedly be not to depend upon wild herbage alone, but to have pastures or sheep-walks seeded with the best grasses which will flourish on them, and provision made for a quan- tity of dry fodder, or some substitute for it, for winter use. Can this summer and winter feed be produced, in the region under ex- amination, to any considerable extent, at an expense which would render its conversion into wool and mutton profitable % There are patches of good natural pasture in many parts of the tide-water zone, apart from the salt or fresh water marshes. But artificial pastures and meadows have rarely been attempted. The planters in this portion of South Carolina, for example, actually import hay ! " Many of the cotton and 7-ice planters . . . in some cases buy hay from New-England. . . . Northern and (in some cases) European hay is even earned up to supply Augusta and Columbia, along rivers which flow through swamps covered with natural grass, so rank and luxuriant as to be almost impenetrable."! This neglect of grass culture springs from several causes. Little farm- stock, comparatively speaking, is reared or kept by the rice and cotton- planters, from the fact that most of the labor on such plantations is per- formed by men ; and the few animals kept are fed on wild herbage, or the offal of crops which are raised for other purposes. The carriage and draught horses and mules are fed in the winter on the leaves or " blades" of corn ; and the neat stock get their living in the swamps, and in the corn fields, where the greatest portion of the stalks are usually left stand- ing- Nor is it to be denied that various unsuccessful experiments have been made in the cultivation of the grasses and clover, which have discouraged farther efforts, and led many to infer that the soil or climate, or both, are decidedly uncongenial to them. That the soil or climate is as favorable to the production of rich, thick swarded pastures or meadows, as in many * So termed by Werner. Though little used now by geolosists, I resort to it as the shortest descriptive epithet which will include all these rocks, unless it be the Hemilisyan of Brongniart, the Submedial of Co- nybeare, or the Gray wacke of De la Beche — neither of which is so familiar, nor, it appears to me, any bet- ter. The Transition rocks are equivalent to both the Cambrian of Prof. Sedgwick, and the Silurian of Mr Murchison — whose nomenclature is adopted by Lyell. Philliiis, Mantell, &c. t Dr. Morse, Mitchell, &c. | Ruffin's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843, p. 73 32 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. parts of" the Northera States, I do not contend. Some of these soils are doubtless, naturally too baiTcn to be made to produce good yields of grass, without an expenditure which would more than counterbalance the profits accruing from them. Others have been sunk nearly to the same level by wasting and improvident tillage ; and it is on lands of the latter class, mainly, that the experiments iu introducing the grasses and clover have been made. As long as they would produce cotton or corn, these crops were annually taken from them, with perhaps an occasional year of rest (i. e. lying without any crop being sown on or taken from them) ; and, when reduced to such a degree of baiTonness that the crop fell short of re- paying the cost of producing it, clover or grass was resorted to in the vain hojie of suddenly repairing, through their instrumentality, the ravage and desolation of years. The following is from the report of a Committee of the Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, Chester District, South Carolina, made to the President of- the State Society in 1843 ; and, though this dis- trict is not in the tide-water zone, the system of crojiping desci-ibed is more or less the prevailing one* throughout much of the cotton growing region : " We generally plant cotton on fresh land four or five years in succession — then corn — then wheat or oats — again corn and cotton ; and, after it will produce little else, we sow it in rye, and let it rest two or three years. There are no fixed pnncii)les oljserved in the ro- tation ol' crops. . . . \Ve have no data whereby to fix the expense of cultivation accu- rately. We know this, however, that at the price of produce for the last two or three years, we are sinking money."! I ask what would be expected, in the way of grass or clover, from some of the best grazing lands of New- York, after being cropped with grain crops from ten to twelve years consecutively, with little or no manure ? — However carefully seeded with the best grasses, or with clover, they would not form meadows worth mowing, nor pastures where an acre would sum- mer a sheep — though, as now managed, an acre is poorly grassed that will not summer five or six sheep. Take the map of New-York, Sir, and draw a right line from Buffalo to a point a little south of Albany — say Coxsackie — and all tlie region, speaking in general terms, south of this line and west of the Catskill Mountains, is mainly devoted to grazing. It is the best graaing region of the State, and much of it is equal to any in the Northern States. Tlie best farmers in no part of it take off to exceed three grain or root cror)s before seeding down to grass ; and, unless the soil is unusually rich, it is ctistomary to give barn-yard manure to one of these crops. This is almost invariably the case where the land was in meadow when broken up. Where no manure is given on meadow lands, or even on lightish pas- ture lands, two grain crops are considered sufficient by the most provident farmers — it being an axiom among such, that all ordinary or thinnish soils should be nearly or quite as rich when seeded down as when Iwoken up. In other Avords, they draw from the soil only what is equivalent to the strength or fertilizing properties of the sod, and of the manure given. — When seeded down to grass, these lands are usually depastured by cattle or sheep several years before they are again broken up. If converted into meadow, they are top-dressed from time to time with gypsum, and some- times with stable manures.f The poorest soils, rocky hill-si-des, declivities much suliject- to washing and gullying, are rarely broken up after being once properly seeded down. I repeat it. Sir — take all the grazing lands of New-York, and crop them as severely as it is re]wrted above to be done in Chester District, South Carolina, and they would become so sterile that. * Td est. so far as constant rropping without returning anythinc: to the soil is concerned. t See Ruffin's Aqricultural Survoy"'of South Carolina, 1843— Appendix. ]). 6. \ It is not considorcd good economy, however, to top-dress any meadows with stahle manures which arc dry and arable, and can thus be subjected to the regular rotations of the farm. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 33 unless resuscitated by copious applications of manure, they would not yield grass enough to pay the expv?nse of keeping them under fence, until they had lain waste for a quarter of a century. Another cause of the failures which have attended some of the efforts to introduce the culture of clover and the grasses on the tide-water zone, in the Southern States, may, and probably has, existed in the improper selec- tion of the varieties sown. As the first crop on a very meager soil — red clover, for example — is not appropriate in any region. In Flanders, the natural soils of much of which so closely resemble those of the zone under examination, it is not sown until the land is enriched and got in condition by several preparatory crops. The different grasses seem to be affected by various conditions in the soil or atmosphere, or both, which it is fre- quently difficult or impossible to detect. Timothy grass fPhleum pratense) is decidedly the favorite meadow grass of the grazing regions of New- York. White clover ( Trifollum rcpcns) invariably comes up spontane- ously on those lands. Red clover ( T. pratcnsc) is sometimes sown with Timothy in meadows, and generally in pastures. Red Top* ( Ag}-ostis (strictaj vvlgaris ) is preferred on wet lands, where it comes up spontane- ously. It is considered a prime pasture and meadow grass in such situa- tions. June or Spear grass ( Voa pratcnsis ) , the Blue grass of the South ern and Western States, so prized there and also in England,! is consid- ered an unprofitable intruder in our meadows, where it comes up sponta- neously, and ultimately drives out the Timothy. The meadows are then said to be " run out," and are broken up. I have never known the seed of this grass sown in a single instance ! The favorite Rye grasses of Eng- land (Lolium perenne var. hiennc), Lucern (Medicago sativa), Sainfoin ( Hedysarnm onibricMs), Orchard grass ( Dactylis glomerata), and various others equally celebrated in England and on the Continent, have been tried in New- York, and the experiments are generally regarded as decided failures. None of them, at all events, have obtained a footing among the grasses sown by our best farmers. On the other hand, the Red Top of New-York is but little regarded in England,! and Timothy was not in much better repute until the Woburn experiments demonstrated its great value for hay. Even now it is considered inferior, in general value, to many other grasses. || All this goes to show that even the hardiest grasses have their favorite situations ; and that we are not authorized to pronounce against the practicability of forming pastures and meadows in a given re- gion, because we have failed in a trial with two or three grasses, out of a list of as many hundreds. It has already been remarked that there are patches of good natural pasture on the dry as well as the wet portions of the tide-water zone. These ai-e frequent and extensive, and could be rendered infinitely more so by simply clearing- the land. In your Memoir on the Cultivation of Rice, furnished to Mr. Ruffin, while making the Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, in 1843, you say : " At first, rice was cultivated on tliL high land, and on little spots of low ^ound, as they were met with here and there. These low grounds being found to agree better with the plant, the inland swamps were cleared for tlie purpose of extending the culture. In the process of time, as the fields became too grassy and stubborn, they wt^re abandoned for new clearings ; and so on, until at length was discovered the superior adaptation of the tide-lands, and the great facilities for irrigation atForded by their location. For these, the inland planta- tions were gradually and slowly abandoned, until now, that the gi-eat body of land, which * Sometimes known as " Upright Bent grass," and in the Southern States as Herds-grass, t Pronounced by Sole the best of all the grasses. X AgTOstis vulgaris is pronounced " a worthless or rather a mischievous plant," by Sir George Sinclair ! II "Our opinion," says Loudon, •' is that neither Timothy nor (some other grasses named; is ever likely to be cultivated in Britain." E 34 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. little more than a centiiry ago furnished for exportation over 50,000 barrels of rice, now lies utterly waste, constituting, where ft-ees have uot overgi'own it, the finest natural pasture which could be desired."* Mr. Ruffin in his Report of the Survey, of the same year, asserts : " Few countries possess gi-eater natui-al facilities, or which are more iinprovable by in- dustry, for j)i()duciii;j in aliiuidance, gi'ass, hay and live-stock, and their products of meat, milk and butter, all of which ai'e now so deplorably deficient."t The Committee appointed by the State Agricultural Society of South Carolina to take into consideration the scheme of reducing the quantity of cotton grown,| in their Report observe : " Millions of acres in South Carolina, including the lower country, are admirably adapted to the raising of rich gi-asses. This might be added as another Ijranch of industry, from which reasonable profits could be realized, and might very well be added to the cotton planter's income." Corresponding statements, on equally indisputable authority, might be indelinitely multiplied, not only in relation to that portion of the tide- water zone lying within the limits of South Carolina, but in all the South- ern States. South Carolina occupying a central geographical and lati- tudinal position, in reference to this zone, and its soils on it, about averaging, so far as I can learn, with that of the other States, it is not necessary to pursue the inquiry. Where fine natural pastures spring up spontaneously on deserted lands, more or less impoverished — probably in most instances considerably so — how little difficulty would there be in forming, almost immediately, the best artificial pastures and meadows on millions of acres of just such land, (only that it is in its virgin state, and consequently far better,) now in un- productive forest ! And how small would be the amount of skill requisite to convert millions of acres more of cotton lands — which do not now yield remunerathsr crops — into pastures and meadows, which, as I shall show, would yield their owners a handsome remuneration ! And the culture of the grasses need not stop with these comparatively good and medium lands. They can be made to stretch their carpet of green over the poorest of ycmr sands — over those now covered with stunt- ed pines, or which, scorched and naked, reverberate back fiercely the burning heat of a southern sky. There are few regions in the tide-water zone possessing poorer soils than some cuU'nHitcd portions of New-York. In the vicinity of Albany, (between that city and Schenectady, for example,) the same loose, silicious sands, the same, though perhaps rather more stunted, growth of pines, would nlmost compel you to fancy yourself somewhere between Richmond and Wilmington, on the route of the great Southern Railroad ! Denuded of their meager covering of dwarf pines, and the cohesion produced by their interlacing roots, these sands would be lifted and driven about by the winds. Yet on such a soil as this, you find the farm of the late cele- Ijrated .Tesse Buel ! And fertile grass fields, dotted here and there with splendid mansions, are every year stretching out farther and farther nmong the arid sands. How are these rapid transformations in the fertility of the soil accomplished ? The stables, and mews, and cesspools of Albany can give the answer ! ^ The following description of the natural soils of Flanders, now prover- bial for its fine crops and rich pastures and meadows, is from the pen of that able English agricultural writer. Rev. W. L. Rham : * AarirnltnrM Snrvny of South Carolina, 1P43. Appendix, p. 14. f lb. p 73. t The Committer! consisted of Whitemarsh 1!. Seabrook, Esq., John B. O'Neall, Esq., and W. J. Allston Esq.— and the Report w.is made, ! believe, in January, in 1846. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 35 " The greater part of the land in Flanders is naturally poor ; and in extensive districts, which now have the appearance of the greatest richness at hai-vest time, the original soil was once little better than the blowing sands which are met with in the neighborhood of the sea. Neither is it a genial climate which brings forward the fruits of the eai-th in abundance ; for the climate is inferior to that of France or the southern parts of Germany. The soil may be divided into two classes. The first consists of the alluvial clay loams near the coast; the second, of various sands and light loams which are ibmid in the interior. The most fertile is that of the low lands wliich have been reclaimed fi-om the sea by embankments ; it is chiefly composed of a muddy deposit mixed with fragments of mai'iue shells and fine sea sand .... In tlje interior of East and West Flanders the soil varies considerably ; but the principal part is of a sandy nature. The sand, and a heavier loam wliich scarcely deserves tlie name of clay, are found much intermi.Ked, which is owing to an alternation of layers of sand and loam, which are found by digging to a considerable depth. These layers are not of gi-eat thickness, and the accidental circumstance of the washing away of the sand in some places and the depositions from rivers in others easily account for this variety. Some of the eleva- tions, which are nowhere considerable, consist of a very poor sand, and suggest the idea of their having once been the sands of the sea blown into hills, as is observable on the coast. These hills, if they may bo so called, are naturally so barren that they were, not veiy long since, covered with heath, or at best planted with fir trees ; but they have gradually been cidti- vated and improved, and only a few remain in their original state of lieath and wood. The poorer sands have been brought into cultivation chiefly by the persevering industry of small proprietors and occupiers." Have we not here a good general description of much of our southern Atlantic coast — the tide swamp and sandy plain — and even a graphically minute account of the " Sand Hill " region of South Carolina ] Instances of the reclamation of such lands might be indefinitely mul- tiplied. I do not offer the above facts to prove that it is either profitable or ex- pedient to reclaim all the sterile lands of the southern sea-board by the same means that have been resorted to about Albany, or in Flanders. Except in the vicinity of cities, where manures are plentiful and cheap, and un- common market facilities are offered, it would not be profitable, unless it can be accomplished by less expensive means. But it proves one and an important position : that it is the sterility of such soils — or perhaps their loose and "blowing" character in some places, their sun-baked hardness in others — which prevents them from spontane- ously producing esculent herbage ; and nothing in them, as has been frequently fancied, positively deleterious to vegetation. And it follov/s, hence, that whenever it \% frnfjahle to convert them into grass lands, it is practicable so to do by the proper application of raantires. But do I hear some of your South Carolina neighbors, of the anti-improvement school, (if you have any such,) say, " If our soils are, or can be made, generally, suitable for the production of the grasses, our climate cannot % " This position is obviously incorrect, as warmer climates, as, for example, Aus- tralia, the Cape of Grood Hope, and various others, produce, where the soils are favorable, a luxuriant growth of grasses; and South Carolina herself, as has been already shown, produces them bountifully in situations where neither the latitude nor the elevation abates one jot of the heat of your fervid climate. It is not impossible that the climate of the States farthest south — south, say, of North Carolina — may be unfavorable to certain grasses and clovers ; and perhaps so to the favorite ones of the Northern States. In relation to red clover, however, the acclimation of which is regarded by many as so important to those States, it seems Mr. Rufiin thought otherwise. He says : " Perennial, or other permanent grasses, of which, doubtless, there may be found some peculiarly suited to the warm climate, (South Carolina,) would still more sei-ve to give the great benefits of changed condition to the fields, independent of the much needed benefits of grass husbandly for feeding of live-stock and givmg rest and manure to the land. The grasses whose value has been fidly established by long experience in more northern coun- 36 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tries, slionlJ be tried — not because they are from the North, (which in itself is a strong ob- jection,) but merely because their good qualities are known, and possibly some such gi-asses may as well suit a more southern dime. And such, I tiiist, is led clover, the best of all green and manuring crops. For although this was long held to belong to the North only, I have fully experienced that it.? locality and the perfection of its giowth are fixed much more by j>ecullarity of soil, than hy latitude. Not more than twenty years ago it was as general a behef in Lower Virginia, as now in South Carolina, that there the soil was too scanty and the sun too hot to raise red clover. But since marling and hming have made many of these soils calcareous, it is found that neither the sandy soil nor hot and dry climate forbitl the raising excellent and profitable crops of clover. And so hereafter it will be found m South Carolina."* In a Report by a Committee of the Milton Agiicultural Society, (em- bracing adjacent parts of Laurens and Newbeny Districts, S. C.) made to the State Saciety in 1843, they state : " Our native gi'asses, except the cral) gi-ass, are of the poorest kitid, principally sedge. Of the artificial gi-asses, some bials have been made with red clover and herds-grass. t On rich lots the first apjiears to succeed veiy well. For alternating with tillage crops we do not know of its having been tried ; but our impression is, that without maiuu-ing more highly than is customary here, it will not answer. We are not aware that it has ever been sowed writh gypsum. The herds-giass, as far as it has been tried, appears to succeed veiy well on the bottoms that border our bi'auches and creeks. "+ Lawrence and Newbeny are not in the tide-water region, but so far as the effect of chmate alone is concerned, their testimony has an equal bearing. I have Uttle doubt that red clover may be cultivated on good, rich soils even in the States south of North Carolina, and may possibly become, un- der some circumstances, a profitable crop in their rotations ; but, as has been already remarked, it will not do as njirsi crop on very meager soils, in any climate — and still less so, I apprehend, on such soils south of lati- tude 34'^. It is not, therefore, the crop which you need, to cheaply ame- liorate your poor and exhausted soils, to fit them either for grazing or for tillage. Grant that such soils can be fitted to produce it, as Mr. Rufllin suggests, by the application of lime or marl,|| these manures Avill be found expensive, can be but slowly obtained in quantities sufficient to apply to large tracts, and, besides, when the soil is sufficiently ameliorated to carry clover, it will carry most if not all of your ordinary tillage crops. Though clover would aid materially in the rotation, in sustaining or even improv- ing the fertility superinduced by lime or any other fertilizer, it is not, and cannot be made the original fertilizer on the sterile sands of warm climates. When we talk, therefore, of the initiatory steps by which such soils shall be brought from a state of barrenness to a state of production, clover does not come within the category of appropriate agents. Though red clover ranks in the first class, if not the first in that class, on appropriate soils, as a grazing and manuring crop, I have never regard- ed it as indispensable — as what the lawi/ers would style a sine qua non — ■ even in sustaining fertility anywhere except on rich calcareous wheat lands, where a severe and exhausting rotation is resorted to. Where wheat is taken from the soil at hast every alternate year, for ten, fifteen, or twenty years, without any manure, excepting the intervening crop, and the droppings of animals depastured on it, clover will hetfer sustain the land in the ultimately fatal struggle, than perhaps any other green ma- * Ruffin'8 Aaricultural Survey of S. C, li^4:^, p. 81. t This should be the Agrostis stricta or vulg aris—t\ie Red Top of the North. Some writers desif^iate U as the one species, some as the other. ^ X RufRn's Agricultural Survey of S. C, 1843 ; Appendix, p. 9. II Unless, however, the soil contains more orgavic, matter than I suppose to be the case with many of your sandy soils, theory and practice both show that lime will not i)rove the proper manure. Thonsh bk- ccodinely valuable in its place, experience shows that it is no agricultural jpawocta. I shall allude to this sul). ject more fully in a subsequent letter. I SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 37 nuring crop. But on the silicious grazing soils of Southern New-York, it is rarely used exclusively as a manuring crop, and is but little used, ex- cepting slightly admixed with timothy, for pasture or meadows.* I think it should be used more ; but the fact stated shows that clover is not re- garded by practical men, who are perfectly familiar with it, as that indis- pensable crop, in all situations, which some of its more extravagant pane- gyrists would lead us to suppose. The conclusions which I would have you deduce from the above facts and statements are, simply, that if clover is found to flourish with you without extra ti'ouble and expense, you will do well to make use of it in your rotation ; if not, it is chimerical, in my judgment, to engage in an expensive struggle with natural disadvantages to force its cultivation. The herds-grass (red top) spoken of by the Milton Society, is a good gi-ass on moist (but not boggy) soils, and having been found to succeed with you, is worthy of trial in such situations, but on dry soils, especially on arid sands, it would entirely fail. Nor have I much confidence in either timothy or spear (blue) grass, in such situations, in your latitude — none at all in the former. It would be well, probably, to try limited experiments with all grasses, domestic and foreign, which have succeeded well on soils similar to your own ; as among these, some may be found which disregard climate, or are even better fitted to your climate than their indigenous one, as was the case with timothy at the North. The same remark is also true in rela- tion to certain other esculents which are used as substitutes for the grasses, and for green manuring crops. Notwithstanding the evident propriety of such experiments, I am strongly inclined to the opinion that it is to your own native grasses and esculents, or those of some kindi^ed climate, you must look mainly for the basis of your grazing husbandry — and through this, the amelioration of your poor and exhausted soils. I regret that I can find no list of those native grasses which sward over the deserted lands of the tide- water zone, and flourish with a tropical lux- uriance in its swamps. You allude to them as ' native " grasses, so does Mr. RuflSn. Mr. Seabrook, in his Report on Cotton Culture,^ speaks of " crop grass," by which I suppose he means Crab grass, (Panicum san- guinale,) coming up spontaneously after spring-sown peas ; but farther than this, neither of you specify varieties.il Among these indigenous ones, particularly those which spontaneously make their appearance on dry lands, it would be exceedingly singular if there are not several very valua- ble grasses for your soils and climate — grasses the seeds of which should form a part, if not suitable for the whole sowing, on the same kinds of soils on which they are found flourishing. Crab grass grows in all parts of the southern States, and is a fair, though not a very superior pasture and meadow grass. Golden millet (Panicum milliaceum) is a great producer and withstands I know of but very few farmers excepting myself, in this, (Cortland,) one of the best of the grazing counties, who sow unmixed clover seed. I confess myself decidedly partial to the crop. You may ride ten miles or more in many directions from my house, where half and frequently more than three-fourtha of the fields ai-e in pasture or meadow, without observing five acres of unmixed clover. X For this elaborate and exceedingly able Report or Memoir, see Farmers' Library, 1845, October, No- vember and December Nos. II Since writing the above, I have received from a South Carolina con-espondent the following list of grasses and other esculents which flourish in the lower part of that State. Crab grass (Digitarh. sangui- nalis). earlier— the " Crowfoot" (EUusine hidica), a little later, are, he says, the best grasses for hay, and thrive in cultivated erounds from the month of June till frost. The "Wild Okra" (Viola palmata), the "Partridge Berry" (Mitcfiella repens), the Wild Pea Vine, and several other esculents, obscure and MOr known by name, flourish in most natural pastures from early spring till November. 38 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a warm climate, but it requires a good soil. It has been cultivated with great success by Mr. Affleck in (Adams county) Mississippi. Bermuda grass* ( Cj/noclon (Jacti/lon) I have been led to consider, from the representations of Mr. Affleck, as the best grass, both for pastui e and xneadow, on the sterile sands of the tide-water zone. If half this enthu- siastic admirer believes of it is true, it is of inestimable value to the South, and lox jicrvianent pastures and meadows, is by far the best grass in the United States. Mr. A. says : " We are i'uUy aware of all the olijectious made to the spreading of tins grass, and have a prac;tical knowledge of all the trouble it occasions ; and having also had several years' ex- perience of its great, its incalculable value, we have no hesitation in stating that the latter is manifold greater than the Ihrnier. The time is not iiir distant when all the rough feed cDn- Buuied on plantations will Ije made from this grass ; and when the planter will consider his hay crop as of much more importance than his sugar or cotton The excellence of this plant for pastirrage is evinced by two circumstances. It is preferred by stock of every de- scription to all odier grass, and it grows luxuriantly in every kind of soil. It possesses an additional advantage, that of binding the loosest and most barren sandy tracts. But when it has once tiiken possession of close, rich soil, its extirpation is so difficult as almost to defy all the skill, industry and perseverance of farmers. It is used to bind the levees on the barJvs of the Mississippi, and of railroads. We saw it at Macon, Geo., Charleston, S. C, and so on, as far north as City Point, Virginia, where it partially covers the wharf. One hundred pounds of grass aflbrd upward of fifty of dry hay ; and we do cut. as a regular crop, five tons of hay per acre each season. Were we to state how much more has been cut, we might strain the belief of our readers. No other grass will yiekl such an amount of valuable hay ; surpass it in nutritive qualities; support on an acre of pasture such a quantity of stock; will improve the soil mi)re ipiickly ; or so effectually stop and fill up a wash or gully. But, on the other hand, its extirpation, when once well established, is almost impossible ; though to check and weaken it, so far as to grow a grain or cotton crop, is easy enough. To do this, pursue theccnirse of the best fanners of Kentucky in their management of a blue-grass sod — with a good breaking plow, having a wheel and coulter, and a stout team, turn over evenly and nicely a sod four inches thick and as wide as the plow and team are capable of, follovtr in the same furrow with another plow which casts the dirt well, and throw out as much of the fresh eartli on top of the sod as possible or the depth of the soil will admit of. The crop that follows can easily be tended wilhout distiirbing the sod, and its gradual decay will greatly increase whatever crojD may be planted on it — and that should be a shading one, com and peas or pumpkins, -or whiter oats followed by peas. Good farmers will understand that heavy crops of hay cannot be removed, lor many successive years, from any land, with- out some return in the sliape of manure. To the careful, judicious farmer, who wishes to improve his laud and his stock, and who does not expect to grow any crop without trouble, and who uses good plows, and keeps a stout team and that in prime order, we eaniesdy recommend to try an acre or two of this grass, in a situation where it cannot readily spread. To the careless farmer we say, touch it not."t The same gentleman writes me under date of Dec. 10th, 1846 : " Bennuda grass well set, which affords the finest and most nuti-itious pastui'age I have ever seen, will keep almost any number of sheep to the acre — three or four times as many as the best blue-grass ! " Unless this is gross and willful exaggeration.t here you have a gi'ass which is not only highly palatable and nutritive, but which will yield more thnu double both of pasturage and hay, than the best grass or clover of the Northern States ! 1| It has been tried as far south as New-Orleans, and the climate found no detriment to it. It will flourish on dry and al- most barren sands. § What can the farmer on the dry lands of the tide- water zone ask more 1 [ts inextirpable character I regard as decidedly in * Cumberland Grass — Wiie grass of Virjinia — Croepins; Panic grass. t Suo Norman's ^^outllcrIl Ayiicultural Almanac, lor 1847. % Ni'ilhur of which are wo ubrmiued to suspect, from the well-known character and intelli"ence of Mr. Amcck. II People here in the North sometimes talk of getting three tons of timothy and four tons of clover (at two cuttings) per acre, but it is not done on one acre in ten thousand, on the best meadows I Two tons is a good, and by far above a medium yield, of timothy, and three, of clover. The large amounts of Ber- muda sometimes cut, which Mr. A. does not mention for fenr of " straining the belief'of his readers," ha has stated to me personally, to be eiglit tons ! .'—equivalent to the yield of three tirst-rate acres of tunolhy on the bes-t grazing lands of Southern Ncvv-Yorlc. § Mr. Affleck informs me he has repeatedly seen it growing W3ll in such situations. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 39 its favor on millions and millions on the thinner and poorer soils of that 2one — as once admitted, it will put an end to the unprofitable tillage practiced on them, and remove all temptation to resort to it on others, as they are gi-adually rescued from barrenness. It will thus compel the adoption of that pastoral system which can alone make these lands prof- itable, or save them, if the forebodings of those who have been reared on them and are deeply attached to them, can be credited, from ultimate de- sertion.* You have another fodder crop — and which may be made a green ma- nuring one, in no respect inferior to clover. The pea is to the South what clover is to the North.T There is something in your soil or climate, or both, which seems to be specifically adapted to the development of this plant — for it flourishes with you imder a much greater variety of soils and circumstances than at the North. A leguminous plant, like clover, it draws much of its aliment from the atmosphere ; and it is perhaps as sensibly aftected by the same cheap manure, plaster. Its haulm or straw, if cut and cured greenish, and well taken care of, makes a good, rich fodder relished by all kinds of stock. Peas are greedily eaten by neat stock, swine, and sheep, for which they form a healthy and highly nutritious food. The white field pea of the North is considered equivalent to our corn,| by measure, in fattening swine. For sheep, and particularly for breeding ewes, there is probably no feed in the world equal to nicely ctired pea haulm, II with a portion of the seed left unthreshed.§ It gives them condi- tion and vigor — and prepares them to yield a bountiful supply of rich milk to their young. Though the pea is an annual, it becomes in eflect a perennial. South, when it is desired, by suffering it to stand until some of tlie grain shells out.^ It will mature in a southern climate, sown late in the summer, so that one, and even two precediug crops of it migiit fir.st be plowed in as a manure. It will ripen among Indian corn, sown after that plant has ceased to grow, and there have been successful experiments of sowing it late with wheat, oats, «&c., to have it obtain its growth (to be plowed under as ma- nure) after those crops have been harvested. Sprengel gives the following analysis of the pea. 1,000 parts in the common dry state yield— Potash and soda Lime and magnesia . Phosphoric acid Seed. 15-50 1-95 1-90 Straw. 2-35 30-70 2-40 Sulphuric acid Chlorine Setd. 0-52 -38 Straw. 3-35 0-00 10-85 Silica, iron, &c 4-40 * Statements of this kind have been repeatedly made in the pages of the Monthly Fanner by southern gentlemen. f I had labored under the impression that the so-called pea — cultivated as a manurina; crop in the Soufh- ei-n States, was in reality a variety of the bean ; but Mr. Ruffin in his Agricultural Survey of South Caro- lina, (see Report of 1843, p 81.') and Hon. W. B. Seabrooh in his Memoir on Cotion Culture, (see Monthly Journal of Ain'iculture, Dec, 1845, p. 287.) speaks of this crop — the former again and again— as jiens, with- out the qualification which would be expected from gentlemen of so much learning, in case they were speaking of a plant by a vulgar misnomer, instead of its real name. The peculiar value of the crop at the South in the particulars described, I tiud asserted by Mr. Ruffin, Mr. Affleck, and various other writers and Agricultural Societies, m the strongest ti mis, and therefore it makes little difference, practically, whether the name is correct or not , but if not, the following analyses, &c., are misplaced. The bean resembles the pea in its qualities and value, but is rather inferior to it. J The small, hard cora of the North contains more nutriment per bushel than the large southern com. II That is, cut and cured so that it will come out of the stock or mow bright, and with the leaves looking green — instead of having the ferruginous hue of over-ripe clover. § If cut greenish and well cured, tlie greener pods vi-ill not thresh out readily, and then they are in ex- actly the proper condition for breeding-ewes. If the crop is very hght, cut it when all the puds are quite green, and feed it out without threshing. IT This is, however, poor economy in any case. If the objec is peas, it is wasteful to the crop, and the quantity sown is uncertain ; besides, the haulm is ruined for fodder. If the object is manure, the loss is still greater. Plants in drying lose the nitrogen contained in their sap, give up their saline matters, and are "resolved more or less completely into carbonic acid, which escapes into the air, and is so far lost." — See Liebig on this subject, and also the clear and able remarks of Johnston, (Johnston's Agricultural Chemistiy, vol. ii. p. 176, ct supra.) 40 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The following- table of the comparative value of manures, deduced from analyses made by Payen and Boussingault, will show the remarkable com- parative value of the pea as a manuring crop, and it will be found other- wise useful for reference : TABLE No. i. Kinds of Manure. Farm yard duiitj. — Daiit( water Wheat straw Rye straw Oat straw — Barley straw Wheat chatr. Pea straw Millet straw Buckwheat straw Dried potato tops .. . With'd I'ves of beetroot Do. of potatoes .... Do. of carrots Do. of heather Do. of oak Do. of poplar Do. of beech Clover roots Burned sea-weed Oyster shells Sea shells Sea side marl .Solid cow-dung Urine of cows , Solid horse-dung Hor.se urine Pig dung , Sheep dung , Pigeon dung Guano Do , Fresh hones Feathers Woolen rags Horn shavings Coal soot Wood soot Picardv ashes Nitrogen in i 100 of matter. Quality according to state. Dry. Wet. I Dry. Wet. 1-95 1-54 o-:io 0-20 o-;i6 o-2(; 0-94 1-9.5 0-96 0-.54 0-43 4-. 50 2-30 2-94 1-90 1-57 1-17 1-91 1-77 0-40 0-40 0-0.'". 0-5e 2-:!0 ,3-80 2-21 12-50 3-37 2-99 9-02 6-20 15-73 0-41 0-OG 0-24 0-i7 0-28 0-23 0-85 1-79 0-78 0-48 0-37 0-.50 0-55 0-8.5 1-74 1-18 0-54 1-18 1-Hl 0-38 0-32 0-05 0-51 0-32 0-44 0-55 2-61 1-11 8-30 5-00 13-95 5-31 17-61115-54 ■20-26ll7-98 15-78il4-3H 1-59 1-35 1-31 1-15 0-71 1 0-65 100 72 15 10 18 13 48 100 49 27 22 230 117 1.50 97 80 66 78 90 20 20 3 26 117 1941 113 641 172 1.53 462 323 807 903 1039 809 81 67 36 100 2 60 42- 70 57-5 212-5 447-5 195 120 92 125 137-5 212-5 425 293 134 294 402-5 93 80 13 123 80 no 137-5 6.5 1.57-5 277 2075 1247 3487 1326 3835 4495 3590 337 287-5 162 Equivalent according to state. Dry. 100 127 6.50 975 .542 750 207 100 203 3G1 453 43 85 66 103 125 167 102 110 488 488 ■ 37.50 377 84 51 88 151 58 65 21 1 31J lOJ n 9i 122 149 Wet Remarks. Average of Bechelbronu. Washed by the rain. Fresh of Alsace, 1838. Of Alsace. do. do. do. do. do. do. Of mangel wurzel. Withered lop and leaves. Dried in the air. Leaves fallen in autumn. do. do. Dried in the air. Dried sea-shells of Dunkirk The horse drank but little, the [urine was thick. Of Bechelbronn. Imp. into Eng. in its ord. state. Imp. into France, do. As sold by the melters. It will be seen that pea straw is worth, as a manure, from 5 to 9 times as much as the straws of the small grains — is better than clover roots, and actually equals farm-yard dung ! Rye, oats and barley send up a good growth of straw, in many parts of this zone, even where the product of grain is small ; and, sown in the fall, they afford sweet green pasturage, during the entii'e winter, in the more southern latitudes. This is a very important and a very favorable consideration in an economical sy.stem of sheep husbandry. All winter green feed (roots) in the Northern States must be cultivated, harvested, protected from the frosts of winter in cellars, and daily fed out — which ne- cessarily renders it expensive. Where winter field crops can be depas- tured on the ground, it saves the greatest proportion of this expense ; and, though winter green feed is not indispensable to sheep, it promotes their health, early maturity, and is especially valuable to breeding-ewes. All the crops above named, too, can be profitably made use of as gi-een manure. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 41 Blades of corn, well cured, are relished by sheep, and they thrive on them.* The sweet potato is also readily eaten by them, and it fattens them per- haps as rapidly as any other root cro|5. Although it might be regarded as too valuable for sheep feed, in regions where the whole force is given to the culture of cotton, there are others where, I cannot but believe, it might be occasionally if not regularly resorted to with profit, unless rye, oats, barley, &c. can be provided so much more cheaply that it is no object so to do. It is so cheaply planted by slips, and tilled with so little trouble, and it so admirably prepares land for subsequent crops,t that, on rich and otherwise favorable soils, my imj^ression is strong it is, at all events, as cheap a winter feed for stock in the South as the Irish potato is in the North. Its average yield is about two-thirds that of the latter. The Irish potato is universally regarded as one of the cheapest feeds that can be given to all kinds of stock, to which it is adapted in the North. It is true that it is not fed so much as it would otherwise be, with us, in the winter, by reason of the cold. It is difficult to protect this root from freezing, and. at the same time leave it accessible for daily feeding, without putting it in dwelling-house cellars, which axe usually at some distance from the feed- ing barns and yards ; and besides, the conversion of this citadel of a north- ern matron's culinary stores, into a great, dirty root pit, would be a most grievous infringement on all the canons of good housewifery ! The foregoing facts show that the Southern States have already all that is necessary to feed stock and fertilize their fields. Their pea, take it all in all, is a full equivalent for the clover of the North.:|: By means of it — of Bermuda and some other grasses — aided by the droppings of sheep, and other cheap and convenient manures, a large proportion of the tide-water aone, now so unproductive, can be converted into grazing lands, which will yield as good a per centage on present capital and investment as the best cotton uplands, and produce wool at a less expense per found tlian any re- gion of the United States north of the Potomac. * A friend of mine wintered a few Merino sheep on not only tbe blades, but the stalks, of our northern corn, chopping the whole up together, and adding a little bran or shorts. He found it cheap feed, and the eheep got fat enough to slaughter before spring. t After the crop is harvested, swine are turned in, and they root the ground over so deeply and thor- oughly that it is in a better state of tillage than could be produced by mere spring plowing. I Mr. Ruffin, the srcat advocate for clover, admits thnt in the South it is not fitted to precede Indian com, on account of the destnjctive cut worms it harbors, unless the land he plowed " early in winter," or other Precautionary steps are taken. The pea is not liable to this objection. See Ruffin's Ag. Survey of S. C, 843, p. 78. 42 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER IV. THE ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OP THE SOUTHERN" STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY, CONTINUED. 2. OF THE MIDDLE OR HILLY ZONE. 3. OF THE MOUNTAIN REGION. Climate, Soils, and Productions of the Middle or Hilly Zone — Its evident. Adaptation to Sheep Husbandry ...'I'he Mountain Region.. .Altitudes ofdift'erent Raiifjesand Peaks — Their general Shape — Freedom ft-om Rocks. Precipices, &(:... Table Lands— Their Geological Formations — Products. . .Mi-. CHngman's Letter describing the Kuan and other Mountains in North Carolina. . .Mr. Buckley's Counter Statements.. -Mr. Karie's Description of the Mountains in Henderson and Rutherford Counties, Nonh Carolina. . .Col. Cols- ton's Statements in relation to the Mountains in Berkley County, Virginia... Hon. A. Stevenson's in rela- tion to the Blue Ridge, and the Mountains in the South-west of Virginia — Hon. W. L. Goggin's in relation to the same. . .Judge Beatly's Account of Sheep Husbandry on the Cumberland Mountains— Mr. Kramer's ...Mr. Buckley's Views in relation to the North Carolina Mountains examined and objected to. ..Climate of the Koan and othei-s compared with that of the Grazing Lands of New- York. . .Statistics showing the Forwardness of the .Seasons and the Temperature in New-Yoik...Efl'ect of Elevation on Temperatiu'e • -. On Vegetable Productions. Dear Sir : The middle or liilly zone is liigli, dry, healthy, and has a mild and, compared with the North, equahle climate.* Its soils possess the ino^redients due to its formation — disintegrated granite — and are far more fertile than those of the lower zone. Somefimes on the summits of the hills they are poor and thin, and there are occasionally extensive ranges of poor land, as in Virginia ; but as a general thing, they vary from fair to good ; and on the bottom lands of some of the rivers and larger creeks, they possess remarkable fertility. The valleys, however, are generally narrow, and are everywhere the bed of streams, which abundantly water this whole region, and furnish inexhaustible facilities for mills and manu- factories. The slight cohesion of the soil, aided by the face of the country and the system of tillage pursued in many parts of it,t render it peculiarly subject to washing by heavy rains. The hill-sides are frequently cut into deep gullies, rendering aration difficult,^ and the surface soil is washed into the valleys and into the beds of the creeks, not only impoverishing the high lands, but, by impeding the courses of the streams, in some regions converting those of the valleys into unhealthy marshes.|] Grasses suited to the climate flourish whe?i soion, and on lands not ut- terly worn out, throughout all this region ; and there is little doubt that every variety which could be acclimated on the sands of the loAver zone, could be more readily acclimated here — and probably various others. The pea succeeds in nearly every situation ; oats also form a valuable ma- nuring crop in some parts ; while on many of the alluvial bottoms, such, for example, as the Blackjack lands of South Carolina — rye grows luxuri- antly, answering a valuable pui'pose either for grain, manure, or for winter * The range of the thermometer is sometimes 6(P to 75° in a single month (March or April) in New- York ! t That is, a constant sucee.ssion of clean tillage crops, such as cotton, com, and tobacco. J The Fishinj' Creek Agricultural Society, in their Report before quoted from, say : "The only really waste land we have is our old fields, many of which are so washed and gullied as to be absolutely irre- claimable." Mr. Ruffin says that "the destruction both of soil and of fertility has been enormous " from this cause. II " The country was, nt first, as its features indicated, nearly free from malaria and all its noxious effects. But as soon as the incessant and injudicious use of the plow caused the soil to be washed from the hilly grounds into the bottoms, the before unobstriK'ted clean bordered channels of all the small streams were filled and clogged with earth, and vegetable rubbish, and finer matter, and the adjacent low lands were thereby rendered swampy. The washing of the high land earth hitothe valleys so altered the original sur- face level as to kill the trees ; and their decay, and. later, the obstructions by their fallen trunks, increased the general evil I infer " that these causes " have mainly served to nourish malaria aud increase the malignity of disease." [Ruffin's Ag. Survey of S. C, 1843, p. y6.J SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 43 feed for stock. In this last particular, it would be, as I have before said, an important auxiliary in sheep husbandry. The adaptation of most of this region to sheep husbandry is too obvious to require extended comment ; and it becomes, therefore, simply a ques- tion of profit and loss, whether it is expedient to introduce it.* Let us turn therefore, to the adaptation of the mountain region to this branch of industry The altitude of the southern mountains, with a few exceptions, is not very considerable. The loftiest, the Black and the Roan, in North Caro- lina, are respectively 6,476 and 6,038 feet in hight. The Peaks of Otter, the highest, and summits of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, are 4,250, and the highest Alleganies 2,500 feet high. Table Mountain in South Carolina is about 4,000, and the terminal masses of the Blue Ridge in Georgia are about l,500.t The hight of the Cumberland Mountains, the most western chain, I nowhere find stated, but they are not reputed as high as some of the preceding. It will be seen, therefore, that none of the southern moun- tains rise above the range of the grasses. They are usually broad at the base, easy of ascent, and rounded or flattened on their summits, instead of rising from naiTow bases into steep pyramidal forms with conical peaks ; and from their geological formations and their shape (resulting probably from that formation,) they are uncommonly free from exposed rocks, preci- pices and abrupt acclivities. With the exception, perhaps, of the Cum- berland chain, large, exposed rocks abound far less, on most of these mountains than in many parts of New-England, or even the Old Red Sand- stone region of Pennsylvania, which are not only pastured, but plowed ! Indeed, a side-hill plow, drawn by oxen, could be used on very many of the southern mountains, if cleared, to their very summits ; and this is true, singular as it may appear, of some of the loftiest of them.| The Cumber- land Mountains are spoken of by Doct. Morse, as " stupendous piles of craggy rocks," and in these statements he has been followed by more re- cent geographers. But if this description applies to some portions of the chain, it certainly does not to others, as I shall have occasion to show. On the sides, and sometimes on the summits of the mountains in differ- ent parts of this whole region, extensive plains or table lands, already pretty well covered with wild and domestic grasses and nutritious escu- lents, not unfrequently occur. Esculents suitable for sheep are to be found in greater or less quantities on nearly all of them. West of the summit of the Blue Ridge, the geological formations, as has before been stated, belong to the Transition period — a rather unusual circumstance in mountain ranges, and undoubtedly more indicative of fertility in the superincumbent soils than the ordinary Primary formation. |t Indeed, they are the same with those of the best grazing lands of South- ern New-York, and subtracting climatic and other§ effects of elevation, they should possess a general correspondence in their properties and pro- ducts, with the latter.^ * This question will be fully discussed in a subsequent letter. t For these altitudes, I am indebted to Professor Mitchell. t For exam])le, the Roan. II It is true that soils formed from Primaiy rocks, when sufficiently fertile to sustain herbag:e of any kind, are peculiarly adapted to the production of sweet grasses ; but mountains of this formation are usually steeper, from the slower decomposition of granite, gneiss, and other Primary rocks, and their steepness ex- poses them to increased abrasion, or washing. Hence their soils frequently but thinly cover the rocks, and are of a meacer and lixiviated character. § To wit. abrasion and denudation by rains. And, moreover, the " noithera drift " of New- York has added a little lime to the soils formed Irom these rocks, and thus supplied, measurably, a want existing in all of them for most tillage crops. tr For example, the '• Slate Hills," which rise on the west of Augusta, Rockingham, Shenandoah, Fred- erick and some other counties in Virginia, are composed of the same rocks (Hamilton trrotip, ineludina; Genesee slate of the New- York system,) which underlie some of the best soils in New-York ; and much of the land between these hills and the Alleganies rests on the same rocks, (Chemimg,) which underlio the southern grazing region of New-Y'ork. 44 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. In ascertaining the particular products of these mountains, their chmate, and general adaptation to sheep husbandry, I will first call your attention to the often quoted letter from Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina, to John S. Skinner, Esq., in 1844. Mr. Clingman says : " You state that you have directed some attention to the Sheep Husbandry of the United Stat&s, in the course of which it has occun-ed to you that the people of the mountain regions of North Carolina, and some of the other Southern States, have not availed themselves suffi- ciently of their natural advantages for the production of sheep. Being myself w^ell acquaint- ed with the western section of North Carolina, I may perhaps be able to give you most of the information you desire. As you have directed several of your inquiries to the county of Yancey, (I presume from the fact, well knowni to you, that it contains the highest moun- tains in laced in a position to mislead. t During 1846 it was from 30 to 32 cents per pound, but as this estimate is not based on extensive pur- chases, like the precedimr, I have not placed it in the table. % Including ^rorfc sheep, which form the greatest proportion of the whole number. There have been very few pure-blood Merinos in the .«tate, and many of the t'axon tiocks have been so miserably deterio- rated in carcass and weight of fleece, that they have sold for low prices. But good .'^axons sold much above this until within three or four years ; since then, the Merinos have been rapidly driving out the Saxons, and those of good quality and undoubted pedigree have sold for fiom live to twenty-five times as much. The higher the price, the greater the profits, by reason of the value of the increase. II It would be my impression that the farms in the grazing regions do not, on the average, exceed>130 acres each. § Id est, in the grazing region. 4[ I say " fine-wooled sheep," because the larger and coarser Downs, Leicesters, Cotswolds, &c. consume much more, as will hereafter be shown. 64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. i merely nominal, as they cannot be obtained for beyond a small portion of the annual crop. They do not, therefore, form a proper basis for coiTect general estimates. The expenses and losses in keeping sheep, not already alluded to, are all set down below, as high as they will average on well managed farms. Dr. $ cts. )U0 Sheep to iiitci-est on purchnse money I'l 00 To int. on 3;!^ acres of land at $20 per aero 4o h'() " curing and storing hay on 11 acres of above. 13 75 " expense of shearing 4 00 " salt, tar and summer care 4 00 " labor of foddering, 1 say that irood s(,hd sheep manure is worth less than 50 cents per load, and as the sunmier inanure a Caluabir" "' ''"""'"^'' ""'' ■' '''^'°'"°'^ immediately on the land. I see no reason why iUsn?t equally ^ '[''"'. ''"^•l''"'""ti™ of English duties on these staples will give them a bettor and steadier market there can bo htt n doubt ; but not the vorrj hi^^h one of the past season, occasioned by the severe fTmiewWh has prevailed m many pans of Great Britain. W.my. 'therefore, who have sacriLed their shelo reckon n<^ on such prices, will probably find that they have "reckoned without their ho=t ,.'''''""' '''-''P' reckonrng + f ''-X ""^ >inder the decided impression that our wools, at this price, if properlu masked anrJ n„t «« would tnutnphan.ly compete in the foreign markets with those of .1 e woo -fi-oS nmions of Eurou?: and even with tho.se of Ausuralia, the Cape of Good Hope, and other Austro-or enTa" re-fons Fofa mo?e lull oxammauon of thia point, eee Appendix D. it^ious. r or a more SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 55 It falls far short of that realized by breeders and flock-masters, who started their flocks with the best pure-blood sheep then to be found in the country ; and who have subsequently continued to improve them by great care in breeding, and by a rigorous course of selection. I have bred Merino sheep for a number of years, and latterly in consid- erable numbers ; and in no case have my grown sheep averaged less than 5 lbs. of well washed wool per aniumi. The quality of the wool may be inferred from a comparison of the prices at which it has sold, with those in Table 7. In 1846, I sold for 35 cents per pound ; in 1845, for 331 cents ; in 1844, for 48 cents ; in 1843, for 33^ cents ; in 1S42, for 35 cents, and so on. To give more precise data, I select the following statement of the pro- ducts of a flock, on which I drew the first premium offered by the New- York State Agricultural Society for " the best managed flock of sheep," in 1844 : [Fiom the Traiieactions of the N. V. State Agiicultural Society, 1844, p. 2o4.] •' In the wiiiler of 1843-4, I wintered in a separate floclc filty-one ewes ovei- one year old, two ewe lambs, two rams, one of tliem one and one of them two years old. Of the ewea over one year old, twenty-eight were full-blood Merinos ; twentj'-three were liali-l)lood Me- rinos and half-blood South-Downs; the two ewe Iam!)s wore three-fourtli-blood Merino and one-fourth-blood South-Down ; and tlie two rams were full-])lood Merinos. The flock were kept as follows through the whiter: They were fed hay morning and night, and were, as a general rule, required to eat it np clean. At noon the tlock were daily fed three bundles of oats and barley (which had grown mixed, say three parts oats and one part ijarley,) until ihe 25th of December — after which they received four bundles of oats. The grain was light and shrunken. They received no hay at noon during the winter, and usually consumed all tlie straw of the grain fed them. They had a good shelter, and access to pure water at all times. From this flock I raised iifty-tiiree lambs. The full-blood Merinos, including two rams, and the two tliree-fourth-blood lamlis, (in all thirty -two,) sheared one liundred and eighty-six pounds and four ounces of washed wool, which I sold at foily -eight cents per jiound. Four of the full-bloods had two years' fleeces on. The hall-blood Merinos and half-blood South-Downs (twenty-three) sheared eighty and one-half pounds of washed wool, seventy-one pounds of which I sold at thirty-eight cents per poinid. During the summer of 1844, the flock were kept in good ordinary pasture, and salted once a week." Thus, the Merino fleeces averaged 5 lbs. 131 oz. and sold for S2 79-| each ; and the grades between Merino and South-Down averaged 3 lbs. 8 oz. to the fleece, and sold for $1 33 each. It will be observed that four of the full-bloods (they were ewes) had two years' fleeces on. A two years' fleece will not weigh as much as two single years' fleeces from the same sheep. On the average, it will weigh about three-quarters as much.* On the other hand, the lot included two three-quarter-blood lamb fleeces, which would fall below the average weight of the others, and a portion of the flock were yearlings and tAvo- year olds. The Merino never attains its maximum weight of fleece before three years old, and ordinarily not until four, and therefore the aggregate weight of wool of the 32 sheep, given above, does not, to say the least of it, give too favorable a view of the product of sheep of this quality. This is proved by the fact that my entire flock of full-bloods sheared about three-twentieths of an ounce over six pounds each, the succeeding year. It would give me great pleasure to subjoin similar statistics of other carefully bred flocks, were authorized statements of them in my posses- sion, or published within my knowledge. It is sufficiently apparent from the above facts and estimates, that wool has not yet reached the lowest point at which it can be produced at an ample profit, on lands of the value indicated, if the sJieep are of the j^roper * That is to say, if the single years' flaeces would equal 6 lbs. each, a two years' fleece, instead of weigh- ing twice as much, or 12 lbs., will not exceed three-quarters of such aggregate weight, or 9 lbs. The wool wastes when it becomes so long, and perhaps does not grow so rapidly. 56 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, qualitrj ; and these facts farther suggest the expediency of relying on our own efforts to " protect " this interest, rather than the fickle support of National legislation. For tlie production of a cheap, wholesome, and highly nutritious food, no animal excels the sheep. Theoretical considerations, as well as exper- iment, show the superiority of mutton to pork in the formation of vigor- ous muscle ;* and its tendency is less, particularly in hot climates, to en- gender inflammatory and putrid diseases. The consumption of consider- able quantities of fat is indispensable, in cold climates, to supply the necessary amount of carbon to support " combustion," as Liebig terms it, in the lun^s, or, in other words, to maintain the animal heat. Hence the Laplander and the Esquimaux find a grateful diet in train-oil, or the adi- pose parts of Arctic fish and mammalia. That fat pork should be the favorite meat, in the Northern States, is not perhaps so singular, but that it (under the name of bacon) should constitute the principal one consumed in our warm Southern latitudes, and especially that it should constitute so laro-e a proportion of all the food consumed,t is indeed a most anomalous fact, and is utterly unparalleled among the practices of other nations occu- pying the same latitudes. The tendency of this practice to produce dis- ease, physical inertia, indisposition and incapacity to sustain continued activity, \vill not, I think, be questioned by the pathologist or the close observer. Mutton and lamb are a favorite, if not the favorite food of the English of all classes. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written of the " roast beef" of" Old England," mutton is more eaten there by people of every rank.| On the other hand, it is evidently 7iot a favorite meat in the United States, though its proportionable consumption is evidently increas- in,of. Whence the difference % Circumstances have led to habit, and habit, in a great measure, regulates appetite. It needs no other proof than is to be found in the experience of every individual, to show that the appe tite is readily trained to relish what was even positively disgusting, and to become indiiferent to what was once the most grateful. That the preceding facts are well worthy of attention among those who are favorable to the introduction of sheep husbandry, among planters who supply not less than 3 lbs. per week of good bacon, or a full equivalent, to each slave, on plantations where the number ranges from ten to one hun- dred, and sometimes many more, there can be little doubt. Twenty-five slaves would thus consume 3,900 lbs. of bacon per annum ; and the more common allowance of the opulent planter is about 200 lbs. per head, or 5,000 lbs. for twenty-five. If an equivalent for at least half of this was 1 * The theoretical considei-ationB will be fovind sufficiently discussed in Liebij's "Animal Chemistry." For experiiiientil evidence, I know of none that cnn be more depended on— which approaches any nearer actual demonstration— than that which is furnished by the Enclish prize-tieliters. To attain the proper con- dition to sustain the protracted and trem<>ndous exertions of their brutal trade, their tiesh must attain the hardness and tou;:hness of whipcord, and they must, at the satne time, maintain that physical elasticity (tie was authorized to gicc away good hmd in the (Jumbei land .Momilains to sober and indua- triovis aetiletp. The prices in the N'. C. Mountains will he seen from Mr. Clinginan's letter, (Letter IV.) X Mr. Coles resided in Filtsylvania, a county adjoining North Carolina, in the middle or hilly zone. 1| .lesse Kdgington, of HoUiday's Cove, Rrookc Co , Va . writes me : " Our average time of foddering is at least 4 monilis, and wc generally provide provender equal to 5 tons of hay for" e.-ich hundred grovm sheep, for the winter." SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 61 This region being essentially Northern in its characteristics no allusion will be had to it in subsequent remarks. It will be seen from the preceding statements that in many, if not most situations, throughout the whole Southern States, sheep will obtain suffi- cient food throughout the year from the pastures,* or from autumn-sown grains, excepting on the higher or more northern mountains. As has been before remarked, as the grain subsequently yields its crop, its tillage is not properly chargeable among the expenses of producing wool. The prepa- ration of hay, and labor of foddering, are also dispensed with. By the rule of estimation followed in relation to New-York, the items on the debit side of the account would then be — interest on purchase money; interest on land; expense of shearing; salt, tar, and general supervision ; and loss by death. The items on the credit side would be the same with those of New-York. Youf own statements. Sir, as well as those of Mr. Simpson, show that, in many situations, both in the tide-water and hilly zone, three sheep can be supported on the herbage of an acre, without other fodder. His stat6- ments show that such lands can be bought at " ft-om 50 cents to $1 50 per acre." The annual account then would stand thus : Dr. 100 sheep — to inteiest on purchase money, at $1 25 per head $8 75 To interest on 33^ acres of land at $i 50 3 50 " expense of shearing 4 00 " salt, tar, and general supervision 8 00 " loss by death 2 per cent, over and above value of pulled wool 2 50 Total .$26 75 By 300 lbs. of wool at 31 cents per pound. ..§93 00 ■' 80 lambs, at tJ24 cents per head 50 00 " Manure t ' 28 00 Total $171 00 Balance $144 25 Making $4 32, or tico hundred a?id eighty-eight per cent, clear profit per acre, on lands worth %\ 50 ! By the respective estimates it will be seen that the gross cost of pro- ducing a pound of wool (allowing 3 lbs. to the fleece) is, in the Southern States, SjL cents ; in New-York 27i^|^ centsj — or nearly three and a half times greater in the latter ! I have put down the expense of sheaiing the same in both cases, and the supervision, South, twice as high as the sutti- mer care, in the North. Shearing always costs Si a day, per hand, in the North, and the summer care devolves upon the paid laborer whose every hour counts. The shearing would not be worth to exceed $2 a hundred on a plantation where slaves are kept, and the supervision or care could scarcely be considered an expense, when it could be borne mainly, if not entirely, by superannuated or decrepit slaves, or even by children. The real expense of growing wool on land of this quality and price would be about 5^2" cents per pound ;|| and calling the fleece 4 lbs. (which weight it always ought to be made to attain) it would but little exceed 31 cents.§ This is above Mr. Coles's estimate of expense in southern central Vir- ginia, and Mr. John S. Skinner has repeatedly expressed the opinion that it could be grown in various parts of the Southern States at 3 cents per * This supply could be rendered far more certain and available, where drsirnble, by leaving a portion of the fields undepastured in the latter part of summer and autumn. This "fog'' or afte.'-grass would not only aiford much food, of itself, but it also greatly favors the sprouting of the young grass uudemeaih it, by the protection it offers from frosts and cold winds. t I have put this down the same as at the North, because I suppose it is just as valuable at the South, and quite as much needed. Few are dii=posed to appreciate the value of manure when it is not presented to their view in bulk, as in the barn-yard ; but it is worth quite as much, dropped in the first instance over the fields. I feel confident that I have not over-estimated its value either for the South or the North. J To obtain these resuhs, I divided the whole annual e.xpense, as set down in the respective estimates, with the excejnion of the charge of 2 per cent, for loss by death, by the amount of wool produced. For reasons already given, I do not consider the wool chargeable with such loss by death, except in an es- timate where the full product of wool and lambs is carried out. [j In this estimate I call shennng $2 per hundred, salt and tar $1, and supervision nothicg. 5 Estimated as in the preceding note. 62 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. pound* My own impression, however, is that the land, properly in- closed, that will support 3 sheep per annum, will cost, ex'^.ept in occa- sional localities, not less than $4 or $5, let the amount be more or less ; and this would bring the cost of production (with 3-lb. fleeces) to between 7 and 8 cents per pound. I shall hereafter assume it to be 8 cents. On many of the more northern mountains of the Southern States, and on the high peaks farther south, neither the grasses nor grain grow suffi' ciently to support sheep, unless the range is very large in proportion to the number, during the winter.t Here, as in the Northern States, dry feed must be prepared for the winter subsistence of sheep. This can be read- ily done, as the best meadow grasses of the North and the clovers flomish on the sides of the mountains.^ There" is little doubt that sheep can be wintered on dry feed on many of the mountains, and yet, on account of the extreme cheapness of the lands, the cost of producing wool not exceed eight cents per pound. In the circumstances of many of the lowland plantations, it would be a most economical arrangement to siimmer the sheep on the mountains, and then drive them to these plantations to be wintered on pasture, fog, or grain fields, according to convenience. After the lambs have reached a sufficient age in the spring, and the sheep are shorn, marked, &c., a flock might be sent thirty, fifty, or even a hundred miles to its summer range on the mountains, at a trifling expense ; and large numbers could be kept there under the sui'veillance of a single shepherd and a brace or two of dogs. By this system the lowland plantation would be saved from maintaining pasture on more expensive lands ; many of its less marketa- ble products could be converted into wool, meat, and manure ; and it would be enriched by the wintering of the sheep. Such, you are aware, is the system of sheep husbandry in Spain. The sheep are wintered on the plains of Estremadura, sometimes reaching the north of Andalusia. Both of these provinces, though in a latitude cor- responding with that of a portion of the United States, extending from Albemarle Sound to a little north of Philadelphia, are parched, during the summer, to a state of arid sterility, by the burning winds of Africa.|| In * See Monthly Journal of Arrriculture. t With sufik-ient ran;;e, however, they not only obtain subsistence, but set fat. .John S. Skinner, Esq., ■writes me : " In the mountains ot Virginia, viz., at the Warm Springs, Dr. Brockenboro told me that a flock of sheep which he had bought for use during the watering season, strayed, and got off beyond reach during the summer ; that the winter after they were rarely seen : and that a.= chance otfered they were fhot ; and that tiner and fatter mutton he never desired to see." The Warm Springs are in Bath county, among the Western or Allegany I\[ountains, a few minutes north of latitude 38°. J See Mr. Goagin's statements in Letter IV. Since the above was written, I have received the following statemnnls from Mr. W. Murdock, of Asheville, Biincombc county. North Carolina : " Kxcellent swards of grass are grown in this district from Orchard grass or Cock's-foot. Timothy and Italian Rye grass 1 have found to thrive remarkably well. 1 never saw them do better in any country. 1 received ray seeds from England, and they succeeded admirably, and in ground by no means favoraljle to H fair trial. Turnips succeed remarkably well here, and even l.'iO miles fitrthcr south, as I am informed by Mr. Edward Calhoun— the kinds I don't know — l)ut here the Globe, Aberdeen, Norfolk, &c., do well If grounds were reserved as you suggest, for the winter feeding of sheep, the fall growth being under- jiastured. and if some of the stubbles were plowed up and sown broadcast with turnips mixed with rape or colza, very little fodder will be required, in fact only when snow is on the ground, which seldom ex- reeds fifteen or twenty days during the year." [This fully contirms the positions assumed by me near the close of Letter IV.] ■' I think that Curled Kale would be excellent for the winter keep of sheep, or cattle of any kind. J got 6ome seed from England and sowed it like any cabbauo seed. I put out the jilants two feet asunder in but tolerable ground, h grew three feet high and two fe(-t in diameter. That I planted in the open field the eheej) got at in October, and ate it, stock, branches and all, to the ground. That planted in the garden has, like the rape, stood the severe frosts uninjured. It is a delightful vegetable all the spring, and stands a warm or a cold climate This and rape are. I think, all the green food necessary to keep sheep through the winter, with the addition of a little hay. Rape may be sown broadcast in moist weather in May or June, and mown oti" for the sheep, when required, about six inches above ground. If the shoots are not required for pasture, let them go to seed, and the feed will pay better than any other crop, for making oil and rape cake." II Here is n notable instance of the want of correspondence between isothermal and latitudinal lines be- tween the west of Europe and the eastern portion of our own Continent. The two Spanish provinces the latitude of which is above given, have a climate more resembling the scorched llarws of Caniccas than any portion, even the most southerly, of the United States. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ' SiS the winter, however, they are covered with verdure. About the first of May the sheep start for the mountains.* Formerly many of them rested on the lofty parajneras and mountain sides of Old and New Castile — the latter bleak, sterile and craggy, compared with the sides of our own South- ern mountains. But a friend recently from Spain informs me that those once magnificent flocks (now, alas ! thinned by confiscation,! the whole- sale plunder of invaders, J and for the subsistence of adverse armies,] |) do not at present stop in any considerable numbers on the Castilian mountains, but pass north to the Cantabrian, and that portion of the Iberian range north of Soria — or crossing the latter, spread over the Eastern Pyrenees, and the mountains of Saragossa north of the Ebro. Anything like an elaborate comparison between the facilities for sheep husbandry furnished by the mountains of Spain and the Apalachians of the United States, south of the Potomac, would, perhaps, be out of place in this connection. But a glance at them may throw useful light on the question of comparative profit. If the Spaniard can giow wool at a profit, where the natural and physical features of the country gives him no ad- vantage over us, we can certainly do so ; for in every other respect we have the advantage. The Eastern Pyrenees I'ise to a hight of 10,000 feet,§ more than double that of the Peaks of Otter, or that of any other portion of the Apalachian range, with the exception of a few summits in North Carolina. Mount Perdu, one of the Pyrenees, is 11,283 feet in hight,^| or 4,807 feet higher than the Black, the highest mountain of the United States east of the Mis- sissippi. Maladetta, Vignemale and others rise considerably above 10,000 feet.** Glaciers exist on different parts of the whole chain. " The acclivity of the Pyrenees on the side of Spain, is often extremely steep,tt present ing a succession of rugged chasms, abrupt precipices, and huge masses of naked rock."J| Minano, a Spanish writer of authority, in defending his countrymen from the charge of indolence, speaks particularly of the ef forts of the hardy peasantry on the " almost inaccessible mountains of the Asturias, Galicia and Catalonia." The vegetation on these mountains is ex- tremely variable, in some places being as luxuriant as the best on our South- ern Apalachjians, but more fiequently dwarfish and meager. On large portions of them it is entirely wanting. The northern acclivities are fre- quently swept by cold and piercing gales from the Bay of Biscay. On the whole, it will be seen that they do not comjiare with our southern moun- tains in the advantages which they offer for sheep husbandry.] | 1| * For sinsrular and interesting particulars in relation to their march, &.c., and the municipal regulations pertaining tliereto, see Livingston on Sheep, p. 36 et supra. t Some of the choicest flocks in Spain were confiscated by the Government during the great anti-Gallic struggle. In the winter of 1809, the Spanish Junto confiscated the great flocks of the infamously celebrated Godoy and several other nobles, ard they were bought by foreigners for exportation. J The French Marshals, not finding anything in Spain to benefit the/7(e arts o( labclle France, as in Italy, condescended, it is said, to benefit her Agriculture, by driving home some of the best flocks of Spain. The Allied Armies compelled the restitution of the viarhle and canvas, but those jn-icclcss flocks either could not be re-collected, or they were not regarded as of sufficient importance to be returned. II The Commissariat of the English, French and Spanish armies, " The foe, the victim, and the fond ally," found the great Spanish flocks a very convenient resort, and availed themselves of it fully. The Guerillas, contrabandists, and fugitive inhabitants, of course, did the same. 5. Malte Brun. TI lb. ** Kncyclopa^dia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. h Montserrat (in Catalonia), so famous for its monastic establishments, will occur to you in this connec- tion — where the steepness is so great that the monks ascend from hermitage to hermitage by ladders or stairs cut in the rocks ! |t Encyclopaedia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. II II How much the associations of early life — early reading — dispose us to exaggerate even the physical extent of the region covered by these mountains, connected as they are with so many romantic and inter- esting remembrances ! The whole chain, extending from Cape Finisterre to Port Vendres,^does not exceed 2.50 rniles in length ; and the space covered by it is not, in Western parlance, a " circumstance " to that oc- cupied by our Southern Apalachians ! Yet, iii the western half of this chain, Pelayo and his successors maintained their Visi-Gothic kingdom, overthrew the descendants of the Abassides and Omrniades, and finally wrested Spain from the Moorish yoke. Who remembers, without the map under his eye, that Bau 64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The route pursued by the Spanish flocks fi-om, say, the middle of Es- tremadura to the Cantabrian mountains (the western portion of the Py- renees), cannot fall short of 300 miles. It equals 270 miles in a direct line. In addition to the length of the journey, they are compelled to cross the Castilian mountains, and if they come from the south of Estremadura, also the mountains of Toledo. Their route to the eastern Pyrenees would be farther and still more difficult. Every circumstance, then, excepting municipal regulations,* gives our Southern States, on both sides of the Apdlachians, a manifest advantage over Spain, for the purposes of migra- tory sheep husbandry. Before closing the investigation of the question of the direct pi'ofits of wool-growing in the Southern States, it is proper to inquire if there are any special local militating causes or disadvantages not yet adverted to which should be taken into the account. Diligent investigation has satis- fied me that there are no such causes — on the other hand, that there is a remarkable exemption from them — with one exception. That exception is the destruction caused by wolves and dogs. Wolves are found in nearly all new, and particularly in mountainous countries ; but they invariably rapidly give way before the extension of population.t They have even now ceased to be very destructive in the most sparsely settled regions of the South. Mr. Simpson, in the letter be- fore quoted from, says : " There are but few wolves in South Cai'oliua, excepting on the mountains. Otherwise, our sheep which roam at large untenJeJ by sheplierd, and uncared-for by any one, would soon be exterminated. The wolves are not numerous even on the mountains. They are not so destructive as dogs, which every now and then attack and desti'oy the sheep. A trusty shepherd, with a dog or two and a rifle, would prevent this." These remarks would apply equally well to nearly all the Southern States. Wolves do but little damage, and would soon cease to do any ; but the miserable, prowling curs are, in many places, a serious detriment. There is something singular in the fact that while so much complaint is made of them in the Southern and Western States, in New- York, where there is certainly a great surplus of them, we hear little, comparatively speaking, of their depredations. I am inclined to attribute it to the fact that dogs are here constantly familiarized with the sight of sheep. The first even playfiil movement of the adventurous puppy toward them is severely chastised, and he is thus educated to recognize them as within the category of " protected " animals. The dog which slays or even pur- sues a sheep, finds a long -pedigree or a silver collar utterly unavailing to save him fi"om immediate death.f But even in the South or West, the loss occasioned by the depredations nockbnm was fought and Flodden lost to defptirl a Kingdom nf half the dimensions of a good-sized Ameri- can State ! In compaiing the agricultural capahiliiies — and especially in estimating the ultimate result of aaricultui-al competition lietwcen oin- own country and the European ones, we rarely take sulHcienily into view the great disparity in territorial dimensions. * For the monopoly of privileges conferred on the flock-masters of Spain to the oppression and prostra- tion of every other branch of hu.sbaTidry. see Lasterie. nnd iilso Livingston on i^heep. t A bounty of $10 is paid for the destruction of every full-grown wolf, and S5 for a wolf's whelp in the State of New-Yo'k. X In New-York it is provided by law that every bitch over three months old shall be taxed $2 : every ad- ditional one owned by the same man $5 ; tieo docs over 6 months old $\ ; every additional one .|3. The avails of these taxes constitute a t'und, out of which Supervisors of Counties are to pay for any sheep slain by do23 whose owners are unknown. This is not often enforced. .\ny person may kill any dog " which he shall see chasing, worrying, or wounding any sheep," unless by direction of owner. The owner or possessor of any dog on being notified " of any injury done by his dog to any sheep, of his dog having chased or wonied any sheep," must within 48 hours kill his dog. or forfeit $2 50, and the farther suin of $1 2:"; for every 48 hours thereafter, unless " it shall satisfactorily'appear to the Court that it was not in the power of such owner or possessor to kill auch dog." Revised Statutes of Kew-York, vol. L chap. XX., title xvii. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 65 of other animals, or the expense of guarding against them, would be light compared with that in some of the wool-growing regions of the Old World. In Australia, the sheep are exposed to the attack of wolves, dogs, and convicts, and are constantly attended by a shepherd, and nightly folded, and guarded by a watchman with dogs and a fire.* At the Cape of Good Hope, the shepherd and folding system is also fol- lowed. In addition to wolves, and wild dogs which hunt in packs, and from their superior sagacity are much more formidable than wolves,t the Cape sheep are preyed upon by a variety of animals, and when they pass the mountains to glean the herbage which springs on the banks of the streams on the vast and lonely Karoos, they are exposed to the attack of the lion, the panther, the leopard, and the whole Feline family, so abund- ant and so particularly formidable in Southern Africa.l And they have had, and probably yet have, an enemy more destructive than all of these, in the Bushmen, more wild, irreclaimable, and predatory than their con- geners, the Bedouins of the Arabian desert. || I have seen it proposed§ to teach young cattle to protect sheep from dogs, in the following manner : Turn a few steers into the pasture with the sheep, and with them a cow or two, having young calves at their sides. Send a dog into the field, and immediately the cows, followed by the steers, will commence a furious onset on the dog, and gore him or drive him from the field. After this is repeated a few times, it is said the steers will suffer no dog to enter the inclosure. This might do very well under some circumstances, but I should prefer to rely on the remedy proposed by Mr. Simpson : the dog and the rifle. There are no " shepherd dogs " large and powerful enough to encounter and Jcill wolves and vagrant dogs, excepting the great sheep-dog of Spain ; and he is so irreclaimably ferocious to all excepting his charge, that he might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human life. My impression is that a shepherd dog or two, to be on the alert, and a brace of mastiffs to capture and, if need be, slay wolf or cur, would be adequate protection for the sheep on a considerable range, and the expense of maintaining them would be trifling. * Cunningham's "Two Years in New South Wales," vol. i. p. 251. t Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, hy Rev. Robert Moffat, pp. 23-4. I The following stanza from the spirited lines of Freiligrath — " The Lion's Ride " — will occur to you : "And the vulture scenting a coming carouse. Sails, hoarsely screaming, down the sky ; The bloody hyena, be sure, is nigh. Fierce pillager he of the charnel-house ! The panther, too, who strangles the Cape-Town sheep As they lie asleep, Athirst for his share in the slaughter, follows ; While the gore of their victim spreads like a pool in the sandy hollows ! " II To these may be added the savage Kaffirs, who, in their recent struggle with the Colonial Govemmenti destroyed and drove oti' immense numbers of cattle and sheep. In 1834, " the natives," says Youatt, " drove off or destroyed 80,000 cattle and sheep almost innumerable." § By a writer in the American Agriculturist. 66 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER VI. PROFITS OP SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES— 2. AS THE BASIS OF AMELIORATION IN NATURALLY STERILE AND WORN-OUT SOILS. Feasibility of rendering the naturally sterile and wom-out Soils of the South productive . . . Means must be ample and cheap.. .Orijiiiiiiy Animal Manures from Stables, &c., not attainable in sufficient quantity — too expensive if transported far by land carriage.. .Animal Manures of Commerce still more out of the ques- tion.. .Gypsum — not sufficient of itself. . -Wood Ashes — Leached Ashes — their great value, but limited quantity. ..Lime (marl). ..Swamp Mud— inexhaustible quantity of each.. .Valuable Effects of Lime on Soils... Other wise when there is a deficiency of Organic Matter.. -Opinion of Johnston, Brown, Lord Kaimes, Anderson, Morton, Thaer, Petzholdt, Chaptal.. .Southem Tertiary and Granitic Soils destitute of Organic Matter.. .Expcnsiveness of Marl— not very pennanent in its efl'ects. . .The best Swamp Mud worth more per load.. -This, too, an expensive manure. ..Both too costly for extensive ameliorations.. .Is there, then, any resort? —There is — it is to be found in a Mixed System of Green and Animal Manuring, the lat- ter made attainable by Sheep Husbandry.. -Experience and Testimony of various English Farmers under analogous circumstances.. . Reasons why Sheep are preferred to Horned Cattle for this purpose. . .Con- sidered more profitable in Encland. and by some in the United States, independent of Fleece. . .Singular Hallucination of Col Taylor on this subject... Sheep preferred as Improvers of Poor Lands in the North- ern and Eastern States, but the end sought by different means from those employed in England. . .The English Systetn— Reasons why it is inapplicable in the United States. . .System in the Northern and East- ern American States. . . Proper System in the Southern States, on Lands now partly Grassed, and on Naked Soils... Green Manuring — how accomplished — Proper Plants for the purpose — Practical Rules — Expensive- iiess.. -Should the Pasture Lands of the South be exclusively devoted to Sheep Grazing? — Should not Home Demand should be supplied by Home Production, in the Staples furnished by all the Domestic Animals — Reasons therefor.. -As a surplus or exporting Animal Staple, Sheep furnish the one in which the South can best compete with other Producers. Dear Sir : Let us now pass to the second point in reference to which we are to consider the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States, viz. : the practicability and comparative economy of making it the basis of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those which have been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation. The first of these classes of soils is confined, mainly, to the tide-water zone. The second is found both in this and the hilly zone, and, I need not say, in immense quantities. How can these soils be profitably amelioi'ated 1 It is certain that this can only be done by the introduction into them of substances fitted to be- come the food of plants — or which, by chemical combinations or changes, prepare other substances to become such food. On soils naturally too sterile to sustain useful vegetation, the quantity of fertilizing matter intro- duced must be comparatively lai-ge. Hence it must be cheap, or its cost will more than overbalance its advantages. There are various manures which separately, or in conjunction, would convert the worst acre of bar- ren sand between Richmond and Raleigh, or, if you please, on the Desert of Sahara, into a fertile garden, provided it could have timely rains and be protected from the burying sands. But it is utterly useless to argue the fcasibUity of this means or that, without at the same time examining its ecorwmy. The direct and profuse application of animal manures, for example, would probably effectually ameliorate any of these soils. But where ai-e these manures to be obtained, in a region where the first necessary condi- tion for their production, i. e. the vegetation necessary to support domes- tic animals, is wanting 1 The quantity accumulating in the cities and vil- lages of a comparatively sparsely populated region — in a climate where the preservation of putrefying substances would be incompatible with SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 67 health, would be inconsiderable. And whether more or less, it would not pay the cost of transportation to any considerable distance by land car- riage. Guano, poudrette, bone-dust, and all the expensive manures of commerce, are still more out of the question. Gypsum, on account of the smallness of the quantity requisite, is a cheap manure, and, reasoning from analogy, should be a valuable one, under proper circumstances, at least on the granitic soils of the South.* Mr. Ruffin states that it produces little ef- fect in the Tertiary sands.t It is considered by practical men to be, at the best, rather an aider of organic manure than a substitute for it, and when repeatedly applied without any other fertilizing substance, it ceases to produce any visible effect. On an exhausted soil, the chemical consti- tution of gypsum shows that it could not replace all the substances ab- stracted by the plants ; and on one naturally sterile, there is small proba- bility that it would happen to supply the only deficiency necessary to the production of vegetation. Wood ashes constitute a most valuable manure on probably every class of soils, and. unlike lime, gypsum, soda, etc., which afford only a limited number of those substances which constitute the necessary food of plants, they afford in a greater proportion than any other manure the inoiganic substances which are taken up and assimilated by plants.| They are used with the most beneficial effect on the granitic soils of New-England, the calcareous and aluminous ones of Middle New York, the silicious ones of the southern or gi'azing region, and on the Ter- tiary sands of Long Island. On the latter, of the same geological forma- tion with your tide-water zone — in fact but a continuation of it — even the leached or washed ashes bring a shilling per bushel (the same that is paid for the unwashed ashes by the soaper and manufacturer of pearl or pot ashes) for agricultural pui-poses.H But the supply cannot be made suffi- ciently large for extensive agncultural ameliorations, without a destruc- tion of the forests, which would inflict a grievous and utterly inexcusable wrong on posterity. The Southern Atlantic and Gulf States possess two natural and inex- haustible deposits of fertilizing matter, which, it is supposed by many, would be fully adequate to the general " reclamation "§ of their barren and exhausted evils. The first of these is the marl, which underlies large por- tions of the low country of Virginia and South Carolina, and probably the ■* I refer here to the successful example of its use on the granitic soils of New-England. I have particu- larly specified this class of soils because your barren ones are limited to them and to the Tertiaiy. Gypsum is used at the North on nearly every class of soils with advantage — calcareous, aluminous, silicious and all interinediate varieties. It will be found very valuable, I have no doubt, on your mountain lands, particu- larly in localities where the clovers flourish. t Ruiiin's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843. X To show the value of ashes as the food of plants, and at the same time the difference between those made from different woods, I append the following analyses of those of two well-known southern trees. That of oak ashes is by Sprengel, that of pitch-pine ashes by Benhier : Constituents. Oak. Pitch-Pine. Constituents. Oak. Pitcli-Pine. 14-10 20-75 3-45 0-90 17 -.50 29-95 \ 8 14 17-38 1-44 7-50 11-10 2-75 13-60 4-35 Potash Soda 16-20 C-73 3-:i6 1-92 2-41 15-47 Oxide of Iron Oxide of Manganese Lime Sulphuric Acid Phosphoric Acid Carbonic Acid II This fact I consider an important hint to the planters of the tide-water zone, and it is to be hoped that it is one which will not be thrown away. Leached ashes are valuable also on every other class of lands. The southern portion of my farm (lying on Chemung rocks') is silicious. The northern pan is covered with " northern drift," and is therefore calcareous. I use from 3,.500 to 4,000 bushels of leached ashes per annum, without any discriminatiGn as regards the soil, and on almost every variety of crops, and invariably with marked advantage. Doct. Emmons, our State Geologist, having in charge the volumes on Agriculture, stated to me that he considered these leached ashes far more valuable by bulk than a rich marl (accessible to me) containing 90 ])er cent of carbonate of lime. § This word ("reclaim") has a provincial signification throughout the North, when applied to land. It means " to render productive." Unlike the words " fertilize," " enrich." etc., it implies dtgree, as well as manner. To "reclaim "land, therefore, is to fertilize or enrich it to such a deeree that it will yield fair crops. I shall use the word both as a verb and a noun, to avoid the circumlocution otherwise necessary to express this idea. