.'> ,»i> 'f ■^^^^^^■^^P— —— jWJWipjll,P,yWfWIKI ■rfUfMiMtue: yii^Mtit isjssrarrw^r^ ■'rr-niriri7iiTriTiTr'"r-nfiimrrmnriiriTimmmnioniniiwiwi>iiiiinwm ForThe A. ^^ TH|E T^MERIOAN FARMER'S 4 "•W*" li|i|M .'^^^^SS^ • 1111 iiitiBiiir-^'-^'^'-*'-<^-^-"^i^--^<^^^-'^-'--' J4iiii.ti^iAii>-l^■.v^.Y; ''-^■^"-''-■^•'■•'- {I SUMMER. <>(Ayv)^ ^7 AN AORICULTUBAL hiBRABY IN ONE VOLUME." THE AMERICAN FARMER. A HAND-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE 7 FARM AND GARDEN. CONTAINING INFORMATION ON THE SOILS ; THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.— PLANTS. — THE KITCHEN GARDEN. — THE DAIRY. — FRUITS, FRUIT TREES, VINES, ETC. — DOMESTIC AND FARM ANIMALS. — POULTRY. — BEES AND SILKWORMS. — r^ FLOWERS. — RURAL ARCHITECTURE. — HORTICULTURAL OPERATIONS. — DISEASES OF PLANTS. — NOXIOUS ^1^ INSECTS AND ANIMALS. — THE MANUFAC" , 1 r TURE OF SUGAR, WINE, CIDER, ETC. A INCLUDING TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Illustrated with nearly 4^0 Engravings. THITEENTH EDITION. RK-BDITED AND BEVISBD BT F. W. O'NIELL, AND H. L. WILLIAMS. NEW YORK: Copyright, 1880, by C. W. CARLETON & CO., Publishers. M.DCCC.LXXX. SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. PREFACE THE NEW EDITION. The very flattering approval with which The American Far- mer's Hand-Book has been greeted by the agricultural community, has encouraged the publisher to endeavor to extend its sphere of usefulness, by incorporating in its pages such additional material as the progressive spirit of agricultural inquiry has rendered available; hence, the reader will find the modest book, with which, perhaps, he was familiar in bygone days, now assuming dimensions of a more dignified and imposing character. Much of the matter now pre- sented in this volume for the first time, and which cannot be found elsewhere, except in books devoted to special subjects, is of a highly valuable as well as important nature, well deserving the undivided attention and careful perusal of all who are engaged in agricultural pursuits ; and we trust it may have the effect to arouse an interest in the cultivation of many plants which have as yet attracted but little notice. The radical error of the American system of farming is that, throughout the greater part of the country, the attention of farmers and planters has been almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation of a few staple articles, such as wlieat, rye, oats, Indian corn, (iii) IV PKEFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. cotton and tobacco ; while many very profitable branches of rural economy, such as green crops, grape growing, fruit raising, and garden truck have met with comparative neglect. This has arisen in part from the tendency which people in general, of all professions, have to fall into ruts, and pursue a certain routine simply because it is routine. It requires some sudden shock or violent alteration to bring the masses into seeing the necessity of making any vital change in the course they have been pursuing. Within the last twenty-five years our country has sustained several sudden and important ijolitical and financial changes and convulsions that have had great and lasting effects uj)ou agriculture, manufactures and commerce. Cahfornia has shown her abHity to be one of the greatest grain and fruit pro- ducing countries upon the face of the earth ; Texas has developed a capacity for raising stock and cultivating cotton and grain whicli has nterally amazed even the most hopeful of her citizens ; the great West pours out train after train of wheat, corn and pork in one con- tinuous stream. At first sight this would appear injurious, if not ruinous, to many of the older States, prolific as they are compared with most parts of the earth. But such is not the case. Fortu- nately almost simultaneously with these grand developments of agricultural richness, the manufacturing powers of the country took an immense stride in advance, and have created markets at the very doors of our farmers for every article which they can produce. Great improvements have been introduced in the culture of veg- etables and fruits. Our cattle have been so much bettered by judi- cious breeding that even English stock-raisers have bought bulls and cows from us at what seem almost incredible prices. The quality of our sheep has improved both in their meat-producing and wool- yielding. In every kind of market gardening there has also been a wonderful improvement. Fruits, large and small, have partaken of the same astonishing progress ; until now it is a common thing to see in any of our city markets apples and pears, plums, nectarines, grapes, PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. V and the lesser fruits, that equal and in some varieties surpass those produced in the finest fruit raising countries of the world. The products of our dairies not only find a ready and remunerative sale in our own markets, but they command a quick and profitable sale in countries that have been deemed beyond our competition. Our leading statesmen, merchants and manufacturers have taken a lively interest in promoting in every way the heathf ul progress of agriculture. Knowing well that in a country where that profession is profitably employed, fairly compensated and duly honored, not only does wealth accumulate, but man — the noblest product of every country — flourishes "erect and free." The many Agricultural Societies formed in the various States have had a very favorable influence upon the development of farming in all its branches, by bringing into comparison and competition almost every kind of grain, roots, fruits and dairy jaroducts ; as well as the different kinds of imiaroved mechanical implements. Another great advantage springing from these societies and clubs is that they necessarily lead to the interchange of oioinions, and a comparison of methods between men fully alive to the fact that there is no such thing as standing still in farming. The farmer's motto is that of New York State, "Excelsior." A very profitable — though somewhat remote profit — wiUbe found in the preservation and propagation of our forest trees. Their judi- cious cultivation will prove not only a source of wealth to the individual cultivator, but the country at large Avill be im- mensely benefited by the growth of the forests. Vast tracts of countiy, more or less mountainous, and now scalped of the gi'and foliage which once adorned them, may at little outlay be made to grow many of our noble native trees, the woods of which ai'e daily becoming more and more valuable for ship and housebuilding and for the manufacture of furniture. Many vegetable oils and dyestuffs have been of late years much neglected ; their scarcity will produce a demand, and then they n PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. must then rapidly advance in price. Under the appropriate head- ings, the reader will find full and accurate instructions as to the soil and mode of culture best adapted to the oil and dye-yielding plants, together with a statement of their uses, and of the methods of extracting their valuable properties. Recently, considerable attention has been directed to the introduc- tion of the Sorgho, or Chinese Sugar-Cane, and its congener, the Imphee, or African Sugar-Cane — both of which were opportunely discovered at the very period when, owing to a radically-defective system of cultivation, the exhausted plantations of Louisiana refused to yield their usual product of sugar. These plants have been fully treated of in this volume ; as also the sugar-beet, a plant of inesti- mable value in France, where its culture, and the manufacture of sugar from its roots, profitably employ immense numbers of the population. Cotton, tobacco, and rice have likewise been lengthily discussed ; and, as a vessel is now on its way to our shores with large quantities of tea-plants and seed, imported by the Agricultural Bureau of the Patent-Office, with a view to the introduction of the culture of this plant in the United States, it has been deemed ne- cessary to include a description of its varieties, together with tlieir mode of culture, and the process employed for manufacturing the leaves into the tea of commerce. The silk culture, once an object of ephemeral attention, and, without good reason, consigned to obli- vion, has also received due attention ; for it is, practically, a very important branch, and, within the limits of the Union, there are very few localities wherein silk cannot be produced with great advantage to the grower. Of equal importance are the instructions in regard to the management of vineyards, and the manufacture of wines, whe,n the extent of country adapted to the growth of the grape is taken into consideration, together with the vast field which its culti- PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. Vll vation presents for the profitable investment of surplus capital and labor. We take the liberty here to warn our farmer friends against two very serious and prevalent errors, which have already done much to retard the progress of desirable improvements in agricultural science — one of these is incredulity, which so obscures the perceptive faculties of the individual, as to prevent him from realizing the benefits to be derived from scientific investigation— the only solid basis of a really progressive agriculture ; while the other is the opposite extreme — over- credulity, which induces improvident ex- penditures for new machinery, plants, seeds, manures, etc., that have not been thoroughly tested, by a series of careful experiments, and their adaptation to the particular locality clearly ascertained. In the case of new seeds and plants, one experiment should never be deemed a sufficient test ; nay, even two, three, or four will sometimes be too few to determine whether they can be profitably cultivated ; and in no case should the farmer abandon the cultivation of any plant which has been recommended by competent and scientific agri- culturists, until, by repeated trials on a small scale, he has satisfied himself that it is either unsuitcd to the soil, or cannot be grown with profit. In the Appendix will be found a collection of Tables, of great service to the practical agriculturist, who, by their aid, may measure his own land ; ascertain the weight of his cattle by merely taking their girth and length ; find how many plants can be raised on each perch and acre of ground, at definite distances; learn what are the best mixtures of grass-seed for sowing on different soils, whether for pasture, mowing, or other purposes ; determine how many heaps of manure will be required to cover an acre of ground at different VUl PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. distances, as well as the number of loads to the acre ; and at a glance, satisfy himself as to the amount of ground he can plough per day, with certain widths of furrow slice, and at certain rates of speed. In the following pages we present our readers with engravings of different kinds of implements used in farming. They are such as have been thoroughly tested and have been found to fulfill the ob- jects for which they were intended. As almost every day brings before the public the claim of some in- ventor who desires to introduce a new article to lessen the demand for manual force, or to execute work with more rapidity and per- fectness, we cannot in Justice to them or to contemplated purchasers do anything but advise buyers to make personal examination, with the assistance of experts, before laying out money for what may prove Uttle or no improvements aver the time-tested implements they already have in use. While on this subject we may say that we thank Mr. A. B. Gri£Qn, of New York, for some of the modern en- gravings which appear in the volume. It is not good to mutiply labor-saving agricultural machines without reflection. Mr. Frank Wilkeson, a very able writer on Agricultural matters, recently re- marked : "There has been a great deal written about our labor- saving harvesting machinery, and most people think they are money- saving machines also. This is a mistake. With the single excep- tion of the header (and this tool cannot be used in a damp climate) none of them save money. They save labor, but not money. They enable one man to do the work of three or four men, but he does it at the price of four or five men's work. Instead of the money being paid to the farm laborers of the agricultural regions, it is sent out of the farming districts into the manufacturing districts to pay for machinery and binding wire. An improved self-binding harvester costs ^300 ; an old-fashioned cradle costs ^4 ; and with equal care the cradle will outlast the binder. Where men are plenty the grain can be cut cheaper with a cradle than with a self-binder." PREFACE. In presenting to the American public a work on Agricultitre and THE VARIOXTS ArTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH ITS MORE PER- FECT Knowledge and Practice, we feel that we should hardly be satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, — the mere approval of our book by the community at large. We should be far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements it may cause. It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy, as is sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more, with a Preface or Introduction, elaborately demonstrating the importance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political econ- omy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advance- ment, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic; and, from such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts, principles and suggestions, valuable, in a social and economical point of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far from being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light, as to need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and magnitude of agriculture and its kindred employments ? Argument (ix) X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITIOIt can hardly enhance them ; eloquence, in its most select phrases, can no further embellish them. The earth itself is not more the foun^ dation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all social and mental progress. What government — what community — could be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter ? And does not the bulk of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth ? and, with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of manual toil and culture ? A few things are of spontaneous produc- tion, but the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached. Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun. The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world. Further improvements in this great department of human effort would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might rejoice in its bounties; and human imagination cannot assign a limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races of mankind. The correctness of these views, however, it has been presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this country ; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improve- ment, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be problematical. To the realization of this end, — so earnestly to be desired, — these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no small degree. But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical relations of agriculture to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of agriculture, — as well as to commend their own labors to public favor, — to indulge in elaborate encomiums on the moral dignity of rural pursuits, and their adaptedness to ennoble the lives and char- PREFACE TO TUE FIRST EDITION. Xl acters of those who engage in them. Such encomiums are just, and, in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective person, however, whether he be a farmer or a tradesman, will need to be informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largelj restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul. No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than the husbandman. He sees Him not only " in the cooj of the day," but in every waking moment; — in the purity and fragrance of the circumambient atmosphere, — in the untamed grandeur of Nature's mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, — in the germ- ination of every seed, — in the growth of every leaf and of every blade of grass, — by these, and numberless objects besides, is he impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him who " causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herbs for the service of man," but with the gracious course of His providence, which rewards every discovery of His laws, and every act of obedi- ence to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say, onefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many and so pa.^able attestations of a beneficent and controling Power above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power, or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes characterizes man's moral machinery. And if, with the Book of Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to be voluntarily awakened to a sense of the honorable character of his employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them. Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands this work may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study, diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, con- firmed by careful and discriminating practice, — and that it embraces within its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its ramifications, — introductory comment on the design and character of this volume is unnecessary. Xll PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, — the Agriculturist — the Market Gardener — the Dairy Farmer — the Fruit Grower — the Stock Raiser — the Poultry Breeder — the Bee Keeper — the Florist — and the Rural Architect, — this volume is respectfully commended, with the earnest hope that it will prove to them a valuable, substantial, and profitable aid. In the Appendix will be found a collection of Tables, of great service to the practical agriculturist, who, by their aid, may measure his own land; ascertain the weight of his cattle by merely taking their girth and length ; find how many plants can be raised on each perch and acre of ground, at definite distances ; learn what are the best mixtures of grass-seed for sowing on different soils, whether for pasture, mowing, or other purposes ; determine how many heaps of manure will be required to cover an acre of ground at different distances, as well as the number of loads to the acre; and, at a glance, satisfy himself as to the amount of ground he can plough per day, with certain widths of furrow-slice, and at certain rates of Bpecd. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. SOILS:— THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. Ihe Composition of Soils — Their Classification — Analysis — Relation between the Soil and Subsoil — Means of increasing their Productive Powers, and rendering them fit for Cultivation, viz. — Altering the proportion of their Ingredients — Clearing — Ploughing — Harrowing — Rolling — Manuring — Draining — Irrigating — Rotation of Crops 23 CHAPTER II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. Wheat — Barley — Rye — The Oat — Indian Corn — Buckwheat — The Potato — Sweet Potato — Sugar-Beet — Sugar-Cane — Chinese Sugar-Cane — African Sugar-Cane — Cotton — Tobacco — Rice — Tea — Broom-Corn — Millet — Hemp — Flax — Lucern — Sainfoin — The Tare — Clover — The Grasses — Motive Powers for Farm Purposes 69 CHAPTER III. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN THE ARTS, AND FOB THEIR OILS. Indigo — Madder — Weld — Woad — Turmeric — Sumach — Bastard SaflFron — Teasel — Colza — Rape — Sun-Flower — Castor-Oil Plant 166 2 ' (xiii) XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. Vegetables : — Artichoke — Asparagus — Borage — Bean — Beet — Borecole — Broccoli — Cabbage — Cardoon — Carrot — Cauliflower — Celery — Chive — Corn — Corn-salad — Cress — Cucumber — Dandelion — Egg-plant — Endive — Garlic — Hop — Horse-radish — Leek — Lettuce — Morel — Mushroom — Mustard — Onion — Okra — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Pumpkin — Radish — Rape (edible-rooted) — Rhubarb — Salsify — Scorzonera — Sea-kale — Shallot — Skirret — Spinach — Squash — Tomato — Turnip. Herbs, etc.: — Anise — Balm — Basil — Caraway — Camomile — Coriander — Chervil — Dill — Fennel — Foxglove — Horehound — Hyssop — Lavender — Liquorice — Marjoram — Mint — Parsley — Pennyroyal — Peppermint — Purslane — Rosemary — Rue — Saffron — Sage — Savory — Tansy — Thyme : — With a Monthly Calendar of Operations 184 CHAPTER V. THE DAIRY. Dairy Implements — Management — Milk — Butter-making — Cheese-making — Including all the most celebrated and esteemed Modes 220 CHAPTER VI. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Btandard Kinds: — Apple (including Cider Making) — Apricot — Barberry — Blackberry — Cherry — Cranberry — Currant — Gooseberry — Grape (including Vineyards and Manufacture of Wine) — Medlar — Melon — Mulberry — Nectarine — Peach — Pear — Plum — Quince — Raspberry — Strawberry. Miscellaneous Kinds : — Almond — Blueberry — Butternut — Chestnut — Fig — Filbert — Lemon — Lime — Olive — Orange — Pome> granate — Shellbark— Walnut— Whortleberry — With a Monthly Calendar of Operations 250 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER VII. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. The Rearing, Breeding, Diseases, and General Care of — The Bull — The Ox — The Cow— Sheep — Swine — The Horse- The Ass— The Mule— The Goat — The Dog, — in all their Standard Varieties — With a Monthly Calendar of Operations 317 CHAPTER VIII. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. The Raising, Breeding, Diseases, and Treatment of the common Barn Fowls : — Caponizing — also The Turkey — The Goose — The Duck — in all their important Varieties 387 CHAPTER IX. BEES AND SILK-WORMS. Different Classes of Bees — Position of the Apiary — Hives and Boxes — Obtaining Stock — Swarming — The Honey Harvest — Management during Winter and Early Spring — How to treat the Produce of the Honey Harvest — The Enemies and Diseases of Bees: — Silk-worms and Mulberry Trees 416 CHAPTER X. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES, ETC. The Culture of Flowers — Plans for Flower-Gardens — Description of Standard Varieties of Flowers — Ornamental Shrubs — Ornamental and Useful Trees — With a Monthly Floricultural Calendar 465 CHAPTER XI. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. The Construction of Farm Dwellings and Cottages — Dairies — Bams — Stables — Cart-Sheds and Implement-Houses — Granaries — Cattle-Sheds — Ice-Houses — Sheep-Folds — Piggeries — Poultry-Houses — Arrangement of the Farmery — GreeQ.Hoageg — Fences and Gates — Hedges 513 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Ihe Improved Modes of Grafting — Budding — Pruning — Training 6M CHAPTER XIII. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. Blight or Blast — Canlier or Caries — Consumption — Contortion — Dropsy — Ergot — Honey-Dew — Curl — Mildew — Potato Rot — Smut — Cotton Rot — Cotton Rust — Cotton Blight— Sore-Shin 6W CHAPTER XIV. NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS. Insects which live constantly on or In Domestic Animals, and propagate on them — Insects which injure Grain — Insects injurious to Culinary Vegetables — Insects injurious to Fruits, Fruit-Trees, Shrubs, and Vines — Insects injurious to Flower-Plants — Insects injurious to Meadows — Insects injurious to the Cotton Plant — Animals injurious to Cultivated Fields 636 APPENDIX, Containing Tables, by the use of which a Farmer may be greatly assisted in his Calculations 683 Definitions of Words, — Scientific, Technical, and Peculiar, — com- monly DSED IN connection WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTS.. 693 [ndez 69y CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. AGRICULTURAL fia. PAGE 4. Root-grubber — mode of ope- rating 28 6. Stump Extractor — mode of ope- rating 30 10. European Dirt-shovel — mode of operating 33 12. Appearance of badly-ploughed Land 36 13. Ploughing with Double Team ... 37 15. Diagram of Ridge-ploughing ... 39 16. " " " ... 40 17. Transverse Section of Ridge- ploughing » 41 IS. Illustration of Casting, in plough- ing 41 19. Illustration of Casting, in plough- ing 42 20. Illustration of Cleaving, in ploughing 42 21. Diagram of Cross-ploughing .... 43 29. Earths and Springs 68 OPERATIONS. FIO. PAOB 30. Draining Peat Lands 69 31. " " " 59 32. Draining Clay Lands 61 35. Meadow Watering 64 36. Catch-work Irrigation 65 40. Mowing Machine — mode of operating 74 50. Hand Corn-planter — mode of operating 88 56. Transverse Section of Potato- drills 97 67. Transverse Section of Potato- drills 98 86. Grass Seed Sower — mode of operating 165 89. Delano's Horse Hay-Rake — mode of operating 158 93. Horse Power — operation of.... 164 98. Modes of supporting Running Plants 187 105. Turnip culture 208 GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC. 87. Different kinds of Wheat 70 38. Classification of Wheat by the grains 70 42. Classification of Barley by the grains 76 43. Different kinds of Barley 77 2* 46. The Rye plant 79 47. Different kinds of Oats 82 49. The Indian corn plant 85 55. " Buckwheat " 93 58. " Sugar-cane " 104 60. " Chinese Sugar-cane plant, 110 B (xvii) XVI u CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. The Cotton plant 116 70. 71. 72. 74 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 120. 121. 122. 12.3. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 1.30. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. Tobacco Rice Tea Millet Hemp Flax Lucern 122 128 130 135 1?.7 UO 143 Sainfoin " 145 Tare 146 Different kinds of Clover 147 Meadow or Green Grass 149 Timothy, Cat's Tail, or Herd Grass 150 Orchard Grass, or Cock's Foot Grass 150 Meadow Fescue Grass 161 Ray or Rye " 151 FRUITS. Early Harvest Apple 251 Red Astrachan " 252 Williams's Favorite Apple 252 Juneating " 253 Summer Queen " 253 Maiden's Blush " 264 Gravenstein " 256 Rambo " 255 Yellow Bellflower " 256 Esopus Spitzenberg " 257 Baldwin " 257 Hubbardston Nonsuch " 258 Westfield Seek-no-further Ap- ple 259 Roxbury Russet Apple 259 Golden Pippin " 260 Lady " 260 Harrison " 261 Red Siberian Crab Apple 262 Early Apricot 262 Peach " 265 Brussels " 265 The Barberry..., 266 The Blackberry 267 Black-heart Cherry 268 83. Herd, or Fowl Meadow Grass... 152 84. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass ... 152 85. Pony Grass 152 95. The Indigo plant 166 96. Bastard Saffron 175 97. The Castor-oil plant 181 99. Hop plants, male and female... 196 100. The Morel plant 200 101. The Mushroom plant 200 102. Varieties of the Mustard plant, 201 103. The Pea plant 203 104. " Rhubarb plant 205 107. " Caraway " 210 108. " Coriander " 211 109. " Lavender « 212 110. " Liquorice " 213 111. " Parsley " 214 112. " Saffron " ^215 145. American Amber Cherry 268 146. Downer's Late Cherry 269 147. Early White-heart Cherry 269 148. The Cranberry 270 150. White Currant 272 151. Black " 273 152. Melling's Crown-bob Goose- berry 275 153. Houghton's Seedling Goose- berry 275 154. Black Hamburgh Grape 277- 155. Muscat of Alexandria (red and white) Grape 277 156. Catawba Grape 278 157. Isabella " 278 158. Section of a bearing Vine 279 159. The Melon 284 160. The Mulberry 285 161. Jaune Lisse Nectarine 286 162. Musk Violet " 286 163. Gros Mignonne Peach 288 164. Alberge " 288 165. Red Magdalen " 289 166. Late Heath " 290 167. BartlettPear 292 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINaS, XIX 168. Winter Nelis Pear 293 169. Seckel " 293 170. Beurre Bosc " 294 171. Muscadine " 295 172. Jefferson Plum 297 173. Green Gage" 297 174. Purple Favorite Plum 298 175. Bleecker's Gage " 299 176. Duane's Purple " 299 177. Frost Gage " 300 178. Apple-shaped Quince 302 179. Fastolflf Raspberry 303 180. Franconia Raspberry 304 181. Large Early Scarlet Strawberry, 306 182. Hovey's Seedling 307 183. Swainstone's " " 308 184. Ross Phcenix " 303 185. Prolific Hautbois " 306 186. Gushing " 309 187. The Fig 310 188. " Lemon 311 189. " Lime 312 190. " Olive.. 312 191. " Orange 313 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 194. Explanatory Skeleton of the Ox, 323 195. Prize Dairy Native Cow 325 196. Devon Bull 326 197. " Ox 327 198. " " 328 200. " Cow 329 201. Short-horned Bull 330 203. " Cow 331 203. Hereford Cow 332 204. Ayrshire Bull 333 205. " Cow 333 206. New Leicester Cow 334 20S. New Leicester Sheep 343 209, Cotswold Sheep 346 210. South-Down Ewe and Lamb ... 347 211. Black-faced or Heath Sheep ... 348 212. Merino Sheep 348 213. Explanatory Skeleton of Pig... 351 214. China Hog 353 215. Berkshire Hog 354 216. Suffolk " 354 217. Siamese Sow and Litter 355 218. Explanatory Figure of Horse.. 358 219. Arabian Horse 359 220. American Race Horse 360 221. " Road " 360 222. Norman (European) Horse 361 223. Thibet Goat 364 224. Newfoundland Dog 366 225. Shepherd's " 366 226. Terrier « 367 DOMESTIC FOWLS. 227. Shaaghai 387 228. BankivaCock 388 229. Dorking Fowls 389 230. Jago or Spanish Fowls 390 231. Crested or Poland « 391 232. Bantam Cock 391 233. Ostrich or Cochin-China Hen... 392 234. Ostrich or Co'p-China Rooster, 393 235. Turkey 398 236. Toulouse Goose 401 237. Common " 402 238. Rouen or Rhone Duck 407 239. English or Aylesbury Duck .... 407 240. Muscovy Ducks 408 XX CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. RURAL STRUCTURES, MECHANICAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 33. Different kinds of Drains 62 246. Flower-pot Hive 430 247. Top for a Hive 431 248. Huish'a " 432 249. Gilmore's Bee-house 432 260. Construction of Gilmore's Hive, 433 251. " " " " 434 252. Back-side of " " 435 253. Boxes in Gilmore's Hive 435 254. Arrangement of Gilmore's Hive, 436 255. " « " " 437 256. " " " " 438 274. Arbor for a Garden 485 275. Garden Seat 485 276. Fountain for a Garden 486 277. Sun-dial " " " 487 291. Ground-plan of Farm-house ...' 513 292. " " one-story house 514 293. Model of Medium-sized " 515 294. Ground-plan of " " 515 295. Side Elevation of Medium-sized House 515 296. Upper Floor of Medium-sized House 516 297. Model of large Farm-house 516 298. Side Elevation of large Farm- house 517 299. Ground-plan of large Farm- house 517 300. Upper floor of large Farm-house, 518 301. Tudor Cottage 518 302. Model of double Cottage Struc- ture 619 303. Ground-plan of double Cottage Structure 620 304. Upper floor of double Cottage Structure 520 305. Moderate-sized Cottage 521 306. Plan of Dairy Apartments 522 307. Model of Complete Dairy 624 308. Ground-floor of Complete Dairy, 525 309. Side Elevation of " " 625 310. Upper floor " " " 526 311. Model of Washington Barn 528 312. Model of Buel's Barn 529 313. End and Side View of Buel's Barn 530 316. Arrangement of Cattle-shed ... 534 316. Apartment and Apparatus for Boiling Food 539 317. Pig-house 541 318. Improved Nest for Hens 546 319. Plan of Buildings for a large Farm 548 320. Plan of Buildings for a small Farm 649 321. Cellular Wall-work for Green- house 561 322. Mode of building Stone Wall... 554 323. " " " Gates 556 HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL OPERATIONS. 264. Plan for Flower-garden 468 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 471 472 472 472 473 273. Weeping-willow Arbor 484 330. The processes of Grafting 568 331. Grafting the Vine .*.... 570 332. The processes of Budding 675 842. Training Grape-vine in a Pot .. 688 343. Balloon-training of the Rose... 589 344. Spiral-cylinder Training 692 346. Spurring-in Training 593 346. Conical or Quenouille Training, 693 347. Fan Training, in its first stage, 694 348. Fan Training, in its advanced stage 595 349. Horizontal Training, in its first stage 696 350. Horizontal Training, in its ad- vanced stage 596 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS, TTl TREES, FLOWERS, HEDGE-PLANTS, ETC. 26(y. Morus Alba, or the White Mul- berry 461 261. Morus Multicaulis 461 280. Narcissus 493 281. Passion Flower 493 282. Rose 495 287. Magnolia Grandiflora 504 288. European Silver Fir 605 289. Evergreen Cypress 505 290. Norway Spruce Fir 606 324. Osage Orange Hedge 657 325. Honey Locust 553 326. Cactus Tuna 560 327. Cactus Opuntia 660 FARMING IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, UTENSILS, ETC. 1. Rounded Shovel 27 2. Square Shovel 27 3. Spade 27 6. Root-puller 29 7. Bramble-hook 32 8. Paring Plough 32 9. Dirt-scraper, or Qround-leveler, 33 11. Premium Plough, Eagle No. 1, 34 14. Premium Plough, with Lock- coulter, Wheel, and Draft-rod, 37 22. Premium Subsoil Plough 43 23. Scotch Harrow 46 24. Geddes Harrow 47 25. Field Roller 48 26. Large Six-pronged Manure Fork 61 27. Small-sized " " 51 28. Improved Expanding Cultivator 52 34. Machine for Irrigating 63 39. Horse-drill 73 41. Fan-mill for Cleaning Grain ... 75 44. Hummelling Machine 78 46. Machine for Cleaning Smutty Grain, Ac 81 48. Grain Cradle 84 51. Universal Cultivator 90 62. Corn-cracker 91 63. Reading's Corn-sheller 92 64. Corn and Cob-crusher 92 69. Sugar-cane Knife 106 61. Cane-crusher 113 63. Cotton Harrow 118 64. Eagle Cotton-gin 121 67. Rice-huller and polisher 130 69. Broom- jorn Scraper 134 73. Rippling Machine for Flax 142 87. Scythe 156 88. Hay Elevator 157 90. Revolving Horse Hay-rake 159 91. Dederick's Hay-press 160 92. Webb's Wind-mill 163 94. Patent Portable Grist-mill 165 106. Vegetable Cutter 209 113. Cheese-press 221 114. Self-acting Press 221 115. Thermometer Churn 222 116. Cylindrical Churn 223 117. Gault's Churn 223 118. Fruit Gatherer 250 119. " " 251 138. Hicock's Cider-mill 263 149. Cranberry Rake 271 192. Ox-chain and Bull-ring.,... 317 193. Hay and Straw-cutter 321 199. Ox-yoke 328 207. Lactometer 337 259. Instrument for fumigating Bee- hives 446 262. Garden Rake 465 263. " Syringe 466 265. " Roller 468 266. Grass-edge Parer 469 267. Garden Trowel 469 278. Grass-edging Shears 488 279. Ladies' Garden Shears « 488 283. Scissors for Cutting Flowers ... 496 284. Machine for Watering Gardens, 498 285. Briar or Bill-book 499 286. Pr«ning Shears 499 xxu CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGKAVINGS. 314. Improved Barn-door Rollers ... 530 328. Hedge Shears 662 329. Grafting Chisel 665 333. Pruning Chisel 577 334. " Scissors 578 335. Knife 678 336. Pruning Knife (different form), 57S 337. Budding Knife 578 338. Small Pruning Knife 678 339. Pole-pruning Shears 579 340. Lopping or Branch Shears 681 341. Sliding Pruning Shears 681 BEES AND OTHER INSECTS. AND THEIR OPERATIONS. 241. Queen Bee 416 242. Drone " 417 243. Working Bee 417 244. Form of the Bee's Sting 419 245. Operations of Bees in the Cells, 420 257. Comb, or Hexagonal Cells, of Bees 439 258. Swarming of Bees 442 361. Horse Bot-fly and Larva 637 352. Wire-worm, Larva, and anato- my , 641 8ft3. Hessian FI7 and its operations, 643 354. Wheat Midge, Larva, and ope- rations 644 355. Cabbage Moth and Caterpillar, 647 356. Onion Fly, Larva, Ac 649 357. Black-veined White Butterfly.. 650 358. Winter Moth 665 359. Apple Weevil 660 360. Pear " 660 361. Pear Chermes 664 362. Plant-louse or Aphii 665 363. Vine Scale Insect 668 364. Locust «74 CHAPTER I. SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. THE COMPOSITION OF SOILS — THEIR CLASSIFICATION— ANALYSIS— RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL— MEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCT- IVE POWERS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ., ALTER- ING THE PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS— CLEARING— PLOUGHING— HARROWING — ROLLING— MANURING — DRAINING — IRRIGATING ROTATION OF CROPS. GENERAL REMARKS. Nothing is more true than the fact, that, from the vague manner in which eoils are usually described by writers assuming to instruct those who cul- tivate the soil, it is often difficult for a farmer, who reads accounts of agri- cultural operations in any other section of the country than that in which he resides, to judge what relation the soil which is the scene of such opet ations bears to that which he himself cultivates. A certain acquaintance with a few of the plain principles and laws of chemistry in connection with the con^osition of soils is, therefore, very desirable ; for it is only in the accuracy in which soils are described, and their composition and character ascertained and understood, that a knowledge of the best methods of remedy- ing their defects, and improving them by the application of different matters, can be acquired. It will be consistent, then, with the design of our work, to give some account, in the first place, of the I- COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Though various in fertility and texture, all soils are resolvable into the same constituent parts. They consist of earthy and organic matters in a state of combination. What is commonly called earth may be considered iH two points of view, either as mixed or unmixed with animal and vegeta- ble remains. As originally produced from the crumbling or decomposition of rocks, earth is, of course, destitute of any of these matters; but they very soon enter into its composition, and exist in a considerable proportion in all Boils not completely barren. The principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of rocks and soils are silica, — found in quartz, flint, and sard; alumina, —a leading ingredient in the composition of clays, giving them that softness. (23) 24 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. plasticity, and adhesiveness, for which they are distinguished ; lime, — con- stituting the numerous varieties of limestone, marl, chalk, and marble ; magnesia, — existing in various states of combination with acids and other earths, and is found in various mineral springs. Thus, where silica prevails, as in the case of many sands, the earth may be called silicious ; where clay prevails, the soil may be called aluminous ; where lime exists in quantity, as in the case of challi, the soil is calcareous ; and where magnesia prevails to such an extent as to impart its distinctive nature to the soil, it may be called magnesian. Besides these, there is the oxide of iron, forming a constituent part of soils, though its influence on their productive powers has not been definitely ascertained II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. Having spoken of the ingredients in soils, we will now classify them according to their peculiar properties and the kinds of crops they are severally best adapted to produce. The grand divisions are as follows : — Clayey Soils. — These are distinguished for the adhesion of their parts, and the retention of moisture. Farm lands of this description, — the richer clays, we mean, — generally produce crops of great abundance and of superior quality, but at extra cost. Much attention is necessary to the choice of suitable seasons for conducting the operations of tillage on these soils : if too dry, it turns up in hard masses, difficult of being made fine enough for sowing ; and if too wet, it is worked into mortar, and cannot be reduced by the harrow. At the first ploughing, the clay comes up in large clods ; but the oftener it is acted upon by the implements of tillage at the proper time, the more is its cohesion broken, and the more easily can the roots of plants penetrate. They must be worked when the clods can be crushed by the roller. Sandy Soils. — These are distinguished by their small degree of adhesive- ness ; and, with the aid of manures and consolidating substances, to counter- act their poverty and their susceptibility to drought, no land pays better fo improvement. The richer class of sands is fitted for the production of every kind of herbage and grain, bulbous and tuberous rooted plants. Gravelly Soils. — Between the gravelly and sandy soils there is a close resemblance, both containing a large portion of undecomposed rocky matter. The loose texture of gravelly soils renders them unfit for the production of wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to barley and oats. Peaty Soils. — While other soils consist, primarily, of the worn-oif portions of rocks, combined with various animal and vegetable matters, it is otherwise with the peat soils. The matter comprising the soils of this claip* varies exceedingly, but in all cases it retains the general characteristics of SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 25 Its origin, from the quantity of tlie stems and other parts of plants which it contains, either entire, or in a partial state of decay. At the surface, it may be fibrous, and of a brownish-gray color ; and lower, it may be friable, of a light-brown color, and with few fibres. Still lower, it may be compact, of a deep-brown color. Wherever wood, stems, or grass of any kind, goes to waste, or falls down and is decomposed, its remains are changed into moss, if the necessary degree of humidity be present ; and, a certain temperature being essential in producing this change, it is only in the cold and temperate parts of the earth that peat is formed. Loam Soils. — Under this denomination is included that kind of soil which appears to be an intimate mixture of all the others. It is friable in its com- position, and neither liable to be parched in summer, nor drenched and chilled with surface water in winter. It is suitable for every kind of crop, and every system of husbandry. in. — ANALYSIS OF SOILS. The constituent earths being frequently, not only mixed together in an Interminable variety of proportions, but also interspersed with vegetable and animal debris, an analysis of the soil is the only certain and reliable mode by which the farmer can ascertain the presence, and amount, of the different ingredients composing the land which he has, or is about to put under cultivation. The following is the most simple process by which a separation and measurement of different earths may be effected : Fit a cork into one end of a glass tube, three feet long and three-fourths of an inch in diameter; then half fill it with clear water, and pour into it a similar quantity of water in which has been mixed as much of the soil to be examined, as will fill about six inches of the tube. Place the tube in a vertical position, and let it stand for about one hour. An ex- amination will then show the earths deposited in the order of sand, clay, and humus ; and the proportion of the latter will indicate the quality of the soil. IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL. Clayey Subsoil. — The value of the soil for agricultural purposes is affected, in a great degree, by the nature of the subsoil upon which it lies A retentive, clayey subsoil is in general highly injurious to vegetation ; for, where the soil rests on a subsoil of this quality, it is constantly soaked with water, and is tilled with diflficulty. The retention of an undue quantity of moisture diminishes the beneficial action of the manures which have been applied to the land, and the crops on such soils make but little progress. Hence, their grain is of inferior quality, and, when in grass, their herbage is coarse. o 26 farmer's hand-book Porous Subsoil. — A porous subsoil absorbs all superfluous moisture. Below clay, and the different varieties of loam, an open subsoil is particu- larly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry ; it tends to correct any undue absorbent power in the soil above ; and it promotes the Beneficial action of manures, contributes to the growth and preservation ol seeds in the soil, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it is that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will produce better crops than a deeper one, resting on wet clay, or on cold or non-absorbent rock. Quality of Subsoil. — But not only is the soil affected by the depth and texture of the subsoil, but by its quality. There are cases when, from natural revolutions, that which is properly the soil forms the .ower stratum or layer, as, for instance, where the original surface has been covered by the sand ; but, in general, the lower stratum is far less suited to the nourishment of plants, and in many cases contains matter which, if too abundant, is greatly injurious to vegetation. Depth of the Soil. — Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil which rests upon it should be of good depth ; and in proportion to that depth will it be affected by the nature of the subsoil. If a retentive subsoil is placed very near the surface, not only is the soil too shallow for the purposes of vegetation, but it is too easily affected by the alternations of dryness and moisture ; and if, again, a porous subsoil be very near the surface, the roots of the plants, as in the other case, not only have not sufficient space to extend themselves, but the moisture of the soil is too easily exhausted by heat, to the injury of vegetation. V. —MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION. Having now explained the composition, varieties, and qualities of soils, and the connection between them and the subsoil, or lower strata, we shall pro- ceed to point out the various means which it is necessary for the farmer to use, in order to maintain and increase their fertility, and render them fit for the grand purpose of cultivation. These grand means are as follows : — 1. Altering the Proportion of the Different Ingredients in the Soil. — This is done by ascertaining the composition of the soil, and then adding to, or subtracting from, the ingredients in which it is deficient, or with which it superabounds. If a sterile soil is found to contain any of the salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by applying quick- lime. A soil of good apparent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be sterile ; but this may be remedied by a top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess of limy matter in the soil it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too abundant SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 27 In sand are benefited by a dressing of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. Light sands are improved by using peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ; though the former is in its nature only a temporary improvement. When peals are acid, or contain iron, limy matter is necessary in bringing them into cultiva- tion. The best natural soils are those of which the materials have been derived from different strata or layers of the earth, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together ; and, in im- proving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do better than imitate the processes of nature. To do this, the necessary materials are seldom far distant ; coarse sand is often near by, and beds of sand and gravel are common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution of the soil, by thus changing the character of its ingredients, is repaid by a great and permanent advantage, — less manure is required, and its fertility and productiveness insured. 2. Clearing. — It is seldom that the operation of altering the proportion of the different ingredients of the soil can be performed to any extent until after it has been cleared ; nevertheless, we have chosen this arrangement of our subject, believing it to be the one best adapted to promote the end which we have in view, namely, a plain and intelligible presentation of principles^ facts, and modes farmer's hand-book. That the chief part of waste and uncultivated lands might be turned tc advantage, is undoubtedly true. Land covered with furz ; the soil of ancient forests, overrun with this plant, or covered by stagnant water ; those moving sands, which are often carried from place to place, in some sections of the country, by the wind ; neglected tracts, which yield nothing at all, or, at most, but a scanty return ; in short, almost all kinds of land are sus- ceptible of some kind of tillage, and capable of yielding certain varieties of produce. But operations of this nature are not always attended with profit, the land often costing as much, or more, in the end, as it would have been necessary to give for such as was already in a state of cultivation. Definite Plan of Operations . — The first thing to be done is carefully to determine on the manner in which the land about to be cleared can best be turned to account ; then to lay down a plan of operation, drawn up with due regard to the nature of the soil and the ends proposed to be derived from it ; and, finally, to precisely and perseveringly adhere to such plan. It is im- portant that the improvement of the land should be commenced at that part which is most capable of being converted into meadow or pasture ground, even though it should be determined to submit this land to the plough at some future period ; by so doing, a supply of manure will be insured, and the fertility of those portions of land afterwards cleared will be increased. Clearing Forests. — It is upon the soil of forests that operations of this nature are usually performed, and it is upon such soils that they are attended Fig. 4. ■.<^i^^;^^:^^- with the greatest advantages and success, both as regards the person by whom they are undertaken, and society in general. The soil of forest land BOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 29 generally contains a suflBcient quantity of nutritious matter to enable it to produce both crops of fodder and of corn, even without being manured ■with dung; and, consequently, will yield an immediate return for the expenses of clearing, without being exhausted by so doing. The extirpation of trees and bushes often requires a great deal of labor; and, to do it more easily, several machines have been invented. Useless shrubs are readily cut down, and serve for fuel. Their roots are seldom difl&cult to grub up ; a simple and very powerful instrument for this pur- pose is a very strong iron three-pronged fork, the prongs twenty inches long, and a strong handle, twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it, to the end of which a rope is fastened ; this is driven slantwise under the roots, and, by means of a log as a fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled down by the ropes. Figure 4 represents this instrument ; and the succeeding cut is that of an implement now much used for the same purpose, the claws being attached to the bush close to the ground, and, by means of cattle fastened to it by a chain, the bushes or roots are easily drawn. Fijr. 5. Trees, however, must be grubbed up by the roots, and old stumps must be taken out of the ground entirely, before the land can be brought into a proper condition for profitable tillage. This has always heretofore been a work of toil and difficulty ; but a good invention, wliich is a very simple application of lever-power, has so much facilitated this operation, that a piece of ground may now be cleared of trees and stumps with as little trouble, and less exertion, than was formerly required for the eradication of small bushes. The machine by which this is efiected (Willis's Stump Extractor), is represented as very effective. Clearing Waste Lands.— ^e^t to the soil of forests, waste lands and common pasturages most generally require to be cleared. Land of this description is usually in a very disordered condition, the surface being not only rugged and uneven, but frequently covered with stumps of trees, bushes, &c. After disposing of these, plough with a broad sharp share. After some time, a strong harrow should be used. 3* 30 farmeb's hakd-book. Fig. 6. THE KIRBY MOWER. We give tills to the reader, as a specimen of one of the many dozen labor-saving implements of the day. It is said to be an excellent article of Its kind, and worthy of the attention and scrutiny of would-be pur chasers. SOILS THEIK NATXJUE AND TEEATMENT. 31 THE MOHAWK VALLEY CLH^PER STEEL PLOW. AUTOMATIC IRON BEAM REVERSIBLE, OR SWIVEL PLOW^ It may not be amiss before going into further details to call attention to the fact tliat tliere are very many plows offered for sale, of more or less excellence. We sliall not advocate tlie claims of any of tliem, but merely give one or two pictures of tlie most advanced and improved kinds. Every farmer must use Lis senses and judge from las own ex- perience or that of bis neighbors whicb are tbe best articles, not merely on general theoretic principles, but on practical grounds, and adapta. bility to the particular soil or crops he desires to use a plow for. '62 farmer's hand-book. Additional about Clearing Waste Lands. — The litter of boughs, twigs, brambles, and sucli waste stuff must be carefully heaped to- gether. Then the soil will be found partly covered with tangled roots Fig. 7. and fibres, and these must be burned. A bramble-hook, like that above, is also frequently used in cutting brush or brambles. Paring and Burning. — Comparative experiments prove that paring and burning is one of the best methods employed in clearing uncultivated lands of a marly nature, though many disapprove of the practice. The operation consists in paring off the turf to a depth of two or three inches, — generally by a breast-plough, worked by hand, or by a turf-paring plough, drawn by i Fig. 8. horse, — allowing it to dry, and then burning it in heaps. The result is a mixture of burned earth, charred vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that part which is entirely consumed, thus producing a powerful manure, impregnated with alkaline salts and carbonaceous matter, which, it is well known, are very powerful promoters of vegetation. Insects are also killed by the pro- cess. It is very easy to ascertain whether any soil will be improved or not by paring and burning. A few sods may be taken and exposed to heat in an iron pot closely covered over ; the heat should not be so intense as to pro- duce light, but should be kept up for a considerable time, till the sods are consumed. If the ashes are red, and the whole is a fine powder, with par- ticles of charcoal in it, the soil from which it was taken may be safely pared and burned, especially if it forms a mud with water, and the earth is not readily deposited. But if it feels gritty, lets the water readily through, and soon settles when mixed with it, burning will not be advantageous. Levelling Uneven Surfaces. — Frequently, when the surface of newly- sleared land is uneven, it is necessary, in the first place, to smooth and level SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. it, in order to cultivate it more easily. When the inequalities of the sur- face cannot be reducefl by a more simple process, it may be done, when the soil is loose and sandy, by an instrument like the following ; or by another, which is much used in Flanders, consisting of a wooden shovel, shod wiih iron, and having a long handle; about the middle of this shovel, which is convex, are two hooks, one on each side, to which chains are fixed, which unite at the bar, to which the traces of a horse or horses are to be attached ; a rope fixed to the end of the handle completes the instrument. A man accustomed to the use of it raises the handle, and the shovel enters the ^fpound, and is filled by the horse going on. By depressing the handle, the load is made to slide on the rounded bottom of the shovel, till it arrives at the place where it is to be deposited. By letting the handle go, retaining the Fig. 9. rope, the whole is upset instantly, turning over on the edge ; the handle strikes on the bar, and the load is left behind in a heap. By pulling the rope, the whole instrument resumes its original position, and is brought back to th« place from which the earth is to be taken again, without any loss of 34 farmer's hand-book. time, or the slightest stoppage of the horses. About five cwts. of loose earth may be thus moved at each time. This instrument is seen in the preceding cut. Removing Stones. — The removal of large stones often increases the dit ficulty of clearing an uncultivated soil to a considerable extent ; and yet they must be removed, at least, as far below the surface of the soil as the plough penetrates in its course, otherwise it is wholly impossible to till the ground properly. When they cannot be used for any valuable purpose, they may be sunk into the ground to a depth at which they will not interfere with any of the operations of agriculture. For this purpose, a trench deeper than the stone itself is dug all around it, and it is laid in the hollow thus formed. The width and depth of this hollow mast be greater than the breadth and depth of stone, and its shape must be so contrived that the stone, when turned over, may not present either of its angles or edges to the ground. Very large stones must be blasted, especially if they are going to be used in building. The most useful mode of conducting this operation consists in the use of gunpowder ; but it should be done by those who understand the operation, and with proper instruments. Another method consists in heat- ing the stone to a high degree, by means of a fierce fire applied to one part of it only, which will cause it to expand. When the stone has been thus made intensely hot, water is poured upon it to make it crack, the effect bemg increased by powerful blows given with very heavy hammers. A third method consists in piercing the stone in the direction of its veins, and introducing into the hole a cleft cylinder of iron, and then driving a wedge of the same metal in between the two halves of the cylinder. Finally, a quantity of water may, during the winter season, be introduced into a hole made in the stone to a sufficient depth, the aperture to be then closed with a stopper closely driven into it. The water contained in this hole, ex- panding as it freezes, exerts a force sufficient to break in pieces the strong- est stone. 3. Ploughing. — Ploughing is justly considered the most important of Fiff. 11. agricultural operations, as on the manner in which this is performed depends the facility of executing all succeeding operations on the same piece SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 35 of land. The plough acts as a wedge, separating a portion of the soil, and turning it over at the same time. The manual operation of holding the plough in a proper position, and directing the horses or cattle which draw it at the same time, is only to be acquired by experience ; when once attained, it is, perhaps, the most agreeable and healthful of agricultural exercises, the body being kept upright, ti.e arms and legs brought into action, and also the eye and the mind, to keep the furrow straight and of regular width and depth, and the voice to speak to the animals. In the performance of this operation it is requisite. First. That the lines traced by the plough should be perfectly straight and parallel with one another ; the furrow slices all equal, and uniformly turned up, so that they may not overlap each other, or form any inequalities on the surface of the ground. If the slices are not of equal breadth, the operation becomes more difficult, because at every deviation from the straight line the resistance which the earth opposes to the instrument becomes increased. Second. That the plough advance at a regular and uniform depth, and on a line parallel to the surface of the soil ; that is to say, that it do not, as is the case when it is not well guided, sometimes cut thick and at others thin slices. Third. That the plough empty the furrow as completely as possible, so that the earth may not fall in again, after the instrument has passed ; and that the portion of soil not yet raised, but which has just been divided by the ploughshare, may form not an acute, but a right angle with the bottom of the furrow on which it borders Fourth. That the furrow-slice be turned up at an angle of about 40 degrees, or so as to form with the surface of the ground, or the bottom of the furrow, an angle of from 40 to 50 degrees, which is in most cases the best inclination. Fifth. That the divided slices be always of the same breadth ; and that it be such as is required by the nature of the soil itself, and the purpose of Uie operation. Sixth. That they likewise preserve the depth which it is desirable to give them. Seventh. That the ridges or heaps of earth between the furrows be of a suitable length and breadth, and that their sides be parallel to one anotlier, so that they may not terminate in a point ; for such a form tends to increase the labor of ploughing considerably, by rendering it necessary to turn fre- quently. Eighth. That the ploughs be placed one after another, on different parts of the land to be ploughed, so that the operation may be executed in the best possible order, and with as little loss of time as possible. 3G farivter's hand-book. Ninth. That the horses or cattle be harnessed as near to the plough aa Lliey can be placed without retarding their free and easy movement ; for the nearer they are to the point of draught, the less exertion will be required to overcome the resistance. Tenth. That when ploughing with a pair abreast, the most powerful horse should be worked in the furrow ; but, if the team be harnessed in line, and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the tallest should be put foremost, if he be in every respect equal to the other. Eleventh. That, when at work, they should be kept going at as regular and good a pace as the nature of the work will permit ; for they are thus more manageable, and the draught easier, than when slow. By attending to this, the heavy soil will cling less to the coulter, and the land will work more freely. Twelfth. That, the breadth and depth of the furrow being ascertained, the plough should be held upright, bearing equally all along on a straight sole, and be made to move forward in a regular line, without swerving to either side. The edge of the coulter should be set directly forward, so that the land-side of it may run in a parallel line with the land-side of the head, and in such a position that their slant or sweep may exactly correspond. Thirteenth. That the ploughman should walk with his body as nearly aa possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement steadily in a straight line. He should also be sparing of his voice, and of conection to the team : of the former, bepause too much cheering and order- ing only confuse the cattle, and because -punishment, when oiten repeated, at length loses its effect. Hoio to hold the Plough. — In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is per- formed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below no*, being tilled at all, but left thus : Fig. 12. Construction of the Plough. — In the construction of ploughs, whatever be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to be attended to ; such as the giving the throat and breast — or that part which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground — that sort of long, nar- row, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords the least resistance in passing through the land ; and to the mould-l)oanl that kind of hollowed out and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to con- SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. tribute greatly to the perfect turning over of the furrow-slice. The beam and muzzle should also be so contrived as that the moving power, or tearn. Fig. 13. may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. With such an instrument, the farmer can cultivate his land to advantage. Depth of Ploughing. — This depends on the kind of crop to be cultivated, and other circumstances. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a kind of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods are considerably too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughman will be admonished of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping one another. \\ lien their depth is considerably too great in proportion to their width, they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow. The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches, but this varies, according to the kind of crop to be cultivated, and the nature of the soil. The plough with lock coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, like the annexed, is most suitable for deep ploughing. Fig. 14. - — Ridges. — The first operation in the forming of lidges is st riling the fur- rows. Let it be supposed that a field lias been laid level by previous ploughings, and that the marks of former ridges being obliterated, the lines of the new ones are to be laid out. The usual breadth of ridges is from 15 to 18 feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the following descriptions, fifteen feet to be the width of the ridges. 4 38 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Let a steady ploughman be furnished with three or more poles of wood, shod with iron, 8 or 9 feet in length, and divided into feet jr half feet. The first operation is to mark off, at two sides of the field, what is termed a head-land. This is merely a ridge formed parallel to the side of the field, on which the horses are to turn ; to afford sufficient space for which, these ridges may be 18 feet wide. The lines of them are marked off before the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know, on arriving at the end of the ridge, when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is ploughed, the headlands themselves are ploughed, and formed into ridges. In the following diagram (Fig. 15), representing a field, let e f, g h, represent the lines of the headlands, drawn parallel to a b and c D, the sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance from each of these sides of 18 feet. These lines the ploughman marks out by running a straight furrow with his plough, parallel to the two sides. Let him now, beginning at the side of the field a d, parallel to which it is intended to run the ridges, measure off with his pole e a, 7.^ feet. At the point a, let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses, in the mean time, let him walk on to a convenient distance, as to i, and there, in like manner measur- ing off" I b, 7^ feet, let him set up his second pole at b; and then, at the further end of the field, on the line of the headland, at c, let him i)lace his third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line ; but if, from the length of the field, or inequalities of the surface, more than three poles are neces- sary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight as that the ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough, by means of them, in a straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole, at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that he may be enabled to plough directly towards them. Having entered his plough at a, he stops Ills horses, and measures off 15 feet to d, where he plants the pole. He then returns to his plough, which is standing at a, and drives his hoises, keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole, b. Having done this, and leaving his plough standing at b, he measures off from b to e, 15 feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line, to the last pole, c, where, in like manner, he stops his horses, and, measuring off 15 feet, he plants his pole at /. In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of the fence. He now turns his horses sharp about, and returns by the furrow which he has just drawn, cb a. By this second ploughing he throws the earlii out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 39 furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookedneti« that may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in liis first track. The poles being now placed in a line, d e f,he brings his plough to d, enters it, and stops it there. He measures off 15 feet with his pole, from d to g, and fixes his pole at g ; and then he proceeds with his plough to e and /, repeating the same operation with his poles as before, and returninii by the track of his last-made furrow, from f to d. In this manner he pro- ceeds throughout the whole field, forming parallel open furrows, at the dis- tance from each olher of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of the future ridges. The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner of doing so is this : — ^ y The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow, ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the oppo- site side, performs the same operation, causing the first two furrow-slices ta rest upon each other. Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side of a, and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrow- slice into the open furrow a c. When he arrives at c, he turns his plough right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon th.e first one, as at c, Fig. 16. Fig. 15. In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-harid side, and laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached 40 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. the boundary of the ridge e h, on the one side, and the line u s, half-wa} between c a and d f, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of wliich c a is the crown or centre, and h e and o s the termination. By proceed- ing in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of which the first-marked furrows are the centres. It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to thp right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to a, and so on, always ploughing around a c, as a central line. When, how- ever, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, and return from / to d, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards a c andfd, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space o s, half-way between them. This method, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right about, and is the most convenient in practice. In Figure IG, in which c c, c c, c c, are the centres of the ridges, the manner in which the successive furrow-slices have been laid upon each other is shown. By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a cer- tain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals a b, d e, F G, H I, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now form the open furrows. It. is by these open furrows that the water which falls upon the surface finds a passage. . Fig. 16. A CDC F C H ,,iii!!iii!illl|II!l!!lilil!!l!l!l!!liilll!!iiii:n „ imiii m ■.^ A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by tills ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greatei degree of curvature and elevation. This is done by ploughing the whole ndge a second time, and in a similar manner. SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 41 Gathering. — The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge from c to c, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow-slices are then laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing. This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches the open furrows a b, D e, f g, h i. In this manner the whole ridge is ploughed, and an increased elevation and curvature given to it. This operation is termed gathering. In performing the operation of gathering, it is important that the ridge be formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is techni- cally termed a shoulder, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown, before the first two slices are laid together ; by which means the ploughman is better enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not overlap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus : Fig. 17. BCE CGCIC Casting. — A ridge being already formed, it may be wished to plough it Again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this case, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the successive furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining edges are ploughed. By this means, all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon each otner will appear in the following cut. Fig. 18. B C E C G C I C In the operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The first two furrow-slices, as those of e and i, may be laid resting on each other, as in Fig. 18, in which case the two ridges will be formed, as it were, into one large ridge ; or else the open furrows at e and i may be presers'ed by keeping the first two furrow-slices at a little distance from each other, and priv-<»rving the space between them, as in Fig. 19. When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one Bide of each two adjoining ridges at g, and laid towards the other, e and i ; that is, it is gathered towards one side and gathered from the other. Id 4* 42 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. this manner, the ground at the open furrow g, from which we gathei, becomes more bare of earth than the open furrows e and i, towards which Fig. 19. BCECG CIC we gather. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession we reverse the former mode of ploughing ; we gather towards the open furrow G, and from the open fiirrows e and i, and thus the ridge is restored to its former state. Cleaving. — In this operation, the plough commences at the open furrow, lays the first slice towards it, and then returning by the other side of the open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in the following figure. When it has reached the centre, it stops, and begins with another pair of ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In this way the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former centres become the open furrows. When we wish to level a ridge, we cleave it. Fig. 20. Cross Ploughing. — This, as the term denotes, is ploughing in a direc- tion crossing that of the former ridges and furrows. The workmen place themselves at equal distances from one another, as thirty or forty yards, at the side of the field at which they are to begin to plough. Each then runs a straight furrow across the field, as from a to D, from b to e, from c to F. Each then returns, as from d to a, from e to b, from f to c, laying always the successive furrow-slices towards the right hand, until each man arrives at the termination of his allotted space, xx, xx, xx, xx. There has been thus formed, by each workman, one great ridge, but so extended that it may be said to be without curvature. The ploughmen, we perceive, turn from left to right, around the first furrows a D, b e, c f. But they may also turn from right to left. Thus, in going from b to e, the ploughman lays his first furrow-slice to the right hand. When he arrives at e, he may turn his horses left about, and proceed to d, and, returning from d to A, lay his first furrow-slice to the right hand towards d a. Turning left about, then, £tt a, he proceeds in the direction b e, and so on, always turning left about until he has arrived at the middle space o, when the whole space between a d and b e will have been ploughed. Sometimes, for convea- SOILS : TIIEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 43 ienceand the s;iviiig of disiatice, he may plougli, in the first place, around the eeiiiral line b e, by tiirninijf from left to right, and then plough the reiuainder of the interval by turning from right to left. Fig. 21. These are matters of detail, somewhat difficult, perhaps, to be described clearly, but so simple in themselves, that they need only be seen in the field to be thoroughly understood. Subsoil Ploughing. — Loosening the subsoil by a plough, without turning Fig. 22. it, has been strongly recommended, of late years, as a great improvement in tillage. A heavy plough is first run along the field some six or eight inches deep, and a subsoil plough (see Fig. 22) follows in the bottom of the 44 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. furrow, deepening it to fourteen or sixteen inches in all. This differs froii trench ploughing, in which the subsoil is cast up and mixed with the sur- face, by which the soil is either benefited or injured, according to the nature of the subsoil. The principal effect of subsoil ploughing is, that the earth is deepened to a considerable depth, and root culture is much im- proved ; the soil is also considerably drained, and if moor-pans exist in it, may be reclaimed from sterility. It is, therefore, a useful process in stiff soi?- imperfectly drained, but, in loose gravelly or sandy soils, subsoil ploughing is often very injurious. Fallowing. — In support of fallowing, it has been urged, that by no othev management has land produced so much corn — so much human food, which ought to be the great object ; that the work required in the operation is at a time of year when no pressing demand for labor exists, when there is often little or nothing for men or horses to execute ; that the land can be effectu- ally prepared for an early sowing of wheat, which is very desirable ; and that if fallowing (we now refer to complete summer fallows) were to be super- seded by spring or early green crops, a greater number of teams on any given extent of farm would be required to get through the work in proper season ; and that the transition from this practice, where it is regularly established, would be highly inconvenient. Fallows are of two kinds, — the entire or naked fallow, and the half fallow. In proportion to the progress of green-crop culture will be the relinquish- ment of the system of entire summer fallowing, which, after a farm has been once put into proper order, and with a regular rotation of ameliorating and cleansing crops, alternating with grain crops, is quite unnecessary. Unless on the first occupation of an exhausted and dirty farm, and without the means of manuring for fallow crops, the system of an entire summer fallowing is indefensible. Even on the strongest clay land, good, deep, and very early autumnal ploughing, with the subsequent spring culture well executed, and manure, ought to be sufficient for the production of crops. If the soil be of too tenacious a quality for turnips, it will yield potatoes, beans, or cab- bages, and the horse-hoeing process will render it friable, and fit for the ensuing crop of wheat. The full benefit of fallowing lies in loosening the adhesive particles of soil, and in the admission of air, so essential to vegetation ; in suppressing, for a season, the productive powers and energies of the earth, and in destroying the vitality of weeds, and dissolving them altogether, by exposure to the in- fluence of the sun and atmosphere ; but all these effects may be produced by half-fallowing and green-crop culture. On friable soil there is no excuse fi)r the former kind of following, whatever may be urged in favor of the practice on strong chalky or clayey land. The number of ploughings and SOILS : THEIR NATURE -VND TREATMENT. 45 harrowings must be' regulated by tlie nature of the soil. Four good plough' ings, (exclusive of the first in the preceding autumn,) and as many har- rowings, ought to suffice for the most stubborn soils. If a fallow crop — suppose turnips — is to be put into the ground, three summer ploughiiiga ought to suffice. Why is it that one good, thick-standing crop is always followed by another ' Why is lea-wheat better if the clover has been mowed twice than if it had been depastured ? Why is land found to be in better heart after a heavy green crop than it is after bearing a white cropi The answer to all these questions is the same, namely, the soil has been completely shaded from the summer's sun. If a heap of stones be suffered to lie on a fallow field throughout the summer, and be not removed till seed-time, the spot will not only be visible by a much stronger growth of corn in the first, but for several years afterwards. Add to this what was said by an agricultural philosopher, that if he could cover his fallow fields for the whole summer with boards, his next crop would be doubled. But there are many circum- stances which may affect the surface of some soils differently from others. A thick crop of tares or of clover makes. the surface moist and mellow w'hen ploughed up, and thus may be beneficial to the seed sown immediately ; but there is a certain benefit to a heavy soil, arising from exposure to the dews and a warm sun, which cannot be denied, and which often equals a coat of manure. In all cases of fallow, the first ploughing should be given immediately after harvest, and as deep as the quality of the soil will permit, with a strong team, if the land be vury stiff and retentive of water; and in all cases the field should be well ridged and deeply furrowed. Immediately after the stirring time of spring-work is over, if fallow crops are to be sown, the second ploughing is to take place, and in the same direction with the former one, lest, by cross-ploughing, a fall of rain should stagnate on the surface ; but in light soils a cross-ploughing is preferable, even at this early time. The third ploughing should be executed in June, and at this time always across tiie original direction of the ridges ; harrowing with a heavy break, ■f the land require it, should regularly succeed the- summer ploughing, (with rolling, tf necessary,) and the harrowing is to be executed by repeated double turns, crossing those of the previous ones, until the land is sufficiently pulverized to admit of the easy collection of weeds, with the harrow, the couch-rake, or prongs. It is of great importance, at this period of the summer-fallow, to drag to the surface and collect as large a portion as possible of the roots of vivacious weeds in the ground ; for this being the period of active vegetation, every 46 farmer's hand-book. part of these roots which is left in the ground will grow again and extend itself. 4. Harrowing. — In conducting this operation, the harrows pass over the ridge either longitudinally or across. At the end of the ridge they are turned, and generally pass again over the same ground. This is called a double turn of the harrows. When they do not return over the same ground, but pass to another space, they are said to give a single turn. When land is to be pulverized and cleaned of root-weeds, the operation consists of repeated double turns of the harrows in different directions. The root-weeds, being dragged to the surface, are collected by the hand, and carried off the ground or burned. The plough prepares the ground for tlie action of the harrow, and the plough and the harrow acting by turns, the land is pulverized and cleaned. Besides the cleaning of the ground, a purpose in harrowing is to cover the seeds of the cultivated plants. The number of harrowings to be given for this end depends on the state of the ground and other circumstances. When the surface is matted together by the roots of plants, as in the case of land ploughed when in grass, repeated double turns are required to cover the seeds in a proper manner. The operation of harrowing is best performed when the land is dry. Harrowing when the land is wet is to be avoided, both on account of the less efficiency of the operation, and of the injury done to the ground by the SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREAT3IENT. 47 treading of the cattle. In the case of covering seeds, however, in unfavorable seasons, it is often necessary to harrow the ground when in a wet state. In extreme cases of this kind, the practice has been sometimes resorted to o1 attaching several harrows to a bearj stretching across the ridge, and causing the animals to walk in the open fuTrows. There are several kinds of harrows in use ; but the Geddes pattern, rep- resented below, is, by many, considered superior. The Scotch harrow it exhibited in the cut immediately preceding the one below. Fiff. 24. 5. KoLLiNG. — This operation, which, however, should not be attempted when the land is so wet as to clog the roller, is highly conducive to the vegetation of crops — especially wheat — by reducing the rough parts of the surface to a mouldered state, and thus earthing up the stems of the plants while it renders the surface level and compact. Its use, in closely compress- ing the p3Tticles of earth on light, sandy soils, b) excluding cold wind or a jvg/ftbing pqn from the roots of young corn, is extremely great, and may ba 48 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. repeatedly performed to grain crops in the spring months, as long as it can be continued without breaking the stems. A heavy roller is essential to the success of corn in tenacious soils, by closing up the fissures which dry weather occasions, and is useful for breaking down clods on fallows, in aid of tlie harrow, which then more easily separates them, and disengages weeds, bringing ■them to the surface. If the roller be heavy, — as it ought to be, in order to be really useful, — and require two horses, they should not be in line, unless the roller be constructed with only single shafts ; independently of the disadvantageous application of power in this case, the trampling of eight legs, instead of four, in the same track, will make, under particular circumstances, 'mpressiona which the roller will not so readily remove as if only the footsteps of a single horse in the track were imbedded. This is, of course, perfectly immaterial in preparing fallows for the succeeding plough and harrow, hough it may be of some wei'^xit in the case of sown crops, where the surface is not to be stirred ags'.a. Fig. 25. On grass lands heavy rolling is highly efficacious, particularly if the surface has been rendered uneven by the treading of cattle, or by any other causes. On dry, absorbent land, when under grass, rolling will be most use- ful after rain, if not so immoderate as to cause injury from the feet of the animals during the process ; and the earlier in the morning the better, in order to destroy vermin. Meadows are served by rolling immediately after the hay is removed, in order to press the seeds that had been diffused ovei SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 49 the surface into the earth, and thus promote their vegetation. The usual way of moving tlie roller, is to begin at one end of the field, and to leave at rach bouting an interval precisely of the breadth of the roller, (in order to allow a sufficient sweep for the roller in each turning, without injuring the lioad-rig by tearing it, or distressing the horses,) and alternately to roll tlu'se intervening portions. When the land is in ridges, the rolling should be across them. The box which is seen attached to the roller represented on the preceding page, is to receive stones, &c., picked up in the field, and also for giving weight to the roller according to the work required. 