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 Book_ 
 
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BACON'S 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK 
 
 of 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AGRICULTURE, MANU1 ACTURES, COMMERCE, RAIL- 
 WAYS, MIXING, FINANCE, GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, EDUCATION, 
 RELIGION, CHARACTERISTICS, PUBLIC LANDS, LAWS, ETC. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON BACON, F.H.G.S. 
 
 w 
 
 G. W. BACON AND CO., 
 
 48, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, 
 
 AND 5, BEEKMAN STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
 (The Right of Translation is Reserved.) 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 
 Q. W. Bacon, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the 
 United States for the Southern District of New York. 
 
 
 <S 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In offering this " Handbook of America" to the 
 English public, the publishers have been actuated by 
 a desire to supply a want that has long been felt ; 
 nothing of the nature and scope of this volume having 
 been heretofore attempted in England. It supplies a 
 mass of information, in a compendious form, relative 
 to the United States and Canada ; embracing their 
 Physical and Political Geography ; the History of their 
 Early Settlement and Development; together with 
 their Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Religion, 
 Education, Laws, Institutions, etc. The characteristics 
 of the Americans, their manners, customs, peculiarities 
 of idiom, etc., are also treated ; the most painstaking 
 care and laborious research having been exercised in 
 order to render the book useful alike to the statesman, 
 the tourist, the seeker after investment, the emigrant, 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 and. to every one who takes an interest in America, 
 and is desirous of having at hand a complete vade 
 mecum of useful information relating to that country 
 and people. 
 
 As the Authors have been careful to collate all 
 reliable facts of general interest, so they have been 
 solicitous to exclude all opinions, prejudices, and 
 speculations of a sectional or party character, being 
 desirous rather of strengthening those sentiments of 
 international amity which should subsist between 
 England and America, and which are best promoted by 
 whatever leads the two countries to a more intimate 
 knowledge and thorough understanding of each other. 
 
 Entire originality is not claimed for the work, free 
 use having been made of those devoted to the special 
 topics here comprised in one volume. Among them 
 are " Colton's American Atlas," " Colton's Geo- 
 graphy," the " American Cyclopaedia," ( c Appleton's 
 American Handbook," " Lippincott's Gazetteer," 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," "Hall's Guide to the 
 West," " Kennedy's Census Eeport," " The Kesources 
 of California," " Bartlett's Americanisms," " Beadle's 
 Year Book," etc. We are especially indebted to 
 Messrs. Appleton for having furnished us with the 
 advance sheets of the " American Annual Cyclopaedia 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 for 1865/' in furtherance of our undertaking. Our 
 acknowledgments are also due to Mr. John Pratt,, of 
 Alabama, whose extensive knowledge of American 
 affairs has been of material advantage in the prepara- 
 tion of the work. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Peeface iii 
 
 HlSTOEICAL InTEODTJCTION 1 
 
 Chaptee I. — General View — Mountains — Geological Features — 
 Soil — Rivers — Lakes — Climate — Zoology — 
 Yegetation 8 
 
 Chaptee II. — Agriculture — Manufactures — Commerce — Fisheries 
 
 — Mining— Petroleum 42 
 
 Chaptee III. — Public Lands — How to secure them — Surveys— The 
 
 Homestead Bill 74 
 
 Chaptee IV. — Government — Executive — The Legislature — The 
 Judiciary — Eespective Powers of National and 
 State Governments — Government of the Ter- 
 ritories 86 
 
 Chaptee V. — States and Territories — The Eastern, or New Eng- 
 land States — The Middle States— District of 
 Columbia — The Southern States — The Western 
 States— The Pacific States— The Territories 98 
 
 Chaptee YI. — Population — Naturalization — Suffrage — Patent 
 
 Laws — Marriage Laws — Temperance Laws 225 
 
 Chaptee YII. — Railways — Canals — Telegraphs — Atlantic Tele- 
 graph 249' 
 
 Chaptee VIII.— Religion— Education— Press 268 
 
yiii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter IX.— Description of the Principal Cities— New York- 
 Brooklyn — Boston — Philadelphia— Baltimore 
 
 — Washington — Cincinnati — Chicago — St. 
 Louis— New Orleans— Mobile— San Francisco 
 Richmond— Charleston— Savannah 285 ? 
 
 Chaptee X.— Natural Curiosities and Objects of Interest to Tra- 
 vellers—Waterfalls — Caves — Natural Bridges 
 
 — Mammoth Tree Groves — Mineral Springs 
 
 — Antiquities — Mount Vernon 311 
 
 Chaptee XI. —Army— Navy— Post Office— Eevenue— National 
 Debt— Banks— Eeal and Personal Property— 
 Eates of Exchange— Legal Interest and Usury ... 333 
 
 Chaptee XII.— Characteristics of the American People— Ame- 
 ricanisms— Popular Names and Mottoes of 
 States 35 ° 
 
 Chaptee XIII.— Canada-Physical Features— Agriculture— Com- 
 merce— Religion — Education, etc 368 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Feom the memorable day when Columbus with his tiny- 
 fleet and adventurous crew left the harbour of Palos, in 
 search of the Ultima Thule of the western ocean, the 
 Western Hemisphere has never ceased to excite throughout 
 Europe an unflagging interest. Successive generations 
 read over and over again the wonderful story of its first 
 discovery and settlement. It was the dawn of a new era. 
 The marvellous event interested all ages and conditions of 
 life. Philosophers regarded the New World as the 
 New Atlantis of a higher and nobler humanity ; the pious 
 looked towards it as a new field for the promulgation of 
 the gospel ; the ambitious saw what Alexander had pined 
 for in vain — new worlds to conquer ; and the avaricious 
 were filled with dreams of easily-acquired wealth. The 
 cotemporaries of Columbus regarded the New World 
 as literally an El Dorado of untold riches, wherein might 
 be realized the poetic idea of the golden age ; and while 
 each successive exploration and discovery did much to 
 dispel these sanguine illusions, they yet furnished fresh 
 proofs of its immense extent and resources. 
 
 The field of discovery once opened by the genius of 
 Columbus, thousands were eager to follow in his steps. 
 Spain had taken the initiative, and continued to hold the 
 foremost rank as long as an important discovery remained 
 to be achieved on the continent ; but every nation which 
 could boast of a commerce worthy the name hastened 
 to gratify its own ambition, or the curiosity or avarice 
 
 1 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of its subjects, by sending out expedition after expedition, 
 and gradually was mapped out the vast Atlantic coast of 
 the New World. 
 
 North America was discovered by John Cabot under 
 English auspices in 1497, the year before the discovery of 
 the southern portion of the continent by Columbus ; though 
 neither Columbus nor Cabot were aware that they had dis- 
 covered the continent, and the former died unconscious of 
 the value of the boon he had conferred on mankind. From 
 this time discovery and exploration advanced with rapid, 
 strides, especially when we consider the imperfect state of 
 navigation in the sixteenth century. In less than fifty 
 years from the time Columbus first set foot on the island 
 of San Salvador, the discovery of the Pacific by Balboa 
 had demonstrated that three thousand miles to the west 
 of Europe there stretched, not a group of islands, but a 
 vast though yet undefined continent. "Within the same 
 period De Soto had revealed still further the immense 
 extent of the New World, by the discovery that a thou- 
 sand miles from the Atlantic coast there coursed a river 
 of such dimensions, as dwarfed by comparison the largest 
 streams of Europe. 
 
 The era of settlement followed that of discovery. The 
 doctrine of the right of prior occupancy being then, as 
 now, a fundamental principle of international law, every 
 maritime power of the Old World hastened to assert it. 
 Only ten years after the discovery of the southern conti- 
 nent, Cortez sailed from Havannah for the conquest of 
 Mexico. That magnificent region, together with the 
 present gulf or cotton States, constituting half of the 
 most valuable part of the North American continent, 
 was mostly occupied and colonized by Spain. The 
 French settled the Carolinas and the Canadas; and the 
 Middle States were occupied by the Dutch and Swedes, 
 
INTRODUCTION. O 
 
 English colonization was as yet confined to the New 
 England States and Virginia. Soon came the inevitable 
 collision with the aborigines, with its equally inevitable 
 result — their enslavement or extinction throughout the 
 white settlements. The rights of the weak are easily 
 disposed of in international disputes ; but a greater danger 
 threatened the prosperity of the colonies than that conse- 
 quent on Indian hostilities. The conflicting claims of a 
 number of European nations had still to be adjusted by the 
 sword or by treaty. It was also a question of vast import, 
 whether the North American continent was, like Europe, 
 to be divided and subdivided into a number of separate 
 nationalities, with heterogeneous polities, languages, and 
 social systems, or whether all these were to be moulded in 
 one grand and symmetrical type. 
 
 In what manner this question might be decided, no 
 one in that day could form any other than the most vague 
 conjecture. But had it then been foreseen that the time 
 would come when one language would be spoken from 
 Baffin's Bay to the Mexican boundary, who could have 
 foretold to what nation that surpassing glory would attach? 
 The probabilities seemed strongest in favour of Spain, 
 then the most powerful of European nations. She had far 
 outstripped the rest of the world in the work of occupancy 
 and colonization, and possessed all the prestige derived 
 from the discovery of the continent. But the Spanish 
 system of colonization had two fatal defects. It vainly 
 attempted to base a substantial prosperity upon the en- 
 forced labour of the natives, while committing the yet 
 greater blunder of debasing and deteriorating the fine old 
 Iberian stock by mingling with it the blood of radically 
 inferior races. The result was a race of mongrels, but 
 little superior to the aboriginal tribes, and a semi-civiliza- 
 tion, wherein was a grotesque mingling of Catholicism and 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Paganism, of European tastes and customs with savage 
 predilections and habits. 
 
 There were three other nationalities which competed 
 for the possession and control of America. Sweden, under 
 Gustavus Adolphus, had made settlements in Delaware ; 
 but the prestige and power of that nation did not long 
 outlive the brief but glorious career of her great ruler. 
 Holland was too much absorbed in a death struggle for 
 national existence to spare any resources for the defence of 
 distant dependencies, and the Dutch, after having, in 1651, 
 driven the Swedes from Delaware, were, thirteen years 
 afterwards, themselves ejected from all their American 
 possessions. The same year saw England in the sole 
 occupancy of the whole Atlantic coast from Maine to 
 Florida, One rival, however, still kept the field. France, 
 whose early explorers justly claim the credit of having 
 first discovered the source and traced the course of the 
 Mississippi River, had formed settlements along its banks 
 and on the shores of the great lakes. 
 
 The English, more than a million in number, had esta- 
 blished agricultural colonics ; the French, mostly occupied 
 with trade, numbered only about one hundred thousand. 
 The traditional enmity of the two nations was still burning 
 fiercely, and in the colonies, was fed by frequent collisions 
 on the frontiers. The undisguised efforts made by the 
 French about the middle of the eighteenth century to 
 oppose the extension of British settlements by the erection 
 of a cordon of forts on the Ohio, brought the territorial 
 question to a speedy issue, and in 1754 the struggle known 
 as the French and Indian war commenced. After a con- 
 test of seven years, the British flag waved triumphant over 
 nearly the whole North American continent. This contest, 
 although generally deemed of but little consequence in com- 
 parison with the war of independence which soon followed, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is invested with a peculiar interest for Englishmen. It was 
 this war which for ever linked the best half of the western 
 hemisphere to the destinies of the Anglo-Saxon race, 
 making of it, indeed, literally a new England, sown with 
 English homes and with English laws, manners, customs, 
 institutions, and language. 
 
 The war of independence grew out of the war of 1754. 
 The expenses attending the latter had been enormous — 
 £50,000,000. An unwise attempt to transfer a portion 
 of this burden to the colonies, while withholding from 
 them the right of representation, resulted first in local 
 collisions, and ultimately in the war of the revolution. 
 The distance to be traversed by the British forces was 
 great ; the difficulty of transportation immense ; the 
 colonists were determined and united, while the English 
 people were divided in opinion, and prosecuted the war 
 with anything but energy. The result was what the best 
 heads in Parliament had foreseen, " the loss of the brightest 
 jewel in the British Crown." Yet it had been a costly jewel, 
 as had been shown by results of the war of 1754, and, in 
 common with the other British possessions, would, doubt- 
 less, have always been a source of expense rather than 
 profit. This, however, was not the view taken by English- 
 men of that day. The disastrous issue of the struggle 
 was universally considered an unmitigated calamity ; and 
 great was the cry of indignation raised against the admin- 
 istration of Lord North when the surrender of Corn- 
 wallis and his army to Washington on the memorable 
 19th of October, 1781, demonstrated the hopelessness of 
 any further efforts to hold the colonies in subjection. 
 
 Before the termination of the war, the colonies had 
 formed a temporary union, for the purpose of mutual 
 defence, and the Articles of Confederation adopted for that 
 end were superseded, in 1787, by the constitution of the 
 
O INTRODUCTION. 
 
 United States. This was the beginning of the republic. 
 The constitution was ratified by all the States, and George 
 Washington — to whose wisdom, patriotism, and fortitude, 
 more than to any other cause, the country had been 
 indebted for its independence — was elected first president. 
 During the remainder of the eighteenth century various 
 causes combined to retard the progress of the country. 
 Emigration for a while stood still, heavy taxation de- 
 pressed the energies of the people, and every branch of 
 industry was in a state of stagnation. Gradually, however, 
 the national debt was liquidated, law and order were firmly 
 established, the latent resources of the country began to 
 be developed, and then commenced a career of national 
 prosperity unexampled in the history of the world. The 
 population increased with a rapidity never before wit- 
 nessed, and manufactures and commerce increased even 
 more rapidly than population. The Southern States 
 were long debarred by climate and by reason of the 
 institution of slavery, from a just share in the general 
 prosperity. Cotton culture had already, it is true, been 
 introduced, but it was not till the invention of the cotton- 
 gin by Whitney in 1792 that it began to assume the 
 national and even world-wide importance it afterwards 
 attained. Prosperity now became as general as it was 
 rapid, and the history of the United States — unlike the 
 chronicle of civil tumult and foreign wars, which consti- 
 tutes so much of the history of the East — presents a 
 record of uniform progress pursued amidst almost un- 
 broken peace. The unimportant difficulty with Tripoli, 
 the brief maritime war of 1812, and the invasion of Mexico 
 in 1845, constitute the only interruptions of a repose 
 which continued from the close of the year 1782 till 
 the commencement of 1861, a period of nearly eighty 
 years. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 The great civil war recently ended is the only event 
 which has seriously menaced the nnity and progress of the 
 United States. That struggle was, however, but the 
 explosion of moral elements preparatory to entering into 
 a more intimate and compact union. The two vessels which', 
 by a singular coincidence, first landed during the same 
 year Puritans and negroes on the shores of America, had 
 unconsciously sown the seeds of oligarchy a*nd democracy 
 side by side. These principles, so opposite in their nature, 
 could exist together only so long as imperfect means of 
 communication caused the two sections of the Union to be 
 in effect separate communities. The growth of commerce 
 and the increase of travel consequent upon the introduc- 
 tion of railways and steam navigation, brought them into 
 closer and closer contact, until, like two clouds strongly 
 charged with opposite electricities, they encountered each 
 other with a shock which for a while seemed to threaten 
 the existence of the nation. Now that peace again reigns 
 over the vast area of the Union, as profound and apparently 
 secure as if never disturbed, the great conflict may be 
 regarded as a guarantee of future prosperity, rather than a 
 proof of inherent weakness or defects iu American insti- 
 tutions. The Republic already possessed, in a greater degree 
 than any community of equal extent, ancient or modern, 
 unity in laws, customs, manners, language. One anta- 
 gonistic element still existed — the institution of slavery ; 
 and it only remained to remove this deformity in order to 
 render complete the symmetry and unity of their institu- 
 tions. Thi3 the social revolution of 1861 has accomplished, 
 and thus every obstacle has been removed from the path of 
 improvement. Possessed of boundless natural resources, 
 free institutions, and an intelligent and energetic people, 
 the future progress of the United States promises to be 
 even greater than that which has characterized the past. 
 
CHxPTEiH L 
 
 GENERAL YIEW — MOUNTAINS — GEOLOGICAL FEA- 
 TURES— SOIL— RIVERS— LAKES— CLIMATE— ZOOLOGY 
 —VEGETATION. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW. 
 
 The present domain of the United States occupies the 
 central portion of the Continent of North America, extend- 
 ing from British Territory on the north to Mexico and 
 the Mexican Gulf on the south, a distance of 1730 miles, 
 and from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific on 
 the west, a distance of about 3000 miles. The area of the 
 entire country is more than 3,000,000 square miles, with a 
 frontier of 10,000 miles, more than half of which is com- 
 posed of ocean and lake shores. Since the close, of the 
 revolutionary war in 1783, the limits of the Union have 
 been extended by the purchase of Louisiana from France in 
 1803, and of Florida from Spain in 1819, which added to 
 the national domain an area of 966,000 square miles. In 
 1846 Texas, with an area of about 318,000 square miles, 
 was annexed, and in 1848 a portion of Mexico was acquired, 
 measuring about 516,000 square miles ; making an aggre- 
 gate acquisition of 1,800,000 square miles during sixty- 
 five years. 
 
 The Union was first formed by the confederation 
 of Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mary- 
 
GENERAL VIEW. V 
 
 land, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, North 
 Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, 
 and Virginia, which are termed the " Original Thirteen 
 States." This number has since been increased by the 
 admission of twenty- three new States, viz.: — Alabama, 
 Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, 
 Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, 
 Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. These 
 thirty-six States, with ten "Territories" and the District 
 of Columbia, embrace the entire area of the country. 
 The Territories are Arizona, Colorado, Dacotah, Indian 
 Territory, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah, 
 and Washington. More than half their area is embraced 
 in the immense valley included between the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and the Alleghanies, and bisected by the Mississippi 
 River. A most remarkable feature of the United States 
 is the low plain, from fifty to one hundred miles wide, 
 which extends along the Atlantic coast. Beyond this 
 plain the land rises towards the interior till it termi- 
 nates in the Alleghanies. The rest of the country east of 
 the Mississippi is agreeably diversified. The soil of the 
 low country, except along the water-courses, is sandy, and 
 comparatively unproductive ; but the remainder has a 
 strong fertile soil, capable of supplying a dense population. 
 The Pacific slope is exceedingly diversified, abounding in 
 wild and majestic scenery, and traversed by magnificent 
 rivers. Much, however, of its interior is desert. The great 
 California desert, indeed, is one of the dreariest regions of 
 the world, the solitude being relieved only by a few oases 
 in the neighbourhood of streams, or on the borders of the 
 numerous lakes. 
 
10 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 
 The territory of the United States is traversed by two 
 principal mountain chains : the Alleghanies, extending 
 from New Hampshire to Alabama ; and the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, extending from the British possessions to Mexico. 
 
 " Mountains that enfold, 
 In their wide sweep, the coloured landscape round, 
 Like groups of giant kings, in purple and gold, 
 That guard the enchanted ground." 
 
 These chains divide the country into three distinct 
 regions. The first of these is the Atlantic slope, including 
 the eastern declivity of the Alleghany Mountains, and the 
 basins drained by the rivers that flow from them to the 
 ocean. The second is the basin of the Mississippi, or more 
 properly of the Missouri, comprising the vast central valley 
 watered by these rivers and their innumerable tributaries. 
 The third region, or the Pacific slope, is enclosed between 
 the shores of this ocean and the chain of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, which divides it from the former. Each of these 
 divisions, surpassing most of the European kingdoms in 
 size, has its own peculiar features, and is distinguished by 
 soil, climate, and natural productions. 
 
 The Alleghanies consist principally of a long plateau, 
 crested with several chains of mountains or hills, separated 
 from each other by wide and elevated valleys. East of the 
 Hudson the mountains are chiefly granite, with rounded 
 summits, often covered at their tops with bogs and turf, 
 and distributed in irregular groups without any marked 
 direction. In Pennsylvania and Virginia they assume the 
 form of long parallel ridges, varying in height from 2500 to 
 4000 feet, and occupying the breadth of one hundred miles. 
 In the northern part of Georgia, where they terminate, 
 
MOUNTAINS. 11 
 
 they again lose the form of continuous chains, and break 
 into groups of nearly isolated mountains, some of which 
 attain a considerable elevation. The Rocky Mountains 
 are a continuation northward of the Cordilleras of Central 
 America and Mexico, and traverse in several ranges an 
 area 1000 miles from east to west, embracing in all its 
 parts nearly 1,000,000 square miles. The most easterly 
 of these ranges runs through the Territories of New Mexico, 
 Colorado and Nebraska, and forms the dividing line 
 between Dacotah and Washington. The next great range 
 of the Rocky Mountains towards the west, is called the 
 Wahsatch Mountains, lying south of Great Salt Lake. In 
 Utah these mountains spread over a wide district, and the 
 ridges of the several peaks lie in various directions. The 
 western portion of the Rocky Mountain chain enters the 
 United States on the south from Lower California, and 
 soon branches into two ranges, the highest of which, the 
 Sierra Nevada, runs at the distance of about 160 miles 
 from the Pacific, while the inferior parallel ridges, known 
 as the Coast Range, keep within 10 to 50 miles of the 
 ocean, to mingle again with the Sierra Nevada, where 
 Mount Shasta reaches an elevation of 14,000 feet. 
 
 The White and Monadnock Mountains, in New Hamp- 
 shire; Mount Katahdin, in Maine; Mount Tom, Mount 
 Holyoke, and Wachusett, in Massachusetts; the Cat- 
 skills - , Adirondacs, and Alleghanies, in New York ; Schoo- 
 leys Mount, in New Jersey ; and Pilot Mountain, in North 
 Carolina, are celebrated in their surpassing wildness and 
 beauty, as indeed are all the great mountain ranges of both 
 the Pacific and Atlantic slopes, and afford endless scenes 
 of picturesqueness and sublimity. 
 
12 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 
 
 If we draw a line from New York to the east end of Lake 
 Ontario, the peninsula lying north-east between the St. Law- 
 rence and the sea, consists of primitive interspersed with 
 some patches of secondary rocks. From this line southward 
 the country has a different geological character. A belt of 
 alluvial soil, beginning at Long Island, extends along the 
 shore of all the Southern States to Natchez, on the Missis- 
 sippi, having an average breadth of a hundred miles, and 
 probably including all Florida except some high ground in 
 the interior. It is everywhere penetrated by the tide 
 water in the rivers. On the west side of this is a region 
 of primitive rocks from 100 to 200 miles broad, in which 
 gneiss predominates. It embraces the eastern ridges of 
 the Alleghanies with the rolling country at their foot. On 
 the west side of this again is a long narrow zone of transi- 
 tion rocks, including the western ridges of the Alleghanies, 
 and extending from Lake Champlain to the north-west 
 angle of Georgia. 
 
 One of the most remarkable circumstances connected 
 with the primitive rocks is the granite ridge which forms 
 the boundary between the primitive and the alluvial regions. 
 This ridge appears to have been the ancient line of the 
 sea-coast in the Southern and Middle States, and very 
 probably through Connecticut. 
 
 New England rests on a bed of granite and marble ; the 
 Middle States on sandstone and freestone ; and the greater 
 part of the Ohio River region has a foundation of lime- 
 stone. 
 
 The oldest known strata in the crusts of the earth, the 
 Laurentian series, consisting of gneiss, more or less granitic, 
 quartz rock, limestones, dolomites, conglomerates, and in 
 the upper portion of feldspathic rocks, occur in the 
 
man 
 
 
 ! -^ 
 
 
 Mftr ' 
 
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 13 
 
 Adirondac region of northern New York. The Green 
 Mountains, the White Mountains, and a greater portion of 
 the New England States, consist of crystalline formations 
 of a more recent date, marked by the absence of argil- 
 laceous, talcose, and chloritic schists, and by various other 
 characteristics. 
 
 The next overlying series, known as the Huronian, 
 and regarded by Murchison as the equivalent of the 
 Cambrian sandstones, is found in Michigan and the 
 southern shore of Lake Superior. Though these rocks 
 have been classed as azoic, indications are found of their 
 having been originally sedimentary deposits, abounding in 
 organic bodies, the forms of which have been dislodged 
 by the metamorphic action to which they have been 
 subjected. 
 
 In Massachusetts, the central portion of North Caro- 
 lina, and in Georgia, occur the oldest fossiliferous rocks, 
 known as the "Taconic system," and characterized by 
 ancient genera of trilobites. Some geologists maintain 
 that some of the sandstones in Iowa and Minnesota should, 
 by reason of their fossils, be placed in this system. 
 
 The crystalline and schistose strata of New England, 
 the highlands of New York and New Jersey, and extend- 
 ing through the Appalachian chain to Alabama, have been 
 variously classed, some considering that as they consist of 
 feldspathic gneiss, quartz rocks, talcose, and chloritic 
 slates, they form the base of the Appalachian system. 
 Others consider them as the metamorphosed sandstones, 
 etc., of the lower Silurian series. 
 
 From this range westward, the whole country to the 
 Rocky Mountains, with the exception of the Ozark moun- 
 tain region, in Southern Missouri, and a few localities in 
 Wisconsin and the northern peninsula of Michigan, 
 contain no crystalline rocks. 
 
14 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The lower Silurian limestones come np to the surface at 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, at Frankfort, Kentucky, and at Nashville, 
 Tennessee. The Carboniferous series whenever met with, 
 is the uppermost formation, excepting in Illinois, Iowa, 
 and Kansas, where the Permian strata have been recog- 
 nized. The great plains that extend from the Missouri 
 and up the valleys of the Arkansas, "Red River, to the 
 Rocky Mountains, are almost exclusively occupied by 
 cretaceous rocks, sometimes overlaid with those of the 
 tertiary age. Florida, Louisiana, and the coasts from 
 Texas to Martha's Vineyard, are composed of the tertiary, 
 the older strata cropping out inland. 
 
 The Cretaceous formation rests principally on the meta- 
 morphic belt of the Appalachian, rising to the higher plat- 
 form of those rocks, the ascent south of New York 
 being marked by the first or lowest falls of the rivers, and 
 determining the head of their navigation. This formation 
 passes across New Jersey and Northern Delaware, from 
 New Tork Bay to the head of Chesapeake Bay, occurs at 
 a few points in Virginia, near Wilmington, North Caro- 
 lina, and through Central South Carolina and Georgia ; 
 thence it stretches in a broad continuous belt, through 
 Central Alabama, Northern Mississippi, and Western Ten- 
 nessee. 
 
 A narrow belt of red sandstone occurs along the lower 
 valley of the Connecticut, continued through New Jersey, 
 across Pennsylvania, into Virginia. 
 
 The newer Pliocene is met with only in a few localities 
 in the southern part of Maine, and on the borders of Lake 
 Champlain. 
 
 The drift formation covers all the northern part of the 
 United Stales, the limit southward being lat. 40 . The 
 deposits of alluvium are mostly confined to the borders of 
 the rivers and lakes, the most extensive and remarkable 
 
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 15 
 
 alluvial tract being that around the month of the Mis- 
 sissippi, where it spreads out into a delta of broad area. 
 
 In the Rocky Mountains, the metamorphic rocks of the 
 Appalachian are repeated on a grander scale. Between 
 the numerous ridges are wide belts of the cretaceous strata 
 and modern tertiary deposits. These form the plains and 
 slopes which stretch out towards the Pacific. In the 
 mountainous districts are found all the formations from the 
 lower crystalline groups to the coal, often traversed by 
 great dikes of trappean and other eruptive rocks. 
 
 Beyond the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains, 
 and on the Colorado River, is a volcanic district, extending 
 to the Pacific. It consists chiefly of tertiary strata, which 
 have been so broken up by movements of the crust and 
 volcanic eruptions, as to present an excessively rugged and 
 diversified structure. 
 
 The metals of the United States are principally found 
 in the crystalline rocks, the exceptions being the copper 
 region of Lake Superior, and some of the western lead and 
 iron mines, frequently in sandstone. 
 
 In the Atlantic division, the metals follow the Appala- 
 chian range. In the Pacific division they follow the 
 Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada ranges ; the debris 
 from which, swept down into the tertiary strata, have 
 furnished these with the precious metals in large deposits. 
 
 'Except a few small insulated fields, all the bituminous 
 coal in the United States lies west of the Appalachian 
 chain, where a vast series of coal-beds stretch from the 
 mountains westwards through Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
 parts of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, into the State 
 of Mississippi, and even as far as 200 miles beyond the 
 Mississippi River. Anthracite coal, or that best suited for 
 manufactures, lies at the northern extremity of this great 
 field, in Pennsylvania, in the western parts of Virginia, 
 
16 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 in part of Ohio, and in Illinois. In the central portion 
 of the lower peninsula of Michigan is a coal-field of some 
 extent, and another and larger one spreads over nearly 
 the whole of Iowa, Northern Missouri, and a large part of 
 Kansas. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The soil presents almost every variety, from dry 
 sterile plains in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake, to the 
 rich alluvia of the Mississippi Valley. It may be divided 
 into seven great divisions, indicated by the river systems 
 of the country ; viz., the St. Lawrence basin, the Atlantic 
 slope, the Mississippi valley, the Texas slope, the Pacific 
 slope, the inland basin of Utah (sometimes called the 
 Great or Fremont basin), and the basin of the Red River 
 of the North. 1. The St. Lawrence basin embraces parts 
 of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and all of Michigan ; it 
 is an elevated and fertile plain, generally well wooded. 
 2. The Atlantic slope includes all New England, except a 
 part of Vermont, all of New Jersey, Delaware, the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, South Carolina and Florida, and portions 
 of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It may be 
 sub- divided into two regions, a North-East and a South- 
 West section, separated by the Hudson River. The 
 former is hilly, and generally better adapted to grazing 
 than tillage, though some parts are generally fertile, and 
 a large proportion is carefully cultivated. The South- 
 West section may be again divided into a coast belt from 
 30 to 150 miles in width, running from Long Island round 
 to the mouth of the Mississippi, and including the whole 
 
SOIL. 17 
 
 peninsula of Florida, and an inland slope from the moun- 
 tains towards this coast belt. The inland slope is one of 
 the finest districts in the United States, the soil consisting 
 for the most part of alluvium from the mountains, and the 
 decomposed primitive rocks which underlie the surface. 
 3. The Mississippi valley occupies more than two-fifths of 
 the area of the republic, and extends from the Alleghany 
 to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to 
 British North America, including parts of New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and all of Ken- 
 tucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and 
 Kansas. It is for most part a prairie country, of fertility 
 unsurpassed anywhere on the globe, except perhaps the 
 valleys of the Amazon and the Nile. At the north-west 
 of the valley there is a desert plateau ranging from 200 to 
 400 miles, lying at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, at 
 an elevation of from 2000 to 4000 feet above the sea, the 
 greater portion of which is incapable of cultivation, owing 
 to the deficiency of rain and want of means of irrigation, and 
 a part naturally barren. 4. The Texas slope includes the 
 country south-west of the Mississippi valley, drained by 
 rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and embraces 
 nearly all of Texas, and parts of New Mexico and Louisiana. 
 It may be divided into three regions: a coast belt, wide> low 
 and very fertile, especially in the river bottoms ; a rich 
 prairie extending from the coast belt, well suited for grazing; 
 and a lofty tableland in the north-west, perfectly devoid 
 of trees, and almost devoid of grass, and during a por- 
 tion of the year completely parched with drought. Almost 
 the only arable land in this last division is found in the 
 valleys of the Rio Grande. 5. The Pacific slope embracing the 
 greater part of California, Oregon, and Washington Terri- 
 
 2 
 
18 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 tory, and parts of ISTew Mexico and Utah, is generally sterile, 
 though the valleys between the Coast range and the Cascade 
 range and Sierra Nevada are very fertile ; as are also a few 
 valleys and slopes among the Wahsatch and Rocky Moun- 
 tains, though the latter are better adapted to pasturage 
 than to agriculture. 6. The great inland basin of Utah, 
 which includes, beside Utah, parts of New Mexico, Cali- 
 fornia, Oregon, and Washington, is, probably, the most 
 desolate portion of the United States. It abounds in salt 
 lakes, and there are only a few valleys where the soil ac- 
 quires by irrigation sufficient fertility to afford a support 
 for man. 7. That portion of the basin of the Red River of 
 the North which belongs to the United States, is confined 
 to the small tract on the north part of Dacotah and Min- 
 nesota. It contains very productive lands, especially in 
 the river bottoms. 
 
 On the east side of the Ozark chain of mountains is 
 the Great Swamp, 200 miles long and 20 broad, which is 
 converted into a lake by the annual overflow of the Mis- 
 sissippi, but is dry during the heats of summer, and ren- 
 dered at all times impenetrable by a thick growth of 
 cypress. The country round it is rush bottom or meadow 
 land, clothed with excellent timber. Of the basin of the 
 Mississippi altogether it may be observed that the western 
 side is a barren desert ; the middle contains much good 
 land, but abounds in swamps ; the east side, comprehend- 
 ing the basin of the Ohio, is the richest and most eligible 
 for human habitation. Vegetation, especially the larger 
 growth, increases continually as we advance from the Rocky 
 Mountains to the Atlantic ; a proof, perhaps, that the 
 summer heat, and the quantity of atmospheric moisture 
 follow a similar law. 
 
RIVERS. 19 
 
 RIVERS. 
 
 The chief rivers of the United States may be appro- 
 priately divided into three classes. First. — The Mississippi, 
 the " Father of Waters," and its wide-spread branches, 
 which drain the central region. Second. — The rivers east 
 of the Alleghanies, which drain the Atlantic slope. Third. 
 — The rivers west of the Rocky Monntains, which drain 
 the Pacific slope. To these may be added the class of 
 smaller rivers, which flow into the Gnlf of Mexico from 
 the southern slope of the Alleghanies and the north- 
 western high lands of Texas. 
 
 The Mississippi River rises in a small lake named Itasca 
 situated in the northern portion of Minnesota, near the 
 British Possessions, and flows south-east about 500 miles to 
 the Falls of St. Anthony, below which it is navigable for 
 steamboats to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 
 2700 miles. This river forms the eastern boundary of 
 Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and the western boundary of 
 Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi? 
 while it divides the State of Louisiana, flowing finally into 
 the Gulf of Mexico through several mouths. It is com- 
 puted to convey to the Mexican Gulf one thirty-eighth 
 part of all the water which flows into the ocean, and 
 drains an eminently fertile country of over one million 
 square miles in extent. Its principal tributaries are the 
 Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Yazoo rivers on the east ; 
 the Minnesota, Des Moines, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red 
 rivers on the west. Of these the Ohio, the Mississippi, 
 and its tributary the Missouri, form a grand natural high- 
 way for commerce many thousand miles in length. It has 
 three bars at its mouth, the deepest of which affords 
 only seventeen feet of water. Sloops of this draught 
 can navigate to Natchez, 350 miles from its mouth. 
 
20 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 There is depth sufficient at all times for steamers drawing 
 twelve feet to the Ohio, and for steamers drawing three feet 
 to the junction with the Missouri ; but during the floods, 
 which prevail during half the year, the waters rise fifty feet, 
 and are then navigable by vessels of any size. Of the 
 two great branches, the Missouri and the Mississippi 
 proper, the former stream is the larger and more rapid, 
 and also more turbid, from the quantity of travelled soil it 
 transports ; but its waters generally occupying a wider 
 channel, are more obstructed with bars and sand-banks ; 
 and its navigation is more intricate and dangerous. The 
 Platte, Kansas, and some other tributaries of the Missouri, 
 often extend to a breadth of one or two miles, but during 
 the warm season become almost dry. Yet these, and many 
 of the branches of both rivers, generally admit of steamboat 
 navigation for three-fourths of their course, during a longer 
 or shorter period every year. The length of the Mississippi, 
 from its mouth to the junction of the Ohio, is about 1200 
 miles, and to its junction with the Missouri, 1300. The 
 length of the Missouri, above the junction to its remotest 
 branch, is, by Lewis and Clarke's measurement, 2575 miles. 
 The length of the Ohio above the point of confluence is 
 1188 miles. The other large branches of the Mississippi 
 are the Red River and the Arkansas, in the lower part of 
 its course. The chief tributaries of the Missouri are the 
 Osage, Platte, Kansas, and Yellow Stone ; of the Ohio, the 
 Tennessee, Cumberland, Wabash, and Kanawha. The whole 
 extent of the navigable waters above the confluence of the 
 Missouri and Mississippi has been estimated at 23,000 
 miles, to which if we add 12,000 for the Ohio, Arkansas, 
 Red River, etc., and their branches, we shall have 
 35,000 miles of boat navigation in the basin of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Prom the mouth of the Missouri to the Gulf, 
 
mvEi:s. 21 
 
 a distance of over twelve hundred miles, the average 
 width of the Mississippi is one mile. The medial current 
 is about four miles an hour, in one continuous flow, 
 there being no tides. 
 
 The spring flood, owing to the vast extent of country 
 drained, is very great. It usually commences in March, 
 and does not begin to subside till the end of June. 
 
 From the mouth of the Ohio, as far down as Vicks- 
 burg, the water rises fifty feet. Here the flood begins to 
 decline ; at Port Hudson it seldom exceeds thirty feet, and 
 at ISTew Orleans twelve feet. The average depth of water 
 at the lowest stage, from Vicksburg to the mouth, is 125 
 feet. Formerly, during the annual floods, it overflowed the 
 land for 800 miles from its mouth, to a distance of from ten 
 to thirty miles on each side, with the exception of an incon- 
 siderable portion at Vicksburg, Baton Rouge, Port Hud- 
 son, and one or two other points, where the high land 
 extends to the river. 
 
 The turbid waters of the river during these annual 
 overflows contain a rich alluvial soil, swept from the 
 north, and held in suspension by the rapid current, until 
 its rapidity is checked by spreading over the adjacent 
 swamps. 
 
 The quantify of sediment thus conveyed to the Gulf, 
 or deposited upon the banks of the river in the lower part 
 of its course, is immense ; Sir Charles Lyell adopting the 
 estimate of Dr. Riddle, of New Orleans, that the sediment 
 is l-3000th part of the volume of water, calculated the 
 depth of the delta, or alluvial formation at the mouth, to 
 be one-tenth of a mile ; " the area of the delta being 
 about 13, GOO square statute miles, and the quantity of 
 solid matter annually brought down by the river, 
 3,702,758,400 cubic feet, it must have taken 67,000 years 
 for the formation of the whole."' It has been estimated 
 
22 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 that 40 per cent, of the water of the Mississippi is lost 
 in the swamps of Missouri and Northern Arkansas alone, 
 and as a proportionate, or more than proportionate, part of 
 the sediment is deposited before reaching the Gulf, some 
 idea may be formed of the immense quantity of alluvium 
 added to the swamps and bottom-lands upon the banks. 
 
 The freshets, while thus yearly adding to the " made 
 land," as it is called, of the valley, sometimes reverse the 
 process, and bear away to the Gulf many a fine domain. 
 
 The "made land" is extremely fertile, and along the 
 banks of the river are a succession of the finest cotton 
 and sugar plantations in the whole South. Extensive em- 
 bankments have been constructed at great expense on each 
 side of the river for nearly 1000 miles, to protect the 
 land from inundation. They are from five to fifteen feet 
 high, and the water at the time of the flood rises to within 
 one foot of the top. Thus the entire country along the river 
 is, at time of high water, much below the level of the 
 river, and subject to occasional overflow by the breaking 
 of the levees. The course of the river is constantly 
 changing, and wherever the current strikes the bank, the 
 light and sandy soil gives way, and often by a sudden 
 freak of the river a portion of the levee is carried away 
 before a new one can be thrown up in the rear of it, and 
 the country for miles is inundated. 
 
 There have been numerous " cut-offs" made in this 
 river by its forming a new channel across the isthmus 
 of a large bend. The tide once turned across a penin- 
 sula, the resistless current soon carries everything before 
 it, and the heaviest growth of timber being rapidly under- 
 mined, apparently furnishes no impediment to it. When- 
 ever these cut-offs occur, the old channel gradually fills up, 
 or forms a lake. 
 
 The accumulations of drift in some cases have become 
 
RIVERS. 
 
 so enormous that they have seriously obstructed naviga- 
 tion. Such an accumulation culminated in an arm of the 
 river — the Atchafalaya — in the year 1316, having been 
 gradually forming during a period of nearly forty years. 
 It was ten miles in length, 600 feet wide, and eight feet 
 deep, and although so unstable as to rise and fall with the 
 river, was covered with trees of a considerable height. 
 The State of Louisiana, after incurring heavy outlay 
 for four years, at 
 obstruction. 
 
 length succeeded in removing the 
 
 STEAMERS ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Of the upper tributaries of the Mississippi, the 
 principal are the Des Moines, St. Croix, and Wisconsin, all 
 navigable streams of some commercial importance. On 
 the western, or Bocky Mountain slope, from which the 
 " Father of Waters" receives at least three-fourths of its 
 immense volume, by far the longest tributary is the 
 Missouri. 
 
2i DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Missouri (mud river) properly forms one stream 
 with the Mississippi, being much superior to the " Father 
 of Waters" in length and volume at the point of con- 
 fluence. It rises in Nebraska, near the boundary between 
 that Territory and Oregon, among the Rocky Mountains. It 
 has its source in several smaller streams. Running first 
 north, then east, and finally assuming a general direction 
 to the south-east, and forming a portion of the dividing- 
 line of Nebraska, Iowa, and Kansas ; it then flows through 
 the entire State of Missouri, and joins the Mississippi 
 1410 miles from the debouchure of the latter into the Gulf 
 of Mexico. The distance from its source to its junction 
 with the Mississippi is 3096 miles, which, added to 1410 
 for the lower course of the latter, makes the whole length 
 4506 miles. The Missouri is navigable by steamboats 
 without serious obstruction to the Great Falls, a distance 
 of 2540 miles from the confluence of the Mississippi, or 
 3950 miles from the Gulf of Mexico ! Its stream is 
 turbid and rapid, and, as its name implies, unusually 
 charged with sediment. Its width at its mouth is over 
 half a mile, and in many places much greater. Its prin- 
 cipal tributaries are the Yellow Stone, Little Missouri, 
 Platte, or Nebraska, Kansas, Osage, Milk, Dacotah, Big 
 Sioux, and Grand. 
 
 The Yellow Stone drains the larger part of Nebraska, and 
 is 800 yards wide at its mouth. The Little Missouri is 
 300 miles long, the Platte 600 miles long, the Dacotah 
 500 miles, and the Great Sioux 300 miles in length. The 
 Missouri, with its tributaries, drains an area of 519,400 
 square miles. 
 
 The St. Francis rises in the Ozark Mountains of 
 Missouri, and flows into the Mississippi a short distance 
 above Helena, and about 400 miles south of the mouth of the 
 Missouri. The navigation, difficult and dangerous before, 
 
RIYEES. 25 
 
 was rendered even more intricate by the earthquake of 
 1811, when a considerable extent of country was submerged, 
 and a lake fifty miles long and five to twenty miles in 
 breadth, formed along the course of the river. 
 
 White River rises also in the Ozark Mountains, in 
 north-west Arkansas, and after making a detour into 
 southern Missouri, flows south into the Mississippi, twelve 
 miles above the mouth of the Arkansas "River. It is 600 
 miles in length, and is navigable for steamers 260 miles. 
 Its principal tributaries are the Black and Spring rivers, 
 which have a joint steamboat navigation of 150 miles. 
 
 The Washita waters the most beautiful, healthful, and 
 fertile portion of the State of Arkansas. It is navigable 
 for steamboats for about 350 miles from its mouth. 
 
 The Red River is formed by the confluence of two 
 branches, of whicli the southern rises in New Mexico, and 
 the northern in Texas. It empties into the Mississippi 
 341 miles from its mouth. The entire length of this 
 stream is 2100 miles. It is subject to heavy inundations, 
 which cause continual changes in its channel, and render 
 the navigation somewhat intricate and dangerous. 
 Shreveport, in north-west Louisiana, is the limit of navi- 
 gation, being the point near which commences that im- 
 mense collection of trees and drift wood known as " The 
 Great Raft." This raft extends sixty or seventy miles up 
 the river, and spreads out a distance of twenty to thirty 
 miles, and has hitherto defied every effort made to 
 remove it. 
 
 Arkansas River, after the Missouri, the longest branch 
 of the Mississippi, rises in the Rocky Mountains, and after 
 passing through the State of Arkansas, empties into the 
 Mississippi. It has an unobstructed navigation far beyond 
 the limits of the State of Arkansas, into the Indian Terri- 
 tory. Its total length is 2000 miles. 
 
26 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Of the tributaries and sub-tributaries of the Missis- 
 sippi which rise in the Alleghany Mountains, south of 
 the great lakes, the most considerable are the Illinois, the 
 Wabash, the Ohio, the Cumberland, the Tennessee, and the 
 Yazoo. 
 
 The Illinois rises in the north-eastern part of the 
 State of Illinois, about forty-five miles from Lake 
 Michigan, and empties into the Mississippi twenty miles 
 above the mouth of the Missouri. It is 500 miles in 
 length, and possesses a high- water steamboat navigation of 
 245 miles. 
 
 The Wabash has its source in Ohio, and flows into the 
 Ohio River, 140 miles above the confluence of that river 
 with the Mississippi. It is 550 miles long, and at high 
 water navigable by steamboats a distance of more than 
 300 miles. 
 
 The Ohio River has its source in the head waters of the 
 Monongahela and Alleghany. The Monongahela rises on 
 the western slope of the Alleghany Mountains, in western 
 Virginia, the Alleghany in western New York, and the 
 junction of the two streams takes place at Pittsburg, Penn- 
 sylvania. Steamers of the larger class ascend the 
 Monongahela sixty miles beyond Pittsburg ; and the 
 Alleghany is navigable by small steamers for 200 miles. 
 The navigation of these streams, and that of the Ohio 
 itself, is obstructed by ice during about two months of 
 winter, and also for a month or two of summer by low 
 water. The steamers plying between Louisville, Ken- 
 tucky, and New Orleans, some of them between three and 
 four hundred feet in length, are unsurpassed in elegance 
 and speed by any in the world. The voyage of 1440 miles up 
 the two rivers is often accomplished in less than five days. 
 
 The Ohio is a beautiful stream. Its charming valleys 
 and picturesque cliffs so struck the imagination of the 
 
MVEKS. 27 
 
 early French settlers, that they gave it the appellation of 
 " La Belle Riviere." The current is very gentle, averaging 
 only abont three miles an hour. The only falls of any 
 note are those at Louisville, Kentucky. The descent here 
 is twenty-two and a half feet to the mile, producing a rapid 
 current, which, however, is easily ascended by boats 
 during high water. This obstruction to navigation has been 
 partially overcome by a canal admitting the passage of 
 steamers of 180 feet in length. The Ohio contains over 
 100 islands. The area drained by this river and its 
 branches is about 202,400 square miles. Its width varies 
 from 1200 to 4000 feet. The navigable waters of the Ohio 
 and tributaries are more than 5000 miles. 
 
 The Tennessee River forms the chief affluent of the 
 Ohio which it joins at Paducah. It is navigable for steam- 
 boats nearly 800 miles. The scenery of the upper and 
 middle Tennessee is extremely beautiful, the landscape 
 being varied with verdant mountains, precipitous cliffs, and 
 charming pastoral lands. In the neighbourhood of Chat- 
 tanooga, where the Look-out Mountain lifts its bold crest, 
 the view of the valley of the Tennessee, and the capricious 
 windings of the river, is especially attractive. From some 
 of the higher peaks near Chattanooga, the vision may 
 range over the mountains and valleys of four States. 
 
 Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio, rises in the 
 valley between the Laurel and Cumberland Mountains, and 
 flows into the Ohio, fifty miles above the confluence oi 
 that river with the Mississippi. The Cumberland is nearly 
 GOO miles long, and is navigable by steamboats to Nash- 
 ville, Tennessee, a distance of 200 miles. 
 
 The Great Kanawha rises in the Blue Ridge, and flows 
 through West Virginia into the Ohio. Its entire length is 
 400 miles, and it attains in some places a width of 500 yards. 
 It is navigable by steamboats at all times to Charleston, 
 
SO DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 over 100 miles. The area drained by it and its affluents is 
 more tlian 10,000 square miles. Along its banks are many 
 fertile and beautiful valleys. It passes through a region 
 abundant in coal and mineral springs, particularly in salt 
 springs, which annually furnish a large quantity of salt. 
 The Elk River, a branch of the Great Kanawha, is a beau- 
 tiful stream flowing through West Virginia, and uniting 
 with the latter river at Charleston. Its length is 200 
 miles, and it is navigable for more than half that distance. 
 
 The principal rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico 
 are the Pearl, the Alabama, the Appalachicola, on the east, 
 and the Brazos, Trinity, Sabine, Guadalupe, Rio Grande, 
 and Colorado, on the west of the Mississippi. 
 
 The Chattahoocha, 500 miles in length, is navigable to 
 Columbus, 350 miles. It is joined by the Flint River 100 
 miles from the Gulf, and forms the Appalachicola. This latter 
 stream with its branches drains an area of about 20,000 
 square miles, and has a tide which extends about GO miles. 
 
 The Alabama is formed by the union of the Coosa and 
 Tallapoosa. It is navigable by large steamers at all seasons 
 as far as Montgomery, about 300 miles. On its banks are 
 some of the largest cotton plantations in the South, 
 and the lands through which it passes are of great fer- 
 tility. 
 
 The Tombigbee unites with the Alabama, and is 
 navigable to Columbus, in Mississippi, 360 miles. The 
 united streams form the Mobile River, which falls into 
 Mobile Bay. 
 
 The Colorado, in Texas, is over 900 miles in length, and 
 is navigable for a third of that distance by small steamers. 
 It is a clear and beautiful stream, flowing through a country 
 of great fertility. 
 
 The Brazos, in Texas, the next largest river to the 
 Colorado, is 900 miles in length, navigable by steamboats 
 
RIVERS. 29 
 
 to "Washington, 300 miles, at high water, and to Columbia 
 40 miles, at all times. The Trinity, in the same State, is 550 
 miles in length, and navigable by steamboats 350 miles. 
 The Sabine, the Guadalupe, and the San Antonio are 
 also navigable rivers in Texas. 
 
 The Rio Grande, 1800 miles in length, rises in the 
 Rocky Mountains, and forms the boundary line between 
 Texas and Mexico. Small steamers have ascended to Kings- 
 bury, 450 miles. 
 
 The following are the principal rivers on the Atlantic 
 slope. They all rise in the Alleghanies, except the Sus- 
 quehannah and the Hudson : — 
 
 Connecticut 400 
 
 Hudson 300 
 
 Delaware 320 
 
 Susquehannah 350 
 
 Potomac 260 
 
 James River 200 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Roanoke 230 
 
 Pedee 290 
 
 Santee 300 
 
 Savannah 280 
 
 Mohawk 200 
 
 The Hudson, also known as " the North River," has its 
 source in the Adirondac Mountains, whence it flows in 
 two small streams, which unite after a distance of 40 
 miles. Its length is about 300 miles, and below Albany its 
 breadth varies from 300 to 900 yards, and at Tappan Bay, 
 20 miles above New York, it widens to the extent of four 
 or five miles. The steamers on the Hudson are among 
 the finest in the world, and to it belongs the honour of 
 having borne the first steamboat that was ever launched. 
 The Hudson is celebrated for the beauty of its scenery, 
 and is navigable for ships to the town of Hudson, 130 miles 
 from its mouth, and for steamboats to Troy, 170 miles. 
 This peculiar advantage has made it the scene of a 
 more active inland trade than any river, perhaps, in the 
 
30 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 world, of the same magnitude. The Mohawk, a tributary 
 of the Hudson, enters it about three miles above Troy. Its 
 length is about 200 miles, and it affords abundant water 
 power at several places. The Susquehannah is a beautiful 
 river of Pennsylvania and Maryland, and is formed by the 
 junction of two branches, which unite 60 miles above 
 Harrisburg. Its length is about 350 miles, and its width 
 varies from 300 yards to a mile. It has many beautiful 
 islands, and the channel is frequently obstructed by 
 rapids ; navigation is therefore difficult. The Connecticut, 
 the largest river in New England, is a most picturesque 
 and beautiful stream. Its source is a few miles beyond 
 Connecticut Lake, through which it passes. Its entire 
 length is about 400 miles, and its width varies from 150 
 to 1000 feet. It is navigable for vessels drawing eight 
 feet of water to Hartford, a distance of 50 miles. The 
 Delaware is navigable to Philadelphia, 40 miles from its 
 mouth, for the largest ships, and to Trenton Falls, 35 
 miles above, for sloops. The Potomac is navigable for 
 200 miles from the ocean, to Georgetown, in the District 
 of Columbia, and for ships of the largest dimension to 
 Washington, the national capital. The James River, in 
 Virginia, 450 miles long, is navigable for steamboats and 
 sloops to Richmond. The Savannah is navigable for large 
 vessels to the city of Savannah, 17 miles, and for boats to 
 Augusta, 130 miles. 
 
 Tide navigation reaches a very short way up the great 
 rivers in the Northern States ; but in those south of the 
 Susquehannah, it reaches generally from 100 to 130 miles. 
 Boats ply on these rivers much further up, but the naviga- 
 tion is seldom uninterrupted. 
 
 The principal river of the Pacific slope is the Columbia, 
 1500 miles in length. The mouth of this river is obstructed 
 by flats, but vessels of 300 tons can ascend a distance of 125 
 
LAKES. 31 
 
 miles. Besides this river, there are the Sacramento and 
 Colorado in California. The Sacramento River drains the 
 great central valley of the State of California, and is navi- 
 gable to Sacramento, a distance of 50 miles, and generally 
 for small steamers for 150 miles further. Its whole length, 
 including the Pitt River, is 500 miles. The Red River of 
 the North rises in a collection of small lakes in Minnesota. 
 It runs north, and after a course of 500 miles, empties 
 into Lake Winnepeg, in British America. Its branches are 
 very numerous. 
 
 LAKES. 
 
 The United States boast of more extensive lakes than 
 any other country, especially in the Northern parts. The 
 great chain of Northern lakes — Superior, Michigan, 
 Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario — extend a distance of 
 more than 1400 miles. Lake Superior, the largest and 
 most westerly of the great chain, is about 400 miles in 
 length, and its greatest breadth over 160 miles. Its 
 estimated area is 32,000 square miles. The surface is 
 about 600 feet above the Atlantic, and its mean depth is 
 900 feet. It is the largest body of fresh water on the 
 globe. The waves on this lake are said to be as high as 
 those of the Atlantic, and the storms which brush over it 
 are equally severe and violent. 
 
 Lake Michigan is the largest lake in the United States. 
 Its length is 350 miles, its greatest breadth about 90 
 miles. The surface is about 600 feet above the level of 
 the sea ; the depth about 900 feet ; its area is estimated to 
 be 22,000 square miles. The lake is gradually moving 
 westward, its waters slowly receding from the Michigan 
 
32 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 shore, encroach upon that of Wisconsin. It has also 
 been proved that this lake has a tidal wave. 
 
 Lake Huron is about 280 miles in length, with an 
 average breadth of seventy miles, including Georgian 
 Bay it is 190 miles, and an estimated area of 21,400 square 
 miles. The surface of the water is elevated 578 feet 
 above the level of the sea. The depth of Lake Huron is 
 greater than that of any other in the chain, averaging not 
 less than 1000 feet. The water is remarkably clear. This 
 lake is said to contain more than 3000 islands. 
 
 Lake St. Clair is a small body of water between 
 Lakes Huron and Erie. Its extent is about 672 square 
 miles. 
 
 The mean length of Lake Erie is about 240 miles, its 
 breadth 40 miles, and its elevation above the level of 
 the sea is 565 feet. Its surface is 333 feet above Lake 
 Ontario, the great descent being made in the Niagara 
 River, which connects the two lakes, and in which are the 
 Niagara Falls. The peculiar features of Lake Erie are the 
 shallowness of its waters, and the clayey nature of its 
 shores. 
 
 Lake Ontario is the lowest and smallest of the chain, 
 except St. Clair; it extends east and west about 180 
 miles, with an average breadth of thirty-five miles, and a 
 depth of about 500 feet. The elevation of its surface 
 above the sea, being 234 feet, its bottom is about as far 
 below the level of the ocean as its surface is above it. On 
 account of its great depth, it is less disturbed by storms. 
 The area of the lake is computed at 6,300 square miles, 
 
 These great lakes are truly inland seas, and their navi- 
 gation is subject to all the dangers which are incident to 
 the navigation of the Baltic or the Mediterranean. With 
 the exception of Lake Michigan, none of this chain of lakes 
 lie wholly within the territory of the United States, the 
 
LAKES. 33 
 
 others being in the Northern boundary, between the United 
 States and the Canadas. 
 
 It is computed that this chain of lakes contains above 
 14,000 cubic miles of water, about three-quarters of all the 
 freshwater on the globe. The extent of country drained by 
 the lakes, from the north-western angle of Superior to the 
 river St. Lawrence, including also the area of the lakes 
 themselves, is estimated at 335,515 square miles. 
 
 On the borders of these lakes are many towns and 
 cities, the growth of which is chiefly due to the extensive 
 commerce carried on by vessels of every class. Oswego, 
 Buffalo, Cleveland, Sandusky, Toledo, Monroe, Detroit, 
 St. Joseph, Chicago, Milwaukie, Racine, and many smaller 
 ports, have like nets, so to speak, accumulated a portion of 
 the vast wealth that has rushed by them over the bosom 
 of the lakes. Each of these ports has a large tonnage 
 employed in the transportation of produce and merchan- 
 dise. The following statement shows the number, kind, 
 and tonnage of vessels engaged in this commerce of the 
 lakes in I860 : — 
 
 No. Tonnage. 
 
 Steamers 122 67,642 
 
 Screws 134 59,784. 
 
 Tugs 89 10,700 
 
 Barques 58 15,386 
 
 Brigs 78 33,747 
 
 Schooners 1,030 210,560 
 
 Total 1,511 397,819 
 
 Of these the greater portion are American bottoms. 
 
 It appears probable from the topography of northern 
 Illinois that the waters of Lake Michigan, at some past 
 period flowed through the Illinois river down the valley of 
 the Mississippi, to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 3 
 
34 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Many of the lakes in New England are scarcely- 
 surpassed anywhere for scenic effects. The most 
 notable are Moosehead in Maine, "Winnipisogee in New 
 Hampshire, and Memphremagog, which is situated 
 partly in Canada and partly in Vermont. Besides these, 
 there are numerous large sheets of water in New Eng- 
 land, which in Europe would be classed as lakes. 
 
 Lake George is a small but most picturesque sheet of 
 water in eastern New York. It is thirty- six miles long, 
 and varies from three-quarters to four miles in width. It 
 is remarkable for the exceeding beauty of its scenery, its 
 numerous small islands, and the exceeding transparency of 
 its waters. 
 
 The central and western parts of New York contain 
 several large lakes, of which Lake Champlain is the 
 principal. Its extreme length is about 130 miles ; its 
 breadth varies from half a mile to fifteen miles, and it is 
 navigable throughout for vessels of 100 tons. 
 
 In Wisconsin and Minnesota are a number of lakes. 
 The beauty and size of those in the latter State constitute 
 one of its most remarkable geographical features. 
 
 The most noted lakes in the Pacific region are the 
 Tulare, in California, the Klanath, in Oregon, and the 
 Pyramid and Great Salt Lake in Utah. The latter lies in 
 a basin, or valley, of the Rocky Mountains, and is seventy- 
 five miles long, by about thirty miles broad. Its surface 
 is 4200 feet above the level of the sea. It has no outlet. 
 The water is shallow, the depth in many extensive parts 
 being not more than two or three feet. It is clear and 
 transparent, but excessively salt, forming one of the 
 purest and most concentrated brines in the world. No 
 living thing has been found in it. It is so buoyant that a 
 man may float in it with his body half out of the water. 
 Though a bath in it is refreshing, the body requires to be 
 
CLIMATE. 85 
 
 washed immediately in fresh water. The brine cannot be 
 swallowed without danger of strangulation, and a particle 
 of it in the eye causes great pain. 
 
 In Oregon there has recently been discovered a great 
 sunken lake in the Cascade Mountains. The walls are 
 almost perpendicular, averaging 2000 feet down to the 
 water, and leaving no beach. The depth of the water is 
 unknown, and its surface is smooth and unruffled, as it lies 
 so far below the surface of the mountait] that the air 
 currents do not affect it. Its length is estimated at twelve 
 miles, and its width at ten, and there is an island in its 
 centre, having trees upon it. No man has ever been able 
 to reach the water's edge. 
 
 The Atlantic coast is indented by many noble bays — 
 those of Passamaquoddy, Massachusetts, Delaware, Chesa- 
 peake, beiug the principal. Several extensive sheltered 
 inlets are formed by the islands off the coast, such as Long 
 Island Sound, near New York, Albemarle, and Pamlico 
 Sounds, in North Carolina. The coast of the Gulf of 
 Mexico has also many valuable inlets, and there are a few 
 on the shores of the great lakes. The great bay of San 
 Francisco, in California, on the Pacific, is one of the finest 
 basins in existence. The United States is furnished with 
 some of the best harbours in the world. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The territory of the United States extends on the south 
 almost to the torrid zone, and on the north reaches regions 
 where frost lasts five or six months of the year, embracing 
 almost every variety of climate. The mean temperature of 
 Maine at one extremity is 42°, and of Cape Sable, at the 
 southern point of Florida, 27°. The climate of the United 
 States is exceedingly variable ; and — with the exception 
 
3(3 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the peninsula of Florida, where the proximity of the 
 Atlantic on the east, and of the Gulf of Mexico on the 
 south and west, produces a comparative uniformity — 
 there are frequent transitions in temperature, to the 
 extent of 30° in a few hours, in all seasons, and in all parts 
 of the country. The summers are noted for their intense 
 heat, the mercury rising sometimes as high as 100° Fah. 
 This great heat, while equally intense, is not so continuous 
 in the North as in the Southern States ; and in the latter, 
 the heat, though Jong continued, is not so oppressive as the 
 thermometer would seem to indicate. The Atlantic States 
 have a mean temperature about 10° more severe than the 
 same latitude in western Europe ; while, on the other hand, 
 the climate of the Pacific coast is as mild as that of Italy. 
 The North-Eastern States are subject to chill winds, espe- 
 cially in the spring months, and cold blasts from the ice- 
 fields of British North America sweep over the Northern 
 States upon every great rise in the temperature further 
 South. 
 
 The seasons are also differently distributed. Phila- 
 delphia has the summer of Rome and the winter of Vienna. 
 In Florida, Louisiana, and some parts of Georgia, snow is 
 scarcely ever seen. In Pennsylvania, snow covers the 
 ground for three months of the year, in Massachusetts it 
 lies four, and in Maine five months. In the two latter 
 States the ice bears loaded waggons, and the sea is some- 
 times frozen to a considerable distance from the coast. 
 The climate in the basin of the Ohio river is the most 
 equable, and possesses no very striking peculiarities. 
 
 There are local causes affecting the climate of parti- 
 cular districts which must always be taken into considera- 
 tion. The lakes, for example, mitigate to some degree 
 the temperature of the regions bordering on them, while 
 the elevated table-lands of New Mexico. Utah, and Eastern 
 
CUMATB. 37 
 
 Oregon, are rendered cooler and airier than the same 
 parallels elsewhere. The following table shows the average 
 temperature of each of the four seasons of the year at 
 various points on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and 
 the interior : — 
 
 Lat. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 
 
 Fortress Monroe, Norfolk, Va. 37° 56-87° 76-57° 61-68° 40-45° 
 
 Fort Columbus, New York ...40 42' 4874 72-10 5455 31-38 
 
 Fort Sullivan, Eastport 44 15 40-15 60-50 47'52 23-90 
 
 St. Louis, Missouri 38 40 54-15 76-19 55'44 32-27 
 
 Chicago, Illinois 4152 4490 6733 48-85 25-90 
 
 Fort Repley, Minnesota ,46 19 3933 64'94 42-91 10 1 
 
 San Francisco, California 37 48 51*41 5733 56'83 50 86 
 
 Astoria, Oregon 46 11 51*16 6158 5376 4243 
 
 The atmosphere of the United States, with the excep- 
 tion of some portions of the Pacific States, is remarkably- 
 clear. Objects can be seen at great distances. From 
 Mount Washington the Atlantic Ocean and the shore 
 of Maine are perfectly visible at a distance of sixty miles. 
 Another remarkable peculiarity in the air is its dryness. 
 Except in swampy districts, damp in any form is unknown, 
 moisture being almost immediately absorbed. 
 
 On the Pacific coast the rains are periodical, occurring, 
 as a rule, in the winter and spring months, and south of 
 lat. 40° in autumn also. The sterile district between long. 
 100° and the Cascade range experiences very little rainfall, 
 though violent showers often fall, particularly among the 
 mountains. The annual rainfall is estimated at about 3 
 inches, in the inland basin of Utah 6, in the plain south of 
 Columbia River 10, in the Rocky Mountains desert from 
 15 to 20 inches. In summer rain is rarely seen. There 
 are heavy falls of snow in the vicinity of Lake Superior 
 and the Northern districts, which does not melt till the 
 spring. South of the Potomac, snow is rarely seen, and 
 when there is a fall, it is but of short duration. A more 
 regular fall takes place in the North Atlantic States. 
 
38 DESCEIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF A2IERICA. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The United States contain about one-fourth of the 
 known species of quadrupeds. Some are common'to both 
 hemispheres, others are peculiar to the Western. Com- 
 paring individuals of the same species, some are perfectly 
 similar ; between others there is some difference in size, 
 colour, and other particulars. In a few instances the 
 animals of the Eastern hemisphere are larger than those 
 of the Western, but the reverse is generally the case. 
 
 The animal kingdom comprises the buffalo, and the 
 musk ox, the moose or American elk, the long-horned 
 antelope, peculiar to North America ; the Virginian deer, 
 cougar, black and grisly bears, American fox, racoon, 
 opossum, beaver, and glutton. The bear is of two 
 species; the short-legged lives principally on vegetable 
 food, and is not carnivorous ; it dozes away the winter in 
 a torpid state, sucking its paws, and expending the fat 
 previously acquired. The ranging bear is a large and 
 voracious beast, destroying calves, sheep, pigs, and some- 
 times children j in the winter it migrates southward. The 
 wolf, like the bear, is found in all the States; it is a 
 voracious animal, stealing into sheepfolds at night, attack- 
 ing deer, hogs, and small cattle, and sometimes hunting in 
 packs. The catamount is of the size of a large dog, and 
 extremely ferocious, but it is rarely seen. The spotted 
 tiger is scarcely seen, except in Louisiana ; it is from five to 
 six feet long. The cougar, or American panther, is about 
 the same size, and more common ; it destroys sheep, 
 calves, and hogs, and, when hungry, will attack large 
 cattle. The urchin differs in several respects from the 
 European hedgehog. The lion, leopard, striped or true 
 
ZOOLOGY. 39 
 
 tiger, hyena, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and 
 camelopard are unknown in America. 
 
 Among the birds are to be found the white-headed 
 eagle, and several kinds of vultures. A great many of the 
 minor species are indigenous to the Old World as well as 
 the New ; the eagle, pheasant, grouse, partridge, swan, 
 Canadian goose, and ptarmigan, are more or less nume- 
 rous. In general, the small birds of America surpass 
 those of Europe in the beauty of their plumage, but are 
 much inferior to them in the melody of their notes. 
 
 Among the reptiles, the most remarkable is the alli- 
 gator, or American crocodile, from 12 to 23 feet long, very 
 strong and fierce. Of serpents, the rattlesnake, from 
 four to six feet long, is the most formidable ; the siren 
 is a native of the muddy pools of Georgia and Carolina. 
 
 Of fishes, the cod, mackerel, salmon, and shad, are the 
 most plentiful, especially in shore ; and shellfish abound in 
 the rivers of the Mississippi basin. 
 
 The domestic animals of the States are the same as 
 those of Europe, the horse, ass, sheep, goat, and hog, 
 having been naturalized ; rats and mice of the European 
 species were also unknown in the New World till taken 
 there by the early European settlers. 
 
 It is worthy of note that the native quadrupeds have 
 diminished in size and ferocity before the advance of civili- 
 zation. This is especially noticeable in the larger animals, 
 which have retreated to the vast plains beyond the 
 back settlements. This is the case with the bison or 
 buffalo, though large numbers are still to be found in the 
 boundless prairies of the West. An attempt is now being 
 made to acclimate the Bactrian camel in Texas and Cali- 
 fornia, so far with every promise of an ultimate success. 
 
40 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 VEGETATION. 
 
 The forests of the Eastern section of the United States 
 comprise 140 different kinds of trees, of which 80 are 
 said to attain the height of 60 feet and upwards. Among 
 them are numerous species of oak, ash, and pi?ie, the 
 hickory and tulip tree, American cypress and plane, several 
 magnolias, walnuts, etc. 
 
 In the Northern regions are to be found the birch, 
 American elm, red and white pine, numerous willows, sugar 
 and other maples, and many herbaceous plants common to 
 Northern Europe and Siberia, with few climbing or pecu- 
 liar aquatic plants. 
 
 In the Middle regions, from lat. 44 to 35°, there are 
 numerous oaks, hickory, and ash trees, white plane, white 
 cedar, willows, sassafras, witch hazel, red maple, yellow 
 birch, some climbing and herbaceous plants, and many fine 
 flowering aquatics. 
 
 In the Southern regions, the cypress, Carolina poplar, 
 Magnolia grandiflora, live oak, swamp hickory, and many 
 climbing, herbaceous, and aquatic plants flourish to perfec- 
 tion. South of lat. 27° the character of the vegetation 
 merges in that of the tropics. 
 
 The white pine sometimes attains a height of 200 feet, 
 and the tulip tree, or poplar, one of the noblest in the 
 American forests, is not unfrequently met with 120 or 
 130 feet high, with a diameter of from five to eight feet. 
 The magnolia, when in flower, gives to the forests of the 
 South the appearance of a gigantic flower garden. The 
 white cedar emits a perfume similar to that obtained by 
 mixing otto of roses and turpentine. 
 
 The forests of California and Oregon surpass those of 
 every other region in the prodigious magnitude of their 
 
VEGETATION. 41 
 
 trees. The red wood, a species of cypress, is sometimes 
 found more than twenty feet in diameter, and of a pro- 
 portionate height, and the pines of Oregon attain 300 feet 
 in height, with diameter from eight to twenty feet. 
 
 The grasses indigenous to the United States are very 
 numerous. Seventy-one genera and 261 species of native 
 gramineoB have been enumerated. 
 
 Of fruit trees, the apple, pear, plum, and other hardy 
 fruits, flourish in the North ; while in the South the more 
 luscious pomegranates, melons, figs, grapes, olives, almonds, 
 oranges, are to be found in abundance. 
 
 The number of flowering plants is large ; each region 
 has its flora, and each its characteristic blossoms. In 
 general it may be said that the native flora of the United 
 States comprises few or none of the great staples of food. 
 The cereals and all the esculent roots are naturalized ; but 
 many of them have been greatly improved by their 
 transfer. Cucumbers, melons, etc., are also all naturalized, 
 as are most of the fruits, especially the apple, pear, plum, 
 peach, quince, and apricot. The edible berries, such as the 
 strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, whortleberry, bilberry, 
 cloudberry, are indigenous. The great fibrous staples, 
 cotton, flax, and hemp, are naturalized plants. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, COMMERCE. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The vast and unparalleled resources of the United States 
 are not as yet fully developed, though the rapid progress 
 in industry and wealth made during the last few years, 
 excite the most sanguine expectations of the future. In 
 every department of industry, agriculture, manufactures, 
 and commerce, the movement is equally rapid and sus- 
 tained. Agriculture has ever been the chief pursuit, and 
 agricultural products have always constituted the principal 
 articles of export. The first exports of the early colonists 
 were the natural products of the forest. Furs, timber, 
 pitch and tar, pot and pearl ashes, with some cattle and 
 provisions, constituted the chief articles of trade from 
 the Northern provinces in the early part of the eighteenth 
 century ; rice and tobacco had even then become impor- 
 tant items of exportation from the Southern colonies ; and 
 at a later period wheat became the great staple of the 
 Middle and Western States, and cotton that of the more 
 Southern sections of the country. 
 
 A large portion of the United States still remains un- 
 

 
 '■:-. 
 
 
 
 
AGRICULTURE. 43 
 
 cultivated, mostly because it has not yet been occupied. 
 Land is still so plentiful in proportion to the population 
 and capital, that rent has scarcely begun to have any 
 existence, the farmer being in almost every case proprietor 
 of the land which he cultivates. 
 
 The science of farming has been so much extended 
 and improved of late years, that it is gradually giving to 
 the United States a rank as one of the most carefully 
 tilled countries in the world. It appears from the returns 
 of the last census, that the ratio of the increase of the prin- 
 cipal agricultural products of the United States has more 
 than kept pace with the increase of the population, and a 
 marked improvement has taken place in the more impor- 
 tant agricultural operations. 
 
 The spirit of inquiry and enterprise in agriculture was 
 never more general or encouraging than at the present 
 time. Societies have been established in all the States for 
 the purpose of collecting and rendering as useful as pos- 
 sible all the information relative to agriculture, and in 
 Massachusetts a department of the State Legislature has 
 been organized for the superintendence of the agricultural 
 interests of the State. 
 
 The Middle States, especially New York, have attained 
 a high degree of improvement, consequent upon the efforts 
 made to raise the standard of agriculture. 
 
 The Western States are more strictly agricultural than 
 any other section, and Chicago and other towns owe their 
 existence entirely to the mammoth trade in Indian corn, 
 wheat, and other farm products supplied by the surround- 
 ing country. 
 
 The Southern States, while their main products are 
 cotton, rice, tobacco, and sugar, also produce cereals in 
 large quantities. 
 
 The farms in the States and Territories contain in the 
 
44 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 aggregate 163,261,389 acres improved, and 246,508,244 
 acres unimproved lands. The unimproved land consists of 
 that which is occupied and necessary to the enjoyment of 
 the improved, though not itself reclaimed ; it does not in- 
 clude meadow land. The average size of farms is 203 
 acres, the greatest average being in California (4466 acres), 
 and the smallest in Utah (51 acres). The greatest average 
 values of farms are in the District of Columbia, Louisiana, 
 and New Jersey ; and the smallest average values in Utah, 
 New Mexico, and Arkansas. 
 
 The average value of land per acre in New England 
 is $20.2 7c. ; in the Middle States, $28.0 7c. ; in the 
 Southern States, $5. 34c. ; in the South- Western States, 
 $6.26c. ; in the North- Western States, $11.39c. ; in 
 California and the organized Territories, $1.89c; in Texas, 
 $1.41c. The proportion of the improved land to the 
 whole in the Free States is 14*72 per cent. ; in the Slave 
 States, 10*09 per cent. ; in the United States, 7*71 per cent. 
 The proportion of occupied land to the whole in the 
 Free States is 28*56 per cent. ; in the Slave States, 33*17 
 per cent. ; in the United States, 20*02 per cent. The average 
 value of occupied land per acre in the Free States is $19 ; 
 in the Slave States, $6. 09c. ; in the United States, $11. 14c. 
 
 In general it may be said that the Middle and Western 
 States are most productive in wheat, rye, and oats ; the 
 Southern and Western in Indian corn ; and the Southern 
 in cotton, sugar, tobacco, and rice. Wool and Irish pota- 
 toes are raised principally north of lat 34°; tobacco between 
 34° and 41° ; barley, apples, and pears, north of 38°; hemp, 
 flax, and hops, north of 34° ; cotton between 31° and 36°; 
 sugar south of 31°. 
 
 The quantity of wheat grown in 1859 amounted to 
 171,183,381 bushels. In many States the quantity grown 
 has exceeded the means of ready transportation, or the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 45 
 
 demands of the market. It is, however, to the extended 
 cultivation of spring wheat in the North- Western States, 
 that the increase — which has been at the rate of 70 
 per cent, in ten years — is due. The greatest wheat-pro- 
 ducing State is Illinois ; then come Wisconsin, Indiana, 
 Ohio, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, Iowa, and 
 Michigan. The prairie States yield the largest crops. 
 
 Maize, cr Indian corn, furnishing at once food for man, 
 food for beast, and manure for the land, is cultivated in 
 every State and Territory of the Union, and is undoubtedly 
 the popular crop, receiving the distinctive name of " corn." 
 It is less liable to failure than any other. In 1859, the 
 crop was 830,541,707 bushels, showing an increase of 40 
 per cent, since 1849. A large quantity is shipped to Great 
 Britain, and every year increases the demand. 
 
 Barley, oats, rye, buckwheat, and flax, are grown in every 
 part of the United States — principally in New York. Hemp 
 is chiefly raised in New York, Kentucky, and Missouri. 
 The total product for 1860 being 83,000 tons of dew 
 rotted hemp, and about 4000 tons water-rotted. 
 