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. whole Tertiary formation, or at least that portion of it extending through the Atlantic States. The second is the swamp mud, which, rich with the alluvial deposition of ages, fills nearly every depression of the surface ca pable of retaining water, in the whole tide-water zone. Mr. Ruffin recommends the former as the best and most attainable fe?"- tilizer on both of the classes of soils under examination. He seems t;o think it adequate, of itself, to their full and permanent amelioration, I do not desire a word which I shall say to bear, or even seem to bear, a con- troversial tone toward the views of this ardent and enlightened friend of Southern Agriculture. In expressing my dissent from them, my limits and the occasion only permit me to allude to a few well-settled principles and facts on which I have based my opinions. Lime acts mechanically and chemically on soils. It stiffens loose and opens clayey ones. It is, to a certain extent, one of the necessary constituents of plants ; it neutral- izes acid substances in the soil ; it forms compoimds, and promotes the dissolution of existing ones, to prepare suitable food for plants ; and some- times produces certain other minor beneficial effects. But its great, its chief object, is to produce the food of plants by its chemical action on the organic matter in the soil. Hence, says Johnston : " Lime has little or no effect upon soils in which organic matter is deficient;" and he far- ther says : " Under the influence of lime the organic matter disappears more rapidly than it otherwise would do, and that after it has thus disappeared, fresh additions of lime produce no farther good effect ; . . . it causes the organic matter itself ultimately to disappear." " It is scarcely practicable," says Brown, ' to restore fertility to land even of the best natm-al quality, which has been thus abused ; and thin moorish soils, after being exhausted by lime, are not to be restored." " An overdose of shell marl," says Lord Kaimes, " laid perhaps an inch thick, produces for a time large crops, but at last renders the soil capable of bearing neither corn (grain) nor grass, of wliich there ai'e many examples in Scotland." " The same," continues Johnston, " is true of lime in any fonn. The increased fertility continues as long as there remains aa adequate supply .of organic (animal and vegetable) matter in the soil ; but as that disappears, the crops every year diminish botli in quantity and in quality." " On poor arable lands, which are not naturally so, but which are worn out or exhausted by repeated liming and cropping, lime produces no good whatever." (Anderson, Brown, Morton.)* Let us now turn to the opinions of some of the most eminent European Continental writers. The celebrated Thaer in his " Principles of Agricul- ture " (Section IV. Part I.) says : " On no soils are the effects of lime so beneficial as on those which contain a great quan.> tity of sour humus prejudicial to vegetation, or on those w*liich have been supplied more or less abundantly with animal manure for a considerable period, without receiving an appli- cation of lime, or some other substance of a similar natm'e. In the latter case it is frequently much more efficacious than an amelioration of stable manure would be ; but it soon impov- erishes the soil so much that in a few years it becomes indispensably necessary to manure it abundantly with rich animal or vegetable matters. As some portion of the humus, al- though in all probability of an insoluI)le nature, always remains in arable land even when it appears to be much exhausted, it of course follows that an application of lime will always be productive of very marked effects even on the poorest soils, because it will call into ac- tion all the nutritive particles which they contain. A second amendment of a similar nature bestowed shortly after the first, will be productive of some, although in general of much less benefit ; and the effect of each subsequent amelioration of this nature will be progi-essively diminished unless the soil receives an additional supply of humus. . . . The effect pro- duced by lime on land of this nature (reclaimed bogs and marshes) is much more beneficial and durable than that of any other manure. On the other hand, repeated ameliorations of lime will soon totally exhaust and impoverish poor and sandy soils, and reduce them to ab- solute sterility, even though each separate application seems to be productive of some good effect . . . McUiy persons who have not rightly comprehended the cause of the effects* produced by lime, prefer it to maiun-e, and have believed in the possibility of doing entirely without the latter ; but the total exhaustion of the soil wliich such a course of proceeding must sooner or later produce, caused them to fly to the opposite extreme. . . . An en« * See Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 139-143. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 69 lightened and scientific agi'iculturist will soon perceive that the use of lime can never super sede that of dung, but that it renders this kind of manure more energetic in its action. . . . In many places where its ameliorating effects were knovra and appreciated, many agi'icul- turists have calculated that marl would prove a cheaper manure than stable dung ; and have, consequently, detei-mined to do without the latter altogether ; and, therefore, have diminished their stock of catde, and sokl their hay and straw. It may easily be imagined that as soon as the chemical effects of the marl ceased to operate, as must be the case when the land no longer contained undecomposed or insoluble substances, the soil became sterile, and a second marling was mcapable of producing any beneficial effects, there being no hu- mus for it to act upon." Petzholdt, in his " Lectures to Farmers on Agricultural Chemistry," (Lecture X VIL) says : " Quick -lime gi-eatly accelerates the decomposition of humus, whether of animal or vege table origin, inducing a more speedy liberation of its salts than would otherwise take place. This is the reason quick-lime has proved so advantageous in the cultivation of bogs ; the lime not oidy accelerates the decomposition of the humus, but it may be said altogether to be the cause of the decay of humus, which, as it exists in peat, is scarcely by itself under- going the process at all. . . . Where there is neither humus in the sod, nor undecom- posed silicates, the application of lime as manure will be useless. ... So much, hov^r. ever, is deducible from ail experience, that the mere application of marl to an exhausted soil is of no use whatever, unless it is carried on the field in such quantities as to constitute a new soil, covering the whole surface to the depth of a foot. ... In a chemical point of view, marl is not of any value except where the soil requires a supply of lime. . . The other mineral constituents of mai'l are far too inconsiderable ui amount to be reckoned upon." Chaptal, in his " Chemistry applied to Agriculture," (Chap, iii,, Art. 2,) thus expresses himself : " It is acknowledged that lime is principally useful upon fallow lands which are broken up; upon gi-ass lands, whether natural or artiiicial, which are prepared for cultivation: and upon muddy lands, which are to be put into a fit state for culture. It is well known that in all these cases there exists in the land a gi'eater or less quantity of roots, which, by the ap- plication of lime, may be made to serve more immediately for manure, by the solubility it wiU give to the new products formed by them. . . . Independently of this effect, which, in my opuiion, is the most important, lime exercises other powers, which make it a very valuable agent in Agiicultm-e." These authorities might be multiplied ad injinitum. On the alternately too loose or too hard soils of the dry and barren lands of the tide-water zone, lime would doubtless have two salutary effects — the mechanical one already noticed, and it would furnish one necessary food of plants. But of its power to render these soils, or the exhausted ones of the middle zone, anything more than transiently fertile, there is no jirobability, if they are, as I suppose them to be, generally rather, and sometimes very, destitute of organic matter. This destitution I infer from ocular examination ;* also from the fact that they are covered with little vegetation, with the exception of the long-leaf pine, to produce by its an- nual decay a store of organic matter; and, finally, if this organic matter existed in these soils in any considerable quantity, they uwuld not be ster- ile. They probably possess the ordinary inorganic constituents of dry Tertiary and granitic soils, and no properties directly deleterious to vege- tation. Organic matter, then, in my judgment, is what they princijmlly stand in need of to render them fertile. Now, by applying lime to them, it would undoubtedly do good in two ways, as before admitted ; but the considerable temporary apparent amelioration, as evinced in some instances by the increased growth of vegetation, is factitious, for the lime is only act- ing with and exhausting the little organic matter in the soil, to leave it to greater eventual sterility. Hence the saying that " lime enriches the father but impoverishes the son," is a true one when the lime is applied to soils possessing but a small proportion of organic matter. On such, lime soon * I have seen no analyses of these soils, and mean therefore as I say, simply, examination by the eye. 70 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. leads to exhaustion, unless organic matter is added to tlie soil in proportion to the ivaste. The theoretical and. practical considerations which should govern in the application of this fertilizer to soils are discussed more fully and, in my judgment, more ably by Johnston, in his Agricultural Chem- istry, than by any other writer. To him I take the liberty to refer you. Marl raised from pits, as it must necessarily be (except when denuded, or cut through, on the beds of streams, &c.) where it occurs only as an under-stratum in a flat country — where the pits, too, often require ma- chinery, or much manual labor, to keep them free from water while work- ing — must be an expensive manure. From its tendency to sink in the soil it is not so permanent a one as would naturally be expected. On reclaimed swamp lands — as, for example, on the rice lands — abounding in vegetable matter, it will be found a most efficacious manure, and, when needed, will repay the necessary outlay ; but I fear it will be found otherwise ultimate- ly, if not immediately, on the barren sands and exhausted granite soils of the South. Applied with swamp mud, it would constitute a fertilizer scarcely, perhaps, admitting of a superior, even on the latter soils. In their single effects, however, I cannot but believe that the best swamp mud — that which is black and fetid by the long continued accumulation of or- ganic substances (and especially if charged with shells, and the shields of Infusoria) — would be worth more per load than the richest marl. The mud, too, should be considerably cheaper than the marl, no deep excava- tions being required to obtain it.* Digging and draught, and, in the case of the mud, draught alone, would render both decidedly expensive ma- nures, relatively to the value of the land after being ameliorated by them, even assuming that amelioration to be complete and permanent. On lands immediately contiguous to conveniently reached depositions of mud or marl, on a scale so limited that it could be earned on at spare intervals without encroaching on the regular routine of plantation labor, it might be good economy to haul out mud and marl, and thus gradually reclaim email pieces of land.t It certainly would be better economy than to waste those intervals in idleness. But in anything like an extended and speedy system of reclamation — the fertilization of thirty, forty or fifty acres per annum, instead of one, two or three — the means above adverted to are, in my humble judgment, utterly out of the question. The labor would ab- sorb all the labor of man and beast on the plantation ; and it is exceedingly questionable, in my mind, whether the land, when fertilized, would sell for the cost of the manure. Hard would it be for many a South Carolinian or Virginian to turn his back on the Lares and Penates of his race — forgetting many a proud local and ancestral association — but as a question of dollars and cents, some- times a necessary one, and, at all events, usually the paramount one, I think it past a reasonable doubt that it would be better economy to de- sert the worn-out or naturally barren soils of our South-eastern coast, and. purchase the vii'gin and fertile lands of the South-west (even including the extra expense of building and fencing), than to attempt to reclaim the former by means so expensive as those above indicated. What, then, is the resort 1 Are there any means by which those lands can be profitahhj reclaimed ] I answer. Yes ; and the resort is a mixed system of green and animal manuring — the latter made attainable by sheep husbandry. Experience is the best test of all theories. And we have had * I am inclined to think, Viowever, that this mud, if spread directly on the surface, would contaminate the atmosphere with unhealthy miasma, generating agues and bilious diseases. If so, it would require in- corporation with the soil, by plowinc. t It seems to me, however, that these expensive manures would be more profitably applied in keeping up the fertility of the best lands, or as assistants to other and cheaper means of reclaiming the poor ones. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 71 80 little expei-ience in the premises, in our own country, let us turn to that of the first agricultural nation of the Old World. There is no foreign na- tion where so high a degree of intelligence is brought to bear on farming operations — where cause and effect are so carefully studied and accurately noted — as in England. This care and accuracy are indispensably neces- sary in a country where high rent and heavy taxation render good farmino- or bankruptcy unavoidable counter-alternations to the agriculturist. Pre- vailing conclusions among such a class of agriculturists — umhsjmted con- clusions, too — are assuredly entitled to great respect, and may almost be regarded as settled facts. Now the farmers of England are perfectly fa- miliar with every kind of manure accessible to our Southern farmers, un- less it be swamp mud and cotton seed. Lime, for example, is plentiful and cheap, and is much used in Agriculture all over the kingdom. If either this, or any of the manures of commerce, were considered, of them- selves, economical fertilizers of the poor, sandy or light upland soils of England, there is no country in the world where they are more plentiful, and, when the use of the soil and the price of products are taken into con- sideration, more cheap. What the settled conclusions of the English farmers are, in relation to the profitable amelioration of those soils, will be seen from the following undisputed testimony of some of the most eminent and respectable of them, taken before the Committee of the House of Lords, charged with the in- quiry into the state of the wool trade, &c. in Great Britain, in 1828, from which I have so freely quoted in preceding Letters. Mr. William PiNKNEY, jSaii^Jwry P/ai«.* Land such as I occupy could not be main- tained without the aid of sheep. . . . The sheep are our principal dependence for sup* porting our crops ; indeed, I could not occupy my farm without my flock. Mr. .ToHN Ellman, Jr., Sussex : I do not consider it possible for the light lands upon the Downs to be kept in cultivation without flocks. I could not keep the fann I now hold, without sheep. . . On the South Downs the wool must be giown, let the price be what it will. Mr. Francis Hale, Alringham, Svjfolle : The description of lard I occupy could not be kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep. Mr. Henry King, Chilmark, Wiltshire : The size of my farm is about 4,000 acres. I clip annually about 6,500 South-Down sheep. . . . Such lands as I occujiy cannot be kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep. Mr. John Woolledge, near Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk: An estate near the above place contains 8,890 acres, let to tenants, and consists principally of poor sandy and gi-avelly land, the produce of which in giain is very precarious, amounting in dry summers to little or nothing. The occupiers, therefore, depend almost entirely on their flocks of sheep for the payment of their rents and the employment and support of the population. ... I am of opinion that two-thirds of the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk may be comprehended in the sheep districts, and that they produce two pounds and a half of wool, and thi-ee-fourtha of a lamb, to the acre, upon an average. . . . The produce of the land depends materi- ally upon the folding system ; there is not sufficient straw for manure without the assistance of sheep. Mr. William Ilott, Abhey Milton, Dorsetshire : I calculate the annual growth of wool in Dorsetshire at 10,000 packs of 246 lbs. each. It is estimated . . . that 800,000 sheep, or one sheep and one-seventh per acre, . . . are kept in this county. A considerable part of the county of Dorset is composed of light lands, and can only be kept in tillage by the aid of sheep. C. C. Western, Esq. : It is utterly impossible that the Down Districts can be cultivated to advantage without sheep. We never fold our Merino or other sheep ; the land is too wet. Lord Napier : If we had not sheep upon our huids (the highlands of Scotland), it would become the habitation of foxes and snipes, and return to waste ; it would jiroduce nothing but grouse and wild game of different sorts. Is it asked, Why are sheep preferred to horned cattle ? Many of the reasons are given in my preceding Letter. Then, again, the scanty and short pasturage of light lands, on which sheep will thrive, will not afford sufficient " bite" (as it is provincially termed in the Northern States) to 72 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. profitably carry large stock. And, finally, there seems to be a settled con- viction among tlie English farmers that sheep give a better return for the food consumed, and therefore better repay the extraordinary expenditure necessary to bring poor lands in a fit state for the pldw, than any other animal. In an able essay in the London " Plough" (June, 1846), the fol- lowing remarks occur, which may be probably regarded as an expression of the prevailing opinion in England : " It is justly admitted that, of all the domestic animals reared and fed for profit in Great Britain, sheep are of the greatest consequence, both individually and in a national point of view, and afford a better return than can be obtained either fiom the rearing or feeding of cattle ; the very Heece sliorn annually from their backs is worthy of consideration. . . . Sheep husbandry deserves to be esteemed in all its different branches, and claims the prior- ity of consideration among agriculturists."* The manner in which the " very fleece" is here spoken of, shows that wool occupies but a mere subsidiary place in making up the profits of English sheep husbandry. I know many intelligent and experienced farm- ers in this coimtrij who think sheep feeding more profitable, or equally profitable, with cattle feeding, leaving the wool out of the account.t The experience of the English farmers accords with that of those of our own Northern and Eastern States, in relation to the superior advantages of sheep husbandry on poor and light soils. Observation has shown both that such soils do not profitably carry bullocks or other large animals, and that such animals are poorer manurers than sheep. But their methods of availing themselves of the advantages of this husbandry are entirely dis- similar. The English farmer finds mutton and grain the marketable pro- ducts which pay best. The first returns a profit on the crop (turnips) which produces it, and at the same time fits the land for the latter. The high price and ready sale of mutton allows the English farmer to force the growth of turnips on poor soils, by the application of highly condensed maiuires.| In the fall the sheep are turned upon small patches of them, surrounded by an inclosure of hurdles. The turnips are drawn, sliced, and laid in troughs for the sheep. When one patch is consumed, the hurdles are removed, and thus the field is gradually passed over — the sheep con- verting the whole crop into animal products and manure. The land ia then plowed for grain, and a succession of crops are taken from it. By this means the land is soon reduced to its former level, and the same sys- tem is again entered upon. * After reading this and the preceding testimony, one cannot look back without a smile on the unac- countable monomania of that excellent man and public benefactor, Col. John Taylor, in relation to sheep. In one of the essays of " Arator," he says : " My conclusions are that they require and consume far more food, in proportion to their size, than any other stock ; that they are more liable to disease and death ; and that they cannot be made a protitahle ob- ject throughout the whole extent of the warm, dry climate and sandy soil of the United States, but by ban- ishing tillage from vast tracts of country." . . . '• It is probable that the hot constitution of sheep pro- duces a rapid digestion, and that insatiable appetite, by which the fact is accounted for of their flourishing only, to any extent, in tine meadows or extensive wildernesses. If this voraciousness is not gratified, the animal perishes or dwindles ; if it is. he depopulates the country he inhabits. The sheep of Spain have kept out of existence, or sent out of it, more people than the wild beasts of the earth have destroyed from the creation ; and those of England may have caused a greater depopulation than all her extravagant wars. It may be owing to this animal, the independence of one coimtry is almost overthrown, and of the other tottering." (!!!) He farther expresses the opinion that Kngland, " by the help of her moisture and verdure, can raise wool cheaper than the United .States." (!) It would appear that Col. Taylor formed all his conclusions on a small flock kept by himself They may have been a bad and unthrifty flock. But it is strongly probable that he was influenced by deep-rooted prejudices, imbibed before his judgment was ripened, or his experience formed ; and that these, unknown to himself, warped all his views. I can account in no other way for the evident and palpable hallucination under which he made nearly every statement in his Chapter on Sheep. t A gentleman who has been one of the most successful feeders of cattle and sheep in this State (P. N. Rtist, Esq. of Syracuse) recently remarked to me in conversation that he had invariably found that sheep paid better for feeding than cattle. X Bone-dust, and frequently guano or some other manure with it, is drilled in with the turnip seed, so that much cost is obviated by makim; a little go a great ways ; and there ia a remarkable congeniality in the climate and atmosphere of England to the growth of tliis root. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 73 In the United States, much of this system would be inapphcable and unprofitable. Here wool, instead of mutton, is the principal object. Even in the Southern States, where the climate would render the English sys- tem practicable, the expense of producing either of these articles, by win- ter turnip feeding and folding, would add so much to its cost that it could not profitably compete with that grown in the ordinary manner. Tlie same remark applies to the relative expense of the two systems of manur- ing, A constant repletion of rich succulent food, like turnips, would sen- sibly increase the amount of manure, and, by folding, it would be more evenly distributed. But neither of these considerations would begin to offset against the increased expense, in a country where good lands are so cheap and bread-stuffs so low. Besides, no good, but, on the other hand, positive injury, would result from thus annuallj fattefiing "store"* sheep, kept for the production of wool and for breeding.t The system of improving poor lands in the Northern and Eastern States by sheep husbandry, is mainly by summer pasturage. The droppings of the sheep gradually enrich them,| and consequently increase their herb- age. Thus, in a few years, poor and scanty pastures are converted into rich, productive ones. This might be far more rapidly done by giving these pastures also the winter manure of the sheep, made in the feeding yards. But it is generally thought more profitable to give the winter ma- nure to the richer tillage lands, which are made to supply the grain and hay of the farm. The light pasture lands are thus kept permanently in pasture, or are only plowed, by the provident, at very long intervals. This system is rendered necessary, or, at all events, convenient, by the topo- graphical features of our farms. Here the poorer and lighter are generally the higher and more broken lands, which are less convenient of aration, and for the hauling on of manure, or the hauling off of crops. In the Southern States, on lands which now yield even a smallish sup- ply of esculent grasses, the northern system is all that is ncccsnarily re- quired. Those grasses will every year increase, and the land will be grad- ually fertilized, by the droppings of the sheep, without a cent's expendi- ture on it of any kind ; and every particle of herbage will be turned to its most profitable account, by being converted into wool, mutton and ma- nure. But where there is not sufficient existing verdure to form the germ, so to speak, of a future good pasture — or, in other words, to support a suffi- cient number of sheep to convert it, within a reasonable time, into good pasturage — some other course must be adopted. Proper plowing and seeding, simply, will, I have not a doubt, be found adequate in a great many instances where it would hardly be suspected. It is very natural to take it for granted that a soil, not spontaneously producing the grasses, is not fertile enough to produce them, even if properly sown upon it. But experience has amply demonstrated the contrary in several of the North- western States. There are various causes, besides a want of fertility, which may produce such nudity ; but this is not the place to enter upon speculations on this topic. Two very common and obvious causes are too great looseness or compactness of the surface, which prevents seeds from taking root, especially in a dry, hot climate. Plowing would always loosen * This convenient word is provincially applied, in the Northern and Eastern States, to sheep and swine which are to be kept over the year, to breed from (and the former to produce wool), as contradistinguished from those which are fattening for slaughter. t This point will again be adverted to. It is sufficient now to say that breeding-ewes, if brought to a high state of fatness, raise fewer lambs. The lambs are bom weak, and are very apt to perish. There are alse other objections. \ Aided by an occasional top-dressing with gy])sura. K 74 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. hard, and frequently stiffen loose surfaces.* The grass seed han'owed into a properly prejiared soil, at the suitable season of the year, might so root itself as to withstand tlie subsequent heats, while those dropped on a hard or a loose surface by birds, or borne there by winds, would be exposed directly to the rays of the sun, which, if it did not entirely prevent germ- ination, would dry up and kill the tender roots before they could strike deep enough to resist its influence. Much will depend, in this experi- ment, upon a proper selection of the variety of grass sown. That variety should be sown which is found to flourish best on similar soils, in the same climate, even though relatively it may be an inferior grass.! By means as cheap and attainable as these, I have not a doubt that no inconsideiable portions of the nearly naked soils of the tide-Wc.ter zone might be brought into pasture sufficiently good to make their ultimate con- version into prime pastures, by means of sheep husoandiy, certain.' On the worn-out granite soils of the middle region, the once fertile red clay lands — now occupied only by dwarf pines, worthless broom-grass, etc. — deej) plowing and tliorough sowing (with the aid of steeps and the cheap top-dressing, before adverted to) would gcneralli/, I believe, bring these lands into pretty good pasture. These soils, having been subjected only to the one-horse plow, and hand tillage, are tvorn o^it only on the surface. This is proved, in innumerable instances, in Fairfax, and other northern counties of Virginia. Lands considered entirely worn out, and sold for a mere trifle, are subjected to the northern two-horse plow, and from one to three inches of earth, never before disturbed, is brought to the surface, which readily supports grass, and even grain crops — the latter tempora- rily. Thus, most fortunately, the means are still left, with the aid of pas- turage, to make many of these lands profitably productive, and to restore them to much of their former fertility. We come now to another class of lands which may, in many cases, be worth reclaiming, but which will not, by merely being plowed and sown, produce sufficient grass to make their fertilization by sheep husbandry at- tainable — or attainable within a moderate period of time. These are the inferior (but not the worst) sands of the tide-water zone. Here green manuring must be resorted to, by means of plants which will better with- stand the climatic and other difficulties in the way of their getting well- rooted, and wliich will flourish in poorer soils than the grasses. Both of these conditions are answered by various plants. Spurry ( Spergula arven- sisj and white Lupins ( Lujnnus albus) will flourish on dry, barren, and even shifting sands, and are extensively used as green manuring crops on such soils, on the Continent of Europe. From their rapid growth and ex- traordinary productiveness, they are admirably adapted to this end. The introduction of these plants would probably supply an important desidera- tum in Southern Agriculture, unless, as I have already expressed the opin- ion,| the pea leaves little to wish for, as a green manui-ing crop on every class of southern soils. Soaked in a solution of nitr« — rolled in lime — top- dressed, after sprouting, with a slight sprinkling of ashes and gypsum || — * The sands of thn tifle-water zone are cverywhrrn, at greatfir or less depths, underlaid by clay. These miijbt in Bome cases bo reached by the plow, and portions of them incorporated with the superincumbent Boil. t See Letter TH. t I" I-etter III. 11 Spren^t'l's imalypis, in Letter III., shows the larixc amount of potash required for the seed, and of lime for the straw of the pea. The favorable efl'ect of plaster on this, as on most other leguminoste, is well known. Ashes, plaster and lime can be purchased here at an average of less than ten cents a bushel. A bushel of cypsum, mixed with say two bushels of ashes, makes a top-dressing which will ])ay for itself a number of "limfs over, on any land to which I have ever seen it applied. In addhion to rolling the seed ia lime, a few bushels of it, or of marl, would make a eood. and, where accessible and cheap, an economical top-dressing. When I speak of the price of lime here, I do not refer to marl. The latter, in its natural Btate, could be purchased at the beds for probably a shilling a load. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 75 the pea would probably take root and flourish in any soil which the price of land in this country would justify an effort to render productive, now, or for a long term of years to come. Indeed, the capacity to produce this plant viay afford the best practical test of the economy and expediency of attempting it in any given case. If a good green manuring crop can be made to grow on the soil without any more expensive aids than those above suggested, the lever of improvement — cheap, but effectual — is placed in the hands of the planter, and, if he possesses the least degree of energy, he has no occasion to seek a new soil and home by emigration. Mr. Ruffin states, if I remember aright, that a few quarts per acre, of peas, are sown by the Southern planters. In the North, three bushels, at least, are sown; and this quantity would be little enough to pioduce the largest amount of green manure. Theory would indicate that the crop should be turned under before it comes into full flower,* but experience and convenience both deserve con- sulting in the premises. An active span of horses, with a Northern two-horse plow, and an ex- pert plowman, would readily plow two acres per diem, on sandy soils, and plow it well.t The expense of getting in a crop of peas can then be read- ily estimated. If one crop can be made to take root and grow, and is plowed under when green, the great point is attained, and there will be neither difficulty nor uncertainty subsequently. The organic matter thus deposited in the soil is the basis on which future improvements can be effected ad libitum. As far south as South Carolina, at least two, and probably three crops could be plowed in during a single season. This might be done in time for winter grain, and a crop of the latter sown as a covering crop with grass seeds. The grain would refund much of the previous expense. Plowing in two or three crops in succession may, at first view, seem an expensive process ; but, with the exception of the extra seeding, it is no more labor than is bestowed on every wheat crop by a large proportion of the farmers of Western New-York ! When the ground is summer fal- lowed, the ordinary practice on our wheat lands is to have it three times thoroughly plowed and harrowed, and the first time a crop of clover is plowed in. All this is a light outlay compared with thorough marling, or manuring with swamp mud. And, after either of the latter processes, the land has yet to be plowed and seeded.| It would not be necessary to plow in as many as three crops of peas, to lay the foundation of ordinary pasture. Two, and possibly one, would suffice. The comparative utility of forcing forward the fertilization of land, rapidly or gradually, depends much upon the amount of capital which the landholder has to devote to this object. The amount of labor subtract- ed from the ordinary operations of the plantation would be very small, in any case, in proportion to the object to be attained. A single expert plowman, with a good team, could give even the three plowings to a large field.ll * "Because flower-leaves," says Johnston, "give ofl^ nitrogen into the air; and, as this element is sup- posed especially to promote the growth of plants, it is desirable to retain as much of it in the plant and soil as possible." — Ag. Chem., vol. ii., p. IS-x t Perhaps more. That amount is frequently exceeded here, on stubble lands. J So that the expense to be otfsetted against one of those processes (in estimating their comparative economy as a means of reclamation with green manuring) is plowing, harrowing, and seeding twice. II I have attempted to fix no definite data on this point, because you, who are acquainted with plowing Southern lands, are better competent to do so. 1 would remark, in this connection, that my convictions are very strong that the introduction of the two-horse plow of the North would lead to a decided improve- ment in your Agriculture, from the superior manner in which it does its work, and by leading to deeper plowing. l"he wheel will cause it to run as shallow as a one-horse plow, however, where the character of the soil renders it desirable. 76 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Even in the case of either of the two classes of soils before treated of (those now producing thinnish pasturage, or which can be converted into pastures simply by plowing and seeding), one or more green manuring crops would form a most excellent and accelerating initiatory step, and, where sufficient capital is possessed, I have no doubt, a most economical one, toward their fertilization. In view of all my preceding statements, do you ask me if I advocate sheep husbandry exclusively, on all the lands at the South which already are, or should be devoted to grazing] Most assuredly not. I have al- ready laid it down as a maxim that " agricultural production should be controlled by the demand or want, and the adaptation of the country to such production." By this rule, the South should, at least, never import a horse,* a mule, a pound of beef, pork, butter, cheese or wool. She wants them all, and she can produce them all mere economically than she can import them. That declared impossibility in politics, an imj)erium in im- perio, should be in Agriculture, so far as it may be consistently with the above maxim, the attitude of every farm and plantation. Each should be independent to the greatest economical extent, so far as the production of the necessaries, comforts and luxuries of life are concerned, of every other farm or plantation in the world ! This mixed and multifarious farming is objected to by theorists, inasmuch as it trenches on the division of labor principle. But it favors rotation, and thereby prevents the exhaustion of soils — leads to a more bountiful use of the every-day comforts of lifet — and, finally, it is less hazardous. The one-crop farmer, if crop and market are both in their most favorable state, realiaes great profits. But if the market is poor, or the crop small, the loss is proportionately large. The farmer pursuing mixed husbandry will not generally fall greatly behind the best profits of the other, and his losses are rarely considerable. It is better to play for a hit than a gammon, where, as in the case of the small capitalist, affluence or penury "stand the hazard of the die !" If the above positions are true, the South is called upon to increase the breeding of other domestic animals as well as sheep. To an extent suffi- cient to svpply Iter own wants, I consider her imperiously called upon so to do. I advocate the breeding of sheep specially — on a vastly more ex- tended scale — because, as has been already shown, they are the best (if not the only) reclaimers of your unproductive lands ; and because in that surplus of the products of gi'azing, which these extensive reclamations will biing about, tliey furnish you the exporting^ article (wool) for which you can find the largest extra-limital market, and in grotving which yon can best coinpete tvith other producers. Let us suppose, for the sake of the argument, that these newly reclaimed pasture lands would carry heavy beasts as well as sheep, and with equal benefit to the land. After supplying the home demand, what would be done with the surplus horses, mules and beeves 1 To what markets in the world could you export horses and mules, with the exception of some of the West India islands — the markets of which a few thousand head of these animals would annually glut \ Do you ask me what would prevent your sending your surplus beef to England 1 Nothing. But neither the South, nor the North, nor the East, can compete with the great North-west * Unless for the improvement of breeds. t I mean by this that the planter who raises all the necessaries of life will be more liberal of them than the one who purchases them. J 1 do not use the word here in its technical sense. I mean carried beyond mere local limits for sale — whether that sale be efiected in the same State, in some other part of the U. S., or abroad. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 77 in producing beef (or pork*) for exportation to foreign countries. Its im- mense natural pastures — the profusion and cheapness with which Indian corn can be produced on its virgin soils — give it an advantage which in- creased transportation by no means counterbalances. The question then arises — Why, for the same i-easons, cannot the vast North-western plains produce wool more cheaply than the South, and undersell her in our own and the foreign markets 1 In the first place, the western pastures — that is to say, the wild or natural ones — which produce beef so cheaply, are, by reason of the coarseness and rankness of their verdure, not adapted to tJie growing of sheep. Secondly, the shortness and mildness of the south- ern winter give a decided advantage in w^ool growing, by affording green winter feed — an advantage not profitably available probably, on an extend- ed scale, with large grass-feeding animals. Again, in the North-west, though there is less snow, the winter is about as long, for all the practical purposes of 4iusbandry, as in New-York.t Killing frosts come as early in autumn ; the naked ground is frozen as solidly, and far more deeply ; and verdure puts forth but little if any earlier in the spring. The South then possesses the same great advantage with the North-Avest in the production of wool — clieajp lands / and, superadded to this, she has the short, mild winters, which give her a decided advantage over both the North and North-west. She has a marked advantage over the Northern and Eastern States in both jyarticulars, and, instead of importing manufactured wools fi'om them, she ©ught to supply them, by export, with at least the raw ma- terial. And she will do this at no distant day, unless her sons are content, in the great struggle and battle of industrial interests, to sacrifice their own by apathy or iiTesolution. * I have not alluded to the rearing of swine any more fully, as they are but partially a grazing animal. — But if the position assumed in the text be correct, it is another argument in favor of devoting your lands to the production of surplus wool, instead of surplus corn. + The winter feeding of sheep in New York has already been stated to average about one hundred and fifty days. 78 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER VII. PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.— 3. BY GIV- ING TO SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE A MIXED AND CONVERTIBLE CHAR- ACTER.— 4. BY FURNISHING THE RAW MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFAC- TURE OP DOMESTIC WOOLENS. Expediency of Rotation in Crops. . .Consequences of omitting it on Wheat Lands of New-York. . .Mr. Gay- lord's views.. .Consequences in the Southern States. . .Mr. Roper's Report in the Legislature of South Carolina — [Cotton Statistics of that State— Comparison with other States— General Agricultural Resources —necessity of new staples]. ..Judge Seabrook's Report to the State Agricultural Society of South Caro- lina— [Agricultural Statistics- Remedies proposed for present "distress"]. ..Singular omission of Wool as one of the proposed new Staples. . .Southern prejudice on this subject — Causes. . .Impropriety of the one- crop system — Diminishes crops — Deteriorates land — Multiphes insects. ..Fertility sustained by Rotation — Causes. .." Resting" — Its inexpediency. ..Some of the Crops of every Rotation must be converted mainly into Manure — Superior economy of converting them into Animal Manure — Sheep the most profitable ani- mals for this purpose. ..Leading principles of a profitable Southern Rotation— Six-shift Course proposed — Five-shift Course— Six-shift Course for poor soils- ..Col. Taylor's Four-shift Course— Objections- ..Com- parative profit of growing Wool, Cotton and Rice, incidentally alluded to. . .Economy of producing the ravf material for the Manufacture of Domestic Woolens. . .Cost of Slave Cloths per head per year. ..Prices now paid for these Cloths— Cost of manufacturing them — Data for estimating such cost. ..Great profits of Man- ufacturers in the Northern States— Their Dividends— Their method of exchanging Cloth for Wool— Work- ing Wool at the halves. ..Cost of Cloths obtained by these methods... The South may obtain the same ad- vantages — Natural Facilities — Cost of Machinery— On what terms worked — Operations. ..Cloths spun and wove by hand cheaper than the imported ones — Cost of the several processes of manufacturing them — Estimate of Cost per yard at the North.. .Cost of establishing Carding and Cloth-Dressing Machinery.-. Home-made Fabrics diminishing at the North— Causes.. .Same Causes will not operate to so great an ex- tent at the South — Reasons.. .Probable Cost of Home-made Cloths, South. Dear Sir : The third great benefit claimed by me among the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States was, " its comparative efficacy in giving to Southern Agi'iculture a mixed and convertible character, and thereby sustaining (or improving) all the present good tillage lands, in the place of continuing the " new and old field" system (tilling land until it is worn out, then abandoning it and opening new lands), once so general, and even now by far too prevalent." The first object of mixed husbandry has been ah'eady slated — the home supply of the various necessaries of life. Its second, and still more impor- tant one, is the preservation of existing fertility in all soils fit for tillage. — It certainly requires no proof or argument to demonstrate the superior ex- pediency of maintaining the fertility of soils, if it can be done, by a rota- tion of crops, even though each of these crops is not, separately considered, the one which would yield the greatest immediate profit. In the language of the hackneyed aphorism, it is never expedient to " kill the goose which lays golden eggs." This constant cropping with one plant was once extensively practiced on the wheat lands of New-York, as many of their present owners can bitterly attest. Even now there can be no doubt that, on nearly all of them, wheat returns too often in the rotation. These lands were once rapidly, and are still, I fear, slowly declining in value ; while the grazing lands of »Southem New-York, where men have been compelled to be more discreet, have been constantly improving and approximating to the foiTner in market value.* * This calls to mind a letter which I received from an old and valued correspondent, the late Willis Gay- lord, but a short time prior to his death. I had spoken of the advantages of his own, the vvheat reirion, over the grazing region in which I reside. Mr. G. combated this idea. He thought capital invested her* SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 79 The same system has prevailed on the rice, tobacco, and cotton lands of the South, and has, for a variety of reasons not necessary here to be dis- cussed, been, in the case of the two latter at least, more fatally persisted in. I have already alluded to the exhaustion of your soils consequent on this course of culture, but to show the wide extent of the evil — its pecu- niary consequences individually, and on whole States — the now admitted necessity of a rotation of crops — the equally conceded necessity of intro- ducing some new staple, or staples, to render the other crops in the rota- tion, besides cotton, I'ice, and tobacco, remunerative — and various other con- siderations having a strong bearing on this whole question — I quote the following statements from Southern, as well as highly authoritative sources. The Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives of South Carolina, through their Chairman, Hon. R. W. Roper, made a Report to that body, Dec. 14, 1842, from which the following are extracts : " Let us now turn our consideration to one other great staple, cotton, of which the statis- tics are so exact that we can ascertain by calculation what our prospects are as regards com- petition in that article. The United States produce at present 578,012,473 lbs. — more than one-hall' the crop of the whole world. South Carolina grows of this 43,927,171 lbs., or 1-13 part of the quantit}' ; but from this source of profit her palmy days are ])ast. Every year opens new lands in the West, where congeni;ility of soil and climate to this commodity in- creases the product per acre far beyond what can be reared at home, and consequently re- duces the value infinitely below the costly prices which fonnerly enriched Carolina. These new lands produce, on an average, 2,500 lbs. of cotton per hand, while the lauds in Carolina yield but 1,200 lbs., and the expenses of a laborer being about equal in either ])lace, reduces the Carolina cotton to h:ilf its intrinsic vdue. We have also the declaration of Mr. Dixon H. Lewis, in a recent speech in Congress, that cotton, divested of Government embarrassments, might be grown in Alabama for tln-ee cents a pound. "Your Committee will avail itself of the lucid calculations of a distinguished and talented individual,* to present another view of the subject, startling in its details, and bearing strong- ly on the propriety of summing up all our resources. The crop of the world ainounts to 1,000,000,000 lbs., which would requii-e, at the rate of 250 lbs. per acre, 4,000,000 of acres to grow this quantity. Now, the four States bordering on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico — viz., Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida — contain 130.000,000 of acres; proving that, if only one acre in 32 were found capable of producing 250 llis. to the acre, these four States could, alone, supply the demand of all the markets in the world. In this calculation, the produce of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, with portions of other States, besides 150,000,000 acres in Texas, are entirely excluded. The lands of the Gulf States, therefore, and Texas, are sufficient to supply the demands of the world in all time to come. Where, then, is the hope or prospect of South Carolina in the competition ? . . . " South Carolina comprises within her borders 16,000,000 acres of land, of which only 1,300,000 are cultivated. Of this, cotton occupies 175,700 acres ; rice, 80,000 ; Indian com, 500,000; potatoes, 22,612; wheat, 24,079 — making an aggi-egate of about 800,000 acres; the balance of 500,000 are taken up in oats, rye, barley, hay, tobacco, and a limited poition of other articles necessary to the supplies of life. To what use, then, is the balance of our ter- returned quite as good or better profits, than on the wheat lands. He thought, taken as a whole, the graz- ing farmers were doing better than the wheat fanners. The latter thouah ostensibly makint: an equal and frequently btHter per centage, were wasting their capital. The grazing lands and the wheat lands were rap- idly approaching each other in market value, by the rise of the former and the deterioration of tlie latter. May this not afford a parallel to what will one day be witnessed in the Southern States 1 It is ditficult for me to pass by the name of this accomplished wiiter — this pure, upright and philanthropic man — without throwing one stone on the cairn of his well-merited fame. He felt himself, from his infancy, cut otf from the companionship of his kind, by disease and deformity ; but. notwithstanding the body was "ugly," he " carried a precious jewel in his head." Triumphing over constant physical sutferings which would have prostrated most men, he made attainments in general knowledge possessed by few of his con- temporaries. His range of reading and study was remarkable. In his beautiful and sparkling letters to me, every subject and almost every science is touched upon by him in a manner that shows tliat he at least had mastered their general principles ; and, in the abandon of private intercourse, they seem to have been to him as the flowerets of a garden, among which his spirit could roam with that playful and joyous activ- ity which was denied to his poor, frail body, among the objects of the outer and physical world. Freely, unassumingly, and without an aspiration hut for the good of his fellow men, his mind poured out its stores on a variety of topics in the publications of the day. Fortunately, he gave his principal attention to the subject of Agiiculture, and, if not a discoverer (which he never claimed to be), he investicated and collated with an industriousness of research, discrimination and perspicacity, which brought the truth from all the ditferent sources where discovery or experience had left its diajecta membra, into essays, so well com ■ pacted, so clearly arranged, that men of the most ordinary parts could not onlj' understand his separate sen- tences and positions, but their connection and aggregate bearing, and thus master the whole subject. Peace to his ashes 1 * Gov. Hammond. 80 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ritory, of 14,000,000 of acres, to be appropriated ? Are we forever to be supplied with stock from the ^Vest, bread-stuffs from the Middle States, and manufactures from the North ? Is aU that we can reahze from our labor to be expended abroad ? Nothuig to be left for our own improvements or our luxuiy ? As one means of correcting this evil, your Committee propose an Agricultural Survey of the State, to determine our natural advantages, develop our facilities of improvement, exhibit our profits and expenditm-es, and awaken our citizens to the importance of vying with the rest of the human family in all the improvements of which onr location is susceptible " The exposition wliich your Committee has given, showing the great competition of for- eign rice with our own, and that South Carolina cannot compete with the West in the cheap production of cotton, and tliat she must, ere long, be driven from the market, demonstrates the necessity of looking abroad and around us for other sources of advancement and profits than those we possess. " We cannot expect that accident is continually to supply new staples suited to our soil and climate, and place us beyond the reach of contingent circumstances. We must resort to science to improve our Agriculture, and to inachinery to enlarge and prepare present arti- cles of culture, or transplant and acclimate new products, which will again, like those we have lost and will lose, lead oft' for a period in the employment of capital, amassing of wealth and ditfusion of human happiness." The House and Senate agreed with the Report, the same day, and its principal recommendation, an Agricultural Survey of the State, was adopted. The Committee appointed by the South Carolina State Agricultural So- ciety to consider the scheme of Col. Davie to reduce the quantity of cotton grown, made a Report, through their Chairman, Judge Seabrook, at the winter meeting of the Society, 1845-6, from which the following are ex- tracts :* " Another cause of our disti-ess is that, in a large portion of the southern country, cotton is cultivated, when its production does not now, and never can, at all compensate the planter for the labor bestowed. There it is desirable for every one that other branches of industry should be pursued. . . . We do not intend to encourage tlie cultivation of cotton to the neglect of the other products necessary to support or comfort. Every planter should prompt- ly render himself independent in reference to those articles which could be produced on his plantation. In this way he would profitably curtail the quantity of land devoted to the cot- ton crop. An abandomnent of the j^resent extremely defective mode of culture, and the sub- stitution of a better, would insure a larger quantity of cotton than would be lost by diversify- ing the products of industry. In other words, his cotton crop would be larger ; his corfl. wheat, rice, oats, barley, horses, mules, hogs, cattle, sheep, butter and vegetables, would be the produce of his farm. " If, however, the cotton crop is to be given up one-half, after all the reductions of it which we have sanctioned, to what else can the planter of the South so profitably turn his attention ? To grain ? He already, in ordinary years, produces twice as much as the Middle States, and about one-eighth more than the West. In Indian com alone, the produce of the South, by her last census, wns 300 million bushels. If the planter of cotton is engaged in an unprofit- able business, much more is the grain raised. . . . Millions of acres in South Carolina, including the lower country, are admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses. This might be added as another branch of industry, from which reasonable profits might be real- ized, and might very well be added to the cotton planter's income. The business of tanning and the raimufactures of leather might be and ought to be enlarged. In this State, all the means of a successful pursuit of this br;i,ni.-h of industiy are at hand and within the reach of every one. Hides, lime, bark and mechanics (slaves) are abundant." The remarks in both of the above extracts, though made exclusively in reference to South Carolina, will apply equally well, in many obvious par- ticulars, to all the old cotton and tobacco growing States. To a Northern man, accustomed from his childhood to see sheep hus- bandry blended, to a greater or less extent, in the operations of nearly everxj farm, and to live among farmers who regard it just as indispensable, and as much a matter of course, as the production of bread-stuffs, it seems singular enough that neither of the above able Committees, in looking for * As has been before stated, the other members of the Committee were Judge O'Neall and W. J. Allston, Esq. Mr. A. did not concur with his colleagues in the proposition that there was not already an absolute overproduction of cotton. He believed there was. In all other particulars, and consequently in all em- braced in the extracts given, he concurred in the Report. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 81 "other sources of advancement" — "new products" — "other branches of industry " — both to bring into use milHons of acres of unproductive terri- tory " admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses," and to render profitable and preserve the fertility of the tillage lands of the State, should not have thought of wool growing — or only thought of it, as it were, inci- dentally — at the very heel of a catalogue of farm products, and in refer- ence solely to supplying the home want ! Indeed, the estimate which has been set upon sheep husbandry gener- ally, and by all classes of agriculturists, South, is a source of unmixed sur- prise to one acquainted with this pursuit, and with the resources of that region for sustaining it. There appears among many, if I may credit your own writers,* to be even a jt;/-e;?^cZ/ce against sheep and sheep husbandry, per sc ! Is this because these animals bear a staple, and give employment to manufactories, which have claimed the "protection" of Government, to the prejudice, in the opinion of Southern politicians, of Southern interests ]t Is any portion of it due to the scornful denunciations of the brilliant, but eccentric and cynical, statesman of Roanoke, who " would at any time go out of his way to kick a sheep" 1 Or is it owing to the, in most respects, justly popular writings of Col. Taylor, of Virginia ] Hon. Andrew Ste- venson, of the same State, in a letter to John S. Skinner, Esq., says :| " The prejudice which the late Col. John Taylor, of CaroUne (who, by-the-by, did more for Agi-iculture than any man in America), had against sheep, has been the means of render- ing this description of stock unpopular in many parts of the southern country. ... If this distinguished patiiot and statesman had lived at tliis day, he would have changed hia opinion." The impropriety and inexpediency of giving all the labor and prime land of the country to the exclusive cultivation of one or two crops, even leav- ing the deterioration of the lands, consequent on such a course, out of the question, is forcibly set forth in the Reports above quoted from. But that deterioration is an infinitely more fatal evil, both to individuals and States. An injudicious course of cropping can be easily changed ; but, if the land is entirely impoverished, the change comes too late, until labor and capital have been employed on its restoration. The tendency, nay, the absolute connection as cause and (ffect, between the one-crop system and such dete- rioration, has been proved by too sad an experience at the South — is too universally recognized and conceded — to find a single questioner who pos- sesses ordinary intelligence. Whether the consequent phenomena are solved by the excretionary theory of De Candolle, or the more ordhiary one of the exhaustion of some of those substances which constitute the ne- cessary food of plants, the facts presented are the same.|| The soil yields constantly diminishing crops, until it becomes incapable of producing more than scattering and feeble plants ; and the insect enemies of the latter, which would perish if deprived of their aliment by the substitution of soma other plants, multiply in a constantly ascending ratio.§ * Hon. Andrew Stevenson, John S. Skinner, et at. in Monthly Journal of Aariculture, &c. t If such protection has prejudiced the South, what sti'onger reason why she should remunerate herself, by appropriating a share of it ! X Monthly Journal of Agriculture, July, 1845. II The theory of M. De Candolle, apparently so strongly supported by the experiments of M. Macaire, has found many believers. But the statements of the latter have been contradicted by M. Braconnet, M. Mlr- bel, and finally are totally overthrown, in my judgment, by the experiments and investigations of Mr. Alfred Gyde, of Scotland. Mr. Gyde shows that the minute excretions of plants have the same composition with their sap ; and he also watered plants with a solution of their excretions, not only without injury, but to their manifest benefit 1 For Mr. Gyde's able Prize Essay on this subject, see the Transactions of the High- land and Agricultural Society of Scotland (March, 1846). I am not aware that this essay has been repub- lished in our country. It certainly should be. § Of the latter evil, the past year furnished a pregnant example. I saw it stated last winter, in the South Carolinian (published at Columbia, S. C), on the authority of an United States Senator, that the falling off in the cotton crop would be enormous, by reason of the depredation of worms. This evil is constantly in creasing, and must continue to, while the planter continues to provide aliment for each succeeding bordft^ of destroyers, by continuing on the soil the plants on which they prey. Li 82 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Experience has shown that if vegetables of different classes are made to follow each other, the soil will much longer retain its productiveness. — Even when " exhausted" of some one or more of those ingredients neces- sary for the healthy production of a particular plant, it is found to produce otliers luxuriantly which do not require the lacking ingi-edients, or but very minute portions of them. And, by a most beautiful arrangement of phys- ical causes and effects, when a plant is removed fiom the soil, and notwith- standing its place is occupied by others, a process of restoration at once commences to replace all that the absent phmt has appropnated, and to prepare the kindly bosom of the earth again for its reception. Nature herself, in ministering to this beneficent end, becomes a great laboratory ; and in her most ordinary, as well as her most unusual operations, she is constantly ])roducing those chemical changes, and furnishing those chem- ical ingredients, which restore what has been abstracted by man's cupid- ity, or lost by his improvidence. The gentle rain brings down ammonia and carbon to plants. The frost rives the solid rocks, to disengage their fertilizing constituents. The sun, in his flaming path, looks down not only to warm and give us light, but to perform functions in the vegetable econ- omy without which all hei-bage, except a few miserable fungi, would per- ish ; and to all he imparts their varied and beautiful coloring. The thun- der which shakes the walls of cities, and strikes inan with awe, brings to our aid one of the most efficient promoters of vegetation. Even the burst- ing volcano converts its fiery crater into a crucible and retort, and gives off that gas which forms so large a portion of all the vegetable and animal productions of the globe : and the wild winds, which strand navies in their course, equally diffuse it over the earth. It follows from the above positions that naturally good lands* which are more or less exhausted, will be gradually resuscitated by "rest," or an en- tire exemption from tillage ; and hence the absurd idea that lands require physical " rest," in the same sense in which the tired animal muscle re- quires it, after continuous exertion. But, apart from the theory, the prac- tice of "resting'^ lands is inexpedient, for the following reasons: If a plant is not continued on a soil until it consumes any of those inorganic constituents necessary to its production — if, on the other hand, it is suc- ceeded by a plant which makes its heaviest drafts on those inorganic sub- stances whicli its predecessor required the least of, and vice versa — the natm-al recuperative process above adverted to, aided hy means wJiicJi lose to us none of tJic value of the crops, will repair the waste made by each plant, before it again occupies the soil, in a judicious rotation. Hence, by a rotation of crops, fertility can be indefinitely sustained, and the earth each year return its inci-ease. Thus the ends of "rest" are attained, with- out its great and unpi'ofitable sacrifices. To sustain the fertility of the soil, some portion of the crops of every rotation must be converted into manure. These are the "aiding means" above alluded to. They may be converted into green or animal manure. If the former, the Avhole crop is plowed under. If the latter, the crop is first partly converted into animal manure, by animals depastured on it, and then this animal manure, with the remaining vegetation, is plowed under. The last is always the most economical method, on good lands,f becau-se the crop is woith almost as much for manure, after 2)assing through the * I 8By "nnturflUy gnoA Innds," for those entirply deficient in several of the necessary constituents of a icnile soil might it-quiro ages of rest to obtain these constituents — if, indeed, they ever would, by merely natural causes. t I have limited the assertion to " srood lands," because a crop of green manure, turned under at the E roper stau;e of its inowili, will undoubtedly make rather more manuie than in any other way ; and it may e expedient many times to give poor lands all. This i» especially true in the reclamation of barren lands. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 83 bodies of afiimals, as it would be turned under green ; and then we have all the profit made on or by the animals — meat, wool, &c. — without any additional cost. Sheep, being the best manurers, and otherwise the most profitable animals, will (with enough other animals to supply all the home demand for the necessaries furnished by them) best sustain a profitable ro- tation. Here, perhaps, the discussion of this topic in connection with the sub- ject matter of these letters should terminate ; but I am unwilling to aban- don it, without making a few practical suggestions as to the rotation which would be found most profitable at the South — more particularly on the valuable cotton lands, which are suffering most for the want of it. It is manifestly impossible to lay down any rule or rules on this subject, which can or should be rigidly acted upon, in all instances. Leading principles can only be declared, and, if correct, the intelligent man can always vary their application so as to meet the exigencies of his particular case. First, I should consider it indispensable on all cotton (or tobacco) lands,* under all cii'cumstances, to keep at least one-third of them in pasturage, to insure the proper amount of inanure, over and above cotton seed, and such occasional supplies of swamp mud and marl as might be obtained at spare intervals — and all other incidental manures. Another third, 1 be- lieve, should be generally devoted to grain for bread stuffs, for fattening the necessary amount of bacon, and for the winter forage of horses, mules, swine, &c. Unless the horses and mules, and, perhaps I should add, the cows, were wintered entirely, or in great part, on grain and the offal of the grain crops, one-third of the cultivated laud in grass, would not support animals enough to produce the manure requisite for two-thirds in cotton and grain. But in making the above division, I spoke only of the arable lands fit for the growth of cotton. Most plantations have poor, or swampy, or rough lands, which would most profitably be kept permanently in grass, and these would supply the deficit. The remaining third of the arable lands might be devoted to cotton, or, in tlie tobacco region, to tobacco. By the course above proposed, the cotton (or tobacco) and wool would be made the salable products. The grain, grass, dairy products, bacon, &c., would be consumed on the plantation. This is as it should be. Eu- ropean famine has given a stir to the latter products this year, (and it may for a year more,) in the Southern markets ; but with the ordinary Euro- pean demand, the old Southern Atlantic States cannot, as we have seen, compete at a profit with these commodities, which debouch through the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the northern canals. With the trvo wools, as they are sometimes called, the " vegetable and animal," these States can undoubtedly sustain themselves against the pressure of any out- ward competition. Such a division of crops as the one above proposed, could be effected by a six-course system of rotation. Let us suppose the land of the planta- tion fit to grow corn and cotton, divided into six equal fields. I then pro* pose the following rotation : 1st year, Cotton. 2d .. Cotton with yard ma- nure, &c. 3d .. Corn with peas. 4th . . Small grains with grasa seed. .5th . . Grass d^astured. 6th .. da. do. 1st year, Grass depastured. 1st year. Grass depastured. 2d . do. do. 2d . . Cotton. 3d . Cotton. 3d . . Cotton with yard ma- 4th .. Cotton w^ith yard ma- nure, &c. nure, &c. 4th . . Corn with peas. 5th . Corn with peas. 5th . . Small grains with grass 6th . Small grains with ^ass seed. seed. fith . . Grass depastured. * I have nnt included the rice lands, because beinsf deep beds of alluvial deposits, composed in a great measure of organic matter, and being susceptible of irrigation, they will not wear out like oi'dinarv soils, and stand leas in need of rotation in their crops. 84 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. let year Cotton with yard ma- 1st year, Corn with peas. 1st year Smallgrainswith grass nure, &c. 2d .. Smallgraius with grass seed. 2d .. Corn with pea.s. seeds. 2d .. Grass depastured. 3d .. Small grains with grass 3d .. Grass depastured. 3d .. do. do. seed. 4th .. do. do. 4th .. Cotton. 4th .. Grass depastured. .•ilh .. Cotton. 5th .. Cotton with yard ma- 5th .. do. do. 6lh .. Cotton with yard ma- nure, &c. 6th .. Cotton. nure, &c. 6th .. Com with peas. Supposing each of these fields to contahi 50 acres, this would give 100 acres of gi-ass, 100 of cotton, and 100 of grain (50 of corn and 50 of small grains) annually. By this course all the hauled* manui'e, each year, would be given to one-sixth of the land, and consequently the same field would not receive it but once in six years — yet every' crop would be adequately manured. The first cotton crop would receive an ample amount fi-om the grass roots and the droppings of animals for two years ; the second, from the hauled manure ; the corn, fi-om the manure left by the previous crop, and, if needed, by a small amount of cotton seed, ashes, (or some other mineral fertilizer,) in the hill ; the small grain crop would be amply manured by the peas sown with the preceding com ; and the land would go back into grass in excellent " heart," and, if the previous tillage was what it should be, entii'ely free from weeds. The corn might intervene between the two cotton crops, and thus remove the objection which exists against taking two crops of the same kind in succession. But I placed cotton 4th, be- cause there should come a manured crop at this period of the rotation, and I thought it better to give the manure to the more valuable crop, and be- cause cotton, as the 5th crop, would not admit of the cultivation of the pea, to provide manui-e for the small grain succeeding. The rotation might be thus varied, however, if circumstances should seem to render it desirable. I have put down no meadow in the rotation on the arable lands. But I believe the growth of hay to a cei'tain extent, not only to supply any or- dinary deficiency in winter feed beyond the quantity furnished by the usual sources — but to guard against contingencies, would be good econo- my in all cases. All farm animals must be well wintered, to give a prof- itable return in summer; and those occasional scarcities of fodder always liable to overtake the farmer, should be providently guarded against. It is never considered poor economy, in the North, to have a few tons of hay even to summer over. The necessary meadows fin- the plantation might be made on some of the less arable lands before referred to — and, when the tillage lands are in an uncommonly fertile state and pasturage plenty, it would do to mow one of the grass crops (the second one) of the above rotation, though, if avoidable, I should think the other course entirely pref- erable. On poorer lands — the poorest class which can be profitably devoted to cotton growing — I would propose a five-shift course, as follows : 1st year, Grass depastured. 3d year, Cotton. 2d .. do. do. 4th .. Com with peas. 5th year, Small grains with grass seed. The manure to be given to the third or fourth crop, according to circum- stances, or divided between them. On lands of a still inferior grade, but which it may be expedient to plow at intervals, I would propose the following : Ist year, Grass depastured. 2d .. do. do. 3d .. do. do. * I mean by this, the maniu-e from enery source which is carted upon the land in quantity, as contradis- tingrvished from that which is dropped there by animals, made by plowing under vegetables, or carried on In small quantities to drop in the lull, &c. 4th year, Grass depastured (or mown.) 5th .. Corn with peas. 6th .. Small grains with grass seed. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 85 The number of years depastured to depend upon fertility — the poorer the land, the longer it should be kept in pasture. The following is the rotation which was introduced by Col. Taylor, north of the cotton-growing region : 1st year, Com. 3d year, Clover (and weeds) not mown nor 2d .. Wheat and clover sown — if too grazed. poorforwheat,left at rest and not grazed. 4th .. Clover not mown nor grazed. Of this, Mr. John J. Thomas, one of the Editors of the Albany Culti- vator, very justly remarks : " It was materially opposed to the principles of good husbandry in several respects. It furnished vegetable manure only to the land. A large portion of the value of this vegetable growth was lost, by dissipation into the air, during its decay. The returns from the land were necessarily small, as only two years out of four produced crops for harvesting. And it greatly increased the labors of tillage, by the uicrease of noxious weeds." Had this clover been fed off by sheep, a portion of the above objections would be inapplicable, apd there would be no danger of the com leaving the soil too impoverished for wheat, particularly if peas were sown with the former, to be plowed under. A crop of iveeds is, of all others, the most to be avoided, as the seeds deposited by it will continue to sprout for years with the subsequent tillage crops, rendering them foul and difficult of cultivation. I may be in a profound en-or, but I cannot but believe, after carefully studying Southern Agiiculture, and the circumstances which invest it, that by adopting the six-shift system of rotation above recommended, or something analogous to it, on the cotton lands, the desideratum expressed in Judge Seabrook's Report will be attained. More cotton will ulti- mately, if not even now, be produced from less land : the other necessa- ries of life will become mainly the product of the plantation ; a new staple will be introduced to employ the surplus capital, as profitable at least in its acreable products as cotton, and tending to the constant reparation, as cotton tends to the constant waste of the fertility of the land. I will not tire you. Sir, with a comparison between the relative profits of wool and cotton gi-owing. On looking over the answers of Southern gentlemen to Mr. Walker's Treasury Circular, (1845,) I find that the stated profits on cotton in the Atlantic and Gulf States, west of Louisiana, range from 1 to 8 per cent, on capital invested — the average of all the statements being about 4^ per cent. ! I may remark incidentally that in your own able replies to that Circular, you set down the profits of rice growing between 1842 and 1845, at 7^ per cent. ; for the ten preceding years, at " about 8 per cent." A reference to Letter V. will show you how these profits compare with those of wool-growing. Admitting the accuracy of the data therein given, there is no very great difference in the cost of growing a pound of wool and a pound of cotton ! We come now to the fourth point of view in which we are to regard the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States — " whether independent of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep hus- • bandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested, than some of the present staples, it would not be better economy, on the whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture do- mestic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to be dependent for them on England and Massachusetts 1 " The woolen apparel and bedding of slaves, when no part of it is manu factured on the plantation, costs about $6 per head per annum. The blankets imported from England weigh about 4^ lbs. and cost a little over 86 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. $3. The Welsh plains, imported from England, weigh usually not far fi-om 13 ounces per yard, and cost fi'om 65 to 70 cents; and the Chelmsfords, a heavy, coarse article, from Massachusetts, from 50 to 58 cents. Now what is the cost of manufacturing (including wool and every other expense,) cloth of the same amount of stock, and better quality, than Welsh jilains 1 To the present weight of the cloth per yard add one-third, and you have the weight of the wool in the fleece — as bought of the farmer.* If, then, the Welsh plains weigh 13 ounces per yard, they required 171 ounces of fleece-wool as stock. Wool of the quality worked into " plain cloth" or " sheep's gray," in this State, (New-York,) many shades better in qual- ity than the stock of Welsh plains, has averaged from June to December, 1846, from, say, 20 to 22 cents a poundf — or, if pulled from the pelts of slaughtered sheep, as is the case with large quantities of it Avorked into these cloths, it did not, during the same period, stand the purchaser-in to exceed 18 cents per pound. Assume the average to be 21 cents per pound, and the stock of a yard of these cloths (171 ounces) would cost 22f cents. You are familiar with the character of the " sheep's grays " of New- York. They are worn almost universally by our farmers. Of the twenty- five thousand men you saw at the State Fair at Rochester, at least three- fourths of them ordinarily wear this quality of cloth for pantaloons, and say one-half of them for coats. Its ordinary weight is from that of the Welsh plain to 16 ounces per yard, and its style and expense of manufac ture are superior to those of the former. It can be manufactured, in eluding use of machinery, &c., and every process after the wool is received in the fleece, to fitting it for market, for eleven cents per yard ! A mer- chant of this State owns a manufactory, employing say $25,000 or $30,000 of capital, which turns off from 500 to 600 yards of cloth per diem — the fleece-wool being converted into finished cloth in eight days. His whole expenses, including use of manufactory, averages, according to his own statements, not to exceed the above named price per yard. Add this sum to the cost of wool, and cloths containing an equal quantity and quality of stock with Welsh plains would cost 33f cents per yard ; and you there- fore pay for this class of cloths about one h/mdred per cent. hey and the first cost, for transportation, duties, and manufacturer's profits. The latter, of course, absorbs most of the immense sum thus paid* or rather thrown away, annually by the Southern States, The Chelmsfords, and various other woolen goods imported by you, are probably manufactured at nearly equal profits. Is it singular, then, that " acres of woolen manufactories " are now in the process of erection in the North % or that existing establishments are declaring dividends of from ten to fifteen per cent. 1 \ But I have not done with the data of manufacturing. The manufac- turer above alluded to has, to my certain knowledge, exchanged "sheep's grays " requiring a pound of stock per yard, for wool of the same quality as the stock, giving a yard of cloth for 1|^ lbs. of wool. Calling this wool ■* After being; washed in the ordinary manner on the back of the sheep. t Wool has risen since Decertiher. i I did contemplate an enumcralinn of the new woolen manufactories now building, or in contempla- tion, within my knowledirc, in this S^ate and Now-Kn^iland ; but will mention but a few of the most im- portant ones. The Bay State Mill'^, now in prnce=s of erection in the new city of Lawrence, Mass., will work up 2,00fl,O(HI lbs. of wool per annum. One. of the mills, 200 feet long and six stories high, will go into operation this summer. The machine-shop, wool-liniise, etc.. the mere ofiicei,) will be, including wings, thirtern himdrc'l fret in length, and three stories hiu'li. Their very sooer will cost $2.5,000! A splendid Bteam mill has just none into oi)eration in Ulica, in this -^tate, which will work up 1,000,000 lbs. of wool per annum. Another of the same size is in contemplation, in Utica ; another in Syracuse ; another in Auburn, &c. ! There never was a time when Ameiican m^inufactures stood on a firmer basis, or were making bet- ter profits tcitli a prospect of having them continuous. This is conceded by the ablest of the manufacturen tkeJHSelvts. as 1 shall, in the proper place, show. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 87 21 cents per pound, the cloth would thus cost the purchaser 36|- cents per yard. Any of the manufactories doing custom-work will manufacture these goods " at the halves," so that a yard requiring a pound of stock would cost two pounds of wool, or 42 cents. That as heavy as Welsh plains would thus cost 45^ cents, it being from 19^ to 24^ cents per yard less ilian you now pay. Yet here the manufacturer oi ciistom-work admits the suffi- ciency of the profit, by asking no more. Blankets are of still coarser wool, having the appearance of Smyrna, or inferior South American. They are not " sheared,"* which diminishes the waste. Neither do they need dyeing matter. But independent of these considerations, calling cost of stock per pound, and the waste fi-om all causes the same, 6 lbs. of fleece-wool would make a blanket. To the wool costing 21 cents a pound add 11 cents per pound (of the stock) for manufacturing, and the actual cost of the blanket is Si 92. Have them manufactured by the halves, and they would cost you 12 lbs. of wool each, or S2 52. I have in the previous estimates, based my calculations on the marlict price of the lower quality of medium wools.t But there is another and a most important view of the subject. It has already been shown that the South can produce wool, to any desirable extent, at a sum not exceeding 8 cents per pound — and, in favored localities, at a much lower rate. By the exchanging system (wool for cloth) you would get a yard of cloth equaling the Welsh plain in stock, and superior in quality, for 2 lbs. 2|- oz. of wool, costing the producer just 17^ cents ! A blanket weighing 4^ lbs. would be obtained for 12 lbs. of wool, costing 96 cents ! Does this sound a little like dreaming. Sir ] I ask you to carefully examine the premises, and see if there is any escaping from these con- clusions % Will the South continue to slumber on, thus throwing away the fi-uits of her industry % Do you tell me that her people know nothing about manufacturing, and have no taste for it % The necessary knowledge is as readily acquired by a Southern as a Northern man ; and when that is ob» tained, and there is a prospect of p>i'ofit ahead, the taste will not long be wanting ! You have the capital : you have natural facilities to an un- bounded extent both to propel the machinery and produce the staple. What more do you want % What more can you ask % A joint stock asso- ciation of planters, at any suitable point, might cause a manufiictory to be erected worth say S25,000, under the direction of a skillful and experi- enced machinist. This would turn off", say, 500 yards of cloth per diem. If the machinery was in all respects good, and the water-powei sufficient and unfailing, a competent and responsible Northern manufacturer could be obtained (if desired), to take the establishment, furnishing hands, &c., and work the wool furnished him into cloth of the kind before described — containing about the same stock with Welsh plains, and fitting it for mar ' * After a sufficient number of fibres have been torn up from the threads by the teazles or cards of the " gig-mill " to form a sutiiciently thick nap on the surface, these fibres are cropped or "sheared " by a ma- chine for that purpose ; and in superfine cloths the process is several times repeated, each time cutlin;; off an additional portion of fibre, which is called "flocks." A dishonest custom now prevails among some manufacturers of workinc these flocks again into the body of the cloth to give them weight, dcnscness, and apparent firmness. By this means the gigging and shearing process can be continued on thinnish cloths un- til a beautiful surface is obtained, wiihoul" the additional thinness and lightness consequent thereon being apparent to any but an experienced eye. Sheep's grays and other coarse cloths are gigged and sheared but slightly. In some manufactories the former process is altogether omitted, and the cloth is simply " brushed " prior to shearing. Such cloths are stronger, but do not look as well. t Say of the quality of common South-Down and Native and Long wools, with a sufficient dash of Me- rino blood in the last to make them carding-vvools, and to bring them to about the same fineness with the first named. 88 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ket, for eight or nine cents a yard.* I know of a manufacturer, at no great distance from me, who thus takes a manufactory worth perhaps $8,000 or $10,000, and furnishes the cloth (of the above stamp,) fitted for market, for nine cents a yard, the owner funiishing the wool, the use of the manufac- tory, and the dyeing matter.t The supply of water at this establishment fails during two or three months each year ; and one competent to judge informs me that seven cents would be better pay per yard, if the machine- ry could be kept in motion the year round. It is probable that it would cost rather more at the South to provide the necessary fixtures, obtain machinery, etc. ; and it would also cost more, for a period, to carry on manufacturing, from the greater difficulty of obtaining operatives in case of losino- any of those attached to the establishment. All these disadvan- tages, however, not t)f much importance at the first, will soon disappear. Slaves should, as rapidly as the nature of the case admits of, be converted into operatives, and when the number becomes once adequate to the end, it might be indefinitely multiplied, without those embarrassments which so commonly attend the attempt to mingle white and black labor. It is cheaper to manufacture by hand,t (with the exception of carding, fulling, and dressing,) than to purchase your slave cloths at present piices, if slave costs no more than free labor. On the average, 15 knots of warp, and 15 of filling, make one yard of flannel about 5 quarters wide. The ordinary shrinkage of tliis, in fulling it into cloth, is one quarter in length and width. It would therefore re- quire 40 knots to make a yard of fulled cloth. The carding here in small parcels costs 3 cents jjer pound, and 18 j cents per pound for fulling, dye- ing and dressing. In considerable quantities, the carding can be hired done for 2 cents per pound, and the other processes for one shilling per yard. Spinning (by considerable quantities and for " cash-pay,"||) can be hired done for 7 cents a run (20 knots) for warp, and 5 cents for filling — averag- ing 6 cents for both. Weaving can be hired done for 6 cents per yard (of flannel), which brings it, in the dressed cloth, to 8 cents per yard. The ac- count would then stand thus : 1 lb. of wool Carding same Spinning Weaving Dj-eing, fulling and dressing , Total Small parcels. Large parcels. 21 cents. 3 •• 14 " 10 " 21 cents. 12 " 8 " 121 .. 66| cents. .5.55 cents. Making 55\ cents the price of a yard of domestic cloth, estimating the wool at market price : estimating the latter at cost of production (Scents), the price of the finished cloth would be 42^ cents per yard, and it is a better article for wear than either the Welsh plains or Chelmsfords.§ * I have no doubt it could be done at a fair profit in the North for 7 cents per yard. I am understood, of course, to mean that the manufacturer pays no rent, insurance, nor for repairs. The stockholders furnish the wool, which is worked up by the former, at the stipulated price. t Modem ingenuity has reduced the expense of this to a mere trifle. Most of the " sheep's grays," you have observed, are of ferruginous hue. Those of this color are dyed principally by tan tori— the'bark of the hemlock (Abies canadtn^is), which is sold here at $1 75 to 82 a cord ! % I am aware that to "manufacture" is to make by haiid, but I use the word in its popular and more gen- eral signification. It would have been better to have compounded a word from the Latin machina and facto (machinfaeture to signify made by machinery, and thus expressed the two ideas by properly de- rived and definitive words. II This word " cash-pay " is one of mighty import in the regulation of prices in the interior, where a very general (but now decreasing) system of barter prevails, and under which Wealth too often dictates to Want what it shall receive for its labor, and also prescribes the prices of the commodities in which it pays. '^ Home-made fabrics are usually stronger and wear better than those made by machinery, (or, in other words, manufactured cloths outwear marJiinfactured ones !) but this is not necessarily so. The several processes can be done undoul)tedly, and pi-obably, generally are more perfectly by machinery than by hand. But in machine-made cloths the yarn is commonly spun finer, so there is less stock in a yard. And they arc submitted to processes, desciibed in a previous Note, which farther impair their strength. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 89 $1,500 will set up a carding and cloth-dressing factory, which, with three good hands, will tuni off 50 yards of cloth per diem. By Table I, it appears that in 1839 there were but 114 of these factories south of the Potomac and west of the Mississippi, doing an annual business of $320,- 938, while in the single State of New- York there were 323 factories, doing an annual business of $3,537,337 ! Of the 114 Southern factories 66 were in the States of Kentucky and Tennessee ; 41 in Virginia ; 3 in each of the Carolinas ; 1 in Georgia, and in the remaining four, none ! The number is decreasing in New-York, as manufactories of the com- mon fabi'ics, worn by farmers and other laboring men, are increasing in every dii'ection — many of them doing cvistom-work either at the halves, or at a fixed sum per yard — and all of them exchanging cloth for wool. By either of these methods, the cloth can be obtained as cheaply, perhaps cheaper, than to manufacture it in families. But circumstanced as you are at the South, you can, as before asserted, manufacture more cheaply by hand (excej^ting carding, fulling and dressing), than to import your slave cloths at present prices, if provided with factories to perform the ex- cepted processes. Where the institution of slavery exists, and where spinning, weaving, etc., can be done in those intei"vals of bad weather when the time of laborers would otherwise be entirely thrown away, it is doubtful whether any extension of even the coarse cloth manufactories would, or ought to, in an economical point of view, banish the home-made article. If we count the slave labor thus saved one-half the value of fi-ee labor, and dispense with the fulling and dressing* (which we usually dis- pensed with in manufacturing Somestic slave cloths, in the interior of the Carolinas, Georgia, etc.), the cloth would cost but 20 cents a yard, and the dyeing might cany it to 22 cents. Let one-half the fabric be made of cot- ton, and the cost would be still farther reduced.t Since the above was written, I have received the samples of Welsh plains, Chelmsford plains, and slave blankets forwarded by you. None of these goods cj:cced in quantity the estimate I have put upon them in my preceding remarks. The Welsh jilain which you state cost 65 cents per yard by the piece, (32 inches wide,) is about the thickness of rather heavy — but not the heaviest — sheep's gray. It is not, however, by many shades, so close and firm a cloth, for the want of equal fulling ; and perhaps even this would not give it equal firmness, by reason of the loose twist of the yarn. The yarn is considerably coarser, (larger in diameter,) than that ordinarily era- ployed in sheep's gray — but it denves no inconsiderable portion of its bulk (which gives the cloth its thickness) from the loose and imperfect man- ner in which it was twisted in vspinning. This is particularly the case with the filling, which you can scarcely detach from even so open a web, without its breaking in pieces. Accordingly, the cloth tears very easily Icngtlucise, for that presenting such an ajyparent amount of stock. With a sufficient amount of fulling, dyeing, (it is white,) and a little gigging and shearing — or simply brushing — it would become identical in * But still you want carding-machines, to card the ■wool ; for, by hand, it is a slow and expensive process. 