6. Manuring. — This important subject will be treated of in its relation to the composition of manures and their application to the different soils. Action of Manures. — Manure acts upon the soil in two ways : First, by communicating to it those juices which are calculated for the nutrition of plants and vegetables ; and, secondly, by the chemical action which it exer- cises on those substances contained in the soil, decomposing them, and re-combining them under new forms, and thus facilitating their introduction into the suckers of plants ; and, perhaps, also by communicating that degree of energy and activity to vegetation, which enables it to take up and appro priate the suitable nutritive juices. Natural Manures. — All animal bodies, as dead carcasses, flesh, intestines, the refuse of the shambles, &c., when in a state of putrefaction, may be converted into manure ; and manures thus formed are far more active than any other. Yet, in general, the excrements and urine of animals, obtained from them while living, are set aside for manure, because a large quantity can thus be procured, and at much less cost. It is found very advantageous to mix these excrementitious substances with the remains of vegetable matters, for by this means the latter are made to putrefy more rapidly, and do not lose so much of their actual substance, while, also, the fermentation of the animal bodies, which would otherwise be carried on with*too great rapidity, is somewhat retarded. Manures thus formed are called " natural manures," in order to distinguish them from others which are termed " arti- ficial." Besides, they are the kind best known, and, indeed, among many persons, are the only description which is kno\vn and used. Those excrements which are voided by animals through the intestinal canal are composed not only of the food which they have taken, and of that portion of its filaments which could not be decomposed, but also of minute particles of the body of the animal itself, which are deposited in the intestinal canal after having performed their office. They consequently may be said to be entirely composed of animalized substances, and, even in animals fed almost entirely on vegetables, will be found to possess more of 5 D 50 farmer's hand-book. the animal than the vegetable nature. The properties of the dung, however depend, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the beasts are fed, and their condition and breed. Hence arises the striking difference which exists between the dung yielded by cattle put up to fatten, or which are in a good state of keeping, and that which is voided by lean, badly-fed animals. Urine. — It is generally customary to mix urine with the solid excrements. This liquid, which is, in fact, composed chiefly of water, likewise contains a Bubstance which is peculiar to itself, and various other very active matters, particularly ammonia. These matters are most beneficial when mixed up with the solid excrements, and collected by means of litter, or of substances peculiarly adapted for the purpose, which substances decompose one another, and give rise to the formation of new compounds. Common manure is com- posed of these two kinds of excrements, and of those vegetable substances which are used as litter, as straw, fern, or dry leaves, — chiefly the first of these three. This mixture is commonly termed stable-manure. The Various Kinds of Excrement. — When horse-dung, in a proper state of moisture, is exposed to air of a moderate temperature, it soon enters into fermentation ; and if it is not watered, instead of assuming the form of a tfiick paste or black-butter, as it is called, it becomes powdery, and wastes away, leaving scarcely anything but ashes behind. Manure produced by horn-cattle also begins to ferment very soon, provided that it is close and •iniform in consistence, and contains only its proper moisture ; but its fer- mentation is less rapid than that of horse-dung, and, therefore, requires no watering, and does not waste away. Its effect on land is also more lasting, ilhough less rapid. When placed in the soil, it does not appear to produce Any very sensible increase of the temperature, and on this account it is adapted peculiarly for the manuring of warm soils. Sheep-dung, when kept in a compact heap, decomposes rapidly ; but where it is loosely heaped, it decomposes much more slowly. When placed in the soil, or dropped upon it by the sheep, it produces a speedy and energetic effect, often- times giving too much vigor to the first crop, when it is used abundantly. The quality of pigs'-dung depends greatly on the kind of food they consume, also on the manner of collecting it. If the liquid portion of the excrements are mixed with the straw 'in such a manner as to prevent any running o^, and the dung is placed in a situation favorable to its decomposition, a very active compound is produced. Poultry-dung can be obtained generally only in small quantities, but it is very active, and of great value. It is very differ- ent from that of quadrupeds, and contains a peculiar substance, mainly resembling the white of an egg. This kind of manure, in order to have ita due effect on the soil, must be divided as minutely as possible, and be spread over the ground, without burying or covering it up. SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 51 Nighl-Soil. — Human excrements, or night-soil, make a very active ma- nure. The best viay of using it is to form it into a kind of compost, by mixing it with other substances, and especially by making it into heaps with turf, and adding a small quantity of burnt lime. By mixing and mingling it thoroughly with these substances, it loses its fetid odor, and should then be spread over the ground, without covering or burying. A powerful manure is manufactured from night-soil, called poudrette, on account of its form being that of a powder. Management of Manures. — Dung should be left in the stable as long as possible, for its quality is thereby improved. But it should not be done at Fig. 27. the expense of the cleanliness and comfort of the cattle, or keeping the stable dry. If the dung is suffered to remain under the cattle, great care must be taken that it does not collect in larger quantities under their hind than under their fore feet, for that would keep them in an unnatural attitude. In ordinary circumstances, it is more convenient to mingle the different species of dung uniformly in the heap, so that the defects of one sort of manprfi may correct those of another ; and the result will be a regular and well-digested compound. As 10 the time when manure should be carted into the fields, and the state in which the manure should be, it is pretty well ascertained that manure should not be removed whilst in a hiffh state of fermentatinn. because at that 52 farmer's hand-book, period an important part of some of its most active properties would evapo- rate ; but before fermentation has commenced, or after it has subsided it appears to lose little by exposure to air, beyond what it regains in mother manner. There are visible advantages attending the spreading upon the land fresh strawy manure, and to leave it till the ploughings of spring commence, taking care, however, that the water does not wash away the juices, and carry them beyond the field, but that it merely allows them to penetrate the earth. This method of covering the soil during winter renders it much more friable, and remarkably fertile. The practice of leaving the manure on the land in small heaps, as it is unloaded from the carts, is not judicious. The decomposition will be very irregular, the valuable gases will be carried away by the wind, the most valuable portion of the juices will all be absorbed by the soil immediately beneath the heap, and the places where these heaps have been will be marked by the rank growth of the crop, whilst the surrounding parts present an impoverished appearance. The proper time for carting manure varies much with the circumstances and economy of the farm. Winter manure is best suited for seed crops, whilst fresh litter is particularly adapted to potatoes, especially in clay soils, because it diminishes their tenacity, and allows the plant to come in contact with the atmosphere. Other crops, and especially cabbages, do better with decomposed manures ; this being, on light lands, essential to their success. Afterwards, the manure for beans and peas may be carted, and this can Fig. 28. either be buried or spread over the soil. To heavy clay lands a larger portion of manure must be given at a time, because they can bear it witliout risk of the crops being laid. Upon a light, hot soil, the manure is quickly decomposed, and a very abundant supply may have a bad effect, in causing SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. r>3 the crops either to fall or to scorch up. In mixing fine manures with the BOU, the improved expanding cultivator (Fig. 28) is very useful. Forming Composts. — In the formation of composts, two methods are pursued. Tn the one, the several matters of which they are composed are divided into different layers, and placed one above the other ; at the bottom of the heap a bed of turf or of earth is placed, five or six feet larger on each side than the extended heap ; then a layer, about a foot thick, of the freshest dung that is to be had ; above this another layer of turf or earth. If there are any other matters capable of putrefaction, they are placed upon this bed, which is covered with another layer of dung, and so on, till it has arrived at a height of five or six feet ; it is then covered with auutlier layer of earth. Quick-lime is often mixed with these composts, but the lime must not be in immediate contact with the dung, because it causes it to decom- pose too speedily and to too great an extent. Place it between two layers of earth, or between earth and any other substance difficult of decomposi- tion. When the sides of the bed of the dung-hill have become saturated with the liquor from the heaps, they are turned over and spread upon the surface. The compost then heats, and fermentation commences, and it is left till this fermentation ceases. When no more heat is felt in the interior of the heap, it is turned over, so that the part which was above becomes the bottom, and that which formed the sides is turned into the middle. Sometimes a fresh bed of earth is placed below the heap. The heap, when turned over, is long and narrow, resembling a roof, in order that it may be more exposed to the air ; because it is thought that by this means it is increased in weight and quality. In the other method which is pursued in forming composts, the various substances are all brought to the place where the dunghill is to be made, and are deposited separately around it. The bed of earth for the bottom of tlie heap is then formed in the middle ; the laborers then surround the heap, and each, with a shovel, throws the substances as they lie around it into the bed, by which means the whole mass is equally mixed throughout. Tlius loam, earih, tufts of grass, moss, the leaves of trees, particularly of pine trees, saw-dust, and the remains of animal or vegetable matter, and very often, in addition to this, lime, ashes, soot, and fresh litter, are all incor- porated, and the mixture wetted with the liquid which drains from the manure, or with urine. This dunghill should, like the former, be allowed to remain quiet till the fermentation is past, when it should be turned over several times. Litter. — Where there is a scarcity of straw, various vegetable substances are used for the purpose of absorbing and retaining the excrementitious matters, and forming a dry bed for the cattle, as well as for increasing the 5* L_. 54 FARMER'S UAXD-BOOK. quantity of the manure. The litter in most general use, after straw, is the leaves of trees, especially the pine; and when once the decomposition has taken place, the dung is even superior in quality, because the pine-tree leaves contain a far greater proportion of nutritive juices than the straw Oak-leaves are not so good, and when mixed with manure before they are decomposed, must not be removed from the heap for a considerable period. The leaves of beech, walnut, and chestnut trees are apparently not greatly beneficial to vegetation, since little or no grass usually grows under them , hut, when mixed with dung, they soon lose their baneful properties, and rapidly decompose. Alder, willow, and poplar leaves decompose quickly, but they possess little consistence, and tend only slightly to increase the volume of the excrements which they receive. Heath, broom, reeds, rushes, aquatic plants, moss, fern, &c., may be used as litter, when nothing else can be obtained. Applying Liquid Manure. — The liquid manures, which should be carefully attended to, are specially devoted to those crops which will bear rich ameliorations. Some farmers reserve them for clovers and other artificial meadows, or for natural pastures. They are never so advan- tageous as when applied to sandy soils, which they render tolerably consistent, and inore adapted for the retention of moisture ; but the use of liquid manure will never replace that of dung on hard or clayey soils. Folding. — Besides the various animal manures which we have named, there is that which arises from the folding or cotting of sheep or cattle on arable land. This practice is most usually followed with sheep. It ia questionable, however, whether this close confinement of sheep be favorable to their health and fleece. It is only the strongest and most vigorous breeds that can support it. And, independently of the difference in the health of animals, folding at night in common, littered, combines all the advantages of folding on arable land, with this exception, that the latter method saves the labor and expense of carrying the manure. Dead Bodies, Bones, dfc. — Animal bodies, when dead, form a peculiarly accive manure. If these are collected together in trenches, or enclosures walled around, covered with quick-lime, mixed with earth, and subse- quently, when they have lost their putrid and offensive smell, which is soon carried off by the lime, the whole mixture be stirred and mingled together, an exceedingly active manure will be obtained. Even bones are softened by the admixture of quick-lime, and when powdered and applied to land, produce a wonderful effect. Fish, covered with lime and mixed with earth, are very fertilizing. Horn, hoofs of animals, shamble refuse, hair and wool, sugar scum, and all kinds of filth, are good for manuring. Guano, which consists simply of the excrement of sea-fowls, ia SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 5£ also a powerful manure, but must be applied more abundantly than is com- monly supposed, in order to be effective. It should not be applied in immediate contact with seeds, requires considerfvble moisture, and, if well mixed with three or four times its weight of finely sifted earth, and sufleriJ to remain some weeks in this state before it is used by the drill, or applied broadcast, its effects will be more considerable. Vegetable Manures. — Purely vegetable manures are not nearly so active and energetic as those of animal origin ; but, on the other hand, their effects are more durable. There cannot be a doubt that all those weeds which are allowed to produce their flowers, and then buried by the action of the plough, tend to augment the fertility of the soil. There is not a single vegetable substance, even down to the stubble which most crops leave behind them, which does not restore some portion of mould to the soil ; and nothing tends to improve land more than the turf or accumulation of herbage which i? successively formed during a number of years. Those plants, however, which are cultivated for the purpose of being buried as vegetable manure, should be such as will shoot up and flourish with all possible rapidity. The seed must not be expensive ; but of such a nature as that a small quantity will sow a considerable surface, — must be well adapted to keep the soil loose, and must be disposed to putrescence. There is no plant which combines these qualities so largely as what is called corn spurry ; also rape> peas, vetches, beans, and buckwheat. Sea-weeds and pond-weeds ma> likewise be entered in the class of vegetable substances which yield au active and energetic manure ; also the weed which is found at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and other places in which stagnant water has remained for any length of time. Peat is a substance which may also he employed for the amelioration of land, especially light, friable soils. Mineral Manures. — Of late years there has been considerable discussion concerning lime as a manure. This substance, especially when it has been recently calcined, or is, in other words, what we call quick-lime, absorbs the carbonic acid which is contained in the atmosphere which surrounds it, and afterwards communicating it to the plants, doubtless furnishes them with some nourishment : but this nutrition is very slight ; the property to which it owes the chief power in promoting vegetation is that of decomposing the various inert vegetable or animal substances which it meets with in the soil, and transforming them into nutritive juices adapted to the nature of plants. The use of marl is always attended hy evident and beneficial effects, especially when clayey marl is applied to a sandy soil ; and advantageous results have been obtained even when, after several years of rest, the land has appeared so exhausted and sterile as scarcely to be worth the trouble of 56 farmer's hand-book. sowing it. It is likewise advantageous to make use of marl mixed with dung, and with peat and mud, in the form of a compost. The effects of gypsum are much greater on dry soils than on those which are moist or damp. It is chiefly used in the cultivation of clover, or other plants of a similar nature. It is applied both in a calcined and an uncalciiied state, without much difference in its effects, unless, indeed, a heavy rain falls immediately after this substance has been spread in the former state, when the powder will be converted into hard, strong lumps, and rendered useless. The most important point is to see that the gypsum is powdered as fine as possible, and strew it when there is but little wind. Ashes, of various kinds, are much used, especially abroad. When thoroughly burned, ashes are composed of earths and potash, to which are sometimes added metallic oxides and different salts. Lime is always the predominating earth which enters into their composition, even when the plants whence they are derived have not sprung from a limy soil. Bleach- ers' and soap-boilers' ashes are much preferred. 7. Draining. — As a certain quantity of moisture is essential to vegeta- tion, so an excess of it is highly detrimental. In the removal of this excess consists the operation of draining. The Causes of Wetness in Lands. — The successful practice of draining depends, in a great measure, on a proper knowledge of the structure of the earth's upper crust ; that is, of the various layers of which it is composed, as well as of their relative degrees of porosity, or capability of admitting or rejecting the passage of water through them, and likewise the modes in which the water is formed, and conducted from the high or hilly situations to the low or level grounds. To perform properly the business of draining, attention should not only be paid to the differences in regard to the situation of the lands, or what is commonly called drainage land, but also to the nature, distribution, and depth of the materials that constitute the soils or more superficial parts of them, as upon each of these some variety, in respect to the effects arising from water retained in them, may depend. Wetness of land, so far as it respects agriculture, and is an object of draining, may generally depend on the two following causes : first, on the water which is formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, filtrating and sliding down among some of the different beds of porous materials that he immediately upon the hard strata or layers, forming springs below and flowing over the surface, or stagnating underneath it, — and, secondly, on rain or other water becoming stagnant on the surface, from the retentivfl nature of the soil or surface materials, and the particular nature of the situa- tion of the ground. The particular wetness which shows itself in different situations, in the forms of bogs, swamps, and morasses, for the most pan bOlLS •. THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 57 proceeds from the first of these causes ; but that superficial wetness which takes place in the stiff, tenacious, clayey soils, with little inclination of Burface, generally originates from the latter. The most certain and expedi- tious method of draining, in such cases, is that of intercepting the descent of the water or spring, and thereby totally removing the cause of wetness. This may be done where the depth of the surface, and consequently of tlie spring, is not great, by making level drains of considerable length across the declivities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to form, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of conveying the water thus collected into the brooks or rivulets that may be near. "Where the spring has naturally formed itself an outlet, it may frequently only be necessary to bore into it, or render it larger, and of more depth, which, by affording the water a more free and open passage, may evacu.ite and bring it off more quickly, or sink it to a level so greatly below that of the surface of the soil as to prevent it from flowing into or over it. Boggy Lands, and the True Line of the Spring. -^ In the drainage of boggy or wet grounds, arising from springs of water beneath them, it is necessary to be fully acquainted with the nature and disposition of the strata composing the higher grounds, and the connection which they have with that which is to be rendered dry. The line of springs being ascertained, and also some knowledge of the under surface, a line of drain should be marked out above or below them, according to the nature of the strata, and excavated to such a depth as will intercept the water in the porous strata before it rises to the surface. The effect of such drains will often be greatly heightened by boring holes in their bottom with the auger. Where water issues forth on the surface at more places than one, it is necessary to deter- mine which is the real or principal spring, and that from which the other outlets are fed, as by removing the source, the others must of cours'e be rendered dry. It may sometimes happen that where the highest are th« strongest outlets, they may be the main or leading springs ; those which show themselves lower down in the land being merely formed by the water of the main spring overflowing, and finding itself a passage from an opening, or the porous nature of the materials of the soil near to the surface, and from being obstructed somewhat further down in the ground by some impenetrable layer. This circumstance must, therefore, be fully ascertained before the lines for the ditches or drains are marked out. In cases w^here the banks or rising grounds are formed in an irregular manner, and from the nature of the situation, or the force of the water underneath, springs abound around the bases of the protuberances, the ditches made for the purpose of draining should always be carried up to a much higher level in the side of the elevated griund than that in which the wetness or water appears ; as far even as to 58 FARMERS IL/lND-Bt)OK. the firm, unchanged land. Where there is a difficulty in ascertaining the line of the spring, and consequently that of the cross drain, either froin its not showing itself upon the surface, or from there not being any apparent outlet, it may generally be met with in carrying up the conducting drain for con- veying away the water ; as soon as the operator discovers the spring, he need not proceed any further, but form the cross drain on the level thus dis- covered to such a distance on each side of the tail, or terminating part of the strata, of whatever sort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land, it regard to situation or other circumstances, may demand. The following figure, representing an uneven surface, will illustrate the nature of the strata which produce springs. Fig. 29. Suppose A A a porous gravel, through which the water filtrates readily , B B a stratum of loam or clay, impervious to water. The water which comes through a a will run along the surface of b b towards s s, where it will spring to the surface, and form a lake or bog between s and s. Sup- pose another gravelly or pervious stratum under the last, as c c c, bend ing as here represented, and filled with water running into it from a higher level ; it is evident that this stratum will be saturated with water up to the dotted line e f f, which is the level of the point in the lower rock, or impervious stratum, d, where the water can run over it. If the stratum B B has any crevices in it below the dotted line, the water will rise through these to the surface, and form springs rising from the bottom of the lake or bog ; and if b B wore bored through and a pipe inserted, rising up to the dotted line, as c y, the water would rise and stand at o. If there were no springs at s s, the space below the dotted line might still be filled with water rising from stratum c c c. But if the boring took place at g, the water would not rise, but, on the contrary, if there were any on the surface, it would be carried down to the porous stratum c c c, and run off. Thus in one situation boring will bring water, and in another it will take it off. This principle being well understood, will greatly facilitate all drain- ings of springs. Wherever water springs, there must be a pervious and an impervious stratum to cause it, and the water either runs over the impervi- ous surface, or rises through the crevices in it. When the line of the springs is found, as at s s, the obvious remedy is to cut a channel with a sufficient declivity to take off the water in a direction across this line, and SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 59 sunk through the porous soil at the surface into the lower impervious earth. The place for this channel is where the porous soil is the shallowest above the breaking out, so as to require the least depth of drain ; but the solid stratum must be reached, or the draining will be imperfect. It was by at- tending- to all these circumstances that Elkington acquired his celebrity in draining, and that he has been regarded as the father of the system. Drains, and Peat Lands. — When the drains cannot be carried to a sufficient depth to take the water out of the porous stratum saturated with jt, it is often useful to bore numerous holes with a proper auger in the bottom of the drain through the stifier soil, and, according to the principle explained in the preceding figure, the water will either rise through these bores into the drains, and be carried off, and the natural springs will be dried up, or it will sink down through them as at g, in the section, if it lies above. This method is often advantageous in the draining of peat-bogs, which generally lie on clay or stiff loam, with a layer of gravel between the loam and the peat, the whole lying in a basin or hollow, and often on a declivity. The peat, though it retains water, is not pervious, and drains may be cut into it which will hold water. When the drains are four or five feet deep, and the peat is much deeper, holes are bored down to the clay below, and the water is pressed up through these holes, by the weight of the whole body of peat, into the drains, by which it is carried off. Figures 30 and 31, represent a common case of this kind ; h h (Fig. 31) are the sides of a hill; the swampy lot, below, is filled with springs, which are, however, drained by running a ditch {b b) across it, and sinking Fiff. 31. Fisr .30. holes into the subsoil. One of these holes is seen in Fig. 30 (a h), and the manner in which it conveys the surface water away. The bottom of the 60 farmer's hand-book. drains is sometimes choked with loose sand, which flows up with the water, and they require to be cleared repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after the first rush is past, and the water rises slowly and regularly. The surface of the peat, being dried, dressed with lime, and consolidated with earth and gravel, soon becomes productive. When a single large and deep drain will produce the desired effect, it is much better than when there are several smaller, as large drains are more easily kept open, and last longer, than smaller ones ; but this is only the case- in tapping main springs, for, if the water is diffused through the surrounding soil, numerous small drains are more effective. But, as soon as there is a sufficient body of water collected, the smaller drains should run into larger, and these into main drains, which should all, as far as is practicable, unite into one principal outlet, by which means there will be less chance of their being choked up. When the water springs into a drain from below, it is best to fill up that part of the drain which lies above the stones, or other materials which form the channel, with solid earth well pressed in, and made imper- vious to within a few inches of the bottom of the furrows in ploughed land, or the sod in pastures" ; because the water running along tlie surface is apt to carry loose earth with it, and choke the drains. When the water comes in by the sides of the drains, loose stones, or gravel, or any porous material, should be laid in them to the line where the water comes in, and a little above it. over which the earth may be rammed in tight, so as to allow the horses to walk over the drain without sinking in. Hard Soils. — Another branch in the art of draining is the removal of water from hard soils which lie flat, or in hollows, where the water from rain, snow, or dews, which cannot sink into the soil, runs along the surface and stagnates in every cavity or depression. In this case a number of drains are required to lay the surface dry. There is often a layer of light earth immediately over a sub-layer of clay, and after continued rains this soil becomes filled with water, like a sponge, and no healthy vegetation can take place. To meet this, numerous drains must be made in the subsoil, and even the draining tiles or bushes, which may be laid at the bottom oi tne drains ; loose gravel or broken stones must be laid to within a foot of the surface, so that the plough shall not reach them. The water will gradually sink into these drains and be carried off, and the loose wet soil will become firm and dry. Direction of Drains. — It is very seldom that a field is absolutely level , the first thmg, therefore, to be ascertained, is the greatest inclination, and its direction. The next object is to arrange drains so that eacli shall collect as much of the water in the soil as possible. Large drains, except as main drains, are inadmissible. The depth should be such only that the plough maj SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 01 not roach it, if the land is arable, or the feet of cattle tread it in, if it be in pasture. All the drains which are to collect the water should lie as nearly at right angles to the inclination of the surface as is consistent with a suf- ficient fall in the drain to make them run. One foot is sufficient fall for a drain three hundred feet in length, provided the drains be not more than twenty feet apart. The main drains, by being laid obliquely, across the fall of the ground, will help to take off a part of the surface water. It is evident that the drains can seldom be in a straight line, unless the ground be perfectly even. They should, however, never have sudden turns, but be bent gradually where the direction is changed. The flatter the surface and the stiffer the soil, the greater number of drains will be required. It is a common practice with drainers to run a main drain directly down the slope, however rapid, and to carry smaller drains into this alternately on the right and left, which they call herring-bone fashion. But this can only be approved of where the ground is nearly level, and where there is very little fall for the main drain. A considerable fall is to b^. avoided as much aa possible, and every drain should lie obliquely to the natural run of the water. It generally happens that, besides surface water, there are also some land springs arising from a variation in the soil ; these should be carefully ascer- tained, and the drains should be so laid as to cut them off. Clay Land. — In draining clay land, where there is only a '.layer of a few inches of looser soil over a solid clay, which the plough never stirs, the Fig. 32. drains need not be deeper than two feet in the solid clay, nor wider than they can be made without the sides falling in. The common draining tile, which IS a flat tile bent in the form of half a cylinder, and which can be made at a very cheap rate, is the best for extensive surface draining. In Bohd clay it requires no flat tile under it ; it is merely an arch to carry the loose stones or earth with which the drain is filled up. Loose round stones or pebbles are the best where they can be procured, and in place of them, bushes, heath or straw may be laid. In grass land the sod may be laid 62 farmer's hand-book. over the drain, after it has been filled up, so as to form a slight ridge ovei it. This will soon sink to a level with the surface. To save the expense of stone or tiles, d/.ains are frequently made six inches wide at the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut in the solid clay, two or three inches wide and six deep (a), leaving a shoulder on each side to support a sod, which is cut so as to fit the drain, and rest on the shoulder (b) ; this sod keeps the earth from filling the channel. It is filled up as previously described. Where the clay is not sufficiently tenacious, the bottom of the drain is sometimes cut with a sharp angle, and a twisted rope of straw is thrust into it. This keeps the earth from falling in, and the running of the water keeps the channel open ; the straw, not being exposed to the air, remains a long time without decaying. It is a common mistake to suppose that in these drains water enters from above ; — it rises from below. Varieties of Drains. — The different sorts of drains in use may be classed in two divisions, — drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or passage for the water, of sufficient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes of different kinds, arched or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. We pive cuts of these, as follows : Fig. 33. 8. Irrigating. — Watering poor land, especially of a gravelly nature, is one among the many useful means resorted to by intelligent fanners to improve it and make it fit for cultivation. Land, when once improved by irrigation, is put into a durable state of fertility, and becomes so productive as to yield a large bulk of hay, and the after-math is also valuable. In favor- able situations, it produces very early grass, which, on that account, is doubly valuable. The main object of irrigation in tropical climates seems merely to be to carry to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 6S and nourishment of the plants to be produced ; but this species of irrigation is very different from that to which the term is applied in this country. In temperate climates, the purpose is not merely to supply the deficiency of water in the soil. The whole art of irrigation may be defined to be, the supplying a sufficiency of water during all the time the plants are growing, and, secondly, never to allow this water to accumulate so as to stagnate. The supply of water must come from natural lakes and rivers, or from wells and ponds. As the water must flow over the land, or in channels through it, the supply must be above the level of the land to be irrigated. This is generally the main object to be considered ; and the taking of the level is, therefore, the first step towards irrigating. The improved hydraulic ram, seen in the annexed cut, is an excellent machine ; h represents the spring or brook ; c, drive or supply pipe, from spring to ram ; g, pipe conveying water to house, or other point required for use; b d a e i,the ram ; j, the plank or other foundation to which the machine is secured. Fig. 34. Chamiels. — Along the banks of running streams nature points out the declivity. A channel which receives the water at a point higher than that to which the river flow^s, may be dug with a much smaller declivity than that of the bed of the river, and made to carry the water much higher than the natural banks ; it may thence be distributed so as to descend slowly, and water a considerable extent of ground, in its way to rejoin the stream. Thia is a common mode of irrigation, and the shape, size, and direction of the channels, are regulated by the nature of the surface, and other circumstances, which vary in almost every situation. 64 farmer's hand-book. Kind of Soils'/or the Purpose. — The soils most suitable for being watered are all those which are of a sandy or gravelly nature, as the improvement is not only more immediate, but the effect more powerful, on those than on any other descriptions of land. It is of advantage that the soil should be incum- bent on a warm and absorbent bottom ; for the subsoil of watered meadows is considered of more importance than the quality or depth of the surface soil. The best watered meadows are sometimes those in which the soil is only a few inches in depth, especially when the bottom is porous. Waters Best Adapted. — With regard to the quality of the waters most suitable for irrigation, those of rivers which flow through a rich and culti- vated country are to be preferred, as they are enriched by the animal and vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and which are contained in them in a state of solution. A considerable portion of these m^atters is left on the surface of the land by the waters passing over it, and it is thereby greatly enriched. Water from bogs is considered inferior, from the antiseptic (resisting putrefaction) quality communicated to it from the peat. Water impregnated with iron has sometimes been used with good effect. Fiff. 35. Meadow Watering. — The above diagram represents a watered meadow. A- is the main conductor, b the wear placed across the river to intercept the course of the water, and c c c c are the feeders taken off as directed from the main conductor, at right angles to it, by which a constant flow of water is SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 65 maintained over the surface. The water is then carried off the meadow by means of the small drains e e e c, passing between the intervals of the former, and communicating with the main drain d d, which again conveys the water to the river. The dimensions of these smaller drains are seen to be greatest where they respectively join the main conductor and main drain, being thi-n al)out four inches deep and eight or ten inches wide, and gradually diminish- ing to a point, as seen in the figure. The dimensions of these drains, how- ever, as well as the distance between them, must be regulated by the extent of the ground to be gone over, and the nature of the soil. It is frequently necessary that the water should be collected and conveyed to another main conductor for watering a meadow in a lower situation ; and when sligh< inequalities occur in the surface, or when it is wished to convey an addi tional quantity of water in any particular direction, stops are used for the purpose, which consist of small pieces of sods placed in the drains to cause the water to flow over. Preparing the Surface. — In the preparation of the surface for irrigation, it is usual to form it into low ridges, the feeders being on the crowns of the ridges, and the drains for carrying off the water in the furrows. The plan illustrated in the preceding figure is designed only for situations in which Fig. .36. the inclination is not considerable. In the irrigation of lands with consid- erable inclination of surface, the feeders cannot be carried along lengthwise, 6* E 66 farmer's hand-book, as in the former case, but across the line of descent, so that the water flow ing from one is intercepted by the next lower, and so on until it has covered the whole of the meadow. This is termed catch-work irrigation. The preceding figure is an example of irrigation where the soil is very porous, and gently inclined, the supply of water being abundant. A main carrier is led from the sluice (a) directly across the declivity {b), and side feeders (c) taken out from it at regular distances. These feeders have stops of turf, at regular distances (d) , by which means the water is dispersed. After watering a space of from twenty to forty feet in breadth, it is again collected by the small drains in the furrows, and returned lower down to another feeder. The Time to Operate. — The process of floating the meadow commences generally in the month of October, or as soon as possible after the after- math has been consumed, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is first kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a time. It is then let off, and the ground left perfectly dry, for five or six days ; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued for Bome time, care being taken to let oif the water when it begins to freeze. As the spring advances and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering are shortened, so that the flooding shall not last more than a few days at a time. The formation and arrangement of surfaces for irrigation, however simple in principle, are, in practice, among the most difficult operations of agricul- tural improvement. Whoever, therefore, contemplates the execution of this kind of work to any considerable extent, will find it desirable to consult a person experienced in the matter. 9. Rotation of Crops. — The fertility or the barrenness of a soil de- pends upon its constituent parts. If it abounds in those elements which are necessary for the nourishment of the crops to be grown upon it, they ■will flourish, and yield abundant returns for the labor bestowed upon them ; but if any of those substances are wanting which constitute the peculiar food of the growing plants, the yield will be small, and the quality inferior. What one soil, however, may be deficient in, another may possess in abundance ; and hence it is requisite to adapt the crop to the soil ; though in doing so, care must be taken not to exhaust a gene- rous soil by growing the same crop upon it for a succession of years. Nature herself teaches us, that no soil which has been drained of those combinations of matter which form the appropriate food of the plants growing upon it, can continue to sustain them in a flourishing condition. Even the forests are compelled to yield to this great law, and, after a long SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 67 term of years, one kind of timber will give place to another of a totally different character. The principles upon which a regular succession of crops is based, are: 1. That all plants exhaust the soil, though in an unequal degree. 2. That plants of different kinds do not exhaust the soil in the same manner. 3. That all plants do not restore to the soil a like quantity or quality of manure. 4. That all plants are not equally favorable to the growth of weeds. These principles, confirmed by experience, form the basis of an agricultural system, not only rich in its products, but rendered highly profitable by the economy of labor and manure; and from them the fol- lowing deductions are a natural consequence: 1. That, however prolific a soil may be, it will eventually become exhausted under a long succes- sion of crops. 2. That, to a certain extent, each harvest impoverishes the soil ; the amount of depletion depending upon the proportion of nou- rishment restored to the earth by its refuse. 3. That the cultivation of one kind of plants should be followed by that of an entirely different variety. 4. That it is necessary to avoid returning too soon to the cul- tivation of the same, or analogous, kinds of plants on the same land. 5. That it is very injudicious to raise in succession, on the same piece of ground, two varieties of vegetables, which admit of a ready growth of weeds among them. 6. That plants which draw their sustenance entirely from the soil, should be plentifully supplied with manure. 7. That where a soil begins to exhibit symptoms of exhaustion, only those crops should be cultivated which will again restore to it the greatest amount of nutriment. Though the system of rotation is adapted to every soil, no particulai rotation can be assigned to any one description of soil which will answer at all times ; much depending on climatic changes, and on the demand for different kinds of produce. But, wherever the system is properly carried out, and the several processes of labor which belong to it are well executed, land will very rarely become foul and exhausted. On clayey soils, beans and clover, with rye-grass, are generally alternated with grain crops ; and on dry loams or sandy ground, turnips, beets, potatoes, and clover. On rich soils, or such as are abundantly supplied with pu- trescent manures, this system of alternate husbandry is certainly most conducive to the plentiful production of food, both for men and animals. One portion of a farm would thus be always under grain crops, while the other portion was growing roots or cultivated grasses ; but, as the major part of arable lands cannot be preserved in a state of fertility with even this kind of management, and as sandy soils, even though they be libe- rally manured, soon become incohesive under constant tillage, it is requi- 68 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. site that the portion of the farm which is under cultivated grasses, should be pastured for two or three years, in order to give it time to recruit. If they require it, all the fields of a farm are thus treated in turn. Light and dry soils will not bear the same kind of crops which grow well on those of a more compact and moist character ; and all the different kinds of soils require different rotations of crops. Each farmer, therefore, should establish a system for himself, based upon a thorough acquaint- ance with the character and properties of the land he cultivates. Intel- ligent agriculturists, whose lands lie at a distance from market, will endeavor to avoid the expense incident to the transportation of bulky products, by giving the preference to such crops of fodder, or of roots, as may be consumed on the land by live-stock ; it being much easier and less costly to carry to market a ton of hay in the form of beef, or a thou- sand bushels of corn, turnips, or potatoes, in that of pork, than to convey thither a like quantity of those products in their natural condition. The following system has been very generally adopted by the most successful farmers, in the best cultivated counties of eastern Pennsylvania. After a grass or clover field has been mowed one year, and pastured the following spring and summer, it is ploughed up late in autumn, or in early spring, and planted with Indian corn. When this crop is cut down the succeeding autumn, the field is again ploughed, either then, or during the following spring, and sowed with oats or barley. Immediately after this crop is harvested, the ground is again ploughed up, well manured, and sown with wheat. Grass seed is sown over the wheat early in spring; but if timothy is designed to accompany the clover, the former is sown in autumn, and the latter, with orchard or herd grass, early in spring. The following spring, after the wheat crop has been harvested, ground plaster is sown on the land, in the proportion of one bushel to the acre. The same season the grass is cut for hay, and the next season it is pas- tured. In the autumn, the land is again ploughed and got ready for planting corn the following spring, and the same rotation proceeded with, in the same order; but where a farm contains a sufficient number of fields, and the grass is well set, it is usual to pasture it for two years before it is broken up for corn. In the first case it is a five, in the latter a six years' rotation. Lime or marl is frequently applied to the young grass as a top-dressing, after the wheat crop has been harvested, with very marked effect on the quantity of grass the first season ; and the suc- ceeding crop cf corn derives more benefit from it than if applied directly, CHAPTER II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. WHEAT — BARLEY — RYE — THE OAT — INDIAN CORN — BUCKWHEAT — THE PO- TATO — SWEET POTATO — SUGAR BEET — SUGAR CANE — CHINESE SUGAR CANK AFRICAN SUGAR CANE — COTTON — TOBACCO RICE — TEA — BROOM CORN — MILLET — HEMP — FLAX — LUCERN — SAINFOIN — THE TARE CLOVER THE GRASSES — MOTIVE POWERS FOR FARM PURPOSES. WHEAT. Classification. — Writers on agriculture enumerate something like one hundred varieties of wheat ; but the nice distinctions which are necessarily made in multiplying the sorts to such an extent are but of slight import- ance to the majority of farmers. The best mode of classifying the plants included in this order is by natural marks, that is, by the ear and by the grain. In this way confusion is avoided in describing the ear and the grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain, should be acquainted with both ; but the baker, who is only acquainted with the grain, need knovv^ nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe at once, to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best suited to his purpose. An examination of the ears of wheat proves that they may be consistently divided into three classes, as represented in the following figure, and dis- tinguishable thus : — a is a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near eadh other on the rachis, and this position makes the chaff short and broad. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis aa to scraen it from view ; the ear is not so broad, but longer than a; the chaff is of medium length and breadth. The third class is seen at c, the spike- lets of which are set open, or so far asunder, as to permit the rachis to be easily seen between them ; the ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is much narrower ; the chaff is long and narrow. In d i3 represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which the beard gives to the ear. The term bearded is applied the same as spring wheat ; beardless wheat, however, is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and the bearded may be sown in winter. ^ ((59) JO FARMER S HAND-BOOK In regard to classifying whea* by the grain, three heads may comprise all tlie varieties. (See Fig. 38.) The first class (a) is where all the grains Fig. 87. ore short, round, and plump. The second class {b) , where the grains are long and of medium size. The third class (c), where the grain is large Fig. 38. and long to a greater degree than the last class. These three sorts are represented according to their natural size. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 71 Best Varieties for Cultivation. — The following are the names of the kinds of wheat most esteemed and cultivated in this country. White Flint : This is one of the most valuable kinds in the northern states. The heads are not too long, but well filled, with thirty to forty grains ; the kernel is white and flinty, large, and with thin bran ; the flour is very superior ; the perfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushel. Harmon's While Flint : A variety improved from the above ; the berry is larger, bran very thin, flour superior ; this and the above are little injured by the Hessian fly, and will stand a good deal of wet weather. White Provence: Heads middling and bald, chaff bluish, berry large and white, bran thin, flour good ; it is early, but the straw is small, long, soft, and liable to fall. Old Genesee Tied Chaff: An old favorite, but liable to rust and the fly ; red chaff, bald, long straw, berry white and large, bran thin, superior flour. Kentucky White-bearded, Hutchinson or Canada Flint: White chaff, bearded, heads short but heavy and well filled, shells readily, berries round, short and white, flour very good ; it litters a little ; the straw is strong, but liable to injury from insects. Indiana Wheat : White chaff, bald, berry white and large, bran thin, berry not so flinty as the white flint, but the straw is larger and longer ; shells easily ; is attacked by the insects, and it is more liable to be winter-killed. A variety of white wheat is much esteemed in western New York, which resembles an improved Indiana ; it is called Scotch Wheat. Virginia White May : White chaff, bald, and resembles the white flint in its growth and straw, though the heads are more clumped, the berry stands out more, and shells easier ; berry white and hard, bran medium thick, flour good; matures early. Wheatland Red : Red chaff, bald, heads of medium length, red berry, good flour, very hardy, bright and large straw, ripens early. Red Bearded: Red chaff, beards standing out from the head, berry white, good flour, hardy, succeeds well after com, oi an light soils. Mediterranean: Light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, flinty, bran thick, inferior flour. Blue Stem : Has been grown in Virginia for about thirty years ; white chaff, bald, berry white, bran thin, superior flour, straw fair size and good product. The Yorkshire or English Flint, or Soule's WJieat, much praised, is similar in its leading features to the old Genesee. 2 he Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Many-spiked, or Wild Goose Wheat. Crossing will produce new varieties. Propagation may be extended by separating the plants. Red wheat is usually grown upon the strongest clay land, and degen- erates when sown upon a soil of a lighter description. It is hardy, and as it is better adapted to insure the production of a crop on wet, adhe- sive soils, it is very generally sown on that class of lands ; but, on all the 72 farmer's hand-book. better class of soils, the white or smooth-chaffed wheat is preferable, thf thinness of the husk rendering it more valuable to the miller. Winter wheat is sometimes confounded with spring wheat, the only dis- tinction being in the different periods of ripening. The produce of wheal sown in the spring acquires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce of that sown in autumn. This distinction is not, however, an absolute or permanent one. Soils. — The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat are the rich clays and the heavy ioams, though these are not, by any means, the only descrip- tions of soils on which it may be cultivated. Before the introduction of turnips and clover, all soils but little adhesive were thought unfit for wheat ; but even on sandv soils it is now extensively cultivated, after either of these crops. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth of wheat ; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repe- tition of it as those already mentioned. To bring wheat to perfection, a dry and warm season is required. Time for Sowing. — The season of sowing wheat depends on the crop to which it succeeds. It is sown before winter, when the land can be then prepared for its reception, as after fallow or potatoes ; and it is sown in spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not removed off rhe land till that season. The time of sowing must depend, also, on the state of the land, as well as the season. It is, however, generally recom- mended to put it into the ground as early as may be convenient in autumn ; and on strong soils it is not unfrequently sown in the latter end of Septem- ber, in the course of October, and the beginning of November. Seed Wheat. — Seed wheat is prepared by a process termed pickling, before being sown. This is intended to prevent rust, of which it is a pre- ventative. Various substances are employed as a pickle to wash the seed, the most common and useful being a solution of common salt in water, BufRciently strong to buoy up a fresh egg. After being freed from all foreign substances, the seed is dried, and, if not sovvm immediately after must be spread thinly over the floor, to prevent its heating. Culture. — When the seed is sown broadcast, it is covered by the action of the harrows sufficiently to cover the seed. A double turn along the ridge, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, will generally suffice, and oftentimes less than so much. As soon as the seed is har- rowed in, the whole should be water-furrowed, to carry all excess of moisture off the land, by means of the double mould-board plough, with one horse, passing along the furrows of the field, and the furrows of the head-lands. Oper furrows are also to be drawn through such hollow parts as the water might stagnate in, care being taken to sink all inequalities, THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 73 that a passage may be afforded for the water to run off. The intersection of the furrows of the field with those of the head-lands are also to be cleared out, and cuts made occasionally through the head-lands. On the lighter class of soils, ploughing in the seed may be adopted. The seed is sown broadcast ; after which a shallow ploughing is given to the land, and, perhaps, a slight harrowing. The horse-drill, now much in vogue, will plant wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c., on all kinds of lands. See figure. Fig. 39. Quantity of Seed. — The quantity of seed necessarily depends on the time and mode of sowing, and the state of the land ; land sown early requiring less seed than the same land when sown late, and poor land being, at all times, allowed more seed than rich ; also, when sown broadcast, more seed is given than when either dibbled or sown in drills. The quantity, therefore, varies from two bushels, or less, to as many as four Winter wheat, when sown in spring, should always have considerable seed Good and improved soils require less than soils not so good, and on the former the plants are less liable to be injured during the winter, and gener- ally all come to maturity. After-Culture. — The after-culture of wheat, or culture of the growing crop, is chiefly confined to harrowing, rolling, hoeing, and weeding. Har rowing is found beneficial in penetrating the crust which is formed on tenacious soils, and raises a fresh supply of mould to the roots of the plants. Rolling in spring should be practised on drv, porous soils, which are fre- 7 74 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. quently left in so loose a state by the winter frosts, that the roots are thrown O0t of the ground, and perish. Hoeing is performed when the row-culture is adopted, to pulverize the intervals between the rows, and to check the growth of weeds. Cutting and Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. If cut at this time, it will yield more in measure and weight, and a larger quan- tity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing, before storing or threshing. The latter operation is usually done, by extensive wheat-growers, with a large machine, taken into the field, and driven by horse-power ; with moderate farmers, a small single or double horse-machine, or hand-threshing in winter. If the grain is perfectly ripe, and the straw thoroughly dried, and the sheaves free from grass or weeds, wheat may be cut and stacked or housed the same day. It must, however, be effectually cured in the fields. To save it from wetting, some farmers lay it in the form of a cross, surmounted with a sheaf so disposed as to throw off any slight showers that may fall ; others place it in shocks, the sheaves two and two, standing on their butts, the heads of the sheaves inclined to each other, and the tops spread out so as to shield the standing sheaves as much as possible ; others, again, place ineir wheat in the same position as the last, with the exception that all of the shock is left standing, and no sheaves are placed over the heads. Un- less very dry, it should be laid on scaffolds, when taken into the bam, to prevent heating and moulding. When placed in a stack, it should be well elevated from the ground, and, if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice oi Fig. 40. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 75 i)p<.'. i-work should be left from the bottom, extending to the top, to produce cir-, ilation. Thu Sitraw or chalf yields good fodder, when cut or mixed with meal or roots; it is also good for bedding cattle, for manure, and Bhould never be wasted. The fan-mill, for cleaning grain, is too well known to be described in this place. Fig. 41. Enemies of Wheat. — Wheat is subject to various diseases, principally the mildew, smut, and rust. Mildew is indicated by the presence of certain minute plants of the order of fungi, which grow upon the stem and leaves, and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. The preva- lence of heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes of temper- ature, have been assigned as the cause of mildew, and it has been found that open, airy situations are much less subject to it than low sheltered lands. To remove this destructive agent, the use of salt is highly recom- mended The quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and the applica- tion is more effectual if frequently repeated, and does no injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a cloudy day, it is best to defer it until evening. When wheat is infected with the smut, the farina of the grain, togethei •vith its proper c.verings, and part of the husk, is converted into a black, 76 farmer's hand-book. soot-like powder This disease does not affect the whole of the crop, bu the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed through it. If the seed be prepared in the way already described, the disease will rarely prevail to such an extent as to affect materially the value of the crop. Rust is another very prevalent disease, nearly allied to the mildew. It appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem, leaves, and seed, and, like the others, is produced by a parasitical plant. The roots of the wheat plant are liable to be attacked by grubs and worms, the larvae of various beetles ; among these are the wire- worm, and the red-headed large white grub, the larvae of the May-bug, cockchafFer, or black bug. These often do much injury, and late ploughing is the best mode of destroying them, by thus exposing them to the frosts ; when they appear in the summer, they are sometimes destroyed by being attracted towards large fires, kindled for the purpose, and perishing in them. But the insects that attack the wheat while growing and in the ear are by far the most powerful enemies which it encounters. These insects are the Hessian fly and the wheat fly. The former has a black head, thorax, and wings, with a brownish body ; the latter is of smaller size, of a yellow color, and clear wings. (See Chapter on Insects.) BARLEY. Classification. — The natural classification of barley by the ear is obvi- ously of three kinds, — four-rowed, six-rowed, and two-rowed, as in Fig. 43. In Fig. 43, a is the four-rowed, or here or bigg ; c is the six-rowed ; and b the two-rowed. When classified by the grain, there are two kinds, here or bigg, and barley ; and though both are awned, they are sufficiently marked to consti- tute distinct varieties. In the here (Fig. 42, a), the median line of the bosam is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, by which one of its sides is larger than the other, and the lengthened point is from where the awn has been broken off. In the barley {h), the median line passes straight, and divides the grain into two equal sides, and whose shortness and plumpness give to it a character of superiority. Both kinds are repre- sented below, natural size : — Fig. 42. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 77 Fig. 43. in this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties gen- erally cultivated, the two-rowed being the kind most esteemed. Kind of Soil. — The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized. It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow, wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal of the potato crop from the ground. But it succeeds turnips with greater propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley. Barley ripens early in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than any of the other corn crops in the spring. The best season may be said to be in the month of April or beginning of May. An increased quantity of straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early that the crop is sown. 78 farmer's hand-book. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of land for barley is similar tc that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the spring, the land is to be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediately sown. Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry. As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegeta tion, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley should then be sown as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given. Sowing. — The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows. The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeing, may be adopted with advantage. The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bush- els to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil, and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable ; and, when sown late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination. Culture. — The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case, the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows, and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds. Harvesting. — In the harvesting of barley more care and attention are requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best sea- sons ; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem after it has reached a certain period, it must be cut down ; for when it is suffered to stand longer, much Fig. 44. loss is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it is cut at a time when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 79 natural juices, and consequently requires a long time in the field before either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. Threshing and Dressing. — The threshing and dressing of barley are attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a second time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw. Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hummelling machine (Fig. 44) is used. Uses. — Barley is used in Europe as a staple article of food. It is inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for fattening stock, though more especially swine. Enemies. — The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by the larvae of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different character from that which affects wheat, and one which, it is found, cannot be prevented by pickling and liming. RYE. Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety, although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye ; but these are produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each other so much, that, when sown together, they cannot be distinguished. Fig. 45. Soil. — The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils beat nnhpA to it» 80 farmer's hand-book. growth are those which contain the gi-eatest proportion of sand, and there are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five per cent, of this substance. Those soils, however, which contain a lesa proportion of sand are preferable ; for, though it will grow upon ground of the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good land, provided it be not of a clayey nature. In this country it is grovra in the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan ; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in a great measure take its place on their lighter soils. Thne for Sowing. — Rye may be sown either in the autumn or in spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by that of sowing. The quantity ot seed may be two bushels and a half to the acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled. \s it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil is dry ; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has completely germinated Culture. — Rye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains less atten- tion in its production than wheat ; it also suffers less from being sown upon the stubble of another corn crop, or even upon its own ; and it is therefore not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be recommended for imitation. The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been some- what popular in the Eastern States. ' The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to be ente* tained regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain ; and, until it be past, no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the straw losing their green color. The com then sheds easily from the ear. When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to sprout. Product and Uses. — The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large ; the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is stronger ; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 81 It 18 sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure tc ihe air It .s also used both in the brewery and distillery; and in many parts after undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone or mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domes- iic ammals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of- nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and the husk possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to le palate The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the lour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption in the farmer s family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground into flour, which is the better practice. The proportions may be one third of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat. Fig. 46. Enemies. -Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the ordei of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smut- ball But there IS one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes found m wheat is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the French name of a cock's spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape. F 82 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. By some perversion of the vital functions of the plant, the embryo, oi germen, instead of growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out a long, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common seed, which rises above the chaff, and has the appearance of a slender pyra- mid, slightly bent on one side. This substance is soft, and easily broken or cut, and is uniform in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it. It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed with the flour. Figure 46 is Pilkinton's machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take out chess, onions, and heavy grit. THE OAT. Varieties. — Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture, and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several varieties. Fig. 47 represents two of the most marked and useful. Fig. 47. That represented in the cut a is the White or Common Oat, known by its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The Siberian or Tartarian Oat (h) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor soils and exposed situations. The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety, suffers but little from winds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situations THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 83 and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk, awnless chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw ,' it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific; the black Poland oat is regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin- skmned, white grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awncd It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties. The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy, and yieldl well m the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is arown in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the South. Soil. — ThQ soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, from the stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. They will produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain; but as these usually grow straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside ; and the follow- ing year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of the land for oats is less than for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sown after grass. It IS sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat that has been previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat Somng and Culture. -The period for sowing oats is generally from the' begmn.ng of March to the middle of April. The month of March is consid- ere^d by many to be the best for seed-time. They are sometimes sown in l«ebruary, also m the autumn ; but the crops sown at a later period of the season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity of seeds ,s from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats the quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well Is by he condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requires less seed, m pomt of measure, than when' any of the other sorts is used first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no awr,.' 84 farmer's hand-book. a greater number of grains is contained in a bushel. Some varieties, too are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart ; in general, however, four bushels will be necessary on medium soils, and, in poor^ upland soils, as many as six may be required. Grass-seeds may be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with wheat or barley. The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If, therefore, through necessity, this system should b& adopted, the oats should be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred. When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of the harrows for covering the oats. Being usually sown after grass land, oats are more apt to be overrun with thistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, before the crop comes into ear. Reaping. — The reaping of oats is performed with the scythe or sickle. It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color. Fig. 48. The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder. Enemies. — The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larvae of insects, which generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before sowing. THE IIEAVV OR FIELD CROPS. 85 INDIAN CORN. Varieties. — The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob, &c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows:— Fig. 49. Yellow Corn . — The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd ; this has 24, and occa- sionally even more rows. The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows ; a hardy plant. The Sioux, or yellow flint corn, with 12 rows ; also the Sioux variety grown in Pennsylvania ; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16 rows. White Indian Corn. — This includes the White Flint, White Flour Corn, and White Sugar or Sweet Corn, and the White Gourdseed. The Genuine White Flint is the twelve-row corn, raised in Virginia. The WJiite Flint nas 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows. The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania — called, in Maryland, Smith's Early White — has 8 rows. The Neiu Jersey has 8 rows. The New York, 10 rows; and Mandan Indian Corn. The Early Sugar Corn, with shrunken grains, has 12 rows. Blood-Red Indian Corn. — Varieties are as follows: — Common-sized Hffimetite, with 12 rows and red cob ; red cob with white grains ; red cob with yellow grains ; red cob wiih brown grains ; red cob with white gourdseed ; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint ; while cob with red 86 farmer's hand-book. grain ; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob ; the same on a red cob : the dwarf Haemetite, commonly called Guinea corn ; blue corn with 10 rows ; the celebrated Button corn, &c., &c. Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States — the white and yellow gourdseeds ; others to the Middle States — the gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed ; whilst the heavy flinty- grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Eastern States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short- ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf- ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum- mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif- fers exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States the ears come to maturity in three or four months. Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White Flint, used for making hommony ; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain, filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grind- ing up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improv- ing it ; the Early Jersey truck corn, a middle-sized ear, with white and rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, — two kinds, the white and the red cob ; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, usually raised for parching or popping. Preparation of the Land for Planting. — In the Middle States corn is planted in all conditions of the land ; but in Virginia and Maryland it gener- ally follows the wheat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward has been turned, care is taken not to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of the roots. Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dress- ing on the ploughed ground. Season for Ploughing. — With regard to the best time for ploughing, this must depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or winter ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CI?OPS. 87 grubs and other insects which have retreated below the surface for winter quarters ; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in tavor of spring ploughing. The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows, and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction, being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory to planting. The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized. In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by a method called listing, or double furrowing ; that is, ploughing so as at first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side. This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow- slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting, a plough is run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is imme- diately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation of plant- ing is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern States it cannot be done, as a general rule, before the middle of May. Planting. — After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 4^, or 5 feet apart, or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks, when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage has of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never cross wise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances. When the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart than where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which may be planted three feet apart. Manuring. — Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it will always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has Deen flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in In the Northern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a libera quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop tc early maturity. When not enough is at hand to afford a good dressing broadcast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hil just before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian corn, anc 88 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Fig. 50. may be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture ol these with lime and plaster ; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and with good effect — one gill to each hill ; it pushes the young corn forward with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub, cut-worm, and other insect depredators. The same end may also be pro- moted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. To protect the seed against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar. Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth of Planting. — Where there is reason to ap- prehend much mischief to the young plants from blackbirds, crows, insects, and other vermin, it is best to plant four to seven grains in each hill, so that some of them may have a chance to escape. The deficiency i.i usually attempted to be made up by replanting otlier grain, but the product of this replant is too often feeble, and so late in maturing as to be frequently injured by the frost in autumn. A better plan is to replant with the surplus of other hills, though this requires a damp and very favorable condition of the weather. As to the proper depth of covering for the seed, much difi*erence of opinion exists. The corn-planter here figured has the ad- vantage of pushing the grain down in the ground to the depth of four inches, where it leaves it covered up, and in close contact with the soil ; 4 to 8 grains are deposited in each place ; the grains passing down from each corner of the machine. A deeper covering would either cause the grain to rot, or prevent it from rising. Tillage. — The corn once planted, its tender blade pushes through the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 89 ground, usually in about a week (ir ten days, and even sooner when the seed lias been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is com- menced, some begin with the harrows even before the corn is up. The first objects to be effected are to keep the ground stirred and free from grass and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is so frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commencn very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the young corn will thus be in a measure spared ; whereas, if the ground is perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed upon, will, of course, destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the young corn cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose. The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations in soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to soften the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or short rakes, to clear the corn which may be covered. Then comes the plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. This operation is termed bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden mould-boards, as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cut- ting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse, and render the soil near the corn much more permeable by the roots, and at the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences. Whatever tends to favor the extehsion of the roots downwards, serves to place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst young ; but when its top blades begin to be heavy, its demands for moisture increase so as to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and moisture are the great promoters of its growth 90 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. The fanners in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corn, than formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is after- wards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 51), which completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. This mode of culture Fig. 51. is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level. If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hill ing it. It is sometimes said that corn requires hilling to support it. Nature disproves this, by the stiff, bracing roots thrown out by this plant at the time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen for corn. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first place. Allow no weeds to grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-har- row, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe. Thinning and Suckering. — As quickly as possible after it is ascertained that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as to leave only two or three in a hill. Or,-should they stand in rows or drills, the plants are left apart one or two feet. The operation of suckering takes place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, how- ever, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPa. 91 the growth and development of the corn, ar-^ lessening the product of both fodder and grain. Harvesting the Crop. — Tliis is done diflerently in different parts of the country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the corn is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon as the grain has become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are still green, put immediately into shocks, and thus left some time standing in the field. The corn, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and cribbed, and the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender. In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle States, the corn is commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When, therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with the husk, which is soon after eaten by the cattle. In some parts of the Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure enough of the corn for family use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into thf field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means of the corn-cracker (Fig. 52), and is valuable in many cases. By the first of these me- thods, the crop may be se- cured before the autumnal rains, with all its valuable fodder, and the ground cleared in time for a winter crop of wheat or rye. The juices retained by the stalk are sufficient to nourish the corn to maturity. By the second mode, there is always a loss in the grain product, which is never so well filled after the blades and tops have been removed in a green state. ~^ rreserving Corn. — This is usually done by stowing away the ears, cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the sides and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave spaces of about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air. Fig. 53 is a corn-sheller, and Fig. 54 a corn and cob-crushing machine now much in use. The first-named (Reading's Patent,) will shell from four hundred to five hundred bushels of corn per day. The crusher ia 92 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. used at the South and West for the purpose of cracking or crushing the corn and cob together. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Diseases and Enemies. — Besides the birds, cut-worms, wire-worms, &c., that we have already alluded to, corn suffers from other diseases, the chief one being a dark or blue-black spongy growth, which sometimes takes the place of the blighted ear of corn. The mass sometimes grows until five or six inches in diameter, and is to be con- sidered a luxuriant or rank species of fungus. As the species of what are called parasitic plants, to which this belongs, are so readily destroyed by applications of common salt, there is reason to believe that soaking the seeds well in salt water, previously to plant- ing, or scattering salt over the grounds, will prevent this disease. A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom does THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. »3 much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However, the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay. When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds in- flicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its jwn leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown or beaten off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The conse- quence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecun- dation afler the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or a half of naked cob, — the consequence of imperfect impregnation. BUCKWHEAT. Description. — This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum (a), iartaricum (b), and a few other species. Fig. 55. Soils. — This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all othei kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry, Bandy soils, provided only that the drought be not felt precisely at the time 94 farmer's hand-book. when the plant stands most in need of moisture ; it then yields as plentiful a crop as any other kind of grain ; but if the ground be in a situation some- what more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye ; in such situations, it takes the place of other fallow crops ; it is also sown on lands where rye has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On richer soils the plant grows more vigorously, but only in the stalk, rarely producing so much seed as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain. Culture. — The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On account of its sensibility to cold, — the slightest hoar-frost injuring it, — the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The middle of May is recommended; and, if sown later, it is liable to be attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is ripe. The quan- tity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in sowing wheat ; sowing more thickly is injurious. The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which it is exposed in the several stages of its growth, — more so, perhaps, than any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and springs up during the time of the greatest drought ; but, after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe- nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure an early harvest. Tlie success of buckwheat is therefore somewhat preca- rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout the season, but also on the time of sowing, a week earlier or later often THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 95 making a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions, at different times, a crop may be made sure of. The seed should be simply covered up with the harrow, and not in furrows, and requires no further attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it ia very subject. Harvesting. — The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des- titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying on the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occurrence is, there- fore, considered favorable. The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years ; in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected. But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two. Uses. — Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose, may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The culti- vator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good supply of seed ; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn crop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the sea- son to be consumed as green-meat. Another purpose to which buckwheat has been applied, and for which it appears, from the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be done \\\^en the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle, sows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll, and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop ia recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field, called couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown ?i» ear'y in the season as frost will permit, and, as soon as it get^f into flower, 96 FARMERS HAND-BOOK. rolled down, and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then Bown on top of the first, and harrowed in ; and, if the season be not unfavor- able, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in THE POTATO. Propagating. — The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is in this waj' that new sorts are obtained ; or it may be propagated by plant- ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. The approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, so that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn. Varieties. — The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious distinctions being the early and the late. First : the earliest kind, used by gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for field- culture. Second : early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their order of ripening, as — the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion, and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation ; the Early Red, Cape of Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third • the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field, such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numer- ous others. Fourth : those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Cham- pion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam. Fifth: the different varieties of Sweet Potato. Soils. — The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops ; and it is one source of great value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a peaty character. Culture and Tillage. — In the common course of farming, potatoes are cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade ; thus, in woods in new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or, in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivatioM, however, upon the larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the plough and the working cattle upon the farm. The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted upon land newly broken-up from grass ; in this way they may be cultivated beneficially in regard to produce; it is, however, a deviation from the general rule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 97 by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as 10 keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow, and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root- weeds are to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a compost. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last ploughing; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because, as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the pre- vious one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and all the root- weeds are to be industriously collected and removed as before. The proper manure for the potato is common farm-yard dung, but any other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one an- other. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required. A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato-sets placed upon it, will appear thus : — Fig. 56. The sets are now to be covered by splitting each drill so that the top of the new drill formed is immediately above the bottom of the old one, and this simple series of operations completes the plantmg of the potato. The usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the middle of May. The early potatoes should be planted earlier. In a fortnight or more after planting, the whole field is to be harrowed. The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to 9 G 98 farmer's hand-book. pass along each interval ; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting up all weeds &c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with side- coulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this, the hand-hoers are to follow as before. This is generally sufficient to clean the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when there are many weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards each row, A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear thus : — Fig. 57. This, in all cases, completes the cult\ire of the potato, the crop requiring no further attention unvii the tubers are ready to be taken up, when ripe, which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost. It has often been recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late pota- toes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop. Uses. — The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given quantity, so as to produce good bread. It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But although potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state, — and it ia frequently convenient to give them in that state, — yet various benefits may arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished by every class of domestic animals, affording food in a high degree nour- ishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind; but it is observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 99 Other animals. To hogs they are given with the best effect ; also to poultry mixed with meal. Diseases. — The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and the scab. The curl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their con- sequent diminutive size. To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed or mountain land must be used. Using unripe tubers is also said to be a pre- ventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds. The worms sometimes attack the tubers in the ground, and greatly injure them in certain situations ; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt on the ground before planting. The scab must be remedied by giving good tillage to the land. Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a very extraordinary failure has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop, extending, in many cases, over entire districts, and, in others, partially con- fined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XIII. Potato-planter and Seed-drill. — This is a new labor-saving machine, consisting in the employment of an endless apron, placed beneath a hopper, and containing a series of cavities, by means of which potatoes of a proper size for seed are conveyed from the hopper to a discharge- spout, through which they fall into the furrow at regular intervals. Those potatoes which are too large for seed, are conveyed on the apron to a knife at the lower end of the hopper, by which they are cut to a suitable size. Thus, at one operation, the seed potato is cut, planted, and covered. SWEET POTATO. Description. — A perennial, low-creeping vine, the fine, tuberous roots of which are an esteemed esculent. Although a native of the Southern States, it flourishes also in the Middle States, but cannot be cultivated with profit north of the 41st degree of North Latitude, In the lower counties of New Jersey, in parts of Delaware, and in the Southern States, it attains its highest perfection, and is in great request as an article of food. Varieties. — These are quite numerous, and chiefly distinguished by size and color, which latter ranges from a rich yellow to white and red. The weight varies from a few ounces to several pounds. Soils. — The soils naturally adapted to the sweet potato are those of a light, mellow, sandy character; hence its large yield in New Jersey, and others of the seaboard States. It refuses to grow in heavy clay, or stifi" loam soils. Cvlfvre. — This plant was formerly propagated by setting the tuber? 100 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. out in beds early in spring, whence they were subsequently transplanted to hills arranged at a distance of five or six feet apart, and the trailing- vines were not permitted to strike root. The great labor of planting and cultivating them in this mode, has, however, led many to abandon it, and resort to the ridge system of planting, which is thus managed. The ground must first be well broken up and harrowed, after which, with a plough, throw three furrows together to form a ridge, and finish up the ridges with a weeding-hoe, or fine rake, by drawing up the earth on both sides to about the usual height of potato hills. Then open a trench on the top of each ridge, drop in the slips five or six inches apart, and cover them with the soil to the depth of two inches. By this mode of planting, not only is less ground occupied, but less labor also is expended in its preparation, and in planting the roots. When the crop has matured, clear away the vines, and turn a furrow from both sides of the ridge, when the potatoes can be readily taken out with the hands, 'or by the use of the hoe. Preservation of the Crop, — Place the roots in a dry cellar, the same day they are taken out of the ground, and cover them up close with chaff, or dry earth. During very severe freezing weather, close the windows of the cellar entirely. GROUN^D PEANUT. This legumine (the Arachis Hypoyma of naturalists) is very profitably cultivated in many of the Southern States. It succeeds best on light sandy soils, where it produces from twenty to forty bushels. It also furnishes a good lot of forage. It is sown in drills about four feet apart. Soon as possible after plants appear, they should be worked with a light plough. They quickly spread over the surface. The blossom is of a light yellow ; and, singular in this respect, the seed pod grows into the earth, where the seed matures. When ripe a fork is used to loosen the soil, when they are hand picked, dried and stored under cover. SUGAR-BEET. Soil. — The sugar-beet requires a deep, rich mould, somewhat retentive of moisture, but yet not tenacious. Its richness should proceed less from the use of manure at the time of sowing, than from the effects of previous applications. The sweetness for which these beets are so much esteemed, depends in a great measure on the quality of the soil ; those grown in poor, light soils, having usually an earthy taste. There are some lands in which the superior varieties will not attain their ordinary size, or even acquire a tolerable flavor, while in the same locality, inferior varieties will be produced, which have an excellent taste. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 101 Culture. — Plant in rows, at a distance of two feet six inches from each other, and at intervals of twelve inches in the rows. Deep ploughing and pulverization of the soil are essential to the full development of the root. Put the seed in the ground during March or April, and carefully tend the plants during the early stages of their growth, clearing out all weeds, and thinning the plants where necessary. Moist weather is the most suitable for performing these operations, and a cultivator may be used with advantage. Manufacture of Sugar. — From the root of this variety of the beet, sugar of a very superior quality has been made in the United States; but, to insure its profitable production, the manufacture should be con- ducted on a large scale. In the extraction of sugar from the beet root, seven difEerent processes are used, which we shall endeavor to describe. Before proceeding to do so we may here remark that besides the fact that beets are very much liked for their culinary uses, they are pro- bably the most certain crop for feeding to stock that can be grown. The best cattle seen at Smith Field are so fattened. Cleansing the roots. — This is done by washing them in long, wooden cylinders, having open sides, which, by the aid of steam-power, revolve rapidly in large cisterns filled with water. The roots are thrown in at one end of the cylinder, carried around a spiral screw, and ejected at the opposite end. Tliis is, however, a very imperfect mode of cleaning them ; for, if the roots have been grown in a stiff soil, large masses of earth will still be found adhering, which will not only prove injurious to the teeth of the crushing rasp, but will also lessen the value of the cake as food for cattle. The large roots being frequently hollow, and much decayed at the crown, the acid generated by this putrid matter injures the saccharine yield. Matter of this character cannot be removed by any process of washing; and nothing proves so effectual as the knife, with which all impurities may be scraped away, or cut off, those parts only being retained which will yield a superior quality of sugar. The ends of the tap-roots, as well as the lateral fibres, both of which are not only useless for the production of sugar, but positively injurious, should be excised, and fed to the cattle and hogs, which will greedily devour them, together with the scrapings of the roots. Crushing or Rasping. — Except where maceration is practised, this operation is always performed by the aid of the rasp, which is a \<'oo(len cylinder, the outer circumference of which is armed with steel saws, placed transversely at a distance of half an inch apart. In width it is usually about thirteen and one-half inches, and in diameter about twenty- three inches. Driven by steam-power, these rasps make 900 revolutions 9* 102 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. in a minute, and crush into a smooth pulp between 5000 and COOO pounds of the root per hour. Pressing the Pulp. — Instantaneous fermentation being a result of the heat engendered during the process of rasping, no time is lost in pressing the juice out of the pulp, which, as it falls from the rasp into a square box placed beneath, is removed by a deep wooden or copper shovel, and put into a bag. This is then conveyed to a wicker frame, placed upon a hand-barrow mounted on wheels, the pulp spread evenly in the bag, and the mouth of the latter doubled down, to prevent the escape of pulp when on the press. Over this is placed another wicker frame and another bag, until the pile contains thirty or forty bags and as many frames, when the whole is placed on a wooden platform, resting on the bed of a hydraulic press, and pressure applied. After the juice has all been extracted, the pressure is removed, the bags emptied of the dry cakes, apd the press made ready for another load. A pair of these is always required, so that while one is in use, the other may be in preparation. The juice flows into a cistern constructed beneath the floor, whence it is at once pumped into a defecating pan, which is so. placed that the contents may flow out through a pipe into the evaporator. Defecation is conducted in a copper pan, to which, after it has been nearly filled with juice, heat is applied by means of fire or steam. At a temperature of 162° Fahrenheit, cream lime is added, in exact proportion to the amount of the contained acid, which is ascertained by chemical tests. The lime is intimately mixed with the juice, by stirring the solu- tion with a wooden spatula, after which it is allowed to rest, and the heat raised to the boiling-point, when the ebullition is suddenly checked by shutting off the heat. When the juice has settled, and become clear, it is drained off into the first evaporator, — the scum and sediment being carefully excluded. These are subsequently poured into bags and pressed, to extract the juice contained in them, after which the residue forms a valuable addition to the dung-heap. Evaporation. — The clear, defecated liquor flows into a copper pan, called the evaporator, until it is about one-third full, when a small quan- tity of animal charcoal is added, and heat applied. If the juice threatens to overflow the pan during the process of boiling, the addition of a small quantity of tallow causes its immediate subsidence, and facilitates evaporation. Clarifxjing. — This is done in copper pans, thirty inches deep, twenty inches in diameter near the top, and eleven inches in diameter near the bottom ; each one being furnished with a small brass spigot at the lower end. A cupper strainer, supported on three feet, and covered with can THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 1 03 vass, fits into each alarifier near the bottom, and on this about one hun- dred pounds of powdered animal charcoal is placed. This is covered by another copper strainer and cloth, on which the sugar is permitted to flow until the pan is filled. After an interval of some time, the discharge spigot is opened, and the syrup allowed to flow out slowly into a cistern, from which it is pumped up into the condenser for a final evaporation. The pans are carefully refilled as rapidly as they are emptied. Twice each day the charcoal is thrown out of the clarifiers, and replaced by fresh coal from the kilns. As some of the saccharine matter remains in the carbon, the latter is then used to receive the juice from the defecator as it passes into the first evaporator, and the sugar thus extracted. The charcoal is then washed, and again calcined for future use. Concentration. — After the clarified syrup has been evaporated in the condenser until it marks 41° on the saccharometer, its fitness for crystal- lization is tested by drawing some of it out between the finger and thumb. If the thread breaks, and the end draws up towards the finger in a hard mass, it is ready for the purpose. Sometimes it is tested by blowing a portion of the syrup through the holes of a skimmer, when, if it be suffi- ciently tenacious to forni air-bubbles, which, on falling to the ground, burst, and crumble into a white powder, the fii-e is immediately with- drawn, and the syrup drained ofi^ into large coppers, placed in the air, where it is allowed to cool for about two hours, during which time it ia occasionally stirred to promote a thorough and regular cooling of the whole mass. It is then run ofi" into flat pans, made of tinned iron, in which it is left to crystallize, in a cool situation, for twelve hours, or even longer. These pans are subsequently removed to a stove, in which they are stood on end, to allow the molasses* to drain off; and, in about twelve days from the first operation, the sugar is ready for a market. About one-tenth of the contents of each pan being saturated with molasses, thia portion is separated from the rest of the cake, mixed with the molasses which has drained from the pans, reduced with water to 17° of the sac- charometer, evaporated to 21°, and again subjected to the clarifying pro- cess. Being then concentrated to 41°, it furnishes second quality sugar, which, if well made, equals that of the first quality for refining purposes. "When sufficiently concentrated for crystallizing, this second quality syrup is poured into the coolers, whence it is removed to cone-shaped earthen pots, in which it is allowed to cool for a time, and subsequently placed in a stove. In twenty-four hours the stoppers are withdrawn from the pots, and the molasses allowed to drain off. Six weeks afterwards this Bugar ie ready for market. When the loaves of sugar are taken out of the moulds, the apex of each is found to contain a considerable quantity 104 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. of molasses. These portions are broken off, reduced by water, and troatpd as before described. All the scum which rises during the boiling process is carefully removed, and washed with water, to obtain from it all the contained sugar; and this water being again used to reduce the impure Bugar from the pans, nothing is lost. Proportions of Lime used. — At the commencement of the sugar-making season, when the roots are fresh and good, 4 pounds of lime are sufficient for the defecation of 225 gallons of syrup ; but, as the season advances, more lime is required, until, at length, when vegetation has commenced, 7, and even as much as 8 pounds are necessary for the purpose. There is then danger of an excess of lime, which is usually taken up by an acid, added when the syrup is undergoing the final condensation. Sulphuric acid, reduced by water, in the proportion of 44 parts of water to 1 of acid, is used for this purpose — the precise quantity being ascertained by chemical tests. If a greater quantity is added than is requisite to neu- tralize the excess of lime, the sugar is objected to by the refiners, as its use subjects them to much inconvenience and some loss. SUGAR-CANE. Description. — The sugar-cane [Saccharum officinartim,) is a perennial- rooted plant, very susceptible to cold, and consequently restricted in its cultivation to the zone between 35° and 40° on each side of the Equator. In the United States, its cultivation cannot be advantageously pursued Fig. 68. higher up than about the 32d degree of North Latitude, and the cane here dies down annually, unless cut before frost sets in. Like the bamboo THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 105 and Indian corn, the sugar-cane belongs to the family of the grasses. It attains the height of from six to twelve feet, and is surmounted by a ter- minal panicle, one to three feet long, of a grayish color. This hue is derived from the long, soft hairs, surrounding the flower, which, with tiie lengthy, broad leaves, impart to the plant a beautiful appearance. The stems, filled with a spongy pith, are very smooth and shining, and the flowers, which are small and very abundant, are covered externally with the before-mentioned silken hairs. It flowers in the West Indies after the lapse of a year, though rarely ; but never in Louisiana ; consequently the seed can seldom be procured, except by importation from Otaheite or China. The development of seed interferes with the production of sac- charine matter. Varieties. — Several varieties of cane are grown in Louisiana and the West Indies — the Otaheite, the Brazilian or Creole, the Bourbon, the Red Ribbon, the Blue Ribbon, the Yellow Ribbon or Java, the Green Ribbon, and the Grey. The two first are most extensively cultivated in the West Indies, while the others are confined to the sugar districts of the Southern States. The Red Ribbon is best suited to the climate, all the others being readily afi"ected by cold ; but it degenerates very rapidly. In Louisiana the sugar-canes " rattoon," that is, produce a new growth from the roots, for two or three years in succession ; but the planting must be renewed every two or three years, though in the West Indies, where a similar course of rattooning is pursued, a plantation lasts from six to ten years. Soil. — A rich alluvion seems best adapted to the sugar-cane, and it is grown on both the red and black lands of the Island of Cuba. The former appears to be composed of coral reef, in a disintegrated state, mixed with vegetable carbon and oxide of iron, which imparts to it the red hue. The latter, a rich black mould, evidently of vegetable origin, and probably the remains of old swamps, produces canes of a very supe- rior character, which yield a better sugar than those grown on the red soil. It is a very exhausting crop, and the rich lands of Louisiana have become so much exhausted by a continuous cultivation of sugar-cane, that they are only kept in tolerable condition by the application of costly fer- tilizing compounds. The adoption of a judicious system of rotation would have prevented this result, and must yet be resorted to as the only means of reclaiming the land, and restoring it to its original fertility. Planting and Rattooning. — In Louisiana, as also in the West Indies, new canes are not planted every year, as, owing to the absence of frosta in the latter region, and the usual mildness of the winter in the former, the roots retain their vitality for years, and continue to produce canes equally as good as those cut from the first planting. This system of 106 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. culture is commonly designated " rattooning." In making selection of plants from which to make cuttings, those with healthy, succulent tops, are preferable to the hard, woody ones, and much benefit is derived from exchanging cuttings with neighboring plantations. In renewing a field, the canes are usually planted in rows — a space of six feet in width being left between each row. A series of holes is made in the ground in a direct line, in each of which two joints of cane are deposited, and the earth loosely drawn over them. Two are planted in each position, to guard against the possibility of one failing to germinate. Beyond an occasional hoeing, the sugar-cane requires but very trifling attention. Securing the Crop. — Seizing the canes with their left hands, the opera- tors draw them forward, and, with a single blow of their machetes, or Fig. 59. cane-knives, cut th.em off close to the root. Tlien stripping them of their leaves, they divide them into two or three pieces, and throw them aside to be collected by the women and children, who load them into the carts which carry them to the mill. Crushing the Cane. — When a sufficient number of canes have been cut to supply juice enough to fill all the kettles and clarifiers, the process of manufacture is commenced by crushing the canes between powerful rol- lers, to which they are fed by an endless series of slats. The juice flows into a pan placed beneath the mill, whence it is conveyed to the clarifiers, or pumped up into a receiver, and distributed where required. After passing through the mill, the crushed canes are conveyed away by another endless apron, from which they are taken, and spread in the sun to dry. When properly cured, they are stowed away in sheds, and furnish a supply of fuel for the succeeding year. Testing the Strength of the Juice. — A quantity of the juice, as it flows from the mill, having been collected in a copper vessel called a " test- dipper," the "saccharometer" is plunged into it, and the height at which it floats carefully noted. The saccharometer is a hollow tube, with a bulb at one end, loaded with shot, to keep it in an upright position. It has a scale of degrees marked on it, rising from 0° up to 50°, and, when placed in pure water, it stands at 0° of the scale. As each degree marks 19 parts in 1000 of the solution to be tested, if, when plunged in the juice, the saccharometer indicates 10°, the contained sugar may be known TIIK HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 107 to pqiifil 19 per cent., and ko in proportion for each additional decree. If the juice is thin, it will mark the same on the saccharomctor, cithe? in tiie hot or cold state; but, as a cold syrup will mark more than ona which is hot, it is necessary to add three degrees for the hot syrup, ia order to ascertain its density after it has cooled. Four degrees must be added for syrup containing molasses. When recently expressed, cane juice is opaque, frothy, of a yellowish-green, and sometimes of a greyish color, and consists of two parts, easily separated by filtration — one being a perfectly transparent fluid, of a pale yellow color ; the other a dark green fecula, which rises upon the boiling liquid in the form of scum. The specific gravity of the juice usually fluctuates between 10° and 15° Baum6 ; and this difference in density depends on the age of the cane, the climate in which it is grown, the nature of the soil, the character of the season, the temperature of the atmosphere, etc. Defecation. — This operation is conducted in pans, placed over flues so arranged that the heat can be shut off from one of the pans without interfering with the others. As soon as the receiving-tank is full, the juice is conveyed into the defecating pans by a wooden gutter, and, when slightly warm, a sufficient amount of cream of lime is added to neutral- ize the free acid, and to assist in coagulating the vegetable albumen con- tained in the solution. With the increase of heat all the impurities rise to the surfiice in the form of a thick, dirty crust, leaving the clear juice below. On the first appearance of ebullition the dampers are closed, and the juice allowed to stand about twenty minutes, when it is drawn off from the bottom, and conveyed to the first clarifier; after which the defecator is cleansed, preparatory to receiving another charge. When a sugar-boiling train is in full operation, one defecator is always full while the other is being cleansed. Clarifying. — This process is conducted in two iron pans, lined with sheet copper, which are placed much nearer the fire, but higher up than the defecators. They are both in a line with the flue ; but the first, which is the largest, and most remote from the fire, is placed about two inches lower down than the second. Both pans being surrounded by a gutter, whatever overflows from the second during ebullition finds its way back into the first, and all the impurities which escaped removal in the defecators, and which are skimmed from the boiling liquid in the clarifiers, pass through an opening at one side of the gutter into a scum- kettle, placed alongside of the train. As soon as it settles, all the good syrup is again returned to the first clarifier by the aid of a pump, with which the scum-kettle is furnished. The juice, after being thoroughly purified in the clarifiers, is next conveyed to the evaporatori^. 108 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Evaporators. — These are also two in number, the first being the largest, and placed next to the second clarifier. The smallest, which is directly over the furnace, is called the " teach." Both these pans are surrounded by a copper curb — that around the smallest pan being the highest. This prevents the syrup from the first evaporator boiling over into the second, while at the same time it allows the overflow from the *' teach" to find its way back into the first evaporator. The ebullition being most violent in the " teach," owing to its position directly over the tire, its contents are reduced very rapidly ; but it is continually reple- nished with syrup bailed from the first evaporator, which is supplied in turn from the second clarifier, that from the first, and the first from the defecators. When the " teach" is filled with a rich golden-colored fluid, which has ceased to froth, and from which the steam escapes in short puffs, the sugar-master tests its condition by taking a little of the syrup between his finger and thumb, and drawing it out in the form of a string. If sufiiciently boiled to " .strike," the fire is withdrawn, and the syrup bailed into a gutter, by whiuli it is conveyed to the coolers, distant about ten feet from the " teach." The Coolers are oblong troughs, usually about ten feet in length, five in breadth, and twelve inches deep, made of two-inch pine-boards. They are arranged in a double row, parallel with the train, and each has suffi- cient capacity for three "strikes," all of which are not run into one cooler consecutively, but into three coolers alternately, until that number are filled, when three more are brought into use. While cooling, the sugar is agitated with a small wooden rake, which is drawn through the mass once after each " strike." This promotes crystallization, and in a few hours the sugar sets or grains. A few days subsequently the sugar is dug out of the coolers, and carried in tubs to the purging-house, where it is emptied into hogsheads, the bottoms of which are perforated, to allow the molasses to d];ain away. Purging. — When the sugar enters the purging-house, it is a dark brown mass, containing about forty per cent, of molasses ; but, if the house be even moderately warm, this soon commences to drip into a tank placed beneath the open joists upon which the hogsheads rest. As the sugar settles down, the hogsheads are replenished, either with sugar which has already been purged, or with fresh material fii)m the coolers. At the expiration of a month, or thereabouts, the hogsheads are headed up, and stored, or sent off to the place of shipment. Clayed Sugars, requiring a different process for their purification, are produced in the following manner: The floor of the purging-house ia covered with boards, pierced with holes sufficiently large to receive, and THE HEAVY OR FIELD CRDPa. 109 hold upright, conical moulds made of clay or metal, each having an aper- ture at the small end. These holes are stopped with a plug of wood or cane, and the moulds filled with sugar which has been boiled to a greater consistency than that intended for the coolers, and then agitated for some time in a wooden box, to focilitate its cooling, and promote the formation of crystals. Each mould will contain between eighty and one hundred and twenty pounds of hot sugar. When the contents of the moulds are well crystallized, the plugs are removed, and the molasses allowed to flow out. This operation is much forwarded by pouring over the sugar in each mould a thin, creamy paste, made of porous clay, diluted with water, which has the effect of washing the crystals of sugar, by the percolation through them of the water from the clay, while the latter remains on top in a solid mass, which may be removed without injury to the sugar, after it has parted with all the water. This operation may be repeated several times, but at the expense of the quantity of sugar, which is washed away in proportion as it is purified. When removed from the moulds, three kinds of sugar are comprised in each loaf; a mixture of sugar and mo- lasses at the apex of the cone, next brown, then yellow, and, at the base, white sugar. These different grades of sugar are separated, and either crushed between rollers, or pounded into fragments with a mallet, pre- paratory to being dried over a fire, or in the sun. It is then ready for market, and is the sugar commonly used by refiners. Boiling hy steam is now practised on many plantations, and has several advantages over the old process, though much more costly. Vaporization is conducted more rapidly by this method, and the color of the sugar pro- duced is much lighter, whilst all danger of overheating is obviated. Steam is applied, either by coils of pipe, or by a series of tubes, through which it operates on the bottoms of the pans. Boiling in vacuo, the apparatus for which was invented many years since by Lord Howard, is a more complicated and more expensive pro- cess than boiling by steam. The apparatus is merely a closed metallic vessel, from which the air and condensed steam are discharged by pumps as fast as generated by the heat beneath. As water boils in a vacuum at 90°, it follows that the low temperature at which water can thus be discharged from solutions of sugar, materially assists in preserving the color of the product, and as granulation will take place to some extent in the vacuum pan, if the process be properly conducted, the sugar when discharged will be full of grain, and soon become solid at a slightly lower temperature. Yield. — From 3000 to 6000 pounds of sugar have been produced per acre in the West Indies; though in Louisiana about 1000 pounds is con- 10 110 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. sidered an average crop, with 20 gallons of molasses. The crop has, of late, considerably diminished, owing, it is thought, to the exhaustion of the old seed-stock, and efforts are being made to introduce new cuttings from the West Indies and South America. The real cause is, most probably, the continual cropping to which the land has been subjected for a long period, and new canes will not restore vitality to an exhausted soil. Chemical Components of Sugar. — Modern chemistry has developed the fact, that there is very little difference between the components of sugar and those of many other substances which it is totally unlike — as starch, saw-dust, linen rags, &c. Water and carbon, the principal constituents of sugar, are found united in the like proportions in all these substances; and an eminent chemist, some time since, procured an ounce of sugar from a pound of linen rags, CHINESE SUGAR-CANE, OR SORGHO. Description. — The Chinese sugar-cane (by some botanists classified as the Holcus saccharaiiis, and by others as the Sorghum saccharatum,) shoots up a long, straight stalk, interspersed with knots, from which spring, alternately, long, wide, tapering leaves, which curve gracefully downward at the ends. The stalk tapers gradually from the base upward, •and is covered with a very smooth coating, resembling somewhat that of Indian corn, which becomes harder with age. It flowers in a panicle at THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. Hi tlie top, ch;>ncring from green, the primary color, to successive shades of violet, aiui finally to purple. The seeds, which at first are merely soft, grceti husks, fill with farinaceous matter as they mature, and become plimip and hard. The stem varies in altitude under diiferent circum- stances, and, in a deep, black loam, reaches the height of sixteen feet; but, on the poorer soils, it ranges from six feet upward. The root, which is very strong and hard, in an open, porous soil, sends down its fibres to a great depth. The entire plant very much resembles broom corn in the early stages of its growth, and cannot readily be distinguished from it except by experienced persons. It endures cold much better than Indian corn, and does not sustain injury from the ordinary autumnal frosts. Soil and Climate. — These very nearly correspond with those adapted to the growth of Indian corn, and the sorgho grows luxuriantly in rich bottom lands, or in moist loamy soils, well manured. Experiments made in Algeria, France, and the United States, have, however, demonstrated that the best results are obtained on loose, deep soils, of a sandy char- acter, so situated that they can be irrigated at pleasure. Irrigation should only be practised during the early stages of growth, and when the cane is most rapidly developing, as, at a later period, it proves delete- rious by impeding the elaboration of saccharine matter, and increasing the per centage of water. It will also produce a fair crop on dry, gravel soils, too poor to yield a remunerative crop of other plants. Culture. — Plough deep, and harrow the ground carefully, so as to break up and pulverize all the clods. Subsoil ploughing is very beneficial, as the soil is thus loosened to a considerable depth, and allows the delicate radicles of the growing plant to descend through the interstices. When the ground has been properly broken up, prepare the seed for planting by soaking it for twenty-four hours in tepid water, to which saltpetre has been added in moderate quantity; seeds deprived of the hulls germina- ting in much less time than those sown with the hulls on. In northern latitudes, the saving of four or five days in spring is a matter of consider- able importance to a plant of such slow growth as the sorgho. Sow the seed in rows, about the same time as Indian corn. Let the rows be four feet apart, and leave an interval of eighteen inches or two feet between the plants in the rows. One seed is sufficient to deposit in each place, as each one sends up several shoots, or seed-bearing stems. Cover them lightly with earth; and, after the plants have attained the height of twelve or fourteen inches, turn up a furrow against them with the plough, after which, use the hoe frequently to keep them clear of weeds. If cultivated with the view of obtaining the seed, or for the purpose of extracting the 112 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. 8u-om his own plantation a large portion of the manure necessary for the sustenance of his crops, and this he may do with very little trouble. Instead of hauling the stalks from the corn and cotton-fields into the barn-yard, they may be more profitably ploughed under at once, thus allowing their elements to return immediately to the soil, without being subjected to loss from evaporation. Their place in the compost-heap may be supplied by litteV, leaves from the forest, grasses, weeds, and muck from neighboring marshes, as well as from the ditches and fence-rows ou the plantation. Weeds abound in alkalies, and therefore furnish profit- able vegetable matter, while muck and peat, being decayed vegetable matter in mass, in this concentrated form contain a large amount of phosphates and alkalies, which, when mingled with the droppings of animals, form a highly valuable compost. The compost-heap must bo well protected from the weather, or the soluble salts will be washed out bv the rains, and evaporated by the heat of the sun. Wood-ashes form an excellent manure, and gypsum may be used with success on cotton lands distant from the sea. Picking. — Tho boles of cotton mature and open about the last of August, or during the first week in September, when the operation of picking commences. This work is done both by male and female hands, each one being provided with a bag, slung over the neck and shoulders, into which the cotton is put as fast as it is gathered. Large osnaburg 120 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. ^ sheets are placed at convenient points, into which the bags are emptied when full. The general average for each hand ranges from forty-five to fifty pounds per day. The freshly-picked cotton is dried upon scaffolds, each of which is not over four feet in width, to allow it to be turned with facility while drying. If rain threatens, the scaffolds are conveyed to the cotton-house, near which they are always placed. After being per- fectly dried, the cotton is prepared for market by separating the wool from the seed. Whipping the Cotton. — The first machine through which cotton is passed is called a " whipper," and consists of a cylinder six or eight feet in length, made of slats, reeds, or wire. One end is closed, and the other open. The centre of the cylinder is traversed by a shaft, inter- sected with rods reaching to within an inch of the sides. The cylinder is placed in an inclined position, and the cotton fed into it from a hopper resting upon the upper side, near the top, which is closed. The shaft being turned by a crank, the cotton, as it falls from the hopper, is whirled round by the rods until it issues from the lower end of the cylinder — any contained dirt, sand, or leaves having meanwhile escaped through the open sides of the " whipper." The cotton is then carried to the gins. Ginning. — Two kinds of gin are employed — one, called the "saw gin," being used for all the short-stapled cottons, while the other, known as the "roller gin," is confined to the Sea Island, or long-staple The latter we shall first describe. This is a very simple machine, con- sisting of two wooden rollers, about a half inch, or one inch in diameter, revolving upon each other in opposite directions, &nd mounted upon a wooden frame, to which is appended a fly-wheel, from two to three feet in diameter. Motive-power is supplied by a treadle and crank, which is operated by a man who stands in front of the rollers, and feeds the cotton to them in small quantities. The perfect separation of the seed from the cotton depends mainly upon the small diameter of the rollers, and the slowness of their revolution. From twenty-five to thirty pounds can be cleaned each day by one gin ; previous to passing through which it is sorted by women, who carefully remove from it all the yellow cotton, as well as all the motes, &c., which may have passed through the "whippers" with it. Each female examines and cleans from sixty to one hundred pounds per day. After passing through the gin, and parting with its seed, the cotton is again turned over to women, and subjected to a second examination, when all remaining impurities are removed from it. As this work must be well done, but thirty pounds per day are required from each woman. Short-stapled cottons are cleared from the adhering seeds by THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 121 the " saw-gin," which is thus constructed : A wooden box contains within it a roller^ or shaft, of the same material, which, at every inch of its Fig. 64. length, carries a circular saw, about twelve inches in diameter, with hooked teeth. Above, or in front of these saws, is placed a box, the part of which next the saws is composed of metal slats, between which the paws pass to the distance of an inch. This box being filled with cotton, the revolution of the saws carries the cotton gradually around, until the whole has been drawn through the slats, leaving the seeds behind. These are then discharged, and the box refilled with uncleaned cotton. Consi- derable waste attends this mode of separating the seed from the wool, besides the injury done to its quality by the breakage of the fibres in passing through the slats. Packing.— The bags in which cotton is packed will usually hold about 400 or 450 pounds ; and various methods have heretofore been used for filling and compressing these bags or bales, all of which have been more or less complicated and costly. An invention of Levi Dederick, New York, has supplied the machine long needed — one combining great power with simplicity and cheapness. It is portable, and can be moved from place to place at pleasure ; is operated by a horse and capstan ; and, with two men and a boy, will pack from twelve to sixteen bales of cotton per day. f/ses.— Besides the cotton furnished by the plant, which is woven into various fabrics, the seeds are also valuable for many purposes. They are excellent food for cattle, furnish a very superior oil for table jnnposes, and make the best manure which can be used on a plantation. 11 122 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK TOBACCO PLANT. Description. — This plant (known to botanists as Nicotiana,) was origi- nally derived from the Island of Tobago, in the West Indies, whence its present appellation. It is a very powerful narcotic, as well as a strong stimulant to the nervous system, and, when taken into the stomach in small doses, acts both as an emetic and a purgative. The smoke of tobacco, as also the decoction and powder, are used to destroy insects which infest the growing plants in gardens and fields. The tobacco plant has a branching, fibrous root, from which springs a stem, varying in height from three to six feet, round, hairy, and branching at the top. FiK. 65. The leaves are very large, of a pale green color, and covered with short, glandular hairs ; those nearest the ground being the largest, but furnish- ing the coarsest tobacco. The flowers grow in panicles on the ends of the stem and branches ; and the seeds, which are small, but very nume- rous, have a somewhat reniform shape, and brown color. While growing, the tobacco plants require constant attention to free them from weeds, and from the lower leaves, which, being coarse and strong, interfere with the full development of the finer leaves at the top. Varieties. — Botanists class many different species under the genus Nicotiana, viz : Virginian [N. tabacum), large-leaved (N. macrophylla), shrubby [N. fruticosa), sweet-scented [N. undulata), common green [N. rustica), panicled {N. paniculata), clammy {N. glutinosa), curled-leaved THE HEAVY OR FIELD CR0P3. 12a {N. plumbaginifoUa), primrose-leaved (iV. pusilla), four-valved [K quad- rivalvis), dwarf (iV. «ona), Langsdorff's [N. Lanffsdorfii), honey-wort (iV. cerinfhoides), and Havana [N. repanda). The Virginia tobacco ia the variety most generally grown in the United States, and the Havana {K repanda,) is t at from which the finest and most fragrant cigars are made. Tobacco is cultivated to some extent in Europe, as far north as Sweden, and it is also grown in Asia, Africa, and South America. The common green variety being more hardy than the Virginia, is cultivated in Ger- many, and other northern countries, where the majority of the families who'have gardens raise a sufficiency for their own use; but, not being properly cured, it is only used for smoking, and possesses but little value. liaising the Plants.— The first process in tobacco culture is to make provision for an abundant supply of plants ; as, owing to the small size of the seed, and the tardy growth, of the plants, the young shoots would soon be smothered by weeds if not carefully protected. New ground, or land which has been a long time in grass, should be selected for the loca- tion of plant-beds, because less likely to produce weeds ; to guard m.ore effectually against which, and to insure a growth of thrifty plants, the land should be burned over with brush, or cord-wood, which may be moved from place to place with long iron hooks. Before burning new ground, all the old roots should be grubbed up, the rubbish cleared away, and the dead leaves raked off; and it would be advantageous to skim off sod-ground with sharp hoes, before it is burned over. When the ground has eooled off, and the ashes have been carefully removed, the soil should be broken up with hoes, finely pulverized, and well raked. The land having been laid off in beds, about four feet wide, and somewhat elevated, the seed should be sown upon it in the proportion of a table-spoonful to fifty square yards, well raked in with an iron rake, and the beds trodden down to render them firm and compact. A thin covering of brush must then be placed over the beds to keep them moist, and to protect the plants from the frost. The beds should be prepared and sown as soon as the frost is out of the ground. When the plants have attained a good size, and there is no longer any reason to dread frost, the covering of brush may be removed, and the beds weeded by hand ; care being used to avoid bruising the tender plants. Soil and Climate. — Tohacco flourishes best in rich, light, alluvial, loamy soils, or such as have been recently cleared. Lands which have been long in grass, especially sheep pastures, produce excellent tobacco. As it is an exhausting crop, it should not be planted too often on the same land, but give place to grain and grass, which latter should be allowed to remain on the ground for two or three years. This plant 124 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. arrives at full perfection only in a warm climate, and can never be grown to advantage in elevated situations, in northern exposures, or on wet and springy land. Although, being an annual plant, it mit the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, oi till the frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the spring, by appearing too early. To keep Cranberries. — When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, in a perfect slate, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which means they are kept sound and good. Fig. 150. PropagaUon. THE CURRANT. ■The best method of propagation is by cuttings, — the FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 273 shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth, shorten- ing each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to ita strength. Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the rows ; let no limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground ; prune every year, giving free access to the sun. To cultivate on an extensive scale, set Tig. 151. 274 farmer's hand-book. the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width for passing across the rows. Soil and Situation. — A strong, rich, deep loam brings the fruit to ita highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil. Red Dutch, — also known as Morgan's Red, and Red Grape, — is a large- sized currant ; color red ; rather mild flavor ; grows in long clusters. "White Dutch. — White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan's White, Reeve's White, by some. Size large ; skin slightly yellowish ; flavor mild ; quite hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 150. Black Naples. — This is considered the best of the black varieties, being larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime. Champagne. — A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior quality. May's Victoria. — This is a newly-introduced sort, bearing a large berry, of a brilliant red color. The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored kinds. Fig. 151. Remarks. — The other notable varieties zxe Knight's Early Red, Com- mon Black, and Striped Fruited. The varieties described above are, how- ever, the best. THE GOOSEBERRY. Propagation. — The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the cuttings in autumn. Soil and Situation. — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well manured, will suit the gooseberry ; that which is soft and moist producing the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees over- much shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned. VARIETIES. Capper's Top Sawyer. — A. large, round, hairy fruit ; branches somewhat drooping ; ripens somewhat late ; considered very fine. Melling's Crown Bob. — Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy, good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excel- lent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 152. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 152. 275 Houghton's Seedling, — This variety is said not to mildew under any dicumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the Fig. 153. berry is not so large size as some others ; flesh soft and sweet ; skin deli- cate ; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 153. Woodward' s Whitesmith. — Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine flavor ; considered an excellent kind. Coleworth's White Lion. — White, roundish-oblong, downy ; ripens late ; excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer. Crompfon''s Sheba Queen. — Fruit good size, rather early ; form roundish- oblong ; downy ; good flavor. Early Green Hairy. — Fruit small, round, and hairy; deep green ; flavor excellent ; ripens quite early. Red Warrington. — Fruit large and roundish; excellent flavor. Remarks. — Farrow''s Roaring Lion, Parkinson's Laurel, Keene's Seed- ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston Green Gage, Old Rough Red, HilVs Golden Gourd, Prophet's Rockwood, Nixon's Green Myrtle, and Wellington's Glory, are also well-known sorts. 276 farmer's hand-book. THE GRAPE. Propagation. — Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and by cuttings. The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer's growth, Buch as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed. Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protec- tion of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be pro- tected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about the last of March, or fore part of April. Soil and Situation. — A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best. The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain. Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient ; shelter from the withering in- fluence of the wind is equally necessary. Culture, dfc. — Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns and hoofs of a'^imals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, — indeed, almost every variety of manure may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise so much benefit does not accrue. Pruning. — In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and in a sloping direction ; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud, and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud ; leave as few wounds as possible, and let the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may heal quickly ; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the smallest number of shoots possible ; never prune in frosty weather, nor when frost is expected ; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap ; prune as soon after the first of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit. Training. — To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them from the influence of the wind ; to bring them into close contact with the wall, for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth ; to spread them at proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the full eflfects of the sun's rays ; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 277 secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remeinbored, is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one ; on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it flow more equally into the fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers. VARIETIES. Black Hamburgh. — A well-known variety, but more adapted to thevmery than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size ; berries Fig. 154. large, roundish, slightly oval ; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black ; flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort. Miller's Burgundy. — A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick, covered on both sides with a thick down. The bunches are small, but solid ; skin thick, of a blue-black color ; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant. Fig. 155. Muscat of Alexandria. — There are the White and ihe Red Muscat, the lormer (a) being large in the berry, of oval size, and fruiting in long, large 24 278 farmer's hand-book. bunches ; the skin is thick ; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable eating ; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White, except in color (b). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 155. Catawba. — This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous, and productive ; large bunches ; color deep purple and palish-red ; thick Fig. 156. skin ; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Supe- rior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation. Isabella. — A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost universally grown. Bunches large, rather loose ; berries fair size, oval ; Fig. 157. Bkin thick, purplish black ; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle and Western States. Alexander. — Known also as the Schuylkill Muscadel. A certain and pro- lific bearer ; large, bluish-black berry ; oval ; skin thick ; flesh firm, sweet, musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts. Scuppemong. — Distinguished by its diminutive leaves ; grows wild in some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine fruit, for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The White and the Black are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors. The bunches are rather small ; berries large, pretty round ; thick skin ; flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor. Remarks. — There are numerous other varieties worthy of an extended FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 279 notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections, and their distinctive uses, such as the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July, Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham, Warren's Madeira, Elsinburgh, Norton's Virginia, White Sweetwater, Black Sweetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Frontignan, and Missouri. Vineyards. — The making of wine having now become an important branch of agricultural industry, a short sketch of the mode of laying out and cultivating a vineyard, gathering the grapes, making and fining the wines, etc. may not be here out of place. The best preparation for Fig. 158. a vineyard is to dig the ground up to the depth of three feet during the autumn previous to planting the vines. In spring lay it off into hilla distant from each other six feet in one direction, and five feet in the other, and in each hill plant two cuttings, to guard against the possibility of one failing to grow. If both cuttings sprout, one of them may either be cut off, or transplanted. Culture. — During the frst year the labors of the vine-dresser are con- fined to hoeing the ground, and removing the weeds, as well as all super- fluous shoots. The following spring the young vines are cut down to a 280 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. single eye or joint, and trained to stakes, -which are made of locust or oak, and six or seven feet in length. One of these is driven into the earth close to each vine, vrhich is fastened to it with a vrisp of straw. All the suckers are trimmed off, and the ground kept clear and well loosened. The second spring after planting the vines are cut down to three ejes or joints, but the general cultivation is the same as during the first year. If any of the sets have not taken root, they are replaced by new ones. The third year the vines are cut down to four or five joints, all the suckers trimmed off, the vines tied up, and hoed thoroughly. Two shoots are trained to each stake. The vines commence to bear during the third year, and thereafter are pruned and trained every year, during the month of December. The standard stalk is established during the fourth year, by cutting down the best shoot of the preceding year to six or eight joints, bending it over in the form of a bow, and fastening it to the stake with willow ties. This is called the bearing-wood. The other shoot is cut down to a spur of two or three eyes, and forms a reserve of bearing- wood for the following season. Each succeeding year the old bearing-wood ia pruned away, and a new arch formed with the best shoot of the new wood - — a spur being left, as before, to furnish bearing-wood for the next year. The original stalk being thus always kept about two feet high, the vine is always within control ; and, as the vines extend, they are trained from stake to stake, until the fruit has nearly ripened, when the green ends are excised. During each summer the ground is hoed two or three times, and kept scrupulously clean ; and every third year the land ia trenched, and two or three inches of well-rotted manure turned in. Pressing the Gh'apes. — The grapes are never gathered until the saccha- rine principle is fully developed. This fact is ascertained by testing some of the juice with a saccharometer. An ordinary portable cider-mill answers very well for small crops ; but where' grapes are extensively grown, a press adapted to this use is usually supplied. The grapes are well pressed, to extract all the juice ; for that which flows first contains but little mucose-saccharine matter, without which the liquor does not fer- ment freely. That substance is chiefly present in the insoluble, organized parts and the skins, which also contain most of the acid, the resinous extractive, and the coloring principle. Some growers let the mashed grapes stand for twenty-four hours in open hogsheads, and do not press them until they ferment, and the grapes rise to the surface of the liquor. A slight fermentation in the skins is said to improve the color and aroma of the wine ; but too protracted fermentation is regarded as injurious, by giving it a bitter, astringent taste. Making Wine. — After the grapes are pressed, and the juice or musi FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, TINES, ETC. 281 extracted, the latter is exposed to a temperature of 65° Fahr., when fer- mentation commences. The liquor is agitated by an intestine motion, and bubbles are evolved, which buoy up the grosser matter, increase the bulk of the mass, and form a scum upon the surface. An increase of temperature then takes place, and the must, losing its saccharine taste, acquires a deeper color than before, together with a vinous flavor, which increases with the progress of the fermentation. When the fermentation has subsided, which generally occurs in a few days, the mass returns to its original bulk, the scum sinks to the bottom of the vessel, the liquor becomes transparent, and is changed into wine. The constitution of the must is liable to be greatly influenced by the culture of the grapes, their variety and quality, and by the peculiarities of the climate in which they are grown, as well as by the nature of the season. A cold year so much diminishes the yield of saccharine matter, as to irender the wine weak, harsh, and ascescent; and a wet season diminishes the quantity of alco- hol. High winds and fogs are also injurious. When the wine has set- tled, it is drawn off into casks, in which it undergoes further changes. It is then racked off into other casks, in which it is subjected to the ope- ration of sulphurizing — sulphur matches being burned in the casks, to render the glutinous matter incapable of re-exciting fermentation. The wine is then fined ; that is, deprived of those matters which render it turbid, and dispose it to changes of a deteriorating nature. Either isin- glass or white of egg is used for this purpose. The first unites with the tannic acid in the wine, and the second with the alcohol, forming reticu- lated coagula, which envelop and throw down those solid particles which endanger the safety of the wine. When the wine again clears, it is ready for use, or for bottling, which is the best mode of keeping it. The bot- tles are corked tight, covered with sealing-wax, and laid on their sides in tiers. If sparkling wines are desired, the old and new vintages are mixed together in equal proportions. The cold weather of the winter months are best suited for fining wines, as at that time they deposit most of the matter previously held in suspension. Wines left in the wood are liable to become sour by alternations of temperature. Champagne Wine.— The following is the process for making this highly- prized wine. After being pressed out the juice is allowed to ferment in casks for a few days. When fermentation ceases the wine has a vapid and disagreeable taste. It is then fined to as great a degree of bright- ness as can be secured before the commencement of the bottling season, which is usually in March. After bottling, a second fermentation is induced by putting into each bottle a small glassful of "liqueur" (sugar- candy dissolved in wine, and fined to brightness). However bright the 24* 282 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. wine may be when bottled, this fermentation produces a fresh deposit of sediment, or lees. This process requires the greatest attention, the bot- tles being closely watched, and the temperature of the air regulated to the point necessary to check or promote fermentation. When the wine begins to deposit a sediment, the bottles are placed, necks downward, in long beds or shelves, pierced with oblique holes. Every day each bottle is raised, gently vibrated, and again replaced in a position slightly ver- tical. By this method the sediment is detached from the side of the bot- tle, and allowed to pass toward the neck Finally the bottles are placed in an upright position, and the sediment, being then entirely deposited in the necks, is ready for " disgorging." To effect this purpose the bot- tles are held mouths downward before a recess, and the wires confining the corks cut, when the contained gases drive out the corks, and with them the foul sediment. The skill of the operator is evinced by his pre- serving all the pure wine, and parting with nothing but the foul liquor. The bottles are then refilled from wine previously purified, re-corked, and again stacked. When the wine is prepared for sale, a second disgorge- ment is always necessary, and sometimes a third. When ready, the wine gets another dose of " liqueur," composed of very pure candy dissolved in white wine for ordinary champagne, and red wine for the pink. This gives it an exquisite sweetness, and adds to its sparkling qualities when opened. The quantity put into each bottle depends on the market for which it is intended, but it is usually a good wineglassful. Constituents of Wine. — These are: 1. Odoriferous principle, which is due to the presence of a volatile oil. 2. Alcohol. This exists in all wines: those containing it in small quantity are called light wines ; the others are known as strong wines. 3. Free Acids. Wines contain malic, citric, and tartaric acids. The effervescent wines, such as champagne, which are bottled before fermentation is completed, owe their peculiar proper- ties to the retention, and subsequent escape when the confining force is removed, of the developed carbonic acid gas. They are apt to become ropy, which is prevented by the addition of pure tannic acid, or nut-galls in powder. The tannic acid of some wines, especially that of the red wines, as port, is derived in great part from the husk of the grape, but partly from the seeds. 4. Sugar. This varies greatly in different wines ; those containing it most abundantly being denominated sweet wines. 5. Extractive. This exists in all wines, but diminishes with age. 6. Coloring matter. When the husks are separated from the liquor before fermenta- tion, the wine is pale, and is then called white wine ; but when fermen- tation takes place before the removal of the husks, the wine acquires a dark hue, and is then known as red wine. The purple coloring matter. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREEa, VINES, ETC. 283 which resides in the husks, is dissolved out by the newly-formed alcohol and reddened by the free acid. 7. Tartar. This substance is deposited both in the cask and in the bottles, constituting argol and crust. The deposition increases with the formation of alcohol, and red wines contain a greater quantity than white wines. THE MEDLAR. Propagation. — It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted while fresh, and in the fall. The seed does not germinate for some time ; the layers will root in autumn : the pear is the best stock upon which to graft. Tree low ; fruit round, size of a plum ; pulp thick, with five stones. Soil and Situation. — Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained, retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread singly upon sand. VARIETIES. Blake^s Large. — A variety not very frequent, though by some thought one of the best. German or Dutch. — The tree is very irregular, dwarfed ; fruit large, and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts. Nottingham. — This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor. Stoneless. — Not so good quality, but maybe preserved better than the other kinds. y THE MELON. Propagation, dfc. — Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or six feet apart each way. From six to ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up, thin the plants to two or three in a hill, and draw the earth up to them. Hoe, and^eep free from weeds. Soil and Situation. — Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern States than further north. VARIETIES. Water-melon. — The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Carolina^ New Jersey and Spanish ; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds, and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis- 284 farmer's hand-book. tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort, nearly round ; color palish-green, and white ; flesh pink, rich, pleasant. The Carolina (Fig. 159) is a very popular variety ; large size ; oblong ; color green and white ; flesh red ; sweet, agreeable flavor. Pig. 159. Musk-melon. — A delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Keising, an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety ; Green Hoosainee, a superior and prolific sort ; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly flavored, and productive ; Early Canteleup, ripens early and bears well, rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor ; Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor. Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock, and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation. THE MULBERRY. Propagation. — It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border, but this mode is rarely pursued; by layers — lateral shoots obtained by heading down the tree near to the ground ; by cuttings, having two thirds of their length old wood, and one third yearling;' or by lopping off a straight branch, eight feet long, from a large tree, — the nearer the trunk the better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep, plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit. Soil and Situation, — It prefers a moist, deep, loamy soil, and a some what free exposure to the south. The soil should not be cold, or wet, and should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires much space. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 285 VARIETIES. Fed. — This is a common variety, growing- wild in the Urited States. The fruit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor. Black. — This variety hails from Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern Fig. 160. climate. The berry is large and 1 mg, black, and of a rich aromatic taste. It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples. Remarks. — The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts ; not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk. THE NECTARINE. Remarks. — The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach, as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the nec- tarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach (which see). varieties. * Boston. — Also known as Lewis's and PerMns's Seedling. Originated in Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very hand- some, of medium size, and heart-shaped ; color bright yellow and red ; flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultiva- tion. Red Roman. — One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red 286 farmer's hand-book. cling-stone ; color dark next the sifti, the shaded side yellow ; flesh juicy, Bweet, and viuous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer. Pig. 161. Jaune Lisse, or Roussanne. — A small, round fruit ; skin yellow, a little spotted with red towards the sun ; skin smooth ; flesh yellow, firm, sweet, highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 161. Fig. 162. Elruge. — A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size ; roundish ; pale- green, deep-red next the sun ; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy ; ripe in September. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 287 Larhj F^'ofc^ — - Medium size : green, and purplish red; flesh pale yel' low, and pinkish ; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August. Good bearer ; very superior. Musk Violet. — This fruit is of ki-jre size ; color a yellowish-white, a fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots ; flesh yellowish-white, firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 162. Remarks. — HunVs Tawney, Downton, New White, Broornfield, PitmaS' tyn's Orange, and Due du Tellier's, are recommended to growers. THE PEACH. Propagation. — It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall, at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of sufficient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by bud- ding on the plum stock or the bitter almond ; usually inoculated on the peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cul- tivated with manured crops of corn, potatoes, vines, or pulse. Soil and Situation. — A rich, sandy loam is the best, — a natural or arti- ficial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned. Culture, dlfc. — When transplanted, they should not be very large, -~ generally not more than two years' growth. Good varieties are obtained by budding ; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit. VARIETIES. Early Yorli. — One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties. Size medium, roundish, slightly oval ; skin thin, somewhat dotted ; color red ; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or 'ast of August. Red Cheek Melocoton. — A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek ; flesh rich and juicy ; ripens in September, — sometimes earlier. Gross Mignonne. — A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided by a deep furrow into unequal parts ; the stem small, a small point at the blossom end ; skin covered with a thin fine down , color a clear green, approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun ; flesh fine, melt- ing, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone ; the juice ia sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 163. George the Fourth. — Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow and dark red ; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September. Coolidge^s Favorite. — Fruit large and roundish ; skin smooth, white, 288 farmer's hand-book. with red towards the sun ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy and a good bearer, ripening early in September. Much thought of. Fig. 163. Alberge. — Size medium ; yellow skin, with dark red cheek ; flesh yel- K)w, tinged with red, melting, rich, sweet, and vinous flavor. It is deeply Fig. 164. indented by a seam running from the stem to the blossom end. Ripens last of August. FKUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 289 Bcrgen^s Yellow. — Large size, round, slightly depressed ; color red and orange, dotted ; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious ; good bearer, and ripens first of October. A valuable sort. Morris White. — Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish, slight purple tinge ; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of September. Oklmixon Freestone. — A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin and red cheek ; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August. Red Magdalen. — Medium size ; round, flat next to the stem ; color a fine Fiff. 165. red towards the sun ; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and 'sprightly. Ripens in September. Hardy and productive. Crawford's Late. — Fruit large, round, and handsome; yellow in the shade, deep red towards the sun ; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone, iuicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or first of October. Red Rareripe. — An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris's Red Rare- ripe ; size quite large, round ; color red and white ; flesh tender, rich, melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August. Yellow Rareripe. — Size large, globular ; color yellow, and purplish red ; flesh yellow, red near the stone ; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in September. Noblesse. — A large and handsome clingstone ; skin white, with a pale bhish, and some dark brownish spots ; flesh rich and highly flavored. Ripens in September. 25 T 290 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Lemon Freestone. — A pale yellow, whitish fruit ; medium size ; flesh juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September. Monstrous Cling. — A large, roundish-oval fruit; color palish-yellow, with deep red tinge ; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October. Late Heath. — Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head ; coloi rich cream- colored white, sometimes faintly blushed; flesh rich, tender, Fig. 166. juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Novem- ber. Early Tillotson. — A medium size, round fruit ; color yellowish ^vhite, red, with dots ; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent flavor. Remarks. — The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be recoramendftd for general cultivation, are the Jaques. White Imperial, Pres- ident, Late Admirable, Ward's Late Free, Golden Ball, Hyslop's Cling, Old Newington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chan- cellar, and Late Purple. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 291 THE PEAR. Propagation. — The pear may be propagated by layers or suckerg, but not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of verj indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding ; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new va- rieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of infe- rior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any ma- terial difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud. The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to the places where it is intended they shall stand. Soil and Situation. — Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost an)rwhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well-rotted dung ; and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish are also desirable. Culture, SfC. — Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the other to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and winter pruning ; the former of which consists in rubbing off all foreright, ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it dowTi to some healthy and promising shoot. When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained branches, at their subdivisions, and at different distances from their bases, 292 farmer's hand-book. quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches. VARIETIES. Bartlett. — One of the most valued sorts, and groven in almost every part of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal ; color yellowish at maturity, thin, Fig. 167. and smooth ; flesh wnite, delicate, buttery, sweet, juicy, highly flavored. Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number one among all the pear-tribe. Madeleine. — Medium size ; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards the sun ; form obovate, tapering to the stalk ; flesh white, tender, juicy, refined flavor ; one of the best and earliest pears ; hardy, and a good bearer. Dearborn's Seedling. — A valuable early sort ; small, symmetrical ; color light yellow, with a few dots ; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of August. Winter Nelis. — A fine winter variety ; size rather above medium ; roundish-obovate ; color pale straw, slightly brown ; flesh white, soft, sugary, rich, musky-flavored ; ripe in December; not very productive, but excellent. Fig. 168. 294 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Seckel. — Size generally small ; form regular, round at the blossom end, contracting gradually towards the stem ; color sometimes yellow, with a bright red cheek, and at other times a iwmplete russet, without any blush ; flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept. and Oct. Fig. 169. Tyson. — A medium-sized fruit ; color light straw, with brownish blotches ; flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant ; ripens in September. Beurre Bosc. — Fruit large and long ; color light cinnamon russet ; flesh Fig. iro. white, rich, tender, delicious. A moderately productive varety, ripening in October and November. Fig. 170. FRUITS FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 295 Bloodgood. — Large size; form oval; color dull yellow, with darkish spots ; flesh soft, melting, agreeable flavor ; early and prolific. Ripens in August. Flemish Beauty. — Fine large fruit ; color dull yellow and brownish : flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves. Golden Beurre of Bilboa. — Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown contracted towards the summit ; color light yellow, with russet spots ; flesh tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful. Summer Frank Real. — Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle ; color light yellow, with brownish-green dots; flesh melting, rich, fine- grained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September ; hardy ; fruitful. Muscadine. — Medium size, roundish, symmetrical ; color yellowish-green, with dots of brown ; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in Fig. 171. September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort. 296 farmer's hand-book. Remarks. — There are many other varieties .which might be strongly recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being no- ticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens'' s Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurre d^ Arnaults, and the Rousselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swanks Egg, Gushing, Frederic of Wurtemburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Sleeker' s Meadow, and Belle et Bonne; of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Golmar, Columbia, Vergou- lease. Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Diel, and Passe Golmar. THE PLUM. Propagation. — The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, more commonly, from layers or suckers. Soil and Situation. — The plum naturally does not grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple ; and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the finer kinds are planted against walls. Gulture, dfC. — All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three years' growth, — generally in the course of the second or third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning, oeyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained horizontally. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. The plum 13 forced in the same manner as the peach. VARIETIES. Jefferson. — A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting towards the stalk ; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and a whitish bloom ; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from the middle to the last of September ; a good bearer. Fig. 172. Green Gage. — Of this plum there are several varieties. The size, in good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green ; the flesh is green, melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September. Fig. 173. Washington. — A well-known variety ; originated in New York State; large, oval ; color bright yellow, with red dots ; flesh yellow, sugary, ex- cellent eating. Hardy ; shy bearer ; ripens in September 298 FARMERS HAND-BOOK. Coe's Golden Drop. — Thrifty growth ; good bearer ; fruit large and handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots; flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September. Purple Favorite. — Large size ; roundish ; color light brown, with a shading of purple, and bright yellow dots ; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and Pig. 174. excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well. Red Gage. — Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium size ; oblong, tapering towards the stalk ; color brilliant red toward the sun, and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom ; flesh yel- low, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September. Morocco. — Medium size ; round ; deep purple ; flesh slightly yellow, tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August. Drapd'Or. — Cfoth of Gold, hy some. Small, round ; color rich, brilliant yellow, reddish toward the sun ; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some kinds. ^ A clearstone ; ripens in August ; a pretty fai bearer. Yellow Egg. — Large size ; oval, narrowing at both ends ; color yellow, whitish dots, and a thin white bloom; flesh somewhat coarse,- yellow slightly acid. Ripens in September. A better cooking than eating plum. Bleecker^s Gage. — Medium size, nearly round, very regular ; color dark yellow, with deep red spots ; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed in some parts. Fig. 175. PBUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 176. 299 J)ua7ie''s Purple. — Large size ; oval, or oblong bulging on one sida ; Fig. 176. 300 farmer's hand-book. color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few yellow specks, and a lilac bloom ; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly acid. Ripens middle of August. Royal Native. — Also called Early Royal. Medium size ; round ; color purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue bloom ; flesh yellow, tender, richly flavored. Early, thrifty, productive ; ripens early in Sep tember. McLaughlin. — Large size, round; color brownish-yellow, with a red tinge ; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in August. Frost Gage. — Fruit rather small ; roundish ; color dark purple, with brown dots ; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor. Pig. 177. Ripens in October ; moderately productive : a good sort for cooking pur- poses. Remarks. — We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by ama- teurs ; such as the Imperial Ottoman, Elfrey, Smith's Orleans, Flushing Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Ruling'' s Superb, Blue Dwarf Gage, and Prince's Imperial Gage. THE QUINCE. Propagation, dfC. — The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched, crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by graft- ing, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain ash. The quince is generally planted in the orchard, in some part where the FRUITS, FRUIT-TUEES, VINE5 ETC. 301 soil is good, and not very dry; it bears on two years' old wood, and requires little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying branches. The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw. It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good corn or potato crops. The soil should be well prepare'' by ploughing and sub- soil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence, — spring or autumn- answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches should be shortened in, one half of the last year's growth, before the trees are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers. This will secure life and thrift to the trees. In orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart, the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, pre- pared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably cropped with potatoes, and so forth. The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or decayed wood, or any quite superfluous branches. In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovel- fuls of fresh stable manure ; and when the spring opens, plough the ground between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this, give theN whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each treQ. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packing- houses. VARIETIES. Apple-shaped. — This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape ; color brilliant yellow ; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming soft when stewed. Fig. 178. Pear-shaped. — Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and in general form very similar to a pear ; color yellow ; flesh firmer and yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavorer as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed. 26 302 farmer's hand-book. Fig. 178. • Portugal. — This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong ; color mild yellow ; not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised as it deserves. Remarks. — There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are not of sufficient importance to be described at length. THE RASPBERRY. Propagation, cjc. — The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year ; FRTHTS, FRUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. 303 but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the groimd. The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from elch stool for next year's bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gath- ered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to give light and air to the suckers ; but as these are liable to be injured 'by the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots. VARIETIES. Fattolff. — This is a very superior variety, consicftred by many the beM Fig. 179. 304 farmer's hand-book. of all the reds. Fruit extra large size ; roundish-conical ; color brilliant red, purple tinge ; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known ; besides, the plants are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States. Yelloxo Antwerp. — ^A^l^te Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some. A large, conical berry ; color lightish-yellow ; flesh sweet, very pleasant flavor. Worthy of cultivation. American Black. — A well-known popular variety ; size rather small, in its native growth ; color quite dark ; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor. Red Antwerp. — Also called New Red, True Red, and Howland^s Red. Large size ; conical ; color pale red ; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking. Franconia — Fruit large ; obtuse-conical; color purplish-red ; flesh firm, rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive ; not so early as others, but superior for preserving. Fig. 180. Fig. 180. yy-r Remarks. — The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the Cushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described, constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior. THE STRAWBERRY. Propagation and Culture. — The usual time for transplanting strawberry plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong plants, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some fruit the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in May of the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants, FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 305 when they are put out. Some cut ofT all the old leaves, preserving only those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons cut the roots in before they put them into the ground ; — all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools ; if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, wit^ a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent the moisture around the plant from evaporating. The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds ; and, if sown imme- diately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. Soil and Situation. — The best soil is one that is light, warm, and gravelly ; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit ; but, in doing this, the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil ; besides, high manuring produces strong, luxuriant vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for straw- berries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and situation must not be too dry. Forcing. — Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them 26* u 306 farmer's hand-book. lightly with manure ; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a time with straw. They must be kept, the following spring, free fmm weeds and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. Towards the latter end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots will be filled with roots, when the plants must be re-potted into flat thirty- two-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them root ing through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth ot the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes , the plants remain here until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier and stronger than the others ; some of them, if the autumn is moist, will be excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots, early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from frost. VARIETIES. Duke of Kent. — Fruit rather small size ; roundish-conical ; color bright, deep red ; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considera- bly inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener, — say the last of May, or first of June. Large Early Scarlet. — This also is an early fruit, and superior to the Fig. 181. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 307 Duke of Kent. Medium size ; roundish-oblong ; color brilliant red ; rich Bprin^htly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer. Red Wood. — An old and favorite sort ; size small ; round ; color scarlet ; flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer. Black Prince. — Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome ; roundish ; color darkish-red ; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and pro^ lific. Hovey^s Seedling. — One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a northern climate ; form roundish-conical, regular ; color dark red ; texture and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June. The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce, Fig. 182. and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown neai Bome variety having perfect stamens, such as the Early Scarlet, or Rosa Phoenix. Swainstone's Sserf/fn^-. — A comparatively fine sort, well thought of by those who have grown it. Large size ; ovate-conical ; color light, shiny scarlet ; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 183. Ross Phoenix. — L?irge size to very large, with numerous seeds; form generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven ; coloi dark crimson ; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Produc- tive ; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey's Seedlin-r Fig. 184. Prolijic Hautbois. — Large size ; conical ; color purplish-red ; flesh rich juicy, tender, highly flavored. It bears very well, ripens early, and has a^ good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 185. 308 fakmer's hand-book. Pig. 183. Fig. 184. Cushing. — Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with a short ceck ; color light scarlet ; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored ; good bearer. Fig. 186. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 185. 309 Fig. 186. Remarks. — The Hudson'' s Bay, British Queen, White Alpine, White Wood, Bishop^s Orange, Downton, Elton, Methven Scarlet, Boston Pine^ and Myatt^s Pine, are esteemed varieties. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c. Almond. — There are two kinds, — the common or sweet, and the bitter. The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of 310 farmer's hand-book. which is small ; the Sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, also large aiid sweet. These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. Blueberry. — A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender, juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and puddings. Not much cultivated ; grows wild in abundance. Butternut. — This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of the United States, and sometimes called Oil Nut and White Walnut. Its wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses -vari- ous medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a pickle. Chestnut. — The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard and durable, and used for various purposes ; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled or roasted ; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the seeds, planted in the fall ; the second year they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It maybe budded on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. Fig. — The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the Fig. 187. early white, the Murray, the small brown IscJiia, and the black Ischia. Figs may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft- FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VIMES, ETC. 311 iiig ; the best mode being by layers or cuttings, which beai the first oi second year. A warm climate is required for out-door culture. Filbert. — There are several varieties, — the Red, the Whitt, the Barce- lona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a "deep, light, but naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated most easily from suckers, and should be well pruned. They bear in the fourth or fifth year. Lemon. — A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a winged stalk. Flowers red externally ; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and Fig. 188. very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In this country it may be raised at the South in the open air. Lime. — The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination. The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon ; but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. The figure (190) represents the South American lime. Olive. —The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. lu pickling, the fruit is simply preserved iii salts and water. Fig. 189. 312 farmer's hand-book. Tig. 189. Fig. 190. Orange. — The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes ; more, however, for orna^ ment and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height , has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bcrgamot, the Blood-Red, the Saint MichaeVs, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Manda- rin. Fig. 191. PoMEGPiNATE. — A Small, low troo, in its form and habits not unlike the common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting on the common sort ; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. The chiel FHUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 313 Fig. 191. sorts are the Sweet , the Acid, and the Subacid; besides which, there are Bome ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple, and is very handsome ; skin hard ; color yellovsrish-orange, with a deep-red cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit, it is also used medicinally. Shellbark. — Also called Shagbark, and Hickory Nut. A large and towering tree, with oval leaves ; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The wood is much used for different mechanical purposes. Walnut. — Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions, bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propa- gated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed. Whortleberry. — A small, dwarf shrub, comprising several varieties, and known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens. FRUIT CALENDAR. January. — Vinery : commence forcing for fruit in June ; begin with a temperature of 50°, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60°. Peach-house : commence forcing for fruit in May ; begin with a tempera- lure of 50°. Cherry-house : commence forcing with a temperature of 45°, by night. Figs : plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery. Strav)berries : take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the 27 314 farmer's hand-book. month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry Currant, and Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier trees. February. — Vinery: increase the heat above that for the preceding month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flower. Cherry- house: give air at every favorable opportunity. Fig-house: commence forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons: sow seeds for early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession. March. — Peach-house : remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and, when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house : increase the heat, after the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house : water freely, both at the root and over-head. Melons: plant out I'rom last month's sowing. Strawberries: give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees. April. — Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist tempera- ture, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach-house: partially thin the fruit before stoning ; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen off; — syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down insects. Fig-house : when the shoots have made three or four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Mel- ons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines. May. — Vinery : keep the laterals stopped to one joint ; take away all useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots and overhead, — at the same time, admit air freely Cherry-house : raise the temperature to 70^ when the fruit is swelling off. Fig-house: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons rejulate the vines at an early stage of their growth ; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees ; remove their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with soap-suds when the fruit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot. June. — Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere; — a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house : when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects, — the house should also be smoked. Figs : those in pots must be duly supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots. Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-Xxees. FRTTITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 315 July. — Vinery : carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe ; give air freely. Peach-house : vi'hen the fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees : if in pots, these should now be placed in a shady situation. Fig-house : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop. Melons : pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin wall-fruit. Prune and tie espalier trees, ^m^ fruit-trees. Fot Strawberry runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve them. Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the fruit. August. — Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peach- house : the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house: syringe the trees fre- quently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in, — displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month. September. — Vinery : the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day ; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required. Peach-house : if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens. Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month. October. — Vinery : as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines, prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house : fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden ; take up and plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fig- trees when the fruit is gathered. Melons : keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries. November. — Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early forcing-house are growing outside. Peach-house : prune and dress the trees as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house : if the lights have been taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe ; the trees should now be pruned. Pot i^io--trees for forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers. 316 farmer's hand-book. Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees, to protect them from frost. December. — Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house : after the trees are tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil ; slightly dig the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry' house : fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house : the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protec* Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig firuk quarters where pruning is completed. CHAPTER VII. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. IHK EKARING, BREEDINQ, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OP THE BULL — THE OX — THE COW SHEEP SWINE THE HORSE THE ASS THE MXTLE THH GOAT THE DOG — IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES; WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE. Breeding and Rearing. — The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cat- tle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of Fig. 192. agriculturists ; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable car- cass ; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal, are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most remarkable for the first is vftry different from that of the other ; — in place 27 * (317) 318 farmee's hand-book. of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-bellied, — in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest down- wards. Procreating Age. — The age at which bulls should be employed, and the number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which prac- tice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as long as they can serve, — perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old ; in some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older. Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation with cows has been found to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time. When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the .'atter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary. Time of Impregnation. — The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring, and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons ; but excepting when the fat- ting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advan- tageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will often grow barren. Rearing. — The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The best method, according to some, is this : The calves suck a week or a fort- night, according to their strength ; new milk in the pail, a few meals ; next new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more ; then, skim-mjlk alone ; or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or sweet whey, in the field ; being careful to house them in the night, until warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free fron) DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 319 objection ; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, how- ever scanty or irregular it may be ; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity. When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is enough ; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow's milk when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however, may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk. When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into somf* small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten daya old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also -that they may the sooner take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips, should be laid in the trough or stall before them. The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture is often coarse, but abundant ; and in winter, all good breeders give them an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first win- ter they have hay and turnips ; the following summer, coarse pasture ; the second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too much ; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, aa many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle. Castrating. — There used to be a strange difference of opinion among farmers as to the time whert this operation should be performed. In some places it is delayed until the animal is two years old : but this is done to the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Mode. — Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a dose of physic ; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly prac- tised was simple enough : — a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly aa 320 farmer's hand-book. possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suf- fered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general prac- tice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, how- ever, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after hemorrhage ; and therefore saves a great deal of unneces- sary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards divid- ing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few — but their practice cannot be justified — seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly con- tracts, and very little bleeding follows ; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be practised on small- er animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there is but little substance to be torn asunder ; but, even there, the knife, some- what blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt. The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance ; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found per- fectly closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity ' it will retract DOMKSTIC OK FARM ANIMALS. 321 into the surrounding su])staiice, and not a drop more blood will flow from it; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron or of the wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. Fattening. — The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary vanes from five to nine weeks, — the time being much shorter where milk is very valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning and evenmg, warm from the cow ; the quantity being increased according to their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be kept m pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enjoy a due quantity of fresh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like arti- cles, are also given to calves while fattening. Fig. 193. The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses o, V 322 farmer's hand-book. fold-yards; and in winter, on turnips, along with hay or straw, oil-cake, carrots, potatoes, &c. The hay or straw is much more beneficial when cut by one of the machines now used for that purpose. The age at which cattle are fatted depends on the circumstance of their being employed in breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the sham, bles when about three years old, and very few of any large breed are kept more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, in most instances the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or in the seventh or eighth year of their age. In general, it may be said that the small breeds of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few weeks' turnips ; and large cattle, at least in some parts, are chiefly fatted in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnips, and other like substances. HOW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FOR VARIOUS OBJECTS AND PURPOSES. The Bull. — The head should be rather long, and the muzzle fine ; eyes lively and prominent ; ears long and thin ; horns wide ; neck rising with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine or crops and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards ; bosom open ; breast broad, and projecting well before his legs; arms, or fore-thighs, muscular, and tapering to his knee ; legs clean, and very fine-boned ; chine and chest so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders ; plates strong, to keep his belly from sinking below the level of his breast ; back, or loin, broad, straight, and flat ; ribs rising one above another in such a manner that the last rib shall be rather the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass ; hips should be wide-placed, round, and a little higher than the back ; the quarters, from the .hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips backward, and the turls or pott-bones not protuberant ; rumps close to the tail ; tail broad, well- haired, and in a horizontal line with his back. Bulls should be constantly well fed, and kept in proper enclosures. The Ox. — The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine ; counte- nance calm and placid ; horns fine ; neck light, particularly where it joins the head ; breast wide, and projecting well before the legs ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and, when the animal is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind them ; the fore flank well filled up, and the girth behind the shoulders deep ; back straight, wide, and flat; ribs broad, and the space between them and tlie hips small ; flank full and heavy; belly well kept in, and not sinking low in the middle ; hips round, wide across, and on a level with the back ih :!!!rf)l|1!!ti|l|ii'Wi !''ir DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS 323 itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extremity of the rump, long and straight ; the rump points fat, and coming well up to tho tail ; the twist wide, and the seam in the middle of it so well filled, that tha whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back ; the lower part of the thigh small ; tail broad and fat towards the top, but the lower part thin ; legs long and strong ; feet and hoofs broad and hanly ; and, when the animal is in fine condition, the skin of a rich and silky appearance. Skeleton of the Ox. The upper jaw bone. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. The lachrymal bone. The malar, or cheek bone. The frontal, or forehead bone. The boms, behig processes or contin- uations of the frontal. The temporal bone. The parietal bone, low m the tempo- ral fossa. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. The lower jaw. The grinders. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. m, The ligament of the neck, and ita attachments. n, The atlas, o. The dentata. p, The orbit of the eye. q, The vertebrje, or bones of the neck. r, The bones of the back, s, The bones of the loins. /, The sacrum. u, The bones of the tail. V 1^ w, The haunch and pelvis X, The eight true ribs. y, The false ribs, with cartilages. z, The sternum. 1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 324 farmer's hand-book. 2, The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 3, The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the elbow. 5, The small bones of the knee. 6, The large metacarpal or shank bone. 7, The smaller or splint bone. 8, The sessamoid bones. 9, The bifupiation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. 10, The two smaller pasterns to eacn foot 1 1 , The two coffin bones to each foot. 12, The navicular bones. 13, The thigh bone. 14, The patella, or bone of the knee. 15, The tibia, or proper leg bone. 16, The point of the hock. 17, 17, The small bones of the hock, 18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 19, 19, The pasterns and feet. The Cow. — Wide horns ; head and neck thin ; dewlap large ; full breast ; broad back ; large, deep belly ; the udder capacious, but. not too fleshy ; the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and long; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good propor- tion, and the joints short. To these may be added a gentle disposition, and free from vicious tricks. Age of Cattle. — This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by others, larger, but not so white ; before five years, all the incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white ; but, as the animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black. These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years, and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue. The manner of the growth of these horns is noft uniform, nor the shooting of them equal. The first year, — that is, the fourth year of the animal's age, two small pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which, lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another button ; and so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animals live. These Duttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguislied in the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, — countinf three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints or rings. The cow is useful for twenty years, — much longer than the bull. Names of Cattle at Different Ages. — A young castrated male, £,ftei the first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer ; at five years old, an ox. A female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey ; at five years old, n cow ;• and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female, fet or lean DOMESTIC on FAKM ANIMALS. 325 DIFFERENT BREEDS. Native. — Our best cattle are more or less mixed witli standard breeds ; but of wMcli no record has been kept. We here give a specimen (Fig. 195) of an almost perfect cow. This cow gave tbirty-eight and a half quarts per day. In tbe Eastern and Middle States the ruling qualities of the North De- von stock are quite perceptible. The cattle average well. The oxen are good under the yoke and the cows good milkers. By moans of this stock and imported bulls the cattle of the Western and Middle States are Fig. 195. ^ \ ^. 326 farmer's hand-book. being vastly improved. In the West, the short-horned animals have been generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very exten- Bively, on account of their superior adaptedness to travel to tlie Eastern markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. The English Herefords are now being paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to be well calculated for the Western graziers ; the West Highland breed is also recommended. Devon. — The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted to active laoor. Their shoulders have that obliquity which enables them to lift freely their fore extremities; and their quarters behind are relatively long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their bodies, too, are light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee, and below these joints sinewy. They have the faculty of muscular exertion in a high degree, trot well in harness, and will keep pace with a horse in the ordinary labors of the farm. Devon Bull. — The figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine Fig. 196. Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull ought to be neither too low nor too high, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow qt waxy color. The eye should be clear, bright, and prominent, showing much if the white, and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, but DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 327 usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, the purity of the breed being very much determined by the latter character- istic. The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yellow, the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and the neck quite thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not materially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There are some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow indicate, these representing the offspring of the bull exhibited in Fig, 196. Fig. 197. '-'MAdMAwJ^*^^ Devon Ox. — The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great breadth of forehead ; clean and free from flesh about the jaws ; prominent eye ; vivacious countenance ; long and thin neck ; light in the withers ; the shoulders a little oblique ; breast deep ; bosom open and wide ; fore-legs wide apart ; the point of the shoulder rarely seen ; no projection of bone, as in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck ; skin, notwith- standing the curly hair, exceedingly mellow and elastic ; color a blood red, which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhoea) . The preceding figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character- 328 farmer's hand-book. istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated. Fig. 198. A selection from the most perfect animals of the true breed, — the bone Btill small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, — or one cross, and only one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, — these have improved the strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest degree, his activity, heauty, or his propensity to fatten. . Fig. 199. Dei^on Cow. — There are few things more remarkable about the Devon- shire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull. This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very desirable for breeding But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 329 and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more room} than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear ; coun- tenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having nothing of black, or even white, about it ; jaws free from thickness, and the throat free from dewlap. The points of the back and the hind quarters dif- fer from those of other breeds, having more roundness and beauty, and being free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes dis- tinguished. The following is a portrait- of a Devon cow, rising four years old. With Fig. 200. v/>' ,,^^^.^*»^/!V.%^^^:?t.Z^^'^ regard to size, she is a favorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full quantity of milk. Remarks. — The qualities of the Devon cattle maybe referred to three points — their working, fattening, and milking. Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are usually taken in to work when about two years old. If kept idle till five 28* 330 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. or six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to siA and a half, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in value. With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a- given time, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food ; and their flesh is beautiful in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste. For milking, the Devons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and butter, but it is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true. Durham, ORSHORT-HORN. — The short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the Tees- water, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, and others. Applying the points of judging live-stock to the short-horns, it is found, that for quantity and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable Fig. 20]. part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominat- ing proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eye, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten ; while the uniform colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 331 various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once distinguished from any of the other breeds by iheir additional size, and their more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared with the size of the animal ; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so characteristic of a good feeder ; they arrive early at maturity ; and, further, they combine the valuable qualities of milking and fattening in an unsur- passed degree. Fig. 201 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, and may be relied on for its faithful delineation. The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, in all- respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenting a life- likeness of one of the female species. Fig. 202. Herefordshire. — The Herefordshire white-faced breed may be thus dis- tinguished : The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ; chap lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep and full ; bosom broad, and pro- jecting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor ptanding high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread ; riba broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, — the hindmost large and full of length ; round bone small, snug, and 332 farmer's hajsd-book. not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs upright and short below the knee, and hock small ; feet of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and buckle ; coat neatly haired, bright ana silky ; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed. They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age. They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity. The Hereford cow (Fig. 203) is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, — small, delicate, and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and Fiff. 203. beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suflfered to proceed ; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 333 Ayrshire. — This breed has been much improved. It is short in the leg, \he neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head ; Fig. 204. the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point. Fig. 205. 334 farmer's hand-book. They are deep in the carcass, but net round and ample, and especially not so in the loins and haunches. Fig 204 represents an improved Ayrshire bull. It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two or tliree months after calving, may be considered as not more than an aver- age ; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter ; thus fully establishing the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig. 205 represents one of these beautiful animals. New Leicester. — This breed may be substantially distinguished by the following characteristics : The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele- Fig. 206. gnnce ; neck thin ; chap clean ; the head fine, but long and tapering; eye large, bright, and prominent ; the horns of the bulls comparatively short, of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 335 hang downward by the side of the cheeks ; shoulders fine and thin as to bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone ; girth small, compared with the short-horns and middle-horns ; chine quite full when fat; loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant ; quarters long and level, the nachc of a middle width, and the tail set on variously ; round bones small, but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat, middling size ; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the animal will allow ; ribs standing out full from the spine ; belly small ; hide middling thick ; color various, — the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity^ is indisputably good. As grazier's stock, they rank high. The principle of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufiiciently powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough, or on roads ; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of them. Fig. 206 is that of a New Leicester cow. Remarks. — Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into extensive favor in this country, are the Holdernessr, the Galloway, the Sus- sex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe ; these, however, we do not design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of DAIRY cows. Qualities. — We have already expressed, in the preceding pages the general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for dairy purposes. Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen aa are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a dispo- sition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch, — should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate; but she need not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prom- inent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind- quarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep ; and she should have a large, well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro- 336 farmer's hand-book. duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters thb,t indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and feeding qualities. Feeding. — With respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwith- standing all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties of peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural pastures, for milch cows ; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of ' milk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of- grass butter may always be distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which haa been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however, should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counter- balance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its fullest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great advantage, on the pastures, during summer. Keeping in Good Condition. — Dairy cows should be kept constantly in good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no manageme9' afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been sup- ported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable pro- portions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness. Milling. — In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be iiisililiiiif DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 337 little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger pro- portion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most perfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe tlic greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking. A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, — some cows, 'ike other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others. Ascertaining the Quality of Milk. — The value of milk, and the propor- tion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others, where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by churning it separately ; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex. Fig. 207. ill : : : : : i | Grazing Cattle. — Fattening cattle for sale being an important branch of agricultural economy, the farmer should regulate his system of grazing by his knowledge of the nature and fertility of his pastures. Those beasts only should be selected, which show a disposition to fatten on the smallest amount of food, and it will be advisable to pasture them on lands suited to their different breeds. It is a bad practice to transfer cattle from rich to inferior soils : the reverse should be the rule ; and graziers -vould do 29 w 338 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. well by selecting their purchased stocks from lands of a poor quality Water has also its effect upon cattle, Trhich, if removed from pastures •well supplied with sweet water to those not well furnished with that re- quisite, will not only fail to improve, but will rapidly deteriorate. In order to render the grazing of cattle profitable, they should be gradually changed from inferior pastures to others covered with more choice grass ■ cattle being very fond of variety, they will eat only the best portions of the grass, fill themselves speedily, and lie down to chew the cud and digest their meal at leisure. This mode of feeding tends greatly to in- crease of fat. It is important not to overstock the pastures, and strong cattle should be separated from weaker ones; as the more powerful ani- mals frequently drive the others around the field, much to the injury of the grass, and the annoyance of non-resisting animals. If there are no trees in the field, the erection of rubbing-posts will prevent the cattle from injuring the fences by using them for that purpose. Many highly intelligent graziers recommend a division of the grazing farm into four enclosures ; each containing a nearly equal quantity of land. One of these enclosures being kept entirely free from stock until the grass has attained its full growth, the prime, or fattening cattle, are then turned into it, in order that they may cull the choice food ; the second best then follow these ; and the young stock next in order. Thus the entire herd will feed over the four enclosures in succession — the first being kept free from stock until ready for the best cattle — the second is appropriated to the best cattle until they are sent to No. 1 — the third is pastured by the second best cattle until they are turned into No. 2 — and the fourth is devoted to the young cattle until they are sent to No. 3. Sheep follow after the young cattle, and crop the grass down to a close and even sward ; after which this enclosure is shut up until again ready for the prime cattle. It is likewise advisable to divide the fattening en- closure by hurdles, by which means the stock may be confined to one- half of it at a time, and thus be continually furnished with good, fresh pasture. Winter stall-feeding. — Two modes are practised by farmers: 1. Con- finement in stalls; 2. Confinement in small yards, with open sheds at- tached. Each shed, together with its yard, has a suflBcient capacity for two oxen, and is surrounded by a well-built wall, against which, in the yard, the feed-troughs are placed. If the cattle are confined to the stall, they require to be fastened with care the first tinre ; and they must bo watched for a time to prevent them from injuring themselves by strug- gling to get loose, as is occasionally the case. They must also be well and comfortably littered, and the feed placed before them in a low manger. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 339 Early each morning the dung must be removed from the stalls, and the mangers be filled with roots first, and subsequently with well-cured hay. At noon, feed as before ; again, before night sets in ; and, if practicable, previous to retiring for the night, stir up the litter, examine whether all is right, and put more food before them. By pursuing this plan, the cattle will be well fed, and, during the intervals between meals, will lie down and rest. Currying has also a beneficial efi'ect upon cattle, and their hides should be carefully freed from vermin and other impurities. Comfortable accommodations, good ventilation, regularity in feeding, as well as in the amount of food given, good and abundant litter, attention to cleanliness, and an unstinted supply of pure water, are all desiderata in the fattening of cattle, which cannot be too carefully attended to by those who have charge of them. Nothing conduces so much to the fatten- ing of animals as perfect quiet ; and every means should be used to pro- mote rest, ease, and contentment. Formerly, cattle were fattened entirely on hay; but this having been found not only a tedious, but also an ex- pensive mode, oil-ajid rape-cake have been largely substituted, and almost every variety of esculent. The ruta-baga and sugar-beet are, however, preferable to any others of the root-tribe, not only on account of the quantity of contained nutriment, but also because they are relished by the cattle, which thrive upon them in an extraordinary degree. The modern practice of cooking roots for the use of cattle, is much facilitated by the employment of various steaming apparatus. Many experiments have been made to test the relative nutritive qualities of raw and cooked food. The results prove that cooked roots and grain are not more nou- rishing than when fed to cattle in the raw state ; but cooked food being more easily digested, the animals fed on it are enabled to consume a larger quantity, and in this way benefit by its use. Ruminant animals, however, profit less from being fed on it, than do those of the non- ruminant class, as the horse, the hog, &c. The use of grain will, in a n-eat measure, depend upon the market-price; but the practice cannot be recommended, unless called for by peculiar circumstances, such as a scarcity, or a diseased condition, of esculent roots. II. SHEEP. Rearing, 1 li^! j llli '■'' ill i' 111 lil 1" DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 347 and are also distinguished generally by sniallness of size. They are hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calcu- lated for the exposed and mountainous sections. The Cheviot and South- Down are very generally difilised varieties of this class, both kinds being hornless. Fig. 210 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved sort. Fig. 210. The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows : — The head should be neither too long nor too short ; the lip thin ; the neck moderately long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders ; breast wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a good constitution and disposition to feed ; the shoulders not too wide between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine ; chine low and straight from the shoulders to the tail ; the ribs should project horizontally from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts ; the sides high and parallel ; rump long and broad ; the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the chine ; hips wide ; ribs circular, and barrel- shaped ; legs neither very long nor very short ; the bones moderately fine. Black-faced.— The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy, extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is an active and hardy race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton of excellent quality, though not generally fattened till four or five years old. 348 faemee's hand-book. Their wool is not so valuable as that of the C-.eviots. Fig. 211 represents one of the black-faced race. Fig. 211. Merino. — This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by ihe fineness and felting quality of their wool, and the weight yielded by each sheep, — the ease with which they adapt themselves to the climate, the readiness with which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and unthrifty form, voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of their young, and Fig. 212. uiferior flavor of the munon. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered with a dirtv crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 349 Btnall in the bone ; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, more or less spiral ; head large, but forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned, but, generally speaking, are destitute. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks ; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular- looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throati- ness, or hoUowness in the pile ; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt, and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. Fig. 212 is a representation of the Merino breed, m. SWINE. Breeding and Rearing. — These animals arrive early at maturity. The sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the latter is capable of propagating at the same early period ; but neither of them should be allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in the sow is about sixteen weeks ; and the number of young produced at a birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years. She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable the young should be produced. The winter is a bad season. The periods of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter will have gained full strength before the approach of winter. ITie pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous ; and she must then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely littered frith long straw, the young pigs are liable to be injured or killed bj the mothers, while they are nestling unperceived under the straw. Treatment of Dam and Young. — The young animals, being extremely tender, are liable to be destroyed immediatcily after their birth by the mo- 30 550 farmer's hand-book. tion of the dam ; and, to guard against this, they should be watohed, and the young ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they anquire strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pig3 accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food, mixed with a little meal or bran. Castrating. — The males may be castrated when about a month old ; and a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding. Weaning. — The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which the young pigs have been fed ; and, when they have been liberally supplied with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks ; for, when delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing forth her young again approaches. Treatment after Weaning. — When weaned, the young pigs should be fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are dis- posed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth is greater than the dam can perfectly support ; and, when intended for being killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters. The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food. In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields The best plan is to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feed- ing-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it : and, in addition to this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and turnips or potatoes during winter. Food. — The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them; — roots, raw or boiled ; diflferent kinds of seeds ; brewers' grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is im- portant that ihey should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They ought to be fed three times in the day ; and the troughs should be emptied before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean bed at night. The food should be varied — liauid and solid. Disposition of the Carcass. — The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. In DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 351 the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months and in the latter, ten or twelve. "When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than nutritious, the flesh vi^ill be much improved by feeding with bran-meal, mixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals. This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh, and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed pota- toes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran, enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens. An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. The vessel is now closed up, and the pork ready for market. In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance. The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and third ribs. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with saltpetre, and covered with salt, — better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them in a cool place, and in this state let them remain about a week, after which 352 farmer's hand-book. they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled over them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a smoke-house, to dry. In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams pro- duced, sugar is commonly used in curing, in the proportion of about one pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a sufiicient time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mill, or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period for curing bacon is during the cold weather. In order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give the preceding skeleton, explained as follows : — The Head. A. Maxilla inferior, vel posterior — lower jaw. B. Denies — the teeth. C. Ossa nasi — the nasal bones. D. Maxilla superior, vel anterior — upper jaw. E. Os frontis — the frontal bone. F. Orbiculus — the orbit or socket of the eye. G. Os occipitis — the occipital bone. The Trunk. H. Atlas — the first vertebra of the neck. I. Vertebras colli, vel cervicales — the vertebrae of the neck. J. Vertebrse dorsi, vel dorsales — the ver- tebrae of the back. K. Vertebrse lumborum, vel lumbales — the vertebrae of the loins. L. Ossa coccygis — the bones of the tail. Fore Extremity. a. Scapula — the shoulder-blade. b. Humerus — the round shoulder bone. c. Sternum — the breast bone. d. Ulna — the elbow. e. Radius — the bone of the fore-arm. f. Os iiaviculare — the navicular bone. ff. g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the first and second bones of the foot. h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis — the bones of the hoof. Hind JExtremities. i. i. Pelvis (ossa innominata) — the hauiich bones. j. j. Os femoris — the thigh bone. k. k. Patella — the stifle bone. /. I. Tibia — the upper bone of the leg. m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N) OS calcis) — the hock bones. n. n. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. 0. o. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) — the first digits of the foot. p. p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) — the second digits of the foot. VARIETIES. China. — The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. There are two distinct species, the white and the black ; the former better shaped DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 353 ihan the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They seldom reach a very great weight ; they are rather difficult to rear, and the sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has ratlisr too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in pro- portion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disad- vantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, and the extreme delicacy of their meat, — which, when young, is unrivaled, — render them »ery valuable. Fig. 214. The black race are thrifty, ana tatten on a comparatively small quantity of food ; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding their small size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those of the parent stock. They are also very prolific. There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, — some with thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down. Berkshire. — The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black spots ; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing torward, though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a 354 farmer's hand-book. rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attaiu to a great size. Fig, 215. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 355 The crosses of this breed are so numerous, that any attempt to distin- g-uish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 215. Suffolk. — The SufTolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size ; and when crossed with either the Berkshire or Disliley breed, produces animals which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape la not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 216 is an ex- ample of an animal of this breed. WoBURN. — The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, well- formed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period of time. Siamese. — The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and have a cylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The ,X^^^ Fig. 217. bristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a ridi copper-color. The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The ani- mals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yie'd the same 356 farmer's hand-book. quantity of milk ; but they arrive very soon at maturity, they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate. rv. THE HORSE. Rearing and Breeding. — In the breeding of the norse, it is important that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease ; for the diseases, as well as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their oflfspring. In breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and proper- ties of the progeny. A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age ; but it is an error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been ac- quired, and her form developed, — which will rarely be sooner than at three or four years of age. The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the ex- tent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male till that of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other symptoms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires assistance ; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position of the foetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the * mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is bet- ter that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young undisturbed. But yet she may be put, without danger or injury, to mod- erate work, within a short time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too long ; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the foa,.. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes used to the objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be again in season, and may receive the male. Weaning. — In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely by separating it from the dam. It is then best put in a field. The mother DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 351 IB then put to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the tune of weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liber- ally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it. It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to ita growth and vigor tl it it be supplied with sufficient food. Castrating. — The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be castrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form of the animal has been more developed. The details of this operation must be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron. Training and Management of Colts. — If the colt be intended for the sad- dle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by the person who feeds it, to render it docile and good-tempered. Anything like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pas- tures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw. They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when the straw becomes dry and unpalatable ; and turnips, or any green food, should be supplied freely in the winter. They should have a piece of ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before. They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition to be broken in ; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm, they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age, though at this period the work should be very gentle. A farm-horse usually receives little training ; but the colt should have a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to champ it for an hour or two at a time, in a stall. The harness being then put upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he is put to work, or if he is a stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentlenesa and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the colt. He is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only 358 FAKMER S HAND-BOOK. when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which con- trols the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse de- signed for rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept in good order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform. Food. — The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage ; of dried forage, as hay and straw ; of various farinaceous substances, as oats. EXPLANATION OF SKELETON OF A HORSE. A, Cervical VertebrK, B B, Dorsal Vertebrae, C, Lumbar Vertebras, D, Sacrum, E E, Consygeal Bones, F F, Ribs, G, Costal Cartilages, H, Scapula, I, Humerus, K K, Radius, L, Ulna, M, Carpus or Knee, 1, Scaphoid, 2, Senilunar, 3, Cuneiform, 4, Trapezium, 5, Trapezoid, 6, Os Magnum, 7, Uneiform, 8, Pisiform, N N, Large Metacarpal or Cannon. 0, Small Metacarpal or " Splint Bones," P P, Sesamoid Bones, Q Q, Phalanges, [Bone, 1, Os SufEraginis or Pastern 2, Os Coronae, 3, Os Pedis, 1, 2. 3, Phalanges, R, Pelvis, 1, Ileum, 2, Puvis, 3, Ischiam, S, Femur, T, Patella, U, Tibia, V, Fibula, W, Hock, 1, Os Calcis, 2, Astragalus, 3, Cuneiform Magnum, 4, " Medium, 5, " Parvum, 6, Cuboid, 3, 6, Cubo Cuneiform, X, Large Metatarsal, 1, 2, 3, Phalanges, Y, Small Metatarsal, Z, Head, 1, Inferior Masila, 2, Superior do, 3, Anterior do, 4, Nasal Bone, 5, Malar, 6, Frontal, 7, Parietal, 8, Occipital, 9, Lachrymal, 10, Squamous temporal. 11, Petrous ) DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 359 peas, and beans , and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot, the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the most gen- eral, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food, and not on hard work ; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced ♦o one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average, ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working horse of a farm. Meal is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a safe one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised^ are excellent food, tending to correct laxativeness. Fig. 218 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts of a horse. VARIETIES. Arabian. — The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figure presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or Fig. 219. what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height. As compared with the horses of countries abounaing in grasses, their aspect is lean, their form slender, their chest narrow. The power of their deli- cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is oblique ; the withers 360 farmer's hand-book. Fig. 220, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 36i are elevated ; the back is moderately short ; the quarters are good ; the head is well formed ; the forehead broad ; ears somewhat long, but alert ; eyes full and clear ; veins prominent. They are remarkably gentle and do(!ile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. They subsist on very scanty fare. American. — The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management ma)- account for. The horses of Canada, chiefly of French lineage, are coarse and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest trotting horses (see Fig. 220) in the world are now to be found in the United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed, fore-legs set wide apart ; head small, high and graceful , eyes fine, and well set. The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and the Gilford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 221) of one of these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality. European. — Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the Fig. 222. 362 farmer's hand-book. most enduring and hard-pulling. The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of car' horseSj bred chiefly in the valley of the Clyde ; they ^re strong and hardy, have a small head, are longer necked than the Suffolk, with deeper legs, and lighter carcasses. The Suffolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. The preceding figure is that of an improved Norman draught stallion. V. THE ASS. Rearing and Breeding . — In breeding from the ass, the same general rules apply as in the case of the horse. The male will procreate at the age of two and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old ; his legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short, hair shining, soft, deep gray. The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not pro- duce more than one in two years. The best age to breed at is from three years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes milk ; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift for itself. Training. — The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is easily effected when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon his back, and increasing them by degrees. Age, dfc. — The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same mannei as the horse ; viz., at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth fall out, and the others on each side soon follow ; they are renewed at the same time, and in the same order. The anatomy and physiology of the asa do not differ very materially from those of the horse. Characteristics. — The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, conienting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. In the choice of water, he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perfectly clear. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. He is sel- dom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst most resolutely. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of delicate stomachs. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 363 i VI. THE MULE. Rearing, Breeding, cj-c. — I?i the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed and well made should be employed. They should be young, lively, large- barrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good forehand. It is well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled, to make them gentle ; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and become docile and harmless. They may be broken at three years old, but not hard worked till four. Give them food enough to prevent their losing flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with deli- cacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day, particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are proper for use. Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these animals are not more propagated, as they are so much hardier and stronger than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to almost twice the age of a horse. Those that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect in breeding. VII. THE GOAT. Description, 4"C. — The goat appears to be the connecting link between the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity of milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn, and is of some value ; and its skin, especially that of the kid, is very valua- ble. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that of the finest lamb. The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months ; but good stock must come by parents not so young. From two to five years the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and give the best of milk. 364 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. VARIETIES. There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the ibex, and the Caucasian ibex ; from the first-named the different varieties of the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet Fig. 223. (Fig. 223), on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milk- white, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue. VIII. THE DOG. Rearing, Breeding, <^c. — In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 365 with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth. The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear not more than five puppies ; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them. After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess ; let it be fresh and cool. They should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place for exercise and sport. At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear. As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth. At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the animal does not survive long after. The dewclaws — the fifth toe upon the hind foot — should be removed, if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors ; let the pup be held by one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous opera- tion, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over the head until the points meet ; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut both points off to the desired length ; and, with a single cut to each, from below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does more than harshness and violence can effect. VARIETIES. Newfoundland. — The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height ; long- Dodied, broad-chested, shaggy coat ; pointed, wolfish muzzle ; ears small, and inclined to be semi-erect ; color usually black, with a shade of brown through it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastiff, are more showy, but less valuable. The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, good- natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend ^heir master and then master's property, and suffer no person to injure the me or the other ; and 31* 366 farmer's hand-book. however imminent the clanger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning. Fig. 224. Shepherd. — The shepherd's dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed, Fig. 225. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 361 ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair, and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd's dog is larger and sti'onger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is desli- tute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious. Drover. — The drover's dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheep- dog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. lie possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses. Setter. — The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. He is by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and where water is to be got at occasionally, during a day's shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In dis- position the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more training, and that of a mild and gentle character. Terrier. — The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them Fig. 226. extremely useful, which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c. DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS. Abscess. — As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, let the matter be evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broad- shouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill up, inject, once or twice a day, awash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half a pint of water. Apopleocy. — Yor Horses, bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove the dung with the hand and give the following mixture : Barbadoes aloef 368 farmer's hand-book. 1 oz., Ejjsom salts 6 oz., water 2 pts. For apoplexy or staggers in Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every six hours, a mixture of Epsom salts 1^ lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water 3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till tbey are well purged ; after which, give, twice a day, tartar emetic 2 scruples, powdered nitre ^ oz., gruel 3 pts., — mixed for use. For apoplexy in Sheep, bleed a quart, and give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., warm water 4 oz. ; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz., — mix for use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels with Epsom salts and sulphur. (Alteratives.) — These are medicines which operate without producing very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop's mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur ; — give about two drachms daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half to a whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made into a ball with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of sulphur 12 oz., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop's mineral 1 oz., treacle sufiicient to make a mass ; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the size of the dog. Black Quarter. — Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter 111, Black Leg, Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil. — Symptoms — extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving, moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong purgative dose, composed of IJ lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent thia disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, and give Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., gruel 4 oz., till the bowels are well relieved ; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr., nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full. Black Water. — Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water, ■ Moor 111, &c. — Symptoms — bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy, seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 lb., in 2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named is rare ; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadcea aloes, in powder, 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 369 Red Water in Sfieep — bleed freely, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 3 oz., linseed oil 1 oz., warm water 4 oz., — mix for a dose. Bog Spavin. — For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the only means of cure. Bone Spavin. — Disease of the hock joint : remedied by rest, or cessation from hard work, or putting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot iron only as a last resort. Botts are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these, some use common salt in the animal's food, or as an injection. But when once the worm has attached itself to the animal's stomach, it is difficult to remove them. Bowels, Infammation of. — In case of inflammation of the external and muscular coats of the bowels oi Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced, and give the following purge, — Barbadoes aloes 4 dr., powdered gum Ara bic 4 dr., hot water ^ pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the following liniment, — mustard ^ lb., spirit of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., water enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made of powdered foxglove h. dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a purge — prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr., powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints,— mix. For inflammation of the bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours, till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 oz., syrup of buckthorn 1 oz., — mix for a dose. Brain, Inflammation of. — Of the staggers in Horses there are two kinds, the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, which must be treated by removing the stomach's contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain ; bleed from 4 to 6 qts., and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball, — Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle, inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain (frenzy or lough) in Cattle, bleed till the anima. faints, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pint, — mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved. For Sheep, bleed freely from the jugular vein, and give for drink — Epsom salts 2 oz., hot water 4 oz. ; dissolve, and add liiiseed oil 2 pz., — mix for use. Y 370 farmer's hand-book. Brittleness of Hoof. — Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil rub this well into the crust and the hoof. Broken Knees. — Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a tincture, CEgyptiacum ^ oz., friar's balsam 1 oz., tincture aloes and myrrh 1 oz, — mix for use. The knee of tlie horse should be bandaged. Broken Wind. — This is the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs, and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs. Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symp- toms — hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and give, twice a day, a ball made of — tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove i dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle. ( Calves, Diseases of.) — For Diarrhoea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls of — prej)ared chalk 4 oz., powdered canellabark 1 oz., laud- anum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 2 to 4 oz. — according to age — of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours. For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel- CEgyptiacum 1 oz., friar's balsam 1 oz. Canker in Horses'' Feet. — Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., and tincture of aloes and myrrh i oz., mixed together. Canker of Ears, in Dogs. — Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz. Capped Hock. — A Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early and repeatedly a blister. Catarrh (common), or Hoose (common cold). — In slight cases, for Cattle, house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. Tf severe, bleed, and then give — Epsom salts ^ lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. For Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered coriander seeds 1 oz. ; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. In a Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two, each dose, made of — camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4 dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball ; if severe, bleed, and, when better, give daily — powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz. , do. gentian i oz., do. ginger 2 dr. ; — boil ten min- DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 371 uies ill a quart of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and givo for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered aniseed 2 dr., — mix, and give in a littie warm gruel. Catarrhal Fever. — Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin, heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery matter. If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic ^ oz., water 1 pt., for a dose ; inject with warm gruel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz., — mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel ; then, for cooling medicine, give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. This disease must not be con- founded with inflammation of the lungs. Choking. — Use a flexible tube gently ; if the choking matter can be felt externally, pour a pint of sweet oil down the throat, and rub outside with the hand. Colic. — Laudanum 1 oz., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine 2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt., — mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts ^ lb., linseed oil 4 oz., water 4 qts., — mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed. Contracted Foot. — Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and lowering the heels. Cough. — Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacum 2 dr., powdered squills 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed moderately. Crib-Biting. — Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap tight around his neck, or let him v/ear a muzzle of such a sort as will not prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger. Cud, Loss of. — (Jive, for a drink, when no particular disorder is appar- ent, Epsom salts. ^ lb., powdered gentian ^ oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr., — mix, and give in warm gruel. Curb. — A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse's hind leg. Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation, — afterwards apply- ing a blister. — sal ammoniac 2 oz., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt.. water 1 qt., — mix for use. Diarrhoea. — An excessive discharge of foecal matter. First give an aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, h lb. Epsotn salts, 2 dr. powdered ginger, — mix for a dose ; then give, for an astringent— 372 farmer's hand-book. prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium ^ dr., do. ginger a dr., — mix, and give in a quart of warm giuei. Distemper in Dogs. — Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomel 20 gr., opium 5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr., according to size. Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick. — First use the probang, then give 1 pt. of linseed oil ; also give injections of warm water. Dropsy. — In the Horse, — give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper ^ dr., treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility exists, add a tonic made as follows — powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil junipei i dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, — to be given once or twice a day. Dysentery, or Scouring Rot. — Dangerous and generally fatal disease. Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts ^ lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel; afterwards, night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., ^ mix, and give in thick gruel. Epilepsy, or Fits. — Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven. If a Coiv, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If a SJieep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous energy to cease of itself. Eye, Inflammation of. — In Horses, if on account of cold, give in a ball — emetic tartar 1^ dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form a ball ; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate, use for a lotion — Goulard's extract 1 dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water 1^ pt., — mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a purge, Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 1 oz., water 3 pts., — mix; the eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotion — Goulard's extract 2 dr., laudanum 2 dr., water 1 pt., — mix, and bathe with a sponge ; when the inflammation has abated, use the following — purified white vitriol 10 gr., soft water .J pt., — mix for use. Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. — Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water ^ pt., — mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a day. Farcy. — One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, — buds or knots on the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck ; great swelling of the legs ana muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges from the nose, &c. Use a lotion made of — blue vitriol 1 oz., white da 1 oz., water 1 pt., — mix; DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 373 the ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using (jails made of — bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice powder 3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice a day. After giv ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub- liniate 10 gr., gentian powder 2 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball ; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness, discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots. Feet, Inflarmnation of. — Symptoms in a horse, — fidgetiness, fever, moan- ing, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof; give for a dose — camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap Bif.ficient to make a ball ; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no relief comes, apply a blister. Fever in the Horse. — S3miptoms, — dulness, cold extremities, bad appe- tite, con.stipation. Bleed, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c. ; give bran mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, ^ lb. Epsom salts, ^ pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and treacle enough to form a ball. Fistulous Withers. — Require to be treated like Poll Evil. Flooding. — A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calv- ing. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow's hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her calf. Fly in Sheep. — Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots are killed, apply a plaster of bees' wax 2 oz., 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm linen. To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 oi., corrosive sublimate J oz., dissolved in 2 gals, hot water, and apply the same. Feet, Diseases of. — Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread, or overreach, — wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar's balsam, and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured bv paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar's balsam to the place; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush, — make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 fiz., rubbed down with lard 2 lbs., tar 1 lb. ; apply some of this, on a little tow, deeply mto the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in She^•p, — applya liquid, of powdered verdigris ^ oz., blue vitriol .J oz., white do. i oz., soft water ^ pt., mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz., butyr of antimony 1 oz. ; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the ])art affected. Foul Foot, — after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using 32 L_. 314 farmer's hand-book. butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., butyr aniiraon> 1 oz., — mix for use ; also give a dose of salts. Garget. — Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little, and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered 1 oz., warm water 3 pts. ; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after each bathing rub with yellow basilicon 4 oz., camphor 1 oz., rubbed down with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 16 oz., mixed well together. Glanders. — Symptom, — peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 oz., dissolved in water, powdered myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make the mass into 24 balls ; give one night and morning, and inject the ulcers night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means of a syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food. Grease. — An inflammation of the horse's heel, stopping the greasy matter from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water ; then apply, for an ointment, yellow wax 2 oz., sweet oil 8 oz. ; melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr. ; use a little after each bathing. Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends and the heel cracks ; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed meal ; apply the following caustic, — bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1 pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off" the poultice, and apply, for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt. ; melt gether, and add calamine in very fine powder ^ lb., — stir till cold. Griping. — Mix senna-leaves 12 oz., guaiacum-wood 2 oz., elecampane- root 2 oz., aniseed 2 oz., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do. 2 oz., stick- liquorice 2 oz., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water 3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it ; dose for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, — for a Horse, i pt. Grogginess. — In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint, and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure. Heart, Inflammation of. — Not common. The only remedy is copious bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard even at a distance. Healing Dogs'' Ears. — Melt together yellow resin 2 oz., do. wax 1 oz., Bweet oil ^ pt., and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine ; apply it to the sores. Hide-bound. — Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no othei disease, give a mill physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 375 ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this lias operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exeicise, and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle sufficient to make eight balls. Hoove. — Symptoms in Cattle, — the animal ceases to eat, is distressed, breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up ; brain is next affected, tongue protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal ; when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 oz., ginger i oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 oz., powdered gentian 1 oz., do. ginger i oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves, — introduce the elastic pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and give a dose of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in ^ pint of warm water. Hydrocephalus, or Water in the Head, in Sheep. — Give moderate doses of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian ; for a Sheep, the dose may be — Epsom salts 2 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger ^ dr., in a ;i pt. warm water. Jaundice, or Yellows. — Symptoms in Cattle, — yellow eyes, urine, and skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts. ; after the bowels are well opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., Epsom salts 2 to 4 oz., warm water 3 pts. In Sheep, — give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger ^ dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water ^ pt. ; if this be too weakening, give powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger ^ dr., warm water | pt. Joi7it Felon, or Rheumatism. — Give for a drench, to keep the bowels open, Epsom salts i lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., warm water 1 qt. ; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor i dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder 1 oz., well rubbed together, and given in 1 qt. thick gruel ; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a liniment — spirits of hartshorn 2 oz., opodeldoc 2 oz., camphor liniment 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., — mix for use. Kicks, and other Bruises. — Foment the parts freely with hot water ; if the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes and myrrh 2 oz., — mix for use. Kidneys, Infammation of. — In Horses, — bleed freely, evtry 6 hours, il requisite; and give, for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered gingei 2 dr _ reacle sufficient to form a ball ; the operation of the physic to be as' 376 farmer's hand-book. gisted by injections of warm water and J pi. linseed oil, frequently thrown up, the loins well fomented with hot water, and afterwards apply a mustard poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea. Lameness of Shoulder. — Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic ; and in obstinate cases apply a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoc 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., sweet oil 4 oz., spirits of hartshorn 4 oz., — mix, and after each fomenting with hot water, rub well in. Lampas. — In Horses, — a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth. Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative ; in need, make a few mod- erate cuts across the bars. Lice in Cattle. — Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., lard | lb., — mix, and rub where the lice are found. Liver, Inflammation of. — Symptoms — fever, reclining on the right side, fulness on that side of the belly ; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and give — calomel 1 dr., powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr. ; rub together, and give in 1 qt. gruel, and repeat it twice a day ; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of Epsom salts 8 oz., water 1 qt. ; dissolve and add linseed oil 1 pt. ; repeat till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhoea, at the same time blistering the right side ; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic, powdered gentian ^ oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., Epsom salts 4 oz., — mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed mod- erately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., warm water 4 oz. Locked Jaw. — In Horses, — bleed till the circulation is evidently affected, so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying a strong blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side ; when the physic begins to act, give an anti-spasmodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., camphor 1 dr. ; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cat- tle, — bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts 1.^ lb., flour of sulphur ^ lb., warm water 2 qts., — mix, and repeat in J lb. doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Ep- som salts i lb., linseed oil i^ pt., warm water 4 qts. ; when well operated, give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a scton in the dewlap. For Sheep, — bleeding, and physic, — either Epsom salts or Iinsee POULTRY, OR THK VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 391 eented below, is the best known, and it appears probable that it is a hyhid between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. These fowls are very hand- Bome, and excellent for the table ; the hens are good layers, producing large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters. Bantam. — This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequentlv feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walkLi^. The full-bred Fisr. 232, Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackiss » oroud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one poun^. ttv 392 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. nankin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the lattei color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The nankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with pur- ple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock. Dwarf, or Creeper. — This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon, differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail, which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short ; they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful ; the hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time. RuMKiN. — This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented, and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet ; the feathers are all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame ones. Frizzled. — A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more vild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate. Silky. — This is also a distinct species, according to modern writers. It nas the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disu- nited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk ; the general color is white, and the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other vari- eties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color. Russian, or Siberian. — This breed seems to differ chiefly from others in having considerable tufts of brown or dark loose feathers springing from each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and wattles, and the hen a small comb also. This sort varies in color, one variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black, giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or downy feathers ; another has the plumage of the game fowl, a fine tawny orange, spotted with black. Barbary. — This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color, spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part very full ; on the crown is a large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color with the body. Java — Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 393 Dorking. It is probably a cross between the two. In qualities it resembles the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other breeds. Ostrich, or Cochin China. — This variety of fowls completely surpasses, Fig. 233. in size and power, the general run of poultry. Their general color Is rich, glossy bT0WT\, deep bay ; on the breast is a marking o.' a blackish color, 394 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. and of the shape of a horse-shoe ; the comb is of a medium size, serrated. but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size, however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most strik- ing of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate flavor. GENERAL TREATMENT. Falsing, Breeding, d^c. — Hens, if left to their own impulses, would pro- duce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. They begin to lay in February, sooner or later, partly according to the time of molting, which means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn, and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are formed. The molting period, after the third year of the hen's life, becomes gradually later and more tedious ; young poultry molt in spring ; no fowl are fit for the table at such time. The hens lay abundantly in February and March, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely yield an egg. Reaumur warmed his fowl-houses by artificial heat, but got no eggs. Yet a stock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by care- ful management. Hot food — boiled potatoes are as good or better than any other — should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible. Number of Hens for a Cock. — Every experienced fowl-keeper knows that those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hens which have had con- stant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved m a state of freshness. Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is, much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial tem- perature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male. Qualities of a Good Cock. — In selecting a cock, he is considered to have every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size ; when he car- ries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice short bill, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the POULTKY, OR TIIK VAKIODS DOMESTIC i'OWLS. 395 same color as tlie comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and fur- nished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent,, and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assemhling them at night. Selecting Hens. — It is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor be passionate. Hens that are long-legged, — and of course ill-formed for sitting, — with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. The best age is from two to four years. Sitting. — The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general restlessness and fever- ish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applications — nettles, for instance — to tlie belly. Hens that have molted very early will often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger end — which contains the air-bag — uppermost, and under a warm temperature, for three weeks before they are sjt. Examine the eggs, by holding them between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a hen ; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her reach ; but the food should be removed as soon as she satisfies herself. Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner than leave their eggs in search of food. Hatching. — The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is furnished with a horny scale at the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement ; fre- quently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-fou hours, or even more ; but it is generally much better not to assist them in breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary to afford them aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from 396 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving moveinp-nts do not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly relieved by the hand. On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd, grits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. They will soon feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes, beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage. Fattening. — Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the table ; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we will treat of that matter. The most approved coops are those which are divided into solitary cham- bers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an opening in the rear part for the discharge of the excrement, perfect clean- liness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is, to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog's lard, or kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great weight. 'Health of Fowls. — The indications of good health are, a florid color of the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright, glossy plumage. Caponizing. — This is an art but little understood in the United States, although a knowledge of the mode of performing it is of equally as much importance to the farmer as an acquaintance with the process of castra- ting cattle, horses, and swine. The emasculation of young roosters exerts a beneficial influence on their condition, rendering them hirge, fat, and fine-flavored. The fowls selected for the purpose should be of the largest breed, and not more than two or three months old, as, at an ad- vanced age, the mortality is very great. Food and water must be denied them for thirty-six hours before the time of performing the operation ; it having been observed that a full stomach and bowels has a tendency to promote bleeding from the wound. Mode of performing the operation. — Secure the chicken upon its left side on a table, with its wings clasped behind its back, its legs extended backward, the upper one more bo than the lower, leaving its head and POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 391 reck perfectly free, .ind then pluck the feathers from the right side, near the hip-joint, to the extent of an inch square. Draw the skin back, and make an incision with a bevel-edged knife between the two last ribs, commen- cing about an inch from the back-bone, and extending obliquely down- ward about an inch, or an inch and a half; cutting only deep enough to separate the ribs, without wounding the intestines. Then, having pre- viously attached a pair of broad, blunt, silver hooks to the ends of a piece of rattan about six inches long, insert one hook in a lip of the wound, and, bending the rattan in the form of a bow, attach the second hook to the opposite margin of the wound ; the spring of the bow will keep the wound open sufficiently wide to afford the operator working-room. This being done, carefully slit the skin enclosing the intestines, and if the latter are not sufficiently drawn up toward the breast-bone, push them forward with the handle of a small silver scoop, formed somewhat like a tea-spoon, but much smaller, and having a sharp steel hook at the handle end. With a delicate pair of forceps seize the skin covering the testicles, and connecting them with the back and sides, and tear it open with the sharp hook on the end of the scoop. Another instrument is then brought into requisition, consisting of a tube of some kind of metal, flattened at one end, through which passes a loop of horse-hair — the loop end extend- ing a short distance below the flat part of the tube, and the free ends projecting some distance beyond its opposite end. With the left hand the lower, or left, testicle is raised up by means of the scoop, while the loop of horse-hair is passed over it with the right, in such manner as to encircle the parts connecting it with the back. The free ends of the horse-hair are then drawn backward and forward, while the tube is pushed toward the chicken's rump, and thus the testicle is sawed off. The same operation is then performed upon the right testicle; after which the separated testicles, together with the effused blood, are removed with the scoop, the hooks withdrawn, and the skin closed over the wound, ■which is then covered with the feathers plucked off at the commencement of the operation. If the side of the chicken afterwards puffs out with wind, puncture the skin and let it out. Great care must be used in per-« forming the operation, as a careless cut may maim the chicken for life; and a failure to remove all the substance of the testicles will render the entire operation of no avail. II. THE TURKEY. VARIETIES. The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of va- rieties of this bird ; — the black, the white, the copper-color, the brown. 34 398 farmer's hand-book. the bronze, the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary varieties, ihere is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties Fig. 235. CS^**"*! ^^' are generally small, and difficult to rear ; but their flesh is very delicate The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and the quality of the flesh ; they are also very prolific. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. Keeping, <^c. — With respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather and from moisture. The perches should be high, and a ladder should be supplied, as the birds, when fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in their descent from a lofty perch. During warm weather they may be per- mitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their ender toes frost-bitten. The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows : snails, slugs, and worms, are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away from the grain-fields. Qualities. — In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he is large, stout, proud, POULTRY, OR TUH '/ARIOUS D( MESTIC FOWLS. 399 and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and be healthy. A turkey-cock is in his prime in his third year ; the hen is in her prime younger, say in her second year. Laying. — One fecundation, it is said by some, will render all the eggs of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen hens. The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveli- ness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. The time when she lays is usually the morning ; some lay daily, others only every second day. When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the hen is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her and break the eggs. The eggs must be taken away as soon as laid, and they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry. The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own. Sitting. — The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle, prescribed far hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkey- hens ; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober. The dark-colored turkeys are preferable. Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis- tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well as warm. The nest may be formed of a circular pad or roll, stuffed with matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter ; the inside being filled with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, bemg secured by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to get in and out of her nest, or turn her eggs. Hatching. — When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them, the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may appear to be of her own family. On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless prevented by the adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction equally applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through which the bill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through the shell completely, the shell should be slightly and gently broken on the 400 farmee's hand-book. outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the chick. Treatment of the Young. — A few drops of wine are frequently given to reanimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for them at first ; but the natural warmth of the mother's body is the best physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed. The early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for food, a keeper is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them fre- quently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal. The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed, and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest, turkey poults — which name they receive after two months — are driven in large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects and grains of corn ; and then they are quite independent of the maternal wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them. But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling. Fattening. — After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long ; they may be left in ' close farm-yards. To have very large turkeys, cocks should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old ; but a young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor. Feeding. — In their ordinary run about the farmer's yards and fields, turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently ; if not, they will do so by scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys. III. THE GOOSE. VARIETIES. Toulouse. — The varieties of the common domestic goose are very few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars and POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 401 occasionally relieved with black — the head, neck as far as the beginning of tlie breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a dark brown ; the breast is slaty blue ; the belly is white, as also the under Fig. 236. Burface of the tail ; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. Chinese. — The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including several sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called by the name of Poland, having a large, horny knob on the bill and forehead, the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown running above the back of the neck, — the legs red. There are also the Black-legged Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edge around the knob, somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, — and the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snow- white color, and with legs of a bright orange-red. These geese are inferior in size to the Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety, especially, with red legs, is very beautiful ; the flesh is also good. They feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific. Common. — Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size, they being divided into the large and small; and by some, accordirg to their color, into the white and the gray. These divisions are, to a certain extent, 34* 2a 402 farmer's hand-book. arbitrary ; as ou. of the one clutch may be generally found the several vari- eties, both as to size and color, that are sought for. The best sorts are Fig. 237. those which vary least in color. Gray is the best ; mixed colors will not prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the re- quired standard. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roof. All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are fond of a clean, dry place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in water. It is not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry ; for, when confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot, clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they should also have, and they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowing geese to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-trees. To prevent their getting through the gaps in fences, hang a stick across their breasts. Food. — Did geese require to be always fed in the poultry-yard, it would cost more than they are worth to keep them, for they are voracious feeders. All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 403 thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-garden would maintain a great many geese at a very small cost, but it is very doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips. The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost ; while- their dung though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed, much enrich the ground. Pairing. — It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair like pigeons and partridges ; and, in the course of his experim.ents, he re- marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by mutual choice. It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one gander. In some places, the small farmers who kftep two or three geese keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them. This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt, It would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan. The gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ash- gray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are sup- posed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones pro5uce better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home. Latjing. — When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to twelve eggs each time ; and some more, when they are left to their own way : but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a goose may be made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermit- ting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March ; and it may be known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to form her nest with ; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about. When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, whore nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can once be 404 farmer's hand-book. induced to lay in this nest, they will continue to do so till their number of eggs is completed. In order to have early goslings, geese should be brought to lay early by keeping them in a warm, clean place, and feeding them on stimulating food. Hatching. — When a goose, at the laying of each egg, is observed to keep in her nest longer than usual, it is a pretty sure indication that she is desir- ous of hatching. It is a popular but incorrect opinion, that a goose always knows her own eggs, and will not hatch any others. The nest for hatching should be made of straw, lined with hay, and from fifteen to twenty eggs will be as many as a large goose can conven- iently cover. The goose sits for two montbs, and requires to have food and water placed near her, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool, which might cause her to abandon her task. Some put vinegar in their water, and others lift them off their nests to make them drink ; but this is not necessary. It is an economical way of getting a great number of goslings, to employ turkey-hens to hatch. The common fowl has been equally praised for filling' this important function ; but the eggs of the goose being very large, and their shell very hard, a hen is not bulky enough to hatch more than eight or nine. The turkey-hen, therefore, deserves to be preferred, because she can hatch fourteen or fifteen. This function of the goose being thus filled by another, she is not kept from laying, and yields eggs in abundance. Goslings. — Like turkey-chickens, goslings are a month in hatching, and must be taken from under the mother, lest if, feeling the young ones under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood unhatched. After having separated them from her, they must be kept in flat wicker pens, or baskets, covered with a cloth, and lined with wool ; and when the whole brood is come forth, the first hatched may be returned to the mother. In some places, when the eggs of the goose are on the point of being hatched, it is customary to break the shell a little, to give air to the gosling, and to help its coming out. Perhaps this practice, though dangerous to turkey-chickens, is less so to the goose's egg, whose shell is commonly very hard. On the first day after the goslings are hatched, they may be let out, if the weather be warm, care being taken not to let them be exposed to the unshaded heat of the sun, which might kill them. The food given them is prepared with bran, raspings of bread, &c., which, if soaked and boiled in milk, or curdled milk, and lettuce-leaves, are still better. Afterwards, advantage must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out for a few hours ; but cold and rain being very hurtful to them, they must in bad weather be cooped up, and prevented from mixing with the larger ones POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 405 unless they have strength enough to defend theniselves against any hostile attack, to which new-comers are usually exposed. To such goslings as are a little strong, bran may be given twice a day, morning and evening, continu- ing to give them this food until the wings begin to cross on the back ; and after this, green food, which they are particularly fond of, may be mixed with it, such as lettuce, beet-leaves, and the like. Fattening. — Like other fowls, geese may be brought, by proper manage- ment, to a great degree of fatness ; but the period at which they are the fat- test must be chosen to kill them, otherwise they will rapidly become lean again, and many of them would die. Geese may be fattened at two different periods of their life, — in the young state, when they are termed green geese, and after they have attained their full growth. The methods at each period are very nearly the same. For fattening geese, — boiled oats, given thrice a day, with plenty of milk, will, it is said, fatten them well in a month. For stubble geese, besides oats, give split beans, with meal and water, cooping up in a quiet, dark place, as is done with fowls. The London feeders, when they receive goslings in March, begin feeding them on meal, from the best barley and oats, made into a liquid paste. They are afterwards fed on dry corn, to render their fat firmer. Full-grown geese are kept particularly clean, have regular exercise, and are fed with proportional quantities of dry, soft, and green food. Cabbage and lettuce alone will fatten young geese, bought in the end of June. Some persons recommend steamed potatoes, with a gal- lon of buckwheat or ground oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes, and given warm. This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark, quiet, cool place, fat enough in three weeks. The French mode of fattening consists in plucking the feathers from under the belly, giving them abundance of food and drink, and cooping them up more closely than is practised with common fowls, cleanliness and quiet being above all indispensable. The best time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set in ; if it is longer delayed, the pairing season approaches, and prevents their becoming fat. When there are not many geese to fatten, they are put into a cask having holes bored in it, through which they may thrust their heads to feed ; and being naturally voracious, the love of food is greater than the love of liberty, and they fatten readily. The food consists of a paste, made of barley-meal, ground maize, and buckwheat, with milk and boiled potatoes In Poland, a similar method is practised, the goose being put in an earthen pot without a bottom, and of a size not to allow the bird to move. The same food as that just mentioned is given in abundance, and the pot is so placed that the dung may not remain in it. The process is completed in a fort- 406 farmer's hand-book. night, and the geese are sometimes so increased in size that the pot has to be broken to get them out. When the great number of geese to be fattened renders the preceding plan inconvenient and too expensive, they are taken from the stubbles or pasture, and cooped up, twelve together, in narrow pens, so low that they can neither stand upright nor move in any direction. They are kept scrupulously clean, by often renewing the litter of the pens. A few feathers are previously plucked out from the rump, and from under the wings. The portion of maize required for once feeding is boiled and put into a feeding- trough, with clean water, in a separate vessel, and they are permitted to eat whenever they feel inclined. At the commencement they eat a great deal constantly, but in about three weeks their appetite falls olF. As soon as this is perceived, they are crammed, at first twice a day, and, towards the end of the process, thrice a day. For this purpose a tin funnel is used, with a pipe five inches and a half in length, and less than an inch in diameter, with the end sloped off like the mouth-piece of a flageolet, and rounded at the edge, to prevent its scratching the throat when it is introduced. A small, round bag is adjusted to the pipe, through which grain is introduced into the crop. The operator sits squat upon the ground, holds the goose with one hand, introduces the pipe of the funnel into the mouth of the goose with the other, and presses in the food till the crop is filled. Water is at the same time given to the geese to drink, and must always be left near them, as the cramming renders them very thirsty. A woman who is dexterous will cram ten geese in an hour. In less than a month, a goose may in this way be fattened to an enormous bulk. Sometimes a lean goose is confined in a small coop made of fir, narrow enough to prevent it from turning, while there is a place behind for passing the dung, and another in front to let out the head. Water is supplied in a trough in front, having some bits of charcoal in it to sweeten it. A bushel of maize is considered enough of food for a month. It is soaked in water the day before it is used ; and the goose is crammed morning and evening, while it is allowed, during the day, to eat and drink as much as it chooses. About the twenty-second day, a quantity of poppy-oil is mixed with the maize. In a month, it is seized with difficulty of breathing, and a lump of fat under each wing indicates that it is time to kill it, lest it should be choked with fat, and die. By this process, the liver of the goose is increased so much that it will weigh from one to two pounds, and will, besides, yield about three pounds of fat, much employed, in French cookery, for dressing vegetables. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 407 IV. THE DUCK. VARIETIES. Rouen, or Rhone. — There are numerous species and varieties of the duck, of great diversity of size and color, though it is not usual to domesticate, ex- cept for curiosity, more than two or three of these. The tame variety most m request is the dark-colored Rouen or Rhone duck, originally from France, Fig. 238. but now sufficiently common. These ought to be of the largest size, for, if they are small, it is probable they are not far removed from the original wild breed, and in that case will not only he very apt to stray away, but will be less prolific in eggs, though both the eggs and the flesh will be higher flavored English, or Aylesbury White. — This variety, though handsome and strong, is inferior in flavor, the flesh being too light-colored, and chickeny. as it is termed. Great niimbers of this variety are, however, raised and fattened, tttaining to a laa-ge size. Fig. 239. 408 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Muscovy. — This duck is a distinct species, and not a mere variety, much larger than the common duck, and distinguished by a sort of red meir.brane, covering the cheeks, and extending behind the eyes, as well as by the musky odor exhaled by the rump gland. In a wild state, the drake is of a brownish-black color, with a broad white patch on the wings, the female being smaller and more obscurely colored. In the domestic state it exhibits every variety of color, like the common duck. The Muscovy duck is easily fattened, and a prolific breeder ; and hence, though it is also a voracious feeder, Fig. 240. it may be rendered profitable to rear. The male is very ready to pair with the common duck, producing, by the cross, a hybrid or mongrel breed. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. The Duck Pond. — In order to keep ducks properly, a pond should be provided for them, if there bo no water convenient ; and it is important, if the pond will admit of it, to have a small island in it, planted with rushes, osiers, and other aquatic plants and shrubs, though some recommend to have no plants in the way. Food. — Ducks may be left to provide for themselves a considerable part of the year. They live chiefly on grain strewed about the poultry-yard, the siftings and sweepings of barns, all sorts of mealy substances, the residue of breweries and boiling-houses, herbage, vegetable roots, fruits, — everything, indeed, suits them, provided it be rather moist. They are par- ticularly fond of boiled potatoes, and these have been substituted, with profit, for maize and barley. They are partial to being in meadows and pasture POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 40S grounds Every sort of flesh or oflal is much to their liking, and forwards their growth admirably. Ducks are so very greedy that they often endeavor to swallow a whole fish, or a frog, which heats them extremely, if they do not immediately throw it up. Particularly fond of meat, they eat it with avidity, even when it is tainted. Slugs, spiders, toads, garbage, insects, all suit their ravenous appetite. Among all the fowls of the poultry-yard, ducks are of most service in gardens, by destroying a quantity of vermin, which usually do irreparable damage ; but their voracity brings with it inconven- iences which balance this advantage, except in the case of ducklings, which are not so apt to eat young plants. Pairing and Laying. — One drake is said to be suflicient for eight to ten ducks, while others limit the number to from four to six. In a wild state there is only one duck to a drake, and, therefore, we should say, the fewer the better, — the chief difference of the tame duck from the wild arising from more abundant and regular food. Ducks begin to lay towards the end of February, and sometimes earlier ; but so far from laying the limited number of about sixteen eggs, some will lay as many as fifty, and even nearly double that number. They do not, however, usually continue to lay later than the month of May, unless they be very well fed, — the great secret of rendering them prolific, provided they do not become too fat. At the laying season, ducks require to be looked after, inasmuch as they are not so easily brought to lay in the nests prepared for them as common fowls, but will stray away to hedges and other by-places to lay, and will even sometimes drop their eggs in the water. When they succeed in laying out their number of eggs without their nest being discovered, they will hatch them, and not make their appearance till they bring their young family home to the yard, except in cold, raw weather. As ducks usually lay either at night or very early in the morning, it is a good way to secure their eggs, to confine them during the period when they must lay, — a cir- cumstance easily ascertained by feeling the vent. It will accordingly be requisitd, at the approach of the laying season, in spring, to give them food in a particular place, three or four times a day, to prevent them from wan- dering ; and when once they can be got to lay in a nest prepared for them, they will probably continue to do so, without laying away. Duck Eggs. — The eggs of the duck are readily known from those of the common fowl by their bluish color and larger size, the shell being smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never curdy, like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yelk is much darker in color. The flavor is by no means so delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much 35 410 farmer's hand-book. better than hen's eggs, giving a finer color and flavor, and requiring \es% butter. Hatching and Care of Ducklings. — The domestic duck is not naturally disposed to hatch ; hut in order to induce it to do so, towards the end of laying, two or three other eggs may be left in each nest, taking care every morning to take away the oldest laid, that they may not be spoiled. From eight eggs to ten may be given, according to the size of the duck and her ability to cover them, taking particular care not to sprinkle them with cold water, as some authors wrongly advise. The duck requires some care when she sits ; for, a^ she cannot go to her food, attention must be paid to place it before her — and she will be content with it, whatever he its quality. It has even been remarked, that when ducks are too well fed, they will not sit well. The first broods of the season are usually the best, because the heat of summer helps much to strengthen the ducklings, — the cold always prevent- ing the later broods from getting strong. The duck is apt to let her eggs get cold, when she hatches. The duck- lings are no sooner excluded than the mother takes them to the water, where they dabble and eat at the very first, and many of them perish, if the weather is cold. All these reasons often induce poultry-keepers to have duck's eggs hatched by hens or turkey-hens ; and, being more assiduous than ducks, these borrowed mothers take an affection for the young, to watch over which requires great attention, because, as these are unable to accompany them on the water, — for which they show the greatest propensity as soon as they are excluded, — they follow the mother hen on dry land, and get a little hardy, before they are allowed to take to the water without any guide. It is likely that, if a considerable quantity of eggs could be collected together, to make one large brood, the art of hatching chickens in an arti- ficial manner, applied to ducks, would be attended with greater success than with chickens, as they are less difficult to rear. It would be sufficient to keep them shut up for twelve days in a duck-house made on purpose, and where it would be proper to leave a few buckets of water for them to dabble in, — or a tank might be provided for them, the water of which might be kept slightly warm by the pipes used to heat the buildings of the poultry-yard. At the expiration of this time they might be set at liberty, and they would o-et on surprisingly, provided they had a pond or a little ditch in the enclos- ure, where they might be turned in, or a small rivulet running through it. Ducklings can do without a mother as soon as they are excluded. Their food, for the first days, may be crumbled bread sopped in milk, and a little ale or cider. Some days after, a paste may be made for them with a banch POTTLTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 411 of nett.e-leaves, boiled tender, chopped up very small, and of a third of the flour of maize, buckwheat, or barley. As soon as they have a little strength, a good deal of pot-herbs may be given them, raw and chopped up, mixed with a little bran soaked in water, barley, mashed acorns, boiled potatoes, beaten up with a little fish, when it can be had. All these equally agree with ducklings, which devour the dif- ferent substances they meet with, and show, from their most tender age, a voracity which they always retain. To strengthen the young ones before they take to the water, they must be secured under coops during eight or ten days, and taking care to put a little water under the coops. When ducklings have been hatched under a common hen, or a turkey- hen, they are not allowed to go to the water till they become a little hardy by remaining on land ; but the moment they see water, they naturally plunge into it, to the great alarm of their foster-mother, who cannot follow them. It is necessary, to prevent accidents, to take care that such duck- lings come regularly home every evening ; but precautions must be taken before the ducklings are permitted to mingle with the old ducks, lest the latter ill-treat and kill them, though ducks are by no means so pugnacious and jealous of new-comers as common fowls uniformly are. Fattening. — Butchers' offal is excellent for fattening ducks, as it does not give the flesh the rank, disagreeable flavor, which it imparts to pork. Acorns, on the contrary, while they are good for fattening, injure the flavor of the flesh, and barley renders it insipid, or woolly. As the duck is both a voracious feeder and fond of liberty, it will fatten very well when allowed to roam about, provided it has abundance of food ; but it expedites the process of fattening to have recourse to coops, quiet, and darkness. Ground malt, mixed with water, is said to be an excellent food for fattening, though it is expensive. In Lower Normandy, where great numbers of ducks are reared and fattened, the poulterer prepares a paste with the flour of buckwheat, made into gobbets, with which they are crammed thrice a day, for eight or ten days, when, though not full fat, they are sufficiently so for use. In some places, when ducks have been rendered tolerably fat by being at large, they are cooped up by eights or tens, in a dark place, whence they are taken out morning and evening to be crammed. This is done by a girl, who crosses their wings on her knees, opens their bill with her left hand, while with her right she stuffs them with boiled maize. Many ducks are suffocated by the operation, and killed outright ; but their flesh is not the worse for the table, provided that they be immediately bled. It requires a fortnight to complete the process, which increases the size of their liver enormously, and oppresses their breathing in 412 farmer's hand-book. a distressing manner. The sign of their being sufficiently fat is, when the tail opens like a fan, from the fat pressing on the roots of the feathers. DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING FOWLS. The most common diseases to which fowl are liable are, Molting, Pip Roup, Asthma, Diarrhoea, Indigestion, Apoplexy, Fever, Consumption, Gout, Corns, Bloody-flux, Costiveness. They are also liable to accidents, producing Fractures, Bruises, Ulcers, Loss of Feathers, &c. All these we will treat of in the above order. Molting. — While, as being a natural process, of annual occurrence, it can scarcely be called a disease, yet it must be treated of as if it really were one, from consideration of the effects which it produces. It is most danger- ous to young chickens. With adult birds, warmth and shelter are usually all that are required, united with diet of a somewhat extra stimulating and nutritious character. In a state of nature, molting occurs to wild birds precisely when their food is most plenty ; hence, nature herself points out that the fowl should, during that period, be furnished with an extra quantity of food. After the third year, the period of molting becomes later and later, until it will some- times happen in January or February. Of course, when this occurs, every care as to warmth should be bestowed. The use of Cayenne pepper alone will generally suffice ; and if this simple treatment does not help them through, they can seldom be saved. The feathers will at times drop off the fowls, when not molting, to a very considerable extent, rendering them often nearly naked. This is a disorder similar to the mange in many other animals ; and the same sort of treatment, viz., alteratives, such as sulphur and nitre, — in the proportions of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, — a change of diet, cleanliness, and fresh air, will generally be found sufficient to effect a cure. Be careful not to confound this affection with molting. The distinction is, that in the latter case the feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as they are cast ; in the former this is not so, and the animal becomes bald. Pip. — A disease to which young fowls are peculiarly liable, and that, too, chiefly in hot weather. The symptoms are, a thickening of the mem- brane of the tongue, especially towards the tip. This speedily becomes an obstruction of sufficient magnitude to impede the breathing ; this produces gasping for breath, and at this stage the beak will often be held open. The plumage becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about the head and neck. The appetite gradually goes, and the poor bird shows its distress by pining, moping, and seeking solitude and darkness. The cause of this disease is want of clean water, and feeding upon hot POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 413 food. To cure it, most writers recommend the immediate removal of the thickened membrane. It is better, however, to anoint the part with fresh butter or cream. Priciv the scab with a needle, if you like, and give inter- nally a pill, about the size of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much Cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat. Mix with fresh butter, and give it every morning, keeping the fowl warm. Keep the bird supplied with plenty of fresh water ; preserve It from molestation by keeping it by itself, and it will generally get well if the disease is attended to in time. Do not cram the mouth with snuff- when, however, the disease depends on the presence of a worm, forcing tobacco-smoke down the bird's throat is beneficial. i?0Mp._The disease to which this term is improperly applied is an inflammation of the tail gland. The true Roup is much analogous to influ- enza in man, and even more so to the well-known distemper among do^s The symptoms are, a difficulty of breathing, constant gaping, dimness "of sight, hvidity of the eyelids, a discharge from the nostrils that gradually becomes purulent and fetid, loss of appetite, and extreme thirst. Some- times this disease appears to occur independently of any obvious cause ; but dirt, too hot feeding, and want of exercise, are amongst the most usual! As to treatment, we will record a case related by an intelligent farmer. A cock, of about four or five months old, apparently turned out by some- body to die, cam^ astray, and was in the last stage of roup. The discharge from his mouth and nostrils was very considerable, and extremely pungent and fetid, while his eyes appeared to be affected with an inflammation sim- ilar to Egyptian ophthalmia. The cock was placed at the fireside, his mouth and nostrils washed with soap and warm water, his eyes washed with warm milk and water, and the head gently rubbed with a dry cloth Internally he was given long pellets, formed of barley meal and flour equal parts, mustard and grated ginger equal parts, and half the first-named. He was also given to drink lukewarm water, sweetened with treacle. In three days this bird began to see, and in a week his sight was almost wholly restored. A little mustard was still given him in his water, and then some flour of sulphur. He had also a pinch of calomel in some dough. He was gradually brought out, so as to inure him to the cold, and in a month was as well as ever. Having molted late, the same bird caught cold at the first frost, and suffered a relapse, from which, however, he was recovered by warmth alone. Other poultry-keepers recommend a modification of the ahove, — warmth and cleanliness, as matters of course ; - but, for pellets, — powdered gen- tian 1 part, do. ginger 1 part, Epsom salts 1^ part, flour of sulphur I, part, — made up with butter, and given every morning. 35* 414 farmer's hand-book. If the discharge should become fetid, the mouth, nostrils, and eyes, may be bathed with a weak solution, composed of equal parts of chloride of lime and acetate of lead. Fomentation with an infusion of camomile flowers is highly beneficial. The other affection, that improperly passes under this name, viz., swell- ing of the tail-gland, may be treated as a boil. If it become inconveniently hard and ripe, let the pus or matter out with a penknife, and it will soon get well. Asthma. — This is characterized by gaping, panting, and difficulty of breathing. We need not go far to seek for a cause. Our poultry are origin- ally natives of tropical climates ; and, however well climatized they may appear, they nevertheless require a more equable temperature than our climate, unaided by artificial means, can afford. Hence, coughs, colds, catarrh, asthma, pulmonary consumption. To remedy it, give warmth, with small repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butler^ and add Cayenne pepper. Diarrhoea is occasioned by damp, and sometimes by improper food. Remove the bird into dry quarters ; change the food ; if it become very severe, give chalk ; add a little starch, mixed with Cayenne, to porridge, and give it warm. Indigestion. — Caused by over-feeding, and want of exercise. Remedy by lessening the quantity of food ; turn the fowl into an open walk, and give some powdered gentian and Cayenne in the food. Apoplexy. — Symptoms — staggering, shaking of the head, and a sort of tipsy aspect. Some persons have, from ignorance of the true cause of this affection, treated it as proceeding from intestinal irritation, and prescribed castor-oil, with syrup of ginger, &c. Scanty food, and that of light quality, and the application of leeches to the back of the neck, constitute an effect- ual remedy, — the knife, however, is the truest one. Fever. — Fowls are frequently subject to febrile affections. The mode of treatment is simple — light food and little of it, change of air, and, if neces- sary, aperient medicines, such as castor-oil, with a little burnt butter. Consumption. — If not incurable, change of air and warmth is about the only means of doing any good. Gout. — Its effects are obvious. Pellets of colocynth may be used ; buty if the fowl had been killed before becoming so old, it would have beec better. Sulphur may be found useful. Corns. — These may generally be extracted with the point of a pen-knife If ulcerated, as will often occur when neglected, touch with lunar-caustic and you may thus succeed in establishing healthy granulations. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 415 Bloody-Jlux generally proceeds from an aggravated diarrhoea. Rice boiled in milk, or starch, usually effects a cure. Coslivcness. — This affection will, in general, yield to castor-oil and burned butter. The diet should be sparing. Thin porridge will be found useful. Fractures and Bruises. — In the case of fractures, the best way, in most cases, is to put the fowl to death, without loss of time. The same may be said of bruises. Ulcers. — These may be kept clean, dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead, as their aspect may seem to indicate. If they appear sluggish, they may be touched with bluestone. Loss of Feathers. — The accidental stripping of the feathers must not be confounded with the mangy affection already treated of. The difference will be seen by examining the state of the skin where it is exposed. Peacocks and Guinea Hens.— Although, now comparatively common, these two birds are more raised for their appearance than for mere profit. The Peacock has always been admired for its magnificent plumage. Its flesh is dark colored and coarse grained. The flesh of the Guinea Hen though dark, is tender and of a fine flavor. As the both of these birds are difficult to rear, they can never become popular barnyard favorites. CHAPTER IX. BEES AND SILKWORMS. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES — POSITION OF THE APIARY — HIVES AND BOXES OBTAINING STOCK — SWARMING THE HONEY HARVEST MANAGEMENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THB HONEY HARVEST — THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES — SILKWORMS. I. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES. The Queen. — The number of bees contained in a hive will, of course vary with their condition, and the accommodations they possess ; whatever, however, be their numbers, their occupations are alike, and are similarly distributed amongst the three classes composing the inmates of the hive. These classes are, first, the Queen-bee, the sovereign of the community, and literally the prolific parent of her subjects. The queen-bee reigns alone ; but one of her sex is permitted to exist in a hive at the one time, and to her protection and comfort are the energies of the other bees to be directed. The queen-bee mav be recognized by her greater length of body, which is Fig. 241. of a blackish color above, and of a yellowish tint beneath. She is usually, but not by any means invariably, of a larger size than either of the other classes ; her abdomen contains two ovaries, or receptacles for eggs ; and her sting is of a curved form. The queen-bee commences depositing her eggs when five days old ; during the heat of the season she lays from one hundred and fifty to two hundred eggs per day, and lays with little or no intermission from early spring to the middle of autumn. (416) BEES. 41T Tlie Drone. — The second class of bees are the drones. These are larger in llie body than either the queen or the woriiing-bee. Their head is rounder, proboscis shorter, eyes fuller, and no sting. They also make more noise in (lying than the other bees. The drones are the males of the hive ; by Fig. 242. them the queen is impregnated and her eggs fertilized, though this latter may be said to be a point not yet definitely settled by those who have inves- tigated the subject. During the summer the drones remain dispersed through different parts of the hive, in a state of idleness ; but towards its close they assemble together in companies, as if preparing for their impending fate, which they await in patience, or rather, perhaps, in motionless lethargy. At the end of summer, in August or the end of July, they are ignominiously expelled from the hive, and even slain, by the workers, as if they, being no longer of any utility to the community, should not be fed from the store during winter. The Worhing-hee. — The third class is the working-bee, the most inter- esting of all. It is considerably less than either the queen-bee or the drone ; it is about half an inch in length, of a blackish-brown color, covered with closely-set hairs all over the body, which aid it in carrying the farina it gathers from the flowers ; and on the fore-arm, as it were, of the hind legs, Fig. 243. is a cavity, of cup-like form, for the reception of the little kneaded ba'' of pollen. It is the working-bee which collects honey and pollen, and wb-'ch forms the cells, cleans out the hive, protects the queen, looks after the con- dition of the young brood, destroys or expels the drones, when those are no longer necessary to the well-being of the community ; who, in si ort, perform* 2b 418 farmer's hand-book. all offices connected with the hive and its contents, save only those which have reference to the reproduction of the species. The working-bees are ot no sex, and are furnished with a horny and hollow sting, through which poison is ejected into the wound it makes. This poison is of an acrid character, and of great power in its effects, proving fatal to insects, and instances are on record of its proving so to horses and cattle, and even tc human beings. When human beings, however, are stung, they can instan- taneously obtain relief by pressing upon the point stung with the tube of a key ; this will extract the sting, and relieve the pain, and spirits of harts- horn will at once remove it. Structure of the Bee. — It is composed, like insects generally, of three parts — the head, thorax or chest, and abdomen. The shape of the head varies somewhat, as also does its size, in the three classes ; it is attached to the thorax by a thin ligament, and the thorax is attached in a simi- lar manner to the abdomen. In front of the head are two eyes, which are protected by hairs from any substaiices that might otherwise injure them, and on the top of the head are three smaller eyes. This visual apparatus renders the bee's power of sight a very extended one. Two feelers spring from between the front eyes, and curve outwards on each side ; these are endowed with a very acute sense of touch, and doubtless perform many of the offices of eyes in the dark recesses of the hive. It is probably by the assistance of these delicate and highly sensitive organs that these insects form their combs, fill their cells, and feed the young. The mouth of the bee is composed of a pair of jaws, which open vertically, and act — opening and shutting — to the right and left. These are fur- nished with teeth at their extremities. The mouth is also furnished with a very minute tongue, and with a long, slender instrument, called a proboscis, or trunk, resembling in form and use that of the elephant ; it is composed of numerous cartilaginous rings, fringed with minute hairs. This instru- ment does not, however, act as a tube, but by rolling about and attaching to the hairs which fringe it whatever substances the insect wishes to convey to the mouth. From about the base of the proboscis also arise the labia] feelers, as they are called, which are also furnished with a hairy fringe. The bee has three pairs of legs, of which the posterior are the longest, aTid the anterior the shortest. These are formed and articulated much like the same limbs in man, and are attached to the thorax ; at their extrem- ities we find two little hooks, which appear like sickles, or reaping-hooks, and have their points opposed to each other. By means of these the insect suspends itself to the top of he hive, or in any other position it may desire. To the superior portion of the thorax are attached four wings, consisting of two pair, of unequal size. These wings are hooked together, in order BEES. 419 that they may act simultaneously, and not only serve to convey the insecta from place to place, through the air, but, by the humming, buzzing noiso their motion produces, to give notice of their departure from, and return to, the hive, as well as possibly to animate their fellows in their mutual labors. Interiorly the thorax contains the oesophagus, or gullet, which traverses its extent on its way into the abdomen, where it dilates into, first, the honey- bag, which is furnished with two pouches posteriorly, and a muscular appa- ratus, by which it is enabled to give forth its saccharine contents ; and, secondly, into the true stomach, in which digestion goes on, for the nour- ishment of the insect, and the secretion of wax. Next to the stomach ia situated the sting ; this consists of two darts in a sheath. The whole appa- Fiff. 244. ratus enters the wound, and the two small darts then enter still further ; these are barbed, and, on the insect withdrawing them, aid in widening the puncture, and thus afford greater room for the introduction of the poison. At the base of the sting the bag containing the poison is placed. The bee respires by means o{ spiracles, or breathing-holes, situated in the thorax, beneath and behind the wings. Through these air is admitted into the thorax, for the purpose of oxygenating the circulating system, — a fact which proves the necessity for duly ventilating the hives or bee-boxes. II. POSITION OF THE APIARY. The details of the domestic operations of the bee in the cells, — a figure of which is seen in Fig. 245, — we do not intend to present in this place, but proceed to speak of those matters more particularly pertaining to the plan of management pursued by the bee-keeper or farmer. Aspect. — The most favorable aspect for the hives or boxes is south- westerly, which, however, may advantageously be modified or varied according to the season. In spring, for instance, the aspect would be more unproved by inclining more to the west; in autumn, the reverse. The reason for this is, that the morning sun is prejudicial to the interests of the hi.e, — the bees receiving the light and going forth too early, — a thing objectionable on two accounts ; first, that, especially in early spring, the -lawn is too cold, and will occasion the death of numbers, if they are induced 420 farmer's, hand-book. to venture forth ; and, secondly, because the bees, if they commence opera' tions so early, become wearied before they have performed a good day's work, and the afternoon is a more advantageous period for their labors. Location. — The place for fixing the stand should be a dry soil, — and sandy one is better. It should slope towards the front, in order to cany off the surface water produced by occasional rains, and should not, on any account, be exposed to the droppings from the eaves of houses, or even hedges. Shelter is essential, especially behind and on the east of the hives, — a house or high wall is the best; it is also recommended that the stand be placed in a sort of small, open shed, well painted on the outside, tw protect it from the weather ; a few shrubs about the stand are also good as additional shelter. Some recommend high trees for the purpose of keeping the air calm, lest the bees should be blown down, when returning home. High trees are not advisable. Bees are seldom blown to the ground by mere wind, but even when they are, they can, in a great majority of cases, recover themselves ; whereas, if blown amongst trees, they will be sure to be whipped so violently by the branches, that they are absolutely hurled to the ground with such force as to render their recovery hopeless. The bees also fly low, on their return, when they arrive at the immediate neighborhood of their stand, and, consequently, high trees would be not only useless, but inconvenient. Whatever trees, therefore, are planted in the immediate vicinity of the hive, should be of low size, with bushy heads, in order that the swarms which settle on them may be more easily hived. Avoid a site near mills or other noisy places, or the neighborhood of offensive odor, as factories and the like ; and if, as occasionally may happen BEES. 421 the stand be placed against the garden wall, behind which is the farm- yard, let not a dung-hill be built against the opposite side, as it may cause a descjftion of the boxes. Do not place the stand where there are rat or mouse holes. Water is essential to the well-being of bees ; it must, however, be pre- sented to them judiciously, or it will prove a greater evil than a good. If there is a shallow, rippling brook through the garden, so much the better; if not, place near the stand small, shallow pans of water, and put some pebbles in them. This water should be changed daily. It is objectionable to have a pond or canal in the neighborhood ; thousands of bees will be lost every season through such a means, as they will be constantly blown into them when returning heavily laden to the hive, especially in the evening, when wearied, after the toil of an industriously-spent day. The pebbles in the troughs are for the bees to rest on while drinking. It is well if the garden is abundantly planted with such shrubs and flowers as afford honey, in order to prevent, as much as possible, the neces- sity of the bees constantly traveling to an inconvenient distance in search of food It is well also to so contrive as to have a succession of such food, adapted to the season, — a matter comparatively easily managed, and of some consequence to the well-being of the bees. Among these plants may be enunverated broom, furz or gorse, thyme, especially lemon-thyme, clover, crocus, heaths, fruit-trees, mustard, mignonette, sage, single roses, rad- ishes, primroses, parsley, peas, parsnips, marigolds, violets, lilies, laurus- tin, daffodils, celery, cauliflowers, asparagus, sunflowers, wall-flowers, borage, winter vetches, buckwheat. Hives should on no account be so placed as to be exposed to the noonday sun ; this will injure the honey and melt it, and will raise the temperature of the hive so as to produce unwished-for swarming, besides otherwise annoying and injuring the bees. A few shrubs, therefore, should be so placed as to cast their shadow across the stand during the heat of day. Let the shrubs be of such a description as the bees are fond of, and they may also be disposed so as to give the apiary a pleasing and picturesque appearance. Bee-houses are only fit for keeping the bee-boxes in during winter ; — one, two, or three sets of collateral boxes, are as many as any moderate bee- keeper will desire, or be able conveniently to attend, and these can be kept each in a little shed by itself. Bee-hives should never be placed close to each other, as they must necessarily be in the bee-houses recommended by some, for bees are naturally very irritable and pugnacious insects, and if two colonies be kept too near each other, battles will ensue, and the weaker hive be injured or destroyed 36 422 farmer's hand-book. III. HIVES AND BOXES. Requisites. — The old straw, conical-shaped hive, is too •well known te need description, and, perhaps, too unprofitable to be worthy of it. The chief objects to be effected by the use of a suitable receptacle for bees are, first, the power of depriving them of their honey at pleasure, and without injury to thera ; secondly, the obtaining of it in its pure and uncontaminated form ; thirdly, the means of enlarging their accommodation when necessary, and the consequent prevention of swarming. Different Kinds of Hives and Boxes. — Among otlier hives of considerable m<;rit,, that called the Nutt hive is wonhy of being noticed and explained, and the opinions of Mr. Nutt, the inventor, are of sufficient value to be presented in this place. According to Mr. Nutt, bee-boxes should be from eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or ten inches deep in the clear. The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar, — the chief grounds of preference of which wood are, its keeping away moths, and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood bee- boxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from what carpenters term sAaA:es. Good, sound red deal answers the purpose very well. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front, should be, at the least, an inch and a half thick ; for the ends, top, and back part, good deal, one inch thick, is sufficiently substantial ; the ends that form the interior divisions and openings must be of half-inch stuff, well-dressed off, so that when the boxes and the dividing tins are closed, — that is, when they are all placed together, — the two adjoining ends should not exceed five eighths of an inch in thickness. These communication ends — the bars of which should be exactly parallel with each other — form a communication or division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bee, and by which the said boxes can be immediately divided, without injuring any part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so frequently annoys them, in extracting their sweets from the piled or storified boxes. The receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which appear upon each side of the end boxes, — the one with the cover off, the other with it on, — must be four inches square, with a perforated flat tin, of nearly the same size ; and in the middle of that tin must be a round hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, in the centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the perforated cylinder tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must have a smooth piece of wood, well made, to fit it closely, and to cover the frame-work, so as to carry off the wet ; then placing this cover over the square perforated tin, the box will be secure from the action of wind and BEES. 423 rain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator and a^so for a secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is inserted. Within this frame-work, — and so that the perforated flat tin, already described, may completely cover them, — at each corner, make a hole with a three-eifjhths'centre-bit, through the top of the box. These four small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential part of it. We next come to the long- floor, on which the three square bee-boxes which constitute a set stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long, shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-boxes, and must, of course, lie superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when placed collaterally, require ; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better ; because, in that case, the rain or wet that may at any time fall upon them will drain ofl^ completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project about two inches in front ; but this projection must be sloped, or made an inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the front of the boxes. To the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the alighting board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. The passage from this alighting board into the pavilion (not seen in the plate, it being in the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, but out of the floor-board, and should be not less than four inches in length and about half an inch in depth, or so as to make a clear half-inch way under the edge of the box for the bee passage. This is preferable to a cut in the edge of the box, because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soon drain out, and the floor become dry ; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out of the box, the rain, that may and at times will be drifted in, will be kept in, and the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental to the bees. In depth, the floor-box, measured from outside to outside, should be four inches, so that if made of three-fourths'-inch deal, there may be left for the depth of the box part two inches and a half. Internally it is divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box. Admis- sion to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer, or drawer- fronts, or blocks, which will be described presently. The bottom, oropen edge, of each of the boxes, should be well planed, and made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the afore- said floor, and be as air-trght as a good workman can make them. In the 424 farmer's hand-book. floor-board are made three openings, one near the back of each box. These openings are of semilunar shape (though any other shape would do as well), the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will be most convenient if made parallel with the back edge of the box, and abou^ an inch from it. They are covered by perforated or by close tin slides, aa the circumstances of the apiary may require. The drawer, the front of which appears under the middle box, is of great importance, because it affords one of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. In this drawer is placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it ; and in that tin another thin frame, covered with book-muslin, or other fine strainer, which floats on the liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. Here, then, is a feeder, containing the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother hive, and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. When the drawer thus prepared with bee-food is closed, the tin placed over the semi- lunar aperture must be drawn, which will open to the bees a way to their food in the drawer beneath. The heat of the hive follows the bees into the feeding department, which soon becomes the temperature of their native domicile. The box-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer are formed of a bit of talc suspended over a hole on the outside, thus permitting egress, but precluding ingress. By means of this contrivance, the number of bees may be increased without alarming or annoying them, and they can likewise escape when being deprived of one or other of the collateral boxes. This contrivance further precludes the intrusion of insect enemies. The centre is perforated on the top, and over the hole a bell-glass is placed which, when the hive is filled, the bees fill with honey which is of the purest description. Wooden fittings or covers are provided for the protec- tion of these glasses. The bees, being placed in the centre box, or pavilion, soon commence operations, and speedily fill it with honey. When full, which may be ascer- tained by looking through a window fixed in the back of the box, the tin slide which separates it from the bell-glass must be drawn ; this is best done on a warm day, and the comb should previously be cut through with a thin wire. Before taking off the glass, the operator should pause for a few minutes, to observe whether there be any unusual stir among the imprisoned bees ; for if they do not appear alarmed, the queen is among them, and in that case the slide must be withdrawn, and the operation postponed to another day. In taking away the glass, envelop it in a silk handkerchief, and remove it about ten yards from the boxes ; then place it a little on one side, so as to permit the imprisoned bees to escape, which they will do in a few minutes. When occasion requires, the bees are to be similarly admitted into the side BEES. 425 boxes, by drawing the slides ; but in removing one of these boxes some pre- cautions require to be used For instance, open the ventilator the nigh' previous; this will, by lowering the temperature of the hive, and adniittinc a current of air, induce the bees to leave the box thus treated, and to congre- gate in the pavilion. Then put down the slide d, and let the bees remain for ten minutes or so in darkness. If the queen be not in the box to be taken, any bees that may remain in it will be restless and in confusion. If she should be there, the commotion will be in the centre box. If the queen should be in the box intended to be taken, draw up the slide again, and she will soon leave it. Having emptied the full box, return it to its place. Ac- cording to this system, fumigation is unnecessary, — a child, even, may manage the boxes with ease and safety. The centre box, called, on account of its being the breeding place, the pavilion of nature, is never to be meddled with. Any person of common ingenuity can form for himself a set of collateral boxes, by taking as a stand a piece of strong wood — deal, obtained from an old door, or other waste timber ; let it be about four feet long and about two feet wide, as thick as can be procured ; place it on four legs, and let the edge project over the legs, in order to prevent the incursion of insects ; plane the upper surface smooth. Make three boxes, each about ten inches square, with, of course, no bottom, and have the edges of the bottomless portion planed smooth, so as to lie as close as possible to the board. Cut away a portion of the bottom of one side of each box, and in that designed for the centre box do so on two opposite sides ; — these are for communication. Get two sheets of tin, or thin wood, — a piece of a broken tea-chest will do ad- mirably, — and place one between each of the collateral boxes and the centre one, so as to cut oft" communication between them, until it is desired to open it, when, of course, one of them is withdrawn, and, at the same time, the side box, thus opened, will be pushed close to the central one. I^et the Btand-board be on an inclined plane, sloping towards the front, so as to throw off wet, and let the said board project a couple of inches, to serve the bees as a place on which to alight. Make a small hole, about half an inch, or rather less, in diameter, in front of this centre box, partly in the box and partly in the board, for the ingress and egress of its inhabitants. Paint the boxes externally, but do so a considerable time before they are required for use, and encompass them with the best sort of rough shed that can be con- veniently put up ; bore a hole, with a centre-bit, in the top of each box, and place a glass vessel over it. When it is necessary to feed the bees, it can be done by attaching a feeder to the entrance door, and the holes for the bell- glasses will afford ample means of ventilating. In case they should not, however, have a hole at the back of each box, stopped with a cork, which can be withdrawn for the admission of air when necessary. Take care that 36* 426 farmer's hand-book. the cork be not pushed entirely through the wood of the box, or it will be so cemented by propolis that it cannot, perhaps, be drawn out without injury or disturbance to the combs. Another mode of forming bee-boxes is as follows : Let them be of as good quality as possible, so as to effectually preserve their contents from eithei extreme heat- or cold, dampness, or any sudden changes of temperature The size of the centre box should be about ten and one half inches cube, inside measure ; and it would be of advantage to have six bars fixed across the top of it, from front to back, which should be one and one-eighth inches in width, half an inch in thickness, and half an inch apart — the ends of each of which should be neatly rabbeted into the front and back of the box. Over the bars should be laid a piece of thin gauze, and upon it the top or cover- ing-board of the box, which may have a circular hole in the middle of it, securely stopped by a good cork-bung, to be removed for the purpose of placing a small bell-glass over the hole, as occasions require. The side boxes may be made and used of different sizes, if desired, and to contain from 350 to 1100 cubic inches each. If the smaller sizes are adopted, the entrance to them must be along the hollow part of the bottom-board ; but it would be considered more complete to have the side boxes of the same width and depth as the centre one, and to have them well fitted and secured together during the honey-gathering season. The entrance from the centre to the side boxes may then extend along the under edges of each of them from front to back, and about three-eighths to one-half an inch in depth ; there should also be a perpendicular one, three inches long and half an inch wide, up the centre of the end of each of the boxes, the upper part of which should reach to within three inches of the top of the box inside. The use of bars to the top of boxes is frequently of much service to the apiarian, as he can thereby occasionally remove a few of the old combs from the box, and can, at any time, have an opportunity of examining the state of the interior of the boxes. Before using a new box with bars, aa .above, a piece of pure and clean brood-comb should be neatly fixed to each, on every alternate bar, which may be readily accomplished by the assistance of a long and smooth piece of heated iron — the comb, being rubbed for a few seconds on the iron, should immediately be applied to the bar, and will ihen, in a short time, firmly adhere to it. The use of hives of straw is by many persons still continued and approved ; and there is no doubt that, when properly made and judiciously managed, the returns from them will often equal, or surpass, those from some of the more fancy-shaped and costly wooden boxes. The size of th"? straw hive should be from sixteen to seventeen inches in diameter, and twelve to thirteen inches in height ; and they should have u BEES, 42": narrow, flat, and thick top of wood, with a circular hole and cork-bung ir. the centre of it, similar to that for wooden boxes. The outer box, in which the stock-hive and side boxes are enclosed, having been made wider than ^the interior hives or boxes, should have a partition from front to back, on each side of the stock-hive, and the interstices round the centre hive filled up w'th dry sawdust, powdered charcoal, or other suitable materials, which will be of service in preserving the temperature of the hive in a congenial and uniform state. The communication from the straw stock-hive to the side boxes should be along the hollow centre of the bottom-board ; three or more circular holes should also be made in the bottom-board on each side, in such manner that each of them may be covered with a bell-glass, or that one of the larger side hives or boxes may be placed over them, as may suit the wishes or convenience of the apiarian. When glasses are used, they should be well covered with some soft woollen materials, and a hive or box should then be placed over them, to effectually exclude the light, and pre serve them from accidents of any kind, and sudden changes of temperature. It is advisable to have the outer box well made, with a neat and substantial roof to carry off the wet, &c., and it should be made of such breadth as to leave a space of one half inch on each side of the stock-hive. A well-informed writer observes, that, if the bees are kept in a straw hive, it should be of a large size, and *vell made, and should be stocked with a strong swarm at the usual period of the year. . It should be then placed on the centre of a stout bottom-board, made long enough to hold a small hive or box on each side of it, and having hollow communications from the centre hive to the side ones, which can be opened or closed at pleasure. When the bees require room in the spring or summer months, the entrance from the centre to one of the side hives must be opened, and after they have fairly taken possession of it, it must be properly ventilated by a hole previously formed on the top, and covered with a piece of perfo- rated zinc, keeping the temperature between 65° and 75°. The three hives should have a well-made wooden covering over them, with a span-shaped roof to carry off the wet, &c., and an opening at the back for the purpose of examining the progress of the bees ; the outer box should be well painted, and water-proof, and will greatly assist in regulating the tempera- ture of the hives, and in protecting them from extreme cold, dampness, or sunshine. It matters not much of what wood the boxes are made, provided it is sound, thoroughly seasoned, and well put together. Different opinions are entertained as to the size of bee-boxes ; but much depends on the number of bees they are to contain, and on the honey locality ; there must also be a reference to the proposed mode of working them, for, where no swarming 428 farmer's hand-book. is permitted, a larger hive may be advantageously used. A good size is twelve inches square, and nine inches deep within, the thickness throughout being not less than an inch. The top of the box ought to project on all sides nearly three quarters of an inch, for better protection and appearance, and as affording convenience for lifting. On the top a two-inch hole should be cut in the centre, for placing a bell-glass, and for the purpose of feeding ; and another hole, to receive a ventilator, may be made near the back win- dow, that position being better for inspection, and less in the way of the bees, than the centre of the hive, which is, or ought to be, the seat of breeding, and should not be disturbed. A window may be placed at the back and front, five inches high and six or seven inches wide. The best and neatest way of securing the windows is by a sliding shutter of zinc. This passes into a rabbet to receive it, cut, on the remaining three sides, at the back of the lower edge of the moulding. To prevent any wet from lodging at the bottom moulding, an opening or two may be easily cut through, on the under side, to allow its escape. Place the hive under soma cover or shed, as a protection from wet and heat. The ^^ Leaf Hivc,''^ invented by Huber, consists of eight frames, each eighteen inches high and ten inches wide inside, having the uprights and top cross-pieces one and a half inches broad, and one thick, so that the eight frames, when placed close together, constitute a hive eighteen inches high, twelve inches between end and end, and ten inches between back and front, all inside measure. The frames are held together by a flat sliding-bar on each side, secured by wedges and pins. To the first and eighth of these frames is attached a frame with glass, and covered with a shutter. The body of the hive is protected by a sloping roof, and the entrance is made through the thickness of the floor-board. Some dislike the sliding-bars, with their pins and wedges, because, in drawing them out, all the frames are liable to open, and the observer is exposed to some hazard of annoyance from the bees issuing out at every joint ; as a substitute for them, place hinges on one side, and a hook-and-eye on each frame on the other, and thus any particular leaf may be opened without meddling with the rest In taking honey from this hive, the bee-master has the whole interior com- pletely under his eye, and at his disposal ; and can choose what combs best suit his purpose, both as to quantity and quality, taking care, however, to do so only at such periods as will leave the bees time to replenish the vacancy before the termination of the honey season. It is also well adapted for artificial swarming. By separating the hive into halves, the honey, brood-combs, and bees, will, generally speaking, be equally divided; and by supplying each half with four empty frames, there will be two hives, one half empty, equal in number of bees, of brood, and even of stores. One BEES. 429 of the new hives will possess the queen, and, if the operation has been performed at the proper time, — that is to say, a week or ten days before the period of natural swarming, — the probability is, there will be a royal brood coming forward in the other ; at all events, there will be plenty of eggs and larva; of the proper age for forming an artificial queen. With regard to the use of sticks or cross-pieces, some object to them, as only an annoyance to the bees ; and there is little fear of the combs falling, except in very deep hives, — at any rate, it may be prevented by contracting the lower part a little. The best way of doing this is by working a wooden hoop inside the bottom band of the hive; it should be perforated through its whole course, and the perforations made in an oblique direction, BO distant from each other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to range in an uniform manner. The hoop gives greater stability to the hive, pre- serves the lower edge from decay, and affords facility in moving it. A circular piece of wood (turned with a groove at the edge, to retain it in its place) should be worked into the crown, having through it an inch-and-a half hole. With a little ingenuity, the bees may be fed through this open- ing, — a better method than the ordinary one, at the bottom of a hive. A piece of wood or tin will commonly cover the hole ; but at times, especially in winter, it may be used for the purpose of ventilation, and allowing the impure air of the hive to escape. In this case, a bit of perforated zinc or tin should be placed over it, which, when stopped up by the bees, can be replaced by a clean one. An earthen pan is a common cover to a straw hive ; and this may be slightly raised by wedges on the four sides, to per- mit a small space underneath. Of whatever material the outer covering consists, it must project so far on all sides as to protect the hive from the least moisture. This cannot be too much guarded against ; and whether of wood or straw, all hives ought to be well painted at the beginning, and kept so. To have a simple and cheaf hive, get a common straw hive, of somewhat larger dimensions than common, and cut it across (about one third of its length) from the upper or conical end ; fit to this end a round piece of wood about an inch in thickness, having in its centre a hole about an inch and a naif in diameter, fitted with a cork or bung. Take another hive of ordinary dimensions, and place it over this. This is called capping. When, during the proper season, the bees have filled the lower part of the hive, and show symptoms of requiring more room, you have only to draw out the cork, and place the cap over the board. This acts as a bell-glass, and the honey which will be collected in it will not be inferior to that procured from the most costly set of bee-boxes. A coating of Roman cement on the exterior surface of these hives will render them almost everlasting. 430 farmer's hand-book. Glass hives are not to be recommended. Bees love darkness, and hate light or observation. In a state of nature they seek some hollow^, vacant spot beneath a bank or rock, the cleft of a tree, or some similarly dark and secluded place. Huish is of the opinion that straw is the best material for making hives, because it is clean, wholesome, dry, impervious to the effects of the w^eather; and being a w^arm advocate for the deprivation of a hive, in pref- erence to the massacre of the bees, the particular shape of the hive became a matter of the first consideration, and secondly, so to construct it that the use of the sticks could be entirely abolished. In some parts of Greece, the hives resemble exactly a large flower-pot, and he considered that that shape offered to him every advantage which he was desirous of obtaining. The combs, being begun at the top, would necessarily be larger than at the bottom, and thus, acting on the principles of the wedge, they would be prevented from falling down, and the extraction of them from the top would, in comparison from the bottom, be a matter of great facility. In order, however, to effect the extraction of the combs from the top, it was evident Ihat that advantage could not be gained were the top of the hive to be of one piece, for as such it could not be lifted without moving the whole mass of the combs, which, in the first place, would be next to an impossibility, and, in the second, would tend to the utter ruin of the hive. Having, there- fore, constructed a hive of the shape of a flower-pot, making the diameter of the base not much smaller than that of the top, he placed a projecting band at the top, on which he placed seven bars, according to the annexed figure. These bars are fastened to the band of straw by small wooden pegs, which are easily drawn out when a honey-comb is to be extracted. Tig. 246. With the knowledge that bees will not construct their combs on an insecure foundation, he placed a piece of network over the bars, of which the meshes are of a middling size, by which, in a degree, the bees were forced to attach their combs to the bars, and thereby rendering their extraction more easy. Over the network he placed a board of five divisions, attached to each othei BEES. 431 by hinges , so that any part of the interior of the hive could be examined without exposing the whole. The network was evidently an annoyance to the bees, for in almost every instance the greater portion of it was nibbled away. In the lapping-board nine holes were made, over which plates of perforated tin were put, in order that the perspiration might escape, which prevents the combs assuming that black appearance which is in general so great an eyesore. According to this construction, the deprivation of the hive is very easily effected, and may be accomplished by the most timid person. The hive being covered with a top, according to the annexed cut, it is taken off, and one of the side flaps being lifted up, the position of the Fig. 247. L_l ^ ^ 1 -i— — — -3-i comb immediately exhibits itself. If it has not been constructed exactly parallel with the bar, the opposite side may be examined, and that comb selected for extraction which presents the greatest facility. It is, however, necessary that the operator should have in readiness a pair of bellows, to the orifice of which is attached a small tin box, with the lid and bottom well perforated, into which some old rags or dried leaves, in an ignited state, must be placed ; and thus, being provided with the object most dreaded by the bees, — namely, smoke, — as soon as the flap is opened, and the bees present themselves, they can be driven away ; and should they show any disposition to return, the repetition of the smoke will curb in them all future inclination to annoy the operator. The make of Mr. Huish's hive was originally round. It was, however, soon discovered that that shape carried with it the disadvantage of having the side combs very small ; and, therefore, after much trouble, he succeeded in bringing it nearly to the square, by which the side combs are nearly as large as those in the middle. Fig. 248 represents the hive. Of late years, many new plans for bee-hives have been presented to the public, some of which are great improvements on the old modes of construc- tion and management. Among these may be named Beard's, Colton's, Cutting's, Weeks', and Miner's; a still more valuable invention is thai one patented by Arza Gilmore, Esq. , which is commended by many of our most intelligent and skillful apiarists, as one combining, in an emi- 432 farmer's hand-book. Dent degree, all the requisites of a perfect hive, and its introduction is becoming more general than that of any other article now in the market. Fig. 248. The following is a perspective view of a bee-house, or apiary, on Mr. Gil- more's plan. Fig. 240. The above shows the front, with the openings for the bees — a door at tlie end, leading into the apartment back of the hives, where you can go, and examine the boxes, and inspect operations, unmolested. These houses may BEES. 433 be made plain or ornamental, according to the taste or desires of the propri- etors, and of any required size. In regard to the Gihnore plan, the first thing necessary will be to pre- pare a house or room, say eight or ten feet wide, and of any length you wish. In this, the hives and boxes are to be arranged as follows : — The hives are made of the usual size, but in three parts, as represented by a a a. They are seven and a half inches high, ten wide, and fifteen long. Fiar. 250. On the tops oi all of them are slats or gratings made of wood, about an inch in width, and about a quarter of an inch apart. They should be apart far enough to let the bees pass through easily, but not so far apart as to allow them to build comb that would project through the grating, and connect with comb below. The object is to be able to remove parts of the comb in the 37 2C 434 farmer's hand-book. hive when it gets old, and by sliding in a new section of hive, give them a chance to renew it. In this way, all the comb may be renewed in each hive, from time to time. There is much advantage in this, for the bees are not only more healthy and active with new, freshly-made comb, but, in process of time, the cells, where the larvae are raised, become narrow and filled up with bread, and the exuvia of the growing young ; hence, bees bred in such places are not so large and strong. This arrangement of hives enables the bee-breeder to remove the old, and give the bees a chance to manufacture new. These sections of the hive are held together by bits or small cleat* of wood, represented by c c c, which are fitted into slots cut in the edge of each section, and held in their places by small wood screws. On the top of the hive, as at e, is an orifice or hole, which may be closed by a slide, and also a similar one on the sides, at d. These are for the purpose of allowing the bees to pass from hive to hive, as they are placed in contact with each other, and should be four or five inches square. They can thus pass through the opening e, in the top, into the hive above, or into the hives on either side, through the opening d, in the sides, Fia;. 251. These sections, when put together, represent the front of the hive. It will be perceived that holes, or notches, are cut on each side of the cleats c c c, to allow the bees to pass and repass into and out of the hives, as is usual in common hives. Any number of hives are placed in contact with each other, side by side, and on the top of each other ; and there is a com- munication throughout the whole, as above named, through the openings c and d. REES. 435 ITie next cut represents the back-side of the hive, where are seen the cleats c c c, and the openings e and d. In addition to these are holes f f^ eight in number, bored with an inch or an inch-and-a-half bit. They are made to allow the bees to pass from the main hives into the boxes, which Fix. 252. are placed in contact with them, having an opening of the same size, to match. These boxes are made of thin, light wood, having a pane of glass in front, through which it may be seen whether they are filled with honey or not, before taking them away. They are seven and a half inches long, and four and three-fourths' inches high. The cut g represents* the glass Fig. 253. front ; f f showing the opening on the back-side, corresponding with the hole /, in the main hive. These boxes are kept in their places bv means 436 farmer's hand-book. of a rack, similar to the rack or case in which small drawers are placed This is shown in the succeeding cut, and is extensive enough to cover the whole of broadside of the hives — s s s s representing slides of wood, tin, or zinc, by which the communication between the hives may be cut off when desired. These are the movable parts of the apiary. We will now proceed to arrange them in the house or room in which they are to stand. In order to Fig. 254. illustrate this arrangement, the interior of the house is seen with the back and ends removed, thus exposing the fixtures within. A A A A is the floor of the house ; B B B B \s, the front side. In order to let the bees pass out and in, small openings or doors are made, either in the form of a long open- ing, as in the shaded part represented by c in the upper part, or in the square shaded parts, e e e e, below. Long openings are preferable. All these openings are furnished with shutters or slides, by which they may be BEES. 43T completely closed, at will. The best arrangement for this is to have a long opening with a groove at the top and bottom of it, so as to return the elides Fig. 255. 37* 438 farmer's hand-book. when put in. By these, any part of the opening can be shut, and openings left just where you wish, whicli is often essential in directing the bees to Fig. 256. \ 0^ BEES. 439 Buch part of the hives as you wish. Two wide shelves, c c c c, are then placed in the house, the fronts resting against the side of the house, and the ends attached to posts or scantlings, which hold them firmly in their place. Below the lower shelf, at D, is a closet sufficiently large to hold a common bee-hive. This has a door, to shut tight and keep it dark, and a small opening in the front. The use will be explained below. The dotted line* on the shelves represent the spaces covered by the hives, when in place ; represent slots or openings through the shelf, corresponding with the openings in the top of the lower tier of hives, allowing the bees to pass through into the upper tier. We will now place the hives, and the rack or case to hold the boxes, in their places, which will be represented in the last architectural figure, where A A A A show the floor of the house, B B B B the front side, h h h the tops of the upper tier of hives, o o o the ends of the slide regulating the passage from hive to hive. After they are all placed, the boxes are darkened by being covered with a curtain or shutter. These tiers of hives are represented as not extending the whole length of the house, but stopping two or three feet short of the right-hand end. At this end, the hives are perforated with holes, and a rack or case put up, which contains glass tumblers, lying on their sides, with their mouths applied to the holes in the hives. The bees enter these, and fill them with honey ; a partition is put up at the end of the shelves to keep the bees from entering the other part of the house, and windows, w iv, placed there, so that a spectator can stand and look into the gallery in front of the hive, and see the bees pass and repass into and out of the house. The hives are placed back a fool, or a foot and a half, from the side of the house, which leaves free space for the bees, and enables them to attack moths, or other intruders. We will suppose that you have the hives and fixtures all arranged, and one swarm of bees at work in them ; Fig. 257. you may then add as many swarms as you can procure, in the following manner : You place the hive containing the swarm that you wish to a^d tc 440 farmer's hand-book. the swarms in the apiary, into the closet D, at the bottom of the house — shutting the door, making all dark except the small opening in front. In a short time, the bees will leave the imprisoned hive, and unite with the swarm in the house, and work quietly and peaceably with them. When boxes are taken from the cases, they will contain a few bees. Place them in the dark closet D, and they will soon leave, and unite with the other bees in their work. The preceding cut represents a portion of the comb, or hexagonal cells of the bee, and also a cell for the production of the queen-bee, cut open, to show the difference of its form and size. rV. OBTAINING STOCK. Spring Stock. — A stock of bees may be procured either in the spring or autumn. The former period is, perhaps, to be preferred, because it is the fitting time for the removal of stocks from the old-fashioned, awkward hives. to the more improved modern receptacles ; but it is more difficult to ascer- tain the exact condition of the stock which may be purchased in spring than m autumn. If, during the months of May or June, a purchase is to be made, the garden, or other locality, in which the hive intended to be pur- chased stands, should be visited about mid-day ; stand opposite to it, and observe attentively the actions of its inhabitants. If they crowd busily in and out of the hive, giving evidence of their industry by the laden appear- ance of their legs, and altogether showing a busy earnestness in their toils, the hive may safely be bought, and if obtained before swarming has taken place, so much the better. Autumn Stock. — If the object be to obtain an autumnal hive, it is well to ascertain, by observing the stand and the ground around the hive, that the massacre of the drones has taken place. Observe the actions of the bees — see that they are lively and industrious; and if, on your too near ap- proach, one or two bees dash at the face, it may be regarded as a sign of vigor. Some writers speak of the necessity of purchasing only such stocks as are in nice new hives. This is necessary to be attended to, but is not so important if the interior of the hive be filled only with honey-comb, and with no old, worn-out comb, the accumulation of years. If there is reason for doubt on the subject, fumigate the hive in the evening ; then, turning up the hive, the character of its contents may readily be ascertained. If the comb be black, have nothing to do with the stock ; the genuine coloi of the comb is white, and, consequently, the lighter it is, the better the stock. To Secure Good Hives. — Unless the party can be depended on, it is best aevei to send the hive to receive a swarm ; otherwise a second swarm may be BEES. 441 furnished instead of a first swarm — a comparatively valueless stock for just the very thing desired. Tho first sw^arm begins the formation of the comb? Ht the middle of the apex of the hive ; the second does so at the side. The person who intends to erect an apiary should purchase a proper number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. The hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The purchaser should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The combs of that season are while ; those of a former year are of a darkish-yel- low ; and when the combs are hlach, the hives should be rejected, because old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. If the number of hives wanted have not been purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring. At this season, bees which are in good condition will get into the fields early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad weather, for when they do, this indicates that they are in great want of provisions. They are on the alert on the least disturbance, and by the loudness of their humming we judge of their strength. They preserve their hives free from all filth, and are ready to defend them to the utmost. The summer is an improper time for buying bees, because the heat of the weather softens the wax, rendering the comb liable to break, if they are not very well secured. The honey, too, being then thinner than at any other time, is more apt to run out at the cells, which is attended with a double disadvantage, viz., the loss of the honey, and the daubing of the bees, whereby many of them may be destroyed. A first and strong swarm may, indeed, be purchased, but unless it is permitted to stand in the same garden until the autumn, it should be carried away in the night, after it has been hived. V. SWARMING. Time of Swarming. — Bees multiply, during the breeding season, with astonishing rapidity ; it is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the young brood should speedily produce crowding in the hive, thus becoming not only inconvenienced for room, but more than agreeably warm ; it is also sup- posed that the queen becomes alarmed at the number and progress to matu- rity of the royal larva, which, indeed, she would fain kill, were not sha prevented from doing so by the workers. While swarming is by no means to be forced, yet, if symptoms of a swarm present themselves early, say in April or May, it may be permitted to take place, provided the parent stock be still sufficiently strong in numbers ; otherwise, it is, of course, highly dis- advantageous to the well-being of the hive, as well as to the emigrants. Indications of Swarming. — The most certain indications of swarming are, 442 farmer's hajvd-book.. the hive appearing full of bees — clusters of them gathering on the outside and sometimes hanging from the alighting-board ; they also neglect thcij Fig. 258. daily toil, and refrain from going abroad in search of sweets, even though the weather be very fine. Just before they take flight, the hive is hushed, the bees are silent, and carefully loading themselves with provender for their journey. For two or three nights prior to swarming, a peculiar humming noise may be heard within the hive ; the second swarm is announced by a different sort of buzzing, being, according to some writers, the result of a contest as to which of the two queens shall lead off from the hive. The old queen leads off the first swarm. To Prevent Swarming. — If a swarm be about to quit the hive, the slight- est change of weather will prevent their doing so, but nothing so effectually as a shower of rain ; hence, an excellent mode of preventing it, when tha bees cluster on the outside of the hive, is by syringing them with water from a common metallic syringe. When a swarm leaves the hive, if it do not BEES. 443 settle and there is fear of its going to too great a distance, throw np dust. Secure the swarm, at once for bees send scouts to select a new place. To Secure a Swarm that has Settled. — When the swarm settles, the bees collect themselves in a heap around the queen, hanging to each other by means of their feet. When thus suspended from a tree (Fig. 258) hold an empty hive under them, and tap the branch. They should then be sprinkled with honey and ale, aud confined for about twelve hours. When a swarm divides and settles separately, it is pro- bable there are two queens. One of them must be secured. If a second swarm comes off, as soon as it is hived, secure the queen, and return the swarm to the hive ; deprived of its queen, it will usually immedi- ately return of its own accord. Many persons suppose that the greater the number of swarms the richer will be the hives in August. The very reverse of this, however, is the case. Electricity. — A famous German apiarist has successfully used electri- city to enable him to manage bees when swarming. An electric shock it was found would temporarily stupefy the bees. Both large and small clusters were found to be completely under the influence of the shock. Even single insects could be operated on. The moment the bees touched the operating wires they dropped motionless to the earth. You could then handle and sort thein as you pleased, and they remained stunned for a time proportionate to the strength of the shock. All, however, came out of their swoon quite Avell. To fully test the question, the operator determined to experiment on a large scale. With this end in view he placed the ends of two conducting wires in a honey-comb filled with bees, and turned on the current ; in a few seconds all the bees succumbed, and it was all of a half hour before their vitality re- turned. Then they resumed work as though nothing had happened. Effects of Swarming. — Mr. Briggs, a distinguished apiarist, remarks that most persons who keep their bees on, the old straw-hive plan, and suffocating system, appear to anticipate their swarming with much anx- iety, and think that the greater number of swarms, — firsts, seconds, thirds, &c. , — that they obtain from their old hives during the summer, the more remunerative will they prove to their owner at the end of the season ; whereas the reverse of the above practice is much nearer of being the best system to follow. June is the principal month for swarming, in ordinary seasons ; and it is in June and July that the greatest quantity of honey is stored up by the bees. When the swarm- ing is assisted and encouraged during June and July, the old stock are considerably weakened, and the swarms are employed in building combs in new hives, collecting pollen, and attending to the young brood, until the best part of the honey-storing season is over ; so that, at the honey 444 farmer's hand-book. harvest in autumn, it will frequently require the contents of five or six old stocks, or late swarms, to produce as much honey as might have been ob- tained from one colony on the system of management which is recom- mended. To Avoid Swarming, in the Case of Collateral Boxes. — In collateral boxes, and in capped hives, swarming may be prevented by affording the bees additional accommodations, and reducing the temperature ; and for this end, It is recommended, by most apiarists, that the hive or box should be fur- nished with a thermometer, as well as a ventilator. Those, however, who do not possess these accommodations, may manage well enough, by proper observation and attention to the symptoms which have been detailed. When these appear in a collateral box-hive, open one of the partitions, and admit the bees into a new apartment ; if all be full, take off a box, empty and restore it. In the case of a capped hive, remove the bung, and admit the bees to the cap ; if full, remove, empty, and restore it. The most favorable degree* of heat for the prosperity of the brood are from 75° to 90° in the stock-hive, and from 65° to 75° in the side boxes. The heat, in a prosper- ous hive, is sometimes upwards of 70° in December, and will, in hot sum- mer weather, sometimes rise to near 120°, at which time the combs are in great danger of being damaged, and of falling to the floor of the hive ; this may, however, be prevented, by giving extra room when required, and by shading the hives from extreme heat, as previously directed. And again, it should always be borne in mind that all operations with bees should be performed as carefully and speedily as circumstances will permit, so that the bees will scarcely know that their habitation has been meddled with. After hiving a new swarm, if unfavorable weather follow their departure, feed them, otherwise they will be starved ; indeed, it would be well if each new swarm were always fed for a few days, as this will assist them in gaining strength in numbers and in store, before the principal part of the honey season goes over. The weight of a good swarm should be from five to seven pounds, and all under five pounds in weight should be united to others. In hiving a swarm, it is well to be protected with a proper bee-dress. Some persons are particularly unhappy in possessing those qualities which render them disagreeable to bees. The main objections are, excessive timidity, and likewise, with some, an unpleasant odor, in some instances the result of personal negligence, but frequently of peculiarity of constitution. The remedies are, a bee-dress for the former, and the use of some strong perfume which the bees like, and which will effectually conceal whatever is offensive to them. Some writers on bee management have suggested other modes to prevent objectionable swarming, besides the collateral boxes and the capped hive. BEES. 445 A-mong these plans may be mentioned storifying or piling, and eking, Tlie latter is speedily disposed of; it consists of adding ekes, or additional bands of straw, to the bottom of the common hive, according as additional room is required. The objection is, that, although it may thus answer the purpose during one season, the next involves as much perplexity as ever. Adapledness of t}ve Different Hives. — The objections urged against the Btorified hive are, first, that it occasions the bees greater trouble and labor, rendering their labor less productive ; second, the absence of provision for dividing the ordinary cells from the more peculiar and mysterious operations of the queen, and of course a consequent deterioration of the honey in respect to purity, besides much inconvenience and waste of time to the poor bees, — for a laden bee cannot mount up from one box to another, and through a iabyrinth of comb, with anything like comfort and ease ; thirdly, in taking a box of honey, the proprietor cannot be certain of not taking away a :iuantity of brood-comb, &c., — though this objection may be classed with that which rests on the impurity of the honey, with this additional one — that this also refers to loss of life which the bees, both brood and adult, must thus sustain ; and fourthly, in consequence of these objectionable circum- stances, which are the inevitable consequences of the piling system, the profit accruing from such management will be far inferior to that obtainable by the system already recommended. It is said that in piled boxes bees are subjected to unnecessary labor, which is so far a waste of time. From piled boxes not nearly the quantity of honey and wax is procured that may be procured from collateral boxes ; nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other. In managing piled boxes many bees are destroyed. VI. THE HONEY HARVEST. Time and Mode. — Those who possess collateral boxes may begin taking a box or a bell-glass very early in the season, — indeed, even so early as May or June ; this must be, of course, dependent on the state of affairs, and on their own discretion. Those who keep their bees in the capped hive may also get a cap full of honey in or about the middle of June. The real honey harvest, however, is that which should take place in the beginning or middle of August. With reference to the collateral hives, no instructions need be added to those given when describing Mr. Nutt's boxes. The old mode of obtaining honey was, as is well known, by suffocating the inmates of the hive. ^^ Fumigation ^^ is a word employed by bee-keepers to express the process in which, by the aid of certain intoxicating smoke, the insects become temporarily stupefied ; in which state they are perfectl) harmless, and may be deprived of their honey without any risk or trouble 38 L 446 farmer's hand-book. They subsequently recover from their stupefaction, and are nothing the worse for it. The dried fuzz-ball, and the frog-cheese, are much used for the purpose ; but, in their absence, rags steeped in a solution of saltpetre, or a few tobacco-leaves wrapped in brown paper, will do nearly as well. If tobacco be used, care is necessary, lest the fumigation be carried to too great an extent, so as to cause the death of some or all of the stock. Per- sons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an over-all of thin gauze over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, and a little bottle of aqua ammoniac, or aqua potassae, to be used in case of accident, they can go to work with coolness and deliberation. There should be provided, for the purpose of fumigation, a small tin box, with 1 tube extending from each of two opposite ends ; one end of this tube being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so Fig. 259. formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows. The box should be so formed that it can be opened at pleasure. In this box the matter to be employed in fumigation is first placed, having, of course, been previously ignited ; and the proper end of the tube having been inserted into the hive at the lower part, ply the bellows gently. The bees begin at once to feel the effects of the smoke. At first an unusual humming and commotion will be heard, but in less than ten minutes all will be still. The bees will fall upon the board under the hive, and lie quite still, as if dead. The hive may then be removed, and a fresh hive — the interior well smeared with honey — may be placed over them, or they may be united to another stock, which should also be previously fumigated, one queen being removed. Some persons may conceive it to be a difficult matter to come at the queen. When fumigation is resorted to, she is, of course, easily dis- covered ; but even when it is dispensed with, and the practice adopted which will presently be described, she is not so very difficult to come at ; for, on a hive being turned up and tapped, the queen is among the first, if not, indeed, the very first, who makes her appearance. The queen usually lodges near the crown of the hive, and is, when fumigation is resorted to, one of the last to fall ; she will, therefore, in this case, be found amongst the upper- most bees. In practising fumigation, two persons should act in concert, each taking a hive and operating upon it, in order that both stocks should BEES. 44Y be simultaneously in a similar condition as to intoxication. The hive must also be well covered with a cloth, to prevent the escape of the smoke. When the two stocks have been united in the manner described, it is advisable to confine the insects to their hive for that night and the following day. Do not, however, wholly deprive them of air in doing so, or they may be smoth- ered. On the evening of the following day, about dusk, uncover the hive, and open the entrance. The bees will probably at first tumultuously issue forth, but, finding the lateness of the hour, will as hastily return. It is necessary to be cautious at this time. The most suitable period of the year for uniting weak with strong stocks is from the middle of August to the latter part of September. This, how- ever, is not a proper time to remove stocks from straw hives to boxes, for the season is too far advanced. When taken from their warm hive, and removed into a cold box, bees rarely recover from the effects of the fumiga- tion sufficiently to resume business. May or June is the best time for this removal, or perhaps still earlier, — say the beginning of April, — before the eggs of the queen-bees have attained the stage of larvae. If the operation be performed in cold weather, it is recommended that it be done in a room where the temperature is about 60°. Twelve hours, or thereabouts, suffice for the recovery of the bees, and they may then be removed with safety to their ordinary stand. To prepare the fuzz-balls, put the ball into a piece of stout paper, and compress it as tightly as you can ; tie it up closely in this condition, and put it in a moderately-cool oven, — about as cool as that from which bread has just been withdrawn ; — let it remain there until it will serve as tinder. The quantity of the prepared fungus necessary for the fumigation of a hive is a piece about the size of a hen's egg, — less may, in some instances, answer, but it is better to have too much than too little. Prior to union, — even where fumigation has been employed, — the sprinkling with ale and liquid honey should not, on any account, be omitted. The system which dispenses altogether with fumigation, called tapping or driving, is spoken of favorably by some writers. It is as follows : — When daylight has died away, and twilight appears, the bees will all be quietly reposing, unsuspectingly, in the hive ; — let whoever is in the habit of tending tlie bees be the agent in the process; — no assistance is necessary; — let him or her take an old chair from which the bottom is out, — a worn one is best, as it best fits the reversed hive, — turn up the hive on the chair, and place over it an empty one, which has been smeared interiorly with honey, or sugar dissolved in beer ; wrap a cloth around the point of junction., for the first few minutes, and with a stick tap the reversed hive round the sides, beginning near the bottom, and gradually ascending in your strokes 448 farmer's hand-book. towards the top ; let the strokes be not loo rough, lest the combs be loosened. Ere this operation has proceeded very far, a humming noise will be heard, and presently the disturbed bees, more than half asleep, will mount into the upper hive. If the ascent of the bees appears checked, before all have left the lower hive, remove the cloth, — which, by the way, is no longer necessary, when once the ascent has commenced, — and raise the upper half an inch or so above the lower. This will be found to facilitate the emigration, and will be unattended with danger. The lower hive being fully deserted, place that containing the bees on the stand. Some like to close the aperture for a time, but this is useless. First Harvest. — The most secure mode of procedure, and the most approved, is to unite the exiled bees with those of another hive. Remem- ber always to leave the bees a sufficient store of honey as food. This is usually done by setting apart what is called a stock-hive, — a hive well filled with honey, and capable of containing and supporting more bees. Turn up this stock-hive, and sprinkle its drowsy inmates, or rather drench them, with sugar or honey, dissolved in beer. Do the same with the exiles ; and once again invert the abode of the latter over the mouth of the inverted stock-hive. Proceed in other respects as before ; and, by tapping, drive them down. The two families rapidly recover from their surprise, and the agreeable employment afforded to all their individual members, of licking the results of the sprinkling from each other's bodies, will soon produce friendliness, and meanwhile the liquid with which you have saturated them will prevent their distinguishing betwixt stranger and comrade. Of course, precaution was taken previously to remove the queen of the swarm to be united to the stock-hive. This is the Jirst harvest. Second Harvest. — By adopting the following approved system of manage- ment, a second harvest may be obtained, before placing the bees in their winter quarters. This latter operation is termed shifting. From the middle of August to the end of September is the usual time when we perceive the food of bees beginning to fail them. This is the period for removing them to the "heather," which is then in bloom. Before moving, ascertain the condition of the hives ; for those which are well stocked with honey should be deprived by the process already detailed, and this should be done some days prior to removal, for the combs con- taining the young may have been loosened in the operation, and the bees should be allowed time to fasten them once again securely in their places. Water carriage, when procurable, is the best, as it shakes the hivea BEES. 449 least; but when land carriage must be resorted to, the hives should be car- ried on poles, slung on men's shoulders. The journey should be pursued at night only, and the bees suffered to go forth and feed during the day. Such is their instinct, that they will readily find their way back ; but they should not be suffered to go, forth until at the distance of upwards of ten or twelve miles from their original home, otherwise they will be lost in endeavoring to regain it, — a moderate distance induces them to abandon the idea, and to become reconciled to their new quarters. If traveling by canal, the hives should be removed from the boat, and placed on stands, at some distance from the bank, ere the insects are let out, otherwise they will be lost in thousands by falling into the water on their return. Examining and Weighing. — About the middle of September, examine your hives ; at all events, do not, whatever be the aspect of the season, neglect this necessary operation until October ; but if the season appear likely to turn out to be a severe one, set about it even earlier than the time named. Understand, however, that the bees cannot be deprived of any honey so late as this. In glass or observatory hives, and such as are formed on the collateral- box or piled-box principle, there are usually such contrivances as will admit of inspection of the hive and its contents without handling it. In the ordinary hive, however, we cannot avoid manually ascertaining the weight and condition of the stock. In order to do so, a previous acquaintance with the weight of the hive, and of the probable number of bees which it con- tains, is necessary ; and it would be as well to have the stands so contrived as to admit of their being raised with the hive for the purpose of weighing, as, if the latter be forcibly separated from the former, the cement of propolis gets broken, — the substance which unites the hive to its position on the stand, — and annoys and troubles the bees. A hive should contain twenty pounds of honey for its support during winter ; but it is a mistake to suppose that an increase of number in the hive, produced by union, will require an increase of food. In fact, precisely the contrary is the case ; and the more abundant the stock of the bees in autumn, the richer and the better able to work will they be in spring, — the more forward, therefore, will they be in summer, and the greater will be the profit. The weight of honey, above named, is, of course, exclusive of both hive and bees. In one pound — sixteen ounces — there are about five thousand bees ; from fifteen to twenty thousand bees constitute a strong hive, — that is, from four to five pounds in weight. If, after making these calculations and deductions, the stocks are found under weight, either supply them with food, or unite two or more together. Age will cause hives to weigh heavier than their leg-itimate contents 38* 2d 450 farmer's hand-book. would call for. This is occasioned by an accumulation of bee-bread, and the cast sloughs which had formerly served as envelopes to the young. In the case of old hives, therefore, allow from two to five pounds, according to age, for these matters. The substances referred to should be occasionally removed from the hive, as otherwise they will accumulate to such an exent as to render the hive too small for breeding, and the stock will thus soon become extinct. Spring is the proper season for removing these substances ; — the process is very simple, consisting merely in fumigating the hives, and thus rendering the bees for the time insensible ; then, while they are in this state, turning up the hive and cutting out a portion of the old comb, — only cut away half at a time. The following spring, perform the same opera- tion ; — the gap made by the knife the previous year will be found com- pletely restored, and the remaining portion of old comb may now be removed. By this system of constantly inducing a renovation of the combs, the stock may be preserved in a state of perpetual youth. Duration of Hives. — The hive, even if made of straw, will last for an indefinite length of time, if protected externally by a thick coat of white- wash, or, which is better, Roman cement. Some object entirely to paint being used for this purpose. The cutting of the combs may also be resorted to in cases where the hives are infested with moths ; under such circumstances, all the combs that contain the larvae of those insects may be cut away. Food for Bees. — With regard to food for bees, honey, when it is on hand and can be spared, is, of course, the best ; but, if you cannot give honey, substitute for it ale and sugar, boiled gently together in a clean, well-tinned vessel, over a clear fire, for about five minutes. One pound and a half of sugar may be added to each quart of ale, and the mixture is to be skimmed, according as the scum rises to the surface, during boiling, when the syrup is taken from the fire, add to it about a tea-spoonful of com- mon table-salt for each quart of syrup. It is bad to be compelled to feed the bees in winter, as, by descending to the bottom of the hive in order to get at the food, they expose themselves to cold, and many perish ; by early examination in autumn, and uniting weak hives, together with judicious feeding at that season, if necessary, the win- ter management will be simplified. Some persons defer feeding until the bees are absolutely in want. This is wrong ; the assistance should be rendered several weeks before the hive is in a state of positive destitution, otherwise, when the food is given them, the bees will be too weak to par- take of it. The best mode of feeding is, to put the honey, or syrup, as the case may be, into a shallow box ; lay over the sweet liquid a sheet of strong paper, perforated with holes, through which the bees can suck the i /^■• fJEKS. 45 1 syrup without foiling into the iness, or becoming clogged by it. Attach the box to the mouth rJ" the hive ; the bees will soon make it out, enter, and remove the store to their cells. It is bad to lift up the hive for the purpose of feeding, as, by so doing, the temperature of the interior is lowered, and (he stock often destroyed. When the feeder is attached to the entrance of the hive, all this is obviated. VII. MANAGEMENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING. Autumn and Winter Care. — One of the most important particulars con- nected with bee management is taking care that they are abundantly supplie-d with food in autumn, and also taking care at that season to ascertain wliether or not they are sufficiently strong in numbers, and, if not, unite the loeak stocks, BO as to form strong ones. It is by such treatment as this that bees are pre- Berved in health and strength during the winter, and in a condition to attend properly to their brood in the early spring. Feeding. — In a large straw hive, there should be left, at the autumnal honey harvest, from twenty to twenty-five, or even, according to the size of the hive, thirty pounds weight of honey, exclusive of the weight of hive, Btand, and bees. If, from any accident, the hive should be found deficient in weight, you must make up the deficiency by artificial feeding, either with honey, or with the mixture of beer and sugar, as has already been described. It is not, however, very strong evidence of the apiarian skill of any one who is compelled to feed his bees in the autumn ; and, indeed, few should be obliged to do so, but those who use too sntall a hive, and whose swarms are consequently too weak, too feeble in point of number, to acquire sufficient wealth during the proper season for so doing, or from whom there has been injudiciously taken too much store, at a period too late in the season to admit of the bees replenishing the hive. Narrowing the Entrance, and Covering. — Having ascertained that the stocks are supplied with sufficient quantity of food for their support during the winter, or that they are already possessed of enough, the next thing is to narrow the entrance of the hive so that it will scarcely admit of the passage of more than one bee at a time ; and towards the middle of Novem- ber the entrance should be closed nearly altogether. The hives should be covered up with matting, fern, or other similar substance, in order to pr^^serve them from rain, frost, or, the most dangerous of all, the sun's rays of a fine winter's day. These deceptive rays would afford a temptation to the bees to sally forth, and the result would be that they would become chilled by the cold. Few would survive the flight so as to return to the hive ; its tempera- ture would fall, and the whole stock would be lost. The hives should remain thus carefully covered and closed until the beginning of March 452 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. A- coating of Roman cement, as previously mentioned, will protect the hives from cold in winter, heat in summer, from moths, and from wet. When there is snow on the ground, the entrances of the hives should be entirely closed. Dampness, and Ventilation. — To preserve from internal dampness, during winter, carefully ventilate, placing a bell-glass, well covered with flannel, over the aperture on the top of the hive or box, removing it from time to time, and carefully wiping away from its interior the damp formed by condensed vapor. Materials for Covering. — The materials with which hives are covered and surrounded should consist of dry leaves pressed closely together, or dry and powdered charcoal or cinders, and may be several feet in thickness, to pre- serve the bees in a cool and torpid state, and at a regular temperature, in which state they should be kept as dry, dark, and quiet, as circumstances will permit. Spring Care. — As the spring approaches, the winter covering should be gradually removed, and those hives which have been buried placed in their summer situations. Small quantities of food should then be supplied, as occasion requires, until the gooseberry and currant-bushes are in bloom, at which time it may, in general, be considered that their winter is past. Warm weather, accompanied with moderate showers, is most agreeable to them at this period ; and it is considered that flowers yield the greatest amount of mellifluous juices when the weather is calm and suitable as above, and with the wind blowing from any point of the compass from south tc west inclusive. Some pursue a mode of preserving bees by interment during winter. It consists of laying some very dry powdered earth upon the bottom of an old cask, to the depth of about half a foot, pressed down very hard, and setting upon this the stool with the hive ; then preserving a communication with the air, by cutting a hole in tlie cask, opposite to the mouth of the hive, and p.acing a piece of reed from the mouth of the hive to the hole in the cask ; then covering the hive up with a quantity of dry earth similar to that on which it stands. In spring it is only necessary to remove the winter coverings gradually and with caution ; to examine also the state of the bees' provisions, and, if necessary, feed them. Be cautious in at once giving them liberty, or in doing so too early, or in unsettled weather. Many bees lose their lives from neglect of these precautions, simple as they are, -and obvious as their neces- sity must appear to every reflective bee-keeper. It is well, for these reasons, that the mouth of the hive should face due west, until all these dangers have passed away ; of course, when the workmg season has arrived, all restraint BEES. 453 must be removed, the aspect of the hive moved southward, and the insects left entirely to themselves. When spring feeding is necessary, it is usually in April, for then the demands of the young brood call for a greater con- sumption of honey than ordinary ; and from want of attention to this circum- stance, hives have been lost so late in the season as the month of May. Spring, also, say about the beginning of March, is the proper time for transferring stocks from hives to boxes, remembering that the latter should be previously well cleaned out, their interior smeared, and supplied with a portion of honey, in a proper feeder. As the warm weather approaches, shade the hives from the sun. If the bees be induced by the heat to attemp* injudicious or ill-timed swarming, and hang in clusters about the entrance of the hives, if advisable, it can be checked by sprinkling them with some water. They will mistake this for rain, and retire within the hives to resume their work. VIII. HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY HARVEST. Removing. — In the first place, remove the store to some room without fireplace, for the bees have been known to make use of even that mode ot access in order to come at the honey, which they are able to scent from a considerable distance. Close all the doors and windows, previously having in the room whatever implements are wanted — viz., some large glazed earthen vessels, clean, new, horse-hair sieves, a strainer, some clean linen cloths, and abundance of water to wash in. Some recommend burning cow- dung, or rotten hay, at the doors and windows of the room in which ths work is being done, in order to keep away the bees. The Combs. — The first care should be to examine the combs, and free them from all dirt, grubs, young bees, or other foreign matters, remembering, of course, to have previously well and thoroughly washed hands. Then cut the combs horizontally into pieces of an inch wide, and lay them on the sieve over the glazed earthen vessels ; when they have dropped all the honey that they will yield without squeezing, put them in the cloth already mentioned, and wring it over another vessel ; this will furnish the second- class honey — that spontaneously yielded is called virgin honey, and is equal in purity to that obtained from the bell-glass. When all is obtained that can be by squeezing through the cloth or bag, carefully cover up the two sorts, put the comb, also well covered, into a vessel by itself, and remove all the other cloths, vessels, and other utensils, to the apiary, that the bees may lick them clean. Obtaining and Preparing the Wax. — The next object is to obtain tlie wax. For this purpose, put the combs into a clean vessel, and add as much soft water as they will float in — distilled water would be best, but rain 454 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. will answer nearly as well. Place the vessel on a clear and not too hot fire, and watch it, stirring occasionally, until the combs be completely liquefied. Then strain this through a fine canvas bag, into a tub of cold water. The water first flows through, and then the bag requires pressure to make it yield the wax. A simple press recommended is, to have ready a piece of smooth board of such a length that, when one end of it is placed in the tub of cold water, the other end may be conveniently rested against, and securely stayed, by your breast. Upon this inclined plane lay the dripping, reeking strainer, and keep it from slipping into the cold water by bringing its upper part over the top of the board, so as to be held firmly between it and your breast. If the strainer be made with a broad hem round its top, a piece of strong tape or cord passed through such hem will draw it close, and should be long enough to form a stirrup for the foot, by which an additional power will be gained of keeping the scalding hot strainer in its proper place on the board ; then, by compressing the bag, or rather its contents, with any con- venient roller, the wax will ooze through, and run down the board into the cold water, on the surface of which it will set in thin flakes. When this part of the operation is finished, collect the wax, put it into a clean saucepan, in which is a little water, to keep the wax from being burned to the bottom ; melt it carefully, for should it be neglected, and suff'ered to boil over, serious mischief might ensue, liquid wax being of a very inflammable nature; let it be melted over a slow fire, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top ; then pour it into such moulds or shapes as may be desired, having first well rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, when cold and solid, out of them, without breaking either the moulds or the wax ; place them, covered over with cloths, or with pieces of board, where the wax will cool slowly, because the more slowly it cools, the more solid will it be, and free from flaws and cracks. The wax may be bleached by re-melting it, and running it several times into very thin cakes, suffered to cool, and exposed to the influence of the air and sun. This will render it white. The honey may also be clarified by placing the vessel containing it in hot water, and continuing to skim as long as any scum arises. In order to preserve it, it should be stored in jars, well bladdered and otherwise secured, and kept dry. IX. THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. Diseases. — "When properly attended to, and managed on the improved system, bees are neither very subject to disease nor very liable to suffer from the attacks of enemies. The diseases to which they are subject are diarrlioea and dysentery. The latter is probably only produced by neglect of the former ; at all events, we may regard the two affections as springing from the one cause. B££S. 455 Columella speaks of diarrJicea as a purging which seizes bees annually, in tlie spring ; and conceives it to be occasioned by tlie bees surfeiting them- selves on the young flowers in their first repast, and recommends giving them rosemary and honey diluted with water. According to others, this looseness is occasioned by the bees feeding on what is called " candied honey," which is thought to be formed by being too long in the hive, too stale, and hence sour and unfit for use. To prevent this, examine period- ically the hives or boxes, and remove, on each occasion, a portion of the old or mouldy combs. The presence of candied honey in a hive is so obnoxious to bees that it frequently induces them to desert it. The candied honey proves fatal to bees in another way beside their being poisoned by it. When the bees find candied honey in the combs, they knowing its prejudicial qualities, if they have other and wholesome store throw it out of the combs, and it, of course, falls on the bottom-board of the hive. They can then neither enter nor leave the hive without bedaubing themselves, and their endeavors to free themselves and their companions from the incumbrance only make matters worse. When bees are found in this state, it is difficult to relieve them; but if anything will do so, it is immersion in tepid water ; for this purpose they can be swept into a tub with the wing of a fowl, leave them in the water until insensible, and unite them, when they revive a little, to the bees of another hive, taking care to serve these latter similarly. Some attribute purging and dysentery to the bees feeding on too pure honey, which is said not to be sufficiently substan- tial for them by itself; and the cure recommended is to give them, from another hive, combs well supplied with bee-bread or crude wax. Enemies. — The enemies of bees are far more numerous than their dis- eases, including, as they do, poultry, mice, lizards, toads, frogs, snails, slugs, caterpillars, moths, millipedes, wood-lice, ants, lice, spiders, wasps, hornets. Fowls should not be permitted in any apiary. They will kill and eat the bees; and such as they do not destroy, they will annoy and disturb. Mice do not dare attack the hive while the bees are vigorous ; but as the cold approaches, and the bees become less active, the mouse enters, and, commencing with the lower combs, ascends by degrees as the bees become torpid, until he either clears all away, or, by the smell of the honey he has wasted on the board, induces other bees to come and plunder. As, soon as the warm weather returns, the surviving bees will also leave the hive in disgust. The remedy is easy. By having the straw hives, — if such are used, — coated exteriorly with Eoman cement, the mice will be prevented from nestling in the straw, whence otherwise they would speedily eat their way into the interior ; and, by narrowing the entrance of the hive in the manner already described, the little intruders will be effectually kept out. If the stands be placed on a single foot, or if the feet are so placed under 456 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. the foot-board as to leave a wide, projecting ledge, no mice can arrive at the hive. Toads will kill bees occasionally, but not in great numbers ; and the same remarks are applicable to Frogs. Snails and Slugs are not abso- lutely enemies of bees, as they have no design upon them or their honey in entering the hive, but merely do so from accident. The mischief done by them consists in the alarm and confusion they occasion. The bees first attack the unfortunate intruder, and kill him with their stings; after which, thev carefully encase him in propolis, effectually preventing putrefaction or the production of maggots. Caterpillars — especially the wax-moths, so called from the ravages they make amongst the combs as soon as they obtain entrance — are very injurious. By having the legs of the stand placed as has been described, no caterpillar can climb up to the hive ; but this will not prevent the moth herself entering and depositing eggs in the hive ; and so prolific are these moths, that a single brood would suffice to destroy a whole stock. Periodical fumigation, and cutting away such combs as contain the grubs, are the remedies to be adopted. Moths are only nocturnal enemies ; during the day there is nothing to fear from their attacks. Let the entrance to the hive, therefore, be nearly closed in the evening, and the bees will be protected from their ravages. Some recom- mend, as a trap for moths, a bottle, or other vessel, with a long and narrow neck increasing gradually to a wide mouth, and having a light in the neck, to be placed under the hive in the evening. This will destroy numbers. Another particular to be attended to is to have the stocks sufficiently strong , and for this purpose, if the hive attacked be weak, unite to it the bees of another hive, in the manner already described. The bees are themselves, if sufficiently strong in numbers, both willing and able to destroy the intruders. If weak, they will necessarily fall victims. Millipedes, or Wood- lice, are often produced by the stand being made of decayed wood, or the hive being placed too near an old hedge. Let the stand be of new wood, and strew soot on the ground under and about the hive. This will also serve in part as a protection against the attacks of Ants. All such ants' nests as are found in the neighborhood of a hive should be destroyed. Lice are small parasitica] insects, of a red color, which adhere to the body of the bee, and derive their nourishment from her juices. They are about tlie size of a grain of mustard-seed, or rather smaller ; Morocco tobacco will kill the lice, without injuring the bees. Spiders may be gotten rid of by brushing away their webs wherever met with near the stand. Wasps and Hornets are most noxious to bees. Dig up and destroy their nests wherever they may be met with. Among the Birds most inimical to bees, may be mentioned sparrows and swallows. Set traps near the hives, baited with dead bees, and hang up a few of such birds as you kill on trees near the stand. SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 457- SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES Are so inseparably conuected, that one cannot be treated of without inviting a consideration of the other ; and for this reason it has been deemed advisable to combine their description, as well as instructions regarding their culture, in one article, in preference to speaking of them separately. Up to the present time, the propagation of the silk-worm has been almost exclusively confined to the sea-board Atlantic States ; and, strangely enough, the region of New England, with a comparatively rigorous climate, has been the largest as well as the most profitable pro- ducer of domestic silk. Many obstacles have hitherto retarded the silk culture in the United States, prominent among which has been the slow growth of the different species of mulberry tree, upon the leaves of which silk-worms feed. The introduction of the morus muiticaulis pro- mised to remove this obstacle; but the plant was made the subject of a wild speculation, which eventually ruined thousands of citizens, and retarded the silk culture to an incalculable extent. Many of the South- ern and Western, as well as all of the Southwestern States, possess pecu- liar natural advantages fur the culture of the silk-worm ; and, with pro- per attention, this branch might, in a few years, become a profitable one in the hands of the agricultural community. Any farmer who lias a family of children, or dependants, able and willing to pick mulberry leaves and take care of the worms, nuiy safely embark in this under- taking, as the outlay will be but tiitiiiig — being comprised in the pur- chase of a few hundred silk-worm eggs, and an ounce of mulberry seed, or a quantity of plants. Many persons are led to infer, from a perusal of very elaborate articles on the subject, that the business of silk culture is a very intricate and difficult one. Like every other new pursuit, it presents some obstacles *o the uninitiated : but these once surmounted, it becomes as simple and easy as is the raising of cattle or poultry. During the brief existence which Nature has assigned the worm, all it requires is shelter from cold and moisture, together with an adequate supply of the proper descrip- tion of feed. These wants satisfied, there can be little danger of failure ; and, indeed, numbers have been eminently successful who never had any other guide than their own experience. The profits are very consider- able. One acre of mulberry trees will feed 120,000 worms, from which forty pounds of silk can be obtained. Four or five intelligent children are capable of attending to this number of worms, and the period of labor does not exceed five weeks. 