 Cotton, the great staple of the Union, is chiefly a pro- 
 duct of the South. It is the produce of the herbaceous or 
 annual cotton plant, and is of two kinds — the Sea Island 
 or long staple, and the upland or short staple. The former, 
 which is of superior quality, is grown chiefly in the Caro- 
 linas and Georgia, on the Atlantic, and in some parts of 
 the State of Texas, Cotton was first planted in the United 
 States in or about 1787, and was first exported in small 
 quantities in 1790. Since then its culture has become 
 enormous, and the rapidity with which it has been 
 developed is truly wonderful. In the beginning of the 
 present century, the annual exportation was less than 
 5000 bales, in 1859 it had increased to 5,196,944 bales, of 
 400 pounds each. The whole crop is the product of thir- 
 
46 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 teen States, but is chiefly obtained from eight of them. 
 Immense as is the quantity produced, the demand is equal 
 to the supply. The civil war has led to a temporary cessa- 
 tion of the trade, which, now that peace is restored, will 
 doubtless speedily regain its activity. Prior to the produc- 
 tion of cotton in such vast quantities in the more Southern 
 States, it was extensively cultivated for domestic purposes 
 in North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and 
 Southern Illinois ; and it is not improbable that its culti- 
 vation may be re-established in some of these States, with 
 profit to the producer and advantage to the consumer. 
 The number of plantations in which upwards of five bales 
 were produced was, in the year 1859, 74,031. 
 
 The dairy products of the United States are large. 
 Considerable quantities are shipped yearly to Great 
 Britain. The quantity of butter produced in the year 
 1859-60 was set down as 460,509,854 pounds; and the 
 production of cheese reached 105,875,135 pounds. 
 
 Although large quantities of sugar and molasses are 
 imported into the United States, the product of cane sugar 
 in 1859 was 302,205 hogsheads ; and of molasses 
 16,337,080 gallons — Louisiana being the State where the 
 great bulk of American sugar is produced. A large 
 quantity of sugar is obtained from several species of the 
 maple tree, that yielding the richest juice being the rock 
 or sugar maple. The manufacture is said to have 
 originated in New England in 1752, and extended from 
 thence into the North-Eastern States, where the tree prin- 
 cipally abounds. It is found in beautiful groves, called 
 sugar orchards ; and in the months of February and March, 
 when the days grow warm and the nights are frosty, the 
 trees are bored with augers about two feet from the ground, 
 and from the holes thus made the sap exudes, and is col- 
 lected in wooden troughs, and boiled on the spot. The 
 
AGRICULTUEE. 47 
 
 quantity of maple sugar made in 1859 was 302,205 hogs- 
 heads. 
 
 Sorghum, a species of grass, commonly known as 
 Indian millet, produces a saccharine juice, which in 185G 
 began to attract attention. In 1859, less than four 
 years from its introduction, the plant had become a 
 most important agricultural staple. It thrives wherever 
 Indian corn will grow. It may be cultivated in the same 
 manner. When fully grown, it is from 6 to 18 feet high ; 
 the stalks of 1 to 2 inches diameter. The stalks yield on 
 an average about 50 per cent, of their weight in juice, or, 
 to the acre, from 150 to 400 gallons, and about 12 per cent, 
 of sugar. Excellent rum is made from the seeds. 
 
 In the production of tobacco, every State and Territory 
 has a share, the principal coming from Virginia, Ken- 
 tucky, and Maryland, where it has been the staple since 
 their first settlement ; and it is also extensively grown in 
 Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, and other States. Besides the 
 quantities required for domestic use, large amounts are 
 exported. Several of the Northern States are showing a 
 considerable increase in the growth of this staple. In 
 1859, the total produce was 429,390,771 pounds. There 
 are upwards of 15,745 plantations on which 3000 pounds 
 or more are raised. 
 
 The hay crop of 1859 was 19,129,128 tons. This 
 crop is mainly confined to the Northern States. In the 
 Southern States, the weather is so mild as to allow cattle 
 to graze during the greater portion of the year, rendering 
 a hay harvest less necessary. The estimated value of the 
 above crop is upwards of $150,000,000. 
 
 Rice was first cultivated in South Carolina in 1694, 
 and four years afterwards, 60 tons were shipped to Eng- 
 land. Since that time, it has been so successfully culti- 
 vated, that in 1860 it reached 190 millions of pounds. 
 
48 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 South Carolina and Georgia are the principal producers 
 out of the sixteen States in which it is grown. A large 
 amount is exported. 
 
 Hops are principally cultivated in New York, though 
 every State and Territory, with the exception of Florida, 
 New Mexico, and Dacotah, contributed to the crop of 1860, 
 which amounted to upwards of 10 millions of pounds. 
 
 Potatoes are raised in every part of the Union, the 
 Irish potato principally in the Northern, and the sweet 
 potato chiefly in the Southern section. The yield for 1860 
 was upwards of 110 millions of bushels of the former, 
 and 35 millions of the former. 
 
 The last returns upon the subject of wine making 
 show a large increase in an article which promises to be- 
 come one of great commercial value. The wine culture 
 has increased in a number of States, but more particularly 
 in Ohio, California, and Kentucky. These three States 
 made nearly one million of the 1,860,008 gallons reported 
 in 1860. 
 
 The orchard products of the United States consist prin- 
 cipally of apples and pears, of which the value in 1860 was 
 nearly 20 millions of dollars, showing an increase in 
 ten years of about 12 millions of dollars ; an increase 
 owing to the great attention which has been paid to the 
 introduction and cultivation of improved varieties of fruit, 
 and the processes of preservation by artificial means, which 
 now employ a large amount of capital. 
 
 The number of acres devoted to the different crops in 
 1860 were— hay and pasturage, 33,000,000 ; Indian corn, 
 31,000,000; wheat, 11,000,000; oats, 7,500,000; cotton, 
 5,000,000; rye, 1,200,000; peas and beans, 1,000,000; 
 Irish potatoes, 1,000,000 ; sweet potatoes, 750,000 ; buck- 
 wheat, 600,000 ; tobacco, 400,000 ; sugar, 400,000 ; barley, 
 300,000; rice, 175,000; hemp, 110,000; flax, 100,000; 
 
MANUFACTURES. 49 
 
 orchards, 500,000 ; gardens, 500,000 ; vineyards, 250,000 ; 
 miscellaneous, 1,000,000. 
 
 The largest average crop per acre of wheat, was in 
 Massachusetts, 16 bushels ; the smallest, in Georgia, 5 
 bushels. Of rye, largest, Ohio, 25 bushels ; smallest, Vir- 
 ginia, 5 bushels. Of Indian corn, largest, Connecticut, 
 40 bushels ; smallest, South Carolina, 11 bushels. Of 
 oats, largest, Iowa, 36 bushels ; smallest, North Carolina, 
 10 bushels. Of rice, Florida, 18501bs., South Carolina, 
 17501bs., Louisiana, 14001bs. Of tobacco, largest, Missouri, 
 7751bs. ; of seed cotton, largest, Texas, 7501bs. ; of Irish 
 potatoes, largest, Texas, 250 bushels ; smallest, Alabama, 
 CO bushels; of sweet potatoes, largest, Georgia, 400 
 bushels. 
 
 The value of the live stock and domestic animals forms 
 an important item in the statistics of the country. A most 
 satisfactory increase in the number and varieties is shown 
 by the last returns. The total value of the live stock was, 
 in I860, $1,107,490,216. The horses numbered 6,115,458 ; 
 asses and mules, 1,129,553 ; working oxen, 2,240,075 ; 
 milch cows, 8,728,862 ; other cattle, 14,671,400 ; swine, 
 32,555,367. The number of sheep returned in the last 
 census of 1860 was 23,317,756, and the amount of wool 
 60,511,3431bs. In addition to the number of sheep just 
 given, it was reported that about 1,505,810 were not in- 
 cluded in the returns, being owned by other than farmers. 
 The total increase of sheep in ten years was 1,594,536. 
 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 The manufacturing industry of the United States dates 
 from a period prior to their existence as an independent 
 
 4 
 
50 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 nation. Until the English Government forbade the sale 
 of their manufactured products abroad, from the fear of its 
 competition with her home industries, products of the 
 lever, the forge, and the anvil, were among the exports of 
 the New England colonies. The United States cannot as 
 yet compete with the more fully populated countries of 
 Western Europe; but their advance in this respect is 
 steady, and has of late years been wonderfully rapid. The 
 essential materials required for the development of manu- 
 facturing industry are coal and iron, and these are in ex- 
 haustless abundance. The unceasing energy that is dis- 
 played in every department of industry bids fair to place 
 them ere long in the first rank of manufacturing nations. 
 
 Mr. Kennedy, in his preliminary report of the United 
 States census of I860, says : — " The returns of manufactures 
 exhibit a most gratifying increase, and present at the same 
 time an imposing view of the magnitude to which this 
 branch of thenational industry has attained within thelast ten 
 years. The total value of domestic manufactures (including 
 fisheries and the products of the mines) for the year ending- 
 June 1, 1860, reached an aggregate value of $1,900,000,000 
 (£380,000,000). This result exhibits an increase of more 
 than 86 per cent, in ten years. The growth of this 
 branch of American labour appears, therefore, to have been 
 in much greater ratio than that of the population. Its 
 increase has been 123 per cent, greater than that even of 
 the white population, by which it was principally pro- 
 duced." 
 
 The chief manufacturing sections are the New England, 
 or Eastern States, and the Middle States. The most cele- 
 brated products are heavy cotton and woollen goods, iron- 
 ware, machinery, boots, shoes, and agricultural tools. 
 In the extent of the cotton and iron manufactures this 
 country surpasses all others except England. Pennsylvania 
 
MANUFACTURES. 51 
 
 and New York surpass any of the other States in the 
 Union in the number of their manufacturing establish- 
 ments ; Ohio and Massachusetts come next in order. 
 
 The manufacture of iron is superior to any other in 
 amount, and is pursued to a great extent nearly through- 
 out the Union. In Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Mas- 
 sachusetts, and New Jersey, it forms one of the most 
 valuable and characteristic branches of industry and in 
 Pennsylvania nearly one-tenth of the population derive 
 their subsistence from it. 
 
 The manufacture of iron was conducted on a large 
 scale for many years before the revolution. The necessity 
 of iron for so many uses stimulated its manufacture after 
 the colonies became independent ; and though it was 
 largely imported from Europe, the combination of skill and 
 capital, and the known existence of superior ores, caused a 
 healthy growth in the production. 
 
 The quantity of pig iron returned by the census table 
 of I860 was 884,474 tons of bar, and other rolled iron 
 406,298 tons, the aggregate value of which was nearly 
 $42,000,000 (£8,500,000). Of this amount, Pennsylvania 
 contributed over $34,000,000 (£6,S00,000). 
 
 A large portion of the capital of the United States is 
 invested in the manufacture of machinery and implements, 
 of which a quantity are exported to foreign countries. The 
 agricultural implements manufactured in I860 were of the 
 value of over $17,000,000. This branch of industry has 
 increased in a most extraordinary manner during the last 
 ten years, especially in the Western States. The value of 
 implements produced there was $7,955,545 (£1,591,109), 
 against barely $2,000,000 (£400,000) in 1859. The States 
 of Ohio and Illinois are the largest manufacturers in the 
 "West. New England shows an increase of about 65 per 
 cent. In the Southern States the manufacture has increased 
 
52 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 101 per cent., the largest increase being in Virginia, 
 Alabama, and Louisiana. The total production of the 
 country since 1859 has been increased 160 per cent. ; the 
 greatest; increase being manifested in Michigan, Indiana, 
 and Wisconsin, which is 1250, 386, and 201 per cent, 
 respectively. 
 
 The construction of machinery for the purposes of the 
 engineer and manufacturer has become a most important 
 branch of industry. Nearly every section of the country, 
 particularly the Atlantic slope, possesses a great affluence 
 of water-power, to appropriate and adopt which to manu- 
 facturing purposes has given a great impetus to the con- 
 struction of hydraulic machinery. The demand for rapid 
 locomotion, and for the various kinds of machinery used 
 in mills, mines, factories, etc., as well as for building and 
 engineering, has caused the most rapid growth of this 
 branch of industry. Perhaps nothing shows more the 
 progress of a country in all operative branches than the 
 increase in the statistics of this department. The annual 
 product of the machinists' and millwrights' department in 
 1850 was valued at about $28,000,000 (£5,600,000) ; in 
 1860 this reached upwards of $47,000,000 (£9,400,000)— 
 an increase of over $19,000,000 (or nearly £4,000,000) in 
 ten years. This is exclusive of sewing machines. The 
 Middle States were the largest producers, having made 48 
 per cent, of the whole ; but the Southern and Western 
 States show the largest increase. New York and Pennsyl- 
 vania take the lead, followed by Massachusetts, Ohio, and 
 New Jersey. Iowa shows the greatest increase, being 29.11 
 per cent. ; Maine shows the smallest, being only 5. 
 
 Besides the machinery and castings included in the 
 above, the value of the production of the iron foundries 
 must be taken. This in 1860 was $27,970,193 (£5,554,038), 
 being an increase on 1850 of 42 per cent. New York and 
 
OAKUFACTUKES. 53 
 
 Pennsylvania show an increase of 39 and 60 per cent, 
 respectively. The extensive stove foundries in the former 
 State augmenting most materially the value of its produc- 
 tion, which amounted to §8,216,124 (£1,643,224). 
 
 "The sewing machine has been improved and intro- 
 duced, in the last ten years, to an extent which has made 
 it altogether a revolutionary instrument. It has opened 
 avenues to profitable and healthful industry for thousands 
 of industrious females, to whom the labours of the needle 
 *had become wholly unremunerative and injurious in their 
 effects. Like all automatic powers, it has enhanced the 
 comforts of every class, by cheapening the process of 
 manufacture of numerous articles of prime necessity, with- 
 out permanently subtracting from the average means of 
 support of any portion of the community. It has added a 
 positive increment to the permanent wealth of the country, 
 by creating larger and more varied applications of capital 
 and skill in the several branches of which it is auxiliary. 
 The manufacture of the machine has itself become one of 
 considerable magnitude, and has received a remarkable 
 impulse since 1850. The returns show an aggregate of 
 116,330 machines made in nine States in 1860, the value of 
 which was $5,605,305 (£1,121,109). During the year 
 1861 sewing machines to the value of over §61,000 were 
 exported to foreign countries. It is already employed in a 
 great variety of operations, and upon different materials, 
 and is rapidly becoming an indispensable and general 
 appendage to the household." 
 
 The cotton manufacture was commenced as early as 
 1790, although there had been some home manufac- 
 ture of cotton goods prior to that time. The progress of 
 the manufacture had, however, been impeded by the large 
 quantities of English cotton goods imported annually from 
 Great Britain, where the invention of the power-loom had 
 
54 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 cheapened the cost of production. In 1822, the first cotton 
 mill was erected at Lowell. 
 
 The States most extensively engaged in the cotton 
 manufacture are, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, and New York; and this manufacture 
 is carried on in all the States of the Union excepting 
 seven. It is chiefly the coarser description of fabrics that 
 are produced. 
 
 The total value of the cotton goods for 1860 was 
 $115,237,926 (£23,047,585), of which, New England con- 
 tributed $80,301,535 (£16,060,370), and the Middle 
 States $26,272,111 (£5,254,422). In the States of Maine 
 and New Jersey, the increase during the last ten years has 
 been 152 per cent. 
 
 In 1860, the number of hands employed was 45,315 
 males, and 73,605 females ; and the average product of the 
 labour of each was $969. The number of spindles re- 
 turned was 5,035,798. The average product per spindle 
 in the whole Union is $2286, in New England $2030, in 
 the Middle States, $3010. 
 
 The quantity of cotton used was 364,036,1231bs. or 
 910,090 bales of 4001bs. each. Massachusetts, which 
 stands at the head of the cotton-manufacturing States, 
 had, in 1860, 200 factories, with 1,739,700 spindles, 
 and 44,978 looms; $33,300,000 (£6,660,000) of capital 
 invested in the trade ; employed 22,353 female, and 12,635 
 male hands, whose labour cost $7,221,156 (£1,444,231). 
 In 1860, 915 manufactories were in operation, of these 192 
 were in the Southern and Western States. The increase 
 in ten years is about 76 per cent. ; however, the dearth, 
 high price of cotton, and the general depression of business 
 consequent upon the civil war, have since that date dimi- 
 nished for a time the amount of production. 
 
 The woollen manufacture was carried on as a branch 
 
MANUFACTURES. 55 
 
 of home industry almost from the foundation of the 
 colonies, but was not carried on in large establishments to 
 any considerable extent till after 1810. In 1850, the 
 manufacturers of broadcloths learned the art of dyeing 
 them with fast colours, and this part of the manufacture 
 received a very considerable impulse . The power carpet- 
 loom had also been invented, and the manufacturers were 
 able to make carpets equal in quality and in dura- 
 bility to the English. In 1860, the number of establish- 
 ments had been reduced by amalgamation, being 638 less 
 than in 1850 ; but the amount of capital invested in the 
 business had risen to $35, 520,52 7. Twenty-five out of 
 the thirty-one States have woollen manufactories, Massa- 
 chusetts again ranking first in order of importance, New 
 York taking the second place, and Connecticut the third. 
 The largest amount is made in New England, of which 
 more than one half comes from Massachusetts, which has 
 131 factories of large size. Pennsylvania comes next, and 
 though it has more establishments, yet scarcely produces 
 half as much. New York ranks third. Kentucky takes 
 the lead among the Western States, displacing Ohio, in 
 which the woollen trade had decreased since 1850. 
 
 The manufacture of leather was commenced very soon 
 after the settlement of the colonies, being one of the class 
 of manufactures well adapted to new settlements, and its 
 advancement has been steadily increasing to the present 
 time. The large tanneries have usually been situated in 
 districts where the hemlock and oak abounded, for 
 obtaining the bark used in tanning without too much 
 expense of transportation. In 1860, the production of 
 leather is stated at $63,091,051 (£12,619,210). The 
 largest producers are New York, Pennsylvania, and Massa- 
 chusetts. Including morocco and patent leather, the aggre- 
 gate value in 1860 exceeded $67,000,000 (£13,200,000). 
 
56 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMEKICA. 
 
 In the manufacture of boots and shoes, a larger number of 
 hands are employed than in any other single branch of 
 industry* in the United States. The total number of 
 establishments was returned as 11,864; the capital invested 
 over 824,000,000 (£4,800,000) ; number of hands em- 
 ployed, 96,287 male, and 31,140 female ; and the value oi 
 the whole manufacture was §89,549,900 (£17,909,980). 
 The largest production of any one State was that of 
 Massachusetts, $46,440,209 (£9 ; 288,041) ; New York 
 ranking next, §10,878,797 (£2,175,759). The largest 
 production of a single establishment was one in North 
 Brookfield, Massachusetts, and amounted to $750,000 
 (£150,000). 
 
 The most important manufacture, flour, has increased 
 enormously during the last ten years, the value of 
 which increase is estimated to be nearly $90,000,000. 
 The value of the total manufacture in 1860 was 
 §223,144,369 (£44,628,873) ; of this amount the export 
 for the year was §15,448,507 (£3,089,701). The increase 
 in the last ten years has been 64 per cent. The largest 
 mill in the Union is in Oswego, New York, which in 1860 
 produced 300,000 barrels of flour ; two in Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia, made 190,000 and 160,000 respectively; and another 
 in New York city returned 146,000 barrels. The value of 
 the production of each of these three mills ranged from 
 §1,000,000 to §1,500,000 (£200,000 to £300,000) an- 
 nually. 
 
 The Western States take the lead in this manufacture ; 
 the Middle, Southern, New England, and Pacific States 
 following in order. The latter show an increase on the 
 value of the manufacture in 1850 of 222 per cent. 
 
 The influence of improved machinery is conspicuously 
 exhibited in the manufacture of sawed and planed timber, 
 in which the United States stand] altogether unrivalled, as 
 
MANUFACTURES. 57 
 
 well for the extent and perfection of the mechanism em- , 
 ployed, as the amount of the product. This reached, in 
 I860, the value of $95,912,286 (£19,182,457), an increase 
 of 64 per cent, in the last decade ; New York and Penn- 
 sylvania contributing the largest share ot this amount. 
 
 In the manufacture of spirituous liquors the Middle 
 and Western States have the largest share. The total 
 number of distilleries are put down at 1138, besides a 
 large number of rectifying establishments. The product 
 of the former was over 88,000,000 of gallons, of the value 
 of §24,253,176 (£4,850,635). 
 
 Malt liquors employed 969 breweries in 1860, more 
 than double as many than in 1850 ; and the total of all 
 kinds of beer was 3,235,545 barrels, of the value of 
 $17,977,135 (£3,595,427). Among the Eastern States, 
 Massachusetts, and among the Western, Ohio, Illinois, 
 and Missouri, were the largest producers. 
 
 The making and refining of salt in the United States in 
 1850 employed 340 establishments, and the value of their 
 production was $2,177,945. The four States of New York, 
 Virginia, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, which, in the order 
 named, are the principal salt-producing States, made, ac- 
 cording to the returns of 1860, nearly 12,000,000 bushels, 
 the value of which, at 1S| cents per bushel, was £440,000, 
 or $2,200,000. Texas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and 
 California, are also salt-producing States. About 60 per 
 cent, of the whole was made in New York. 
 
58 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 FISHERIES. 
 
 The fisheries of the United States, being encouraged 
 by liberal bounties from the Government, have become 
 greater than those of any other nation. They are exten- 
 sively prosecuted in distant seas, and along the neighbour- 
 ing shores of the British provinces, as well as upon its own 
 coasts. It is, however, to be regretted that the non-re- 
 newal by the American Government of the Reciprocity 
 Treaty of 1854, has materially curtailed the area of the 
 fishing-grounds. 
 
 The most important fisheries, ranked according to the 
 value of their yearly returns, are the whale, cod, mackerel, 
 herring, and oyster fisheries. 
 
 The total value of the lake, river, shore, and deep sea 
 fisheries, amounted in 1860 to $12,924,092 (£2,584,818). 
 This amount includes oysters to the value of $382,170 
 (£76,434), and the product of the whale fisheries $7,521,588 
 (£1,504,317); of this latter, $6,526,238 (£1,305,247) be- 
 longs to Massachusetts. The total value of the product of 
 this State was $9,300,442 (£1,860,088), thus contributing 
 nearly 72 per cent, of the whole production of the United 
 States fisheries, and taking the lead in this most important 
 branch of maritime trade. 
 
 Maine holds the second place, returning $1,050,755 
 (£210,151) as the value of the cod, mackerel, herring, etc., 
 taken by its fishermen. 
 
 Michigan returned the largest value in white fish 
 $250,467 (£50,093) ; New Jersey, New York, and Vir- 
 ginia, contributed the greatest amount of oysters. 
 
 A decline in the whale fishery has taken place, owing to 
 a scarcity of the fish in its former haunts ; a slight decline 
 has also taken place in the value of the cod fisheries. 
 
COMMEKCE. 59 
 
 The returns of salmon fishing are from three States 
 only, California, Oregon, and Washington, the total value 
 being 651,300 (£10,260). The rivers in the Pacific 
 States abound with this fish, which is of the finest quality. 
 Pickerel to the amonnt of about §85,000 (£17,000) arc 
 yearly taken from the rivers which flow into Lakes Brie, 
 Huron, Michigan, and Superior. 
 
 The shad fisheries are most valuable. This fish is prin- 
 cipally taken from the rivers falling into the Atlantic, as 
 the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac. North 
 Carolina has the largest fishery, and is followed by Florida 
 and New Hampshire. The total value of this fish for 1860 
 was returned as $321,052 (£64,210). 
 
 The value of sea products, such as fish oil, spermaceti, 
 fish dried and pickled, exported in the year 1860, was over 
 $4,000,000 (£800,000). 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 " The commerce of the United States attained consider- 
 able power at an early period. In 1700, the exports of 
 New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Mary- 
 land, and Carolina, amounted to about £395,000, and their 
 imports to £344,000. In July 1807, American commerce 
 received a blow from which it did not recover for years. 
 * The orders in council ' of the British parliament, followed 
 as they were by the ' Berlin and Milan decrees ' of Napo- 
 leon, and by our own embargo act in 1807, produced 
 a terrible stagnation. From that period to 1830, except 
 the year 1818, the average of imports did not exceed 
 $78,000,000 (£15,600,000), and the exports were of about 
 the same amount. From 1831 to 1837 the imports and 
 
60 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 exports rapidly increased. The revulsion of 1837, and the 
 combined results of the bankrupt law, the change in the 
 tariff, and the secondary effects of the great financial panic, 
 reduced both imports and exports, which touched their 
 lowest point in 1842. From that date, the increase was 
 gradual at first, but more rapid in the later years, up to 
 1860, when the exports were $400,122,296 (£80,024,459), 
 and the imports $362,163,941 (£72,432,788). In 1854, a 
 treaty was entered into between the United States and 
 Great Britain for the reciprocal admission, free of duty, 
 into the former, and the provinces of Canada, New Bruns- 
 wick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Isle, and Newfound- 
 land, of certain specified articles, being the chief produc- 
 tions of those countries ; the treaty to continue in force 
 ten years, and then until twelve months after notice given 
 by either party of a desire to abrogate it. All which has 
 much augmented the commerce of the provinces, and 
 opened greater facilities for bringing Western produce to 
 market. 
 
 A vast inland trade is carried on, over an unequalled 
 extent of artificial natural lines of communication. The 
 domestic commerce of the United States may be divided 
 into three branches. 1. That which is carried on coast- 
 wise, up the bays and large rivers, and on the great lakes, 
 by schooners, sloops, and steamboats. 2. That which is 
 carried on chiefly in steamboats, but partly in rude flat- 
 bottomed boats, on the affluents of the Mississippi. The 
 natural centre of this trade is New Orleans, which, situ- 
 ated at the outlet of the valley, is necessarily the great 
 entrepot of all the produce destined for exportation, and 
 of all the foreign articles required to supply the wants of 
 the people of the Western States. 3. The overland trade, 
 between the Western and Atlantic States, which consists 
 principally of horses, hogs, cattle, and mules, driven every 
 
COMMERCE. 61 
 
 year to the Atlantic States, to the value of many millions 
 of dollars ; but the difficulty of conveyance long prevented 
 any other return than money. The many canals and rail- 
 ways now constructed, however, transport returned mer- 
 chandise, as well as travellers, across the mountains. The 
 four maritime States of New England are those most 
 devoted to navigation and trade ; Massachusetts, though 
 it contains less than one twenty-fifth of the population of 
 the United States, owns more than one-fourth of the ship- 
 ping tonnage. 
 
 In commercial affairs, the country now undoubtedly 
 enjoys great advantages: the extent of the coast, the 
 energy of the people, and, above all, the unrestrained 
 liberty enjoyed in this, as in all other departments of life 
 by the Americans, have tended to such a result. The 
 commerce of the United States has obtained a surprising 
 magnitude, and is second only to that of Great Britain. 
 There is no part of the globe which is not visited by the 
 American merchantmen. 
 
 The imports of the United States consist principally of 
 manufactured goods, chiefly of the finer kinds, a large 
 proportion being supplied by Great Britain ; with sugar, 
 molasses, coffee, and other tropical produce, besides tea, 
 hides, wines, spirits, dried fruits, and a great variety of 
 minor articles, including watches, boohs, prints, etc. 
 
 The exports are principally raw produce, and embrace 
 cotton, flour, maize, tobacco, rice, sawn and planed timber 
 of every kind, beef, pork, dried fish, whale and other fish- 
 oil, tar, pitch, turpentine, horses and cattle skins, furs, and 
 bullion (chiefly gold), besides a few manufactured com- 
 modities. Of these items, cotton is by far the largest in 
 amount, and forms nearly a third part of their total value. 
 
 The various articles of export may be arranged under 
 four heads : — 1, produce of agriculture, which constitutes 
 
62 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 more than three-fourths of the entire value ; 2, the forest 
 produce, amounting to about a twentieth part; 3, the 
 fisheries, representing about a forty-eighth part of the 
 whole ; and, 4; the different manufactures, which make up 
 the remaining portion, that is, about a tenth part of the 
 total amount. 
 
 The following statement shows, in approximate round 
 numbers, the mean annual value for the last ten years prior 
 to July, 1860, of the leading exports of domestic produce, 
 and of the principal imports of foreign produce for domestic 
 consumption, with the corresponding totals of all the ex- 
 ports and imports of a like character : — 
 
 DOMESTIC EXPORTS. 
 
 YEARLY VALUE. 
 
 Cotton £124,000,000 
 
 Breadstuff's and provisions 50,000,000 
 
 Manufactures 43,000,000 
 
 Gold and silver (in coin and bullion) 42,000,000 
 
 Tobacco (not including manufactured tobacco) . . . 15,000,000 
 
 Timber, etc 5,000,000 
 
 FOREIGN IMPORTS FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION. 
 
 YEABLY VALUE. 
 
 Woollen goods $28,000,000 
 
 Silk „ 27,000,000 
 
 Cotton „ 22,000,000 
 
 Sugar., , 21,000,000 
 
 Iron and manufactures of iron 20,000,000 
 
 Coffee 19,000,000 
 
 Linen and linen fabrics 10,000,000 
 
 Tea 7,000,000 
 
 Total foreign imports of all kinds, appropriated for 
 domestic consumption $268,000,000 
 
 Owing to the bulky nature of most of the exports, an 
 immense number of vessels is required for their transpor- 
 
MINING. 63 
 
 tation; hence the mercantile marine of the United States, 
 previous to the late war, was the largest in the world. 
 
 The State of Maine takes the lead in ship-building ; 
 New York is second ; Massachusetts third ; Pennsylvania 
 fourth ; and Connecticut fifth. 
 
 The number of ships and barques built in the sis years ending 
 
 I860 was 1,259 
 
 Number of brigs 397 
 
 „ schooners 2,803 
 
 „ sloops and canal boats... 2,480 
 
 5 , steamers 1,389 
 
 Total tonnage of the above 2,013,427 
 
 Total tonnage of the United States 
 
 in 1850 3,772,439 
 
 Total tonnage of the United States 
 
 in 1860 7,361,639 
 
 Estimated value of this tonnage $221,592,480 (£44,318,496) 
 
 MINING. 
 
 In the several branches of this department a large 
 amount of capital and labour is employed. The develop- 
 ment of the many valuable mines — forming, as they do, 
 the repository and fountain-head of crude materials for 
 immense and varied industry in the metallurgic and 
 chemical arts, has become a leading occupation. 
 
 The great metalliferous region is found between the 
 
G4 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Missouri River and the Pacific Ocean, embracing a little 
 more than half the breadth of the United States. The 
 Hon. W. M. Stewart, in a speech recently delivered, thus 
 pictures the mining resources of the Pacific region : — 
 " When the light of science, invigorated by the inventive 
 genius of Americans, shall have spread its rays, it will 
 reveal to the world the El Dorado of Columbus and 
 his followers. Enough is already known to establish the 
 fact that this is a vast mineral region, surpassing in 
 richness all other discoveries hitherto made. Here is 
 a field for three millions of miners ; here are homes for 
 twenty millions of people ; here are resources poured 
 into the lap of the industry of the East, augmenting 
 and accumulating strength and importance by the ex- 
 haustless varieties of the products of the country. The 
 Sierra and Rocky Mountains have been traversed and 
 partially explored ; a country more extensive in territory 
 than all the States east of the Mississippi has been proved 
 rich in gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, iron, salt, 
 sulphur, saleratus, and nearly every other mineral that can 
 contribute to the wealth of civilized man." 
 
 " The gold-bearing region of the United States," says 
 Mr. Chase, in his Treasury Report for 1862, " stretches 
 through near eighteen degrees of latitude, from British 
 Columbia on the north, to Mexico on the south ; and 
 through more than twenty degrees of longitude, from the 
 eastern declination of the Rocky Mountains, to the Pacific 
 Ocean. It includes four States — California, Oregon, 
 Nevada, and Colorado ; six Territories — Utah, New 
 Mexico, Dacotah, Idaho, Montano, and Arizona ; and forms 
 an area of more than a million of square miles ; the whole 
 of which, with comparatively unimportant exceptions, is 
 the property of the nation." 
 
 The yield of the precious metals in this region alone 
 
MINING. C5 
 
 will probably be over $100,000,000 a year, increasing' 
 with the influx of population for many years to come. 
 "While gold has been found in paying quantities all 
 along the Rocky chain, its deposits are not confined 
 to this locality, but sweep across the country eastward 
 some hundreds of miles, to the Big Horn Mountains. 
 The gold discoveries there cover a large area of the 
 country . 
 
 The silver-fields lately discovered and opened in Colo- 
 rado and Nevada, upon the western slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains — which are asserted to be the legitimate locali- 
 ties for true gold and silver bearing ores — are apparently 
 in prominence and value beyond any known in the world, 
 and the results that will be realized within the next few 
 years, will constitute an epoch in the history of silver 
 mining. 
 
 The Hon. J. P. Usher, Secretary of the Interior, says of 
 these recent discoveries : " A vast belt of some one or two 
 hundred miles in width, and eight or nine hundred in 
 length, embracing portions of Idaho, Nevada, and Ari- 
 zona, is rich in silver ore ; and it is estimated by per- 
 sons familiar with the subject, that, if the mines now 
 opened there were supplied' with the proper machinery, 
 they would yield §10,000,000 per month. In the same 
 region vast beds of salt have also been found, which, 
 from its value in the process of separating the silver in 
 the ores, has given a fresh impulse to mining. When 
 we reflect that the richest veins of ore heretofore dis- 
 covered are as yet but slightly developed, whilst new 
 discoveries are constantly made, it will be perceived that 
 the annual product of the mines in the United States 
 must soon reach a magnitude without precedent in the 
 history of mining operations." 
 
 The enormous production of the mines of the Pacific 
 
66 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 coast for the last fourteen years, has indeed been most 
 surprising. From 1849 to 1862 the sum of $750,000,000 
 (£150,000,000) in coin and bullion, was shipped from the 
 United States to foreign countries — chiefly to England, 
 nearly all of which has been the product of this coast. 
 The progressive development of this vast mineral region 
 must soon build up a great empire on the Pacific. The 
 weekly receipts of bullion from the mines in Nevada is 
 already reckoned by the ton. The Comstock Lode, the 
 most valuable mine of silver that has yet been struck, 
 almost justifies the supposition that it is limitless in its 
 wealth, and " no description of it," says Mr. Greeley, 
 " can give any adequate idea of its wonderful wealth of 
 silver." The Washoe Valley and the Reese Valley are 
 the principal mining districts. 
 
 Ores are now sent from California and Nevada to 
 Swansea, in Wales, to be smelted. 25 per cent, more 
 silver is extracted from these ores at Swansea than 
 would have been extracted in America; a quantity of 
 rich silver ore, sent from one of the Nevada districts 
 was found to contain a sufficient quantity of other 
 valuable metals to defray the whole expenses, including 
 carriage from the mines. 
 
 Lead ore is found in Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, 
 Virginia, and New York. The order in which the States are 
 mentioned represents the order of their productiveness. The 
 value of the total amount in 1860 was $977,281 (£195,456). 
 The lead region of Missouri is computed to extend over 
 an area of six thousand square miles; the mines which 
 have been worked for more than fifty years show no signs 
 of exhaustion. The lead mines of Iowa are perhaps the 
 most productive in the world, but at present they are not 
 worked to their full extent. 
 
 Copper ore to the amount of 14,432 tons was obtained 
 
MINING. 67 
 
 in the j r ear 1860 ; eight States contributed, Michigan 
 taking the lead with 6283 tons ; the total value was 
 $3,316,516 (£663,303). In Minnesota there is a consider- 
 able quantity of copper in the mineral belt stretching along 
 the northern shore of Lake Superior. 
 
 The quicksilver mines of California are an important 
 branch of the mining interest, though the gold excitement 
 is the cause of their hardly receiving a passing notice. 
 They are, however, most profitably and permanently 
 worked. It is found on the coast range of mountains, ex- 
 tending from the Mendocino County to the Colorado River. 
 
 Deposits of iron ore, affording abundant supplies of 
 metal, are found in nearly every State. But owing to the 
 cheapness of foreign iron — which is largely imported — they 
 are not extensively mined, except in a few States. The 
 aggregate yield, however, is greater than in any other 
 country except England. 
 
 About 2,500,000 tons of iron ore were mined, in 1860, 
 of which 1,706,476 tons were obtained in Pennsylvania. 
 Ohio and New York were the next principal contributors : 
 the former of 228,794 tons, the latter of 176,375 tons. 
 In Missouri, there is an inexhaustible supply of this 
 metal, of which upwards of 13,000,000 tons are estimated 
 to be above the surface. Iron Mountain, which is 228 
 feet high, and covers at its base an area of 1,655,280,000 
 cubic feet, is computed to contain about 250,000,000 tons 
 of iron ore. Pilot Knob, in the same State, is a solid 
 mass of iron, covering an area of 360 acres. 
 
 Of the other metals, nickel and zinc are mined in Penn- 
 sylvania alone ; the quantity obtained in 1860 being 2348 
 tons, value $28,176 (£5,635), of the one, and 11,800 tons, 
 value 372,600 (£14,520), of the other. 
 
 " All reports, all facts," says a recent writer, " go to 
 sustain the broadest and fullest meanine* of the state- 
 
08 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 ment of President Lincoln, that the United States 
 hold the treasury of the world ; and to establish beyond 
 reasonable doubt, that the countries of and adjacent to the 
 Rocky Mountains are freighted with the most precious of 
 ores — gold first, next silver, then copper, and also lead, 
 iron, and coal ; on the plains at the foot of the mountains, 
 coal and iron are already found in abundant quantities, 
 and are being mined and put to practical use ; found, 
 too, just where they are most needed, to take the place 
 of the wood now fast being drained from the mountains, 
 and furnish the material for the machinery necessary to 
 work the ore, and make available the finer metals." 
 
 Among the non-metallic mineral products of the United 
 States, coal is most important ; and the unequalled wealth 
 and rapid development of the coal-fields are most striking. 
 Anthracite coal is obtained in great abundance from ex- 
 tensive deposits between the Blue Ridge and neighbouring 
 Alleghanies ; bituminous coal, from vast beds in the 
 Mississippi Valley. The whole amount procured in the 
 country is exceeded only by that obtained in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The coal-fields in the eastern part of the United States 
 are estimated to cover an area of not less than 225,000 
 square miles, nearly equal to the whole of the Western 
 States north of the Ohio River, and cast of the Mississippi. 
 The principal of these, known as the Appalachian coal- 
 field, extends along the western border of the Appalachian 
 Highlands, from New York to Alabama, covering nearly 
 100,000 square miles. Another, more than half as large, 
 occupies south-western Indiana and most of Illinois; 
 another, of great extent, occurs in Missouri and Iowa; and 
 another, of several thousand square miles, in Michigan. 
 
 The product of anthracite coal in the year ending June 1, 
 1860, was 9,397,332 tons, contributed— with the exception 
 
PETROLEUM. 69 
 
 of 1000 tons by Rhode Island — by Pennsylvania alone. 
 Bituminous coal was obtained in fourteen States, to the 
 amount of 5,775,077 tons, of which Pennsylvania con- 
 tributed the largest share, being at the rate of 46*4 per 
 cent. ; Ohio, Illinois, Maryland, come next in order. The 
 aggregate amount of all the coal mined in the United 
 States in the same year was 15,173,409 tons, of the value 
 of $19,365,765 (£3,873,153). The value in 1850 was 
 §7,173,750 (£1,434,750). 
 
 PETROLEUM. 
 
 The discovery of the oil-springs in Pennsylvania has 
 led to the development of one of the most important natu- 
 ral resources of the country, as well as a most valuable 
 addition to its exports. This oil is called petroleum, or 
 rock oil; from petra, a rock, and oleum, oil. 
 
 The presence of petroleum in large quantities is not 
 limited to the United States. The ancients seem to have 
 discovered springs of flowing bitumen, which is identical 
 with modern petroleum. One spring mentioned by Hero- 
 dotus as being situated in the Ionian Islands still flows, 
 although it must have been in existence more than two 
 thousand years. It is also found in Canada, Mexico, 
 Northern Italy, on the shores of the Caspian Sea; in 
 Prance, Germany, India, and other localities. 
 
 As early as the middle of the last century, this produc- 
 tion was brought to the notice of the white population by 
 
70 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 the Seneca Indians, who found it npon Oil Creek, a branch 
 of the Alleghany, where a perennial flow of oil has been 
 known to exist for upwards of a century ; and there is no 
 doubt but that petroleum formed an article of traffic 
 between the Indians and French traders while they held 
 the valley of the Mississippi. In 1845, the first important 
 spring was struck at Tarentum, thirty-five miles above 
 Pittsburg, on the Alleghany. In 1857, operations were 
 commenced at Titusvilla, and in 1859 a fountain was 
 reached by boring, at the depth of seventy-one feet, which 
 yielded 400 gallons daily. 
 
 The springs are found principally in the bituminous 
 coal areas of the United States, which extend upwards of 
 62,000 square miles, in eight of the Middle, Southern, and 
 Western States. In the oil regions of Kentucky, Ohio, 
 and West Virginia, the oil is found in the Carboniferous 
 group ; in Pennsylvania, in the Devonian. The fact, how- 
 ever, that the deposits of petroleum are not confined to any 
 particular system of rocks, seems to complicate its origin, 
 and make it most difficult of explanation. Several theories 
 have been started to account for it; the most, however, 
 that is known upon the subject, is, that the oil is of an 
 organic nature ; that it is found not only near bituminous 
 shales and coal, but also that it issues from all the stratified 
 rocks, from volcanic and metamorphic formations, from 
 beds of lignite, and, in occasional instances, from a source 
 of which nothing can be discovered. It is supposed 
 that the processes of producing petroleum are going 
 on beneath the level Western prairies, and that the oil 
 thus formed penetrates the planes of stratification, and 
 is diffused through the various layers of rock, and brought 
 by running water to the surface. But the evenness of the 
 surface indicates that the layers of the rocks beneath are 
 undisturbed. 
 
PETROLEUM. 71 
 
 The phenomena attending its appearance are nearly 
 always the same. In almost all cases its existence is accom- 
 panied by the presence of salt springs, and of jets of car- 
 buretted hydrogen gas. The fissures of the oil-bearing 
 rocks seems filled with this gas, which is always indicative 
 of oil. The oil comes to the surface in springs, or spreads 
 its prismatic beauty across running streams, and may be 
 brought by underground currents of water from great 
 distances. 
 
 The oil does not run with certainty, nor can it be 
 correctly estimated as to what an oil well will produce, or 
 how long it will last. In some cases the oil will run for 
 several hours and then stop, and will then commence 
 again with greater force than before. Some flow at 
 regular intervals of three, four, or twelve hours, others 
 flow only at night. Some pour forth immense quantities 
 of salt brine alternately with oil, others for hours only 
 evolve a dangerous and highly inflammable vapour. The 
 wells are affected to a large extent by the external at- 
 mosphere, a change of the weather being as distinctly 
 indicated by the rise of the oil as by the rise of the mercury 
 in a barometer. The correspondent of the Times, writing 
 of this fact, observes that " the generally received idea of 
 the temperature of the earth increasing in certain ratio 
 with the depth, is not supported by the experience of 
 petroleum, inasmuch as the oil brought up from the 
 greatest depths has a lower temperature than that obtained 
 nearer the surface." 
 
 Oil has been discovered in over three hundred localities 
 outside of the oil regions of Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, 
 and West Virginia. Among other portions of the country 
 in which oil indications are found may be mentioned Cali- 
 fornia, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, Michigan, and Iowa. On 
 the Des Moines River a great excitement has lately arisen, 
 
72 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 and all the bottom land lying adjacent to a stream emptying 
 into the Des Moines, called Spring Creek, has been bought 
 up by oil speculators. The surface indications are said to 
 be plentiful, the character of the country broken, and the 
 surrounding bluffs filled with coal. Land which was pre- 
 viously held at only thirty dollars an acre, has since sold 
 readily at prices varying from one hundred to three hun- 
 dred dollars per acre. 
 
 In the valley of Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, there are 
 fifteen farms, the area of which is little over 15,000 acres. 
 The number of wells on these farms is about 500, of which 
 nearly 200 are producing wells, with an average daily yield 
 of about 4000 barrels. Before the oil excitement began, 
 this property was almost valueless; in fact, through 
 the entire valley of Oil Creek, would not average five 
 dollars per acre, and large fortunes have been realized by 
 the original owners, and still larger ones by those who 
 have purchased the land. 
 
 The total exports of petroleum in 1862, 1863, 1864, and 
 1865, were as follows : — 
 
 1862... 10,887,701 gallons. 
 
 1863 28,250,721 „ 
 
 1864 31,792,972 „ 
 
 1865 42,273,508 „ 
 
 Of the exports for 1864, 24,000,000 gallons were 
 refined, and 8,000,000 crude, representing a money value 
 abroad, at the price of two shillings a gallon for refined 
 oil, of about £3,250,000 in gold, giving the United States, 
 at the current rate of exchange during the past year, a 
 purchasing power in European markets amounting to 
 §45,000,000 in U.S. currency. 
 
 There were in the United States, in 1865, 1457 oil com- 
 panies, with a total capital of $869,594,000 (£172,918,800). 
 
PETROLEUM. 73 
 
 The present yield is estimated to be at the rate of about 
 2-50,000 or 300,000 barrels per week. 
 
 A correspondent, writing from one of the large springs, 
 says : — " Gazing at the operations of this well, seeing an 
 unvarying stream as large as one's wrist pouring out day 
 and night, without cessation, the thing becomes really 
 marvellous. Here somebody has punched a hole in the 
 ground, thrust in an iron tube with a spout, erected enor- 
 mous reservoirs, and straightway up the tube, through the 
 spout, and into the tanks, there flow $11,000 every day. 
 He does nothing ; he need not stay there ; he may go to 
 Europe, or to Halifax, but the work goes on just the same. 
 Was there ever a similar case in the production of wealth ? 
 Gold-seeking has its charms and its votaries ? But the 
 gold-miner must go up into the gulches of the wintry 
 mountains, and delve incessantly to be remunerated. 
 Every ounce of gold dust comes to him only with labour. 
 When he ceases to use the pick, the drill, the crusher, the 
 washer, the flow of gold ceases. Can he drill a hole, plant 
 a pipe in the rocks, and induce the glittering dust, of its 
 own accord, to rush upward and outwards into prepared 
 receptacles?" 
 
CHAPTER III, 
 
 THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 Since the adoption of the United States Constitution, the 
 public lands owned by the States have been ceded to the 
 General Government, and a separate department has been 
 established nnder the Secretary of the Interior, for their 
 regulation, and a system enacted by Congress for their 
 survey and disposal. 
 
 The whole public domain is surveyed and divided by 
 parallel lines into " townships " of six miles square. These 
 are again divided by parallel lines exactly one mile apart. 
 These last squares are called " sections," and contain 640 
 acres, which are again divided into half and quarter sec- 
 tions, and also eighths. These lands are offered for sale 
 at the several land offices located in the districts to be sold. 
 The price is fixed at one dollar and a quarter per acre. 
 The purchaser comes in as the assignee of the United 
 States, and receives a patent from the President. There 
 are some fifty different land offices, and from two to three 
 million acres are sold annually. 
 
 The following extracts from the annual reports of 
 the Secretary of the Interior, presents some interesting 
 facts with regard to the immense extent of these lands still 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 75 
 
 unoccupied in the Western Territories. The report for 
 1864 states as follows : — 
 
 " From the foundation of the Government to the present 
 time the management and disposal of the public lands have 
 engrossed a large share of the public attention. Of the 
 two thousand millions of acres embraced in the territorial 
 extent of the United States, one thousand four hundred 
 millions belonged to the public domain. 
 
 " By a liberal policy in granting and selling lands, about 
 one-third of this vast patrimony has been disposed of, 
 leaving about one thousand millions of acres still the pro- 
 perty of the Government. About one-fourth of all the laws 
 that have been enacted by Congress relate to the public 
 lands, and to the settlement of the land claims derived from 
 the Governments which formerly had jurisdiction of the 
 soil. At some periods of American history, a considerable 
 income to the treasury has been derived from sales, and at 
 others the cash receipts have declined to a sum but little 
 exceeding the cost of administering the land system. 
 During the first sixty years of the present century, the 
 average income from sales was two and three-quarter mil- 
 lions of dollars per year, and the quantity disposed of by 
 sales, and for military bounties, was about two hundred 
 and five millions of acres. 
 
 " During the last ten years the income from lands was 
 less than during the preceding decade. This was occa- 
 sioned by the large quantities of land — granted for internal 
 improvements and for military and other purposes — which 
 have competed in the market with the lands of the United 
 States ; and, more recently, by the passage of the Home- 
 stead Law, under which large quantities have been entered 
 at nominal rates. The annual receipts from ordinary sales 
 for four years past have been as follows : — 
 
76 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1861 $884,887 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1862 125,043 . 
 
 Tor the year ending June 30, 1863 136,077 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 186 1 678,007 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1865 748,427 " 
 
 The depressing influences of civil war have been felt 
 during the last few years, but the results demonstrate a 
 revival of the annual demand for the public lands, parti- 
 cularly for settlement and cultivation. 
 
 The following is from the report for 1865 : — 
 " During the fiscal year ending June 30, 18G5, public 
 lands were disposed of as follows: — 
 
 Acres sold for Cash 557,212 
 
 Acres located with Military Warrants 348,660 
 
 Acres located with Agricultural Scrip 460,130 
 
 Acres selected under Agricultural College Grant 808,358 
 
 Acres approved to the States as Swamp Lands . , 571,429 
 
 Acres approved to the States for Kail ways 607,415 
 
 Acres taken under the Homestead Law 1,160,532 
 
 4,513,736 
 During the quarter ending September 30, 1S65, 
 the aggregate number of acres taken for the 
 same purposes was 880,591 
 
 Making during five quarters the total number of 
 acres 5,394,327 
 
 " The cash receipts from sales, homestead, and location 
 fees, for the same five quarters, ending September 30, 1865, 
 were 1,038,400. 
 
 " The cash sales for the year ending June 30, 18G5, 
 amounted to $748,427, an excess of $70,420 over the 
 sum received from the same source the previous year. 
 
 " During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1865, 4,161,778 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 77 
 
 acres of public lands were surveyed. The aggregate quan- 
 tity of surveyed public lands undisposed of, September, 
 1865, was 132,285,035 acres. 
 
 " The act of September 4, 1841, and the supplemental 
 act of March 3, 1843, confer upon actual settlers, upon 
 certain specified conditions, the right to acquire by pre- 
 emption surveyed public lands. Since that time the right 
 has been by various acts extended to unsurveyed lands, 
 but the period within which the claim must be preferred 
 after settlement, differs in the several States and Terri- 
 tories, although proof and payment must be made in all 
 before the day prescribed by proclamation of the Pre- 
 sident for the sale of the body of lands within which the 
 pre-emption claimant has settled. In some the claim of 
 settlement must be filed within three months after the re- 
 turn of the approved plat or survey to the local land offices ; 
 in others, within six months thereafter ; in others, within 
 three months after the survey has been made in the field ; 
 and in some of the newer Territories there is no specific 
 provision on this s abject, but all laws of the United 
 States, which are not locally inapplicable, are declared to 
 be in force. 
 
 " The Homestead Law has been in operation since 
 the 1st day of January, 1863. Large bodies of lands 
 have been entered under its provisions. Five years' 
 continued residence is necessary to the perfection of 
 the title of a Homestead settler unless he prefers to 
 purchase the land at the minimum price, and obtain 
 a patent. It is estimated that from forty to fifty per 
 cent, of persons who have so claimed the privilege of 
 the Homestead Law will prefer to make payment, and thus 
 secure title before the expiration of the period when it 
 would otherwise vest. The nominal sum paid by the 
 Homestead settler, and the fee which he pays to the local 
 
78 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 officers, are sufficient to cover the expense incident to the 
 survey and the disposal of the land. 
 
 " The Commissioner of the General Land Office has 
 held that the United States, as the successor of Mexico, 
 has the exclusive and paramount right to all such sites as 
 may be indispensable for forts or other public uses, and 
 this right will be enforced unless Congress shall otherwise 
 order. 
 
 " The organization of a Bureau of Mining was recom- 
 mended in the last annual report of this department, and 
 the attention of Congress is again invited to the subject. All 
 lands denominated mineral, which do not bear the precious 
 metals, should be brought into market, and thus placed 
 under the guardianship of private owners. In no other 
 mode, it is believed, can the great forests of timber — the 
 growth of centuries, and of vast value to the nation — be 
 effectually preserved from waste. Individual proprietor- 
 ship, it is conceded, would stimulate the development of 
 coal-fields, petroleum, deposits of iron, lead, and of other 
 gross metals and mineral formations. There can, there- 
 fore, be no sufficient reason fcr withholding such mineral 
 lands from market. Congress has not legislated with a 
 view to securing an income from the product of the pre- 
 cious metals from the public domain. It is estimated that 
 two or three thousand able-bodied men are engaged in such 
 mining operations on the public lands without authority of 
 law, who pay nothing to the Government for the privilege, 
 or for the permanent possession of property worth, in many 
 instances, millions to the claimant." 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 79 
 
 HOW TO SECURE THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 The following circular gives all necessary information 
 as to the procedure necessary in purchasing and securing 
 the public lands : — 
 
 Department oe the Intekioe, 
 
 Geneeal Land Office, July 19, 1865. 
 
 Numerous questions having arisen as to the mode of proceeding to 
 purchase public lands, or acquire title to the same by bounty land 
 locations, by pre-emptions or by homestead, this circular is communi- 
 cated for the information of all concerned. 
 
 In order to acquire title to public lands the following steps must 
 be taken : — 
 
 1. Application must be made to the Eegister of the district land 
 office in which the land desired may be situated. 
 
 A list of all the land offices in the United States is furnished by the 
 Department, with the seat of the different offices, where it is the duty 
 of the Kegister and Eeceiver to be in attendance, and give proper facili- 
 ties and information to persons desirous of obtaining lands. 
 
 The minimum price of ordinary public lands is $1 25c. per acre. 
 The even or reserved sections falling within railway grants are in- 
 creased to double the minimum price, being $2 50c. per acre. 
 
 Lands once offered at public sale, and not afterwards kept out of 
 market by reservation, or otherwise, so as to prevent free competition, 
 may he entered or located. 
 
 2. By the applicant filing with the Eegister his written application 
 describing the tract, with its area ; the Eegister will then certify to the 
 Eeceiver, whether the land is vacant, with its price ; and when found 
 to be so, the applicant must pay that price per acre, or may locate the 
 same with land warrant, and thereafter the Eeceiver will give him a 
 " duplicate receipt," which he is required to surrender prior to the 
 delivery to him of the patent, which may be had either by application 
 for it to the Eegister or to the General Land Office 
 
 3. If the tract has not been offered at public sale it is not liable to 
 ordinary private entry, but may be secured by a party legally qualified 
 upon his compliance with the requirements of the pre-emption laws of 
 4th September, 1841, and 3rd March, 1813; and after such party shall 
 have made actual settlement for such a length of time as will show he 
 designs it for his permanent home, and is acting in good faith, building 
 
80 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMEB1CA. 
 
 a house and residing therein, he may proceed to the district land office, 
 establish his pre-emption claim according to law by proving his actual 
 residence and cultivation, and showing that he is otherwise within the 
 purview of these acts. Then he can enter the land at one dollar and a 
 quarter, either with cash or with bounty land warrant, unless the pre- 
 mises should be two dollars and a half acre lands. In that case the 
 whole purchase-money can be paid in cash, or one-half in cash, the 
 residue with a bounty land warrant. 
 
 4. But if parties legally qualified desire to obtain title under the 
 Homestead Act of 20th May, 1862, they can do so on complying with 
 the Department Circular, dated 30th October, 1862. 
 
 5. The law confines Homestead entries to surveyed lands ; and 
 although, in certain States and Territories noted in the subjoined list, 
 pre- emptors may go on and before survey, yet they can only establish 
 their claim after return of survey, but must file their pre-emption 
 declaration within three months after receipt of official plat, at the local 
 land office where the settlement was made before survey. Where, 
 however, it was made after survey, the claimant mast file within three 
 months after date of settlement; and where actual residence and 
 cultivation have been long enough to show that the claimant has made 
 the land his permanent home, he can establish his claim, and pay for 
 the same at any time before the date of the public sale of lands within 
 the range of which his settlement may fall. 
 
 6. All unoffered surveyed lands not acquired under pre-emption, 
 homestead, or otherwise, under express legal sanction, must be offered 
 at public sale under the President's proclamation, and struck off to the 
 highest bidder, as required by the Act of April 24, 1820. 
 
 J. M. EDMUNDS, 
 Commissioner General Land Office. 
 
 SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 The following tabular statement shows the number of 
 acres of public lands surveyed in the different States 
 and Territories up to June 30, 1863, of public lands and 
 private land claims during the last fiscal year, and the total 
 of the public lands surveyed up to June 30, 1864, and also 
 the total area of the public domain remaining unsurveyed. 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 81 
 
 
 Surveyed up 
 
 Surveyed 
 within the 
 
 Total Sur- L T otal re- 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 to June 30th, 
 1863. 
 
 fiscal year 
 ending Jne 
 30, 1864. 
 
 veyed up to 
 June 30, 1864. 
 
 surveyed June 
 30, 1864. 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 32,570,590 
 35,630,898 
 
 410,933 
 
 32,981,523 
 35,630,898 
 
 1,529,837 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 20,404,088 
 
 599,305 
 
 21,003,393 
 
 30,443,648 
 
 Kansas 
 
 13,883,645 
 11,174,112 
 
 695,275 
 
 14,578,920 
 
 37,464,600 
 
 Nebraska Territory 
 
 733,405 
 
 11,907,517 
 
 26,729,283 
 
 California 
 
 26,463,404 
 
 147,584 
 
 258,991 
 
 26,722,395 
 417,433 
 
 74,937,285 
 
 Nevada Territory 
 
 269,849 
 
 51,767,527 
 
 Oregon 
 
 4,842,061 
 2,893,715 
 
 224,369 
 
 5,066,430 
 
 55,892,290 
 
 Washington Territory . . 
 
 137,579 
 
 3,031,294 
 
 41,746,866 
 
 Colorado Territory 
 
 161,064 
 
 431,076 
 
 592,140 
 
 66,287,860 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 2,425,239 
 
 .... 
 
 2,425,239 
 
 65,659,241 
 
 Airzona Territory 
 
 
 
 
 80,730,240 
 
 New Mexico Territory . . 
 
 2,293,142 
 
 
 2,293,142 
 
 75,275,498 
 
 Dacotah Territory* .... 
 
 936,422 
 
 495,208 
 
 1,431,630 
 
 152,550,450 
 
 Idaho Territoryf 
 
 
 
 
 58,196,480 
 
 Montana Territory^ 
 
 
 
 
 92,016,640 
 
 
 153,825,964 
 
 4,255,990 
 
 158,081,954 
 
 921,245,745 
 
 * By the Act of May 26, 1864, the area of Dacotah Territory was 
 increased by attaching to it 58,665,600 square acres off the south-east 
 corner of the original Territory of Idaho. 
 
 f Eeduced in area. — See Act May 26, 1864. 
 
 X Montana was erected into a separate Territory out of the former 
 territory of Idaho, by the Act of May, 1864. 
 
 § The aggregate area of the whole public domain may be obtained 
 by adding to the totals of the above lands surveyed and remaining to 
 be surveyed the areas of the following public land States, in which all 
 or nearly all the public lands have been surveyed, viz. : Illinois, 
 35,462,400 square acres ; Ohio, 25,276,960 square acres ; Mississippi, 
 30,179,840 square acres ; Florida, 37,931,520 square acres ; Missouri, 
 41,824,000 square acres ; Indiana, 21,637,760 square acres ; Louisiana, 
 26,461,440 square acres ; Michigan, 36,128,640 square acres ; Alabama, 
 32,462,080 square acres ; Arkansas, 33,406,720 square acres ; Indian 
 Territory, 44,154,240 square acres. 
 
 ACRES 
 
 Total area, exclusive of water-courses, etc 1,444,703,273 
 
 Area water surface, lakes and rivers 5,296,727 
 
 Making an aggregate area of the public domain 1,450,000,000 
 
 6 
 
82 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 The following is a copy of the well-known Act : — 
 
 "AN ACT TO SECURE HOMESTEADS TO ACTUAL SETTLERS 
 ON THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. 
 
 "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled, That any person who 
 is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one 
 years, and is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have filed hi3 
 declaration of intention to become such, as required by the naturaliza- 
 tion laws of the United States, and who has never borne arm3 against 
 the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, 
 shall, from and after the first of January, eighteen hundred and sixty- 
 three, be entitled to enter one quarter section or a less quantity of 
 unappropriated public lands, upon which said person may have filed a 
 pre-emption claim, or which may, at the time the application is made, 
 be subject to pre-emption at one dollar and twenty-five cents, or less, 
 per acre ; or eighty acres, or less, of such unappropriated lands, at two 
 dollars and fifty cents per acre, to be located in a body, in conformity 
 to the legal subdivisions of the public lands, and after the same shall 
 have been surveyed : Provided, That any person owning and residing, 
 on land may, under the provisions of this act, enter other land lying 
 contiguous to his or her said land, which shall not, with the land so 
 already owned and occupied, exceed in the aggregate one hundred and 
 3ixty acres. 
 
 " Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That the person applying for the 
 benefit of this act shall, upon application to the register of the land 
 office in which he or she is about to make such entry, make affidavit 
 before the said register or receiver that he or she is the head of a family, 
 or is twenty-one or more years of age, or shall have performed service 
 in the army or navy of the United States, and that he has never borne 
 arms against the Government of the United States or given aid and 
 comfort to its enemies, and that such application is made for his or her 
 exclusive use and benefit, and that said entry is made for the purpose of 
 actual settlement and cultivation, and not, either directly or indirectly, 
 for the use or benefit of any other person or persons whomsoever ; and 
 upon filing the said affidavit with the register or receiver, and on pay- 
 ment of ten dollars, he or she shall thereupon be permitted to enter the 
 quantity of land specified : Provided, however, That no certificate shall 
 be given or patent issued therefore until the expiration of five years 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 83 
 
 from the date of such entry ; and if, at the expiration of such time, or 
 at any time within two years thereafter, the person making such entry 
 — or, if he be dead, hi3 widow ; or in case of her death, his heirs or 
 devisee ; or in case of a widow making such entry, her heirs or devisee 
 in case of her death — shall prove by two credible witnesses that he, 
 she, or they have resided upon or cultivated the same for the term of 
 five years immediately succeeding the time of filing the affidavit afore- 
 said, and shall make affidavit that no part of said land has been 
 alienated, and that he has borne true allegiance to the Government of 
 the United States ; then, in such case, he, she, or they, if at any time 
 a citizen of the United States, shall be entitled to a patent, as in other 
 cases provided for by law : And provided, further, That in case of the 
 death of both father and mother, leaving an infant child, or children 
 under twenty-one years of age, the right and fee shall enure to the 
 benefit of said infant child or children ; and the executor, adminis- 
 trator, or guardian may, at any time within two years after the death 
 of the surviving parent, and in accordance with the laws of the State 
 in which such children for the time being have their domicile, sell said 
 land for the benefit of said infants, but for no other purpose ; and the 
 purchaser shall acquire the absolute title by the purchase, and be en- 
 titled to a patent from the United States, on payment of the office fees 
 and. sum of money herein specified. 
 
 " See. 3. And be it further enacted, That the register of the land 
 office shall note all such applications on the tract books and plats of 
 his office, and keep a register of all such entries, and make return 
 thereof to the General Land Office, together with the proof upon which 
 they have been founded. 
 
 "Sec. 4. And be it further enacted, That no lands acquired under 
 the provisions of this act shall in any event become liable to the satis- 
 faction of any debt or debts contracted prior to the issuing of the patent 
 therefore. 
 
 " Sec. 5. And be it further enacted, That, if at any time after the 
 filing of the affidavit, as required in the second section of this act, and 
 before the expiration of the five years aforesaid, it shall be proven, 
 after due notice to the settler, to the satisfaction of the register of the 
 land office, that the person having filed such affidavit shall have actually 
 changed his or her residence, or abandoned the said land for more 
 than six months at any time, then and in that event the land so entered 
 shall revert to the Government. 
 
84 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 " Sec. 6. And be it further enacted, That no individual shall be 
 permitted to acquire title to mors than one quarter section under the 
 provisions of this act ; and that the commissioner of the General Land 
 Office is hereby required to prepare and issue such rules and regula- 
 tions, consistent with this act, as shall be necessary and proper to carry 
 its provisions into effect, and that the registers and receivers of the 
 several land offices shall be entitled to receive the same compensation 
 for any lands entered under the provisions of this act that they are 
 now entitled to receive when the same quantity of land is entered with 
 money, one-half to be paid by the person making the application at 
 the time of so doing, and the other half on the issue of the certificate 
 by the person to whom it may be issued ; but this shall not be con- 
 strued to enlarge the maximum of compensation now prescribed by law 
 for any register or receiver : Provided, That nothing contained in this 
 act shall be so construed as to impair or interfere in any manner whatever 
 with existing pre-emption rights : And provided, further, That all 
 persons who may have filed their applications for a pre-emption right 
 prior to the passage of this act, shall be entitled to all privileges of 
 this act : Provided, further, That no person who has served, or may 
 hereafter serve, for a period of not less than fourteen days in the army 
 or navy of the United States, either regular or volunteer, under the laws 
 thereof, during the existence of an actual war, domestic or foreign, shall 
 be deprived of the benefits of this act on account of not having attained 
 the age of twenty-one years. 
 
 " Sec. 7. And be it further enacted, That the fifth section of the ac 
 entitled, ' An act in addition to an act more effectually to provide for 
 the punishment of certain crimes against the United States, and for 
 other purposes,' approved the third of March, in the year eighteen 
 hundred and fifty-3even, shall extend to all oaths, affirmations, and 
 affidavits, required or authorized by this act. 
 
 " Sec. 8. And be it further enacted, That nothing in this act shall 
 be so construed as to prevent any person who has availed him or her- 
 self of the benefits of the first section of this act from paying the 
 minimum price, or the price to which the same may have graduated, 
 for the quantity of land so entered at any time before the expiration of 
 the five years, and obtaining a patent therefore from the Government, 
 as in [other cases provided by law, on making proof of settlement 
 and cultivation as provided by existing laws granting pre-emption 
 rights. 
 
 " Approved May 20, 1862." 
 
THE PUBLIC LANDS. 85 
 
 In all the Middle and Western States good cleared 
 farms with necessary buildings may be purchased at from 
 §20 to $30 (£4 to £10) per acre, and in some instances 
 still lower; while uncleared land can be purchased at 
 from $3 to $10 per acre, according to quality and situa- 
 tion, timber land in most of the States being somewhat 
 dearer than prairie. Many of the railway companies, 
 notably the Illinois Central and the North Missouri, offer 
 land at moderate prices, ranging from $6 to $30 per acre, 
 and give credit extending over a period of seven years. 
 
CHAPTER IY« 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The government of the United States is a Federal Republic, 
 composed of thirty-seven States, ten Territories, and the 
 District of Columbia. The government is based on the 
 constitution of 1787. By the constitution, the government 
 of the nation is vested in three separate authorities : the 
 Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial.. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE. 
 
 The executive power is vested in a President, who is 
 elected by electors, chosen by the popular vote, the number 
 being equal to the total number of senators and representa- 
 tives in the National Congress. The President's term of 
 office is four years, but he is eligible for re-election. 
 
 The manner of the presidential election is as follows : 
 According to an Act of Congress passed in 1845, the 
 elections for President and Vice-President are held in all 
 the States every fourth year, on the first Tuesday, after 
 the first Monday, in November; and on the fourth of 
 March following the President elect is inaugurated. The 
 
EXECUTIVE. 
 
 87 
 
 voting is not direct for the President, but for electors. 
 Voting in the United States is by ballot, and all citizens 
 are entitled to the franchise. 
 
 According to Clause 2, Section 1, Article 2, of the 
 United States Constitution, each State is entitled to the 
 same number of electors as it has senators and representa- 
 tives in Congress, which is as follows : — 
 
 Alabama 6 
 
 Arkansas 3 
 
 California 3 
 
 Colorado 1 
 
 Connecticut 4 
 
 Delaware 1 
 
 Florida 1 
 
 Georgia 7 
 
 Indiana 11 
 
 Illinois 14 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana „.. 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 5 
 
 Massachusetts 10 
 
 Mississippi 5 
 
 Missouri 9 
 
 Total Representatives 
 
 Number of Senators — each 
 
 Michigan 6 
 
 Minnesota 2 
 
 New Hampshire 3 
 
 New Jersey 5 
 
 New York 31 
 
 Nevada 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oresron 
 
 ... 1 
 
 ... 7 
 
 ... 19 
 
 ... 1 
 
 Pennsylvania 24 
 
 ... 2 
 
 ... 4 
 
 ... 8 
 
 ... 4 
 
 Rhode Island ,. . 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Vermont 
 
 West Virginia . 
 Wisconsin 
 
 241 
 
 State sending two 74 
 
 Total number of Electors 315 
 
 Each of the different political parties holds a National 
 Convention a few months previous to the election, and 
 
88 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 adopts a " platform," or series of resolutions denning the 
 principles of the party, and nominates candidates for Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President. 
 
 The various political organizations in each State, nomi- 
 nate, from their own party, the number of electors to which 
 their State is entitled, and the electoral ticket, which re- 
 ceives a plurality of votes, is elected. The result of the 
 presidential election is known as soon as the election 
 returns are received from all the States, although the 
 electors do not meet till the first Wednesday in December, 
 nor is the President legally elected until the electoral votes 
 are counted by the President of the Senate, on the second 
 Wednesday in February. 
 
 According to Article 12 of the Amendments to the 
 United States Constitution, the electors meet in their 
 respective States, and vote by ballot for President and 
 Vice-President, and transmit certificates of the result to 
 the President of the Senate at Washington, who opens all 
 the certificates in the presence of the Senate and House 
 of Representatives, and the votes are then counted. A 
 majority of the ivhole number of electors is necessary for a 
 choice, and if no candidate has such a majority, the House 
 of Representatives is to choose the President from the 
 three having the highest vote — each State having but one 
 vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a 
 choice. [See the 12th Amendment, U.S. Constitution.] 
 
 No person is eligible to the office of President or Vice- 
 President who is not a native born citizen, of the age of 
 thirty-five years, and who has not been a resident of the 
 United States for fourteen years. The President is Com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia 
 when in the service of the Union. With the concurrence 
 of two-thirds of the Senate, he has the power to make 
 treaties, appoint civil and military officers, levy war, con- 
 
LEGISLATIVE. 89 
 
 elude peace, and do all that rightly belongs to the executive 
 power. He has a veto on all laws passed by Congress, but 
 so qualified, that notwithstanding his disapproval, any bill 
 becomes a law on its being afterwards confirmed by two- 
 thirds of both Houses of Congress. The President has an 
 annual salary of §25,000, and the Vice-President $8000. 
 
 THE LEGISLATURE. 
 
 All legislative powers are vested in Congress, which 
 consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 The House of Representatives is composed of members 
 chosen every second year by the people of the several 
 States, apportioned according to the population of each. 
 The number each State is entitled to is determined by a 
 census taken every ten years. In addition to these repre- 
 sentatives from States, the House admits a delegate from 
 each organized Territory, who has the right to debate on 
 subjects in which his Territory is interested, but is not 
 entitled to a vote. 
 
 The " Senate" consists of two members from each 
 State, elected by the Legislatures thereof respectively for 
 six years. One-third of the whole body is renewed bien- 
 nially, and if vacancies occur, by resignation or otherwise, 
 during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the 
 executive of such State makes a temporary appointment 
 until the next meeting of the Legislature, which fills such 
 vacancy. Senators must be at least thirty years of age, 
 must have been citizens of the United States for nine 
 years, and be residents of the State by which they are 
 chosen. Each Senator has one vote. The Vice-President 
 of the United States is, ex officio, President of the Senate, 
 
90 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 but a President, pro tempore, is elected by and from among 
 the Senators, who, in the absence of the Vice-President, 
 acts in his stead. 
 
 The administrative business of the nation is conducted 
 by several officers, with the title of secretaries, who form 
 what is called the " Cabinet." They are appointed by the 
 President. Each of the secretaries presides over a sepa- 
 rate department, under the authority of the President. 
 Their salaries are $8000 per annum. 
 
 THE JUDICIARY. 
 
 The judicial powers of the United States are vested in 
 a Supreme Court, and in such other inferior courts as Con- 
 gress may from time to time establish. The present judi- 
 cial establishment consists of a Supreme Court, Circuit 
 Courts, and District Courts. The appointment of all 
 judges of the United States is made by the President, by 
 and with the advice of the Senate, and the judges hold 
 their several offices during good behaviour, and can be 
 removed only on impeachment. Their compensation is 
 fixed by law, and cannot be diminished during their period 
 of office. The " Supreme Court," the highest judicial 
 tribunal of the Union, is composed of a chief justice and 
 eight associate justices, the attorney-general, a reporter, 
 and a clerk. One session is held annually at Washington, 
 commencing on the first Monday in December, the first 
 day of the regular sessions of Congress. 
 
POWERS OF NATIONAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS. 91 
 
 RESPECTIVE POWERS OF NATIONAL AND 
 STATE GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 To understand properly the theory and operation of the 
 Federal Government, the peculiar relations of the Fede- 
 rative System must be considered. It should be remem- 
 bered that while there is a National Government, having 
 for its objects National and chiefly external affairs, there 
 are also separate State Governments, with Executive, Legis- 
 lative, and Judicial departments, having for their object 
 local and wholly internal affairs. 
 
 By Section 8th, Article 1st of the Constitution, the 
 States have delegated to Congress the power to declare 
 war, to make peace, to enter into treaties, coin money, 
 regulate commerce, and in short all functions characteristic 
 of national sovereignty ; and by Section 10th, the exercise of 
 these national powers by the States is prohibited. Also by 
 Article 10th of the amendments, the powers not delegated 
 to Congress are reserved to the Stales or to the people. 
 Therefore the powers to enact municipal laws, or laws 
 which concern only the States directly and immediately, 
 are among the reserved rights of the States and the people, 
 and are vested by the people in the State Legislatures. 
 
 Thus the States having reserved these internal powers, 
 neither the President nor the National Congress, under the 
 Constitution, have any power to interfere with them in 
 their internal, local, and domestic affairs. 
 
 On the other hand, the States, having delegated to 
 Congress those characteristics which pertain to national 
 sovereignty, they have no control over such national and 
 external affairs. 
 
92 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The separate States are, therefore, sovereign in a muni- 
 cipal capacity ; while the General Government is sovereign 
 in a national capacity, and is represented and known officially 
 as the government of one nation. 
 
 The constitutions of the several States all agree in their 
 main features. In all there is the same form, and the same 
 principles lie at their foundation. 
 
 The chief executive officer in each State is the Governor. 
 The duties of the Governors in the States are analogous 
 to those of the President in the United States Government. 
 They have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the 
 Senate, the appointment of many important officers. Like 
 the President, they make recommendations to the Legis- 
 lature, and take care that the laws are executed. Like the 
 President, they may be impeached and removed for treason, 
 bribery, or other high crimes. 
 
 The departments of executive officers under the State 
 Governments are also organized in analogy to those of the 
 General Government. They have departments of State, 
 Treasury, etc. But the departments of war, navy, 
 post-office, and mint, do not exist under the State Go- 
 vernments, since the States have no power over these 
 matters. 
 
 The leading provisions of the State Constitutions are 
 also very analogous to those of the National Constitution. 
 Indeed, the latter has, in a great measure, been the model 
 of all the State Constitutions formed since its adoption. 
 
 Like the General Government, the powers of the State 
 Governments are divided into three departments — Legis- 
 lative, Executive, and Judicial. The legislative department 
 is likewise divided into two branches — the Senate and 
 House of Assembly ; the former elected by larger constitu- 
 encies, and generally for a longer time, than the latter. 
 They are governed by the same rules of procedure as the 
 
POWERS OP NATIONAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS. 93 
 
 National Government. These are derived from the rules 
 of the British Parliament, except where the peculiar cir- 
 cumstances of Republican government render them inad- 
 missible. They, like Congress, decide on the qualifications 
 of their own members, and determine the rules of their own 
 proceedings. 
 
 Every Bill, like the laws of Congress, requires the 
 signature of the Governor to become a law, and he also 
 has the t power of vetoing it ; when, unless subsequently 
 passed by a majority of two-thirds of both Houses, it is 
 rejected. 
 
 The chief business of the State Legislatures is per- 
 formed by the Committees, who are also constituted in the 
 same manner as in the National Congress, being generally 
 appointed by the Speaker of the House and the President 
 of the Senate. 
 
 There are, however, some minor differences between 
 the different State constitutions ; for instance, in respect 
 to the right of suffrage ; but in most of the States, the 
 qualifications are so low, that the right of suffrage, in 
 reality, is universal among all white male citizens above 
 twenty-one years of age. In eight of the Northern States 
 coloured persons are entitled to a vote. 
 
 Without entering into detail, we will briefly notice 
 some of the important powers possessed by the separate 
 State Governments. 
 
 First. The enactment of domestic and municipal laws, 
 and the enforcement of them by a proper organization of 
 judicial courts. These constitute the large mass of objects 
 upon which the State Legislatures are occupied. 
 
 Among them are — 
 
 1. Those which relate to corporate and public bodies, 
 incorporating railway and stock companies, chartering 
 banks and literary and public institutions, taxation, etc. 
 
94 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 2. Police regulations, and the punishment of crimes, 
 except crimes committed against the General Government. 
 
 3. Those which concern private property and rights. 
 
 Second. The power of officering the militia and govern- 
 ing them when not called into service by the General 
 Government. 
 
 Third. The co-operation in the amendments of the 
 Constitution, three-fourths of the States being required 
 to assent to every amendment. 
 