1 1 was shown a new article of satinets a day or two since. It was double or broadcloth width, black, and the cotton warp dyed black, and could only be distinguished from a verj' fair piece of black broad- cloth Ijy examining the cut edge. The manufacturer stated that the cotton warp weighed but 3 oz. per yard ; but I do not credit the assertion. One is strongly inclined to suspect that a cloth of this character could not have been "got up" for any very legitimate purpose, but that it belongs in the wooden-nutmeg end horn-Hint category ! The ordinary satinet, when well made, is a profitable, cheap cloth. M 90 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. appearance with heavy sheep's gray, excepting in the quality of the wool. That is inferior to any I ever saw in a single piece of the former. It appears to be of two qualities, the finest about like the Asia Minor or African ("Smyrna" or " Mogadore ") wools; and this intermixed with occasional still coarser sharp) j^ointed hairs, which could come only from an animal not many removes from the wild Argali.* In both, there is a peculiarly dry, harsh, wiry feeling, not found in North American wools, and which is more indicative of an inferior staple — of brittleness, and want of felting properties — than even their coarseness. The staple is not appa- rently a very long one. I conjecture that it is Iceland wool — or that, mixed with Orkney, or some of the coarsest short or medium staple wools of Scotland. The Chelmsfords, (31 inches wide,) twilled, undyed,t cost, you inform me, 58 cents per yard. The plain article, (/. e. untwilled,) 28 inches wide, costs 50 cents per yard. The sample of the twilled, forwarded by you, is a thicker, decidedly stronger cloth, with larger and far more tightly twisted yarn, than the sample of Welsh plains. The wool is of about the same quality, though at first view it strikes you as decidedly coarser, as the longer nap shows more of the coarse fibres on the surface, and these are rendered more conspicuous still by their variety of color. But on re- solving portions of each cloth back into unmanufactured wool, I can detect little or no difterence in its fineness, unless it be that the stock of the Chelmsford plains possesses none of those peculiarly coarse fibres or hairs which characterize the other. The wool used in the Chelmsfords is ap- parently of a longer staple. It is probably South American, though it may be Smyrna or Mogadore, as it bears a strong resemblance to the wool of the broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa. You state that the Welsh is generally thought to outwear the Chelmsford plain. This may be true of the ordinary articles, but I think it cannot be of the samples forwai'ded. Of these, the latter possesses neai'ly double the strength of the former, and is much the heaviest cloth. The slave blanket, 6 feet 11 inches long, by 6 feet 5 inches wide, weigh- ing 4-^ lbs., you state cost about $3 12^ by the piece (a piece containing 16 l)lankets costs $50). It is manufactured of a very coarse and a long stapled wool — not much fulled — with a long nap raised on both surfaces. The wool in quality resembles that used in the Chelmsfords. On the receipt of these samples, I forwarded a specimen of the Welsh plains to two manufacturers of experience and perfect pecuniai'y respon- sibility, asking them at what price per yard they would contract to furnish me 100,000 yards of cloth of the same style and equal quality with the sample. The question was put to both of these gentlemen and received by them, as purely a commercial one — the opening of a commercial nego- tiation. Each stood ready to enter immediately on the fulfillment of a contract, based on his offer. The following is the answer of one of the above named gentlemen : Henry S. Randall, Esq. Morrisville, N. Y., April 20, 1847. Dear Sir : Yours of the 113th is at band and duly noticed. I have no wool of the quality of the sample sent and do not wish to work foreiirn wool. I would like to make for you 100,000 yards like the sample, out of our American or domestic wool. I would make it as thick and tight as the sample sent, 32 inches wide, at 40 cents per yard. I cnuld not .say how much less it would cost to gel up the arti(;le from the same kind of wool with that H.sed in the sample. I do not know what that kind of wool is now worth in market. I have not worked any of it for two rears pasl. Yours, truly, C. TILLINGHAST. * Many of the uniraprnved breeds have, as is comraon with wild animals, a coating of hair over a finer pe- lage lieneath, and it is diliic-ult to perfectly sejmrate them. t A small ponion of the wool employed in the tilling is black, giving the cloth a diriy drab or ash color. But this I take to be the natuiul color of the wool. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 91 The first answer of the other manufacturer, S. Newton Dexter, Esq. of Whitestown, Oneida Co., N. Y., (head of the Oriskany Manufacturing Company,) it is not necessary to transcribe entire. Mr. Dexter informed me that his machinery is calculated for the manufacture of fine cloth ; that the carding of coarse wool would injure his cards ; that its manufacture would throw him out of his regular course of business ; that he had no wool of the quality used in the sample on hand ; that he should be com- pelled to use domestic wool ; and that for these reasons and some others named by him, he could not undertake to fill the contract at less than 42 cents per yard — which he knew would be considered a high price. Mr. Dexter being a gentleman equally distinguished for his correct and able business character, and for that capacity and range of information which give value to his opinions on all the topics connected with this in- vestigation, I addressed him a second communication, asking him what he could manufacture the cloth for, giving him time to procure stock of the same quality used in the sample. I also inclosed hiin proof-sheets of the preceding part of this letter, asking him his opinion of the correctness of my statements, in relation to the general cost of manufacturing, &c. The following extracts from his reply will be read with interest : Col. Henry S. Randall : Whitestown, April 24, 1847, Dear Sir: Yours reached me on "Wednesday. There is no doubt at all but what if I felt cer- tain that wool could be procured of the quality of which j'our sample was made, at a price pro- portionably low, I could have aiforded to have manufactured the cloth at 37 cents per yard, as well as at 42, and use our coarse native wool, at a probable cost of 25 cents There has been an advance of more than 70 per cent, in the price of lard oil. The price a short time since was 55 cents. The last 1 bought cost 95 cents in New-York. Five quarts of this oil are wanted to every 80 yards of these cloth.? I cannot imagine where the wool was from out of which tlie sample was made, probably from Iceland — for I recollect some twenty years ago the Oriskany Manufacturing Company obtained just such wool somewhere, when American wool was deemed too high, and manufactured it into miserable satinets, by which they lost a great deal of money. The wool was said to have been imported from Iceland. I was one of the Directors of the mill then, but had nothing to do with " operating "it You request my opinion as to the correctness of your statements of the probable cost of Welsli plains, &c., and generally of the statements put forth by you on the subject of woollen manufac- tories. I am not very good authority as to the cost of manufacturing coarse woolens, never hav- ing done much in that way. I am free to say, however, that your estimates may generally be relied on. Certainly you have allowed liberally ibr what would have been the cost of such wool by the pound last year; but I think your estimate of 17^ oz. of wool in the fleece, out of which to manufacture one yard of cloth 32 inches wide, similar to the sample inclosed in your letter, too low. I should think it would certainly take 20 oz., or 1^ pounds. The allowance of 11 cents for manufacturing will, I am inclined to think, pay charges, but it will not afford any profit, nor in- terest on capital, nor leave anything for keeping machinery in repair. It is a very close calcula- tion, when fuller's soap, lardoil, &c., are so high. The sheep's gray cloths that you speak of, you will observe, are generally not quite ^ wide say 26 inches — while the sample you sent me was 32 inches. One pound of well wa.'ihed Heeco wool will make a yard of sheep's gray of medium quality ; but unless the goods ave Jlockcd, the calculation is a very clo.se one indeed. I am inclined to think that you overestimate the profit of manufacturing woolen goods, although I admit that in well-managed institutions, that have the most improved machinery, with an abun- dant capital, the profits have, at times, been very large indeed, and our friend Samuel Law- rence, of whom you speak, is the most protniuent example of .such a manufacturer within ray knowledge Every new manufactory erected, if built with judgment, has one advai :ago over those already in operation, and that is, they have availed themselves of all the improve .lents of those in operation. And as machinery is constantly being produced at cheaper rates, a i iCtory of increa.sed capacity will probably have cost less money The Oriskany Manufacturing Company is the oldest company now manufacturing woolen goods in the United States. They have made satinets which have sold readily at $3 50 per yard, and have made cloths which have as readily sold for $12 per yard. Satinets full as good can now be bought at 75 cents, and handsomer, if not better cloths, for $3. What a change is here ! And yet the Oriskany Manufacturing Company was perhaps never doing better than now. This Company availed itself of the opportunities offered la.st year to obtain woo! very low, to [lurchase a supply for nearly two years. This year the business will be good, that is, pay a profit of 10 per cent, on investments, even where wool is purchased at current rates ; but I do not believe it will nay more. I will furnish you with a brief estimate : 92 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. A mill with a capital of $100,000 will maniiracture. say 90,000 yards of 6-4 cloth, which will bring in market an average of $1 50 per yard, or $233,000 To get these cloths into cash (for they are sold at 8 mouths, and are charged with commission of 5 per cent., and other charges equal, in all, including in- terest, boxing and transportation, to I',' per cent $16,200 Cost of 22.'),000 lbs. of wool at 30 cents 67..500 :i,:300 gallons sperm and lard oil at $1 a.'JOO .. Soap, soft and hard 3,500 .. 800,000 teazles 1,000 .. Dyeing materials of all kinds 11,500 .. Fuel 1,000 .. Paper, tape, twine, nails, lumber, cards, candles, &c 3,000 ■ .. Labor, $r.,0O0per quarter, or 20,000 .. Insurance - 2,000 Total $122,000 If I were under oath, I do not believe I should alter any of these items — or, at least, I should add as often as I diminished, I have no doubt. You may think $1 50 a low^ average for cloths, but it must be a very fair cloth to bring that sum, I assure you. You may also thinl< 12 per cent. a high charge for getting these cloths into casli. &c., but it is scarcely what we pay. And the records of our vi'ool book will show that 30 cents is the cost of such wool as we work. And our books will prove that it has taken, for many years pa.st, 2^ lbs. of wool to make a yard of broad- cloth. There is 13 per cent, left for profits here, becau.se I have not allowed one cent for repairs or taxes, or for the agents' salaries, which will swell the expenses fully up to $124,500 — within a fraction of swallowing up all over 10 per cent Well, I admit that 10 per cent, is a great business ; but you speak of 15, and that is going too far Very respectfully your friend and obedient servant, S. NEWTON DEXTER. In will be seen from the foregoing letters : 1st. That where their machinery is adapted to it, manufacturers are will- ing to make and sell goods of the same amount of stock and style of manufacture, with Welsh plains, out of domestic wool for 40 cents per yard ; and that manufacturers of perfect pecuniary responsibility are ready to contract so to furnish it. This (apart from the small item of transporta- tion) is twenty-five cents per yard, or about tliirty-nine per sent, cheaper than you now obtain these cloths : and an article manufactured from do- mestic wool would, by reason of the far superior strength sxiA felting prop- erty of the stock, be much stronger and more durable than the foreign goods. 2d. It will be farther seen that a skillful and responsible manufacturer would furnish cloth, conesponding with Welsh plains, at 37 cents per yard, could he procure the same quality of wool now employed in the manufac- ture of those cloths at a price proportionably low with domestic wools, calling the latter 25 cents per pound. Blankets are manufactured at equally exorbitant profits ; and the Chelmsfords, paying less transportation and no duties, approach the same standard of profit — though, judging from your samples, I consider them the cheapest goods. I have given Mr. Dexter's undoubtedly fair and candid statements in the premises — my object in these letters being, as I once before have stated, to arrive at truth, and not to support a favorite hypothesis, or to maintain, at all hazards, preconceived views. My own estimates and those of Mr. Dexter, of the actual cost of manu- facturing Welsh plains, it will be seen, differ — but not so materially as would as first appear, when the advance of wool, soap, oil, &c., are taken into consideration. I have no doubt that, in making his estimates, he had his eye more on the better and more elaborate machinery of his own mills — the more expensive and perfect performance of the various manufactur- ing processes common in that class of establishments, than on the cheaper machinery and processes necessary in the manufacture of coarse goods. My estimates, or rather statements of cost of manufacturing sheep's gray, you will recollect, were given on supposed actual Icnoicledge of what a manufacturer of these goods had made tlmm at. To these Mr. D. seems to take no exceptions. In relation to the shrinkage of wool, Mr. Dexter undoubtedly bases his SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 93 opinion mainly on liis own experience in manufacturing broad and other cloths of fine quality. In these, the shrinkage of the wool from the fleece is concededly at least half. And the firm, well finished and honestly made Oriskany cloths, I have no doubt require the highest rate of shrinkage in the stock. But Mr. D. concedes that a " pound of fleece wool will make a yard of sheep's gray of medium quality." Now the Welsh plain, of the quality of the sample, weighs 13 oz. per yard. As I have already stated, " the ordinary weight of the sheep's gray is fi-om the weight of the Welsh plain to 16 oz. per yard." Thus a yard of " medium " sheep's gray out- weighs a yard of the Welsh plain. If this is so, the former, of course, re- quires the greatest amount of stock, the mere width making no difference whatever. Mr. Dexter was led into this error, evidently, by overesti- mating the iveight of the Welsh plains — and this arose from the smallness of the sample submitted for his inspection. His statement of the cost of manufacturing broadcloths by the Oriskany Company is entitled, I have no doubt, to the fullest reliance. In conse- quence of his remarks on this topic I have changed a statement in the preceding part of this letter alluded to by him, for fear it might convey au erroneous idea. Where I spoke of " existing establishments declaring dividends of fifteen per cent.," I have changed it, so that it now reads " fiom ten to fifteen per cent.," these being the dividends, respectively, of the Oriskany and Middlesex* Companies last year, and exhibiting about the range, probably, af well-managed companies. * Mr. Lawrence's great establishment at Lowell, which works up 1,700,000 lbs. of wool per annum. 94 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. t LETTER Vm. PROSPECTS OP THE WOOL MARKET— FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY. Amount ofWool which may be grown in the Southern States... If the demand is already supplied, where is it to find a Market? The cheaper Producer can drive his rival i^-om the market, unless the disparity of Capital is greatly against him... In Individual Capital, the South possesses the advantage over the North. . .The South can produce Wool cheaper than New-York. . .North of latitude 40" there will be little ditTerence in the cost of producing Wool. . .Cost of iiroducing it in New-Knglaud — Pennsylvania — New-Jer- sey — Ohio. . .The Prairies — Their vast Extent — Their anticipated Advantages for Sheep Husbandry — Flocks driven on them — Anticipations blasted, so far as keeping Sheep ecrmomically on the Natural Grasses is con- cerned. . .Character of the Prairie Grasses — Flourish but during a short season, rendering the time of fodder- ing longer than even in New-England. . -Another Difficulty — The Wild Grasses which the Sheep feed on rapidly become extirpated — Statements of theEditor of the Prairie Farmer confirmatory of this, and of the assertion in relation to the length of the time of foddering. ..His proposition to introduce Grasses which will grow in the Wi7iter — Impracticability — Reasons. . -Burning over the Prairies— Objections. . .Indifl'erent quality of Prairie Hay. . .Principal Advantages of the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry narrowed down to two— Cheapness of Land — Privilege of Pasturing the Public Lands... The latter Advantage rapidly lessening. . .Cost of Preparing the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry — Mtiterials for Fences, Buildings and Fuel entirely wanting on the interior of them. . .Coal for Fuel plenty, but not economically available. . .Fences — those of earth inadequate. . .Hedges — Require /cnces to protect Mem while growing — Their success then doubtful... Timber may he grown for all of the above purposes, but would raise the cost of the land above those of the Sheep Lands of New-York and New-England. . .The Shepherd System as a Substitute for Fences — When the Sheep become numerous, it would cost more to keep them in separate flocks than fences cost in the East. . .Pasturing in Common considered — The Sheep could not be separated for any ordinary purpose of Sheep Husbandry — There would be no protection against theft, promiscuous inter- bieeding, untiinely impregnation — No way of effectually combating contagious disorders — Reasons. . .Nat- ural ami unremovable Objections to the Prairies — Want of Water— A Climate far more fickle and excessive than in the Eastern States. . .Shown by the record of the thermometrical observations kept at the Military Posts of the United States... These compared... Wool growing in Mexico — In South America. Dear Sir : In recommending the pi'oduction of Wool on a scale so ex- tensive in the Southei'n States, as I have done in my preceding Letters, the fact should not be lost sight of, that were these recommendations com- plied with, one of the great staples of commerce would,_be enormously increased. The Southern States — the ten* to which I have confined all ray preceding remarks and estimates — to say nothing of those in the same latitudes fve.it of the Mississippi — include an area of 450,000 square miles, or 288,000,000 square acres. Allow one-eighth of this region to be in a state of cultivation,+ or in natural pastures, and we have 36,000,000 acres which could be more or less devoted to the CTOwth of wool. Assuminof that, on the average, every two acres would, under proper tillage, support one sheep, (which, it seems to me, they might do with no very material diminution of present staples,) and that the sheep average 3 lbs. per fleece, the annual product of wool would be 54,000,000 lbs. This amount might be indefinitely added to, by diminishing the production of present staples. How far this could be economically done, experience must determine. If we concede the adequacy of the present supply of wool to the demand, *-aking the world together, it is appai-ent that an increase of 50, 75, or 100 millions of pounds, in one quarter, will produce an over-supply, (and thus greatly depress prices,) unless met by an increased demand, or a coiTe- sponding diminution in production, in some other quarter. I do not concede the adequacy of the present supply, but shall, however, waive that point. The question now arises, where is the wool thus produced to find a market, if the South should, within the next ten, fifteen, or twenty years, * Nine, besides that portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi. t Probably the amount in cultivation, including that in natural pasture, is set down pretty high. It may not exceed a tenth. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 95 furnish such a surplus 1 Where is the present supply to be diminished, or the demand increased 1 Where agricultural competition exists, as a matter of course the pro- ducer who can supply the market with the least expense to himself, has an advantage which nothing but a disparity greatly against him in capital can overcome. Large capital, satisfied with less gains than small capital, will sometimes sustain competition with the latter, with the advantages of the cheapness of production sovicivliat against it. But where the differ- ence in first cost is considerable, the cheaper producer can always drive his rival from the market. The aggregate agricultural capital in a region of given size in New-York, probably would ordinarily exceed that of an equal territory in South Carolina or Georgia. But it is not so with indi- vidual or personal capital. While the agi'icultui'al territory and capabilities of the latter States are in a comparatively few hands, those of New-York and New-England are parceled out among a multitude of small holdei's, who must realize the first class of agricultural profits, to support them- selves and their families. The advantage of capital is therefore, in reality, on the side of the South. But independent of this consideration, I have already attempted to show that the South can produce wool so much cheaper than New-York, that the latter will stand no chance whatever in competing with her more favored rival — so soon as that rival sees fit to avail herself of her advan- tages. North of latitude 40° there will be but little disj^arity in the cost of 'producing wool ; and therefore if the South can drive New- York to relin- quish the production of this staple, she can do the same with all portions of the United States lying north of this parallel, unless on the shores of the Pacific, where the isothermal line is at least 5'° north of its course east of the Missouri. I will now enter upon some specifications, and, where ne- cessary, proofs, to sustain this proposition. New-England has, concededly, no advantages over New- York for the cheap production of wool. Northern Pennsylvania is higher, colder, and more sterile than most of southern New-York. South-eastern Pennsyl- vania, and the fertile portions of New-Jersey, are the natural producers of bread-stuffs for the less favored regions of those States, and of provisions of all kinds for the New-York City and Philadelphia markets. The high price which good lands bear in the vicinity of such markets, would prevent them from competing with cheap interior lands in wool-growing. There are sheep lands of good quality in western Pennsylvania ; and in the southern section, the winters are perceptibly a little shorter than in New- York. This will render the production of wool upon them somewhat less expensive than in the latter State, but it will not reduce it low enough to allow them to compete with the cheaper lands and still shorter win- ters of the South. The same remarks will apply to the hilly region con stituting the south-eastern portion of Ohio. Proceeding still farther west, we find a region extending to a vast distance whose topographical and geological features, flora, &c., taken in connec- tion, effectually distinguish it from the territory lying east of the Missis- sippi and Ohio. Vast plains, called joramV*, (so named by the early French settlers from t«he French word signifying meadow,) which can be purchased of the Government in the natural state for SI 25 per acre, and which are usually covered with natural grasses — would seem, if these grasses are adapted to the summer and winter subsistence of sheep, and there are no counterbalancing disadvantages, to unite facilities for the cheap production of wool not possessed in any other region of our country. And such supe- riority has actually and often been claimed for them. 96 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Ipi'opose to investigate this question at considerable length, because there aie various considerations which, at first view, give great plausibility to this claim. And if the prairies can produce wool cheaper than the South, it is in vain for the latter to embark in the business — at least, beyond the ex- tent of supplying the home demand — for so limitless is the extent of these natural pastures throughout the whole northern basin of the Mississippi, that they could, perhaps, supply the entire market demand of the United States for this staple, for an indefinite period, vast as that demand is des- tined to be. But a very few years have elapsed since the most sanguine anticipations were indulged in, by large numbers of our Northern and Eastern flock- masters, in relation to the superior capabilities and advantages of the prai- ries over Eastern lands for sheep-walks ; and lai-ge flocks were driven hun- dreds of miles, lands purchased, and establishments created, to realize these supposed advantages. It is not too much to say that these anticipa- tions — so far at least, as keeping sheep on the natural herbage of the prai- ries is concerned, were briefly and summarily blasted. Many of the flocks driven there, actually perished in the midst of seeming plenty. On the whole, the experiment is generally conceded to have resulted in failure. Let us see whether this was occasioned by mismanagement — temporary and removable causes — or whether we must look for those causes in na- tural and unchangeable circumstances. Kjfortion of the wild prairie grasses are relished by sheep, and they thrive on them ; but these gi'asses, as well as all the other varieties growing there, flourish during but an unusually limited portion of the season. They be- gin to dry up and lose their nutritive qualities in midsummer, and long be- fore the foddering season has commenced on the bleakest highlands of New-England, they are as unfit for the subsistence of sheep, as dry brush ! Where the natural grasses are alone depended upon, the foddering season on the prairies, north of latitude 40°, will range from six to seven months — rarely, perhaps, fall short of six, on lands which have been previously depastured, provided the sheep are maintained in good condition. And there is another material difficulty with the prairie grasses which sheep feed on. They soon — many of them even in a single season — be- come extirpated if kept fed down while growing. This is so singular a fact in vegetable physiology, that I chose to state it in the words of an in- telligent resident of the prairie region — whose local pride and partiali- ties would naturally prompt him to give as favorable a coloring to the agricultural advantages of his chosen home, as a regard for truth would admit of. From a communication of J. Ambrose Wight, Esq., Editor of the Prairie Farmer, to L. A. Morrel* — replete with useful information, and characterized by an admirable candor — I make the following extracts : •' Sheep or other stock, but more particularly the former, put upon a given piece of wild prairie, and confined to it, unless the range be very large, would not continue to keep fat one season after another, though they would at first ; but if allowed a new range each season, they would always keep fat. The reason is this : Sheep in such cases will go over their range and select such food as they prefer, and will keep at it until it is gone. Hence the wild bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will obtain their constant at- tentions, and will be kept so short that they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first year. Therefore if tinned out on the same grounds another season, the best food will be gone, and the poorer, with which they must then take up, and which itself gets continually pooi-er, win not sustain them in their first condition. A small flock of sheep will thus rua over a large extent of ground. Hence the utter hollowness of a supposition which appears to be common at the East, that large flocks of sheep can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone. There are many places, it is true, where a farmer might keep a large flock on the wild prairies ■* American Shepherd, pp. 138—145. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 97 during the summer months with profit, provided he had not too many neig:hbors in the same business. But such flocks would conrinually lessen their own range, at the same lime that it is lessening by immigration, settlement and extended culture. I have been in the coim- try about nine years; having gone, at the first, into an entirely unsettled region, and have paid much attention to the matter ; and it is my belief that the wild prairies are desirable for wool-growing to a very limited degree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for this purpose to an almost limitless extent." The following fully sustains my preceding statements in relation to the time of foddering. In answer to Mr. Morrel's question, " what leno-th of time is foddering necessary in Northern Illinois ]" Mr. Wight says : " The seasons have been extremely variable since my residence here — now nearly nine years. The winter of 1842 and '43 was the severest one since the settlement of the State; and the foddering season lasted from the middle of October to the middle of Ajiril. The winter of 1843 and '44, and the present one (1844-5) would require foddei-iug for a less time by full two months. This is on the supposition, hoieever, that good artificial pastura^'0 rata with the diminution of cost, and where getting the latter invoiced at as low a rate as 7 cents, is not followed, as before, by escape from a specific duty and a sudden descent oi jive-sixths in the ad valorcni one. I am free to confess, however, that it has always seemed to me that a determination to vigorously and faithfully discharge their duty in the premises, with a competent practical knowledge of the quality of the arti- cle, in the proper Custom-House officials, would always, in an unmanu- factured staple, and one so readily classified and valued as wool, be a suf- ficient safeguard against fraudulent undervaluation, to any extent, in the invoice. They might perhaps be undervalued one or two cents on the pound, without making a case strong and obvious enough to justify ap- praisers in legalizing a seizure ; but it is not for gains like these that pex'- juries would be ventured upon, or double agents and other expensive ar- rangements for the perpetration of more roundabout frauds, be found profitable. Not having room, within the limits of this letter, to discuss the capa- bilities of the Old World to compete with us in wool growing, I will reserve that subject for my next. * If any one dreams they are, let him read a speech on the Tariff made by Mr. Buchanan in the U. S. Senate in 1842 — another by Mr. Webster on ad valorem duties, made in the same body July 5.5, 1846, &c. 108 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER IX. PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MARKET— FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY. - The Imports and Exports of Trans-Atlantic Nations... Means of ascertaining their Comparative Produc- tion. ..Table of the Imports of England. ..Amount of Wool grown in the United Kingdom, Consumption, Export, Facilities, including Soils and Climate, for its Cheap Production, and Prospect of its Increase or Dim- inution — Same of France— Same of Spain— Same of Italy — Same of Turkey in Europe— Same of Germany, including Prussia and Austria, with the exception of Hungary— Same of Hungary— Same of Russia— Same of Asia Minor — Same of Persia — Same of Independent Tartary — Same of Afghanistan and Beloochistan — Same of Thibet, Little Bucharia, and the remainder of China — Same of the Cape of Good Hope— Same of Austi-alia and Van Diemen's Land.. -Conclusions in regard to Comparative FaciUties, etc., of above Na- tions and the United States... The Northern States can compete with the most favored of them — and of course the South can, to much gi-eater advantage ... The South might safely embark in Wool-Growing, re- lying on the European Market alone ... Rapid Extension of that Market Past and Future... But the Ameri- can Wool-Grower is not compelled to seek a Foreign Market. . .Our Production does not meet the Demand of our own Manufactories... Table of the Imports of Wool into the United States.. .Table showing whence we Import Wool... Letter ftom Samuel Lawrence, Esq., showing the increasing call for Man ufactories The Stability of existing ones — and their ability to compete with those of Foreign Countries.. Extent of our Consumption of Woolens above the Supply made by our Manufactories.. .Table of Imports of Woolens. ..Probable Increase of our Manufactories.. .Reflections on the Taritf. ..Rapidly Increasing Consumption of our Population — Amount Consumed per head. . .Table of Increase of our Population... Future Increase... The Amount of Wool Necessaiy at various Future Periods. Dear Sir : Probably there are few men who now dream of any danger to the wool-grower of the United States, in the ho?ne market, from trans- At- lantic competition. But there is another point of view, in v/hich a glance at the facilities of the eastern nations, for the production of this staple, may not be uninteresting. May we not undersell them with the raw material, in their own markets ! He who carefully and intelligently examines all the facts involved in the solution of this question, will find, in spite of the vague popular impressions which prevail on the subject, that so far at least as those nations are concerned, which noio produce the greatest amount of the wool which supplies the markets of the Old World, the United States can, if satisfied with equal profits, easily undersell them. As an importer of the raw and exporter of the manufactured article, England occupies the first place. In these particulars, she probably ex- ceeds, by fully one-half, all the other nations of the Old World. France ranks next, and largely takes precedence of the remaining nations. Hol- land, though shorn, by disastrous political revolutions, of much of her an- cient importance in this class of manufactures, still maintains a trade of some magnitude. Several of the German and Prussian States export par- ticular descriptions of woolens ; Italy sends out some light cloths ; and Turkey the carpets of that name. A full exhibit of the exports of all the wool-producing nations, would not, of course, lead us to an accurate knowl- edo-e of the amount of their production — for there is no one which does not manufacture the raw material to some extent. But with what knowl- edore we can obtain of their manufactures, the former information would enable us to ascertain, approximately at least, the amount of their produc- tion. This is all that is necessary for our present purpose, for we do not now, in reality, so much seek their actual as \\\^\x comparative production. England, as I have before remarked, is the great importer and exporter. Her duties on imported wool are, as has been seen,* exceedingly low, and she makes no discrimination in this particular, in relation to bottoms, or the places of export.t The vastness and variety of her demand give a » See Letter VIII. t With the exception, of course, of her own Colonies, from which it is exported free. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 109 greater certainty to the exporter of prompt and favorable sales, in her markets, than in those of any other nation. France possesses the advan- tage of maritime contiguity, for securing the raw product of the nations bordering on the Mediterranean ; and therefore, in some instances, as in the case of Turkey, she receives more of that product, in proportion to her manufacturing consumption, than England. But in one respect the latter has the advantage in securing the trade of the Levant. Between the na- tural products, and, of consequence, the exports of France and those of the other nations bordering on the Mediterranean, there exists a great simi- larity. She cannot send her wines to Hungary, nor these nor her silks to Italy, in exchange for wool. Her fruits, and indeed all of her natural pro- ducts are the same with those of the whole south of Europe. England, the producer, and the great mart of the products of Northern Eui'ope, can offer these in the Mediterranean on better terms than France ; and in the manufacture of cotton goods, the main article of dress, and consequently one of the great ones of import throughout the whole Levant, the former possesses a decided superiority. All these natural and artificial circumstances have their weight, sometimes in favor of one, and sometimes the other of these nations, in determining the course of trade — and habit, ancient com- mercial associaticms, and even national predilections also throw their weight into the scale. In looking at the subject as a whole, however, all these facts, unless in a very few instances, so far oftset each other, that in obtain- ing a view of the wool trade of England — her imports — we obtain a suffi- ciently accurate picture or index of the proportionable exports of all the nations of the Old World. Before proceeding to ascertain the actual facilities of the several coun- tries named in the Table, for the purposes of wool-growing, it may be well to briefly glance at that of England herself. Mr. Luccock* estimated the produce of wool in England and Wales, in 1800, to be 393,236 packs.t or 94,376,640 lbs.; and in 1828, Mr. Hubbard | placed it at 463,169 packs, or 111,160,560 lbs. According to a Table formed by order of a Committee of the House of Lords, the same year, the quantity produced on an average of years, in England, is 111,160,560 lbs. According to Mr. Luccock's estimate, (in 1800.) the number of sheep in England and Wales was 26,148,463. It is not thought to have varied much since. The Encyclopeedia Americana, || (published 1835,) on the authority of the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, sets down the then pi'esent number of sheep in the United Kingdom as follows : in Scotland 3,500,000 ; in Ireland probably under 2,000,000 ; in England and Wales the same number as in the time of Mr. Luccock; — so that the aggregate number would be about 32,000,000. It will thus be seen that England and Wales, with an area much less than that of Virginia, § have almost 7,000,000 more sheep than the whole number in the United States in 1839 ! Large as is the amount of wool produced in the United Kingdom, it does not meet, in the number of pounds, the amount required for woolens consumed in the United Kingdom alone.^ It is true that England has exported some combing wool, of her own growth, to meet the wants of a certain class of manufactories (of worsted) in France, which could not ob- tain stock of equal quality in any other quarter ; and she has also exported considerable quantities of her own coarse short wools. Of the latter, I am ashamed to say, the United States have been considerable purchasers. The whole export of England, in 1824, amounted to but little over 18,000 * See Luccock on Wool, p. 341 and Table. t A pack of wool is 240 lbs. t Quoted by Mr. Bischoff— See vol. ii., Appendix. || Encyclopaedia Americana— ort. Sheep Raising. % The area of Virginia is 70.000 square miles, that of England and Wales 60,000. IT See Bischoff, vol. ii., p. 171. no SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. lbs. From that time it has gradually increased, and in 1838 it reached 5,851,340 lbs. ; in 1839, 4,603,799 lbs. ; in 1840, 4,810,387 lbs.* Under the last year of the late Tariff, we received from England, of wools not costing to exceed 7 cents per pound, 1,188,800 lbs., and of those exceeding 7 cents, 28,406 lbs.; and from Scotland, of the cheaper class, 21,132 Ibs.t This, however, only shows a surplus in kind, not in quantity. The Eng- lish short wools have, as has been abundantly shown by the testimony of her most eminent manufacturers, | a harshness and want of felting j^rof- erties which render them unfit, unmixed with a better stamp of foi-eign wools, for any but the very lowest description of cloths and stuffs, such as blankets, baizes, army cloths, flushings or bearskins, &c. Nor will they make ^>rme articles, even of these low descriptions. England, therefore, after consuming such portions of these wools as she can, in the manufac- ture of the above-named and similar articles, and by mixing them, in the nature of an alloy, with better foreign wools in a low class of fabrics, such as flannels, livery and sergeant's cloth, etc., exports the balance to such nations as ^xe foolish enough to purchase it.|| The following Table, compiled from official sources, from Bischoff's " Comprehensive History of the Woolen and Worsted Manufactures, &€.,"§ gives the imports of England every fifth year from 1810 to 1840, TABLE No. 8. Countries fm.wkich Imp'ted. Russia Norway Denmark Sweden Prussia Germany Holland Belgium France Portugal Spain Gibraltar Italy Malta Ionian Isles Morea, &.c Turkey Syria Cape of Good Hope Africa, other parts St.Helena East Indies New Soulh Wales Van Piemen's Land Port Philip Swan River South Australia British America British West Indies United States of America. Guatemala Colombia. Brazil Rio de la Plata Chili Peru Mexico Guernsey and Man Total Pounds weight. 1810. 1815 1820. 1825. 1835. 32,149 11.930 351,741 1.5,424 12:i,057 778,835 2,873 3,018.961 5,952,407 349,053 21,554 40,040 29,717 1,917 2,894 43,014 73,159 41,407 297.t)ll 40,984 424,82L 32,889 105,073 3,137,438 432,832 756,427 1,146,607 6,929,579 12,891 97,679 55,804 12,513 23,363 53 8,533 4,311 41,527 6,264 75,614 13,527 107,101 5,113,442 186,051 230,9119 95,187 3,536,229 .3,t51 2,815 5,050 189,.584 13,869 8,056 99,415 139 760 578 4,277 68,759 14,792 19,015 1,992,101 302 554,213 3,497 131,100 28,799,661 1,059,243 436.678 953,793 8,206,427 19,250 227,4.53 72,131 25,983 513,414 27,619 323,995 202,871 179,717 380 713.246 26,073,882 939,123 45,093 461,942 1,643,515 9,461 33,407 4,024,740 366,444 1,431 256,147 23,79^,186 C 301,8.55 I 231.222 104..535 683,231 1,602,752 476.737 1,051,005 39,913 816,625 1,281,839 191,624 5.102 C 973,331 I 993,97! 70 80,468 37 331,265 2 14,313 22,266 1,725 7,313 1.148 19,441 5,741 7,745 295.848 4,210,301 14 2.029 237.306 18,760 962,900 1,213,740 246 4,518,563 605,521 5,961 24,646 21,812,099 46,247 134,095 48,830 374,91.=i 1,266,905 242,734 1,668,541 2,209 121,110 42,893 •655.964 34,049 751,741 337,908 4.683 2.441,370 ( 6,215,329 ) 2,626,178 78.';,398 42,748 51, .590 15,793 3,286 115.095 3,009 842 9.182 616,721 586,796 11,830 10.914,13' 13.640.:i75 9.789,020i 43,795,2811 32,313.0.59 42,174,5321 46,224,781 * BipchofF, Table 6th, Appendix. \ Report of the Secretary of fjie Treasury, 1846. t See Bischotf, vol. li.. pp. 107, 153, 1.54, 163, 173, 175, 176, $558,458 801,087 $759,646 1.004,312 $190,352 54.695 $754,441 97,019 $1,553,789 136,005 $1,107,305 26.921 Exc'dingTcts.alb Total Sl,359,545 $1,763,958 $24.5,047 $851,460 $1,689,794 $1,134,226 It may be a matter of interest to know from what countries these wools were imported. The following Table | will give this information for the last fiscal year, (1846,) and will also give a general idea of our wool trade. TABLE No. 10. Whence Imported. Russia Hanse Towns Holland Dutch West Indies Belgium • England ■ Scotland Gibraltar Cape of Good Hope Briti-sh West Indies , British American Colonies. F ranee Spain Italy Trieste (Austria) Turkey Morocco (Africa) Mexico Brazil Argentine Republic ChiU Peru Asia, generally Total . Wools not exceeding 7 cents per pound. Quantity. Pounds. 955,163 6,966 10,774 7,177 1,188,800 21,132 207,006 83,662 8.694 168,589 84,799 20,730 81,156 111.981 5,744,328 72,816 425,148 45, 215 4,295,6.'')9 1,819,772 122,686 94.5,729 16,427,952 Dollars 60.678 330 556 248 35,944 1,382 12,339 6,810 537 9,543 5,424 1,425 4,720 8,151 398,822 4,554 26,984 3,083 327,572 130,837 8.588 58,778 1,107,305 Wools exceeding 7 cents per pound. Quantity. Pounds. 13,820 170 1,407 28,406 522 39,346 396 43,831 130,295 Pounds. 8,433 93 775 6,668 70 4,562 40 6,011 That the course of trade indicated by the above Table, will, as has been already intimated, be materially affected by the New Tariff, I think there can be but little doubt. That of several of the places enumerated, too, has been, heretofore, merely a transit one. To the following letter from the most extensive, and concededly leading American woolen manufacturer, I would call your particular attention. Several of its declarations, placed in italics, by me, are highly significant. Lowell, Mass., Feb. 10, 1847. Henry S. Randall, Esq., Cortland Village, N. Y. Mji Dpar Sir: Your very kind and interesting favor of the 27th ult. duly came to hand and should, if practicable, have received an earUer reply. The business of wool-gro\ving ia this countiy is destined to be of immense importance, and I am firm in the belief that within twenty-five years we shall produce a greater quantity than any other nation. * Compiled by me from Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury. t The fiscal year 1842 ended on the 30th of September. Since then, the returns of imports and export* have been made up to the 30th of June. This year, therefore, embraces the imports of nine months only, ending on June 30, 1843; and Hubsequent years end 30th of June, 1844, 1845, and so on, J Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 125 You ask, " Is the present home demand supplied ?" There is not enough annually raised ill the country by 10,000,000 lbs. to meet the demand of the manufactones. You ask, " What countries we can export wool to. &c. ?" This country will not export wool regularly for fifteen years, for the reason that the consumption will increase as rapidly as the productio7i. I can point out articles made of wool now imported, which will require thirty millions of pounds of that of a medium and fine quality, to supply the consump- tion The business of manufacturing wool in this country is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, skill and capital engaged in it are such that foreign competi- tion IS DEFIED. A very few years and all articles of wool used here will be of home manu- facture. Now I beg of you to keep the wool-growers steady to the mark. Let them aim to excel in the blood and condition of their flocks, and the day is not distant when they will be amply remunerated. I shall always have gi'eat pleasure in hearing from you, and remain Yours most truly, SAM. LAWRENCE. Mr. Lawrence has certainly got the annual deficit of home wools low enough. Table 10 shows that it was upward of 16,000,000 lbs. during the last fiscal year, 1846. This, of itself, is something of a viargin for the South, or some other new domestic producer, to fill ! Hitherto we have simply considered the amount of wool necessary to supply our mam/factories. But these establishments fall very far short of working up all the wool consumed in the United States, even exclusive of home-made fabrics. The following Table* will show the value of the woolens imported for twenty-five years, up to and including 1845 : TABLE No. 11. 1821.. $7,437,737 1826. $8,431,974 1831. $12,627,229 1836. $21,080,003 1841. $11,001,939 1822.. .12,185.904 1827. . 8,742,701 1832. .. 9,992,424 1837. .. 8,500.292 1842. .. 8,375,725 1823.. . 8,268,038 1828. . 8,679,505 1833. ..13.262,509 1838. -.11,512,920 1843. .. 2,472,154 1824.. . 8,386,597 1829. . 6,881,489 1834. ..11,879,328 1839. ..18,575,945 1844. .. 9,47,5,762 1825.. .11,392,264 1830. . 5,776,396 1835. -.17.834.424 1840. .. 9,071,184 1845. ..10,666,176 Here is another and still broader "margin" for both the American Wool-Groiver and the American Manvfacturer to fill ! With a country well adapted to the production of wool as any the sun shines on — which, all things considered, can produce it more clieafihj than any extended portion of any trans-Atlantic country — shall we continue to import raw wool ? Whether we should continue to import woolens is sufficiently answered by the last paragraph but one of Mr. Lawrence's letter, fully sustained as the facts therein set forth are by those infallible tests — the dividends of our manufacturing establishments. The minimum of these, in well managed establishments, has already been stated to be about ten per centum per annum,t and in Mr. Lawrence's own great establishment the dividend of* 1846 was fifteen per cent. Does any one suppose that the manufacturers of England, with all the advantage they can derive from cheaper labor J — (but with vastly higher prices for suitable sites and buildings — land taxes, parochial taxes, income taxes — freights and duties on imported wools, etc. etc.) — do or can make dividends touching even the lowest rate above stated? They ca7j??o^. II * Report ofWe Secretary of the Treasury, 1845. f See Letter VII. X 'I'houfih not directly advised on the point, I take it for granted that the cost of machinery, also, is some- ■what less in EngUmd. II It may be said that the two last-named expenses fall on the consumer. They doubtless would, but the EngUsh manufacturer has to compete with those of France and the United States, a much larger propor- tion of whose stock is of home growth— the latter entirely, in fine fabrics. The abrogation of the Corn-Laws ■will be of immense advantage to the English manufacturer, and enable him to better compete with other countries. But while the Bank of England ordinarily discounts paper at from 3 to 4 per cent., and while this is the common rate of interest in that country, it could not be expected that manufacturing capital ■would be allowed to draw 8 or 10, and much less 15 per cent. Such dividends, in a country whoso uninvested capital, or that drawing so low a rate of interest, is so superabundant, would at once invite a competition which would speedily bring the profits of manufacturing capital down to a \evel with those of other commercial capital. We may, therefore conclude that no such dividends are made. 126 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Is it said that our manufacturing companies have often been com- pelled to suspend, or break up, even under laws as favorable to them as those now in operation ] The reason for this is too pointedly and perti- nently stated by Mr. Lawrence to require any addition at my hands, in the following extract from a letter to me, bearing date April 13, 1847; and it will be seen in the concluding sentence that the bold and manly decla- rations of his preceding letter were not the result of a casual or momentary coniidence, bat are deliberately reasserted : " The maiiufaclure of wool has often been disastrous to parties who have embarked in it fur many rensons, two of which are sufficient — a want of capital and a want of skill. These difficulries are being obviated. Capitalists are more ready to embark under certain auspices, and the amount of skill is very fast increasing, so that tliis branch is on a footing not to be moved." Undisturbed by those changes of vacillating legislation, or those move- ments in the National Legislature pointing to such changes — at one time enormously pampering the manufacturing interest, and leading to over- action and rash adventure — at another, threatening it with disaster and utter subversion — our manufacturers will steadily, nay, rapidly advance. If NOW LET ALONE, they wiU soon not only " defy foreign competition'" in the home market, but there is not a single good reason to prevent them from dcfijing it in the great and opening market of South America, and even in the Old World. Some evils or errors in commercial legislation are less to be deprecated than constant changes. The present Tariff, so far as it affects wool and woolens, is the result of a compromise of inter- ests. It may not be perfect in principle or detail. But it does not seem to flagrantly favor or oppress any interest. I speak not in the spirit of a politician, or of the representative of an interest or section, when I express the hope that no change toill he inade or attempted in this portion of the Tariff, until the lapse of years shall bring about other changes requiring it, or until ample experience shall clearly call for a revision of the system. I have spoken of two "margins" to be filled by the American wool- grower — the present deficit in supplying our own manufactories, and sec- ondly, the prospective one, as our manufactures increase, so as to overtake and then keep pace with the consumption of an increasing population. The demands of our manufactories will advance pari passu with the pro Auction, Mr. Lawrence predicts, for at least fifteen years. Why not foi fifty, or a hundred! Let us glance at the prospective consumftion, and see if, independent of exportations, it is likely to require any curbs or limits to be placed on production or manufacture. In the debates in Congress on the Tariff in 1828-9, Mr. Mallary esti mated the consumption of woolens in our country at $72,000,000 per ann. ;— $10,000,000 imported ; $22,000,000 manufactured ; $40,000,000 home-made. The Committee of the " Friends of Domestic Industry," who met in New-York in 1831, reported that the proportion between the amount of wool worked up in factories to that in families was as 3 to 2 ; that the entire annual product of wool and its manufactures in the U. S. was $40,000,000. These are the only accessible published estinj^tes which now occur to me. The Census of 1840 shows that the value of woolens made in our manu- factories in 1839, was $20,696,999. The import of foreign woolens the same year was $18,575,945, and of raw wool* $1,359,445. It should be remarked, however, that the import of w^oolens is considerably higher than that of any year before or since. Taking the average of the same three * Taking the average product of 1837-8-9, as in Table 9. The separate import of 1839 is not before me. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 127 years for which the import of the raw wool is given,* (1837-8-9,) it would reach but $12,863,051. If we suppose the consumption to equal the sup- ply, this would give $33,560,050 as the value oi \\\e factory-made woolens consumed in the United States in 1839. I confess I have no data other than conjectural ones, to determine the amount of the home-made manufactures for that or any other year ; nor do I know that any other person has, or can, have such information. The United States Census, singularly enouo-h does not include this as a separate item. It strikes me, however, that Mr. Mallary's estimate is too high, and that of the Report of the " Friends of Domestic Industry " too low. The proportion of home-made to factory woolens is, no doubt, annually decreasing, for reasons already stated ;t but as far back as 1839, it would perhaps be a fair estimate to set them down as even. This would give $07,120,100 as the value of the woolens con- sumed by a population of 17,009,453, or nearly $4 per head. Allowing that every dollar in the manufactured article would represent one pound of stock, or raw wool — and taking slave-cloths, blankets, carpets, coarse home-made fabrics, factory plains, etc., all into account, a dollar is an am- ple sum to offset against every pound of the raw material — it follows that our whole population annually consume four pounds of wool per head. Judge Beatty of Kentucky, in an estimate jiublished originally in the American Agriculturist, which has been much quoted, sets down the con- sumption as about 6 lbs. per head. An ordinary Northern farmer or la- borer, in comfortable circumstances, will consume about 20 lbs. per an- num ;f the poorer one not far from 15 lbs. ; a boy of 8 years old, full 4 lbs. ; a girl of that age (in the country, where females are dressed in woolens,) something more than half of that amount. In the cities and villages there is a large class whose consumption for dress ranges from 30 to 40 and even 50 lbs., and, including carpets, much more. A Southern slave consumes from 8 to 10 lbs. Four pounds, therefore, would not seem to be a high es- timate, per head, for our whole population. Let us now take a glance at the increase of population in the United States. The six different Censuses give the following results : TABLE 12. 1790, Population y,929,827 1800, 5,305,941 1810 7.239,814 1820, Population 9,638,191 1830, 12,866,020 1840 ]7. 069,453 It will thus be seen that our population increases at a compound ratio of about three per cent, per annum, which would double it — assuming three per cent, to be the precise rate of increase — in 23 years 164 days. Cheap and abundant provisions — a supply of fertile lands for all who choose to occupy them, &c. — the causes which have con.spired to give so rapid an increase, hitherto, still operate to as great an extent as ever, and will continue to, at all events, for half a century, after the Census of 1840. Suppose the rate of increase, then, decreases to two per cent., which would double the population, reckoning as before, once in about 38 years, and * In Table 9. t Letter VIT. X He will wear out, durinff a year, 1 coat, 4 yards ; 1 pair pants. 3 yards; 1 vest, 1 yard ; 1 pair flannel drawer?, 2 yards ; 1 tiannel shirt, 2.J yards ; 4 pair hose, mittens, d-c , li lbs., which, calling a yard a pound of wool, all round, would amount to 14 lbs. His extra or holiday suit. 8 yards, will la.'^t 3 years, and bis overcoat, 6 yards, 4 years— making the annual consumption of both, 3 1-6 yards. 'JVo tiannel shirts, 10 yards, will last two persons say 3 years, making the annual consumption of one, 1 1-9 yards. No account is hero made of covcilids, wool hats, carpets, still used by many, and the latter, more or less of it, to he found in the houses of nearly all farmers in •' comfortable circumstances." It will be seen that 20 lbs. of wool per head is a moderate estimate. The above enumeration would not equal to exceed two-thirds, and in some cases half the clothing annually consumed by the smartly dressing young men who have labored on my farm I 128 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. -1 that it doubles twice at this rate — and the following would be the result, and the amount of wool required by the population at the periods indicated ; TABLE No. 13. Year. Population. Amount of Wool. 136,555,624 273.111.248 1 Year. Population. Amount of Wool. 1863-4 1886-7 34,138,906 68,277,812 1925 1963 136,555,624 273.111,248 546,222,496 1,092,444,992 Thus in a little over one hundred years, our population is likely to ex- ceed the present one of Europe, (which is 233,500,000,) and we have now a sufficient territory to sustain it ! At 3 lbs. of wool per head the number of sheep requisite to supply the Jiome demand in 1963, would be over 364,000,000 ! — far more than are now to be found on the whole globe ! — Such are some of the reasonahle expectations which may be formed of the future prospects of the Home wool market. •^S;t^ } SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 129 ^ LETTER X. ! BREEDS OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES. Enumeration of Imported Breeds. . -No indigenous ones " Native " Sheep — their Orifjin — Views of Mr Youatt — Mr. Livingston — their true Origin— their Early Im^reasein New-England.. Vanderdonk's description of the Sheep and their increase introduced from Holland into New-Netherland (New-York). ..Character- istics of the Native Sheep. . .Account of the Introduction of Merinos into the United States. . .Their valua- tion at dift'erent periods... The Spanish sub-varieties — Merged in the United States.. .Purity of blood of the descendants of the Early Importations.. .Spurious Merinos Weigltt of Fleece of the Spanish and French (Rambouillet) families. . .Description of the latter... American Fnmilies — their Characte istics.. Doctor Em- mons's Measurements of the Fineness of Wool of individuals of the American, Spanish, and French families —also of other breeds. -The Characteristics of the Merino — its Crosses. . .The Saxon Sheep — its Origin — Varietie-i — Treatment in Germany Introduction into the United States.. .Purity of blood in our present flocks — Weight of Fleece — Characteristics. . .The New Leicester or " Bakewell " — Origin — Character in England^Introduction into the United Stiites — Valuation in the latter — Characteristics. . .South-Down Sheep — Origin — Characteristics — Introduction into the United States- .Mr EUman's description of a perfect animal. .Cot^wold Sheep — Original Stock — Crossed — the improved variety— Characteristics of— Introduction into the United States.. Cheviot Sheep — Importation into the United States — Original Stock— Crossed — improved variety — Characteriotics... Broad-Tailed Sheep — Introduction into our Country — Characteristics. Dear Sir : It is believed by those competent to judge, and who have investigated the subject, that our counti-y now possesses every known breed of sheep which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. In pro- ceeding to give an account of the sheep of the United States, I do not deem it necessary to take up your time with a detailed Jdstory of each race. The zoologist or breeder anxious to obtain this information, will find it given with great elaboration and accuracy, in the admirable work on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt.* The principal breeds in the United States are the " Native," (so called) ; the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose names they bear; the New Leicester or Bakewell, the South-Down, the Cotswold, the Cheviot, and the Lincoln from England. The common sheep of Holland were early imported by the Dutch emigrants who origi- nally colonized New-York, but have long since ceased to exist as a dis- tinct variety. The Broad-Tailed Sheep of Asia and Africa have several times been introduced from Persia, Tunis, Asia Minor, etc. Chancellor Livingston also speaks of two "races as 'indigenous' to this country, which we have not enumerated, as it is not known to the Com- mittee + that they are now bred in any portion of the United States, viz., the Otter and Smith's Island Sheep, breeds said to have been discov- ered on two islands on our Atlantic coast. An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place between the Spanish, English, and ' native ' fami- lies. To so great an extent, indeed, has this been carried, that there are, * Also in Mr. BiscIioiTs. Spooner's, etc., (English) works, and Mr. Morrel's "American Shepherd" — the historical parts of all of which are compiled mainly from Mr. Youatt t At the Annual Meeting of the New-York State .■^gricuhural Society, 1837, a Committee was appointed to report at the next Annual Meeting of the Society, on the " Condition aii^l Comparative Value of the Several Breeds of Sheep in the Unhed States." The Committee consisted ot Henry S. Randall of Cortland, Henry D. Grove of Rensselaer, John B. Duane of Schenectady, Francis Rotch of Otsego, and C. N Bement of Alba- ny. These gentlemen were at the time breeders of all or nearly all the most important varieties, and it was expected that each would write that portion of the Report treating of the one or ones bred by himself The Committee, however, desired — or rather required me to write the whole Report, which I did. with the exception of quotations from authors. The Committee met in Albany, prior to the presentation of the Re- port, and the late Thomas Dunn and several other breeders were present by invitation. The Report was unanimously adopted by the Committee, and assented to by the breeders present. I do not now quote or adopt aH the conclusions of that Report Experience has compelled me to modify some of my opinions, und ar.tual chansfcs in the breeds have taken place But I have mentioned the above facts, to show the au- thority on which the statements which I have quoted, rest ; and also because the Report has been often quoted from, sometimes without any credit, and sometimes erroneously credited. [To save constant reference, it will be understood that all the matter quoted in this Letter from the Re- port will, unlike the cases where Mr. Randall quotes at any length from the writings of others, be printed in the same type with the body of the Letter, and simply marked with quotation points. Publisher.\ R 130 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. comparatively speaking, few flocks in the United States that preserve en- tire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed pm-ity of blood." Native Sheep. — " Although this name is popularly applied to the com- mon coarse-wooled sheep of the country, which existed here previously to the importation of the improved breeds, there is, properly speaking, no race of sheep ' native ' to North America. Mr. Livingston, in speaking of a race as ' indigenous,' only quoted the language of another,* and his informant was either mistaken as to the fact, or misapprehended the term. The only animal of the genus Oi-is Aries, originally inhabiting this coun- try, is the Argali,t known to our enterprising travelers and traders who have penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, where the animal is found, as the Big Horn.| Though the pelage of the Argali approximates but little to the wool of the domestic sheep, they are, as is well known, considered by naturalists to have belonged originally to the same species ; and the changes which have taken place in the form, covering, and habits of the latter, are attributed to his domestication, and the care and skill of Man during a long succession of years. " The common sheep of the United States were of foreign and mostly of English oiigin. The writer of the volume on Sheep in the ' Farmer's Se- ries,' [Mr. Youatt,] speaks of them as ' although somewhat differing in va- rious districts, consisting chiefly of a coarse kind of Leicester, originally of British breed.'|| Others have seen, or fancied they saw, in some of them, a strong resemblance to the South-Downs. Mr. Livingston was of this number.§ But it is far more probable that they can claim a common descent from no one stock. Our ancestors emigi'ated from different sec- tions of the British Dominions, and some portion of them from other parts of Europe. They brought their implements of husbandry, and their do- mestic animals, to fertilize the wilderness. Each, it would be natural to suppose, made choice of the favorite breed of his own immediate district to transport to the New World, and the admixture of these various races formed the mongrel family now under consideration. Amid the perils of war, and the incursion of beasts of prey, they were preserved with sedu- lous care. As early as 1676, Mr. Edward Randolph, in a ' Narrative to the Lords of the Privy Seal,' speaks of New-England as ' abounding with sheep.' "^ Vanderdonk, writing in 1790, thus speaks of the sheep introduced from Holland into New-Netherland (now New-York) by the Dutch emi- grants : — " Sheep are also kept in the New-Netherlands, but not as many as in New-England, where the weaving husiness is carried on, and where nnich more attention is paid to them than by the New-Netherlanders. The sheep, however, tln'ive well, and become fat enough. I have seen mutton there so exceedingly fat that it was too luscious and offensive. The slieep breed well and are heallhy; they find good pasture in summer, and good hay in winter; but the flocks require to be guarded and tended on account of the wolves, for which purpose men cannof be spnred. There is also a more important hindrance to the keeping of sliee[). which arc chiefly cultivated for their wool. New-Netheiland is a woody country thioughout, being almost everywhere beset with trees, stumps and brushwood, wherein the sheep pasture, and by whiaji they lose most of their wool. This is not api)areut until they are sheared, when the Heeces turn out vei-y light." " The common sheep yielded a wool only suited to the coarsest fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from 3 to 3^ lbs of wool to the " Livingston's Kpsay on Sheep, pp t\C\ 60. t Godman's Amencan Natural History. \ The " woi'ly sheep " of the Koeky Mountains, the description of wliich is quoted by Mr Morrel, (Ameri- can Shepherd, p 131,) from Capt. Bonneville, is a ^oa^. It will be found described in Godman's Natural History, vol ii. p. 300, et supra. ;) Vol on Sheep, p 134. § Essay on Sheep, p 53. H Colonial papers of Massachusetts. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 131 fleece. They were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the im- proved English breeds, and yielded when fully grown, from 10 to 14 lbs. of a middling quality of mutton to the quarter. They were usually long- legged, light in the fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back, al- though some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. The common sheep were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely des- titute of care, and without shelter, one hundred per cent, of lambs, and in small flocks a still larger proporti()n. These, too, were usually dropped in March or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, their impa- tience of restraint almost equaled that of the untamed Argali, from which they were descended ; and in many sections of our country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with little regard to inclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large por- tion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder placed jearly beyond the possibility of carding by the Tory weed ( Gijnoglossum (ifficinah'J and Burdock (Arctium laj>pa) so common on new lands. " The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly disap- peared, having been universally crossed, to a greater or less extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and second cross with die Merino, resulted in a decided improvement, and produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool only for domestic pur- poses. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on the thighs, dew- lap, &c. ; but the general quality is much improved ; the quantity is con- siderably augmented ; the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground ; and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities. The cross with the Saxon, for reasons which we shall hereafter allude to, has not been generally so successful. With the Leicester and Downs the improvement, so far as form, size, and a propensity to take on fat are concerned, is manifest." MERINO RAM. [Defiance, i7 months old, bred by and the property of Ilenry S. Randall.] 132 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Spanish Merino. — " The history of this celebrated race of sheep, so far as it is known, has so often been brought before the pubhc that it is deemed unnecessary here to recapitulate it. The first importation of them into the United States took place in 1801. Four were shipped by Mr. Delessert, a banker of Paris, three of which perished on the passage.* The fourth arrived in safety at Rosendale, a farm owned by that gentle- man near Kingston, in this State. The same year Mr. Seth Adams, of Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, two pairs were sent from France by Mr. Livingston, the American Minister, to his estate on the Hudson ; and later the same year, Mr. Humphrys, our Spanish Minister, shipped two hundred, on his departure from that country, for the United States." Hon. Wilham Jarvis, of Weathersfield, Vermont, then American Consul at Lisbon, sent home large and valuable flocks in 1809, 1810, and 1811. The particularly favorable circumstances for obtaining the choicest sheep of Spain, under which these were procured, you will find detailed in a letter tome from Mr. Jarvis, dated December, 1841, pub- lished in the Transactions of the New- York State Agricultural Society of that year. Various subsequent importations took place, which it is not important to particularize. The Merinos "attracted little notice, until our difficulties with England led to a cessation of commercial intercourse with that power, in 1808 and 1809. The attention of the countiy being then directed toward manufacturing and wool-gi'owing, the Merino rose into importance. So great, indeed, was the interest excited, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a head was paid for them." Unfortunately some of the later importations " ar- rived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the ovine race, the scab and foot-rot. These evils and the increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former price ; they could now be bought for $20 a head. When, however, it was established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate, as had been feared by many, in this country, and that they became readily acclimated, they again rose into favor. But the prostration of our manu- factories, which soon after ensued, rendered the Merino comparatively of little value, and brought ruin to numbers who had purchased them at their previous high prices. The lisfe which has since taken place in the value of fine wool, as well as the causes which led to it, are too recent and well undetstood to require particular notice. With the rise of wool, the valua- tion of the sheep which bear it, has of course kept pace. " The Merino has been variously described. This arises from the fact that it is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising several varie- ties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool." And writei'S of high authority differ even in their descriptions of these families or varieties. M. Lasteyrie, so celebrated as a writer on sheep, and particularly on the Merino, and Mr. Jarvis directly contradict each other on several points.t It is scarcely necessary now to quote their conflicting statements, or inquire which is right — as the ques- tions involved possess no practical importance. These families have, gen- erally, been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and other countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of Merino blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, has long since been the only standard which has guided sensible men in selecting sheep of this breed. Families have indeed sprung up, in this country, ex- * Archives of Useful Knowledge. — Cultivator, vol. i. p. 183. t See Lasteyrie on Sheep— or, if not accessible — his statements quoted by Mr. Yountt, p. 356. For Mr. JarvU's statements, see his Letter to L. D. Gregory, quoted in American Shepherd, pp. 73, 74. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 133 hiblting wider points of difference than did those of Spain. In some cases they doubtless owe it to particular courses of breeding — but more often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The point has, indeed, been occasionally mooted, whether there are any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the early importations, o? iinquesti onnhle purity of blood. That there are, has been recently defi- nitely settled by a connected chain of undisputable and undisputed testimo- ny,* not necessary here to be repeated. That, on the other hand, in the recent rush of speculation, a marvelous facility has been evinced, in some instances, in suddenly recollecting lost links in the chain of pedigree — or in forgetting others which it would not be expedient to remember, no one would require any proof who has seen some of the animals which have been hawked through the countiy as full-bloods. " Taken collectively, the Spanish rams, according to Chancellor Living- ston, yield about eight and a half pounds of wool, and the ewes five, which loses half in washing — making four pounds and a quarter the average weight of fleece of the rams, and two and a half the average of the ewes.t Some varieties considerably exceed this estimate, and probably it would fall short if applied to the prime sheep of any variety." The fleeces of the Merinos at Rambouillet in France, it is stated in the Report of M. Gilbert, to the National Institute, quoted by Mr. Living- ston, f weigh, in the rams, from twelve to thirteen pounds (unwashed) wool — taking rams and ewes together, it has " not quite attained to eight pounds, after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly, which are sold sepa- rately." Mr. Livingston remarks that the French pound is about one- twelfth heavier than the English ; but on the other hand, that from the man- ner of folding and housing sheep and feeding them on fallows in France, they are very dirty, and lose 60 per cent, in washing."|| This would bring the average of the Rambouillet flock to about four pounds, exclusive of tag and belly wool. M. Lasteyrie gives the following annual averages per head of the Ram- bouillet flock : 1796, 6 lbs. 9 oz. ; 1797, 8 lbs. ; 1798, 7 lbs. ; 1799, 8 lbs. ; 1800, 8 lbs.; 1801, 9 lbs. 1 oz. — This is unwashed wool, and will lose half in washing. Mr. Livingston's imported ewes averaged 5 lbs. 2 oz. ; his rams 6 lbs. 7 oz., of unwashed wool.§ The later importations will, judg- ing from the specimens I have seen, average much higher than the latter. They are a large sheep, with good, but not the best, quality of Merino wool — some of the larger stocks being rather coarse — and not very uni- form, one with another, either in their appearance or fleeces — and are most remarkable for the loose pendulous skin which hangs about their necks, and lies in folds about their bodies. They are free from hair — their wool, which is of good style, opens with a creamy color, and rich lus- tre, on a fine rose-colored skin. Their wool is long on the back, shortish on the belly — thick, but not so thick as that of many of the American Me- rinos — very yolky, but destitute of concrete external gum. The American Merino has, as already intimated, diverged into families or varieties presenting wide points of difference. The minor distinctions are numerous, but they may all, perhaps, be classed under thi'ee general heads. The first, \s a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine — free from hair in properly bred flocks — somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much 80 as the Rambouillets — bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some * This testimony will be found in a Letter from me to A. B. Allen. Esq., in the December No of the American Agriculturist, 1844, and in the Cultivator, I think, of the same date — if not, the succeeding No. t Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 39. t Ibid., p. 49, et supra. 11 Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 51. § Ibid., Appendix. 134 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. flocks, but not commonly so — their wool longish on both back and belly, and exceedingly dense — wool whiter within than the Rambouillets — skin the same rich rose-color. The ram on page 131 is a good specimen of this variety, though his age is not sufficient to give him the substance and com- P9,ctness of an older animal, and the apparent want in these particulars is hightened by recent shearing* His first fleece of well-washed wool, at thirteen months old, was. S lbs. ; was of beautiful quality, and entirely destitute of hair. At three years old he would have sheared from 10 to 12 lbs. of well-washed wool.t MERINO EWE. The second general class of American Merinos are smaller than the pre- ceding — less hardy — wool as a general thing finer — covered with a black pitchy gum on its extremities — fleece about one -fourth lighter than in class first. The third class, which have been bred mostly South, are still smaller and less hardy — and cany still finer and lighter fleeces. The fleece is desti- tute of external gum. The sheep and wool bear a close resemblance to the Saxon ; and if not actually mixed with that l)lood,| they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. C\vL?,& Jirst are a larger and stronger sheep than those originally imported from Spain, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well selected flocks, or in- dividuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. The ewe from my flock — the portrait of which is given above — sheared 7 lbs. 10 oz. of well- washed wool. II The fibre numbered 1. in fig. 1, in the succeeding measure- ments by Dr. Emmons, is from this fleece. The fleece is exceedingly even and entirely destitute of hair. For the purpose of exhibiting the comparative quality of the wool of * The portrait, on the whole, is strikingly Bccurnte, but the skill of the artist does not compensate for his want of expeiienoe, in animal paiminc, in civing the anatomical details and expression of the countenance. The same remark applies to the portrait of the ewe. t This valuable animal died since the above ponrait was painted, and prior to his second shearing. J I ara not aware what pedigree is claimed for them. They are usually spoken of as Merinos. II i. e. — washed as clean as practicable in a brook, under a heavy sheet of falling water. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 135 the American, Rambouillet, and early imported Spanish Merinos, 1 copy the following, from the pen of Ebenezer Emmons, M. D., State Geologist, in the American Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, of which publication Dr. E. is the Editor. " Having given you a pretty full report of the farm and stock of Mr. Randall, embracirrg many details also in the several branches of husbandry, I now propose adding a few words as an appendix to that report. I gave some intimation, when speaking of the fineness of the wool of Mr. R.'s sheep, that on my return home I woidd i'umish something more exact as a test for fineness than the naked eye. In fulfillment of this intimation, I have been en- gaged since I returned, in measuring the diameter of the diflerent staples which I procured while at Cortlandville, and which I have compared with others obtained of our mutual friend, Luther Tucker, Esq., of the Cultivator. " The diiferent kinds are indicated by numbers. I have prepared a scale which is equal to 100 millimeters ; a millimeter is equal to 0-039 of an inch. The hundredth of a millime- ter,* and the fibres of wool, are all subjected to the same magnifying power of an excellent Chevalier's compound microscope. The comparison is both absolute and relative ; but it is highly interesting to see the perceptible difference between the diflerent fibres of wool. The microscope also reveals other differences ; some of the fibres appeared rather uneven or flat- tened, and destitute of a clear and distinct pith or tube ; and, in fact, I may remark that the microscope is really the best method of testing the real quality of wool." . . . Fig. 1. "No. 1, Mr. Randall's; No. la, fibre of Mr. Randall's prize Merino buck ;t No. 16, fibre from one of Mr. Randall's fleeces ; No. 2 and 2a, fibres from Mr. Reth Adams's wool ; No. 4, Remilles wool, Shoreham, Vt. ; No. 5, fibre of S. O. Buichard's fine wool, Shoreham ; No. 3, fibre of Charles L. Smith's wool, Shoreham ; No. 6, fibre from CoUins's Grandee. The last five were taken from wool left at the Cultivator office. In all the fibres examined there is a great uniformity in the parcels ; only slight differences, in fact, could be detected in the several diameters. No. 7 shows the structure of wool as seen under the microscope. In the corner is the scale of measurement. The finest fibre as magnified in this cut is equal to about eighteen-hundredths of an inch in diameter. " x^nother inquiry equally important with the preceding came up in this place : What is the strength of a single fibre of wool, and is the coarser comparatively stronger than the fine' I set about answering those inquiries at once, and now give you the result below : " Mr. Randall's No. lb, on three trials, supported on an average 62 grains ; or, rather, broke when tried with the weight of 62 grains. " Mr. R.'s No. la broke with 57-1 grains. " The fibre from Collms's Grandee, on three trials, supported on an average 84-6 grains. " Mr. Smith's specimen of Shoreham, Vt., on three trials, gave an average of 65-6 grains." No. la is the wool of my ram " Premium," which received the first prize * About 1-2500 of an inch. t Taken from the animal by Doct. Emmons. ]36 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IxN THE SOUTH. at the State Fair at Poughkeepsie, 1844,* and his fleece weighed 10 lbs. of well washed wool. No. 2 and 2a, (Mr. Seth Adams's wool,) were from the sheep imported by that gentleman. No. 6 was from Grandee, the best ram of Mr. Collins's Rambouillet im- portation. It will be observed, first, that the American wool is the finest, and second, its strength is greatest in proportion to its diameter. It will probably be as well to bring Doct. Emmons's subsequent meas- urements of the wool of other individuals and varieties together at this place, as to scatter them through the descnptions of the several breeds. It will render a comparison between them more convenient. I would re- mark that the cuts are copied from those of Doct. Emmons, with the strictest fidelity.t Indeed they are perfectyac shniles. Fig 2. " Figure 2 (scale of measurement same as in Fig. 1) exhibits the comparative diameters of the wool fibre of two premium Saxon sheep exhibited at the State Fair at TJtica, 1845. A 1 is a fibre of wool from the shoulder of the 2d premium sheep (Mr. Church's) ; 2 do. from the flank. B 1, fibre from the shoulder of the first premium sheep (Mr. Crocker's) ; 2 do. flank. Fig. 3. \ 1 u " Fig. 3, No. 1. fibre of Bakewell — about the average fineness of this kind of wool. No. 2, fibre ft'om Merino ewe belonging to Col. Sherwood, 3 years old (Blakesley sheep.') No. 3 do. Mr. Bailey's ewe. No. 4 do. Mr. Atwood's. Fig. 4. " Fig. 4. — No. 5, fibre of Mr. Elhs's ewe, fleece weighing 6 lbs. 13 oz. No. 6 do. Mr. Net- tleton's yearling Merino buck. No. 7 do. a sample from the imported 5 per cent. South American wool, which is seen to be nearly as fine as the best of our flocks. No. 8 do. Col. * This is the only time my eheep have ever been ehovm at a .''tate Fair, and I first made arrangements for exhibitina, in the expectation of having the privilege of comparing my sheep with the imported Ram- bouillets of Mr. Collins. Mr. C, however, declined my invitation to show. I received the first prize on rams, and the first and second on ewes. t Executed by William Rowland, of New York, whom I take pleasure in recommending to all wishing to obtain wood engravings, as an accurate and most obliging artist. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 137 No. 9 do. finest Saxon wool in Fig. 5. Sherwood's three-year-old buck, sheared 8^ lbs. of wool market. Fig. 5. — No. 10, fine Ohio wool. No. 12, do. Saxon of the late Mr. Grove's excellent flock. No. 13, do. original imported Spanish wool by Seth Adams. No. 14, Mr. L. A. Morrell's Saxon. The following cut, copied from Youatt, exhibits a fibre of Merino wool viewed iO IZ IS 14- both as an opaque and transparent object, with a microscope manufac- tured by Mr. Powell, of London. The serrations or " beards," which constitute the felting property of wool, are beautifully distinct and sharp. It was a picklock from a Negretti fleece, and Mr. Youatt says it is " very «-:-''^--^r^^-'^'ri-rt-^x-7^^ --*r3 fine, being only the yl^oth part of an inch in i-.o^,J-,^Jicv,::s^^ diameter." By consulting Doct. Emmons's preceding statements, it will be seen that the wool of my prize ram " Pre- mium " is only about j-sVoth of an inch in diameter ! This forcibly shows the improvement which has been made on the Merino wool of Spain in the United States. " The Merino, though the native of a warm climate, becomes readily in- ured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing as far north as Sweden, without degenerating in fleece or form. It is a patient, docile animal, bear- ing much confinement without injury to health, and possesses none of that peculiar ' voraciousness of appetite,' ascribed to it by English writers.* — Accurately conducted experiments have shown that it consumes " a little over " two pounds of hay per diem, in winter ; the Leicester consumes from three and a half to four ; and the common wooled American sheep would not probably fall short of three. The mutton of the Merino, in spite of the prejudice which exists on the subject, is short grained and of good flavor, when killed at a proper age," and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to to the quarter. " It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep," and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English Breeds ; " but it should be remarked in connection with this fact, that it is corres^ pondingly slow in arriving at maturity. It does not attain its full growth before three years old, and the ewes in the best managed flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age." The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-wooled sheep, and my experience goes to show that its lambs, when newly dropped, are hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high bred South- Down. The ewe is not so good a nurse, however, as the latter, and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent, is about the ordinary number of lambs usually reared, though it often reaches one hundred per cent, in carefully managed or small flocks. " We have already adverted to the cross between the Merino and the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was contin- ued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out." When the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, it resulted not unfavor- ably for certain purposes. But unfortunately these instances of judicious crossing were rare. Our country was flooded by eager speculators, with the feeblest and least hardy Merinos of Germany. Fineness of wool during 'Youatt, p. 149. s 138 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the period of this strange excitement, was made the only test of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, no matter how diminutive or miserable the carcass. Governed by such views, the holders of most of our Merino flocks purchased these over-delicate Saxons, and the consequence was as might have been foreseen — their flocks were ruined." -^i^w, HO\AIL&WQ 'f'l SAXON RAM Saxons.—" In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ob- tained permission from the Spanish Court to import two hundred Merinos, selected from the choicest flocks of Spain. They were chosen principally from the Escurial flock, and on their arrival in Saxony, were placed on a private estate belonging to the Elector, under the care of Spanish shepherds. So much importance was attached to the experiment, as it was then con- sidered, that a commission was appointed to superintend the aflairs of the establishment ; and it was made its duty to diff"use information in relation to the management of the new breed ; to dispose of the surplus rams at prices which would place them within the reach of all holders of sheep ; and finally, by explaining the superior value of the Merinos, to induce the Saxon farmers to cross them with their native breeds. Popular preju- dice, however, was strong against them, and this was hightened by the rava- ges of the scab, which had been introduced with them from Spain, and which proved very destnictive before it was finally eradicated. But when it became apparent that the Merino, so far from degenerating, had im- proved " in the quality of its wool, in Saxony, " the wise and patriotic efforts of the Elector began to reap their merited success, and a revolution took place in popular sentiment. The call for rams became so great that the Government resolved on a new importation, to enable them more effec- tually to meet it, and to improve still farther the stock already obtained. For this purpose an individual, considered one of the best judges of sheep in Saxony, was dispatched to Spain in 1777, with orders to select three hun- dred. For some reason, probably because he experienced difficulty in obtaiur ing;a greater number presenting all tlie qualifications he sought, he return- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 139 ed with but one hundred and ten. They were from nearly all the different flocks of Spain, but principally the Escurial— and were considered decided- ly superior to the first importation. In addition to the estabUshment at Stolpen, already founded, others were now commenced at Rennersdorf, Lohmen, &c. ; schools were established for the education of shepherds ; publications were distributed by the commissioners to tlirow information on the subject before the people ; and the Crown tenants, it is said, were each required to purchase a certain number of the sheep." Mr. Spooner* states that there are two distinct breeds of the Saxon Me- rino sheep, the first " having stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck com- paratively short and broad, body round. The wool grows most on the face and legs— the grease in the wool is almost pitchy." The other breed call- ed Escurial have longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head, with very little wool on the latter, and a finer, shorter and softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. The fleece in the Escurial averages fi'om one and a half to two pounds in ewes, and two to three pounds in rams and wethers, while in the others it is from two and a quarter to three and a quarter in ewes, and from four to six pounds in ram and wethers. These varieties cannot be amalgamated successfully. The preceding portrait is a favorable specimen of the Escurial Saxon, copied from a cut, after a drawing by Harvey, in Mr. Spooner's work. ^ That the German shepherds have sacrificed the hardiness of the Merino, and indeed almost everything else, for fineness of staple, there can be but little doubt. Their method of managing the sheep and its effects are thus described by Mr. CaiT, a large sheep-owner of Germany :t " They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, when they are sometimes folded in the distant liiUows. but never taken to pasture until the dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are led with a small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, which has not suffered from wet, and which is varied at each feed ; they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any grain that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drmk, and rock- Bait in their cribs, are indispensables They cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite necessary that thev should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture of short and not over-nutritious herbage". If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy gi-ound, even once or twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint in the following spnng. It they are permitted to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to ram, they disappear by hundreds with consumption. In these countries it is found the higher bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender !" Such are the common views of the sheep, and their treatment over Germany, Prussia, and Austria. Various statements of the methods adopt- ed by Baron Geisler, Graf Hunyadi, and other eminent flockmasters, will be found in Dr. Bright's Travels in Lower Hungary, Paget's Travels in Hungary and Transylvania, Jacob's Travels in Germany, &c. The qualities of the Saxons as breeders and nurses, may be inferred from the following regulations, for the management of his flock, by Baron Geisler.