39 458 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Description of the Silk- Worm, and of the Mode of Propagation. — Ow ounce of eggs will produce about 40,000 •worms, which are usually hatched out in May, when the mulberry tree begins to put forth its leaves. The best eggs are those of a lustrous dark grey color, which will sink when immersed in wine. White or yellow eggs are worthless. The eggs are kept in a dry, cool situation until the proper time for hatch- ing them arrives, when they are spread on tables in an apartment the temperature of which is raised to 80° Fahr., and in eight or ten days the worms begin to make their appearance. When they issue forth from the eggs they are nearly black, and not more than a line in length. They immediately seek for nourishment, and, if supplied with mulberry leaves, will attach themselves thereto, when they may be removed to properly- constructed frames. They generally live about fifty days, and their voracity increases with their age and growth. During their existence, they undergo four different changes, each occupying about twenty-four hours, and with each transformation exchanging their old and dark skin for one of a lighter shade. These changes are always attended by a condition of torpor, and many worms die while passing through them ; but those which recover immediately eat with as much voracity as before. When the worms have successfully passed through all their moultings, they are nearly two inches in length, and of a greyish-white color. At this time their voracity is truly astonishing ; the mulberry leaves disap- pear before them with almost incredible rapidity ; and where several thousand are feeding in one room, the noise made in eating very much resembles that occasioned by the beating of a storm of sleet against panes of glass in windows. When worms are ready to spin, their bodies present a shining and somewhat transparent appearance, their appetites fail, and they eat little, but appear to be anxious, stretching out their heads in all directions, as if seeking for something. These being sepa- rated from the others, are conveyed to a place prepared with small dry branches of oak, etc. on which they ascend ; each one selecting a place for itself. The worm commences its work by fastening silken threads to the branch on which it is located, and then gradually proceeds to en- velop itself in them. When its living tomb is completed, it is about one inch or one inch and a half in length, and presents an egg-shaped ap- pearance. This work occupies about seven or eight days, during the two first of which the little workman is visible ; but after that time he dis- appears under the continued addition of fine silken threads to the inte- rior of the walls of his cell. The worm then passes into the chrysalis Btate, and, if left undisturbed, will, in a few days, emerge from the cocoon in the form of a butterfly, which eats its way through the silken SILK-WOKMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 459 walls, thus rendorinj!; tliem of but little value. To prevent this, all the cocoons not needed for breeding purposes, are, as soon as C(jmpleted, put into an oven, and exposed to a liigii temperature, by which the chrjsales are killed. If it is desired to reel the silk immediately, the cocoons are immersed in scalding vrater, which not only destroys the chrysales, but also softens the gum and frees the threads. The hardiest, brightest, and most substantial cocoons are saved for seed, strung on threads by means ,of a long needle, so passed through them as not to injure the occupant, and hung up in a moderately warm position. Both male and female cocoons are kept — those of the male being long and round, while the female cocoons are marked by greater size and rotundity. In fifteen or twenty days the butterflies make their appearance, and being placed on pasteboard or a woollen cloth, the female soon deposits her eggs. One hundred pairs of cocoons, weighing about a pound, will produce one ounce of seed. Cocoonery. — For a new beginner, any spare room in a dwelling may serve the purpose, provided it can be well ventilated in mild, fair wea- ther. A frame four feet square may be made by connecting together four posts, on which slide-rests are fixed. On alternate rests, place frames filled with meshes of catgut or twine, on which the worms may be fed, and beneath each network frame place another covered with heavy white paper, on which all the filth and excrements passing through the meshes may collect, and thence be removed without disturbing the worms. The paper frames should be placed sufficiently near to the others to. enable the worms which fall through to reach the meshes, and crawl up again : this they will do in search of the leaves, with which the frames of net- work should always be covered. Each day's hatching should be placed on separate frames, and, during the first week the worms should be fed two or three times a day, but afterwards as fast as the leaves are con- sumed or become withered. The frames should be cleaned every two or three days, or even more frequently ; and in hot weather the apartment should be kept airy and cool. In wet or damp weather, however, the windows must be closed, and in no case must the sun be allowed to shine on the worms. Never surfeit the worms, nor supply them with leaves covered with moisture. Spinning and Heeling the Silk. — Many machines have been invented for this purpose, which reel and twist the silk directly from the cocoons and also manufacture it into sewing-silk. Silk is sometimes reeled while the gluten which connects together the threads is still moist, when, by uniting the filaments together as they are drawn from the cocoons, a more firm support and strong thread is produced. The machine best 460 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK, adapted to the purpose is the Piedmontese reel, which is so simple as to be within the comprehension and capacity of any ordinary indivi- dual. Casualties. — Silk-worms are subject to many casualties, besides suf- fering severely from want of cleanliness, cold apartments, moisture, and tempests. Large numbers are every year killed by the operation of some or all of these causes ; but more disastrous than any other is the effect of thunder — the most beautiful worms, which have passed safely through all their moulting seasons, being frequently killed by the operation of electricity. Red ants are great enemies of the silk-worm, as also spiders, mice, and rats. BoMBYX Cynthia, a new variety of silk-worm recently introduced into Europe from the East Indies, and naturalized in Malta, will not only eat, but thrive upon, the leaves of the Castor-Oil Plant [Palma Chrisii), and also on those of lettuce, wild endive, the weeping willow, etc. It haa also the advantage of reproducing itself several times in the course of a year. The cocoon not being entirely closed, the chrysalis may enter the butterfly state, and emerge from its cell, without injuring the value of the silk; consequently the grower is not forced to sacrifice the grub in order to save the cocoon. The aperture in the latter is covered in a very novel manner. On the side from which the butterfly issues, the cocoon is terminated in the form of a cone, formed by the convergence of a crown of stiff, continuous threads, running in such a manner as to prolong that part of tlie cocoon, and render the entrance impassable from the outside, while it is easily traversed by the imprisoned grub, which, as it is transformed, pushes its way out, by stretching the elastic sides of this cone, the apex of which has never been closed. The stiff threads constituting the cone-shaped appendages of the cocoon are glued, doubled, and fulded on each other in such a manner as to retain their primitive integrity after the hatching and flight of the butterfly. If this silk-worm were introduced into our Southern and Western States, its propagation and cultivation might be pursued with great advantage, for there the Palma Christi grows wild in large quantities. Gaturnia Ceanotha. — This is another variety of silk-worm, recently discovered in California. It is of the same species as the Chinese silk- worm, but said to be far superior. Silk of excellent quality has been produced from it. Mulberry Trees. — Several different varieties of the mulberry are advantageously used in feeding the silk-worm; the white (M. alba), (Fig. 260), which is its proper food, being extensively cultivated for that pur- pose ; and the red {M. rubra) growing wild in many parts of the United SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 461 States. Both these varieties are very hardy and many-leaved, and the cocoons of the vrorms fed on them are extremely large. The most valu- Fig. 260. able tree, however, is the Chinese {M. multicaulis), (Fig. 261), which has been extensively and successfully cultivated in the United States. In Fig. 261. two years a plantation of these trees will be in full bearing from the cuttings, and will produce a larger yield of leaves to the acre than the 39* 462 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. M. alba. It is well adapted to the climate of the United States, and in a proper soil and exposure will continue to support life during any ordinary winter; but it can only be produced by planting slips from the parent stem, as it yields seeds but sparingly, and these will frequently produce plants diifering widely from the original. A hybrid variety of the mulberry has been raised in France by shaking the pollen of the moretta flowers over those of the multicaulis. The hybrid thus ori- ginated has large flat leaves, like those of the Chinese seedling, which are firm, and much relished by worms. Their powers of endurance are fully equal to those of the multicaulis, while their precocity, and the firm texture of their leaves, admirably adapt them to the silk culture. Soil. — In order to insure a rapid increase, the soil, more especially for the multicaulis, should be a light, sandy loam, in good condition. Plants have been known to thrive well in a thoroughly cultivated clay soil, but with more or less loss of cuttings, particularly of single buds. Stony ground, unfit for general tillage, will answer equally as well as any other. A mulberry grove should, if possible, have a southern slope, and it is advantageous to have the shelter of a forest, or of high ground, on the north and west. Culture. — The seed of the white mulberry may be sowed in drills at a convenient distance apart, and about as thickly as those of onions: cover with earth to the depth of about half an inch. The best time for sowing is during the month of April. Plant beans or potatoes between the rows, to keep the ground clear of weeds, and to yield a remunera- tion for the labor bestowed. The second year cut the seedlings down with a sharp knife to within three or four inches of the ground, and they will give another crop of leaves the same season. For planting out, the hedge form is the best; setting the young trees eighteen inches apart. Cuttings should be taken from the growth of the previous sum- mer, and be from six to twelve inches long. They should be planted in rows nine inches apart, with eighteen inches between the rows; soaked twenty-four hours before planting ; and well watered in dry weather. The slips should be planted in a slanting position, with the buds upper- most. The white mulberry has the advantage of being clothed with leaves fifteen or twenty days in advance of the earliest of the other varieties ; but no leaves should be gathered from the white mulberry until after the fourth year, as it will injure the growth and constitution of the tree. When required for a hedge, the plants may be set out when one or two years old. Cut them down the first year to within four or six inches of the ground, only leaving two buds ; and. after another SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 46& year's growth, one of the new sprouts may be laid down in the line of the fence, and tied to the next plant; the others being left to grow upright. The buds from the laid sprout will send up shoots, and fill up all the intervals. Sprouts springing from the roots should be cut away, unless wanted for layers. The plants may be set out about fifteen inches apart. The Morus Multicaulis, thus named on account of its tendency to throw out many stems from the same root, may be most certainly increased by layering the leaves in slight trenches about five or six feet apart;, and covering them with fine-sifted earth. They should first be deprived of part of their side branches, and the ground should have sufficient warmth to start the buds immediately, or many will perish. Cover the root deeper than the stem ; hand weed, hoe, and plough the ground, so as to keep it open, and free from weeds. When the plants are about twelve inches high, it will be advantageous to draw the earth around the stems. The green branches may be layered without separa- ting them from the tree; and, by removing the terminal bud, many small plants will be produced. Unripe wood, the growth of the same season, may also be used for cuttings, and in good soil, with careful shading and proper cultivation, will make thrifty plants. Single bud cuttings more frequently fail from irregularity in the seasons than do those of greater length, which commonly germinate more than one bud each. The multicaulis possesses, more largely than the other varieties, the desira- ble property of throwing up numerous small pliant stalks, without forming a main stem ; of producing a rapid growth of tender leaves, which are speedily renewed ; and of quickly striking root from cuttings of the stalks and branches. By heading the stalks down nearly to the ground every year, a rich growth is produced; and it is comparatively easy to multiply them ad itifinitum from the roots or cuttings ; yet, although so readily increased, they require great care and attention in hand-weeding and stirring the earth ; and the farmer who thinks he has accomplished everything by merely placing them in the ground, will, in the autumn, discover that his trees have suffered so much for want of attention, as to seriously retard their growth. By transplanting the trees, and setting them out in rows ten feet distant from tree to tree, with proper care and culture, five times the amount may be raised from an acre. If it is desirable to conduct the business on an extensive scale, a choice may be made between threa modes of planting the Morus Multicaulis, viz. : that of standards, in fields on which farm crops are raised ; of half-standards, in grounds devoted to that purpose ; and of dwarf hedge- plants, for field divisions, etc. For standards, the trees may be planted 464 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. at such distance apart as may. be determined upon, never allowing it to be less than ten or fifteen feet ; but half-standards will only require a separation of from three to seven feet. Before planting in the latter mode, the ground should be well trench-ploughed, the soil finely pulve- rized, and thoroughly manured, when the sets may be put in the rows in quincunx form ; that is, each tree opposite the space between two of the next row. A space of four feet being left between each row, there will, of course, be some vacant ground, which may be profitably cropped M'ith potatoes or beans, the tillage of which will greatly facilitate the growth of the trees. Half-standards may be taken from the nursery at two years old, and, if very thrifty, at one year ; they will require no pruning, except where limbs trail toward the ground, and should always be trans- planted in the spring of the year. Hedge-planting may be conducted in the same way as previously indicated for the white mulberry. CHAPTER X. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES, ETC. THE CULTURE OF FLOWERS — PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS — DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS — ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES — MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR. I, FLOWERS. General Remarks. — The pre-requisites of flower-beds and composts are, depth, friability, and necessary richness. The practice of trenching the sites of flower-beds to the depth of three feet is found to be of great service ; not that any of the fibrous roots can reach so low, but because the bed should be quickly drained after much rain, and that in dry weather the roots may be invited to run as deep as they have a tendency to go. There is another reason for deep trenching, which is, no doubt, as beneficial to flowers as it is to all other plants, viz., they receive a greater share of that genial moist warmth which is at all times rising from the interior of the earth to its surface. This is a circumstance not enough attended to, and by many practitioners is quite unheeded ; it is, nevertheless, a great assistant to vegetation. According as we descend, the temperature increases. In the winter and spring months it is by several degrees warmer at the depth of a few feet than at or near the surface. The ground being opened to that depth, therefore, permits the ascent of this warm steam in cold weather, and allows it to rise like a refreshing vapor, when the weather is hot and dry ; in both seasons of much advantage to the roiots. Friability. — That flowers may have every encouragement from the con- stitutional texture of the compost they are placed on, it is prepared by being compounded, aerated, and screened, till it is free from stones, clods, &c., Fig. 262. and all of a uniform consistence. It should not be liable to knead in work- ing, nor run together under heavy rain. By the addition of sand, lotten 2 b (465) 466 farmer's hand-book. dung, or leaf-mould, it must be sufficiently porous to receive, and as readilj discharge, any excess of water, as well as allow the penetration of every quality from the air which is beneficial to plants. A garden syringe, like the following, will be found very convenient in applying water to flower- plants. Fig. 263. Enriching. — The high fertility of the soil intended for flowers is one of the principal provisions to be made for their prosperity. In the compost every ingredient should be present that experience has discovered to be ufieful, and every quality added wliich successful practice sanctions, or what rational ingenuity may suggest. The luxuriance of the plants depends on the suitableness and temperament of the compost ; and the richness of the tints depends on the qualities contained in it. Coverings, dfc. — For the defence of fine bed-flowers from inclement weather, and to preserve them in beauty as long as possible, the florist who wishes to excel in the art, and derive the utmost satisfaction from the pur- suit, should provide himself with every necessary appendage for the purpose. The means of temporary protection against rain, hail, or snow, and awnings for the preservation of the full-blown flowers, are both necessary. Stages, as well as beds, require these appurtenances. Few lovers of flowers, who take delight in their cultivation, can grudge the expense of proper means for both shade and shelter. Commercial florists have arrange- ments for these purposes on an extensive scale, embracing all the advantages of convenience and utility ; the amateur, or flower-fancier, adopts as many of these conveniences as are sufficient for his more limited designs. For all bed-flowers, particularly hyacinths and tulips, the beds should be surrounded by boarding from one to three feet high, to give, for ease of examination, the necessary elevation to the flowers. Staples driven in at the corners and along the sides of this boarding serve to admit wooden or iron hoops, which, connected along the centre and at the eaves with slight laths, form a sufficiently firm and effective frame to bear any covering of mats or canvas. Carnation stages are either single or double, — that is, having one or both sides composed of graduated shelves. In the one case, a walk in front ia sufficient ; in the other, the walk is carried all around. Those for auriculas are similar, both being raised on feet, each of which stands in pans of water, to prevent the visits of creeping insects. When the foliage of the plants has advanced so far as to be in jeopardy from frost, &c., the hoops are placed, and the coverings got ready to be FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 467 employed as the weather directs. Tulips are, much more than others, liable to be injured, especially during the months of February, March, and April. They are then most easily damaged by the operations of the weather, or by water resting near, and afterwards freezing around the bud ; and, though every care should be bestowed to protect the plants from such casualties, yet they must not be deprived of the full air too long a time, as this would injure by enfeebling them. So much is over-covering to be guarded against, that some intelligent cultivators use only small-meshed nets as a defence, which are considered sufficient. When the flowers begin to show color, preparations must be made to erect the awning. This is intended to shade them from a severe sun, and shelter them from tempest winds. The frame should be as light in its con- struction as is consistent with its stability against windy weather. It is either a permanent erection of slender columns, eaves-plate, rafters, and ridge-board, or a temporary framing of similar scantlings, screw-bolted together for the purpose. The latter are preferred by private growers. No directions need be given for a permanent structure, that any common carpenter can supply and execute. But for those who only need a temporary thing of the kind, the following description of a very suitable and convenient one may be useful : The bed is surrounded by a fine gravel or sand walk, two and a half feet wide ; on the outside of the walk, oaken trunks, sixteen im^hes loi-: naving central openings two inches square, are sunk and firmly rammed in the ground, their' tops level therewith. These trunks have each a capped stopper, to be put in when the frame is taken away ; they remaining always in their places, and serve as sockets to receive light columns six feet high, turned out of three-inch-square stuff, having a two-inch-square tenon to fit into the trunk, and also a smaller tenon at top, to pass through the eaves- plate, and also receive the foot of the rafter which rests upon it. The rafters meet on a ridge-board, to which they are fastened by a screw-bolt and nut. Besides the corner columns, intermediate ones are added, according :is the length of the bed requires. The canvas for the roof is in one piece, fixed by its middle to the ridge-board, the two sides being movable on rollers or otherwise, and rolled up or let down at pleasure. The ends and sides are closed by curtains, and hung on headed studs driven into the end-rafters and eaves-plate, by eyelet-holes worked in the upper leech of the curtains ; at the bottom they are fastened down by tender-hooks or ties. Such a frame and awning, if care be taken to lay it up dry in a spare room, will last for many years, and, when in use, may be made, by ornaments fixed at the ends of the ridge and at the tops of the columns, not at all an unsightly object, even in the flower-garden. Plan of a Flower-garden. — Supposing the soil to have been in all 468 farmer's hand-book. respects duly prepared, dug over and leveled, the next thing is to determine upon the plan for the garden. It should certainly be a regular geometric figure, and planted in masses, each bed containing flowers of one kind, so as to produce something of the fine effect of a Turkey carpet when looked down upon. We will suppose the plan (Fig. 264) to consist of twelve flower-beds on grass, with a gravel-walk aroimd, which may be bordered on one side by Fig. 264. beds of flowers, with little gravel openings, or be plain grave , as may be Fig. 265. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 409 preferied. The walks should be smoothed and hardened by means of a garden roller. There may be a conservatory into which the parlor-room windows facing the south may open, and on the other side there should be a shrubbery to unite it with the lawn. In the centre of the flower-garden there may be a fountain. As the flower-garden is to be seen principally from the dwelling-house windows, the nearest beds should be planted with dwarf- flowers, so that those in the back beds may be seen ; the shrubbery behind to consist of laurustinus and arbutus, so as to afford a handsome green back- ground to the flowers in summer, and yet aflTord a few flowers themselves in winter and spring, when flowers are scarce in the beds. When the walks are bordered with grass, an implement like the following, fitted to a straight handle, is used for paring the edges. Fig. 266. Planting. — Get a few pots of Californian and other annuals usually raised in pots, and plant them, putting three potfuls in each bed. In No. 1, Fig. 267. put Phlox Drummondi, the flowers of which are crimson of various shades, and let the stems be pegged down, so as to spread over the bed. No. 2 may be Lasthenia Californica, the flowers of which are yellow, and the stems generally procumbent ; but they may be pegged down to keep them in their proper places, that is, to spread completely and regularly over the bed. No. 3 should be Nemophila insignis, the flowers of which are of a beautiful blue, and which will not require pegging down. No. 4 may be Erysimum Petrowskianum, the flowers of which are of a bright orange ; but the stems must be pegged down, or they will grow tall and straggling. N"o. 5 may be Nolana atriplicifolia, the flowers of which are blue, and 40 470 farmer's hand-book. resemble those of a convolvulus ; this is a procumbent plant, and wiL n<'t need pegging. No. 6 may be Nemophila atomaria, vi^hioh has white floM^ers, and is a dwarf plant. No. 7 may be Leptosiphon densiflorus. a dwarf plant, with pale purple flowers. No. 8 may be Gilia bicolor, a dwarf plant, with nearly white flowers. No. 9 may be Gilia tricolor, a dwarf plant, the flowers of which are white and very dark purple. No. 1 1 may be Leptosiphon androsaceus, a dwarf plant, with pale lilac flowers. And No. 12, Schizopetalon Walkeri, the flowers of which are white, and the stems must be pegged down. These are all annuals, which, if properly treated by pegging down, and not planted too close, will produce a mass of flowers in each bed only just above the surface of the ground, and will have a charming eflfect from the windows. Most of them like a poor, clayey soil best, and they will only require turning out of the pots, without breaking the ball, into the places prepared for them. If it is thought there are too many white beds, substitute Sanvitolia procumbens, the flowers of which are yel- low, for No. 8, — but the seeds must have been sown the previous autumn to bring it forward, as otherwise it will not flower till late in the summer ; and Bartonia aurea, the flowers of which are of a golden yellow, may be planted instead of No. 12. Cladanthus arabicus, formerly called Anthemis arabica, which has yellow flowers, may be planted in No. 8, if Sanvitolia cannot be obtained. Florists, however, can generally furnish these sorts. Autumnal Flowers. — As most of the annuals will begin to look shabby in July or the early part of August, we give the following list of half-hardy plants for autumn: No. 1, Verbena Melindres, bright scarlet; No. 8, Eno- thera Drummondi, yellow ; No. 3, Lobelia bicolor, blue ; No. 4, Calceolaria rugosa, pegged down ; No. 5, Verbena Tweediana, crimson ; No. 6, common White Petunia; No. 7, Verbena Arraniana, or Henderson's purple; No. 8, Calceolaria inte.grifolia, yellow ; No. 9, Purple Petunia ; No. 10, Verbena teucrioides, white ; No. 11, Frogmore Pelargonium, bright scarlet; No. 12 Musk plant, yellow. Li October the following bulbs and other plants may be put in for flowering in early spring. No. 1, Van Thon tulips ; No. 2, Cloth of gold, or common yellow crocuses; No. 3, Blue hepaiica ; No. 4, Yellow crocuses, or White Anemone; No. 5, Scilla verna and sibirica, blue; No. 6, Arabis albida, white ; No. 7, Double pink hepatica ; No. 8, Winter aconite ; No. 9, Purple crocuses; No. 10, Snowdrops ; No. 11, Primroses ; No. 12, White hepatica, or Arabis alpina. Laying out the Flower-garden. — If the above plan for a garden does not meet the fancy, one can be drawn of any figure desired. In the first place, the ground must be dug over, raked, and made peifectly smooth. The pattern, if a complicated one, should tlien be drawn on paper, covered with FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. ill regalar squares, and the ground to be laid out must be coveied with similar squares, but larger, the usual proportion being that a square inch on the paper represents a square foot on the ground. The squares on the ground aie usually formed by sticking in wooden pegs at regular distances, and fastening strings from peg to peg, till tlie whole ground is covered with a kind of lattice-work of string. Each string is then chalked, and made to thrill by pulling it up sharply and letting it go again, which transfers the chalk from the string to the ground. When the ground is thus marked with white squares, it is easy to trace upon it, with a sharp-pointed stick, any pattern which may have been drawn on the paper ; the portion in each square on the ground being copied on a larger scale from that on the paper. Simple patterns, like that of the following figure, consisting of straight lines, need only to be measured, and pieces of string stretched from pegs put Fig. 268. in at tfie proper distances, so as to form straight lines, oblongs, squares, tri- angles, or diamonds. If a circle is to be traced, it is done by getting a piece of string half the length of the diameter of the circle, with a piece of stick tied to each end. One stick is then driven into the ground in the centre of the circle, and a line is traced with the stick at the other extremity of the string, which is drawn out quite tight. An oval is made by tracing two circles, the circumscribing line of one of which just touches the centre of the other ; short lines are afterwards made at the top and bottom, and the central lines are obliterated. A square only requires a peg at each corner, wun a chalked string drawn from peg to peg ; and an oblong, or parallel- ogram, is made by joining two common squares, and taking off the corners, if required. A heart-shaped pattern is made by drawing a straight line from 472 farmer's hand-book. o to (Fig. 268) , and then fixing a peg with a string tied to it half the length of the straight line, and another peg at the end, exactly in the middle Fig. 269. of the line, and drawing half a circle with it ; then taking a peg with a string half the length of the other, and another peg to the end, and tracing with it the smaller half circles, c and d. With the same strings and pegs you may easily trace, or have traced, the following figures. Even the latter, which Fig. 270. Fig. 271. appears at hrst sight a very difficult figure to form on the ground, will be just as easily traced as the others. It will be observed that in all these figures the straight line is only to serve as a guide to show the proper places for fixing the pegs ; and that it is only to be formed by a piece of string stretched by pegs from one end of the figure to the other, which is to be removed as soon as the figure is sketched, and which is not to be traced on the ground at all. With the aid of these figures, and the pegs and strings, several very complicated gardens may be formed ; for instance, that shown in the fol- lowing outline. This garden is composed of a bed in the centre for a tree- rose, with a circle of dwarf-roses ; a gravel-walk surrounds these ; and there are five heart-shaped beds, which may be planted with scarlet pelargo- niums, yellow calceolarias, petunias white and purple, and tall yellow mimulus ; and the crescent-shapea beds wnich are on grass may all be planted with different kinds of verbenas. This plan is also a good design for a rosery, — the roses to be planted in the beds, and in the FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 413 half-crescents, which must be on grass, with gravel-walks between the grass-plots. All the beds intended for bulbs and half-hardy plants should be particu- larly well drained ; and the best way of doing this is to dig out the soil to the depth of two feet or more, and then put in a layer of brick-bats and other rubbish, lo the depth of nine inches or a foot. On thiii may be placed a Fig. 272. layer of rich, marly soil, in which the bulbs are to be planted. Dahlias, hollyhocks, and other tall-growing, showy-flowered plants, should have similar beds prepared for them ; but the soil should be made very rich by the addition of the remains of an old hot-bed, or some other kind of half- rotten animal manure. Arrangement of Colors. — In the directions which have now been given for planning and planting the beds, it has been intended merely to say what may be done, and not what is absolutely necessary. Indeed, it will be better for each cultivator to vary the flowers as much as possible, according to taste, provided care is taken that the plants are, as nearly as possible, of the same height, or that they rise gradually, and that the colors contrast well. The rule in the latter case is, always to put one of the primitive colors — red, blue, and yellow — next another of these colors, or some color compounded of the other two, using white wherever you cannot find any handsome plants of a color that will suit the bed for which they are wanted. Thus, for example, 40* 414 farmer's hand-book. if one bed be planted with red, the next may be planted with blue, yellow green, hair-brown, or white, but never with any shade of purple, as red enters into the composition of that color ; nor with any shade of reddish- brown ; purple, indeed, must always be next to yellow, hair-brown or white, but never next blue, red-brown, or red. Orange will not look well near yellow or red, and lilac must not approach blue or pink, A little practice will generally do more than any lengthened details. Generally speaking, you may take the same taste to guide the arrangement of the colors of the flowers in the parterre that is used in choosing the colors of female dress. Fragrant Flowers. — When it is settled what to plant in the beds of the garden, — supposing the plan of Fig. 264 to be chosen, — the next thing to be thought of is the beds around it. These should, on the whole, remain unplanted, unless they are sown with mignonette, or something of that kind. The shrubberies should consist chiefly of the finer kinds of hardy evergreens, — at least, that which is opposite the windows of the house ; — the other shrubbery may be planted with rhododendrons, acacias, and kal- mias, — the rhododendrons being furthest from the walk, and carried a little out into the adjoining grounds, so as to make a broken line, projecting in some places and receding in others, and here and there mixed with bushes of phillyrea, alaternus, holly of various kinds, and cralcegus. With regard to the beds near the house, let there be a lonicera flexuosa trained over each window, on account of its delightful fragrance in summer. For a similar reason, have chimonanthus fragrans against the walls between the win- dows, and mignonettes and violets in the beds. The flowers of the ever- green magnolia, and those of the orange, have a slightly oppressive fragrance, as have those of the heliotrope and the tuberose; but those of the mignonette, the lemon-scented verbena, the rose, the violet, and lonicera flexuosa, are refreshing, at the same time yielding delicious perfume. Cultivating Bulbs. — In giving some hints on the cultivation of flowers, we begin with the bulbs, as they flower first in the spring. The crocuses and snow-drops should be planted, five or six together, as close as possible, 80 as to form little tufts; and these, when once planted, should never be removed, unless they should grow out of bounds, so as to spoil the shape of the bed. The tulips, on the contrary, should be taken up as soon as heir leaves begin to decay, and kept in a dry place till the proper time for planting them next year. There are three kinds of plants which are said to have bulbous roots, — • those which are solid, and which should be properly called corms, — sucli as the crocus, the corn-flag, and many of the half-hardy plants with similar FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 4*75 half-tubular flowers; the lunicaled bulbs, which may be peeled off .11 scales, such as the onion, the hyacinth, and the tulip ; and the scaly bulbs, such as the lily. Now, the real roots of all these plants are the long fibrtis sent down by the lower part of the bulb, which may be seen plainly in hyacinths grown in glasses, and in any of the kinds, if taken up while in a growing Slate ; and what is called the bulb is, in all the corms, only a contracted stem ; but, in the tunicated and scaly bulbs, the bulbous part is formed of a contracted stem and metamorphosed leaves. On examining a hyacinth, there will be found at the base of the bulb a flat, fleshy substance, called the root-plate, and this is, in fact, the contracted stem of the plant ; while the tunics or scales are metamorphosed leaves. It will be useful to remem- ber these distinctions in cultivating the garden, as all plants having corms never flower well till they have been allowed to form a mass, which they will not do till they have been in the ground three or four years. Many persons fancy that the Cape bulbs require to be taken up every year, but this is a mistake ; all the kinds of gladiolus, ixia, tritonia, and other similar plants, will live in the open ground, and flower well, if suffered to grow in masses, and be warmly covered in winter. Some persons practise success- fully the plan of manuring the beds of tulips and hyacinths every year, so that they may be grown together in the same beds without taking up, for several years in succession. Reserve Garden Spot. — It is well, in order to keep the flower-garden in a proper state, to have what may be called a reserved plot of ground, in which the plants are to be brought forward, till they are in a proper state for transplanting into the proper flower-garden. This reserve garden is generally placed near the stable, both to have it out of sight and for the convenience of manure, as it must contain hot-beds and frames, for rearing tender annuals, striking cuttings, and, in short, for performing all those gardening operations which require to be carried on out of sight. In this spot the Californian annuals are to be brought forward. Choose a piece of hard ground, — a walk will do, — or any place that has been much trodden on, and cover it about an inch thick with light, rich soil. In this the seeds of the annuals should be sown in September, and suffered to remain till the bulbs have faded, and the annuals are wanted to cover the beds, which will probably be about April. The annuals must then be taken up with the spade, in patches, and being removed to the flower-garden, they must be laid carefully on the beds, so as to cover them exactly ; — the spaces between the patches being filled with soil, and pressed gently down, so that the surface of the beds may be as even as pos- sible. These annuals will come into blossom in May, but they are killed by the dry heat of summer ; and, though they would sow themselves if per- 476 farmer's hand-book. mitted to seed, it is better to remove them as soon as they have done flower, ing. The worst of permitting plants to sow themselves is, that early in autumn the flower-beds will have a very untidy appearance, as the ground not only becomes rough, but it is covered with dead stalks and leaves, which have always a most desolate appearance ; and these cannot be removed till the seed has fallen, while the beds must not be forked over and raked, for fear of destroying the seedlings. It is, therefore, much belter, as soon as the animals have done flowering, to take them up and throw them away, — a supply of seed being preserved by having left some plants in the reserve- ground for that purpose. A second or spring sowing of the Californian annuals may be made in the reserve-ground, for use, if needed, in the autumn. Culture of Annuals. — Annuals are plants that live only one year, or, rather, only a few months, for they are generally sown early in spring, and die as soon as they have ripened their seeds, at the latter end of summer, or the beginning of autumn. These plants are of three kinds, — hardy, half- hardy, and tender. The hardy annuals are sown in March, April, or May, but the second month is to be preferred, if the weather is tolerably open. The ground in which they are to be sown is then forked over and raked, and a little round, firm place is made by pressing the bottom of the saucer of a flower-pot on the ground, and then scattering a few seeds on the firm place, taking great care that the seeds do not lie one upon another. The seeds are then firmed, as the gardeners call it, by pressing the saucer again on them, and some earth is strewed lightly over to finish the operation. Instead of the saucer of a flower-pot, regular gardeners perform that part of the process with their spades. The idea is, to securely fix every seed in the ground before it begins to germinate, in order to produce a strong and healthy plant. After the seeds are sown, it is customary to put a piece of stick into the ground, with the name of the seeds written upon it, to mark the place ; or, if preferred, write the name on a card, or a bit of pasteboard, and stick it in a notch or cfeft made in the stick. When the seeds have come up, — which, in the spring, is generally from a fortnight to six weeks after sowing, according to their natures, — the seedlings may be thinned out, and the supernumerary plants either trans- planted or thrown away. If the seedlings are to be transplanted, care should be taken not to break or injure the roots, and a little hole should be made with a stick for each seedling in the place to which it is to be removed; the earth being pressed close to the root at the bottom of the hole before the rest of the hole is filled in, as, if any hollow place is left around the root, it will decay, instead of growing. Seedling hardy annuals are, FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 47*7 however J very seldom worth the trouble of transplant!, .g. Many persons turn a flower-pot over every patch of seeds, from the idea that it will make tliein come up sooner, and protect them from birds. It is, however, a bad plan, as air and light are particularly necessary to seedling plants, and, when they are even partially deprived of these important agents, they become drawn up, with weak, slender stems, and thin, discolored leaves. Some annuals, such as the mignonette and the larkspur, are much longer before they vegetate than others, and they are better sown in autumn. Others, such as the Erysimum Perowskianum, the eschscholtzia, and the coreopsis, will often last two or three years, especially if they happen to be late in flowering the first season. These also do best sown in autumn ; but they must be protected, if the winter should be severe, by laying a mat over the bed. Half-hardy Annuals. — The half-hardy annuals, such as the French and African marigolds, the Chinese and German asters, the zinnias, the purple jacobeea, the sweet sultan, the purple and yellow everlastings, and other similar plants, may be sown in pots, and plunged into a slight hot-bed in Feb- ruary or March. As soon as they come up, and have got their second pair of leaves, the earth should be turned out of the pots, and the seedlings, being carefully picked out, should be transplanted into other pots, three or five in each, according to the size they are expected to attain when full grown, and the pots again plunged into the hot-bed. Sometimes they are transplanted a second time ; but they are generally left till May, when they are removed to the open border, to the places where they are intended to flower. Wher they are planted in the border, they may be transplanted in the ordinary way, or the ball of earth may be turned entire from the pot info a hole made to receive it. This is generally considered the best plan, as it prevents the plants from receiving any check by their removal. Bromp- ton, ten-week, and German stocks, though quite hardy, make belter plants when treated like half-hardy annuals, as they flower earlier and more vigorously. Tender Annuals. — The tender annuals, such as balsams, cock's combs, globe amaranths, &c., must be sown in February or March, in pots of light, rich earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. As soon as the plants come up, they should be transplanted into pots of the very smallest size, one in each pot ; and these small pots should be set in the hot-bed again, as near the glass as possible, and slightly shaded during sunshine. In a week or two, as soon as the roots have made their appearance on the outside of the ball of earth within the pot, — which is known by turning the bail of earth, with the plant in it, carefully out of the pot, without breaking it, — the plants are shifted into pots a size larger than what they were in before, and the space filled up 478 fak3ier's hand-book. with light, rich soil. In another week or two the piants must be shifted again into pots a little larger, always using light, rich mould to fill up the pots, and taking care that the pots are well drained, by putting pieces of broiven pot at the bottom. As soon as the plants are shifted, the pots must be replunged in the hot-bed, and shaded for the remainder of the day. The shifting and replunging must be continued till the plants begin to show flower-buds, after which they must neither be shifted nor plunged in the hot-bed any more, but gradually hardened, by the frame in which they are placed being left open all day, and, at last, only partially closed, even at night, till the plants will bear setting out entirely in the open air, unless they should be intended to flower in a green-house, in which case they may be removed to the green-house very soon after they have shown flower-buds. Perennials. — Perennials are those permanent plants which are not woody, and yet remain in the ground as long as most kinds of shrubs, pro- ducing flowers and seeds every year. Perennials are of two kinds, — those that die down to the ground every autumn, and send up fresh stems from the root the following spring, — and those which remain green all the year, as, for example, those that have tuberous roots, such as the dahlia. Bulbs are also perennials; but of these we have already spoken. Most kinds of perennials are propagated by dividing the roots ; but, in the case of the dahlia, ranunculus, and anemone, care must be taken to choose only those portions of the tubers that have buds or eyes, as they are called, as otherwise the tuber, though it will send out fibrous roots, will not pro- .iuce a stem; and, in dividing fibrous-rooted plants, care must be taken that Jie divided part is furnished with buds. Almost all kinds of perennials may also be propagated by cuttings ; and those of pinks and carnations are called pipings, because, instead of being cut, they are pulled asunder at a joint, and this gives the separated parts a hollow appearance, like small pipes. Tubers are frequently taken up every autumn, and those of the ra- nunculus and anemone are replanted in November or January, the former season being rather preferable. The tubers of the dahlia are generally taken up in November, and replanted in May or June. Most perennials are improved by taking up occasionally, and replanting them in another place. This used to be accounted for by supposing that plants threw out excrementitious matter, which, after a few years, poisoned the soil in which they grew ; but it is now supposed that, as every plant requires peculiar earths for its nourishment, they must be removed when they have exhausted all the particular kind of earth they want which grows within their reach. It is rather difficult to explain this without entering into long details^ but it will be sufficient for our present purpose merely to state the fact that plants do require their roots to have a constant supply of FLOWERS, OKNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 479 fresh earth and, to. meet this want, nature has provided that the roots of trees, and of all plants that are intended to remain several years in the soil, elongate themselves every year, so as to be continually able to obtain a fresh supply of nourishment. In gardens, however, the constant digging that is going on for the culture of aimual plants is unfavorable to the elongation of the roots of the perennials, and consequently it is absolutely necessary that those plants should occasionally be taken up and replanted. The season for taking up and replanting perennial plants is either in autumn, after they have done growing, or in spring, before they begin to shoot; and, if the soil about the roots looks black and wet, or, as the gardeners express it, sour, the roots should be washed quite clean before transplanting. When the roots of plants are divided, it is either done with a sharp spade or a knife, care being taken, in both cases, to make a clean cut, and not leave any part bruised or jagged. Biennials. — These are plants raised from seeds, which do not flower till the second year, but which generally die as soon as they have ripened their seeds. Biennials are usually sown in a bed of light, rich earth, in the open year in the reserve ground, and then transplanted, in September, to the place wtiere they are to flower the ensuing year. The finer kinds, such as the Brompton stocks and hollyhocks, should have a bed or pit prepared for them, of rich, loamy soil, in which they are planted, with a small quantity of manure. Wall-flowers, snap-dragons, and Canterbury bells, do not require any further care than transplanting to the border ; and, though they are called biennials, they will frequently live and flower for a succession of years. The Hot-bed. — A hot-bed may be made of any material that will ferment, so as to produce heat. Stable manure and dead leaves are, however, gener- ally preferred to all other materials, and stable manure is unquestionably the best. A cart-load of this manure will make a hot-bed sufficiently large for rearing tender annuals ; and when it is taken out of the stable, it consists partly of the dung of the horse, and partly of what is called long litter, — that is, straw moistened and discolored, but not decayed. When in this state, if it is thrown together so as to form a heap, a most violent heat is produced by the fermentation of the straw while decomposing, and, as this heat would be too powerful for any plant exposed to it, it is necessary to let the heap remain for a fortnight or so, turning it over two or three times, during that period, with a fork, till the straw is sufficiently decomposed to be easily torn to pieces with the dung-fork. When the manure is in this state, it is fit tc be used. The hot-bed should be formed in an open situation, on a surface raised about six inches from the surrounding ground, with a guttei or shallow ditch cut around it, to allow the water to drain oft". The bed 480 farmer's hand-book. is then made, and, if only intended for raising annuals and striking cuttings, it may be five feet long by four feet wide. The manure should be regularly spread over the lower part of the bed, and in successive layers, made as smooth and level as possible, till the whole of the cart-load 'of manure has been used. As soon as the bed is finished the frame should be set on it. The frame consists of a box without a bottom, and with a movable top, formed of a glazed sash or sashes. A frame for such a bed as has been mentioned will only require one sash or light ; and it should be three feet wide and four feet long, so that the bed may be half a foot larger than the frame on every side. The back of the box may be two feet high, and the front one foot, so that the glass may slope from the back to the front. About two days after the bed is made, the fermentation will recommence, and a steam will be observable on the glass. The surface of the bed should now be covered, two or three inches thick, with light garden mould, and any common seeds may be sown in this. Tt is more general, however, to sow the seeds in pots, and then either to set them on the surface of the bed, or to plunge them into it up to the rim. No bed for raising annuals should ever be hotter than 60° ; and when it exceeds this heat, the glasses should be left open so as to cool it. The thermometer for ascertaining the heat should be put on the surface of the bed, with the glass shut above it ; and it should be examined in this situation, as it will fall a degree or two immediately on being taken into the open air, if the weather should be very cold. A hot-bed of two or three lights will require two or three cart-loads of manure, and will, of course, produce a great deal of heat, from the immense mass of fermenting materials it contains ; and, unless properly regulated, the plants will turn black, and the leaves be shriveled up, or, as the gardeners term it, burnt, from the too great heat of the bed. There is also danger of a hot-bed getting too cold, instead of being too hot ; and, when this is the case, the heat should be renewed by the application of dung-linings, that is, a quantity of fresh stable manure around the outside of the bed. Linings are sometimes made of dead leaves piled up around the outside of the bed ; but, if the hot-beds are to be used only for raising seeds, they will not want any linings, as it will be advantageous for the young seedlings if the beds are allowed gradually to become cool as the plants increase in size, 80 that they may acquire strength and hardiness before they are turned into the open ground. Green-house Plants. — A few words on the green-house plants that will be wanted for planting in the open ground in the flower-garden may not be amiss. Petunias may be all raised from seeds with the other lialf-hardy annuals, as seedling plants both grow and flower much more vigorously FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 481 when planted out into the open ground, than plants that have heen raised from layers or cuttings. Celsia or Alonsoa urticifolia may also be raised from seeds, as may Thunbergia alata, and its white variety. Phlox Drum- mondi is almost always raised in this manner, as are the beautiful climbing plants, Lophospermum scandens and its varieties, Maurandya Barclayana, (.-obaa scandens, Eccremocarpus orCalampelis scabra, Rhodochiton volubile, tne beautiful canary-bird flower {TropcEohim peregrinum) , the most splendid of the ipomaeas, and several other well-known plants. Geraniums, or pelargoniums, as they are called, being half-shrubby plants, require to be raised by cuttings. These are generally taken off the points of the shoots in autumn, and, a good many being put into one pot, they are plunged into the hot-bed till they have struck root, and then gradually hard- ened and placed on the back shelf of a green-house, or in a cold frame, till the spring, when they are removed to separate pots till they are wanted for planting out. Some gardeners do not put themselves to the trouble of pot- ting them, but keep them in the same pots in which the cuttings were struck till they are wanted for planting out ; but this is an indifferent mode of cul- ture, as, when the plants are kept so long in one pot, they become drawn up, and do not have the compact, bushy appearance that they have when properly transplanted early in spring. Verbenas may be either preserved by cuttings or layers, or raised afresh from seed. The usual way of propa- gating them, however, is by layers, as they strike root readily at the joints, if the joints are covered with a little earth. All the other green-house plants which are wanted to grow for planting out may be treated in the same manner as those which have been mentioned. Cold Frame. — This is a bottomless box of the kind described for a hot- bed, but formed of brick or stone, instead of wood. These frames have a glass sash at the top, but contain no manure ; and they are generally sunk in the soil, that the warmth of the soil around may aid in protecting the plants they contain from the frost. These frames, if they have only one light, are generally five feet in width, that is, from the back to the front ; but, if they have two or three lights, the width is generally seven feet, as these are the dimensions of the frames used for hot-beds in kitchen-gardens. The green-house plants that are to be preserved in the cold frame are merely set in their pots close together, and, the glass sashes being then closed, mats and other coverings are laid on to keep out the frost. Sometimes green-house plants which are left in the open ground are preserved from the frost by coverings of wicker-work, like bee-hives, being put over them, or tin hoops over which mats have been stretched ; or, where the plants are small, a flower-pot may be turned over them, or a hand-glass used for the same purpose. It is seldom, however, worth while to take 41 2f 482 Farmer's hand-book. much pains to preserve green-house plants that have flowered in the open air. The ordinary way is to make abundance of cuttings in autumn ; to strike them in a hot-bed, and then, after hardening them by degrees, to pre- serve them in a small green-house, or in a cold pit, till the time for planting out next year. Winter Management. — Many persons injure green-house plants by keep- ing them too warm and giving them too little air during winter, and then are surprised that their plants become sickly and remain without flowering, notwithstanding all the care and expense that have been bestowed upon them. No green-house ought to be kept at a greater heat, during night, than from 35° to 40° ; and in the day-time it should not be allowed to rise above 50°, or at most 52°. When there happens to be sunshine, the fire ought to be lessened ; and whenever the air is not frosty, the windows ought to be open from twelve till two every day. If a green-house is kept too warm, it will induce premature vegetation, and the plant will waste its strength in an attempt to produce flowers and fruit at a season when nature requires it to be kept in a state of complete repose. Green-house plants should be watered generally every morning ; but in frosty weather water need not be given every day, and some plants will not require watering oftener than once a week. This, however, must depend in a great measure on circumstances ; and, as a general rule, it may be observed that water may always be given in small quantities when the surface of the earth con- tained in the pot looks dry. The pots should not be allowed to stand in saucers, as stagnant water is peculiarly injurious in winter. Whenever the earth in the pot looks black and sodden, the plant should be turned out of the pot ; and, after the black earth has been carefully shaken from the roots, it should be repotted in fresh soil, an inch or more in the bottom of the pot being filled in with small pieces of broken china and earthen ware. In February or March the plants should be looked over, and repotted where necessary ; those that are too tall should be cut in, and cuttings made of their shoots. The young plants, raised from cuttings made in autumn, should be repotted in larger pots for flowering ; and where the plants do not require fresh potting, but have the surface of their mould become green and mossy, the moss should be taken oflF, and the ground slightly stirred with a flat stick, taking care, however, not to go so deep as to injure the roots. When trouble is not an object, all green-house plants are the better for repotting every year, either in spring or autumn ; and when the ball is taken out of the pot for this purpose, it should be carefully examined, and all the decayed parts of the roots should be cut off. Sometimes, when tlie ball of earth is turned out, nearly half of it will fall off almost without touch- ino it ; and when this is the case, it will generally be found that there is a FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 483 VTorm in the pot. Worms do a great deal of mischief to green-house plants in cutting through the roots, as their instinct teaches them to make their way througli the earth straight across the pot and bade again, and they can- not do this without tearing the roots asunder every time tiicy pass. Another point to be attended to in the management of a green-house is, keeping the plants as near as possible to the glass, as, unless this be done, the plants will become what gardeners call " drawn up," and unnaturally tall and slender, from the efforts they make to reach the light. Repotting. — As this process has been frequently mentioned, we here give the best mode of performing the operation.^ The pot to which the plant is to be removed should always have been previously washed quite clean, and be perfectly dry. Some bits of broken earthen pots should then be put at the bottom of the pot, the quantity varying from three to four pieces, so as just to cover the hole, to a mass an inch in depth, depending upon the nature of the plant. If the plant has not been in a pot before, the roots are then placed just above the broken bits just mentioned, and the earth is filled in, the plant being occasionally shaken, so as to allow the earth to get amongst its roots. The soil in the pots is next consolidated, by shaking it, and then lifting it up and setting it down again with a jerk ; the soil being rendered firm and neat around the rim of the pot by means of a broad, smooth piece of stick, shaped somewhat like a table-knife, and called a potting-stick. When a plant has been in a pot before, and is repotted, or shifted, as it is called, into a pot a size larger, the plant is turned out of its old pot by put- ting the hand upon the earth and turning the pot upside down ; or, if the ball of earth does not come out readily, striking the rim of the pot against the edge of the potting-table or shelf. The ball containing the plant will thus drop out into the left hand ; and the bits of earthen ware that adhere to the bottom of the ball having been picked off, and any part of the root that appears decayed having been removed, a little mould is put on the drainage in the new pot ; and the ball of earth containing the plant having been placed in the centre, the space between it and the pot is filled in with light, rich mould, and made firm with the potting-stick. The operation is concluded by shaking the pot, and then taking hold of the rim with both hands, and striking the bottom of the pot two or three times, with a jerk, against the potting-bench. The plant is then watered, and set in the shade for the remainder of the day. Heaths are very difiticult plants to manage, but a great improvement has taken place in their culture within the last few years. They are grown in a sort of mould, formed by a mixture of peat and sand ; and when this earth is put into the pot, it is mixed with good-sized pebbles, some of which are suffered to protrude through the surface of the soil. The roots of heath are 484 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. extremely fine and hair-like, and the shelter afforded by the pebbles is so congenial to them, that, if one ol the stones be taken out, a cluster of finej white, vigorous roots will be found below it. The plants are always potted high, so as to let the base of the stem be above the level of the rim of the pot, as the plants are very apt to damp off, if the collar of the plant be buried in the ground. Heaths should never be suffered to become too dry, and never keep too wet. They require little heat ; many varieties of old faVorites now appear double and triple leaved, with an infinity of dif- ferent colors. Foliage plants have been introduced of late years, and by their differently colored and bright leaves are made to contribute much to the beauty of lawn gardening. All the leading florists furnish catalogues descriptive of the appearance and mode of raising these beautiful plants. Garden Decorations. — The decorations usual in flower-gardens are intro- duced either with a view to utility, to convenience, or simply by way of pleasing ornaments; which, if managed with taste and skill, may be brought into according harmony or pleasing contrast with the natural beauties of the flowers, or with the artificial arrangement of their forms and colors. We will specify a few of these different ornamental designs, in order to add to the interest of our remarks in this department. First come arbors, which may be either purely natural, partly natural and partly artificial, or entirely Fig. 273. the result of art. Of the first are those formed by the banyan-fig, in tropi cal climes, whose lateral and widely extended branches send down numer* FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 485 Dus shoots, which fix themselves in the ground. Such are those formed hy our various weeping varieties of forest trees, — the weeping-ash, birch, beech, elm, willow, and the like. These trees, with their lithe and tenuous branches, waving with every breeze, are the most natural, and perhaps the most delightful, of arbors. To the second kind belong all those which are formed by the hand of man, aided by some natural suitability of circum- stances, or accidental advantages. Thus an aged forest tree may have some appropriate climbing plant placed at its roots, so as to run through its branches and foliage, and ultimately descend gracefully from the extremi- ties, until it nearly touches the ground. The construction of the third kind of arbor depends much on the chances of situation ; and many designs, or minute instructions, would be, therefore, superfluous, as they must be famil- iar, in their various forms, to almost every reader. The following figure represents a pretty design for an arbor of permanent construction. Fig. 274. Garden Seats add much to the beauty and attractiveness of a flower-garden. These may be placed either in arbors or under some embowering shade, ol Fig. 275. 41* 486 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. in the open garden ; and may be composed n{ hazel-rods, or straight, small branches of any other tough wood. Five or more young trees, of the moun- tain-ash, the oak, or spruce fir, bound together, form good rustic columns around which climbing roses may be trained, and the whole covered in with a light roof, with rampant ivy, clematis, or jasmine, as in Fig. 275. For occasional convenience, the various forms of the Turkish tent may be adopted ; and when pitched on a lawn, amongst clumps of flowers in the modern style. ^J^l^^ has a very agreeable effect. Besides arbors and garden-seats, vases may be introduced with good effect ; also, fountains, flower-stands, aviaries, and nun- dials, in all the different styles of workmanship. The latter, when set in an unshaded part of the garden, and mounted on a column, around which FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 4S7 pome flowering plant has been trained to climb, will form a very pleasing object. We give a cut of one of these. Fig. 277. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS. Althea Fruiex. — This is a beautiful shrub, requiring a warm and shel- tered situation in the Northern States. Sow the seeds in spring, and protect the young plants during the winter. Almond {Double Flowering) . — A shrubby plant, bearing beautiful rose- like flowers in the spring. It is propagated by suckers. Amaranthus Tricolor. — An annual plant, with a beautifully variegated foliage of red, green, and yellow. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and may be sown in April or May. A nimated Oats. — An annual plant, and resembles the common oats while growing. The seeds are clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are affected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and held to a lighted lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony as an insect would, placed in a like situation. Aster, China. — An annual, producing many splendid flowers. There are several varieties, as red, white, purple, yellow, striped, quilled, &c The seed should be sown early in the spiing. It flowers late, but is destroyed by severe frost. Auricula. — There are several species. It may be raised from seed, but like does not produce like, in all cases. They are best raised by dividing I he rootS, which send out several voung plants annually. They are tender, ana, ii planted in open ground, they must be well covered, and be kept from severe fro.st and rain during the winter. They are well adapted for pots, to flower in the house. Azalea Nudiflora. — It is commonly known as the American Honeysuckle, 488 farmer's hand-book. and includes several species. It bears abundantly, the flowers having a fine perfume and making a very handsome show. Box. — A low, delicate shrub, which may be pruned to any shape to please the fancy. It is an evergreen, hardy, and suitable for borders. It is grown by cuttings, or by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in the earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the small branches (being spread as much as possible), they will send out roots, and furnish a large number of small plants. In trimming this shrub, let the operation be done well, using the proper utensils. Fig. 278. Brier, Sweet. — A well-known rose-bush, hardy, adapting itself to a poor soil. The foliage and flowers are bright, and delightfully fragrant. Canterbury Bell. — A biennial plant, bearing large blue flowers, which are much admired, and make a fine appearance. Carnation. — A biennial and perennial, comprising several superb va- rieties. May be grown by layers. While it is in flower, it sends out several side shoots near the root ; these are pinned down in August, a little under the earth, leaving the extreme part erect ; in a little time they take root, and the new plant must be severed from the old, and transplanted. The old plant does not always stand another winter ; therefore its branches are used to continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to frost, and must be covered, in the Northern States, to live through the winter. It is best to put them into large pots, and keep them in a green-house or parlor, or in some place where they can have air and light during winter. Cassia Marylandica. — This is a perennial plant, producing many small yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a border. It is hardy, and is propagated by seed. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC, 489 Catalpa. — A beautiful tree, raised by seed. Much admired for its foliage and showy flowers, which are very ornamental in the garden. Cherry, Double-Jiowering . — This is one of the most beautiful trees in the flower-garden or shrubbery ; cultivated the same as the common cherry- tree. Chrysanthemum Jndicum. — A fine perennial plant, hardy, flowering brilliantly late in the autumn, and comprising several varieties. The plants may remain in the open ground until late in the fall, and then be taken up and placed in pots. When the frosts appear, keep them in a warm room until after flowering, and then put the roots in the cellar or open ground. They will flower in the garden, if carefully attended to. Raise by dividing the roots. Clematis, Austrian. — A perennial plant, producing very pretty flowers. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Clethra. — A well-known plant, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers in the fall. Columbine. — A very common perennial, including different species; very neat. Convolvulus. — Many species — annual. Convolvulus major is commonly called Morning Glory. It is a vine, and a great runner — many colors. Convolvulus minor, called Beauty of the Night, because it blossoms at evening — many colors. Sow the seed early in the spring. Corchorus Japonicus, — A shrub frequently cultivated in green-houses, but may be grown in the garden. It bears wreaths of golden-yellow flowers. Crocus. — A bulbous-rooted plant, hardy, early; colors, blue, yellow, white, purple, &c. It is grown by the bulbs. A pretty pot-flower. Cupid's Car, or Monk^s Hood. — A fine, vigorous annual, bearing a profusion of pretty blue flowers, during the summer and fall. Propagated by a division of the roots. A very neat plant for the flower-garden. Dahlia. — A beautiful Mexican flower, embracing many varieties of color and shade. A somewhat sandy or gravelly soil is thought best, in order to prevent their growing too luxuriant, and to obtain more flowers. They may be raised by seed, or by a division of the roots. Sow the seed in March, in pots, and place in a hot-bed or green-house. About the middle of May, or when there is no danger from frost, plant them out in the borders, or wherever they are to stand ; and as they increase in height, let them be well supported by stakes, to prevent the wind breaking them down. The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato,, and should be taken up in October or November, and preserved through the winter in a box filled 490 farmer's hand-book. with dry sand, placed out of reach of the frost. Plant only those which nave a bud, and divide the roots carefully. Daisy. — A small, delicate, perennial plant, producing small but attract- ive flowers. It is hardy, and will bear flowers through the winter, if kept m pots or boxes, in the house. Raised by ofl^sets. Dwarf Basil. — A very fragrant annual, raised from the seeds. Eupatorium {Blue) . — Perennial ; bearing a profusion of beautiful flow- ers, and propagated most readily by dividing the roots. Euphorbia Lathyris. — This is a biennial plant, commonly known as the Caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage. Rather tender. Propagated by seed. Fading Beauty, or Morning Bride. — An annual plant, producing hand- some flowers, which last but a few hours, or less. Plant the seed in spring. Foxglove. — A handsome flowering biennial and perennial plant, com- prising several varieties. Sow the seed in spring, covering lightly with earth. Fringe Tree. — A handsome shrub, covered with white flowers. Hardy, and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. Geranium. — There are many varieties of this much-admired plant. Some give flowers, with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as well as of flowers : some give no perfume ; others are delightfully fragrant. It is easily propagated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or young, and placed in pots. In a green-house, or parlor, they will bloom in winter. Garden Angelica. — Perennial ; bold and showy when in flower. Raised from the seed, and well adapted for some situations in the garden. Glycine. — A perennial vine, bearing variegated flowers. It will grow on the side of a house or wall to a great extent, making a fine appearance. It is propagated both from seed and layers. Golden Coreopsis. — This is an annual, bearing a profusion of rich, bril- liant yellow flowers, having a purple centre. It is easily raised from the seed. Golden Everlasting. — A somewhat peculiar plant, bearing a late, bright yellow flower, which, if taken oflT before the seed ripens, will retain its brightness for many years. Plant the seed early in the spring. Hollyhock. — A hardy, perennial plant — showy for a shrubbery. There are several varieties, — the single, double, white, red, yellow, dark, &c. Honeysuckle. — This plant is very beautiful in its place : it climbs up houses, and over hedges ; it forms arbors and bowers ; it blooms in clusters. There are several varieties. The Italian produces an abundance of change- able flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance all around. The FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 491 Variegated blooms monthly, and js very fragrant. The Scarlet Trumpet also blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, making a handsome appearance. It may be grown by seeds and cuttings, but best by layers. Hyacinth. — A bulbous-rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this class, is perennial. It is an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It will bloom in glasses filled with water, in a room, but better in pots of eanh. It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it sends out several young ones. They should be planted at a depth of four inches. There are many varieties of this admired flower, both single and double ; the former have the brightest colors, but the latter are generally preferred. Hydrangea. — This is a small shrub, producing large and changeable flowers, being at first green, then becoming gradually rose-colored, and after- wards green, occupying about six months. It is a house-plant — will beat some frost, but should be kept, during the winter, in a green-house, parlor, or a cellar where there is some light. Propagate by cuttings. Ice Plant. — A well-known annual, having a peculiar icy appearance. Plant the seeds in pots, in the spring. Impatiens Balsamina. — Commonly known as Balsamine. A very fine annual plant, bearing a profusion of gaudy flowers. There are several varieties, — single and double, rose-colored, red, white, crimson, purple, and variegated. It commences flowering in July, and continues till cold weather. Sow the seed in May. Iris, or Flower-de-lis. — A hardy, perennial plant, comprising many varieties, both large and small ; a favorite plant, raised by dividing the roots. Lageniramia Indica. — A flowering shrub, which endures the winter of the Middle and Southern States, but requires attention further North. Lalnirnum. — A tall and handsome shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with yellow flowers. Sometimes called Golden Chain. It is raised from seed, and requires a warm and sheltered situation. Larkspur. — An annual plant, of no fragrance, but of great variety of colors. It makes a pretty appearance, and is raised from the seed. Laurel {Broad-leaved). — This is an evergreen shrub, bearing flowers of great delicacy and beauty, being white, tinged with red. Lilac. — A large, shrubby tree, hardy, and handsome when in bloom, having large bunches of fragrant flowers. The white and the purple may De easily grafted or inoculated into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple and others white flowers, the show is very fine. It is raised from suckers, of which it sends out a great many, but from which it should be freed as much 492 farmer's hand-book. as possible. The Persian lilac is a neater shrub, bearing delicate white flowers. It is propagated by suckers. Lily. — There are many varieties of this plant. The White grows three or four feet high, and bears large, white, sweet-smelling flowers. The Tiger grows one or two feet higher, producing gaudy spotted flowers. The Martagon is similar to the latter, but more delicate : all these are bulbous- rooted, and are best propagated from offsets. The Asphodel grows to the height of two feet, and bears handsome yellow flowers ; it is propagated by seed or offsets. The Lily of the Valley is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the shade, producing small, delicate flowers, of a sweet odor. Raised by offsets. Lime Plant. — A singular plant, the stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, being formed in the earth, and, after the plant has come up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, when from eight to twelve inches high, branch out in two arms, at the extremity of each of which is a large palmated leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit-stem. The first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap^ which is soon burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, round, and white. Next appear the shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk ; and as the plant rises, the fruit-stem elongates and the arms elevate themselves. The fruit is about the size of a large lime, — green while growing, and yellow when ripe. A moist soil, in a shady situation, is best. Propagate by seed, or by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed. Lobelia. — A very interesting genus of flowering plants, alike pleasing to the eye, and useful to the pharmaceutist. The green-house, hot-house, shrubby, and herbaceous kinds, grow well in a mixture of peat and sand; the shrubby kinds being readily increased by cuttings, and the herba- ceous species by division as well as by seeds. The hardy, herbaceous varieties flourish in a light, rich earth ; but in the cold weather of the winter season, most of them require the protection of a frame. The green-house annuals and biennials must be sown in pots; but those of the hardier plants may be sown in the open border. The L. longijlora is a very venomous plant, fatal results following its use. Lungwort is the common name of a species of remarkably-pretty flower- ing plants, well adapted for ornamenting the fronts of shrubberies. They are easily increased by divisions, and will thrive in any ordinary soils. Their generic name is Pulmonaria. Lychnadia. — A perennial plant, comprising several varieties: purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, bears an abundance of delicato FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 493 fl )wers, and continues long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Magnolia. — A very elegant and showy plant when in flower, and one which deserves extensive cultivation. Being a remarkably handsome shrub, it should be planted in a conspicuous situation, where it will bear a profusion of flowers when it attains a good size. Mezereon. — This is a small and beautiful shrub, blooming in the month of March, with a profusion of fragrant flowers. Hardy; raised by seed. Mignonette [B. odorata), an old and universal favorite, emits a very pleasant odor from its flowers. It is usually an annual, but, by green- house cultivation and constant pruning, it may be rendered perennial, and even shrubby. Musk Geranium. — An annual plant, having a strong musky odor. It will stand the winter in a common hot-bed. Plant the seed early. Myrtle {Evergreen). — An evergreen vine, including several species bear- ing a pretty blue flower. A favorite plant for ornamental purposes. Na7-cissus. — A bulbous-rooted plant, managed like the hyacinth. It bears an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It is hardy, and well Fig. 280. adapted to bloom in a pot in the green-house or parlor. Raised by bul- bous offsets, which increase every year. Polyanthus Narcissus and Jon- quils, both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated in the same manner. Nasturtium. — An annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are enveloped in fleshy pods, and should be sown very early in spring. The plants should be supported from the ground by bushy sticks. 42 494 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Oleander. — A noble-looking, evergreen shrub, easily cultivated, and flowering freely during the greater part of the year. It grows well in a rich, light soil — and young cuttings root in any soil, if kept moist. Passion Flower. — This is a beautiful and celebrated flower, growing on a perennial vine ; the name originating from the large cross in the middle Fig. 281. I of the flower, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, suitable for the green-house, but will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It is best raised from cuttings. Poeony. — A perennial plant, bearing a gorgeous but short-lived flower. There are several species. Propagate from oS'sets. Pea [Sweet). — There are many species of this annual, varying in color and scent. The Everlasting Pea is perennial, and produces many clusters of showy flowers, which remain in bloom a long time. Plant the seed early in spring. Ppach [Dotible Flowering). — A very showy tree, bearing flowers of the size of a small rose. It is hardy, and managed like other peach trees. Pink. — A well-known perennial plant, fragrant, and embracing many varieties as respects size and color. A fine flower, and easily grown by seeds, layers, &c. Polyantlms. — A hardy, perennial plant, bearing handsome flowers. There are many varieties, and the plant blooms best in a shady situation ; best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthus Narcissus is a very pretty perennial, bulbous-rcoted, and easily grown by offsets. Primroses. — A numerous family of small, but very pretty and desirable plants. The principal species are: The Common Primrose, which bears numerous, large, sulphur-colored flowers, with a darker radiating spot in FLOWKRS, ORNAMENTAL TRKES, ETO. 495 the centre. Scent slight, but agreeable. There are varieties of this spe- cies which produce both single and double flowers, of white, brown and purple colors. The Bird's-Eye Primrose, which bears beautiful 'rose- colored flowers, fringed with a notched, yellow, glandular border. Pyreniim Partheninm (commonly called DoMe Feverfeiv) —A hardy perennial, producing large quantities of white flowers, and continuing in bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed. " Poppy.~An annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in flower. The double are very showy, but of short duration. Easily grown by seed. -^ ^ Pvrple Hyacinth Bean.