 Fourth. The mode of choosing the President of the 
 United States, appointing the " electors" in such manner 
 as the State Legislature shall direct. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORIES. 
 
 In addition to the thirty-seven States, there is a large 
 district of land belonging to the United States stretching 
 westward, and extending to the Pacific. It embraces 
 an area of 1,344,000 square miles, and is divided into 
 ten districts, called " Territories." Notwithstanding their 
 immense area, they only contained in 1860 a white popu- 
 lation of 220,149. They are mostly inhabited by tribes of 
 savage Indians, but are rapidly being settled. These 
 Territories are under the control of Congress ; but any of 
 them may be admitted into the Union as States on the 
 same footing as the other States, on attaining the popu- 
 lation necessary for one representative in Congress — viz., 
 124,000. 
 
 Each Territory is established on the condition that 
 Congress may thereafter divide the same, or annex any 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORIES. 95 
 
 portion of it to another Territory, or to a State. The 
 relations sustained by each of them to the General Govern- 
 ment are nearly identical. 
 
 The first and second clauses of Section 3rd, Article 
 4th, of the Constitution, are the basis upon which Con- 
 gress erect and administer the Territorial Governments, 
 and subsequently admit them into the Union. Under the 
 old confederation, no such provision existed ; and so little 
 anticipation was had of the growth and prosperity of those 
 wild regions — whose population has since more than trebled 
 the original States — that no provision existed for forming 
 or admitting them. Since the adoption of the present 
 Constitution, however, by the thirteen original States, 
 twenty-four new States have been formed, principally out 
 of the Territories, and have adopted, assented to, and 
 ratified the Constitution, and become integral parts of the 
 Union — making thirty- seven States in all — nine Territories 
 still remaining. 
 
 The power given by the Constitution to form new States 
 is one of the new principles introduced into this system of 
 government, and is at once the most novel and most influ- 
 ential upon its future destiny of any. Many of the nations 
 of antiquity held immense provinces, which constituted a 
 part of the State, for the purposes of revenue and armies ; 
 but they were never admitted upon terms of equality, and 
 their inhabitants were never citizens. The idea of con- 
 stituting a government, to be indefinitely developed by 
 its own colonization, is wholly new. The principle is 
 simply this, that a colony settled upon an adjacent Terri- 
 tory, and within the jurisdiction of the United States, 
 whether it be composed of citizens of the Union, or emi- 
 grants from foreign nations, shall, on attaining a specific 
 population, be admitted to equal rights, privileges, and 
 powers with the original States. This principle is like- 
 
96 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMEKICA. 
 
 wise unlimited in respect to the number, distance, or settle- 
 ment of the colonies. The consequence is, that the original 
 thirteen States are left in a minority as to power in that 
 Government which they formed, and of which they were 
 the sole possessors. 
 
 The power of Congress over the public Territory is 
 exclusive and universal, except so far as its authority is 
 restrained by stipulations in the cessions. This is not the 
 case, however, with merely national property, such as forts 
 and arsenals, where the States have not ceded the juris- 
 diction ; but in such cases, the jurisdiction of the State 
 continues, subject to the just exercise of the proper 
 powers of the National Government. 
 
 In the year 1820, upon the admission of Missouri into 
 the Union as a State by an Act of Congress, a question 
 was raised whether a clause in the Act restricting the 
 admission of slaves into the State was constitutional. 
 That question was not directly decided, but it was in- 
 directly by the Act passed in 1820, known as the Missouri 
 compromise, which declared that, in all the Territory north 
 oflat. 36 deg. 30 min., not included within the limits of 
 Missouri, slavery and involuntary servitude should for ever 
 be prohibited. This Act has since been repealed. 
 
 The Governor, Secretary, United States Attorney, and 
 Marshal are appointed for each Territory by the President 
 for four years. The Legislative Assembly consists of a 
 Council and House of Representatives elected by the 
 people. All laws passed by the Legislature, and approved 
 by the Governors, must be submitted to the National 
 Congress, and, if disapproved, are null and void. The 
 Judiciary is vested in a Supreme Court and other Inferior 
 Courts, from which there is an appeal to the Supreme 
 Court of the United States. 
 
 The Constitution and laws of the United States have 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORIES. 07 
 
 the same force as in the States. Each Territory sends a 
 delegate to the Lower House of the National Congress, 
 who is entitled to speak and debate on all matters in 
 which his constituents are interested, but is not entitled to 
 a vote in the House. The right of suffrage is granted to 
 every free white male citizen of the age of twenty-one 
 years. 
 
 Two sections (of G iO acres) of land in each township, 
 of six miles square, are reserved for common schools. 
 
CHAPTER ¥♦ 
 
 THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 The thirty-seven States are, for convenience of description, 
 usually divided into five groups, called respectively, 
 Eastern, Middle, Southern, Western, and Pacific. Besides 
 these there are nine Territories, which lie between the 
 Mississippi River and the Pacific States. 
 
 THE EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, Connecticut. 
 
 The New England division of the United States is in 
 many respects the most remarkable and characteristic. 
 The six States which form it comprise the earliest settled 
 and best improved portion of the Union. 
 
 Its coast of great extent is deeply indented with bays 
 and a number of excellent harbours. Towards the north 
 the shore is diversified by sloping hills and bold promon- 
 tories. Situated upon a basis of primitive rocks, its phy- 
 sical features are generally of a bold aud rugged cast. The 
 principal mountains rise in chains or detached groups, 
 increasing towards the north to an almost alpine elevation. 
 
THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 99 
 
 The chief group is that of the White Mountains in New- 
 Hampshire, so named from its being ten months in the 
 year covered with snow. Mount Washington, whose 
 
 " battlements stand clothed in heaven's own hue, 
 To swell as freedom's home on man's unbounded view !" 
 
 is the highest peak. 
 
 The face of the country consists principally of a broad 
 highland tract, diversified by mountain ranges. Theso 
 give a bold and rugged aspect to the country, which seldom 
 expands into those wide and fertile plains which enrich a 
 large portion of the more Southern States. The soil, 
 though to a great extent sterile, is, in places where it is 
 well watered, capable of an extensive cultivation. It is 
 best adapted for pasturage and grains of a secondary 
 quality. The chief river is the Connecticut, which rises 
 near the border of Canada, and traverses the finest part 
 of the country, amid high but pastoral valleys, the lower 
 portion bordered by alluvial plains and fertile meadows. 
 
 The climate is variable, and subject to extremes of 
 heat and cold. The winters are long and severe, especially 
 in the North, where the snow remains on the ground for 
 nearly six months of the year. It is by no means an 
 unusual thing for the temperature to fall even to twenty 
 degrees below zero. Cold eastern winds, attended with 
 thick fogs, prevail on the coast, especially in Maine. The 
 climate, however, is less rigorous on the Southern 
 borders. 
 
 The New Englanders are, with a few exceptions, de- 
 scendants of the English Puritan fathers, who fled from the 
 prelatic persecution to which they were subjected in England 
 at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Until lately 
 they have received but a small accession of foreigners. 
 
100 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 They have, however, multiplied to such an extent, as not 
 only to people their own territory but also to supply a large 
 number of settlers for the Western and Southern States, 
 and it is computed that nearly one-third of the United 
 States population is of New England origin. The term 
 Yankees, which in England and other countries is fami- 
 liarly applied to all Americans, is, strictly speaking, 
 only applicable to the New Englanders. They are highly 
 distinguished for their plain-dealing, intelligence, and 
 thrift, and their ingenuity and " cuteness " are proverbial. 
 Their habits of industry and prudence — which may be 
 traced partly to the character of their ancestry — have de- 
 veloped the cultivation of a soil naturally rugged and 
 somewhat barren ; and though the limited agricultural 
 capabilities of this section have compelled a large number 
 of its inhabitants to turn their attention to manufactures 
 and other resources, yet the soil is well cultivated ; and 
 even in the more rugged and mountainous regions a great 
 portion has been devoted to the pasturage of live stock. 
 Hay and potatoes are the chief crops. Of the cereal 
 grains, Indian corn and oats are principally cultivated. 
 The most important branch of New England industry, 
 however, is its manufactures. Favoured by abundant 
 water-power on its streams, thousands of mills have been 
 erected, and an endless variety of fabrics are produced ; 
 the chief of which are cotton and woollen goods, boots and 
 shoes, machinery, and small wares. 
 
 The nearness of the Eastern States to the best fishing 
 grounds in the Northern Atlantic, and the facilities afforded 
 by their numerous harbours, have led many of the inhabi- 
 tants along the sea-board to engage in the fisheries. They 
 have almost a monopoly of the whale, cod, and mackerel 
 fisheries prosecuted under the flag of the United States ; 
 and the chief control, or an ample share, of many others. 
 
MAINE. 101 
 
 The people are chiefly Protestants ; and, in proportion 
 to population, there are more churches in New England 
 than in any other part of the country. 
 
 In respect to education this is the foremost section of 
 the Union. The system of free public schools established 
 here — especially as developed in two or three of the lead- 
 ing States — is of the highest excellence, and has served 
 as a model in other parts of the country. 
 
 The commerce of New England, both maritime and in- 
 land, is extensive. Foreign goods are largely imported, 
 and are distributed, with home manufactures, oils, fish, 
 etc., to all parts of the Union. In exchange many pro- 
 ducts, from the cotton of the South to the bread-stuffs of the 
 North-West, are received, as well for exportation as for 
 consumption. The superior facilities for the building 
 and outfit of vessels enable it to engage extensively in 
 the trau sporting of merchandise, and New England has 
 now nearly one-third of the shipping and seamen in the 
 merchant service of the United States, besides a large force 
 engaged in the fisheries. 
 
 Of the entire length of railways in the United States, 
 nearly one-eighth is in New England. Navigable canals 
 are in various parts, but their use is mostly superseded by 
 railways. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 This State was settled by the English in 1625, being 
 four years after the landing of the Puritan "Pilgrims" 
 in Massachusetts, to which State Maine belonged till 1820, 
 when it was admitted into the Union as a separate State. 
 It has an area of 35,000 square miles, and in 1860 ha-* a 
 
102 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 population of 028,279. State capital, Augusta. The 
 surface is varied, being comparatively level in the southern 
 portion, for about twenty miles from the coast ; while 
 the interior is hilly, and the northern portion rugged 
 and mountainous. The most fertile portion is the central 
 southern region, between the Penobscot and Kennebec 
 rivers. The mountains of the north are bold and impos- 
 ing, the Peak of Katahdin having an elevation of 5385 
 feet above the level of the sea. The lakes, of which 
 Mooshead is the largest, are numerous, and often very 
 beautiful. The State is also traversed by numerous rivers, 
 and it is estimated that about one-tenth part of the State 
 is covered with water. The ccast is the finest in the 
 Union in its remarkably bold, rocky character, and in its 
 beautiful harbours, bays, and islands. 
 
 The number of islands on the coast is about 400. 
 Most of these are small, but many are of considerable size, 
 fertile, and inhabited. The climate, though marked by 
 extremes, both of heat and cold, is yet everywhere most 
 healthful and salubrious, its rigour being much modified 
 by the proximity of the ocean. 
 
 The sportsman will find the deer, moose, and wild fowls 
 abounding in the dense forests which yet cover a large 
 portion of the State, and the finest fish in its lakes and 
 streams. These regions may be traversed by the tourist 
 through the paths of the " lumbermen," at whose " shan- 
 ties " he may comfortably bivouac. Immense pine forests 
 cover a large portion of the unoccupied parts of the State. 
 These give employment to a number of persons in the 
 cutting and sawing of the timber, which is exported in 
 large quantities, and is a source of great wealth to the 
 State. 
 
 Only those branches of agriculture which are pecu- 
 liarly suited to the character of the State are extensively 
 
MAINE. 103 
 
 prosecuted. The chief products are Indian com, oats, 
 potatoes, and hay. The dairy products are very large. 
 
 In the cod-fishery this State is unequalled, and in the 
 fisheries for mackerel and other small fish has but a single 
 superior. 
 
 In respect to manufactures, the State is behind most 
 other sections of New England ; yet, in the total value of 
 its manufactured products, including timber, it is sur- 
 passed only by Massachusetts. Quicklime is prepared in 
 large quantities at Rockland and Thomaston. 
 
 There are more sea-going vessels built here than in any 
 other State ; and Maine has a greater tonnage of shipping 
 engaged in the coasting- trade than any other State except 
 New York. It has, likewise, many vessels employed in 
 foreign commerce ; much of the trade of the Canadas — 
 especially in winter — being conducted through Portland, 
 its chief sea-port. Among the principal exports, besides 
 the industrial products already referred to, are granite and 
 ice. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Portland 26,000 Fine harbour; important foreign 
 
 and coastwise commerce; con- 
 siderable ship-building. 
 
 Bangor 16,000 Thriving maritime commerce; im- 
 mense trade in timber ; Congre- 
 gationalist theological seminary. 
 
 Biddeford 9,000 "> ^ QQQ City and town united by continuous 
 
 and Saco 6,0CO) streets; extensive cotton manu- 
 
 factures, machine-building, etc. ; 
 small coasting trade. 
 
 Augusta 12,000 State-capital; various manufac- 
 tures ; United States Arsenal ; 
 lunatic asjlum. 
 
 -Bath 8,000 Extensive ship-building; various 
 
 manufactures ; coasting trade. 
 
104 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Kockland 7,000 Manufactures of great quantities oi 
 
 lime ; important ship-building ; 
 coasting trade. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 The State of New Hampshire was settled by the 
 English in 1623, three years after the landing of the 
 Puritans in Massachusetts. It acceded to the Union in 
 June, 1788, being one of the original thirteen States. It 
 has an area of 9280 square miles, is divided into thirteen 
 counties, and had a population, in 1860, of 326,175. The 
 State capital is Concord. The surface is more rugged and 
 mountainous than any other section of New England. 
 The State is celebrated for the grandeur and beauty of its 
 scenery, and is often called " The Switzerland of America." 
 The White Mountains, on whose peaks the snow lies nearly 
 all the summer, is a fashionable summer resort, and is yearly 
 visited by thousands from every section of the Union, 
 the only comparatively level section lies along the coast, 
 which is scarcely eighteen miles long, and furnishes only 
 one harbour. 
 
 Though interesting to the traveller or tourist, the State 
 presents few inducements for settlement ; and many of its 
 rural population are emigrating to the more fertile regions 
 of the West. 
 
 The soil of the State in general is ill adapted to tillage, 
 but is well watered, and furnishes excellent pasturage. 
 
 The agricultural interests have little that is charac- 
 teristic. In proportion to the extent of its arable land, 
 however, it produces an unusually large sliare of Indian 
 corn and potatoes. Iron-ore, found in nearly every county, 
 
VERMONT. 105 
 
 is profitably mined at Franconia and Lisbon. Granite is 
 largely quarried in the south ; and, on account of the 
 abundance of this mineral, New Hampshire is called the 
 " Granite State." 
 
 The leading branches of New England manufactures 
 are extensively pursued in the south-east, where water- 
 power is most abundant. In the cotton manufacture this 
 State surpasses every other except Massachusetts. The 
 direct foreign commerce is small, its exports and imports 
 being forwarded chiefly through Boston, Massachusetts. 
 
 The New Hampshire Asylum for the Insane at Concord 
 is one of the best establishments in the United States. 
 There are others for the blind, and deaf and dumb. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Manchester 20,000 Fourth city of America in the extent of its 
 
 cotton manufactures ; important manu- 
 factures of locomotive engines and other 
 machinery, paper, etc. 
 
 Concord 11,000 State capital ; country trade ; carriage and 
 
 machine manufactures ; State prison ; 
 State lunatic asylum. 
 
 Nashua 10,000 Extensive manufactures of cotton cloths; 
 
 also considerable manufactures of ma- 
 chinery, etc. 
 
 Portsmouth 0,000 Only seaport in the State; excellent har- 
 bour ; manufactures of lawns, hosiery, 
 and cordage; United States navy-yard 
 on an island in the harbour. 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 This State was settled in 1724 by the English, chiefly 
 from Connecticut, under a grant made by the New Hamp- 
 shire colony. It acceded to the Union in 1791, being one 
 
106 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the original thirteen States. It has an area of 10,212 
 square miles, is divided into thirteen counties, and had a 
 population in 1860 of 315,116. State capital, Montpelier. 
 The State is mountainous, the Green Mountains being a 
 continuation of the Alleghany chain, and celebrated for 
 their beauty and rich vegetation. Evergreens of various 
 kinds clothe their steeps, and impart to them that verdant 
 aspect whence is derived their name, as well as the name 
 of the State. There are many points of interest in these 
 mountains that have not yet received their due attention 
 from tourists, but their claims are now being fully admitted. 
 They extend from near New Haven, in Connecticut, north- 
 ward through Massachusetts and Vermont, into Canada. 
 After the White Mountains of New Hampshire, the " Green 
 Hills" rank with the noblest groups west of the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 The soil generally is fertile. The western slope 
 abounds in fine loam, well suited to grain-growing. 
 
 The State is, perhaps, more exclusively agricultural 
 than any other in the Union, and more hay, potatoes, live- 
 stock, wool, butter, cheese, and maple-sugar are produced 
 in proportion to the population. A large proportion of 
 the wheat crop of New England is raised in this section. 
 Vermont is also celebrated for its superior breeds of 
 horses. 
 
 Iron, copper, and other metals are mined to a limited 
 extent in various districts. Marble and slate are extensively 
 quarried. Several kinds of variegated marble are found 
 here, among which is the celebrated vcrd-antiqiie marble, 
 once rare and valuable. 
 
 The annual value of manufactures is less than half as 
 great as in any other of the New England States. It has 
 a thriving commerce with the neighbouring States, and 
 with Canada. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS. 107 
 
 Chief Towns. Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Burlington 8000 Lake commerce ; inland trade; 
 
 University of Vermont ; beau- 
 tiful surrounding scenery. 
 
 Rutland 8000 Important railway centre; ex- 
 tensive marble quarries ; great 
 water-power ; country trade. 
 
 St. Albans 5000 Lake commerce and inland trade. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Massachusetts, the parent State of New England, and 
 the chief manufacturing district of the United States, was 
 settled in 1620 by English Puritans, who landed at Ply- 
 mouth; acceded to the Union in February, 1788; area, 
 7800 square miles ; State capital, Boston ; population 
 1,231,066. Every part of the State is well watered ; but 
 in general the streams are more useful for agricultural 
 and manufacturing purposes than as channels of com- 
 munication. 
 
 The northern shore of Massachusetts is bold and rocky, 
 and the coast everywhere is deeply indented, and presents 
 several far projecting peninsulas and headlands, forming 
 bays of unusual extent. Hence the appellation " Bay 
 State." Massachusetts Bay, which gives its name to the 
 State, is about seventy miles in length, and comprises 
 Boston Bay and Cape Cod Bay. Boston harbour is one of 
 the finest in the world, capacious, safe, easy of access, and 
 easily defended ; but in the winter season it is sometimes 
 ice-bound. 
 
 The climate of Massachusetts, though similar to that of 
 the three States lying north of it, is not so extreme as that 
 of either. It is very favourable to health, and a large ratio 
 
10S DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 of the inhabitants attain to a good old age. On the eastern 
 and southern shores the summer season is delightfully tem- 
 pered by the breezes from the ocean. 
 
 Agriculture is pursued with much energy and skill. 
 Indian corn and orchard fruits arc raised here more abun- 
 dantly than in any other section of New England. But 
 none of the crops are sufficient for supplying the home 
 market. In the value of its manufactures, the State ranks 
 first amongst the eastern group. More than half the boots 
 and shoes of the United States, and nearly one-third of 
 the cotton and woollen goods, besides a vast amount of 
 other merchandise, are produced here. More ships are built 
 here than in any other State except Maine. The fisheries 
 are most extensive, and exceed those of all the rest of the 
 Union, the whale fishery alone employing about 12,000 
 seamen. In foreign commerce the State ranks third 
 among the United States. Its coasting trade is also great, 
 and its inland trade proportionate to its maritime. 
 
 Besides manufactured goods, and the products of the 
 fisheries, ice and granite are exported to a considerable 
 amount. The granite, or sienite, quarried at Quincy and 
 Rockport, in the eastern part of the State, is highly cele- 
 brated, and has furnished material for many of the finest 
 edifices in the country. The first railway in the United 
 States was built, from the Quincy quarries, to Neponset 
 River, near Boston Bay. 
 
 Massachusetts is not, as far as yet ascertained, rich in 
 minerals. Iron is found, however, in various parts of the 
 State, and is extensively worked. It appears chiefly in the 
 form of bog ore. Sulphuret of iron, or pyrites, occurs in 
 the central districts, where it is used for the manufacture 
 of copperas; and the plumbago found at Worcester and 
 Stockbridge is used in the manufacture of lead pencils and 
 crucibles. Lead mines exist in the Connecticut Valley. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS. 109 
 
 The white clay of Martha's Vineyard furnishes alurn ; and 
 anthracite coal is now obtained in the Graywacke district 
 to the west of Tannton River. 
 
 The chief cities and towns of Massachusetts are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Pop. in Criaracteriaticfl. 
 
 p . { city proper, 178,000 t Frequently styled the c: Athc 
 
 'metropolis, 268,000 J America" — - J for its 
 
 literary culture and especially for the 
 
 iBence of it3 public §du 
 etate capital; second e 
 cit;.- Orient, unrivalled in 
 
 the extent of it3 coa.-.' 
 and far exceeding in the va". 
 its foreign imports ei 
 city of the D .xcept 
 
 Xew York j yet ranking only fifth 
 in the value of its exports to f . 
 countries ; more extensive building 
 of large sea-going vessels than at any 
 other port in the country ; import* 
 tant manufactures of machinery, 
 piano - fortes, -.- the 
 
 wealthiest metropolis, a 
 its population, in i e Dmon; its 
 ' ng capital amo i 
 
 b iboni one-eleventh that of the 
 whole Un 
 
 I-OweD S7.0C0 S< of America in the extent 
 
 of . b - 
 
 tares; nol bi manufac- 
 
 tures of machinery, lumber, powder, 
 
 26,000 B tandbert 
 
 ty in Am 
 
 with one of the larges": 
 ext.. | Au- 
 
 burn cem 
 
110 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Roxbury 25,000 City continuous with. Boston; beau- 
 tiful suburban residences ; various 
 manufactures. 
 
 Charlestown 25,000 United States navy-yard; State pri- 
 son ; Bunker Hill Monument, mark- 
 ing the place of the first pitched 
 battle of the Revolution ; manufac- 
 tures of furniture, etc. 
 
 Worcester 25,000 Important railway centre; various 
 
 thriving manufactures ; numerous 
 literary institutions ; State lunatic 
 asylum. 
 
 New Bedford 22,000 Principal port of the whale fishery 
 
 —more extensively engaged in this 
 pursuit than any other port on the 
 globe; wealth of its citizens. 
 
 Salem 22.000 Foreign commerce; importation of 
 
 hides, African goods, etc. ; extensive 
 manufactures of leather in the city 
 and vicinity ; and the wealth of its 
 citizens. 
 
EHODE ISLAND. Ill 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 This State was first settled at Providence in 1630, by 
 Roger Williams. To the enlightened and liberal principles 
 introduced by Williams into the government of Rhode 
 Island, and by Penn and Lord Baltimore into the colonial 
 constitutions of Pennsylvania and Maryland, America owes 
 in a great degree her present condition of entire freedom of 
 conscience, these being indeed the only colonies in which 
 religious toleration existed. Rhode Island acceded to the 
 Union in May, 1790, being one of the " original " States. 
 The people were early and active participants in the war 
 of the Revolution. It is the smallest of the States of the 
 American confederacy, the entire area not exceeding 1306 
 square miles, with an extreme length and breadth, re- 
 spectively, of 47 and 37 miles. The population of the 
 State in 1860 was 174,620. The State capitals are 
 alternately Providence and Newport. 
 
 The surface of Rhode Island resembles that of eastern 
 Massachusetts. The country is most pleasantly varied 
 with hill and dale, though there are no mountains of any 
 great size. Compensation for this is found in the natural 
 scenery, amid the numerous small lakes which abound, 
 and by the beautiful waters, islands, and shores of Narragan- 
 sett Bay. Providence and Newport are among the most 
 ancient and most interesting places in the Union, the latter 
 being one of the most fashionable of the numerous Ameri- 
 can watering- -places. 
 
 The soil of the mainland is, in general, a gravelly loam, 
 moderately fertile, but not easy of cultivation. On the 
 islands it is of a slaty character, and quite productive. The 
 insular portions of Rhode Island are among the best farm- 
 
112 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 ing districts of New England. They are particularly noted 
 for their live-stock, dairy-products, wool, and apples. 
 
 The manufactures of Rhode Island are cotton, iron, 
 woollen goods, and leather. The direct foreign commerce, 
 once considerable, is now comparatively small. Its imports 
 and exports are chiefly through the ports of Massachusetts 
 and New York. 
 
 Chief Towns. Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Providence 51,000 Joint capital of the State j ex- 
 tensive manufactures of ma- 
 chinery, jewellery, etc. ; mari- 
 time commerce ; numerous 
 banks ; Brown University. 
 
 Smithfield 13,000 Manufactures of cotton and 
 
 woollen goods and lime. 
 
 North Providence 12,000 Manufactures of cotton goods, 
 
 etc. ; seat of the first cotton 
 factory built in America ; 
 small coasting trade. 
 
 Newport 11,000 Joint capitalof the State ; famous 
 
 summer resort for sea-bathing 
 and amusement ; capacious 
 and strongly -fortified harbour. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 This State was settled by the English Puritan emi- 
 grants from Massachusetts in 1633. In 1G31 the Dutch 
 had a trading house at Hartford, which soon after fell into 
 the hands of the English. It acceded to the present Union, 
 January 1788, and is, therefore, one of the original thir- 
 teen. States. It has an area of 4750 square miles, and a 
 population in 1860 of 460,147. The two capitals are New 
 Haven and Hartford. The scenery is delighfully varied by 
 
CONNECTICUT. 115 
 
 the passage of the Connecticut, the Housatonic, and other 
 picturesque rivers ; and of several low hill ranges. Spurs 
 of the Green Mountains rise, here and there, in isolated 
 groups or points through the western portions of the State. 
 Lying between the mountain ranges are valleys of great 
 luxuriance and beauty. The lakes among the mountains 
 of the north-western corner of the State are very at- 
 tractive. 
 
 The leading branches of New England agriculture are 
 pursued here with much success. Besides other chief 
 crops, rye is raised in abundance, and tobacco is much cul- 
 tivated. Mines of iron, copper, silver-bearing lead, cobalt, 
 nickel, etc., are worked. The deposits of copper in the 
 interior of the State are extensive. Those of cobalt and 
 nickel in the town of Chatham were, until recently, the 
 only valuable stores of the kind known in the United 
 States. Sandstone, granite, and various kinds of marble, 
 among which is verd-antique, are largely quarried for 
 exportation. 
 
 Connecticut is famed for the variety of its manufactures. 
 Besides the leading articles, such as are commonly pro- 
 duced in most other parts of New England, clocks, paper, 
 cutlery, edge-tools, fire-arms, pins, combs, and other small 
 wares, are extensively made. 
 
 In the extent of its fishing interests, Connecticut ranks 
 next to Massachusetts. It has an important share in the 
 whale and cod fisheries ; besides valuable fisheries for shad, 
 etc., chiefly within its own waters. 
 
 The foreign commerce of the State is mainly conducted 
 through New York and Boston. Its direct trade with the 
 West Indies and British America, however, is important ; 
 and its coasting trade with domestic ports quite extensive. 
 
 A noteworthy characteristic of this State is, that not 
 only are the several branches of the national industry moro 
 
 8 
 
114 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 equally distributed, but a greater interest in eacb is mani- 
 fested by the people. Most persons have a share in either 
 a workshop or a farm, being not nnfrequently farmers at 
 one season of the year, and manufacturers at another. It 
 has been characteristically called the "land of steady 
 habits." 
 
 The following are the chief towns : — 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 New Haven 39,000 Joint capital of the Stale ; extensive 
 
 manufactures ; important coasting- 
 trade ; Yale College (one of the oldest 
 and best universities in America) ; 
 beautiful elms and shrubbery. 
 
 Hartford 29,000 Joint capital of the State; manu- 
 factures of machinery, fire-arms, boots, 
 shoes, etc. ; inland trade ; Trinity Col- 
 lege; deaf and dumb and insane 
 asylums. 
 
 Norwich 14,000 Manufactures of cotton and woollen 
 
 goods, railway carriages, etc. 
 
 Bridgeport 13,000 Manufactures of carriages, railway car- 
 riages, machinery, leather, etc. ; coast- 
 ing trade ; fisheries. 
 
 New London 10,000 Admirable harbour ; extensive whale and 
 
 other fisheries ; important coasting 
 trade ; line of steamers for route be- 
 tween New York and Boston. 
 
 Waterbury 10,000 Extensive manufactures of pins, but* 
 
 tons, brass and copper ware, etc. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 115 
 
 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland. 
 
 The portion of the United States comprised in this 
 division is of the highest mercantile and commercial im- 
 portance. The great lakes and the St. Lawrence are the 
 natural outlets of commerce in the north and west, and 
 the numerous rivers flowing into the Atlantic, and the 
 various canals and railways, convey to the eastward coast 
 the productions of the interior. The surface, though often 
 mountainous, is less rugged than that of New England. 
 The mountains are remarkable for their regularity, their 
 parallelism, their abrupt acclivities, the almost complete 
 uniformity of their summits, and their moderate elevation ; 
 presenting the appearance of long and continuous walls. 
 In a few sections, however, where the older crystalline 
 rocks prevail, the mountains are of a different aspect. 
 Generally the ranges are higher, and are more numerous 
 and more indented toward the south. The coast is chiefly 
 of tertiary and alluvial formation, and hence is compara- 
 tively level and deficient to some extent in navigable inlets. 
 A narrow tract of older crystalline rocks, however, extending 
 from Connecticut south-westerly, toward the head of Chesa- 
 peake Bay, gives bold shores and deep waters in the vici- 
 nity of New York city, and a portion on the lower course 
 of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. 
 
 The soil, except in the most rugged sections, and upon 
 the sandy plains along the coast, is productive. 
 
 The climate is chiefly distinguished for its contrasts. 
 Near the sea-board it is of the usual maritime character ; 
 in the mountainous regions it is variable and subject to 
 
116 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 extremes ; but west of the mountains it is comparatively 
 uniform. In the south it is mild, and little snow falls, ex- 
 cept upon the highlands, but in the far north the winter is 
 long and severe. 
 
 A large portion of the Middle States was originally 
 colonized by the Dutch, but now the inhabitants are chiefly 
 of English ancestry. Society in this division cannot be 
 said to possess any peculiarly distinctive aspect, and not 
 unfrequently localities may be found in which the inha- 
 bitants still retain many of the habits and peculiarities 
 of the nationalities from which they have sprung. Owing 
 to the varied descent of the people of the Middle 
 States, they are wanting in uniformity of character. 
 Yet, in general, it may be remarked that they are distin- 
 guished for commercial enterprise, and for the readiness 
 with which they embark in great undertakings. 
 
 Education is well diffused, and the means of instruction 
 for the young are ample. A complete system of free 
 public schools is established in each of the States, besides 
 numerous well-endowed academies, colleges, and profes- 
 sional schools, generally of a high character. The schools 
 of medicine, especially, are of excellent repute. 
 
 The extensive markets afforded by the great com- 
 mercial cities, and many populous villages, of the Middle 
 States, together with the favourableness of the soil and 
 climate, have contributed very much to their advancement 
 in agriculture. No part of America is more distinguished 
 for economical and skilful farming. The chief cultivated 
 staples, mentioned in the order of their value, are hay, 
 Indian corn, wheat, oats, and potatoes. About one-third 
 of the hay and potatoes, and more than half the rye and 
 buckwheat, of the United States are raised here. Live- 
 stock, butter, cheese, and wool, also, are among the chief 
 products. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 117 
 
 Several of the richest mining districts in the Union 
 are included in this section. The most important are 
 those of coal and iron, belonging chiefly to Pennsylvania. 
 Petroleum, or rock-oil, is obtained in great abundance 
 from wells in various regions west of the Alleghanies. 
 
 Manufactures, although employing a smaller share of 
 the population than in New England, are extensively pur- 
 sued in many localities. The principal are, iron castings, 
 machinery, ready-made clothing, leather, flour and 
 meal, sale boots and shoes, woollen goods, cotton goods, 
 and sawed and planed timber. Rough timber is obtained 
 in immense quantities near the sources of the Alleghany, 
 Susquekannah, and Delaware rivers, and in northern New 
 York. The manufactures of iron merchandise, ready- 
 made clothing, and leather, are greater than in all the rest 
 of the Union ; while those of other articles above-men- 
 tioned are exceedingly large. The Middle States are 
 noted, moreover, for their production of spirituous and 
 malt liquors, refined sugar, cabinet furniture, books, 
 stationery, hats and caps, glass-ware, jewellery, and silver- 
 ware ; also for their extensive building of steamers and 
 small sailing vessels. 
 
 Of the entire external commerce of the United 
 States, about two-thirds is transacted through the 
 ports of the Middle States. An immense internal com- 
 merce, likewise, is maintained by way of their navigable 
 rivers, canals, railways, and the neighbouring lakes. The 
 chief exports to foreign markets of the varied products 
 which are collected here from all parts of the country, arc 
 bread-stuffs, raw cotton, salted and smoked meats, tobacco, 
 naval stores, and timber. 
 
118 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 This State was first settled by the Dutch, at Fort 
 Orange, now called Albany; and Manhattan, or New Am- 
 sterdam, now New York City, in 1614, seven years after 
 the voyage of Hudson up the waters of that river which 
 now bears his name. 
 
 In 1664, the colony fell into the possession of the 
 English; was recaptured by the Dutch in 1673; and 
 finally came again under British rule in 1674, and so con- 
 tinued until the period of the Revolution. It acceded to 
 the Union in July, 1788. It is appropriately called the 
 "Empire State," being the first in the Union in 
 population, wealth, and commercial importance, and is 
 unsurpassed in soil, climate, and in the variety and beauty 
 of natural scenery, as well as in historical associations. 
 The area of New York is 46,000 square miles, and it has a 
 population of 3,880,735. Every variety of surface, and 
 every character of physical aspect, is found within the 
 great area of the State ; which, however, for the most part 
 is a plateau-like region, agreeably diversified with hills, 
 valleys, and plains. In some sections, as in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Adirondack and Catskill mountains, and be- 
 tween the sources of the Susquehannah, and Alleghany 
 rivers, it rises to the height of a true table-land. The soil 
 is generally good, and, in most sections, peculiarly favour- 
 able to the growth of grasses. The river valleys and' 
 lasin of the interior are highly productive. 
 
 In the northern portion of the State, and in the high- 
 land regions of the southern border, stock and sheep raising, 
 with dairy farming, are the almost exclusive agricultural 
 pursuits ; while the lowlands, that form the greater part of 
 the surface of the western portion, are best adapted to 
 grain growing. Large tracts in the vicinity of New 
 
NEW YORK. 119 
 
 York city are devoted to market gardens. New York, 
 though deficient in coal, abounds in iron, which exists in 
 large quantities, especially in the eastern portion of the 
 State. Lead is mined in the same region; and zinc, 
 copper, platinum, silver, manganese, and bismuth are also 
 found in various localities. 
 
 Petroleum is found in a number of places, together 
 with jets of carburetted hydrogen, sufficient in some in- 
 stances to maintain a constant flame. At Fredonia, this 
 natural gas is so abundant, that it is sufficient to light the 
 town, and the lighthouse at Portland, on Lake Erie, is 
 supplied with it. 
 
 New York presents considerable diversities of climate. 
 In the north, the winters are long and severe. Those por- 
 tions affected by the winds from the ocean are more even 
 in temperature, and suffer less from the frosts incidental to 
 the spring and fall of the year. 
 
 In the value of its agricultural products, New York is 
 only surpassed by Illinois ; and more than seven-eighths 
 of all the hops raised in the United States are from this 
 State. It is unrivalled in its total yield of hay, oats, 
 maple-sugar, beeswax, and honey, and in the value of its 
 live stock, especially milch cows. Tobacco is extensively 
 raised in the Chemung Valley, and grapes are successfully 
 cultivated in the valley of the Hudson, and most of the lake 
 valleys. Maple-sugar is an important product of the north- 
 ern and central divisions ; and fruits of all kinds, especially 
 apples, pears, peaches, strawberries, are grown extensively 
 in the western counties. On the banks of the Hudson 
 River, particularly near Piermont, strawberries and rasp- 
 berries are most successfully cultivated, the soil appearing 
 to possess something peculiarly adapted to that kind of 
 fruit. A yield of $400 an acre is not uncommon, and the 
 general product is so large in the strawberry season, that 
 
120 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 a special train leaves Piermont every day for New York, 
 with almost as much fruit as a locomotive can draw ; a 
 steamboat also leaves every evening, calling at the different 
 landings to take on a load of berries. 
 
 The manufacturing interests are extensive, and in many 
 sections they surpass those of agriculture or commerce. 
 Since the completion of lines of internal communication, 
 manufactures have received more attention, and flourish- 
 ing establishments are to be found in almost every part. 
 Flour and meal, spirituous and malt liquors, ready- 
 made clothing, steam machinery, iron- ware, sawed and 
 planed timber, and cabinet furniture, are made here in 
 greater amount than in any other State. From five to 
 eight million bushels of salt are produced annually from 
 springs in the vicinity of Syracuse. 
 
 The maritime commerce of New York is immense, ex- 
 ceeding that of all the rest of the Union. Its exports of 
 raw produce, especially of bread-stuffs, are very ex- 
 tensive. 
 
 Long Island, part of the State, is 115 miles in length, 
 and, at some points, 20 in breadth ; with the Atlantic on 
 the south, and the Long Island Sound on the north. The 
 upper part of the island is agreeably diversified with hills, 
 though the surface is for the most part monotonously level. 
 The coast is charmingly indented with bays ; and beautiful 
 fresh-water ponds, fed by springs, are everywhere found 
 on terraces of varying elevation. These little lakes, and 
 the varied coast-views, give Long Island picturesque land- 
 scapes which, if not grand, are certainly of most attractive 
 and winning character, and heightened by the rural beauty 
 of the numerous quiet little towns and charming summer 
 villas. 
 
 The lower shore of the island, which is a network of 
 shallow, land-locked waters, extending 70 miles, abounds 
 
NEW YORK. 121 
 
 with innumerable flocks of aquatic fowls, and is the favourite 
 resort of the New York sportsmen. On this island is a vast 
 tract of uncultivated land known as "The Barrens." Of 
 late years public attention has been turned to its cultiva- 
 tion. A large bed of oysters has been discovered in Long 
 Island Sound, two or three miles from the shore. The 
 oysters are of most excellent quality, most of them of the 
 proper age and growth to make them fit for immediate use. 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 New ( city proper . . . 806,000 | Chief commercial metropolis of Ame- 
 York ' metropolis ... 1,111,000 ' rica, unsurpassed in its trade by any 
 
 cities on the globe, except London 
 and Liverpool ; number of its in- 
 habitants exceeding that of most of 
 the individual States of the Union ; 
 extensive manufactures of cloth- 
 ing (amounting to about one-fourth 
 of all in the United States), of iron 
 merchandise and steam machinery, 
 rich cabinet furniture, pianofortes, 
 etc. ; extensive publishing of books, 
 newspapers, and other printed mat- 
 ter, and great sugar-refining busi- 
 ness ; vast exportation of grain, 
 flour, and salted and smoked meats, 
 and importation of dress goods, 
 metals, sugar, tea, coffee, etc. ; very 
 extensive banking business, the 
 chartered banking capital amount- 
 ing to about one-seventb of all in 
 the United States ; numerous lines 
 of steamers to Europe, Central 
 America, the West Indies, etc ; 
 many literary, scientific, and bene- 
 volent institutions, one of the most 
 noted of the former being the Astor 
 Library — the largest in America. 
 
122 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Brooklyn 267,000 City adjoining and connected by 
 
 steam-ferries with New York ; the 
 third in population among the cities 
 of the United States ; business of 
 the inhabitants chiefly in New 
 York ; various manufactures ; nu- 
 merous spacious docks and store- 
 houses; United States Navy Yard ; 
 great number of churches, Brook- 
 lyn being often called " The City 
 of Churches ;" Greenwood Ceme- 
 tery, celebrated for its natural 
 beauty and its tasteful and costly 
 adornments. 
 
 Buffalo 81,000 Extensive commerce by lake, canal, 
 
 and railway — the receipts and ship- 
 ments of grain being greater than 
 at any other port in the world ; 
 numerous lines of steam-packets to 
 the principal lake-ports ; manufac- 
 tures of machinery, cars, etc. ; 
 Buffalo University. 
 
 Albany 62,000 State capital; large inland commerce ; 
 
 one of the greatest timber-marts in 
 America ; manufactures of malt 
 liquors, iron merchandise, bricks, 
 etc. ; University of Albany, and 
 other noted literary and scientific 
 institutions ; valuable State cabinet 
 of natural history. 
 
 Eochester 4S.C00 Genesee waterfalls; most extensive 
 
 manufacture of flour in the United 
 States ; also manufactures of edge- 
 tools, weighing-scales, boots and 
 shoes, cotton and woollen goods, 
 etc. ; Rochester University ; Bap- 
 tist theological seminary. 
 
 Troy 39,000 Large inland commerce, and tran- 
 
NEW JERSEY. 123 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 shipments of merchandise for- 
 warded by canal, river, etc. ; ma- 
 nufactures of laundry-goods, rail- 
 way iron, stoves, nails, rail-cars, 
 coaches, etc. ; Troy University. 
 
 Syracuse 28,000 Thriving commercial centre; prin- 
 cipal salt manufactures in the 
 United States; also manufactures 
 of iron goods, flour, etc. 
 
 Utica 23,000 Inland trade; manufactures of cotton 
 
 woollen goods, steam-engines, rail- 
 way cars, etc. ; State lunatic asylum. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 This State was first settled at the town of Bergen, by 
 the Dutch, soon after their arrival in New York, in 1 614. 
 In 1627, a Swedish colony was founded near the shores of 
 the Delaware, in the south-western part of the State. An 
 amusing account of the quarrels of the Swedes with the 
 Dutchmen of New Amsterdam may be found in Diedrick 
 Knickerbocker's solemn history of the Amsterdam colonists. 
 It acceded to the present Union in December 1787, being 
 one of the original thirteen States. In the war of Inde- 
 pendence, the famous battles of Trenton, Princeton, and 
 Monmouth, at all of which Washington was present and 
 victorious, occurred within its limits. Morristown was the 
 winter camp of the American army in 1776-77. The area 
 of the State is 8320 square miles. The population in 1860 
 was 672,085. State capital, Trenton. 
 
 The State presents many natural, attractions to the 
 traveller. Her sea-coast abounds in favourite bathing and 
 sporting resorts, much visited by the citizens of New York 
 and Philadelphia. 
 
124 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 In the southern and central portions of this State, the 
 country is flat and sandy ; in the north are some ranges of 
 picturesque hills, interspersed with charming lakes and 
 ponds. The Nevisink Hills, rising nearly 400 feet on the 
 Atlantic side, are usually the first and last land seen by 
 ocean voyagers as they approach and leave New York. 
 The soil, though naturally light and sandy, is very 
 readily fertilized. The northern portion of the State is 
 adapted both to tillage and pasturage, and the alluvial 
 valleys are highly productive. Excellent grazing lands 
 are found among the hills. The central region is the most 
 thoroughly improved portion of the State, and forms a vast 
 market-garden for New York city. 
 
 In the southern and central parts, there are extensive 
 forests of pine, much of which is converted into charcoal. 
 The apples and cider of New Jersey are famous ; and in 
 the southern section, peaches of excellent quality grow in 
 great abundance. Musk-melons, water-melons, plums, 
 apricots, and cherries, are the other fruits. 
 
 All the leading farm products of the Middle States are 
 raised here in abundance. Rye is a more common crop 
 than in any other part of the United States. In the sec- 
 tions having easy access to the great markets, garden 
 vegetables and sweet potatoes are among the chief staples. 
 The latter are produced more abundantly than elsewhere. 
 Several counties also contain thousands of cranberry lands, 
 which annually produce abundant crops of that fruit. Of 
 all the Middle and Eastern States, none contain so small 
 a proportion of uncultivated land as New Jersey. 
 
 The minerals consist of iron ore in large quantities, 
 zinc and copper, marble, limestone, slate, and a fine sand, 
 used for making glass. The zinc mines are among the 
 richest in the United States : extensive beds of marl are 
 also found. 
 
NEW JERSEY. 125 
 
 The climate varies greatly. Towards tlie south, owing 
 to the influence of the ocean, it is much milder than in the 
 northern portion. Generally, it is remarkably healthy. 
 
 Manufactures are extensive ; the chief being steam- 
 engines and other machinery, iron castings and rolled iron, 
 flour and meal, and ready-made clothing. The manufac- 
 ture of jewellery and silver-ware, glass-ware, and India- 
 rubber goods also are noted. 
 
 The direct foreign commerce of New Jersey is small, 
 most of its merchandise, exported or imported, passing 
 through New York and Philadelphia. Its coasting trade, 
 however, is considerable : and its railway and canal trans- 
 portation, for the accommodation of the neighbouriu^- 
 States, is extensive. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Newark 72,000... Extensive and varied manufactures, the most 
 
 important being of jewellery, patent leather 
 saddlery, and harness, hats, clothing, mal- 
 leable iron, carriages, rubber goods, zinc 
 paint, etc. 
 
 Jersey City ... 29,000... City adjacent to and communicating by 
 steam-ferries with New York ; terminus of 
 all the great railways connecting New York 
 with the " South" and " West ; " large 
 manufactures of railway cars, locomotive 
 engines, and other machinery, iron castings, 
 etc. ; also noted manufacture of black-lead 
 crucibles ; important ship-building ; depot 
 of Cunard line of Liverpool steamers, and 
 of steamers to Baltimore. 
 
 Paterson 20,000... Passaic water-falls, 72 feet, affording immense 
 
 water-power; extensive manufactures of 
 cotton cloth, silk goods, locomotive engines, 
 and other machinery ; much visited by 
 tourists. 
 
126 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Trenton 17,000... State capital ; head of steamboat navigation 
 
 on the Delaware River; important railway 
 and caual connections ; active trade ; large 
 manufactures of iron merchandise, etc. ; 
 State prison ; lunatic asylum. 
 
 Camden 14,000... City adjacent to and communicating by steam- 
 ferries with Philadelphia; various flourish- 
 ing manufactures ; important ship-building. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 This State was settled at Philadelphia in 1681 by- 
 English Quakers, and was chartered February 28th of the 
 same year. It was one of the original thirteen States, 
 having adopted a State Constitution in 1776. Area, 
 47,000 square miles. Population, 2,906,115. State ca- 
 pital, Harrisburg. 
 
 Pennsylvania is, in point of population, the second 
 State in the Union, and in all respects one of the most 
 important and interesting. A very singular fact in her 
 history — singular because it has no parallel in the annals 
 of any other member of the American Union — is, that 
 her Territory was settled without war or bloodshed by- 
 William Penn and his associates. The peaceful policy 
 inaugurated by him was remarkably successful. Impress- 
 ing the savage tribes by acts of justice, firmness, and good 
 faith, he secured uninterrupted peace with the Indians till 
 the opening of the Revolutionary war. The southern 
 boundary of the State is the division between the late 
 slave and free States, generally known as "Mason and 
 Dixon's line." 
 
 The landscapes of Pennsylvania are extremely beautiful, 
 and no State presents a greater variety of surface. Belts 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 127 
 
 of mountains extend over a breadth of 200 miles, which 
 occasionally attain an elevation of over 2000 feet. Among 
 these mountains are numerous fertile valleys. There are 
 no lakes, bat the charms of the many picturesque rivers 
 make ample amends for the deficiency. 
 
 Pennsylvania is eminently an agricultural State. The 
 soil is generally fertile, and most of the valleys contain 
 rich alluvia. The richest and most productive regions arc 
 those of the great limestone and river valleys. Many of 
 the mountains afford valuable pasture grounds, and are 
 capable of cultivation to their very summits. There are 
 large tracts of excellent land in the bituminous coal regions 
 of the western portion of the State ; but in the northern 
 portion, the country is more bleak and rugged, and conse- 
 quently not so productive. The greatest coal-fields and 
 deposits in the United States are found here. A vast 
 region of anthracite coal, extending 60 miles, with a 
 breadth of 18 miles, and including an area of 1000 square 
 miles, is most extensively mined. The product for 18 G5 
 was 9,488,396 tons. West of the Alleghanies is a still 
 larger tract, embracing an area of 20,000 square miles. 
 9,000,000 acres of this area contain an immense bed of 
 bituminous coal, the upper seam alone being estimated to 
 contain 54,000,000,000 tons. It is estimated that Pennsyl- 
 vania contains three times as much coal as Great Britain, 
 and more than the whole of Europe. 
 
 In the yield of iron, this State is surpassed only by 
 England and France. In almost every part deposits of 
 iron ore are found in some form. The production of pig- 
 iron for the last six months of 1865 was worth $27,893,500 
 (£5,578,900). Copper exists extensively in many places ; 
 also zinc, plumbago, and lead. The whole State abounds 
 in lime, marble, slate, and building stones. A large quan- 
 tity of salt, amounting to over 1,000,000 bushels annually, 
 
128 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 is obtained by boring through the coal formation of the 
 western portion of the State. 
 
 Large reservoirs of petroleum are situated in Pennsyl- 
 vania. It is estimated that the value of the oil taken from 
 this region in 1865 was from twenty-five to thirty millions, 
 of dollars, and the weekly yield reaches very nearly 90,000 
 barrels, or about 4,500,000 per annum. 
 
 The coasting trade is extensive; and, though New York 
 City (which in some respects doubtless affords commercial 
 advantages superior to those of Philadelphia) has absorbed 
 a large portion of the maritime commerce, the inland 
 commerce of Pennsylvania is immense, being largely in- 
 creased by the transit trade to the Y^est. 
 
 The manufactures, owing to the mineral products, and 
 the ample water-power afforded by the different rivers, 
 have placed the State in an enviable position. Bar and 
 rolled iron is made in large quantities ; and, with the 
 exception of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania makes a larger 
 amount of woollen goods than any other State. 
 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Philadelphia 563,000... Chief manufacturing city in America, hav- 
 ing the largest manufactures of cotton, 
 woollen, and silk goods, boots and shoes, 
 and leather, of any city on the continent, 
 besides numerous other large manufac- 
 tures — including the production of a 
 large quantity of iron goods, and ex- 
 tensive publishing of books, etc. ; great 
 inland and maritime commerce; principal 
 coal market in America, also great mar- 
 ket for domestic cotton goods ; seat of a 
 United States navy-yard, the United 
 States mint, Eastern (State) Penitentiary, 
 Girard College (for orphans — the most 
 elegant and costlv collegiate edifice in the 
 
DELAWARE. 129 
 
 Pop. in 18G0. Characteristics. 
 
 country), Pennsylvania University, Ame- 
 rican Academy of Natural Sciences — 
 having the largest museum of natural 
 history in America — ar.d of many bene- 
 volent institutions. 
 
 Tittsburg 90,000... Third manufacturing emporium in the 
 
 United States, and chief seat of the iron 
 manufactures ; extensive building of 
 steamboats, and smaller river and canal 
 craft; large manufactures of glass, cotton 
 goods, soap and candles, flour, malt li- 
 quors, lumber, etc. ; important commerce 
 by river, canal, and railway ; chief mar- 
 ket in the United States for bituminous 
 coal ; Western (State) Penitentiary. 
 
 Alleghany City... 29,000... City adjoining Pittsburg, and identified 
 with it in business and social interests. 
 
 Eeading 23,000... Inland trade; manufactures of cotton 
 
 goods, rifles, combs, etc. 
 
 Lancaster 18,000. . . Flourishing country trade ; various manu- 
 factures; Franklin and Marshall College. 
 
 Harrisburg 13,000... State capital; important railway centre; 
 
 active inland trade ; large iron works, 
 and various other manufactories ; State 
 lunatic asylum. 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 Was settled at Wilmington early in 1638, by Swedes 
 and Finns. In 1655 it fell into the possession of the 
 Dutch, and in 1664 passed nnder British rule. The colony- 
 was granted to William Penn in 1682, and continued 
 under the government of Pennsylvania until the adoption 
 of a Constitution, September 20, 1776 ; a new one was 
 
 9 
 
130 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 formed June 12, 1792. It was one of the original thirteen 
 States. Area, 2120 square miles. Population, 112,216. It 
 is a grain and fruit-growing State, with some extensive 
 manufactories. Next to Rhode Island, it is the smallest 
 State in the Union, the greatest length and breadth being, 
 respectively, only 96 and 37 miles. The landscape of the 
 northern portion is agreeably varied with modest hills and 
 pleasant vales. In the central and southern portions the 
 country is level, ending in marsh and swamp lands. The 
 whole State, except a small tract in the north, belongs to 
 the Atlantic Plain. The belt of high land, which forms 
 the watershed cf the State, abounds in swamps. The 
 shores of Delaware Bay are destitute of harbours. The 
 soil in the north is good ; but, toward the south, is sandy, 
 and less productive. Deposits of shellmarl in some 
 sections, are of great value for fertilizing purposes. It 
 abounds with forests of hard and soft woods. The trade 
 in blackberries, gathered in this State, is so great as to 
 form an important item of railway traffic. Considerable 
 attention is now being given to the long-neglected, though 
 fertile, lands of the State ; they are rapidly increasing 
 in value, some having doubled, and even trebled, during 
 the last few years, and emigrants from the more northern 
 States are rapidly setting upon them. This State is ex- 
 tremely healthy ; the climate, being mild and uniform, is 
 especially adapted to persons afflicted with pulmonary 
 disease. 
 
 In the northern part of the State grazing receives 
 much attention, and excellent butter is produced. Peaches 
 of the finest quality are raised in abundance. Manu- 
 factories are extensively pursued ; the most important are 
 flour, cotton goods, iron castings, and machinery. 
 
 The maritime commerce of the State is confined chiefly 
 to the coasting-trade, the exchange for foreign goods being 
 
MARYLAND. 131 
 
 effected almost solely through the great shipping ports of 
 the neighbouring States. 
 The chief city is : — 
 
 Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Wilmington 22,000 -. Large manufactures, that of gunpowder 
 
 being noted throughout the United 
 States ; important coasting trade ; St. 
 Mary's College, and other educational 
 institutions. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Maryland was settled, in 1631', at St. Mary's. It was 
 one of the original thirteen States, and formed a Constitu- 
 tion, August 14th, 1776. Area, 11,124 square miles. 
 Population, 687,049. Maryland is the most southern of 
 the group distinguished as the Middle States, and is some- 
 times classed with the southern group. 
 
 A portion of the State is covered by the waters of the 
 Chesapeake Bay. The country upon the eastern and 
 western shores of the hay is level and sandy. The long 
 narrow strip which extends westward is crossed by several 
 ridges of the Alleghanies, which, with their intervening 
 valleys, afford charming landscapes. The hill-region of 
 Maryland abounds in minerals. The coal deposits, though 
 not great in extent, are extremely productive. In the 
 vicinity of Cumberland are extensive mines of coal and 
 iron. The Cumberland coal is semi-bituminous, and is in 
 demand for the use of steam-vessels. Copper is obtained 
 in the hilly country cast of the Blue Ridge. 
 
 Besides the culture of the grains, fruits, vegetables, 
 and other products of the Northern States, Maryland grows 
 
132 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 large quantities of tobacco, and ranks in the production of 
 this staple as third in the Union. It is cultivated chiefly 
 in the level country, between Chesapeake Bay and Po- 
 tomac. 
 
 The principal manufactures are flour and meal, machi- 
 nery, and other iron merchandise, cotton goods, and 
 clothing. 
 
 Maryland ranks among the chief commercial States of 
 the Union. Much of the surplus produce of Ohio, Ken- 
 tucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, finds a market through 
 Baltimore, its principal shipping-port ; and a considerable 
 share of the foreign goods consumed in these and more 
 Southern States, are received through the same emporium. 
 The amount of transportation from the West over the 
 Baltimore and Ohio Railway is probably greater than by 
 any other railway in the United States. 
 
 Chief Towns. Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Baltimore 212,000 State capital ; one of the chief commer- 
 cial emporiums of the Union ; famous 
 market for flour, grain, tobacco, coal, 
 and ojster3 ; extensive and varied 
 manufactures ; elegant monuments 
 (the most imposing being Washington 
 and Battle monuments), in reference 
 to which it is often called the " Monu- 
 mental City;" collegiate institutions j 
 State penitentiary. 
 
 Cumberland 8000 Principal depot of a large coal and iron 
 
 mining district ; important railway 
 centre ; western terminus of the Che- 
 sapeake and Ohio Canal ; large inland 
 trade ; various manufactures. 
 
 Frederick City 8000 Centre of a rich agricultural and mineral 
 
 region ; various manufactures ; flour- 
 ishing educational institutions. 
 
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 13. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 This District was originally 10 miles square, or 100 
 square miles. It was ceded to the general government by 
 the States of Virginia and Maryland as the seat of Govern- 
 ment of the United States. In 1816, the portion on the 
 Virginia side of the Potomac was re-ceded back to that 
 State. The present area is about 60 square miles. Popu- 
 lation, 75,080. This district, unlike the States of the 
 Union, is under the direct jurisdiction of Congress, having 
 only a limited authority in the regulation of its own 
 internal affairs. It was named Columbia in honour of 
 Columbus, and with the same reference, the term 
 Columbia is sometimes used to designate the United 
 States. The entire District is identical with the county 
 of Washington. 
 
 The surface is undulating, with hills sufficiently high to 
 command extensive views, and give variety to the scene. 
 The soil is light, and moderately fertile. The climate 
 moist and warm, especially in the lowlands. 
 
 The District only contains two cities, which are — 
 
 Pop. in 1880. Characteristics. 
 
 "Washington . . . 61,400... Capital of the United States; distinguished 
 for its elegant public buildings ; Washing- 
 ton monument; principal United States 
 navy-yard ; Columbian college ; American 
 geographers often compute longitude from 
 Washington. 
 
 Georgetown ... 12,000... Head of navigation on the Potomac; literary 
 and polite society ; manufacture of flour ; 
 line of packets. 
 
134 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 
 and Texas. 
 
 The extensive alluvial plain which borders the Atlantic 
 Ocean and Gulf of Mexico occupies nearly one-half the 
 surface of the Southern States. The coasts of this region 
 are indented with numerous inlets and bays, and lined 
 with a large number of islands and reefs, which render 
 navigation dangerous. 
 
 The soil of the lowlands near the Atlantic coast, and 
 along the banks of the rivers, is rich in decomposed 
 vegetable matter, and is highly fruitful, but along the 
 Gulf of Mexico it is generally sterile. The adjacent 
 uplands reaching thence to the mountains are generally of 
 moderate productiveness, and many of the valleys contain 
 rich alluvia. In the great valley of the Appalachians, 
 which is formed chiefly upon limestones and sandstones, 
 the soils are mostly of a superior quality. The high plains 
 that slope toward the Alleghanies, underlaid almost 
 throughout with coal-bearing strata, contain some of the 
 best farming districts in the United States. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Southern States are almost 
 wholly devoted to agricultural pursuits. Some manu- 
 factories, however exist, though principally confined to the 
 northern portion. Throughout this region extensive pine 
 forests yield pitch, tar, and turpentine in abundance. 
 
 The commerce of these States consists chiefly in the 
 export of cotton, and other great agricultural staples. 
 During the decade preceding the census of 1860, the cotton 
 shipped to foreign markets was more than two-fifths, in 
 
THE SOUTHEKN STATES. 135 
 
 value, of the entire domestic exports of the United States, 
 amounting for the year 1860 to $191,000,000. 
 
 The Southerners are distinguished for their ardent tem- 
 perament and their jealousy in the maintenance of indi- 
 vidual rights. They are chivalrous and courteous. Accus- 
 tomed to the control of a servile population, they are 
 prone to command. In general they are frank, social, 
 and noted for their hospitality ; and the better classes are 
 polished and refined in their manners. 
 
 The sparseness of the white population in most parts 
 of the South is unfavourable to the support of free public 
 schools. Hence, although many are established in every 
 State, they are less numerously attended, and generally less 
 prosperous, than in other sections of the Union. In facili- 
 ties for education of a high order, however, the Southern 
 States are not inferior to any portion of the Union. 
 Schools and academies, amply endowed and largely at- 
 tended, are numerous, more especially in the fertile cotton- 
 growing regions. Many of the colleges and universities 
 of the South are unsurpassed. Among the most noted 
 institutions of this character may be mentioned Virginia 
 University, South Carolina College, Emory College in 
 Georgia, Lebanon University in Tennessee, Centenary Col- 
 lege in Louisiana, and the University of Louisiana at New 
 Orleans. 
 
 Some few Indians still remain in the Southern States, 
 but the great bulk of the tribes have retired west of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
13G DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 The Stato of Virginia was first settled at James- 
 town in 1607, by the English. It was one of the original 
 thirteen States, ratifying and framing a State constitution, 
 July 5, 1776, which was amended Jan. 15, 1830. Area, 
 61,352 square miles. Population, 1,596,318. State capital, 
 Richmond. 
 
 Virginia may be divided into four sections — 1. The coast 
 section, extending from the seaboard to the " Ridge." 2. 
 The Piedmont section, reaching from the former to the 
 base of the Blue Ridge, from whence its name the " foot 
 of the mountain." 3. The valley section, between the 
 same mountains and the Alleghanies Proper ; and, 4. The 
 trans-Alleghany section, now the State of West Virginia. 
 The scenery of Virginia is remarkable for its bold and 
 picturesque character. It is also celebrated for its mineral 
 springs, many of which are the favourite resorts of invalids. 
 The estuaries and bays of the Chesapeake afford superior 
 commercial facilities. 
 
 The soil is exceedingly diversified in its character, being 
 sandy upon the coasts, but highly fertile on the banks of 
 the rivers. It amply repays cultivation, especially in the 
 highlands, and on the plains west of the Alleghany moun- 
 tains. The Shenandoah Valley is the richest agricultural 
 portion of the State ; the river of the same name 
 passes through it, and affords extensive water-power 
 for manufacturing purposes. It was also the scene of 
 some of the most important and thrilling events of the 
 late war. 
 
 The climate is varied in its character. The winters are 
 mild. The summers are liable to be visited by long periods 
 of drought. Virginia is the foremost State in the Union 
 in the cultivation of tobacco, the greater part of which is 
 
VIRGINIA. 137 
 
 grown in the Piedmont section. Immense grain crops are 
 also produced, and flax is also an important product of 
 the highlands. 
 
 The coal and iron deposits, although more extensive, 
 are less worked than those of Pennsylvania. Bituminous 
 coal, moreover, is found in the southern part of the Great 
 Valley. Petroleum is procured from numerous wells west 
 of the mountains. Gold, lead, and copper ore, are mined 
 in the Piedmont country. Lead, plumbago, porcelain clay, 
 marble, and soapstone, are also found in various localities. 
 Virginia stands at the head of the Southern States in 
 the total value of its manufactures. Flour and meal, cured 
 tobacco, machinery, and other iron merchandise, sawed and 
 planed timber, and cotton and woollen goods are the prin- 
 cipal manufactured products. 
 
 The oyster fisheries of the State are important, largo 
 supplies of oysters being transplanted from the shores 
 of Chesapeake Bay to the coasts of the Middle and Eastern 
 States. 
 
 The maritime commerce is confined to a coasting trade, 
 Norfolk being the only port possessed of extensive foreign 
 commerce. 
 
 The chief cities of Virginia are : — ■ 
 
 Fop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Richmond 38,000 State capital; important inland 
 
 and maritime commerce ; 
 largest manufactures of to- 
 bacco in the United States, 
 also extensive manufactures of 
 iron goods, flour, etc. ; flou- 
 rishing literary institutions ; 
 State penitentiary. 
 
 Norfolk 15,611 ) 25 00Q City and adjacent town con- 
 
 and Portsmouth. 9,502 / ' *' nected by steam-ferries, and 
 
 baviDg a magnificent harbour ; 
 
138 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1SG0. Characteristics. 
 
 one of the principal commer- 
 cial ports of the Southern 
 States ; extensive shipment of 
 oysters, garden vegetables, 
 poultry, and other farm pro- 
 duce ; important navy yard 
 located at Gosport. 
 
 Petersburg 18,000. Extensive trade in tobacco and 
 
 flour; maritime commerce; 
 numerous flourishing manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Wheel- ( city proper 14,0001 Important railway centre; rich 
 
 ing ( the metropolis... 17,000) "* coal-mines in the hills adjoin- 
 ing the city, whence it derives 
 remarkably cheap supplies of 
 fuel, and thus enjoys superior 
 facilities for steam manufac- 
 tures ; numerous flour-mills ; 
 production of iron goods, 
 glass, silk, etc. ; river com- 
 merce and inland trade ; great 
 wire suspension bridge, nearly 
 a fifth of a mile long (1010 
 feet), across the Ohio River. 
 
 Staunton 14,000 Chief town in the Valley of Vir- 
 ginia, and market of a rich 
 grain-growing region ; thriving 
 manufactures ; asylums for 
 the insane and for the deaf, 
 dumb, and blind. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 This new State, detached from the old State of Vir- 
 ginia by popular will, was admitted into the Union by Act 
 of Congress, approved December 31, 1862, " upon the con- 
 dition that certain changes should be duly made in the 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 139 
 
 proposed constitution for that State," which changes being 
 approved by the popular vote, the President of the United 
 States, by proclamation, dated the 20th April, 1863, in 
 pursuance of the Act of Congress aforesaid, declared and 
 proclaimed that the said Act should take effect and be in 
 force on the 20th day of June, 1863. 
 
 The new State comprises forty-eight counties, lying 
 west of the Alleghany mountains ; having an estimated 
 area of 24,000 square miles, and a population, according to 
 the census of 1860, of 350,599. 
 
 Nearly the whole of the State is underlaid with exten- 
 sive coal deposits, among the most noted of which may be 
 mentioned the "Falling Rock Cannel Coal Estate," on 
 Elk River, owned by J. B. Weir, Esq., of New York City. 
 Tli's is known as one of the most interesting and valuable 
 mineral deposits in the United States. In various localities 
 also are found extensive deposits of gypsum and iron ore, 
 and in some parts rock salt. The amount of salt made 
 from the waters of brine springs in the valleys of the Great 
 and Little Kanawha Rivers and their tributaries, is more 
 than in any other State except New York. It is also rich 
 in petroleum, and has a large amount of fertile and 
 arable lands lying on the east banks of the Ohio River, 
 and in the valleys of the Alleghany mountains. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 This State was settled in 1650, by the English, acceded 
 to the Union November 21st, 1789. Area, 50,700 square 
 miles. Population, 992,622, State capital, Raleigh. 
 
 The State is almost wholly destitute of picturesque 
 
110 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 scenery, though there are here and there many points of 
 interest and even of beauty. 
 
 Of all the Atlantic seaboard, the coast of North Caro- 
 lina is the most perilous to navigators. The well-known 
 Capes Hatteras, Look Out, and Fear, are especially 
 dreaded. While the innumerable bays, shoals, and islands 
 are thus cautiously avoided by the passing mariners, they 
 are eagerly sought by the fisherman and the sportsman. 
 Immense quantities of shad and herring, and other fish, are 
 taken here, and the estuaries of the rivers and the bays are 
 among the favourite resorts of wild fowl of every species. 
 
 North Carolina is divided into four sections : the 
 marshy plains bordering the coast, and extending 60 or 
 80 miles inland ; the pine barrens, of about 40 miles in 
 breadth ; and the hilly country, extending to the foot of 
 the Blue Ridge, and the mountainous region beyond, the 
 most elevated and rugged expanse east of the Mississippi. 
 Many of the summits of the mountains rise to a height of 
 G000 feet, while the loftiest reaches 6700 feet. The extra- 
 Ordinary height of this region gives to the rivers of the 
 east a rapid slope to the Atlantic plain. Hence they afford 
 great water-power. The extensive level region, however, 
 bordering on the coast, is very marshy. On the whole, 
 the soil of the valleys and of the coast regions is pro- 
 ductive. The pine barrens, as their n?„me indicates, are 
 sterile, though immense quantities of turpentine are ob- 
 tained from the heavy pine thickets, which also yield large 
 supplies of timber. 
 
 North Carolina is rich in minerals ; gold, copper, iron, 
 and coal being the principal. Till the discovery of gold in 
 California, this State yielded the largest amount of gold. 
 The copper lands of the State, says Professor Jackson, are 
 unparalleled in richness. Coal, both anthracite and bitumi- 
 nous, and iron ore, exist throughout the mountain districts. 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 141 
 
 Limestone and marl are abundant ; and silver, lead, salt, and 
 gypsum have been found. 
 
 The climate in the low regions is unhealthy ; in the 
 middle and central parts it is more temperate and healthy. 
 
 The State is distinguished for the variety of its agri- 
 cultural products, each of its chief physical sections being 
 adapted to a peculiar class of crops. The characteristic 
 staples of the lowlands are sweet potatoes, cotton, and rice ; 
 of the hilly country, tobacco ; of the highlands, grazing 
 products, and the hardier cereals. Indian corn is exten- 
 sively cultivated in all parts, particularly in the hilly coun- 
 try ; yet sweet potatoes and tobacco are the crops for 
 which this State is most noted. Apples, pears, peaches, 
 cherries, grapes, and strawberries nourish. 
 
 The manufacture of prepared naval stores is very exten- 
 sive, perhaps more so than in any part of the world. Flour 
 and meal also form important articles of produce, and there 
 are now extensive iron works established. 
 
 Its maritime commerce is confined chiefly to the coast- 
 ing trade, naval stores being the only export of any im- 
 portance. 
 
 The principal towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 Wilmington 9,500 Important maritime and inland com- 
 merce ; extensive manufactures of spi- 
 rits of turpentine, sawed and planed 
 lumber, etc. 
 
 Newbern 5,500 Thriving commerce; active trade in naval 
 
 stores, grain, and lumber. 
 
 Fayetteville 5,500 Head of steam navigation on Cape Fear 
 
 River ; important trade and large ex- 
 portation of naval stores ; various ma- 
 nufactures ; United States Arsenal. 
 
 Raleigh 5,000? ...State capital and seat of a flourishing 
 
 trade ; elegant State house ; State lunatic 
 
142 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 asylum ; North Carolina Institution for 
 the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Charlotte ? . . . Centre of the gold mining region of North 
 
 Carolina; seat of a branch of the 
 United States mint ; important trade in 
 cotton and bread-stuffs; manufacture of 
 cotton and woollen goods. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 South Carolina was first settled at Port Royal, in 
 1670, by the English, and continued part of North Caro- 
 lina until they were separated in 1729. It was one of the 
 original thirteen States. It framed a State Constitution 
 March 26th, 1776. Area, 34,000 square miles. Population, 
 703,708. State capital, Charleston. 
 
 Upon its settlement, in 1670, John Locke, the famous 
 philosopher, framed a constitution forthe young colony, after 
 the pattern of that of Plato's Model Republic. Later (1690) 
 the population received a considerable accession from the 
 influx of French Huguenots, driven from their own land by 
 the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
 
 The coast region for 100 miles from the ocean is 
 covered with forests of pitch pine, intersected with swampy 
 tracts, and permeated with sluggish streams. In this 
 respect, it resembles the whole southern coast region. 
 Beyond this, and parallel to it, is a belt of territory, called 
 the " Middle Country," consisting of low sandhills, resem- 
 bling the waves of an agitated sea. This tract occasionally 
 presents an oasis of verdure, or a plantation of maize, but 
 on the whole offers little attraction to the agriculturalist. 
 Farther in the interior, the surface exhibits a beautiful 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 143 
 
 alternation of hill and dale interspersed with extensive 
 forest, and watered by pleasant streams. 
 
 The southern part of the coast is skirted by a range 
 of islands, separated from the mainland by narrow chan- 
 nels, which afford an inland steamboat navigation from 
 Charleston to Savannah. These islands, like the neighbour- 
 ing country, are low and flat, but are covered with forests 
 of Live oak, pine, and palmettoes, and they yield the black 
 seed or sea island cotton. Before the cultivation of cotton 
 was commenced, many of them were the haunts of alliga- 
 tors, and the thick woods and rank weeds rendered them 
 impenetrable to man. At present they are under cultiva- 
 tion, and well inhabited, and as the voyager glides by their 
 shores, he is enchanted by the prospect of their lively 
 verdure, interspersed by thick clumps of palmettoes and 
 flowering groves of orange-trees. 
 
 The mineral resources of South Carolina are by no 
 means insignificant. The primitive region of the western 
 part of the State belongs to the auriferous belt of the 
 Atlantic Slope, and for a number of years past the produc- 
 tion of gold has been quite encouraging ; in some instances 
 the metal is found in large nuggets, but the largest quan- 
 tities have been obtained from washings. Iron is also 
 abundant in this region, and in quality the ore is not sur- 
 passed. Coal is not found within the State, and the rocks 
 which include the coal formation between the clay-slate 
 and the new red sandstone are entirely wanting. 
 
 The soil of the hilly country, being derived, to a consi- 
 derable extent, from limestone and clay- slate, is generally 
 productive ; that of the lowland valleys and swampy 
 tracts is exceedingly fertile. The " middle country" and 
 pine lands, although sterile by nature, contain beds of marl 
 and other fertilizing earths, which amply suffice for their 
 redemption. 
 
144 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMLRICA. 
 
 South Carolina, like North Carolina, is distinguished 
 for the variety of its crops. The chief staples, mentioned 
 in the order of their importance, are cotton, Indian corn, 
 and rice ; the latter is cultivated principally in the marshy 
 lowlands, which are flooded or drained, according to the 
 requirements of the crop. Nearly two- thirds of the rice 
 produced in the United States is grown here. The long 
 staple cotton is extensively cultivated upon the sea islands. 
 Considerable machinery is built here. The amount of its 
 exports to foreign countries is large, but foreign imports 
 compared with the former, are extremely small. The 
 coastwise and inland commerce is large. 
 
 The chief towns and cities are : — 
 
 Top. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Charleston 41,000. . . Second of the Atlantic ports of the Southern 
 
 States, ranking next in commercial im- 
 portance to Baltimore ; principal rice 
 market, and third cotton market in the 
 Union ; Charleston College ; South Caro- 
 lina Medical College. 
 
 Columbia 8,000... State capital ; head of steamboat navigation 
 
 on the Congaree River; flourishing inland 
 trade ; South Carolina College and other 
 important literary institutions; State mi- 
 litary college ; State lunatic asylum. 
 
 Georgetown ... 2,500... Foreign and coastwise commerce; various 
 manufactures. 
 
 Hamburg 2,000... Highly important cotton market, adjacent 
 
 to and connected with Augusta, Georgia, 
 by a bridge across the Savannah River. 
 
GEORGIA. 145 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia was settled the latest of the original thir- 
 teen States of the Union. She derived her name with her 
 charter from George II., June 9, 1732. Her first colony- 
 was planted by General Oglethorp, on the spot where the 
 city of Savannah now stands, in 1773. 
 
 Acceded to the Union, January 2, 1788. Area, 58,000 
 square miles. Population in 1860, 1,057,286. Capital, 
 Milled geville. The State possesses unrivalled sources of 
 prosperity and wealth ; and is distinguished by a spirit of 
 activity, enterprise, and progress which markedly distin- 
 guishes it from the other Southern States ; hence it is 
 called the Empire State of the South. 
 
 The sea-coast, extending only about 80 miles, is 
 very similar in character to that of the Carolinas, being 
 lined with fertile islands, cut off from the mainland by 
 narrow lagoons or sounds. The famous sea-island cotton 
 is grown here ; and wild fowl are abundant in all varieties. 
 Upon the main, rice plantations flourish, with all the semi- 
 tropical fruits of the ocean districts of South Carolina. 
 The chief agricultural staples are cotton, Indian corn, 
 and sweet potatoes. The latter are raised here more 
 abundantly than in any other State. Rice is extensively 
 cultivated in the lowlands. 
 
 The gold mines of Georgia, in the hilly country near 
 the Blue Ridge, are the richest east of the Mississippi 
 Valley. These mines have yielded considerable supplies 
 for coinage, a branch mint being located at Dahlonega. 
 
 Flour and meal, cotton goods, and sawed and planed 
 timber are manufactured extensively. The cotton nianu- 
 
 10 
 
146 
 
 DESCEIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 factures are more than double the production of any other 
 of the Southern States. 
 
 An important coastwise and foreign commerce is carried 
 on, although the direct importations from foreign countries 
 are small. Rice is among the chief exports. 
 
 The wealth of the State has been largely increased 
 during the last ten years by the opening of extensive lines 
 of railway. 
 
 The principal towns of Georgia are as follows : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Savannah... 22,000... Third in importance of the Atlantic ports of 
 the Southern States ; extensive shipments of 
 cotton, rice, and timber. 
 
 Augusta 12,000... Head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah 
 
 Elver ; commercial centre of a fertile cotton 
 region ; fine flour-mills, cotton factories, and 
 machine shops ; Georgia Medical College. 
 