| " During the lambing period, a shepherd should be constantly day and night in the cote, in order that he may place the lamb, a soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven neither to water or pasture ; but low troughs of water for this pur- pose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all Umes quench their thirst. It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-meal mto the water, for by this means the quantity of the ewe's milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them but three times a day, early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy themselves." * Spooner, p. 57. t Quoted by Spooner, p. 58. t Ibid., p. 59. 140 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The following history of the introduction of the Saxons into the United States, was compiled by me from written memoranda, and the oral state- ments of Mr. Grove, submitted to the Committee of New- York State Ag- ricultural Society, already alluded to, of which I was Chairman, and was published in my Report, credited, of course, to Mr. Grove individually, as no other member of the Committee was conversant with the facts nar- i^cited.* " The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw, a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of Northampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. & T. Searle, of Boston, import- ed 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretchman, a correspond- ent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner Velocity. I was engaged to tJike charge of the sheep on the passage, and I also Bhipped six on my own account. I am sorry to say that as many as one-third of the slieep i>urchased by Kretchman. (who shared profit and loss in the undertaking,) were not pnre- ilooded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brooklyn, as 'pure-blooded electoral Sax- ons,' and thus unfortunately in the veiy outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mix- ed. But I feel the greatest certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but the pure stock — the fault lay with Kretchman. In the i'all of 1824, 1 entered into an arrange- ment wiih the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase in connection with Kretch- man, from IfiO to 200 Electoiul sheep. I was detained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been al- ready bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but to no purpose. A quarrel ensued between us, and Kretchman even went so far as to engage another to take charge of the sheep on their passage. My friends interposing, I was finally induced to take charge of them. The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. They were sold at Biightoii, some of them going as high as from $400 to $450. A portion of this importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as the pure-bloods, for the Ameri- can purchasers could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- ment the Brigiiton sale held out to speculation, both in this country and Saxony. The Ger- man newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ' Good for the Ameri- can Market -,' and these sheep, in many itistances, were actually bought up for the American market at five, eight or ten dollars a head, when the pure-bloods could not be purchased at from less than $30 to $40. In 1836, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amouutmg in the ag- gregate to 513 sheep. They were of about the same cliaracter with their prior importations, in the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year a cargo of 22 1 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few were good sheep and of pure blood ; but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about $3,000. Next came a cargo of 210 on German account; Wasmuss and Multer, owners. The whole cost of these was about $1,125, in Gennany. With the exception of a small number, procured to make a flourish on, in their advertisements of sale they were sheep having no pretensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals brought out another cargo. The.se were selected exclusively from grade fiocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- many wrote me that they were like their other importations, a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Seale to say that, as a whole, their im- portations were much better than any other made into Boston. " I will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep arrived in New-York, per brig William, on German account. A portion of these were well descend- ed and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June the same year, the brig Lou- isa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-third of them had the least pre- tensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on Gennan account. — Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died l>efore their arrival in New-York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most cu- rious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging to myself and F. (xebhard, of New-York. These sheep cost me $65 a head when landed in New-Y'ork. — They sold at an average of $50 a head, thus sinking about $2,400 ! I need not say that they were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of their quality. The next importation consisted of 184, on Gennan account, per brig Wan-en. With a few exceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importa- tion of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ' stop sale sheep. * Mr. Morrel in his American Shepherd, quotes this bb a " Report " drawn and read by Mr. Grove, (one is left to infer,) before the New- York State Agricultural Society. This is doubtless an inadvertance. f SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 141 They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half-grade sheep. — The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little; and 60 were landed at Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determhied to settle in America, I returned to Sa.xony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and examining many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock of Macheni, embarked on board the ship Albion, and landed in New-York June 27, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more iiom the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. I first drove them to Shaftsbury. atljoining the town of Hosic, where I now reside. On theii' arrival they stood me in $70 a head, and the lambs half that sum." " It will be inferred from the facts above stated that there are few Sax- on flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together, and all sold to our breeders as pure stock." And independent of this, there are but exceedingly few flocks which have not been again crossed with the Native or Meiino sheep of our coun- try, or both. Those who early purchased the Merino, crossed them with the Native ; and, when the Saxons aiTived, these motigrels were bred to Saxon rams. This is the history of probably three-quarters of the " Sax- on" flocks of the United Stales, and among them some, as / know, among the most celebrated. As these sheep have now so long been bred towai'd the Saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it is exceedingly problematical in my mind whether they are any worse for the admixture : when crossed only with the Merino, it is undoubtedly to their advantage. Though I once thought diff'erently, experience has satisfied me that the American Saxon, with these early crosses in its pedigree, is a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. As with the Merino, climate, feed, and other causes, have doubtless conspired to add to their size and vigor ; but, after all, I have not a doubt they usually owe more of it to those early crosses. The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from 2 or 2\ to 3 lbs. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement, late maturity, and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended ; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses ; their lambs smaller, fee- bler, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched. They do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food correspondingly less. Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the American Merinos ; but Dr. Emmons's measurements show that this is not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons are now crossing with the Merino, in the expectation of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality.* Though I am in possession of wool from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio, which compares well with the higher grades of German wool,t and though there are doubtless other flocks of equal quality in the country,| our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany ; and I never have seen a single lock of the American equaling some samples, given me by a friend recently * Mr. Lawrence believes this practicable, and Mr. Morrel and various other Saxon breeders have for some time bred in this way. t Fully equaling, and, 1 think, better than some German wool I recently saw, which, all expenses in- cluded, stood the purchaser in $1 60 per pound ! X Dr. Emmons stated, subsequently lo his measurements above, that he had received wool from the flock of Dr. Beekman. considerably finer than the Saxon wool figured. 142 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. from Europe, which came from Styria, south of Vienna, in Austria. The inferiority of the American to the German wool is not due to climate or other natural causes, nor is it owing to a want of skill on the part of our breeders. It is owing to the fact that but a very few of our manufactur- ers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would iil render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which pro- II duce this exquisite quality of wool. No American breeder thinks of hous- ing his sheep from the summer rains and dcio, or observing any of the hot- hovse reo^ulations — at least in the summer — of Graf Hunyadi, or Baron Geisler ! If he did, his wool would not probably pay half of its first cost. When our manufacturers wish to find these wools in the Jiome. market, they must learn to pni/ for them in the Itome market as liberally as they are comi)dled to to obtain them in foreign ones ! THE NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. The portrait above is copied from one of a sheep of this variety, belong- ing to the Duke of Bedford, given in Mr. Youatt's work on Sheep. " The unimproved Leicester was a ' large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed' of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It is described also as havino- been ' a slow feeder, and its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor.' The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece. The celebrated INlr. Bakewell, of Dishley, was the first who adopt- ed a system more in accordance with the true principles of breeding. He selected from the flocks about him those sheep ' whose shape possessed - the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest propor-* tion of valuable meat, and oftal,' and having observed that animals of me-" dium size possess a greater aptitude to take on flesh, and consume less food than those which are larger, and that prime fattening qualities are rarely foimd in sheep carrying a great weight of wool, he gave the prefer- ence to those of smaller size, and was satisfied with lighter fleeces." To reach the wonderful results obtained by Mr. Bakewell, it was supposed that he resorted to a cross with some other varieties, but it is believed by some that he owed his success only to a judicious principle of selection, and a steady adherence to certain principles of breeding. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 143 It is exceedingly unfortunate that this eminent breeder has left us so much in the dark in relation to those principles of breeding, adopted by him, which led to such signal success in his efibrts to improve both the cattle and sheep of the region in England in which he resided. All of his measures wei"e veiled in impenetrable secrecy even from his most intimate friends, and he died without voluntarily throwing the least light on the subject. The whole inception and management of his famous " Dishley Society"* betrays selfishness the most intense, and, in plain English, mean- ness the most unalloyed. Should a man claiming to be a gentleman, in this country, make valuable discoveries in breeding, or in any other de- partment of husbandry, and closely conceal them from the public, his con- duct would meet with universal reprehension and contempt ;t yet the thing seems to be considered a matter of course, or is at least passed over with- out censure, in Youatt, Spooner, Bischoff, and a host of earlier writers, all of whom laud Mr. Bakewell to the echo ! " The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, &c. Where there is a sufficiency of feed, the New Leicester is unrivaled for its fattening properties, but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its ap- propriate situation, on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of England, it possesses unrivaled earliness of maturity ; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and compara- tively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is long — averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches ; and the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality, and little ixsed in the manufacture of cloths, on account of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties coinmon, in a greater or less extent, to all the English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, &c. ** The high bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breed- ers and poor nurses, but crosses subsequently adopted " have, to some ex- tent, obviated these defects. So far as my experience has extended in this country, however, the lambs are not very hardy, and require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moder- ately cold or stormy. Neither can the grown sheep bo considered, in my opinion, very hardy. They are much affected by sudden changes in the weather, and a sudden change to cold is pretty sure to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or ' snuffles.' "In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand ; and the consequent re- turn which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make, renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are re- corded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these ani- * For the Rf gelations of tliis Society, see Youatr, p. 317. t Of course I do not include in this cHtegory those nnmeless venders of recipes for killin? Csnada This- tles, ratP, &c. &c. ; and men who spend their time and property in inventins improved implements, etc., are entitled to the pay oftered by the Patent laws. But, among our agriculturists of ftanding. who has ever known of a single instance of a valuable discovery in the operations of husbandry being concealed or with- held from the public ? Who has known a breeder of rank wheedle a partner out of one-half of a valuable bull, and then refu'e the quondam partner the services of that bull at any price, lest he should prove a dangerous rival in breeding ? Yet, what English writer has expressed any contempt for such meanness ? These things would not " go down" among us " rfpudiators" 1 144 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 1 mals, and Mr. BakewelFs celebrated buck " Two Pounder" was let for the enormous price of four hundred guineas for a single season ! The New Leicester has spread into all parts of the British Dominions, and been imported into the other countries of Europe and the United States. They were first introduced into our own country by the late Christopher Dunn, Esq., of Albany, about twenty-five years since.* Subsequent import- ations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen." It is no more than jiistice to say that this breed has never proved a fa- vorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters, but more especially our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights — the general want of green feed in the winter, robs it of its early maturity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed, to suit American taste. Its wool is not very salable, from the much to be regretted dearth of worsted manufactories in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinities of consid- erable mai'kets, it will always probably make a profitable return. The following description of what constitutes the desirable characterist- ics of this breed, is from the pen of Mr. Youatt :t " The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering lowai'd the muzzle, and projecthig horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather long, and directed backward. The neck full and broad at its base, where it ])roceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizon- tal line fi'om the nimp to the poll. The breast broad and fidl ; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angidar formation where tlie shoulders join either the neck or the back — particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones. — The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the leg small, standuig wide apart ; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and ban-el at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed well home ; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides ; the carcass very grad- ually diminishing in width toward the ramp. The quarters long and full, and. as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock ; the thighs also wide and fidl. The legs of a moderate length ; the pelt also moderately thin, but soil and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool — not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer." The South-Down. — " This breed of sheep has existed for several centu- ries in England, on a range of chalky hills called the South Downs. They were, as recently as 1776, small in size, and of a form not superior to the common wooled sheep of the United States. Since that period, a course of judicious breeding, pursued by one man (Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex), has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present high degree of per- fection, and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. In our remarks on this breed of sheep, it will be understood that we speak of the pure improved family, as the original stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited sixty years since, are yet to be found in England — and as the middle space is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falhng in value, as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood. " The South- Down is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool, which in point of length belongs to the middle class," has been estimated to rank with half-blood Merino, and was so estimated in my Report, quo- ' Now about 35 years eince. t Youatt on Sheep, p. ItO. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 145 tations from wliicli constitute so large a portion of this Letter. But both subsequent experience, and information derived from other sources, have convinced me of the erroneousness of this opinion. South-Down wool is SOUTH-DOWN RAM. essentially different from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino. The following cut from Youatt,* gives the microscopic appearance, says that gentleman, of a " prime specimen of picklock South-Down wool," 1 being viewed as a transparent, and 2 as an opaque object." The fibi'e is g-^o^th part of an inch in diameter. The cups or leaves of 2 " are roughened irregular, and some of the leaves have ex- ceedingly short angles," but they are far sharper, more numerous and regular (the points which give wool its felting property) than in ordinary South-Down wool. In the latter, the cups are rounded and have a " rhomboidal" in- stead of that sharp and "hooked" character which distinguishes the Me- rino and Saxon. South-Down wool is deficient in felting properties. It makes a " furzy, hairy " cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely admixed with foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. The following testimony was given by some of the most eminent manu- facturers, wool-factors, staplers, and merchants of England, before the Committee of the House of Lords in 1828, several times previously al- luded to : t Youatt, p. 236. t See Bischoff, vol. ii. pp. 145 to 155. T l4o SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Mr. Charles Bull, wool agent, Lewes. — " Formerly it [South-Down wool] was used for clothing purposes ; now it is impossible to sell it for that manufacture ; . . . . it is used for baizes and Haunels in a very large way." Mr. William Cunnington, wool-stapler, Wiltshire. — " The public will not wear the South-Down cloths, they are so very coarse." Mr. James Fiso.v, wool dealer, Thetford. — "There has been deterioration in the quality of (South-Down) wool ; the general weight of the fleece 20 years ago was 2 pounds to 2^, and it is now 3 pounds to 3.^. our wool used to be made into cloths, and returned into Nor- folk, and used by myself and the agriculturists. We do not get the same cloth now ; neither myself nor the fai-mer would wear it, because of the deterioration of qualit}%" Mr. James Hubbard, wool agent, Leeds. — South-Down wool is not "now employed for the piu-pose of making cloth ; it has been forced down two or three steps in the scale of wool, and is now used for flannels and baize The wool gets more frothy and open, and in manufacturing it does not felt and improve so well ; it works more flannely." .... Mr. John Brooke, manufacturer, Howley. — " Manufacture piincipally blue cloths from 7s. to 24s. and 2.5s. per yard, and also narrow cloths Had the Duke of Norfolk's wool, Mr. Ellman, junior's, clip from 1817 and 1822, and Mr. Ellman, senior's, from 1817 to 1821 Kept to English wool longer than any house in the neighborhood Ceased to manufac- ture it entirely in 1823 or 1824, .... found our neighbors were sending out better cloths than we were, not only at the same price, but better manufactured cloths, and we lost our cus- tomers." Mr. Benjamin Gott, merchant and manufacturer, Leeds. — " I formerly used 150 packs of English wool weekly ; the disuse of English wool was gradual, commencing about the year 1819, continuing to 1823 and 1824, aljout which time I began to manufacture exclu- sively from foreign wool. The disuse of English wool arose from the quality and the ad- vantage of using foreign wool compared with our own. 1 could not now make an article which would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, (that remark appUes equally to the home trade,) in certain descriptions of cloth, except of foreign wool." . . . These wools (the domestic and foreign,) " have ditferent properties." Mr. William Ireland, Blackwell Hall factor, London. — " We have been using English wool for second and livery cloths, but recently they have been so very much lowered in quality we have not been able to make use of them at all, and have been obliged to make use of low German and low Spanish wools for that purpose." Mr. J. Sutcliffe, wool-stapler, Huddersfield. — " South-Down wool was formerly ap- plied for making cloth for home consumption regularly, for the clothing of sers-auts, &c. It was also used for army clothing. It is now no longer used for those purposes. It makes a furzy, soft, hairy piece ; it has not that fastness in it that foreign wool has." Many other individuals testify to the same effect, and the extremely low character of South-Down wool for carding purposes ma^ be regarded as definitely settled. But as it has deteriorated it has increased in length of staple in England, and to such an extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing wool — for the manufacture of Avorsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as profitable, in England, as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combing- wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, perhaps thi would not be the case. And it may be problematical whether the proper combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this coun- try, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in England.* The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is 3 lbs. ; on rich lowlands a little more. Mr. John Ellman, Jr., testified before the Com- mittee of the House of Lords that he was then " keeping his sheep better than formerly — fattening them, which rendered the fleece heavier — that they then averaged about 3 lbs. of wool."t " But the Down is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other " (from sheep of good size) " in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at thai age is, in England, from 80 to 100 lbs. High fed wethers have reached * Nearly or quite every individufll who testifies to the deterioration and increased length of the South- Down wool before the Lord's Committee, assign this as the cause of the change. t Bifichoff, vol. ii., p. 137. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 147 from 32 to even 40 lbs. a quarter ! Notwithstanding its weight, the Down has, in the language of Mr. Youatt, a patience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicester, Lincolns, &c., as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though in common with the other Eng- lish varieties much subject to the catarrh or " snuffles," and no sheep bet- ter withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nursers. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and though an industiious feeder, exhibiting little disposition to rove." Like the Leices- ter, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short and middle wooled breeds than the Leicester. " A sheep possessing'such qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets. They have been introduced into every part of the British Do- minions, and imported into various other countries. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas for two rams, and in 1800 ' a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford, was let for one season at eighty guineas, two others at forty guineas each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas each.' These valuable sheep were introduced into the United fetates a few years since by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia, and a small number was imported by one of the members of this Committee in 1834. The last were from the flock of Mr. Ellman, at a cost of $60 ahead. Sev- eral other irapoitations have since taken place." The ram and ewe, the portraits of which are given, are the descendants of the importation of Francis Rotch, Esq., alluded to in the preceding paragraph. They are most spirited likenesses, and were kindly furnished me by that gentleman, to accompany this Letter. They are exceedingly SOUTH-DOWN EWE. characteristic of the Ellman stock. Not so large as the later importations of Mr. Rotch from the celebrated flock of Mr. Webb, they are, in the 148 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. opinion of that gentleman, as well as in my own, a more beautifully formed and not less profitable animal. For compactness — great weight in a small compass — they are perhaps unrivaled. The following is the description of the perfect South-Down by Mr. Ell- man, the founder of the improved breed : " The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or ^-ay and neither too long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under jaw or chap fine ana thin ; the ears tolerably wide and weU covered with wool, and the fore- head also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly. " The eye full and bright but not prominent. The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projectinET, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. " The neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoul- ders, where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole comse above and below. The breast should be v^ade, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disf)osition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should Le on a level with the back, and not too wide above: they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. " The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than others, the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the rump broad and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine. Tlie hips wide ; the space between them and the last rib on ei- ther side as naiTow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a cucular fonn like a barrel. " The belly as straight as the back. " The leiTs neither too long nor too short ; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the hock having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thigh.s behind, being iiarticularly flill, the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended vdth wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres." WWLANa THE COTSWOLD SHEKP. The above cut is copied from one in Mr. Spooner's work on Sheep — the original drawing being by Harvey. The Cots wolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 149 coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, ligbt in the fore-quarter — sheainng a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were hardy, prolific breeders and capital nurses. They were deficient in early matui'ity, and did not possess feeding properties equaling those of the Down or New Leicester. To a cross with the latter variety we owe the modern or improved Cots- wold. Having had no personal experience with the breed,* I prefer quoting the descriptions of the later standard English writers, to the task of compilation. The following is from Spooner : t " The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes are veiy prolific and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames ; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold Hills and the improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and fatted in the same district. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses considerably im- proved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are now sometimes fattened at 14 months old, when they weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, 6 to 8 inches in length, and fi-om 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common ti-eatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which man- agement still farther improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and, as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the temi New or Improved Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at some of the principal agi-icultiu-al meetings or shows in the Kingdom. The quality of the mutton is considered supeiior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, ■with a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, regard tliis breed as one of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of the Kmgdom." Of the method of crossing between the Cotswolds and Leicester, Mr. Youatt remarks ij " The degree to which the cross may be carried must depend upon the natitre of the old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood shotild decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that v^'ill guide the farmer is the object that he principally has in view. If he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive Cotswolds ; if he expects to gsiiii more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more fi-eely." Cotswold sheep of good quality have been imported into the United States by Messrs. Coi'ning & Sotham, of Albany, and are now bred by the latter gentleman. I believe there were sevei-al earlier importations — but of their dates or particulars I am not advised. The Cheviot Sheep. — Sheep of this breed have been imported into my immediate neighborhood, and were subject to my frequent inspection for two or three years. They had the appearance of small Leicesters, but were con- siderably inferior in correctness of proportions to high-bred animals of that variety. They perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and the old " native " or common breed of the United States. Their fleeces were too coarse to furnish a good carding wool — too short for a good combing one. Mixed with a smaller lot of better wool, their this year's clip sold for 29 cents per pound, while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per pound. They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the same weight. I believe the flock was broken up and sold to butchers and others this spring, after shearing. They were certainly inferior to the description of the breed by Sir John Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt, || and. * With every breed previously described, I have had ample personal experience. I have merely seen Cotswold flocks. t Q. v., p. 99. % Q- "-. P- 3'10- II Q- »•. PP- 285, 280. 150 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. had all the defects attributed to the original stock by Cully* They mio-ht not, however, have been favorable specimens of the breed. On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot Hills, in the extreme North of Eng- land, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting CHEVIOT EWE. cold and feeding on coarse heathery herbage. A cross vi'ith the Leices- ter, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The characteristics of the Leicester are quite evident in the portrait of the Cheviot Ewe, above, copied from Mr. Youatt. Professor Low thus speaks of the result of this cross : " The Cheviot breed amalgamates -whh the Leicester, and a system of breeding has been extensively inti-oduced for producing the first cross of this descent. The rams employed are ot the pure Leicester breed, and the progeny is siipenor in size, weight of wool, and tenden- cy to fiitten, to the native Cheviot. . . . The benefit, however, may be said to end with the first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly infen'or to the pure Leicester in fonn and fattening properties, atid to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. Of the improved Cheviot Mr. Spooner says : " This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the Black-faced breed ; but the change, though in many cases ad- vantageous, has in some instances been otherwise, the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on healhy pasturage. They are, however, a hardy race, well suited for their native pastures, beanng with comparative impunity the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity ot food, and making it quicker. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, without horns. The ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes. The carcass is long ; the back straight ; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular ; and tlie quarters good. The legs are small in the bone and cov- ered with wool, as well as the body, with the exce])tion of the face. The Cheviot wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages fi'om I'J lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter — the mutton behig of a good quality, though infeiior to the South-Down, and of less flavor tlian tlie Black-faced The Cheviot, though a moimtain breed, is quiet and docile, and ea- sily managed. The wool hfme, (?) closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it * See Cully on Live Stock, p. 150. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 151 from the effects of wet autl cold ; the fleece averaging about 3^ lbs. Formerly the wool was extensively employed for making cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, it has siiiik in price, and been confined to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary consideration." . . . If Mr. Spooner is not made to say that the wool is " fine " by an omis- sion of qualifying words, or some other misprint, his ideas ofjineness must be singular indeed ! The South-Down wool, rejected for carding pur- poses, is several shades finer than the Cheviot ! The latter is of about the quality of Leicester, the number of serrations about the same, and, says Mr. Youatt, speaking of the microscopic appearance of the wool, " the derivation of the breed (from the Leicester) is well illustrated by the forirtation of the fibre." Mr. John Varley, manufacturer, of Stanningley, near Leeds, thus testi- fied before the Lords' Committee :* " I atti-ibiite the low pi-ice of Cheviot wool to deterioration ; it is deteriorated veiy much in point of hair ; it was formerly the fashion of the day for Cheviot wool to be worn as cloth ; it is not the fashion now. It is not fit to make fine cloths, as it was then The wool is grown coarser and longer, and only fit to make low coatings and flushings." This is confirmed by the testimony of other witnesses before the Com- mittee; and Mr. Youatt on the same subject remarks,t "that the wool is inferior to the South-Down." Broad-tailed Asiatic and African Sheep. — I allude to the Broad- tailed race of sheep, not from any high estimate whicli I place upon their value, but because they constitute one of the breeds now existinor in a state of purity in the United States. Some " Tunisian Mountain Sheep " were received by Col. Pickering when abroad, and were distributed by him in Pennsylvania.t They are higldy spoken of by Col. Powell as a cross with the Dishley and South- Down. They have, I believe, long since become extinct. It was Commodore Porter, I think, who, you informed me, sent home some of the Broad-tailed sheep of Asia, obtained from Smyrna, pure- blooded descendants of which yet exist in South Carolina.|| I have care- fully examined the specimens of wool of the full blood and the grades of this variety forwarded by you. No. .3, taken from the skin of a full-blood, is 8 inches long, pure white, consisting of coarse hairs, uneven in their length and diameter — the same hair of uneven diameter in different parts of it, and the whole intermixed for about 4 inches from the roots, with a fine, downy or cottony wool. No. 2, about 3|- inches long from the side of a three-fourths blood ram, is much evener in quality, with no hairs as coarse or wool as fine as in No. 3. It contains some jarr, or short, shari)- pointed hairs, and is a dry, and, I should judge, rather unworkable wool, not weU, adapted to either carding or combing. No. 1, from thigh of same animal, is 8 inches long, resembles No. 3, but not so great a distinction between the hair and the wool. No. 4, from a three-fourths blood 4-year- old ewe, is about 2 inches long, contains a few colored hairs, resembles No. 2. but is somewhat coarser. All these samples are destitute of yolk, and apparently come from loose, light, dry, open fleeces. They do not strike me as wools which could be as profitably cultivated as many others, for any objects or under any circumstances. If the object is mutton instead of wool, it seems to me that a better se- lection can be made, from some of the English breeds — which intermingle * Bischotf, vol ii , p. 144. Mr. Youatt quotes the substance of the above, and fully sustains Mr. Varley'a views. t Q. v., p. S-S. I See Essay on Various Breeds of Sheep, by Col. John Hare Powell, published in the Memoirs of the Board of Asricnlture of the State of New- York, vol. iii., p. 377, (1826.) II In Letter Vth I inadvertently spoke of these as a large breed of sheep. They are not above medium size, or rather, may be said to be a smallish race. 152 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. their fat and muscle in such a manner as to render both palatable, instead of depositing a greatly disproportioned share of the former in one luscious mass, forming an impediment to breeding, and an unsightly appendage in the eye of the breeder. All the different varieties of the Broad-tailed and Fat-rumped sheep will be found described in Youatt, and I will not now consume your time with them. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 153 LETTER XI. THE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH.— PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Breeds should be adapted to the circumstances of a Country... Circumstances requiring a Mutton Sheep .. -Comparison between Mutton Sheep — The South-Downs, Leicesters and Cotswolds. . .How far the Feed Market?, &c., of the South demand such breeds.. .What breed of Sheep will give the greatest value of Wool from the feed of an acre ?.. .Comparative Consumption and Wool Product of the Mutton breeds and the Merino— Other Expenses — Comparative Hardiness, ifcc. . . A pound of tine wool can be grown as cheaply as a pound of coarse — worth more lor market or for consumption.. The Mutton of the Merino and its Crosses. . .What sub-variety of the Merino best adapted to the wants of the South ?.. Review of the His- tory of Wool-Growing and the Wool Markets since J824.. .Taritfs and Prices.. .Injudicious course of the Manufacturers— Have discouraged the growth of tine wool and encouraged that of medium and coarse... A surplus of medium wools, and a bare or short supply of tine.. Manufacturers now in the power of tine wool growers.. Interest of the Manufacturers to encoiirage the giowlh of tine wools by paying better prices — are beginning to do so— will be compelled to continue this course.. .Will the North furnish the increasing demand ! — No — Reasons.. .Fine wool in every point of view more profitable than coarse for cultivation in the South.. .Comparison between Merinos and Saxons. . .Crosses between them. . .Points which constitule excellence in a Merino — proper size — per centage of wool to live-weieht — shape and gen- eral appearance — skin — wrinkles.. .The wool — what parts it should cover— its gum — length and weight of fleece— evenness — style— softness— serration — manner of opening, &c.. .Principles of hreeding. . .In and-in breeding... Crossing... ICngiish Crosses with the Merino.. .Views of Mr. Livinirston concerning the use of cross-bred rams— of the French breeders— of the author... Great importance of starting a tlock with choice rams — with dilfereut strains of blood. Dear Sir : No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its cai-cass, while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool ; and another which is valu- able for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of feed and climate, while others are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of verdure. In selecting a breed for any given locality, we are to take into consid- eration Jirst, the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circum- stances ; and, second, the market facilities and demand. We should then make choice of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and un- der all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of marketable product. Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large carcasses. If convenient to markets where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which call for a ?nut- ton, as contradistinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cir- cumstances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest between the improved English varieties — the South-Down, the New Leicester, and the improved Cotswold or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between these, minor and more specific circumstances are to be taken into account. If we wish to keep large numbers, the Down will herd* much better than the two larger breeds ; if our feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to be shortish during the drouths of summer, and we have not a certain sup- ply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Down will better endure occa-, sional short keep : if the market calls for a choice and high-flavored mut- ton, the Down possesses a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, we * That is, remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers. u 154 SHEEP husbandrVin the south. wisli to keep but few in the same inclosure, the large breeds will be as healthy as the Downs ; if the pastures be wettish or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situa- tions ; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they, particularly the Leicester, possess an earlier maturity, and both give more meat for the amount of food consumed, and yield more tallow. The next point of comparison between the Long and Middle wooled families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal ob- ject aimed at in the culture of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item or incident in determining their relative profitableness. The American Leicester* yields about 6 lbs. of long, coarse, combing wool ; the Cotswold something more, but this perhaps counterbalanced by other considerations ; the Down from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. of a low quality of cardinfT wool. None of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American market. Both will become more so, as manufactures of worsted, and of flannels and baizes, increase. The difference in the weight of fleeces between the breeds is, per se, a less important consideration than would first appear, and for reasons which will be given when I speak of the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food con- sumed, by sheep. Of the Cheviots I have taken no notice in this connection, as they are obviously inferior to the preceding breeds, except in a capacity to endure rigorous weather, and to subsist on heathy herbage. No part of the South has a climate too severe for the more valuable races, and its grasses and other esculents, wherever found, and as far as they go, are, making the proper allowances for wet and dry lands, highly palatable and nutri- tious to all the varieties which respectively feed in such situations. Under the natural and artificial circumstances already alluded to, which suiTound Sheep Husbandry in many parts of England — where the fattest and grossest quality of mutton is consumed as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes — the heavy, early maturing New Leicester, and the still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep, seem exactly adapted to the wants of producer and consumer, and are of unrivaled value. To depasture poorer soils — sustain a folding system — and furnish the mutton which sup- plies the tables of the wealthy — the South-Down is an equal desideratum. Have we any region in our Southern States, where analogous circum- stances demand the introduction of similar breeds'? The climate, so far as its effect on the health is concerned, is adapted to any, even the least hardy varieties ; but not so its effects on the verdure on which they are to subsist. The long, scorching summers, so utterly unlike those of England, leave the grass on lands stocked heavily enough for profit, entirely too dry and short for the heavy, sluggish Long Wools. This is particularly true in the tide-water zone. Mutton, too, sheeted over externally with three or four inches of solid fat,t even if it could be made acceptable to the slave, in lieu of his ration of bacon — a thing more than doubtful would never find any considerable market off from the plantation. So far as the supply of feed is concerned, the above remarks apply, thouc-li not equally, to the South-Down. It will live and thrive where the Long Wools would dwindle away, but it is a mistake to suppose that the heavy im- ♦ luse the word " American " Leicester, because it is notorious that this, as well as file Cotswold— and tUl the otner heavy Knglish varieties, soon lose in the weight of their lleeres when subjected to the climate and the (best ordinary) system of feeding in the United States. I should except, perhaps a few hiMilv pampered animals. ° ' t Five and even six inches of solid faf, on the rib, is nut uncommon in England. In the Cotiwolds the fat and lean are more intermixed, and the mutton is of a better quality ; but it would be considered en- tirely too luscious and tallowy by Americans. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 155 proved South-Down will subsist, and attain its proper weight and fatness, on very poor or very scant herbage. The old unimproved variety would, like some other smallish and hardy races, obtain a living on keep as poor as that which grew on the lightest and thinnest soils of Sussex. Moulded by the hand of EUman, and other breeders, to better fulfill the conditions of a mutton sheep, in size and other particulars, they demand that in- creased supply of food which the formation of additional fat and muscle require. Retaining some of the properties of the parent stock, they are less sluggish, and bear travel better than the Long Wools ; but with them as with the latter, and all other animals, much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food or otherwise, is unfavorable to obesity. Men, and pai-- ticularly owners, in advocating the claims of this breed and that, seem not unfrequently to forget that the general physical laws which control in the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. Better organs will doubtless make a better appropriation of animal food ; and they inay be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular direc- tions — in one breed, more especially to the production of fat — in another, of muscle or lean meat — in another, wool. But, cateris paribus, large animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutri- tious food, and they must exercise but little in order to prevent the unne- cessary " combustion " in the lungs, of that carbon which forms more than seven-tenths of their fat. No art of breeding can countervail these estab- lished laws of Nature. Again, there are no facilities in the South for marketing large quantities of mutton — of a tithe of that which would be annually fitted for the sham- bles, were Sheep Husbandry introduced to anything like the extent I have recommended, and with the mutton breeds of sheep. With few cities and large villages — with a sparse population — with an agricultural population the greatest drawback on whose pecuniary prosperity is their inability to market their own surplus edibles — not a particle of rational doubt can ex- ist on this point. True, I have expressed the opinion that, both as a mat- ter of healthfulness and economy, mutton should be substituted for a moi- ety of the bacon used on the plantation; but with such a change, in a country so exclusively agricultural, each landholder would raise his own supply, and thus no market be created. It may then be regarded as a set- tled point that the production ©f wool is the primary, the great object of Southern Sheep Husbandry. In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for wool-growino" purposes, I will, in the outset, lay down the obviously incontrovertible proposition that the question is not what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleeces, irrespective of the cost of production. — Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, to fairly test the profits of an animal. If a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once and a half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable, other things being equal, to keep two of the smaller sheep. The true question then is, with the same expense in other particulars, From, what breed will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool ? Let us first proceed to ascertain the comparative amount of food con- sumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that breed, in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the con- sumption is in proportion to the live weight of the (grown) animal. Of course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application, but its gen- 156 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. eral soundness has been satisfactorily established. Spooner states that grown sheep take up 3^ per cent, of their weight in what is equivalent to dry hay per day, to keep in store condition. Veit places the consumption at 21 per cent. My experience would incline me to place it about midway between the two. But whatever the precise amount of the consumption, if it is proportioned to the weight, it follows that if an acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos weighing 100 lbs. each, it will sustain but two Leicesters weighing 150 lbs. each, and two and two- fifths South-Downs weighing 125 lbs. each. Merinos of tJds weight often shear 5 lbs. per fleece, taking flocks through. The heibage of an acre, then, would give 15 lbs. of Merino wool, and but 12 lbs. of Leicester, and but 9f lbs. of South-Down (estimating the latter as high as 4 lbs. to the fleece) ! Even the finest and lightest fleeced sheep ordinarily known as Merinos, average about 4 lbs. to the fleece, so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino, as it would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down ! The former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent, more per pound than either of the latter ! Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as I have, in the preceding estimate, placed the live-weight of the English breeds low, and that of the Merino high. The live-weight of the four- pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed 90 lbs. It ranges from SO to 90 lbs., so that 300 lbs. of live-weight would give a still greater product of wool to the acre.* I consider it perfectly safe to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino, that it will of any of the English Long or Middle wools. The important question now remains. What are the other relative ex- penses of these breeds 1 I speak from experience when I say that the Leicester! is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino — indeed, it is my firm conviction that it is less hardy, under the most favorable circum- stances. It is more subject to colds, and I think its constitution breaks up more readily under disease. The lambs are more liable to perish from ex- posure to cold, when newly dropped. Under uvfavorahle circumstances — herded in large flocks, pinched for feed, or subjected to long journeys — its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from the effiects of such draw- backs, do not compni-e with those of the Merino. The high-bred South- Down, though consideral)ly less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal. In this respect I consider it just about on a par with the Merino. I do not think, how- ever, it will bear as hard stocking as the latter, without a rapid diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be taken into account in determining the expenses — and I think they should be — the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The South-Down ewe not only frequently yeans twin lambs, as do both the Merino and Leicester, but she possesses, unlike the latter, nursing properties to do justice by them. But this advantage is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and in general vigor, at about 5 years old ; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in a sheep kept for wool- grov^nng purposes. This early decay would require earlier and more rapid slaughter or sale than would always be economically convenient, or even possible, in a region situated in all respects like the South. It is well, on * It i8 understood that all of these live-weights refer to aces in fair ordinary, or what is called stora condition, t I speak of full-blood Leicesters. Some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure bred sheep. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 157 properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock ; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece, for several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the Down and Leicester at Jive or six. — I have known instances of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until 15 years old! The Improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester; but I have said less of this variety, throughout this entire Letter, as from their great size* and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, and the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of so large animals, the idea of their being introduced as a wool-growing sheep any- where, and particularly on lands grassed like those of the South, is, in my judgment, utterly preposterous. There is one advantage which all the coarse races of sheep have over the Merino. Either because their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Meri- no, and thus hold dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot, the coarse races are less subject to the visitations of the hoof-ail, and, when contract- ed, it spreads with less violence and malignity among them. Taking all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each I'ace, and all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each fairly into account, 1 am fully convinced that the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller 'per capita, or even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in tlie Me- rino. Nor should I be disposed to concede even equality, in these respects, to either of those English breeds, excepting the South-Down. You write me, Sir, that many of the South Carolina planters are under the impression that coarse wools will be most profitably grown by them, first, because there is a greater deficit in the supply, and they are better protected from foreign competition ; and, secondly, because they furnish the raw material for so great a portion of the woolens consumed in the South. Each of these premises is true, but are the conclusions legitimate % Notwithstanding the greater deficit and better protection, do the coarse wools bear as high a price as the fine ones % If not, they are not as profit- able, for I have already shown that it costs no more to raise a found of coarse than a pound, of fine wool. Nay, a pound of medium Merino wool can be raised more cheaply than a pound of the South-Down, Leicester, or Cotswold ! This I consider clearly established. Grant that the South requires a much greater proportion of coarse than of fine wool, for her own consumption. If a man needing iron for liis own consumption, wrought a mine to obtain it, in which he should happen to find gold e(jually accessible and plentiful, would it be economical in him to neglect the more precious metal because he wanted to use the iron 1 or should he dig the gold, obtain the iron by exchange, and pocket the differ- ence in value "? Would it be economical to grow surplus wool, wool for market, worth from 25 to 30 cents per pound, when it costs no more per pound to grow that worth from 40 to 45 cents 1 And even for the home want, for the uses of the plantation — for slave-cloths, &c. — fine wool is worth more per pound than coarse for actual wear or use ! Is this propo- sition new and incredible to you 1 I challenge the fullest investigation of its truth, through the testimony of those familiar with the subject, or through the direct ordeal of experiment. It is true that a piece of fine broadcloth is not so strong, nor will it wear like a Chelmsford plain of treble thick- * I saw two at the late N. Y. State Fair, at Saratoga, which weighed over 300 lbs. each ! 15S SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness. The threads of the former are spun to extreme fineness to econo- mize the costly raw material. To give it that finish which is demanded by fashion — to give it its beautiful nap — these threads are still farther re- duced by "gigging" and "shearing." But spin fine wool into yarn as coarse as that used in Chelmsfords, and manufacture it in the same way, and it would make a far stronger and more durable cloth. The reasons are obvious. Merino wool is decidedly stronger than the English coarse Long and Middle wools — or any other coarse wools — in proportion to its diameter or bulk. It felts far better, and there is thei'efore a greater co- hesion between the different fibres of the same thread, and between the different threads. It is also more pliable and elastic, and consequently less subject to " breaking" and abrasion. Unless the views I have advanced are singularly erroneous, it will be seen that, for wool-growing purposes, the Merino possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-wooled sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds, but not BO much so as it is generally reputed to be. If required to consume the fat and lean together, many who have never tasted Merino mutton, and who have an unfavorable impression of it, would, I suspect, find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of the cross between the Merino and " Native " sheep would certainly be preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer used to the latter. It is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties. These will be, hereafter, more particularly alluded to. Grade Merino wethers (say lialf-bloods) are favor- ites with the Northern drover and butcher. They are of good size — ex- ■traoT'dinarily heavy for their apparent bulk* — make good mutton — tallow well — and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, command an extra price. They would, in my opinion, furnish a mutton every way suitable for plantation consumption, and one which would be well accept- ed in the Southern markets. In speaking of the Merino in this connection, I have in all cases, unless it is distinctly specified to the contrary, had no reference to the Saxons — though they are, as it is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the former. Assuming it now as a settled point, that it is to the Merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, let us now proceed to inquire which of the widely varying sub-varieties of this race are best adapted to the wants and circumstances of the South. A brief glance at the history of wool-growing, and of the wool markets, for the last few years, will form an useful preliminary inquiry, and will assist us materially in arriving at a correct conclusion. On the introduction of the Saxons, about twenty-four years since, they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-wooled flocks of the country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. The Tariff" of 1824 imposed a duty of 20 per cent, on wools costing above 10 cents per pound, gradually rising to 30 per cent., and 15 per cent, on those costing less than 10 cents. Foreign woolen cloths t were subject to an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent, until June 30th, 1S25, and after that it was raised to 331 per cent. The Tariff" of 1828 immediately raised the duty on all wools to 40 per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty, and 5 per cent, was to be annually added to the ad valorem, duty, until it should reach 50 * On account of the shortnePB of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds. t Where T uee the word " cloths " here and in the f-tatemmts of the diflerent Tariffs which follow, yoa Will understand that I do not Include caryetingB, blankets, worsted stuff goods, &c. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 159 per cent, (in 1831.) The duty on woolen cloths was also raised (after June, 1829) to 45 per cent., and that exceeding $4 the square yard to 50 per cent. Under the decisive encouragement offered to both the wool- grower and manufacturer by this Act, a gi'eat impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and the Saxons everywhere rapidly su- perseded, or bred out by crossing, the Spanish Merinos. The latter dis- appeared almost entirely from New-York and New-England. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every- thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. The Tariff of 1832 imposed a 40 per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty on wools costing over 8 cents ; and it raised the duty on all broadcloths to 50 per cent. It made wools costing less than 8 cents per pound free of duty. The "Compromise" Tariff of 1833 commenced a system of progressive reductions until the maximum rate of duties should not exceed 20 per cent. The following Table will give the duties of each year, on wool and cloths, under this Act, estimating the ad valorem and specific duties on wools exceeding 8 cents, together in an average per centage :* TABLE 14. Perct ad val. 1833 1835. 1837. 1839. 1841. 1842. Wool costing less than 8 cents per pound ) free. 54 50 free. 50-60 47 free. 47-20 44 free. 43-80 41 free. 40-40 38 free. 30-20 29 20 20 20 Wool costing over 8 cents per pound Woolen cloths The Tariff of 1841 struck out the 20 per cent, duty on the 8 cent wools. The Tariff of 1842 again imposed an ad valorem duty of 5 pe» cent, on wools costing seven cents or under, and raised it on the higher wools to 30 per cent, ad valorem and 3 cents per pound specific duty, and on cloths to 40 per cent, ad valorem. The Tariff of 1846 established an ad valorem, duty of 30 per cent, on all wools, and on cloths. By refening to Table 7, Letter V., it will be seen that the prices of wool have not been controlled by the amount of the protection. They reached their maximum in 1836, and then fell off, not again to rally, (except during the single year 1839) — not again to reach 40 cents — until 1844. Why was this % What pro- duced the sudden depreciation of 1837 % The Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 gave too 'much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer. Their pursuits became the El Dorado of agricultural and mercantile speculators. Skill without capital, and capital without skill, and in some cases probably thirst of gain Mathout either, rushed into these favoted avocations. The bank inflations of the period fanned the fires of speculation, and taught some of the wisest commercial heads of the country to forget the provi- dence that had hitherto distinguished them. The natural result followed. In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary en- terprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not based on adequate and real capital, wei'e involved in a common destruction, and even the solidest and best conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell almost 50 per cent, (from 54 to 30 cents per pound.) t In 1838 it ral- lied a little, and in 1839 it again reached 50 cents, but it went down nearly to the minimum point in 1840. The grower began to be discouraged. He who bred the delicate Saxons, (and, as I have already said, they now comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country,) * The reduction of one-tenth of the excess over 20 per cent, took place Dec. Slst. each year, to 1841 ; then one-half of the residue of the excess ; and on the 30th of June, 1842, the other half of said residue was de- ducted. t l"he quality of the wools here alluded to will be found specified in a note on the second page of Letter V. 160 ' SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. was not obtaining the actual first cost per pound of his wool. He clam- ored loudly for an increase of duties on the foreign article, as the reduc- tions of the " Compromise" Act were now approaching their ultimate standard— 20 per cent.— and he attributed the low prices to this cause: Saxon wool continued low, and did not pay its first cost in 1841 and 1842* Was this due solely to the reduction of the Tariff] A reference to Table 11 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign woolens was less from - 1836 up to and including 1842, than for the six preceding years ! Where then was the foreign competition which was driving the manufacturer to keep down the price of wools ? The Tarift' of 1842 raised the duty on wool 10 per cent, and added a specific duty of 3 cents per pound ; and it raised the duty on cloths from 20 to 40 per cent. The import of 'foreign woolens sunk, the succeeding year, to a lower point than it had touched since 1821, and in 1844 and 1845 it did not reach the average of the six years preceding the enactment of the Tariff of 1842. A reference to Table 9 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign fine wools also largely fell off. This coincided with the expectations of the advocates of a higher Tariff, but another and equally legitimate expectation entertained by the great body of Northern wool-growers— that they were to share in the benefits arising from the exclusion of foreign competition was sig- nally disappointed. The Tariff" of 1842 was enacted on the 30th day of August, and part of the clip of that year was sold under its operation Wool sold that year loiver than it had for the five preceding years, viz., for 30 cents. The next year it advanced one penny ! General discourage- ment noAV seized upon the growers of fine wool. The market was not overstocked— foreign competition was light, but still they could not sell their wool for its first cost ! To add to their mortification, the manufac- turer, by a most short-sighted policy, would scarcely make a discrimina- tion of 6d. per pound between Saxon wool and medium Merino and o-rade wools weighing nearly twice as much to the fleece. If the grower o1" me- dium wool got 25 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 4 lbs.— thus real- izing $1 per fleece— the ordinary Saxon grower would get but 30 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 2\ lbs., and thus realize but 75 cents ' * When the Saxon growers found that the Tariff" of '42 brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed^flocks. The example, once set, became contagious, and there was a period when it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacri- fice of their fixtures for rearing sheep. Others crossed with coarse-wooled breeds, and rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed with the English mutton breeds ! Some more judiciously went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually they selected the heaviest and coarsest wooled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool. As the preceding period had been distinguished by its mania iox fine wool, this was, by its mania for heavy fieeces !\ The Eno-lish crosses, however, were speedily abandoned.^ The Merino regained his • And thouch the larger, stronger sheep, bcsring the medium wool, would eat more, it was far hardier required less protection and care of every kind, and would increase more rapidly— circumstances which would far more than counterbalance its excess of consumption t I make no claim of havintr possessed greater sagacity or foresight in these particulars than the ma«s of breeders. I brgan with the Merino. These I crossed with the Saxon, and I also bred the pure-blood Sax- ons lor several years. Unsatisfied with these, I made some experiments with the English mutton breed's both as pure bloods and crosses. Kinding none of them equal to the Merino as a wool-producin^ sheen I returned to the latter, and I bred for heavy fleeces until the manufacturers saw fit to make a iuster discrim inalion in the prices paid by them for the diflerent qualities of wool. * I mean by those who sousht to improve their fine-wooled flocks by an English cross. English and all other coarse-wooled sheep are immensely and rapidly improved, for wool-growing purposes, by a DrODer fine-wooled cross, as 1 have already and shall again have occasion to mention ■- •" •^ ^ f f -^ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 161 supremacy, lost for nearly twenty years, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those re- gions. It will be seen from the preceding facts that the supply of fine wool* has proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. This has driven the manufacturers to make a juster discrimination in prices. They now realize that their own short-sighted economy has been all but fatal to fine wool-growing in the United States. And they cannot but feel that in destroying this interest, they destroy themselves. Our manufacturers are not so miserably blind as to dream of drawing their raw material from foreign countries — of paying an import duty of 30 per cent, and then competing with the English manufacturer who pays an import duty not exceeding two pence per pound ! It is doubtful, in my mind, whether the home supply will not fall considerably short of the home demand for fine wool /or this year .'t The point has been already reached where but a little more discouragement, or a little longer continved discouragement, would have banished these wools from the country ! So far, the manufac- tories have not felt this evil, for they have not been compelled to import. Neither pampered nor persecuted by the Tariff of 1846 — called for by the consumption of the country — with solid capital and greater experience and skill at their command — they are rapidly increasing, and rising on a solider basis than ever before. So, to sustain otir mamtfacturing interest, (that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths,) it is absolutely necessary that the diminution of /we wools be not only immediately arrested, but that the growth of them be immediately and largely increased. These facts now first beginning to be clearly appreciated by the manufacturei- — will deter him from resorting to his former suicidal policy. Instances have recently come to my knowledge of manufacturers offering to contract with fine-wool growers for their entire clips, for a term of years, at an ad- vance on present prices — prices, be it remembered, higher than they havo been except for two years (1839 and 1844) since the overthrow of 1837. Should the manufacturer, however, again forget his own interest, the fine- wool grower has it in his power to teach it to him most effectually. In- stead of being discouraged and driven from the business, he has but to withhold his wools for a season — say for a few months, to compel the for- mer to import wools at a ruinous cost — stop his machinery, or pay fair prices at home ! I believe in no combinations to control piices. Some- thing far better than vague report, however, says that several of the large manufacturing establishments of New-England employed the same agents, last season, to buy much, if not all of their wools — and that these wools were subsequently divided by bidding or otherwise, among the parties to the transaction ! Is this denied 1 I think it will not be denied. If this was so, what was it but a combination to control prices If But whether * To make myaelf clearly understood, I will, in the remarks which follow, classify wools as follows : .btained from a wrinkled skin ; and this is the view * This is not high for_^we Merino wool. Thoueh I sold my lot for 42 cents, I was offered 50 cents for the fleeces of nearly all my laier-brcd sheep, if I would sell them separately. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 167 of the case which has induced both the Spanish and French breeders to cultivate them — the latter to a monstrosity. I confess that I agree, to a considerable extent, with Mr. Joshua Kirby Trimmer,* that " this idea is as wild as that which some of our theorists have entertained, that, by lay- ing lands in high ridges and low furrows, the surface of the earth and its produce is increased." Though I once entertained a different opinion, the steel-yards have satisfied me that an exceedingly wrinkled neck does not add but a little to the weight of the fleece — not enough to compensate for the deformity, and the great impediment which it places in the way of the shearer, I have owned rams, the labor of shearing six of which, in a nice and workmanlike manner — cutting the wool off" short and smooth, on and among the multitude of folds and wrinkles — was fully equivalent to shear- ing fifteen ordinary Merino rams, or twenty-five ewes — that is to say, a day's work for one man. And none but a skillful shearer could, with any time given him, clip the wool short and smooth among the wrinkles, with- out frequently and severely cutting the skin. A smoothly drawn skin, and absence of all dewlap, on the other hand, would not, perhaps, be desirable. The wool of the Merino should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly grow, from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks — but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose below the eyes, is unsightly — without value — and on the faces it frequently impedes the sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool, as seems to be thought by some, the slightest indication of a heavy fleece. I have as often seen it on Saxons scarcely shearing 2 lbs. of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit, is another of the mooted points. Here, as in many other particulars, experience has changed my earlier impressions. Merino wool should be yolky or " oily," prior to washing — though not to that extreme extent, giving it the ap- pearance of being saturated with grease, occasionally witnessed. The extreme tips of the wool may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast — particularly in the ram — but a black, pitchy gum, resembling semi-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which cannot he removed in ordinary ivashing, is, in my opinion, decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the interior of "■some fleeces, which is equally objectionable. The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, inasmuch as it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the sheep from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall. The wool should be as nearly as possible of even length and thickness over the whole body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thinness on the belly, are serious defects. ' " Evenness of fleece " is a point of the first importance. Many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dewlap, &c. Rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-wooled flock, and all such ewes should be gradually excluded from those selected for breeding. The "style of the wool" is a point of as much consequence as mere * " Practical Observations on the Improvemant of British Fine Woole, &c." by the aboTC, 1828, l^S SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff and the fibres almost straight, like hair. It has a dry, cottony look. This is a poor, unsalable article, how- ever fine the fibre. Softness of wool— a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to look after. This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities so that an experienced judge can decide, with little difliculty, between 'the quality of two fleeces, in the dark ! Wool should be finely serrated or crimped from one extremity to the other— e. e., it should present a regular series of minute curves, and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given length, the higher the quality of wool in all other particulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should be dense enough to con- ceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and "liveliness " of look not surpassed in the best silk. The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to eschew, are— a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes a thin, long neck, arching downward befine the shoulders — bad crops back falling behind the shoulders — narrow loin — flat ribs — steep, narrow hind quarters — long legs— thighs scarcely meeting at all — legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were sep- arately or conjointly illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have been recently swept from the country. The points to be avoided in the fleece have been sufficiently adverted to. Having thus attempted to establish a standard for the Merino-breeder, it remains that we examine some of the most important principles, in breeding, by which that standard is to be reached or maintained. The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is that "like will beget like." If the sire and dam are perfect in anv given point, the offspring will generally be ; if either is defective, the offspring will (sub- ject to a law presently to be adverted to) be half way between the two; if both are defective in the same point, the progeny will be more so than either of its parents— it will inherit the amount of the defect in both pa- rents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breed- ing, then, is a system of counterbalancing — breeding out — in the offspring, the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent' tn the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny ; but blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a o-reater degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning%reed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impro- priety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose ; but the flockmaster, aiming at a high standard of quality, should gradually throw out from breeding all ewes possessing even considerable defects. Every year should make him more rigorous in his selection. But from the be- ginning — and in the beginning more than at any other time— the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock. If it is a material one, as, for example, a hollow back, bad crops, a thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece, the flock will be one of low quality and little value. I^ on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the females will be lessened, and gradually bred out. But it being diflScult to ^x\A perfect rams, we are' to take those which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 169 these material ones, like those just enumerated. And these defects are to be met and countei'balanced by the decided excellence (sometimes running to a fault) of the ewe, in the same jioints. If the ram is a little too long- legg-ed, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him ; if gummy, the dryest-wooled ewes ; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard of fineness, (but he has been retained, as it often happens, for weight of fleece and general excellence,) he is to be put to the finest and lightest fleeced ewes, and so on. Having a selection of rams, this system of coun- terbalancing would require little skill, if each parent possessed but one fault. If the ewe was a trifle too thin fleeced, and good in all other par- ticulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she needed to be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and vice versa, re- quires not only plentiful materials to select from, but the keenest dis- crimination. The time and the convenient method of selecting the ewes for the several rams, and the subsequent management, will be hereafter pointed out. We will now suppose that the breeder has established his flock — that he has done so successfully, and given them an excellent character. He is soon met with a serious evil. He must " breed in-and-in," as it is called — that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood — or he must seek rams from other flocks, to the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto sought so sedulously, and built up with so much care. It is contended by the opponents of in-and-in breeding that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease of size, to debility, and a general breaking up of th© constitution. Its apologists, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, incestuous connexion does not, per se, tend to any diminution of healthiness in the offspring ; and they also claim, what must be conceded, that it enables the skillful breeder much more rapidly to bring his flock to a particular standard or model — and much more easily to keep it there — unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwin- dle and grow feeble. So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned;, both positions tnai/ be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, diffi- cult to always decide with certainty when an animal is not only fi-ee from disease, but from all tendency or predisposition toward it. A brother and sister may be apparently healthy — may be actually so — but may possess an idiosyncrasy which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself. — If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live, apparently possessing a robust constitution, until old age. If bred together, their off- spring, by a rule already laid down, will possess the idiosyncrasy in a double degree. Suppose the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters^ daughters, grand-daughters, &c., for several generations, the predisposition toward a particular disease — in the first place slight, now strong, and con- stantly growing stronger — will pervade, and become radically incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite ex- citing causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept away ; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, from theip slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost before thought of by the ovmer, they destroy the value of the sheep. That such are the commou effects of in-and-in breed* Y 170 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ing, with sucli skill as it is ordinarily conducted, all know who have given attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is looked upon with decided disapprobation and repugnance, as among all kinds of domes- tic animals, by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers of the Northern •States. How, then, shall the sheep-breeder avoid the effects of in-and-in breed- ing, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock 1 He should do so by seeking rams of the same breed, and possessing, as nearly as pos- sihle, the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock. If the latter rule is neglected — if he draws indiscriminately from all the different families or varieties of a breed — some large and some small — some long and some short-wooled — some medium and some superfine in quality — Bome tall and some squabby — some crusted over with black gum, some entirely free from it, &c. &;c. — breeding will become a mere hotch-potch, and no certain or uniform results can be looked for. So many varieties cannot be fused into one, for a number of generations ;* and it not unfre- quently happens, as between the different classes of Saxons alluded to by Mr. Spooner,t that certain families can never be successfully amalgamated. But suppose the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard — that his sheep are deficient in the requisites he desires 1 If the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses, he is to adhere to the breed, and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has an infe- rior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best South Dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses, he must cross with a breed tvhich does possess them. If the possessor of South- Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-wooled sheep similar to the Me- rino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams — constantly in- creasing the amount of Merino and diminishing the amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country, or any other coarse race. There are those who, foj-getful that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of crosses, bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. As fre- quently conducted, where objects incompatible with each other are sought to be attained — as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds — it is an unqualified absurdity. But under the limitations already laid down, and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, objection to crossing savors, in my judgment, of prejudice the most profound, or quackery the most unvarnished. The cry, " buy full-bloods," with such men, generally means, *' buy our full-bloods ! " It is neither convenient, nor within the means of eveiy man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to start exclusively with full- bloods. With a few full-bloods to breed rams from, and to begin a full- blood flock, the Southern breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, fair size, good shape, and a robust constitution, are the main points — the little difference that exists between the quality of the common sheep's wool is of no consequence. For their wool they are to look to the Merino ; but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely un- necessary evils on their progeny. * This occasions ihe want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock in France, which was begun by a pro. miscuous admixture of all the Spanish families. t Quoted in Letter X. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 171 I have already spoken, in this Letter, incidentally, of the effect on the fleece of the common sheep, by crossing with the Merino and breeding steadily toward the latter ; and also of the mutton of this cross, as well as that of the Merino and the English breeds. The result of the cross with the common sheep has been sufficiently described. I would add a few remarks in relation to that with the South-Down and Leicester — both of which I have tried until sufficiently satisfied with the result. Resolved on making an experiment with a Down and Merino cross, a few years since, and finding it difficult to obtain Down ewes* of the proper quality, I obtained a small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even- fleeced Down ram,t and crossed him with a few large-sized Merino ewes. The half-blood ewes were bred to a Merino ram, and also their female progeny, and so on. The South-Down form and disposition to take on fat manifested itself, to a perceptible extent, in every generation which I bred,J and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation (|^-blood Merino and i-blood Down) was very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merino, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. Their mutton of the first, and even the second cross, was of a beautiful flavor — and it retained some of the superiority of South-Down mutton to the last. 1 at the same time purchased a few Leicester ewes,|| and, as in the preceding case, taking one cross of the blood, I bred toward the Merino. The mongrels, to the second generation (beyond which I did not breed them) were about midway between the size of the two parent stocks — with wool shorter, but far finer and more compact than the Leicester — their fleeces about the same in weight as in the present stocks§ — and alto- gether they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmei's. Their fleeces lacked evenness — their thighs remaining disproportionately coarse and hairy ; and making up my mind that this would always be a tendency of the sheep of this cross, 1 aban- doned them without farther experiment. In relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram, there is a difference of opinion. Mr. Livings- ton says :^ " It is now so well established as not even to admit of the smallest doubt that a Merino in tlie fourlh generation, from even the worst-wooled ewes, is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire. No ditference is now made in Europe in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood or a fifteen-sixteenths." .... " The French agriculturists say that however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it." I am constrained to differ with even this high authority. I admit that the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring. As soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on his progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal. But I do not * To carry out the commonly received principle in breeding, that in crossing between different races the ram of the smaller should be put to ewe of the larger one. t This ram, obtained from Francis Rotch, Esq., was got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman's, and from one of his choicest breedin^-ewes. and showed infinitely more style, as well as fineness and evenness of wool, than the common Downs of our country. He was not larger than a large-sized Merino ram. I These I finally put otFto save myself the n-ouble of breeding several kinds of sheep on the same farm. \ Descended from the flock of the late Robert Adcock. of Otsego County, N. Y. — considered at the time equal to any flock in the State. 4 That is, about 5 lbs. I have put down the Leicester fleece, in my description of the breed, at 6 lbs., as this is the amount generally claimed for them ; but in the few cases brought within my direct knowledge, they have never averaged it. My ewes above alluded to did not, I think, average quite 5 lbs. % Edsay on dheep, pp. 181, 183. 172 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. believe that this can be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the fouith Merino cross. My only experience in this particular is in the ob- servation of other men's flocks who have bred with high-grade rams.* These have invariably lacked the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last perhaps almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams, but I confess I should still prefer to adhere to the latter. Pure blood is a fixed stand- ard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it, in his rams, each one more or less, according to his own judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No man would be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, be it the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. It is all-important for those commencing flocks either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may be made to serve II from 100 to 150 ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will, speaking within bounds, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam, on every lamb got by it, from a common-wooled ewe.§ Here is one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season ! And every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, 800 or 1,000 lambs ! Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He gets from 800 to 1,000 half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is as important, and, it seems to Tne, quite as vahiable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion ! When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior one is sufficiently obvious. Every one desirous of starting a flock will find it his best economy, where the proper flocks to draw rams from are not near him, to purchase several of the same hreed, of course, but of different strains of blood. Thus, ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and vice versa; No. 3 can be put upon the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable dan- ger, are innumerable.