 Columbus... 10,000... Head of navigation on the Chattahoochee 
 Eiver; extensive trade in cotton manufac- 
 tures ; manufactures of cotton and woollen 
 goods, iron castings, machinery, etc. 
 
 Atlanta 10,000... Important railway centre; great provision 
 
 mart ; annual State fairs ; large iron works ; 
 Atlanta Medical College. 
 
 Macon 8,000... Head of steamboat navigation on the Ocmulgee 
 
 Eiver ; cotton trade ; manufactures of iron 
 castings, machinery, and cotton goods ; Wes- 
 leyan Female College. 
 
FLORIDA. 147 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 Florida, the most southerly of the Atlantic States, con- 
 sists of a long narrow strip on the northern shore of the 
 Gulf of Mexico ; and is popularly known as the Peninsular 
 State. It was settled at St. Augustine, in 1565, by 
 Spaniards ; and was formed from part of the Territory 
 ceded by Spain to the United States by treaty of February 
 22, 1819. An Act to authorize the President to establish a 
 temporary government was passed March 3, 1819 ; articles 
 of cession of East Florida were framed July 10, and of 
 "West Florida July 1 7, 1821, and it was then taken posses- 
 sion of by General Jackson as Governor. An Act for the 
 establishment of a Territorial Government was passed 
 March 30, 1822 ; and by Act of March 3, 1823, East and 
 West Florida were constituted one Territory. After seve- 
 ral ineffectual attempts to organize it into two Territories, 
 or into a State and Territory, an Act for its admission 
 into the Union was passed March 3, 1845. Area, 59,268 
 square miles. Population, 140,425. State capital, Talla- 
 hasse. 
 
 The southern portion of Florida is an extensive marsh, 
 and until the construction of the Fernandina railway, there 
 was no overland passage from one shore to the other, dur- 
 ing the rainy season, between June and October. 
 
 Florida has a sea-coast of more than 1000 miles in 
 length, but so much of it is rendered inaccessible by 
 soundings, that it has few good harbours. In some places 
 there are but six or seven feet of water six miles from 
 shore. In the interior of Florida there is a chain of lakes, 
 nearly twenty miles in length, of which the extreme 
 southern link is Lake Okechobee ; many of these waters 
 are extremely picturesque in their own unique beauty 
 of wild and rank tropical vegetation. 
 
148 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The State has been but little settled except in the 
 north. The soil is generally sandy, mixed in some 
 places with clay. The climate partakes largely of that per- 
 taining to the torrid zone, to which it approaches within a 
 degree and a half. 
 
 The agricultural staples, in general, are such as are 
 naturally suited to a tropical climate. Sea-island cotton 
 grows even in the middle of the peninsula ; and the pro- 
 duct of this staple is more abundant than in any other 
 State. Numerous tropical fruits, including lemons, guavas, 
 bananas, and pine- apples, flourish here, especially in the 
 south. Herds of cattle, requiring no care from their 
 owners, are pastured throughout the year upon the grassy 
 savannas. The fisheries of shad, etc., along the coast, are 
 valuable. Turtles are taken in large numbers upon the quays. 
 
 The maritime commerce is considerable. Among the 
 exports are large supplies of live-oak timber (much valued 
 for ship-building), and of sponges, which grow upon the 
 coral reefs. 
 
 The principal towns of Florida are : — 
 
 Pop. in 18G0. Characteristics. 
 
 Pensacola 5,000 . . . nourishing maritim e commerce ; one of the 
 
 best harbours on the gulf; strong fortifica- 
 tions ; United States navy yard. 
 
 Key West 3,000... United States naval and military station j capa- 
 cious and strongly fortified harbour ; calling 
 port for California steamers ; extensive busi- 
 ness in recovering shipwrecked property ; 
 large manufactures of salt ; sponge gathering ; 
 streets shaded by cocoa-nut palms ; delightful 
 climate. 
 
 Appalachicola... 2, 500... Chief commercial port of the State. 
 
 St Augustine.... 5,000... Oldest European town in North America. 
 
LOUISIANA. 149 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 Louisiana was settled at Ibberville, in 1699, and was 
 finally purchased from France by the United States in 1803, 
 for $11,500,000, and the further payment of certain claims 
 of American citizens against the Government of that coun- 
 try. It was made into two Territories by Act of Congress 
 March 26th, 1801; one called the Territory of Orleans, 
 the other the District of Louisiana, afterwards changed to 
 Missouri. Congress, March 2nd, 1806, authorized the 
 inhabitants of Orleans Territory to form a State Constitu- 
 tion and Government when their population should amount 
 to 60,000. A Constitution was adopted January 22nd, 
 1812 ; and the State admitted into the Union April 8th of 
 the same year, under the name of Louisiana. Its area is 
 41,346 square miles. Population, 708,002. State capital, 
 Baton Rouge. 
 
 In no part of the State is a greater elevation at- 
 tained than 200 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and much of the southern region is so low that it becomes 
 flooded at high water, and marshes extend from the coast 
 far into the interior. Low prairie lands exist in the cen- 
 tral parts of the State, and in the extreme north-west is a 
 marshy tract of 50 miles in length and 6 in breadth, full 
 of small lakes, made by the interfacings of the arms of 
 Red River. It is estimated that an area of between 8000 
 and 9000 square miles, lying respectively upon the Mis- 
 sissippi and Red Rivers, is subject to inundations. 
 
 About three-fifths of the area of the State is alluvial 
 and diluvial ; the rest is occupied by the tertiary formation. 
 and contains coal, and iron, ochre, salt, gypsum, and marl. 
 Large quartz crystals have been found, and quantities of 
 jasper, agates, cornelians, sardonyx, onyx, feldspar, crystal- 
 
150 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 lized gypsum, alumina, chalcedony, lava, meteoric stones, 
 and fossils have been found among the freestone hills. 
 
 The soil, except of the pine-lands and portions of the 
 prairies, is highly productive. The principal plantations 
 are in the bottom-lands adjoining the Red and Mississippi 
 rivers. The inundations which occasionally occur through 
 the giving way of the embankment, or " levee," cause 
 great destruction of property, and flood large districts. 
 The alluvia which is deposited by these floods, sometimes 
 to the depth of twelve inches, greatly enriches the land, 
 and, when impoverished, compensates for the loss of 
 one crop. 
 
 In the long hot summers, the exhalations from the 
 marshes render a great part of Louisiana unhealthy ; and 
 yellow fever often prevails, especially in New Orleans. 
 
 The great staples are cotton and sugar-cane, but 
 the region suited to the growth of the latter extends 
 little farther north than the south-western boundary 
 of Mississippi. The manufacture of sugar and molasses is 
 an important employment on many of the plantations, 
 Louisiana supplying about nine- tenths of the whole amount 
 produced in the United States. Boots and shoes are made 
 here more extensively than in any Southern State. Iron 
 casting is also very largely carried on. 
 
 Louisiana is the natural outlet of a large part of the 
 commerce of the Mississippi valley, including a large share 
 of the cotton crop, and for this reason, it ranks as the first 
 State in the Union in the value of its exports, and the 
 third in the value of its imports. 
 
 The chief cities and towns are — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 New ( city proper, 169,000 > . . .The " Crescent City," so called from 
 Orleans (.metropolis, 175,000> its shape around a bend in the 
 
 Mississippi; great maritime and 
 
LOUISIANA. 
 
 151 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Shreveport 
 
 Eaton Kouge. 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 inland commerce, the exports far 
 exceeding, in value, those of any 
 other city of the United States, 
 except New York; chief cotton 
 market of the world; principal 
 market of the United States for 
 sugar, molasses, and tobacco, and 
 largest shipping port for bacon, 
 salted pork, and lard ; magnificent 
 custom-house (the largest edifice 
 in the Union) ; branch of the 
 United States Mint ; University 
 of Louisiana. 
 
 .. .G,000 Integral part of the metropolis of 
 
 New Orleans, communicating with 
 the city proper by steam-ferry ; 
 ship-building and other manufac- 
 tures. 
 .Commercial depot of northern and 
 eastern Texas and western Ar- 
 kansas ; large trade in cotton ; 
 important lake and river naviga- 
 tion. 
 .State capital; thriving trade; 
 numerous literary institutions ; 
 asylum for the deaf and dumb 
 and for the blind ; State peni- 
 tentiary ; United States arsenal. 
 
 .5,000 Depot of a rich agricultural region ; 
 
 extensive trade in produce, meats, 
 etc., for the supply of the New 
 Orleans market. 
 
 .6,000. 
 
 ,000. 
 
152 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Mississippi was first visited by De Soto, the Spanish 
 discoverer, about 1541. The enmity of the Indians, how- 
 ever, and other obstacles, prevented any immediate occu- 
 pation of the country by Europeans. It was not till 1728 
 that a permanent settlement was made by the French. 
 The country fell into the possession of the British crown 
 upon the conclusion of the Peace of Paris in 1763. In 
 1798 the colony was organized as a Territory, Alabama 
 forming a portion thereof. It was admitted into the Union 
 in 1817. Area, 47,156 square miles. Population, 791,305. 
 State capital, Jackson. 
 
 One seventh of the area of Mississippi consists of 
 swamps and marshy tracts. There is a stretch of this 
 description between the Mississippi and Yazoo and Tal- 
 lahatchie rivers, covering an area of nearly 7000 square 
 miles, and varying in width from ten to one hundred 
 miles. The lower portions of the State are subject to inun- 
 dation, and dykes or levees are built along the river banks, 
 to restrain the unruly floods of the Mississippi. Some- 
 times, however, a breach, or " crevasse," occurs, when the 
 country is inundated for many miles, the water often remain- 
 ing for weeks. Where the country is not thus occupied by 
 swampy or marshy stretches, it sweeps away in broad table- 
 lands, shaped into grand terraces, or steps descending from 
 the eastward to the waters of the great river. The steps are 
 formed by two ranges of bluffs, which sometimes extend 
 to the river shores, and halt abruptly in perpendicular pre- 
 cipices of fifty, and even a hundred feet high. These 
 bluffs are features of great and novel attraction to the 
 voyager on the Mississippi river. The south-eastern portion 
 
Mississippi. 153 
 
 of the State is covered principally with pine barrens. The 
 north-eastern portion consists chiefly of extensive prairies of 
 great fertility, and are unsurpassed in their adaptability for 
 cotton-growing. The winters here, and in the neighbour- 
 ing State of Louisiana, have a temperature a few degrees 
 lower than that of the same latitudes near the Atlantic. 
 The fig and the orange grow well in the lower part of the 
 State, and the apple flourishes in the higher hilly regions. 
 Cotton is the great staple of Mississippi, the State being 
 the third in the Union in this product. Besides cotton, 
 the soil yields great supplies of Indian corn, and all species 
 of grain and grasses, as well as live stock of very con- 
 siderable value. Mississippi has no very extensive mineral 
 products — gold, coal, and marble have been found, but in 
 no important quantities. 
 
 The manufactures consist chiefly of sawed and planed 
 timber, and of machinery; the latter has increased con- 
 siderably within a few years. The products of this State, 
 however, with the exception of what are derived from 
 its plantations and forests, are comparatively of little 
 value. 
 
 The commerce of Mississippi, owing to the want of a 
 good harbour on the Gulf, is trifling ; but an important 
 trade is maintained by steamboats on the Mississippi, and 
 the smaller rivers. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1S60. Characteristics. 
 
 Jackson 3,500 State capital; contains State penitentiary, 
 
 lunatic asylum, university. 
 
 Natchez 14,000 " City of the Bluffs," situated partly on 
 
 a cliff 200 feet above the river ; ex- 
 tensive trade in cotton ; various manu- 
 factures; beautiful gardens and orange 
 groves ; numerous educational insti- 
 tutions. 
 
154 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Yicksburg 5,000 Important railway centre ; active river 
 
 commerce ; great trade in cotton ; 
 
 chief commercial port of the State. 
 Columbus 3,500 Healthful location; depot of a large 
 
 cotton trade ; centre of a highly fertile 
 
 cotton region ; river commerce. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Alabama was settled originally by the French, at Mo- 
 bile in 1713, and was admitted into the Union, August 2, 
 1819. Area, 50,722 square miles. Population in 1860, 
 964,201. Montgomery is the State capital. 
 
 The country gradually declines from the north", which 
 reaches the foot of the Alleghany Mountains, to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, where it is level for fifty or sixty miles from 
 the coast. In the north, where hills are the prevailing 
 feature, the soil is but moderately fertile ; though, in the 
 intervening valleys, the fertility can scarcely be ex- 
 celled. It is the region of the cereals, and a fine grazing 
 country. The central portions, less elevated and undu- 
 lating, are well watered, and in the river bottoms is ex- 
 tremely rich and productive. The extensive and fertile 
 prairies, extending across the central portion of the State, 
 are unsurpassed in their capability for growing cotton. 
 The valley of the Alabama River is one of the most 
 fertile regions in the Union. The southern portion of the 
 State consists principally of pine-barrens. Where capable 
 of cultivation, the soil is rich. The growth in this region 
 is of a tropical character. 
 
ALABAMA. 155 
 
 The climate is moderate in the north, and the rivers 
 never freeze in winter. In the south, the heat in summer 
 is very great, though tempered by the breezes from the 
 Gnlf of Mexico. 
 
 In the amount of its cotton crop, Alabama exceeds 
 every other State in the Union ; and in its crop of maize, 
 is excelled amongst the Southern States by Virginia only. 
 The sugar-cane has been found to succeed in the ex- 
 treme southern strip, between Florida and Mississippi. 
 Rice grows well on the alluvial lands near the Gulf. 
 
 The mineral resources of Alabama are very great. The 
 whole central region is underlaid with vast beds of iron 
 ore, or occupied by coal-measures of great thickness and 
 extent ; the coal found here being of highly bituminous 
 character. Besides coal and iron, Alabama yields lead ore, 
 manganese, several descriptions of ochres, limestone, and 
 marbles ; and, in the north-eastern section, gold in consi- 
 derable quantities has been found. 
 
 The manufacture of sawed and planed timber, cotton 
 goods, and machinery (for the most part cotton-gins) are 
 relatively important. Machine manufactures are much 
 more extensive than in any other of the Gulf States. 
 Alabama has considerable foreign and internal commerce. 
 Her ports being open to the sea through Mobile Bay, give 
 an outlet not only to her own productions, but also to 
 some of those of the neighbouring States. 
 
 In the value of its exports to foreign countries, consist- 
 ing mostly of cotton, it is the fourth State in the Union ; 
 its direct foreign imports, however, are trifling. 
 
 The chief cities and towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 Montgomery ... 16,000.. .State capital ; centre of a highly fertile cotton 
 region ; extensive river commerce and in- 
 land trade ; many costly private residences. 
 
156 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Mobile 27,000... Chief commercial port, next to New Orleans, 
 
 on the Gulf of Mexico, and second cotton 
 market in America ; excellent public 
 schools ; benevolent institutions ; magnifi- 
 cent private residences. 
 
 Selma 5,000... Centre of a highly fertile cotton region ; large 
 
 inland trade and river commerce ; iron 
 manufactures. 
 
 Tuscaloosa 4,000... Head of steamboat navigation on the Black 
 
 Warrior River ; inland trade ; manufac- 
 tures of iron castings and cotton goods; 
 University of Alabama, and other literary 
 institutions ; State lunatic asylum. 
 
 Huntsville 4,000... Inland trade; canal communication with the 
 
 Tennessee River ; many elegant and costly 
 private residences ; excellent public schools 
 and colleges. 
 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 Much of the early history of the State of Texas is 
 marked by turbulence and war. In the year 1821 the in- 
 ducements held out to settlers in this region by the Go- 
 vernment of Mexico, to whom the territory at that period 
 belonged, caused a great flow of emigration thither from 
 the United States. This new population had grown so 
 great by the year 1832, as to absorb and destroy the 
 original feeble spirit under Mexican rule. Admission being 
 demanded for the State as an independent member of the 
 Mexican confederacy, and refused, Texas declared itself 
 wholly free of all allegiance whatsoever to that Govern- 
 
TEXAS. 157 
 
 ment. The result was a war with Mexico, which was de- 
 termined in favour of the Texans. 
 
 Texas continued to be an independent republic until 
 her admission, in 1846, as a member of the Union. It is 
 by far the largest State, being more than five times as 
 large as New York. Area, 274,350 square miles. 
 Population in 1860, 604,215. State capital, Austin. 
 At the period of the last census scarcely more than one- 
 seventh of Texas was settled, the eastern portion being 
 that chiefly under cultivation. 
 
 This great State presents every variety of surface — 
 mountain, plain, hill, and desert. It may be divided into 
 three physical sections. 1. The level, which occupies the 
 entire coast, extending from 30 to 60 miles into the in- 
 terior. 2. The undulating, embracing the whole interior 
 and north, reaching westward to the mountain tract, and 
 consisting of high rolling verdant prairies, narrow wooded 
 bottoms, beautiful islands of timber. 3. The mountainous, 
 with table-lands, well watered and fertile. 
 
 The general character of the soil is that of great fer- 
 tility. Cotton, the great staple, grows well in almost every 
 part of the State, and that grown near the Gulf is con- 
 sidered equal to the famous sea-island cotton. In the 
 undulating portion the cereals flourish, and the level coun- 
 try is well adapted to the production of sugar. In some 
 sections, two crops of Indian corn are grown yearly. 
 Cayenne pepper is largely produced. The grape, mulberry, 
 and delicious vanilla are indigenous. Fruits flourish, espe- 
 cially the peach. Flowers are in abundance ; and Texas 
 offers great attractions to the botanist, or lover of the 
 beauties of nature. 
 
 Flour and meal are more extensively produced here 
 than in any other of the Gulf States. The manufactures 
 are of little importance. 
 
158 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Middle Texas is famous for its cattle, great numbers being 
 pastured throughout the year upon the verdant prairies. 
 The vast herds of buffaloes and wild horses, which roam 
 upon the western plains, and the numerous deer, bears, and 
 wolves, found in all parts of the wilderness, are captured 
 in large numbers, affording a rich reward to the hunter. 
 The wild horses, known as mustangs, are commonly taken 
 with the lasso. 
 
 The climate is free from the extremes of both torrid 
 and temperate zones. Ice is sometimes seen in the 
 southern portion ; and the heats of summer are con- 
 siderably mitigated by the refreshing breezes from the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Texas abounds with minerals. The silver mine of Said 
 Saled is among the richest in the world, and under the 
 dominion of Spain afforded considerable revenue to the 
 crown. Gold has been found on the Atoyac and other 
 streams, especially towards the western hill country ; and 
 silver also on the Bedais. Iron ore pervades the greater 
 portion of the country. Lead, copper, alum, etc., are 
 found in several parts, and bituminous coal on the Trinity 
 and Upper Brazos. Salt is exceedingly abundant, and 
 large quantities are annually taken from a famous salt 
 lake near the Rio Grande. Salt springs and lagoons 
 abound near the Trinity, and a branch of the Brazos has 
 its waters highly impregnated. Soda and potash are 
 found near the salt lagoons in dry seasons. Lime can be 
 plentifully furnished from limestone existing in the un- 
 dulating and northern sections ; in the level districts 
 oyster-shell lime can be substituted. Asphaltum is some- 
 times found on the coast. Agate, chalcedony, jasper, and 
 some singular petrifactions, are found near the mountains. 
 The remains of whole forests are seen on the Trinity and 
 Brazos rivers, entirely petrified. Extensive quarries of red 
 
TEXAS. 159 
 
 and white sandstone, or freestone, abound throughout the 
 country. At Austin there is a quarry of white stone 
 similar to that of the Paris basin ; it is soft and easily 
 worked with the knife, and may be reduced to any form ; 
 but on exposure to the atmosphere it becomes a perfect 
 freestone, and is as hard and compact as granite 
 and marble. The same kind of stone is found on 
 the Trinity, and in the vicinity of San Antonio de 
 Bexar. 
 
 The maritime commerce of Texas consists chiefly in its 
 coasting trade, particularly with New Orleans. The inland 
 trade is chiefly promoted by many steamboats plying upon 
 the rivers ; and a small overland commerce is maintained 
 with Northern Mexico. 
 
 No part of the extensive coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
 presents a greater number of commanding harbours, bays, 
 and inlets, than that of Texas. The interior, intersected 
 by numerous magnificent and navigable streams, in close 
 vicinity to the western tributaries of the Mississippi, 
 and holding easy communication with the great " Father 
 of waters," furnishes a commercial position very desirable 
 and seldom surpassed. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 San Antonio 8,000 Old Spanish settlement; terminus of an 
 
 important overland mail route to Cali- 
 fornia ; large trade with Mexico ; 
 wealthy and refined society; United 
 States Arsenal. 
 
 Galveston 7,000 Chief commercial port of the State; large 
 
 coasting and inland trade. 
 
 Houston 6,000 Head of steamboat navigation on Buffalo 
 
 Bayou ; principal railway centre of the 
 State ; extensive trade ; manufactures of 
 iron castings and machinery. 
 
160 DESCEIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMEBIC!. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Brownsville 5,000 Town opposite the city of Matamoras in 
 
 Mexico ; large trade with, northern 
 Mexico and the interior of Texas ; con- 
 siderable coastwise and river com- 
 merce. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 1G1 
 
 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Michigan, 
 Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, Arkansas, 
 Kansas. 
 
 The Western States are embraced almost wholly in the 
 Great Central Plain of North America, and accordingly 
 exhibit little variety of snrface. In the Eastern part this 
 plain is broken by the descending terraces of the Appa- 
 lachian highlands, and by the low ranges of mountains or 
 hills which border the same. West of this they present a 
 vast level or undulating tract, reaching far beyond the 
 Mississippi. This almost unvarying expanse is chiefly 
 made up of half-wooded and open prairies ; the latter, or 
 true prairies, being most extensive in Illinois, and in the 
 States lyiug west of the Mississippi, and reaching as far 
 south as the Ozark Mountains. 
 
 These prairies are essentially different from the llanos 
 of South America, and the arid plains west of the Rocky 
 Mountains. They are not so uniformly level, and are 
 always possessed of a sufficient watershed to produce a 
 steady flow in the rivers which drain them. They are also 
 free from the protracted droughts which convert the former 
 into sterile deserts. The region occupied by them embraces 
 the western part of Ohio, nearly the whole of Indiana, 
 Illinois, and Iowa, the northern part of Missouri, the 
 southern part of Michigan, and portions of Kansas and 
 Nebraska. In the two latter States they begin to assume 
 the character of arid plains. The prairies are almost 
 devoid of trees, which are met with only under peculiar 
 circumstances of moisture and soil, being found only in 
 scattered copses, or along the margin of streams, and 
 
 11 
 
162 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 occasionally on low rocky ridges. West of the Mississippi 
 the larger growth becomes less frequent, and near longi- 
 tude 98° trees and grass alike disappear. The grass, which 
 is of a coarse quality, forms excellent pasturage, and is not 
 unfrequently interspersed with hazel thickets and sassafras 
 shrubs, and in the proper season the prairies are decorated 
 with a brilliant garniture of honeysuckles, jessamines, wild 
 roses, and violets. 
 
 Along many of the larger rivers the bottom-lands are 
 of considerable breadth. Those of the Missouri river, for 
 instance, are five miles wide, but those of the Mississippi, 
 below its junction with the Missouri, are the most remark- 
 able for breadth, being frequently from forty to fifty miles 
 wide ; while the bluffs which border them are in some 
 places often two to three hundred feet in height. The 
 Western States are distinguished for the great depth and 
 productiveness of their soil. No region of equal extent in 
 the temperate zones rivals them in fertility. 
 
 Owing to the remarkable uniformity of the surface, 
 the climate is less varied than in other sections of the 
 Union. In parts of the West, intermittent fevers prevail 
 to some extent, but this is mostly confined to the newly- 
 settled districts, these fevers gradually disappearing as the 
 country becomes settled, and the soil is cultivated. 
 
 The Western States are particularly distinguished for 
 their rapid growth. Many of them have in less than one 
 generation grown up into populous and wealthy States, 
 surpassing in manufactures and commerce, and in extent 
 of railways, canals, and lines of telegraph, not only many 
 of the older Atlantic States of the Union, but some of the 
 oldest nations of Europe. Fuller and more detailed 
 evidences of this extraordinary development will be found 
 in the separate description of the various States and the 
 chief cities. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 163 
 
 The middle and southern sections, lying mostly east of 
 the Mississippi, are the most thickly settled, comparing 
 favourably with many of the older Atlantic States. Most 
 of the inhabitants of the West are emigrants, or the des- 
 cendants of emigrants, from the more eastern States. The 
 people are energetic, enterprising, and progressive ; com- 
 paratively free from local prejudices and stereotyped cus- 
 toms ; liberal in their sentiments ; and open and cordial in 
 their manners. 
 
 The great controlling interest of the West is agricul- 
 ture; no other part of the world, except South-Eastern 
 Asia, equals it in the production of food crops. The 
 raising of bread-stuffs, especially, is conducted upon the 
 grandest scale, and the vast fields of waving grain which 
 meet the eye on every side are objects of wonder and 
 admiration. The Western States are admirably adapted 
 to the culture of fruit. Apples, pears, peaches, plums, 
 cherries, currants, strawberries, blackberries, quinces, 
 apricots, and nectarines reach a rare size and delicacy of 
 flavour. Trees and vines grow rapidly and bear largely. 
 The mulberry tree grows wild and is hardy and rank. 
 With cultivation it would answer every want of the silk- 
 grower. The alianthus worm, which has been imported 
 from France and naturalized, would find in the abundant 
 foliage of this tree rich materials for its fabric. The soft- 
 ness of the climate is peculiarly favourable to the health 
 and industry of this insect. 
 
 The foreign commerce of the Western States is small, 
 owing to their remoteness from the sea-board, yet they have 
 a limited commercial intercourse with distant foreign ports, 
 by means of vessels traversing the Mississippi, or the St. 
 Lawrence and Great Lakes, besides a considerable trade 
 with the Canadas. 
 
164' DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Ohio is the most wealthy of the Western States. It 
 was settled at Marietta, in 1788, by emigrants from Vir- 
 ginia and New England ; ceded by Virginia to the United 
 States October 20, 1783, and admitted into the Union 
 April 30, 1 802. Area, 39,964 square miles. Population, 
 2,339,511. The State had no white settlement nntil five 
 years after the close of the American Revolution. In little 
 more than half a century she has risen from a mere wilder- 
 ness to rank among the first States of the Union, a rate of 
 progress unexampled in history except in the adjoining 
 States. 
 
 The surface, though much varied, nowhere presents any 
 considerable elevation above the general level, but the 
 whole country is a lofty tableland, the centre of the State 
 being elevated 1000 feet above the level of the sea ; about 
 nine-tenths of the surface is susceptible of cultivatiou, and 
 the soil may be generally characterized as fertile, much of 
 it highly so, especially in the river bottoms. In the cen- 
 tral and north-western sections, the prairies are numerous 
 and wide. The greater part of the country was originally 
 covered with magnificent forests, and timber is still very 
 abundant. The climate in the south is mild, but in the 
 north the temperature is rigorous. 
 
 Ohio is one of the richest mineral States of the Union. 
 Iron and coal abound throughout the eastern portion of 
 the State, and are deposited in beds of great thickness. 
 The coal is bituminous, is of good quality, and lies very 
 accessible, requiring comparatively little outlay to obtain 
 it. The iron-trade of this region is destined, at no distant 
 day, to become of great magnitude and importance. A belt 
 of iron ore, averaging some twelve miles in width, extends 
 
ohio. 105 
 
 upwards of one hundred miles in length ; each square mile 
 of which, it is estimated, is capable of sustaining a furnace 
 employing one hundred hands, and yielding eight tons of 
 iron per day. Coal of the best quality, from three to 
 twenty feet in thickness, underlies the whole of this belt of 
 iron ; and there can be no doubt that the mineral region 
 of Ohio alone is susceptible of being rendered as valaable 
 as the entire mineral region of England. Marble, freestone 
 well adapted for building purposes, lime, and gypsum, are 
 found in abundance. Salt springs are numerous. 
 
 In the value of its farm-products, Ohio ranks third in 
 the Union. In the southern section, tobacco is extensively 
 cultivated. Grape-growing receives much attention in 
 some localities, chiefly in the vicinity of Cincinnati ; and 
 the quantity of wine produced is greater than in all the 
 other Western States. 
 
 Ohio is noted for its live stock. Sheep are more nu- 
 merous here, and yield a larger amount of wool, than any- 
 other State. 
 
 The manufactures exceed in value those of any other 
 States except New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. 
 They consist of flour and meal, clothing, machinery, 
 spirituous liquors, boots and shoes, leather, and farming- 
 tools. Great quantities of salt are made from the waters 
 of brine-springs in the coal-bearing regions of the State. 
 The internal commerce of Ohio is extensive. The amount 
 of its overland transportation is exceeded only by a few of 
 the other States. The external commerce by way of the 
 Ohio River and Lake Efie is very large. 
 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in I860. Characteristics. 
 
 Cincinnati ...161,000... The largest city west of the Alleghanies; 
 (in 1866, 230,000) chief commercial centre of the Ohio valley ; 
 
166 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 and nucleus of an extensive railway and canal 
 system; principal pork-market in America; 
 important manufactures of sale clothing, iron 
 goods, furniture, lard, oil, soap and candles, 
 wines, etc. ; extensive publication of books 
 and other printed matter ; collegiate institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Cleveland ... 43,000... Important commercial pert; extensive railway 
 and canal business ; large manufactures of 
 steam-engines, etc. ; educational institutions ; 
 elegant streets and private residences. 
 
 Dayton 20,000... Important railway centre; large transhipments 
 
 of merchandise ; extensive manufactures of 
 flour, linseed oil, railway cars, paper, iron- 
 ware, etc. 
 
 Columbus ... 18,000... State capital; commercial depot of a rich and 
 populous region ; thriving manufactures ; 
 magnificent State-house ; medical college ; 
 benevolent institution ; State penitentiary. 
 
 Toledo 14,000. . . Chief commercial port at the western extremity 
 
 of Lake Erie ; great railway and canal busi- 
 ness ; extensive shipments of grain, flour, 
 pork, live stock, etc. 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Indiana was settled at Vincennes, in 1690, by the 
 French, and formed part of the north-western territory- 
 ceded by Virginia to the United States. It was organized 
 into a Territory, May 7, 1800, from which the Territory of 
 Michigan was set off in 1805, and Illinois in 1809. It was 
 admitted into the Union December 11, 1816. Area, 33,809 
 square miles. Population, 1,350,428. Capital, Indianapolis. 
 
 The general features of Indiana are those which per- 
 tain to all countries where mountain, in the strict sense of 
 
INDIANA. 167 
 
 the word, is wanting. Nearly two-thirds of the State is 
 level, or, at most, undulating ; and a most singular feature 
 of the country is the absence of any watershed, or dividing 
 ridge, such as almost every geographical region presents, 
 from which the waters flow in different directions. Yet 
 the country has continuous slopes of great extent. 
 
 The soil of Indiana is generally good, and much of it 
 is highly fertile. The richest lands are found in the river 
 bottoms, where the soil is very deep. This is especially 
 the case in the Valley of the Wabash and its tributaries, 
 and the Ohio Valley. The country between the rivers is 
 somewhat elevated, and is not so luxuriantly fertile as on 
 the river bottoms. It, however, amply repays the labours 
 of the husbandman. There is but very little of the State 
 that is unculfcivable. 
 
 The climate partakes of the general character of the 
 other Western States north of the Ohio. It is subject to 
 sudden changes. The winters, though of short duration, 
 are usually severe, and snow does not lie long. There is a 
 considerable difference in the climate of the northern and 
 southern portions of the State. 
 
 Indiana has large beds of coal, estimated to be 7700 
 square miles in extent, and to be capable of yielding 
 50,000,000 bushels to the square mile. Iron, lead, anti- 
 mony, manganese, and zinc, are the principal metals found 
 in the State. Salt-springs are also found on the eastern 
 edge of the coal formation. 
 
 The leading crops are the same as in the neighbouring 
 States. Tobacco is raised in the South. Sorghum, or 
 Chinese sugar-cane, has proved very successful here, and 
 yields large quantities of molasses. According to the farm- 
 ing returns of the last census, more swine were raised in 
 Indiana than in any other State, and more sheep than in 
 any except Ohio and New York. 
 
168 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Although the State is mostly devoted to agriculture, it 
 has made good progress in several departments of manu- 
 factures. In the production of flour, meal, and spirits dis- 
 tilled from grain, it ranks with the leading States of the 
 Union; and stood second in the value of boots, shoes, 
 leather, and woollen goods made in 1860. A large 
 domestic and transit trade is carried on upon its rivers, 
 canals, and railways. 
 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1863. Characteristics. 
 
 Indianapolis... 19,000... State capital ; terminus of eight different rail- 
 ways ; extensive transhipments of merchan- 
 dise ; manufactures of railway-cars, bar iron, 
 carriages, waggons, farming-tools, etc. ; ele- 
 gant State-house ; State institutions for the 
 deaf and dumb, blind, and insane. 
 
 New Albany... 13,000... Large inland and river commerce; extensive 
 steamboat-building ; manufactures of iron 
 merchandise, brass-ware, bagging, etc. 
 
 Evansville ... 11,000... Southern terminus of the Wabash and Erie 
 Canal (the longest canal in the United 
 States) ; great depot for agricultural pro- 
 duce ; large river commerce. 
 
 Eort Wayne... 10,000... Depot of a rich wheat-growing region ; impor- 
 tant flour- mills ; exportation of flour, timber, 
 etc ; educational institutions. 
 
 Lafayette 9,000. ..Head of steamboat navigation on the Wabash 
 
 Eiver; centre of an extensive railway and 
 canal traffic ; one of the chief gi'ain-markets 
 of the State ; manufacture of flour, iron 
 goods, paper, etc. 
 
ILLINOIS. 169 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 This State was settled at Kaskaskia, in 1633, by the 
 French, and formed part of the North-western territory 
 ceded by Virginia to the United States. An Act for 
 dividing the Indiana Territory, and organizing out of it 
 the Territory of Illinois, was passed by Congress, February 
 3, 1809 ; and an Act to enable it to form a State Constitu- 
 tion, Government, etc., was passed April 18, 1818, a Con- 
 stitution was framed August 26, and it was admitted into 
 the Union December 23 of the same year. Area, 55,409 
 square miles. Population, in 1860, 1,711,951 ; 1865, 
 2,151,006. State capital, Springfield. 
 
 In no part of the Union have towns and cities sprung 
 up so rapidly and in such wonderful growth, as in Illinois, 
 increasing so fast in population, that the census of one 
 year is no standard for the next. 
 
 Illinois is generally a tableland, and characterized as 
 level, though there are elevated bluffs on the Illinois and 
 Mississippi Rivers. The great landscape features of the 
 State are the prairies. The Grand Prairie is the most 
 remarkable, being over 150 miles in length, and varying in 
 width from one to fourteen miles. In the north there are 
 tracts somewhat stony, yet in every other part the plough- 
 may pass over millions of acres without meeting so much 
 as a pebble to impede its course. The prairies undulate 
 in a most graceful manner, and are profusely decked with 
 flowers, the brilliant hues of which enchant the beholder. 
 
 " Primrose and pale jessamine. 
 The white pink, the pansy freaked with jet, 
 The rose, the glowing violet, and the well attired woodbine." 
 
 The most notable characteristic of the prairies is their 
 destitution of the larger or arborescent vegetation. The 
 
170 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 soil is, however, capable of supporting the largest trees, 
 and nothing prevents their growth but the continual fires 
 which sweep across the prairie country. 
 
 Illinois has a considerable variety of climate, and there 
 is great irregularity in the seasons. The winters are 
 everywhere severe, and the summers hot and prolonged. 
 On the whole, the climate is favourable to out-door occu- 
 pations, arid the general salubrity is unquestionable. 
 
 The minerals in the northern part of Illinois are in- 
 exhaustible. Coal, limestone, and sandstone are found in 
 every part. Iron ore is widely distributed. Lead and 
 copper are most common in the north-west. The lead 
 mines are most productive, and silver is found in combina- 
 tion with the lead ore. Zinc is also mined in some parts. 
 The coal of Illinois is bituminous, and is spread over a 
 large extent of country. Building stones of almost every 
 cfescription are quarried, and immense boulders of granite 
 are shown upon the surface. 
 
 Medicinal springs, sulphur, and chalybeate are found 
 in various parts of the State. In Jefferson County, there 
 is a spring very much resorted to, and in the southern part 
 of the State are some waters which taste strongly of Epsom 
 salts. 
 
 The soil of Illinois is not excelled, if equalled, in any 
 other State of the Union. That of the river bottoms is 
 often twenty-five or thirty feet deep, and as inexhaustible 
 as that of the Nile. The upper prairie districts are scarcely 
 less productive. The richest tracts in the State are the great 
 " American Bottoms," lying along the Mississippi, between 
 the mouths of the Missouri and the Kaskaskia Rivers, a 
 stretch of 80 miles ; the country on the Rock River, and its 
 branches ; and that around the Sangamon, and other waters. 
 As an instance of the productiveness of the soil, it may be 
 mentioned that round about the towns which were first 
 
ILLINOIS. 171 
 
 settled by the French, the soil has produced Indian corn 
 every year, without manuring, for a century and a half. 
 
 The agriculture of the State is mainly devoted to the 
 raising of Indian corn. The other staples are wheat, oats, 
 Irish potatoes, and hay; 30 bushels of wheat, or 60 
 bushels of corn to the acre is a common production. The 
 prairies are peculiarly favourable to the raising of stock and 
 dairy productions. 
 
 As regards manufactures, Illinois, as compared with the 
 other Western States, ranks next to Ohio. Its productions 
 being flour and meal, malt and spirituous liquors, farming- 
 tools and furniture. 
 
 Its central position among the Western States renders 
 it the thoroughfare of an immense trade. The internal and 
 transit trade is of great importance, being facilitated by a 
 greater extent of railways than exists in any other of the 
 United States, and by the various navigable streams 
 within its limits. 
 
 The chief towns of Illinois are : — 
 
 Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Chicago 109,000... Unparalleled growth in population, the num- 
 ber of inhabitants in 1840 having been 
 only 4470; principal primary grain mar- 
 ket in the world ; vast commerce by lake, 
 canal, and railway — the tonnage of ship- 
 ping employed upon the first-mentioned 
 being much gi'eater than engaged in the 
 foreign trade of New York ; great trade in 
 timber, beef, pork, live stock, etc. ; exten- 
 sive manufactures of machinery and other 
 iron merchandise, flour, spirituous and 
 malt liquors, farming-tools, furniture, etc. 
 
 Peoria 14,000... Commercial depot of a highly fertile region; 
 
 water communication with St. Louis and 
 Chicago; vicinity of extensive coal mines; 
 large manufactures of machinery ; centre 
 of extensive railway communication. 
 
172 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Population. Characteristics. 
 
 Quincey 14,000... Kiver commerce; large exportation of 
 
 country produce ; extensive manufac- 
 tures of iron merchandise, barrels and 
 casks, flour, furniture, etc. 
 
 Galena 8,000... Market of the principal lead mining region 
 
 in America; lead and copper smelting 
 works ; manufactures of lumber, flour, 
 etc. ; active river commerce ; United 
 States marine hospital. 
 
 Bloomington.... 7,000... Market of a rich agricultural and grazing 
 district ; various manufactures. 
 
 Springfield 12,000... State capital; centre of a highly fertile 
 
 prairie region ; extensive nurseries; costly 
 private residences. 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 Kentucky was settled in 1775, by emigrants from Vir- 
 ginia. The name Kentucky (the dark and bloody ground) 
 is an indication of the early history of the State, and of 
 the terrible conflicts which took place with a savage and 
 wily foe. It was included in the territory of Virginia till 
 1792, when it was admitted as a State. Its area is 37,G80 
 square miles. Population, 1,200,000. State capital, 
 Frankfort. 
 
 The face of the country presents a variety of aspects. 
 In the south-east, the Cumberland Mountains — though 
 they attain no great elevations — give to that portion a 
 rugged and mountainous appearance ; and the numerous 
 spurs, or offshoots, projecting quite into the middle of the 
 State, render the surface of the whole eastern division 
 somewhat broken and hilly. Farther westward, the 
 country becomes undulating, and west of the Cumberland 
 River the land is mostly level. A range of hills runs nearly 
 parallel with the Ohio River, with bottom lands intervening, 
 sometimes having a breadth of ten, or even twenty miles. 
 
KENTUCKY. 173 
 
 When first settled, nearly the whole surface of this 
 State was covered with a dense forest of majestic trees, 
 and a close undergrowth of gigantic reeds, forming what 
 are called cane-brakes. In the southern part, however, on 
 the head waters of Green River and its tributaries, is an 
 extensive tract, thinly wooded, and covered in summer 
 with high grass growing amid scattered and stunted oaks. 
 The most productive soil of Kentucky is that of the 
 blue limestone formation. The "blue grass country," 
 bordering on the Ohio, embracing an area of about one 
 hundred miles square, is of most extraordinary fertility. 
 The soil is of a loose, deep, black mould, without sand, 
 from two to three feet deep, and exceedingly luxuriant in 
 all its productions. In general fertility, Kentucky rivals 
 the most favoured parts of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 In climate, Kentucky enjoys a medium between the 
 severity of the Northern States and the enervating heats 
 of the South, having but two or three months' winter. 
 The autumns and springs are very mild. It is exceedingly 
 healthy, and the winter is never so severe as to render the 
 housing of cattle necessary. 
 
 Kentucky ranks among the chief agricultural States of 
 the Union, the principal crops being Indian corn, tobacco, 
 wheat, and hemp. More than one-third of the hemp, and 
 about one-fourth of the tobacco, raised in the United 
 States are produced here. The yield of flax is also un- 
 commonly large. 
 
 The deposits of bituminous coal and iron are exten- 
 sively worked. In the production of woollen goods Ken- 
 tucky stands very high. Bagging and rope — used for 
 cotton bales — are extensively manufactured. The manu- 
 facture of tobacco is a noted branch of industry. Ken- 
 tucky has a large commerce, though its transit trade is 
 much less than that of the States on the north. 
 
174 DESCRIPTIVE HANDEOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Its principal towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Louisville ., 68,000... Large river commerce; extensive trade 
 
 in tobacco, pork, hemp, etc. ; steam- 
 boat building ; important manufac- 
 tures of machinery and other iron 
 goods, prepared tobacco, sale cloth- 
 ing, etc. ; University of Louisville ; 
 numerous benevolent institutions. 
 
 Covington 16,471 ) £7 000 -^J acent cities opposite Cincinnati, 
 
 and Newport... 10,046 -' Ohio, and connected with it by 
 
 steam-ferries ; manufactures of 
 cured tobacco, cordage, bar-iron, 
 etc. ; Western Baptist Theological 
 College ; United States barracks. 
 
 Lexington 9,000. . . Large inland trade ; extensive manu- 
 factures of bagging, ropes, etc.; 
 Transylvania University ; State 
 lunatic asylum ; orphan asylum. 
 
 Paducah ...Principal market for the produce o 
 
 the Tennessee valley ; river com- 
 merce ; steamboat building, and 
 various other manufactures. 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 Tennessee was settled before any other of the lands 
 west of the Alleghanies. The first settlement was at Fort 
 Donelson in 1756. The early history of the State is full 
 of the records of bloody struggles with the Indians. It 
 was ceded to the United States by North Carolina in 1789, 
 and accepted by Act of Congress the same year; it 
 adopted a Constitution, and was admitted into the Union 
 
TENNESSEE. 175 
 
 in 1796. . Area, 45,000 square miles. Population, 1,109,801. 
 State capital, Nashville. 
 
 The surface of the State is very agreeably diversified 
 with mountain, hill, and plain, and within its limits are 
 found fertility of soil, beauty of scenery, and a delightfully 
 temperate climate. The Cumberland hills, and many of 
 the mountain ridges and summits, are estimated to be from 
 1,500 to 2,000 feet in height ; most of them covered with 
 forest trees. The central portion of the State, stretching 
 from the mountains to the Tennessee River, has a broken 
 surface ; but towards the Mississippi, which forms the 
 western boundary of the State, the country is compara- 
 tively level. 
 
 Coal and iron are found in great abundance, and there 
 are many rich deposits of copper. Gold and silver, lead, 
 zinc, manganese, magnetic iron ore, gypsum of superior 
 quality, and a great variety of beautiful marbles, slate, 
 nitre, burr-stones, and limestone, are among the minerals. 
 Valuable salt and mineral springs abound. 
 
 The climate, excepting in the river lowlands, is agree- 
 able and healthful — exempt from any extreme of either 
 heat or cold. The eastern division is noted for its pure, 
 bracing mountain air. 
 
 The hills and mountain slopes of Tennessee, affording 
 an abundance of fine pasturage, offer great facilities for the 
 raising of stock ; much attention is given to wool-growing, 
 and there are hundreds of flocks of sheep of the best 
 varieties. Horses, mules, cattle, and swine are raised in 
 large numbers for the Southern markets. More live stock 
 is raised in Tennessee than in any other State of the 
 Union. The soil is generally arable, and of a good quality. 
 The western portion of the State has a rich black mould, 
 producing large crops. The State altogether forms one of 
 the finest agricultural regions on the continent. Large 
 
176 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 quantities of tobacco, cotton, and Indian corn are grown. 
 Rye, oats, barley, and maple sugar, are also cultivated to a 
 considerable extent. 
 
 Manufactures, though yet in their infancy, arc 
 increasing in importance. Leather, cotton goods, and pig- 
 iron are the most prominent articles. 
 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Memphis 23,000 Principal port on the Mississippi, between 
 
 St. Louis and New Orleans ; important 
 railway connections ; great trade in cotton, 
 etc. ; ship-building, and various manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Nashville 17,000 State capital; head of steamboat navigation 
 
 on the Cumberland Kiver; large inland 
 commerce ; manufacture of machinery 
 and iron castings ; magnificent State- 
 house ; State penitentiary ; lunatic asy- 
 lum ; Nashville University. 
 
 Knoxville 3,500 Head of steamboat navigation on the Hol- 
 
 ston Eiver, and port of entry for East 
 Tennessee; important railway connec- 
 tions ; flourishing trade with the interior ; 
 vicinity of extensive beds of coal and iron ; 
 large manufacture of window-glass, etc. ; 
 deaf and dumb asylum ; East Tennessee 
 University. 
 
 Chattanooga ... 5,000 Depot of a thriving inland trade ; river com- 
 merce ; manufacture of cabinet furniture, 
 etc. 
 
MICHIGAN. 177 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 Was settled at Detroit in 1670, by the French, and was 
 part of the territory ceded to the United States by Vir- 
 ginia. It was erected into a separate Territory in 1805 ; 
 an Act to attach to it all the territory of the United States 
 west of the Mississippi River, and north of the State of 
 Missouri, was passed in 1834 ; Wisconsin was organized 
 from it in 1836 ; a Constitution having been adopted, Mi- 
 chigan was admitted into the Union in 1837. Area, 56,213 
 square miles. Population, 749,113. State capital, Lan- 
 sing. 
 
 This State is nearly surrounded by the waters of the 
 Great Lakes, and has a coast of more than a thousand 
 miles. There are many beautiful ponds scattered over the 
 interior, whose shores are noted for their picturesque 
 beauty. The southern peninsula may be generally charac- 
 terized as a vast undulating plain, which seldom becomes 
 rough or broken. In the south-west are rich prairie lands. 
 The shores of Lake Huron consist of steep and rocky 
 bluffs ; while Lake Michigan is coasted by shifting sand- 
 hills of from 100 to 200 feet in height. The northern 
 peninsula is in every respect a contrast to the southern, 
 from which it is separated by the Straits of Makinaw ; 
 its general aspect is rugged, and the Porcupine Mountains 
 attain an elevation of 2000 feet; these mountains are 
 succeeded by a succession of plains and hills, which gra- 
 dually extend into an elevated tableland, and finally into 
 an undulating country, sloping on either hand towards the 
 lakes. The greater portion of this region is occupied 
 by vast forests, and much of the remainder by sandy 
 plains. 
 
 The romantic district of the " Lake State " is in the 
 
 12 
 
178 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 upper peninsula, which is rich in all the loveliness of 
 rugged, rocky coast, of the most fantastic and striking 
 character, and varied by beautiful streams, rapids, and 
 cascades. Here are found the celebrated "Pictured 
 Bocks." 
 
 The soil of Michigan is as varied as its surface ; in 
 the southern and middle portions it is characterized by 
 great fertility, consisting mostly of a deep sandy loam, 
 free from stone; in the north it is sterile, and a large 
 portion possesses but few agricultural capabilities. Much 
 of Southern Michigan is occupied by natural lawns, with 
 scattered groups of trees, called " oak openings." 
 
 The climate is one of extremes, but much tempered 
 by the proximity of the lakes. In the south it is com- 
 paratively mild ; but in the north the winters arc extremely 
 cold and rigorous. 
 
 There is little or no agriculture in the northern portion. 
 In the southern, the chief crops are wheat and rye. In 
 the production of potatoes, peas and beans, orchard fruits, 
 butter aud cheese, Michigan ranks among the principal 
 Western States ; and in the yield of maple sugar is sur- 
 passed only by New York, Vermont, and Ohio. The 
 production of peppermint in the State is becoming a 
 very considerable branch of business, as it appears from 
 the internal revenue department that 90,000 dollars' worth 
 of that article was manufactured during the year 1865. 
 The clip of wool for 1864 amounted to eight millions of 
 pounds. From this it would seem that Michigan is des- 
 tined to become one of the leading, if not the first, wool- 
 growing States in the Union. 
 
 It also promises to become one of the chief apple- 
 raising States. The shipments in 1865 were estimated 
 at 410,000 barrels, which, at an average price of 
 3 dollars 50 cents per barrel, were worth nearly 1,500,000 
 
MICHIGAN. 179 
 
 dollars. The lakes and streams afford productive fisheries, 
 the white fish being especially abundant. 
 
 The northern peninsula contains most of the mineral 
 wealth of the State, and possesses probably the most 
 valuable copper mines in the world, the deposits are of 
 unsurpassed richness, masses of pure copper, several tons 
 in weight, having been mined. The quantity of ore shipped 
 in 1865 was 10,000 tons. Iron is found in both the 
 northern and southern peninsulas ; 273,000 tons were pro- 
 duced in 1863. Lead, gypsum, limestone, and marl are 
 also found. In the lower peninsula is some coal, but it is 
 not extensively worked. 
 
 Manufactures are actively carried on ; and the State 
 has a thriving and extensive commerce, of which a large 
 portion is with Canada. Vast quantities of timber are cut 
 in the northern forests ; the annual produce of sawn timber 
 is estimated at nearly 8,000,000 feet. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Detroit 46,000 Extensive commerce; great exportation 
 
 of wheat, flour, beef cattle, etc. ; ship 
 and boat-buildiDg ; manufactures of 
 timber, machinery, etc. ; broad and 
 beautiful streets. 
 
 Grand Rapids 8,000 Principal commercial mart of Western 
 
 Michigan ; head of natural navigation 
 on Grand River ; great water-power ; 
 flourishing manufactures ; quarries of 
 limestone, marble, and gypsum. 
 
 Adrian 0,000 Centre of trade for a rich agricultural 
 
 region ; exportation of grain ; great 
 water-power; manufactures of ma- 
 chinery, etc. 
 
 Kalamazoo 6,000 Market of a rich farming district ; valu- 
 able iron mine ; manufactures of pig- 
 iron, iron castings, machinery, etc. j 
 
180 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Kalamazoo College, Baptist Theolo- 
 gical Institute, and other superior 
 educational institutions ; State luna- 
 tic asylum. 
 
 Jackson 5,000 Active trade with the interior ; valuable 
 
 mines of anthracite and cannel coal ; 
 extensive and various manufactures; 
 State penitentiary. 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 Iowa is the fourth State that has been carved out of 
 the vast territory purchased from France in 1803. It was 
 settled by the French at Dubuque, in 1836 ; was organized 
 as a separate Territory in 1838 ; and in 1846 was admitted 
 into the Union. Area, 55,045 square miles. Population, 
 674,913. State capital, Des Moines. 
 
 Iowa is a country of unrivalled beauty. Its surface is 
 moderately undulating, with no mountainous parts. The 
 southern portion is the most picturesque, abounding with 
 grassy lawns and verdant plains, interspersed with groups 
 of trees and meandering rivulets. In the north the 
 scenery is more striking ; the hills and mounds, none of 
 which reach a great elevation, are covered to their tops 
 with towering oaks, and magnificent streams of water fall 
 over precipitous ledges of rocks to the lower plains. 
 The prairies stretch out in vast unbroken plains; the 
 upland prairies being the most beautiful and the best 
 adapted for cultivation ; their soil is generally a rich 
 olack mould, mixed with a sandy loam, red clay, and 
 gravel. The valleys of the Cedar, Iowa, and Des Moines, are 
 the principal agricultural regions of the State, and perhaps 
 
IOWA. 181 
 
 stand first with regard to the capability and character of 
 the soil, though nowhere is the land either unprofitable or 
 unproductive, and no State has so little inferior land. 
 
 The climate is beautiful, and well adapted to agricul- 
 ture, and though the rivers are frozen over from December 
 to March, the peach blossoms in April and wheat ripens 
 early in August. The air is dry and bracing, especially on 
 the prairies. The country is free from epidemic, and pul- 
 monary diseases are comparatively unknown. Periodical 
 breezes blow over the prairies with much regularity. 
 
 Like the majority of the Western States, Iowa owes its 
 prosperity to its agricultural resources, and probably no 
 country possesses greater attraction to the agriculturist. 
 The fine prairies are easily cultivated, and its natural 
 pastures afford peculiar facilities for the rearing of cattle 
 and sheep. Wheat, corn, oats, barley, potatoes, and wool 
 are the staple products. The returns of 18G0 show an in- 
 crease in wool at the rate of 100 per cent. In proportion 
 to the extent of its improved land, Iowa supplies more 
 grain than any other State. Sorghum is largely cultivated, 
 and the yield of sorghum molasses is unequalled else- 
 where in America. 
 
 Although mainly an agricultural State, Iowa is possessed 
 of great mineral wealth ; the mineral region is confined to 
 the neighbourhood of Dubuque. The lead mines are ex- 
 tensive, and are among the most productive and valuable 
 in the world. Iron ore is abundant in several districts ; 
 but as yet the mines have not been worked to any great 
 extent. Bituminous coal is obtained from rich deposits in 
 the interior, and always finds a ready market at various 
 points on the Mississippi River. 
 
 Such manufactures as are common in the West, are 
 being rapidly develop jd here ; although at the period of 
 the last census none but those of flour, meal, and sawn 
 
182 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 timber had become important. Paper and farm machinery 
 are manufactured to some extent. Extraordinary facilities 
 for steamboat trade are afforded by the great rivers which 
 bound the State or pass through its limits. 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Dubuque «,« . ..13,000 Chief market of the upper Mississippi Valley 
 
 for grain, timber, etc., and principal depot 
 of the lead-mining region of Iowa ; large 
 river commerce and inland trade. 
 
 Davenport 11,000 Picturesque scenery ; important railway 
 
 connections ; bridge across the Missis- 
 sippi ; valuable coal-mines ; various 
 manufactures ; Iowa College. 
 
 Keokuk 8,000 Chief market for tha products of the Des 
 
 Moines Valley ; important river com- 
 merce ; medical department of the State 
 University. 
 
 Burlington 7,000.... ..Flourishing commerce; extensive trade in 
 
 timber and pork ; large manufactures of 
 machinery, farming tools, flour, etc. 
 
 Muscatine. 5,000 Large inland and river commerce; impor- 
 tant trade in timber ; various manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Iowa City 5,000 Head of steamboat navigation on Iowa 
 
 river ; various manufactures ; chief bank 
 of the State; Iowa State University; State 
 asylum for the deaf and dumb and the 
 blind. 
 
WISCONSIN. 133 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 Wisconsin was settled by emigrants chiefly from the 
 New England States and New York. It was formed into 
 a Territorial Government in 1836, and admitted into the 
 Union in 1848. Area, 53,924 square miles. Population, 
 775,881. State capital, Madison. • 
 
 Wisconsin, like most of the north-west section of the 
 Union, consists chiefly of stretches of elevated prairie land, 
 sometimes 1000 feet higher than the level of the sea. 
 There are no mountains in this State, but there are charac- 
 teristic plateau ridges, which drain the waters, and afford 
 beds for the rivers and lakes ; the land declines rapidly 
 towards Lake Superior, and the streams are much ob- 
 structed by falls and rapids. The shores of Lake Superior 
 and Lake Michigan are often most picturesque, fringed 
 now with magnificent forests, now with rocky precipices. 
 The waters are clear, and abound in delicious fish. 
 
 The climate, though extremely severe in winter, is 
 regular, and free from unhealthy and rapid changes. 
 
 The southern and middle portion is a fine agricultural 
 region. In the northern part of the State the land under 
 cultivation forms but a small portion, the surface being 
 to some extent covered with drift and boulders, with many 
 ponds and marshes. Immense and valuable forests of pine 
 and oak compensate, however, for the lack of agricultural 
 capabilities. It is distinguished as a wheat-growing State, 
 being surpassed only by Illinois. The crops next in im- 
 portance to wheat are hay and oats. 
 
 A number of beautiful marbles exist in the northern 
 part, some of a pink colour, with seams of deep red, others 
 of a blue and dove colour. 
 
 Lead is extensively mined in the south-western part of 
 
184 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 the State, which includes most of the rich lead-bearing 
 region. A small quantity of copper is also mined. A bed 
 of magnetic iron ore lies south of Lake Superior. In the 
 cutting and sawing of timber, Wisconsin racks third 
 among the Western States. 
 
 The commerce in the products of the fields and forests 
 is large, being facilitated by the great extent of the navigable 
 waters. Wisconsin has* the chief control of the " lumber " 
 market of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Milwaukee 45,000 Second commercial port on Lake Michigan; 
 
 excellent harbour ; great exportation of 
 grain and other farm produce, timber, brick 
 (of superior quality and beauty), wool, beer, 
 etc. ; extensive manufacture of flour, sawn 
 timber, machinery, etc. ; female college ; 
 numerous charitable and benevolent insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Racine 9,000 Remarkably healthful situation; flourishing 
 
 commerce ; large exportation of agricul- 
 tural produce ; various manufactures ; Ra- 
 cine College ; excellent public schools. 
 
 Janesville 8,000 Important railway centre; market of the 
 
 richest agricultural district in the State ; 
 thriving manufactures ; Wisconsin Insti- 
 tute for the Blind. 
 
 Madison 7,000 State capital; highly picturesque scenery; 
 
 flourishing trade ; extensive pork-packing 
 establishments ; various manufactures ; 
 University of Wisconsin; State lunatic 
 asylum. 
 
 Oshkosh 6,000 Extensive timber trade; manufactures of 
 
 flour, agricultural implements, iron cast- 
 ings, etc. 
 
.MINNESOTA. 185 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 Was settled about the year 1846, by emigrants from the 
 Northern and Western States. It was organized as a Ter- 
 ritory in 1849, and admitted into the Union in 1857. Area, 
 83,531 square miles. Population, 172,123 whites, and 
 about 25,000 Indians, many of the tribes being of a warlike 
 character. State capital, St. Paul. 
 
 Its name is derived from the river Minnesota, which 
 means, in the Dacotah tongue, " muddy water." 
 
 In 1851 immigration set in most rapidly. In 1850 the 
 number of ploughed acres was 1900 ; in 1854, 1500 ; and in 
 I860, 433,276, having increased nearly thirtyfold in six 
 years. A large portion of the State is a fine rolling prairie 
 of rich soil, a sandy loam adapted to the short summers of 
 the climate, and which produces bounteously. The country, 
 excepting the Missouri plains, is interspersed with numerous 
 beautiful lakes of fresh water, all abounding in the finest 
 fish, and their banks covered with a rich growth of wood- 
 land. The land is about equally divided between oak 
 openings and prairies, the whole well watered by numerous 
 streams, many of them navigable for steamers. 
 
 The surface of the country is undulating, with a great 
 diversity of landscape, and beautified by a number of 
 picturesque lakes, sparkling waterfalls, and high bluffs. 
 The climate is marked by distinct peculiarities ; it has the 
 winter temperature of Canada and New England, without 
 their excessive falls of snow. The area of the State suited 
 for.agriculture is about three-fourths of the entire extent, 
 or 40,000,000 acres, and there remained, in 1865, 37,000,000 
 acres open for settlement. The soil in the valleys of the 
 rivers is most excellent ; above the Falls of St. Anthony 
 it is generally too wet for cultivation. 
 
186 DESCKIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The southern portion, comprising about one half of the 
 State, embraces the best farming lands, and presents a 
 remarkable uniformity in the presence of those elements 
 which are essential to the highest fertility. The principal 
 crops, in the order of their value, are hay, wheat, Indian 
 corn, potatoes, and oats. The wheat yield of Minnesota 
 for 1865 is said to be unprecedented, it averaging 27 
 bushels to the acre, and the entire crop being estimated at 
 12,000,000 bushels. Copper and iron ore exist in consider- 
 able quantities ; also coal ; good building stone, slate, and 
 clay are found in different sections of the State ; a remark- 
 able mineral is the red pipestone, of which the Indians 
 make their pipes. 
 
 The State has an abundance of the finest milling and 
 manufacturing facility. The falls of St. Anthony have a 
 capacity estimated by engineers to be equal to 120,000 
 horse-power. This water-power is situated in the centre 
 of a fertile country. It is also the head of several thousand 
 miles of navigation. A great extent of unimproved land is 
 devoted to the pasturage of beef cattle and swine. Manu- 
 factures, except of flour, meal, and sawn timber, are com- 
 paratively unimportant. 
 
 The principal towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 St. Paul 10,000 Head of steamboat navigation on 
 
 the Mississippi River ; active 
 commerce and inland trade; 
 various thriving manufactures. 
 
 St. Anthony 3,258) fiftno Grand waterfall on the Missis- 
 
 and Minneapolis 2,564 ) ' sippi ; sawn timber manufac- 
 
 ture ; trade with the interior ; 
 University of Minnesota. 
 
 Stillwater 3,000 Extensive timber manufacture and 
 
 trade ; market of a rich agricul- 
 tural district; State peniten- 
 tiary. 
 
MISSOUEI. 187 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 Missouri formed part of the ancient territory of Louisi- 
 ana, purchased by the United States from France ; and 
 was settled in 1763 by the French. It was admitted into 
 the Union in 1821. Area, 65,037 square miles. Popula- 
 tion, 1,182,012. State capital, Jefferson City. The face of 
 the country in the south-east, near New Madrid, was 
 greatly changed by the earthquakes which, occurred in 
 1812 ; hills entirely disappeared ; lakes were obliterated 
 and others formed. The waters of the Mississippi River 
 were turned back with such accumulations that they over- 
 flowed the levels, and inundated whole regions. 
 
 The surface of this great State is in many parts level, or 
 but slightly undulating. A wide marshy tract occupies an 
 area of 3000 square miles in the south-eastern part, near the 
 Mississippi ; in other sections are vast reaches of prairie 
 land, which, extend to the Rocky Mountains ; 
 
 " Wide rolling prairie, like waves of the ocean, 
 Laughing with plenty for hands that will toil, 
 Broad shady woods, 'mid whose wind-given motion 
 Sunlight comes dancing down over the soil." 
 
 Its healthy climate, rich soil, and immense mineral 
 wealth, claims and is receiving the earnest attention of 
 emigrants westward bound. Immediately south of the 
 Missouri River, which divides the State into two parts, the 
 soil is well adapted for general agriculture, and the 
 mountain portions of the south are renowned for their 
 magnificent pine forests, comprising millions of acres. 
 The western section is generally regular and uniform. 
 Of the 35,000,000 acres of arable land in the State, 
 2,000,000 are the alluvial margins of rivers, and 20,000,000 
 
188 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 high rolling prairie. This soil is practically inexhaustible, 
 in the bottoms the mould is sometimes six feet deep. Some 
 farms, after bearing without artificial fertilization twenty- 
 five successive crops, have yet failed to show any material 
 decrease in productiveness. The strength of the land and 
 the length of the season often permit two harvests to be 
 gathered from the same field in one year. 
 
 The State is remarkably rich in iron ore, lead and 
 copper and coal mines, and in nearly all the mineral pro- 
 ducts, including sulphuret of zinc, tin, silver, platina, 
 cobalt, nickel. It possesses, also, a great variety of mar- 
 bles, and other valuable building stones. The supply of 
 iron ore is practically inexhaustible, Iron Mountain, Pilot 
 Knob, and other immense masses of pure ore, are estimated 
 to be able to furnish above surface one million tons per 
 annum. The lead mines have been worked for fifty years, 
 and next to iron, lead is the most abundant mineral in the 
 State. Small deposits of gold have been found. Among 
 the Western States, in the value of its iron manufactures, 
 Missouri is surpassed only by Ohio, and is one of the chief 
 manufacturing States of the "West. The vast coal beds 
 which underlie the northern section add largely to the 
 value of the lands ; they vary in thickness from three to 
 fifteen feet, and will probably yield not less than 20,000 
 tons per acre. 
 
 Missouri possesses many natural advantages, and offers 
 great inducements for prairie farming, its extensive 
 regions with uniform evenness of surface, the native and 
 inexhaustible richness of prairie soil, and the mild and 
 healthy climate, make it a most favourable locality for 
 agricultural purposes. Notwithstanding the wonderful 
 Avealth of soil, more than 25,000,000 acres of land in 
 Missouri are uncultivated, and 0,000,000 acres are subject 
 to entry at government price or under the Homestead Law. 
 
MISSOURI. 189 
 
 All the cereals grow with rank luxuriance. Cotton is 
 produced in the southern portion of the State. Sorghum 
 and Imphee are developing into a large interest. Hemp 
 and tobacco are two of the main staples ; equal to the 
 best growth of Kentucky and Virginia, they are a vast 
 source of wealth to the State, and few crops yield a larger 
 profit. Missouri jDroduces more than 45 per cent, of the 
 hemp of the United States. Fruit culture is one of the 
 most lucrative branches of industry ; the mulberry tree 
 grows wild and is very hardy. Like many other sources 
 of wealth in Missouri, the pine forests still remain in their 
 primeval solitude, waiting the hand of intelligent industry 
 and enterprise to develop their wealth and turn them to 
 account. There are millions of acres of land in the 
 southern and south-eastern portion of the State covered 
 with a growth of yellow or hard pine, equal to that of any 
 other region. From these turpentine, resin, and tar, can 
 be profitably made ; about 50,000 dollars' worth was made 
 during the year 1865. The soil in the central and southern 
 portion is all that could be desired for the culture of the 
 grape, which has already been greatly developed ; the 
 yield since 1849 being about 250 gallons per acre, worth 
 on an average one dollar and a half per gallon. It is 
 reckoned that at least 15,000,000 of acres are suitable both 
 as regards soil and climate, for grape cultivation, or about 
 three times as many as are taken up by the vineyards of 
 France. The climate of Missouri is exceedingly mild, the 
 summers are long and salubrious, and the winters short 
 and free from any severe frosts. 
 
 The commerce of Missouri is very important, through 
 the great facilities offered by the navigation of the two 
 greatest rivers in the United States. By means of the 
 Mississippi she has commerce with the vast Northern 
 territory of the Union, with the whole valley of the Ohio, 
 
190 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 some of the Atlantic States, and the Gulf of Mexico ; by 
 the Missouri, which passes through the central part of the 
 State, she can extend her commercial intercourse to the 
 Rocky Mountains. According to the census of 18G0, 
 Missouri ranked as the sixth stock-producing State in the 
 Union. 
 
 The principal towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 St. Louis 161,000 Commercial centre of the Mississippi Valley; 
 
 immense river trade; vicinity of rich 
 mines of coal, iron, lead, and copper; 
 great exportations of bread-stuffs, pork, 
 lead, and hemp ; extensive steamboat 
 building ; extensive manufactures of iron 
 goods, flour, refined sugar, lard oil, etc. 
 In the extent of its flour business, it 
 is unrivalled by any other Western city ; 
 United States arsenal; St. Louis 
 College. 
 
 St. Joseph, 9,000 Western terminus of highly important rail- 
 way route ; point of departure for the 
 overland mail and express to California 
 and intermediate places, and for large 
 westward emigration ; extensive trade ; 
 manufactures of flour, timber, bagging, 
 etc. ; United States marine hospital. 
 
 Hannibal ...... 7,000 Highly important railway connections ; mar- 
 ket of a rich agricultural section ; manu- 
 factures of cured tobacco, flour, iron 
 castings, etc. ; active commerce. 
 
ARKANSAS. 191 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 Was settled at Arkansas Post in 1685, by the French, 
 and was part of the Louisiana purchase ceded by France 
 to the United States in 1803. It was formed into a Terri- 
 tory in 1819, and admitted as a State in 1836. Area, 
 52,198 square miles. Population, 435,450. State capital, 
 Little Rock. The physical conformation of this State is 
 exceedingly varied. The eastern portion, forming the west 
 bank of the Mississippi River, is low, flat, and swampy for 
 a distance of from thirty to sixty miles from the river. In 
 the interior the country becomes somewhat hilly, occa- 
 sionally varied with rolling prairies; and, still further 
 west, rises into the Ozark Mountains. In the north-east 
 portion, the valley of the St. Francis River is one con- 
 tinuous cypress swamp, the Black Hills being the only 
 considerable elevation. No State in the Union possesses 
 so many navigable streams as Arkansas, though, owing to 
 the protracted drought of summer, none save the Missis- 
 sippi can be ascended by vessels of large size more than 
 nine months in the year. 
 
 The soil of Arkansas is varied in character, and for the 
 most part is extremely sterile, or of extraordinary pro- 
 ductiveness. Much of the hilly country will not repay 
 cultivation, while the river-bottoms are of the richest and 
 deepest black mould, yielding fifty to eighty bushels of 
 Indian corn to the acre. The country west of the Ozark 
 Mountains and the northern section of the State, however, 
 is elevated and fertile, producing excellent wheat, and, 
 perhaps, the finest apples in the world. The staple pro- 
 ductions of Arkansas ar-e Indian corn, cotton, and live 
 stock, with considerable quantities of wheat, oats, tobacco, 
 wool, peas, beans, sweet potatoes, rye, barley, buckwheat, 
 
192 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMEBICA. 
 
 hops, hemp, flax, silk, grass-seeds, Lay, and also some 
 maple sugar, honey, wine, and cheese. The pecan, a spe- 
 cies of hickory, furnishes in great abundance the nut of 
 that name, now a considerable article of commerce. Im- 
 mense quantities of the different kinds of timber are 
 shipped down the Mississippi to New Orleans. The State 
 still abounds with many wild animals. The bear, deer, and 
 here and there the buffalo, still afford ample sport to the 
 hunter. 
 
 Arkansas is rich in undeveloped mineral wealth. 
 Cannel, bituminous, and anthracite coal is found in great 
 abundance on the banks of the Arkansas; and zinc 
 exists in greater quantities than in any other State except 
 New Jersey. Iron, lead, gold, and manganese are also 
 found ; while the beds of gypsum are said to equal those 
 of all the other States together. Extensive beds of 
 fine oil-stone, and some rich salt-springs, have also been 
 discovered. The climate is temperate, but subject to 
 sudden changes ; and terrific thunder-storms prevail during 
 the spring and summer. The hilly country and table- 
 lands are salubrious, but the low valleys are destitute of 
 water, and are exceedingly unhealthy. 
 
 The manufactories of this infant State are, with the 
 exception of saw-mills and tanneries, quite insignificant. 
 As might be expected of a country just emerging from the 
 wilderness, education and all the arts of civilized life are 
 equally backward. 
 
 In Arkansas are those hot springs which have of late 
 become so celebrated for their curative properties as to 
 attract rheumatic invalids from all parts of the Union. 
 The springs, about one hundred in number, are situated 
 in a sandy ridge near the Washita Eiver, and vary in tem- 
 perature from 105° to 160°. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
KANSAS. 193 
 
 Pop in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Little Eock 4,0C0 State capital ; contains United States arsenal; 
 
 State penitentiary; large interior com- 
 merce. 
 
 Batesville 1,000 Head of steam navigation of White Eiver. 
 
 Fort Smith 2,000 Military post ; extensive trade with Indians. 
 
 Camden 1,500 Head of navigation for large steamers on 
 
 Red Eiver ; flourishing trade. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 Kansas was organized as a Territory by Act of Con- 
 gress in 1854. It was settled by emigrants from the 
 Eastern, Northern, and Southern States, and was admitted 
 into the Union, January 29th, 1861. Area, 80,000 square 
 miles. Population, 107,000. State capital, Topeka. 
 
 For several years a fierce contest raged in this Terri- 
 tory on the subject of slavery ; but this strife was finally 
 adjusted by its admission into the Union as a free State, 
 that being the declared will of the majority of its inha- 
 bitants. 
 
 The natural scenery of the State is highly beautiful. 
 The- prairies, broad and extensive, stretch for miles in 
 many places. There are high bluffs running through the 
 entire length of the State, while ravines run from them to 
 the rivers ; these are, at some points, quite deep, and 
 difficult to cross, and to a traveller unacquainted with the 
 country, somewhat vexatious, especially where the prairie- 
 grass is from four to six feet high. The ravines are, in 
 many instances, pictures of beauty, with tall, graceful 
 trees standing near, and springs of joure cold water gush- 
 ing from the rock. The bluffs are a formation unknown 
 
 13 
 
194 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 in form and appearance in any other portion of the West. 
 Many of them appear like the cultivated grounds about 
 fine old residences — terrace rising above terrace with 
 great regularity, while others appear like forts in the 
 distance. 
 
 The climate is exceedingly agreeable, with a clear, dry 
 atmosphere, and gentle, health- giving breezes. Objects 
 may be clearly distinguished which, at the same distance 
 in any other parts of the country, could not be seen at all. 
 The winters are usually very mild and open, with scarcely 
 any snow ; so mild are they, that the cattle feed the 
 entire year in the prairies and river-bottoms. The spring 
 weather commences in February. 
 
 The soil of Kansas is unsurpassed by any in the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, preserving everywhere the character of a 
 rich, heavy loam. The first terrace above the rivers is 
 covered with an alluvial soil, often four to six feet in 
 depth ; the higher terraces and uplands have the common 
 prairie soil of the West ,• the subsoil is usually a stiff clay, 
 in some localities mixed with gravel ; lime is everywhere a 
 prominent ingredient of the soil. Water-powers are found 
 upon some of the streams. The eastern portion, which 
 is still mostly open for settlement, is one unbroken stretch 
 of arable land, with a drainage so perfect that not a pond 
 or swamp exists over its whole extent ; a fine, nutritious 
 grass grows everywhere, yielding, even on the dry prairies, 
 two tons of hay per acre. Owing to the dryness of the 
 atmosphere, fruit ripens quickly, and its juices are con- 
 centrated to the finest flavour. 
 
 Kansas has great capacities for agriculture and stock- 
 rearing. In 1860 the chief staples were Indian corn, hay, 
 and potatoes. The production and manufacture of wool 
 promises to become an important branch of industry, and 
 a large portion of the State is well adapted for sheep- 
 
KANSAS. 195 
 
 raising ; so profitable has this already proved that woollen- 
 mills are erected in Atchison. In addition to the stock 
 of sheep in the State, it is estimated that from 50,000 
 to 75,000 will be annually imported from various parts of 
 the Union. 
 
 Besides the great capabilities of Kansas for agricul- 
 tural purposes, stock-raising, and wool-growing, she has 
 another source of wealth, in relation to wliich but little is 
 known, in the salt springs which exist above Fort Riley, 
 in the valleys of the Republican, Solomon, and Saline 
 Forks. So abundant are these surface brines, and of such 
 uncommon strength, as sensibly to affect the quality of 
 the large streams of water which run through those valleys 
 and empty into Smoky Hill Ri^er. These salines are of 
 great benefit to the stock-raiser, whose flocks and herds 
 require no salting, as in the Eastern States. The western 
 section is the best suited to grazing. Deer and bears are 
 captured in all parts of the wilderness, and buffaloes on 
 the western plains. 
 
 Manufactures have acquired little importance. The 
 building of machinery, however, is of considerable im- 
 portance. 
 
 Kansas, being situated nearly in the middle of the 
 national domain, with rich mineral regions, in the pathway 
 to the Pacific, is the channel of a large westward emigra- 
 tion, and of a rapidly growiDg commerce. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 18G0. Characteristics. 
 
 Leavenworth... 7,500 Chief city of the Missouri Valley ; remark- 
 ably rapid growth ; large river commerce ; 
 extensive trade with the Territories ; thriv- 
 ing manufactures. 
 
 Atchison 3,000 Principal station for forwarding merchandise 
 
 received from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Salt 
 Lake City and Marysville, California ; 
 
196 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 weekly mail express and passenger coaches 
 to the latter points. 
 
 Lawrence 2,000 Trade with southern and south-western 
 
 Kansas ; intelligence of its inhabitants ; 
 literary institutions ; newspapers. 
 
 
THE PACIFIC STATES. 197 
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES. 
 
 California, Oregon, Nevada, Colorado. 
 
 The development of the Pacific and Rocky Mountain 
 section of the public domain is truly surprising. It is re- 
 markable that while the Union was engaged in a great 
 civil war, it was nevertheless growing in wealth and 
 developing its resources. This was due in a great measure 
 to the mineral riches and virgin soil of this region, and so 
 rapid has been its progress, that the maps of one year are 
 almost obsolete the next, 
 
 In 1860, California and Oregon were the only Pacific 
 States. To these have since been added, Nevada and 
 Colorado. These States have literally been carried into 
 the Union by the stream of precious metals they have 
 poured forth from sources seemingly inexhaustible. The 
 population has increased in a most rapid degree, consisting 
 chiefly of emigrants from the Eastern States, attracted by 
 the wealth of the districts, though nearly all nationalities 
 are represented. 
 
 The mining operations constitute the principal industry, 
 though agriculture receives much attention. The vegeta- 
 tion of these States is remarkable for its rapid and exces- 
 sive growth. The forest trees reach an enormous size in 
 the valleys, and the market produce is developed in the 
 same proportion. As the demand for produce arises in 
 proportion to the increase of the population, a premium is 
 held out to agriculturalists. The demand for capital and 
 labour is great, in order to develop the resources of the 
 region embraced by these States. 
 
198 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The history of this State is of great interest. It was 
 discovered by Cortez in 1534. Sir Francis Drake visited 
 the coast in 1570, and the country was settled by the 
 Spaniards at Diego abont the same time. The war between 
 the United States and Mexico, in 1846, resulted in its con- 
 quest and purchase. After several attempts to organize 
 it as a Territory or admit it as a State, a law was passed 
 by Congress for the latter purpose, which was approved in 
 1850. Area, 188,981 square miles. Population, 305,439. 
 Capital, Sacramento. 
 
 In January, 1848, James W. Marshall, in the employ 
 of Captain Sutter, at Sutter's Mill, where the present town 
 of Coloma is situated, discovered gold, and from that 
 time the progress of the country has been unprecedented. 
 " California," says the Hon. William Stewart, " the 
 mother of the Pacific States, has, since the discovery of 
 gold, laboured under disadvantages and embarrassments 
 that would have crushed any country less favoured by 
 nature, or inhabited by a less enterprising people. Her 
 intercourse with the east was hindered by thousands oi 
 miles of travel over mountains and deserts, inhabited by 
 hostile Indians ; or by long and perilous voyage through 
 tropical seas and foreign lands. Her people were at first 
 transient, coming with the intention of gathering the 
 golden treasure to spend in their eastern homes. But 
 California has progressed : her cities, her fertile fields, her 
 manufactories, her commerce, and her hills ard mountains, 
 upturned in search of gold, mark the wealth of her resources 
 and the energy of the powers of the Pacific." 
 
 No other country comprises within so small a space 
 such various and strongly marked characteristics ; moun- 
 
CALIFORNIA. 190 
 
 tains steep, rugged, and barren ; valleys fertile and beauti- 
 ful ; sterile deserts, broad prairies, and dense forests ; 
 extensive marshes, and magnificent rivers, all in striking 
 juxtaposition, are found. The two great ranges of moun- 
 tains, the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, traversing- 
 the State north-west, and south-east, give the State its 
 characteristic features. Between these two great ranges 
 lies the extensive country of the First Division, a valley of 
 some 5.000 miles in length, with an average breadth of 75 
 miles, with a rich soil and warm climate. The lateral 
 valleys, with an elevation of from 1000 to 5000 feet above 
 the level of the sea, produce hardy fruits and grains com- 
 mon to the more northern States. A belt of gigantic 
 timber, consisting of pines, firs, cedars, oaks, etc., etc., 
 extends the entire length of the Sierra Nevada range, 
 affording a supply of wood which can hardly be exhausted. 
 The mining region also stretches along this range, extend- 
 ing on the north into the Coast Mountains, passing into 
 Oregon with an average breadth of forty or fifty miles, at 
 some points extending from the valley to near the summit 
 of the Sierra, a distance of 100 miles. 
 
 The Second Division, located near the coast, contains 
 many beautiful valleys, some of which are very extensive, 
 as that of the Salinas, whose outlet is at the Bay of Mon- 
 terey and the country adjoining Los Angelos and San Diego. 
 This portion has a cooler climate than the lower valleys of 
 the First Division, owing to their proximity to the sea. 
 Oaks and gigantic red woods afford fine timber. 
 
 Of the Third Division, situated east of the Sierra Nevada, 
 but little is known, yet many fine valleys occur, and gold 
 is found along the eastern slope of the Sierra. 
 
 Orchard fruits are cultivated with great success. 
 Grapes grow most luxuriantly, and require apparently but 
 little attention. In 1865 the amount of wine produced in 
 
200 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 California is stated to be 2,000,000 gallons, or more than 
 twice as much as was produced in the whole of the United 
 States in 1860. The number of grapevines in the State 
 was 40,172,650 many of which were not in a bearing condi- 
 tion. When these vines become productive, there is little 
 doubt but that the annual product of wine will be at least 
 35,000,000 gallons. The culture of raisins promises to 
 become an important feature. Strawberries, blackberries, 
 and raspberries are also extensively cultivated ; from the 
 latter a wine of inferior quality is made. 
 
 Although little more than one third of California is 
 suited to tillage, and but a small part of this area has been 
 as yet cultivated, its capacity for producing the cereals is 
 extraordinary. The production of wheat in 1860 was 
 7,500,000 bushels. The State produces more barley than 
 all the rest of the Union, and has an annual surplus of 
 about 5,000,000 bushels. The average yield of wheat is 
 from twenty to twenty-five bushels to the acre ; large 
 fields, however, have frequently borne from seventy to 
 eighty bushels an acre. Next in importance are hay and 
 potatoes. Garden products are largely cultivated. Cattle 
 are extensively reared, immense herds roaming at large 
 upon the plains. 
 
 The vegetation of California grows with remarkable 
 rapidity, and trees and vegetables reach an enormous size ; 
 ten feet diameter is by no means an uncommon size for a 
 forest tree, or twelve or fifteen inches for a turnip. The 
 State is peculiarly adapted for fruit. The most luscious 
 kinds, such as figs, oranges, melons, grow in abundance 
 on the slopes and in the valleys of the interior. 
 
 Mining is the most prominent and important industrial 
 pursuit, it employs more men, and pays a larger average 
 wage, than any other branch of physical labour. The 
 mines now wrought are of gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, 
 
CALIFORNIA. 201 
 
 and ccal. Ores of tin, lead, and antimony, beds of sul- 
 phur, alum, lakes of borax, and springs of sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, are likewise found. The gold mines are, however, 
 the most important ; the annual yield is about $40,000,000 
 (£8,000,000). It is impossible to ascertain the amount 
 of gold which has been taken from the mines ; the exports 
 of the precious metal, according to tke customs books, 
 from the commencement of the year 1849 to the close of 
 1864, were as follows : — 
 
 1849 34,921,250 
 
 1S50 27,676,346 
 
 1851 ..; 42,582,695 
 
 1852 46,586,134 
 
 1853 57,331,044 
 
 1854 51,328,663 
 
 1855 45,182,631 
 
 1856 48,887,543 
 
 1857 $48,976,697 
 
 1858 47,548,025 
 
 1859 47,649,461 
 
 1860 42,303,345 
 
 1861 40,639,080 
 
 1862 42,561,761 
 
 1863 46,071,920 
 
 1864 14,662,328 
 
 Total, sixteen years, $694,908,923. Six months of 1865, $22,307,492. 
 Grand total, $717,216,415 (£143,443,283). 
 
 Nearly all the copper ore, and a good deal of valu- 
 able gold and silver ore, is sent to Great Britain to be 
 worked. 
 
 The remoteness of California from extensive manufac- 
 turing districts, and the active demand of its population 
 for the various products of art, has led to a rapid develop- 
 ment of manufactures within its own limits, hence, at the 
 period of the last census, it ranked in this department of 
 industry before any of the Southern or Western States, 
 except Ohio. The production of heavy or bulky articles 
 receives most attention ; the building of machinery, in 
 particular, being quite large. Salmon and white-fish 
 abound in the inland waters. California is also to some 
 extent concerned in the Pacific whale-fisheries. 
 
 The commerce is as yet chiefly with, the eastern part of 
 the United States, but the foreign trade is important, and 
 
202 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 is steadily increasing. Petroleum must be classed among 
 the natural resources of California, oil having been "struck " 
 in the southern part of the country, in the Mattole region. 
 The first well bored yields about twenty barrels per day. 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 San Francisco 57,000 Chief commercial port on the Pacific 
 
 Est. pop. in 1863. coast ; immense exportation of gold ; 
 120,000 also large exportation of flour, potatoes, 
 
 etc. ; ship and boat-building, and 
 various other important manufactures ; 
 extensive works for assaying and re- 
 fining precious metals ; branch of 
 United States Mint; United States 
 marine hospital ; United States navy 
 yard. 
 
 Sacramento 14,000 State capital; principal dep6t for the 
 
 mining region of the Sacramento valley ; 
 fine market-gardens ; large river com- 
 merce. 
 
 Stockton 16,000 Chief market of the mining region of the 
 
 San Joaquim Valley ; head of large 
 internal navigation ; State hospital, and 
 asylum for the insane. 
 
 Marysville 16,000 Chief town of Northern California; 
 
 large river commerce and trade with 
 northern mines. 
 
 OREGON, 
 
 In 1778, the celebrated navigator, Captain Cook, sailed 
 along the shores of Oregon. In 1791 the waters of the 
 Columbia River were discovered by Captain Gray, of Boston. 
 An exploring party was sent out in the year 1804 by the 
 United States, commanded by Lewis and Clark, who 
 
OREGOX. 203 
 
 wintered in 1S05-6 at the mouth of the Columbia. From 
 this period the coast was a great resort of both English 
 and American fur traders. In 1811 a trading post was 
 established at the mouth of the Columbia River by the 
 American Eur Company, who named it Astoria. Eor 
 some time a Provisional Territorial Government existed, 
 but the boundary remained unsettled until the treaty with 
 Great Britain in 1846, when the 49th parallel was adopted. 
 It was formally organized as a, Territory in 1848 ; was 
 divided in 1853 on the 46th parallel, the northern portion 
 being called Washington, and the southern Oregon. In 
 1857 a State Constitution was adopted, under which it was 
 admitted in 1859. Area about 95,274 square miles. 
 Population, 52,465. State Capital, Eugene City. 
 
 The coast of Oregon, viewed from the sea, is like that 
 of California, stern and rockbound, excepting that while in 
 the latter region the nearer mountains follow the line of 
 the shore, in Oregon they approach the ocean at a great 
 angle. The lower or Pacific country occupies an area of 
 from 75 to 120 miles wide, in which lie the great valleys of 
 Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue Rivers. The country is 
 principally mountainous, some narrow strips of country 
 lying around the coast between the mountains and the sea 
 are very rich and productive, but the difficulty of commu- 
 nication has hitherto retarded their settlement. 
 
 The greater portion of Oregon is sterile and unfit for 
 cultivation, yet the Willamette and other valleys are un- 
 surpassed in fertility. The agricultural interest of these 
 valleys has received a great stimulus from the require- 
 ments of the mining population of California. The Willa- 
 mette Valley is from 30 to 40 miles wide, and 120 miles 
 long, and is a beautiful fertile and well watered plain, with a 
 soil of gravelly clay, mixed with loam. In some places the 
 land is marshy, but never wet. The vegetation consists of 
 
20 i DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 indigenous grasses, a number of flowering plants and ferns. 
 The western division of Oregon is covered with dense 
 timber, chiefly fir, spruce, and hemlock. In the south- 
 western portion there are some considerable forests of white 
 cedar. The climate here, as on all the Pacific coast, is milder 
 than in the corresponding latitudes near the Atlantic ; the 
 winters are comparatively brief, and the snows, when snow 
 falls at all, are very light. It approaches closely to that of 
 England, and, as a rule, those plants and animals which 
 do well in Britain will prosper in Oregon. Gold is found 
 in various parts of southern Oregon, and silver, lead, and 
 copper in the Cascade Mountains ; during a period of 
 nine years the amount of gold obtained was valued at 
 963,458 dollars. Coal deposits of great value have been 
 discovered with alternate layers of gypsum, and from the 
 surveys which have been made it is believed that an inex- 
 haustible supply of both can be obtained. 
 
 Its inhabitants are principally emigrants from the older 
 States. The Indian population is comparatively small ; 
 the eastern part is frequented by the Shoshones. Agricul- 
 ture and stock-raising are pursued in most of the settle- 
 ments with great success, the staples being wheat, hay, 
 and potatoes. Corn is a less important product, owing to 
 its growth being checked by the prolonged drought and by 
 the cool night of summer. The orchard fruits are ex- 
 ceedingly abundant and of excellent quality, particularly 
 apples and plums. 
 
 In a State so recently and sparsely settled as this, 
 saw-mills and grist-mills are of course the chief manufac- 
 turing establishments ; considerable capital, however, has 
 been invested in factories for coarse woollen goods, and in 
 machine shops, breweries, and distilleries. A large 
 quantity of flour, apples, cheese, butter, salted salmon, 
 salted meats, and coal are exported, and from 15,000 to 
 
OREGON. 205 
 
 20,000 head of horned cattle are annually driven to Cali- 
 fornia. Salmon is abundant in the Columbia River, the 
 fishing being done chiefly by Indians. The salmon fish- 
 eries in most of the rivers are excellent. Within the last 
 few years, game, especially fur-bearing animals, has con- 
 siderably lessened. Buffaloes are taken upon the plains 
 east of the Blue Mountains. The commerce consists chiefly 
 in the exchange of sawn timber, farm products, furs, and 
 gold for manufactured goods and tropical products. 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Portland 1,400 Head of ship navigation on the Willamette 
 
 River ; chief commercial town ; State 
 penitentiary. 
 
 Salem Late capital; centre of a rich agricultural 
 
 region ; steamboat traffic ; fine water 
 power; "Various manufactures ; oldest uni- 
 versity on the Pacific coast of the United 
 States. 
 
 Jacksonville Inland trade; vicinity of gold mines. 
 
 Oregon City Yicinity of fine timber land; falls on the 
 
 Willamette River ; superior manufacturing 
 facilities ; grist-mills and saw-mills. 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 Yv r as organized as a Territory in March, 1861, and admitted 
 as a State by proclamation of the President in October, 
 1864. Area, 80,000 square miles. Estimated population 
 in 1866, 60,000. State capital, Carson City. 
 
 Although situated in the great basin, separated from 
 the navigable waters of the Pacific by the snow-capped 
 Sierra, and from the navigable waters of the Missouri by 
 
206 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 the Rocky Mountains and a thousand miles of uninhabited 
 country, this State has risen during the last few years 
 from the condition of a barren waste to a highly pros- 
 perous position. It is one of the richest States in the 
 Union in its mineral resources, no region in the world 
 having so great an abundance of argentiferous ores. Her 
 mountains of silver yield up their treasures at the touch of 
 the enchanter, and it is the wonderful mineral wealth, vast 
 beyond comparison, which has summoned, as if by magic, 
 an energetic population to occupy and adorn spots, which 
 a few years ago could boast no more imposing habita- 
 tion than an Indian wigwam. In 1862 a contribution 
 of §20,226 was sent to the Sanitary Commission in eight 
 massive silver bars, five of which weighed 11 libs, each, 
 indicating the great wealth of so young a State as well 
 as the liberality of the population. Quicksilver, lead, and 
 antimony are also found in great abundance. 
 
 The surface of Nevada is mountainous, the average 
 elevation of its valleys is about 5000 feet. Some of the 
 peaks of the Humboldt Mountains are 11,000 feet in 
 height. The land to a great extent is barren, though in 
 the vicinity of the mountains there are many fertile 
 valleys and extensive grassy tracts well suited to pasturage. 
 Nevada possesses a healthy climate. The winters are of 
 moderate length and severity, and no rain falls during six 
 or eight months out of the twelve. The agricultural 
 resources have not been yet developed to any great extent, 
 indeed with the exception of a few fertile spots here and 
 there, the country, unless artificially irrigated, is incapable 
 of cultivation. In the valleys stock-raising is profitably 
 pursued. 
 
 Statistics of the total yield of the mines have not been 
 kept. It is authentically stated that the present daily 
 average from Virginia City alone is about $15,000 (£3000) 
 
NEVADA. 207 
 
 in bullion. The Gould and Corry mine, discovered in 
 1859, is calculated to have produced up to 1866 over 
 §15,000,000 (£3,000,000). The yield of gold during 
 1861-2 amounted to $53,846. Much of the ore mined is 
 of surprising richness, specimen tons assaying in some 
 cases S3000 to $5000, but the average of the "Washoe 
 district does not exceed $65 per ton, and that of the 
 Eeese River about $150. The returns for 1864 show 
 that the Washoe district with a population of 20,000 pro- 
 duced $24,000,000 of silver. The total exportation for the 
 same year was $30,000,000 (£6,000,000). The following 
 statistics show the extraordinary capabilities of the principal 
 mines. The yield of the Gould and Corry mine for the 
 year ending November 27th, 1865, was 12,948 tons, valued 
 at $38.14 per ton, and amounting to $493,816.72. The 
 yield of the Chollar-Potosi mine for the same period was 
 12,509 1 tons of ore, valued at $30.75 3-5 per ton, amount- 
 ing to $884,742.10. The Savage yielded 8,036 tons, 
 valued at $36 per ton, and amounting to $343,404. The 
 Ophir yielded 3000 tons, valued at $18.33 1-3 per ton, and 
 amounting to $55,000. The Mexican yielded 1794 tons, 
 valued at $17.92 2-5 per ton, amounting to $32,119.81. 
 Total number of tons extracted, 32,2851, amounting 
 to $279,101.68 from those five mines. A basin of pure 
 salt, five miles square, has lately been discovered. On the 
 Hemaess Pass has been found a large vein of native iron 
 mixed with small quantities of gold and silver. 
 The chief cities are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1865. Characteristics. 
 
 Virginia City ...about 15,000 Chief city of Western Nevada; 
 
 centre of Washoe mining region 
 
 and commerce. 
 Austin City 6,000 Centre of the Eeese Eiver district; 
 
 important commercial interests. 
 
208 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 Was organized as a Territory in 1861, from parts of 
 Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, and applied for admission as 
 a State in I860. Area, 106,475 square miles. Population, 
 80,000, besides Indians. State capital, Golden City. 
 
 It is intersected north and south by the Rocky 
 Mountains. The eastern half is one vast plain, destitute of 
 timber, with a fertile soil, and divided by many streams. 
 The plains are covered with rich nourishing grass, capable 
 of sustaining millions of cattle. The western half is high 
 tableland, timber being abundant on the slopes of the 
 mountains. " The scenery," says a recent writer, "is the 
 grandest that can be conceived. Two noted mountains, 
 Pike's Peak and Long's Peak, rising to the height of three 
 miles, lift their snowy heads into the heavens ; and a cir- 
 cular range of snow-covered mountains reaches from one 
 of these vast spurs to the other ; the whole forming a 
 natural amphitheatre, the diameter of which is 150 miles. 
 Strawberries and raspberries flourish at an altitude of 
 two miles ; and, as I was assured again and again, straw- 
 berries can be taken with one hand and snow with the 
 other. Many of the most delicate and beautiful flowers 
 come right up through the snow." 
 
 The mineral resources of Colorado are opening up very 
 advantageously to operative capital. The Colorado metals 
 run in beds, mixed with quartz and pyrites, necessitating 
 all the appliances of underground mining, crushing-mills, 
 etc., to render the ores available. This will deter adven- 
 turers, to some extent, from settling, but it will call in 
 heavy capital, will raise up large communities, will compel 
 large cultivation of the rich valleys, and thus render the 
 Territory, with its magnificent climate, one of the best of 
 regions for the enterprising settler. The mineral deposits 
 
COLORADO. 209 
 
 are principally of silver, gold, copper, lead, and iron. 
 There are also vast limestone-quarries, and an extensive 
 bed of marble. Immense beds of coal have been disco- 
 vered at the foot of the mountains. Gj^psum-beds, also, 
 exist ; and mineral springs, alkaline, sulphurous, and cha- 
 lybeate — most of them so highly charged with carbonic acid 
 as to be designated " boiling "' springs. Governor Gilpin, 
 in his report of August 8, 1863, says, " Gold exists in 
 Colorado in inexhaustible quantities. Undoubtedly the 
 State is unequalled in capability of realizing mineral 
 wealth." The United States Commissioner thus speaks of 
 the mines : — " Quartz that yields £12 per ton will pay in 
 favourable localities ; but there are veins now worked that 
 yield from $20 to $500 per ton. Mines that barely paid 
 at the surface are yielding enormous profits at a depth of 
 150 and 200 feet." The returns of the Philadelphia mint 
 show that Colorado is at present second only to California 
 in the amount of gold coined there, the State having 
 furnished for coinage nearly four times as much gold as 
 any other one of the new States or Territories. The 
 receipts up to 1865 amounted to $80,000,000. Works are 
 erecting at Golden City for the manufacture of railway 
 bars. Extensive mines of iron ore have been discovered 
 there, which will be worked by eastern capitalists, and 
 promise to yield great wealth. 
 
 The climate of this elevated country is remarkablv 
 healthy and invigorating, while the soil is rich and pro- 
 ductive ; being capable of producing, by the aid of irri- 
 gation, corn, wheat, barley, potatoes, oats, turnips, and 
 every kind of vegetable, and of most superior quality. 
 Agriculture and grazing receive some attention in the 
 valleys. The pasturage in many sections is unsurpassed ; 
 the grass being exceedingly nutritious, and the dryness of 
 the climate causing it to cure, or become hay, while stand- 
 
 14 
 
210 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 ing in the field — so that the out- door supply of fodder is 
 abundant through nearly the whole winter. 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Denver City 5,000 Metropolis of Colorado; extensive com- 
 merce with the mining regions ; various 
 manufactures. 
 
 Coloradp City 1,500 Centre of mining region. • 
 
THE TERRITORIES. 211 
 
 THE TERRITORIES. 
 
 Washington, Montana, Idaho, Dakota, Utah, Nebraska, 
 Arizona, New Mexico, and the Indian Territory. 
 
 (For Government, see Chapter IV.) 
 
 These Territories embrace an extent of country con- 
 taining over a million of square miles, and many of them 
 possess mineral treasures of incalculable value, whilst 
 others have large agricultural resources. The opening of 
 the Pacific Railway (see Railways) will add greatly to the 
 value of this domain. White population in 1860, 220,149, 
 in 1866 over 300,000. 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 This Territory was taken from the northern part of 
 Oregon, and occupies the extreme north-western portion of 
 the Union, It was organized by Act of Congress in 1853, 
 and is principally settled by emigrants from the Northern 
 and Western States. Estimated area, 70,000 square miles. 
 Population, about 15,000. Capital, Olympia. The western 
 section is heavily timbered, and one of the chief sources of 
 its wealth is the utilization of the immense forests of fir, 
 spruce, and cedar. The eastern section consists of fertile 
 prairies, which have attracted many settlers. The forests 
 abound in elk, deer, and other noble game. Wild fowl, 
 also, of many varieties, are plentiful ; and in no part of 
 the world are finer fish to be had — cod, salmon, herring, 
 and halibut being in abundance. The rivers are rapid 
 
212 DESCEIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMEEICA. 
 
 mountain streams, replete with picturesque beauty, in "bold, 
 rocky cliffs, precipices, and in charming cascades. 
 
 The soil is exceedingly varied. The well-watered 
 valleys in the west are of superior fertility ; but most of 
 the Territory east of the Cascade Mountains is better 
 suited to pasturage than tillage, although tolerably well 
 interspersed with productive lands. The western and 
 north-western part of the plain of the Columbia is dry and 
 barren. Little is known of the mineral resources of this 
 Territory. Gold, silver, lead, and copper ores are, how- 
 ever, found, and iron is known to exist in several locali- 
 ties. Bituminous coal of a superior quality is also found 
 on the borders of Pugefc's Sound. The Indian population 
 is probably not far from 18,000, comprising numerous 
 tribes. The white inhabitants are rapidly increasing. 
 
 The principal farm products are wheat, oats, barley, and 
 rye. "Wheat is grown in nearly all parts of the Territory, 
 and the yield is generally good. All the grasses that 
 have been tried have been found to flourish exceedingly. 
 Fruits, with the exception of peaches, thrive well ; and all 
 varieties of berry grow in abundance. Spars from the 
 forests are shipped in great quantities to Asia and Europe. 
 Throughout the entire Territory there are extensive graz- 
 ing grounds. The farmers usually turn their stock into 
 the commons, and provide neither food nor shelter for 
 them. When beef is wanted, they go into the woods and 
 shoot an ox down, be it June or Februar}^. 
 
 The Indians near the coast, as well as more or less of 
 the white settlers, are much engaged in fisheries for whale, 
 salmon, oysters, etc. Those in the interior are chiefly em- 
 ployed in hunting, and raising cattle and horses. The 
 facilities for the latter pursuit are admirable, the dryness 
 of the climate and limited fall of snow, east of the Cascade 
 Mountains, admitting of pasturage throughout the winter. 
 
MONTANA. 213 
 
 Some of the tribes have acquired much property, single 
 Indians owning herds of from 1000 to 4000 stock. The 
 Indians are, however, comparatively few in number, and 
 nearly all the tribes have been located on small reserva- 
 tions, in order that they may be more easily controlled. 
 
 The future commercial importance of Washington is 
 plainly indicated by the superior facilities which it enjoys 
 for communication across the continent, and the fact that 
 its excellent harbours are nearer to the great marts of 
 Asia than those of any other of the States. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Top. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Oly mpia 500 ? Capital of the Territory ; market of a line farm- 
 in g region. 
 
 Whatcom 500? Market of a rich agricultural region; trade 
 
 vrith. British Columbia. 
 
 MONTANA. 
 
 This Territory was organized by Act of Congress in 
 1864. Area, 201,373 square miles. Population in 1865, 
 about 30,000. A great portion of this region is susceptible 
 of cultivation ; although forming in part the northern 
 limit of the United States, the climate is comparatively 
 mild and remarkably healthy. " I estimate," says ex- 
 Governor Stevens, " that in the valleys on the western 
 slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and extending no farther 
 than the Bitter Root range, there may be some 6000 square 
 miles of arable land, with good soils ready for occupation 
 and settlement. The numerous mountain rivulets tributary 
 to the Bitter Root River, that run through the valley, 
 afford excellent and abundant mill-seats, and the land 
 
214 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 bordering these is fertile and productive, and has been 
 proved beyond doubt to be -well suited to every branch of 
 agriculture." The Indian tribes are numerous, but gene- 
 rally peaceably inclined. The proposed line of the Northern 
 Pacific Railway will cross the Rocky Mountains through 
 one of the mountain passes in this Territory. Gold is 
 found in numerous localities along the different ranges of 
 mountains, as well as in the beds of the streams flowing 
 into the Columbia and Missouri Rivers. Of the gold 
 mines, Mr. Hall, in his " Guide to the Great West," says : — 
 " The mines of the Deer Lodge and its tributaries are 
 in extent 100 miles, and pay from $10 to $50 per day to 
 the hand. Gulch diggings, in the vicinity of Bannock 
 City, have a total length of 30 miles, and pay $8 to $40 
 per day. Gulch diggings, in the vicinity of Virginia City, 
 are in length 86 miles, and pay $10 to ?200 per day to the 
 hand. Prickly Pear and its tributaries pay from $8 to $100 
 per day, and are 147 miles in extent. Yellow-stone, lately 
 opened near its source, 39 miles in extent, pays $10 to $40 
 per day. Here is a total of 402 miles of placer or gulch 
 diggings being wrought at this time (1865) with wonder- 
 ful results. It is estimated that at least 830,000,000 
 (£6,000,000) per annum will be taken from the Gulch 
 mines alone." 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 This Territory, lying on the west side of the Rocky 
 Mountains, was organized by Act of Congress in 1863. 
 Area, 125,000 square miles. Population in 1866, about 
 30,000. Capital, Idaho City. 
 
 The very recent and rapid settlement of Idaho, com- 
 
IDAHO. 215 
 
 menced within two or three years past, has grown out of 
 the gold discoveries in the neighbouring British posses- 
 sions. These discoveries attracted thousands of adven- 
 turers from California, who soon afterwards pushed their 
 explorations towards Eastern Oregon and Western Idaho. 
 From that period to the present, a steady and increasing 
 tide of emigration has set thitherward, and the resources 
 of the land are being daily revealed and utilized, both in 
 its mineral stores and its agricultural capacities. Settle- 
 ments are rapidly growing up, roads are being constructed, 
 the waters are navigated, schools and churches are appear- 
 ing, with all other adjuncts of permanent and progressive 
 civilization. 
 
 Gold has been discovered on nearly all the tributaries 
 and head- waters of the Missouri and Yellow Stone rivers, 
 and still farther north, reaching to and going beyond the 
 national boundary. Platina has been gathered in small 
 quantities from the streams by the Indians. Copper and 
 iron exist in abundance, and salt is plentiful in many loca- 
 lities. Coal also is found on the Upper Missouri and 
 Yellow Stone, and has been discovered upon the Pacific 
 slope of the Rocky Mountains. The higher mountain 
 ranges of this region are bleak and barren, but the lower 
 hills are generally well wooded, and the soil of the valle}^s 
 productive. The whole is watered by numerous streams 
 and springs, the former of which by their rapid flow 
 afford extensive water-power, which is of great value for 
 driving mills, and otherwise aiding in separating the rich 
 mineral deposits from the sands and rocks with which they 
 are intermixed. The climate in the valleys is mild and 
 salubrious, but upon the plains and hills it is cold, and the 
 country is subject to deep snows. 
 
21G DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AJIERICA. 
 
 DACOTAH. 
 
 This Territory was organized by Act of Congress in 
 1861, set off from the western portion of Minnesota when 
 that Territory became a State. It is drained by the Mis- 
 souri River on the south, and by the Red River of the 
 North, emptying into Hudson Bay. Area, 152,000 square 
 miles. Capital, Yankton. Population in 18G5, estimated 
 at 9000 whites, and a large number of Indians of different 
 tribes. 
 
 Being easily accessible by the Missouri River, which 
 runs from the so nth- east to its north-western corner, 
 and bounded on its entire north-eastern line by the Red 
 River of the north, this Territory offers unusual facilities 
 for agricultural and grazing operations. The buffalo and 
 other wild animals are found in great abundance. Large 
 quantities of valuable furs and peltries are obtained ; and 
 recently indications have appeared of the existence, in the 
 Black Hills, 300 miles west from Yankton, of good supplies 
 ol gold, iron, and coal. 
 
 The climate of Dacotah is healthful and genial, and the 
 soil is well suited to agricultural and grazing purposes, 
 being rich in the yield of grain, fruits, and vegetables. 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 This Territory was organized by Act of Congress in 1850. 
 It is included in the " Great Basin of North America," 
 west of the Rocky Mountains. Area, 100,382 square miles. 
 Population in 18G5, 93,000. Capital, Great Salt Lake City. 
 
 The country is for the most part mountainous, and the 
 valleys can only be cultivated by irrigation. The southern 
 
UTAH. 217 
 
 part has been but little explored. So far as is known, the 
 surface east of the Wahsatch chain includes numerous 
 broad plains ; but is considerably diversified with moun- 
 tains, valleys, and abrupt ravines. West of the Wahsatch 
 it is more generally level. Wooded tracts are rare, except 
 upon the mountains. Drought and sterility prevail in 
 many parts. In the hollows of the Great Basin the soil 
 is frequently covered with a saline or alkaline crust. The 
 accumulation of salt in Great Salt Lake is such as to 
 render it untenable by any living thing. The sur- 
 rounding valley, however, is the best watered and most 
 fertile region of the Territory. The soil is formed princi- 
 pally of mountain washings, consisting of gravelly loam, 
 well adapted to the growing of wheat and other cereals. 
 The climate, considering its elevation and distance from 
 the sea, is remarkably mild and uniform; the summers 
 being warm and dry, the winters mild and open ; fevers 
 and pulmonary complaints are unknown. Though Utah 
 has no great claim to be considered a mining country, 
 yet gold and silver are found in considerable quantities. 
 The yield of the former, from 1860 to 1863, being $100,000. 
 
 The Indian population is estimated at about 20,000. 
 The whites are for the most part emigrants from Europe. 
 They belong chiefly to the singular sect termed Mormons, 
 one of the leading features of whose social system is 
 polygamy. 
 
 Agriculture is practised, with the aid of irrigation, in 
 the valleys of Great Salt Lake and of several of the rivers. 
 Pasturage receives much attention. Wheat is the great 
 staple, and in good seasons the average yield is from 60 to 
 70 bushels per acre. Vegetables grow to an enormous 
 size. Figs, grapes, apples, pears, peaches, apricots, currants, 
 are j)roduced in abundance, and are of superior quality. 
 A considerable quantity of cotton was exported in 1865. 
 
218 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The remoteness of this region from thriving commercial 
 marts has led to a noteworthy development of manufac- 
 tures for the supply of its own internal wants. Utah is 
 the thoroughfare of considerable overland commerce, and 
 its trade with passing caravans is important. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1866. Characteristics. 
 
 Great Salt Lake City ...17,000 City of the Mormons; principal 
 
 station on the overland route 
 through South Pass or Bridger's 
 Pass to Nevada and California j 
 seat of considerable trade and 
 some manufactures. 
 
 Provo ? Large water-power ; various manu- 
 factures ; valuable trout-iishery 
 in the neighbouring lake. 
 
 Ogden 1,500 Market of a fine grazing and agri- 
 cultural region. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 This Territory, organized by Act of Congress in 1854, 
 was mostly settled by emigrants from the Northern and 
 Western States. The Nebraska, or Platte River, runs 
 through the middle of the State from west to east. Area, 
 76,000 square miles. White population in 1860, 28,842 ; 
 in 1866, about 50,000. There are various roving tribes of 
 Indians, who subsist by hunting the buffalo and other 
 game. 
 
 The surface of Nebraska is chiefly a gentle rolling 
 prairie, with deep ravines and well-timbered bottom-lands 
 along the rivers. The climate is favourable to agriculture, 
 and the atmosphere mild and dry. The soil is easily cul- 
 
ARIZONA. 219 
 
 tivated, and produces all the grasses without irrigation. 
 Vegetables thrive well, and grapes of the finest quality are 
 produced. For grazing purposes the wild grass, which 
 grows in profusion, is peculiarly suitable, cattle and horses 
 fattening quickly upon it. On the rushes of the bottom- 
 lands stock are often kept the whole winter, and are found 
 to fatten without other fodder. Nebraska is well adapted 
 for raising sheep, and stock in the newly settled portions 
 are herded without fencing, a matter of importance to 
 settlers of limited means. There is no part of the United 
 States where sheep are so healthy, or do so well ; and 
 probably the country is unsurpassed by any in the world 
 for wool growing. 
 
 Its mineral resources are now being rapidly developed ; 
 and its fertile valley lands are being turned to such an 
 account, that the growth of the country is extremely 
 promising. Iron and coal are believed to exist in abun- 
 dance, and timber and stone for building purposes are in 
 sufficient quantities. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 This Territory was organized out of the western half 
 of New Mexico in 1863. It is an elevated mountainous 
 region, and excepting in the vicinity of its two principal 
 rivers, the Colorado and the Gila, has few valleys in which 
 cultivation is possible. The whole region above the low- 
 land is of volcanic origin. Area, 120,912 square miles. 
 Population in 1866 about 17,000. 
 
 The locality of this broad area pre-supposes great 
 metallic wealth. The general direction of the mountains 
 and veins is north-west and south-east, and there are 
 
220 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 numerous parallel ranges which form long valleys in the 
 same direction. These and the broad level bottoms of the 
 rivers may be easily and cheaply irrigated by artesian 
 wells, under which treatment the soils return a large 
 yield, producing, so far as tested, every variety of grain 
 grass, vegetables, and fruits. While it has some barren 
 and desolate country, no mineral region belonging to the 
 United States, not excepting California, has in proportion 
 to its extent more arable, pastural, and timber lands. In 
 the southern portion there are many glades and vales and 
 wide-spreading plains, suitable for cultivation ; and while 
 the mining interests are the chief inducements to settlers, 
 agriculture and stock-raising receive considerable attention. 
 During 1865 nearly 100,000 bushels of grain were raised 
 in the valleys. A number of clear streams are prolific in 
 trout and other fresh- water fish. The climate, considered in 
 either its relations to health and longevity or to agricultural 
 and mining labour, is unrivalled by any in the world. 
 Disease is almost unknown, and the warmest suns are less 
 oppressive and enervating than those experienced in the 
 Middle States. The proportion of fine weather is greater 
 than in any other part of the world. 
 
 The wealth of Arizona is bat just becoming known. 
 The Territory is literally veined with the precious metals. 
 The mines of gold, silver, and copper are extensive, well 
 located, well defined, and, so far as tested, exceedingly 
 rich. The copper mines on the Minibres River yield large 
 quantities of ore, which contains 9-5 per cent, of copper. 
 The Commissioner of the General Land Office, in his 
 Report to Congress in December, 1863, says of this 
 region, that it " is believed to be stocked with mineral 
 wealth beyond that of any other Territory of equal extent 
 in tke great plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Sierra Nevada." 
 
KEW MEXICO. 221 
 
 The population is of nearly the same character as that 
 of New Mexico ; although rapid emigration from California 
 and other "parts of the United States is rendering the 
 Spanish element less prominent. Several of the Indian 
 tribes are considerably advanced in the arts, and are 
 among the best specimens of the aboriginal race to be 
 found in America. The Apache Indians have been a 
 serious hindrance to the growth and prosperity of 
 Arizona, but energetic measures are being taken to subdue 
 them. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Tucson Capital of Arizona, and seat of a thriving trade; 
 
 station on the overland route between Texas 
 
 and California. 
 Tubac , Depot of a rich silver and copper mining region. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 This Territory was early settled by Spaniards, and 
 formed a Territory of the Republic of Mexico until 1848, 
 when it was ceded to the United States, In 1850 it was 
 defined by Act of Congress, and provision made for its 
 organization. Present area, 121,201 square miles. Popu- 
 lation in 1860 (including Arizona) 83,009. Capital, Santa 
 Fe. 
 
 Much of the eastern section is embraced in the Llano 
 Estacado, a vast plain extending into Western Texas. 
 The middle section comprises the valley of the Rio Grande. 
 Although diversified by numerous ranges of mountains the 
 
222 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Territory contains a good share of comparatively even 
 table-land. The climate is generally mild and dry, par- 
 ticularly in the south-east. It is surpassingly pure and 
 healthy. A sultry day is rare, and the summer nights are 
 cool and pleasant. The winters are mild with but little 
 snow. Wheat is abundantly raised, and gramina grass is 
 the main sustenance for stock ; the hay made from it is 
 purchased by the Government at from $40 to $50 per 
 ton. The lucern grows in abundance and is usually cut 
 four or five times in the year. Cotton of good quality is 
 grown in the southern part of the Territory, and the vine 
 thrives most luxuriantly in the same region. Grapes can 
 be bought for §3 per bushel. All the vegetables grow well 
 except the potato. Red and green pepper, the great staple 
 of the country, hangs from the trees in front of nearly every 
 house. 
 
 The civilized inhabitants are chiefly of Spanish-Mexican 
 extraction, more or less intermixed with Indian stock. 
 There are also numerous domesticated Indians in the 
 Territory; besides about 20,000 who retain their tribal 
 character, many of them warlike. Some of the tribes in 
 the west are much superior to the average of North 
 American savages. Agriculture receives considerable at- 
 tention along the rivers, and stock-raising upon the neigh- 
 bouring plains. The number of horses, mules, cattle, and 
 sheep owned by some of the wealthy proprietors is im- 
 mense. The country is rich in gold, silver, copper, and 
 iron. Anthracite coal of an excellent quality is found near 
 Santa Fe. The most noted manufacture is of gay-coloured 
 woollen blankets, termed serapes, which are worn by all 
 classes. The mechanical arts are very rude. An important 
 caravan trade is maintained with the Western border States 
 and with Mexico. 
 
 The chief towns are : — 
 
INDIAN TERRITORY. 223 
 
 Pop. in 1860. Characteristics. 
 
 Santa Fe 5,000 Capital of the Territory; important over- 
 land trade with the States and with 
 Mexico. 
 
 Albuquerque Chief town of a fine fruit-growing and 
 
 grazing country. 
 
 Taos Market of a highly-productive farming 
 
 region. 
 
 Mesilla 2,400 Noted station on the overland mail route 
 
 between Texas and California. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 This Territory was originally part of Louisiana. It is 
 not organized as the other Territories of the United States, 
 but certain portions of it have been granted from time to 
 time to the Indian tribes now inhabiting it. The area 
 is 71,000 square miles. Approximate population, 75,000. 
 
 The general appearance of the country is that of a vast 
 plain, inclining gently towards the Mississippi River. The 
 eastern portion alone is inhabited. It consists of a fertile 
 prairie, interspersed with flat hills, with cotton woods, and 
 willow woodlands bordering the streams. With these 
 exceptions the country is bare of timber. 
 
 The various Indian tribes occupy reservations or 
 districts defined by treaty-boundaries. These tribes main- 
 tain distinct and separate relations with the United States 
 Government. Each has an Indian agent, or quasi consul, 
 residing in their respective governments. These native 
 governments are entirely distinct, each under its own con- 
 stitution and laws. Their social and industrial progress 
 
224 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 has been considerable, printing-presses and newspapers 
 have been introduced among them. They live chiefly in 
 villages, have churches and schools, cultivate the land with 
 the plough, raise cotton and corn, and are abundantly sup- 
 plied with horses and cattle, and manufacture their own 
 clothing. Their surplus productions are sent down the river 
 to New Orleans. 
 
CHAPTER YI* 
 
 POPULATION — NATURALIZATION— SUFFE AGE— PATENT 
 LAWS— LEGAL INTEREST, AND USURY. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 The increase of the population of the United States has 
 been rapid beyond any previous example in history At the 
 Declaration of Independence (1776) the number of States 
 was thirteen, with a population of about 3,000,000, and in 
 1800, when several new States had been added to the Con- 
 federacy, the population was little more than 5,000,000. 
 During the next fifty years, there was a great advance. 
 In 1850, when the number of States had increased to 
 thirty-one, the population had reached 23,191,876, or 
 3,000,000 more than that of the kingdom of Great Britain. 
 A striking evidence of this rapid advancement is that the 
 increase of the inhabitants during the last ten years is 
 greater by more than 1,000,000 of souls than the whole 
 population in 1 810, and nearly as great as the entire num- 
 ber of people in 1820. At this ratio it doubles every 
 twenty-five years, and it is therefore probable that at the 
 close of the present century the United States will possess 
 a population of not far from 100,000,000. It is also a fair 
 
 15 
 
226 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 presumption that the rate of progress will continue till the 
 country is occupied from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
 The following table shows the decennial increase to 
 the period of the last census, 1860, with the ratio of in- 
 crease : — 
 
 1790.. 3,920,827 
 
 
 
 1800.. 5,305,937.. Ratio 
 
 of increase, 
 
 35*02 per cent. 
 
 1810.. 7,239,814.. 
 
 5) 
 
 3645 
 
 1820.. 9,638,131.. 
 
 J) 
 
 3313 
 
 1830.. 12,866,020.. 
 
 ?5 
 
 33-40 
 
 1840.. 17,069,453.. 
 
 V 
 
 32-67 „ 
 
 1850.. 23,121,876.. 
 
 5J 
 
 33-97 .„ 
 
 I860.. 31,445,080.. 
 
 5) 
 
 35-58 
 
 This shows an average decennial increase of over 34 
 per cent, in population through the seventy years, from 
 the first to the last census. 
 
 The two periods from 1800 to 1810, and from 1840 to 
 1850, were marked by un addition of territory which 
 materially increased the population. In the first mentioned 
 period Louisiana was purchased from the French, and in 
 the last mentioned, Texas, New Mexico, and California, 
 were admitted into the Union. Each of these contributed 
 largely to the population of the country. 
 
 The actual and probable future progress of the popu- 
 lation of the United States, as shown in the preceding 
 statement, was thus commented on by President Lincoln 
 in his last Message to Congress : — " It is seen that the 
 ratio of increase at no one of these seven periods is either 
 two per cent, below, or two per cent, above, the average, 
 thus showing how inflexible, and, consequently, how re- 
 liable, the law of increase in our case is. Assuming that 
 it will continue, it gives the following results : — The popu- 
 lation in 1870 will be 42,323,372; in 1880 it will be 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 227 
 
 56,966,216 ; in 1890 it will be 76,677,872 ; in 1900 it will 
 be 103,208,415 ; in 1910 it will be 138,918,526 ; in 1920 
 it will be 186,984,335; in 1930 it will be 251,680,914. 
 These figures show that our country may be as populous 
 as Europe now is, at some point between 1920 and 1930, 
 say about 1925, our territory, at 73J persons to the square 
 mile, being of the capacity to contain 217,186,000." 
 
 The last returns show an excess of male population, pre- 
 senting a marked difference as compared with other countries. 
 While in the United States there is an excess of 730,000 
 males in more than 31,000,000 of people, the females of 
 the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland oat- 
 number the males some 877,000 in a population of little 
 more than 29,000,000. 
 
 The great excess of males in newly-settled territories 
 illustrates the influence of emigration in effecting a dis- 
 parity in the sexes. The males of California outnumber 
 the females nearly 67,000, or about one-fifth of the popu- 
 lation. In Illinois, the excess of males amounts to about 
 92,000, or one-twelfth of the entire population. In Mas- 
 sachusetts, the females outnumber the males some 37,600. 
 Michigan shows near 40,000 excess of males; Texas, 
 36,000 ; Wisconsin, 43,000. In Colorado, the males are 
 as twenty to one female ; and, while in New York there is 
 a small preponderance of females, the males are more nu- 
 merous in Pennsylvania. 
 
 The following table shows the population of the States 
 and Territories to the square mile : — 
 
 States. 
 Alabama 
 
 1850. 
 ... 1521.. 
 ... 4-02.. 
 
 I860. 
 
 1901 
 
 8-34 
 
 2 01 
 
 98-45 
 
 . 5293 
 
 2-37 
 
 States. 
 Georgia 
 
 1S50. 
 
 .... 1781.. 
 
 1S60. 
 . 20-33 
 
 Arkansas , .. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 .... 15-37.. 
 .... 29-24.. 
 .... 3-J9.. 
 
 . 3090 
 
 California 
 
 p 
 
 . 3994 
 
 Connecticut .. 
 Delaware 
 
 ... 79-33.. 
 ... 43-18.. 
 ... 1-48.. 
 
 . 12-26 
 1-36 
 
 Florida 
 
 Kentucky .... 
 
 .... 2607.. 
 
 . 3067 
 
228 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 States. 1850. 1860. 
 
 Louisiana 11*15... 15 25 
 
 Maine 18*36... 19*78 
 
 Maryland 52*41... 61*76 
 
 Massachusetts ...127*50... 157*83 
 
 Michigan 7*07... 13*32 
 
 Minnesota 0*07... 208 
 
 Mississippi 1286... 16*78 
 
 Missouri 1012... 17*54 
 
 New Hampshire... 34*26... 35*14 
 
 New Jersey 58*84... 80*77 
 
 New York 6590... 8256 
 
 North Carolina ... 17*14... 19*57 
 
 Ohio 49*55... 5854 
 
 Oregon 0*13... 0*57 
 
 Pennsylvania 50*25... 63*17 
 
 Rhode Island 112*97.. .133*70 
 
 States. 
 
 1S50. 
 
 I860. 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 .. 22*75.. 
 
 28*98 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 .. 22*00.. 
 .. 089.. 
 
 24*34 
 
 Texas 
 
 . 2*55 
 
 Vermont 
 
 .. 30*76.. 
 
 . 3085 
 
 Virginia 
 
 .. 23*17.. 
 
 . 2602 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .. 566.. 
 
 1850. 
 
 . 14*39 
 
 Territories. 
 
 I860. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 — .. 
 
 . 0*32 
 
 
 — .. 
 
 , 001 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 . 0*24 
 
 Nevada 
 
 — .. 
 
 . 011 
 
 New Mexico ... 
 
 .. 0*25.. 
 
 . 0*38 
 
 Utah 
 
 .. 008.. 
 
 . 0*31 
 
 Washington ... 
 
 ... 001.. 
 
 . 0*06 
 
 District. 
 
 1850. 
 
 I860. 
 
 Columbia 
 
 ...861*45 1251*33 
 
 The distribution of the general increase among the 
 individual States of the Union is a subject of much in- 
 terest. The older States may be said to be filled up as 
 far as regards the resources adapted to a rural population 
 in the present condition of agricultural science. The con- 
 ditions of their increase undergo a change upon the 
 general occupation of their area. Manufactures and com- 
 merce then come in to supply the means of subsistence to 
 an excess of inhabitants beyond what the ordinary culti- 
 vation of the soil can sustain. This point in the progress 
 of population has been reached, and perhaps passed, in 
 most, if not all, of the New England States. But while 
 statistical science may demonstrate, within narrow limits, 
 the number of persons who may extract a subsistence 
 from each square mile of arable land, it cannot compute 
 with any reasonable approach to certainty, the additional 
 population resident on the same soil which may obtain 
 subsistence throuo*h the thousand branches of artificial 
 
POPULATION. 229 
 
 industry which the demands of society and civilization 
 have created. 
 
 The three States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and 
 Rhode Island show an aggregate population of 1,412,851, 
 and an area of 13,780 square miles, which gives 12,996 
 inhabitants to the square mile. The stated point of 
 density was passed by these three States more than fifty 
 years ago, and yet they go on increasing in popula- 
 tion with a rapidity as great as at any former period of 
 their history, their increase since 1850 being about 20 
 per cent. 
 
 South Carolina has gained during the decade 35,201 
 inhabitants of all conditions, equal to 5*27 per cent., and 
 has made slower progress during the last term than any 
 other Southern State, having advanced only from 27'28 to 
 28*72 inhabitants to the square mile. Virginia is the next 
 lowest in the rate of increase in the list of Southern States, 
 the gain upon her aggregate population in 1850 was 
 174,657, equal to 12*29 per cent. Among the States 
 which have made the most rapid advance, we find that 
 New York has increased from 3,097,394 to 3,880,735, ex- 
 hibiting an augmentation of 783,341 inhabitants, being at 
 the rate of 25*29 per cent. The gain of Pennyslvania has 
 been in round numbers 595,000. Minnesota was chiefly 
 unsettled territory in 1850, its large population as shown 
 by the returns of 1860 is, therefore, nearly clear gain. The 
 vast region of Texas ten years since was comparatively a 
 wilderness ; it has now a population of over 600,000, and 
 the rate of its increase is given as 184 per cent. 
 
 Illinois presents the most wonderful example of great 
 and continuous increase. In 1830 it contained 157,445 
 inhabitants ; in 1840, 476,183 ; in 1850, 851,470 ; in 1860, 
 1,711,951. The gain during the last decade being 860,481, 
 or at the rate of 101 per cent. So large a population, 
 
230 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 more than doubling itself in ten years, by the regular 
 course of settlement and natural increase, is without a 
 parallel. The growth of Indiana in population, though 
 less extraordinary than that of her neighbouring State, 
 has been most satisfactory, her gain during the decade 
 having been 362,000, or more than 36 per cent, upon her 
 number in 1850. Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa have 
 fully participated in the surprising development of the 
 north-west. The remarkable healthfulness of the climate 
 of that region seems to more than compensate for its 
 rigours, and the fertility of the new soil is an inducement 
 to contend with and overcome the harshness of the 
 elements. 
 
 It is important to observe in the increase of the popu- 
 lation the growing disparity between the white and 
 coloured races. While the whites from 1850 to 1860 
 gained 38 per cent., the slaves and free coloured increased 
 somewhat less, 22 per cent., and the total increase of the 
 coloured for seventy years was but 485 per cent., against 757 
 per cent, for the whites. The following summary exhibits 
 
 the numbers of the coloured race and 
 
 rates of 
 
 increase during the last seventy years. The rate of 
 increase will be seen to have been gradually diminishing. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Free 
 
 
 
 Free j Increase 
 
 Slaves. 
 
 Increase 
 
 coloured, 
 
 Increase 
 
 
 coloured, iper cent. 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 and 
 Slaves. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1790 
 
 59,466 
 
 697,897 
 
 
 757,363 
 
 
 1800 
 
 108,395 
 
 82-28 
 
 893,041 
 
 27-97 
 
 1,001,436 
 
 32-23 
 
 1810 
 
 186,446 
 
 72-00 
 
 1,191,364 
 
 33-40 
 
 1,337,810 
 
 37-58 
 
 1820 
 
 233,524 
 
 25-23 
 
 1,538,038 
 
 28-79 
 
 1,771,562 
 
 28-58 
 
 1830 
 
 319,599 
 
 36-87 
 
 2,009,043 
 
 30-61 
 
 2,328,642 
 
 31-44 
 
 1840 
 
 386,303 
 
 20-87 
 
 2,487,455 
 
 23-81 
 
 2,873,758 
 
 23-41 
 
 1850 
 
 434,419 
 
 12-46 
 
 3,204,313 
 
 28-82 
 
 3,638,762 
 
 26-62 ; 
 
 1860 
 
 482,122 10-97 
 
 3,953,587 
 
 23-38 
 
 4,435,709 
 
 21-90 
 
 1 
 
POPULATION. 231 
 
 Of tlie occupations of the people of the United States 
 the following is a brief summary. In I860 there were 
 8,217,000 persons whose occupations were recorded ; of 
 these more than 3,000,000 were occupied in the tillage of 
 the soil, 2,423,895 being farmers, and 795,679 farm- 
 labourers, and 85,561 planters. Of other occupations: — 
 
 Merchants numbered 123,378 
 
 Clerks „ 184,485 
 
 Labourers , „ 969,301 
 
 Servants „ 559,908 
 
 Carpenters „ 242,958 
 
 Shoemakers „ 164,608 
 
 Miners „ 147,750 
 
 Blacksmiths „ 112,357 
 
 Teachers „ 110,469 
 
 Tailors and Tailoresses . . „ 101,868 
 
 Seamstresses „ 90,198 
 
 Apprentices ,, 55,326 
 
 Painters „ 51,695 
 
 Masons „ 48,925 
 
 Coopers „ 43,624 
 
 Laundresses ,, 38,633 
 
 Overseers „ 37,883 
 
 Railway men „ 36,567 
 
 Mantua makers „ 35,165 
 
 Other trades in which the \ 
 
 persons engaged number > „ 1,656,167 
 
 under 35,000 ) 
 
 The following are the numbers of those engaged in the 
 professions : — 
 
 Judges and Lawyers 33,980 
 
 Physicians and Surgeons 55,055 
 
 Clergymen 37,529 
 
282 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Civil Engineers 27,437 
 
 Public Officers 24,693 
 
 Students 49,993 
 
 Of those who were engaged in seafaring occupations : — 
 
 Boatmen numbered 23,816 
 
 Fishermen „ 21,905 
 
 Mariners „ 67,360 
 
 Ship carpenters „ 13,392 
 
 The rapid increase which has been shown in the popu- 
 lation of the United States is clue largely to emigration, 
 which fact must not be lost sight of in comparing the 
 increase with that of other countries. Had the increase of 
 population since 1800 been left to its natural growth, it 
 has been estimated that the whole white and coloured 
 inhabitants would at this time have numbered but little 
 more than 10,000,000. This being the case, two-thirds of the 
 present population, or 21,000,000, are immigrants, or the 
 descendants of immigrants. The tide of emigration from 
 Europe to America began to set in strongly about the year 
 1825. It took a further and sudden rise in 1832, and 
 again in 1847. The first period corresponds with the 
 opening out of the north-western States, and the oppor- 
 tunity they afforded for obtaining land at nominal rates ; 
 the latter with the failure of the potato crop in Ireland ; 
 and for several succeeding years by the continental dis- 
 turbances and the discovery of gold in California. 
 
 Since 1820, the date of the first official return, the tide 
 of emigration has been as follows : — 
 
 In the ten years ending June 1, 1830 244,490 
 
 In the ten years ending June 1, 1840 552,000 
 In the ten years ending June 1, 1850 1,558,300 
 In the ten years ending June 1, 1860 2,707,624 
 
 Total.... 5,062,414 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 233 
 
 The proportion of the sexes making this total was as 
 follows : — 
 
 Males 2,977,603 
 
 Females 2,035,536 
 
 Sex not stated 49,275 
 
 The following table shows the nationality of the 
 emigrants that have arrived in the United States since 
 1820:— 
 
 1851 to 1860. 1820 to 1860. 
 
 From England 247,125 .... 302,655 
 
 „ Ireland 748,740 .... 967,366 
 
 „ Scotland 38,331 .... 47,890 
 
 „ Wales 6,319 .... 7,935 
 
 Additional from Great Bri- 
 tain and Ireland 297,578 .... 1,425,001 
 
 2,750,847 
 11,202 
 
 1,486,044 
 208,063 
 117,142 
 489,116 
 
 5,062,414 
 
 Total from United Kingdom 1,338,093 
 
 Italy 7,012 
 
 Germany 907,780 
 
 France 76,358 
 
 British America 59,301 
 
 Other Countries 209,670 
 
 Total Aliens 2,598,214 
 
 The greater number of emigrants make New York 
 their destination. The following table shows the number 
 of immigrants who landed at that port from 1861 to 
 1865 :— 
 
 From Ireland. From Germany. 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 70,338 82,444 
 
 27,754 27,159 
 
 32,217 27,740 
 
 92,681 38,236 
 
 Total. 
 
 65,529 
 
 76,306 
 
 155,223 
 
 53,929 185,208 
 
 195,075 
 
234 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Irish are principally established in New York, 
 Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and New 
 Jersey ; the Germans in New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
 Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri. 
 
 A register of the occupations of the various immi- 
 grants has not been carefully kept. Many of them were 
 doubtless women and children, and a large proportion were 
 without a settled occupation, and prepared to accept any 
 that might offer. 
 
 The occupations of 3,000,000 out of the 5,000,000 that 
 
 Manufacturers .... 3,120 
 
 Lawyers 2,676 
 
 Artists 2,490 
 
 Masons 2,310 
 
 Engineers 2,016 
 
 Teachers 1,528 
 
 Bakers 1,272 
 
 Butchers 945 
 
 Musicians 729 
 
 Printers 705 
 
 Painters 647 
 
 Millers 631 
 
 Actors 588 
 
 The Indians dwelling within the United States are fast 
 disappearing. In 1850 there were 400,000 ; in 1856, 
 350,000 ; and the census of 1860 shows only 295,400. 
 This is a decrease of 50,000 every five years. The propor- 
 tion of decrease is steadily augmented as the path of 
 empire takes its way westward. Not many years will 
 elapse, at this rate, before the Indian savage will exist only 
 in history, the prose fiction of Cooper, and the poetry of 
 
 ive arrived trom 
 
 1820 to 1 
 
 Labourers 
 
 872,317 
 
 Farmers 
 
 . 764,837 
 
 Mechanics . . . 
 
 407,524 
 
 Merchants . . . 
 
 231,852 
 
 Servants 
 
 . 49,494 
 
 Miners 
 
 39,967 
 
 Mariners 
 
 29,484 
 
 Weavers 
 
 11,557 
 
 Needlewomen . 
 
 5,246 
 
 Physicians . . . 
 
 7,109 
 
 Clergymen . . . 
 
 4,326 
 
 Clerks 
 
 3,882 
 
 Tailors 
 
 3,634 
 
 Shoemakers . . . 
 
 3,474 
 
POPULATION. 235 
 
 Longfellow. The principal Indian populations are distri- 
 buted as follows : — New Mexico Territory, 55,100 ; Dacotah 
 Territory, 39,664; Washington Territory, 31,000; Utah 
 Territory, 20,000 ; Minnesota, 17,900 ; California, 13,140; 
 Kansas, 8,189; Michigan, 7,777; Nevada Territory, 7,750; 
 Oregon, 7,000. In the Indian Territory there are probably 
 about 60,000 or 70,000. 
 
 The origin of these Indian tribes has been a subject of 
 controversy among learned men for centuries. Forged in- 
 scriptions, stones bearing mysterious characters, Erse, 
 Ancient Greek, Phoenician, Celtiberic, and Runic, as 
 evidences of every possible and impossible theory of 
 American origin, have each found people credulous enough 
 to accept and defend their authenticity, even after the 
 authors of them have abandoned them to their fate. All 
 the older authorities, however, agreed in assigning to the 
 aborigines a European or Asiatic origin ; though, within 
 the last thirty years, some distinguished ethnologists 
 and anthropologists in America and Europe, as Morton, 
 Agassiz, Nott, Gliddon, and others, have maintained the 
 probability of a distinct centre of creation or develop- 
 ment for the American Indian. The Esquimaux tribes 
 of British and Russian America, from their strong resem- 
 blance to the nomadic races of North-Eastern Asia are, 
 however, universally admitted to have migrated into the 
 New World across Behring Strait. 
 
 The aborigines, with some exceptions, are robust and 
 well-proportioned, of a bronze or reddish complexion, have 
 black hair, long, coarse, and shining; thin beard; low 
 forehead, with features varied in profile, prominent, and 
 strongly marked. Their virtues and vices are those of 
 savages. They are hospitable, and capable of a savage 
 magnanimity ; but are generally vindictive, cruel, and 
 treacherous. Intellectually they are an inferior race, al- 
 
236 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 though some individuals have exhibited considerable 
 natural and acquired talents. 
 
 NATURALIZATION. 
 
 It is the policy of the Government of the United States 
 to encourage immigration, and for that end a naturaliza- 
 tion law has been passed, affording great facilities to 
 foreigners wishing to become American citizens. The 
 qualifications for and mode of obtaining the privilege are 
 substantially as follows : The applicant must have been 
 a resident in the country for the terra of five years pre- 
 ceding his admission, and one year within the particular 
 State where the application is made, and must also have 
 made a declaration of his intention to become a citizen two 
 years previous to his application. These facts must be 
 proven by at least one witness. The applicant must also 
 show that he has behaved during his residence as a man 
 of good moral character, and loyal to the Government of 
 the United States. 
 
 If an alien who has declared his intention die before he 
 is naturalized, his widow and children may become citizens 
 by simply taking the oath required of all naturalized 
 citizens to support the constitution of the United States. 
 In this case the period of residence of the widow and 
 children is immaterial, nor is any distinction made between 
 minor children and adults. 
 
 In certain cases, aliens are disqualified from becoming 
 citizens. No alien can be admitted while his country i3 
 

 NATURALIZATION. 237 
 
 at war with the United States, nor can one be admitted 
 who was proscribed by any State previous to the year 1802. 
 The residence required by the naturalization laws is a 
 permanent abode in the country ; and when that is esta- 
 blished or begun, it will not be affected by a temporary 
 absence upon business or pleasure, if the intention to keep 
 up the residence has always existed. 
 
 Besides these general provisions, some of the individual 
 States, chiefly the Western, have granted to unnaturalized 
 aliens residing within their boundaries the right to hold 
 real estate. 
 
 In addition to the laws of the Federal Government 
 relating to naturalization of foreigners, each State pos- 
 sesses a code of laws determining the qualifications of 
 citizenship and suffrage within its own limits. 
 
 The following is an estimate of the number of natural- 
 ized citizens residing in the United States, with the 
 countries whence they have emigrated : — Ireland, 
 1,611,000; German States, 1,198,000 ; England, 430,000 ; 
 British America, 250,000; France, 109,000; Scotland, 
 105,000 ; Switzerland, 54,000 ; Wales, 45,000 ; Norway, 
 43,000 ; Holland, 28,000 ; Turkey, 28,000 ; Italy, 10,000 ; 
 Denmark, 10,000; Belgium, 9,000; Poland, 7,000; 
 Mexico, 7,000 ; the Antilles, 7,000 ; China, 5,000 ; Portugal, 
 4,000; Prussia, 3,000; various countries, 204,000.—' 
 Total, 4,136,000. 
 
238 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 SUFFRAGE. 
 
 The following are the laws of the several States on 
 the right of suffrage. It will be seen that only six States 
 — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, and Wisconsin — make no legal distinction among 
 their citizens on the ground of colour. In New York, 
 coloured citizens to be voters, must be owners of a free- 
 hold worth $250. All ths other States deny the right of 
 suffrage to the negro. Indians have a right of voting in 
 the New England States, in Michigan, Wisconsin, Cali- 
 fornia, and Minnesota. Chinamen are espressly excluded 
 in California, Oregon, and Nevada. Indiana, Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, and Illinois admit 
 as voters those not yet citizens. Troops quartered in a 
 State by the United States Government, do a jt thereby 
 acquire the right to vote. All the States exclude idiots, 
 insane, convicts, and persons of notoriously bad character 
 from the franchise. 
 
 Maine gives the right of suffrage to every male 
 citizen of the United States of the age of 21 years and 
 upward, excepting Indians not taxed, having resided in the 
 State three months. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Every male inhabitant of 21 years. 
 Freehold property qualifications were formerly required 
 for office-holders, but these are abolished. 
 
 Vermont. — Every man 21 years of age, who has resided 
 one year in the State, and who will take an oath to vote 
 " so as in your conscience you shall judge will most con- 
 duce to the best good " of the State. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Every male citizen 21 years of age, 
 who shall have paid any tax assessed within two years, or 
 

 • SUFFRAGE. 239 
 
 who shall be exempted from taxation. No person is entitled 
 to a vote, or is eligible to office va this State, who is not able to 
 read the Constitution in the English language, and write hi* 
 name. But this provision does not apply to any person 
 prevented by a physical disability from complying with its 
 requisitions. 
 
 Rhode Island. — 1. Every male citizen, of full age, one 
 year in the State, six months in the town, owning real 
 estate worth $134, or renting 37 per annum. 2. Every 
 native male citizen of full age, two years in the State, six 
 months in the town, who is duly registered, who has paid 
 $1 tax, or done militia service within the year. 
 
 Connecticut. — All persons, whether white or black, 
 who were freemen at the adoption of her Constitution 
 (1818), and subsequently every white male citizen of 
 the United States, of full age, resident one year in the 
 State, and six months in the town, bearing a good moral 
 character, and able to read and write. 
 
 Indiana. — Eveiy w r hite male citizen of the United 
 States, of full age, and six months resident in the State, 
 and every white male of foreign birth and full age, who 
 has resided one year in the United States, six months 
 preceding the election in the State, and who has declared 
 his intention to become a citizen. No negro or mulatto 
 has the right of suffrage. 
 
 Illinois. — Every white male citizen of full age, residing 
 one year in the State, and every white male inhabitant 
 who was a resident of the State at the adoption of the 
 Constitution. 
 
 Missouri. — Every citizen who has resided in the State 
 one year, and county three months. The Free State 
 Constitution of 1865 excludes the blacks from voting. 
 
 Michigan. — Every white male citizen, resident three 
 months in the State, and six days in the town; every 
 
210 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 white male inhabitant residing in the State June 24th, 
 1835 ; every white male inhabitant residing in the State 
 January 1st, 1850, who has declared his intention, etc., oi 
 who has resided two and a-half years in the State, and 
 declared his intention, and every civilized male Indian 
 inhabitant, not a member of any tribe. 
 
 Iowa. — Every white male citizen of the United States, 
 of full age, resident six months in the State, sixty days in 
 the county. 
 
 New York. — Every male citizen of full age, who shall 
 have been ten days a citizen, resident one year in the State, 
 four months in the county, and thirty days in the district. 
 But no man of colour shall vote unless he has been three 
 years a citizen of the State, and for one year the owner of 
 a freehold worth $250, over incumbrances, on which he 
 shall have paid a tax, and he is to be subject to no direct 
 tax unless he owns such freehold. Laws have been passed, 
 excluding from the suffrage persons convicted of bribery, 
 larceny, or infamous crime, also persons betting on the 
 election. 
 
 New Jersey. — Every white male citizen of the United 
 States, of full age, residing one year in the State and five 
 months in the county. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Every white freeman, of full age, who 
 has resided one year in the State and ten days in the elec- 
 tion district, and has within two years paid a tax, except 
 that a once qualified voter returning into the State after 
 an absence which disqualifies him from voting, regains his 
 vote by a six months' residence, and except that white 
 free citizens under 22 and over 21 vote without paying- 
 taxes. 
 
 Ohio. — Every white male citizen of the United States, 
 of full age, resident one year in the State. But the courts 
 of Ohio having held that every person of one-half white 
 
SUFFRAGE. 241 
 
 blood is a white male citizen within the Constitution, and 
 that the burden of proof is with the challenging party, to 
 show that the person is more than half black, negroes are 
 often allowed to vote. 
 
 Wisconsin. — Every male person of full age, resident 
 one year in the State, and being either : a citizen of the 
 United States ; an alien who has declared his intention ; a 
 person of Indian blood who has been declared a citizen by 
 Act of Congress ; civilized persons of Indian descent not 
 members of any tribe. By a recent decision, negroes are 
 admitted to vote on equal terms with white citizens. 
 
 California.— Every white male citizen of the United 
 States (or of Mexico who shall have elected to become a 
 citizen of the United States under treaty of Queretaro) 
 of fall age, resident six months in the State and thirty 
 days in the district. 
 
 Minnesota. — Every male person of full age, resident 
 one year in the United States and four months in the 
 State, and being either : a white citizen of the United 
 States ; a white alien who has declared his intention ; 
 civilized persons of mixed white and Indian blood, or 
 civilized Indians certified by a district court to be fit for 
 citizenship. 
 
 Oregon. — Every white male citizen of full age, six 
 months a resident in the State, and every white male alien, 
 of full age, resident in the United States one year, who 
 has declared his intention, may vote, but "no negro, 
 Chinaman, or mulatto." 
 
 Kansas. — Every white male adult resident six months 
 in the State and thirty days in the town, who is either a 
 citizen or has declared his intention of becoming one. 
 
 West Virginia. — Every white male citizen 21 years 
 of age, resident one year in the State and thirty days in 
 the county. 
 
 16 
 
242 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Nevada. — The law on the right of suffrage is similar to 
 that of Oregon. 
 
 Colorado. — Every white male citizen of full age. 
 
 Delaware. — Every free white male citizen of the age 
 of 22 years, who has resided one year in the State and 
 the last month thereof in the county, and who has within 
 two years paid a county tax, assessed at least six months 
 before the election. Every free white male citizen over 
 21 and under 22 may vote without paying any tax. The 
 legislature may impose forfeiture of the right of suffrage 
 as a punishment for crime. 
 
 Maryland. — Every free white male person of 21 years 
 of age, or upward, who has resided one year in the State, 
 six months in the county, and is a citizen of the United 
 States. 
 
 Virginia. — Every white male citizen of 21 years, who 
 has resided two years in the State and twelve months in 
 the county, except non-commissioned officers, soldiers, sea- 
 men, or marines in the United States service, or persons 
 convicted of bribery, or some infamous offence. 
 
 North Carolina. — All freemen 21 years of age, living 
 twelve months in the State, and owning a freehold of fifty 
 acres for six months. No free negroes, free mulattoes, or 
 free persons of mixed blood, descended from negro ances- 
 tors to the fourth generation inclusive, can vote for mem- 
 bers of the Senate or House of Commons. 
 
 South Carolina gives the right of voting to every 
 person who has the following qualifications : — He shall be 
 a free white man who has attained the age of 21 years, 
 and is not a non-commissioned officer or private soldier in 
 the army, nor a seaman or a marine of the navy of the 
 United States. He shall, for two years preceding the 
 election, have been a citizen of the State, or, for the same 
 period, an emigrant from Europe, who has declared his 
 
SUFFRAGE . 243 
 
 intention to become a citizen of the United States. He 
 shall have resided in the State at least- two years preceding 
 the election, and for the last six months in the district. 
 
 Georgia. — Every free white male citizen of the State, 
 who shall have attained the age of 21 years, and shall have 
 paid all taxes which may have been required of him, and 
 shall have resided six months in the county and two years 
 in the State. 
 
 Kentucky. — Every white male citizen of the age of 21 
 years, who has resided two years in the State, one year in 
 the county, and sixty days in the precinct. 
 
 Tennessee. — Every free white man of the age of 21 
 years, being a citizen of the United States, and for six 
 months a resident of the county. All persons of colour 
 who are competent witnesses in a court of justice against 
 a white man may also vote. 
 
 Louisiana. — Every free white male who has attained 
 the age of 21 years, and has resided twelve months in the 
 State, and six months in the parish. 
 
 Mississippi. — Every free white male person of 21 years 
 of age, who is a citizen of the United States, who has 
 resided one year in the State and four months in the 
 county. 
 
 Alabama is the same as Mississippi, with the substitu- 
 tion of three months' residence in the county. 
 
 Florida. — Every free white male person of 21 years of 
 age, a citizen of the United States, two years a resident of 
 the State and six months of the county, duly enrolled in 
 the militia, and duly registered. 
 
 Arkansas. — Every free white male citizen of the United 
 States, 21 years of age, who shall have resided six months 
 in the State. 
 
 Texas. — Every free male person who shall have attained 
 the age of 21 years, a citizen of the United States, one 
 
244 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 year a resident of the State, and six months of the county, 
 Indians not taxed, Africans and the descendants of Africans, 
 excepted. 
 
 THE PATENT LAWS. 
 
 The subject of patents for inventions received the 
 early attention of Congress after the adoption of the 
 Federal Constitution, and in 1791 was passed the first act 
 " to promote the progress of the useful arts." This, and 
 all subsequent acts relating to patents, has recognized the 
 natural rights of the inventor, and aimed to reconcile 
 private rights with the welfare of the State, which recon- 
 ciliation is the perfection of all legislation. 
 
 Letters patent are granted for any new and useful 
 invention or discovery to the actual first inventor, his 
 assignees, executors, or administrators. They are granted 
 alike to citizens and aliens for the term of seventeen years 
 from the elate of issue. An invention, on which a foreign 
 patent has been obtained is patentable in the United States 
 at any subsequent period, provided the same has not been 
 generally introduced into that country before the applica- 
 tion ; but such patent will expire at the end of seventeen 
 years from the date of the foreign patent. There is a 
 strict examination to determine the utility and novelty of 
 the invention. 
 
 No patents of importation nor certificates of addition 
 are allowed. Patents of designs and caveats — a kind of 
 provisional protection — are granted to citizens, but not in 
 any case to aliens residing abroad. Patents may be 
 reissued at any period to remedy defects in the claims, 
 or other parts of the specification. No extensions are 
 
THE PATENT LAWS. 245 
 
 allowed on patents secured under the act of 1861 ; and 
 alien patentees must carry their invention into practice 
 in the United States within eighteen months from the date 
 of issue. 
 
 The inventor, by himself or authorized agent, must 
 present a written petition to the commissioner of patents, 
 accompanied by a specification and oath, with two sets of 
 drawings, and also a model, where the nature of the 
 invention admits of such an illustration. When the. 
 indention is a composition of matter, a sample of the com- 
 position and of each of the ingredients must be furnished. 
 The size and character of the drawings and model are 
 prescribed by the rules of the Patent Office. The specifi- 
 cation and drawings must all be signed by the inventor, 
 his executors, or administrators, and such signature attested 
 by two witnesses. 
 
 The Government fee for each patent for the entire term 
 under the act of 1861 is $35, and the agency charges vary, 
 according to the nature of the invention, and the difficulty 
 in obtaining the allowance of the patents ; but it may be 
 safely said that these patents, as a rule, are cheaper than 
 those of European States, costing for seventeen years 
 hardly one- tenth as much as a patent in the United 
 Kingdom for a shorter period, while " patent rights" in the 
 United States are far more saleable and valuable. 
 
 During the year 1865 there were received at the Patent 
 Office over 12,000 applications for patents ; and 6616 
 patents were issued, and 1538 caveats were filed. The 
 number of applications exceeded by nearly forty per cent, 
 the number filed in any preceding year, and the number of 
 caveats filed exceeded those of any previous year by more 
 than seventy-five per cent. The number of patents issued 
 exceeded those issued in 1864, the highest previous year, 
 by m ore than thirty per cent. 
 
246 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The United States Patent Office at Washington contains 
 nearly 50,000 models pertaining to patent inventions, all of 
 which are open to pnblic inspection and examination, 
 together with the drawings and specifications. 
 
 MARRIAGE LAWS. 
 
 In the United States marriage is, by law, only a civil 
 contract ; magistrates, equally with clergymen, have a 
 right to solemnize it ; but it is the prevailing practice, as 
 in all Protestant countries, to have it performed by a 
 clergyman, with religious observances. In all the States 
 certain marriages are prohibited, and would of course be 
 void — as those between parties within a certain near lineal 
 consanguinity, and those between parties within the age of 
 consent, which, for the most part, is fixed at fifteen for the 
 man and ten for the woman. In many of the States there 
 is now a provision that a marriage duly solemnized to all 
 appearance shall not be void through the non-observance 
 of any formality, if it be consummated with a full belief 
 on the part of either or both of the parties that they were 
 lawfully married. Contracts to marry at a future time are 
 recognized by law, and actions for the breach of them are 
 common. The rules of law relating to these are peculiar. 
 The promises must be reciprocal, and the woman is bound 
 to them as much as the man. The precise words, time, and 
 manner, often beyond proof, are not indispensable, for 
 direct and precise testimony is not demanded. This con- 
 tract, like every other, may be made on condition ; and if 
 the condition be reasonable, the law will respect it. 
 Actions for breach of promise do not survive either the 
 
MAERIAGE LAWS. 247 
 
 promisor or promisee. Regulations have been made by law 
 in most of the States for the due solemnization and proof of 
 marriage ; but when such provisions have not been made, 
 the contract is under the government of the English 
 common law. 
 