^ But if these rams of different strains are bought promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and probably will be differences between them, and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them, a proper uniformity of character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood with the necessary individual and family uni formity. * I have never knowingly bred with any other ram than a pure-blood, of any stock, or for any purpose. ti By methods hereafter to be described. § That is, if the ewe at 3 yeais old sheared 3 lbs. of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear 4 lbs. of wool. TT The brother and sister are of the mwic blood ; the father and daughter, half; the father and grand- daughter, one-fourth ; the father and great grand-daughter, one-eighth, and so on. Breeding between an- imals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding ; and it is not uncustomary, in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same blood. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 173 LETTER XII. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Tagging— necessity of— method of doing it. ..Burs— how avoided... Lambing — time of— Inclosures for — Mechanical Assistance— when rendered— assisting the Lamb— Feeding— necessary care in— Warming- Foster Ewes... Pens..." Pinning". . .Numbering and Registering— advantages of— Von Thaer's System of Numbering — manner of doing it conveniently— Mr. Groves form of a Register.. .Castration and Docking — proper time and method.. .Washing— time— necessary apparatus — "wetting" — manner of washing — ordinary waste in subsequent cleansing.. Cutting the Hoofs— best time— implementa—method.. .Time between Washing and Shearing. . ..-hearing — proper cooveniences for— catcher's business — directions to shearer— general directions . . . Shearing Lambs — shearing Sheep semi-annually- objectionable practices . . . Doing up Wool— Wool Table and Trough — handling fleece— arrangement on table— folding— rolling— ty- ing— proper twine... Storing Wool— Wool-Room.. .Sacking Wool — methods.. .Sorting the Flock at shear, ing— how done... Marking Sheep— the proper way. ..Cold Storms after Shearing.. .Sun-scald. . -Ticks — how destroyed.. -Maggots— preventives... Cutting the Horns. . .Division of Flocks for Summer.. .Hop- pling— Clogging, &c..- Dangerous Rams.. .Fences... Salt.. .Tar.. .Water -..Shade... Weaning Lambs... Fall Feeding.. .Shepherd's Crook. Dear Sir : Agreeably to your request, and that of various other South- ern friends, I pi'oceed to give directions for the practical management of sheep " plain and minute enough for the guidance of those entirely unac- quainted with the subject." I will begin with their Summer Management.* Tagging. — If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually purge more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. But whether this takes place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of washing. It forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. It is difficult to force the shears be- tween it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to shearing, and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. Before sheep are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs, over the surface included between the dotted lines in ^'s- 16. the cut. The wool should be sheared from off the en- tire bag of the ewe, that the newly dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram, as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the con- stant maceration of the urine. Sometimes each tagger catches and holds his own Bheep, but it is, on the whole, better, I think, to have an assistant catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off' closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance, when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off"; * I have not thousht it necessary to mark with quotation points, various extracts in this Letter, from a series of Letters written by me a number of years since, and published in the " Valley Farmer." 174 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and, on the othei" hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that on the bag of an ewe near lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the ex- penses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other ordinary domestic purposes, or it will sell for something like half the price of fleece wool. Humanity and economy both dictate that care should be taken in han- dling sheep at all times, and it is especially important with ewes heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and han- dle them roughly, for even if abortion, the worst consequence of such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render- ing it difficult to catch or render them assistance at the lambing period — > and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes where it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, &c. It may not be known to every one, that if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool when running, or is lifted by its wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized, and if killed a day or two afterward, blood will be found settled about those parts. A man knowing this, and subsequently guilty of such gratuitous brutality, richly deserves to be kicked out of tlie sheep-yard. When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded — so they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind leg close above the hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw his right arm over and about it immediately back of the shoulders, place his hand under the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He then should set it carefully on its rump on the tagging-table, (which should be 18 or 20 inches high,) support its back with his legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two men should not be permitted to lift the same sheep together, as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and assistant will tag 200 sheep per day. Where sheep receive green feed all the year round, as they will do in many parts of the South, and no purging ensues from eating the newly- starting grasses in the spring, tagging will not be necessary. Burs, &c. — If sheep are let out in the spring into pastures where the dry stalks of the Burdock ( Arctmm lappa), or the Hound's Tongue, or Tory -weed ( Cynoglossum officinale), have remained standing over the win- ter, the burs are caught in their now long wool, and, if numerous, the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable, and almost valueless. Even the dry pi'ickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer- ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the Northern spring ; and, in- dependently of iniuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and other- wise handle the sheep. The Burdock being a large and not very frequent plant, there is no excuse for its being found on the farm. The Hound's Tongue is very prevalent in* forests and partly wooded pastures in the North, and it is not conspicuous enough to be easily eradicated, though careful sheep-farmers often do so. If sheep are let into pastures contain- in ^ it, it must be only in the summer and fall, after shearing. The burs, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 175 not sunk so deeply in the short wool, will wear out during our winters — but no man thinks of letting his sheep into pastures containing it, before shearing in the spring. Indeed, sheep should be kept on the cleanest pas- tures — those free from these and all similar plants — during this period ; and, in a region where they are pastured the year round, if such pests are not eradicated — which /should consider indispensable — the sheep should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. Lambing. — Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold and boister- ous, as they require too much care ; but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk. It is customary in the Noith to have fields of clover, or the earli- est gi-asses, reserved for the early spring feed of the breeding ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their shelters, it is a great convenience — for the ewes should be confined in the lattei', on cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer to have the lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep are more disposed to own and take kindly to their lambs thus, than in the confusion of a small inclosure. Unless particularly docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, pressing them severely, &c. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and. then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about. Young and timid ewes get separated from their lambs, and fre- quently will neglect them for an hour or more before they will again ap- proach them. If the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, stands a chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a dirty inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the mem- brane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung — and the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much increases the hazard of freezing. Nevertheless, all this must be incurred in cold storms, and in sudden and severe weather ; and, therefore, it should be the effort of every shep- herd to teach his sheep docility. I have seen the late Mr. Grove walk about a barn filled with his Saxons, not only without their crowding from side to side, but many of them absolutely lying still while he stepped over them ! I say it " must be incurred." I mean by this that it is the safest course with all breeds, and a matter of necessity with others. It takes but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which (the pure blood) is yeaned nearly as naked as a child ! During a severely cold pei'iod, of several days' continuance, it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. Inclosures, when used for yeaning, should be kept clean by frequent lit- terings of straw — not enough, howevei", thrown on at one time, to embar- rass the lamb about rising. The ewe does not often I'equire mechanical assistance in parturition. — Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud meanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose of the lamb showing at the mouth of the vagina. But, if let alone, Nature will generally finally relieve her. Tais might not do with the 176 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. heavy English breeds. I should infer not, from the elaborate directions, in the premises, by Youatt, Blacklock, and other English waiters on Sheep; though with the comparatively small number of these varieties which I have bred, I have had no difficulty in this particular. Among the thou- sands and thousands of fine-vvooled sheep which I have bred, I never have known a single instance of a false presentation of the fcEtus, and never have had mechanical assistance rendered in to exceed half a dozen in- stances. The objection to interfering, except as a last resort, is that the ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. — When aided, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise, and the ewe is licking it dry, it is better to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that gets at the teat without help, and gets even a small quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days. — The same is true when lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise, particularly if the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly, it is time for the sliepherd to render his assistance. It is better not to throw the ewe down, as is fre- quently practiced, to suckle the lamb, because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose vjncard in search of the teat. It is doubly difficult, there- fore, to induce it to suck from the bag of the prostiate ewe ; and when taught to do this, by being suckled so several times, I have invariably no- ticed that it renders it awkward about finding the teat in the natural posi- tion, when it begins to stand and help itself. Nothing is stupider than a weakly lamb ! Carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook, the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and, then pressing her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and stilly, so that she shall not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd. The shepherd should set the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible ; if not, supporting it on its feet by placing one hand under its body — place its mouth to the teat, and encour- age it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, &c., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re- double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will evince great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, &c. ; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the level of a hnttc hy resenting the stiijnditij of a hrute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will in- duce it to take hold. If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed until the natural supply commences, with small quantities of the milk of a new-milch cow. This should be mixed, say half and half, with water — with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of biestings, or the first milk — gently warmed to the natural heat (not scalded and suffered to cool), and then fed thiough a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should suck, if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle, as already remarked, it is frequently difficult afterward to induce it to suck. And, moreover, unless milk is poured in the mouth slowly and with care — no faster than the lamb can swallow — a speedy wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs. I have known lambs frequently killed in this way. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 177 If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped up in a woolen blanket, and placed in a warm room — giving a little milk as soon as it will swal- low. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and 1 think with good effect, to rouse the cold and torpid stomach into action. Some of the Yankee old ladies, under such circumstances, " bake " the lamb, as it is called — i. e., put it in a blanket in a moderately heated oven, vmtil warmth and animation are restored. Others immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry. This is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. I never have tried it. A good blanket, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction, have always sufficed. If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chances to lose her lamb, she should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's pair of twins — or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. Her own lamb should be skinned, as soon as possible after death, and the skin sowed over the lamb which she is required to foster. She will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day ov two, and if so, she should be kept in a small pen with the lamb, being occasionally looked to. After taking well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no lamb is placed on a ewe which has lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may ensue. If it does not, permanent indurations, or other re- sults of inflammatory action will often take place, injuring the subsequent nursing pi'operties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold water. It checks the subsequent secretions of milk, as well as abates inflammation. Garget will be treated under the head of Diseases of Sheep. Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting suflficient fondness for hei lamb, will not stand for it to suck ; and in this case, if the lamb is not very strong and persevering, and especially if the weather is cold, it soon grows weak and perishes. The conduct of the dam in such cases is occasioned by inflammatory action abo'^t the bag or teats — and, perhaps somewhat by the noveJiy of her position ! In this case the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted the bag, and there will not often be any trouble afteiward, though it may be w:ell enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. I have several times spoken o^ pens. They are necessary in the cases 1 have mentioned, and in a variety of others. It is therefore well for the flock-master to be always provided with a few of them for emergencies. They need not be to exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so they can be readily moved by one, or, at the most, two men, fi-om place to place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles, laid up fence fashion, and each nailed or pegged to the lower ones, at the cor- ners, as laid on, would make excellent ones. Two or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered to shel- ter feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, &c. Young lambs are subject to what is technically called " pinning," — that is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering matter should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed Avith a little dry clay to prevent subseqvient adhesion. Lambs will frequently perish from this cause if not looked to for the first few days. Z ^ 178 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Numbering and Registering. — This is not absolutely necessaiy for the wool-grower, though it is, in many points of view, a vast convenience to him, and leads to a degree of system in his efforts after improvement, and gives a definiteness and precision to the execution of his plans, otherwise unattainable. But the breeder — he who makes it his business more par- ticularly to raise choice animals to sell for breeding purposes — is unwor- thy of the name, if he does not regularly number and register his sheep, so that he can trace the descent of any ram or ewe, through any number of generations. This is not merely to gratify an idle curiosit^, or to fui'- nish a purchaser with a sounding pedigree. Every breeder is under the ne- cessity of dii'ectly bi-eeding in-and-in, or of occasionally employing new strains of blood. If the latter step is often resorted to, the hazard is in- creased of changing the character of the flock.* If he numbers and regis- ters his sheep, he can breed " closer,"! and consequently longer, without a change, without the hazard of confusion or mistake. Where half a dozen, or even three or four rams are used in the flock the same year, it would be beyond the power of any breeder, relying on his memory alone, to decide, six or eight or ten years subsequently, which were the daughters, grand- daughters, and great-grand-daughters of each. If the rams A and B be un- related, A may be put to the daughters of B, and then B be put to the produce, (i. e., his own grand-daughter, got by A,) without "close" breed- ing — because they possess but one-quarter of the same blood. Then the great-grand-daughter may be again put to A, because she possesses but one- quarter of his blood. As I remarked in my last Letter, with three strains of blood to start with, the breeder may ring innumerable changes, without ever trenching on that line which marks the boundaries of close breeding. He who pretends that he can preserve such multiplied classifications in his memory alone, is unworthy of the least confidence. There is another very important consideration. Numbering and regis- tering enables the breeder to trace breeding ejects (\efimte]y to their causes. Suppose that he finds that an unusual number of his young ewes are poor nurses — or exhibit some imperfection of form or wool. He can re- move the present effect by throwing out the defective ones. But the undis- covered cause may still remain in operation. It may be a particular ram, or the result of interbreeding between such ram, and ewes of a certain strain of blood. If this ram, ov perhaps others got by him, be permitted to breed, or breed with a particular class of ewes, the evil creeps along in the flock, its cause remaining undiscovered. But if the breeder could fix the precise pedigree of every sheep, from an accurately kept register, he would soon ascertain what strains of blood, or the conjunction of what strains, produced the evil. By the same means, he could as readily trace the sources of paiticular excellence. The system of numbering invented by the celebrated Von Thaer is far preferable to any other which I have seen.| It is as follows : |1 ' A ram of a new strain of blood, though of prime quality, and apparently pos?e.ssins the same charac- terisstics with the Hnck, does not always intcrhreed well with the tlock in all those minute particulars which the breeder is bound to notice, thouah they might escape the eye of the ordinary flock-master. Every breeder, therefore, who has a flock thnt suits him, is exceedingly averse to an infusion of new blood, and resorts to it only as a matter of necessity. t That is, he can breed in-and-in somewhat. " Close" breeding is breeding between near affinities, such as between brother and ei.ster, which are of the same blood, or between a father and a grand-daughter be- gotten on a daughter, which would be three-fourths of the same blood. &c. X It will not cause half the mutilation of the system given in the American Shepherd — is simple, and gives the age. which the former does not. Neither can this system of giving the age be ingrafted on that system of numbering. II As furnished me by Mr. Grove, a number of years since, with this exception, that the point of the right ear cut square oft^ he made to stand for 700 instead of 500, as I have placed it. I made this change, as the notch and clip standing for 100 and 400, comipg on the point of the same ear, there was no com- bination tr> express 500. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 179 No. 44—1841. One notch over the left ear, (that which is on your left when the face of the sheep is from you,) stands for 1 ; two notches over the same, for 2. One notch under the left ear stands for 3. Three such notches carry up the number to 9. One notch over the right ear stands for 10 ; two such for 20. One notch under the same stands for 30 ; and three such for 90. Combinations of the above (three notches under each ear) would carry up the number to 99. These four classes of notches which express all parts of a hundred, are shown in the first of the annexed cuts. A sheep marked like fig. 17 would be No. 44. A notch in the end of left ear, as in fig. 18,^ stands for 100 ; in right do. 200. In addition to these there are on the same cut two 1 notches, one 3 notch, one 10 do., and two 30 Jo. Adding the whole together, the sheep would therefore be No. 375. As the 100 and 200 notches, together, make 300, no separate notch is required for the latter number. The point of tlie left ear cut square off, as in fig. 19, cut, stands for 400 ; the point of the right cut square' off, for 500. The latter and the 100 notch would make 600, and so on. The lambs of each year and each sex are num- bered from 1. The age is expressed by round holes through the ears, standing for the year in which the sheep is born. As there is no possibility of making a mistake of ten years in the age of a sheep, these marks are the same be- tween each tenth year of the century. Between 1840 and 1850, no hole woilld express 1840 ; one hole in the left ear, 1841 ; two holes in the left ear, 1842 ; one hole in the I'ight ear, 1843 ; one hole in the right and one in the left, 1844 ; one hole in the right and two in the left, 1845 ; two in the right, 1846 ; two in the right and one in the left, 1847 ; two in each, 1848 ; three in the right, 1849 ; none in either, 1850 — and the same for the next ten years. Examples are given in the preceding cuts. In other words, one hole in the left ear signifies 1, and one in the right 3, as applied to the years between each tenth of a century — and the combinations of these holes are made to express all the intermediate years, with the exception of the tenth. Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a mark (en- tirely distinct from the mark of ownership) which will continue visible un- til the next sheaiing. Nothing is better for this purpose than Venetian Red and hog's lard, well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. The ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, or a minute of it in the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tupped, any time before the next shearing. The holes in the ears, indicating the year, being the same on the whole annual crop of lambs, may be made at any convenient time. The holes are most conveniently made by a saddler's spring-punch, the cutting cyl- inder of which is about ^^ of an inch in diameter. If too small, the holes will grow up in healing. In numbering, it is difficult to prevent mistakes, if it is defeired until No. 909—1848. 180 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the lamb attains much size. If penned with the dams when a month or two old, hours will sometimes elapse befoi'e each lamb will suck — the only certain indication to which ewe it belongs. It being perfectly safe to per- form this process when the lamb is only about a day old (or as soon as the lamb can walk, if it is a strong one), the shepherd carries the notcher in his pocket, and a little book, each page being ruled into six columns, and headed as in the register presently given. This constitutes the day-book, which is subsequently drawn off on the Register. The notcher which I use is of my own invention, and I have found it far preferable to any I have seen elsewhere. It consists of a saddler's spring- punch — the cutting cylinder being taken out, and a little sharp chisel of the same length being screwed in its place. The edge of the chisel de- scribes a semi-ellipsis, cutting a notch out of the ear 1 of an inch deep, and a little over j^g wide at the base. A triangular cut in the ear, with so nar- row a base, will grow together for some distance from the apex. This instrument is far more convenient thau'"a chisel and block. The shepherd, on finding a lamb of the right age to mark, goes quietly up to it, stopping it by the neck with his crook if it attempts to run away. Tlie ewe will come near enough, in a moment or two, to be secured by the crook, and then the shepherd notes her number and age, and enters it in his pocket-book, and also by what ram tupped. The lamb then is num- bered with the notcher, and this and its general appearance is noted down in the appropriate columns. If the ewe is too wild to be caught, the lamb may be notched — the number of the sire, &c., entered — and the number of the ewe subsequently ascertained in the pen. I have two forms of Breeding Registers, originally furnished me by my lamented friend, the late Mr. Grove. One contains ten columns, the other eight. I have adopted the simplest one, omitting two of the columns, which leaves the Register in the following form : BREEDING REGISTER— 1845. No. of Dam. Tupp'd by Ram No. 16—39 Date of Lambivg. No. of Rams. Lamb. Ewes. 22—40 May 4. 1 50—41 25—42 May 4. 1 6—42 7—43 May 5. 2&3 11—41 7—43 May 5. Classification and Remarks. Coarsish — wrinkly — thick, short-legged, and stout — bad crops — ewe plenty of milk, and kind. Fine — thin — long-legged — wool short — will lack constitution — ewe kind — little milk. ' Small, but of good shape and fine wool — No. 3 ' wrinkly and like sire — No. 2 more like dam. — ^ Ewe plenty of milk, but careless. 'The lamb was born dead, very small. Same last ' year. This ewe had better be thrown out of breeding. The first entry above records the following facts : " The ewe No. 22, born in 1840, tupped by the ram No. 16 of 1839, dropped on the 4th of May a ram lamb, which was marked No. 1, its character being as described under the head of ' Classification and Remarks.' " The column of " Remarks" is a very important one, if the minutes are made with accuracy and judgment. It should include an enumeration of all the prominent characteristics of the lamb, and of the appearances of the ewe as a breeder and nurse. These records will, in a single season, decide the character of a ram as a stock-getter, and that of the ewe, in a year or two, as a breeder and nurse. Emasculation and Docking. — These should usually precede washing, as at that period the oldest lambs will be about a month old, and it is safer to perform the operations when they are a couple of weeks younger. — Dry, pleasant weather should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe (644^ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 181 process. Let a man hold the lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in fiont in his hands. — Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing mem- brane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife, if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once with their teeth. It is common to drop a little salt into the pouch. Where the weather is veiy warm, some touch the end of the pouch (and that of the tail, after that is cut off) with an oint- ment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, however, they will do just as well, here, without any application. The tail should be cut off, say one and a half inches from the body, with a chisel on the head of a block, the skin being slid up toward the body with a finger and thumb, so that it will afterward cover the end of the stump. Severed with a knife, the end of the tail being grasped with one of the hands in the ordinary way, a naked stump is left which it takes some time to heal. It may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is unnecessary to cut off the tail. If left on, it is apt to collect filth, and, if the sheep purges, it becomes an intolerable nuisance. Washing. — This is usually done here about the first of June. The* cli- mate of the Southern States would admit of its being done earlier. The rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains and storms, and cold nights, are no longer to be expected. Sheep are usually washed by our best flock-masters in vats. A small stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct (formed by nailing boards together), and carried until sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be considerable — say 24 inches wide, and five or six deep — and the swifter the current the better. The vat should be say 3^ feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, and a platform from the gate of the yard extends to and encircles the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer Fig. 20. WASHING APPARATUS. from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The cut here given exhibits all the necessary appendages. The 182 SHEEP HUSBANDRy IN THE SOUTH. yard is built opposite the corners of two fields (1 and 2), to take advantage of the angle of one of them (1), to drive the sheep more readily into the yard. (3). This yard should be large enough to hold the whole flock, if it does not exceed 200 ; and the bottom of it, as well as of the smaller yard (5), un- less well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid be- coming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a number of flock- masters, graveling will be always necessary. As soon as the flock are confined in yard 3, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into yard 4. This is to prevent their being trampled down, as it often happens, by the old sheep, or straying oft' if let loose. As many sheep are then driven out of yard 3 into the smaller yard 5 as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, to open and shut it (or the gate is drawn shut with a chain and weight), and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of tagging, com- mence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of "wetting." As soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an in- stant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose.* The vat should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through field 1 into yard 3, where they should stand, say, an hour, before washing commences. There is a large per centage of potasht in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt, independently of the favorable effect which would result from thus soaking it for some time with water alone. If washed soon after a good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with ; and it is not absolutely necessary, perhaps, in any case. If the water is warm enough to keep the sheep in it fur the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting — though the snowy whiteness of fleece which tells so on the 2^^*'^ chaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. Little time is saved by omitting "wetting," as it takes propor- tionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept such a length of time in the water at once. When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged into the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. But this should not be done, unless the water is very warm, and the washers are uncommonly quick and expert. On the whole, it is rather an objectionable practice, for few animals suffer as much from the effects of a chill as sheep. If they have been previously wetted, it is wholly un- necessary. When the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the breech, belly, &c., (the dirtier parts,) aiid they then continue to turn the sheep so that the descend- ing current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own by the fore parts, plunges it deep in the vat, and taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently down on its breech on the platform. He then, if the sheep is old or weak, (and it is well in all cases,) presses out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be adverted to, lets it go. There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not cov- ered with sod, being graveled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures from washing to shearing — not where they can come in contact with * Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more easily performed by driving the eheep throuiih a stream deep enough to compel them to swim. But swimming the compact-fleeced, fine- wcoled eheep for any length of time, as is practiced v^ith the Long-Wools in England, will not properly cleanse the wool for shearing \ Vauquelin, quoted by Youatt, says that it consisu mostly of soapy matter with a basis of potash; 2. Carb. of potash ; 3. Acetate of potash ; 4. Lime ; 5. Muriate of potash SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 183 the ground, burnt logs, &c. — and they should not be driven over dusty roads. The washers should be strong and careful men, and protected as they are from anything but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can labor several hours without inconvenience, and without drinking whisky until they cease to know whether a sheep is well washed or well treated, as was the bad old fashion. Two hundred sheep will employ two expert men not over half a day, and I have known this rate much ex- ceeded. It is a great object, not only as a matter of propi'iety and honesty, but even as a matter of profit, to get the wool clean and of a snowy whiteness. It will always sell for more than enough extra, in this condition, to offset against the increased labor and the diminution in weight. Mr. Lawrence wrote me, a few years since, that the average loss in American Saxon wool, in scouring, (after being washed on the back,) was 36 per cent., and in American Merino 42^ per cent. ! Cutting the Hoofs. — The hoofs of fine-wooled sheep grow rapidly, turn up in front and under at the sides, and must be clipped as often as once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the sheep, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movements of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the hoof in its proper shape. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and the difficulty of curing it — and in England it is thought to originate the aiaease. It is customai-y to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs, but then the sheep must be subsequently turned on its back to pare off the projecting and curling-under side crust. If the weather be dry, or the sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, (as at shearing,) the hoofs are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty — and this is in- creased by the s:rit and dirt which adheres to the sole, and immediately takes the edge off from the knife. The above periods are ill chosen, and the methods slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit heavily pregnant ewes to all this un- necessary handling at the time of tagging. When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its rump on the platform, the gate-keeper advances with a pair of toe-nrppers, and ^'g- ^i- the washer presents each foot sepa- rately, pressing the toes together so they can be severed at a single clip. The nippers shown in the cut, can be tok-nippkrs. made by any blacksmith who can tem- per an ax or chisel. They must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot long, the rivet being of half-inch iron and confined with a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting edge should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are severed with a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to each foot, the side crust (being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as 194 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a cucumber,) is reduced to the level of the soles. Two expert men will go through these processes in less time than it will take to read this de- scription of them ! The closer the paring and clipping, the better, if blood is not drawn. An occasional sheep may requiie clipj^ing again in the fall. Time between Washing and Shearing. — This depends altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright warm weather is suffi- cient. If cold and rainy, or cloudy, more time must elapse. I have known the wool to remain in an unfit condition to shear a fortnight after washing. The rule is, the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctuous feel and a lively, glittering look. If you shear it when dry, like cotton, before the oil has exuded, you cheat yourself, and the wool will not keep so well for long periods.* If you leave it until it gets too oily, you cheat the manu- facturer, or what more often happens, you lose on the price. Shearing — Is always done, in this country, on the threshing-floors of our barns, sometimes on low platforms, but more commonly on the floor itself The following cut represents a common Northern barn properly arranged for this purpose. SHEARING ARRANGEMENTS. On the threshing-floor, three men are seen shearing — two of them using a low table or platform, say 18 or 20 inches high. The " bay " t (1, 2) nearest the eye is divided by a temporary fence, one part (1) being used for the yai'ding of the sheep, and the other (2) for doing up the wool, &c. The inclosure 1 should communicate by a door with another and larger yard outside of the barn. Both of these should be well littered down with * It is also very difficult to thnist the shears through this dry wool in shearing. t The room tor storing hay, grain. &c., which is always found on one. and sometimes on each side of the threshing-floor in a Northern barn, is provincially termed a " bay ''—and the low division between this and the threshing-floor a " breastwork." SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 185 Straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff, or other substances which will stick in the wool, should be used for this purpose. When the dew has dried off from the sheep, on the morning chosen for shearing, a poition of the flock sufficient to last the shearers half a day, is driven into the outside yard, and a con- venient number into the bay (1). An assistant catches the sheep, lifts them off from the floor as already directed, and delivers them at the door through the " breastwork " (3) to each shearer. The shearer before taking the sheep, picks off any loose straws sticking to its wool, and if dung ad- heres to any of the feet, brushes it off with a little besom formed of twio-s, hung up near the door for that purpose. The shearer then takes the sheep to his stand, and commences sheaz'ing. The floor or tables used for shearing should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that they will not hold dirt or catch the wool. They all should, ''"e thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to shearing. It is the catcher's business to keep the floor constantly swept, dung re- moved, &c. Having a new stand or place swept for the shearer who has just finished his sheep, he catches him another, and then clears up the stand previously occupied. He first lifts the fleece, gathers it up so that it shall not be torn or drawn asunder, and turning his arms so as to invert It, (^. e., bring the roots of the wool downward,) deposits it on the Jblding- tahle (4). He then picks uj^ the "fribs" (small loose locks) left on the- floor, which are deposited in a basket or on a corner of the table. Lastly,. he sweeps the spot clean, to be again occupied by the shearer. An active fellow will tend four shearers, and do up the fleeces. But he should not be hurried too much, or he cannot give sufficient time to doing up. A small boy or two are handy to pick up fribs, sweep, &c. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging or other causes,, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from dirtying the others; It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions which would guide an entire novice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Prac- tice is requisite. The following directions fiom the American Shepherd,* are coj'rect, and are as plain, perhaps, as they can be maide : " The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its. rump, and himsell in a posture with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the back of the ani- mal resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to tlie- bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords him better command of the points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the Ijrisket, and }>roceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the nbs, the external sfdes of both thighs to tlie edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket; and thence upward, shearing the wool from tlie breast, front, and both sides of the neck — but not yet the back of it — and also the poll or fore part, and top of the head. Now the 'jacket is opened ' of the sheep, and its position and that of the shearer is changed, by being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore quarter of the animal, to pre- vent any sti-iiggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence on- ward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned on to the other side, in doing which great care is requisite to prevent tlie fleece from being torn, and the- shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near to the door through which it is to ])ass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary loclr anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand' to trim, otherwise the useless stuff" from the legs becomes interminglisd with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the,skin,as possible, not lower th& points too much, nor cut more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not somuch^ depending on the part and compactness of the wool."" In addition to the above, I would remark that the wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. It may be cut too close^ so that the sheep can scarcely avoid " sun-scald," but this is very unusual. * Pages 179, 180. 2A 186 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. If the wool is left ridgy and uneven, it betrays that want of workmanship which is so distasteful to every good farmer.* Great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do. It is a great damage to the wool. It is done by cutting too far from the point of the shears, and suffering the points to get too elevated. Every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before cut oft' by the points, say a quarter or thi-ee-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, so important to its good appearance when done up, (and thei'efore to its salableness,) it is very essential that the sheep be held easily^or itself, so that it will not struggle violently. To hold it still by main strength, no man can do, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece, but it should not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be constantly kicking and struggling. Heavy-handed, careless men, therefore, always complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels, but the lazy or brutal shearer who lets his leg rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even perhaps to draw its breath ! Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day, and a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one- half that number. It is the last process in the world which should be hur- ried, as the shearer will soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. It has been mentioned that but enough sheep should be yarded at once for half a day's shearing. The reason for this is that they shear much more easily, and there is less liability of cutting the skin, when they are distended with food, than when their bellies become flabby and collapsed for the want of it. This precaution, however, is often necessarily omitted in showery weather. It is very convenient to have the outside pen which communicates with the "bay," covered. On my farm, it is one of the regular sheep-houses. If it is showery over night, or showers come up on the day of shearing, a couple of hundred sheep may be run in and kept dry. And they can be let out to feed occasionally during the day on short grass. If let out in long wet grass, their bellies will become wetted. Wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up, with any water in it. Shearing Lambs, and Shearing Sheep Semi-Annuallt. — Shearing lambs is, in my judgment, every way an abominable and unprofitable prac- tice — in this climate, at least. The lamb will give you the same wool at a year old, and you strip it of its natural protection from cold when it is young and tender, for the paltry gain of the interest on a pound or a pound and a half of wool for six months — not more than two or three cents — and this all covered by the expense of shearing. I am aware that it is customary, in many parts of the South, to shear grown sheep twice a year; and there may be a reason for it where they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half- year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes, thorns, &c., if left for a longer period. But when sheep are inclosed, and * I holdthfttniRn is not AaZ/a farmer who hag not a dash of the eesthetic mixed up with his utilitarianism. Profit should not often be sacrificed to appearances, but where they are strictly compatible, he who disre- gards the latter betrays a sordid and uncultivated mind. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 187 FOLDING-TABLE. treated as domestic animals, there may be less barbarity in fall-shearing them than in the case of tender lambs, but I cannot conceive of any better reason for it than in the former case, on the score of utility. Any gain resulting from it cannot pay the additional expense it occasions. DoiNG-up Wool. — The fleece has been deposited on the " folding table," and he whose business it is to do it up, first proceeds to spread it out, the outer ends upward, bringing every part to its natural relative position. — The table, with a fleece spread out on ^'s- 23. it, is represented in fig. 23. The table should be large — say five feet wide and eisrht long- — that, if necessary, several unspread, fleeces may be put upon it at the same time, and still give room for spread- ing one. It should be about three feet high. After the fleece is spread, dung, burs, and all other extraneous substances are carefully re- moved from it with a pair of shears. It is then pressed together with the hands, so that it will cover but little if any more space than it would oc- cupy on the skin of the animal, if that was placed unstretched on the table. About a quarter of the fleece, lengthwise, or from head to tail, (represented by I in the above cut,) is then turned or folded in (inverting it,) toward the middle. The opposite side (2) is next folded inward in the same way, leaving the fleece in a long strip, say 18 inches wide. The forward end (3) is then folded toward the breech, to a point (represented by dotted line) corresponding with the point of the shoulder. The breech (4) is next folded toward the head. The fleece now presents an oblong square rep- resented by 5 and 6. On the breech, in a small, compact bunch — so they can be, subsequently, readily sepa- rated from the fleece — the clean fribs are placed. They do not include "trimmings," (the wool from the shanks,) which should not be done up in the fleeces. The fribs may be laid in at some earlier stage of the folding — but if thrown on top of the fleece, as is very customary, before it is fold- ed at all, they shoio through, if the latter gets strained apart, as it fre- quently happens in the process of roll- ing — and being coarser and perhaps less white than the fine shoulder wool, they injure the appearance of the fleece. The fleece is now folded to- gether by turning 5 over on to 6, and the tyer carefully sliding it around on the shoulder shall be toward him, it go into the wool-trough. Fig 24. WOOL-TROUGH. the table with his arms, so that appears as in fig. 24, ready to The wool-trough, which is above represented 188 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Fig. 25. with one of its sides off, to exhibit the interior arrangement, should form a part of the table, and should be about 91 inches wide and 9 deep, and its length corresponding with the width of the table, would be five feet. Near its back end, and about one-third of its width from each side, gimlet holes are bored just large enough for the passage of ordinary wool-twine. Two balls of twine are placed in a vessel beneath, the ends passed through the holes, and the whole length of the trough, and are fastened in front by being drawn into two slits formed by sawing a couple of inches into the bottom of the trough. The holes and slits should be small enough, so that the twine will be kept drawn straight between them. The tyer placing his hands and arms (to the elbow) on each side of the fleece folded as above, now slides it into the trough. There are two methods of having it lie in the trough, represented by the following cuts. That on the left is the more ordinary, but not the best method. It will bring to the two ends of the done-up fleece (the parts most seen in the wool-i'oom) the ridge of the back and two lines half way down each side of the sheep. The for- mer is sometimes a little weather-beaten, and if any hay-seeds have fastened in the fleece, they show most on the back.* And the two lower lines are a little below the choicest wool. — Placing it in the trough as in the right-hand figure, rolling would bring both ends of the fleece from the wool between four and five inches flom the ridge of the back, the choicest part of the fleece. Besides, the edges of the breech fold, which is not so fine as the shoulder, which sometimes show by the first method of rolling, are always concealed by the last. The wool being in the trough, the tyer steps round to the back end of it, and commences rolling the fleece from the breech to the shoulder. He rolls it as tightly as possible, pressing it down and exerting all the strength of his hands — minding, however, not to tear the outside fold — or strain it so apart as to exhibit the outer ends of the next inside layer or fold. When the rolling is completed, he keeps it tight by resting the lower part of his left arm across it, reaches over with the right, and withdrawing one of the ends of the twine from the slit, places it in the left hand. Then seizing the twine on the other side of the fleece with his right hand, he draws the twine once about the fleece with his toliole strength, and ties it in a hard or square knot. The fleece will then keep its position, and the other twine is tied in the same way. The twines should be drawn with a force that would cut through the skin of a tender hand in a few moments.t The twines are then cut within an inch of the knots, with a pair of shears. The fleece is slid out of the end of the trough, when it will be a solid, glittering mass of snowy wool, in the shape shown in the cut on the right. If well and tightly done up, however, the divisions given on the end of the fleece, in the cut, to exhibit the foldings, will not be perceptible — and nothing but an unbroken mass of the choicest wool of the fleece. The twine should be of flax or hemp, and of the diameter of ordinary sized hardware twine. Cotton might do, if smooth and hard enough so that no particles of it could become incorporated with the wool — in which event it does not separate from the wool in any of the subsequent processes. and receiving a different color from the dyes, spots the surface of the cloth. * Hay-seed, or rather its chaff, will not wash entirely out of wool. t It ia customary with some tyers to wear a glove on the right hand — or cots on the two fore-fingera. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 189 It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is considered perfectly fair by the purchaser, to take all the pains above recommended, to " put the best side out " in doing up wool, provided every fleece is done up by itself. He expects it, and graduates his prices accordingly. He who neglects it, thei-efore, cheats himself. But to do up coarser fleeces, or any parts of them, in finer ones — put in " trimmings " — leave in dung — or use unne- cessary twine — are all base frauds. Sometimes the careless sheep-owner will have his wool filled with burs, which he cannot or will not remove. In that case he is bound to unequivocally apprise the buyer of the fact, and allow him to open fleeces until satisfied of the precise extent of the evil. Storing Wool. — Wool should be stored in a clean, tight, dry room. It is better that it should be an dipper room, for reasons presently to be given, and it should be plastered, to exclude dust, vermin, insects, &c. Rats and mice love to build their nests in it, to which they will carry grain chaff" and other substances, injuring much wool — and it is singular that if accessible to the common bumble-bee, numbers of their nests will be found in it. A north and pretty strong light is preferable for a wool-room. When the wool-tyer removes each fleece from the trough, he places it in a long, high basket, capable of holding a dozen fleeces, and it is imme- diately carried to the wool-room — or he piles it on the clean floor in the inclosure in which his table stands, to be subsequently carried away. In either case, the fleeces are not thrown down promiscuously, which injures their shape, but are laid regularly one above another, on their sides. In the wool-room it is laid in the same way in smooth, straight north and south rows (supposing the light to be let in from the north) with alleys between, in which a man can pass to inspect the wool. The rows ought not, perhaps, to be more than two deep, so that the end of ewfry fleece can be examined, but as it cannot be piled up more than about four fleeces high in this way, without liability of falling, it is customary to make the rows three or four fleeces deep — laying the lower ones a little wide, so that the pile may slightly recede as it goes up. In this way they may be piled six fleeces high. Where the character of the flock is known, or that of the seller relied on, it makes little difference. It is considered fairest to pile the fleeces without any discrimination as to quality, in the wool- room. Sacking Wool. — When the wool is sold, or when it must be sent away to find a market, it is put up in bales nine feet long, formed of 40-inch " burlaps." The mouth of the sack is sowed, with twine, round a strong hoop (riveted together with iron, and kept for the purpose,) and the body of it is let down through a circular aperture in the floor of the wool-room.* The hoop rests on the edge of the aperture, and the sack swings clear of the floor beneath, A man enters the sack, and another passes the fleeces down to him. After covering the bottom with a layer, he places a fleece in the center and forces down others around it, and so on to the top, which is then sowed up. Each fleece should be placed regularly with the hands, and then stamped down as compactly as possible, so that the bale when completed shall be hard and well filled in every part. The bulk of a given weight of wool will be greatly affected by the care with which this pro- cess is performed. Those who do not expect buyers to come and look at their wool, sack it immediately after shearing. A temporary scaffolding is erected near * It ia to secure this convenience that the wool-room is best placed on the second floor. 190 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the wool as deposited by the tyer, and one man tosses up fleeces to a sec- ond, who catches them and passes them down to the man in the sack. A light frame, to suspend the sack, and ]) art way up it a standing-place for the catcher, would be a convenient appendage to the establishment of a wool-grower who does not store his wool in a wool-room. "With a set of stairs up to his midway standing-place, an active fellow would keep the treader supplied, without any a^sistance. In the absence of any agieement, the price of wool, delivered at ihe residence of the purchaser, does not include the cost of sacks and sacking. It is customary, however, for growers of small parcels, and those who keep no conveniences for sacking, to carry their wool tied up in sheets, &c., and deliver it to the purchaser at the nearest village or other point, where he has made arrangements for sacking. Selection. — The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and what the points are to which reference should be had in establishing that standard, have already been suflaciently adverted to in discussing the principles of breeding. The time of shearing is by far the most favorable one for the flockmaster to make his selection. He should be present on the shearing- floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off". If there is a fault about it, he will then discover it better than at any other time, A glance, too, reveals to him every fault of form, previously con- cealed wholly or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly shorn sheep is permitted to stand on its feet. He takes down the number and age of the sheep on his tablet, and if not sufficiently defective in form or quality of fleece to call for its condemnation, in a pair of scales suspended near the wool-tyer's table, he determines the weight of the fleece. If this, too, is satisfactory, he marks " retained " opposite the sheep's number on his tab- let. If more or less defective in any point, he weighs this against the other points — taking also into consideration the age of the sheep, its char- acter as a breeder, its nursing properties, quietness of disposition, &c. — and then, in view of all these points, the question of retention or exclusion is settled. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently kept until she dies of old age. A poorish nurse or breeder would be excluded for the lightest fault, and so on. I have been in the habit, for a number of years, of using a book kept for this purpose, each page being ruled and headed thus : 27, '42 30, '44 Qual. of Fleece. Wt. of Fleece. The figures in the first column signify No. 27 of the year 1842, and No. 30 of the year 1844. The letters in the succeeding columns stand for the words " prime," " fair," " ordinary," and " bad " — marking the gradations of quality. The letters in the last column signify " retained," or " ex- cluded." Such a record will lead to far greater accuracy than by any other method, and it is extremely valuable for purposes hereafter to be stated. If the sheep ai'S not numbered, the flock-master should note each appear- ance, as above directed, havfe the sheep held by the neck by an assistant^ or discharged by the shearer into a small pen at the door for that purpose, until the fleece is weighed, and then if he decides to exclude it, he gives it a small mark on the shoulder, consisting of Venetian Red and hog's lard, (conveniently applied with a brush or cob.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 191 Marking Sheep. — The sheep should be marked soon after shear! iig^, or mistakes may occur. Every owner of sheep should be provided with a marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small circle, oval, triangle, square, &c., at a single stroke, and with uniformity , on the sheep. It has been customary here, to have the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminated by wood. But one made by cutting a type or raised letter (or character) on the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and spoil the appearance of the mark ; and if the pigment be applied liot, the former will not, like the latter, get heated, and increase the danger of burning the hide. Various pigments are used. Many boil tar until it will assume a glazed, hard consistency, when cold, and give it a brilliant black color by stirring in a little lamp-black when boiling. It is applied when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright, conspicuous mark the year round. I have always used this, though the manufacturer would prefer the substitution of oil and turpentine for tai*, as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. I boil it in a high-sided iron vessel (to prevent it from taking fire) on a small furnace or chafing-dish near where it is to be used. When cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. The rump is a better place to mark than the side. The mark is about as conspicuous on the former, under any circumstances, and it is more so when the sheep are huddled in a pen, or when they are running away from you. And should any wool be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the side. It is customary to distinguish ewes from wethers by marking them on different sides of the rump. Many mark each sheep as it is dischai'ged from the barn by the shearer. It consumes much less time to do it at one job, after the shearing is com- pleted ; and it is necessary to take the latter course, if a hot pigment is used. Cold Storms after Shearing. — These sometimes destroy sheep, in this latitude, soon after shearing — particularly the delicate Saxons. I have known forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, from one night's expo- sure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house them, or in de- fault of the necessary fixtures to effect this, to drive them into dense for- ests. I presume, however, this would be a calamity of rare occurrence in the " sunny South," Sun-Scald — Might be more common. When sheep are sheared close in very hot weather — have no shade in their pastures — and particularly where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty roads, their backs are so scorched by the sun that the wool comes off. It is not common, however, here. You may see one such in a flock of a hundred. Let alone, the matter is not a serious one, but the application of refuse lard to the back will accelerate the cure, and the starting of the wool. Ticks. — These, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble sheep in the winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After shear- ing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep soon drive off 192 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. DIPPING-BOX. the tick, and it takes refuge in the long wool of the lamb. Wait a fort- night after shearing, to allow all to make this transfer of residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure. This may be readily tested by experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, &c., may be made to answer for 100 lambs. The decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for this purpose, and which has an inclined shelf one one side, covered with a wooden grate, as shown in the cut. One man holds the lamb by the liind legs, another clasps the fore-legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils to prevent the liquid entering them, and then the lamb is entiiely immersed. It is immediately lifted out, laid on one side on the grate, and the water squeezed out of its wool. It is then turned over and squeezed on the other side. The grate con- ducts the fluid back into the box. If the lambs are regu- larly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. The effect of tobacco water in scab, will be hereafter adverted to. Maggots. — Rams with horns growing closely to their heads, are very liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the surrounding parts gets broken in fighting, and these, if not removed, soon destroy the sheep. Both remedy and preventive is boiled tar — or the marking substance heretofore described. Put it under the horns, at the time of marking, and no trouble will ever arise from this cause. Some- times when a sheep scours in wai'm weather, and clotted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes miserably. Preventive : remove the dung. Remedy : remove the dung and maggots, the latter by touching them with a little turpentine, and then apply sulphur and grease to the excoriated surface. Maggot flies, says Blacklock, sometimes deposit their eggs on the hocJis of the long, open-wooled English sheep, and the maggots during the few days before they assume the pupa state, so tease and irritate the animal, that fever and death are the consequence. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, smeared over the parts are given as the preventives. The Merino and Saxon are exempt from these attacks. Shortening the Horns. — A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck, that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The point of the horn of the ram and ewe both not unfrequently turn in so that they will grow into the flesh and sometimes into the eye, unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a horn, but if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking time is the best one to attend to this. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 1&3 Division op Flocks. — It is customary at, or soon after shearing, to make those divisions in large flocks, which utility demands. It is better to have not to exceed two hundred sheep run together in the pastures, though the number might perhaps be safely increased to three hundred, if the range is extensive. Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off, should be kept seji- arate from the nursing-ewes, and if the flock is sufticiently numerous to require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year- old ewes and wethers and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better in all cases to separate the rams from all the other sheep, at the time of shearing, and to inclose them in a particularly well-fenced field. If put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome, and when cool nights ar- rive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers. The Merino ram is a quiet animal compaied with ilie com- mon-vvooled one, but poor fences, or fences half the time down, will tempt him to jump, and if once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period approaches, unless hopjiling, yoking, clogging, or "poking " is resorted to — either of which causes the animal to waste his flesh and strength, and are the causes of frequent accidents. Hoppling, Clogging, &c. — Hoppling is done by sowing the ends of a leathern strap (broad at the extremities so that it will not cut into the flesh) to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints — leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart. Clogging is fastening a billet of woikI to the fore leg by a leather strap. Yoking is fastening two rsmis two or three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a liglit piece of timber, say two by three inches in size. Poking is done \>y inserting a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit (worn on the under side of the neck) a rod is inserted which pi'ojects a conple of feet in i'ront of the sheep. These, and similar devices, to prevent rams scaling fences, may be employed as a last resort, by those improvident farmers who j^efer by such troublesome, injurious, and at best, insecux-e means, to gunrd against that viciousness which they might, so much more easily, liave jn evented from being acquired. Dangerous Rams. — From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and pla3'ed with when young — and sometimes without any otljc-r stimulant than a naturally vicious temper — rams occasionally become very trouble- some by their propensity to attack men or cattle. I know of one for which his owner has refused $250, which will permit no man t(.> enter the field with him without making an immediate onset on him. I have known several tliat woidd knock down the ox or horse which presumed to dis- pute the possession of a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be /looded, and, if not valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether by " cording." But the courage thus manifested, is usually the conromitfint of great strength and vigor of constitution — and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is a pity to lose the services of such an animal. I have in several such instances hooded them, by covering their faces with leather in such a manner that they could only see a little backward and downward. They must then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, (n- they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. It sometimes happens that a usually quiet tempered ram will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when you are salting or foeding the flock. If you turn to run, you are immediately knocked down, niid the ram learns, at 2B 194 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise it. The ram giving his blow from the summit of the parietal and the pos- terior portion of the frontal bones on the top of the head, (and not from the forehead,) couches his head so low when he makes his onset, that he does not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the right and left enable you to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes by you, with pitchfork, club, or boot-heel — punish- ing him severely by blows, (about the head if the club is used,) and giving him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed.* Fences. — Poor fences will teach ewes and wethers to jump, as well as rams, and fur a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high fences, or exLirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole flock, and if one by chance is bought in, it should be immediately hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. Salt. — Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health of sheep, particularly in the summer — and I know not a flock-master among the hun- dreds, nay, thousands with whom I am acquainted, who differs with me in this opinion. It is common to give it once a week while the sheep are at grass. It is still better to give them free access to salt at all times, by keeping it in a covered box, open on one side, like the following: A large hollow log, with holes cut along the Fig. 28. side, for the insertion of the beads of the sheep will make a respectable substitute. A sheep hav- ing free access to salt at all times, will never eat too much, and it will take its supply when and in what quantities Nature demands, instead of eat- ing voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it do. When fed but once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgot- ten, and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones, though if laid in little liandsfull on the grass, very little will be lost. Tar. — This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for sheep. The nose of the sheep is smeared with it, and it is licked and swallowed as the natural beat of the fle.sh, or that of the weather, causes it to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to get unusually salt hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and then scatter salt on it, so that both shall be consumed together. Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, 1 have no doubt that it is advan- tageous in catarrhs — and put on the same place, at the proper periods, it may perhaps, by its odor, repel the visitations of the fly ( (Estris oris), the eggs of which produce the " grub in the head." As a medicine it may be valuable, and even as a detergent in the case specified, but as a condiment SALTING-BOX. * This may bi^ pronounced harsh " measure for measure," and some may think it would tend to increase the viciousnoss oC the animal. Repeated instances have proved the contrary to me. And if their mastery is once acknowledged, it is never forgotten by them. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 195 simply, for a perfectly healthy animal, I confess I have no confidence in its utility. Water. — Water is not indispensable in the summer pastures, the dews and the succulence of the feed answering as a substitute. But my impres- sion is decided that free access to water is advantageous to sheep, particu- larly to those having lambs ; and I should consider it a matter of import- ance on a sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to bring water into each of them. Shade. — No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down on their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot summer months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail fence. Forest-trees are the most natural and best shades, and it is as con- trary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep- walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, will form a passable substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, which will be described in my next Lettei'. Weaning Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned at four months old. It is better for them, and much better for their dams. The lambs when taken away should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may not hear each other's bleatings. The lambs when in hearing of their dams, continue restless much longer, and they make constant and frequently successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them to teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat grain, &c., out of troughs when winter approaches. Tlie lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and tenderest feeil. I have usually reserved for mine the gi'ass and clover sown, the pre- ceding spring, on the grain fields which were seeded down. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to, once or twice, and should the bags of any be found much distended, the milk should be drawn and the bag washed for a little time in cold water. But on short feed, they rarely give much trouble in this particular. When properly dried off, they should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition for winter. Fall Feeding. — In the North, the grass often gets very short by the 10; 'I or loth of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness from rejjeired freezing and thawing. At this time, though no snow has yet f dU'u, it is best to give the sheep a light daily foddering of bright hay — or a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. I have usually fed oats in the bun- dle, or threshed oats, (about a gill to the head,) in the feeding-troughs, carried to the fields for that purpose. The Crook. — This implement has been several times alluded to as a convenient one for catching sheep. It is made in the form exhibited iu 19G SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the cut, of -l-inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point — and the point made safe by a knob. The other end is furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet ^'s- 29- long. The manner of using it is thus described in Mr. Ste- phens's admirable " Book of the Farm " : " The hind-leg is hooked in at a, from behind the sheep, and it fills up the narrow part beyond a, wliile passing along it until it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hock, and when secured, its foot ea- sily slips through the loop. Some caution is required in using the crook, for should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away, the mo- ment it feels the crook the leg will be di'awn forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn quickly toward you, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break oft', and be- ing secure, its struggles will cease the moment your hand seizes the leg." No flock-master should be without this implement, as it saves a vast deal of yarding, running, &c., and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious ap- pearance, and a timely application of remedy or preven- tive — which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard, to enable the shepherd to catch a particular sheep. Dexterity in the use of the crook is speedily acquired by any one ; and if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it, at salting-time — or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the flock are familiar. But it is at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly ser- viceable. For this purpose, at this time alone, it will pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say nothing of the advan- tage of the sheep. SHEPHERD 3 CROOK. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 197 LETTER XIII. WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Use of Rams — proper age, number, &c.— «elecring ewes for — different methods of coupling — way to treat rams... Division of Flocks for Winter. ..The Hospital.. .Yards — when necessary... Feeding- Racks — vari- ous plans of— the Box Rack — the Hole Rack — the Sparred Rack — the Hopper Rack — their respective ad- vantages — improvements suggested. . .lYoughs.. .Grain-Boxes.. .Barns and Sheds — necessity of shelter at the North — the common Northern Sheep-Barn... Stells — the Outside Stell — Ancient Stells — Inside Circular Stell— Circular Stell fitted up with racks.. .Tree-Coverts... Cheap Sheds — fitted between stacks, barracks, &c.. .Value of BaiTacks for the Preservation of Fodder... The Main Sheep-Barn of the Farmer Plantation, with Sheoring-Floor, &c. — wrangements for breeding-ewes... Feeding sheep in yards with other stock — improper — reasons.. .Hay-Holders.. .Winter Drj' Feed for Sheep — Variations in Feed — German views on this subject — proper kinds of fodder — Boussingaults Table of the Nutritive Equivalents of difi'erent kinds of Fodders ... EtFect of Food in the Production of Wool — De Reaumur's Table showing the Effects of F'ood in this particular.. .Effect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle. ..Fattening Wethers in the North... Feed- ing Grain to Store-Sheep in Winter — when practiced at the North — economy of so doing — kinds of grain preferred — necessity of regularity in quantity — difiiculty of raising the condition of poor sheep in the win- ter.. .Feeding Roots, Browse, &c — Roots a Substitute for Grain — to what sheep they may be fed — Hem- lock Browse — when and in what manner useful — substitutes for... Winter Feed of Breeding-Ewes.. -Ne- cessity of regularity in the times of feeding sheep ... Salt ... Water. Dear Sir : As the turning out of the rams usually takes place, here, on the first day of winter, I will describe the pi'oper accompanying arrange- ments, as the first step in winter management. Use of Rams. — The period of gestation in the ewe averages five months. Mei'ino rams are fiequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even longer. The lambs of very old rams are not supposed to be as vigorous as those of youngish or middle-aged ones, but where rams have not been overtasked, and have been properly fed, I confess I have been able to dis- cover very little difference in their progeny on account of age. A ram lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, I think, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling may run with 30 ewes, a two-year-old with from 40 to 50, and a three-year-old with from 50 to 60. Some very powerful, mature rams will serve 70 or 80 ewes; but 50 is enough, where they run with the ewes. I am satisfied that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his indi- vidual properties so decidedly to his offspring as one in full vigor. Several rams I'unning in the same flock excite each other to an unnat- ural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be ■Bvoidedj.and, as usually managed, is destructive to everything like careful and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should pos- sess to the female, already discussed under the head of Principles of Breeding — counterbalancing her defects with his own marked excellence in the same points, and, in turn, having his defects counterbalanced by her excellencies — how shall this be accomplished, where half a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes ? Before the rams are let out, the flock-master should have all the breed- ing-ewes brought together in one yard. He has carefully inspected his stock rams and noted every defect and peculiarity of their fleeces and forms. The breeding register is before him to settle every pedigree, pro- vided his stock rams are nearly enough connected with some portions of the flock to render it necessary to guard against in-and-in breeding. The shepherd catches a ewe and places her before him. The pedigree being 198 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. determined, he first notes her form, and then opening the wool on the shoulder, thigh and belly, notes the length, thickness, quality, and style of the staple. If he kept the minutes at shearing recommended by me (un- der the head of " Selection ") it will save much time and lead to far more accurate classification. When every point in the ewe is determined, he decides which ram, on the whole, is best calculated to pei-petuate her ex- cellencies both of fleece and carcass, and best counterbalance her defects in their mutual offspring. With a pigment composed of Venitian red and hog's lard, he then, as has been already mentioned under the head of Registering, gives the ewe a mark which will last until the next shearing, which will show by what ram she was tupped. Those selected for each ram are placed in dijferent inclosures, and the chosen ram placed with them. In four weeks' time, the rams are withdrawn, and the flocks doubled or otherwise rearranged for winter, as may be necessary. This looks like taking considerable trouble, but having practiced it for years on my farm, and having always made these selections myself, I know that in reality the trouble is very slight — nothing, when the beneficial re- sults are taken into consideration. With a couple assistants, to catch, a day would suffice for effecting the proper classification and division of sev- eral hundred ewes. Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is an object to make the ser- vices of one go a great way — or where it is impossible to have separate inclosures, (as on farms where there there are a great number of breeding-ewes, or where the shep- ^'S- ^^- herd system is adopted to the exclusion offences,) the following method may be resorted to. Build a hut containing as many apartments as you wish to use rams, with an alley between them. That part of fig. 30 which is surrounded by black lines repre- sents the hut divided into four apartments, each fur- nished with a feeding-box and ti'ough in one comer. Gates or bars open from each apartment into the alley, and at each end of the alley. The dotted lines inclose a yard just sufficient to hold the flock of breeding-ewes. A couple of strong rams (of any quality) for about every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their brisk- ets lubbed with Venitian red and hog's lard, and they are let loose among the ewes. Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely but strongly round the body. To prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are car- ried round the breast and back of the breech. It is indispensable that it be made jperfectly secure, or all the labor of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days — and it will be necessary, usually, to change the *' teasers," as these aproned rams are called, about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural cir- cumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted to the ram for which she is marked once, and then goes out at the 0f2)0site end of the alley from ichich she entered, into a separate field fi-om that containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous ram from three to seven years old, and propeily fed, can thus be made to serve from 150 to even 200 ewes, with no greater injury than from running loose with 50 or 60. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 199 This, too, looks like a great amount of labor to attain the result sought, but having had it formerly practiced for two years on my farm, I know that when conducted with system, and by a prompt and handy shepherd, it consumes no great amount of time. Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years long- er, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is well to continue it, gradually decreasing the quantity, for a few days after they are withdrawn from the flock of ewes. A ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats, daily, when worked hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their stock-rams from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be at- tached for leading, confining, &c., is very useful and handy. If rams are wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks nights, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. There is no objection to this practice, and it is a great saving of their strength. Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least in the North. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of June. And after the rutting season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes danger- ous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. Division of Flocks. — If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during winter, according to the Northern custom, it is necessary to divide them into flocks of about 100 each, to consist of sheep of about the same size and strength. Otherwise the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rap- idly decline. This would not be so important where the sheep roam at large, but even in that case some division and classification are necessary, — 01', at all events best. It is best, indeed, as already stated, even in sum- mer. The poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better shelter in winter. By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and weth- ers are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter ; and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding-ewes. The Hospital. — Old and feeble, or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be placed by themselves, if the number does not even exceed a score. They require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. But after all, unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, it is better to sell them off' in the fall at any price, — or to give them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. Yards. — Experience has amply demonstrated, that in the climate of the Northern and Eastern States — where no grass grows from four to four and a half months in the winter — and where, therefore, all that can be obtain- ed from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, innutritions herbage left in the fall — it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at other 200 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but not enough to sustain them ; they fall away, and towards spring they be- come weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. I speak, of course, of flocks of some size, and on properly stocked farms. A few sheep, with a boundless range, would do better. Some of our flock-masters let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw ; others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the spring. I prefer the former course, where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single day's grazing will not take off" their appetite from more than one succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, here, to keep the sheep in the yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they, particularly breeding-ewes, will get off" from their feed, and get weak at the most crit- ical time for them in the year. Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, — and they should, (in ^Aw climate,) be kept well littered with straw. INIy impression is that the yarding system will never be practiced to any extent in the South. It certainly should not be, where sheep can get their living from the fields. How far, and under what circumstances, they will do this, has already been sufficiently discussed in my preceding Letters. Feeding-Racks. — When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on the ground than anywhere else. When the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarce- ly touch hay placed on it. It should then be fed in racks. These are of various forms. Figure 31 gives the common box ^^s- ^^• rack, in the most general use in the North. It is ten feet long, two and a half wide, the lower boards a loot wide, the upper ones about ten inches, the two about nine inches apart, and the corner posts three by three, or three and a half by two and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these posts by large flat headed nails wrought for the purpose, and the lower edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower ones are rounded so they shall not wear the wool off from the sheep's necks. The lower boards and the opening for the heads, should be two or three inches narrower for lambs. If made of light wood, as they should be, a man standing in the inside and middle of one of thcSle racks, can easily carry it about — an important desideratum. Unless overfed, sheep waste very lit- tle hay in them. A capital shed or barn rack is represented in the following cut. The HOLE RACK. holes are eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from center to center. Sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 201 so much with these as with box racks. But they would be too heavy and unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. Fig. 32 repi'esents a hox, the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, but they are usually formed by naihng the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. In the South, as in England, racks will not be so necessary for that constant use to which they are put in colder countries, as for dejiositories of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft warm weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder — though tlie little they will then cat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill themselves with dry food. By an instinct beautifully illustrative of the providence of the Creator, sheep anticipate the coming storm, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat, during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should always have racks of dry fod- der to resort to in such emergencies. These occasionally used racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would be often spoiled be- fore but a small portion of it was consumed. Hay or straw saturated witli water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of ab- solute necessity. The common box rack (fig. 31) would answer the pur- pose vei-y well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof formed of a couple of boards, (one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hin- ges so that it could be lifted up like a lid ;) making the ends tight \ draw- ing in the lower edges of the sides so that it shall not be more than a foot wide on the bottom ; inserting a floor; and then mounting it on and mak- ing it fast to two cross sills four or five inches square to keep the floor off* from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturn- ed. The lower side board should be narrower than in fig. 31, on account of the increased hight given its upper edge by the sills. Still better, but somewhat more expensive, would be a rack of the same construction, with the sides like those of fig. 32, Or, the sides might consist of rundles as in fig. 33. In either of the, preceding, the top might be nailed down, and the fodder inserted by littlej doors in the ends. The following form and description of an English rack is from thos " Book of the Farm."* Fig. 33. SPARREI> RACK. " T have found," says Mr. Stephens, " this form convenient, containing as much straw a«: a time as should be given, admitting the straw easily into it, being easily moved about of * It will be found in the reprint of this splendid Tsork, in- The Farmers' Ubrai^v toI. il p. 440- 2G 202 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. easy access t« the sheep, and being so near the ground as to form an excellent shelter. It is made of wood, is 9 feet in length, 4.^ feet in hight, and 3 feet in width, having a sparred rack with a double face below, which is covered with an angled roof of boards to throw off the rain. The rack is snp])orted on two triangular-shaped ti-essels b, shod with iron at the points, which are pushed into the gi'ound, and act as stays against the eflects of the wind iroui either side. The biUet c, fixed on the under or acute edge of the rack, rests upon the ground, and in common with the feet, supports it from bending down in the middle. The lid a is opened on hinges when the fodder is put into the rack Such a rack is easily moved about by two persons, and their position should be changed according to a change of wind indicative of a storm." I used racks formed of rounds (or " spaned ") for several years, and found tbeni decidedly objectionable. The sheep grasping a lock of hay in its mouth, brings the head to its natural position, and then draws in the adhering fibres in tlie process of mastication. But when eating from a rack, it will 7iot pick up the hay which it drops under foot. In the box or liole racks (figs. 31 and 32) most sheep will not withdraw their heads from the openings, as they can there hold them in the ordinary position for mastication, and as, if they step back to do so, they are very liable to be crowded out of their places. The hay, therefore, is not drawn out of the rack, and if any is dropped, it falls within it and is saved. At a sparred rack, the sheep will not keep its nose between the rundles (in a horizon- tal or upward position) until it detaches a mere mouthfull of hay. It will, particidnrly when partly sated, tivitch out its fodder prior to mastication, and all which scatters off and drops to the ground, is trampled under foot and wasted, except for the mere purpose of manure. A considerable loss will always insult from this cause. And there is another objection to this form of rack, particularly where it runs ^own to an acute edge on the bottom, as in fig. 33. The sheep frequently drawing the hay from the lower part, will shake down from above hay-seeds and diaft'into the wool on their head and necks ; and the wind will soixietimes caiTy these as far as their shouldei's and even their backs. As heretofoi-e remarked, these cannot be washed out, and they materially lower the market value of the wool. The following rack has been used and is highly approved by my friend, George Geddes, Esq., of Fairmount, N. Y., to whom I am indebted for the drawing and description of the cut. It serves both for a rack and feje ding-trough. Fig. 34. THE U0!PPEE-KACK. ^'The above is Intended to r^resent a section of what I think the best sheep-rack I have «een. " A piece of durable wood about 4i feet long, 6 or 8 inches deep, and 4 inches thick, has two j2otche«, ci, e, cut iat9 it, Aud two itroughs, made of inch boards, b, b, b, b, placed ia SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 203 these notches, and nailed fast, constitutes the foundation. If the rack is to be 14 feet long, three sills will be required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack, and naih driven through these end-boards uito the ends of the side-boards/,/, secure them. The sides may he farther strengthened by pieces of board on the outside of them, and fitted into the trough. A roof may be put over all if desired. With a roof, the fodder is kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chatFcan get into the wool." Troughs. — Threshed grain, chopped roots, &c., when fed to sheep should be laid in troughs. With any of the preceding forms of racks, ex- cepting fig. 34, a separate trough would be required. For a number of years I have used those of the following form, and have found them every way satisfactory. Fi2. 