 Second marriages, where the former husband or wife 
 are living, are null and void, with the following excep- 
 tions : — Absence of the first husband or wife for five years, 
 without the residence being known to the party marrying 
 a second time ; or deliberate absence from the United 
 States for a like period ; or divorce, except for cause of 
 adultery, in the party marrying a second time. 
 
 The law of divorce is different in the various States. 
 In all adultery of either party is a sufficient cause. In 
 New York imprisonment for life is considered as a civil 
 death, and the husband or wife of such imprisoned person 
 is at liberty to marry again. Imprisonment for a less term 
 is held merely to suspend civil rights for a time, and does 
 not abrogate them. In Massachusetts, Maine, and New 
 Jersey, wilful desertion for five years — in Indiana and 
 Missouri desertion for two years, cruel and inhuman 
 treatment by the husband, or his habitual drunkenness 
 for the same period — in Vermont imprisonment in State 
 prison for three years — in Ohio wilful desertion or 
 habitual drunkenness for three years — in Pennsylvania 
 wilful desertion for two years — in Connecticut wilful 
 desertion for three years, or seven years' absence without 
 being heard of, also constitute sufficient grounds for 
 divorce. 
 
248 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 TEMPERANCE LAWS. 
 
 The laws at present in operation throughout the 
 United States, designed to abate intemperance and the 
 numerous social evils flowing from that vice, are divisible 
 into three classes — those that forbid the sale of intoxicating 
 liquors on the Sabbath ; those that interfere more or less 
 stringently with the retail sale of intoxicating liquors ; 
 and those that are framed on the model of the celebrated 
 Maine Law of 1851, and forbid all sale of such liquors 
 other than for medicinal, sacramental, and scientific pur- 
 poses. A Sunday law prevails throughout the Union 
 generally; strict prohibitory laws are in force in Iowa, 
 Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan ; complete prohibitory 
 laws (collectively and popularly known as the " Maine 
 Law ") are in operation in all the New England States. 
 In various States, laws are in force making sales to 
 drunkards and minors penal, and allowing widows, 
 orphans, and other relatives, to claim damages from liquor- 
 sellers who can be proved to have sold drink to men 
 before they met with death in consequence of their in- 
 temperance. In no State is the liquor traffic free — i.e., 
 carried on without a licence; and in several States the 
 Board of Commissioners who give or refuse licences are 
 elected by the ratepayers of districts. 
 
CHAPTER YIL 
 
 RAILWAYS— CANALS— TELEGKAPHS. 
 
 RAILWAYS. 
 
 The rapid growth of the railway system of the United 
 States is perhaps one of the most notable features of the 
 material progress of the country. Railways in America 
 may be said to be almost cotemporaneous with those of 
 England. The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway in the" latter country proved, in an unexpected 
 and triumphant manner, the adaptability of the powers 
 of steam to rapid locomotion, and in a few years after its 
 development in England the same system was in practical 
 operation in the United States. 
 
 When the first sod of a portion of the Baltimore and 
 Ohio Railway was cut, on the 4th of July, 1828, iron 
 tracks on which vehicles were drawn by horse power had 
 been in use some years at many of the coal mines and 
 granite quarries of Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, and 
 on its completion in 1829 it was also worked partly by 
 horse power, the only locomotive being a small one built 
 at Baltimore. This engine is still in existence, and may 
 be seen in the company's workshops, where it is preserved 
 as an interesting relic. In 1830, the Hudson and Mohawk 
 Railway was commenced; the following year saw it in 
 operation between Albany and Schenectady ; and in 
 
250 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 1832 a locomotive travelled over it at the rate of thirty 
 miles an hour, with a load of eight tons. During the 
 same year sixty-seven miles of railway were in operation 
 in Pennsylvania, and important lines were begun in 
 Massachusetts and New Jersey ; and from this time con- 
 siderable energy was manifested in railway enterprises. 
 Their rapid progress is illustrated by the following table, 
 which shows the number of miles in operation from 1840 
 to 1864 :— 
 
 YEAE. MILES. 
 
 1838 1,843 
 
 1840 2,167 
 
 1842 3,863 
 
 1844 4,285 
 
 1846 4,828 
 
 1848 6,491 
 
 1850 8,827 
 
 TEAR. MILES. 
 
 1852 12,841 
 
 1854 19,195 
 
 1856 23,724 
 
 1858 27,158 
 
 1860 31,185 
 
 1864 35,000 
 
 These 35,000 miles have been laid at an expenditure 
 of $1,264,336,000 (£252,867,200). 
 
 Up to the commencement of the last decade, the rail- 
 ways sustained only an unimportant relation to the in- 
 ternal commerce of the country. Nearly all the lines then 
 in operation were local or isolated works, and neither in 
 extent nor design had begun to be formed into that vast 
 and connected system which now covers almost every 
 portion of the Union, enabling each work to contribute to 
 the traffic and value of all. Though the rapidity with 
 which the railways have been constructed has been so 
 great, and the mileage is so large, the requirements of the 
 country are by no means met. In many parts the existing 
 lines are quite insufficient to convey the traffic ; and in the 
 Western States the produce has increased faster than the 
 means of transport. 
 
KAIL WAYS. 251 
 
 The following table shows the lengths and cost of some 
 of the principal lines in operation in 1866 : — 
 
 MILES. COST. 
 
 Illinois Central 708 $28,610,000 
 
 New York Central (Branches) 555 32,740,000 
 
 Chicago, N. W., Galena, and Elgin ... 535 28,000,000 
 
 Erie and Branches 528 39,328,000 
 
 Mobile and Ohio 482 14,484,000 
 
 Pittsburg, Fort W., and Chicago 467 18,891,000 
 
 Chicago, Peora, and Quincy 400 39,2 70,000 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio 386 24,919,000 
 
 Pennsylvania, Cent., Colum. Div 359 26,058,000 
 
 Atlantic and Great W. (Branches) ... 507 47,000,000 
 
 Memphis and Charleston 290 67,450,000 
 
 Louisville and Chicago 288 7,000,000 
 
 Philadelphia and Erie 288 16,500,000 
 
 Michigan Central 284 13,805,000 
 
 Mobile and Ohio, from Alabama 282 8,475,000 
 
 Marietta and Cincinnati 272 10,722,000 
 
 Milwaukee, St. Paul, and Horicon 261 8,144,000 
 
 Louisville and Nashville '. 253 9, 730,000 
 
 Philadelphia and Bead (Branches) ... 154 24,735,000 
 
 Philadelphia, Wilni'n, and Baltimore 98 8,575,000 
 
 Philadelphia and Baltimore Central ... 365 930,000 
 
 Philadelphia and Trenton 282 608,000 
 
 Enumerating all the important roads and their branches, 
 there were in the United States in September, 1865, 593 
 companies, owning one or more lines of railway, of which 
 Pennsylvania possessed 85 ; Massachusetts, 46 ; New York, 
 44 ; Ohio, 29 ; Illinois, 28 ; New Jersey, 26 ; Indiana, 23 ; 
 and the Southern States, 101. According to the return 
 of 1865 Pennsylvania is foremost of all the States in the 
 length of railways completed. 
 
252 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The following is a table of the number of miles of rail- 
 ways in each State in 1866, with the cost of construction : — 
 
 States. 
 
 , Miles com. 
 | pleted. 
 
 Completed 
 and con- 
 structing. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32, 
 33, 
 34. 
 35. 
 36, 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Y ermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland and Dis. of Col. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana „ 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois ...,„, 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Nebraska Territory 
 
 509 
 659 
 596 
 
 1,309 
 119 
 637 
 
 2,928 
 868 
 
 3,797 
 126 
 486 
 
 1,378 
 361 
 977 
 988 
 
 1,421 
 401 
 891 
 867 
 335 
 451 
 . 38 
 
 1,317 
 613 
 
 3,392 
 949 
 
 2,196 
 
 3,171 
 
 1,044 
 227 
 946 
 924 
 262 
 19 
 122 
 53 
 
 Total United States 35,487 
 
 640 
 
 659 
 
 596 
 1,353 
 
 151 
 
 717 
 3,278 
 
 887 
 4,364 
 
 172 
 
 727 
 2.054 
 
 361 
 1,352 
 1,072 
 1,635 
 
 586 
 1,434 
 1,072 
 
 838 
 2,787 
 
 701 
 1,392 
 
 940 
 3,999 
 1,734 
 2,466 
 3,759 
 1,357 
 1,608 
 2,023 
 1,572 
 1,285 
 19 
 
 480 
 1,200 
 
 51,270 
 
 Total Cost. 
 
 §18,134,925 
 22,342,947 
 24,773,417 
 59,956,462 
 4,941,240 
 23,900,001 
 145,240,291 
 49,4S3,532 
 195,982,888 
 4,921,709 
 28,558,124 
 45,146,843 
 24,370,667 
 19,308,018 
 22,423,690 
 29,169,513 
 8,628,000 
 21,351,102 
 24,112,507 
 13,627,664 
 16,509,772 
 3,800,500 
 33,977,478 
 21,639,876 
 131,872,472 
 39,648,812 
 72,377,489 
 127,798,081 
 39,580,741 
 8,250,000 
 36,142,928 
 50,232,482 
 13,800,000 
 500,000 
 3,500,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 $1,388,554,968 
 
 In comparing the length of the railway lines in the United 
 
EAILWAYS. 253 
 
 States with those of other countries, it must be borne in 
 mind that they consist generally of only a single track, 
 and that a greater portion of the English lines are laid 
 with donble tracks, though the estimate of mileage it takes 
 the same as for a single line. 
 
 In the structure of the American lines principles have 
 been adopted by which they are constructed with great 
 economy. The difficult and expensive condition of exclud- 
 ing all curves but those of large radius, and all gradients 
 exceeding a certain limit of steepness is not insisted on. 
 Curves of 500 feet radius, and even less, are frequent, and 
 acclivities rising at the rate of 1 foot in 100 are considered 
 a moderate ascent ; many lines are laid down with gradients 
 varyiug from 1 in 100 to 1 in 75, and these are worked 
 with facility by locomotives, without the expedient of 
 assistant or stationary engines. The cost of earthwork, 
 bridges, and viaducts, even in parts of the country where 
 the character of the surface is least favourable, is conse- 
 quently much reduced. The construction as well as the 
 materials are also very economical. Instead of the 
 stringers used on English lines, transverse wooden " cross- 
 ties " or sleepers are laid about two feet apart, upon which 
 the ordinary " T rails" are placed. The bridges are 
 generally built of wood, and there is but little tunnelling. 
 The lines are not always fenced, especially in the sparsely 
 settled districts, and the cattle which in most parts roam 
 at large, are scared off by the steam whistle, or where 
 this fails to serve the purpose, the "cow-catcher," a 
 wedge-shaped iron framework which is a universal appen- 
 dage at the front of an American engine, usually serves to 
 throw the animal from the track without damage to the 
 train ; the animals being usually killed by the collision 
 where the speed cannot be slacked in time. Owing to the 
 cheap scale on which American railways are constructed, 
 
254 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 the inexpensive stations or depots, the cheapness of lands 
 through which they pass, and other circumstances, the 
 average cost per mile is not half so much as in Europe, 
 the average estimate being only $34,307 (£7000). On the 
 prairies the cost is only about §20,000 (£4000) per mile. 
 This difference being due to the fact that the cost of 
 grading is very light, the track often stretching away for 
 miles over a dead level. The appearance of a long train 
 of " cars " at full speed on one of these level prairie lines, 
 when viewed at a distance of several miles, is most im- 
 pressive as it winds smoothly along between sky and earth. 
 The trains are not remarkable for their high rate of speed ; 
 the mode of construction, as well as the general condi- 
 tion of the track, limits the average speed to about 18 to 
 20 miles an hour, and express trains do not usually ex- 
 ceed 30 miles per hour. Excursion trains, now so promi- 
 nent and agreeable a feature of European railways, are 
 unknown in the United States. When railways strike the 
 course of rivers, such as the Hudson, Delaware, or Sus- 
 quehannah — too wide to be crossed by bridges — the traffic 
 is carried on by steam-ferries. It is often so arranged that 
 the time of crossing corresponds with the hour for meals ; 
 while the boat is crossing the spacious river, the passengers 
 are supplied with their breakfast, dinner, or supper, as the 
 case may be. On arriving at the opposite bank they 
 resume their places in the railway carriages, and the train 
 proceeds. 
 
 Kailway travelling in America has a peculiar charm in 
 the variety of scenery traversed by some of the longer 
 lines. Often a few hours suffice to transport one from the 
 busy hum of a great metropolis into the deep solitude of 
 the primeval forest or prairie. A peculiarity in the 
 American trains is the construction of the passenger 
 carriages, or cars, which are much longer than the English, 
 
EAILWATS. 255 
 
 and are entered by a door at each end. There are two rows 
 of seats, with a narrow passage between. The whole train 
 may be traversed without descending to the ground, and 
 the conductor passes from one end to the other collecting 
 his tickets, while the train is in motion. The cars are 
 capable of containing each about sixty passengers. With 
 the exception of the emigrant trains, there are generally no 
 distinctions of first, second, and third class, as in England. 
 The fares on the American lines are on an average about 
 equal to the second-class fares in England. There is at- 
 tached to each train a smoking car, and often a sleeping 
 car, in which passengers are for a small extra charge pro- 
 vided with a comfortable night's lodging. Most cars 
 have a small apartment at one end for the accommodation 
 of ladies and children. Stoves are also provided in winter. 
 " An American conductor is half clerk, half guard, with a 
 dash of the gentleman ; and, when off duty, passes for a 
 respectable personage at any of the hotels, and may be 
 seen in the best company, with a fashionable wife. He 
 must needs be a person of some integrity, for the check 
 upon his transactions is infinitesimally small. The sud- 
 denness of his appearance, when the train gets under way, 
 is very marvellous. Hardly have the wheels made a revo- 
 lution when the door at one end of the car is opened, and 
 the conductor, like a wandering spirit, begins his rounds. 
 Just before coming to a station, he takes a deliberate 
 survey of his customers, receiving checks from those who 
 are about to depart." The conductor can always and in- 
 stantly communicate with the engine-driver, by means of 
 a cord which runs along the ceiling of the cars, and is 
 arranged and connected before starting the train. 
 
 The arrangements connected with the baggage are excel- 
 lent. Each train has a "baggage car" attached, superin- 
 tended by a " baggage master." This official, on receiving 
 
256 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 a trunk or portmanteau, attaches to it a brass plate upon 
 which a number is stamped, and gives to the owner a dupli- 
 cate plate which answers for a receipt ; before arriving at 
 any important point an omnibus agent passes through the 
 train, and upon the delivery of the check he gives the 
 passenger another, called an omnibus check, which — with- 
 out further attention on the part of the passenger — secures 
 the safe delivery of his baggage at any hotel or private 
 house at which he signifies his intention of stopping. 
 While the train is in motion boys with papers and books, and 
 vendors of lemonade and fruit, perambulate the cars. The 
 various railway lines have in most instances made mutual 
 arrangements which enable the traveller to avoid all 
 trouble concerning his baggage, and by procuring a 
 " through check " he may travel from one end of the 
 Union to the other without once seeing his baggage during 
 the journey. In many of the principal American cities, the 
 railways are continued to the centre of the town, following 
 the windings of the streets. The locomotive station is, 
 however, generally in the suburbs. Having arrived there, 
 the engine is detached from the train, and horses draw the 
 cars to the passenger depot, usually established in some 
 central situation. Four horses are attached to each of 
 these long carriages. The sharp curves at the corners of 
 the streets are turned by causing the outer wheels of the 
 trucks to run upon their flanges, so that they become 
 while passing round the curve virtually larger wheels 
 than the inner ones. 
 
 Tramways or street railroads have been introduced in 
 all the principal American cities, and in many of them 
 have as effectually superseded the omnibus as railways 
 have the old stage coach. 
 
 In New York 307 miles are in operation. 
 
 „ Brooklyn 101 „ „ „ 
 
THE PACIFIC RAILWAYS. 257 
 
 In Boston 124 miles are in operation. 
 
 „ Philadelphia 183 „ 
 „ Baltimore 35 „ 
 „ Chicago 40 „ 
 
 5) 
 
 J) 
 
 5) 
 
 5) 
 
 J> 
 
 5> 
 
 THE PACIFIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The demand for greater facility of commnnication with 
 the Pacific region has led to a series of surveys for the 
 purpose of demonstrating the most practicable route for a 
 railway to the Pacific. The time is not far distant when 
 much of the trade between Western Europe and Eastern 
 Asia will be carried across the American continent, and the 
 dream of the early explorers realized. " America," says 
 Colonel Synge, R.E., " is geographically a connecting link 
 between the continents of Europe and Asia, and not a 
 monstrous barrier between them. It lies in the track of 
 their nearest and best connection ; and this fact needs only 
 to be recognized to render it in practice what it unques- 
 tionably is in the essential points of distance and dura- 
 tion." Shanghai is becoming most rapidly the great com- 
 mercial emporium of China. It is situated at the mouth 
 of the Yang-tse-Kiang, the largest river of Asia, navigable 
 for 1500 miles. Hong Kong, the centre of the English 
 trade in China, is 960 miles farther south. With a railway 
 across the American continent the distance from England 
 to Hong Kong could be made in about thirty-three days. 
 
 Surveys were made for a line to the Pacific in 1850, 
 but the country at that time was not prepared to engage 
 in the undertaking. Several lines are now, however, in 
 coarse of construction. Silas Seymour, Esq., Consulting 
 
 17 
 
258 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Engineer of the Union Pacific Railway, in a communica- 
 tion to the " American Railroad Journal," of Feb. 24th, 
 1866, thus fully describes and explains the various organi- 
 zations and projects known as Pacific Railways, which are 
 no less than seven in number. 
 
 First. The Pacific Railway of Missouri (a State enter- 
 prise), extending from the city of St. Louis to the east line 
 of Kansas, at or near Kansas City, a distance of 283 miles. 
 This road is now completed and in operation. 
 
 Second. The Union Pacific Railway, Eastern Division, 
 extending from the western terminus of the Missouri Pacific 
 Railway, at the eastern boundary of Kansas, to an inter- 
 section with the Union Pacific Railway, " at a point on 
 the 100th meridian of longitude west from Greenwich, 
 between the south margin of the Republican River and 
 the north margin of the valley of the Platte River, in 
 the Territory of Nebraska, at a point to be fixed by the 
 President of the United States after actual surveys." The 
 total distance is about 360 miles. This is also a State 
 undertaking, and was formerly known as the "Leaven- 
 worth, Pawnee, and Western Railway Company of Kan- 
 sas ; " but the Company, in 1863, assumed the name of 
 " Union Pacific Railway, Eastern Division," by which title 
 it has since been recognized. This company receives the 
 same amount and kind of aid from the general government 
 as the Union Pacific Railway, which, to avoid repetition, 
 will be described in connection with that road. The laying 
 of track was commenced in 1863, since which 62 miles 
 have been completed, and the road is now open for public 
 use to Topeka, the capital of Kansas. 
 
 Third. The Union Pacific Railway, extending from 
 the western boundary of the State of Iowa, at Omaha, "to 
 the western boundary of the Territory of Nevada, there to 
 connect with the line of the Central Pacific Railway Com- 
 
THE PACIFIC BAILWAYS. 259 
 
 pany of California," a distance of about 1600 miles. The 
 capital stock is SI 00,000,000. This organization is entirely 
 the creation of Congress, and being located within the 
 Territories, is not subject to any State or municipal regula- 
 tions. To aid in its construction the Government grants 
 every alternate section of public land, designated by odd 
 numbers, to the amount of ten alternate sections per mile, 
 on each side of said railway on the line thereof, and within 
 the limits of twenty miles on each side of said road. To 
 aid further in the construction of this road the law provides 
 that as certain portions therein specified are fully com- 
 pleted and equipped, the Secretary of the Treasury shall 
 issue to said Company bonds of the United States, as 
 follows : " For '300 miles of said road, most mountainous 
 and difficult of construction," $48,000 per mile ; " and for 
 certain other sections amounting to 300 miles," §32,000 
 per mile ; and for the entire remainder of the road, $16,000 
 per mile. The laying of track was commenced in July, 
 1865, and 40 miles were completed up to Feb. 1S66. Since 
 that time the track has been extended to Fremont, 50 
 miles from Omaha. The grading of the first 110 miles is 
 now completed, and arrangements are perfected for opening 
 100 miles to the public before the 4th of July, 1866, 
 
 Fourth. The Central Pacific Railway of California, ex- 
 tending " from the Pacific coast, at or near San Francisco, 
 or the navigable waters of the Sacramento River, to the 
 eastern boundary of California." This is a State organiza- 
 tion, but it receives from the general government the same 
 aid as the Union Pacific Railway. This company has 
 transferred to the Western Pacific Railway Company the 
 right to construct the road to the Pacific coast, and is now 
 engaged in the construction of the line easterly from 
 Sacramento to the State line, a distance of 164 miles. The 
 laying of track was commenced in June, 1864, and 56 
 
260 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 miles of road have since been completed and accepted by the 
 Government. Seventeen additional miles of grading are now 
 completed, and the remainder of the grading is well under 
 way. The line, as established by the Company, intersects 
 the easterly boundary of California in the valley of the 
 Truckee River. 
 
 Fifth. The Western Pacific Railway of California, ex- 
 tending from Sacramento to San Francisco, by way of San 
 Jose, a distance of 170 miles. This is also a State organi- 
 zation, and receives through an assignment from the 
 Central Pacific Railway Company (which has received the 
 sanction of Congress) the same aid from the Government 
 as the Union and Central Pacific Companies. The line 
 from San Jose to San Francisco, a distance of 50 miles, is 
 completed. From San Jose eastward, about 20 miles is 
 completed, and the iron for the remainder of the distance 
 to Sacramento is already purchased and going forward. 
 The grading is entirely out of the way. 
 
 Sixth. The Southern Pacific Railway of California, ex- 
 tending from the bay of San Francisco to the port of San 
 Diego, and thence to the east line of the State of California, 
 a distance of about 420 miles. Capital, $30,000,000. This 
 is a State organization, and receives no aid from the 
 general government. 
 
 Seventh. The Northern Pacific Railway Company, 
 extending from the head of Lake Superior to Puget Sound, 
 " with a branch via the valley of the Columbia River to a 
 point at or near Portland, in the State of Oregon." Capital 
 stock $100,000,000. This company was chartered by Con- 
 gress in 1864. The company receives from the Govern- 
 ment " every alternate section of public land, not mineral, 
 designated by odd numbers, to the amount of twenty alter- 
 nate sections per mile on each side of said railway line, as 
 said company may adopt, through the Territories of the 
 
CANALS. 261 
 
 United States ; and ten alternate sections per mile on each 
 side of said railway whenever it passes through any State." 
 In addition to the above may be mentioned the old 
 organization known as the Southern Pacific Railway, 
 which was intended to run from Memphis, Tennessee, to 
 San Diego, California. 
 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 Soon after the acknowledgment of the independence ot 
 the American colonies by England in 1733, several com- 
 panies were formed in New York and Pennsylvania, for the 
 purpose of constructing a system of canals. These enter- 
 prises were accordingly commenced, but on a scale too 
 limited for the attainment of the desired objects. As the 
 United States advanced in commercial prosperity, more 
 extensive plans were adopted. In 1807 the Senate ordered 
 Mr. Galatin, the then Secretary of State, to prepare a 
 project for a general system of intercommunication by 
 canals, based upon the geographical character of the 
 territory of the Union ; and a system of artificial water- 
 communication was accordingly projected, which at a later 
 period was adopted and carried into execution. wing- 
 to the war of 1812, it was not until five years later that 
 the vast works were commenced, the result of which has 
 been the most extensive system of inland navigation in 
 the world. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 181 7, the great line of canal con- 
 necting the Hudson with Lake Erie was inaugurated. 
 The Hudson presenting a navigable communication 
 
262 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 for vessels of a large class from New York to Albany, 
 the object of this line of canal was to open a water- 
 communication between Albany and the Lakes, so as to 
 connect continuously the north-western States with the 
 Atlantic. This work was accomplished in less than eight 
 years, and the State of New York, with its exclusive 
 resources, executed and brought into operation the Erie 
 Canal, the largest in the world, costing, with its branches, 
 $13,000,000 (£2,600,000). It was, however, still found in- 
 adequate to the exigencies of a continually increasing traffic, 
 and its enlargement was decided upon in 1835, when it 
 was finally completed, at a cost of upwards of 325,000,000 
 (£5,000,000 sterling). Its cost of construction per mile was 
 about $68,500 (£13,700). The total length is 363 miles. 
 
 Pennsylvania soon rivalled New York in these enter- 
 prises, the discovery of the coal-fields in 1820 causing a 
 rapid development of canals in that State. These works 
 were undertaken to a greater or less extent in most of the 
 Atlantic and some of the Western States ; and the United 
 States now possesses a system of artificial water-communi- 
 cation amounting to nearly 6000 miles. 
 
 The principal canals are the following : — 
 
 Width Number 
 Miles, in feet, of Locks. 
 
 Erie Canal, from Hudson River to the Lakes 363 40 84 
 
 Pennsylvania Canal, Delaware and Ohio „.... 395 40 200 
 
 Ohio Canal, Ohio River and Lake Erie 307 40 152 
 
 Miami „ „ „ „ 178 40 102 
 
 Indiana,, „ „ „ 379 60 102 
 
 Illinois Canal, Lake Michigan with Illinois River 102 60 2 
 
 The Illinois and Michigan Canal, forming the connect- 
 ing link between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River 
 is to be made a ship canal. The water with which it is 
 supplied is pumped up twelve feet from Lake Michigan. 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 263 
 
 In order to overcome the difference of level between 
 Lakes Ontario and Erie, and to afford a navigable con- 
 nection, the Welland Canal has been constructed on 
 Canadian territory with a series of locks, through which 
 vessels, principally American, pass in great numbers. 
 
 TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 The first line of electric telegraph in the United States 
 was from Washington to Baltimore, a distance of forty 
 miles. It was opened in May, 1844, was afterwards 
 extended to New York, 250 miles, and in 1845 continued 
 on to Boston. From this line branches were soon con- 
 structed — one of 1000 miles in length, from Philadelphia 
 to St. Louis ; another of 1300 miles, via Albany and the 
 lake cities to Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; and a third, of 1395 
 miles, from Buffalo, KY., to Halifax. A line of 1200 
 miles was constructed from Cleveland to New Orleans, also 
 a long line from Washington to Charleston, South Carolina, 
 and Savannah, Georgia. The rapidity with which their 
 construction was carried on when once started may 
 be gathered from the fact that, while in 1848 there were 
 only 3000 miles in operation, in 1850 there were 22,000 
 miles, 19,000 having been constructed in two years. In 
 1853 the number of miles constructed amounted to 26,375, 
 and in 1866 the number of miles in operation is estimated 
 at 100,000. 
 
 The Western Union Telegraph Company completed in 
 1861 a telegraph line, connecting the more easterly network 
 of the continent with the California wires at San Fran- 
 cisco ; and a northward extension of the California line, 
 
264 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 afterwards carried along the Pacific coast, had, in 1864, 
 been constructed to Olympia, on the south of Puget's 
 Sound, and thence to Victoria, on Vancouver's Island, thus 
 putting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts in immediate com- 
 munication. Another line is being constructed by the 
 " United States Pacific Telegraph Company." Starting 
 from San Francisco, it has a double wire upon a single set 
 of poles to Port Kearney, Nebraska, at which point the 
 wires will diverge, one running to St. Louis and the other 
 to Chicago. The total length of this line will be 3270 
 miles, including both branches, and 6040 miles of wire 
 will be required in its construction. 
 
 The projected Russo- American telegraph, known as the 
 Collins Overland Line, is designed to connect the entire 
 North American system of lines — as well as eventually the 
 South American also — by way of British Columbia and 
 Behring Strait, with the great Russian line, at its ter- 
 mination at the mouth of the Amoor River in Eastern 
 Asia. The length of the line is about 6040 miles. The 
 length of cable required at Behring Strait would be about 
 forty miles. The waters are about 180 feet deep, and are 
 frozen through one-half the year ; but it is believed that 
 the safety of the cable would not be endangered by the ice. 
 When this overland line is completed, it will, with the 
 Atlantic cable, complete a telegraphic circuit around the 
 earth between the parallels of 42° and 65 3 north latitude. 
 
THE ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. 265 
 
 THE ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 The idea of establishing telegraphic communication 
 between England and America was first discussed by a 
 small party of gentlemen called together in New York, by 
 Cyrus W. Field, Esq., in 1854. The final result of their 
 discussions was a written agreement that the enterprise 
 should be at once undertaken. In the same year an act of 
 incorporation was obtained of the Legislature of New- 
 foundland, under the title of the " New York, Newfound- 
 land, and London Telegraph Company," granting the 
 exclusive right for fifty years to land cables on the shores 
 of Newfoundland and any places adjacent thereto, under 
 their jurisdiction. 
 
 Having in 1856 completed a cable across the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and established lines connecting Newfound- 
 land with the United States, Mr. Field then procured from 
 the United States Government an order for a steamer to 
 sound the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland, and a 
 similar assistance was obtained by him the following year 
 from the British Admiralty, under whose instructions 
 careful soundings were made. A new company was soon 
 afterwards formed in England, under the name of " The 
 Atlantic Telegraph Company," the two companies agreeing 
 to operate in connection. 
 
 In August, 1857, the first attempt to lay the Atlantic 
 cable between Newfoundland and Ireland — a distance of 
 1668 nautical miles — was made ; but this, as well as a 
 second attempt in the following year, failed to accomplish 
 the object. In July, 1858, the fleet again sailed, to make 
 the third effort to achieve the great enterprise. The splice 
 was made in mid-ocean, the two steamers, " Niagara," and 
 "Agamemnon," proceeding in opposite directions, and 
 
266 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 each on August 5th landed their respective ends of the 
 cable at Valentia and Trinity Bay. The submersion of the 
 Atlantic cable was thus accomplished, and some four 
 hundred messages were duly transmitted, among others the 
 memorable communication between Her Majesty Queen 
 Victoria and President Buchanan. From the first, how- 
 ever, there had been defects in the cable, which caused 
 constantly increasing interruptions in the communications, 
 until September 1st, when the cable entirely ceased to 
 transmit messages. 
 
 The practicability of establishing telegraphic commu- 
 nication between Europe and America, however, had been 
 proven by this successful submersion of the cable. 
 Encouraged by accomplished facts, and the opinions of 
 men of science and practical experience, the projectors of 
 the enterprise determined to persevere. In 1864 the 
 necessary capital was subscribed principally in England for 
 a fresh attempt. The new cable, as well as the preceding 
 ones, was manufactured in England. Various important 
 improvements were made, the result of scientific research 
 and the experience of the past, in addition to which every 
 advantage was taken of the advancements made in tele- 
 graphic apparatus and appliances. 
 
 The steamship " Great Eastern " was selected, on 
 account of her immense size, for the work of laying the 
 cable, which was coiled on board the vessel in three 
 immense tanks, of such size as to contain the cable and 
 sufficient water to keep it submerged. In July, 1865, the 
 giant ship steamed out to sea upon her grand mission. 
 1212 miles of the cable had been successfully payed out 
 when a fault was discovered, and in attempting to haul the 
 cable in it parted, and all attempts to recover it proving 
 unsuccessful, the "Great Eastern" returned to England. 
 Preparations were immediately made to renew the at- 
 
THE ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 267 
 
 tempt, the " Great Eastern" being retained for the 
 purpose. The new cable is essentially the same as the 
 former, the principal difference being that the protecting 
 wires are galvanized. 
 
 ATLANTIC CABLE OP 1865-6. EXACT SIZE. 
 
 Conductor. — Copper strand consisting of seven wires, imbedded 
 for solidity in Cliatterton's Compound. Insulation. — Grutta Percha 
 (a), four layers of which are laid on alternatively with four thin 
 layers of Cliatterton's Compound. The copper strand and this insula- 
 tion form the " core." External Protection. — Ten solid wires (c), 
 those in the cable of 1866 being galvanized, each surrounded sepa- 
 rately with five strands of Manilla Yarn (b), saturated with a 
 preservative compound, and the whole laid spirally round the core, 
 which latter is padded with ordinary hemp, saturated with preservative 
 mixture. 
 
CHAPTER YIIL 
 
 THE KELIGION— EDUCATION. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 Religion in the United States presents itself under varied 
 and peculiar aspects. From the first settlement of the New 
 England States it has formed a prominent and important 
 feature in the national institutions, and an open profession 
 of attachment to some denomination is made in a much 
 more zealous and decided manner than in any other 
 country. The Christian religion is almost universal, the 
 Protestant being the predominant though not the exclu- 
 sive form of worship. The principle of religions tolera- 
 tion is deeply rooted in the minds of people, having 
 grown out of the earnest religious movements which led 
 to the first settlements. 
 
 The nation, as such, makes no profession, and provides 
 'no funds for the establishment of religion. There is no 
 established church ; indeed the union of Church and State 
 was so distasteful to the founders of the Republic, that a 
 clause was inserted in the constitution providing that 
 " Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment 
 of religion." Every shade of religious opinion is thus left 
 to exercise its natural and unbiassed influence, and though 
 
EELIGION. 269 
 
 sectarian jealousies exist to a considerable extent, there is 
 nothing akin to persecution, or even of the nature of religious 
 disabilities known in America. There are, of course, no 
 " Dissenters," or, rather, all are " Dissenters." Though no 
 particular denomination is fostered by the State, the Chris- 
 tian religion has been in most, if not all the States, recog- 
 nized by statute or judicial decisions as part of the common 
 law, and is enforced as such in regard to the observance of the 
 Sabbath, the protection of the sanctity of Christian worship, 
 and various other particulars. The absence of State inter- 
 ference in religious matters is by no means an indication 
 of lukewarmness on the part of the people. In no part of 
 the world is religion more universally embraced, or more 
 liberally supported ; and a survey of the religious statistics 
 of the last census shows a large proportion of the popula- 
 tion as church members ; while the buildings consecrated 
 to worship, although not so costly and magnificent as 
 those of the Old World, are fully as numerous in pro- 
 portion to population. Though unaided by forced taxa- 
 tion, churches have sprung up as if by magic, not only 
 in the cities, towns, and villages, but in the very wilder- 
 ness. Even in localities where a frame building would 
 exceed the scanty means of the people, the primitive log 
 "meeting-house " is frequently seen amid the lonely forest. 
 Favoured by the general freedom of conscience, the 
 representatives of all the forms of Christianity in the 
 Old World, with the exception of the Greek and Arme- 
 nian churches, have planted themselves in the United 
 States. The Methodists take the lead in point of 
 numbers throughout the greater portion of the country, 
 except in New England, where they rank second or 
 third. The Baptists come next to the Methodists, and are 
 subdivided into several sects ; the regular or restricted 
 communion Baptists being by far the most numerous. 
 
270 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Baptist colleges, thirty-five in number, are largely 
 endowed, Brown University being the oldest, and Rochester 
 and Chicago the largest. This denomination predominates 
 in Rhode Island, Virginia, Kentucky, and most of the 
 Southern States. Presbyterians come next in point of 
 numbers, the largest being the Old School Presbyterian 
 Church, which has its largest membership in the Middle, 
 Southern, and South-western States. The New School 
 Presbyterians are found chiefly in the Middle and Western 
 States, and the Cumberland Presbyterians in the South- 
 western States. The Protestant Reformed Dutch Church 
 flourishes principally in New York and New Jersey ; the 
 German Reformed Church in Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 North Carolina, and Ohio ; and the Lutherans, consist- 
 ing mostly of German, Swedish, and Danish emigrants, 
 in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, North Carolina, South 
 Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, 
 and Wisconsin. 
 
 The Protestant Episcopalian (Church of England), 
 though having a smaller number of communicants than most 
 of those previously named, is a prominent and influential 
 body. In New York, Philadelphia, and perhaps some other 
 large cities, the congregations are more wealthy than those 
 of any other denomination. Before the revolution it was 
 the established church of New York and Virginia, and is 
 still one of the leading denominations in those States, as 
 well as in Maryland, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. The 
 Congregationalists are divided into two classes, the Ortho- 
 dox, or Trinitarian, and the Unitarian Congregationalists. 
 The former are most numerous in the New England States, 
 and have a considerable number of churches in New York 
 and in the Western States. The Unitarian Congregationalists 
 are more numerous in Massachusetts than elsewhere, buthave 
 some congregations in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
 
KELIGION. 271 
 
 Connecticut, New York, District of Columbia, Maryland, 
 South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, Missouri, and Cali- 
 fornia. The " Disciples of Christ," also called " Campbel- 
 lites," from Alexander Campbell, the originator of the 
 denomination, are found chiefly in Kentucky, Ohio, Vir- 
 ginia, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa. 
 On the subject and action of Baptism they agree with the 
 Baptists, but differ from them as to its design. They have 
 a General Missionary Society, a Bible Society, several 
 colleges, of which Bethany College, in West Virginia, is 
 the oldest and best endowed. The denomination called 
 the Christian Connection is found mostly in the New 
 England States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. 
 
 The Universalists — who believe in universal salvation — 
 are mostly in New England States, New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and 
 Wisconsin. The Friends, or Quakers, are divided into two 
 classes — the Orthodox, or Trinitarian, and the Hicksite," or 
 Unitarian Friends. The former is much the larger and 
 more influential. The New Jerusalem Church, or Sweden- 
 borgians, are chiefly found in Massachussetts, and in 
 several of the large cities. The Shakers have communi- 
 ties in five or six States. The Mormons form an isolated 
 sect in Utah. Jewish churches exist in most of the larger 
 towns of the Union, and are principally composed of Polish 
 and German emigrants. The most important are those of 
 New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, San Fran- 
 cisco, New Orleans, and Charleston. Sunday schools are 
 very numerous, being supported by most of the religious 
 denominations, and encouraged by grants of books and 
 funds from the Treasury of the American Sunday School 
 Union. 
 
 The Baptists and Disciples, with aid from other bodies, 
 have formed in New York city the American Bible Union, 
 
272 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 for the purpose of translating the Bible from the original 
 Greek and Hebrew. The New Testament has been com- 
 pleted, and is now published. 
 
 The salaries of the ministers of all denominations are 
 generally sufficient for their support, and even in the 
 smallest villages equal those of a large proportion of the 
 curates in England. The average salary of Congregational 
 and Presbyterian ministers is said to be .$700 (£140), of 
 the Reformed Dutch and Episcopal clergy, about $600 ; of 
 Baptist ministers, $500 ; and of Methodist ministers, 3400. 
 
 Religious Denominations in the United States in 1862. 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 to 
 o> 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 DO 
 U 
 
 ■3 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 African Methodist Episcopal Church 
 
 „ „ ,, Zion Church 
 
 Baptists : 
 
 Regular 
 
 12,648 
 
 1,800 
 
 66 
 
 18 
 
 1,285 
 
 80 
 
 275 
 
 150 
 
 312 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,856 
 
 339 
 
 2,045 
 
 i',122 
 170 
 
 9,053 
 
 850 
 
 81 
 
 16 
 
 1,219 
 
 65 
 
 132 
 
 150 
 
 260 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,592 
 
 263 
 
 2,045 
 
 421 
 
 20,000 
 6,200 
 
 1,037,576 
 60,000 
 
 Anti-Mission 
 
 Seventh-Day 
 
 6,686 
 
 3,000 
 
 58,055 
 
 Six Principle 
 
 Free-Will 
 
 River Brethren 
 
 7,000 
 
 Winebrennarians 
 
 14,000 
 
 Dunkers 
 
 8,200 
 
 Mennonites 
 
 37,360 
 
 Disciples (Campbellites) , 
 
 350,000 
 
 Christian Connection 
 
 180,000 
 
 Congregationalists : 
 
 Orthodox 
 
 259,110 
 
 Unitarian 
 
 30,000 
 
 Episcopalians 
 
 150,593 
 54,000 
 
 Friends : 
 
 Orthodox 
 
 Hicksite 
 
 40,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 100,691 
 
 German Evangelical Union of the West 
 
 German Reformed 
 
 Jews 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 
EELIGION. 
 
 Religious Denominations — Continued. 
 
 273 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 Methodists : 
 
 Episcopal 
 
 Church South 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Evangelical Association , 
 
 Wesleyan 
 
 Other small Methodist bodies , , 
 
 Mormons „ 
 
 Presbyterians : 
 
 Old School 
 
 New School 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Reformed Presbyterian Ch., General Synod 
 . » » Synod 
 
 United Presbyterian Church 
 
 United Synod of Presbyterian Church ... 
 
 Associate Synod of North America 
 
 Associated Reformed Synod of New York 
 „ „ „ the South 
 
 Eree Presbyterian Synod of the U. States... 
 
 Reformed Protestant Dutch Church 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 Second- Adventists 
 
 Shakers 
 
 Swedenborgians (New Jerusalem Church) 
 
 United Brethren (Moravians) 
 
 United Brethren in Christ 
 
 Universalists 
 
 2,487 
 
 9,922 
 1,122 
 
 3,684 
 
 1,466 
 
 1,270 
 
 91 
 
 78 
 
 474 
 
 193 
 
 49 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 419 
 
 2,517 
 
 57 
 
 32 
 
 1,118 
 
 1,202 
 
 1,365 
 
 6,934 
 2,591 
 
 2,767 
 
 1,706 
 
 1,150 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 444 
 
 116 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 429 
 
 2,317 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 1,477 
 
 693 
 
 260,135 
 
 988,523 
 499,694 
 90,000 
 46,000 
 21,000 
 5,000 
 61,000 
 
 300,874 
 
 135,454 
 
 123,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 6,650 
 
 57,567 
 
 12,934 
 
 1,130 
 
 1,631 
 
 1,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 51,528 
 
 600,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 4,700 
 
 5,000 
 
 8,275 
 
 102,583 
 
 18 
 
274 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 No country in the world offers such educational facilities 
 as the United States. From the earliest period education 
 has been a subject of solicitude with both the people and 
 Government, and in the words of Anthony Trollope, " un- 
 rivalled population, wealth, and intelligence, have been the 
 results; with unrivalled comfort and happiness." That it 
 is diffused very generally among all classes, is shown by 
 the fact that the number of native inhabitants who can- 
 not at least read and write, is very small. The enlight- 
 ened men who led the early settlements of the New 
 England States inculcated from the first, as a fundamental 
 principle of public policy, that the education of the commu- 
 nity should be carried on at the public expense, and the 
 policy thus introduced has been successively adopted by the 
 other States, until at last its soundness and importance is 
 acknowledged by all. From this principle has grown up 
 whatever is peculiar in the American system of education. 
 It is essentially national in its characteristics, receiving 
 State support and State supervision. Public schools are 
 established by State authority ;" and in ail the new States 
 one or two sections of Government land in each township 
 are reserved for school purposes, and the States have also 
 grants of swamp and other lands for school funds, and for 
 the establishment of State universities, Though the State 
 Governments take the initiative, they only go so far as to 
 ordain that schools of a certain character shall exist 
 among the population ; all other questions, as to buildings, 
 method, etc., are determined by the people. The Govern- 
 ment provides the funds, but makes the people its agent 
 in their distribution. The object of the Legislature is 
 well summed up in the following extract, taken from an 
 
EDUCATION. 275 
 
 educational address delivered by Daniel Webster : — " We 
 hope to excite a feeling of respectability and a sense of 
 character by enlarging the capacities and increasing the 
 sphere of intellectual enjoyment. We hope for a security 
 beyond the law and above the law, in the prevalence of 
 enlightened and well principled moral sentiment. We 
 hope to continue and to prolong the time when in the 
 villages and farmhouses there may be undisturbed sleep 
 within unbarred doors. We do not indeed expect all men 
 to be philosophers or statesmen ; but we confidently trust, 
 and our expectation of the duration of our system of 
 government rests upon the trust, that by the diffusion of 
 general knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the 
 political fabric may be secure, as well against open 
 violence and overthrow, as against the slow but sure 
 undermining of licentiousness. It is every poor man's 
 undoubted birthright ; it is the great blessing which this 
 constitution has secured to him ; it is his solace in life ; 
 and it may well be his consolation in death, that his 
 country stands pledged by the faith which it has plighted 
 to all its citizens, to protect his children from ignorance, 
 barbarianism, and vice." 
 
 There is no university in the United States, in the 
 European sense of an institution in advance of the college 
 receiving only those who have completed their course in 
 the latter ; nor in the English sense, of a senate, elected, 
 governed, and controlled by other corporations, with its 
 fellowships, its sinecure professorships, and its ancient and 
 peculiar traditions ; nor yet after the model of the Univer- 
 sity of London, where any one may obtain the degrees it 
 confers, without residence, by successfully passing its 
 examinations. There are, however, a number of State 
 universities which fcrm, as it were, the apex to a system 
 of which common schools form the base, and grammar 
 
276 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 schools, high schools and colleges the successive stages. 
 In New York is a special organization called the University 
 of New York, consisting of a board of regents elected by 
 the Legislature on the nomination of the governor. This 
 board has the entire control of all the educational estab- 
 lishments in the State. 
 
 The number of colleges in the United States is 229, 
 distributed as follows, and having in their libraries a total 
 of nearly one million and a quarter of volumes : — 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 1 
 3 
 
 20 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 11 
 4 
 4 
 7 
 4 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana , 
 
 Texas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri .. 
 
 4 
 
 ..... 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia.. 
 Virginia. . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 4 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 New Mexico . . 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Georgia 
 
 California 
 
 4 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Oregon 
 
 3 
 
 These colleges differ greatly in the extent and com- 
 pleteness of their course of instruction, some being little 
 more than academies giving an elementary course in 
 mathematics and classics, while others equal the best 
 classical schools of Europe in their requirements, and a 
 few in the older States, such as Harvard and Yale, ap- 
 proach the dignity of first- class universities in the extent 
 
EDUCATION. 277 
 
 and completeness of their curriculum, as well as the worth 
 of the degrees they confer ; some having connected with 
 them departments for the scientific or professional study 
 of law, medicine, theology, etc. 
 
 The following is a brief account of the principal uni- 
 versities : — 
 
 Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the 
 oldest in the United States, was founded in 1G38 by the 
 Rev. John Harvard. It embraces, besides its collegiate 
 department, schools for law, medicine, and theology. The 
 buildings are fifteen in number, and are all located in 
 Cambridge. The principal is the Rev. Thomas Hill. Its 
 number of students averages about 800, and it has a 
 splendid library of about 150,000 volumes. Yale College, 
 the second oldest in America, is at New Haven, Con- 
 necticut, and was established in the year 1700. It 
 is famous as having sent out more graduates than any 
 other educational institution in America. The buildings 
 of the college are among the chief attractions of the city, 
 and the apartments devoted to the Fine Arts are especially 
 worthy of notice, being occupied by the large collection of 
 the works of the eminent painter Trumbull. The prin- 
 cipal is the Rev. Theo. D. Woolsey, D.D., LL.D. The 
 number of students is about 600. Number of volumes in 
 library, 75,000. Brown University, at Providence, Rhode 
 Island, is one of the best establishments in America. It 
 was founded in 1764, and is remarkable for its large and 
 valuable library, which is rich in rare and costly works. 
 The total number of volumes is 37,000. Columbia College, 
 New York, established in 1754, was chartered by 
 George II., under the title of King's College. At the 
 Revolution the title was changed. Charles King, LL.D., 
 is the principal; the number of students is about 200; 
 the library contains about 18,000 volumes. The University 
 
278 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 of Virginia, near Charlottesville, was founded by Thomas 
 Jefferson in 1819, who considered that it was the third 
 best action he had performed during his whole life, 
 honourable and useful as it was. It is distinguished for the 
 high quality of its learning, and has about 400 students. 
 The number of volumes in the library is about 30,000. 
 
 Most of the colleges in the United States were founded 
 and are maintained by particular religious denominations. 
 There are nearly sixty theological schools and seminaries, 
 of which twenty are connected with colleges ; fifty medical 
 schools, of which about one-half are departments of uni- 
 versities ; ten or twelve scientific schools, of which only 
 three, as yet, are connected with universities : — the Lau- 
 rance Scientific School, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, with 
 Harvard University; the Sheffield, at New Haven, Con- 
 necticut, with Tale College ; and the Chandler School, at 
 Hanover, New Hampshire, with Dartmouth College. One 
 has also been projected in connection with Union College, 
 Schenectady, New York. In several of the Northern 
 States the tendency is to the organization of graded 
 schools, the public schools of a town or village being 
 arranged so as to have one or more high schools, three or 
 four grammar schools, and a still larger number of inter- 
 mediate and primary schools, all supported by taxes on 
 property and the allowance from the school fund. The 
 pupil, entering the primary school at five or six years of 
 age, may pass by successive examinations to the highest 
 department ; and, there being no charge for tuition, the 
 child of the poorest citizen can thus acquire an education 
 hardly inferior in extent and thoroughness to that of the 
 colleges. In some of the States this system is carried 
 still further by the organization of free State universities. 
 Massachusetts has reserved a considerable number of 
 scholarships in the higher institutions, which are at the 
 
EDUCATION. 279 
 
 disposal of the Board of Education ; and if a pupil desires 
 to become a teacher, the four Normal Schools of the State 
 afford the opportunity of becoming qualified without 
 charge for instruction. The New England States are in 
 advance of the rest of the Union in facilities for the diffu- 
 sion of knowledge. Everywhere, with the exception of 
 Connecticut, the primary schools are supported by a 
 property-tax, and some of the schools have other funds in 
 addition. The common or public free schools are managed 
 in each district by twelve directors chosen by the people ; 
 and the children are taught gratuitously, the only expense 
 being for books. These schools are established in every 
 rural district of five or six square miles. In Connecticut 
 there is \ school fund of which, the annual revenue is 
 about $40,000. In the New England States, though the 
 laws differ, yet the leading principles are the same in all. 
 "Indeed," says Professor Ticknor, of Boston, "in almost 
 every part of these States, whatever may be the injunc- 
 tions of the law, the popular demand for education is so 
 much greater, that the legal requisitions are generally 
 exceeded. The mode in which the system is carried into 
 effect is perfectly simple, and is one principal cause of its 
 practical efficienc}?-. The New England States are divided 
 into townships, with corporate privileges and duties, the 
 affairs of which are managed by a committee chosen 
 annually, called selectmen. In all but the smallest towns 
 one school at least is kept open through the whole year, 
 in which Latin, Greek, the lower branches of mathematics, 
 and whatever goes to constitute a common English educa- 
 tion in reading, writing, geography, etc., are taught. Each 
 district has its school-committee, who determine the place 
 where it shall be kept, employ the teacher, and are 
 responsible for the faithful fulfilment of the trust 
 committed to them. There are not less than from 
 
280 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 ten to twelve thousand free schools in New England 
 alone." 
 
 The above outline of the New England system is the 
 basis of that of the Union generally. The Western States 
 will, if their lands are properly managed, be largely en- 
 dowed, as the sixteenth section of every township is 
 granted for school purposes. The Southern States have 
 not made a very marked advance towards any well-organ- 
 ized school system ; their population is a scattered one, 
 and consequently there is a difficulty in the way of forming 
 and maintaining common schools. A system of free public 
 schools, similar to that established in New England, does 
 however exist in several, and in facilities for education of a 
 higher class, they will compare favourably with many of 
 the Northern States. The late civil war greatly retarded 
 the progress of education in the South, but there is little 
 •doubt that it will ere long recover its lost position. 
 The amount annually expended in the United States for 
 the support of common schools is over $20,000,000 
 (£4,000,000), and the number of children attending in 
 1860 was nearly ten millions. In the State of New York, 
 which stands at the head of the educational statistics, the 
 number of school districts in 1861 was 11,683 ; and the 
 entire expenditure of the year amounted to the large sum 
 of $3,842,250 (£768,450) ; and the tax on property (for 
 the purpose of education), of three-fourths of a mill on each 
 dollar of taxable property, yielded over $1,085,000 
 (£217,000). 
 
 The importance of Normal Schools for the especial 
 training of teachers is fully recognized in America. The 
 first was established at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839, 
 by the Hon. Horace Mann, whose name stands foremost 
 among the promoters of education in America. There are 
 now twenty State Normal Schools supported out of the 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 281 
 
 public funds, and free to those designing to become teachers 
 within the State in which they receive instruction. They 
 are located as follows :— In Massachusetts four, in Penn- 
 sylvania three, and one in each of the following States — 
 viz., Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New 
 Jersey, Maryland, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, 
 Minnesota, Kansas, and California. The principal cities 
 also provide, in connection with the public schools, for the 
 professional training of those intending to devote them- 
 selves to education. During the past few years the school 
 system has taken a forward step in the introduction of 
 improved and more philosophical methods of teaching in 
 all departments. At Oswego, in the State of New York, a 
 school has been established for the introduction of the 
 Pestalozzian system of " object teaching." It has proved 
 highly successful, and is visited by teachers from all parts 
 of the Union. Besides the public and general means of 
 instruction, the private schools are numerous, and infant 
 and Sunday schools exist in great numbers. Among the 
 largest of the public libraries are those belonging to the 
 Harvard University, at Hartford, in the State of Con- 
 necticut, the Athenceum at Boston, the Franklin Library 
 at Philadelphia, and the Astor Library of New York. 
 Besides these, are the libraries attached to the various 
 mechanics' and other kindred institutions throughout 
 the country. Among the public collections of objects 
 of art and science, which may be regarded as important 
 adjuncts of education, are the Botanical Gardens at Cam- 
 bridge, New York, and Philadelphia; and the Mineral Collec- 
 tions of Cambridge, New Haven, and Brunswick. Museums, 
 libraries, etc., are to be found in every city and important 
 town throughout the country. 
 
 Owing to the general diffusion of education, a taste for 
 reading is everywhere prevalent. This is strikingly shown 
 
282 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 in the fondness for periodical literature. Newspapers 
 are seen everywhere in the hands of the labouring 
 as well as the wealthy classes, their moderate price placing 
 them within the reach of all : and in no country has the 
 influence of the press been more sensibly witnessed, and 
 nowhere is so large a share of popular attention given to 
 the discussion of questions of a social and political charac- 
 ter. There is no paper w T hich wields the influence pos- 
 sessed by the " Times," or other leading London papers in 
 England. The New York papers, " Tribune," " Times," 
 and " Herald," have a wide circulation outside of their 
 district, but they are not to be considered as exponents of 
 the feeling of all parts of the Union ; and to learn the 
 politics of the Eastern, Western, or Southern States, the 
 last place to look for them would be in a Xew York paper. 
 Mr. Dicey, in his valuable and impartial work entitled 
 "Six Months in the Federal States," says: "As a man 
 changes his district, so he changes his paper ; and in every 
 district there are one or more leading papers, which in 
 their own district are what the ' Herald ' is in New 
 York." A remarkable characteristic of the American press 
 is the quantity of matter crowded into the sheets. On 
 the whole, it resembles the English newspapers in the 
 unwieldy size of the sheets, in the immense quantity of 
 news given, in the great space occupied by advertisements, 
 and in the fact that the leading articles are practical 
 comments, not abstract essays. Here, however, the 
 resemblance between the American and the London press 
 ceases. An American paper is a sort of cross between a 
 county newspaper and a penny journal. 
 
 The returns of the last census show that the people are 
 essentially a newspaper-reading people, and also that a 
 large portion of their reading is of a political nature. Of 
 4051 papers and periodicals published in I860, 3242 were 
 
EDUCATION. 283 
 
 of a political character, 298 were devoted to literature, 277 
 to religion and theology, and 234 were classed as miscel- 
 laneous. During the ten years ending 1860, the political 
 papers increased 100 per cent. The total circulation of all 
 papers in 1850 was 426,409,978 copies ; in 1860 this had 
 increased to 927,951,548 copies, an increase of 117 per 
 cent. 
 
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CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES. 
 
 A few of the leading characteristics of all the principal 
 towns and cities have already been given under the head 
 of the individual States. In this chapter is given a more 
 detailed description of those which occupy positions of 
 political or commercial importance. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 New York, the commercial capital of the United States, 
 the first city in population and wealth on the American 
 continent, and the third in the world, was settled by the 
 Dutch as early as 1612. It has, however, attained the 
 greater part of its present size within the last fifty years. 
 It now covers nearly the whole island of Manhattan. 
 From its admirable position and magnificent harbour, it 
 possesses unsurpassed facilities for trade and commerce. 
 The harbour, twenty-five miles in circuit, is one of the 
 safest and most spacious in the world, opening through the 
 famous " narrows " into an outer harbour or bay, stretch- 
 ing to Sandy Hook, eighteen miles from the city. It 
 
286 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 could accommodate all the navies in the world, and the 
 shipping to be seen lying at its docks surpasses even that 
 of London. 
 
 The streets, which were formerly very irregular, have 
 "been widened and improved, and no city can exhibit 
 a more beautiful plan than the northern portion of New 
 York. Broadway, running north and south, extends from 
 the Battery to King's Bridge, fourteen miles. The first 
 three miles of its course is perfectly straight, and offers a 
 fine perspective. It is eighty feet wide, occupies the height 
 between the two rivers, and with its magnificent stores, 
 hotels, etc., with fronts principally of white marble, forms 
 one of the most splendid promenades that any city can 
 boast. 
 
 The Rev. J. P. Chown, of Bradford, thus vividly 
 describes ^Broadway and the Fifth Avenue : " It may be 
 the clear, transparent, smokeless atmosphere ; it may be 
 the architecture of the thoroughfares and the enormous 
 size of the buildings ; it may be the number of banners and 
 bright colours that are always, more or less, waving in the 
 breeze ; it may be that the public vehicles are more brightly 
 and variedly painted than ours ; it may be the somewhat 
 gaily-dressed pedestrians that throng the streets ; but, be 
 it what it may, the more I looked upon it the more I felt, 
 calling to mind some of the noblest thoroughfares in the 
 cities of Europe, that this Broadway was the most pictur- 
 esque and striking public thoroughfare I had ever looked 
 upon. The Fifth Avenue is equally wonderful, but entirely 
 distinct and separate from it. Broadway is a business 
 thoroughfare, while the Fifth Avenue is full of private 
 residences, and you would find it difficult to conceive of 
 any city in which you would see as great a length of ele- 
 gant, beautiful, noble dwellings as there. Take one build- 
 ing of marble, as white as snow — the builder's estimates 
 
NEW YORK. 287 
 
 for that are a million and a half of dollars, and the entire 
 expenses will be two millions more, or £400,000. The 
 thoroughfare stretches for two miles, making a beautiful 
 line of gardens and groves." 
 
 Wall Street, occupied by banks, insurance offices, 
 brokers' offices, the Custom House, United States Treasury 
 building, and many fine granite buildings, is the centre of 
 the monetary world of America. 
 
 One of the principal objects of curiosity in New York 
 is the Croton aqueduct and waterworks, which are on the 
 scale of the stupendous works of the ancient Romans. 
 This aqueduct, which supplies the city with water, com- 
 mences at the Croton River, 40 miles above the city, where 
 the dam creates a pond of five miles long, covering a surface 
 of 400 acres, and containing 500,000,000 gallons of water. 
 From this point the aqueduct proceeds through tunnels in 
 solid rocks, over valleys by embankments, to the Harlem 
 River, which it crosses on a magnificent bridge of stone, 
 1450 feet long, with 15 piers, eight of them bearing arches of 
 80 feet span, and seven others of 50 feet span, 114 feet above 
 tide-water at the top. The aqueduct is built principally 
 of stone. It has a descent of 13 J inches per mile, and 
 will discharge 70,000,000 of gallons every 24 hours. 
 The receiving reservoir at Eighty-sixth Street, 38 miles 
 from the Croton dam, covers 35 acres, and holds 150,000,000 
 gallons. The distributing reservoir, on Murray's Hill, in 
 Fortieth Street, covers four acres, and is constructed of stone 
 and cement, 45 feet high above the street, and holds 
 20,000,000 gallons. Thence the water is distributed over 
 the city in iron pipes, laid so deep under ground as to 
 be secure from frost. The water is the purest of river 
 water. The new reservoir in Central Park has an area of 
 106 acres, and contains 1,000,000,000 gallons. The total 
 cost of this great work is about $25,000,000 (£5,000,000). 
 
288 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Battery is situated at the south-eastern end of the 
 island, at the junction of the Hudson and East rivers. It 
 is crescent-shaped, and contains about 11 acres of ground, 
 tastefully laid out. From it is obtained a fine view of the 
 bay, with its islands and the adjacent shores. The Bowling 
 Green, at the southern termination of Broadway, is an 
 elliptical area, 220 feet long, and 145 broad, containing a 
 fountain supplied by the Croton waterworks, and inclosed 
 by an iron railing. The Park, called in early times the 
 Commons, is a triangular area of lOf acres, and contains 
 the City Hall, the city buildings, the Hall of Records, and 
 Rotunda. It has also a public fountain, with a basin 100 
 feet in diameter. St. John's Park, in Hudson Street, con- 
 taining about four acres of ground, is beautifully laid out 
 with walks, shaded with trees, and embellished with a 
 fountain. Washington Square, a mile and a half north of 
 the City Hall, contains about 10 acres tastefully laid out 
 with shrubs and flowers. The Central Park was com- 
 menced in 1857, and contains 843 acres. It is about 2\ 
 miles long, and about half a mile wide ; within its area 
 are 9 miles of well made carriage drives, h\ miles of bridle 
 road, and 22-g- miles of walk. More than 56 miles of pipe and 
 tile drainage have been laid, and a system of waterworks 
 designed to supply water for drinking and irrigation has 
 been completed, the pipes of which are more than 15 miles 
 in extent. The central architectural structure of the Park is 
 the terrace, towards which all the walks of the southerly 
 part of the Park converge. The Mall is a broad walk of 
 about a quarter of a mile in length, planted with rows of 
 majestic elms. There are four transverse roads crossing 
 the Park at about half a mile apart, so constructed below 
 the surface of the Park as to facilitate the passage of 
 business traffic from one side of the city to the other 
 without interrupting the pleasure travel. The archways 
 
NEW YORK. 280 
 
 are among the novel and useful features of the Park. By 
 means of these the intersecting lines of travel are carried 
 on different levels, thus avoiding danger to foot passengers. 
 It is the intention of the Commissioners of the Park to 
 establish an arboretum, within which may be found every 
 species of tree and shrub adapted to the soil and climate. 
 The planting of the Park has been very extensive, consist- 
 ing of over 200,000 trees and shrubs. A zoological garden 
 is also to be established, and a floral conservatory. There 
 are several beautiful artificial lakes frequented by pleasure- 
 boats. When frozen in the winter, these lakes afford 
 amusement to thousands of skaters. 
 
 Among the principal and most notable of the public 
 buildings are the City Hall, which contains the chair used 
 by Washington as President of the first American Congress ; 
 the Custom House, built of granite, at a cost of $1,800,000 ; 
 and the United States Treasury, built of white marble, 200 
 feet long, 90 feet wide, and 80 feet high. Among the literary 
 institutions are Columbia College, New York University, the 
 Free Academy, and the Cooper Institute. The Free Academy 
 is a public collegiate institute, the pupils of which are 
 selected from those who have shown unusual talent and 
 industry in the public schools. The Cooper Institute was 
 founded by the munificent public spirit of Peter Cooper, 
 Esq., an eminent merchant, and is designed for the free 
 education of the people. It gives instruction to 2000 
 students. Among the libraries are the Mercantile, the 
 Mechanics' Institute, and the Astor Library, founded by 
 John Jacob Astor, for the free use of the public. It is one 
 of the most elegant, conveniently arranged, and efficiently 
 conducted public libraries in the world. It contains at 
 present about 130,000 volumes — the largest collection in 
 America. 
 
 Statcri Island, six miles below the city, is a favourite 
 
 19 
 
290 DESCKIPTIYB HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 suburban Lome of New York; it is 14 miles long*, and 
 from 4 to 8 wide. Elegant residences cluster on the 
 heights of Richmond Hill, which commands grand and 
 delightful views of the vicinity. 
 
 A great characteristic of New York is din and excite- 
 ment ; everything is done in a hurry, all is anxiety and 
 bustle. This is especially noticeable in the principal 
 thoroughfares, caused by the incessant passing and re- 
 passing of thousands of vehicles, and multitudes of people. 
 
 BROOKLYN. 
 
 Brooklyn, separated from New York by East River, is' 
 in point of population the third city of the Union. It is 
 laid out with great order and regularity, the streets crossing 
 each other at right angles ; some of them are of great 
 width, and adorned with trees, which in summer afford a 
 most agreeable shade, and give to the city all the fresh- 
 ness of a country town. " Brooklyn Heights " afford 
 a beautiful view of the surrounding scenery, and of the 
 shipping in New York harbour. The houses are re- 
 markably well built, arc generally of elegant design, 
 and in the south-western part they are surrounded by 
 gardens and shrubbery. The public buildings are generally 
 elegant and substantial structures. The City Hall is a fine 
 building built of white marble, 162 feet long, by 102 feet 
 wide, and 75 feet high, and surmounted by a dome 153 
 feet from the ground. The Atlieneeum, Lyceum, Academy 
 of Music, Orphan Asylum, Church of the Trinity, Church 
 of the Pilgrims — all are handsome buildings. Brooklyn 
 being so near New York, and the facilities of communica- 
 
BROOKLYN. 291 
 
 tion between the two cities being so great, it lias become a 
 favourite place of residence for persons doing business in 
 New York. The harbour is spacious ; the Atlantic Dock 
 is one of the most extensive works of its kind in the United 
 States, embracing over 40 acres, and costing about 
 $1,000,000 (£200,000). The United States Navy Yard 
 occupies about 40 acres of ground, and has extensive work- 
 shops and ship-houses. The Naval Lyceum, formed in 
 1833, by officers connected with the port, has a fine 
 collection of mineral and geological specimens, with other 
 curiosities. 
 
 Greenwood Cemetery is a beautiful tract ' of ground, 
 330 acres in extent, containing every variety of landscape — 
 
 <( Forest deep and gloomy, 
 Woodland, vale, and hill." 
 
 It is laid out with great taste; winding avenues and 
 paths, 15 miles in extent, lead the visitor amid thick 
 foliage, by the side of secluded lakes, or to the top of some 
 eminence from whence views are obtained of the Atlantic, 
 and the adjacent cities. There are many costly and ele- 
 gant monuments. One of them, a most beautiful marble 
 structure, is to the memory of Miss Charlotte Cauda, who 
 was accidentally killed while returning from an evening 
 party. Her father erected this monument at a cost of 
 ^30,000 (£G000). The Fireman's monument, erected to the 
 memory of firemen who fall while in the execution of their 
 duty, is one of the finest in the ground. The Pilot's monu- 
 ment stands on an elevation overlooking the bay and 
 harbour, from whence it can be seen. 
 
292 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 From its historical associations and commercial im- 
 portance, Boston is one of the most interesting cities in the 
 Union. Its foundation dates from the earliest days of the 
 discovery and colonization of the "Western continent. It 
 is celebrated for the high social culture, morality, and 
 enterprise of its inhabitants, as well as for the great 
 educational facilities it offers. It is called the Athens of 
 America. The city is situated amidst beautiful natural 
 scenery, and possesses many handsome buildings. It is 
 divided into three sections : Boston proper, East, and 
 South Boston. The Puritans gave it the name of Fremont, 
 the name of Boston was afterwards bestowed by the Rev. 
 John Cotton, who emigrated from Boston, England. 
 The old city proper, which is thoroughly English in 
 aspect, is situated on a peninsula of some 700 acres, and 
 is connected by a narrow isthmus, with the main land on 
 the south, where the suburb of Roxbury now stands. 
 Many bridges of peculiar construction and unusual length 
 connect Cambridge, Charleston, Chelsea, and South 
 Boston with the peninsula. The longest is the old Calem- 
 bridge bridge, 2758 feet, with a causeway of 3432 feet. 
 Near the centre of South Boston are Dorchester Heights, 
 a memorable battle ground of the Revolution. In East 
 Boston is the wharf of the Cunard steamers, 1000 feet long. 
 
 The streets are quite European in their appearance, 
 beiug almost as intricate and irregular as those of London. 
 Boston Common is a spacious and delightful public park, 
 overlooking the State Capitol. It embraces fifty acres, 
 ornamented with trees and a fountain. Among the public 
 edifices the famous Faneuil Hall is the most interesting 
 from the historical associations clustering around it. It 
 
BOSTON. 293 
 
 was here that the " Sons of Liberty," the fathers of the 
 Revolution, held their meetings, and addressed the people. 
 It was presented to the city by a generous merchant 
 whose name it bears. The Exchange is one of the finest 
 and most substantial edifices in America, covering 13,000 
 feet of ground. The State House, on Beacon Hill fronting 
 the Common, is a well-built edifice, and contains Chantrey's 
 statue of Washington. The City Hall is chiefly interest- 
 ing for its colossal bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, 
 by R. B. Greenough ; the Boston Athenceum is a hand- 
 some edifice, and is possessed of a library of more than 
 50,000 volumes, and a fine gallery of paintings. 
 
 Among the other institutions may be named Harvard 
 University at Cambridge ; the Massachusetts Historical 
 Society, possessing a library of 12,000 volumes ; the 
 Sewell Institute for the delivery of free lectures upon 
 scientific and art topics ; the Lyceum, and the Society of 
 Natural History. Among the chief objects of curiosity is 
 Bunker's Hill monument, an obelisk of whitish granite, 
 221 feet in height, with a square base of 30 feet, from 
 which it tapers to a point. It was erected in commemora- 
 tion of the battle of Bunker's Hill, fought on the spot, and 
 was inaugurated in 1843. In the suburban city of Cam- 
 bridge is the Cragie House, which became the head 
 quarters and abode of General Washington when, on the 
 2nd of January, 1 775, he took command of the American 
 armies. It is now the residence of the poet Longfellow. 
 Mount Auburn Cemetery, about four miles from the city is 
 one of the most beautiful of burying-places, situated amid 
 charming rural scenery, and adorned with all that taste 
 and art can suggest. 
 
29-1 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Philadelphia, founded and named by "William Penn 
 in 1682, is the second city in extent and population in 
 the Union. There is an air of neatness and peculiar 
 cleanliness about this city. It is laid out with great 
 regularity, the streets, with but few exceptions, crossing 
 each other at right angles. There are several public 
 parks, planted with trees, embellished with fountains, and 
 tastefully planned with gravelled walks. The city was 
 laid out in 1682 by Thomas Holmes, the first surveyor- 
 general of the province, and was the adopted city of 
 J/ranklin. 
 
 The public buildings, whicli are generally constructed 
 of white marble, are among the most elegant in the 
 United States. The Custom House, of white marble, built 
 on the model of the Parthenon, the Pennsylvania Bank, 
 the Mint of the United States, the Exchange, witli Corin- 
 thian columns, and comprising a spacious hall and news- 
 room, the United States Custom House, the G-irard Bank, 
 Masonic Hall, and several new banking houses, are the 
 public buildings most remarkable for beauty; but the 
 most interesting, from its venerable appearance and histo- 
 rical associations, is Independence Hall, in which the 
 Declaration of Independence was signed in July, 1776. 
 The panoramic view of the city from the steeple is strik- 
 ingly beautiful. 
 
 One of the most stately and magnificent buildings in 
 the United States is the Girard College, founded in 
 pursuance of tbe will of Stephen Girard, a merchant ol 
 the city, who amassed a large fortune and bequeathed it to 
 the city for the establishment and support of an institution 
 for orphans. The edifice, purely Grecian in style, and 
 
PHILADELPHIA. 205 
 
 built of white marble, is exceedingly elegant in its appear- 
 ance. It is in the form of a parallelogram, with a base- 
 ment of steps all round. At each end are eight Corinthian 
 columns, which with eleven on each side support a pediment 
 and roof. The latter is composed of slabs of marble, 
 resembling tiles, and the weight of these alone is about 
 one thousand tons. The American Philosophical Society, 
 the oldest and most celebrated scientific institution in 
 America, was founded in 1743, chiefly through the 
 exertions of Benjamin Franklin. It possesses a library 
 of 15,000 volumes, and a fine collection of minerals, 
 fossils, American antiquities, etc. The Philadelphia 
 Library, also founded by the influence of Franklin, contains 
 a library of 65,000 volumes. The Franklin Institute, the 
 Academy of Natural Sciences, and the Historical Society 
 are the most prominent among the numerous other literary 
 and scientific institutions. Philadelphia has several 
 medical colleges of high repute, among which are the 
 University of Pennsylvania, the Jefferson Medical College, 
 and ihe College of Physicians. 
 
 The celebrated Fair Mount Waterworks are situated 
 on the east bank of the Schuylkill. The water is pumped 
 into the reservoirs, which are elevated 100 feet above the 
 river, by water power furnished by the same river which 
 supplies the water. The reservoirs are capable of con- 
 taining 22,000,000 gallons. The mill-rase is 90 feet wide 
 and 400 feet long, and furnishes sufficient power to pump 
 1,250,000 gallons in 24 hours. The whole is surrounded 
 by charming grounds tastefully laid out. 
 
290 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 BALTIMORE. 
 
 Baltimore, Maryland, founded in 1729, and named in 
 honour of the founder, Lord Baltimore, is one of the four 
 great commercial cities of the East. It is beautifully situated 
 on a succession of hill slopes and terraces, which rise like 
 an amphitheatre from the shores of the Patapsco River, 
 about twelve miles from its entrance into Chesapeake 
 Bay. From the great number of fine monuments for which 
 this city is celebrated, it is called the " Monumental City." 
 The foremost of these is the Washington monument, a 
 chaste structure of brick cased with white marble. Its 
 total height is 212^ feet, inclusive of the colossal statue of 
 Washington, sixteen feet high, which surmounts it. There 
 are several public fountains, tastefully ornamented, fur- 
 nishing, in connection with the city waterworks, a copious 
 supply of pure water. There are upwards of 140 churches, 
 many of which are elegant and costly structures. The 
 Catholic cathedral is 190 feet long, 177 broad, and 127 
 feet high, and is said to have the largest organ in the 
 United States, with 6000 pipes and 36 stops. 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 Washington City, in the district of Columbia, is the 
 political capital of the United States. Its situation on the 
 banks of the Potomac River was chosen by Washington, 
 and the city was also planned by and named in honour of 
 him. Possessing no great commercial or manufacturing 
 establishments, it affords a striking contrast to the other 
 large and bustling cities of America ; but it is perhaps all 
 the better suited to its design — a place for quiet delibera- 
 
 
WASHINGTON. 297 
 
 lion. Pennsylvania Avenue, the principal street, is said 
 to be the widest in the world. It measures 1 GO feet in 
 width, and along the sides of the footpaths are rows of 
 trees, which afford an agreeable shade in the heats of 
 summer. 
 
 In 1793, "Washington laid the corner-stone of the old 
 Capitol, which, with the President's house and Library of 
 Congress, was burned in 1814 by the British. In 1818 it 
 was rebuilt, and in 1851 the corner-stone of the new 
 building was laid by President Fillimore. The edifice is 
 now almost twice the size originally intended. It has a 
 length of 751 feet, and covers an area of three and a-half 
 acres. The whole pile, built of marble in the Corinthian 
 style, with its imposing front, handsome portico, and lofty 
 dome, is an edifice which would do credit to any city in 
 Europe. The rotunda is ninety-five feet in diameter, and 
 is lighted from the cupola above, from whence a splendid 
 view of the city and country around is obtained. On the 
 walls are a series of large pictures, representing scenes in 
 American history, painted by native artists. The Senate 
 Chamber and the Hall of Representatives are in the wings 
 on either side of the central building. The grounds in 
 which the Capitol stands are about thirty acres in extent, 
 and are embellished by fountains and statuary ; amongst 
 the latter is a colossal statue of Washington, in Parian 
 marble, by Greenough, which stands on the broad lawn 
 before the President's house. 
 
 The President's mansion, or the White House, an 
 elegant but not imposing edifice of freestone, is a mile and 
 a half west of the Capitol. It is 170 feet long and 8G 
 feet deep, and only two stories high. The lawns around 
 it contain about twenty acres. The Treasury Department 
 is a stone structure 340 feet long and 170 feet wide, 
 its east front has forty-two Ionic columns. The Patent 
 
208 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Office is one of the largest of all the Government 
 edifices. It is built of stone, and when completed will 
 cover an entire square. Here is a collection embracing 
 models of every machine patented in the United States, 
 to which nothing similar is found in any other patent 
 office in the world. Also interesting relies of Washington 
 and Franklin, as well as an immense and most valuable 
 variety of objects of natural history. 
 
 The Smithsonian Institute is a noble endowment of a 
 large-minded Englishman, James Smithson, who be- 
 queathed the whole of a large estate inherited from his 
 father, the first Duke of Northumberland, " to the United 
 States of America, to found at Washington, under the 
 name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for 
 the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." 
 His mother was the heiress of the Hungerfords of Audley, 
 so that some of the best blood of England flowed in his 
 veins, but he said of himself, " This avails me nothing ; 
 the name of Smithson shall survive the memory of man 
 when the titles of the Northuniberlands and Percys are 
 extinct. The man of science is of no country ; the world 
 is his country, and all men his countrymen." The edifice 
 is built of red sandstone in the Roman style, is 250 feet 
 long, 140 wide, and has nine towers, from 70 to 150 feet 
 high. It contains a lecture-room large enough to accom- 
 modate 2000 persons, a fine laboratory, a museum full of 
 interesting objects, and library of rare and valuable scien- 
 tific books. One of its most interesting features is a 
 gallery 120 feet in length, containing a large collection of 
 paintings, consisting of illustrations of Indian life, and 
 portraits of celebrated Indian chiefs. 
 
 The Washington monument stands in New Park, and 
 will have, when completed, a circular base 250 feet in 
 diameter and 100 feet high, surmounted by a shaft 70 feet 
 
CINCINNATI. 200 
 
 in diameter and 500 feet high, making a total elevation of 
 600 feet; 100 feet greater than that of St. Peter's in 
 Rome. Other notable objects are the Navy Yard, City 
 Hall, and Columbia College. The Congressional Cemetery, 
 in which every member of Congress who dies while a 
 member has a monument erected to his memory, is ten 
 acres in extent, and is tastefully laid out with trees and 
 shrubbery. 
 
 CINCINNATI. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, is the largest city of the Mississippi 
 Valley. It is situated on the lower slope of an eminence 
 400 feet high on the Ohio River, about 1-50 miles from its 
 mouth, and occupies the shore for more than three miles. 
 It is a striking instance of the extraordinary and rapid 
 development of American cities. In 1800 it was a village 
 of about 700 inhabitants, now it is the fifth city of the 
 Union. The streets are mostly well lighted and well 
 paved, and are of good width. Main Street, the principal 
 thoroughfare, is five and a-half miles long. Fifth Street is 
 about four miles long, and with its markets presents a 
 scene of great bustling and activity. The city, with its 
 lines of well-built streets thronging with life, appears to 
 great advantage from the summit of the amphitheatre of 
 hills which encircle it. 
 
 Cincinnati is famous for its gigantic furniture-manu- 
 factories. " One of these," says Mr. William Chambers, 
 " employs 250 hands, and turns out, among other articles, 
 124,800 chairs per annum ; and another manufactory turns 
 out 1000 bedsteads per week, almost every part of the 
 work being done by machinery. The manufactories of 
 boots and shoes are conducted on a scale scarcely less 
 wonderful, one establishment alone consuming annually 
 
300 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 10,000 sides of sole leather, 40,000 sides of upper leather, 
 20,000 sheepskins, 2500 calfskins, 500 lbs. of boot-nails, 
 and 600 bushels of shoe-pegs." A peculiar characteristic 
 of Cincinnati is its extensive business connected with the 
 slaughter of swine and pork-packing. It is the principal 
 hog-market in the United States. 500,000 hogs and 
 7000 oxen are said to be killed and salted per annum. 
 
 Among the public buildings, the most noted is the 
 Cincinnati Observatory — a creditable building, erected 
 through the voluntary contributions of the citizens. It is 
 furnished with a telescope of great power, which cost 
 $10,000. St. Peter's, a Catholic church, is the finest 
 building of the kind in the west. The Merchants' Ex- 
 change and Mercantile Library Association jointly occupy 
 a beautiful and spacious building between Fourth and 
 Fifth Streets. The Masonic Temple is an elegant building 
 of freestone. The Court House is the largest building in 
 the city. There are 110 churches, many of which are 
 handsome structures. The Suspension Bridge across the 
 Ohio River is the largest structure of the kind in the 
 world, being more than 2000 feet longer than that over 
 the Niagara, and 540 feet longer than the Menai Bridge, 
 in Wales. 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 In the wonderful rapidity of its growth, Chicago, 
 Illinois, surpasses every city of the Union. From a mere 
 trading port in 1831, and a village of 5000 inhabitants 
 in 1840, it has risen to a position of great wealth, popula- 
 tion, and commercial importance. Its grain trade is 
 greater than that of any other city in the world. It is 
 situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, is well laid out 
 
CHICAGO. 301 
 
 with wide streets crossing each other at right angles, and 
 contains many magnificent buildings of brick and stone. 
 Among the most remarkable public edifices are, the Court 
 House, the Merchants' Exchange, the Marine Hospital, 
 and the Medical College. The city is built upon a plain, 
 and, until 1856, most of the streets were planked ; and 
 the buildings then erected were, owing to the soft and 
 watery nature of the soil, generally without cellars. In 
 that year was commenced a system of raising the business 
 portion of the city four feet above its former level, and ail 
 new buildings are erected to correspond. Many of the 
 buildings, however, still remain on the old level, though 
 the streets have been raised. The process of raising the 
 houses to the new level is one of great ingenuity and 
 interest. Buildings of brick are raised several feet by 
 the aid of screws, not only without injury, but without 
 the interruption of business. "When a hotel, or a block of 
 buildings, is to be lifted up, a thousand or two thousand 
 screws are placed beneath it, and little by little the house 
 rises. Nothing is changed within, business being transacted 
 as usual. One building, the estimated weight of which 
 was 35,000 tons, was raised four feet five inches so carefully 
 that not a crack in the masonry appeared. 
 
 The river, which is but a few feet below the level of 
 the streets, requires numerous drawbridges, which are 
 among the curiosities of the place, being constructed to 
 turn on a pivot in the centre. The immense grain-houses 
 are situated on the banks of the river. Those of the 
 Illinois Central Railway can receive and load grain at the 
 rate of 24,000 busbels per Lour. Chicago has an immense 
 cattle-trade. Its magnitude may be inferred from the 
 dimensions of a cattle-market opened in the autumn of 
 1865. This market, fitted up with pens, substantially 
 floored with wood, and lighted with gas, covers an extent 
 
302 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 of forty-seven acres. The whole space devoted to its uses, 
 including a large hotel, offices, etc., is 500 acres, making 
 it perhaps the largest and most complete market in the 
 world. Every railway that enters the city has a separate 
 cattle-station in the market, so that the animals are 
 brought or taken away without passing through the streets. 
 Chicago owes much of its prosperity to its advantageous 
 position at the head of the navigation on the great chain of 
 lakes. The commerce carried on with Buffalo by means of 
 thousands of vessels is very extensive. 
 
 ST. LOUIS. 
 
 St. Louis, Missouri, is situated on the Mississippi 
 River, stretching for about five miles along its banks. 
 The city is well laid out, many of the streets being from 
 60 to 100 feet wide. The principal public buildings are 
 the Court House, a large and magnificent structure ol 
 limestone, with four fronts and handsome cupola; the 
 Custom House, constructed of Missouri marble ; the Mer- 
 cantile Library, containing over 14,000 volumes ; the St. 
 Louis University; and the United States Arsenal. St. 
 Louis is literally the centre of steamboat navigation on 
 the Mississippi. The river, from St. Louis to its mouth, 
 is termed the " Lower Mississippi," and is navigated by 
 a class of large and magnificent steamers, making St. 
 Louis their upper terminus. The river above the city is 
 termed the " Upper Mississippi ;" this, with the Missouri, 
 the Illinois, and other numerous branches, are navigated 
 by a smaller class of boats, all of which make St. Louis 
 their lower terminus. There are also other lines running 
 to the Ohio River ; St. Louis is, therefore, the centre of a 
 
NEW ORLEANS. 303 
 
 vast trade ; and the river traffic centring- at this point is 
 immense. The "levee," for miles, is usually crowded 
 with hundreds of steamers receiving or discharging their 
 cargoes ; which, with the thousands of busy draymen, 
 presents a scene of activity not to be witnessed elsewhere. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 New Orleans, the commercial emporium of the Southern 
 States, is built upon a bend or crescent of the Mississippi, 
 ninety-four miles from its mouth. The city is two to four 
 feet below the level of high water, and protected from over- 
 flow by an embankment or levee. New Orleans has com- 
 mercial advantages equal to those of any city in the Union. 
 Into its marts are poured, on the bosom of rivers, 
 whose united navigation is estimated to be 33,000 miles, 
 the products of fifteen fertile States. It is the chief cotton 
 mart of America, and the wharves are crowded with hun- 
 dreds of ships from every part of the world, laden with 
 every variety of foreign and domestic products. Steam- 
 boats of the largest class arrive and depart hourly, while a 
 thousand to fifteen hundred " fiatboats " may be frequently 
 seen lying at the levee, presenting a most extraordinary 
 scene of bustling activity. 
 
 The Custom House is the largest structure in the 
 United States. It is built of granite, and has four fronts 
 of 334, 310, 297, and 252 feet each. The chief business 
 apartment is 116 feet long by 90 broad, and has 50 win- 
 dows. The United States Branch Mint is also an impos- 
 ing structure, with a front of 282 feet. The St. Charles is 
 one of the finest hotels in the Union. The streets of New 
 Orleans have the spaciousness and beauty so characteristic 
 
304 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 of Southern cities, being wide, well paved, and regularly 
 laid out, generally crossing each other at right angles. The 
 broadest is Canal Street, which is 190^ feet wide, having 
 a grass plot 25 feet wide running its entire length, with 
 shade trees on either side. The many elegant private 
 dwellings are rendered pleasant by the grateful shade of 
 tropical foliage, including the magnolia, orange, lemon, and 
 myrtle. New Orleans is noted for its institutions of a 
 literary and charitable character. The Opera House is a 
 most superb structure. The Anatomical Museum contains 
 a large and valuable collection, and the Medical College, 
 to which it is attached, bears a high repute. The markets, 
 some of which are very extensive, are noted for their 
 extreme neatness and cleanliness. The lower portion of 
 the city, below Canal Street, is mostly French. In this 
 part the French language and customs mostly prevail. 
 
 The arrangement of the cemeteries is unique. Each is 
 enclosed within a brick wall, in which are arched cavities, 
 or " ovens," as they are called, which are just large enough 
 to admit a coffin, and are raised, tier upon tier, to a height 
 of ten or twelve feet, with a thickness of ten feet. The 
 whole enclosure is divided into plots covered with tombs. 
 
 MOBILE. 
 
 Mobile, the principal city and port of Alabama, is 
 situated on the west bank oi the Mobile River, just above 
 its entrance into Mobile Bay, thirty miles from the Gulf of 
 Mexico. The city is built on a plain fifteen feet above the 
 river ; it commands a beautiful prospect of the bay, the 
 elevation beinjx sufficient for convenient drainage. The 
 
SAN FRANCISCO. 305 
 
 streets are wide, and shaded with rows of trees. The city- 
 is supplied with spring water brought from a distance of 
 several miles. The principal buildings are the United 
 States Marine Hospital and the City Hospital. It also 
 contains an institution for the blind, two orphan asylums, 
 a fine theatre, several academies, and Spring Hill College, 
 with a library of 7000 volumes. 
 
 The city is noted for its magnificent and costly resi- 
 dences. Mobile ranks next to New Orleans as a cotton 
 mart and place of export, and is the natural outlet of the 
 best cotton region of the South. The adjacent villages, 
 situated on a stretch of sand hills, afford a delightful and 
 healthy retreat from the sickness which sometimes pre- 
 vails during the summer months, and it is somewhat 
 remarkable that, though the yellow fever may be raging 
 with great virulence in the city, a few miles outside it 
 never originates, and persons afflicted with it rapidly 
 recover. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 San Francisco, California, is situated on the shore of 
 the magnificent bay from which it derives its name. It is 
 not of recent origin, having been founded in 1776. Till 
 the year 1847, when the discovery of gold in California 
 was made, it was an unpretending little village ; that 
 event has been the means of transforming it into a great 
 commercial metropolis. It is now the centre of an immense 
 trade, and being the only water connection with the great 
 interior valley, as well as of easy communication with 
 Asia, its commercial advantages are very great. It is well 
 laid out with regular streets, and till recently the houses 
 were mostly built of framework ; but the destructive con- 
 flagrations which have several times laid the city in ashes 
 
 20 
 
306 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 have induced the use of "brick and stone, and most of the 
 larger buildings are well built and fireproof. It now 
 covers an area of eight or nine square miles. Among the 
 principal buildings are the City Hall, Custom House and 
 Post Office, Marine Hospital, First Presbyterian Church 
 and Baptist Church. 
 
 RICHMOND. 
 
 Richmond, the capital of Virginia, is situated on the 
 line of the great railway route from the North-eastern to 
 the Southern States. The city, imposingly elevated on an 
 eminence, and overlooking the valley of James River, 
 appears much larger than it really is. The State Capitol 
 stands on Shockhoe Hill, commanding a magnificent view 
 of the beautiful valley of the James. It contains a marble 
 bust of La Fayette, and a fine marble statue of Washing- 
 ton, by the French sculptor, Hondin. The late civil war, 
 however, has invested this building with its chief interest, 
 for it was here that for four stormy years sat the grim 
 legislators who composed the Confederate Congress, await- 
 ing with stern patience the final success which so often, 
 but so illusively dawned. Among the other prominent 
 public buildings are the City Hall, Penitentiary, and 
 Custom House. The rapids or falls of James River, 
 extending six miles above Richmond, afford abundance of 
 water power, which was rendered available during the war 
 in the manufacture of arms and munitions. 
 
 CHARLESTON. 
 Charleston, South Carolina, is one of the most ancient 
 of American cities. Its foundations were laid in 1672. At 
 an early period it received large .accessions pf French 
 
CHARLESTON. 307 
 
 Huguenots, from which have sprung many of the families 
 of Charleston. It is situated between the Ashley and 
 Cooper rivers, which, uniting below the town, form a 
 spacious harbour, with an average width of about two 
 miles, and a length of seven miles. The ground on which 
 the city is built is only eight or nine feet above the level of 
 the harbour at high tide, which here rises about six feet, 
 flowing by the city with a strong current, thus contribut- 
 ing to its salubrity. The city is regularly built, and 
 extends about three miles in length, and one and a half in 
 breadth. 
 
 The streets, many of which are sixty to seventy feet 
 wide, are lined with trees. The buildings, mostly of brick, 
 are some of them very elegant; and beautiful villas 
 adorned with verandahs, reaching from the ground to the 
 tops of the houses, buried in the rich foliage of orange 
 trees, magnolias, and palmettoes, give an air of luxuriance 
 and elegance to the city. 
 
 The bay is completely land-locked, and possesses a 
 military strength of which ample proofs were given during 
 the ever-memorable bombardment lasting through 1863 
 and 1864, which the city and forts underwent from the 
 Federal monitors and ironsides. Fort Moultrie commands 
 the entrance to the harbour, and is rendered famous by the 
 naval action of 1776, when her guns beat off and almost 
 destroyed the armament of Sir Peter Parker. Fort 
 Sumter, whose fame now eclipses that of all the others, 
 stands on an artificial island within the harbour, about 
 three and a half miles from the city. The walls,, which 
 come close to the edge of the water, are built of concrete 
 masonry. The fort cost about $1,000,000. 
 
!08 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 SAVANNAH. 
 
 Savannah, Georgia, is situated on the Savannah River, 
 eighteen miles from the Atlantic coast. The city was 
 founded as early as 1732 by General Oglethorpe, but has, 
 like most southern cities, been of comparatively slow 
 growth. It is regularly built; the streets, which are 
 mostly unpaved, are of great width, and lined with trees, 
 Broad Street, Bay Street, and others, having four rows of 
 trees, and a double carriage-way, with broad walks on the 
 outside, and a promenade between. There are many 
 public buildings of considerable size and elegance, among 
 them the City Exchange, the State Arsenal, Oglethorpe 
 Hall, and the Lyceum. There are also a number of literary 
 and charitable institutions, and some handsome churches. 
 In Monument Square is a fine Doric obelisk, 100 feet high, 
 erected to the memories of Generals Greene and Pulaski ; 
 and a second monument has been erected in Chippewa 
 Square to the latter General, who fell while gallantly 
 attacking the city in the year 1779, when it was in the 
 possession of the British. 
 
 Near the city is the beautiful cemetery of Bonaventure, 
 originally a private estate, and laid out in broad avenues, 
 which cross each other. These avenues are now grand 
 forest aisles, lined with magnificent oak trees of full 
 growth and great size ; their dense leafage mingling over- 
 head, and their huge lower branches trailing on the 
 ground, bent down by the weight of the heavy festoons of 
 Spanish moss which hang from them. A more beautiful 
 resting-place for the dead can scarcely be conceived than 
 amid this solemn forest. It has been charmingly described 
 in the following lines : — 
 
SAVANNAH. 309 
 
 "Along a corridor I tread, 
 
 High over-arched by' ancient trees, 
 Where, like a tapestry o'erhead, 
 
 The grey mossfQoats upon the breeze. 
 A wavy breeze which kissed to-day 
 
 Tallulah's falls of flashing foam, 
 And sported in Toccoa's spray, 
 
 Brings music from its mountain home. 
 
 " The clouds are floating o'er the sky, 
 
 And cast at times a fitful gloom, 
 As o'er our hearts dark memories fly, 
 
 Cast deeper shades on Tatnall's tomb ; 
 While, glimmering onward to the sea, 
 
 With scarce a rippling wave at play, 
 A line of silver through the lea, 
 
 The river stretches far away." 
 
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CHAPTER 2L 
 
 NATURAL CUEIOSITIES AND OBJECTS OF INTEREST TO 
 TOURISTS. 
 
 WATERFALLS. 
 
 The world-renowned Niagara Falls are situated on the 
 Niagara River, 20 miles from its junction with Lake Erie, 
 and about 14 miles above its junction with Lake Ontario. 
 The river thus divides a portion of the State of New 
 York from Canada ; and the falls lie within the territory 
 both of Great Britain and the United States. The two 
 falls — the British or Horseshoe, and the American — are 
 divided by Goat Island, a well- wooded piece of land termi- 
 nating in a precipice. The total width from shore to 
 shore, following the bend of the fall, is about three-quarters 
 of a mile. The width of the Horseshoe Fall is about 1900 
 feet, and that of the American Fall about 950 feet. 
 " The waters for which Niagara is the outlet, cover an 
 area of 150,000 square miles — floods so grand and in- 
 exhaustible, as to be utterly unconscious of the loss 
 of the ninety millions of tons they your every hour 
 through succeeding centuries, over these stupendous pre- 
 cipices." Sixteen miles from Lake Erie the current 
 narrows, and begins to descend with great velocity. 
 This is the commencement of the rapids, which continue 
 for about one mile, the waters rolling in swells as they 
 
312 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 rush swiftly down over their rocky bed, accomplishing in 
 this distance a fall of 52 feet. The rapids terminate below 
 in two great cataracts, the precipitous descent of which is 
 164 feet on the American side, and 158 on the Canadian. 
 The waters sweep down the rapids with such force that, on 
 falling over the edge of the precipice into the deep boiling 
 pool at the base, they form a grand curve, clear of the per- 
 pendicular wall. The space between this sheet of falling 
 water and the wall widens near the bottom, the strata being 
 hollowed out by the continual action of the spray. A cave 
 is thus formed, into which persons can enter behind the fall. 
 Among the great waterfalls of the globe that of Niagara 
 stands pre-eminent for the enormous volume of water that 
 is carried over so high a precipice. There are falls which 
 descend from greater heights, but the sublimity of Niagara 
 is in the vast power displayed by a mighty current descend- 
 ing impetuously first by rushing down the long inclined 
 plane of the rapids, and finally plunging in one unbroken 
 vertical sheet into the deep abyss below. 
 
 " It comes like an eternity, 
 As if to sweep down all tilings in its track, 
 Charming the eye with dread — a matchless cataract." 
 
 The dull, thundering, unceasing roar of the falling waters 
 is sometimes heard as far as Toronto, 46 miles distant. It 
 is supposed by Sir Charles Lyell that the fall is receding 
 from the action of the water at the rate of one foot a year. 
 Below the falls, the river runs between perpendicular 
 cliffs for three or four miles, in a channel from 300 to 800 
 feet wide, with great force and impetuosity, now ruffled by 
 rapids, now eddying in whirlpools, till it finally flows into 
 Lake Ontario. Between the falls and Queenstown occur 
 two separate rapids ; at the head of the first, the river is 
 spanned by a magnificent wire suspension bridge, 800 feet 
 
WATERFALLS. 313 
 
 in length and 230 feet above the water. An angle in the 
 river near the bridge causes a reflex in the current, which 
 forms a number of eddies called the " Whirlpool," more 
 remarkable for the heaping up of the waters in the centre 
 of the river, through its impetus, than for any great vio- 
 lence of the whirlpools themselves. 
 
 The falls of the Connecticut are a series of rapids ex- 
 tending about a mile along the base of Tall Mountain, in 
 New Hampshire. The river flows along so narrow a defile 
 that it seems as if it was possible to leap across it, and the 
 water, which is a dense mass of foam, rushes through the 
 chasm with such velocity, that in striking the rocks below, 
 it is forced back upon itself for a considerable distance. 
 There is no perpendicular fall, but the river falls 50 feet in 
 half a mile. 
 
 The Silver Cascade, in New Hampshire, is a most 
 charming waterfall, seen at a distance of two miles babbling 
 down the mountain side 800 feet above the valley. 
 
 Glen's Falls, in the Upper Hudson, nine miles from 
 Lake George, New York, consist of the rapid descent of 
 the river over a precipice of 75 feet. The scenery around 
 is rugged and wild. 
 
 About 130 miles from New York City, among the 
 Catskill Mountains, are some beautiful cascades, known as 
 the Katterskill Falls. The first cascade has a fall of 175 
 feet, and the second descends 75 feet. For the distance 
 of a mile the rivulet, which is a branch of the Katterskill 
 Creek, tumbles over the rocks in a picturesque manner, 
 till it reaches the main stream. Fennimore Cooper, in his 
 " Pioneer," has thus charmingly described these falls: — 
 " The water comes croaking and winding among the rocks, 
 first so slow that a trout might swim in it, then starting 
 and running like any creature that wanted to make a fair 
 spring, till it gets to where the mountain divides like the 
 
31-1- DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 cleft foot of a deer, leaving a deep hollow for the brook to 
 tumble into. The first pitch is nigh 200 feet, and the 
 water looks like flakes of snow before it touches the bot- 
 tom, and then gathers itself together again for a new start, 
 and, may be, flutters over 50 feet of flat rock before it falls 
 for another 100 feet, when it jumps from shelf to shelf, 
 first running this way and that way, striving to get out of 
 the hollow, till it finally gets to the plain." In the winter, 
 the falling spray of the Katterskills is frozen into a thou- 
 sand fantastic shapes, all glowing like the prism in the 
 clear cold sunlight. The American poet, Bryant, has 
 prettily set in verse the charms of the falls : — 
 
 " Midst greens and shades the Katterskill leaps, 
 
 From cliffs where the wood-flower clings; 
 All summer he moistens his verdant steeps 
 
 "With the light spray of the mountain springs ; 
 And he shakes the woods on the mountain side, 
 When they drip with the rains of the autumn tide. 
 
 " But when, in the forest bare and old, 
 
 The blast of December calls, 
 He builds in the starlight, clear and cold, 
 
 A palace of ice where his torrent falls, 
 "With turret and arch, and fretwork fair, 
 And pillars clear as the summer air." 
 
 Fifteen miles north of Utica, in New York, there are a 
 series of cascades and rapids on West Canada Creek, a 
 tributary of the Mohawk, extending over two miles, and 
 known as the Trenton Falls. The river has cut a narrow 
 channel in the solid limestone rock to a depth varying from 
 100 to 150 feet deep, forming a clean limestone trough, 
 through which runs in summer a narrow stream of water, 
 almost as black as ink. Down this gorge, with its perpen- 
 dicular sides of solid rock, the water takes a succession of 
 
WATERFALLS. 315 
 
 leaps of from 8 to 100 feet. The great charm in these falls 
 is not in the body of water, but in the wildness of the 
 scenery around. One of the falls — named Sherman's Fall, 
 in memory of the Rev. James Sherman — has formed an 
 immense excavation, and is every year forcing off large 
 slabs of the rock, against which a portion of the water is 
 incessantly rushing. The scene varies much according to 
 the size of the stream, but it is difficult to say whether the 
 glen is more beautiful when there is little or much water. 
 
 The Genesee Falls, at Rochester, New York, have three 
 perpendicular pitches and two rapids, the entire descent 
 being 268 feet. The first fall is one of 96 feet, and the 
 ledge of the precipice breaks the water into three distinct 
 sheets. Below this fall the river is broad and deep, with 
 occasional rapids. The second fall is 20 feet, and the 
 third has a descent of 105 feet. Below these are a number 
 of rapids, which reach a considerable distance. Higher up 
 the river, in Alleghany county, there arc three falls of 60, 
 90, and 110 feet, within a distance of two miles. The 
 water rushes through a rocky gorge, the walls of which 
 are 400 feet high. 
 
 The Cohoes Falls, on the Mohawk River, New York, 
 are noted for their picturesque beauty. The water has a 
 perpendicular descent of nearly 90 feet, and in the autumn, 
 when the river is full, forms a grand cascade. 
 
 " At first an azure sheet, it rushes broad ; 
 Then whitening by degrees, as prone it falls, 
 Dash'd in a cloud of foam, it sends aloft 
 A hoary mist, and forms a ceaseless shower." 
 
 The Passaic Falls, near Patterson, New Jersey, form, 
 when the river is full, an imposing scene. They are 
 70 feet in height, and the surrounding scenery is wild 
 and romantic. 
 
oiG DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The picturesque Falls of St. Anthony are on the Mis- 
 sissippi, in the State of Minnesota. They were discovered 
 in 1680 by Lonis Hennepin, and named in honour of his 
 patron saint, Anthony. The falls are less celebrated for 
 their magnitude than for their accompaniments of wood 
 and rock scenery. The Mississippi is more than 600 
 yards wide above the falls, and the entire descent is 
 58 feet, including the rapids. The water falls 20 feet 
 in two perpendicular sheets on either sides of an island 
 of white sandstone, which divides the stream as at Niagara. 
 The greater portion of the water passes on the western 
 side, which is 310 yards wide. The rapids below extend 
 several hundred yards, are very broad, and are divided into 
 numerous channels by sandstone islands, gigantic blocks 
 of which are strewn in grotesque confusion at the base of 
 lofty walls of dazzling whiteness. These rocks and islands 
 assume numerous fantastic shapes, and are thickly wooded. 
 
 The Minnehaha, or the Falls of the Laughing Water, 
 
 " Flash and gleam among the oak trees, 
 Laugh and leap into the valley," 
 
 near St. Anthony, in Minnesota. Half hidden in the 
 forest, a small rivulet gently glides over the bluff into an 
 amphitheatre, and forms the graceful waterfall. " It has 
 but little of the c cataract's thunder.' Niagara symbolizes 
 the sublime, St. Anthony the picturesque, Minnehaha the 
 beautiful. The fall is about 60 feet, presenting a para- 
 bolic curve, which drops without deviation to the lower 
 level, when the stream goes on its way rejoicing, curling 
 along in laughing, childish glee at the graceful feat it has 
 performed in bounding over the precipice." Longfellow, in 
 his sweet song of " Hiawatha," has immortalized these falls. 
 The great Falls of the Missouri, the largest after 
 Niagara, are situated in the north-west part of the Terri- 
 
WATERFALLS. 
 
 tory of Bacotah. The river previously makes its way 
 along the grand passage known as the Gates of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and at the point of the falls makes a rapid 
 descent of 357 feet in 16 miles. The first fall met with in 
 
 MINNEHAHA FALLS. 
 
 ascending the stream is 26 feet, the second is 27 feet, the 
 third is 19 feet, and the fourth and highest fall is 87 feet. 
 Between each of these cascades, as well as below them, are 
 many rapids, and the surrounding scenery is sublime. 
 
318 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The "White Water Cataracts, near Jocasse, in South 
 Carolina, are chiefly remarkable for their picturesqueness, 
 and in the variety and beauty of the surrounding scenery. 
 
 Toccoa Falls, near Clarksville, Georgia, is a narrow- 
 stream of water which, after babbling down the mountain's 
 side, falls over a perpendicular rock a height of 186 feet, 
 resembling a silver ribbon hung gracefully over the face of 
 the rock, and waving to and fro with the breath of the wind. 
 
 Near the last-mentioned falls are the Cataracts of 
 Tallulah. These, with the wild and romantic scenery 
 amid which they are situated, are among the most im- 
 posing waterfall scenery in the United States. The Tal- 
 lulah River is a stream which rushes through a chasm in 
 the Blue Ridge Mountains, 1000 feet in depth. Along the 
 rocky and uneven bed of this deep abyss the river frets 
 and foams with ever-varying course. Now it flows in 
 sullen majesty through a deep and romantic glen, em- 
 bowered in the foliage of the trees which here and there 
 spring from the rocky edges of the chasm walls ; and then 
 it rushes with accelerated motion, breaking fretfully over 
 protruding rocks, and uttering harsh murmurs as it verges 
 a precipice — 
 
 " Where, collected all 
 In one impetuous torrent, down the steep 
 It thundering shoots." 
 
 The larger of these cataracts are called the Lodore, the 
 Tempesta, the Oceana, and the Serpentine. There are 
 also many smaller ones. 
 
 Amicalolah Falls, or the Falls of the Tumbling "Water, 
 and the Falls of the Eastatoria, are also in Georgia. 
 The former are a succession of cataracts and cascades, the 
 greatest not exceeding 60 feet, though the total fall of the 
 torrent in 400 yards is more than 6000 feet. 
 
 In the Yosemite Valley, in California — a dell of match- 
 
CAVES. 819 
 
 less cliffs and cascades — are five waterfalls, one of which is 
 2000 feet high. The valley is a chasm in the Sierra 
 Nevada, bounded on all sides by rocky walls, from 4000 to 
 4500 feet in height. The Cascade of the Rainbow, so called 
 from the beautiful colours which, in the sunlight, adorn the 
 mist floating round it, is 940 feet high, and though the 
 water is 70 feet wide in the summer, yet, seen at a 
 few miles' distance, it looks like a white streak in the rock. 
 Four miles further up the valley, amid scenery of the 
 most romantic beauty and grandeur, are the Great Falls of 
 the Yosemite, called by the Indians " Cholook." This 
 fall is believed to be the highest in the world. The 
 stream, 80 feet wide, leaps down 2063 feet, in three falls, 
 of which the first is 1300 feet high, the second 250 feet, 
 and the third 450 feet. Though the body of falling water 
 is so great, it is lost in spray before it reaches the bottom. 
 Two other cascades, the Vernal and the Nevada, are in 
 the same valley: the former, with a fall of 350 feet, is 
 surmounted with large evergreen trees ; the latter is 700 
 feet high, and strikes a projecting ledge of rock half-way, 
 which causes it to dash into spray and mist. 
 
 CAVES, NATURAL BRIDGES, Etc. 
 The Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, the largest known 
 cave in the world, is an object of the greatest interest to 
 travellers. It is said to have been penetrated by ex- 
 plorers to the distance of ten miles. The passages of this 
 great cavern are in the aggregate 150 miles in length, and 
 it has 256 known chambers. The thermometer stands 
 constantly at 59° Fahr. Among the most noted chambers 
 js the " Methodist Church," semicircular in form, with a 
 natural pulpit. About fifty years ago the place was used 
 for religious worship, and occasionally now services are 
 
320 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 held within it. The Gothic Avenue, reached by a flight 
 of stairs 40 feet wide, 15 feet high, and two miles long, 
 leads to the Gothic Chapel, 80 feet long by 50 wide. 
 Columns of immense size block up the two ends, and 
 two rows of smaller pillars extend the entire length. 
 
 GOTHIC CHAPEL, HAiliTOTH CAVE. 
 
 "When lighted up, the scene is one of surprising 
 grandeur. The Star Chamber, when seen without 
 lights, reveals perfectly the meaning of visible darkness. 
 "We seemed to feel the dense blackness against our eye- 
 
CAVES. 321 
 
 balls," said a traveller describing the cave, " an object, 
 however near, was not in the faintest degree visible. 
 When the chamber was lighted np, we seemed to be in a 
 deep rock-walled pit, gazing np at the starry firmament." 
 The stalactites and stalagmites throughout the cave are of 
 great beauty and of immense size. A river of fresh and 
 pure water runs through it which is navigable by boats ; 
 and in it are found fish which are quite white and eyeless, 
 and others which, though possessed of eyes, are yet 
 blind. 
 
 The Wyandotte Cave, in Indiana, is almost as won- 
 derful a place as the Mammoth Cave. It is several miles 
 in length, and is divided into magnificent chambers and 
 galleries, glittering with stalactites and other calcareous 
 concretions. Epsom Salts Cave, in the same State, situated 
 on the side of a hill, 400 feet from the base, is remarkable 
 for a wonderful white column, 30 feet high and 15 in 
 diameter, beautifully fluted. The figure of an Indian^ 
 rudely painted on the rock, is also to be seen. Epsom 
 salts, nitre, and gypsum, are the principal components of 
 the floor and walls of this cave. 
 
 Weir's Cave, in Virginia, 2500 feet in length, is cele- 
 brated for its rare beauty. The interior, with its brilliant 
 stalactites, when lighted up, almost realizes the enchant- 
 ments described by Eastern story-tellers. The Big Salt- 
 petre Cave in Missouri has not been fully explored, but is 
 thought to surpass all others in extent and beauty. It- 
 contains long galleries and chambers, rising to the height 
 of 100 feet, and from 150 to 200 feet in width. 
 
 Fountain Cave, of Minnesota, near St. Paul, has a 
 passage way 25 feet high and about the same width, 
 leading into a vast hall of white sandstone more than 1000 
 feet in length, through which runs a rivulet of clear and 
 cold water. 
 
322 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 The Alabaster Cave, in California, was discovered in 
 1860 by some labourers while quarrying limestone. The 
 cave has two chambers, one about 100 feet long by 25 feet 
 wide, the other 200 feet long by 100 feet wide. Both these 
 again have numerous recesses and galleries. A scene of 
 great magnificence is presented on entering. Millions of 
 precious stones seem to be sparkling on the walls, shining 
 pendants reach from ceiling to floor, some tapering to a 
 point, some tubular, some clear as crystal and of a bluish 
 tinge. In the second chamber is the " chapel," with 
 " belfry" and "pulpit," the latter formed by droppings 
 from the rock above, catching on a ledge of rock and then 
 rising, spreading, and folding over in a most graceful 
 manner. 
 
 Nikojack Cave, in Georgia, extends into the Lookout 
 mountain. It is entered by a portal 160 feet wide and 60 
 feet high ; through this passes a stream, up which the 
 visitor may be boated. The water of this stream is ex- 
 ceedingly cold, and is always flowing. The cave is some- 
 times so narrow that it will barely allow the boat or 
 canoe to pass. It has been explored a distance of seven 
 miles. 
 
 The remarkable channels cut by some of the rivers 
 through ranges of hills are among the most picturesque 
 features of the country. 
 
 The Hudson's passage through the highlands of New 
 York, is a landscape of great magnificence and beauty. 
 The different spurs of mountain ranges meet here, and about 
 upon the river in precipices from 5 to 1500 feet in height. 
 Foliage covers them from base to summit, and the river 
 below flows on its way in abrupt curves, with a sombre 
 dark-green shadow upon it. One of the grandest moun- 
 tains of this highland group is Cronest, 1428 feet in 
 height, which — 
 
CHANNELS. 323 
 
 11 Like a monarch, stands, 
 Crown' d with a single star, 
 Where Hudson's waves o'er silvery sands 
 Wind through, the hills afar." 
 
 The Delaware Water Gap is a gorge among the Kitta- 
 linny Mountains, through which the Delaware makes its 
 way in magnificent style . The cliffs rise perpendicularly 
 from 1000 to 1200 feet. 
 
 Tuckerman's Ravine, in New Hampshire, is a long deep 
 glen with frowning walls, often quite inaccessible. It is 
 filled, hundreds of feet deep, with the snow which falls in 
 winter, through which a brook silently makes its way in 
 the summer, gradually widening its channel, till a grand 
 snow cave is formed, which was found one year to be 40 
 feet high, 84 feet wide, and 180 feet long, the snow arch 
 being 20 feet thick. 
 
 The Flume, also in New Hampshire, is a narrow gorge 
 only a few feet in width, and from 70 to 100 feet in height, 
 through which flows a narrow stream. 
 
 At the gates of the Rocky Mountains, in Dacotah 
 Territory, the Missouri River passes through a series of bold 
 chasms for a length of six miles, "the giant rocks rising 
 perpendicularly to an elevation of 1200 feet, and the dark 
 waters washing the base of these huge walls so closely that 
 not a foothold is anywhere to be found. It is a ghostly 
 gorge on the sunniest day, but when its habitual gloom is 
 deepened by the shadow of a stormy sky, it grows painfully 
 oppressive." 
 
 Among the other channels of note are — the passage of 
 the Potomac through the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry, 
 famous for its picturesque mountain scenery, and worth, 
 said Jefferson, " a voyage across the Atlantic to see ; 
 the deep canon of the Red River, on the north-west frontier 
 of Texas ; and the Cascades, where the Columbia River 
 
324 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 breaks through the Cascade range on the boundary between 
 Washington Territory and Oregon. 
 
 The celebrated Natural Bridge of Virginia, situated 
 63 miles from "White Sulphur Springs, is the most re- 
 markable of this interesting class of curiosities. Its span 
 is almost 90 feet ; and the middle of the arch is 45 feet 
 in perpendicular thickness, which increases to 60 at its 
 juncture with the vast abutments. The bridge, which is 
 covered with soil, supporting shrubs of various sizes, is 
 210 feet high, and 60 feet wide. Across it passes a public 
 coach-road, and Cedar Creek, with its pleasant rippling 
 waters, makes its way through the ravine below. 
 
 A natural bridge in Alabama is described by Professor 
 Tuomey as rivalling that of Virginia. It has a span of 
 120 feet, and its height is 70 feet. In California there are 
 two remarkable bridges, having immense arches, whose 
 surfaces appear as if carved into clusters of beautiful fruits 
 and flowers, doubtless the result of volcanic action at some 
 remote period. The largest of these is 20 feet high and 
 80 wide. In Kentucky also there is a natural bridge 30 
 feet high, with a span of 60 feet, located amidst delightful 
 scenery. 
 
 The Pictured Rocks in Michigan are composed of sand- 
 stone of various colours, and worn by the wind and waves 
 into resemblances of ruined temples and castles. One 
 very striking object is the Doric rock, a colonnade of four 
 round pillars, the diameter of which is from 3 to 7 feet. 
 Their height is 40 feet, and they support an entablature 
 8 feet thick and 30 feet across. These rocks extend a 
 distance of about 12 miles, and rise 300 feet above the 
 water. In Dacotah Territory near the head waters of the 
 White Earth River is a valley which looks as if it had sunk 
 away leaving standing all over it thousands of prismatic 
 and columnar masses, frequently capped with irregular 
 
NATURAL BRIDGES, ETC. 325 
 
 pyramids, stretching up to a height of from 100 to 200 
 feet or more. 
 
 The Profile Rock, or " Old Man of the Mountain," is 
 a mountain in New Hampshire, which has a well-defined 
 profile of the human face. The mass of rock forming it 
 is 80 feet in height, and half a mile from the pass below, 
 from which the profile is seen. In New Marlborough, 
 Massachusetts, a rock of 30 or 40 tons is so nicely balanced 
 that the finger may set it swinging. The Peaks of Otter in 
 Virginia are famous mountain heights, the highest of 
 which rises abruptly 4200 feet above the plain. 
 
 A number of cavities or depressions in the surface of 
 the ground, called sink-holes, are found in various parts of 
 the Union. In Florida one called the Great Sink is a 
 large basin which receives the drainings of the group of 
 hills, by which it is surrounded ; the waters disappearing 
 through the sink into the earth. In Kentucky are found 
 several of these extraordinary natural curiosities, mostly in 
 the shape of inverted cones, from 60 to 100 feet in depth, 
 and from 60 to 300 feet wide at the top. Their sides and 
 bottoms are usually covered with willows and aquatic 
 productions, and the sound of waters can often be heard 
 flowing under them. Streams of considerable size dis- 
 appear in several places, and afterwards rise again ; one 
 spring near Mumfordsville in the same State, rises and 
 falls 12 or 15 inches every 24 hours ; and another, called 
 Sinking Creek, disappears in the earth through a sink- 
 hole, and does not reappear for a distance of five miles. 
 Another sink-hole in the same vicinity has been descended 
 275 feet, by means of a rope, without finding bottom. 
 
 A great natural wonder of the vegetable world is the 
 mammoth tree in California. A grove of 427 trees, the 
 largest of which are 30 feet in diameter, and 300 feet in 
 height, is in Mariposa County. It is the largest species of 
 
326 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 tree in the world, and this is the largest collection. The 
 grove is about twenty miles from the Yosemite Valley, and 
 about 4500 feet high on the western slope of the Sierra 
 Nevada. When the traveller enters the grove he sees on 
 all sides of him these huge giants of the forest, varying from 
 20 to 34 feet in diameter, and from 275 to 325 feet in height. 
 The grove covers a space half a mile wide and three- 
 quarters of a mile long. 1 , There is one tree 34 feet in 
 diameter; two trees of 33 feet; thirteen between 25 and 33 
 feet; thirty-six between 20 and 25 feet; and eighty-two 
 between 15 and 20 feet. One very large tree has fallen, 
 and a considerable portion of it has been burned ; but ap- 
 pearances indicate that it was nearly 40 feet in diameter, 
 and 400 feet high. The mammoth tree is found only in a 
 few small groves, of which six or seven are known, though 
 probably there are others in unexplored parts of the Sierra 
 Nevada. The Calaveras Mammoth Grove was the first 
 discovered, and attracts the greatest number of visitors. 
 There are in this grove ten trees 30 feet in diameter, and 
 eighty-two between 15 and 30. One of the trees, which 
 is down, must have been 450 feet high, and 40 feet in 
 diameter. The " Horseback Ride," one of the notabilities 
 of the place, is a hollow tree, which a man on horseback 
 can ride through. One tree which was stripped of its 
 bark for a height of over 100 feet, continued green and 
 flourishing two and a-half years, and some of its branches 
 remained green seven years later. 
 
 Some of the larger trees have been ascertained to be 
 two thousand years old; and many of the smaller ones 
 will still flourish for the next thousand years. Many 
 of the older trees are hollow, and one in the Calaveras 
 Grove, called " Uncle Tom's Cabin," has an open space 
 under it of more than 12 feet square. The largest trees 
 seem to end abruptly at the top, having been broken off 
 
MAMMOTH TREE GROVES. 327 
 
 by the snow, which often falls to a great depth upon the 
 Sierra Nevada. Occasionally two or three trees may fee 
 seen which are united at the ground, although they may 
 have been 20 feet apart when young. 
 
 In 1854, one of the largest trees, 92 feet in circum- 
 ference, and 800 feet high, was cut down. Five men 
 worked fcwenty-two days in cutting through it with large 
 augers. On the stump, which has been smoothed offj 
 there have been dancing-parties and theatrical perform- 
 ances ; and, for a time, a newspaper, called " The Big- 
 Tree Bulletin," was printed there. A portion of the 
 bark of this tree to the height of 116 feet is now in the 
 Crystal Palace, Sydenham. It is put together in its original 
 form on a framework of wood, and is 31 feet in diameter 
 at the base. The bark is 18 inches thick. The rings of 
 this tree were counted, and its age was variously estimated, 
 according to the different methods of counting, at from 
 1900 to 3000 years. 
 
 Saratoga Springs, situated in the State of New York, 
 39 miles north from Albany, is the most popular watering- 
 place in America, and one of the most celebrated in the 
 world. It is visited by persons from all countries, and 
 the constant stream of visitors arriving and departing 
 imparts to the place a scene of great gaiety and bustle. 
 The springs are quite varied as to chemical constituents 
 and medicinal properties. Congress Spring is the one 
 most celebrated, and its waters are bottled and sent to 
 various parts of the world. 
 
 Lebanon Springs are situated in the State of New 
 York, near the boundary line of Massachusetts. This 
 place has become a great resort for visitors, who are 
 attracted by the romantic scenery of the region, as well 
 as the beneficial influence of its waters. The temperature 
 of the spring is 72° Fahrenheit, which, being nearly 
 
328 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 summer-heat, renders it delightful for bathing. The 
 water is tasteless, and pure as crystal. 
 
 Bedford Springs are situated in Pennsylvania, in a 
 narrow and romantic valley. The principal spring issues 
 from a limestone rock, the water of which is clear and 
 sparkling. On the west side of the creek is a sulphur 
 spring, and one mile and a half north-east from Bedford 
 is a chalybeate spring, surrounded with bog-iron ore. 
 
 Carlisle Springs are situated in Pennsylvania, on a 
 branch of the Conodoguinet Creek, in a retired spot, sur- 
 rounded by the fine scenery of the Blue Mountains. The 
 water bubbles up from the slate formation, from which it 
 derives a strong impregnation of sulphur. 
 
 Virginia Springs are among the most celebrated water- 
 ing-places of America, and are visited every season by 
 vast numbers, either in search of recreation and amuse- 
 ment, or to enjoy the benefit of the waters. They con- 
 tain sulphate of soda, carbonate of magnesia, chloride of 
 sodium, per-oxide of iron, organic matter, iodines, sulphate 
 of magnesia, phosphate of lime, and precipitated sulphur. 
 The gaseous contents are, carbonic acid, sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. They are situated in an 
 elevated and beautifully picturesque valley, hemmed in 
 by mountains on every side ; having the Hot and Warm 
 Springs on the north — the former 35, and the latter 40 
 miles distant ; the Sweet, 17 miles to the east ; the Salt 
 and Red on the south-west — the former 24, the latter 41 
 miles distant ; and the Blue Sulphur, 22 miles to the west 
 of Virginia. 
 
 The Warm Springs, North Carolina, are situated on 
 the east bank of the French Broad River, 282 miles west 
 from Raleigh, the capital of the State. The surround- 
 ing scenery, especially that traversed by the river, is 
 admirable. The river is shut in on both sides by 
 
MINERAL SPRINGS. 329 
 
 mountains ; in many places rounding high, bluff points ; 
 and the scenery is very wild, rugged, and picturesque. 
 The climate of this region is one of the most salubrious 
 in the world. 
 
 The Hot Springs, in Arkansas, are situated about 60 
 miles from Little Rock. From a ridge of land forming a 
 steep bank, 150 feet high, projecting over Hot Spring 
 Creek, more than 100 springs issue at different elevations, 
 with temperatures varying from 135° to 160° Fahrenheit. 
 These springs are visited annually by thousands of people, 
 and are particularly noted for the cure of rheumatism. 
 There is a cold spring so near one of the warm springs 
 that a person can put one hand in cold and the other in 
 hot water. 
 
 Ballaston Spa, Avon Springs, New Lebanon Springs, 
 and Sharon Springs, in New York ; Brandy wine Springs, 
 Delaware; Sweet Springs, in Virginia; Herodsberg and 
 Drennan Springs, Kentucky; Warm Springs, in Ten- 
 nessee; Blount Springs, Alabama; and Glenny Springs, 
 South Carolina, and many others, are celebrated. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 The antiquities found within the limits of the United 
 States are not so important as those of Central America, 
 Mexico, and Peru, but are from their great age almost 
 equally interesting. Unlike the massive edifices which 
 still rear their crumbling, spectral fronts amidst the forest 
 of Central America, the more northern and eastern 
 remains indicate only that degree of civilization attained 
 by a rude agricultural society. Such are those gigantic 
 
330 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 mounds erected with geometrical precision on the terraces 
 of the Mississippi Valley, and extending from the lakes 
 southward to the gulf. In Georgia are several of these 
 mounds, one of which, of a semi-oval form, 2000 feet long, 
 37 high, and surrounded by a ditch, has been found to con- 
 tain human remains. In Louisiana mounds have been found 
 containing human remains, pottery, arrow heads, stone 
 hatchets, relics cut in the shape of a curve or crescent, 
 and in one instance a gold ornament worth $8 was found. 
 A mound at Fort Hill, Illinois, manifestly constructed for 
 defence, has a line of circumvallation nearly four miles in 
 extent, and from 10 to 20 feet in height. Many have 
 within their lines artificial reservoirs for water, and other 
 unmistakable provisions for withstanding a siege. Besides 
 these defensive works, and sometimes included within them, 
 are structures of a religious character, consisting of mounds 
 of regular outline, in the form of octagons, circles, and 
 other geometrical figures. One of these, near Cahokia, 
 Illinois, is 700 feet long by 500 broad at the base, and 90 
 feet high. Another, in Adam's county, Ohio, is in the 
 form of a serpent 1000 feet in length, extended in graceful 
 curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The 
 mouth is open, and apparently in the act of swallowing an 
 oval figure, which rests partly within the jaws. The facts 
 connected with the monuments of the Mississippi Valley 
 indicate that the ancient population was numerous, and 
 widely spread, and essentially homogeneous. Many of the 
 mounds indicate a dense agricultural population, and a 
 state of society very different from that of the modern race 
 of Indians which inhabited the same country. Many facts, 
 such as the former denudation by overflow of mounds now 
 far removed from the highest floods, and the formation of 
 an additional terrace or river bank since their construc- 
 tion, demonstrate the great antiquity of these remains. 
 
ANTIQUITIES. 331 
 
 fl 
 
 By whom they were built, and whether their authors 
 migrated to other lands, succumbed to the powers of an 
 alien race, or were swept out of existence by some direful 
 epidemic or universal famine, are questions which, in the 
 present condition of our knowledge, cannot be answered. 
 
 " The solitude of centuries untold 
 Has settled where they dwelt." 
 
 MOUNT YERNON. 
 
 Mount Vernon, the home and tomb of Washington, is 
 on the banks of the Potomac, fifteen miles from Washing- 
 ton City. The domain was lately purchased from his 
 descendants for the nation, for §200,000, raised by sub- 
 scriptions. The mansion is of wood, cut in imitation of 
 freestone. On the eastern front there is a piazza reaching 
 from the roof to the ground, under which it was the habit 
 of Washington to walk to and fro every morning with 
 military regularity. The interior has been preserved with 
 care, and presents the same appearance now as during his 
 lifetime. The new tomb, into which the remains of Wash- 
 ington were removed in 1830, stands a short distance from 
 the house. It is a plain, solid structure of brick, with an 
 iron gate at the entrance, through the bars of which may 
 be seen two sarcophagi of white marble, in which, side by 
 side, slumber in peaceful silence the father of his country 
 and his amiable wife. The old tomb, fast going to decay, 
 is in a more picturesque situation than the new one, being 
 on an elevation in full view of the river. 
 
AEMY — NAVY — POST OFFICE — BE VENUE —NATIONAL 
 DEBT— BANKS— EEAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY, Etc. 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 In 1789, Congress, in pursuance of the provisions of the 
 Constitution, making it the duty of Congress to " raise 
 and support armies," and " to provide for the common 
 defence," established a Department of "War, and in 1776 
 a number of " Original Rules and Articles of War "were 
 enacted, which form the military code which governs all 
 troops in the service of the United States. In 1790 the 
 rank and file of the army, as fixed by Act of Congress, 
 amounted to 1216 men. The next year another regiment 
 900 strong was added, and in 1796 the regular army con- 
 sisted mainly of a small body of artillery and engineers, 
 two companies of light dragoons, and four regiments of 
 infantry of eight companies each. Afc this strength of 
 about 14,000 the force was kept till the outbreak of the 
 Civil War in 1861. The total number of men called into 
 the field from the commencement of the war till its close 
 in 1865 was 2,039,748. Of these it is calculated that 
 580,000 died of disease or wounds received in battle. The 
 Southern army was entirely disbanded in April, 1865 ; 
 but of the Northern army there remained 210,000 on the 
 
THE NAVY. 333 
 
 rolls on July 31, 1865. By order of the War Department 
 in 1865, the United States and Territories were classified 
 nnder five military divisions : the Atlantic, with head- 
 quarters at Philadelphia ; the Ohio, at St. Louis ; the Gulf, 
 at New Orleans; the Tennessee, at Nashville; arid the 
 Pacific, at San Francisco. These divisions are subdivided 
 into 18 military departments, each under a special com- 
 mander. The nominal strength of the militia force of the 
 United States, according to the official returns of the 
 Secretary of War, is shown at 50,110 officers, 2,225,870 
 rank and file. Total 3,245,193. 
 
 THE NAYY. 
 
 It was not till 1789, nine years after the Government 
 of the United States was organized, that a navy depart- 
 ment was created by Congress, and so late as 1861 the 
 naval force consisted of only 41 men-of-war in active 
 service, most of which were sailing vessels. On the 
 commencement of the Civil War, Congress decreed the 
 creation of a steam navy; and in 1865 the number 
 of vessels possessed by the United States Government 
 was 610. 
 
 At the close of the war the number of vessels, according 
 to the Navy Register for 1866, was 586. Of these 255 
 have been disposed of by sale, and 13 have been lost. 
 The number of vessels retained in the service is 318. 
 The largest iron-clad in the United States navy is the 
 " Dunderberg," built at New York, and launched early in 
 the year 1865. This vessel has a tonnage of 4300 tons, 
 and carries 14 guns. The United States possess eight 
 dockyards, namely — Portsmouth, Charleston, Brooklyn, 
 Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, Pensacola, and Mare 
 
334 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Island. Norfolk and Pensacola were destroyed daring 
 the Civil War; Mare Island, on the Pacific, is as yet 
 unfinished. 
 
 POST OFFICE. 
 
 The receipts of this department for the year ending 
 June, 1865, amounted to $14,556,158 (£2,911,231), and 
 the expenditure to $13,694,728 (£2,738,945), showing an 
 increase compared with the previous year at the rate of 17 
 per cent, on the receipts, and 8 per cent, on the expendi- 
 ture. The number of postage stamps and stamped enve- 
 lopes' issued amounted to $12,847,437 (£2,569,489), 
 $1,623,138 more than the previous year. The mail service 
 in operation in June, 1865, embraced 6012 routes, of the 
 aggregate length of 142,340 miles. Railway post-offices 
 have recently been established on the principal lines. 
 The aggregate postage, sea, inland, and foreign, upon the 
 correspondence exchanged with foreign countries, amounted 
 to $1,819,928, of which $1,449,530 accrued on the mails 
 exchanged with Great Britain, France, Prussia, Bremen, 
 Hamburg, and Belgium; $275,197*06 on the mails ex- 
 changed with the British North American Provinces ; and 
 $95,200*74 on the mails transmitted to and from the West 
 Indies, and Central and South America. The number of 
 post-offices established is 28,882. 
 
 Mails for the United States are made up in London 
 every Wednesday and Saturday evening, closing at six 
 o'clock. They are taken up at Queenstown on the following 
 day by the Liverpool steamers. Mails for Europe are made 
 up in New York on the same days. The postage on letters 
 between the United States and Great Britain is, for each 
 half ounce one shilling if paid in the latter country, and 24 
 
POST OFFICE. 335 
 
 cents if paid in tbe former. Prepayment is optional on either 
 side, and when prepaid, letters are not subject to a further 
 charge on delivery. Newspapers must be prepaid in either 
 country, the postage being one penny in England, and 
 two cents in the United States ; the same sum is also 
 charged on delivery in each country. The system of 
 money orders was first commenced in the United States in 
 1864, and in 1865 420 offices had been established. 
 
 Periodical works not of daily publication, issued in the 
 shape of pamphlets, may be sent from England to the 
 United States, at the following rates : — Not exceeding 
 2 oz., Id. ; above 2 oz., but not exceeding 3 oz., 6d. ; above 
 S oz., but not exceeding 4 oz., 8d. ; with an addition of 
 2d. for every additional ounce up to 16 ounces, above 
 which the privilege does not extend. At the same rate of 
 postage, any pamphlet not weighing more than 8 oz. (even 
 though it be not a periodical publication) may be sent to 
 the United States. This postage is only the British por- 
 tion, an equal sum being charged on delivery. The same 
 rates and conditions apply to publications from the United 
 States to Great Britain, two cents being equal to one 
 penny. The periodical works or pamphlets must always 
 be sent in a cover open at the ends (not more than one 
 being sent in a single cover), and the postage must be 
 prepaid. Other printed papers or books (except those 
 specified above), addressed to the United States, are liable 
 to letter rate of postage. There must be no writing, or 
 other marks upon such periodical works, pamphlets, etc., 
 or upon the covers, except the names and addresses of the 
 persons to whom they are sent ; nor upon the covers must 
 there be any printing, except the names and addresses of 
 the persons to whom they are sent, and the names and 
 addresses of the senders. Any other writing, etc., will 
 render the packets liable to letter rates of postage. 
 
136 
 
 DESCEIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 KEVENUE. 
 
 The aggregate receipts of internal revenue for the 
 years 1863, 1864, and 1865, are returned as follows : — 
 
 1863 $41,003,192 
 
 1864 116,850,672 
 
 1865 211,129,529 
 
 The receipts and expenditure for the five years ending 
 1864, were as follows : — 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 Customs. 
 
 Internal and 
 Direct Taxes. E f 
 
 Sales of 
 Land. 
 
 Loans and 
 
 Treasury Notes. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 
 $53,187,512 
 39,582,126 
 49,056,398 
 69,059,642 
 
 102,316,152 
 
 
 $1,778,558 
 870,659 
 152,204 
 167,617 
 588,333 
 
 $20,786,808 
 41,895,340 
 529,692,461 
 595,595,727 
 618,114,884 
 
 $76,841,408 
 83,371,640 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 
 $1,795,332 
 
 39,125,892 
 
 157,728,231 
 
 581,628,181 
 706,995,493 
 878,746,601 
 
 ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE, 1860 to 1864. 
 
 
 Civil List. 
 
 Navy. 
 
 War. 
 
 Interest of 
 Debt. 
 
 Total. 
 
 I860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 
 $6,077,008 
 6,074,141 
 5,939,009 
 6,350,618 
 8,059,177 
 
 $11,514,649 
 12,387,156 
 42,674,569 
 63,211,105 
 85,733,292 
 
 $16,472,202 
 23,001,530 
 394,368,407 
 599,298,600 
 690,791,842 
 
 $3,144,620 
 4,034,157 
 13,190,324 
 21,729,846 
 53,685,421 
 
 $63,154,730 
 66,571,426 
 474,744,776 
 714,609,987 
 865,234,084 
 
 The ahove does not include payments off National 
 Debt, which would increase the expenditure to the follow- 
 ing accounts : — 
 
THE NATIONAL DEBT. 337 
 
 1860 $77,055,125 
 
 1861 85,387,313 
 
 1862 370,841,700 
 
 1863 895,796,630 
 
 1864 1,298,144,656 
 
 THE NATIONAL DEBT. 
 
 The public debt of the United States on the 25th of 
 April, 1862, was officially stated at 3523,299,945 ; and on 
 the 10th of April, 1863, at $939,497,359— an increase in 
 350 days of $1,189,135 per diem. On the 26th of April, 
 1864, it was $1,656,815,105 — an increase in 381 days of 
 $1,882,723 per diem. On the 31st of March, 1865, it stood 
 at $2,366,955,077 — increasing in 339 days at the average 
 rate of $2,094,808 per diem. On the 1st day of June, 
 1866, it was $2,799,979,450, of which $1,108,000,000 
 is payable in gold, and $1,053,000,000 in the legal 
 currency of the country. The most careful and liberal 
 estimate of the Fiscal department of the Government 
 fixes the ultimate war debt at $3,000,000,000. This 
 debt is held almost entirely by American citizens, not 
 over $300,000,000 being held abroad. The immediate 
 resources of the Government for the year closing the 30th 
 of June, 1865, were from customs, internal revenue, etc., 
 $318,251,589, of which $82,000,000 was in gold from 
 customs. The annual charge on the revenue, estimating 
 the interest on 83,000,000,000 of debt, cannot exceed 
 $165,000,000, leaving an excess of revenue for other pur- 
 poses of $231,000,000. 
 
 The following is a statement of the Public Debt on the 
 1st of May, 1866:— 
 
 22 
 
338 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Debt bearing Coin Interest. 
 
 Five per cent, bonds $198,241,100 
 
 Six per cent, bonds of 
 
 1867-68 18,323,591 
 
 Six per cent, bonds of 1881 . . 283,744,151 
 
 Six per cent. 5-20 bonds 685,784,000 
 
 §1,186,092,842 
 
 Debt bearing Currency Interest. 
 
 Six per cent, bonds $4,634,000 
 
 Temporary loan 131,497,853 
 
 Certificates of indebtedness . . 62,620,000 
 One and two-year five per 
 
 cent, notes 6,036,900 
 
 Three-year componnd interest 
 
 notes 167,012,141 
 
 Three-year 7-30 notes 816,512,650 
 
 ; $1,188,313,544 
 
 Matured debt not presented for payment . . 877,729 
 
 Debt bearing no Interest. 
 
 United States notes $415,164,318 
 
 Fractional currency 28,192,017 
 
 Gold certificates of deposit . . 9,036,420 
 
 $452,392,755 
 
 Total Debt $2,827,676,870 
 
 Amount in Treasury. 
 
 Coin •.... $76,676,407 
 
 Currency 61,310,621 
 
 §137,987,028 
 
 Amount of Debt, less cash in Treasury... $2,689,689,842 
 
BANKS. 339 
 
 BANKS. 
 
 The charter of banks throughout the United States is 
 •wholly in the hands of the State authorities, and the mul- 
 tiplication of banks on a sound basis, with increased aggre- 
 gate capital, is one of the most significant features of the 
 prosperity and increase of the country. The first bank 
 which went regularly into operation in any of the States 
 was established in the city of Boston, 1784, where it still 
 exists. A law was passed by the legislature of New York 
 in 1838, and revised in 1843, which provides that any in- 
 dividual or association may engage in the business of 
 banking on depositing with the State Comptroller securities 
 either in bonds or mortgages on real estate, bearing interest 
 at 6 per cent., or United States or New York Stocks, on 
 receipt of which securities, the parties depositing the same 
 are supplied with an equal amount of notes, numbered, 
 registered, and signed by the State Comptroller ; and a 
 similar provision has been adopted in many other States. 
 Free banking, or general banking laws have been enacted 
 with varied success in most of the States. Weekly returns 
 of the condition of the banks in the city of New York are 
 required to be published. In 1853 a clearing house 
 was established in that city, and the average amount 
 cleared annually is over $6,000,000,000. 
 
340 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 View op the Condition of the Banks in the United States 
 from 1858 to 1862. 
 
 Number of banks & branches 
 Liabilities. 
 
 Capital paid in 
 
 Circulation 
 
 Deposits 
 
 Due to other banks 
 
 Other liabilities 
 
 Profits, etc 
 
 1,422 
 
 $394,622,799 
 
 155,208,344 
 
 185,932,049 
 
 51,169,875 
 
 14,166,713 
 
 47,495,973 
 
 Total liabilities 
 
 Resources. 
 
 Loans and discounts 
 
 Stocks 
 
 Real estate 
 
 Other investments . . 
 Due by other banks 
 Notes of other banks 
 
 Cash items 
 
 Specie 
 
 Total resources 
 
 1858. 
 
 1,562 
 
 $421,880,095 
 
 207,102,477 
 
 253,802,129 
 
 55,932,91S 
 
 14,661,815 
 
 46,479,873 
 
 $848,595,753 
 
 583,165,242 
 60,305,260 
 28,755,834 
 6,075,906 
 58,052,802 
 22,447,436 
 15,380,441 
 74,412,832 
 
 Aggregate cash, i.e., of cir 
 culation, deposits, and 
 dues to other banks .... 
 
 Aggregate cash means, i.e., 
 of specie, cash items, notes 
 of other banks, and dues 
 from other banks 
 
 Gold and silver in U. S 
 Treasury 
 
 Specie in banks and treasury 
 
 $848,595,753 
 
 392,310,268 
 
 170,293,511 
 
 10,229,229 
 84,642,061 
 
 1860. 
 
 1862. 
 
 $999,859,307 
 
 691,945,580 
 70,344,343 
 30,782,131 
 11,123,171 
 67,235,457 
 25,502,567 
 19,331,521 
 83,594,537 
 
 1,492 
 
 $418,139,741 
 
 183,692,070 
 
 296,322,400 
 
 61,144,550 
 
 21,633.003 
 
 31,218,850 
 
 $1,012,150,614 
 
 646,680,715 
 99,010,960 
 32,326,650 
 13,648,006 
 65,256,581 
 25,253,518 
 27,827,970 
 
 102,146,214 
 
 $999,859,307 
 
 516,837,524 
 
 195,664,082 
 
 6,695,225 
 90,289,762 
 
 $1,012,150,614 
 541,159,020 
 
 220,484,283 
 
 16,210,100 
 118,356,314 
 
 Since the expiration of the United States Bank Charter, 
 in 1836, there has been no general national bank, but since 
 the war there has been established by Congress in most of 
 
BANKS. 341 
 
 the individual States, what are termed National Banks. 
 The bills of any one of these may be cashed at par by the 
 State banks in any other State, nnlike the bills of the old 
 banks, which were often subjected to heavy discount in 
 distant States. Established in 1863, their progress may 
 be gathered from the following table : — 
 
 Capital. Circulation. 
 
 October, 1863, the number of 
 
 Banks was .• 94 $7,184,715 
 
 In April, 1864 „ „ 357 42,204,474 812,144,650 
 
 In October, 1864 „ „ 524 99,339,400 51,394,150 
 
 In April, 1865 „ „ 973 225,246,300 111,634,670 
 
 la October, 1865 „ „ 1,650 394,960,333 179,981,520 
 
 The amount of notes furnished to the National Banks 
 up to and including the 31st of October was a little over 
 8205,000,000. In addition to the United States notes,, 
 there were also outstanding 832,536,900 five per cent,. 
 Treasury notes, and $173,012,140 compound interest notes, 
 of which it is estimated that §30,000,000 were in circula- 
 tion as currency. 
 
 The paper circulation of the United States, on the 
 31st of October, 1865, was substantially as follows : — 
 
 1. United States notes and fractional 
 
 currency $454,218,038.20 
 
 2. Notes of the National Banks 185,000,000.00 
 
 3. Notes of State Banks, including out- 
 
 standing issues of State Banks con- 
 verted into National Banks 65,000,000.00 
 
 $704,218,038.20 
 
 The returns of savings' banks, in the few States where 
 annual and accurate reports are published, furnish definite 
 information respecting the material condition of the labour- 
 
342 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 ing classes. In the State of New York, the deposits in 
 the savings' banks increased from 1858 to 1861 as follows : — 
 
 1860 358,178,000 
 
 1861 67,440,000 
 
 1858 $41,472,000 
 
 1859 48,194,000 
 
 The returns of the savings' banks of Massachusetts are 
 more complete than those of New York. Taking the ten 
 years from 1850 to 1860, the deposits in this State in- 
 creased 231 per cent. In the same period the population 
 of the State increased about 24 per cent. ; the total valua- 
 tion, about 50 per cent. ; and the bank capital, about 75 
 per cent. The accumulation of industrial savings, there- 
 fore, exceeded all the other ratios of State development in 
 the above-mentioned period. The deposits from 1860 to 
 1863 (inclusive) have been as follows : — 
 
 1860 $45,054,000 
 
 1861 44,785,000 
 
 1862 $50,403,000 
 
 1863 56,883,000 
 
 Returns from the other New England States show a 
 similar progressive increase of deposits during the last few 
 years ; and the same is also probably true of the other 
 Northern States. 
 
 THE NATIONAL SECURITIES. 
 
 The " Seven-thirties " represent a Currency Loan having 
 three years to run, and then convertible into a gold interest 
 6 per cent, stock, having twenty years to run, but with the 
 right reserved to the Government of paying off the loan, 
 in gold, at any time after five years. The term " Seven- 
 thirties " is derived from the rate of interest which these 
 three-years convertible notes bear, to wit, two cents per 
 
THE NATIONAL SECURITIES. 343 
 
 day on each $100, or for 365 days, seven dollars and thirty 
 cents on each §100. 
 
 The term " Five-twenties " is applied to the 6 per cent, 
 gold-bearing bonds of the United States, to which twenty 
 years half-yearly coupons are attached, but which may be 
 paid off by the Government, on due notice to the holders, 
 at any time after five years. 
 
 The term " Ten-forties " is applied to the 5 per cent, 
 gold-bearing bonds of the United States, to which half- 
 yearly coupons are attached for forty years, but which may 
 be paid off in gold on notice to the holders, at any time 
 after ten years. 
 
 The long, or unconditional G per cent, gold-bearing 
 loan, known as the G per cent, of 1881, cannot be redeemed 
 by the Government at all, except by purchase. 
 
 The outstanding and authorized totals of each of the 
 above were, May 1, 18G5, as follows : — 
 
 Seven-thirties $600,000,000 
 
 Five-twenties 596,545,900 
 
 Ten-forties 172,770,100 
 
 Sixes of 1881 281,561,400 
 
 Total §1,650,877,400 
 
 Interest in currency on $600,000,000 
 
 Interest in gold on 1,050,877,400— $1,650,877,400 
 
 In addition to the gold interest stocks here classified, there 
 is outstanding $48,868,891 of the old funded 5 and 6 per 
 cents, of the United States, upon which the interest is paid 
 in gold, and the principal of which will be redeemed in 
 gold when due. 
 
 The term " Greenbacks " and " Legal Tender " are con- 
 vertible. All the greenbacks are legal tender; bat 
 $433,160,569 are of the ordinary circulation, free of in- 
 
344 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 terest, and $226,000,000 bear simple or compound interest, 
 payable on the maturity of the notes, most of them 6 per 
 cents., payable three years after 1864, the interest com- 
 pounded in a table on the back of the note eveiy six months. 
 The currency of the United States is based on a 
 decimal system, of which the dollar forms the base, or 
 unit. The gold coins are of five denominations, to wit : — 
 The Double Eagle, worth $20, the largest gold coin issued 
 in the world ; the next in value is the Eagle, of the value 
 of $10 ; then folloAV the Half-Eagle, $5 ; and the Quarter- 
 Eagle, $2£ ; and the Dollar, of the value of a hundred cents. 
 The following coins are always of silver : — The Half-Dollar, 
 50 cents ; the Quarter-Dollar, 25 cents ; the Dime (from 
 decern, ten), 10 cents ; the Half-Dime, 5 cents. The Cent 
 (Latin, centum, a hundred), the 100th part of a dollar, is 
 composed of copper alloyed with nickel. The Mill is a 
 nominal sum (Latin, -mille, a thousand), worth the 1000th 
 part of a dollar. The cent has precisely the same value as 
 the English halfpenny, but is less than half the size, owing 
 to the nickel used in its composition. 
 
 REAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY. 
 
 The increase in the value of real and personal property 
 of the whole United States for the decennial period of 
 1850-60, as shown in the following table, was in the ratio 
 of over 126 per cent. : — 
 
REAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY. 
 
 345 
 
 States. 
 
 In 1860. 
 
 Increase 
 Bince 1850. 
 
 Increase pr 
 
 cent, for 10 
 
 years. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 $495,237,078 
 219,256,473 
 207,874,623 
 414,274,114 
 
 46,242,181 
 
 73,101,500 
 645,895,237 
 871,860,282 
 528,835,371 
 247,338,265 
 
 31,327,895 
 666,043,112 
 602,118,568 
 190,211,600 
 376,919,944 
 815,237,433 
 257,363,983 
 
 52,294,413 
 607,324,911 
 501,214,398 
 156,310,860 
 467,918,324 
 1,843,388,517 
 358,739,399 
 1,193,898,422 
 
 28,930,637 
 1,416,501,818 
 135,337,588 
 548,138,754 
 493,903,892 
 365,200,614 
 122,477,170 
 793,249,681 
 273,671,668 
 
 41,084,945 
 9,131,056 
 
 20,813,768 
 5,596,118 
 5,601,466 
 
 $267,032,746 
 179,415,448 
 185,712,741 
 288,556,134 
 25,179,625 
 50,239,230 
 310,469,523 
 715,595,276 
 326,185,107 
 223,623,627 
 
 117-01 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 450-02 
 
 California 
 
 837 98 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 185-32 
 
 
 11954 
 
 Florida 
 
 219-74 
 
 Georgia 
 
 92-56 
 
 Illinois . 
 
 457-93 
 
 Indiana 
 
 160-95 
 
 Iowa 
 
 942-97 
 
 
 
 Kentucky . . 
 
 361,414,656 
 368,119,804 
 67,434,029 
 157,702,580 
 241,895,147 
 197,376,728 
 
 120-81 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 15730 
 
 Maine , 
 
 54-92 
 
 Maryland 
 
 71-93 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 42-19 
 
 Michigan 
 
 33013 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 378,373,781 
 363,966,691 
 
 52,658,025 
 267,918,324 
 763,029,301 
 131,938,927 
 689,172,302 
 
 23,867,163 
 694,015,698 
 
 54,828,794 
 259,881,060 
 292,657,206 
 312,460,141 
 
 30,272,121 
 362,618,599 
 231,615,073 
 
 27,066,071 
 
 16526 
 
 Missouri 
 
 265-18 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 5080 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 13395 
 
 New York 
 
 7063 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 58-17 
 
 Ohio 
 
 13654 
 
 Oregon 
 
 47435 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 96 05 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 68-10 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 9015 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 145-42 
 
 Texas 
 
 592-44 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 32-83 
 
 84-17 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 550-72 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 19306 
 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 15,639,298 
 4,610,035 
 
 302-24 
 
 Utah 
 
 467-50 j 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 
 
 
 
 $16,159,616,068 
 
 $8,925,481,011 
 
 126-45 
 
 
 
346 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The officially assessed value of the real and personal 
 property of the United States in 1860 is thus stated at 
 $16,159,000,000. Large as this valuation seems, it is, 
 nevertheless, in the opinion of the best statisticians, con- 
 siderably below a true estimate ; inasmuch as real propert} r , 
 in actual practice, is rarely valued, for census returns and 
 for purposes of assessment, at more than two-thirds of its 
 real value, while large amounts of personal property escape 
 valuation and assessment altogether. 
 
 The following table shows the estimated or official valua- 
 tion of the wealth of the country for each decennial period 
 since 1791 ; the increased decennial percentage value ; and 
 the average property to each person. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Value of real and 
 personal property. 
 
 Decennial per 
 
 centage increase 
 
 of wealth. 
 
 Average 
 property to 
 each person. 
 
 1790 
 1800 
 1810 
 1820 
 1830 
 1840 
 1850 
 1860 
 1865 
 
 3,929,827 
 
 5,305,937 
 
 7,239,814 
 
 9,638,191 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 17,069,453 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 31,500,000 
 (assumed) 
 34,000,000 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 $750,000,000 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 1,072,000,000 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 1,500,000,000 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 1,882,000,000 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 2,653,000,000 
 
 (official) 
 3,764,000,000 
 
 (official) 
 7,135,780,000 
 
 (official) 
 16,159,000,000 
 (estimated) 
 21,574,000,000 
 
 
 §187-00 
 202-13 
 207-20 
 195-00 
 206-00 
 220-00 
 307-67 
 510-00 
 634-52 
 
 43 per cent. 
 39 
 
 25-4 „ 
 41 
 
 41-7 „ 
 
 89-6 „ 
 
 126-42 „ 
 
 
 
EXCHANGE. 347 
 
 EXCHANGE. 
 
 The par of Exchange between England and the United 
 States is determined by the relative proportion of pare 
 metal in the coined piece which forms the unit of price 
 in the different commercial countries of the world ; the 
 alloy is reckoned of no value. 
 
 " To simplify the matter as much as possible, we will 
 waive all considerations of the different standards of fine- 
 ness, and state that the American dollar contains 23.22.100 
 grains of pure gold, and the English sovereign 113 grains 
 of the same. Every person may not know that the sove- 
 reign is the coined piece of which the pound sterling is 
 the money of account. A simple calculation in the rule of 
 three, therefore, determines that the equivalent of the 
 pound sterling is $4.86.65.100 of American currency. 
 
 Thus, as 23.22.100 is to 1, so is 113 to §4.86.65.100. 
 But, through all the variations of the Mint Laws in the 
 United States and elsewhere — indeed for ages — English 
 merchants have been accustomed to value the pound 
 sterling by the old Spanish Carolus pillar dollars now en- 
 tirely out of circulation in Europe and America. Of these 
 $4.44.44.100 were equivalent to the pound sterling. It 
 will be seen that it requires the addition of 9| per cent., 
 with a scarcely appreciable fraction, to make the value of 
 the pound sterling in American currency at the Exchange 
 prevailing at the outbreak of the American rebellion." — 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. 
 
 Thus $4.44.44.100 
 
 Add 9 1 per cent, premium of Exchange . . . 0.42.22.000 
 
 Total §4.86.66.100 
 
348 DESCEIPTIYE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 EXCHANGE TABLE 
 
 Showing the value of Greenbacks at the different Rates of Exchange, 
 from Par to 200 ; with rule for calculating the same. 
 
 3 s.d. 
 With gold at Par 1 is equal to 4 2 (here 2 cents are equal to 
 
 „ 125 1 „ 3 4 one penny.) 
 
 130 1 „ 3 2 6-13 
 
 „ 135 1 „ 3 1 10-35 
 
 140 1 „ 2 11 6-14 
 
 146 1 „ 210 47-5S 
 
 3, 150 1 „ 2 9 5-15 (here 3 cents are equal to 
 
 „ 155 1 „ 2 8 8-31 one penny.) 
 
 160 1 „ 2 7{ 
 
 „ 165 1 „ 2 6 10-33 
 
 170 1 „ 2 5 7-17 
 
 „ 175 1 „ 2 4 1-14 (here 3^ cents are equal to 
 
 „ 180 1 „ 2 3h 5-18 " one penny.) 
 
 „ 185 1 „ 2 3 1-37 
 
 „ 190 1 „ 2 2 6-19 
 
 „ 195 1 „ 2 1 2?i-196 
 
 „ 200 1 „ 2 1 (here 4 cents are equal to 
 
 one penny.) 
 