35. SHEEP-TROUGH. One of the side-boards is usually about ten and the other eleven inches wide. The feet are commonly of two-inch plank, rising high enough on the sides to keep the sides of the trough firm in their places. In our snowy climate they are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated, one end is laid on the yard fence.* The following elaborately ingenious contrivance for keeping grain where sheep can feed on it at tvill, is from the " Book of the Farm," and I ap- pend the author's description of it.t Fig. 36. Fig. 37. VERTICAL SECTION OF INTERIOR OF GRAIN BOX. GRAIN BOX FOR SHEEP. " There is a mode of preserving com (grain) for sheep on turnips which has been tried with success in Fife. It consists of a box like a hay -rack, in which the grain is at all times kept closely shut up, except when sheep wish to eat it, and then they get it by a simple contrivance. The box a b contains the grain, into which it is poured through the small hinged lid y. The cover c d concealing the grain, is also hinged, and when elevated the sheep have access to the grain. Its elevation is effected by the pressure of the sheep's fore- feet upon the platform e f, which, moving as a lever, acts upon the lower ends of the up- right rods g and h, raises them up, and elevates the cover c d, under which their heads then find admittance into the box. A similar apparatus gives them access to the other side of the box. The whole machine can be moved about to convenient places by means of * To you, Sir, living on the ocean shore of South Carolina, and who, I think, have not visited the North, in the depth of winter, the idea of a farmer's finding the racks used by him the day before, buried under from eighteen inches to three feet of enow, and having to di^ them out, may be rather an odd one I But, nevertheless, it is a matter of no very rare occurrence, at least at the lowest depth mentioned. t See Farmers' Library, vol. ii.. No. 10, p. 476. 204 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. four wheels. The construction of the interior of the box being somewhat peculiar, another, fig. 37, is given as a vertical section of it, where b is the hinged lid by which the grain is put into the box, whence it is at once received into the hopper d, the bottom of which being open, and brought near that of the box, a small space only is left for the grain to j)ass into the box, the hopper funning the grain-store , a is the cover of the box raised on its hinges by the rod /, acted upon by the platform e f, fig. 35; and, when in this po- sition, the sheep put their heads below a at c, and eat the grain at d. Machines of simi- lar construction to this have also been devised to serve poultry with grain at will." I never have thought it best in feeding or fattening any animals, or, at all events, any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will — preferring stated feeds ; and the same remark is applicable to fodder. If this system is de- parted fi'om in using depository racks, as heretofore recommended, it is because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A Me- rino store-sheep, allov\'ed grain ad libitum, w^ould stand a chance to inflict an injury on itself, and I cannot but believe that grain so fed would gen- erally be productive of more injury than benefit. Barns and Sheds, &c. — Sheep barns and sheds, at the North, are fre- quently made very elaboiate contrivances — particularly on paper. But expensive barns, with feeding-cellars and other arrangements for keeping sheep within doors during a greater portion of the winter, would, it strikes me, be entirely out of place in the South. Even in our rigorous climate, none but the breeders of Saxons pretend to make a regular practice of feeding under cover. Humanity and economy both dictate, here, that sheep be provided with shelters to He under nights, and to which they can resort at will. In our severe winter storms, it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best, to feed under shelter for a day or two. It is not an uncommon circum- stance in New- York and New-England, for snow to fall to the depth of 20 or 30 inches within 24 or 48 hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and intensely cold west or north-west wind of two or three days' continuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, &c. A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly step- ping and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close- coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. But it is next to impossible to feed them enough or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay — entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an in- stant by the wind, and even if racks are used, the sheep leaving their hud- dle where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting of the snow in their wool, soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones have sunk down hope- lessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have received a shock which nothing but careful nursing will recover them from, and even the strongest have suffered an injurious loss in condition. Few holders of more than 40 or 50 sheep now attempt to get along here without some kind of shelters. The following (fig. 38) is a very common form of a Northern sheep-barn with sheds. The sheds front the south, or, what is a better arrangement, one fronts the east, and the other, being turned to a right angle to the direction of this, fronts the south. I have represented hole racks, as in fig. 32, running round the sheds, as, although not yet in general use, they are undoubtedly the best in such sit- * These terrible wind-storms are of much longer continuance in many parts of New-England. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 205 uations. The sheds are not usually framed or silled, — but are supported by posts of some durable timber set in the ground. The roofs are formed of boards "battened " with slabs. The barn has no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. Fig. 38. SHEEP-BARN. There are many situations where these open sheds are very liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all cases in severe gales, to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are very inconvenient — particularly when they thaw. I therefore much prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide door-way for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for ventilation when it is necessary. They are convenient for yarding sheep, for the various process- es where this is required, as for shearing, marking, sorting, "doctoring," Fig. 39. THE OUTSIDE STELL. &c., and especially so, for lambing places or the confinement of newly shorn sheep in cold storms. They should be spacious enough, so that in 206 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. addition to the outside racts, others can be placed temporaiily through the middle when required. In many parts of Scotland, "Stells," as they are called, are made use of to shelter sheep. Fig. 39 on the preceding page is the form of one given in " The Book of the Farm," and the author's description of it : " In a storm, their provender cannot be given to the sheep upon snow, safely and conven- iently, as grouud-dnft may blow and cover both ; and no place is so suitable for the purpose as a stell It may be formed of planting or high stone-wall. Either will afford shel- ter ; but the former most, though most costly, as it should be fenced by a stone-wall. Of this class I conceive the form represented (fig. 38) a good one, and which may be char- acterized as an ow^.sii^e stell The circumscnbing strong black line is a stone-wall six feet high ; the dark gi-ound within is covered with trees. Its four rounded projections shel- ter a corres{)onding muiiber of recesses embraced between them, so that let the wind blow from what quarter it may, two of the recesses will he always sheltered from the storm. The fiize of this stell is regulated bf the number of sheep kept; but this rule may be remem- bered in regard to its accommodation for stock, that each recess occupies about 4 part of the space comi)rehended between the extiemities of the 4 projections; so that in a stell covering 4 acres — which is perhaps the least size they should be, every recess will contain ^ an acre." The two following are forms of stells, composed of stone-wall, without planting. Fig. 40. Fig 41. ANCIENT STELLS. Figures 42 and 43, on the following page, are forms of circular stells, the first made by stone-walls and planting, as in fig. 39. The open space a is occupied by the sheep, and Z» is a funnel-shaped opening to it. On the whole I should consider fig. 42 preferable to any of the preceding forms. Figure 43 represents one of the same form, but Avithout the planting, with a stack in the middle, &:c. Either of the stells which are formed in part of trees, would he convenient in severe winds, would form excellent shades in summer, and would constitute highly ornamental ob- jects on the farm, and in the landscape. On the most northerly of the Southern mountains, where consideralile snow falls, they might even be good contrivances for winter shelter. They might also be convenient on the lowlands farther south, provided the shelter of evergreens could be made dense enough to protect the sheep from the winter rains. In this case, the stell or covert might be of any shape, and ought to have no cen SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 207 h'al opening. It would be merely a dense clump of evergreen trees, for the sheep to take refuge under in storms of rain, and it might be suiTound- ed on the outside with a tight board fence or stone-wall, if much exposed Fig. 42. THE INSIDE CIRCULAR STELL. to the sweep of cold winds. As the sheep would lie among the trees, a clump 50 or 60 feet in diameter — though 100 feet would be bettei- — would suffice for 100 sheep. Fig. 43. ^^^J^^Wjprr^^^ THE CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAY-RACKS. But in determining upon the best winter shelters, for the various re- gions in the South, the fact must not be lost sight of that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded, by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow- storms — and that consequently sheep must be adequately guarded against them. Thei"e must also be suitable shelter from any storms to whirh the country is subject, in the lamhing season. Any person with the least ex- perience can determine whether an inclosed clump of trees will answer these purposes, in his own immediate region. I think it very probable that in the Gulf States, and some of the lower Atlantic ones — particularly in regions near the ocean — these tree coverts, 208 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. surrounded by fences to break the winds, would be found sufficient. In sections infested with wolves, they might also be made to answer ^or folds, by carrying the fence to the requisite hight, to bar the ingress of the wolf But farther north, and on the high lands and mountains, better shelters would, I am inclined to think, in the end, be found more economical. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is represented in the following cut (fig. 44). It is formed by poles or rails, the upper ends resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proof by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs. Fig. 44. tr^ SHED OF RAILS. In a region where lumber is A'ery cheap, planks or boards (of sufficient thickness not to spring downward and thus o])en the roof) battened with slabs, may take the place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable roof If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed will shelter more sheep. These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, " hay-barracks," stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle like fig. 43. In the latter case, however, the yard should be square, in- stead of round, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which the round form would render necessary. Sheds of this descri})tion are frequently made, in the North, between two stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting pole is placed on the stack-pens, when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two hay-barracks ; or two such sheds (at angles with each other) might form wings to this structure. The " barrack," as it is pro- vincially tei'med in the North, would, it strikes me, afford a most econom- ical and a most convenient way of storing fodder in the South. It is ea- sily movable, so that it possesses the same advantage that stacks do, in manuring different parts of the field or farm. On the other hand, the fod- der cannot be drenched by a winter rain, as in a partly fed out stack. Hay can be more rapidly stored in it than on a stack at any time, and you can pitch into it to the last moment, when threatened with rahi, without stopping to round up the top as is necessary in a stack. The outside is not weather-beaten and damaged, as is the case with the sides, and fre- quently with a considerable of the top of a stack. Fig. 45 (on the next page) represents the form of a barrack. It is 12 feet square on the bot- tom, and the frame is formed by girting together four strong poles, 16 feet long, at the bottom, and G feet from the bottom. Boards 6 feet long are nailed perpeTidicnlarly on the girts. Two-inch holes are bored at con- venient distances through tlic corner poles, so that the roof, which rests SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 209 on pins thrust through these holes, can be raised or lowered, at pleasure. It is occasionally lowered as the fodder gets lower in the barrack, so that rain or snow shall not drive under it. It seems to me that tliis structuie would be remarkably well adapted to the storing and feeding out of un- Fig. 45. threshed peas, which, as has been remarked in a former Letter, are so advantageously raised at the South, and constitute so admirable a feed for sheep. On all large sheep-farms con- venience requires that there be one barn of considerable size, to con- tain the shearing-floor, and the ne- cessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, &c. ,This should also, for economy, be a hay-barn, (where hay is used,) and from its barrack. necessary size (for the shearing- floor), it should hold hay for 400 sheep. It may be constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, with- out making improperly sized flocks. At this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number did not exceed 400. Thus the shepherd would be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be .under his almost constant supervision. I offer the following ground-plan of a barn with fixtures, &c., as one which I think will be found well adapted to the purpose above specified. The upper is the north part of the plan. Fig. 46. a 'N • - 1 i • . • • d € ^ y a fil — - J o a The dotted lines a, a, a, a, are the fences dividing four fields, which would corner at the south-east corner of the bam. The barn is surrounded by double lines, and the sheds by double lines on the backs and ends — the dots in front of them, representing the crotched posts supporting their front. The single black lines round the yards, represent tight board fences, which screen the four yards b, c, d, e, from every wind. There are two pumps and troughs at h, h, which accommodate the whole four fields, if a want of springs or streams in them render these necessary. The sheds are so ar- 3D 210 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ranged that even without the screens they entirely shut out the north and west winds — the prevaihng and severe winter ones of this region — and if other ones are more prevalent in other regions, the sheds can be changed accordingly. Each of the sheds is 50 feet long and 12 feet wide — six square feet being the smallest ^?o/;e/- allowance of sheltered area for each sheep. The barn is 48 feet square, a floor 13 feet wide running east and west through the center, for shearing and for the drawing in of hay. An alley 4 feet wide and 8 feet high (boauled up on the side toward the mow, and covered at the top) cuts off the lower part of each bay from the east wall of the barn. This is for carrying hay into the yards b, c. It is carried into the yards ' ! Imrkey wheat 1 6 oat straw 21 1 3 >Ahe!U straw 22 artiehoke .-talk 1 6 oat straw 22 30 lentil straw 1 1 i 30 vetch straw 30 lentil straw 23 I 6 oat .uraw I 6 Iwlieat straw 1 6 oat straw The same wrlfer gi'-es the following as the proper winter feed of a ewe, the month preceding iam!)ing : 212 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. TABLE 16. ( In the morning, J lb. of good oat straw. 1st day.. < noon i .. of good hay of clover. ( evening. -1 .. of good barley straw. ( ' . . morning .J . . of millet straw. 2d day - - - noon 2 . . of potatoes with 4 oz. of chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oats. ( evening.. J .. of barley straw. morning .| .. of hay. 3d day . . < noon 1 .. of hay, { evening..! .. of wheat, oat, harley or buckwheat straw. '' .. morning . j .. of summer straw. 4th day..- noon 1 . . of chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran with water. moistened evening. .J .. of winter straw. ( ' .. morning .| .. of hay. Stliday.. . noon 2 . . of potatoes with I lb. of chopped straw. i evening. .J .. of winter straw. { ■ .. morning. 1 .. of hay. 6th day.. < noon as in 4th day. ( evening..! lb. of straw. All this would be infinitely " more nice than wise," in any part of the United States. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary hay, con- sisting mainly of Timothy, (Phleum fratcnsc,) some Red and White Clo- ver, ( Trifolium pratense et ripens,) and frequently a sprinkling of June or Spear grass, (Poa pratcnsis,) during the entire winter. Others receive an occasional fodder of corn-stalks and straw — and some farmers give a daily feed of grain through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or "blades") every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day. Or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw of the cereal grains, &c. Should any other fodder besides hay be the principal one, as, for example, coni- blades or pea-haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the game way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of convenience with the flock-master, provided ^proper sujiply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass, is given. Hay, clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn- blades are palatable to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply of nutriment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its stom- ach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can derive its entire subsistence. The same remarks may, possibly, apply to greenish cut oat and barley straw; but it would not, I apprehend, be economical or alto- gether safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains unless some of those little hardy varieties of sheep which would be of no value in this country. Experiment will readily show the flock-master what kinds of food are palatable and agree with the health of his flock. The following exceedingly valuable Table, prepared by Boussingault, will give the value of various kinds of feed in comparison with ordinary natu- ral meadow hay, as ascertained by himself. Von Thaer, Block, and other distinguished Agricultural Chemists. The results are obtained by chemi- cal analysis, and by actual experiments in feeding. The amount of nitro- gen in 100 parts is made the chemical test of value, as it shows the quan- tity of fibrin, albumen, and casein, (by multiplying by 6.3.) The experi- mental result is obtained by weighing the animal and the feed, and giving him enough of each to maintain him in good condition. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 213 TABLE 17. FODDERS. TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FODDERS. Kinds of Food. Ordinnry natural meadow hay Do. of fine quality Do. select Do. freed from woody sterna Lucern hay Red clover hay, 2d year's growth. Red clover cut in flower, green, do. New wheat straw, crop 1841 Old wheat straw Do. do. lower parts of the stalk Do. do. upper part of do. and ear. . New rye-straw Old do Oat-straw Barley dj Pea do Millet do Buckwheat do Lentil do Vetches cut in flower and dried ? into hay j Potato topa Field-beet leaves Carrot do Jerusalem artichoke stems Lime-trees, young shoots Canada Poplar do Oak do Acacia do. (autumn) Drum cabbage Swedish turnip Turnip Field-beet (1638) Do. white Silesian Carrots Jerusalem artichokes (1839) Do. (1836) Potatoes (1838) Do. (1836) Do. after keeping in the pit Cider apple pulp dried in the air.. Beet-root from the sugar mill Vetches in seed Field-beans White peas (dry) White haricots Lentils New Indian Com Buckwheat Barley (1 83(5) _ . Rarley-meal Oats (1838) Do. (1836) Rve (1833) Wheat (1836, Alsace) Do. from highly manured soil Recent Bran Wheat husks or chaff Rice (Piedmont) Gold of Pleasure seed (Madia) Do. cake Linseed cake Colza do Madia do Hemp do Poppy do Nut do Beech-mast do Arachis (Pindars) do Dry acorns Refuse of the wine-press, air-dried 11.0 14.0 18.8 14.0 16.6 10.1 76.0 26.0 8.5 5.3 9.4 18.7 12.6 21.0 11.0 8.5 19.0 11.6 9.2 11.0 76.0 88.9 70.9 86.4 55.0 62.5 57.4 53.6 92.3 91.0 92.5 87.8 8.5.6 87.6 79.2 75.5 65.9 79.4 76.8 6.4 70.0 14.6 7.9 8.6 5.0 9.0 18.0 12.5 13.2 13.0 20.8 12.4 11.5 10.5 16.6 37.1 7.6 13.4 8.0 11.2 13.4 10.5 6.5 5.0 6.8 6.0 6.2 6.6 1.34 1.50 2.40 2.44 1.66 1.70 0.36 0.53 0.43 1.42 0.30 0.50 0.36 0.30 1.95 0.96 0.54 1.18 1.16 2.30 4..50 2.94 2.70 3.25 2.29 2.16 1..56 3.70 1.83 1.70 1.70 1.43 2.40 1.60 2.20 1..50 1.80 1.18 0.63 5.13 5.50 4.20 4.30 4.40 2.00 2.40 2.02 2.46 2.20 2.22 2.27 2.33 3.18 2.18 094 1.39 4.00 5.70 6.00 .5.50 5.93 4.78 5.70 5..59 3.53 8.89 48.2 3.31 1.15 1.30 2.00 2.10 1.38 1.54 0.64 0.27 0.49 0.41 133 0.24 0.42 0.30 0.25 1.79 0.78 0.48 1.01 1.14 55 0..=)0 0.85 0..i7 1.45 0.86 0.92 0.72 0.28 0.17 0.13 0.21 0.18 0.30 0.33 0.42 0.36 0.37 0.30 0.59 0.38 4.37 5.n 3.84 4.58 4.00 1.64 2.10 1.76 2.14 1.74 1.92 2.00 2.09 2.65 1.36 0.85 1.20 3.67 5.06 5.20 4.92 5.51 4.21 5.36 5.24 3.31 8.33 0.80 1.71 600 42 200 53 100 130 429 600 3001 250 526 450 460 250 76 90, 90 Dombasle, [Ciud, 500 Rieder. 400 Schwertz. 400 do. 90 Pohl. 380 Boussingault. do. 260 Boussingault. 59 Boussingault. Some specimens are twice as rich. 214 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTft. The great value of pea-haulm, as shown in the above Table, is worthy ol the particular notice of the Southern flock-master. Also that of millet straw, another crop peculiarly congenial to the Southern States, provided it can be cured so that sheep will eat it. Corn-stalks are not, unfortunate- ly, included in the Table. According to Petri, 100 pounds of corn "straw," (including stalks and leaves, I suppose,) contains but f as much nutriment as the same weight of " aromatic meadow hay," and not so much by 1 as an equal weight of oat or pea straw, which he makes equivalent to each other ! My opinion is that this by no means indicates the comparative value of ivell cured corn-stalks. No analysis of them now occurs to me, in any authority which I have on hand. Mr. Ellsworth, of the Patent Of- fice, stated in the Cultivator in 1842, that the juice of corn-stalks, on Beaume's Saccharometer, is equal in saccharine matter with that of the cane in this country, five times greater than that of the Northern sugar- maple, (Acer sacch arinum, ) and three times that of beet! The daily ex- periments of our farmers demonstrate the absurdity of placing corn-stalks below the value of the cereal straws. Cured green and bright they are a highly valuable fodder, and are relished by all herbivorous animals. My friend, James M. Ellis, Esq. of Onondaga, N. Y., one of the best managing flock-masters of this State, has fed corn-stalks largely to his sheep for sev- eral years and with decided succes. Effect of Food in the Production of Wool. — The fact has been be- fore alluded to that well fed sheep produce more wool than poorly fed ones. The question now arises — if the effect on the condition (flesh) of the sheep is the same, will one kind of food produce more wool than another"? No doctrine is more clearly recognized in Agricultural Chemistry, than that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same com- ponents existing in their food.* The analyses of Liebig, Johnston, Scherer, Playfair, Boeckmann, Muldei", &c., show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, &;c. ai'e nearly identical. The organic part of wool, according to Johnston, t consists of carbon 50.65, hydrogen 7.03, nitrogen 17.71, oxy- gen and sulphur 24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When burned, it leaves but 2 per cent of ash. The large quantity of nitro- gen (17.71) contained in wool, shows that its production is increased by highly azotized food. This is fully verified by the experiments made on Saxon sheep, in Silesia, by Reaumur, whose Table I append. A striking correspondence will be found to exist between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in the food, TABLE 18. Kinds of food. 1000 pounds of raw potatoes, with salt. 1000 1000 1000 lono 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 without salt raw mangel-wurzel pease wheat rye, with Salt rye, without salt oats barley buckwheat pood hay bay, with straw, without other fodder ^vhiskv, ptill-g-rains or wash. . . 461 44 38 134 ISr") 90 83 14fi 136 120 58 31 3.'> H 8 31 n 131 141 101 12 H 41 101 12 51 10 141 35 111 33 81 40 8 60 1 33 8 12 14 6 11 4 Nitrogen per cent, in food. 0.36 0.36 0.21 3.83 2.09 2.00 2.00 1.70 1.90 2.10 1.15 * For full infoi-mation on ihis whole subject, fee Liebie's Animal Chemistrj', Part I and II. t See Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry — Lecture XVIII. Analyses of the horny tis&ues, by be fouud in the Appendix to Liebig's Animal Chemistry. Scherer, will bHiit.r tiLSIiANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 215 The singular difference stated in the Table, between the amount of wool produced by " good hay," and " hay with straw without other fodder," I confess is scarcely credible to me. It may be a misprint in the Table from which I copy. The peculiar value of pease not only in increasing the wool, where they rank^r*^,* but in the average comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues, is again worthy of notice. Effect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle. — The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of the food. It would be foreign from my purpose to enter into an elaborate theoretical exam- ination of this subject. Liebig, in Parts I. and II. of his Animal Chemis- try, has covered the whole ground, and to him I take the liberty to refer you. Mr. Spooner, writing for England, where the production of flesh and fat is the primary object of Sheep Husbandry, has given a synopsis of Liebig's positions, analyses, &c., in his chapter (XXI.) on Feeding and Fattening — and the substance of this is again repeated by Mr. Morrell in his chapters on the same subjects, in The American Shepherd. To either of the latter I would refer you for sufficient details for practical purposes, or for Jull information, to Liebig. The Tables of Boussingault and Reaumur, already given, (Tables 17 and 18,) sufficiently indicate the value of the various grains, straw, roots, &c., in fattening. It is not very common, in the North, for ivool-growcrs to fatten their wethers, for market, by extra winter feeding. Some give them a little more generous keep the winter befoie they are to be turned off, and then sell them when they have attained their maximum fatness the succeeding fall. When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shel- ters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice a day in troughs — or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of (yellow) corn meal per head per diem is about as much as ordinary flocks of Merino wethers will profitably con- sume, though in selected flocks consisting of large animals, this amount is frequently exceeded. Feeding Grain to Store-Sheep in Winter. — The expediency of feed- ing grain to store-sheep in winter depends much upon circumstances. If in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other gieon esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary. Neither is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be supplied plentifully with good dry foddor. Near markets where the coarse grains find a good and ready sale, it is not usual in the North, to feed grain. Remote from markets, it is generally fed by the holders of large flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. Some feed half the same amount of (yellow) corn. Fewer sheep — particularly lambs, year- lings, and crones — get thin and perish, where they receive a daily feed of grain ; they consume less hay ; and their fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, thiee daily feeds of hay are given. It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oafs in the bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay — one at morning and one at night. A few feed greenish cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing weather when sheep get * With the exception of " hay and straw " — the given product of which, in wool, I have already staled must undoubtedly be misprinted. 216 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. to the ground, and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. This may furnish a useful hint for many parts of the South. When the feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities where sheep would get enough gi-ass to take off their appetite for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep them in prime condition. A moderate daily feed of oats or pease placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong, in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of wool. Few Northern farmers feed Indian corn to store-sheep. It is consid- ered " too hot and stimulating," and sheep are thought to be more liable to become " cloyed " on it than on oats, pease, &c. I never have fed it to Blieep sufficiently to speak advisedly on this point. A neighboring flock- master whose admirable arrangements for keeping sheep are only equaled by his usual success, lost most of a large flock of lambs a few winters since. They received all they would eat of the best hay, and, as the owner sitpposed, a half gill of corn a head per day. They were in fine order in the beginning, and for some time into the winter. During a thaw, when they got a little off" from their feed, and looked " hollow," the shep- herd, witjiout the knowledge of the owner, increased the feed of corn. This caused them to eat still less hay, and the shepherd not only continued but increased the allowance of the corn as their appetite for hay dimin- ished. In a short time they ate scarcely any hay, and soon after began to eat their corn very irregularly. Their stomachs were now so completely deranged, that they would not eat anything, in quantities sufficient for their subsistence, and they perished rapidly and miserably. The same consequences might doubtless have ensued from feeding other grains, in the same improper manner. But I am inclined to think that the evil would have been less rapid and remediless with some other grains. I do not consider yellow corn a very safe feed, at least for lambs and yearlings. From the obviously different character of the larger Southern varieties, I presume they would be less, and very probably not at all, objectionable for sheep feed. Haifa gill of yellow corn, or a gill of oats joer head, is a sufficient daily allowance of grain. While there can be nothing more ab- surd than the German starving system to increase the fineness of the wool, excessive fatness is not to be aimed at, especially in breeding-ewes. Store sheep should be kept in good, fair, j^Z?/?;^/; condition. Lambs and yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. It will not do to suffer sheep to get thin in the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. It is always difficult, and unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter — especially if they have reached that point where they mani- fest loeakness. If the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal diaiThea will frequently supervene. All extra feeding, therefore, must be begun very gradually, and it does not seem, in any case, to produce proportionable results. I have seen it stated that sheep will eat cotton-seed and thrive on it. If this be true, this must, of course, be a far more remunerating applica- tion of that product, than as a mere manure to soils. Feeding Roots, Browse, &c., in Winter. — Ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, &c., make a good substitute for grain, as an extra feed for grown sheep. I prefer the ruta-baga to the potato in equivalents of nutriment. I do not consider either of them, or any other root, as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent in grain. Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cul- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 217 tivated roots. This is done by withholding salt from them, and then feed- ing the chopped root a few times rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root to obtain it ; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots. It is customary with some of our flock-masters to cut down from time to time, in the winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the; hemlock f Abies canadensis). The foliage is greedily eaten by sheep, af- ter being confined for some time to dry feed. I have known sheep, un^ doubtedly, I think, killed by overeating it. This browse is commonly used for some supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced " healthy for sheep." The popular supposition is that it is a tonic and stimulant.. If this be true, which I will not pause to inquire, o^ whdX good use ai'e tonics, and stimulants to Jiealt/ii/ animals ? With sheep, as with horses, and evens with. va.en, preventive medicines are productive of injury in a thousand cases, where they are of benefit in one. There could be no objection, cer- tainly, to sheep's eating the foliage of the hemlock, if it was constantly accessible to them. Their instincts, in that case, would teash them whether, and in what quantities, to devour it. But when entirely confined to dry feed for a protracted period, sheep will consume hurtful a^nd eveu poisonous succulents — and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful qv,antities^ As a mere laxative, an occasional feed of hemlock may be benefieial; but in this point of view, a day's run at grass in a thaw, or a feed of roots^ would produce the same result. In a climate where grass; is ol>tained most of the time, I should consider browse for medicinal puipoees- entirely unnecessary. Winter Feed of Breeding-Ewes. — Until two &r three weeks pre- ceding lambing, it is only necessary that breeding-ewes> like other store- sheep, be kept in good plump ordinary condition. No? are any separate' arrangements necessary fijr them, after that period, in a climate wher& they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide foi" a ppopsr secretion of milk. In backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start, prior to the lambing time, careful flock-master& ie^tk their ewes chopped roots, or roots mixed witli oat or pea meal. This is,, ia my judgment^ excellent economy.* Regularity in Feeding. — If there is one ruJe which saay be consider- ed more imperative than any other in Sheep Husbandry, Lt is that the ut- most regularity be preserved in feeding. First, there should be regularity as to the times of feeding. However abuTidantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one ho^ur and sometimes at another^ — sometimes three times a day and sometimes, twice — some days grain and some days none — they cannot he made to thrive. They will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a cliiaate where they re- quire hay three times a day, the best times far feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark at night.. Unlike cattle and hoi'ses, sheep do not eat well in the da/rk^ and thei'efoife they sh&uld have time to consume their feed before night sets in.. Noon is the comraon time- for feeding grain or roots, and is the best time if but twafodderings of hay are given. If the sheep receive hay thi-ee times, it is not a siatter of much consequence with which feetling the giain is gi^en, ©nly that the practice be uniform. It is also highly essential that there be regialarifey preserved i® the amount fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon the ^ For the effect of the various esculents oa ttLs q.uamit7 aad (^uaUty of Uie milk,, see Liebig.'s A-nimal Chenu 3E 218 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. weather. The keener the cold, the more sheep will eat. In the South much would also depend upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places a light daily foddering would suffice — in others, a light foddenng placed in the depository racks once in two days would answer the purpose. In the steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to de- termine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering time. And this is the amount which should, as near as may be, be regu- larly fed. In feeding grain or roots there is no difficulty in preserving en- tire regularity, and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of the latter a sheep will not overeat and surfeit itself. Of the former it will. And if not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, but still over-plenteously, it will expect a like amount at the next feeding, and failing to receive it, will pine for it and manifest uneasiness. The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal is bad — and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. I would much rather that my flock receive no grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regular- ity in the amount. The shepherd should be required to measure out the grain to sheep in all instances — instead of guessing it out — and to measure it to each separate flock. S^Lx. — Sheep undoubtedly require salt in winter. Some salt their hay when it is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, as you thus constitute yourself the judge, or controller in a matter, where the appetite of the sheep is a much safer guide. It may be left accessible to them in the salt-box (fig. 28) as in summer, or it is an excellent plan to give them an occasional feed of brined hay or straw. This last is done in warm thaw- ing weather, when their appetite is poor, and thus serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine — then an- other layer of straw and another sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the gi-azing animals on the farm which need salting. Water. — Unless sheep have access to succulent food or clean snow, water is indispensable. Constant access to a brook or spring is best, but in default of this, they should be watered, at least once a day, in some other way. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 219 LETTER XIV. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF SHEEP. Character of American ovine veterinary works— of the Knglish. ..Anatomical details of the latter valuable — necessity of 0011101" clear from their systems of pathology and therapeutics — reasons. .-Exciting causes of disease even in adjacent localities in England not the same — popular superstitions on the subject. ..Ne- cessarily greater ditferences as between remote countries possessing different climates, etc Ravages of rot in Europe — scarcely known in most parts of America. ..Exciting causes apparently the same in both Hoofail, though retained here by contagion, not primarily produced by the same causes as in England. .. Various European diseases not known here. ..Dilierence in the pathology of the same diseases in this coun- tiy and in England. . .The English ones accompanied with more intiammatory action — the American of an asthenic or sinking character . .Pathological dittorences require a corresponding ditl'erence in therapeutics .. .English system of therapeutics objectionable for the above reason — on account of its expensiveness — and, for popular purposes, by the extent of its pharmacopim. . .The proper ovine veterinary system to be adopted— manner of classifying diseases — Anatomy of the t-hecp— how far to be studied — directions to be- ginners. ..The Omentum. ..Tlie Kumen. ..The Reiiculum. ..The Maniplus. ..The Abomasum. ..The func- tions of the ditt'erent Stomachs. ..The Duodenum. ..The Jejunum. . .The Ileum. ..The Coecum The Colon... The Rectum. ..The Mesentary. ..Tlie process of digestion. ..The Spleen... The Pancreas ... The Liver... The Kidneys. ..The Bladder... The Uterus and Vagina. Dear Sir: Most of the veterinary works which have appeared in this country in relation to the Sheep, Horse, and other domestic animals, have been made up simply of medical recipes ; or, if they have given systems of veterinary nosoloc^y and pathology, these systems have been mere tran- scnpts of those of European, and particularly of English writers. I have examined all, 1 believe, of the most celebrated late English au- thors, scientific and empirical,* on the diseases of the Sheep and their cures. For anatomical and general pathological details, the works of some of the former possess great value, and compare favorably with the treatises on the same topics by the most eminent physicians and surgeons. This is particularly true of the work on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt — the fount- ain-head from which most of the later English writers on the same subject have so liberally drawn, and will probably continue so to do for a century to come. For minute accuracy of description, particularly in the depart- ment of pathology — for elaborate research into both facts and authorities — for clearness and sparkling vivacity of style, this gentleman, it seems to me, is entirely without a competitor among the English veterinarians, and his works will bear reading alongside those of a Cooper, a Louis, and a Chapman. I have hesitated whether to transcribe entire Mr. Youatt's treatise on the Anatomy of the Sheep. It would be the sheerest affectation — not to say plagiarism — to publish a mere abridgment of his remarks, or their sub- stance dressed up in other words, as some late English writers have done, for the purpose of setting up pretensions to that originality which Mr. You- att has left so little room for in this department. But as these Letters, Sir, are published for the benefit of the many, rather than to instruct those al- ready versed to any considerable extent in Veterinary Science, I have been led to doubt vthether am/ systematic treatise on Anatomy is necessary. On the whole, I have come to the conclusion that farther than to exhibit the * I do not use the word "empirical" here in its invidious sense. I mean to describe by it a class of writers versed in erperiments me.re.ly, as contradistinguished from those who possess a scientific knowledgo of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, &c. 220 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. localities of disease, explain certain operations in the animal economy, and render terms intelligible, it would be time thrown away. In pathology somewhat, and to a much greater extent in the systems of therapeutics adopted, [ have found it necessary to cut clear from all Eng- lish ovine veterinarians. If this is regarded as presumptuous, I have only to say that the testimony or opinions of that man are worth little who so far pins his faith on another's views, as to disregard the plain evidence of his own senses. The salutary rule of the law is, each witness testifies to what he has seen, and to what, crediting the assertions of his own senses, Tie knows. It is for the investigating tribunal to decide what weight shall be attached to the testimony. That tribunal, in the present case, is the public. But in reality, a discrepancy of views on the above subjects, does not ne- cessarily imply an enor on either side. The pathology of diseases fre- quently does not coincide, as between different climates and countries, and sometimes, singularly enough, between contiguous localities in the same country. This is especially true as regards the origin or exciting cause of disease. Where the atmospheric, alimentary, and all other observable conditions are nearly identical, occult causes which baffle the closest and most scientific scrutiny, not unfrequently either periodically or regularly, scourge man or beast with disease in one locality, while another one is al- most uniformly exempt from these attacks. "What English pathologist, for example, has ever assigned a physical cause which would answer, quanti- tatively, as a criterion to decide on the proportionable prevalence of the same malady in other regions — or the existence of which would even prove that the disease existed at all — for the frequent appearance of goitre {bron- cAoceZe) among the inhabitants of Derbyshire, and the comparative exemp- tion from it of the inhabitants of contiguous counties 1* The theatres of its especial visitation, in other parts of the world, seem to be equally de- termined by chance — though undoubtedly dependent upon physical causes which have as yet eluded observation. It is not astonishing, therefore, that the ignorant down to our own times, and even the enlightened, until a period comparatively recent, should have sought the incomprehensible causes of many diseases, in the regions of the preternatural. Among brutes especially, which were supposed to be more given up to such influences, these phenomena were conveniently assigned, by our English and Scotch ancestors, to " some dev'lish cantrip slight" of " warlocks and witches" — the malevolence of an offended fairy or spite- ful gnome.t * I understand that the inhabitants of the ailjoining counties of Stafford, Nottingham and Leicester are comparatively exempt from the attaclc of goitre. t In Bums's inimitable Tarn O'Shanter, some of the singular powers once exercised " by withered beldams auld and droll Lowping and flinging on a crummock" — end sometimes, though far more rarely, by " ae winsome wench and walie," to turn aside the established laws of Nature and God's providence, are thus enumerated in describing one of the diabolical sisterhood : " Mony a beast to dead she shot, And periphed mony a bonny boat. And shook baith meikle corn and bear, And kept the country-side in fear." * No one will understand that the witch, in full league with the Devil, had any occasion for mortal fire- Mms, in "shooting"' the beasts of her victims. Murrain, and in some cases death, followed a glance of her " evi) eye." And even the witches of Burns are tame every-day bodies, compared with those which swell the infernal dramatis perxontB of Faust, or mingle in the gloomy horrors of Macbeth. Two centuries ago, and even less, there was not a parish in England, a hill or dell in Scotland, or even a colonized nook in the wild woods of America, where witchcraft was not rife ; and mvltitudes in every rank in life were consigned to the gallows, the faggot, strangling, r«-mo/-^t'»i and post-mortem appearances, states that it occurs in Southern Illinois " from suffering sheep to pasture on land that is overflowed with water;" and he adds, "even a crop of gieen oats, early in ttie fall before a frost comes, has been known to rot young sheep." It is worthy of remark that Mr. Livingston — equally distinguished for research and observation — does not include the rot in his list of American ovine diseases. This aflmds a strong corroboration of the position I have assumed in relation to the existence of this disease in the North-eastern States, and those of the Southern ones lying east of the Apalachians.| The Hoof-ai], though introduced here by contagion, and kept in constant existence by the same means, does not appear, in the comnnm phrase, to originate spontaneously, as in Europe ; or, in other words, to be excited by any other causes than contagion. I have never known an instance going, eren coh)rab]y, to prove the contrary of this proposition. Acute dropsy or Red-water, 1 judge to be an exceedingly rare disease in the Northern States, though the author of the American Shepherd thinks differetilly.ll Entcreiis, or inflammation of the coats of the intestines; blain, or in- flamn}:ition of the cellular tissue of the tongue ; and a whole train of other di^eases — including most of the frightful list of infectious or contagious European epizootics — seem to be unknown in this country. MHiy there should be so wide a difference between the ovine nosology of Europe and the United States, is a matter of curious and interesting speculation. Whether it will always remain so, or whether the advent of * Yountt on Phepp, p. 445. f See remxika of Dr. Coventry, quoted at some length in Mountain Shepherd's Mnnual, p. 20. J 1 limit the reninrk to the StBtes lying (mostly) east of these moiintflins, because ihey would probably be the only oiiep, at the time at which Mr. Livingston wrote, with the Sheep Husbandry of which he would be supposed to be fnmiliBr. II American Shepherd, p. 359. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUT '. 223 the European diseases is only delayed here for more artificial systems of feeding, breeding, or perhaps more artificial systems of Agriculture af- fecting the aliment of the sheep, or other and unexplainable causes, time alone must determine. If we look for these differences in the observable differences of climate, we find no satisfactory solution of the problem. The climate of England is essentially different from our own — but that it is a fav(»i-able one for the healthy development of all the animal tissues, her large, strong, long- lived population, as well as her well-developed animal kingdom, abun- dantly attest. The atmosphere of England is a moist and humid one, and moisture is thought to be one of the necessary predisposing causes of both rot and hoof-ail. Of the origin of the former disease, Mr. Youatt remarks : * " The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decuniposition of moist veget- able matter. It is rarely, or almost never, on dry and sandy soils and in dry seasons; it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the beat of the summer sun, or completely covered by the winter rain. In the same fann there are cer- tain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are others that seldom or never give the rot." Mr. Youatt continues his descriptions of these predisposing conditions at great length, and his final conclusion is, in substance, that the miasmata, or gases exhaling from the decomposition of vegetable substances, are the causes of the rot. Mr. Spooner adopts the same views ; indeed, they are universally received among scientific veterinarians. If these views are correct, the evil lies not in a generally humid atmo- sphere, but in a generally or temporarily humid soil ; and that they are true quo ad hoc, is proved by the fearful ravages of the disease in the driest atmosphere of Germany, in the clear, dry atmosphere of the South of France, and under the torrid skies of southern Spain, where rain does not fall for months. Boggy or fenny soils, where decaying vegetable substances are con- stantly exhaling their gases, are to be found in all parts of the United States — more or less, in every township, and almost every school district of New-York and New-England. Sheep pasture on such lands, j)iomis- cuously with other stock, in every county — and, in the latter States, at least, with entire impunity from the rot. Humidity of soil is also supposed to he the most prominent cause in originating hoof-ail, or producing it otherwise than by contagion. Mr. Youatt and Professor Dick attribute the disease most often to the effect of sand and dirt forced into the pores of the hoof, when macerated by moisture. The following is the language of Professor Dick : " The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particularly liable to give ibis disease, and so are soft, marshy and luxuriant meadows. It exists to a greater or less extent in every situation that has a tendency to increase the growth of the hoofs without weariiiL' tht-m away The different piU'ts of the hoof, deprived of their nalunil wear, prow out of their proper proportions. The crust, especially, grows too long ; niid the overgrown jiarts either break oflF in irregular rents, or by overshooting the sfile allow small ]>articles of sand and dirt to enter into the pores of the hoof. These particles soon reach the quick, and set up the infl.unniation already described and followed by all its destructive effects." t The same writer assigns another cause for it — inflammation induced by an improper bearing of the foot, caused by the unnatural growth of the horn on wet pastures. Mr. Spooner attributes the disease to decaying vegetables — " roots and Youatt on Sheep, p. 451. f See Dick, quoted by Youatt, p. 527, 528. 224 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. leaves of the grasses in a state of rottenness " — brought in contact with the sheep's foot when " lilancliod and weakened by conliiiual moisture! "* There is another p«)int of difference in the pathology of ovine diseases in this and the old world, judging from tlie details furnished by the' Eng- lish veterinarians. Most of the ])yrcxiai diseases, in England, are accom- panied, at least in their initiatory stages, with active; inflammatory symp- toms. Fever runs higli, and decidedly aiitijililogistic treatment is called for. On the other hnnd, so far as my observation and inquiries have ex- tended, the ovine diseases of the United States are usually of an asthenic nature — characterized by debility from the outset. The difference in the physical character, leeding, and ordinary state of fatness of the sheep of the two countries, offers, p(;!rba]>s, a sufficient explanation of these facts. The gross, high-fed English sheep, forced forward by bf)unliful feeding to an uniuiturally precocious m;iturity, is always in a high state of ])lethora, and predisposed, therefore, to inflaniTuatory action. A slight derangement of any function, produced by a cold, by an error in feeding, or by any other causes, is sufficient to nudce the organs exercising those functions the seat of sucli action. On the other hand, the sheep of the United States, kept mainly for wool-growing purposes, is rarely raised abf)ve a moderately fleshy or medium condition. And, unexcited by an unnaturally plt!thoric habit, the weak vascular and muscular system of the animal little predisposes it to inffamtnatory disease. A difference in the pathological cliaracter of disease requires a corre- sponding diflerence in tiic system of therapeutics adopted. The English system of therapeutics is decidedly objectionable, here, Jirst, on the ac- count just named ; second!//, from its expensivcnicss ; and, fJ/inl///, (for jjo/mf.ar purposes,) by the extent and complexity of its pharmacology, ~ 1. As has b(!eu already remarked, most of the English f)vine diseases commence with pyrexia^ — and the fever is synochal or inffamniatoTy in its type. The subject is strong, plethoric, and full of blood. Antiphlogistic treatment is clearly called for. Accordingly, depletion, by bleeding or purgatives, or both, is first and promptly resorted to by the English veteri- narian. In the United Slates, also, most inq^ortaiit constitutional diseases commence with pyrexiae, but the fever in its first discorcrcd statue is almost uniformly of a low, sinking, typhoid type, accompanied with great pros- tration of muscular enn-gy. The animal is in a leanish or only moder- ately fleshy condition. It has been confined to dry, and per1.a])s lather unnutritious food — for most of the list of constitutional maladies, here, make their attacks in the winter, and old, lean, and feeble sheep are usu- ally the first victims. A sheep is observed droojung, aiul indifferent to food. It is caught and examined. Whatever orjjan or portion of the sys- tem is laboring under attack, bleed so as to jiroduce a constituticmal im- pression, (which the English veteiinarians almost invariably recduimend, where they recommend bleeding at all,) and follow this with an active ])urgative, and in four cases f)Ut of five the sheep will, in the ex]iressive phrase of the English shepherds, " take the ground"; it will never rise from ill:- ground more without assistance, and v.ill soon become unable to stand when set upon its feet. Gi'owii'g weaker and weaker, it soon re- fusis to eat, and death supervenes. These remaiks are not designed to apply to stall-fed wethers, or other very liigli-conditioned sheep. 2. The Rnglish, and indeed the European method of treating diseases is too r.rp'i/s/re foi- this country. Tn curiufj hoof-ail, f.f., Mr. Yonntt, after recommending washing in chloride of lime, and cauferiy.ing, says : * This secma to mc a most unphilosopliicul ctiusc lo be nssigjicd lij' a vrtirinminn of ihc etwuliiig of Mr. Spooner. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 225 " If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and especially if a considerable por- tion of the sole has been removed, it may be expedient to wrap a little clean tow round the foot, and to bind it tiplitiy down with a tape, the sheep being removed to a straw-yard, or some inclosed space, or to a drier i)asture The foot should be dressed every day, each new separation of horn removed, and every portion of the fungus submitted to the caustic." * Mr. Spooner recommends daily, and not less troublesome treatment.t The Mountain Shepherd's Manual recommends daily treatment,^ and this is the case, I V^elieve, with nearly all, if not all, of the foreign vc;;erinaiians. Professor Pictet, of Switzerland, in addition to daily applications, fumiga- tions, etc., innumerable, goes a ste]) beyond " tow pledgets and tape band- ages." He says : " In order to prevent any dirt, &c., from getting into the wound, the diseased foot should be placed in a little ljo(jt, the sole of which is of leather or lielt, and the upper part of cloth, in order to fasten it round the leg of the sheep." This disease rages most when haying and harvesting are at their bight, in the Northern States — in July and August — and when the labor of day hands costs from seVenty-five cents to a dollar per head per diem. Half the flocks in the country can then be bought for Si 2.5 j)er head. How soon daily parings, cauterizings, embrocations, fumigations, etc., including the expense of drugs and Professor Pictet's gaiter-hoots, would reach an expense equivalent to the price of a sound sheep, it rerpiires not the exer- cise of much arithmetic to determine ! It would certainly be more eco- nomical to kill sheep of any ordinary grade in the first instance ! The same remark will apply to the English system of treating nearly all important diseases. The labor bestowed on it would be worth more, here, than the value of the sheep. 3. The English ovine veterinary pharmacopaeia is too extensive and complex for popular use. The prescribed formulae are so compound in their character — so minute oftentimes in their quantitative proportions — re- quire so much skill for their chemical and mechanical admixttire — and, lastly, and more important than all the rest, they demand so much med- ical knowledge for their proper and timely administration — that they can be generally used with safety and advantage only by professional veteri- narians, a class entirely wanting, unless occasionally in cities, in the United States. Besides, our ordinary country drug-stores are usually lacking in many of the articles included in the European prescriptions! | — and no one, without possessing considerable medical knowledge, could decide what effect it would have on the prescription to subtract this or that ingredient. It might neutralize its effects, or even render it peiTiicious. A veterinary system for anything Wke popular use, in this country, must be exceedingly simple in its remedies, and in its rules for their administra- tion. As it is impossible to describe the various symptoms which may exhibit themselves in a disease, so as to be understood by all, it is unsafe •to prescribe a constant change of medicines, applicable to the several states which have caused those symptoms to appear. Indeed, changes in medicine should only be made consequent on those distinct crises of dis- ease which can be detected and understood by the most ordinary observer. Prescriptions, therefore, inapplicable, or at least unsafe, in any stage ^ow one distinct crisis of disease to another, should, as far as practicable, be avoided. True, such a system of therapeutics will be very imperfect, par- ticularly in the treatment of serious constitutional maladies. But it will go • Vouatt, p. 529. t Spooner, (endorBing the views of Mr. Read,) p. 438 to 442. t tiHi-m vide, p. 27. II Not unfrequently the molt important ones, as I know from repeated experience. 2F 226 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. as far as the knowledge of the uninsti-ucted practitioner will safely admit of — and if, even in cases of constitutional disease, it should simply cause him to do no hurt hy his mterfcrence, and prevent him from resorting to some miserably ignorant empiric* — the most imfortant object, perhaps, would be attained. It is infinitely safer in such diseases to rely on unaided Nature to effect the cure, than to submit a sheep, or any other animal, to the drugging and dosing of a person ignorant of the true nature of the disease, and of the remedies which he employs. It is better to do too lit- tle than to do too much ; and in all cases where it is not known what to do, it is better to do nothing. Lord Western, in a letter to Mr. Bischoff, says :t " I have little to say on the medical treatment of sheep ; my study is prevention by suffi- cient wholesome food, with a constant and abundant supply of salt in every yard and every field When sheep are taken ill, there is little hope for them, and rai'ely any use ia administering medicines." If the latter portion of this remark is true among the educated, intelli- gent and experienced veterinarians of England, how much more must it be so among those destitute of even the first rudiments of veterinary sci- ence ! In relation to some of the more serious constitutional maladies, af- ter considerable experience and observation, I feel constrained to express the opinion that the remark is, to a considerable extent, true. The sheep is almost as unsatisfactory a patient to deal with, in some such cases, as the hog, of which it is frequently said, with no great exaggei-ation, " that if he is seriously sick he is sure to die, and the more you do for him the sooner he will die ! " " Then why give a therapeutic system at all in a class of diseases where it will do so little good '? " In the first place, the cases are perhaps few where judicious prescriptions will not someichat diminish the tendency to a fatal result ; but the great reason, after all, is, that every man having a sick animal %cill dose and physic it, or tcill permit some officious neighbor to do so, or will call in that most dangerous of all epizootics, the cattle-doctor. It is therefore better in the most hopeless cases, to give a few simple directions, based on sound med- ical principles, which will not, at all events, aggravate the disease, and which will tend to alleviate or suppress it, rather than to surrender the heljiless animal over to the additional tortures inflicted by ignorance and quackery. Fortunate it is that well-managed sheep, in this country, are so little subject to such diseases ! In classifying diseases, I shall depart from the system adopted by You- att, Spooner, etc., who arrange them with reference to the parts of the sys- tem they more especially attack, as, for example, " diseases of the brain," * The selfmstriculated " cattle doctor '" is a decidedly interesting personnge. His qualifications are nu- merous, and it is somewhat difficult to find them all brilliantly combined in the same person. He should be the most ignorant man in the town, particularly in everything relating to the anatomy and physiology of man or beaft. lie should be equally iiinorant of the chemical and medicinal properties of nearly all the drucs used by him. His prescriptions, to give them due potency, should consist of a great number of in- gredients — a iHrge porlion of them bearing very "hard vamts." He should flank and fortify these, at least in all difficult cases, with substances possessing rare occult virtues, entirely unknown to "human physi- cians," such as the '• blood of black cats," the " entrails of fowls," " human fceces," simples culled under pe- culiar circumstances — "Root of hemlock, digged i' the dark, * * * slips of yew, Slivered in the moon's eclipse." He should decidedly affect the mysterious, and should always repel the attempted intrusions of ordinary humanity-the profane vulsar— into the arcana of his hiirh art. He should have half a dozen maladies, such as"baked inthe manyfolds," " overflow of the gall," "kidney disease." "rising of the lights," ■' strained across the loin." etc., to which he can promptly assign all the ills which beasts are heir to. He should never mistake a di.=ease or a remedy. If the patient dies, it should invariably be in consequence of a deviation from his directions I t Bischoff, vol. ii. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 227 " diseases of the digestive organs," &c. This method of classification, though not without its advantages, and though it would seem, at first view, to present an arrangement most convenient for reference, examination and comparison, in the end, leads, I think, to confusion and misunderstanding. ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP. He who breeds sheep to any considerable extent, should make himself familiar with the anatomical structure of some of the parts of the animal — particularly with the arrangement, size, natural appearance, consistency and contents of the several viscera ; to some extent with the circulatory system ; with the alimentary and respiratory organs ; with the brain, and the whole osseous structure of the head. He should be in the constant habit of making more or less extended examinations of all these structures, as opportunity occurs by the slaughter of sheep for economic purposes ; and when the animal dies from disease, such examination should be in no ordinary case omitted by the flock-master who is desirous of making him- self thorovgJdy acquainted loith his business. He will require some instruc- tion, in the outset, to enable him to make such dissections understandingly and properly ; but he can readily obtain this from any educated physician or surgeon. There are no sufficiently wide differences in the anatomical structui'e of the sheep and of the human being, to give the surgeon the least difficulty in pointing out the arrangement, uses, &c., of the several parts of the former, unless it be in the conformation of the stomachs. — Here, the structure of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals, dif- fers widely from man, but that physician or surgeon must have been singu- larly limited in his physiological investigations, who has not made himself acquainted with it. At all events, a glance at a veterinary work, while conducting a dissection, will enable him to understand, and explain it to the learnei". The learner while making his examinations in company with, and under the direction of the surgeon, should ^er/o?7» every manipulation : his own hand should handle, remove, test the consistency, &c. of the parts — alone wield the saw and guide the scalpel. This is an important rule if he would understand and remember. The subjects of a portion of the examinations should be sheep killed in full health. It is necessary to be familiar with the healthy appearance of all the parts, so as to distinctly recognize all departures from it — the effect of any diseased or abnormal action. The sides of a lean sheep are moi'e translucent, after being skinned, than those of a fat one, and therefore the former makes a better subject, if the circulatory system is to be examined. On the sides of the thorax and ab- domen, at a little distance from the spine, the veins and arteries of those parts can often be traced with beautiful distinctness, without any dissection of the intercostal muscles. Subjects should be examined which have had their blood drawn (by hav- ing their throats cut), and also those which have died with all their blood in them. Some of the viscera — e. g. the lungs, veins and arteries — will present very different appearances under these different circumstances ; and this fact not understood might frequently lead to very erroneous con- clusions in post mortem examinations. I will give a very general description of the parts I have mentioned aa necessary to be studied — designed merely for those who have no previous knowledge of the subject. After the animal has been neatly skinned, place it on a low table, an as- sistant giasping its fore-legs, and holding it firmly on its back. Then slit 228 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. open the belly from the middle of the sternum, or cartilaginous connection between the ribs, to the anus. In making this and all similar incisions, hold the edge of the knife upward, guarding its point with the fore-finger, BO that the viscera shall not be wounded. The abdomen — the whole cav- ity of the trunk back of the diaphragm or " midriff" — is now laid open. It is usually necessary for a better examination of the parts to make cross incisions part way between the diaphragm and anus, extending down on each side several inches toward the backbone. I shall describe the viscera in the order in which I have usually exam- ined them. On opening the abdomen the omentum or caul is found covering the in- testines. It is a thin, and, in a normal state, colorless and transparent structure, formed of two membranes, between which extend streaks of fat in the form of a net. The external appearance of the stomachs is given in the following cut of those of a young sheep which died of disease. Their arrangement is slightly different in the animal. Fig. 47. THE STOMACHS. o. The cesophagus or gullet, entering the rumen or paunch. h. b. The rumen, or paunch, occupying three-fourtha of the abdomen. c. The reticulum, or honey-comb — the 2d etomach. d. The maniplus, or many folds— the 3d stomach. e. The abomasum, or 4th stomach. /. The commencement of the duodenum or first intestine. g. The place of the pylorus, a valve which separates the contents of the abomasum and duodenum. The walls of the rumen or paunch consist of four coats or tunics — 1st, the peritoneal or outer coat ; 2d, the muscular ; 3d, the mucous, covered with papillae, or little protuberances, from which (or glands under which) is secreted a peculiar fluid to soften and prepare the food for re-mastica- tion ; and, 4th, the inner or cuticular coat, a thin, entirely insensible mem- brane, which defends the mucous coat from abrasion or erosion. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 229 The reticulum or honey-comb is composed of the same number of coats, fulfilling similar functions. But the mucous coat, in addition to minute papillae, is covered with elevations arranged in pentagons and sexagons of different sizes, somewhat resembling a honey-comb, except that the cells are larger and shallower. The maniplus has the same four coats. Its jloor is a continuation of the oesophagean canal. From its roof depend many parallel folds of the cuticular coat — here thicker and stronger than in the other stomachs — reaching nearly to its floor. The cuticle is covered toward the edges of the folds, with hard, bony processes, shaped like fangs, or cones bent in a curvelinear form, and pointing toward the entrance of the stomach. The interior of each fold or leaf contains muscles which impart to it the power of a peculiar and forcible motion. There are forty-two of these folds in the maniplus of the sheep — occasionally forty-eight. They do not all equally nearly approach the oesophagean canal, but are disposed in groups of six — one of the central ones of each nearly reaching the canal or floor of the stomach — the others on each side growing shorter and shorter, so as to form a series of irregular reentering angles. The abomasum is the digesting stomach, where the gastric juices are secreted, and where the pultaceous food is converted into chyme. It is funnel-shaped, and its lower extremity connects with the intestines, as shown in the cut. The cuticular lining of the three preceding stomachs is wanting in this. The mucous coat is disposed in the form of mgoe or shallow folds, arranged longitudinally with the direction of the stomach, and from this membrane the gastric juices are secreted. The comparative size of the four stomachs will be sufficiently seen in fig. 47. Where the oesophagus enters the rumen, it terminates in what is called the oesophagean canal, a continuation of the former constituting the roof of the latter. The bottom or floor of this canal is formed of divided por- tions or folds of the upper parts of the rumen and reticulum — muscular "pillars" or "lips," as they are sometimes denominated — which may re- main closed so that the food wdll pass over them into the third and fourth stomachs — or they may open, permitting the food to fall between them, as through a trap-door, into the first and second stomachs. It is probable that the opening of these lips, as food passes over them, depends some- what upon a mechanical effect, and somewhat upon the will of the animal. Fluid and soft pultaceous food fit for immediate digestion glide over them. But most of the food of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals, is swallowed with little preparatory mastication ; and these untriturated solids drop down through the first opening above described into the ru- men. It is certain, however, that the animal can, at will, also cause water to pass through the opening into the fii'st stomach. This would be neces- saiy in the animal economy, and the water is always found there. When the food has entered the rumen, the muscular action of that vis- cus compels it to make the circuit of its different compartments, and, in time, the food later swallowed forces it on and up to near the opening where it originally entered. In its passage it is macerated by a solvent alkaline fluid secreted by the mucous coat. The papillae of that coat are supposed to influence the mechanical action of the contents of the stomach, and perhaps, to a certain extent, to aid in triturating them. The food perfonns the circuit of the stomach, and is ready for re-mastication, ac- cording to Spallanzani, in from sixteen to eighteen hours. By a muscular effbrt of the stomach, a portion of it is then thrown over the membraneous valve or fold which guards the opening from this into the second stomach. 230 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The reticulum contracts upon it, forming it into a suitable pellet to be re- turned to the mouth, and also covers it with a mucus secreted in this stomach. By a spasmodic effort (always perceptible externally when the sheep or cow commences rumination) the pellet is forced through the roof of the reticulum, by the opening before described, and returned to the mouth by the contractions of the spiral muscle of the cesophagus or gullet, for mastication. This explanation of the functions of the second stomach is not accepted by all the physiologists who have examined this subject. Some contend that all the solider portions of the food are returned directly from the ru- men for re-mastication ; that when raised to the floor of the cesophagean canal, the hard parts are carried up to the mouth — the more pultaceous ones (but still not sufficiently pultaceous for the fourth stomach) passing into the reticulum, where they are again macerated — the fluid squeezed out of them by a contraction of the stomach and allowed to pass on to the fourth stomach — and then the drier parts raised, like those from the paunch, for re-mastication. More solid and indigestible substances " may be submitted two or more times to the process of rumination." Such ap- pear to be the views of Mr. Spooner.* According to this theory, both stomachs are created substantially for one and the same purpose, and one would seem to be unnecessary. And where would be the use of the opening from one stomach into the other ? And if the second stomach, like the first, is simply for the maceration and return of food, why the superior thickness and sti'ength of the coatings of the former 1 Being of a volume greatly inferior to that of the latter, it cer- tainly would require less strength, if the functions of both were the same. The main support for this, as it seems to me, erroneous theory, is found in the fact that the contents of the reticulum, after death, are usually found considerably more finiA than those of the rumen. I conceive that but small portions of solid food are introduced at one time from the rumen into the reticulum — not enough to give to the liquid contents of the latter viscus the consistency of those of the former — proceeding on the supposi- tion that the reticulum of the living animal is filled with fluid, as usually found after death. But why may not a portion of this fluid have escaped by the valve — been decanted, as it were, from the paunch to the reticulum, Cifter death 1 I see no violence in this supposition. If this is not so, the unifortn fluidity of the contents of the reticulum would be, it seems to me, fatal to the theory based on it — for, according to Spooner and others who adopt it, after the reticulum has " become moderately full," it contracts on its contents, expressing the liquid from the solid parts, which said liquid is forced into the cesophagean canal, and escapes into the fourth stomach. The solid parts would be thus left comparatively dry. Sheep penned up for butchery often do, as every one has observed, ruminate until within a few seconds of the time that all their natural visceral functions are suddenly suspended by death — and when, therefore, this suspension would, at times, as a matter of course, take place at all the different stages of rumination and preparation for rumination — how happens it that the reticulum is not often found with its liquid parts expressed — containing nothing but the solids, just prepared for re-mastication % Or if it be supposed that the act of forcing out the liquid, and forcing up the solids into the oesophagus, are coincident or simultaneous, why is not this stomach some^mc* found entirely emq^ty 1 Can it be supposed that this fluid (I have uniforvily found the fluid mixed with considerable quantities of the solid food) is so instantaneously re-supplied ? * Spooner, p. 163-3. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 231 If SO, by what process 1 I think there are other reasons which support the view I have taken, but I will not push the discussion, there not being, so far as I am aware, any questions to be solved by it which directly and practically affect the interests or the practices of the sheep-breeder. Let us now observe the course pursued by the food, and the process to which it is submitted, after rumination. It now glides over the trap-doors which open into the first and second stomachs. As it passes over the floor of the third, or the maniplus, the pendant leaves of this viscus, armed with their beak-like pi'otuberances, seize the advancing mass, and squeezing out the fluid and the more finely comminuted portions of the food which escape with it, commence triturating the bulkier fibrous portions between their folds. Their bony papillae give to these folds something of the me- chanical action of rasps, in grinding down the vegetable fibre. The food being now reduced to an entirely pultaceous state, passes into the fourth stomach, or abomasum, where it is acted upon by the gastric juice, and converted into chyme. The amount of food found between the folds of the maniplus, after death, depends upon the time that has elapsed since rumination. It is dry and hard, comj^ared with the contents of the other stomachs. The entrance to the fourth stomach — the cardiac opening — is closed against regurgitation or vomiting, by a sort of valve, composed of a portion of one of the rugcs, before alluded to, which line the interior of this stomach. The pylorus is also closed by a valve, which prevents a prema- ture passage of the contents of the stomach into the intestines. The intestines are exhibited in fig. 48, copied from Mr. Youatt's work. Before the duodenum entei's into (or changes its name to) the jejunum, and about 18 inches from the pylorus, it is perforated by the biliary duct — ductus choledochus — which brings the bile eliminated by the liver, from the gall-bladder, and also the fluid which is secreted by the pancreas, or sweet- bread, which last is introduced into the biliary duct two inches from its entrance into the duodenum, by another duct or small tube. The com- pound fluid thus introduced into the duodenum exercises various important offices in the digestive and assimilating processes. The bile is supposed to aid in the separation of the chyme into chyle and fecal mattei" — or the nutritive parts of the food which are assimilated into blood, from the in- nutritious parts which are discharged as excrement. It also prevents a putrid decomposition of the vegetable contents of the intestines, and serves various other useful purposes. The chyle — a white albuminous fluid, with a composition differing but little from that of blood — is taken from the intestines by a multitude of minute ducts called lacteals, which traverse the mesentary, constantly uniting as they advance, so as to form larger ducts. These enter the mesenteric glands — small glandular bodies attached to the mesentary — after the passage of which the chyle begins to change its color. The lacteals still continue to unite and enlarge, and finally terminate in the thoracic duct. In this the chyle is mingled with the lymph secreted from a portion of the lymphatics — another exceedingly minute system of absorbent ducts, which open on the internal and external surfaces of the whole system. From the thoracic duct, the chyle is conveyed to the heart, and enters into the circulation as blood. The Spleen. — With the appearance of the spleen or milt — in the sneep a dark, firm, spongy viscus, attached to the rumen, and lying on the left side of the belly — all are sufficiently familiar. Its uses and functions in 232 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the animal economy are not well understood, and it has in some instances been removed from the living animal w^ithout the apparent derangement Fig. 48. THE INTESTINES AND MESENTARY. 1. The duodenum. 2. The jejunum. 3. The ileum. 4. The coecum, being the anterior prolongation of the colon, or first large intestine. The ileum openg into this (on the back side as presented in the cut), about twelve inches from its extremity — the opening being defended by a valve. 5 The large anterior portion of the colon, retaining its size (about three times that of the smaller intes- tines) for about two feet. 6.6. Tbe colon tending toward the center. 7.7. The returning convolutions of the colon. 8. The rectum or straight gut, communicating with the anus. 9. 9. The mesentary, or that portion of the peritoneum which retains the intestines in their places, in. The portion of the mesentary supporting the colon, &c. The united length of these intestines is upward of sixty feet ! of any function. Mr. Youatt conjectures that its main office is to supply the coloring matter of the blood. The Pancreas. — The pancreas or sweet-bread, with the appearance of which all who have noticed the entrails of a sheep, are also familiar, is a glandular body found on the left side of the belly. It has a series of ducts which unite into a larger one, and, as before stated, this discharges a transparent, albuminous, and somewhat acid fluid into the biliary duct near the point where it enters the duodenum. This fluid acts some un- known, but probably necessary part in preparing the chyme for the offices it is to perform in the animal economy. The Liver. — The liver is much larger in proportion, in the sheep, than in the horse and ox ; and it is twice the proportionate size of that of Man. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 233 It is situated mostly on the right side, between the maniplus and dia- phragm. It is suppUed with arterial blood, and receives the venous blood which is conveyed from the intestines, from which it separates the bile, and conveys it to the gall-bladder. The bile having undergone certain changes in this bladder, is conveyed, as already stated, by the biliary duct, to the duodenum. The venous blood, after the gall is separated from it, is returned to the lungs, to undergo the process which fits it again to en- ter into the circulation. THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. Though it might seem the more natural order to complete the examina- tion of the circulatory and respiratory organs, before taking up those named at the head of this paragraph, I shall, adhering to my first arrange- ment to follow the order which I have uniformly pursued in making dis- sections, first complete the description of those of the abdominal cavity. The Kidneys. — The kidneys are two bean-shaped glands firmly attached to the roof of the abdomen, and usually imbedded in fat. They are sup- plied with blood by large arteries, and, having filtered out the urine from it, they discharge the latter through two ducts, termed ureters, into the bladder. The passage of these ducts through the walls of the latter is in an oblique course, so that it is closed by pressure from within, and thus the urine cannot return. The Bladder. — The bladder joins the urethra, in the pelvis, and its pos- terior part is attached to the floor of that cavity. The anterior part, where the diameter is larger, floats free in the abdomen. A circular muscle or sphincter closes the entrance into the ui'ethra, to prevent the continuous escape of the urine, and this relaxes when the muscular coat of the bladder contracts for the pei'iodical expulsion of that fluid. The urethra is but a few inches long in the ewe, and opens into the vagina. It is much longer in the ram, as it extends the whole length of the penis. The Uterus and Vagina. — The vagina is several inches in length and opens into the uterus or womb by a circular opening which becomes closed after impregnation. They are situated between the rectum above, and the bladder below. They are mostly within the pelvis in the unpregnant ani- mal, but the womb rises into the abdomen when it encloses a foetus. The womb is a cylindrical body with two " horns " or branches. At the interior extremity of each horn are protuberances, of a red color, called ovaries, which are supposed to contain the germs of the offspring. 2G 234 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER XV. ANATOMY OP THE SHEEP (Continued)— DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. The Thoracic Viscera... The Diaphragm... The Thorax... The Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins... The Lungs. .-The Windpipe, Larj-nx and Pharynx... The Thyroid and Parotid Glands. ..The Head and its structures... The Brain. ..The Nerves. ..The Teeth. ..The Lower Extremities. ..The Biflex Canal. .. Febrile diseases — those of Europe which are not common here. ..Ophthalmia— popular remedies — proper treatment... Pneumonia — symptoms — Mr. Spooner's prescription for. . .Bronchitis— symptoms — treatment ...Catarrh — ordinarily not dangerous — preventives. . .Malipnant Epizootic Catarrh — prevalence in the Northern States— cliaracter of the disease has not been understood — prevalence in author's Hock— how produced— symptoms — post-mortem appearances— character of the disease ascertained— Nosology — treatment, &c. ..The Rot — its diagnosis — post-moitem appearances — description of the Fluke — causes of the Rot — treatment. . .Diarrhea — cause — diagnosis — treatment. . . Dysentery — cause — difference between it and diarrhea — treatment.. .Garget — seat and origin of the disease — treatment.. .Nervous Diseases... Apoplexy— unrecognized cases of it — several cases detailed— symptoms— treatment.. .Phrenitis. ..Tet- anus.. .Epilepsy. .. Rabies.. .Neither of them common in this country... Paralysis — symptoms — treat- ment... Colic — symptoms — atti-ibuted to intussusception— true cause— treatment. THE THORACIC VISCERA. Among these, for convenience, I will include the diaphragm. The Diaphragm. — The diaphragm or midriff is a muscle extending en- tirely across the inner cavity of the body, separating the abdomen from the thorax or chest. Its structure is unique, and beautifully adapted to the functions it has to perform. Its outer margin is muscular, giving it the ne- cessary power of contraction, while toward the middle it changes into a transparent tendonous substance. Through this tendonous substance pass the oesophagus, the aorta, and the vena cava. If the parts of the diaphragm which immediately surround these vessels liad been muscular, every contraction of the former in the act of respira- tion, would have compressed the latter, and therefore interfered with the passage of the food to the stomach, and the circulation of the blood. In a state of rest the diaphragm is convex toward the thorax. When contract- ,ed and flattened, therefore, it enlarges the cavity of the thorax, and air rushes into the lungs. Its alternate contractions and relaxations mainly produce the act of respiration or breathing. The Thorax. — Without injuring the diaphragm, divide the sternum and brisket of the sheep longitudinally through the center, with a fine saw, and on pulling the lower extremity of the ribs slightly apart, the thorax will be disclosed in its natural arrangement. It consists of three cavities, formed by the doublings of the pleura, a thin serous membrane, which lines the whole interior of the chest. Two outer and larger cavities (the right one being the largest), contain the lungs — a third and smaller one, lying between the posterior portions of the former, contains the heart. The oesophagus pass- es through the upper portion of the thorax, over the lungs and heart, and between them and the spine, to the lower portion of the neck. The Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. — With the size and general appearance of the heart, all are familiar. Enclosed in a mem- braneous sac — the i^ericardmm — it hangs suspended by its superior attach- ments to the roof of the thorax, its lower extremity nearly reaching to its iloor, and pointing toward the left side. The heart has two cavities on €ach side, termed auricles and ventricles. The chyle and venous blood are SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 235 discharged into the right auricle, and thence into the right ventricle. By the contraction of the latter, its contents are forced through the pulmona- ry artery into the lungs. The blood having been purified in the lungs, is returned to the left auricle ; thence into the left ventricle ; and it is then forced into the aorta, or large artery which supplies, by its different branches, all parts of the system with blood. Each compartment of the heart is furnished with appropriate valves to cause the blood to be forced forioard, in its regular course, by the muscular contractions of this viscus. These contractions are the result of an inherent and independent power. The contractions of the heart force the blood into and along the arteries. When this force begins to be spent as the distance from the heart in- creases, it receives aid from the action of the muscular coat of the arteries themselves, which forces along the blood to their utmost extremities. The arteries continue to branch off into more and more minute divisions as they i-ecede from the heart, until the tubes are much less in diameter than the finest hair. These, capillaries as they are called, open by exceed- ingly minute mouths in every part of the frame, for the deposition of those secretions from the blood which maintain the vitality and healthy action of the parts, supply the animal waste, &c. The capillai'ies, commencing their return toward the heart, constantly reunite, forming larger tubes which are called veins, which bring back such portions of the blood carried out by the arteries, as has not been ex- pended in nourishing the system. The blood now deprived of its oxygen, and loaded with carbon, is unfit for farther circulation until re-purified in the lungs. It is of a darker color than the arterial blood. It is no longer urged on by the contractile power of the tubes through which it flows, but by the partial vacuum formed in the right auricle (as at each contraction it forces its contents into the right ventricle,) and by atmospheric pressure. The Lungs. — The lungs are bodies composed of separate minute air- cells, communicating with the hroncMal tubes, or subdivisions of the wind- pipe. They also contain many arteries, and veins. On the delicate mem- braneous walls of the air-cells the venous blood is carried by innumerable tubes so thin as to permit their contents to be acted upon by the atmos- pheric air which fills the cells at every inspiration. Here the blood gives oflfits carbon, and receives oxygen from the air, and thus is prepared for its return to the heart, and to be again sent through the system. The right lung is somewhat larger than the left, and both fill their re- spective cavities when inflated. They are entirely free from any attach- ment to the pleura — the membrane which lines the ribs — when in their natural state. When the animal has been bled to death, the lungs are of a light color ; but if the animal has died with all its blood in it, their color resembles that of the liver. This can, however, be readily distinguished from hepatization — the result of certain diseases — as will be hereafter shown. The Windpipe, Larynx, Pharynx, &c. — The bronchial tubes constant- ly uniting as they approach the anterior poition or root of each lung, final- ly form a single large tube, as they make their exit from each lobe, and these, uniting into one, form the windpipe. This is a well known cartila- ginous tube which passes out of the chest between the first two ribs, and ascends on the front part of the neck. It unites with the larynx, which continues the air passage from the lungs to the mouth. The oesophagus leaves the chest close beside the windpipe, and ascends the neck on the 236 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. left side of the latter. It communicates with the pharynx, which commu- ■cates with the mouth. The food on being swallowed enters the pharynx or food bag, which is directly above the larynx — so that the food traverses the entrance to the latter. It is deterred from entering the windpipe by the epiglottis, a triangular lid or valve which piojects upward from the floor of the passage, and which closes upon and covers the glottis, or en- trance into the windpipe, when any substance more dense than air comes in contact with it in its downward passage. The Thyroid and Parotid Glands. — The Thyroid glands are located on each side of the trachea. The parotid glands are situated immediately below the ear, behind the angle of the lower jaw. There are certain other glands situated beneath the lower jaw, not necessary here to be re- ferred to. THE HEAD AND ITS CONTENTS. Fig. 49. 