 Eule. — To find the value of one dollar at any quotation, divide 
 10,000 by the quotation of gold, and the quotient will be the value in 
 halfpence. Thus :— Gold at 175 
 
 175) 10,000 (57 25-175 halfpence = 2s. Ud. 12^-175 
 875 
 
 1250 
 1225 
 
LEGAL INTEREST AND USURY. 349 
 
 LEGAL INTEREST AND USUBY. 
 
 The laws relating to interest and usury differ con- 
 siderably in the several States. In California, Oregon, 
 and Kansas the legal rate is ten per cent., and in the other 
 States it varies from five to eight per cent. Usury laws 
 exist in nearly all the States, restricting interest to the 
 legal rates ; but public opinion is so far in advance of the 
 law, that it is constantly evaded, and special agreements 
 for the use of money are made in all the States, regardless 
 of the usury laws. The average rate of interest in the 
 Eastern and Middle States is seven per cent., in many of 
 the Western States twelve per cent., and in California, as 
 well as in other parts of the extreme west, much higher 
 rates prevail. The Government rate for loans payable in 
 currency is 7~ per cent.; this has therefore been adopted 
 by many of the States as the legal rate. This fraction is 
 adopted for convenience of reckoning -7-^ per cent, being- 
 two cents per day on every $100. 
 
CHAPTER XXL 
 
 AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 To the philosophical observer, the United States now 
 presents a unique aspect. The most varied and hetero- 
 geneous population in the world exists upon terms of perfect 
 equality, obeying the same laws, supporting the same in- 
 stitutions, and speaking the same language, with but a 
 limited diversity of idiom or even pronunciations. Viewed 
 in this light, America has been aptly termed " the grave 
 of nationalities." Says a graphic American author, Henry 
 Tuckerman : — " Whole communities now are nationally 
 representative. Each people finds its church, its fetes, its- 
 newspapers, costume, and habits organized in America. 
 Every convulsion or disaster abroad brings its community 
 of exiles to our shores. After the French Revolution 
 nobles and people flocked hither ; after the massacre at 
 St. Domingo, the Creoles who escaped found refuge 
 here ; famine has sent thousands of Irish ; and in the 
 West is a vast and thrifty German population. Hun- 
 garians make wine in Ohio ; Jenny Lind found her coun- 
 trymen on the banks of the Delaware ; an Italian regiment 
 was organized in a few days when New York summoned 
 her citizens to the defence of the Union ; and in that city 
 the tokens of every nationality are apparent — the French 
 table-d'hote, the Italian caffe, the German beer-garden, 
 image-venders from Genoa, and organ-grinders from Lucca, 
 
AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 351 
 
 theatres, journals, churches, music, and manners peculiar 
 to every people, from the Jewish synagogue to the Roman 
 convent, betoken the versatile and protected emigration. 
 It is when the free scope and the mutual respect, the perfect 
 self-reliance and undisturbed individuality, of all these 
 opposite demonstrations, indicative of an eclectic, tolerant, 
 self-subsistent social order, combination, and utterance, 
 pass before the senses, and impress the thought, that we 
 realize what has been done and is doing on this continent 
 for man as such ; and the unhallowed devotion to the im- 
 mediate, the constant superficial excitements, the inhar- 
 monious code of manners, the lawlessness of border and 
 the extravagance of metropolitan life, the feverish ambition, 
 the license of the press — all the blots on the escutcheon of 
 the Republic, grow insignificant before the sublime possi- 
 bilities whereof probity and beneficence, tact and talent, 
 high impulse and adventurous zeal, may here take advan- 
 tage." The basis of the immense variety of races is the 
 English and Scotch emigration ; though, for some years 
 past, that of Ireland has far exceeded the contribution of 
 all the rest of Europe put together. The German element 
 is also largely represented. On the Pacific, an entirely new 
 element has of late years made its appearance ; and China 
 has also commenced pouring in her quota. 
 
 In the midst of all this seeming chaos of nationalities, 
 permeating, vivifying, controlling, and characterizing the 
 whole, the Anglo-Saxon element is pre-eminent. It is a 
 common mistake to suppose that, inasmuch as the popula- 
 tion of the United States is heterogeneous and varied, that 
 it is therefore indiscriminate, or compounded of the many 
 elements which it receives and numbers. This, however, 
 is far from being the case. Each population retains its 
 entirety, preserving with pride and affection the recollec- 
 tion of its origin, and cherishing, sometimes to the third 
 
352 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 generation, the customs, habits, and predilections of the 
 father-land. The English element particularly clings to 
 this exclusiveness. The descendants alike of the Puritans 
 of New England, and of the Cavaliers who settled Vir- 
 ginia, have scarcely intermixed in the least with any of 
 the races by which they are surrounded ; and, despite 
 occasional heartburnings, have ever cherished the warmest 
 affection for their ancestral home. The very name of 
 England is dear to this, the American people proper. The 
 hope of one day visiting the scenes hallowed by the genius 
 of Milton, and Shakespeare, and Scott, is fondly cherished 
 by the educated classes. Indeed, it is doubtful whether his 
 native country has the same high degree of romantic 
 interest for the Englishman as for his descendant in 
 America, who spends his life in weaving a cluster of asso- 
 ciations drawn from the history, the poesy, and the won- 
 derful prose fiction of a land which he has never seen ! 
 
 The Anglo-American, in his good as well as in his bad 
 traits, is essentially English. Nearly every peculiarity may 
 be traced to the influence of locality, institutions, or other 
 circumstances. The Government being democratic, there 
 is less of the subserviency and humble civility which cha- 
 racterize the lower classes in Europe ; but ample compen- 
 sation for the lack of the more refined observances of old 
 communities is found in the frankness and cordial sim- 
 plicity which abound everywhere. The greatest freedom 
 of intercourse prevails, and a total absence of the com- 
 paratively formal manners of European society entirely 
 obviates the sense of loneliness that oppresses the unac- 
 credited stranger in the Old World. The people are free 
 from the depressing anxieties which accompany the fierce 
 struggle for existence in olden communities, and exhibit 
 an inexpressible buoyancy which is contagious. There is 
 an elastic spring in the very gait of an American ; his 
 
AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 353 
 
 movements are quick and nervous, and a certain dash ac- 
 companies his most ordinary actions. 
 
 The unceasing bustle which pervades all American society 
 forces itself upon the observation of every foreigner. The 
 Americans are certainly a fast people ; they eat fast, talk fast, 
 and walk fast. They seem to be constantly inhaling an extra 
 proportion of oxygen, or to be overcharged with electricity. 
 Indeed, some theorists have gravely endeavoured to 
 account for the redundant excitability and energy of the 
 Yankee, by attributing it to the over-accumulation of 
 animal electricity in an exceedingly dry atmosphere. But 
 this theory will not bear investigation, as we find the 
 same dryness of atmosphere in the interior of all great 
 continents. It is inhaled equally by the lazy Mexican 
 of the table-land, the contented Chilian, and the half- 
 civilized native of Thibet, and its effects upon the stolid 
 predecessor of Brother Jonathan in America were not 
 perceptible. The more reasonable hypothesis is, that the 
 stimulus of that unequalled activity which we see in the 
 United States is not physical but intellectual ; that it is 
 the abundant infusion of hope into the moral atmosphere. 
 The materials and facilities for the acquisition of wealth 
 are so abundant as to be within easy reach of all, and no 
 one need despair of attaining a competency by the exercise 
 of a reasonable amount of prudence and economy. The 
 abundant opportunities for profitable investments have 
 also given birth to a spirit of economy and temperance in 
 the industrial classes, utterly unknown in Europe : some- 
 thing analogous to it might spring up in England if 
 savings' banks offered to depositors ten per cent, interest, 
 with a chance of realizing a hundred. In most of the 
 States money may be lent with perfect safety, at ten to 
 twenty per cent., and investments in land and " town lots " 
 are often in a few years doubled, trebled, or quadrupled in 
 
 23 
 
35-i DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 value. The dread of becoming poor, which, haunts the 
 existence of the middle classes in England, is unknown in 
 America ; the pawnbroker's shop is almost unknown, and 
 the beggar and vagrant are seldom seen. Moreover, a 
 limit is fixed to the impoverishment of the labouring- 
 classes by a peculiar feature in the laws of most of the 
 States, the operation of which seems to have been hereto- 
 fore overlooked by those who have endeavoured to gain an 
 insight into American institutions. This is what is known 
 ;as the " Homestead Exemption Law," by which is reserved 
 to each family possessing property either a freehold or an 
 -equivalent, of the value of from $500 to $1000, such re- 
 served property remaining free from execution for debt. 
 The tools of a mechanic are also exempt from seizure 
 should misfortune fall upon him. Thus no man, except by 
 his own free will, can ever be reduced to the condition of a 
 pauper. In California the exemption includes property to 
 the value of $2000 (£400). 
 
 With laws and institutions favouring distribution, 
 and with unlimited room for expansion, it is not likely 
 that pauperism will ever become an incubus on 
 -society. Says Mr. W. Chambers, in his " Things as 
 they Are in America : " — " In no part of America 
 did I see any beggars or ragged vagrants ; and except 
 in ISTew York, the condition of which is exceedingly 
 anomalous, I did not observe any drunkenness, there 
 having been, as I understood, a great reform in this par- 
 ticular. I should say that, independently of the ' Maine 
 Law,' public opinion on the subject of drinking usages is 
 considerably in advance of that of England. Other things 
 struck me favourably. I observed that all classes were 
 well dressed. My attention was called to the fact, that 
 when operatives had finished the labours of the day, they 
 generally changed their garments, and were as neatly 
 
AMERICAN CHAEACTEEISTICS. 355 
 
 attired as those in higher stations. It was also observable 
 that mechanics in good employment occupy better houses, 
 pay higher rents, and dress their wives and families better 
 than is usual in England or Scotland ; that they, in short, 
 aim at living in greater respectability, and in doing so 
 necessarily avoid such indulgences as would improperly 
 absorb their means. It was agreeable to note that the 
 English language is everywhere spoken well. I heard no 
 jpatois, no local dialect. The tone of speech was uniform, 
 though more nasal in some parts of New England than in 
 other places." 
 
 To whatever cause attributable the Americans are 
 certainly remarkable for sobriety. This spirit has mani- 
 fested itself not only in the exercise of individual abstemi- 
 ousness, but in the formation throughout the whole 
 country of Total Abstinence Societies, whose members are 
 numbered, by hundreds of thousands. The most striking 
 proof of the fact, however, is the existence of what are 
 called " Maine Liquor Laws," from the circumstance that 
 the first of the kind originated in the State of Maine. 
 This law has been adopted throughout ISTew England, and 
 in some other States, and hundreds of individual counties 
 have procured special enactments of the kind for their 
 separate benefit. These laws having all been enacted 
 under a system of universal suffrage, afford a striking proof 
 of the intelligence and self-control of the mass of the 
 American people. This dislike of intemperance exists to 
 such a degree as to attach more or less odium and loss of 
 caste to all engaged in the manufacture or sale of spiri- 
 tuous liquors. In most religious denominations it is a 
 disqualification for membership in the church. The 
 earnest desire manifested by all classes to educate them- 
 selves and their children is not less striking than their 
 sobriety. Here again the people have made the Legislature 
 
356 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 the instrument of accomplishing their wishes. The same 
 bounteous public domain which offers the settler from 
 every country a home without price, is made to afford his 
 children the elements of a good education, without the 
 expenditure of a dollar out of his own pocket. 
 
 As there is no man who may not hope to be rich, 
 so there is no citizen so humble that he may not 
 reasonably aspire to the highest position in the State. 
 With all this, there yet exists a very clear distinction 
 of classes. It must not be supposed that because the 
 artisan may aspire to be President, that he moves in the 
 same circle while an artisan. But there is nothing like 
 caste. Each individual stands upon his own merits, and 
 wealth and intellectual culture are the key to the best 
 society. There are no sinecures in the Government, and 
 bo church establishment, furnishing snug livings, unbur- 
 dened with actual duties. There scarcely exists a distinct 
 class corresponding to the European idea of the " gentle- 
 man." Whether this gap in American society is matter 
 of regret, it is hard to say ; but it is not likely to remain 
 unfilled. The accumulation of property goes on rapidly, 
 notwithstanding the absence of entail and primogeniture, 
 and doubtless the tendency of the funding of the immense 
 national debt will be to widen and render more permanent 
 social classification, founded on inoperative capital. 
 
 A peculiar feature of American society is the respect 
 with which women are treated. This is manifested in 
 every department of social life, and under all circumstances. 
 No one ever thinks of retaining his seat in a railway carriage, 
 or in a public assembly, if there is a woman standing near. 
 Gentlemen of the highest station unhesitatingly yield pre- 
 cedence to females, no matter how humble. This superior 
 consideration for the weaker sex extends further than mere 
 courtesy. In many of the States the laws guarantee to 
 
AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 357 
 
 women separate ownership, and in case of the incapacity 
 or intemperance of their husbands, separate control of their 
 own property. In Texas, and one or two other States, her 
 estate is not only distinct from that of her husband, but is 
 entirely beyond his control. Female education is also con- 
 ducted on a much broader and higher scale than in Europe. 
 In America accomplishments are not the end, but only an 
 incidental part, of the education of woman. She is taught 
 music and painting, but she is also instructed in the 
 sciences. Even physiology and anatomy form part of the 
 training of every highly-educated woman ; and the same 
 may be said of those branches of social and political science 
 usually considered totally incompatible with the female 
 character. It is not surprising that with such, advantages 
 the superior intellectuality of American women should be 
 a theme with all foreigners who visit the United States. 
 
 Side by side with so much that is excellent, there exist 
 palpable defects, the result, perhaps, of a somewhat transi- 
 tional state of society. The same democratic institutions 
 which have had so wholesome an effect in softening the 
 sharp lines of artificial distinctions, and infusing vigour 
 and hope into all the transactions of life, have not bestowed, 
 unalloyed good. Universal suffrage, by making the un- 
 educated masses the judge and rewarders of merit, have 
 often had the effect of driving from the political arena 
 men of learning and ability too profound to be appreciated 
 by the half-informed, and to cause public offices — even 
 those of a judicial character — to be often filled by indi- 
 viduals of little ability, in many instances by demagogues, 
 who excel only in the art of courting public favour. Owing 
 to this cause, it is an undeniable fact that mediocrity, both 
 intellectual and moral, not only wins, but too often wins 
 against superior merit. This exercises a baleful influence 
 in every department of life. The success which rewards 
 
358 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 shallow attainments, when accompanied with tact, has 
 even to some extent discouraged thoroughness in educa- 
 tional training. Teachers of thorough erudition, in the 
 European sense of the term, are rare ; a fact the less sur- 
 prising since the profoundest learning is rewarded at the 
 same low figure with the services of the man of medium 
 attainments. About $2000 (£400) is considered a liberal 
 salary for the erudite professor, the learned judge, and the 
 eloquent divine. The result of all this is a degree of 
 sciolism which it must be admitted accompanies that uni- 
 versal mental culture for which the American people are 
 remarkable. It pervades the forum, the rostrum, and i3 
 found — with many honourable exceptions — in every de- 
 partment of literature, where its effects are felt in the 
 number of trashy books and periodicals that issue annually 
 from the presk 
 
 Other effects of the exuberance of civil liberty crop out 
 in the prevalence of mob-law — now happily on the wane. 
 A disposition to unduly magnify and laud themselves, to 
 glorify their own power, and the freedom and happiness 
 which they enjoy, has also been charged against the 
 Americans, as it has been for centuries charged by the 
 English against the French, and by the French against 
 the English. On this point the judicious observer can only 
 give a qualified assent when he reflects that national vanity 
 is a universal characteristic of all nationalities in all ages. 
 
 These defects are mostly the consequence of imperfec- 
 tions by no means incurable, and will disappear before the 
 introduction of educational qualifications for voters, longer 
 tenures of public office; and, in fine, all those changes 
 which make a new society an old society, and, while adding 
 to its wisdom and experience, give rise to those necessary 
 divisions of function and moderate social classifications 
 indispensable to all civilizations. 
 
AMERICANISMS. 359 
 
 AMERICANISMS. 
 
 By far the greater part of those peculiarities in idiom, 
 pronunciation, and epithet, known as " Americanisms," 
 are really no more than English provincialisms. The 
 New England States, having been settled almost entirely 
 by the Roundheads during the Revolution of 1640, are 
 still to some extent characterized by the nasal tone 
 which then so strongly marked their speech in Eng- 
 land. For the same reason, New England, despite the- 
 influence of her wonderful free school system, still retains, 
 many English provincialisms. The people of that section, 
 use many English words as old as Chaucer. Few of these, 
 however, are peculiar to the United States, for they may 
 nearly all still be heard in the various counties of Eng- 
 land ; almost every glossary of English pronunciations 
 containing some of those words now in common use in 
 New England. Those parts of the British Isles which 
 have contributed most to Americanisms (so called) are 
 the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Scottish 
 borders. Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were, like 
 New England, purely English in their origin ; they have, 
 however, less strongly-marked peculiarities of language. 
 
 In the South- Western States, more especially Louisiana, 
 many words of a French and Spanish origin have found a 
 permanent place in the language ; and some have extended 
 over the whole national area. Among those are the French 
 bayou, levee, crevasse, habitan, royageiir ; and the Spanish 
 terms, sierra, barranca, canon, rancho, fandango, lasso, 
 stampede, and vamose. 
 
 Terms derived from the aboriginal Indian language are 
 numerous, and in common use over the whole continent. 
 Among these are the names of animals — as caymo/n, moose, 
 
360 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 opossum, raccoon, manitee; names of plants, articles of 
 food, etc., as persimmon, chincapin, pecan, maize, tobacco, 
 hominy, succotash, mandioca ; articles of dress, social terms, 
 etc., as hammock, moccasin, wigwam, sachem, cazique, squaw, 
 pappoos, etc. There is a large class of words also common 
 to the whole country, which have grown out of the pecu- 
 liar social and political phases of the nation. Among 
 these are, canvass, mass-meeting, lobby, mileage, senatorial, 
 gubernatorial, buncombe, squatter, backwoods, cane brake, 
 cornshucking, diggings, prairie, pre-emption, savannah, 
 location, etc. 
 
 Besides the Americanisms proper, there is a class of 
 cant words and phrases frequently used in conversation. 
 Such are, to acknowledge the corn, to flash in the pan, to cave 
 in, to bark up the wrong tree, to wake up the wrong passenger, 
 to pull up stakes, to walk into, to slope, to skedaddle, etc. 
 
 Formidable as the list of Americanisms appears in 
 works specially devoted to their collection, yet, owing to 
 the general diffusion of education in the United States, 
 the almost universal habit of reading newspapers and 
 books, and the constant intercourse prevailing between the 
 remotest sections, there is no country of equal extent on 
 the globe where one language is spoken with greater purity 
 and with as much uniformity. As a striking illustration 
 of this, the traveller may traverse the whole Union, from 
 Maine to Texas — a greater distance than that intervening 
 between London and Constantinople — without meeting 
 with as marked a deflection from the standard of correct 
 English as he would in passing from one English county 
 to another. Americanisms, though properly only con- 
 sisting of terms and phrases which have originated in 
 America, have been, as has been shown, divided into 
 several distinct classes, covering a much wider scope; 
 first, into words and phrases wholly new, or Americanisms 
 
AMERICANISMS. 
 
 361 
 
 par excellence; secondly, old English words with new or 
 obsolete meanings ; thirdly, words which have become pro- 
 vincial in England, but are still in general use in America ; 
 fourthly, new methods of accentuation or pronunciation ; 
 fifthly, words and phrases derived from various European 
 languages other than English ; sixthly, aboriginal words. 
 
 The following list comprises those in most common 
 use : — 
 
 Acknowledge the coen, to confess a charge or imputation. 
 
 To allow, to conclude, to decide as true. 
 
 Bagasse, sugar-cane from which the juice has been pressed. 
 
 Baggage, used instead of luggage. 
 
 Balance, meaning remainder. 
 
 Banquette, the name for the side-walk in some of the Southern cities. 
 
 To bark up the wrong tree, a common expression to denote that 
 
 a person has mistaken his object. 
 To bat, to bat the eyes, in Southern parlance, is to wink. 
 Bayou (Fr.), in Louisiana, the outlet of a lake, a channel for water. 
 Bender, in New York, a spree, a frolic ; to " go on a bender" is to go 
 
 on a spree. 
 Big bugs, people of consequence. 
 B'hoys, boys, a name applied to a class of noisy young men of the 
 
 lower ranks of society in New York. 
 Blue, gloomy, severe, extreme, ultra. 
 Boards, used to signify all kinds of boards, not over an inch in 
 
 thickness. 
 Bogus, counterfeit, false, fraudulent. 
 Boss, an employer, or superintendent of labour. 
 Bonny clabber (Irish, baine, milk; and clabar, mud), milk turned 
 
 sour and thick. 
 Boodle, " the whole boodle of them," i. e. all, the whole. 
 Bookstore, a place where books are sold ; it is the common term in 
 
 the United States for what is called in England a bookseller's shop. 
 Breadstuffs, anything from which bread is made. 
 Buncombe, or bunkum, speech intended to catch the applause or 
 
 favour of the vulgar. 
 Bureau, universally used to the exclusion of " chest of drawers." ^ 
 Calico, printed cotton goods ; in England all cotton goods in the piece. 
 To calculate, to suppose, to believe, to think, to expect, intend, etc. 
 Caucus, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to agree 
 
 upon the plans to be pursued at an approaching election. 
 Caption, the heading of a chapter, section, or page. 
 To CAVE IN, to break down, give up. 
 
 Chicken fixings, in the Western States a chicken fricassee. 
 Chore, a small piece of domestic work, a little job, a char. 
 
362. DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 Claim, a piece of land which a squatter settles upon, with the inten- 
 tion of purchasing it when the Government offers it for sale. 
 
 Cleyer, good-natured, obliging; in England quick-witted or intelligent. 
 
 Corduroy road, a road or causeway constructed with logs laid 
 together over swamps or marshy places. 
 
 Corn, means only maize, in England it means all small grain. 
 
 Crooked stick:, a cross-grained, perverse person. 
 
 Creek, a small river; in England a small arm of the sea. 
 
 Cruel, one of the numerous substitutes for very, exceedingly. 
 
 To cry, to publish the banns of marriage in church. 
 
 Cutter, a light one-horse sleigh. 
 
 Dead head, a person who gets something of commercial value without 
 special payment or charge ; persons who go by rail, travel in 
 steamboats, or visit theatres without charge, are dead heads. 
 
 Dead horse, work for which one has been paid before it is performed. 
 
 Deck, a pack of cards. 
 
 Declination, the refusal to accept a nomination to office. 
 
 Desk, the pulpit in a church, and figuratively the clerical profession. 
 
 Disremember, to forget, used chiefly in the Southern States. 
 
 Doggery, a low drinking-house. 
 
 Doless, inefficient, he is a doless sort of fellow. 
 
 Dolittle, a drone, an idle person. 
 
 Domestics, used only in the plural ; domestic goods, i. e. cotton goods 
 of American manufacture. 
 
 Dry-goods, a general term used by Americans to signify such articles 
 as are sold by linen-drapers, haberdashers, mercers, drapers, 
 hosiers, etc. The word " haberdashery " is almost unknown. 
 
 Dull music, a term applied to anything tedious. 
 
 Elephant, to see the elephant, is to gain experience of the world — 
 generally at some cost to the investigator. 
 
 Endorse, to signify sanction or approval. 
 
 Evening, from noon till dark is evening in the South and West ; the 
 term afternoon not being used. 
 
 To eyektuate, to happen, to issue, to take effect, to result in. 
 
 Everlasting, very, exceedingly. 
 
 Expect, misused in application to past events, as " I expect it was." 
 
 Eall, used instead of " fell," as " to fall a tree." 
 
 To fan out, to make a show at an examination, alluding probably to 
 the peacock spreading his tail. 
 
 Eeed, used as a noun for grass, as tall feed, i. e. high grass. 
 
 On the pence, in politics, neutrality, or readiness to join the strongest 
 party whenever it can be ascertained which is so. 
 
 Eillibuster, a freebooter. 
 
 To eix, in England means to fasten or make firm ; in America it 
 means almost anything in the way of putting in order, adjusting, 
 mending, setting to rights, or making. 
 
 Fix, a condition, predicament, or dilemma. 
 
 Eizzle, a ridiculous failure. The figure is that of wet powder, which 
 burns out with a hissing noise, without producing any effect. 
 
AMERICANISMS. 363 
 
 To plat out, to collapse, to prove a failure, a "Western phrase applied 
 to a political meeting — as, the meeting flatted out. 
 
 Floor, used in Congress in the expression to " get the floor," that is, 
 to obtain an opportunity of taking part in a debate. 
 
 Flunk, a backing out, a total failure in a college recitation. 
 
 Forever is one word in the United States, in England it is two. 
 
 To get religion, to become pious ; in common use amongstcertain 
 sects. 
 
 Go to grass! be off! get out! 
 
 To go one's death on a thing, is equivalent to " lay one's life " on it. 
 
 To go the big figure, to da things on a large scale. 
 
 To GO off, to expire. 
 
 To go under, to perish, to fail in business. 
 
 Going, travelling, as " the going is bad, owing to the deep snow." 
 
 Gouge, to chouse, to cheat. 
 
 Gouger, one who wants more than he is entitled to. 
 
 Gubernatoeial, pertaining to a governor. 
 
 Gush, a great abundance. 
 
 Hack, in America, usually a hackney coach ; in England a livery- 
 stable horse. 
 
 Hardware, this word is used in America to the exclusion of iron- 
 mongery ; hardware store, an ironmonger's shop. 
 
 Heft, weight, ponderousness. 
 
 Help, a servant, servants, or service. 
 
 Highfaluten, highflown language, bombast. 
 
 Hoboy, or Hautboy, a nightman. 
 
 Homely, plain-featured, or ugly, in America ; in England it means 
 pertaining to home, plain, simple. 
 
 Hoss, a man remarkable for strength, courage, etc. 
 
 Hostiles, enemies. 
 
 Hura's nest, a state of confusion. 
 
 Hurryment, hurry, confusion. 
 
 Hyst, a violent fall. 
 
 Inaugural, address of an official on his inauguration into office. 
 
 Infair, the reception party or entertainment of a newly-married 
 couple. 
 
 Enow-nothings, a political party of native Americans, which origi- 
 nated in the year 1853. 
 
 Eool-sla, an American word of Dutch origin, signifying cabbage salad. 
 
 Lambasting, a beating. 
 
 Limsy, weak, flexible. 
 
 Little end op the horn, to come out at the little end of the horn, 
 is said when a ridiculously small effect has been produced after 
 great effort and much boasting. 
 Loafer, a lounger. 
 
 Loan, frequently used as a verb ; in England, lend. 
 Looed, defeated, a term borrowed from the game called loo. 
 To love, for to like, " Do you love pumpkin pie ?" " I'd love to have 
 that bonnet." 
 
364 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Lobby, a verb, meaning to attempt to exercise an influence on mem- 
 bers of a legislative body by persons not members. 
 
 To lobby through, is to get a Bill adopted by such influence. 
 
 Locate, to designate the place of anything, to settle in. 
 
 Lot, a small tract of land, such as the subdivisions of a town. 
 
 Lumber, sawn timber of every description, such as is intended for 
 building. Lumbering means making lumber ; lumberman a 
 person engaged in making it ; and lumber-merchant he who sells it. 
 
 Mad, inflamed with anger, very angry, vexed. 
 
 Mail is the word ordinarily used instead of the word " post." Ameri- 
 cans say " mail a letter," "send it by mail." 
 
 Middling interest, the middle class of people. 
 
 Mud sill, the longitudinal timber laid upon the ground to form the 
 foundation for a railway, hence figuratively applied to the labour- 
 ing classes as the substratum of society. 
 
 Music, amusement, fun, " Jim is a right clever fellow, there is a great 
 deal of music in him." 
 
 Mush, Indian meal, boiled in water, and eaten with milk or molasses ; 
 it is often called hasty pudding. 
 
 Muss, a corruption of mess, a state of confusion, a squabble, a row. 
 
 Nary bed, a contraction for "ne'er a red cent," alluding to the 
 copper cent. 
 
 Nippent, impudent, impertinent. 
 
 Nipping, mincing. 
 
 Notions, small wares or trifles. 
 
 Old country, a term applied to Great Britain. 
 
 One horse, in the West, this term is applied to anything small, ae a 
 one-horse bank, a one-horse town. 
 
 To paddle one's own canoe, a figurative Western phrase, meaning 
 to make one's own way in life. 
 
 Pantaloons, the common American name for trousers. 
 
 Pesky, plaguy, confounded. 
 
 Pimping, little, petty. 
 
 Pipe-laying, this term, in political parlance, means any arrangement 
 by which a party makes sure of a certain addition to its legitimate 
 strength in the hour of trial, that is, the election ; in other words, 
 " to lay pipe " means to bring up voters not legally qualified. 
 
 Poky, dull, stupid. 
 
 Poor white polks, a term applied to the poor white population of 
 the South j also called by the blacks poor buckra. 
 
 Politician, a person who busies himself with the management and 
 contests of a political party. In England a statesman. 
 
 To pull foot, to walk fast, to run. 
 
 Posted up, well informed, thoroughly conversant with. 
 
 Bailroad, railroad track, railroad depot, and railroad car, are the 
 American names for the English railway line, railway station, and 
 railway carriage. The American travels " in the cars," the Eng- 
 lishman " by rail." In the United States the iron horse is ordi- 
 narily a " locomotive," in Britain an engine. 
 
AMERICANISMS. 365 
 
 Raise, to rear ; in the Southern and Western States it is applied to 
 individuals, as "he was raised in New York." 
 
 Reckon, used in some parts of the United States, as " calculate " in 
 New England, and " guess " in New York. 
 
 Rendition, for rendering. 
 
 To bun one's face, to make use of one's credit, to run one's face for 
 a thing is to get it " on tick." 
 
 Season, a common term in the South for a shower of rain, or period 
 of wet weather, suitable for setting out tobacco and other plants. 
 
 Semi-occasionallt, a cant phrase, meaning once in a while. 
 
 Shin-plasteb, a cant term for a bank note or any paper money, and 
 especially such as has depreciated in value. 
 
 Shooting- ikon, a common Western term for a rifle, or fowling-piece. 
 
 Slang whanging, political cant. 
 
 Smaet, quick, active, shrewd, intelligent ; in England showy or witty. 
 
 Snap, applied to sudden change of weather, as " a cold snap." 
 
 Socdolager, this strange word is probably a perversion in spelling 
 and pronunciation of doxology, a stanza sung at the close of 
 religious services, as a signal of dismissal ; hence a socdolager is a 
 conclusive argument ; the winding up of a debate, a settler j and 
 figuratively, in a contest, a blow which brings it to a close. 
 
 Soft coen, flattery. 
 
 Some pumpkins, a term in use in the South and West in opposition 
 to the equally elegant phrase, "small potatoes." The former is 
 applied to anything large or noble, the latter to anything mean. 
 
 Spaeking, to go a-sparking is to go a-courting. 
 
 To split, to go at a rapid pace, to drive or dash along. 
 
 To spread oneself, to exert oneself. 
 
 Squattee, one that settles on new land without a title. 
 
 Squatter soveeeignty, the right of the squatters, or actual residents 
 of a Territory, to shape their own institutions. 
 
 To stampede, to cause to scamper off in a fright. 
 
 Strapped tight, out of money. 
 
 Teetotallt, entirely, totally. 
 
 To tell one good-bye, is the Southern phrase to bid one good-bye. 
 
 Tooting tub, a puritanical term for a church organ. 
 
 Train, a peculiar kind of sleigh. 
 
 Teimmings, the accessories to any dish. 
 
 Wide awake, on the alert, ready. 
 
 Wiee pulling, or wire working, political managing. 
 
 Yankee, the popular name for the citizens of New England, but applied 
 by foreigners to all the inhabitants of the United States. The 
 name (Yengees or Yenkees) was originally given by the Massa- 
 chusetts Indians to the English colonists, being the nearest sound 
 they could give for "English." It was afterwards adopted by 
 the Dutch on the Hudson, who applied the term in contempt to 
 all the people of New England. 
 
36G DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 POPULAR NAMES AND MOTTOES OF STATES. 
 
 Arkansas, the Bear State. Motto — Regnant popv.li, The People rule. 
 
 California. Motto — Eureka. I have found it. 
 
 Connecticut, the Land of Steady Habits, sometimes called the Blue 
 Law State. Motto — Qui tvanslulit sustinet, Who planted still 
 sustains. 
 
 Delaware, the Blue Hen's chicken. Motto — Liberty and Inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Elokida, Peninsular State. Motto — In God let us trust. 
 
 Illinois, the Sucker State, said to have arisen from the fact that the 
 Western prairies are in many places full of holes made by the 
 crawfish, out of which early travellers, by means of a hollow reed, 
 sucked up the pure water -which lay beneath. Motto — State 
 Sovereignty. National Union. 
 
 Indiana, the Hoosier State ; £vow.wliosyere, a gruff form of recaption. 
 
 Iowa, the Hawkeye State, from an Indian chief, named Hawkeye, who 
 was the terror of travellers on its border. Motto — Our liberties 
 we prize, our rights we will maintain. 
 
 Kentucky, the Corn-cracker. Motto — United we stand, divided 
 we fall. 
 
 Kansas. Motto — Ad asira per aspera, Through rough ways to the 
 stars. 
 
 Louisiana. Motto — Union and confidence. 
 
 Maine, the Border State. Motto — Divigo, I direct, or take the lead. 
 
 Massachusetts, the Bay State. The original name of the State was 
 Massachusetts Bay. Motto — JEnse petit placidam sub libertate 
 quietem, By the sword she seeks peace under liberty. 
 
 Maryland. Motto — Industry the means, and plenty the result. 
 
 Michigan, the Wolverine State, from the large numbers of wolves 
 found there. Motto — Tuehor, I will defend it ; Si quaeris penin- 
 sulam amcenam circumspice, If you seek a delightful country, 
 look around. 
 
 Minnesota. Motto — L'Moile du JS r ord, The Star of the North. 
 
 Missouri, the Puke State. Motto — Solus populi suprema lex esto, 
 The public safety is the supreme law. 
 
 New Hampshire, the Granite State, from the abundance of that rock. 
 
 North Carolina, the Old North State. 
 
 New Yobk, the Empire State. Motto — Excelsior, Onward and 
 Upward. 
 
 Nebraska. Motto — Popular Sovereignty. 
 
 Nevada, the Silver State. 
 
 Ohio, the Buckeye State ; from the Buckeye tree, which grows plen- 
 tifully on the river banks. Its bark exhales an unpleasant odour. 
 
 Oregon. Motto — Alis volat propriis, She flies with her own wings. 
 
POPULAE NAMES AND MOTTOES OF STATES. 367 
 
 Pennsylvania, the Keystone State. So called from its being the 
 central State of the Union at the time of the formation of the 
 Constitution. Motto — "Virtue, Liberty, and Independence. 
 
 Rhode Island, Little Ehody. Motto — In Grod we hope. 
 
 South Carolina, the Palmetto State. Motto — Animis opibus que 
 parati, Ever ready with our lives and property. 
 
 Texas, the Lone Star State. 
 
 Vikginia, the Old Dominion. Motto — Sic semper iyrannis. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 This vast tract of country was discovered and partially 
 explored in 1534, by James Cartier, a French navigator, 
 who took possession of it in the name of the king of France, 
 and erected a wooden cross as a " token " of occupancy. 
 The origin of the name Canada is uncertain, the gene- 
 rally received opinion being that it was the term applied 
 by the Indians to the country on both sides of the St. 
 Lawrence when discovered by Cartier. Champlain was 
 another early explorer, and by him was discovered the 
 great lake to which his name was given, also the lakes 
 Ontario and Nipissing. The country continued a depend- 
 ency of France till 1629, when Quebec was captured by the 
 British . In March, 1632, it was restored by the treaty of 
 St. Germain, and it remained in the possession of the French 
 till 1763, when, after a final struggle for supremacy, which 
 lasted seven years, the whole country, then called the pro- 
 vince of Quebec, was ceded to England. 
 
 Canada has an area of about 350,000 square miles. 
 This area was in 1791 divided by Act of Parliament into 
 the two separate provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, 
 the former containing 150,000 square miles, and the 
 latter 200,000. In 1810 they were united, although for 
 some purpose the old territorial divisions still exist. Upper 
 Canada is that part of the new United Provinces which lies 
 to the south and west of the River Ottawa, and Lower 
 Canada comprises the country to the north and east of that 
 
CANADA. 369 
 
 river. The former is now called Canada East, and the 
 latter Canada West. 
 
 The western boundary of Canada, west of Lake Win- 
 nipeg, is yet undefined. The River St. Lawrence, and 
 Lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron, and Superior, with 
 their connecting rivers, form a wonderful natural boundary 
 between Canada and the United States, and an excellent 
 means of communication of great extent. 
 
 Canada extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the 
 east, to the Rocky Mountains on the west, and is nearly 
 three times the size of Great Britain and Ireland. The 
 inhabited or settled portion of Canada covers already an 
 extensive area of between 40,000 to 50,000 square miles. 
 In the eastern section, or Lower Canada, the scenery 
 is bold and imposing ; on the lower part of the St. Law- 
 rence both sides of the river are mountainous ; and on 
 the north side the range, which runs as far as Quebec, 
 presents many sublime and picturesque aspects. On the 
 south side the range called the Alleghanies, commences in 
 Gaspe, follows the course of the river to within 60 miles of 
 Quebec, where it turns south, and enters the United States. 
 Above Quebec, on the north side of the river, and between 
 that city and the River St. Maurice, the country rises 
 gradually from the banks ; and from thence to Montreal, 
 it becomes abrupt, with considerable table ridges. On 
 the southern side of the river, commencing at Gaspe, 
 the country is but partially explored. 
 
 From Cape Chat to the Chaudiere, Canada extends 
 along the south side of the St. Lawrence 257 miles, 
 bounded by the line of the United States, in part defined 
 by a high ridge of land. This district is traversed by 
 ranges of hills, separated by extensive valleys. West of 
 the Chaudiere, and extending to the 45th parallel, is a 
 fertile stretch of country, which still further westward 
 
 24 
 
370 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 becomes a luxuriant plain, through which run the rivers 
 Richelieu and Yamaska. The southern part of this region, 
 interspersed with ridges and considerable mountains, is 
 possessed of varied and delightful scenery. The western, 
 or upper section, is in general a champaign country, with 
 gently undulating hills and rich valleys. At a distance of 
 from 50 to 100 miles from Lake Ontario, there is a ridge 
 of high rocky country running toward the Ottawa, or 
 Grand River, and behind this is a wide valley of great 
 extent, bounded on the north by an elevated and moun- 
 tainous country. From Lake St. Francis, 35 miles above 
 Montreal, to the Detroit, along the shores of the St. 
 Lawrence and Lakes Ontario and Erie, there is not an 
 elevation of any importance. 
 
 In the rear of the St. Lawrence, detached peaks of the 
 Laurentide mountains attain an elevation of 2000 or 3000 
 feet above sea-level. The Notre Dame Mountains, in the 
 district of Gaspe, are quite imposing ; they vary in width 
 from two to six miles, and in height from 2000 to nearly 
 4000 feet. Cape Torment, 30 miles below Quebec, is a 
 round massive mountain 1000 feet high. 
 
 The St. Lawrence is the great river of Canada, receiving 
 in its course all the lesser streams of the country. If we 
 include the chain of great lakes, it may be said to rise in 
 the St. Louis, a small stream which flows into Lake 
 Superior at its western extremity ; thence its course is 
 through the lakes north-easterly to the sea. Its whole 
 length is about 3000 miles, of which 672 miles represent 
 the St. Lawrence proper, from the lakes to the sea. Its 
 breadth varies from 1 to 90 miles, and by the aid of the 
 Welland, St. Lawrence, and Lachine canals it is navigable 
 for the whole distance of 3000 miles, vessels from 
 Europe landing their cargoes at Chicago without tranship- 
 ment. It is computed to carry past the city of Montreal 
 
CANADA. 371 
 
 50,000,000 cubic feet of water per minute, and to pome 
 annually 4,300,000 million tons of water, holding- in,_ 
 solution 143,000,000 tons of solid materials, into the sea. 
 At Quebec the river is 1314 yards wide, but the basin below 
 the city is two miles across, and about three quarters 
 of a mile long. From this point to the gulf, the great 
 river goes swelling onward, and increasing as it goes. 
 Below Quebec the St. Lawrence is never frozen over, but 
 in the winter the force of the great volume of water, as it 
 ebbs and flows, detaches large masses of ice from the 
 shores ; and these being kept in continual agitation, navi- 
 gation is rendered impracticable during a portion of the 
 winter season. In the St. Lawrence " all the phenomena 
 of a mighty river may be witnessed on a stupendous 
 scale, its irresistible ice masses in midwinter crushing 
 and grinding one another ; its wide- spreading and devas- 
 tating floods in spring ; its swelling volume stealing- 
 on with irresistible power in the summer, broken here 
 and there by tumultuous and surging rapids, or by swift 
 and treacherous currents, or by vast and inexhaustible 
 lakes. As it approaches the ocean it rolls on between 
 iron-bound coasts, bearing the tributary waters of a region 
 equal to half Europe in area." The Island of Anticosti at 
 the mouth of the river is a large desert island, 130 miles 
 long and 30 broad. Many other islands stud the river, some 
 of which have a considerable population. 
 
 The Ottawa River is the second largest in Canada- 
 Rising about 300 miles above Lake Temiscaming, it flows, 
 thence 350 miles to its entrance into the St. Lawrence at 
 the upper extremity of the Island of Montreal. It drains 
 in its course, by the aid of its tributaries, an area of from 
 70,000 to 80,000 square miles. Its width is very irregular, 
 varying from 50 yards to 10 miles, and the river is often 
 lost in the chain of lakes through which it runs. It has 
 
372 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 also a number of precipitous falls, forming beautiful 
 cascades. The water power of the Ottawa is almost un- 
 limited, and it has been rendered navigable in places 
 by the construction of canals to overcome the difficulties 
 occasioned by falls and rapids. Some of its tributaries are 
 equal in size to the largest rivers in Europe. 
 
 The Saguenay is a majestic river, and the third largest 
 in Canada, having its clebouchovre into the St. Lawrence at 
 the port of Tadousac, below Quebec. It has an average 
 width of three quarters of a mile, and is navigable for 
 large vessels 190 miles. The ebb and flow of the tide is 
 exceedingly strong, being nearly as great at Chicontimi, 
 75 miles up, as at its mouth. The banks of the river are 
 high and precipitous, and winding as it does among the 
 mountains with their " tall figures and dim shadows," its 
 scenery is strikingly bold and picturesque. The Ottawa 
 has more than thirty tributary streams. 
 
 The St. Maurice, which has been traced for a distance 
 of 380 miles, empties into the St. Lawrence at three 
 rivers. It drains with its numerous tributaries an area of 
 14,000 or 15,000 square miles. It is navigable for a few 
 miles from its mouth ; after which the navigation is inter- 
 rupted as far as the Grand Piles, a distance of 44 miles, 
 when there occurs another navigable stretch of 75 miles, 
 on which a steamer runs. It is the thoroughfare of a great 
 timber trade, extensive slides and booms for which have 
 been constructed by the Government. Along the great 
 western branch of this river there is an extraordinary chain 
 of twenty-three lakes of immense depth. The peninsula of 
 Upper Canada is almost destitute of navigable rivers, 
 though watered by a number of small streams. The Thames, 
 which falls into Lake St. Clair, is navigable for only 
 80 miles. The principal rivers which fall into Lake Huron, 
 on the Canadian side, are the Thessalon, the Missisaga, 
 
CANADA. 373 
 
 the Serpent, the Spanish, and the White Fish. The 
 Spanish is the largest, and is navigable 35 miles for craft 
 drawing not more than five feet of water. The others are 
 not navigable. The White Fish River is simply a chain of 
 lakes, the elevation of its upper waters being 1,500 feet 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 A Ml description of the great chain of Lakes is given 
 in Chapter I. The other lakes of any extent are, Lake 
 St. John's (the source of the Saguenay River), about 35 
 miles broad by 45 miles long; and Lake Nipissing, 35 
 miles broad by about 70 miles long. Besides these there 
 are a number of small lakes, many of which have not 
 yet been fully explored. 
 
 The geological conformation of Canada, so far as it has 
 been ascertained, is in general granitic. A large portion 
 exposes the bare crystalline sedimentary rocks — the oldest, 
 as far as is known, in the world, called the " Lauren- 
 tian Series," after the river St. Lawrence, are de- 
 veloped on a stupendous scale. This series is of 
 enormous thickness, probably exceeding 20,000 feet, 
 Overlying the Laurentian formation, along the northern 
 shore of Lake Huron, and many parts of Lake Superior, 
 various slates, sandstones, and conglomerates occur, with a 
 few bands of limestone, and thick, intercalated beds of 
 trap ; to these Logan has given the name of Huronia»v 
 In many places the series is 18,000 feet thick, In the 
 neighbourhood of Quebec a reddish or dark grey slate 
 generally appears, and it forms the bed of the St. Law- 
 rence and Lake Ontario as far as Niagara. The strata 
 laid bare in the chasm at the Falls of Niagara are, first > 
 limestone ; next, slate ; and the lowest, sandstone, The- 
 upper and lowermost of these compose the secondary- 
 formations of a large portion of Canada. Slate is, how- 
 ever, often interposed, as at Niagara, where it is 40 feet 
 
374 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 thick, fragile as shale, and crumbles away beneath the 
 limestone. The whole of the peninsula of Canada West, the 
 valley of the St. Lawrence south of the Laurentians, and 
 the valleys and depressions in the peninsula of Gaspe, are 
 more or less deeply covered with clays interstratified with 
 gravel which belong to quaternary deposits, and in some 
 parts overlaid by alluvium. The stratified clays, sands, 
 and gravels contain, often at an altitude of 500 feet above 
 the sea-level, the remains of many species of marine 
 .animals, identified with those now found in the Gulf of 
 'St. Lawrence. Sixty-three specimens of marine inverte- 
 brates, from the post-pliocene or pleistocene clays of the 
 St. Lawrence Valley, have been disinterred. 
 
 On July 5, 1663, a tremendous earthquake occurred in 
 Canada. The shocks extended over 200,000 square miles 
 of country, and continued with great violence for fifteen 
 minutes. Perturbations were felt for a period of six 
 months afterwards. On the authority of a manuscript 
 account of it in the Jesuits' College, it changed the entire 
 face of the country, causing mountains to disappear, and 
 forming lakes where mountains had stood before. The 
 fountains were dried up, and the colour of the rivers 
 changed, some of them having their waters tinged with 
 .red, others with yellow, and others — the St. Lawrence, 
 for example — white. Two mountains are also said to have 
 !>een precipitated into the latter river. The account is 
 probably exaggerated, though in many places there occur 
 deep fissures from six inches to two feet wide, from forty 
 to fifty feet deep, and several miles long, which are doubt- 
 less the result of some violent subterranean action. They 
 are frequently covered with a dense brushwood, and are 
 therefore exceedingly dangerous to the traveller. 
 
 The Mineral Resources of Canada are immense. Iron, 
 zinc, lead , copper, gold, nickel, antimony, and silver are found. 
 
CANADA. 375 
 
 In the mountains north of the Saguenay, magnetic iron 
 abounds to such an extent as to influence the needle of the 
 mariner's compass. The Laurentian series of rocks con- 
 tain immense beds of valuable iron ore, principally the 
 magnetic oxide, several hundred feet thick. The Mar- 
 mora Iron Mine, Belmont, commonly known as the Big 
 Iron Ore Bed of Marmora, is a large deposit of this ore. 
 It appears, however, not to be a single bed, but a succes- 
 sion of them (one measuring 100 feet in thickness), in- 
 terstratified with thin bands of crystalline limestone and 
 talcose slate. The breadth of the mass is eight chains. 
 The ore contains between 60 and 70 per cent, of iron. 
 Deposits of bog-iron ore, or limonite, in greater or less 
 abundance, occur in patches on the north side of the St. 
 Lawrence, and between it and the foot of the Laurentide 
 Hills, all the way from Ste. Anne des Plaines to Portneuf, 
 a distance exceeding 100 miles. In this area the ore seems 
 to be most concentrated in the neighbourhood of the St. 
 Maurice and Batiscan rivers ; and iron has been smelted 
 in the neighbourhood of Three Rivers for upwards of a 
 century. The Huronian rocks are eminently copper- 
 bearing, the chief deposits being about Lakes Superior 
 and Huron. The dreary wastes northward of the former 
 lake contain stores of copper perhaps unsurpassed in the 
 world. At the Coppermine River, 300 miles from Sault 
 Ste. Marie, the metal occurs in great masses in a pure 
 state. 450 lbs. of native copper, in a single sheet, was sent 
 as a specimen to the London International Exhibition of 
 1862 from the Mamainse mines of Lake Superior. The 
 deposits of gold ascertained to exist in the eastern part of 
 the province have repaid very fully the labour applied with 
 judgment to the working, of them. At Fief St. Charles, 
 nuggets of native gold have been found, some of them 
 weighing from 10 dwts. to 126 dwts. 
 
376 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The northern and western shores of Lake Ontario 
 abound in salt springs, some of which are very productive. 
 The northern shore of Lake Erie has immense beds of 
 gypsum, and abounds in asphaltum. Peat occurs near 
 Chambly, on the south side of the St. Lawrence. As 
 Canada is deficient in coal, when wood becomes scarce in 
 the progress of settlement, peat will gradually assume 
 some importance as a fuel in many parts of the country. 
 It occurs in great abundance in many places in the pro- 
 vince ; about 100 square miles of it extend along the south 
 front of the Island of Anticosti. Natural springs of 
 petroleum have long been known to exist in several locali- 
 ties in Western Canada. In the extreme west of the 
 province, in the upper portion of the Devonian strata, 
 extraordinarily productive springs have been tapped by 
 boring to the depth of from 100 to 200 feet. Some of 
 these send pure petroleum 30 feet above the surface of 
 the ground, and yield, it is estimated, 15,000 barrels a day. 
 Wells, sunk to a depth of from 40 to 60 feet through the 
 superficial clays, encounter a stratum of gravel resting on 
 the surface of the rock beneath, and often filled with oil. 
 Some wells bored in 1861 are stated to have yielded from 
 400 to 500 barrels of oil in a week or two after having 
 been opened. Two wells yielded together, for some 
 months, from 20 to 25 barrels daily. Natural oil-springs 
 occur in various other places. On the banks of the Thames 
 they abound for a distance of four miles. The oil-bearing 
 region has an area of 7000 square miles. 
 
 The area embraced by the crystalline rocks is about 
 240,000 square miles in extent, 200,000 square miles of 
 which may be said to be incapable of cultivation. That 
 occupied by the sedimentary rocks is about 80,000 square 
 miles, and possesses in general a rich alluvial soil. The 
 soils in the western part of the province are chiefly drift, 
 
CANADA. 377 
 
 or the debris of the crystalline rocks of the Lauren- 
 tides and of the sedimentary rocks lying to the north of 
 any particular locality. In the extreme western peninsula 
 the rich clays consist of remodled drift, and in the valley 
 of the St. Lawrence, below Montreal, the clays are marine, 
 and not unfrequently contain a considerable portion of 
 calcareous matter. On the south shores of the river, 
 below Quebec, the soil consists chiefly of the debris of the 
 red slates which are found in that region. The area 
 covered by arable soil in the rocky region of the Lauren- 
 tides is comparatively small, the fertile belts or strips con- 
 sisting either of drift or the ruins of limestone rock. 
 
 The western peninsula has been called the garden of 
 Canada. It has an excellent soil, well suited to the pro- 
 duction of every kind of grain, especially to the growing 
 of wheat. It has but little waste land, and the greater 
 portion is under careful cultivation. The valleys and 
 slopes of the hills in the peninsula of Gaspe have 
 generally a rich soil, free from stones ; but the inequalities 
 of the surface, and the steepness of the hill-sides, even 
 where the mountains do not extend, are often such as to 
 prevent cultivation. That portion of the peninsula which 
 fronts on the county of Bonaventure possesses a surface 
 and soil as favourable as any portion of Lower Canada ; 
 good crops of grain can be raised at an elevation of 1000 
 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 The valley of the St. Maurice is estimated to contain 
 3,500,000 acres of arable land, that portion lying along the 
 river being very fertile. Along some of the branches are 
 fine stretches of table-land. On the north-east side of the 
 Ottawa is a strip of low land of exceedingly good quality, 
 from four to six miles wide, and extending 120 miles above 
 the city of Ottawa. Settlement is now chiefly directed to 
 the extensive district on the south-west side of the Ottawa 
 
378 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 River, between it and Georgian Bay. This region, extending 
 200 miles above the city of Ottawa, is 200 miles wide at 
 its lower end, 100 miles at its npper, and contains large and 
 continuous tracts of fertile land. It is divided into districts 
 named " Red Pine," "White Pine," and " Hard Wood," from 
 tshe prevalence of those woods in the respective localities. The 
 Red Pine country is sandy and poor, with a rugged uneven 
 surface, and is pronounced to be, except in a few places, unfit 
 for settlement. The White Pine country, which lies to the 
 east, contains good land, generally fit for agricultural pur- 
 poses. The Hard Wood district is unfit for settlement, 
 except between Lake Mpissing and Lake Opeongo. Be- 
 tween the Batcheewana and Groulais Bays, and the Missi- 
 saga, the country is fine, presenting broad flats of a deep 
 alluvial soil. The whole country where it has been ex- 
 plored, between Lake Superior and Lake Nipissing, pre- 
 sents among the rugged and broken portions that occur 
 occasionally, many extensive valleys of excellent land, 
 well adapted for settlement, the finest land in the whole 
 distance being that between the Batcheewana Bay and the 
 Missisaga River. North of Lake Huron the valleys are a 
 deep deposit of decomposed vegetable matter, with a sub- 
 soil of blue clay. The greater portion of the land is thickly 
 wooded with pines, ash, maple, butternut, walnut, cherry, 
 bass, sycamore, button wood, alder, willow, cedar, tama- 
 rack. Mowers and shrubs of great beauty and variety 
 abound. Among the wild fruits are the cherry, grapes, 
 black and red currants, gooseberries, raspberries, cran- 
 berries, plums, and strawberries. Nearly all vegetables 
 and fruits of temperate climes thrive in Canada under 
 proper cultivation, particularly in the western region. In 
 the southern districts peaches and apples are produced in 
 great abundance, and pumpkins and squashes grow in the 
 open fields. 
 
CANADA. $79 
 
 The wild animals are gradually retreating before the 
 advancing settlements. Formerly the whole of Canada 
 formed a vast hunting ground, now, however, the bears, 
 wolves, and foxes are gradually disappearing, as well as the 
 smaller animals, such as beavers, martens, minks, marmots, 
 and musk-rats. A large number of these are trapped for 
 .the sake of their furs. Deer are still abundant, and black 
 squirrels are extremely so. The brown hare, a native of 
 Canada, is about the size of an English rabbit ; in winter 
 ;the colour of its fur changes to white. Swans, turkeys, 
 woodcocks, and snipes are occasionally met with ; pigeons 
 .are numerous in spring and autumn, also ducks and geese. 
 There are numerous eagles, kites, hawks, herons, bitterns, 
 and crows ; and beside these are many beautiful smaller 
 birds. Wild bees are found in large numbers in the woods 
 and forests. In the lakes and rivers a variety of fish are 
 caught, the principal being the sturgeon, salmon- trout, 
 white-fish, pike, pickerel, and bass. 
 
 The climate of Canada is exceedingly varied, though 
 on the whole it is much colder than that of Europe in the 
 same parallels. In the neighbourhood of the great lakes 
 the temperature is milder than in more remote localities. 
 The prevailing winds are north-east, north-west, and south- 
 west. " The general salubrity of the province," says Mr. 
 Hogan, " is sufficiently proved by its cloudless skies, its 
 elastic air, and almost entire absence of fogs. The clear- 
 ness of the atmosphere has a most invigorating effect upon, 
 the spirits. The winter frosts are severe and steady, and 
 the summer suns are hot, and bring on vegetation with 
 wonderful rapidity. It is true that the spring of Canada 
 differs much from the spring of many parts of Europe ;. 
 but after her long winter the crops start up as if by magic,, 
 .and reconcile her inhabitants to the loss of that whish,, 
 -elsewhere, is often the sweetest season of the year. If* 
 
DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 however, Canada has but a short spring, she can boast of 
 an autumn deliriously mild, and often lingering on with its 
 Indian summer and golden sunsets, until the month of 
 December. A Canadian winter, the mention of which 
 some years ago, in Europe, conveyed almost a sensation 
 of misery, is hailed rather as a season of increased enjoy- 
 ment than of privation and discomfort by the people. In- 
 stead of alternate rain, snow, sleet, and fog, with broken 
 up and impassable roads, the Canadian has clear skies, a 
 fine, bracing atmosphere, with the rivers and many of the 
 smaller lakes frozen, and the inequalities in the rough 
 tracks through the woods made smooth by snow, the whole 
 face of the country being literally macadamized by nature 
 for a people as yet unable to macadamize for themselves." 
 Canada is essentially an agricultural country. A rapid 
 improvement in the manner of cultivation is taking place, 
 in furtherance of which numerous agricultural societies 
 are established for the encouragement of scientific farming. 
 Government have also from time to time granted assist- 
 ance, and has endeavoured to foster the agriculture of the 
 country by the passing of various acts, and the formation 
 of an agricultural Bureau. The number of occupiers and 
 acres in 1851 and 1861 were as follows : — 
 
 1851. 1861. 
 
 Occupiers 195,684 237,654 
 
 Amount of land held. .17,939,796 23,730,425 acres. 
 Improved farms are sold at prices varying from £2 to 
 £20 an acre, according to the quality and situation of the 
 lot, and the value of the houses, barns, stables, fences, 
 etc., upon them. Land adapted for farming purposes can 
 seldom be obtained from land companies, speculators, or 
 private individuals, under twenty shillings an acre ; but 
 Crown lands can be purchased at an average price of four 
 shillings per acre. Every purchaser, however, must be- 
 
CANADA. 381 
 
 come an actual settler, and have under cultivation at least 
 ten acres out of every hundred within four years. The 
 purchase-money of the Crown lands is payable in five or 
 ten years, and many private holders dispose of their lauds 
 on a credit of twenty years, the purchasers paying yearly 
 interest, and having the power of completing the purchase 
 at any time. In order to encourage immigration the 
 Government offers Free grants of 100 acres of land to 
 settlers on the following conditions : — 
 
 1 st. That the settler be 18 years of age ; that he takes 
 possession of the land allotted to him within one month ; 
 that he puts into a state of cultivation twelve acres of land 
 in the course of four years ; and that he builds a log house, 
 twenty by eighteen feet, and resides on the lot until all con- 
 ditions are fulfilled. Families may reside together in one 
 lot, and do not require to build houses on each of their lots. 
 
 The chief grain crops are oats and wheat. Potatoes 
 and peas are also raised, and a considerable quantity of 
 maple sugar is made. The following table shows the value 
 of the grain and other staples for 1861, grown in Upper 
 and Lower Canada respectively : — 
 
 Upper Canada. Lower Canada. 
 
 Wheat fall . . 7,537,651 bushels 65,630 
 
 Wheat spring 17,082,774 „ 2,588,726 
 
 Barley 2,821,962 „ 281^674 
 
 Eye 973,181 „ 844,192 
 
 Oats 21,220,874 „ 17,551,296 
 
 Buckwheat 1,248,637 „ 1,250,025 
 
 Indian corn 2,256,290 „ 334,861 
 
 Peas 9,601,396 „ 2,648,777 
 
 Beans 49,143 „ 21,384 
 
 Potatoes 15,325,920 „ 12,770,471 
 
 Turnips 18,206,959 „ 892,434 
 
 Carrots 1,905,598 „ 293,067 
 
382 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 Upper Canada. Lower Canada* 
 
 Mangel-wurzel .... 546,971 bushels 207,256- 
 
 Grass and clover seed 61,818 „ 33,954 
 
 Hay 861,844 tons 609,97F 
 
 Hops 247,052 pounds 53,387' 
 
 Max and hemp 1,225,934 „ 1,231,975 
 
 Maple sugar 6,970,605 „ 9,325,147 
 
 Cider 1,567,831 gallons 21,011 
 
 Garden and orchard) , a nn , „„ 
 
 , £ 1,304,145 dollars 884,659 
 
 products ; 
 
 The value of the live stock in 1861 was in Upper Canada 
 $52,227,486 (£10,445,497) ; in Lower Canada, §25,751,798 
 (£5,156,359). The animal products were as follows : — 
 Upper Canada. Lower Canada. 
 
 Beef 67,508 barrels 67,054 
 
 Butter 26,828,264 pounds 15,906,949 
 
 Cheese 2,687,172 „ 686,297 
 
 Wool 3,659,766 „ 1,967,388 
 
 Pork 336,744 barrels 196,598 
 
 Manufactures are making considerable progress. The 
 cutting and preparing of timber for market is the principal 
 industry, and " lumbering," as it is called, employs not less 
 than twenty-five thousand persons. Government works,, 
 technically called " slides," have been constructed on the 
 sides of the falls on the great rivers down which the timber 
 is floated. The greater portion is exported to England. 
 This class of exports in 1861, probably representing about 
 three-fourths of the value of the whole produce, was 
 $9,572,645 (£1,91 4,529). The " home-made " goods manu- 
 factured by farmers' families were as follows : — 
 
 Fulled cloth 1,394,711 yards. 
 
 Flannel 2,827,489 „ 
 
 Linen 2,247,377 „ 
 
CANADA. 383 
 
 A reciprocity treaty was entered into between the 
 United States and Great Britain on June 5, 1854, and 
 proved fruitful of benefits to both countries. The follow- 
 ing is a brief summary of its provisions : — I. It gave the 
 inhabitants of the United States the right to take fish of 
 any kind in the waters of any of the British provinces^ 
 without restriction ; and permission to land on the shore 
 for the purpose of drying their nets and curing fish. II. It 
 gave British subjects the liberty to take fish on the eastern 
 coasts and shores of the United States north of 36° paral- 
 lel, with the same privileges as to landing. III. Certain 
 articles, as grain, flour, breadstuff's, annuals, meats, lum- 
 ber, poultry, wool, ores manufactured, tobacco, rice, being 
 the growth of British colonies or of the United States, are 
 admitted free of duty, respectively. This treaty was sus- 
 pended in 1866, at the requisition of the United States. 
 
 The trade of Canada is chiefly with Great Britain and 
 the United States, the latter having the largest share. In 
 the year ending June 30, 1865, the imports into Canada 
 were of the value of $44,620,000 (£8,914,000). The exports 
 amounted to 342,481,151 (£8,496,230), about half of the 
 amount going to the United States. The following table 
 shows the relative value of the various articles making up 
 the total : — 
 
 Products of the mine $5 75,000 
 
 Fisheries 89,000 
 
 Lumber 5,000,000 
 
 Animals and animal products . . . 7,000,000 
 
 Agricultural products 8,300,000 
 
 Bullion 1,600,000 
 
 Miscellaneous 300,000 
 
 §22,864,000 (£4,572,800) 
 
384 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 The products of the mines for 1861 were — 
 
 Tons. Value. 
 
 Copper, native ... 18 $2,414 
 
 „ ore 7364 440,130 
 
 Iron ore 932 2,430 
 
 Pig-iron 321 5,759 
 
 Stone — 4,230 
 
 Total $454,963 (£90,992) 
 
 The fisheries, embracing the Gulf of St. Lawrence and 
 the lakes, employ from 1200 to 1500 boats, and about 100 
 vessels. The following quantities and values of fish were 
 exported in 1861 : — 
 
 Dried fish 143,783 cwts. $420,631 
 
 Pickled fish... 86,084 „ 203,451 
 
 Fresh fish ... — 16,426 
 
 Oil 506,027 gals. 255,356 
 
 $5,476,006 (£1,095,201) 
 
 The European population of Canada consists of two 
 classes. The French inhabitants, who were found in the 
 colony when the English took possession, constitute about 
 five-sixths of the population of Lower Canada, while Upper 
 Canada is almost exclusively occupied by the later immi- 
 grant population, chiefly of British origin. Both classes 
 have increased rapidly, especially within the last fifty 
 years, or what may fitly be termed the emigration era. 
 
 In 1622 Quebec contained only 70 persons. Fifty 
 years afterwards the population of Canada amounted to 
 about 10,000, and from that time it steadily advanced. 
 In 1800 it was estimated at 240,000, in 1825 it amounted 
 
CANADA. 385 
 
 to 581,920, and in 1851 to 1,842,265. The census of 1861 
 gives the total population as follows : — 
 
 Upper Canada 1,396,091 
 
 Lower Canada 1,111,566 
 
 2,507,657 
 
 Within the ten years ending with the census year the 
 increase was at the rate of 42*4 per cent. It is estimated 
 that in January, 1864, the population amounted to 
 2,783,079, or about eight to the square mile — the rate of 
 increase being about 4*34 per cent, in Upper and 2*50 in 
 Lower Canada. 
 
 A large emigration to Canada is continually taking 
 place from various European and other countries. The 
 following is a table of the nativities of those immigrants 
 who landed between the years 1857 and 1860 : — 
 
 1857. 1858- 1859. 1860. 
 
 England 15,471 6,441 4,846 6,481 
 
 Ireland 2,016 1,153 417 376 
 
 Scotland 3,218 1,424 793 979 
 
 Germany 4,961 922 966 533 
 
 Norway 6,407 2,656 1,756 1,781 
 
 Other countries 24 214 
 
 32,097 12,810 8,778 10,150 
 
 In 1864 the number of steerage immigrants who arrived 
 in Canada was estimated at 34,779. In both sections of 
 the Canadian territory small bodies of Indians remain, and 
 some of these have made considerable advancement in 
 the arts of civilization. This is especially the case in 
 Upper Canada, where unusual care has been taken to pro- 
 
 25 
 
386 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 tect tliem from imposition, and provide for them regular 
 means of support. The number of Indians, including the 
 •wandering tribes, is estimated at about 15,000. The negro 
 population, which numbers 7500, consists principally of 
 fugitives from the late slaveholding section of the 
 United States. 
 
 The political constitution of Canada is based upon the 
 Act 31 Geo. III. cap. 31, passed by the Parliament of 
 Great Britain in 1791. A final modification of this by an 
 Act passed in 1853 comprises the fundamental laws now in 
 force. The charter vests the legislative authority in a 
 Parliament of two houses. The Legislative Council consists 
 of twenty-four members nominated for life by the Governor, 
 and of forty-eight members elected by the people ; and the 
 House of Assembly consists of 130 members, chosen in 125 
 electoral districts and boroughs. Members must be pos- 
 sessed of freehold property to the value of £800. They 
 have an allowance from the public funds during the session. 
 The House is elected for four years, but may be dismissed 
 before the expiration of that time by the Governor, in 
 which case a new election immediately ensues. The 
 Speaker of the House is elected by the members, and has 
 a salary of £800 per annum. The President of the Legis- 
 lative Council is elected for life, with a salary of £1250. 
 Clergymen of all denominations are prohibited from becom- 
 ing members of the Legislature. The executive is vested 
 in a Governor- General, appointed by the Crown. He is 
 styled " Governor- General of British North America," and 
 has a salary of £7000 per annum. His authority is held 
 in the name of the Sovereign of Great Britain, and he has 
 the power of giving or withholding his consent to bills 
 passed by the Parliament, and such bills as are assented to 
 by the Governor may be disallowed by the Sovereign. 
 The Governor- General is assisted by a Council or Cabinet, 
 
CANADA. 387 
 
 consisting of twelve members, each of whom receive a 
 salary £1250 per annum. 
 
 As a part of the British Empire, Canada enjoys perfect 
 religious, social, and political freedom. Three years' resi- 
 dence entitles a foreigner to all the rights and privileges of 
 a natural -born citizen. Aliens can buy, hold, and sell land. 
 The elective franchise is nearly universal, every man pay- 
 ing an annual household rental of $30 (£6) in the cities 
 and towns, and $20 (£4) in the rural districts, being- 
 entitled to vote. The municipal system is admirable. 
 The counties are divided into townships of about ten miles 
 square. The inhabitants of a township elect annually five 
 councillors, who elect from their number a presiding officer, 
 designated the Township Reeve ; the reeves and the deputy 
 reeves of the different townships form the County Council ; 
 this council elect their presiding officer, styled the Warden. 
 In each county there is a judge, a sheriff, one or more 
 coroners, a clerk of the peace, a clerk of the county 
 court, a registrar, and justices of the peace, who are 
 appointed by the Governor in Council. All township 
 reeves, wardens, mayors, and aldermen are, ex officio, jus- 
 tices of the peace. 
 
 Educational facilities are rapidly increasing through 
 the development of a free school system, open to all, and 
 sustained partly by a general tax and partly by local self- 
 imposed taxation, and occasionally by the payment of a 
 small monthly fee for each scholar. Each school section is 
 governed by an elective corporation, styled School Trustees, 
 and is supplied, partly at Government expense, with a 
 small library of select literature. Grammar schools are 
 rapidly improving in character, while numerous colleges 
 and universities place professional training and instruction 
 in the higher departments of learning and science within 
 the reach of the possessors of moderate means. The num- 
 
388 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 ber of educational establishments in 1864 was 4225, with 
 371,695 pupils. 
 
 The number of members of each religious denomination, 
 according to the census of 1861, was as follows : — 
 
 Religious Denomination. 
 
 Upper 
 Canada. 
 
 Lower 
 Canada. 
 
 Church of England 
 
 311,565 
 258,141 
 
 108,963 
 
 143,043 
 
 51,378 
 
 218,427 
 
 71,615 
 
 28,200 
 
 23,330 
 
 61,559 
 
 24,299 
 
 9,357 
 
 7,383 
 
 8,801 
 
 5,018 
 
 1,050 
 
 7,514 
 
 4,147 
 
 614 
 
 8,965 
 
 2,234 
 
 634 
 
 74 
 
 17,373 
 
 8,121 
 
 14,286 
 
 63,487 
 943,253 
 
 23,730 
 
 14,856 
 
 5,149 
 
 25,957 
 
 2,537 
 
 1,292 
 
 874 
 
 7,751 
 
 857 
 
 4,927 
 
 121 
 
 184 
 
 298 
 
 2,305 
 
 2,5S4 
 
 5 
 
 572 
 
 2J289 
 
 652 
 3 
 
 1,477 
 
 5,728 
 
 678 
 
 „ Rome 
 
 Presbyterians — 
 
 Church of Scotland 
 
 Free Church of Scotland 
 
 United , 
 
 Methodists — 
 
 Wesleyan 
 
 Episcopal 
 
 New Connection 
 
 Other 
 
 Baptists 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 Congregationalists 
 
 Quakers 
 
 Bible Clmstians , 
 
 Christians 
 
 " Second Adventists " 
 
 Protestants 
 
 "Disciples" 
 
 Jews 
 
 Menonists and " Tunkers " 
 
 " Universalists " 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 Mormon s 
 
 "JNo religion" 
 
 Denomination not stated 
 
 Other creeds not classed 
 
 Total... 
 
 1,396,091 
 
 1,111,566 
 
 The greatest toleration is allowed in religious matters. 
 " While, however, all religions are respected by law and 
 by the people, there are strict distinctions jealously pre- 
 served between churches of different denominations. In 
 Lower Canada the population are almost all Roman 
 Catholics ; while in Upper Canada the population are 
 
CANADA. 389 
 
 nearly all Protestants. Ministers of every sect are marked 
 by earnestness and zeal in the performance of their religious 
 duties, and in no country, not even excepting Scotland, is 
 there to be found so uniform an observance of the Sabbath 
 in accordance with strict Protestant views." 
 
 In 1864 a Prohibitory Permissive Bill passed the 
 Canadian Legislature, and received the royal assent. The 
 act allows town councils to pass a by-law prohibiting the 
 common sale of intoxicating liquors. It also enables the 
 electors of any place, on a requisition with certain signa- 
 tures, to demand a poll for passing such by-law indepen- 
 dently of the municipal council — a majority of votes to 
 carry or defeat the by-law. The law is prohibitory except, 
 so far as it enables brewers, distillers, and merchants, to 
 sell in quantities of not less than five gallons, or twelve 
 bottles. It is therefore a law permitting municipal by- 
 laws to prohibit all sale for consumption on the premises, 
 and all retail sale for consumption off the premises. 
 
 Numerous railways have been constructed in Canada, 
 and are generally connected with the railways of the 
 United States. The first, completed in 1837, extended 
 from Lapraire, on the St. Lawrence, to St. John's, a village 
 on the Richelieu River, sixteen miles. In 1845, the St. 
 Lawrence and Atlantic Railway was chartered, and was 
 the beginning of the now extensive line known as the 
 Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, which, with its branches, 
 has a length of over 900 miles. The following table shows 
 the progress of railway construction for the ten years 
 ending 1861 : — 
 
 Year. Miles. 
 
 1857 1,601 
 
 1858 1,683 
 
 1859 1,818 
 
 1860 1,894 
 
 1861 1,975 
 
 Year. 
 
 1852 
 
 Miles. 
 286 
 
 1853 
 
 668 
 
 1854 
 
 919 
 
 1855 
 
 . 1,172 
 
 1856 
 
 1,501 
 
390 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OP AMERICA. 
 
 The total cost of the same has been about 3123,500,000 
 (£24,700,000), or $60,688 (£12,137) per mile. 
 
 The Canals of Canada have been constructed chiefly 
 with a view to overcome the falls and rapids of the great 
 rivers, and open up an uninterrupted navigation to the 
 commerce of the country. The Bideau Canal is the largest, 
 being 126 miles in length. The total number of miles in 
 operation in 1861 was 243. 
 
 The Electric Telegraph passes through every town 
 and almost every village ; the number of miles in opera- 
 tion in 1861 being 4046. Everywhere postal communica- 
 tion is complete. The most distant hamlet has its post 
 office, the number of offices in Canada being about 1974. 
 
 Quebec, until recently one of the seats of the Colonial 
 Government, is the chief city and seaport of Canada. 
 The city stands on the north-west bank of the river St. 
 Lawrence, and occupies an elevated angle formed by the 
 confluence of that river with the St. Charles. The citadel 
 occupies the summit of this angle, whence the town 
 extends north-westerly to the river. The Upper and 
 Lower Town, so called on account of their relative eleva- 
 tions, are united by a winding street and flight of steps. 
 The city was founded in 1608 by the geographer Cham- 
 plain. It fell into the possession of the British in 1619, 
 but was restored three years later. The English made an 
 unsuccessful attempt to regain possession in 1690 ; how- 
 ever, it did not finally come into their hands until taken by 
 General "Wolfe in 1759. Two destructive fires swept away 
 the distinctive features of the old town, and broader streets 
 and better- ventilated houses have taken their place. The 
 citadel is a massive defence. Its impregnable position 
 makes it perhaps the strongest fortress on the continent, 
 and the name of the " Gibraltar of America " has been often 
 given to it. The access to the citadel is from the Upper 
 
CANADA. 391 
 
 Town, the walls of which are entered by five gates. The 
 churches, chapels, and public buildings are substantially 
 built ; the educational institutions are numerous, and ably 
 conducted ; several newspapers are published, and widely 
 circulated ; and European literature has lost none of its in- 
 terest. The majority of the inhabitants are of French origin. 
 Montreal, the most populous city in British North 
 America, is picturesquely situated at the foot of the Royal 
 Mountain, from which it takes its name, upon a large 
 island at the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence. 
 The population is over 75,000, and steadily increasing. 
 The houses in the suburbs are handsomely built in the 
 modern style. Including its suburbs, of which it has 
 several, the city stretches along the river for two miles, 
 and extends between one and two miles inland. It was 
 formerly surrounded by a battlemented wall ; but this 
 having fallen into decay, it is now entirely open. The 
 quays are unsurpassed by those of any city in America ; 
 built of solid limestone, and uniting with the locks and 
 cut stone wharves of the Lachine Canal, they present for 
 several miles a display of continuous masonry. A broad 
 terrace, faced with grey limestone, the parapets of which 
 are surmounted with a substantial iron railing, divides the 
 city from the river throughout its whole extent. Montreal 
 was, until 1849, the seat of the United Canadian govern- 
 ment. A riot which occurred in that year, and resulted 
 in the burning of the Parliament House, occasioned the 
 transfer of the seat of government to Quebec and Toronto. 
 Toronto, the metropolis of Upper Canada, is on the north 
 shore of Lake Ontario. The city, which is in the form of a 
 parallelogram, is built with great regularity, and the streets 
 are generally well paved, spacious, and lighted with gas. 
 The houses are substantial, and the principal thoroughfares 
 present in many parts an elegant appearance. The public 
 
392 DESCRIPTIVE HANDBOOK OF AMERICA. 
 
 buildings are numerous ; those especially worthy of atten- 
 -t^ion are the Episcopal and Roman Catholic cathedrals, the 
 City Hall, and the Normal and Training Schools. The 
 other important edifices are the University and Colleges, 
 the Parliament House, the Observatory, Athenasum, etc. 
 
 Ottawa, is a prosperous and growing city, situated 
 amid delightful scenery. It has been selected for the 
 future capital of Canada. The parliament buildings in 
 course of erection are exceedingly handsome. The estimated 
 cost of their construction is £75.000. 
 
 
 TEE END. 
 
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