4 BONES OF THE HEAD. 4.4. 5. The nasal bone. The upper jaw bone. The intermaxillary bone, which supports the pad which supplies the place of upper front teeth. The frontal sinus. Cavity or sinus of the horn, communicating with the frontal sinus. It is here shown by the removal of a section of the base of the horn. The parietal bone. The frontal bone. 8. Vertical section of the brain. 9. Vertical section of the cerebellum. a. The cineritious portion of the brain. 6. The medullary portion. 10. The ethmoid bone. 11. The cribriform or perforated plate of the ethmoid bone. " It separates the nasal cavity from the brain ; it is thin almost as a wafer, and pierced by numerous holes, through which the olfacto- ry nerve penetrates, in order to spread itself over the inner part of the nose." 12. The lower cell of the ethmoid bone. 13. The superior turbinated bone. 14. The inferior turbinated bone. 17. The sphenoid bone. The above cut, copied from Youatt, gives, with the subjoined explana- tions, a sufficient description of most of the structures of the head. Some, however, demand a little more particular desciiption. The Brain. — The brain of the sheep is smaller in proportion than that of Man, but is shaped so nearly like the latter, and so closely resembles it in its general structui'e and conformation, that it furnishes the medical student with a good substitute for the brain of the human subject ! The brain is invested in a membrane called the pia mater. The cranium or skull is lined by the dura mater, and between this and the former there is a delicate membrane called the tunica arachnoides. The Nerves. — Ten pair of nerves arise from the brain, and thirty pair from the spinal cord. These supply the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, feeling, &c. &c. ; and a portion of them, termed nerves of mo- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 237 tion, communicate that volition of the brain to the different parts of the system, which produces motion. A description of these various nerves, or even an enumeration of them, would be of no practical benefit in a mere popular veterinary treatise. The Teeth. — The sheep has 24 molar teeth, and eight incisors. The latter are confined to the lower jaw, being opposed to a firm, hard, elastic pad or cushion on the upper jaw. The incisors are ^ow^e-shaped — i. e., concave without and convex within — which enables the sheep to crop the herbage closer to the ground than our other domestic ruminant, the ox. The lamb is boi'n without incisor teeth, or it has but two. In three or four weeks, it has eight small, shortish ones, as represented in fig. 50. — Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Fig. 55. When not far from a year old — though sometimes not until fourteen, fif- teen, or even sixteen months old — the two central incisors are shed, and their place is supplied by two longer and broader teeth, as in fig. 51. The sheep is then termed, in this country, a ycarlivg, or yearling past. Two of the " lamb teeth" continue to be annually shed and their places supplied with the permanent ones until the sheep becomes ^^full-mouthed" Fig. 52 presents the teeth of a two-year-old-past — fig. 53 of a three-year-old- past — fig. 55 of a four-year-old-past. The four-year-old-past is, in reality, nearly or quite five years old, before it obtains its whole number of fullif- grown permanent teeth. The two-year-old and three-year-old also about reach their next year before their additional incisors are fully grown. — Hence, the English writers all speak of two broad teeth (meaning fully- grown ones) as indicating the age of two years ; four broad teeth, three years ; six broad teeth, four years ; and eight broad teeth, or full-mouthed, five years. I prefer the English arrangement, as more accurate, but the other is the common one in the Northern and Eastern States; and, as it is a matter of little practical consequence, it will here be adhered to. Fig. 54 gives an inside view of the incisors of a three-year-old-past — an outside view of which is given in fig. 53. The two remaining lamb teeth are here shown, which in the outside view are concealed by the last pair of permanent teeth. From their being thus concealed, the three is often mistaken for the four-year-old-past, by those who do not count the penna- nent teeth. At six years old, the incisors begin to diminish in breadth. At seven they have lost their fan-like shape, being equilateral, long, and narrow. — At eight, they are still narrower ; and this year or the next, reversing the flaring or divergent position in which they are shown in fig. 55, they begin 238 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. to point in toward the two central ones. Their narrowness and inward direction increases for a year or two more, when they begin to drop out. Sheep fed on turnips or other roots, lose their teeth earlier than those which only receive grain, hay, &c. in winter. At twelve years old, the in- cisors are usually gone with the exception of one or two loose ones. And here let me remark that when the incisors are reduced to one or two, they should always be twitched out with a pair of nippers. They are useless for the pui'pose for which they were formed, and they prevent that contact of the lower gum with the pad above, which is now the only substitute for teeth in cropping grass. When all the incisors are gone, the gums of the lower jaw rapidly harden, and I have known ewes to live for years, keep in fair condition and rear lambs, without an incisor tooth in their heads ! The above remarks are more particularly applicable to the Merino breed. The other breeds, so far as my acquaintance extends, lose their teeth, or become " broken-mouthed " somewhat earlier ; and they dwin- dle away and die soon after they begin to lose their teeth. THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. Thk Biflex Canal. — The lower extremities of the sheep, including the legs, feet, &c., require no anatomical description. I will simply call atten- tion to the biflex or interdigital canal, the nature and diseases of which have been the subjects of so many errors. It is a small orifice opening externally on the front of each pastern immediately above the cleft be- tween the toes. It bifurcates within, a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the pastern, winding round and ending in a cul de sac. The use of this canal is a matter of doubt. Mr. Spooner thinks the hair always found in it is " excreted from the internal surface," and " from the emallness of the opening it cannot escape, or rather is detained for a use- ful pui-pose." He continues : " The use of this canal, thus stuSed with hair, is self-evident. We have mentioned the great motion possessed by this pastern joint, which is so gi-eat as to threaten to chafe the skin by the friction of one side against the other. It is to prevent or ward off this fiictioa that these biflex canals, or rather hair-stuffed cushions, are provided." In my judgment, this is a very far-fetched conclusion, and Mr. Youatt's is little more satisfactory. Diseases originating in this canal are some- times confounded with hoof-ail ; and the canal, or a portion of it, is often dissected, or rather mangled out by ignorant charlatans in pursuit of an imaginary tvorm, which, they induce the credulous farmer to believe, ori- ginates the hoof-ail ! The hoof-ail proper has nothing to do with, nor do its characteristic lesions extend to this canal. FEBRILE DISEASES. Simple inflammatory, malignant inflammatory, and typhus fevers often devastate the flocks of Europe ; but they seem scarcely to be known in the United States, and are included in no American work on the diseases of sheep which has fallen under my eye. The same remark applies to phrenitis (inflammation of the brain), pleu- ritis (inflammation of the membrane which lines the thorax), gastritis (in- flammation of the stomach), enteretis (inflammation of the intestines), cys- titis (inflammation of the bladder), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx), and several other inflammatory diseases. Ophthalmia. — Ophtb'almia, or inflammation of the eye, is not uncommon SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 239 in our country, but is little noticed, as in most cases it disappears in a few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract. The cataract being usu- ally confined to one eye does not appreciably affect the value of the ani- mal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. As a remedy for this disease, Mr. Grove recommended blowing pulverized red cJialk into the inflamed eye ! Others squirt into it tobacco juice, from that ever ready reservoir of this nauseous fluid, their mouths ! I apprehend that all siich prescriptions are far worse than nothing. Conceiving it a matter of humanity to do sometliivg, I have in some in- stances drawn blood from under the eye, bathed the eye in tepid water, and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with tincture of opium. These applications diminish pain and accelerate the cure. Pneumonia. — Pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, is not a com- mon disease, in the Northern States, but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold — particularly when recently shorn. The adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this dis- ease — though in many instances it was so slight as to be mistaken, in the time of it, for a hard cold. The sheep laboring under pneumonia is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious. The eye is clouded — the nose discharges \ tenacious, fetid matter — the teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible to some distance. The pulse is at first hard and rapid — sometimes intermittent; but before death it becomes weak. During the hight of the fever, the flanks heave violently. There is a hard, painful cough during the first stages of the disease. This becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches. Afi;er death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized, i. e. permanently condensed, and engorged with blood, so that their structure resembles that of the hepar, or liver — ^and they have so far lost their integrity that they ai'e torn asunder by the slightest force. It may be well in this place to remark that when sheep die from any cause with their blood in them, the lungs have a dark hepatized appear- ance. But whether actually hepatized or not, can be readily decided by compressing the windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, insert a goose-quill or other tube, and continue to blow until the lungs are inflated so far as they can be. As they inflate, they will become lighter colored, and plainly manifest their cellular structure. Jf any por- tions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consistency and color, they exhibit hepatization — the result of high inflammatory ac- tion — and a state utterly incompatible, in the living animal, with the dis- charge of the natural functions of the viscus. With the treatment of pneumonia, I have but little personal experience. In the first or inflammatory stages of the disease, bleeding and aperients are clearly called for. Mr. Spooner recommends " early and copious bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours . . . this followed by aperi- ent medicines, such as 2 oz. of Epsom salts, which may be repeated in smaller doses if the bowels are not sufl[iciently relaxed. . . . The following sedative may also be given with gruel twice a day : Nitrate of potash 1 drachm. Digitalis, powdered 1 scruple. Tartarized antimony 1 do. 240 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The few cases I have seen have been of a sub-acute character, and would not bear treatment so decidedly and I think dangerously antiphlogistic. Mr. Youatt remarks : " Depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance — the short continuance— of the febrile state ; but excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding ex- haustion, and then the bleeding and the purging would be murderous expedients, and gendaa, ginger, and the spirit of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure." Bronchitis. — It would be difficult to suppose that where sheep are sub- ject to pneumonia they would not also be subject to bronchitis — which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the bronchial tubes — the air-passes of the lungs. I have seen no cases, however, which 1 have been able to identify as bronchitis, and have examined no subjects, after death, which exhibited its characteristic lesions. Its symptoms are those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever and a tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. Treatment. — Administer salt in doses from \\ to 2 oz., with 6 or 8 oz. of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. This is Mr. Youatt's prescription. Catarrh. — CataiTh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the nasal passages — and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pha- rynx. In the first instance — where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected — it is merely accompanied by an in- creased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this form it is usually termed snnffies, and high-bred English mutton sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, ac- companied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point the Eng- lish veterinarians usually recommend bleeding and purging. Catarrh rai'ely attacks the American fine-wooled sheep with sufficient violence in summer, to require the exhibition of remedies. I early found that depletion, in catarrh, in our severe lolnter months, rapidly produced that fatal prostra- tion, from which it is next to impossible to recover the sheep — entirely im- possible, without bestowing an amount of time and care on it, costing far more than the price of any ordinary sheep. The hcst course is to prevent the disease, by judicious precautions. With that amount of attention which every prudent flock-master should bestow on his sheep, the hardy American Merino is little subject to it. Good, comfortable, but loell-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, is usually a sufficient safeguard ; and after some years of experience, during which I have tried a variety of experiments on this disease, I resort to no other remedies — in other words, I do nothing for those occasional cases of ordina- ry catarrh which arise in my flock, and they never prove fatal. Malignant Epizootic Catarrh. — Essentially differing from the pre- ceding in type and virulence is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizootic, malady, which as often as once in eight or ten years sweeps over extended sections of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all the other diseases put together. It usually makes its appearance in win- ters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature. The Northern farmers speak of these as the " bad winters " for sheep — fre- quently without assigning any name to the malady. Others term the lat- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 241 ter " The Distemper," and others again call it the " Grub in the Head," at- tributing the evil exclusively to the presence of these parasites. The latter, as I shall hereafter show, is an entirely erroneous hypothesis. The w^inter of 1846-7 was one of these " bad winters," and the de- struction of sheep in New-York, and some adjoining States, was very ex- tensive. Some flock-masters lost half, others three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths of their flocks. One individual within a few miles of me lost live hundred out of eight hundred — another nine hundred out of one thousand ! But these severe losses fell mainly on the holders of the deli- cate Saxon sheep, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. I lost about fifty sheep during this winter, and never having seen any de- scription of the pathology of this disease, its diagnosis, its lesions — or, in short, any attempt to ascertain its specific character or proper classifica- tion in our ovine nosology — I shall attemj^t to supply some of these omis- sions. Not dreaming then of a publication of this kind, my notes were only taken for private reference, and were not as full as they should be for a veterinary treatise. I might supply some of these omissions accurately from recollection, but do not consider it proper thus to endanger the accu- racy of records, which as far as they go, I tliink may now be implicithj re- lied on. My post-mortem examinations were made at intervals snatched from other pressing engagements. This fact, and certain preconceived views — which I subsequently found erroneous — prevented me from making those examinations, and more particularly the records of them, as minute and extended as could be wished. I then sought only to convince myself of the true nature and character of the disease. In detailing the results of my experience in the premises, I conceive it a duty to frankly state the whole facts. The records oi mismanagement and error, are often as useful, nay, more so, than those of successful manage- ment, and it is a pitiful pride which prevents any man, who pretends to communicate information to the public, from giving that public the bene- fit of his examples which are to be avoided, as well as those which are to \ie, followed. Up to February, my sheep remained apparently perfectly sound, and they were in good flesh. Each flock had excellent shelters, were fed re- gularly, etc., and although sheep were beginning to perish about the coun- try, my uniform previous impunity in these " bad winters " led me to en- tertain no apprehensions of the prevailing epizootic. About the first of February, my sheep went into the charge of a new man, hired upon the highest recomiwndations. A few days alter, 1 was called away from home for a week. The weather during my absence was, a part of the time, very severe. The sheep-house occupied by one flock containing one hundred sheep, was, with the exception of two doors, as close a room as can be made by nailing on the wall-boards vertically and without lapping, as is common on our Northern barns.* One of the doors was always left open, to permit the free ingress and egress of the sheep, and for necessary ventila- tion. A half dozen ewes which had been untimely impregnated by a neighbor's ram, were on the point of lambing, and it being safer to confine the ewes in a warm room over night, the shepherd, instead of removing them to such a room, confined the whole flock in the sheep-house every night, and rendered it warm by closing both doors ! After two or three hours, the air must have become excessively impure. On entering the sheep-house, on my return, I was at once struck with the fetid, highly of- fensive smell. A change, too, slight but omiaous, had taken place in the " Boards in these caees shrink so as to leave slight cracks between them. 2H 242 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. appearance of a part of the flock. They showed no signs of violent colds, I heard no coughing, sneezing, or labored respiration — and the only indica- tion of catarrh winch I noticed, was a nasal discharge, by a few sheep. But those having this nasal discharge, and some others, looked dull and drooping ; their eyes ran a little — were partially closed, the caruncle and lids looked pale — their movements were languid — and the shepherd com- plained that they did not eat quite so well as the others. The pulse was nearly natural — though 1 thought a trifle too languid. Not knowing what the disease was — and fully believing that depletion by bleeding or physic was not called for, let the disease be what it would. 1 contented myself with thoroughly purifying the sheep house — seeingthat the feeding, etc.,* was managed with the greatest regularity — and closely watchino- the farther symptoms of disease in the flock. In about a week, the above described symptoms were evidently aggravated, and there had been a rapid emiiciation, accompanied with debility, in the sheep first at- tacked. The countenance was exceeding dull and drooping — the eye kept more than half closed — the caruncle, lids, &c. almost bloodless — a gummy yellow secretion below the eye — thick glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils — appetite feeble — pulse languid — and the muscu- lar energy greatly prostrated. Nothing unusual was yet noticed about their stools or urine. I now had all the diseased sheep removed from the flock, and placed in rooms the tempei'ature of which could be easily regulated. I commenced giving slight tonics and stimulants, such as gentian, gin- ger, etc., but apparently with no material effect. They rapidly grew weak- er, stumbled and fell as they walked, and soon became unable to rise. The appetite grew feebler — the mucus at the nose, in some instances, tinged with dark grumous blood — the respiration opjiressed, and they died with- in a day or two after they became unable to rise. I proceeded to make some post-mortem examinations, which I shall here detail, although, as I have before remarked, they are extremely im- perfect. I was at hrst inclined to suspect that the primary disease was one of some of the abdominal or thoracic viscera, and this impression was con- firmed by the abnormal condition of these viscera in the first subjects exam- ined. I therefore improperly confined my attention to these, and some of the external tissues, vnt.hnut any examination oj" the interior organs of the head and neck. I shall give my notes verbatim as they were taken down at the time, whether the appearances detailed have, as I now believe, any connection with the fatal disease or not. Case 1st. Old sheep. Much emaciated — mouth and lips covered with yellow froth — yellow waxy matter under eyes — adhesive mucus in and about nostrils. On opening, external tissues appear healthy — two hyda- tids on omentum of the size of a walnut — gall-bladder enlarged and enor- mously distended with pale, and apparently not properly eliminated bile — gall-bladder slig'ntly adhering to omentum — mesenteric glands enlarged — other abdominal viscera believed to be normal — fasces in rectum thought to indicate a constipated habit — stomachs rather empty. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 2d. Two years old. External appeai'ances as in Case 1st, with the exception of the yellow froth about the mouth. External tissues healthy. Grall-bladder very small and nearly empty — bile pale and un- eliminated — mesenteric glands enlarged — schirrous tumor at the junction * They had been fed with brijiht hay three times a day, and turnips. As those affected as above did not eat their turnips well, I commenced feeding some oats, in addition to the turnips. I believed that a gener- ous feed was called for, and I gave it. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 243 of the coecum and colon of the size of a butteraut. Superior lobe of left lung adherent to pleura costalis — three lobes of right lung ditto, with slight traces of rece'?^^ inflammation. Hydro-pericarditis — the pericardium slight- ly inflamed and containing something more than a gill of serum. Case 3d. Old, and in lamb. External appearances and tissues as in Case 2d. Omentum dark-yellowish, or yellowish-brown by deposition of lymph, the I'esult of inflammatory action — gall-bladder precisely as in Case 2d — tabes mesentrica or enlargement of the mesenteric glands, as in the preceding cases. Middle lobe of right lung slightly hepatized, and adher- ent to pleura costalis — hydro-pericarditis, (a gill of serum in pericar- dium.) C tsc 4th. Yearling ram. External appearances and tissues as in pi-e- ceding cases. Two small hydatids on omentum — gall-bladder as in two preceding cases — mesenteric glands as in preceding cases. Traces of diar- rhea. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 5th. Lamb. External appearance as in preceding cases — omen- tum as in Case 3d, and small hydatid on it — gall-bladder as in three pre- ceding cases — ditto of mesenteric glnnds. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 6th. Four-year-old ram, killed for examination, in the first stage of the disease. Yet strong, appetite good, in fair condition, and exhibited no particular external indications of disease except running at the eyes, a slight gummy deposition below them — and some mucus about the nostrils. Gall-bladder but little better filled than in preceding cases — mesenteric glands same as in preceding cases. Thoracic viscera healthy. Remarks on Preceding Cases. — I had started on the supposition that the fatal disease would be found one of the lungs, consequent on ca- tarrh. I thought it might prove a species of pneumonia, though some of the characteristic symptoms of that disease seemed to be wanting ; but I believed it would rather prove to be phthisis pulmonalis, or pulmonary consumption. To the last disease, when it assumes the form of what is popularly called " quick consumption," it seemed to me to bear several striking analogies. But the post-mortem examinations above detailed, en- tirely overthrow these suppositions. Except in Case 2d, there were no manifestations o? recent inflammation of the lungs. The adhesions in Case 3d, were evidently referable to a past date. In the other four cases, the lungs were in a healthy condition — exhibiting not a trace of hepatization, tubercles, ulcei's, or other abnormal action ! In Case 6th, where the dis- ease was in its first observable and therefore inflammatory stage, none of the thoracic viscera presented a particle of inflammation ! Then what ivas the disease 1 It was evidently the same in the several cases, yet the lesions disclosed by post-mortem examination were very va- rious. Hence, 1 was led to conclude that these lesions were the results o£ sy7n2^fomatic disease, and that the primary/ one was not yet discovered. The malady continued to spread. New cases occurred daily — it began to exhibit itself in my other flocks. It had ma;nifestly put on the charac- ter of an epizootic — or, if I may be permitted to coin a word, an en-zo- otic. I now gave orders to have every sheep removed from the several flocks, as soon as it should be attacked with disease. I also resolved on more ex- tended post-mortem examinations. The following are the notes taken in the immediately succeeding cases. Case 7th. Yearling. External appearance as in the preceding cases — external tissues normal — mesenteiic glands slightly enlarged — gall-blad- der of natural size, with good bile, and with the natural discolorations about it. Thoracic viscera healthy, with exception of pericardium, which exhibited traces of recent inflammation and contained a gill of serura 244 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The thorax also contained considerable fluid, which escaped without ad- measurement. I now examined the bronchial tubes, the lower portions of the windpipe, oesophagus, &c., and fcnmd them all in an apparently healthy condition. Before tracing these passages to the thi'oat, I removed the upper portion of the skull and carefully examined the brain and its investing mem- branes. All seemed in a perfectly normal state. I then made a longitu- dinal section down through the middle part of the whole head, as is shown in fig. 49, and tlie seat and character of the fatal malady stood at once revealed ! The mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity, highly congested and thickened throughout its whole extent, betrayed the most intense in- flammation. At the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribri- form plate, (in the ethmoidal cells,) slight ulcers were forming on the mem- braneous lining ! The inflammation also extended to the mucous mem- brane of the pharynx, and say three inches of the upper portion of the oeso- phagus. Here it rather abruptly terminated. Case 8th. Old, in lamb. External appearances as in preceding cases — abdominal parietes healthy — all the viscera apparently healthy. The in- flammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, pharynx, and upper poition of oesophagus, as in Case 7th, only not quite so acute — no ulcers on the membrane. Cases 5th and 6th revieioed. The heads of these two subjects having been accidentally preserved, I examined them, and found the inflammatory action of the raucous membrane same as in cases 7th and Sth. Nor have I a particle of doubt that the same would have been found the case in all the preceding subjects, had they been examined. Nosology and Treatment. — I had little difficulty in coming to the conclu- sion that the primary and main disease was a species of catarrh. It evidently, howevez", differed from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the primary and eymptomatic dis- eases. In no case, even in the first attack, did I notice anything — the fever — the accelerated pulse — the redness about the eyes and nostrils — the cough- ing, etc., accompanying an ordinary severe attack of catarrh. And it was for this reason that I was misled as to the seat of the malady. From the very outset, according to my observations, the type of the disease was typhoid — sinking — rapidly tending to fatal prostration. How to reduce the local inflammation of the membrane lining the nasal cavities, I was at a loss to determine. I was satisfied that there was too much debility to admit of an antiphlogistic course of treatment. Still, to make myself sure, I bled in three or four cases, and, as I anticipated, it evidently accelerated the fatal catastrophe. Blistering could not be brought near to the seat of the inflammation, excepting on the nose, and independ- ent of the extreme difficulty of treating a blister on a spot so constantly exposed to dirt, the rubbing of hay, etc., in winter feeding, I believed it could have little effect, on an account of the thick nasal bone intervening between it and any portion of the inflamed membrane. And, moreover, the greater portion of the inflamed membrane rested on bones detached, except at one extremity, from all connection with the nasal bone. I blew Scotch simft' (through paper tubes) up the nostrils of some of the sheep, for two objects — l,to remove, by sneezing, the mucus, which mechanical- ly, and evidently injuriously, obstructed respiration ; and 2, to pi'oduce a new action, by which an increased mucous secretion would be excited, and thus the congested membrane relieved. But, farther than this, I re- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 245 soiled to no local or other treatment designed specifically to reach the local inflammation. The next step was to fix on the constitutional treatment. The liver was evidently in a torpid state. There was a functional derangement in the mesenteric and probably other glands, and a want of activity in the general secretory system. What medicine would stimulate the liver, cause it to secrete the proper quantity as well as quality of bile, change the morbid action of the glands and secretory system, and restore activity and health to the vital functions generally 1 In my judgment, nothing promised so well as mercury ; and by its well known effect on the entire secretory sys- tem, it would powerfully tend to relieve the congested membranes of the head. In this opinion I was joined by a learned and experienced physi- cian, who, both as a matter of taste and humanity, has given no little at- tention to veterinary science and practice. The proto-chloride of mercury (calomel) was supposed to possess too much specific gravity to reach the fourth stomach, with any certainty, administered in a liquid ; and if ad- ministered as a ball or pill, it would be almost svre not to reach that stom- ach.* The dissolved bi-chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) was therefore hit upo/. One grain was dissolved in two ounces of water, and one-half ounce of the water (or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate) was exhibited in a day, in two doses. As constipation existed in most of the cases, it was thought that the bowels required to be stimulated into action, and slightly evacuated with a mild laxative. Having noticed in similar cases of debility and torpor of the intestinal canal, that purgation is often followed by a serous diarrhea, difficult to correct, and leading to rapid prostration, and there being no in- tegtinal irritation to suffer exacerbation, I thought that rhubarb — from its well known tendency to give tone to the bowels, and its secondary effect as a mild astringent — was particularly indicated. It was given in a decoc- tion — the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose — accompanied Avith the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian, in infusion. To a portion of the sheep I administered the rhubarb and its adjuvants alone ; to others I gave the bi-chloride of mercury in addition to the prece- ding. I employed these courses of treatment in a number of cases, the records of all which have been accidentally destroyed with the exception of the following three. Case 9th, Ram, three years old. Has been drooping and weak, with feeble appetite, for some time — has been separated from flock. Has eaten his oats iiTegularly for several days, and refused turnips, bran, etc., alto- gether — much emaciated — eyes partly closed, with a yellowish deposit below them — caruncle and lids bloodless — nostrils impeded with adhesive yellowish mucus. March 17th. Weaker than before — would not rise to feed — not seen to eat or ruminate — gait, when helped up, weak and staggering ; eyes near- ly closed — stooled dry, hard faeces — urine dark and reddish. Exhibited rhubarb wiih ginger and gentian in gruel — blew snuff" into nostrils. March 18th, morning — Weaker; refused to eat anything. Exhibited rhubarb, ginger and gentian in gruel. Noon — Urine seemingly bloody : breathing labored : exhibited corrosive sublimate in gruel. Night — Dying, March 19th, moniing — Dead. Post-mortem appearances. Inner edges of both lobes of liver softened about two inches from horizontal fissure : hypropericarditis and hydro- * For reasons which wUl be hereafter given under the head of " The Proper Way of Administering Medicines." 246 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. thorax — nearly half pint of sei'um in latter. Other viscera apparently normal. Lining of superior portion of oesophagus and nasal cavity as in Case 8th. Case 10th. Three-year-old ewe. Drooping for several days : sleepy — emaciated and w^eak : cannot rise without help : appearances about nos- trils and eyes as in Case 9th : appetite considerable — rumination not ob- served. March 17th. Exhibited ginger and gentian in gruel : blew snuff in nostrils. Latter produced sneezing and a discharge of mucus. ISth : Morning. Weaker and would not eat. Noon. A little live- lier : ate hay and grain ; exhibited ginger and gentian. Night. Evac- uations thin: urine of a natural color. 1 9th. Morning: same. Noon. Exhibited same remedies as before. The same course was pursued for three days : the sheep appearing rather to gain, when one morning it was found dead. No post-mortem examination made. Case 11th. Old ewe. Symptoms precisely as in Case 10th, except an occasional grinding of the teeth. March 17th. Treated exactly as in Case 9th. Lived three days and appeared to rally a little, then brought forth a lamb and died. Post-mortem examination. Abdominal parietes healthy — gall-bladder filled with pale bile : liver normal in size but softened throughout its entire extent, and pale : portions of it paler and more disor- ganized than others : no parasites in its ducts. Thoracic viscera normal. Sub-acute inflammation of the mucous lining of the nasal cavity, and of the superior portion of the oesophagus. Slight ulcer in the ethmoidal cells. I made vaiious other post-mortem examinations. Some of the viscera in every case were in a more or less abnormal state ; but there was the same variety in the locality of the diseased action as in the preceding cases. But so far as the seat and character of the catarrhal affection was concerned, it was iiniform in every case. The only difference was in in- tensity, as exhibited by the extent of the lesions. Not a single sheep recovered after the emaciation and debility had pro- ceeded to any gi'eat extent ! One such only lingered along until shearing. Its wool gradually dropped off: it seemed to rally a little once or twice, and then relapse ; and it perished one night in a rain-storm. In the gen- erality of instances the time from the first observed symptoms until death, varied from ten to fifteen days. A ?ew died in a shorter time. In the three cases last detailed, the disease had evidently proceeded too far to be arrested by anjj treatment. I much regret the loss of the records of the other cases, which would throw farther light on the subject. I thouiilit that the treatment produced favorable effects in some instances — particularly when resorted to at the commencement of the disease. At all events, some of the sheep recovered under the treatment — paiticularly un- der that including the exhibition of the bi-chloride of mercury — and very few, if any, recovered without any treatment. Candor compels me to say, however, that the results of the treatment were far from being highly sat- isfactory — that the cases of recovery were much fewer than the deaths. I have merely stated what I believe to be the facts in the premises ; I do not feel prepared to make (inji recommend ations. The epizootic gradually abated toward spring, and my flock have since been in perfect health. Near spring, many farmers found what seemed to them an unusual num- ber of fjrubs in the head (frontal sinuses) of the sheep which died of the prevailing epizootic, and therefore they attributed the disease to this cause, and this seems to be the prevailing popular opinion. In some of the latest cases in ray flock, I discovered more or less grubs ; and, in two or three instances, an unusual number. In other cases where the external symp- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 247 toras and the post-mortem appearances were almost identical, no grubs were to be seen. For this reason, and others which I shall assign when treating of grub in the head, I conclude that the popular opinion is erro- neous. The Rot. — The existence and prevalence of the Rot in the United States have been sufficiently alluded to in Letter XIV. Notwithstanding its comparative rareness here, so far as is known, at present, I think it expedient to give a full desciiption of it. It may be more prevalent hereafter, or it may be found peculiar to localities where sheep have not yet been introduced. And whether so or not, as its existence will often be feared and suspected in diseased flocks, it is proper that the flock- master always have it in his power to clearly identify this terrible des- troyer. The diagnosis of the disease is thus given by Mr. Spooner.* " The first symptoms attending this disease are by no means strongly marked ; there is no loss of condition, but rather apparently the contrary ; indeed, sheep intended for the butcher have been purposely cothed or rotted in order to increase their fattening properties for a few weeks, a practice which was adopted by the celebrated Bakewell. A want of liveliness and paleness of the membranes generally may be considered as the first symptoms of the disease, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the eye. Dr. Harrison observes, ' when in warm, sultry or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is lear that they have contracted the rot.' This suspicion will be farther increased if, a i'evv weeks alterward, the sheep begin to shrink and become flaccid about tlie loins. By pressure about the hips at this time a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece the skin is found to liave changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the wool is easily separated from the pelt; and as the disorder advances the skin be- comes dap])led with yellow^or black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eyelids becoming almost white and afterward yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a Vi'atery fluid appears under the skin, which becomes loose and flabby, the wool coming off readily. The symptoms of di'opsy often extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes chockered, as it is termed — a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearances of the fluid it contains, is in some places called the watery poke. The duration, of the disease is uncertain ; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming aftected, but more frequently it extends to from three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes." Mr. Youatt thus describes the post-mortem appearances : t " AVhen a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knii'e. The muscles are soft and flabby : they have the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is fiequently filled with water or purulent matter ; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The prnicipal alterations of structure are in the liver. It is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ; and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often curiouslv spotted. In some cases it is speckled hke the back of a toad. Nevertheless, some })arts of it are hard and schirrous ; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. Here is the decided seat of disease, and it is here that the nature of the malady is to be learned. It is inflammation of the liver. . . . The liver attiacls the principal atten- tion of the examiner : it displays the evident eflfects of acute and destructive inflammation ; and still more plainly the ravages of the parasite with which its ducts are crowded. Here is plainly the original seat of the disease — the center whence a destructive influence spreads on every side. . . . The Fluke — the Fasciola of LinuEeus — the Distoma hepaticum of Rhodolphi — the Planaria of Goese — is found in the biliary ducts of the sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, the dog, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and various other animals, and even in the human being. It is from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from oiie-third to half an inch in greatest breadth. * Spooner, p. 381, et supra. t Youatt, p. 447, et supra. 248 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Figs. 56 and 58 represent this parasite of its usual size and appearance, and its resem- blance to a minute sole, di%'ested of its fins, is very striking. The head is of a pointed form, round above and flat beneath ; and the mouth opens laterally instead of vertically. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59. THE FLUKE. There are no barbs or tentaculas, as described by some author."?. The eyes are placed on the most prominent part of the head, and are very singularly constructed (fig. 57). They have the bony ring of the bird. . . . The anastomoses of the blond-vessels which ramify over the head are plainly seen through a tolerable microscope. The circulating and digestive organs are also evident, and are seated ahnost immediately below the head. The situation of the heart is seen in fig. 56, and tlie two main vessels evidently springing from it, and extending through almost the whole length of the fluke. Smaller blood-vessels, if so they may be called, ramify from them on either side. The convolutions of the bowels appear iu fig. 59, and the vent, both for the fieces and the ova, and probably for the connection be- tween the sexes, is on the under part, and almost close to the neck In the belly, if so it may be called, are almost invariably a very great number of oval particles, hundreds of which, taken together, are not equal in bulk to a grain of sand. They are (jf a pale red color, and are supposed to be the spawn or eggs of the parasite There can be no doubt that the eggs ate frequently received in the food. Having been discharged with the dung, they remain on the grass or damp spot on which they may fall, retaining their vital principle for an indefinite period of time. . . . They find not always, or they find not at all, a proper nidus in the places in which they are deposited ; but taken up with the f(jod, escaping the perils of rumination, and threading every vessel and duct until they arrive at the biliaiy canal, they burst from their shells, and grow, and probably multi- ply Leeuwenhoek says that he has taken 870 flukes out of one liver, exclusive of those that wt!ro cut to pieces or destroyed in opening the various ducts. In other cases, and where the sheep have died of the rot, there were not ft)und more than ten or twelve. . . . Then, is the fluke worm the cause or the effect of rot ? To a certain degree both. They aggravate the disease ; they perpetuate a state of irritability smd disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal Notwithstanding all this, however, if the fluke follow the analogy of other entoza and parasites, it is the effect and not the cause of rot The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of moist vege- table matter. It is rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in dry seasons ; it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the heat of the summer's sun, or completely covered by the winter's rain. On the same farm there are certain fields on which no sheep can be ttiined with impimity. There are others that seldom or never give the rot. The soil of the first is found to be of a pervious nature, on which wet cannot long remain — the second takes a long time to dry, or is rarely or never so Some seasons are far more favorable to the development of the rot than others, and there is no manner of doubt as to the character of those seasons. After a rainy summer or a moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like a pestilence. A return and a coutinuance of diy weather materially arrests its murderous progress. Most of the sheep SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 249 that had been ah-eady infected die ; but the number of those that are lost soon begins to be materially diminished. It is, therefore sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is caused by, the existence of moisture. A rainy season and a tenacious soil are fruitful or inevitable sources of it The mischief is eflected with almost incredible rapidity." Mr. Youatt here gives various instances to prove that rot is engendered in a few^ hours and even minutes. * He farther says : " It is an old observation that all pasture that is STispected lo be unsound, the sheep should be folded early in the evening, before the first dews begin to fall, and should not be released from the fold until the dew is partly evaporated Then the mode of prevention — that with which the farmer will have most to do, for the sheep having become once decidedly rotten, neither medicine nor management will have much power in arresting the evil — consists in altering the character of as much of ihe dan- gerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from those pastures which defy all his attempts to improve them If all unnecessary moisture is removed from the soil, or if the access of air is cut off by the flooding of the pasture, no poisonous gas has existence, and the sheep continue sound The account of the treatment of rot must, to a considerable extent, be very unsatis- factory. " Mr. Youatt proceeds to recommend the sale of sheep to the butcher when they are found to be rotted ! Rot hastens for a short period the accumulation of fat. Bakewell — a man whose name is associated with the exhibition of prodigious abilities in the improvement of stock, but, in my mind, tarnished also by an equal exhibition of selfishness and absolute meanness — displayed a characteristic sagacity in purposely rotting his sheep to avail himself of the above circumstance ! t It is with pain [ make the following qtiotation from Youatt — the only thing of such a char- acter I remember to have noticed in his voluminous works : " It is one of the characters of the rot to hasten, and that to a strange degree, the accu- mulation of flesh and fat. Let not the farmer, however, push this experiment too far. Let him carefully overlook every sheep daily, and dispose of tliose which cease to make pro- gress, or which seem beginning to retrograde. It has already been stated that the meat of the rotted sheep, in the early stage of the disease, is; not like that of the sound one; it is pale and not so fn-m; but it is not unwholesome (!) and it is coveted by certain epicures, •who, perhaps, are not altogether aware of the real state of the animal (.' I ) All this is matter of calculation, and must be left to the owner of the sheep ; except that, if the breed is not of veiy considerable value, and the disease has not proceeded to emaciation or other fearful symptoms, the first loss will probably be the least ; and if the owner can get any- thing like a tolerable price for them, tlie sooner they are sent to the butcher, or consumed at home, the better. Supposing, however, that their appearance is beginning to tell tales about them, and they are too far gone to be disposed of in the market or consumed at home, ai'e they to be abandoned to their late ? No : far from it. " Conceding to Mr. Youatt the whole benefit of that saving clause about " consumption at home," the above sentence is one which I could well wish stricken from his valuable work. The sale of the meat of diseased animals, for human consumption, is abhorrent to decency and propriety, and there is not a respectable American family which would not revolt at the idea of either selling or consuming such meat. Of the treatment of rot, Mr. Youatt continues : " If it is suited to the convenience of the farmer, and such ground were at all within his reach, the sheep should be sent to a salt-marsh in preference to the best pasture on the best farm. There it will feed on the salt incrusted on the herbage, and jiervading the pores of every blade of grass. A healthy salt-marsh ]iermits not the sheep to become rotten which graze upon it ; and if the disease is not considerably advanced, it cures those which are sent upon it with the rot. . . , Are there any indications of fever — heated mouth, heaving flanks, or failing appetite 1 Is the general inflammation beginning lo have a determination to that part on wliich the disease usually expends its chiefest virulence ? Is there yellow- * Youatt. p. 453. t So say both Spooner and Youatt. 2l 250 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness of the lips and of the mouth, of the eyes, and of the skin ? At the same time, are there no indications of weakness and decay ? Nothing to show that the constitution is fatally undermined ? Bleed — abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an inHammatory character at its commencement which is not benefited by early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts, admmistered in the cautious manner so fre- quently recommended ; and to these means let a change of diet be immediately added — good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff, in the straw-yard. The physic having operated, or an additional dose, perchance, having been administered in order to quicken the action of the first, the fanner will look out for farther means and appliances Two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, but mixed with half the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant. To this should be added — a simple and cheap medicine, but that which is the sheet-anchor of the practitioner here — common salt In the first place, it is a purgative inferior to few, when given in a full dose ; and it is a tonic as well as a purgative. .... A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely jKJwdered, may be added to each dose of the salt The sheep having a little recov- ered from the disease, should still contmue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt within their reach The rot is not iiifectious." Diarrhea. — This disease is often more properly a nervous than a febrile one — in the former case, a morbid increase of the peristaltic motion of the bowels — in the latter, an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smallei intestines. But for the purpose of viewing it in connection with dysen- tery, to which it is sometimes closely allied, and into which it often runs — and which is clearly a febrile disease — it will be described here. Common diarrhea, purging, or scours, manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is brought on by a sudden change from dry feed to green, or by the introduction of im- proper substances into the stomach. It is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In dianhea there is no apparent general fever ; the appetite remains good ; the stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime (mucus) and blood ; the odor of the faeces is far less offensive than in dysentery ; the general condition of the animal is but little changed. Treatment. — Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual re- turn to it, oftentimes suffice. I have rarely administered anything to grown sheep, and never have lost one from this disease. To lambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the fjeces, the feculent mat- ter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic — as half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed-oil, or half an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should always be followed by an astringent, and in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. I gener- ally administer, say, \ oz. of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days, at the end of which, and fi-equently after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated or entirely ceased. The following is the formula of the English " sheep's cordial " usually prescribed in cases of diarrhea by the English veterinarians, and there can be no doubt it is a safe and excellent remedy — better probably than sim- ple chalk and milk, in severe cases : Take of prepared chalk one ounce, powdered catechu half an ounce, powdereears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, and after the disease has existed for some time will almost constantly move round in a circle — there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. On examining the brain of Bturdied sheep, we find what appears to be a watery bladder, termed a hydatid, which may be either small or of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoons has been termed by naturalists the hydatis polycephalus cerehralis, w\nc\i signifies the many-headed hydalid of the brain ; these heads being irregularly distributed on the sur- face of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute shaip hooks within a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment by ibrming a vacmim, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus by the aid of the hooks the parasite is nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed iu several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. The.se facts are develoyied by the microscope, which also discovers numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. The fluid in the bladder is usually clear, but occasionally turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. " According to Mr, Youatt, this disease attacks many of the weakly lambs in the English flocks. It usually appears, he remarks, " during the first year of the animal's life, and when he is about or under six months old." It succeeds a " a severe winter and a cold, wet spring." — He says : " If there is only one para-site iidiabiling the brain of a sturdied sheep, its situation is very uncertain. It is mostly found beneath the pia-mater, lying upon the brain, and in or upon the scissure lietween the two hemispheres. If it is within the brain, it is generally iu one jf the ventricles, but occasionally iu the substance of the brain, and, in a few instances, ia that of the cerebellum SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 255 This is a singular disease ; but it is a sadly prevalent and fatal one in wet and moorish districts It is much more fatal in France than in Great Britain. It is supposed that nearly a million of sheep are destroyed in France every year by this pest of the ovine race The means of cure are exceedingly limited. They are confined to the removal or des- truction of the vesicle. Medicine is altogether out of the question here." Many barbarous methods have been adopted to rupture the hydatid, which I will not disgust you by repeating. Mr. James Hogg thrust a wire up the nostrils of the sheep, and through the plate of the ethmoid bone into the brain, and thus, as he assures us, punctured the hydatid and " cured many a sheep ! " * This practice, which I cannot characterize otherwise than as atrocious, is justly condemned by Mr. Youatt. The dotted lines d, e, and d, d, in fig. 49, show how limited a portion of the brain could be reached with a wire or trochar by piercing the plate of the ethmoid bone — the only portion of the walls of the skull thin enough to be so pierced by a trochar introduced at the nostrils. Mr. Parkinson " pulled the ears very hard for some time," and then cut them off close to the head ! t Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole — or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply punc- ture the cranium and the cist with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, permit the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A com- mon awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture. The puncture would be the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. But when we take into consideration the hazard and cruelty attending the operation at best, and the conceded liability of a return of the malady — the growth of new hydatids — it becomes apparent that, in this country, it would not be worth while, unless in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to resort to any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. Pelt Rot — Is classified as a disease by Mr. Livingston, and various other American writers. Mr. Livingston says : " This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is in fact a different and less dangerous disease ; in this the v^rool will fall off, and leave the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended with no soreness, though a while crust will cover the skin from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet. and, in fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers by the loss of its coat. The remedy is full feeding, and a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skLu wdth tar, oil, and butter." X I have seen frequent cases of the pelt rot, but never have done any- thing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. If the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the wool is very apt to drop off, and if yet cold, the sheep will require warm shelter. * Hog" on Sheep, p. 59. 1 Parkineon on Sheep, vol. 1, p. 412. J Livingston on Sheep, Appendix, p. 179. 256 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LOCAL DISEASES. " Grub in the Head."— If the " grubs " found in the frontal and max- illary sinuses of the sheep actually, in any case, produce disease, it must be, in my judgment, by the irritation and inflammation which they induce in the mucous membrane which lines those cavities. The popular theory that the grub causes death by boring through the bony walls which sur- round the brain, and attacking the substance of the brain itself, is, it seems to me, utterly absurd. The only part of the skull where it could even be fancied that such a perforation would be practicable, is the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone (11 of fig. 49,) which is very thin and is pierced with numerous small holes for the passage of nerves. But an inspection of the same figure will show that the sinus where the parasite is generally found lodged, is not in immediate juxtaposition with the cribriform plate, and that a passage from the former to the brain, would lead directly through the frontal bone — the thickest one of the whole cranium, I never saw but one grub in the cells of the ethmoid bone near the cribriform plate, and that, I judged at the time, was thrown there accidentally by the violence attending the opening of the head.* But if the grub actually penetrates to the brain, the fact would readily be disclosed after death. The full- grown grub would necessarily leave an orifice of considerable diameter through the skull. Who has seen any such orifice in the cribriform plate or elsewhere 1 Who has seen any orifice but the natural ones of the crib- riform plate, filled with the nerves which pass through them ] The farmer splits open the head of a sheep with an ax, cutting, mangling and scatter- ing its contents, by the repeated blows necessary to effect Ins purpose. Under such circumstances grubs are sometimes found scattered through all the nasal cavities — over and among the brains — and on, the ground — The proof is just as strong, here, that prior to opening the head, some of the grubs were on the ground, as that they were in the brain ! The " grub " of popular parlance is the larva of the CEstrus oris, or gad-fly of the sheep. The latter is represented of the nat- ural size in figures GO and 61. It is composed of Fig, oo- five rings. It is tiger-colored on the back and ^ belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown. The wings are striped. The comparative propor- tions of the head, corslet, wings, etc. are sufficient- ly seen in the cuts. He who desires a full, scien- tific description of these insects, or who would sheep GAB-Ftv. fully investigate their habits and economy, will do well to consult the excellent monograph of them by Mr. Bracy Clark the celebrated veterinarian. The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nos- trils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this, most common in July and Au- gust, are always^ indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps with their heads inward and their noses thrust close to the ground, and in- to it, if any loose dirt or sand is within their reach. If the fly succeeds in depositing its egcr^ it is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or larvae, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculge, they at- tach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. Durino- the ascent of the larvye, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and of- ten dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. Thelarvee re- * The head was cloven with an nx ! It is proper to eay, however, that various writers speak of havine found the gi-ubs in the ethmoid cells, und indeed in all the nasal cavities. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 257 main in the sinuses feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently creating no farther annoyance, until ready to assume tlieir pu- pa form in the succeeding spring. Figures 62 and 63 give the shape and an upper and under view of the full-grown larva. Fiff. C3. THE "grub" or larva OF THE SHEEP GAD-FLY. The body consists of eleven rings, colorless in the young grub, but the elevated portions growing darker with age, and becoming a dark brovz-n when the full size is attained. There are round spots of a still dai-ker color on each of these bands. At the edges of the rings are a few short hairs, and lower down some round darkish spots, as shown in fig. 62. — Small red spines, as shown in fig. 63, cover the space between the rings on the belly. The remainder of the body (with the exception of the poste- rior stigmata) is white. The tentaculee, as well as certain appendages on each side of the anus, the purposes of which have not been discovered, are seen in fig. 63. The larva having remained in the sinuses through the fall and winter, abandons them as the warm weather advances in tlie latter part of spring. It crawls down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement than when it originally ascended, drops on the ground, and rapidly bur- rows into it. In a few hours its skin has contracted, become of a dark brown color, and it has assumed the form of a chrysalis, as seen in fig. 64. Or rather, this figure exhibits the shell of the chrysalis, af- ter the escape of the fly ; and fig. 65 shows the upper ex- ^^" ^'^^' tremity or head of the pupa, detached by the fly in its es- cape. The experiments of Valisnieri go to show that the ffi*- trus ovis never eats — and this is the received opinion. — The male, after impregnating two or three females, dies, and the latter having deposited their ova in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. of ch"uys\hs. The larva in the heads of sheep may, and probably do add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack the membraneous lining of the nasal cavities ; and they are, as we have seen, a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to and descending from their lodging-place in the head. But in the interval between these events — extending over a period of several months — not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoy- ance at their presence, or reveals to the veterinarian whether they exist in the sinuses or not. It would be very difficult to believe that all the local irritation which these parasites could cause, would be sufficient to termi- nate life, and, so far as my observation has extended, post-mortem exam- ination discloses no lesions which would in anywise sanction such belief. The larvce, moreover, are found, at the proper season, in the heads of near- ly all sheep — the healthy as well as the diseased — and I never have been able to ascertain that the number of them is greater, on the average, in the heads of those sheep which were supposed to have fallen victims to their attacks, than in the heads of perfectly healthy sheep slaughtered for the table. And to prove that the popular ideas on the subject are but vague 3K 258 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and crude — not the result of that long and close comparison of symptoms, results, and post-mortem appearances, which would give weight to the opinions of the most unerudite — we have hut to notice a few of the cases popularly referred to the " grub in the head." A sheep in the highest condition and apparent health leaps into the air two or three times, and suddenly dies, and if a grub can be found in the cavities of the head, that is the undoubted destroyer. Another wastes away for months and dies lingeringly, a mere skeleton, and the same proof establishes the same fact. Whether there has been fever or no fever — whether there has been obsti- nate constipation, or equally obstinate dysentery — whether one viscus or another exhibit traces of abnormal action — whether the disease has been acute or chronic — in a woid, whatever the form or character of the mal- ady — however diametrically diH'erent the diagnosis and the lesions, it is a clear case of " grub in the head," if two or three of those parasites are found there ! Mr. Bracy Clark and Mr. Youatt, so far from regarding the larva of the CKstrus ovis as the cause of a fatal disease, suggest that they may even j>roviote the health of the sheep by diminishing the tendency to cerebral disease — especially determinations of blood — by establishing counter irri- tation ! Mr. Spooner does not speak of their producing fatal effects in any instances, nor am 1 aware that any late scientific veterinarians do. Treatment. — Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. — One simple way of effecting this is by turning up with a plow a furrow of earth in the sheep pasture. Into this the sheep will thrust their noses on the approach of the (Estnis, and thus many of them escape its attacks. — Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep with tar occasionally, during the proper season — the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Others compel the sheep to smear their own noses every week or two, by feed- ing them their salt spiinkled over tar. Blacklock says that the larvae may be dislodged even from the sinuses, by blowing tobacco smoke for some moments thi'ough the tail of a pipe into each nostril. I have never tried the experiment. The Scab. — The scab is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the itch in men. It is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the acarus. M. Walz, a German veterinarian, who has thrown great light on the habits of these parasites, says : " If one or more femnle acari are placed on the wool of a soinid slieep, they quickly ti-avel to the root of it, and bury theinselves in the skin, the pkice at whicli they pcnetiated being scarcely visible, or only distinguished by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day a little swelling may be detected with tlie finder, and the skin changes its color, and has a gi-eenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, and the mf)thers again appear, with their litlle ones attached to their iy have just escaped. These little ones im- mediately set to work, and penetrate the iicighboiing skin, and l)uiy themselves beneath it, and find their proper nourishment, and giow and propagate, until the poor animal has myri- ads of them to prey on him, and it is not wonderful lliat he shnnld speedilv sink. Some of the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they too bin-rowcd their way and disappeared for a while, and tlie pustule in due time arose ; but the itching and the Bcab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy. The figures on the next page are copied from M. Walz's work : The female acarus brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a litter. The scab is often produced spontaneously in England by mismanage- ment of various kinds, such as " bad keep, starvation, hasty driving, dogging, and exposure afterward to cold and wet ;" and it spreads rapidly SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 259 by contagion. It is very prevalent there, and annually causes an immense loss in the wool and flesh of the British flocks. In the United States it is comparatively little known, and so far as I am able to learn, never origin- ates spontaneously. It is a singular fact that short-wooled sheep, like the Fig. 68. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. THE ACARUS WHICH CAUSES SCAB. Fig. 67. — The acsri of their natural size on a darlc ground. Fig. 66.— The female of 366 limes the natural size, larger than the male, of an oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind. a. — The surker. b. b. b. b. — The four anterior feet, vfith their trumpet-like appendices. c. c. — The two interior hind feet d. d. — The two outward feel, the extremities of which are provided with Bome long hairs, and on the other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the young ones adhere, when they first escape from the pustule. e. — The tail, containing the amis and vulva, garnished with some short hairs. Fig. 68. — The male on its back, and seen by the same magnifying power. a. — The sucker. b b. b. b. — The fore-legs with their trumpet-like appendices, as seen in the female. c. c. — The two hind-legs, with the same appendices and hairs. d. — The rudiments of the abdominal feet. e. — The tail. Merino, are much less subject to its attacks, and this is probably one reason for its little comparative prevalence in the United States. Mr. Youatt observes : " The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and long-wooled sheep in preference to the short ; a healthy short-wooled sheep will long bid defiance to the contagion, or probably escape it altogether." It spreads from individual to individual and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy sbeep are therefore liable to contract the malady if turned on pastures pre- viously occupied by scabby sheep, though some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs it- self with violence against trees, stones, fences, &c. It scratches itself with its feet, and bites its sores and tears off its wool with its teeth. As the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs covering red, inflamed sores. The sores constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured animal. If unrelieved, he pines away and soon perishes. I have never had an opportunity to observe the post-mortem appear- ances. Mr. Youatt says : " The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged ; and there are frequently serous effa 260 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. sions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the digestive and the cutaneous systems." Treatment . — About twelve years since, I purchased 150 fiiie-wooled sheep just driven into the county from a considerable distance. I placed them on a farm then ow^ned by me, in another town, and did not see them for about three weeks. One of my men then reported to me that the sheep were amiss — that they were shedding off their wool — sore spots were be- ginning to show on them — and that they rubbed themselves against the fence-corners, &c. Though I had never seen the scab, 1 took it for granted that this was the disease. No time was to be lost, as I had 700 other sheep on the farm — though fortunately, thus far, the new comers had been kept entirely separate from them. Barely looking into Mr. Livingston's work for a remedy, 1 provided myself with an ample supply of tobacco and set out. The sheep had been shorn, and their backs were covered with scabs and sores. They evidently had the scab. I had a large potash kettle sunk partly in the ground as an extempore vat, and an unweighed quantity of tobacco put to boiling in several other kettles. The only care was to have enough of the decoction, as it was rapidly wasted, and to have it strong enough. A little spirits of turpentine was occasionally thrown on the decoction, say to every third or fourth sheep dipped. It was neces- sary to use it sparingly, as, not mixing with the fluid and floating on the surface, too much of it otherwise came in contact with the sheep. Not at- tending to this at first, two or three of the sheep are thrown into great ag- ony, and appeared to be on the point of dying. I had each sheep caught and its scabs scoured off, by two men who rubbed them with stiff" shoe- brushes, dipped in a suds of tobacco-water and soft soap. The two men then dipped the sheep all over in the large kettle of tobacco-water, rub- bing and kneading the sore spots with their hands while immersed in the fluid. The decoction was so strong that many of the sheep appeared to be sickened either by immersion or by its fumes ; and one of the men who dipped, though a tobacco-chewer, vomited, and became so sick that his place had to be supplied by another. The effect on the sheep was almost magical ! The sores rapidly healed, the sheep gained in condition, the new wool immediately started, and I never had a more perfectly healthy flock on my farm. Though adminis- tered with little reference to economy, the remedy was a decisive one. — With a vat like fig. 27, (Letter XII,) this would not necessarily be a very expensive method, with sheep recently sheared. But the assaults of the scab usually come on in the spring before shearing time, and it would re- quire an immense quantity of the tobacco decoction to dip sheep with their fleeces on, however carefully it miglit be pressed out. The following is the remedy recommended by Chancellor Livingston : " First, I separate the sheep (for it is very infectious) ; I then cut off the wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger ; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard with a slioe-brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. I always keep for this use a decoction of tobacco, to which I add one-third by measure of the lye of wood ashes, as much hog's-lard as will be dissolved by the lye, a small cpiautity of tar from the tar-bucket, which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole by measure of spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread to a little distance round it, in three washings, with an interval of three days each. I have never failed in this way to effect a cure when the disorder was only partial. ... i cannot say whether it would cure a sheep infected BO as to lose half its fleece."* The following remedies are much used in Great Britain : No. 1. — Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of * Lmngston's Eaaay. Appendix, p. 177. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 261 half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should pre- viously be washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be per- mitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. No. 2. — Take common mercurial ointment, for bad cases, rub it own with three times its weight of lard — for ordinary cases, five times its weight of lard. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a sim- ilar furrow and application, on each side, four inches from the first, and so on over the whole body. The quantity of ointment (after being com- pounded with the lard) should not exceed two ounces, and considerably less will generally suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown sheep. This will generally cure, but if the sheep should continue to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. No. 3. — Take of lard or palm oil 2 lbs., oil of tar i lb., sulphur 1 lb. — Gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first. — Apply in the same way as No. 2. No. 4. — Take of corrosive sublimate | lb., white hellebore, powdered, I lb., whale or other oil 6 gallons, rosin 2 lbs., tallow 2 lbs. " The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed." This is a powerful preparation and must not be applied too freely. Mr. Spooner gives the preference to No. 1, as least troublesome ; Mr. Youatt to No. 2 ; and the author of the Mountain Shepherd's Manual to No. 4. I should certainly prefer No. 3, if it is, as it is asserted to be, equally effectual, for the reason that it contains no poisonous or dangerous ingredients. An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itch- ing, sometimes attacks the English flocks, but I have heard of no cases of it here. This would be classified as a febrile disease. It is treated with a cooling purgative, venesection, and oil or lard applied to the sores. Disease of the Biflex Canal. — From the introduction of foreign bod- ies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. This is sometimes confounded with the hoof-ail, but the diseases are entirely distinct and different from each other. In- flammation of the biflex canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor. I never have known it to attack more than one foot, and never have allowed it to go to the point of ulceration, which it is said to do if neglected. There is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes — and none of that pecu- liar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail. I never have found it anything like so serious a disease as it is described to be by the English veterina- rians. Treatment. — I have always scarified the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in the pi-incipal swelling around the mouth of the canal — covered the foot with tar — and paid no more attention to it. Hoof- Ail. — The first symptom of this troublesome malady, which is or- dinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore feet. But on daily examiningthe feet of aflock which have the disease among them, it will be readily seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness. Scarcely any English writer whom I 262 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. have read, describes with respectable accuracy the first appearances of the hoof-ail as it exhibits itself in this country, and among the Jine-ivnoled sheep* Mr. Youatt says : " The foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usuyl, and there will be en- largement about the coronet, and a slight separation of the hoof fi'om it, with portions of the horn worn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of their fetid matter. The ul- cers, if neglected, continue to increase ; they tlirow out fungous granulations, they separate the hoof more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it drops off."' The above is not a description of the consecutive symptoms of the hoof- ail as /have seen them. The hoof, instead of being softened, is percepti- bly hardened, I think, by the presence of the disease. There is occasion- ally an enlargement about the coronet, but this is not common in the out- set; and so far from the horn first separating from the foot at that point, it is the last place where it usually adheres when the soles are eaten away by the ulcerous matter, and the mere outside shell reinains. I never have known a hoof to drop off, entire, in the sense in which 1 understand the closing part of Mr. Youatt's remark. My first introduction to this disease was by its breaking out in its most malignant form in a flock of eight hundred sheep, with which I had placed, early in the preceding spring, a few valuable sheep received from abroad which were infected with the hoof-ail, without my having the slightest sus- picion of the fact. The disease, when of long standing, and well kept un- der, shows itself but very little during the winter and spring, unless the foot is directly examined. Every sheep in that eight hundred took the disease, sometimes first in one foot, then in another, then in a third, and when the fourth one was attacked, perhaps it was again bursting out in one of the cured feet ! I considered the sheep valuable, had much of the esprit du corps of a young flock-master, and was determined, to conquer the malady at any cost and at all hazards. I have little doubt that every sheep in the flock was " doctored " on the average ten times each, and it was very rarely that I permitted any other pjerson than viysclf to cut away the horn and prepare the foot SiX\y, especially when the nnimnl has the, hiiof ail. The horny soles will sometimes be- come nearly an inch thick, and the toes will elongate and turn up in front like horns, to the length of three and even four inches. The weight of tlie Merino is much less than that of the I,ong-Wool. Take these facts into consideration, together with some of the other circum.stances detailed in the introductory remarks to Letter XIV, and perhaps it sufficiently accounts for aome difl'erenccs in the diaguosis of the disease be- »weun the two countries. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 268 gree of confidence, even if they chance to conflict with those of professed and eminent veterinarians. As all are aware, the horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up gradually thinning out, some way hetween the toes or divisions of the hot)f and above these horny walls the "cleft" is lined with skin. When the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front covered with short, soft hair. The hack part of the toes, or the " heels," can be sep- arated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them ia naked. In a healthy fcwt, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, sound, dri/ and uneroded, as on any other part of the animal. The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with in- flammation and heat of the naked skin in the hack ixirt of the cleft, imme- diately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated sur- face. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain and the sheep limps. At this stage the foot externallj/, in a great ma- jority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception of a slight ledness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of the iimer walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is estab- lished between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is exuded from the cavit;y. The extent of the separation daily increases, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, en- tirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coro- net. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration; or, as it more commonly hap- pens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the Burface, and burrow in every cavity. 1"he fore-feet are generally first at- tacked, and most usually but one of ihem. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturbance. It eats as usual. By the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot — sometimes sooner — the other fore-foot is attacked. That be- coming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on ita knees, and if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense, agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot under the brisket of the size of the palm of a man's liand, which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever — and. the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side in lying down, the filthy ulcerous matter adheres to and saturates the short wool, (it being but a month and a half or two months af- ter shearing,) and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they, are so(m geiierated there. A black crust is soon formed round the spot. It is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, and innumerable maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and mus- cles and eating up the miserable animal alive. The black festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, we cannot suppose other- wise than in tortures the most excruciating. Sometimes but one fore-foot is attacked, and subsequently one or both hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular, and it is a singular fact that when two or even three of the feet aie dreadfully diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So also one foot may be cured, while ev- ery other one is laboring under the malady. 264 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly pathugnomonic of the disease — and would reveal its character to one familiar with it, in the darkest night. When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form — the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked — there seems to be less inflammatory action, constitutionally, and in the diseased parts — the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readi- ly yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its con- dition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely su- pervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in such a way, as I shall presently describe, that one thousand sheep can be sub- mitted to the treatment in half a day — with but a trifle of labor and ex- pense — will now suffice to keep the disease under. At this point a little vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish the disease. With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-ail be cured in its first attack on a flock % The worst case can be promptly cured, as I know by repeated experiments. Take a single sheep, put it by itself, and ad- minister the remedies daily after the English fashion, or as I shall presently prescribe, and there is not an ovine disease which more surely yields to treatment. But as already remarked, in a preceding Letter, in this couTitry, where sheep are so cheap, and labor in the summer months so dear, it would out of the question for an extensive flock-master to at- tempt to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of rem- edies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge who has ever pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once a week, or regularly as often as that, and not one in ten makes any separation between the dis- eased and healthy sheep of a flock into which the malady has been once in- introduced. The consequence necessarily is that though you may cure the sheep noiv diseased, it has infected or inoculated others — and these in turn scatter the contagion, before they are cured. There is not a particle of doubt — nay, I know, by repeated observation, that a sheep once entirely cured may again contract the disease, and thus the malady performs a per- petual circle in the flock. Fortunately, however, the susceptibility to con- tract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, with every suc- ceeding attack; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding attacks, ceteris iiaribus, become less and less virulent. What course shall then be pursued % Shall the flock-master sacrifice his sheep — shall he take the ordinary half-way course — or shall he expend more on the sheep than they are worth in attempting to cure them % Nei- ther. The course I would advise him to pursue, will appear as I detail the experiments I have made. Treatment. — The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon — and this is always necessary, at least in bad cases — is a subject of no dispute. But the labor can be prodigiously economized by attention to a few not very commonly observed particulars. Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if prac- ticable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. In a dry time, and after a night which has left no dew on the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet. — The yard must be small, so they can be easily caught, and it must be kept SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 265 well littered down, so they shall not fill their feet with their own excre- ment. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not of course dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard be built over a shallow, grav- elly-bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable arrangement. The hoofs would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the la- bor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that dung which by any other arrangement will, more or less, get into their clefts. The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair — a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers (fig. 21, Letter XII,) a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as he chooses to employ, within his reach. The assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some straw or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assist- ant presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens the hoof with the toe- nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes and rinses it, un- til the filth is removed. Each then seize their knives, and the process of paring away the horn commences. And on the effectual j^erformance of this, all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least experience cannot fail in properly set- tling this question. An experienced finger, placed on the back of the pastern close above the heel, would at once detect the local inflammation (by its heat) in the dark. If the disease is in the first stage — i.e. there is merely an erosion and ul- ceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof, no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, be they more or less exten- sive, MUST BE ENTIRELY DENUDED OF THEIR HORNY COVERING, COSt wliat it may of time and care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent applica- tion, but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule above laid down. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, during which time no application need be made to the foot. If the foot is in the third stage — a mass of rottenness and filled with maggots — in the first place pour a little spirits of turpentflie (a bottle of it, with a quill through the cork, should be always ready,) on the maggots and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be re- moved with a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose Jiorn, though it should take the entire ho(f— and it ivill generally take the whole hoof in such cases. The foot should be now cleansed with a solu- tion of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great object is to clean the foot thoroughly. If there are any considerable fun- gous granulations, (" proud-flesh,") they should be excised with a pair of scissors, or the actual cautery (hot iron.) And now comes the important question what constitutes the best remedy 1 The recommended prescriptions are innumerable. The following are some of the most popular ones.t 1. 4 oz. blue vitriol, 2 oz. of verdigi-is. * A portion of any little brook might be prepared by planking tbe bottom, and widening it if desirable. t The first three are given in the Ameiican Shepherd, pp. 379-80. 2L 2©6 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. to a junk- bottle of wine. 2. Spirits turpentine, tar and verdigris in equal parts. 3. 3 quarts of alcohol. 1 pint spirits of turpentine, i pint of strong vinegar, I lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, 1^ lbs. verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 lb. of saltpetre, pounded fine: mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight days before using : also mix 2 pounds of honey and 2 quarts of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound. " Two applications will entirely remove the disease," says this recipe, which was once, I believe, hawked about the country as a patent cure — being sold at live dollars to each purchaser, he giving a promise of inviolable se- crecy ! 4. Apply diluted aquafortis (nitric acid) with a feather to the ul^ cerated surface. 5. Apply diluted oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in the same way. 6. Same of muriatic acid. 7. Dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point, &c. After a tliorough trial of the above and a multitude of other prescrip- tions,* I have come to the conclusion that in the first and second stages of the disease — before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its sti'ucture — that no application, simple or compound, is pi-eferable to a saturated solution of blue vitiiol, (sulphate of copper.) In my judgment, no beneficial addition can be made to it as a remedy. Of the manner of applying it I shall speak presently. Ill the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the uidiealthy granulations — the dead muscular structures — and to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic I think preferable to any other application, but it is too expensive. Mr. Youatt gives a decided prefer- ence to chloride of antimony, and I think him correct. This is frequently not attainable in the country drug-stores, and muriatic acid may be re- sorted to, or even nitric or sulphuric acid. The diseased surface is touched with the caustic (applied with a swab formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick,) until the objects above pointed out are obtained. I have then usually treated the foot with the solution of blue vitriol, and sub- sequently coated it over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly cooled. The last protects the raw wound from dirt, flies, &c. Sheep ia this stage of the disease should certaiidy be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of atten- tion, their cure will be rapid, and it is astonishing with what celerity the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored. The ordinary method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a botlle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a few cents' worth of vitriol will serve for a large number of sheep. But the method is impei'fect, because, without remarkable care, there will al- most always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife — the passages to them will be devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed — and the solution will not reach them. Thus the disease will only be tem- porarily suppressed, not cured. I had a flock of sheep a few years since which were in the second sea- son of the disease. They had been but little looked to during the sum- mer, and as cold weather was setting in, many of them were consid- erably lame — some of them quite so. The snow fell and they were brought into the yards, limping and hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so dis- graceful to me as a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity *Many of them resorted to " against the stomach of my sense," to give myself and others indisputable ocular prciof of their inuliliiy — or that they were no better than cheaper, simpler, aud more easily attaia- able medicines SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 267 of blue vitriol — made the necessary arrangements — and once more took the chair as principal operator ! Never were the feet of a flock more thoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which two sheep could stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solution of blue vitiiol and water, as liut as could be endured by the hand even for a moment. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at about that depth by frequent additions oi hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck, by an as- sistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside it. When the third one was ready, the Jirst was taken out, and so on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, and each remained in it about five minutes. — The cure was perfect ! There was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer! The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot, and doubtless had a far more decisive effect even on the uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them, Perhaps the lateness of the season was also favorable, as in cold weather the ulcers of ordinary virulence discharge no matter to inoculate the healthy feet, and thus, at the time of applying the remedy, there are no cases where there has been inoculation not yet followed by those lesions which admit of cure. Whether so thorough a soaking would destroy the virus in the in- oculated foot, I cannot pretend to decide. I think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred sheep was about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents per pound. The ac- count then would stand thus : \-z ili.-'. ,':f vitriol at 15 cents $1,80 Labor ol 3 men one day each 2,25 Total $4,05 or about four cents per sheep. I have not a doubt that three such appli- cations at intei'vals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, as every new case would be arrested and cured before it had time to inoculate others. I have no doubt that it would do this at any time of year, and even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, pro- viding THE PARING WAS SUFFICIENTLY THOROUGH. The second and third parings would be a mere trifle, and the liquid left at the first and second applications could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head. This is vastly cheaper in the long run than the ordinary temporizing method — wheie people count the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol, but not their time, and who thus keep the disease lingering in their flocks for years. Indeed, if partial and temporizing treatment is all that is aimed at, — if the flockmaster is content to simply keep the disease under — I can point out methods quite as efficacious as the common one by paring and apjjlying washes from a bottle — as ordina- rily performed — and not costing a tithe as much. Between the corners of two sheep-pastures (1, 2, of fig. 69,) construct the dividing fence as repi-esented in the cut. A narrow passage is thus left from one field to an- ^^^ . other. This passage should be about 2 or 2^ feet wide and 12 feet long. The fence on each side r 2 of the passage should be an upright boaid fence, so that the space can be entirely filled on the bot- tom with a flat trough, (the bottom formed of a plank) with side and end boards about five inches high. In this trough place say a bushel and a half or two bushels of un. Fi, if not identical with, that disease. It is congenital. The glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon's to that of a hen's egg — though more elongated and flattened than an eg^^ in their form. The lamb is exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an eff"ort to suck. Many even make no effV)rt to lise, and die as soon as they are dropped. It is rare that one lives — though three or four years since, a lamb in my flock having one of the thyroid glands enlarged, grew up a large, healthy sheep. At a year old, •when disposed of, the enlarged gland was of the size of a goose-eo^g. No inconsiderable number of lambs atmually perish from this disease. — It does not appear to be an epizootic, though I think it more prevalent some seasons than others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or any other natural circumstances of a region, (as goitre is usually supposed to,) as it ni ly not prevail in the same flock or on the same farm once in ten years. 1 never have been able to trace it to any particular kind of food. That when it does appear, it is induced by some common local or SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 271 alimentary cause, I am induced to infer from the fact that its attacks are rarely isolated. When there are any instances of it in a flock, there are usually a number of them. I have lost lambs by it two seasons — from six to ten per cent, of the whole number. Francis Rotch, Esq. of Louisville, Otsego county, lost a much heavier per centage than this (my impression would now be nearly^??/ per cent.) of his choice South-Down lambs, a few years since. I am acquainted with various other instances where the loss has ranged from ten to twenty per centum. When congenital goitre has thus appeared among my lambs, the ewes liai'^e been in vmisvally high condition. The same was true of Mr. Rotch's ewes, as he wrote me at the time. Whether this coexistence im]ilies caus- ality, I do not pretend to decide. High condition in the ewe may be one of the inducing causes. Treatment. — I know of no treatment which will reach the case. Indeed, the lamb is dying, almost, when born — and remedies are out of the ques- tion. Should one having the disease chance to live, it would .scarcely be worth while to attempt reducing the enlargements of the glands. Perhaps keeping the breeding ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not 7i?^A condi- tion, would be as effectual a preventive as any. MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. Poison from Eating Laurel. — T often hear of this from our drovers, who take sheep in the spring to the Philadelphia and New-Jersey mar- kets, through Northern Pennsylvania, on the Old Red Sandstone formation of which the beautiful Kalmia angustifolia is abundant. The following description of the effects on the sheep of eating this plant, and the proper remedial treatment, though, I confess, not very satisfactory to me, I ex- tract entire from the " American Shepherd," * as I have no experience whatever in the premises, and no better account within my reach : " Slieep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the year, eat greedily of the low Laurel (Kalmia angnsfifolia). The animal appears to be dull and stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swallows down ; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its lips. The plant probably brings on a femienta- tion in the stomach, and Nature endeavors to throw oflf the poison herb by retching or vomiting. Treatment. — In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be suffered to escape from the stomach, the animal most generally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner : Take a stick of the size of your wrist and six inches long — place it in the animal's mouth — tie a siring to one end of it. pass it over the head and down to the other end, and there make it fast. The flnid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely." I have somewhere, I think, seen drenches of milk and castor-oil pre- scribed for sheep poisoned with laurel ; and I should, without farther knowledge of the subject, consider it treatment jjromising better results than the preceding. Sore Face. — Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort ( Hypericum i^erforatmn) not unfrequently exhibit an irritation of the skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the whole body, though no such case has fallen under my observation. Mr. Morrel says : t "If eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults. " Treatment — Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, Mr. Morrell ju'escribes * American Shepherd, p. 3G1. t lb. 374. 272 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tar — " putting it into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick." Abundance of salt is consideied, and probably truly, a preventive. I have a sheep pasture considerably infested with this difficultly extermi- nated weed, and I do not recollect an instance of a sheep exhibiting the effects of eating it, in several years. It is certain that my sheep have plenty of salt, whether this is the preventive or not. Sore Mouth. — The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. No cases of it havino- been brought under my observation, I am unable to state Avhether, in accordance with the popular description, the lesions are con- fined to the lips. I should presume not. It is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the hay. Treatment. — Mr. Morrell states that he has had the disease in his flock, and has cured it immediately by smearing the diseased lips with tar.* Loss OF Cud. — The " loss of the cud" ranks as an important disease in the nosology of the " Cattle Doctor," and frequently calls forth all the skill of that functionary to manufacture a new cud, which is placed in the mouth of the animal as a substitute for the one which was lost! That person must be little versed in the physiology of ruminants who needs to be told that the accidental loss of one of the cuds, in the process of re- mastication, would be a matter of no sort of consequence. The sheep, as well as the cow, not unfrenHently nearly or entirely ceases to ruminate, but this is the result, not the cause, of disease. It is' diagnostic of all important diseases, and when observed, its warning should never go un- heeded. Hoove. — This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep, but if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will some- times ensue. It is a distention of the paunch by gas extricated fi'om the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordi- nary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imper- fect. Death soon supervenes. In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect a cure. Where the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to at once open the paunch. At the most protuberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, car- rying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula or little tube should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have been sometimes successfully administered, which combine * Americnn Shepherd, p. 375. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 273 with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexi- ble probang — or, in default of it, a rattan or grape-vine — with a knob on the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and thus the gas permitted to escape. Obstruction of the Gullet, or " Choking." — After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance can be frequently moved up or down by external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knob or a little bag of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through the cloth, and protects the oesophagus from laceration. But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care and gentleness, or the oesophagus will be so far lacerated as to pi'oduce death, although the obstruction is removed. Fractures. — Of these Mr. Blacklock concisely says : " If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being simply broken, the ti-eatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the hmb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you can do no better than open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms! Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young riian in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, and it will become a question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton. " TREATMENT. Method op Administering Medicine into the Stomach. — The stomach into which we wish to administer medicines, is the fourth, or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen are but slightly acted upon, excepting by doses of very improper magnitude. For the reasons given when the course of the food through the stomachs was described, medicine to reach the fourth stomach should be given in a state as near approaching fluidity as may be. And even then it may be given in sucli a manner as to defeat our object. Mr. Youatt says : " If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily by the medical attendant, they vdll fall on the canal at the base of the gullet with considerable momentum, and force asunder the pillars and enter the rumen ; if they are drank more Blowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat and glide over these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. " Method of Bleeding. — Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. Daubenton recommends bleeding from the angular or cheek vein, " in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein which is placed below The shepherd takes the sheep between his legs ; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasps 2M 274 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the under jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein, wluch passes in that placR, to make it swell ; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly ecpiidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the tubercle wliich is to ^uide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle ; he then makes the incision from below upward, half a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle." ' When the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will ordinarily cease. If not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round them For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be prefen-ed. The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, and a lio-ature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as described in the pre- ceding method. As once before remarked, the good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the rapidity with which the blood is abstracted, as on the amount taken. This is especially true in acute disorders. Blacklock tersely remarks : " Either bleed rajndly or bleed not at all." The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, and I need not inform the least experienced practitioner that it should be made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement, and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling fleam. Another important rule in venesection is that, where indicated at all, it should always be resorted to as nearly as possible to the commencement of the malady. The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasure- ment, but by constitutional effect — the lowering of the pulse, and indica- tions of weakness. In urgent cases as, for example, apoplexy or cerebral inflammation, it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. The amount of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth part of his weight, that of the ox at least one-twentieth, while the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this reason, we should be more cautious in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting to it. Otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep is destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage has passed. The Place of Feeling the Pulse. — The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute in a healthy adult sheep are set down by Gasparin at 65, by Youatt at 70, and by Hurtrel d'Arboval at 75. My own observations accord most nearly with those of Gasparin. LIST OF MEDICINES EMPLOYED IN TREATING THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. Ale. — In cases of debility, unaccompanied vdth fever, a small amount .of ale is sometimes found a good stimulant. It may be given to feeble SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 275 sheep which have become unable to stand from having been too lonjj cast — especially if they have laid on the snow, or on damp cold ground. It is sometimes given in addition to other medicine, in the place of the ordi- nary stimulants. Aloes — Are occasionally used as a purgative in sheep medicine by farmers, but their use is justly condemned by all veterinarians. Alum — Used as an astringent, but is inferior to many others. Antimony (The chlo'ide or hutyr of) — the best caustic to remove fun- gous granulations, dead muscular structures, etc., in the last and worst stage of hoof-ail — applied with a swab or feather. Arsenic — Employed in the proportion of half a pound to twelve (Gal- lons of water, to cure scab. An infusion of it is also used to kill ticks, &c. From its liability to adhere to vessels, or to come in contact with sub- stances which may be subsequently eaten, it is a dangerous remedy, and one which I would never have employed on my farm. Blue-Vitriol (Sulphate of Copper) — Used internally as a strong tonic, but inferior to others. Dissolved in hot water, and applied to morbid sores, an astringent, alterative, and mild caustic, of the most admirable character. It is superior to all other applications in ordinary cases of hoof-ail. Camphor — Used with oil as an external stimulant on swellings, &c. Carraway-Seeds — Given favorably in doses of two or three drachms, as a stomachic with other medicines. Catechu — A valuable astringent, in doses of half a drachm. It is one of the ingredients of the celebrated " sheep's cordial," spoken of under the head of " diarrhea. " Chalk, Prepared, by its alkaline properties, neutralizes the acidity of the stomach, and thus checks diarrhea. It is a very valuable remedy in doses from half an ounce to an ounce, exhibited as dii-ected under the head of " diarrhea. " Corrosive Sublimate (Bl-chloride of Mercury) — The most convenient form in which mercury can be exhibited internally. The proto-chlo?-ide, or calomel, from its great gravity, could not, with any certainty, be made to reach the fourth stomach. It would seem that mercury should be a use- ful remedy in several of the diseases of sheep. I have administered it only in the cases specified under the head of " malignant epizootic catarrh," and then apparently with some benefit. It would be well if a series of careful expeiiments could be instituted of its value in the appro- priate ovine diseases. It is very little used by veterinariaus, in this coun- try or Europe. A solution of corrosive sublimate is used for the destruc- tion of ticks, &c., and sometimes as a wash in the scab, but its use for these purposes is liable to the sarhe objections with that of arsenic. Digitalis (Foxglove ) — A sedative employed in most of the fever medicines of the English veterinarians. Dose, one scruple. Epsom Salts (Sulphate of Magnesia) — In doses fi-om half an ounce to one, and in some few cases two ounces, the best purgative which can, in almost every disease, be administered to sheep. Gentian — Decidedly the best vegetable tonic in use. Dose, from one to two drachms. Ginger — A stomachic and tonic, given with almost every aperient, in doses of from half a drachjn to a drachm. It prevents griping. Iodine. — The hydriodate of potash in the proportion of one part to 276 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. seven or eight parts, by weight, of lard, constitutes an ointment which is a powerful stimulant to the absorbent vessels, and therefore is an excellent application to glandular swellings, or to indurated tumors. It is a good application to the swelled udder (q. v. J in garget. Laud — A mild and gentle purgative in doses of two ounces. The basis of most ointments, and applied externally in almost evei-y case as an emollient and lubricant in the place of oils. Lime, Carbonate of- — Used as a caustic to run flocks of sheep through, in the " hoof-ail," quem vide. Lime, Chloride of- — An excellent antiseptic and disinfectant, and a good application to foul ulcers. Linseed-Oil — A good purgative in two ounce doses. Preferable to Epsom salts in cases of great intestinal irritation, but not otherwise. Mercury. — The common mercurial ointment, rubbed down with five parts of lard, for severe cases, and seven parts for ordinary cases, ot scab, is an effectual cure, Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt J — Next to chloride of antimony, the best caustic in the worst stage of hoof-ail. Nitrate of Potash (Nitre or Saltpetre) — In doses one drachm, a cooling diuretic. Nitrate of Silver (Lunar CatisticJ — Superior to all other caustics, but too expensive for general use. For poisonous wounds, and particularly for the bite of a mad dog, it has no substitute. Nitric Acid (Aquafortis) — Sometimes used as a substitute for chloride of antimony, or muriatic acid, as a caustic in hoof-ail. Used by drovers, also, to harden the soles of feet which have become thin and tender by driving. It is touched over the sole with a feather. Opium — An invaluable sedative, and anti-spasmodic, and is employed in nearly all prescriptions for diarrhea and dysentary, and also in colic drinks. It is an important part of the " sheeps cordial." It is commonly used in the form of a tincture, or laudanum. Dose, one drachm. Pepper, Black — Given in small quantities in milk, to new-born lambs, when chilled. Pimento (Allspice) — A substitute for ginger, in the same doses, but not so valuable. Rhubarb — Unites the properties of a cathartic and subsequent astrin- gent. In small doses it is a tonic and stomachic, invigorating the diges- tion. When the bowels are relaxed and torpid, and the stomach in a feeble state, it would seem the most appropriate purgative, when a purga- tive is indicated. Salt (Muriate of Soda) — An ounce constitutes a purgative ; in small quantities a tonic and stomachic. The necessity of keeping sheep freely supplied with salt has been referred to under Summer and Winter Man- agement. Sulphate of Iron (Copperas, or Green Vitriol) — Used in washes for the hoof-ail, but superseded by sulphate of copper. Internally, a tonic. Sulphur, Flotoer of — In doses of fi-om one to two ounces, a good aperient. It is the basis of various ointments. Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol) — A powerful caustic, used as a sub- stitute for the acids already alluded to, in the worst stage of hoof-ail. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 277 Spirit of Tar — Destroys maggots, and repels the attack of flies. Flies will not approach a part over which it has been smeared. Tar — Is a valuable application to the feet, nose, back of the horns, &c., under the various circumstances detailed in Summer Management, and in the treatment of grub in the head, hoof-ail, &c. Tobacco — An infusion of it destroys vermin, and also is a cure for scab, quern vide. Turpentine, Spirits of- — Prevents the attack of flies, and drives away maggots. It is a useful application to old sores, wounds, &c. Verdigris (Acetate of Copper) — Used in hoof-ail ; but adds nothing, I think, to the good effects of the sulphate of copper. Zinc, Carbonate of — Mixed with lard, constitutes a valuable emollient and healing ointment. It is mixed in the proportion of one part of the carbonate, by weight, to eight of the lard. 278 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER XVII. SHEEP DOGS. WOOL DEPOTS, &c. The eBtimation in which dogs have been held by different nations, &c...The Sheep-Dog — Biiffon's description of him. ..The ^jjHnish Sheep-Hog — Oiigin — Introduction into the United States— Value — Arrogante — hi^i history .. .The Hungarian r^lieeii-Hog — Mr. Caget's dt'scription of — probable origin— I he Mexican -heep-Doi — Mr. Lyman's description of — Mr. Kendall's. ..Soutii American '^heep-Dogs- Dar- win's description of. ..The Knglish Sheep-Dog — Mr. (iates's description of. ..Mr. Colman's.. . I he Scotch ("heep-l'og— Mr. Hoga's account of.. Mr. Heters's. ..Necessity of accustoming r^heep to a dog. ..Wool Depots — ^'r, Klanchnrd's account of their oriiiin — Letter from Mr. Peter.-;, describing their object, methods of doing business, and advantaizes — Utihly of these depots — their especial utility to the South. . .A correc- tion — >Ir. Kultin. . .Note in relation to Auetrulia- Statistics of its Wool Trade brought down to 1810. Dear Sir : — In all ages of the woild, and among nearly all nations, savage and civilized,* the dog has been the friend and cherished com- panion of man. The Egyptians placed him among their gods. The Greeks held him in the highest estimation. His figure mingles with that of warriors and demi-gods on their friezes; and Argus, the dog of Ulysses, lives as immortal in the Odyssey, {vide Book XVI1.,2>. 344 to 400) as his sagacious master, or the faithful Penelope. Alexander the Great founded a city in honor of a dog ! The Romans treated him with similar respect. His skin covered the statues of the sacred Lares; his figure, as the emblem of care and vigilance, stood at the feet of these household gods — venerated and loved as the tutelary manes of departed ancestors. Horace in his Ode to Cassius Severus [Booh V., Ode VI.,) compares him- self to the Molossian, or the tawny Spartan dog, which defends the flocks, and with ears erect, pursues the wild beast through the deep snows. Virgil, in the delightful Georgics, admonishes the Roman shepherds not to neglect the care of their dogs : "Nee tibi cura canum fuerit postrema : sed nn4 Veloces Spartaa catulos, acremque Molossum, Pasce sero pingtii : nunquam, custodihus illis, Nocturnum stabulis furem, incursusquc luporum, Aut impacatos a tergo horrebis Iberos. " [Georg. Liber III., commencing at line 404. Thus translated by Sotheby : Nor slight thy dogs ; on whey the mai^tiffs feed, Molofsiin race, and hounds of Spartan breed ; Beneath their care, nor wolves, nor thieves by night, Nor wild Iberian shall thy fear excite. These " Spartan hounds, " I may remark, par parenthesis, are the ones spoken of by Shakspeare, in that glorious description of the music of a pack in full cry, and of the points of a hound, in Midsu?nmer-N/ght's Dream : Hippolita. — I was with Hercules, and Cadmu', once. When in a wood of Ciete they bayed the bear Witli hounds of Sparta : never did I hear Such gallant chiding ; for, besides the groves, The skies, the fountains, every region near Seemed all one mutual cry : I never heard So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. Theseus — My hounds are bred out of the Spartan hind, .■^i) Hewed, so sanded; and iheir heads are hung Witb oars that sweep away the morning dew ; Crook -kneed, and dew-lapped, like Thessalian bulls; Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells, Each under each. A cry more tunable Was never hallo'd to, nor cheered with horn, In Crete, in Sparta, nor in Thessaly. * The only exceptions whic'i now occur to me are the Jews, the Hindoos, and the Mahommedan nations and tribes. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 279 Anian, THny, Oppian, ^lian, and a host of other writers of the Empire, descant on the praises of the dog, or give anecdotes of his courage, strength, and fidelity. In the chivah-ic ages, he was the companion of knights and-priiices the 80ul of the manly field-sports of those times. Even prelates followed him to the chase. The abbots of St. Hubert bred a celebrated race of hounds. St. Hubert himself, St. Eustace, and many others on the canonized calen- dar, were keen hunters. " Whemqwn, " says the author of the " Noble Art of Venerie," &c., published in 1611, "ice viay conceive that {hy the grace of God) all good huvtsmcn shall follow them into Paradise ! " Truly, a consoling religious seguitur ! Scott, in his beautifully descriptive poetry, and still more poetical prose, has given us a whf)]e picture gallery of dogs, from the Middle Ages down. The i^w which start up first in memory, (in my memory,) because, proba- bly, linked with the most interesting associntions, are Fangs — a fenuine Saxon — gaunt and unkempt, but stanch as his master, Gurth, the son of Beowulph ; the noble hound of Sir Kenneth; the "two dogs of black Saint Hubert's breed," that with Fitz-James pursued their quarry into the wild pass of the Trosachs ; the faithful little terrier, which, "on thp dark brow of the mighty HclU'ellyn, The rauch-Ioved remains of her master defended, And chased the hill fox and the raven away ; " and last, not least. Hector Mclntyre's bitch Juno, which stole the butter, and broke the "lachramatory from Clochmaben," of the glorious old Antiquary. They stand out on the canvas like Landseer's pictures. We pause to hear them hark ! It has often occurred to me that Scott omitted a fine opportunity, indeed, made a hiatus vale deflendus, in not introducing one or more of the Alpine spaniels — or dogs of Mount St. Bernard — into his Anne of Geierstein, providing it could be done, (on which point I am uninstructed,) without a violent anachronisin. When Arthur clung dizzy and stupefied to the trunk of the tiee which hung over the beetling verge of the precipice — when the cry of the Swiss maiden announced approach- ing succor, should it not have had for its accompaniment the baying of one of those great dogs of the Alps — the deep and far-heard reverbera- tions of which so often calls help to the perishing traveler, for miles, through the howling storm 1 Should not the dog of Donnerhugel, on the night-watch of Graffs-lust, have been of the same breed — huge, shaggy, and daring as himself? The portrait of Barry, a Bernardino dog Avhich saved the lives of forty persons, and finally perished in an avalanche in guid- ing some travelers to St. Pierre, is to be found in every piint-shop. It represents him carrying a child on his shoulders — cliriging by his shaggy hair, — which he found in the Glacier of Balsore, and rescued from approaching death. Scott is not the only modem poet who has admired and sung the praises of the dog. And I do not recollect the instance of one, who has mentioned him, that is, the well-bred dog, who has not praised him, except Byron in these moody lines : " Perchance my doa: will whine in vain. Till f«d by stranger hands; But long ere I come back again Would tear me where he stands. " In his epitaph on his Newfoundland dog, the noble poet retracted this ungenerous libel, and pays one of the warmest tributes to the fidelity of the dog, on record. Volumes of anecdotes of canine sagacity might be easily compiled. 280 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Reasoning powers the dog undoubtedly possesses, quite on a par with ordinary humanity, if we may beheve scoies of these writers. But it is probable that the grandsires of some of them " drew good lovg-ho%o,i at Hastings," and they, like Hubert, may lay claim to a hereditaxy knowledge of the weapon. It is to be feared that dog-stories will soon be sunk to a par with fish-stories f The truth is, the dog knows enough, and there are authenticated cases enough of his wonderful sagacity, without having an air of disci'edit thrown over the whole of them, by fanciful exaggera- ti- bandry, 25, 119—121. soils and products of, 119. price of land and labor in, 119 — 12L climate of, 120. remarkable drouths of, 120. wild beasts in, destructive to sheep, 121'. vast distance of, from European markets^ 121. prospect of the increase of wool in, 121. note giving statistics of wool trade of, brought down to 1846, 294. Austria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114,116. See Germany and Hungary. soils of, 1 14. climate of, 115. management of sheep in, 139. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846', 124. Aquafortis, use of, in sheep practice, 276. B. Baden, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114. Bakewell, Mr., the former of the New Lei- cester breed, 142. the conduct of, as a feeder, censured, 143, 249. Barley, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 2 a 305 INDEX. Barns for sheep, cut of. Page 205. ground-plan of, with sheds and yards, 209. Barrack for hay, description and cut of, 209. Bavaria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114, 115. Beans, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Beet field, value of, as a fodder, 213. white Silesian, value of, as a fodder, 213. Belgium, exports of wool from, 110. exportsofwoolfrom, toU. S. in 1846, 124. late increase of manufactures in, 294. Beloochistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 118. Bermuda grass in the South, 38. its enormous product, 38. its adaptation to meadow or pasture, 38. its adaptation to barren sands, 38. Bichloride of mercury, use of, in sheep me- dicine, 275. Biflex canal, description of, 238. disease of, 261. Bile, account of the, 231. Biliary duct, description of the, 231. Bladder, the, 233. Blain, unusual in U. S., 222. Blankets for slaves, description of, 87, 90. cost of manufacturing, 87, 90 — 92. Bleeding, place for, 273, 274. rules for, 274. the quantity of blood to be abstracted in, 274. Blood, the circulation of the, 235. the importance of purity of, in breeding, 168, 171, 172. Blue grass, as the food of sheep, 212. in the North, 33. in the South, 37. on the Southern mountains, 44, 47, 48. Blue Ridge of mountains, location of, 30. Also, see Apalachians. geology of, 30. soils and products of, 31, 44 — 47, 59. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 44—47, 59. Bone dust, as a manure in the South, 67. Bot. See Grub in the Head. Box for feeding grain to sheep, cut of, 203. for dipping lambs, cut of, 192. Brain, description of the, 236. Brazil, a portion of, in wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. Breeding, principles of, 168 — 172. importance of selection in, 168, 190. in and in, effects of, 169. in and in, how avoided, 170, 172. crossing, when admissible in, 170. crossing, how conducted, 172. crossing, method of starting flocks in the South by, 170. crossing, importance of selecting good rams for, 172. register, how kept, 180. British America, exports of wool from, 110. to U. S. in 1846, 124. British West Indies, exports of wool from, 110. to U. S. in 1846, 124. Broad-tailed sheep introduced into the U. S., 151. wool and mutton of the, 151. Bronchial tubes, the, 235. Bronchitis, description and treatment of, 240. Bronchocele. See Goitre. Browse, feeding of, in winter, 217. Buckwheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Buenos Ayres, advantages of, tor sheep hus- bandry, 105, 106. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, com- pared with U. S., 106. exports of wool from, 105. exports of wool from, to U. S., in 1846, 124. pampas of, 105. inhabitants of, 105. Burdock, injurious to wool, 131. Cabbage, value of, as a fodder, 213. Cabul, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118. Cachectic diseases, 254, 255. Camphor, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. Merinos introduced in, 26. Merinos, their increase in, 26. exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. wool of, compared with Australia, 26. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 65, 119. climate of, 26, 119. climate of, effect of, on quality of wool, 26. face of the country in, 119. remarkable drouths in, 119. prevalence of wild beasts in, 119. Capillaries, functions of the, 234. Caraway seeds, the use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Cardiac opening, the, 231. Carrots, value of, as a fodder, 213. Castration of rams, 180. Cataract, the, 239. Catarrh, common, description and treatment of, 240. malignant epizootic, description of, 240 — 247. malignant epizootic, ravages of, in U. S., 240. malignant epizootic, treatment of, 245, 246. Catechu, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Cattle doctor, the most dangerous of mala- dies, 226. Caul. See Omentum. Census of U. S., inaccurate in its wool re- turns, 18. Cerebellum, the, 236. Chalk, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Chelmsford plains, for slave cloths, 86, 90. quality and cost of manufacturing, 90 — 93. Cheviot sheep, introduction of, into U. S., 149. description of, 149, 150, 154. low quality of their wool, 151. Chili, portion of, in the wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. INDEX. 307 China, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, Page 118. Choking, treatment of, 273. Chyle, account of the, 231. Climate, not controlled by lat'tude, 104. of various countries compared, 104. range of, in which fine sheep are bred, 17, 18. range of, in which .wool can be most eco- nomically grown, 103, 104. of U. S., favorable to sheep, 18, 103, 104. effect of, on health of sheep, 18, 103. effect of, on the amount of wool, 22. effect of, on the quality of wool, 23, 27—29. Clogging sheep, how done, 193. Clover, red, as the food of sheep, 212. value of, cut in different states, as a fod- der, 213. acclimation of, in Virginia, 36. acclimation of, on the mountains of Vir- ginia, 44, 47. acclimation of, south of Virginia, 44,47. not indispensable, 44, 47. substitute for, as a fodder, and manuring crop, 39, 41. white, as the food of sheep, 212. flourishes on the southern mountains, 45, 47. Coecum, cut of the, 232. Colic, symptoms and treatment of, 253. Cold storms, dangerous effects of, after shear- ing, 191. Colombia, exports of wool from, 110. Colon, cut of the, 232. Cobza, value of, as a fodder, 213. Copperas, sulphate of, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Corn, Indian, as food for sheep, 216. value of, as a fodder, 213. blades of, as sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214. stalks of. as a sheep fodder, 41, 212,214. Corrosive sublimate, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Cotswold sheep, origin of. 149. introduction of, into the U. S., 149. description of, 149. ■ crosses of, with other breeds, 149. cut of, 148. Cotton, statistics of the crop of, 79. cost of growing, 79, 85. cost of growing, compar9d with that of growing wool, 85. should alternate with other crops, 78 — 83. alternating of, with wool growing pro- po.«ed, 81. rotations for such alternation proposed, 83, 84. more should be grown on less land, 80, 85. seed of, as a food for sheep, 216. Crab grass, account of the, 37. Creeping panic grass. See Bermuda grass. Crimea, advantages of, for wool growing, 117. Merinos introduced in, 117. Crook, uses of the, described, 196. cut of the. 196. Crossing breeds and varieties, object of, 170. effects of, 170—172. advantages of, under some circumstances, 162, 164, 170. Cud. loss of the, not a disease, 272. Cumberland grass. See Bei-muda grass. Cumberland mountains described, 43. Also, see Apalachiatis. the adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 48. Curled kale, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62 Cynodon dactylou. See Bermuda grass'. Cynoglossum officinale, injurious to wool, 174. See Hound' s-to?tgue. Cystisis, unusual in U. S., 238. D. Dactylis glomerata. See Orchard grass. Dangerous rams, how managed, 193. Denmark, exports of wool from, 110. Depots for wool. See IVool Depots. Diaphragm, structure and functions of, 234. Diarrhoea, description and treatment of, 250. Digestion, the process of, 229 — 231. Digitalis, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Digitaria sanguinalis, account of the, 37. Diseases, the classification of, adopted, 226. same causes do not produce the same, in different countries, 220. popular superstitions concerning causes of, 220, 221. many of those of England not found in U. S., 221—223,238. difl'erence in the type of, in England and U. S., 224. treatment of, in England and U. S. dif- ferent, 224. English treatment of, too expensive, 224, 225. English treatment requires too much skill for popular use, 225. English treatment, its pharmacopoeia too extensive, 225. treatment of, by "cattle doctors" dan- gerous, 226. better do too little for, than too much, 226. Dissection indispensable to learn nature and treatment of diseases, 227. amount of instruction necessary to per- form, 227. directions for, 227, 228. proper subjects for, 227. Division of flocks proper in summer, 193. necessary in winter, 199. Docking sheep, necessity for, 181. how performed, 181, Dogs, sheep. See Sheep dogs. destruction of sheep in the South by. 64. legal enactments in relation to killing sheep by, in New York, G4. methods of protecting sheep from, 65. Down sheep. See Souihdowns. Dropsy, acute, unusual in U. S., 222. Drouths, the severe, which prevail in Aus- tralia and the Cape of Good Hope, 119, 120. Ductus choledochus, functions of the, 231. Duodenum, cut of the, 232. Dura mater, the, 236. Dutch West Indies, exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. Duties on wool in different nations. See Tariffs. Dysentery, din^erence between, and diarrbcea, 251. nature and treatment of, 261. 308 INDEX. E. Ear, numbering sheep by notching. Page 179. Von Thaer's system of, 178, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. ■ when done, 180. notcher, described, 180. holes in, to record age, 179. holes in, how made, &-c., 179. East Indies, increasing exports of wool from, 110, 111. in what countries of the, wool is grown, 118. Ellman, Mr. the great improver of the South- downs, 144. Emasculation of rams, how performed, 181. England, duties of, on imported wool, 106. table of imports of wool of, and from whence imported, every fifth year for thirty years, 110. imports of wool of, compared with other nations, 108. imports of, brought down to 1846, 294. vast increase of imports of wool of, in sixty-nine years, 123. subsequent increase in imports of, 294. exports of woollens from, 108. exports of wool from, 109. exports of wool from, to U. S., 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. number of sheep in, 109. produce of wool in, 109. production of wool in, does not meet the home consumption, 109. general advantages of, for wool growing, 111. sheep necessary to sustain tillage of, 71. sheep dogs of, 286. Enteritis, little known in U. S., 238. Epiglottis, description of the, 236. Epilepsy, little known in U. S., 253. Epsom salts, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Erysipelatous scab, 261. Ethmoid bone, cut of the, 236. Ewes, proper age of, to begin breeding, 137. proper number to be put to one ram, 197. different methods of putting to ram, 198. feed and management of, during preg- nancy, 217. pregnant, should be watered separately, 199. Eye, inflammation of the, how treated, 239. F. Fall feeding, a good preparation for winter, 195. Febrile diseases, account of the, 238 — 251. Feeding sheep in yards with other stock im- proper, 210. Felting property in wool accounted for, 137. Fences, poor ones teach sheep to jump, 194. Fever, inflammatory, little known in U. S., 238. malignant, little known in U. S., 238. typhus, little known in U. S., 238. Flaxseed. See Linseed. Fleece, evenness of, important, 167. how prepared for folding, 187. how folded, 187, 188, Fleece, cuts of table and trough for folding the, 187, 188. proper twine for tying, 188. cut of, properly done up, 188. Florida, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. Fluke worm, cuts of the, 248. account of the, 247, 248. Fly, its attacks and their effects, 173, 192. how avoided, 173, 192. Fodders, table of nutritious equivalents of, 213. increase in weight, wool and tallow, from using different kinds of, 214, 215. table of winter variations in, for sheep, 211. table of, for ewes, a month prior to lambing, 212. for winter feed of breeding ewes, 217. amount consumed influenced by tempe- rature, 217, 218. cereal grains for store sheep, 215, 216. ruta bagas for store sheep, 215, 216. Indian corn to be fed with care, 216. regularity in giving, very important, 217. Folding, how done in England, 72. objects of, in England, 72. inexpedient in U. S., 73. Folding of fleeces. See Fleecy Food. See Grasses and Fodders. Foot rot. See Hoof-ail. Fouls, cause and treatment of, 270. Foxglove. See Digitalis. Fractures, treatment of, 273. France, area of. 111. population of. 111. number of sheep in, 111. exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. exports of woollens from, 108. late increase in manufactures of, 111,296. imports of wool of, 108. duties of, on imported wool, 106. advantages of, for sheep husbandry. 111. soil and products of. 111. French Merinos, account of, 133. cut of wool of, 135. quality of wool of, compared with Spa- nish and American families, 135, 136. weight of fleeces of, 133. French sheep dogs, 285. Frontal bone, cut of section of, 236. Frontal sinuses, cut of, 236. locality of the bot or grub in the head, 256. G. Gad-fly of the sheep. See CEstrus ovis. Gall bladder, account of the, 233. Garget, description and treatment of, 251. Gastritis, little known in U. S., 238. Generative organs, the, 233. Gentian, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Georgia, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. INDEX. 309 Georgia, woollen goods manufactured in. Page 17. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 42, 59, 60. price of land in, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 47. Germany, area of, 114. population of, 114. face of the country in, 114. soils of, 114. climate of, 115. land tenures in, 115. system of sheep husbandry in, 115, 139. method of managing sheep in, 139. circumstances under which the wool of, is grown in, 115, 116. export of wool from, 110, 114. export of woollens from, 108. late increase in woollen manufactures of, 296. general advantages of, for woo! growing, 114—116. general advantages of, compared with U. S., 116. general advantages of, Mr. Grove's opinion, 116. Gestation, period of, 197. Gibraltar, exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. Ginger, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Glands, the parotid, 236. the thyroid, 236. the thyroid, diseases of, 270. the salivary, 236. Glottis, account of the, 236. Goggles. See Hi/datid in the hrain. Goitre, account of the, 270, 271. Grain, policy of feeding to store sheep in winter, 215. best kinds of, for winter feed, 216. equivalents of, in nutriment, 213. effects oi different kinds of, in producing wool, tallow and muscle, 214. Grain box for sheep, cut and description of, 203. Grasses, natural ones of the South, 36 — 39, 44, 45, 47—49, 58, 59. varieties of which should be tried in the South, 33, 35—38. best acclimated ones of the South, 33, 36—38. manner of forming swards of, in the South, 73—75. Great Bucharia, wool trade of, 118. Greece, exports of wool from, 110, 114. (In Table on page 110 it is called Morea.) advantages of, for sheep husbandry. See Remarks on Turkey, 104, 114. Grub in the head, description of the, 256, 257. the larva of the Qilstrus ovis, 257. cuts and description of the CEstrus, 256. time ffistrus deposits its eggs, 256. locality and habits of the larva, 256, 257. cuts and description of the larva, 257. cut and description of the chrysalis, 257. do the larva produce disease in the sheep ? 257, 258. opinions of eminent veterinarians in rela- tion to, 258. method of preventing and expelling the larva, 258. Guano, as a manure in the South, 67. Guatemala, exports of wool from, 110. Guernsey and Man, exports of wool from, 110. Gullet, obstructions of, how treated, 273. Gypsum as a fertilizer in the South, 67. H. Handling sheep, directions for, 174. Hay, different value of different qualities of, as fodder, 213. comparative value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. nitrogen in, 214. Hay holders for winter foddering described, 211. Hanse Towns, exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. Head, for proper form of, see the descrip- tions of the several breeds, and prin- ciples of breeding, cut of the bones ofthe, 236. Heart, structure and functions of the, 234, 235. Hedysarum onibrichis. See Sainfoin. Hepatization of the lungs, description of, 239. Herds grass, character of, 33, 37. flourishes in South Carolina, 36, 59. flourishes on the mountains of North Carolina, 44. the soils adapted to, 37. Hindostan, wools exported from, 108. Holland, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool trom, to U. S. in 1846, 124. exports of woollens from, 108. Honeycomb, or second stomach. See Eet'i- culiim. Hooding dangerous rams, how done, 193. Hoof, periodical shortening of the, necessary, 183. best time and method for cutting the, 183. cut of toe-nippers for shortening the, 183. Hoof-ail, erroneous statements of English writers concerning, 262. author's experience with the, 262. consecutive symptoms of, 263. treatment of, 264 — 269. preparation of the foot for treatment in the different stages of, 265. common remedies for, 265, 266. common method of treating, ineffectual, 264. effectual method of treating, 266, 267. effectual method of treating, expense of, 267. cheap method of keeping under, 267, 268. cheap method of keeping under, cuts of arrangements for, 267, 268. evident contagiousness of, 269, 270. propagated by inoculation, 269, 270. is it propagated otherwise than by ino- culation? 270. does not originate spontaneously in U. S., 222, 223, 269. originates spontaneously in England, 223. Hoof-rot. See Hoof-ail. Hoove, cause and treatment of, 272, 273. 310 INDEX. Horns, objectionable. Page 166. method of shortening. 192. cause and treatmenf of maggots under the, 192. Hoppling sheep, how performed. 193. Hospital for feeble sheep, in winter, 199. Hound's-tongue, the burr of, injurious to wool. 174. Hungary, advantages of, for sheep husbandrv', 115—117. advantages of. compared with those of other countries. 117. climate of. 115, 116. soils of, 116. land tenures in. 116. want of market facilities in, 116, 117. Prince Esterhazy's flock in, 116. sheep dogs of, 284. Hydatid in the brain, 254, 255. causes of. 254. prevalence in England of. 254. not very common in U. S.. 254. barbarous popular method of treating. 255. proper treatment of, 255. I. Iletim, cut of the. 232. Illinois, advantages on prairies of, for wool growing, 96 — 103. Saxon sheep introduced into south of, 27. rot prevails in south of. 222. In-and-in breeding, effects of. 169. Independent Tartary. advantages of, for sheep husbandry', US. Indiana, advantages of, for wool growing, 96—103. Inflammation of the bladder. See Cystitis. of the brain. See Phrenitis. of the eye. See OplhaJmia. of the intestines. See Enteritis. of the larynx. See Laryngitis. of the lungs. See Pneumonia. of the liver. See But. of the stomach. See Gastritis. of the udder. See Garget. of the membrane lining the thorax. See Pleurifis. of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes. See Bronchitis. of the mucous coat of the smaller intes- tines. See Diarrhoea. of the mucous coat of the larger intes- tines. See Dysentery. of the mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. See Catarrh. of the cellular tissue of the tongue. See Blain. Intermaxillary bone, cut of the, 236. Intestines, cut of the. 232. Iodine, use of. in sheep medicine. 275, 276. Iowa, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. Italv, advantages of. for sheep husbandrv. 113. exports of wool from, 110. exports of woollens from, 108. area of. 113. population of, 113. soil and climate of, 113. oasturage of. 113. J. Jejunum, cut of the, 232. John's-wort, bad effects of. on sheep, 271. bad effects of. how treated, 271, 272. Jugular vein, the best place for bleeding, 274. June grass. See Blue grass. K. Kalmia angustiflora, poisonous to sheep,271. antidotes for. 271. Kentucky, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in. 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 27, 47. 48. adaptation of mountain lands of, for sheep husbandry. 47, 48. Kadneys, structure and functions of the, 233. L. Lacteals. the. 231. Lambs, how fed in winter, 215, 216. should be wintered separately, 199. Lambing, proper time for, 175. shelters necessary for, 175. assistance when to be rendered ewe in, 175. care of the newly dropped lamb, 176. changing dams, how done, 177. irritation of the bag, how managed, 177. the convenience of pens in, 177. pinning of young lambs after. 177. Lard, use of. in sheep medicine, 276. Larynx described. 235. Laryngitis, little known in U. S., 238. Laurel, low. poisonous to sheep, 271. Leg. treatment of. when fractured, 273. Leicester sheep, origin of the, 142. cut of the. 142. cut of the microscopic appearance of wool of. 136. general description of, 143. 154. characters of as breeders. 143. degree of hardiness of, 143. points aimed at by breeders of. 144. introduction of into V. S.. 144. Lentils, value of. as a tbdder, 218. straw of. value of. as a fodder, 213. straw of. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Lice, method of destroying. 192. Lime, chloride of, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. carbonate of. use of, in sheep practice, 276. as a fertilizer in the South. 67 — 70. as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68. as a fertilizer, Johnson's opinions con- cerning. 6S. as a fertilizer. Von Thaer's opinion con- cerning. 68. as a fenilizer, Petzholdt's opinion con- cerning, 69. INDEX. 311 Lime, as a fertilizer, Chaptal's opinion con- cerning. Page 69. Linseed, use of, to guard the end of a pro- bang. See Choking. caked, value of, as a fodder, 213. oil, use of, .in sheep medicine. 276. Little Bucharia, exports of wool from, 118. Liver, structure and functions of the, 232, 233. diseases of the. See Hot. Lolium perenne. See Eye grass. Lombardy. advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 113. Long wool, the goods in which it is em- ployed, 143, 151. the sheep which produce it, 143, 149, 151. market for, in U. S., 154. Loss of cud, not a disease, 272. Louisiana, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 60. Lucern, unsuccessful in the North, 33. succeeds on the souihcrn mountains, 47. value of, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Lunar caustic, use of, in sheep practice, 276. Lungs, structure and functions of the, 235. Tiepatization of the. described, 239. diseases of the, 239, 240. Lupins, white, as a green manuring crop in the South, 74. Lupinus albus. See L^tpiris. Lymph, the, 231. Lymphatics, the, 231. M. Madia, value of, as a fodder, 213. Maggots on sheep, cause and treatment of, 192. Malta, exports of wool from, 110. Man, Isle of. See Guernsey and Man. Mangel wurzel, value of in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. percent, of nitrogen in, 214. Maniplus, structure and functions of the, 229. cut of the, 228. Manufactures of wool. See Woollen Manu- factures. Manufactories. See Woolleii Factories. Manufacturers of wool, American, their suc- cess identified with that of the wool growers, 161. have not properly discriminated in the prices of different qualities of wool. 160. combinations of, to lower prices of wool, 161. Manures, table of comparative values of 40. the available ones in the South, 67 — 76. green, use and economy of, 70, 72, 74, 75. the cheapest, for the South, 73 — 75. where applied in a proper rotation of crops, 84. Manyfolds. See Maniplus. Marking sheep, the brand for, 191. suitable pigment for, 191. how and wlien done, 191. Marking sheep, on the ears, how done, 179. Marl, as a fertilizer, South, 67—70. as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68, 70. as a fertilizer, expensiveness of 70. Meadow fox-tail grass, flourishes on the southern mountains, 47. Medicago sativa. See Lucern. Medicines, list of, for sheep, 274 — 277. directions for administering into the sto- mach, 273. Mercury, preparations of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276. Merinos, introduction into the U. S., 132. their gradual spread in the U. S., 132. causes of their subsequent decrease in U. S., 1.58, 159. their rapid restoration to public favor in U. S., 160, 161. Spanish families of, 132. Spanish, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 133, 135. Spanish, cut of wool of 135, 137. French family of described, 133. French, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 133, 135. French, cut of wool of, 135. American families of, described, 133, 134. American, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 55, 134—137. American, cuts of wool of 135, 136. American, cut of ram of 131. American, cut of ewe of, 134. American, hardness of, 137. American, profits of a premium flock of, 55. American, prices of wool of 55. range of climate endured by, 137. countries successfully introduced in, 17, IS. consumption of food by, compared with other breeds, 137. as breeders and nurses, compared with other breeds, 137. proportion of wool to amount of food consumed, compared with the English breeds, 156. as mutton sheep, compared with English breeds, 158. for production of fine wool, compared with Saxons, 163, 164. crosses with Saxons. 134, 138, 141, 164. crosses with native sheep, 164. crosses with Southdowns. 170, 171. crosses with Leicesters, 171. the best variety of sheep for the South, 163, 165—168. proper size of, 165. proper form of 166. proper W(='i2ht of fleece of 165. proper length and density of wool of, 167. proper evenness of wool of 167. proper style of wool of, 168. proper anioinit of gum on wool of, 167. proper quality of skin of 166. points to be avoided in, 168. Mesentery, cut of the, 232. Mesenteric glands, the, 231. Mexico, adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 105. exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. 312 INDEX. Mexico, sheep dogs of. Page 284 — 286. Microscopic views of wool, 135 — 137, 145. Middle wools. See Southdowtt wool. Midriff. See Diaphragm. Millet, productiveness of, South, 37, 38. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211, 212. value of, as a fodder, 213. Milt. See Spleen. Miscellaneous diseases, 271 — 273. Mississippi, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. latitude, &.C., of, compared with Aus- tralian, 27. Missouri Territory, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. Modena, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Mogadore wool, 90. Morea, exports of wool from, 110. See Greece. Morocco. See Africa. Mountains of the South. See ]\lou7itai7i zone, under head of Southern States. Mud, as a fertilizer. See Swamp mud. Muriate of soda. See Salt. Muriatic acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Mutton, economical food for slaves, 56. 57. its effects on the system compared with other meats, 56. the quality of, in different breeds of sheep, 153, 154, 158. Also, see the difierent breeds, sheep, the English. See Southdowns, Leicesters, and Cotswoldx. sheep, where they constitute the most profitable variety, 153, 154. sheep, comparison between varieties of, 153, 154. sheep, unadapted to most parts of the South, 154, 155. sheep, less profitable in the South than Merinos, 158. N. Naples, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Nasal bones, cut of the, 236. Native sheep (so called) of the U. S., origin of, 130. general characteristics of, 131. crosses with other breeds, 131, 164. policy of grading up with the Merino in the South, 164, 170. selection of, to cross with Merinos, 170. do not cross successfully with Saxons, 164. Nerves, the, 236. Nervous diseases, the, 251. New England, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. New Jersey, advantages of, for wool grow- ing, 95. New Leicester sheep. See Leicester. New Oxi'ordshire sheep. See Coiswolds. New South Wales. See Australia. New York, population of, 17. New York, sheep introduced in by the Dutch colonists, 130. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in. 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. grass lands of, how managed, 32. price of grazing lands in, 53. price of sheep in, 53. cost of producing wool per pound in, 61. profits of wool growing in, 53 — 55. Nitrate of silver. See Lunar caustic. Nitrate of potash, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Nitre. See Nitrate of -potash. Nitric acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. North Carolina, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. amount of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 44, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 44 — 46. Norway, exports of wool from, 110. climate and flora of, 104, 105. Numbering sheep, advantages of, 178. See Kfgisteriiig. Von Thaer's system of, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. o. Oats, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Odessa, exports of wool from. 117. ffisopliagus, course of the, 234. — 236. entrance of, into stomach, 228, 229. obstruciions of the, how ireaied, 273. ffisophagean canal, structure and functions of the, 2-29. ffistrus ovis, description of, 256. natural history of, 256, 257. cuts of, 256. Ohio, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. Omentum, description of the, 228. One crop system of the South, 81. exhaustion of laiid consequent on the, 81, 82. exhaustion of land coiucquent on the, De Candolle's, Macaire's, Mirbel's, Braconnet's and Gyde's theories and experiments on. f^l. Opium, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Opthalmia, treainicn; of the. 239. Orchard grass, uneu Ci^sslul in New York, 33. flourishes on the .'■outhern mountains, 62. Orkney, wool of 90 Otter sheep of the U. S., 129. Ovaries, the, 233. Palsy, nature and treatment of, 253. Pancreas, structure and functions of the, 232. Panicum milliaceum. See Millet. INDEX, 313 Panicum sanguinale. See Crab grass. Papal States, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 113. Parietal bone, cut of a section of, 236. Parma, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Parotid glands, the, 236. Parturition. See Lambing. Pastures, the natural ones of the South, 33, 34, 36, 44—48, 59, 60. how formed on sterile lands, 73 — 75. Patagonia, portion of, in wool zone, 105. Paunch. See Rumen. Peas of the South, 39. substitute for clover in the South, 39,41. value of, as a fodder, 39, 41, 213, 214. value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. value of, as a green manuring crop, 74, 75. what time plowed under for green ma- nure, 75. haulm of, valuable as a fodder, 39, 213, 214. haulm of, valuable as a manure, 40. chemical analysis of, 39. Pedigree, only, value of. 171. Pelt-rot, description and treatment of, 255. Pens for the lambing season, how con- structed, 177. Pennsylvania, adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 95. Pepper, black, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pericardium, the, 234. Persia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 104, 118. Peru, exports of wool from, 110. e.\ports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124. Pharynx, the, 235, 236. Phleum pratense. See Timothy. Phrenitis, rare in U. S., 253. Pia mater, the, 236. Pimento, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pindars, value of, as a fodder, 213. Pinning, fatal to lambs, how managed, 177. Pleura, the, 234. Pleuritis, little known in U. S., 238. Pleurisy. See Pleuritis. Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 239, 240. Poa pratensis. See Blue grass. Poisonous plants to sheep, 271. Portugal, exports of wool from, 110. Potatoes, Irish, as a winter feed for sheep, 41,213. value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. sweet, winter feed of sheep, 41. Poudrette, as a manure, South, 67. Prairies of the Western States described, 95—107. advantages on the, for wool growing, 95—107. natural grasses of the, 96 — 99. natural grasses, succulent during but a short season, 96, 97. natural grasses, rapidly exterminated, 96. natural grasses, will not alone support sheep, 96. natural grasses, make poor hay for sheep, 98. 2R Prairies of the Western States will not pro- duce winter pasturage, 98. time of winter foddering necessary on, cost of sheep husbandry on, compared with Eastern States, 99. cost of fuel, fences and buildings on, 99, 100. difficulties in the way of the shepherd system on, 100, 101. scarcity of water on, 101. climate of, variable and excessive, 102, 103. climate of, compared with Eastern States, 102. climate of, compared with Southern States, 102, 103. climate of, unfavorable to fine wooled sheep, 103. Pregnant ewes, how managed. See Ewes. Prussia, for general description of, see Ger- many, 114 — 116. exports of wool irom, 110. exports of woollens from, 108. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 116. climate of, 104, 115. management of sheep in, 139. Pulse, place for feeling the, 274. natural rapidity of, 274. Purging. See Diarrhasa Pylorus, the, 228, 231. R. Rabies, uncommon in U. S., 253. Racks, for feeding sheep, 200 — 203. box, cut and description of, 200. hole, cut and description of, 200. sparred, cut and description of, 201. hopper, cut and description of, 202. Rams, method of castrating, 180, 181. dangerous ones, how managed, 193. importance of careful selection in, 172. objections to several running in the same flock of ewes, 197. necessity of selecting ewes in reference to quality of, 197. proper age of, to put to ewes, 197. different methods of putting to ewes, 198. how fed when running with ewes, 199. time allowed to run with ewes, 199. number of ewes those of different ages will serve, 197. not allowed to run with ewes in sum- mer, 193. Rambouillet Merino. See French family of , under head of Merinos. Rape, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62. Rectum, the, 232. Red-top. See Herds grass. Red water. See Dropsy, acute. Registering sheep, Mr. Grove's and author's method, 180. importance of, 178. Respiratory passages, the, 235. Respiration, how produced, 234. Resting lands, meaning of the term in agri- cuhure, 82. theory of, 82. inexpediency of, 82. Reticulum, description of the, 228. 314 INDEX. Reticulum, functions of the. Page 230. Rice, value of. as a lodder, 213. Roots, for winter feed of sheep, 213, 214, 216. Root tro\ighs, cut of, 203. Rot, not known in most parts of U. S., 222. other diseases mistaken tor, 222. has appeared in I'ennessee and Illinois, 222. prevalence of, in Europe, 221, 222. causes assigned for the, 223, 248, 249. symptoins of the, 247. post-mortem appearances of, 247. cuts of the fluke-worm of, 248. suddenness with which it is engendered. 249. English custom of selling rotted sheep to the butcher, 249. treatment of the, 249. 250. Rotation in crops, necessity of, 81, 82. necessity of, in the South, 78 — 83. a system of, recommended for the South, 83—85. Rumen, structure of the, 228. cut of the, 228. functions of the, 229. unnatural distension of the. See Hoove. Rumination, the process of, 230. Russia, climate of, 104, 117, 118. soil and products of, 117. face of the country in, 117. the south of, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. the south of, compared with Hungary, 117. the south of, compared with prairies of the U. S., 117. Merinos introduced in, in 1802, 117. Merinos, rapid increase of, in, 117. e.\porls of wool i'rom, 110, 117. exports of wool to U. S. in 1826, 124. Ruta bagas, as sheep feed, 213, 216. Rye, for winter pasturage in the South, 40, 58. value of grain of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in. 214. dry straw of, value of, in different states, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Rye grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33. flourishes on southern mountains, 47,62. s. Sacking wool, how performed, 189. proper sacks for, 189. Salt, necessary for sheep in summer, 194. necessary for sheep in winter, 218. effect, in conjunction witli fodders, in in- creasing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. as a medicine, 276. bo.\, for sailing sheep, cut of, 194. Saltpetre, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Sainfoin, 33. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Sardinia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Saxon sheep, origin of, 138. cut of ram, 138. varieties of, 139. microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. Sa.xon sheep, German management of, 116, 139. introduction of, into U. S., 140, 141. deterioration of blood of, in U. S., 141. quantity and quality of wool of, in U. S., 141. wool of, in U. S., compared with parent stock, 141, 142. general description of, 141. defects of, as breeders and nurses, 139, 141. defects of, in hardiness, 139, 141. how far adapted to climate in northern states, 162. superseded the Merinos for a time in U. S., 159. rapid decrease of, in the U. S.. 160. dislike to, among northern farmers, 162. compared with Merinos for growing fine wool, 163. improved by a cross with Merinos, 136, 137, 141. crosses of, with native sheep, 141, 164. Saxony, soils of 114. climate of, 104, 115. face of the country in, 114. management of sheep in, 116. Scab, description of, 258. cuts of the acarus producing it, 259. habits of the acarus, 258. circumstances under which the acarus makes its attacks, 258. short-wooled sheep comparatively ex- empt from, 259. contagiousness of, 259. prevalence of, in England, 259. treatment of 260, 261. Scotland, (included, in most respects, in de- scription of England.) exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. mountains of, only kept in pasture by sheep, 71. Scours. See Diarrhcra. Sedge grass, eaten by sheep, 49. Selection, annual necessity of, in flocks, 190. rules for, 190. form of a register to expedite, 190. Shade, necessity of in sheep pasture, 195. Shearing, pro])er time of, 184. time between, and washing, 184. cut of arrangements for, 184. rules and regulations for, 185, 186. of lambs, objected to, 186. of sheep, semi-annually, objected to, 186. Sheds for sheep, cuts of, 205, 208. the cheapest, 208. Shelter for sheep in winter. See Sheds, Stillf:. &.C. Sheep, bred in all climates, 17. number of in the southern states and in New York, 17. indispensable for support of poor landfi, 71. indispensable to support tillage in Eng- land, 71, 72. system of sustaining tillage lands by, in England, 71, 72. poor lands improved by, in norihern states, 72. system of improving poor lands by, in the South, 73—76. better manurers than other stock, 71, 72. INDEX. 315 Sheep, improve the character of the vegeta- tion. Page 57. extirpators of briers and shrubs, 57. small risk by death, in breeding, 57. impropriety of feeding, in yards with other stock, in winter, 210. comparison of breeds of, 153, 154, 163, 164. comparison in respect to weight of fleece, 154, 156, 157. comparison in quality of wool, 154. comparison in consumption of food, 154, 156. comparison in proportion of wool to food consumed, 156. comparison in hardiness, 156, 157. comparison in longevity, 156, 157. comparison in mutton, 153, 154, 158. comparison in bearing hard stocking, 154, 155, 156. comparison in profitableness in the South, 156, 157. how they should be caught and other- wise handled, 174. washing of. See Washing sheep. shearing of. See Shearing. (for other particulars of the management of, see the different heads.) cordial, how compounded, 250. dogs, of the ancients. 278, 279. dogs, of Spain, 280—284. dogs, of Spain, cut of, 281. dogs, of France, 286. dogs, of Hungary, 284. dogs, of England, 287. dogs, of England, cut of, 287. dogs, of Scotland, 288. dogs, of Scotland, cut of, 288. dogs, of Mexico, 284—286. dogs, of South America, 285. dogs, sheep must be familiarized with, . 288. Silesia, climate of, 104, 115. face of the country, 114. character of the soil, 114. Slave cloths, description, 85, 86, 89, 90. expense of imported, 85, 86, 89. actual first cost of, 90. 91. great profits of manufacturers of, 90, 91. should be manufactured in the southern states, 87. offers of northern manufacturers to fur- nish below present prices, 90, 91. cost of manufacturing as good or better plains in the north, 86. cost of manufacturing " at the halves," 87. cost of manufacturing by hand on plan- tations, 89. Smith's Island sheep, 129. Smyrna wools, quality of, 90. Snuffles. See Catarrh. South America, portion of, in the wool zone, 105. climate of, 104, 105. exports of wool from, 105. sheep husbandry in, 105. advantages of, for wool growing, 105, 106. advantages of, compared with U. S., 105. 106. pampas of, compared with prairies of U. S., 105. sheep dogs of, 285. South America, for other particulars of, see Buenos Ay res, &-C. Southdown sheep, origin of, 144. cut of ram, 145. cut of ewe, 146. cut of wool viewed through microscope, 145. general description of, 144, 145, 148, 154. value of, as a mutton sheep, 146, 147. weight and quality of Heeces of, 146. wool of, deficient in felting properties, 145, 146. introduction into U. S., 147. South Carolina, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 59, 60. neglect of grass culture in, 31. hay imported into, 31. adaptation of soils of, to grass culture, 31, 32, 34, 59, 80. adaptation of climate of, to grass culture, 36. system of cropping in, 32, 79. system of cropping compared with New York, 32, 33. system of cropping, change in, recom- mended by legislature, 79, 80. system of crop])ing, utility of sheep husbandry in eflecting such change in, 85. cost of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. winter pasturage for sheep in, 58 — 60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep pasture, 47, 59. present method of managing sheep in, 59, 60. wolves in, 64. Southern States, what states included under this designation, 30. area of, 30, 94. natural features and geology of, 30, 31. quality of soils of, 30^ 35, 42, 69. profits of sheep husbandry in, 58 — 62. profits of, compared with other hus- bandry in, 76, 77. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 77. advantages of, compared with other stales and countries. See Wool grow- ing. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, 62. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, compared with Spain, 62 — 64. expense of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. expense per pound, of growing wool in, 61. expense per pound, of growing wool in, compared with New York, 61. prejudice in, against sheep husbandry, and causes of, 72, 81. sheep exposed to dogs and wolves in, 64. compared with other countries in above particular, 65. prices of land in, 44, 46, 47, 60. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, 52, 70—72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by the available manures, 67. 316 INDEX. Southern States, amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by marl. Page 68—70. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- est in England, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- est in the Northern States, 73. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, why preferable to cattle husbandry, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile jind worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, other means available in conjunction with, 74, 75. method of forming pastures on sterile soils of, 73, 74. effect of present one-crop husbandry in, 78—81. sheep husbandry, basis of convertible husbandry in, 52, 78. convertible husbandry in, the strong ne- cessity for, 82. convertible husbandry in, recommended by a committee of the legislature of South Carolina, 79, 80. convertible husbandry in, recommended in Judge Seabrooli's Report, 80. rotation of crops for, proposed, 83 — 85. should rear their own products for con- sumption, 76. should manufacture their own coarse woollens, 85—89. cost of manufacturing and importing these in, compared, 86—87, 89—93. cost of manufacturing slave cloths in, by hand, 88. divided into three zones, 30. the territorial limits of these zones, 30, 31. tide-water zone of, 30. natural features and geology of, 30. quality of the soil of, 30, 35, 69. compared with portions of New York, 34. compared with Flanders, 35. how ameliorated, 35, 68. adaptation of, to the grasses, 31 — 38. adaptation of, to clover, 32, 36. adaptation of, to other fodders, 38 — 41. causes of failure in acclimating grasses in, 31, 32. proper grasses to introduce in, 37 — 40. natural grasses of, 36, 37. natural pastures of, 33, 34. number of sheep per acre which could find subsistence in, 58, 94. winter pasturage of, 31, 40, 58, 59. prices of land in, 60, 61. present system of cropping in, 32. climate of, adapted to growing fine wool, 23—29. hilly zone of, 30. face of the country and geology of, 42. quality of the soil, 42. method of enriching soils of, 72. adaptation of, to grasses and grains, 27, 42, 59. method of forming pastures in, 74. adaptation to sheep husbandry, 43, 59. price of lands in, 59, 61. climate of, 42, 59. quality of, west of the mountains, 51. Southern States, mountain zone of, 30. altitude of the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, and Cumberland chains, 43, 63. altitude of, compared with the moun tains of Spain, 63. shape of the mountains of, 43. geology of, 43. character of the soil of, 44, 46, 49. large portions of, arable, 43. table lands on, 43. grasses of. 43, 44, 47, 59, 62. white and red clover, lucern, and rye grass flourish on, 47. timothy and orchard grass flourish on, 44, 62. adaptation of, to pasturage, 44 — 47, 59, 62. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 44 — 51, 59. adaptation of, to Hon. T. L. Clingman's statements concerning, 44, 45. adaptation of, to Mr. H. M. Earle's state- ments concerning, 46. adaptation of, to Col. E. Colston's state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. W. L. Goggins's statements concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. A. Stevenson's statements concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. A. Beatty's state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Mr. C. F. Kramer's statements concerning, 48. adaptation of, to flon. R. F. Simpson's statements concerning, 59. adaptation of, to Mr. N. Murdoch's statements concerning, 62. winter pasturage on, 47 — 49, 59. adaptation of, to turnips and other fod- ders, 62. climate of, 44 — 51, 59. climate of, shown by vegetation of, 50, 51. climate of compared with that of New York, 49, 50. price of lands in, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59. wolves in, 64. Spain, sheep husbandry of, 62, 63. great decrease in wool growing in. 111. migratory sheep husbandry of, and its disadvantages, 113. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, compared with those of south- ern states, 62, 63. evil effects of the Mesta in, 113. height, climate, and vegetation of moun- tains of 62, 112. general advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 62, 63, 112. soil and products of, 112. number of sheep in, 112. decreased exports of wool from, 110,111. e.\ports of wool to U. S. in 1836 and 1846, 111, 124. other exports from, 112. sheep dogs of, 280 — 284. Spear grass. See Blue grass. Spergula arvensis. See Spurry. Sphenoid hone, cut of. 236. Spirit of salt. See Muriatic acid. of tar, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Spleen, structure and functions of the, 231, 232. Spurry, as a green manuring crop, South, 74. INDEX. 317 Staggers. See Hydatid in the brain. Stell, description of the. Page 206, 207. cut of outside one, 203. cut of ancient ones, 206. cut of inside circular ones, 207. cut of circular one, with racks, &c., 207. Sternum, the, 228. St. Helena, exports of wool from, 110. Stomachs of the sheep, description of, 228 — 231. cuts of the, 228. structure and functions of each of the, 228, 229. course of the food through the, 229, 230. conflicting theories concerning, 230. Storing wool, 189. Also see Wool depots. Storms, bad effects of cold ones after shear- ing, 191. Sturdy. See Hydatid in the train. Sulphate of copper, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphate of magnesia, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphur, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Sun-scald, cause and treatment of, 191. Swamp mud, its value as a fertilizer, 70. Sweden, exports of wool from, 110. Sweet- bread. See Pancreas. Syria, climate of, 104. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 117, 118. Table 1. Of population, number of sheep, pounds of wool, woollen factories, and value of manufactured goods in south- ern states and in New York, 17. 2. Of average weight of fleeces in southern states and New York, 18, 20, 21. 3. Of average weight of fleeces in four counties of each of the above states, 20. 4. Of comparative value of manures, 40. 5. Of the flowering of plants, &c., in New York, 49. 6. Of thermometrical observations in New York, 50. 7. Of the average prices of wool in New York, 53. 8. Of importations of wool into Eng- land every fifth year, from 1810 to 1840, 110. 9. Of importations of wool into U. S. annually, from 1837 to 1846, 124. 10. Of importations of wool into U. S. in 1846, with countries from which imported, 124. 11. Of woollens annually imported into U. S., during twenty-five years, 125. 12. Of increase of population in U. S., from 1790 to 1840, 127. 13. Of increase of population and amount of wool required in U. S., at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128. 14. Of the progressive reductions in du- ties on wool and woollen, under the " Compromise Tariff" of 1833, 159. Tagging, necessity of, 173. how performed, 173, 174. cut explanatory of, 173. Tar, propriety of feeding of, to sheep, 194. uses of. in sheep practice, 277. Tariffs on wool, of France, 106. of England, 106. of U. S., on wools and woollens, enacted in the years 1824, 1828, 1832, 1833, 1841, 1842, and 1846, 158, 159. effect of those of U. S. on the prices of wool, 159, 160. effect of those of U. S. on importations of wool, 159, 160. effect of those of U. S. on importations of woollens, 160. effect of those of U. S. on domestic pro- duction of wool, 159. effect of those of U. S. on the quality of domestic wool, 159, 160. frauds practised in invoicing coarse wools imported into U. S., under that of 1842, 107. effect of that of 1846 on manufactures of U. S., 106, 125, 126, 161. effect of fluctuations in, on manufac- tures, 126. Tasmania. See Australia. Taurida. See Crimea. Taylor, Col. John, of Virginia, his erroneous vievi's in relation to sheep husbandry, 72, 81. Teeth, number and description of, 237. indicative of the age, 237. cuts of, at difi'erent ages, 237. difference in the retention of, by different breeds, 238. causes of premature loss of, 238. should be removed in some cases, 238. Temperature, influence of, on quality of wool. See Climate. Tennessee, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep introduced in, 27. fine wooled sheep, wool of, not deterio- rated in, 27. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 27, 48. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep husbandry, 48. price of lands in, 47, 48. Tetanus, unusual in U. S., 253. Thibet, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118. wool exported from, 118. Thoracic duct, the, 231. Thoracic viscera, the, 234. Thorax, the, 234. Thyroid glands, the, 236. diseases of the, 270, 271. Ticks, mode of destroying, and keeping out of flock, 192. Tobacco, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Timothy, the favorite meadow grass. North, 33. as the food of sheep, 212. success on southern lowlands question- able, 37. succeeds on southern mountains, 44, 62. Toe-nippers, description and use of, 183. cut of, 183. Tory weed. See Hound' s-tongue. Trees, clumps of, for winter shelter, 207. 318 INDEX. Trifolium repens. See Clover, white. Trifolium prateiise. See Clover, red. Troughs, for feeding roots or grain. Page 203. i'or feeding roots or grain, cuts of, 203. for folding wool, 187. for folding wool, cut of, 187. Tunica arachnoides, the, 236. Tunisian sheep, introduced into U. S., 151. character of, 151, 152. Turbinated bones, cut of the, 23C. Turnips, succeed on the southern mountains, 62. how fed off by sheep in England, 72. value of, as a fodder, 213, 216. Swedish. See Iiula haga. Turnsick. See Hydatid m the hrain. Turpentine, spirits of, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 277. Turkey, soils and climate of. 118. soils and climate of, in Europe, 114. face of the country in, 114. population of, 114. institutions of, unfavorable to sheep hus- bandry, 114. exports of wool from, 109, 110. exports of carpets, 108. Tuscany, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 113. Typhus fever, not common in U. S., 238. u. Ukraine, Merinos introduced in, 117. advaninges of, for sheep husbandry, 117. United States, number of sheep and poiuids of wool in, in 1839, 123. breeds of sheep in, 129. exports of wool to England for thirty years from, 110. exports of wool in 1845, 1846, 122. annual imports of wool of, i'rom 1837 to 1846, 124. annual imports, from what countries, in 1846, 124. annual imports of woollens, from 1821 to 1845, 125. annual consumption of woollens in, 126, 127. anntial consumption of woollens in, per head of population, 127. proportion of woollens consumed in, do- mestic, 126. proportion of woollens consumed in, im- ported, 126. proportion of domestic made in manufac- tories, 126. proportion of domestic made in families, 126. increase of population in, 127. amount of wool which will be requisite for population of. at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry. See Southtrn Slates, jSew Ensrland, Prai- Ties, and the stales by name. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with Germany, 116. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Mr. Grove's opinion concerning, 116. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with other countries. See Wool growing. United States, woollen manufactories of. See Woollen factories. tariffs of, on wool. See Tariffs. (for all other particulars concerning, see names of the things in relation to which information is sought.) Uraguay, in the wool zone, 105. Ureters, the, 233. Urethra, the, 233. TJrinary organs, description of the, 233. Uterus, description of the, 233. Vagina, description of the, 233. Van Diemcn's Land. See Australia. Veins, description of the, 234. Vena cava, the, 234. Ventricles, the, 234. Verdigris, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Vetches, dried into hay, value of, as a fodder, 213. Veterinary works, character of American, 219. character of English, 219. how far English ones are applicable in U. S., 220. Virginia, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 42, 47, 60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep husbandry, 47. adaptation of north-western, to sheep husbandry, 60. winter herbage on mountains of, 62. winter pasturage in other parts of, 60. cost of keeping sheep in, 60, 61. price of lands in, (.0. Vitriol, blue, value of, in sheep practice. 275. green, use of, in slreep practice, 276. oil of, as a caustic in sheep practice, 276. w. Washing sheep, cut of apparatus for, 181. vats and yards for, 181. directions for, 182. time to elapse after, before shearing, 184. Water necessary for drink of sheep, 195,218. Weaning lambs, proper time for, 195. how managed, 195. Welsh plains, for slave cloths. See Slave cloths. Wheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent, of nitrogen in. 214. straw of, value of, in different states, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. chaff of, value of, as a fodder, 213. bran of, value of, as a fodder, 213. Wind-pipe, the, 235. Winter ieed. See Fodders. Wire grass. See Bermuda grass. Wirtembcrg, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 114. INDEX. 319 Wisconsin, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 95—103. Wolves, in the Southern States, 64. how guarded against, 65. See Sheep dogs. Wool, zone in which it can be profitably grown, 103, 104. fabrics of. See Woollens. chemical analysis of, 214. quality of that of different breeds com- pared, 154. growth of, influenced by quantity of feed, 28. growth of, influenced by kind of feed, 214. quality of, influenced by climate, 23 — 29. quality of, influenced by climate, opinions of eminent judges on this point, 23 — 29. grows softer and longer in warm cli- mates, 28, 29. quality of, made coarser by abundant feed, 23. can this tendency of abundant feed to coarsen, be counteracted ? 24, 28. felting property of, accounted for, 137. terms used to express different qualities of, 161. fine, proper characteristics of, 167, 168. fine, proper amount of yolk and gum of, 167. fine, proper length of, 167. fine, proper evenness of, 167. fine, proper softness and elasticity of, 168. fine, proper serrations of, 168. fine, proper color and brilliancy of, 168. Merino and Saxon compared, 163. cuts of Merino and Saxon, 135 — 137. middle character and uses of, 110, 145, 146. middle character of, the sheep which pro- dace it, 145. cut of the Southdown, 145. long, character and uses of, 143, 151. long, character of the sheep which pro- duce it, 143, 149, 151. cut of Leicester, 136. comparative profit of growing fine and coarse in U. S., 154 — 163. comparative value of fine and coarse for strength and wear, 157, 158. not a fair discrimination in prices of, made by manufacfirers of U. S., 160. promised improvement in above parti- cular, 161. shrinkage of, in manufacturing, 86, 88, 91. prices of, in New York, for fourteen years, 53. prices of, in England, 25. amount of, grown in U. S., 123. amount of, grown in Southern States, 17. amount of, grown in New York, 17. average weight of, per fleece, in Southern States, 18, 20. average weight of, per fleece, in New York, 18, 21, 53. amount of, grown in U. S., does not meet home consumption, 123 — 126. amount of, annually grown in U. S., 123. amount of, consumed in U. S., 123 — 127. amount of, consumed per head in U. S., 127. , Wool, amount of, imported into U. S., from 1821 to 1846, 124, 125. amount of, exported from U. S., 122. amount of, manufactured in U. S., 126, 127. amount of, required to supply demand in U. S., at different future periods, 128. table of imports of, into England, 110. table, brought down to 1846, 294. increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1771 to 1840, 123. increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1840 to 1846, 294. increasing demand for, throughout the world, 123. one of the most marketable agricultural products, 77. amount of, grown in different countries. See names of countries, comparative profits of growing in differ- ent countries. See IVool growing. can be more profitably grown in southern than northern U. S., 163. will northern compete with Southern States in growing ? 162. method of washing, 181. method of washing, cut of arrangements for, 181. method of shearing, 184. method of shearing, cuts of arrange- ments for, 184. method of doing up, 187 — 189. method of doing up, cut of arrangements for, 187, 188. method of storing in wool room, 189. method of sacking, 189. room for storing, how arranged, 189. depots, origin and objects of, 289, 290. depots, plan and regulations of, 290. depots, advantages of, 291. depots, peculiarly advantageous to the southern wool grower, 292. Woollens, some processes and facts in manu- facturing of described, 87, 88. amount of, made in factories of U. S., 126. 127. amount of, made in families in U. S., 126, 127. amount of, made in Southern States in 1839, 17. amount of, made in New York, in 1839, 17. amount made in families decreasing, and causes, 89. amount imported into U. S., from 1821 to 1845, 125. amount consumed in U. S., 126, 127. amount consumed per head in U. S., 127. amount required for future consumption in U. S., 128. for slaves. See Slave cloths. Woollen factories, table of, in Southern States, and in New York, in 1839,40. rapid increase of, in the North, 86. further increase of, called for, 125, 126, 128. great profits of, in the North, 86 — 93, 125, 161. would be equally profitable in the South, 86. stability of, in U. S., 125, 126, 161. foreign competition defied by, imder present tariff, 125. 320 INDEX. Woollen factories, injured by vacillating legislation. Page 126. Wool growing, probable increase or decrease of, in various countries, 121, 122. in U. S., advantages for. See names of states and regions. in Alabama. 42, 47, 60. in Florida, 42, 60. in Georgia, 42, 47, 60. in Illinois, 27, 95—103. in Indiana, 95—103. in Iowa, 95—103. in Kentucky, 27, 47, 48. in Louisiana, 18, 30, 38. in Mississippi, 27, 38. in Missouri Territory, 95—103. in New England, 95. in New Jersey, 95. in North Carolina, 43 — 46. in Ohio, 95. in Pennsylvania, 95. on prairies, 95 — 103. in South Carolina, 47, 58—60. in Tennessee, 27, 48. in Virginia, 42, 47, 60. in Wisconsin, 95 — 103. Wool growing in foreign countries. See names of countries. in Afghanistan, 118. in Asia Minor, 118. in Australia, 25, 119-121, 294. in Austria, 114 — 116. in Baden, 114. in Bavaria, 114. in Beloochistan, 118. in Buenos Ayres, 105, 106. in Cabul. 118. in Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. in China, 118. in Crimea, 117. in England. 111. in France, 111. in Germany, 114 — 116. in Great Bucharia, 118. in Greece, 114. in Hungary, 116, 117. in Independent Tartary, 118. in Italy, 113. in Lonibardy, 113. Wool growing, in Mexico, 105. in Modena, 113. in Naples, 113. in Papal States, 113. in Parma, 113. in Persia, 104, 118. in Prussia, 114, 116. in Russia, 117. in Sardinia, 113. in Saxony, 115. in Silesia, 104, 114, 115. in South America, 105, 106. in Spain, 62, 112. in Turkey, 114, 118. in Tuscany, 113. in Ukraine, 117. in Van Diemen's Land, 121. in Wirtemberg, 114. Wool market, of the world, 108, 109, 123. of England, 108, 110, 294. of France, 108, 109. of German States, 114, 295, 296. of United States, 123—128. foreign producers cannot compete with us in that of U. S., 108, 122, 123. U. S. producers can compete in foreign, with foreign producer, 108, 122, 296. prospect of increase in, universally, 123, 296. Wool oil. See Yolk. Yards for sheep in winter, 199. necessary in the North, 200. Yoking rams, how done, 193. Yolk of wools, chemical analysis of, 182. proper amount of, in fleece, 167. Youatt, his character as a veterinary writer, 219. z. Zinc, carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, 27. sulphate of, use of, in sheep practice, 239. THE END. Jl F 909 ^ t\B?^A^'^ OF COH' ,GB£SS iwtW) 002 8A7 775^ -f, :li •IH: ^H/i :ii ? MiJin;