~An annual runner, bearing large clusters of purple flowers, much admired. Plant the seeds early, and preserve from frost. Phynchospermtim jasminoides is a beautiful climbing-plant, of Chinese origin, peculiarly adapted to green-house cultivation in the United States The flower very much resembles that of the jasmine, and exhales a deli^ cious odor. It IS an evergreen, and sends out rootlets along the stem when brought in contact with the ground, rendering it of easy propaga- tion by cuttings. It commences flowering in April in the green-house and continues to bloom for six weeks or two months _ Rose -Onh\, deservedly-popular flower there are many varieties, as to size foliage, beauty, and fragrance. They may be propagated from seed or by suckers -the latter being the most certain and easy mode. The Fig. 282. suckers should be those which come out near the old stems, during the summer, and, when planted, should be cut down to four or five inches?rom the ground. Plant :n October. November, or April. Keep the ground gooT and dig u every autumn. They should, except when trained agains a 496 farmer's hand-book. wall, be cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size ; for when the stems and limbs are long, they produce fewer flowers. All the weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving any ugly stubs. The Yellow Rose requires an airy situation and a gravelly soil, and every autumn one half of the old wood should be cut down within four inches of the ground ; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will be kept up. The Chinese Monthly Rose is grown by cuttings, taken in the spring and properly placed in moist earth. It is a tender plant, and ehould be taken into a green-house or parlor during the winter. Some of them, however, are hardy, and withstand the frost. When gathering roses Fig. 283. and other flowers having thorny stems, a pair of scissors, combining tweezers or pincers (Fig. 283), are very useful. Rose Acacia. — This is a singular shrub, producing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propagated by shoots from the roots. • Rose-colored Hibiscus. — A perennial plant, producing very showy flowers, and making a good appearance in a border. Raised by seed. Rudbeckia. — A perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very durable, and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots. Scarlet Cacalia. — A small annual plant, producing numerous scarlet flowers, very showy. Easily raised from the seed. Scarlet Lychnis. — A perennial plant of two kinds, the single and the double, the latter being very handsome. The former is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the roots. Snowberry. — A small shrub, producing clusters of beautiful white, wax- like berries, in autumn. Propagated best by suckers. Spiderwort. — A singular perennial plant, in bloom for a long time. The blue is more admired than the white. It requires a light covering during the severity of winter weather. Propagated by dividing the roots. Spircea. — A small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers in the season of its blooming. Propagated by suckers. Syringa, or Mock Orange. — A shrub, bearing flowers quite similar to those of the orange, and making a very pleasing appearance when growing with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. Strawberry Tree. — This is a handsome shrub, bearing, in autumn, an FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 49Y abundance of fruit, somewhat resembling the strawberry. The Europear is preferred to the American. Grown by seed and by suckers. Sweet Bay. — This is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to stand, in a large pot, in the parlor, during winter. It is propagated very easily, by suckers. Sweet William. — An imperfect perennial, producing very beautiful flowers of small size. It is grown by seed, the plants of which do not pro- duce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. It may be propagated by dividing the roots. Tulip. — In no family of plants has nature so multiplied her beautiful tints as in this, — there being several hundred varieties. It may be raised from seed, but the plants do not produce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. They are raised best by bulbs. After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or bulbs are formed of the juices of the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes as much disengaged from the decayed plant as the ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At this' time they may be carried, like many other bulbs, any length of distance, in dry moss or dry sand. They should be planted out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, in August or September ; after which, they throw out roots, and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through the winter and planted in the spring, they will not thrive so well that season. The nicer varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then planted. Violet. — This little plant is perennial ; the flowers blue, double, and fra- grant, blooming early and long Propagate by dividing the roots. II. SHRUBS. Soil. — With respect to soil, hardy shrubs may be conveniently consid- ered as constituting two great divisions ; one requiring any common garden soil, and the other requiring a large portion of peat or leaf-mould. With regard to the first division, a rich, light, hazel loam is suitable to the greater number of the plants, though some will thrive in the poorest soils; but in this there is great diversity. After having taken out the original soil of the border, about a foot and a half or two feet deep, — though three feet will do no harm, — fill in the vacancy thus formed with peat or compost raised above the garden level, to allow for subsequent sinking. Seasons and Modes of Planting. — With respect to shrubs that shed theii leaves on the approach of winter, they may be removed with safety as soon 42* 2g 498 farmer's hand-book. as the leaves have begun to fall in October. With respect to shrubs which do not shed their leaves and are evergreen, they may, if carefully taken up, be planted at any season of the year, provided advantage is taken of dull or dripping vi^eather. But, notwithstanding, there are particular seasons when they will thrive better and grow more freely than at others. If the situation be dry, and the soil light and sandy, evergreens, with the exception of hollies, should be planted as late in November as the weather will permit. But in the case of a bad situation, with a soil reten- tive of moisture. May is the preferable season. Hollies should always be removed in June. When the plants are large or rather old, good balls should, if possible, be taken up with them, and all the fibres of the roots that can be got up with- out bruising or injury. Whatever may be the state of the weather, it is important to keep the roots as short time exposed to the air as possible. If only a few minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and soils, the plants should be well soaked with water as soon as the earth is put about the roots. As soon as a plant has been put into its place, the earth should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow around the stem, and as far as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, in sufficient quani'ty to soak the ground down to the lowest parts of the root. By this practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autumn planting, the eanh is carried down by the water, and every crevice among the roots is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth about the roots of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when the Fig. 284. water has subsided. After the first watering has dried up, the earth should be leveled around the stem of the plant, and as far out as the water has been put on, but not trodden. If the plants are large, a second watering is sometimes necessary, but in ordinary-sized plants one watering is quite suf- FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 499 ficient; and after remaining twenty-four hours, more or less, according to the nature of the soil, the earth about the stem and over the roots should be trodden as firm as possible, and after treading should be dressed with a rake. The garden engine is now much used, in watering gardens, nurseries, &c. Fig. 284. After-managemad. — If the season be very dry, it will be important to lay round the roots a quantity of moss, or cut grass. Whilst the plants are small, care must be taken not to let them be stiHed or choked with rank- growing weeds, nor by the increasing growth of contiguous shrubs, and to clear away all rubbish that might retard their shooting ; also stir the sur- face of the ground frequently with a hoe, to prevent the surface becoming hard and caked in dry weather. The branches must be trimmed off, too, which may be done by means of the implement below, — called a briar or bill hook, — as they grow too large or luxuriant, or overhang and smother each other. Fig. 285. Situation and Arrangement, — Some shrubs thrive best in a dry and ele- vated situation, and will not grow when crowded amongst others, or in low, damp ground, where other sorts grow the most luxuriantly. These and other circumstances must be attended to, in the disposal of the several roots. The beauty of the plants cannot be displayed, indeed, when they are too much crowded, as they are then certain to be drawn into unnatural shapes. The more frequently, therefore, that open spaces can be omitted, the more will the shrubs exhibit themselves to advantage. Keep them well trimmed using the prunmg-shears (Fig. 286) freely, whenever necessary. 500 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. One of the most important things, in planting shrubs, is to attend partic- ularly to the shades of green, especially where the view from the house or lawn catches the trees. Flowers, which Pliny elegantly calls the joy of trees, continue but for a short period in comparison with the duration of the leaves, and, therefore, the more permanent picture should be executed by judiciously contrasting the greens. Even the effect of perspective may be con- siderably increased by the proper arrangement of hues. Shrubs, whose leaves are of a gray or bluish tint, when seen over or between shrubs of a yellow- ish or bright green, will seem thrown into the distance. Those, again, with small or tremulous leaves should wave over or before those with large, broad-fixed foliage. The light and elegant acacia, for example, has a more beautiful effect when its branches float over the firm and dark holly, or sweet bay. When the situation will permit, three or five lilacs may be grouped together in one place, and as many laburnums in another, so as to give effect in various parts by a mass of color. The guelder rose should appear as if escaping from the bosom of evergreens, and not a plant should be set in the ground without adding to the harmony of the whole. A shrubbery should be planted as a court or stage dress is ornamented — for general effect, and not for particular and partial inspection. Boldness of design, which seems to be more the offspring of nature and chance than of art and study, should be attempted ; but all harshness or too great abrupt- ness must be avoided, by a judicious mixture of plants whose colors will blend easily into one another. The most beautiful shrubs should, of course, be planted in the most conspicuous and prominent places ; a projecting part of the shrubbery, for instance, should be reserved for the rhododendron, the azalea, and other similar sorts, with which may be planted the hardier heaths. With respect to evergreens considerable judgment is required, in order to relieve their uniform appearance during winter. This may be done by skilfully arranging different kinds, and those with variegated leaves, such as aucuba, japonica, and green holly, or those which retain their brilliant berries during the cold months, such as pyracantha. A well-planted shrubbery depends not so much for its beauty on the ex- pense or rarity of the plants it contains, as on the selection of the sorts which succeed each other in blossoming throughout the year, or whose vari- ous-colored fruits grace them for the longest duration of time. It is not, accordingly, so much the shrubs, exclusively the ornament of the summer months, which alone require attention, but such also as will contribute to the o-ayety of the morning and evening of the year ; so that the gloom may be banished at all times, as much as possible, from the grove, and nature's repose shortened between the plaintive good-night of autumn and the cheerful good-morrow of spring. For this purpose, plant the hazel and FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 501 filbert, as among the trees which hlossom first ; and even the furz-bush is a great enlivener of the shrubbery at this dull season, particularly when its golden blossoms are expanded at the foot of some dark-foliaged evergreen. Varieties. — Among the numerous kinds of ornamental shrubs may be mentioned, for a select assortment, — Rose Acacia, dwarf white-flowering Horse Chestnut, scarlet-flowering Chestnut, Strawberry tree, double-flow- ering Almond, Snow-ball, Japan Sophora, Spice-bush, Rose of Sharon, Lilac, Carolina Syringa, Spirea, Mountain Rose, Mountain Laurel, Azalea, Calycanthus, Honeysuckle, Hawthorn, Prim, Juniper. III. ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES. Varieties. — The most cummon, hardy, and esteemed ornamental trees are the Abele, Ailanthus, Ash, Basswood, Elm, Horse Chesnut, Linden, Locust, Rock Maple, Tulip Tree, and the different varieties of the Willow. The best and most handsome evergreens are, the Cluster Box, Common Box, Magnolia grandiflora, American Silver Fir, European Silver Fir, Larch Pine, Scotch Pine, American White Spruce, Norway Spruce Fir, Evergreen Cypress, and Hemlock. Sugar Maple. — With the exception of the oak and the pine, no tree has obtained more celebrity than the sugar maple (Acer saccharinnm). Its neat appearance, and the beauty of its foliage — in summer of the liveliest green, and in autumn assuming the richest and most glowing red color — recommend it as a beautiful ornament for gardens, lanes, and groves ; and its culture is really a matter of some importance to the farmer, who may readily perpetuate and extend it. Planted out around the farm-house, along the lanes, and in the fence-corners, it serves the double purpose of an ornamental shade-tree, and of a never-ftiiling suo-ar producer. If this plan is not adopted, three or four acres could not be devoted to a better use than as a sugar orchard. The trees may be planted in rows ten feet apart each way, and the soil loosened around them in a circle six feet in diameter, and to the depth of two feet. The rapid growth of the transplanted trees will depend in a great measure on the care used in their removal from the forest to their new location. If thrifty, they will be ready for tapping in fifteen years ; and, if they do not profit the person who plants them, they will be a valuable legacy to his posterity. Tapping the trees. — In ordinary seasons the best time for tapping the trees is from the 15th of March to the 15th o-f April, when the w-eather is mild during the day, but cold and frosty at night. The first thing neces- sary is the preparation of spouts and buckets. The former are made of soft maple or ash, turned in a lathe ; and the latter are entirely composed of the wood of the ash. Two spouts are made for each tree — one, in 502 FABMER'S HAND-BOOK. tended for the lower orifice, is quite tapering, three inches in length, and has a wire fixed upon the end, by which a bucket may be hung upon it; the other is six inches long, and made in the usual manner. The buckets have a capacity of three or four gallons, and are so suspended from the short spout, that they can be emptied without removing them. These preparations completed, the next step is to tap the trees, which is done with a half-inch augur — the lowest orifice being made about twenty inches from the ground, and the other three inches higher up. The holes at first should not exceed three-fourths of an inch in depth, and they should have a suflBcient inclination to cause the sap to flow freely in freezing weather; otherwise, it is liable to congeal in the mouth of the orifice. When the flow of sap begins to slacken, the holes may be increased to the depth of two and a half inches, for which a larger augur may be used. The spouts should not enter the holes farther than half an inch, as the deeper they are driven, the more will the sap be obstructed in its flow. The sap may be collected daily from the trees, and put into large tubs, preparatory to boiling down. Boiling the Sap. — The sap should be boiled before fermentation com- mences, which, as the weather becomes warm, will generally occur about the second or third day; and the greater the extent of surface exposed to the atmosphere while boiling, the more rapid will be the evaporation. The best apparatus are large copper pans, six feet long, three feet wide, and nine inches deep, fixed over a furnace made of brick-work. While boiling, the scum should be skimmed ofi* as rapidly as it rises, and as the quantity of the liquid increases, fresh juice should be added. A tea- spoonful of slaked lime should be added to every fifteen gallons of sap, which causes the impurities to rise, and neutralize the gallic acid. To prevent the sap from boiling over the sides of the pan, a piece of pork-fat may be suspended in it, or the inner rim of the pan be rubbed with the same substance. Charcoal is the best fuel to use, as, though a strong heat is required, it should be an equable one, and be confined entirely to the bottom of the pan. When the sap has been reduced to a syrup, it should be strained either through a hair-sieve or a woollen cloth, and then allowed to stand a few hours to settle ; after which, it may be drained oS" carefully from the sediment which has settled at the bottom. Clarifying. — After the syrup has been properly strained, it should be returned to the pan, and the clarifying materials, such as milk, eggs, or calves' blood, added. The impurities combine with these substances, and rise with them to the surface in the form of a thick scum, which should be carefully skimmed ofi". When the syrup is sufficiently reduced, which may be judged of by the manner in which it strings on being drawn out FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 503 between the finger and thumb, it should be removed from the fire, emp- tied into large, shallow troughs, and stirred well for some time, until it grains ; for if poured at once into moulds, it will take the form of candy, and not that of sugar. When properly granulated, the sugar should be put into conical moulds, or barrels with holes bored in the bottom, and set aside, to drain oS" the molasses. Claying. — In two or three days after the moulds or barrels are un- stopped at the bottom, mix white clay with water until it takes the form of a creamy paste, and with this cover the top of the sugar to the depth of one and a half inches. When this covering dries, remove it, and supply its place with a fresh layer about two inches thick. The sugar is thus reduced in quantity, but its quality is correspondingly improved, and the amount of molasses greatly increased. Molasses and Vinegar. — These are usually made from the last runnings, the sap then containing a larger proportion of mucilage, and being less adapted for making sugar. This molasses, when properly clarified, ig superior to that made from the sugar-cane, and possesses a peculiarly- grateful flavor. The vinegar, however, though excellent for table use, is not available for pickling purposes. Evergreens. — The value of evergreens for purposes of use and orna- ment has not, until recently, been fully appreciated. In many bleak situations, at least one-half the winter fuel may be saved by planting from forty to sixty good evergreen trees across the sweep of the prevail- ing winds, and they will also serve as a shelter to cattle during the winter, breaking the force of the cutting winds to which the poor animals are frequently exposed in the open fields. This may not be an object in a thickly-settled country, where cattle are comfortably lodged under sheds, or in barns ; but on the bleak Western prairies, not a tithe of the cattle ever have the benefit of a shelter, and there these evergreen shelters would prove both advantageous and economical. As an ornamental treo they cannot be excelled, since they are always objects of beauty, and pro- duce a fine picturesque efi"ect in the landscape. The Cluster Pine {Pinus Pinaster,) thrives well in a sandy soil, but re- fuses to grow in calcareous land. It is indigenous to the south of Europe, is a rapidly-growing tree, and very hardy. The Box {Buxus sempervirens,) is a beautiful evergreen shrub, of which there are several varieties, ranging from the dwarf size to that of a tree twenty feet high. It is indigenous to Europe and Asia, of slow growth, but attains a great age ; and its small, coriaceous, bright green, shining leaves, are very enduring. The Magnolia grandiflora (Fig. 287,) is a beautiful evergreen tree, in- 504 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. digenous to the Southern States, which grows to a height of from forty to sixty feet. It forms a rounded pyramidal head, well covered with large, Fig. 287. coriaceous, shining leaves, of great size and beauty, which form a pleasing contrast with its white flowers, from which a most delicious perfume is exhaled. It does not thrive north of latitude 35°, not being sufficiently hardy to stand the climate. The American Silver Fir {Picea. balsamea,) is a pyramidal tree, seldom growing more than thirty feet in height. It is very hardy, and, when standing alone, forms a perfect' pyramid. The European Silver Fir [Picea pectinata,) (Fig. 288), found upon the mountains of Central Europe, is remarkable for the regularity and sym- metry of its form ; the heads of these trees being always pyramidal. It is of slow growth, but attains a height of 180 feet, with a straight stem, and regularly-whorled branches, which stand out horizontally. The upper side of the leaf is of a very dark shade of green, with silvery lines beneath. The Larch Pine [Pinus laricio), indigenous to the Island of Corsica, is a rapid grower, and hardy as far north as Lat. 42°. It attains a height of 150 feet, and bears leaves varying from four to eight inches in length, according to the age of the tree. The Scotch Pine {Pinus sylvestris,) succeeds remarkably well in the United States. In favorable situations it grows to the height of 100 feet. The leaves are glaucous, and in pairs. They do not drop from the tree until the fifth year. It is very hardy. The American White Spruce [Abies alba,) is a very hardy tree, some- what resembling the Norway spruce, though it is neither so large, nor so fine-looking. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 505 The Evergreen Cypress [Ciipressus sempervirens,) (Fig. 289), a native of the islands of the Archipelago, has been found to thrive well in the Fiff. 289. 43 506 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Southern States. It is a tapering, cone-like tree, with upright branches, growing close to the trunk. The branchlets are dichotoraous, and covered closely withoverlappingscales or leaves, which are yellowish-green, shining, and remain on the tree five or six years. It does not suit a northern latitude. Fig. 290. The Norway Spruce Fir {Abies excelsa,) (Fig. 290,) is one of the loftiest of European trees, frequently attaining a height of 180 feet. It is a beau- tiful pyramidal tree, with a straight trunk, and pendulous branches and twigs. It succeeds well in the United States, being able to withstand the most severe winter, and forms an excellent shelter from the rude blasts. The Hemlock Spruce Fir {Abies canadensis), one of the most beautiful of American evergreens, is a tall, pyramidal tree, well furnished with Blender limbs, which decline gracefully, forming a cone of perennial dark green, which forms a very refreshing relief in a landscape. It is very hardy, and will grow almost anywhere. TLOWERS, OKNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 50*? Osiers. — There arc several varieties of this species of vrillow; but we have only space to notice those which are used in basket-making, &c. The Common Osier [Salix viminalis,) grows in wet meadows, and sends out long, slender branches, which are round, polished, and, when young, covered with fine silken hairs. This variety is very much esteemed among basket-makers. S. Forhicuia, used for making the finer kinds of basket- work, grows erect and bushy, with upright, slender, smooth twigs, of a greenish-yellow color, very flexible and tough. S. Rubra, or green-leaved osier, a small tree, with long, smooth, tawny branches, which are very tough and pliant, is one of the most valuable varieties, if cut down yearly. Mode of Cultivation. — Select a low, wet piece of ground, turn up the soil to the depth of twelve inches, and prick down cuttings of four years' growth, and eighteen inches long, at a distance of about three feet from each other. Fence them around with dikes or hedges. The best time for setting out osiers is during the winter months. MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR. January. — The chief business of this month is increasing the stock of potted flowering-plants, some of which will require the assistance of a slight hot-bed to bring them forward. This is to be understood as a means of preventing them going back, rather than forcing them prematurely for- ward ; it will also be a means of advancing seedlings fit for pricking out into other hot-beds, next month. A very moderate degree of artificial heat is sufficient. February. — The business of this month depends much on the kind of weather which prevails. If cold, wet, and inclement, very little can be done in the open garden, except protecting the bed-plants ; but if the weather be remarkably open and dry, something may be done in the way of preparing the ground for the hardier annuals. A slight hot-bed will be required to raise seedlings of various sorts of annual flowers, and to receive seedlings of former sowings ; thus, by keeping up a stock of desirable things, in different stages of growth, the garden may be replenished as soon as the cold season is fairly past. March. — This being the first month of spring, renders the garden a busy scene, especially if the weather be open ; and everything recommended for last month should be continued during the present, with the addition of many other things of equal importance. The bed-flower plants, particularly tulips, must be carefully guarded against sharp frosts following snow oi rain ; if the state of the ground permit, all the plots and borders may now be smoothed by the rake, preparatory to sowing the first general crop of 508 farmer's hand-book. hardy annuals. Bahlia-seed may perhaps be sown in pans, and the old tubers placed in dry leaf-mould, on a mild hot-bed, or on a bark bed in a Btove, to raise shoots of which young plants are made for flowering. All green-house plants, which flower so readily and so beautifully in the open air in summer, should now, if not done in the autumn, be propagated abun- dantly by cuttings, on hot-bed heat, so as to be ready for the borders in June. All the different sorts of what are called tender annuals may now be sown in hot-beds, to raise plants ready for potting as soon as they are large enough to handle ; all potted flowers, as the auricula, carnation, pinks, stocks, wall-flowers, &c., should now receive their spring top-dressing of fresh compost, to assist them to flower strongly. April. — The flowers of some of the bulbs have now appeared ; those on the auricula stage and on the different beds are coming forward, and require constant care. Tulips and hyacinths will need to be sheltered from wind, rain, or other injurious weather. Many seedlings which have been kept in frames will be fit for transplanting. Another sowing of both hardy and tender annuals may, towards the end of the month, be made to succeed those sown previously. Seedling dahlias, and all the tender annuals, require attention to get them forward. Cuttings of dahlias, and the slips or cuttings of Chinese chrysanthemums, also, must be got forward, by pot- ting singly and keeping them on a little heat, till fairly rooted, and ready to go into other pots, or to their places in the open air. May. — Sow another succession of hardy annuals and biennials, and thin and transplant some of those previously sown. Tender annuals, dahlias, chrysanthemums, &c., lately potted and in frames, must be guarded by mats against the cold of nights, and shaded, till they are well-rooted, from the sun by day ; such as are intended to be put out in the open air should be gradually hardened by leaving off the shading, propping, and defending from insects. Carnation-seed may be sown. A small bed of ranunculus may be planted to flower in August, and new beds of violets made. Rose- trees may now be pruned back, to obtain a late bloom ; and all other shrubs which produce their flowers on the shoots of the present year may, by cut- ting back at this time, be made to flower again in autumn. June. — All serious fears of the effects of night frosts are now over, and therefore all the more tender kinds of flowering plants may be planted abroad with impunity. Dahlias must now, if not done before, be placed in their blooming stations, with stout stakes for their support. The situation should be sheltered, but not shady, and is better if treated with a fresh com- post of rich loam and road-sand, well mixed, to grow in. Pot off seedlings if not already done. Auriculas may now be shifted ; and tulip, hyacinth and ranunculus beds may still require attention, to preserve the beauty of the FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 509 late flowers, by shading or other care. Carnations now need atte.ntion to insure vigorous growth and perfect blossoms. Continue to plant out tender annuals, as well as any green-house plants which can be spared, to add to the gayety of the garden ; transplant annuals previously sown and standing too thick ; sow biennials, and propagate by cuttings every plant of which a supply may be wanted. July. — Whatever was omitted to be done in June should now be exe- cuted without delay. Take up bulbs and tubers when the leaves have with- ered ; sow and transplant annuals to bloom late ; propagate pinks, rockets, carnations, &c. Divide auriculas and repot them, keeping them shaded ; also, all other plai.ts in pots, as Chinese primroses ; propagate pansies by division ; sow biennials ; prop Chinese chrysanthemums, and lay down some of the long shoots to make bushy plants of the tops. Regulate the patches of previously-sown annuals, and shift those of the green-house or stove. In short, sowing, transplanting, shifting into larger pots, propagat- ing by layers and cuttings, propping, shading, and watering when neces- sary, form the constant employment of the flower-gardener during this month. August. — If any bulbs which have done flowering yet remain in the ground, they should now be taken up, dried, and stored in a safe place. Cuttings of azaleas, ericas, and such similar plants, may yet be put in ; those of less woody character, as dahlias, chrysanthemums, geraniums carnations, pinks, and other herbaceous perennials, may still be rooted. Roses may be budded. Calceolarias intended to flower late should be cut in, and at the same time receive a top-dressing of rich compost. Another bed or two of pansies should be made to bloom before severe frosts set in. Mignonette should be sown in pots and window-boxes, to stand the winter in frames. Cyclamen persicum may now be turned out of the pots in which they flowered, and placed in a dry border to gain strength during their tor- pid state. Chrysanthemums, dahlias, and all other tall or climbing plants, should have supports. Carnations, whether on stage, bed, or border, neatly tied up and shaded, and layering for next year's stock finished. Seedlings may be bedded out. Shorten the first shoots of the rose-acacia, to cause a second bir*h of late flowers. Ranunculuses already planted for blooming in October must be kept rather moist, and the soil about them pretty firm, Violets increased by dividing, and place some in a frame for early flowers. Biennials may still be sown, and bulbs intended to flower in autumn planted. September. — In this month there is usually much irregularity of growth, decayed flowers, stems and leaves, required to be cleared away, in order that the flower-pots may not present the appearance of wildness or neglect 43* 510 farmer's hand-book. Seedlings of biennials and perennials should be thinned, an(' some of them placed in pots, or transplanted to beds or places where they are intended to remain ; all cuttings, pipings, or layers, which are sufficiently rooted, should also be removed to their final or temporary stations. Auriculas should hi freed from dead leaves, the earth on the surface of the pots fresh- ened up, a little compost added, and, if any require to be shifted, it may now be done. The seeds of ranunculus and anemone may be sown in pans or boxes, if not already done. Dahlias are now in full beauty ; and the Chinese chrysanthemums, whether in pots or in the open air, require fre- quent watering, not only at the root, but over the leaves, to prevent their flagging under the sun's heat. Seeds of fine annuals, now ripe, should be gathered and saved ; and valuable green-house plants which have flowered in the borders should now be repotted. It is now, also, the proper time to prepare the beds intended for tulips, hyacinths, and ranunculuses, in order that they may be properly settled by planting-time ; and, indeed, much of the beauty and neatness of a flower-garden the next season depends on the preparation and disposition made at or soon after this time, whether it be in improving the quality of the soil or in altering the forms of the beds ; and also many annuals may be sown in pots about this time, to be nursed under glass in the winter, ready to be turned out early in spring. This is a prac- tice which the florist should repeat frequently during the winter months. October. — Dahlias are still in beauty, and only require firm staking against the wind. If any new seedlings have not yet flowered, and are ex- pected or promise to prove excellent, they should be guarded by some tem- porary covering against being nipped by an unexpected night-frost. Chinesu chrysanthemums standing in the open borders are in the same predicament ; their flower-buds may be destroyed before they are open, if not protected by some slight covering; those in pots can be removed to a place of safety. Pinks may still be bedded out, and carnation layers potted. These last, together with all other flowers in pots, must be duly supplied with water About the end of the month, prepare a heap of light and fresh sandy loam, and a suflicient number of proper-sized pots, for the reception of as many bulbs and tubers, such as polyanthus-narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, irises, crocus, -Sic, as may be required for early and late forcing ; prepare also the beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemones, and ranunculuses, to be planted about the beginning of next month. Dig the plots or clumps intended for the hardier sorts of bulbs and tubers, which now require to be put in, namely, narcissus of all sorts, snowdrops, scillas, aconite, &c. Pot roses, Persian lilac, and the different sorts of American shrubs, and other plants proper for forcing. Sow some more pots and boxes of mignonette and other flowers, to go into frames. Perennials may be taken up, parted, and replanted; FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 511 Bo.r.e of the more showy sorts may be potted to go into frames, to advance their flowering in spring. Roseries may be pruned and regulated, laying down the long shoots and straggling branches, keeping the whole pretty close to the ground. Standard roses . require to be close-pruned and well staked. November. — The previously planted beds for tulips, hyacinths, po.y anthus-narcissus, ranunculus and anemones, should all be planted early. Where these flowers are cultivated in the best style, the collections are named, and require much precision in placing them in the beds; but when executed according to the approved rule, the success is never doubtful. The other business of the season is taking up the tubers of dahlias, marvel or Peru, or others which would be in jeopardy from frost ; pruning shrubs, as well to keep them in form as to encourage flowering. All dead or de- caying stems or leaves should be cleared ofl^, the ground dug, the patches of perennial flowers reduced, vacancies filled up, edgings repaired, and the whole garden receive a general brush over, laying all as neatly for winter as possible. December. — There is little or nothing to be done in the flower-garden this month. The young seedlings of mignonette, and other flowers in frames, must not be forgotten ; indeed, everything liable to be hurt by frost must have sufficient protection. A few more pots of bulbs and tubers, and also another succession of annual flowers, may be sown in pots to go into feimes, and be forwarded for planting abroad m the spring CHAPTER XI. RURAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC. THE CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES DAIRIES BARNS STABLES CART-SHEDS AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES GRANARIES — CATTLE- SHEDS — ICE-HOUSES — SHEEP-FOLDS — PIGGERIES — POULTRV-HOUSES — AR- RANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY GREEN-HOUSES — FENCES AND GATES HEDGES. I. FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES. The edifices of this class which are necessary upon the farm are those intended as residences for the farmer himself, and also for one or more of the persons engaged in the cultivation of it. The character and extent of tnese are regulated altogether by the extent of the farm, and the taste of its occupier; but even when of the smallest size and simplest construction, the farmer's house should not be deficient in anything essentially requisite for the health, comfort and convenience, of even the most luxurious of mankind. General Principles to be Observed. — The chief condition to be observed, in the construction of these, is utility ; for, in fact, there can be nothing really ornamental, especially about the class of buildings which i» now under con sideration, that is not founded on this basis ; and the size, style, and character of the building, are to be modified according to the pecuniary meana available for its construction. As general rules in the erection of farm- houses, it may be observed, that it is always desirable that they should be placed upon a platform or terrace, with a view of keeping the ground floor of the several apartments dry, and consequently rendering them warmer and healthier ; that the chimneys should be placed in the interior walls rather than in the exterior ones, this arrangement being better calculated to retain the greatest portion of the heat coming from the fires within the house, and, by the additional heat contained within the central mass of masonry, to make the flues draw better ; and that the ground plan should approach as near as possible to a square, as being that form which is calculated to afford the greatest accommodation with a given amount of cost. Plans for Buildings. — Keeping these principles in view, and accommo- dating them to the particular situation in which the structure is to be erected, every intelligent farmer will easily make out such a form and arrangement as may suit his peculiar circumstances. (512) RURAL ARCHITECTURE, 513 Model of a Moderate-sized Farm-house. — As a model for the construction of a farm-house containing suitable accommodation for a farmer moderately well off, the annexed plan may be referred to. From the entrance and stair- case, A, there is a kitchen, b, with back kitchen or store-room, c, and pantry, Fig. 291. D. There are two good parlors, e and f ; a store-room and cellar, g, which may he connected with the kitchen, or entered from the outside, as may be thought necessary. The three small apartments, h, i, k, rnay be used as store-rooms for some of the smaller implements. It will perhaps be conve- nient that one of them should be a water-closet, and another may be fitted up as a carpenter's work-shop, in which such jobbing may be done as the persons employed on the farm can do, and thus save the time occupied in carrying the articles to the workman. On the second floor there are three good bed-rooms, one above the kitchen, and the others above the front rooms, with a dressing-closet over the entrance. The apartments on each side of the kitchen have lean-to roofs, and are not carried to the height of the other parts of the building. Model of a One-stori/ House. — The ground plan of a house consisting of one story only, and calculated for the accommodation of a farmer of quite moderate means, is represented in the following figure. From the vestibule, A, a door leads to the kitchen, b, from which is partitioned off a small bed- room, c. The bed-room, d, has a dark closet, E, and a light one, f. The small apartment, g, may be used as a store-room, in the ceiling of which 2h 6U farmer's rand-book. there may bo a trap-door, with a suitable ladder reaching to the roof, ia which may be two sleeping apartments. Fig. 292. Model of a Medium-sized House. — The following design is for a farm- house of medium size, in which a portion of the front, and the whole af the kitchen part, are of two stories, and the remainder of one story. Fig. 293 is the front elevation of this house. Fig. 293. The ground-plan of this structure is seen in the following cut, which may be explained thus: — a, outer lobby; b, inner lobby ; c, dining-room ; c, closet ; D, parlor ; d, press ; e, passage under the stairs ; e, press ; f, back 3« RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 294. • 515 10 5 TO 516 farmer's hand-book. Fig. 296. KJ ECRAL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 298. 517 i^.^^ Fig. 299. 518 farmer's hand-book. passage ; g, kitchen ; h, back-kitchen or store-room : 5, sink , t, oven , u, boiler; i, coal-house, or wood-house ; k, a sleeping apartment; L, store- closet, or pantry ; m, milk-house ; m, m, stone shelves ; N, closet under the stairs, which may be a water-closet. Fig . 295 represents a side elevation of the same house : The upper floor, as seen in Fig. 296, may be explained as follows : — N, stair-landing ; o, p, Q, R, bed-rooms ; q, press ; s, t, closets. Model of a Large Farm-house, rown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The cater- pillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a brownish- green head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines ; the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackish-green. These caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations. The only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them off and hand-picking. Cabbage Moth. — The caterpillar of the cabbage moth is a great enemy to different sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended ; its head, collar, aod Fig. 355. back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. The back has a thick double crest ; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with a mixture of yellow and white ; the under wings are light gray, with dark vems, and central spots, — blackish towards the outer edge. The moth appears in May and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The 648 farmer's hand-book. caterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black ; it has a dark stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is sometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above ; close above this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a small black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July, August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome, but the only sure way of getting rid of them. White Line Brown-eyed Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth sometimes does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in the same manner as the moth last described. The moth is dark rusty brown ; the feelers have white scales ; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tufts ; feet gray- ish-brown, yellow-ringed below ; the fore wings have no connected cross- lines ; the round middle spot is surrounded with white ; the under wings are ochre-yellow, or dirty-while, with darker shades towards the whitish fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and on each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet ; the under side and feet are light-brown ; it is dotted with black between the dark stripes. The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking. Cabbage-garden Pebble Moth. — Of the family Pyralida, a small group of moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar some- times greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold ; the feelers light- brown ; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June, and the second generation in the fall.. It has a light-brown head, and a yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes runninff lengthwise, and black- ish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing. Carrot Moth. — The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black atoms ; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions ; the upper wings are of a reddish-brown color ; there are also black streaks and white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots ; the under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish fringes ; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings light- gray. The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting hairs ; the head and upper side of the thorax are browr. It attains the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 649 length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-pick- ing- RoeseVs Tinea.— The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensi- ble injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green ; licad shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them. Onion Flij. — The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various sorts of onions. The perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in the female, or with black stripes on the back of the male, the wings clear like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or larva ; b, magnified ; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa ; d. Fis. 356. magnified ; e, perfect insect magnified ; the cross-lines showing the natural size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close lO the earth ; the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the bulb, which soon becomes rotten. To destroy them, strew ashes and pounded charcoal ; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds, before the flies are developed ; and these onions are easily known by their outward leaves turning yellow. Cai)bao-e Fly. — This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The perfect insect is ash-gray ; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks on the back ; the wings are clear, like glass ; the abdomen is linear, with black stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female ; the length is three lines. The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but is thicker. The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up, and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larvae, which .nay be known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sun- Bhine. Lettuce Fly. — This fly is rather smaller than the former ; it is blackish 55 ' I 650 farmer's hand-book. brown ; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying gray ; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost impossible to get rid of these insects. Negro Fly. — This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining black, rather of a metallic-green ; head reddish-yellow ; legs light-yellow ; balancers white ; wings clear, like glass : one sixth of an inch long. The larva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root. The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become rusty, by the passages of the maggots. The larva of the carrot fly is cylin- drical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shining, smooth, bare, pale-yel- low. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly infested carrots, knov(?^n by their yellow outer leaves and early withering, and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pupae. IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES. Black-veined White Butterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia. — This is a four-winged insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins Fig. 357. of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butter- fly. Eggs shining, yellow, cylindrical ; the newly-hatched caterpillars are dirty-yellow, and covered with hair ; the head is black, and there is a black rmg round the neck and a brownish stripe on both sides. The first warm NOXIOUS INSECTS. 651 anshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to leave their nest ; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close to and between which extends a black line ; the back is covered with yel low and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the mid- dle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body ; the yellow dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitish- yellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the butterfly appears and propagates its species. The best way of destroying these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young caterpillars, on the branches, and killing them. The hawthorn butterfly prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on ; and they may be seen on the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there are no low trees, the high ones will be infested ; and in this case, the mode of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests of the caterpillars will become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a butterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey. Yellow-tailed Moth. — This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larvae of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself to be caught in the hand. The posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow hair ; its fore wings are dazzling white, as is also the greater part of its body, only the principal vein of the fore wing of the male is brown on its under side, and sometimes has a few black dots on its wings. The male has a smaller abdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strongly- teethed feelers or horns. The moth appears in June, and propagates, the eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. The cater- pillars are usually hatched in July ; they are dirty-yellow, black-headed, with a black ring round the neck, thickly-haired, and four rows of blackish dots on the back. They feed on the membrane of the leaf. They change their skins in August ; cease feeding in September, and become benumbed in November, passing the winter in their nest. Before the buds on the treea have begun to burst in spring, some of the catefrpillars come out of their nests, and eat the unfolded leaves ; at the end of April, they change their 652 farmer's hand-book. skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish- brown, marked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the body, which is thickly set with hair along the back ; they now disperse over the different fruit-trees in the garden. To destroy them, the means are — the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth ; collect the pupae at a later period, pursue the moth in July and August, take their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May. Lackey, or Barred Tree Lackey Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth attacks all kinds of trees. The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size ; the male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground- color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre ; the upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by two lighter cross-lines ; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted ; the under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish ; the horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen. This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel- oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grown ; it is often an inch in length, soft, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow, — hence its fanciful name, — with a white line down the back ; the head is bluish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and destroy them. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of walls, or in hedges ; — tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt. Gypsy Moth. — Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting buds ; the head is large yellow spotted ; six pair of red dots on the hinder part of the back ; tufts of hair on each side of the bod}', and single hairs on the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on the fore part of the back, — that is, on each of the first four figments of the body, by which they may be identified at once. Towards the end of June, the NOXIOXTS INSECTS. 653 caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees ; the moth appears it August ; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four undulating blackish stripes ; the females are whitish-gray, their fore wings traversed by brownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places m the fall. To get rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see- ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in spring, before the caterpillars are hatched. Goat Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back, also on the spiracles situated at both sides ; the sides and lower part of the body are flesh-colored ; the head is black, the first segment also marked with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and also diffuses an extremely ofl^ensive smell. After remaining more than two years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually takes place in s°pring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg- ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The cocoon ia situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when matured, can press itself half out of the hole, when the shell bursts, and the moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem- edies. When the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer- tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even if the caterpillar may be killed ; still, the caterpillar should be reached, if possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree. Wood Leopard Moth. — This insect injures the trunks of trees in the same manner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits, and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however ; is hatched in August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny black dots, on each of which there is a fine short hair ; there are two black spots on the head. The moth appears in August ; its ground-color is white, with scattered steel-blue dots ; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and a half. Figure-of-8 Moth. — This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches ; it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles ; it has a very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, i! •s lighter, and is often nearly white on the back ; but when old. becomes of 55* 654 farmer's hand-book. a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull, in some degree powdered with blue; the moth appears in October, or in the following spring. The perfect insect or moth measures, with spread Agings, from tip to lip, about one and three fourtlis inches. The whitish- yellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three incisions at the sides, and is situated between two blackish, undulated cross- lines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line forms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle ; the toothed external edge has ash-gray, shining fringes, bounded with a line ; the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middle spot, and an indis- tinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle ; the color of the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is rusty-brown ; the thorax above is the same coftr as the fore wings, and the abdomen, with the extremity of the body, — which in the male has a tuft of hair, and in the female is cylindrical and downy, — is of the same color as the hinder wings. To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them as soon as they appear. This is best done in rainy weather, when they take refuge under the branches and on dry places of the stem. Their presence can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may be destroyed by the garden-knife, or a piece of wood. Lunar Spotted Pinion Moth. — The caterpillars of this moth are rather thick and fleshy, light-green, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two darker lines along the sides ; on the segments are whitish-yellow warts, furnished with fine, small hairs ; over the feet and along the first three segments runs a yellow stripe, bordered with black. As soon as the fruit- trees are in leaf, this insect is on hand. They are fully grown about the first of June, and become pupae of a blue, frosted appearance, on the trees themselves. In a few weeks the moth comes out ; the fore-wings are brownish-red, with several undulating dark-brown transverse lines, and also have a whitish semi-circular spot, nearly at the tip ; near to this, almost at the outer edge, is a rather large black spot ; the under wings are light-gray, rather darker towards the fringes, which are yellow. To get rid of the insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. The moths also usually fall from the tree, if the branches are struck in June and July. Winter Moth. — The green-looped caterpillar produced by this moth is a ruinous insect to fruit-trees. It appears late in the autumn, and proceeds from a light-brown pupa, which lies from June to the end of October, either a few inches under the earth, or under stones and clods. The male is winged, — the female is almost wingless ; the male is of a yellowish-gray, with pale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkish cross-lines ; the female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal NOXIOUS INSECTS. C5l insect ; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and greenish. The caterpillars are ha-ched in spring, are at first gray, and Fig. 358. then light-green ; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the leaves, buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not recover for some time. The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their eggs on the trees in the following spring. To prevent their attacks, it ia recommended to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box, and daub it on the outside with tar ; others recommend the placing of a layer of bird-lime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal effect, and does not require daily renewing. Pale Brindled Beauty Moth. — It appears very early on the fruit-trees, — generally on the pear. The male is rather large ; the fore-wings are greenish-gray, covered with fine brownish dots, and traversed by interrupted gray cross-stripes, interspersed with whitish spots between ; the hind- wings are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a brownish wavy cross-stripe ; before the fringes is another gray, dark stripe ; the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs ; the female ia without wings, small, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and long feet, annulated with white and brown. In March, the female deposits her eggs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the young caterpillars are hatched. 356 farmer's hand-book. Lime Looper, or Mottled Umbre Moth. — Takes its name from the lime- tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar, when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each "^ide. It goes into the earth in May or June, and is transformed into a brownish-red pupa. The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again as that of the winter moth; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow, covered with blackish dots ; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with brown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. The female has no wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth ; the head and body are whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with yellow and black. To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree with a long pole in May, to throw down the caterpillars. Small Ermine Moth. — This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect ; the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, — the latter covered with about twenty black dots ; the under wings are blackish. The female lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a leaf-bud. The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the next spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these cater- pillars take possession of them. The caterpillars mature about the middle of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head ; and on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the moths are found on the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and destroyed. Codling Moth. — A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples or pears. The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large red- dish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe. The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen in the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs, either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalk end. In favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white, with a black head and collar, and black, slanting double dots, which run in four rows from the head to the abdomen ; it afterwards becomes more of a flesh-color, the head and collar turning brown, the dots gray and indistinct NOXIOUS INSECTS. 657 The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few day? the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit. To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day, and take them out of the garden ; also remove all fruit from the tree which has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of April. * Red Grub of the Plum. — Injurious to the early plums. It produces a moth ; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun ; on the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance of very fine silver dust ; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye. This moth appears in June ; the eggs are hatched when the weather becomes warm ; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few means in our power to destroy this insect. The tree must be shaken, and every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split bark. Red Bud Caterpillar. — The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band, studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their whole surface ; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. It is found on the fruit-trees in May ; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which, issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand no more ; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will con- tinue to grow, with the little caterpillar in it. The caterpillar attains its full size in four or five weeks ; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in May as a moth. To diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on the fresh flower-buds, taking it out with a penknife ; if we search for all the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the blossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape us Plum-tree Tortrix. — This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the cater- pillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The larva lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees ; the per- fect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest! The female lays her 2r 658 farbier's hand-book. eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, pen- etrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying her eggs on the tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September ; also brush the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a needle, wire, or knife, into the opening,, and destroy the larva. The moth, which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about half an inch long ; fore wings dark-brown and yellow ; silvery lines and yellow spots on the front edge ; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the wings, softened off at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines ; the under hind wings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the bark. Copper-colored Weevil. — Among those insects which feed on fruits is the copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites ctipreus. It is somewhat larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are furrowed and metallic copper-colored. Its body and feet are of a somewhat deeper shade, and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different fruit-trees ; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her pro- boscis, and by various cunning means causes the plum to drop off. The egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then pro- ceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks ; and, being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transform- ation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the work of regeneration. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees, but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and frequently shake the trees, from June to July. However strong the wind may be, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums. Bacchus, or Purple Apple Weevil. — This beetle is of a purple and gold color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It is found early in spring on the apple-tree ; begins the work of regeneration in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance, and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingenious manner ; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in different parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, which is whit- ish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once begins to eat the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw cut its excrement or admit more air. The larva is full-grown in three or four weeks, and, like the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready NOXIOUS INSECTS. 659 for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reappears the next spring as the weevil. To lessen their number, pick up and remove the injured pierced apples ; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw down the beetles and kill them. Stem-boring Weevil. — This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle ; she then places herself over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then, by ,)iercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fell ; after this is done, she rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first, and lays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks. The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, with a black head, then appears, feeding on the pith of the shoot ; it is full-grown in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again appears as a steel-blue colored weevil ; and when the tree begins to sprout, it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-blue color Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove all of them, the shoots that lie on the ground, or which still hang on the tree, which have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf to wither and fall off; the grub then taking up its abode in the earth, and changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rum- pling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon as possible. Apjile Weevil. — A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitish gray stripes; its rostrum, eyes, and under part of abdomen, black. It appears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds ; the female then fixes herself at the entrance, lays an egg, and pushes it into the hole ; this oper- ation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds ; the grub or larva often comes out on the fifth or sixth day, and commences to devour the innermost parts of the blossom ; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and the petals to open, till it is almost expanded ; but all at once its growth ceases, because not nrerely the blossom, — that is, the stamens and pistils of 660 farmer's hand-book. the flower, — but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devoured. The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap, Pig. 359. wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. To lessen the number of the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in autumn ; clear away the loose or broken bark ; and on dwarf trees, take the pierced blossoms from the trees when the flower-cap begins to be formed, and before it appears burnt. Pear Weevil. — While the apple weevil contents itself with only single blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks blossoms, blossom-buds, and Fig. 360. leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at the time of blossoming, many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection, there will be found a dirty- white rugose maggot, with a' dark-brown head, which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall ofl^ when the insect is perfect. Should their attacks become too numerous, take off the pierced buds and burn them ; also shake the trees early in spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insects may be seen ; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stems, to prevent the beetles ascending. Oblong Weevil. — This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles. It has a short rostrum ; its head, thorax, and body, are black ; its feelers and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish. It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. They pair in spring ; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub NOXIOUS INSECTS. 661 that is produced feeds on the roots of plants, passes the winter in the earth, and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They should be watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then he caught by the hand. Red-footed Beetle. — Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruit- trees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet ; the tips of the feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally in May, and continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand. Garden Beetle. — The Melolontha (or' Anisoplia) horticola is another leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil ; its wing-cases are red-brown, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extreme point of the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green ; its feelers reddish, with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth, and the larva, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty. Apple-bark Beetle. — So called because it prefers the apple-tree in which to deposit its eggs. It is small ; head and thorax black ; the extremity of the palpi and feelers reddish ; the longish wing-cases blackish, and some- what hairy ; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow ; the thighs black. When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown out serving as a sign of the insect's presence. At the end of the entrance, snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which are also the characteristics of the larvae that are hatched in May. The larvae grow very rapidly. This vari- ety of insect belongs to a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known, and in which the larvae of all the species whose habits have hitherto been noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner bark, or wood Deneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the place where the eggs were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the branches infested with their eggs; and should the trunk be also attacked, the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away. Small-bark Beetle. — This beetle is the Scolytus h^morrhous. It is black, the ends of the wing-cases generally reddish ; the feet brownish-red, and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evident that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great n ambers, it must 56 I 662 farmer's hand-book. perish, because no tree can continue to grow with an iniured bark and pierced sapwood. The insects cannot easily be eradicated, or. at least, diminished in numbers, but by removing- the trees attacked by them. Common Elm-destroying Scolytus — An msect allied to the apple-tree scolytus, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. The perfect insect or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. The head and thorax form the principal part of its body. They are black and Bhining, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowish- gray hairs; the feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knob ; the wing- cases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the base near the thorax somewhat hollowed, — are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also the spaces between them, — their color is pitch-brown ; the abdomen, from the base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark pitch-brown, thickly dotted ; the legs are reddish-brown, with the second joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish-white, with a large shining head, a brown mouth, and a whitish-transparent swelling between the head and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselves to the inner bark, destroying that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches, to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when the insect is still in the larva state. Plum Saw-fly. — The green gage and round plums are sometimes attacked, when hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fall off, by a saw- fly, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It resembles the house-fly, but has four wings ; the head and body are black, and the feet reddish-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to expand, the insect appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs, — selecting the largest kinds of plums, — in the upper part of the green envelope of the blossom, cutting in and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the eg^ into the deep- est part. The egg is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a delicate whitish larva, with a dark-brown head, six pairs of middle feet, three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre of the plum-stone, which it eats; in six weeks it is fully grown, and the plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plum- tree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them ; — these are known by a small black opening in the plum ; — also pick up and convey away all the plums that fall. Pear Saw-fly. — This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young there It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 663 body, J of an inch and one sixtli in breadtli. Its long feelers consist of numerous joints, the basal part of which is very thick and long, the second much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest. The head is black, with a yellow triangular spot between the feelers ; the breast and the upper side of the thorax are quite black ; the first abdominal segment likewise black, but surrounded with yellow ; the other segments are orange-yellow from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of the abdomen is united to the belly ; these plates are of a light-yellow color ; the wings look glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of stripe, which extends across the whole breadth ; the three pairs of feet are of an orange-color, ll appears in May and June ; the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days, is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head, and just under the throat are two black dots ; the other parts of the body are ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they*are full- grown ; then leave the tree, bury themselves in the earth, and do not appear again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their webs must be removed from the trees. Peach or Poplar Saw-fly. — To those insects which only attack the leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly. It is a little longer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the hinder part of the body, the back and the abdomen, are seen whitish square incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle ; the feelers are simply jointed, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They ap- pear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves ; they are full- grown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species. The larvae is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with spiders' webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefully when the leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. The green larvae cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled up in the leaves they have gnawed. Pear Chermes. — These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice {aphides) . It has wings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has a broad head, terminating in front in two cones ; but there is no opening foi 664 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a point, from the latter Fig. 361. issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The female is mostly crimson-colored ; the male in some parts more shaded with black ; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which are longish and yellow, are deposited on the young leaves and blossoms, or on the newly-formed fruits and shoots. They are hatched in a few days, and resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After a few days, they change their skins, and become darker ; and when they have molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradu- ally and becomes cylindrical. They then leave their associates, and, before they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to a leaf ; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering, and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes, and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the colors of the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orange- color, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. To clear the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon them ; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow. Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shy, they are easily caught by the hand. Apple Chermes. — The eggs are laid in September, on different places of the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots. In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the pear chermes ; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes, instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil ; the back ot NOXIOUS INSECTS 665 the thorax is of a light- green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and the membranous wings with stvongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout, which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these in- sects cause considerable destruction ; because, when all the single standing blossoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. To secure the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest when the first changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examine the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begin to appear, to ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them. Plant-louse, or Aphis. — There are particularly three species of aphides which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plum, and peach aj)hides, Afhis pyn mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persicae. The apple aphis is grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodies. They all Fig. 362. appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first, and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young ; they proceed from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. Ir twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The off- spring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen genera- tions in all are produced, — some of the progeny having wings, and othera 56* 666 farmer's hand-book. none ; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the former pairing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep- Jember, males and females are produced from the last generation ; the apple aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis those that do. When these newly-horn males and females are full-grown, pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the buds, like the plum and peach aphides ; the females, having thus provided for their future spring progeny, die off in the autumn ; the eggs survive the winter. With regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying the eggs soon after they are laid. They may be seen late in the autumn, or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young trees that have high stems, because the eggs lie exposed close together on the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed. We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs. With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, being of a dark- brown, they are easily seen. When the peach-trees begin to put out their leaves, examine them thoroughly on account of the aphides, because, at a later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easily be freed from them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aphides, and brush the tree, carefully examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third and following generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings and disperse themselves. Small and Large. Pear Midges. — This species of midge is very small ; the feelers are cylindrical, finely-haired, and composed of sixteen joints, with the two basal-joints thicker than the others ; the abdomen is slender, seven-ringed, and finely-haired ; there is a knobby two-jointed pair of forceps on the extreme point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed ; the wings lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, thin, and finely- haired. According to some, it is a species belonging to the genus 'Scmra; others call it Molobrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms when they are still closed. The large pear midge, female, is little more than one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick ; the male is more slender, and shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body ; the head la black and shining, as is also the thorax ; the proboscis ash-gray ; the abdomen of the male a deep black, — that of the female browner, with black rings : and the anal point is quite black; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 667 Tlie pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the ground, while some will be found but little decayed, though containing several yellowish larvae, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with ten segments without feet ; and each having a pointed head, on which two black spots stand close together. Black Gall Midge. — There are a number of species of this insect. The thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back ; the scutellum is grayish ; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions ; the feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found to Ir^y their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg- ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the anther of the still-closed blossom. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and the small larvae bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx. When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are full-grown, and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in spring, to propagate their species. Paradoxical Pear Plalygaster. — This is a small insect, said to have the male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen, and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasiti- cal upon other insects, we shall not describe it further. Rhynchites (Curculio) Beiiileli. — PhyncJiites Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto been considered as the peculiar enemy of the vine; it is, however, never found on vines, but only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially dis- tinguished from the Rh. Betuleti by its shining copper-oolor. The latter insect is a small weevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one third of an inch long, including the rostrum, — the latter being nearly a third of the whole length ; it is tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax of the male, towards the front on both sides, are observed short spines ; the abdomen is almost quadrangular. The spines are wanting on the thorax of the femai'e, and her rostrum is shorter. The beetle appears in spring, as soon as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It makes use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food of its young. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the petiole with her rostrum almost half through, so that it hangs down. She then begins to roll the leaf together, generally alone, but sometimes assisted by the male. While this operation is going forward, she also lays her eggs; G68 farmer's hand-book. that is, she pierces the roll, lays an egg in the opening-, and pushes it in with her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is impossible to. discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suit- able for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind, and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the worm is fully grown, it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes from ripening. As it is toler- ably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed, particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and burnt or crushed. Vine Scale Insect. — This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The eggs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Theii destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring Fig. 363. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 66J. Vine Beetle. —It issues from the earth in spring when the vine has be^un to shoot, creeps ui)on the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and half an inch broad, black and shining; head large; thorax broad; abdomen sliort ; legs rather strong. To protect the vine, the only way is to collect and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is ■discernible on account of its form and size. Vine Saw-fly. — The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi- transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female is one fourth of an inch in length ; that of the male is somewhat shorter. These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, in little swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have growm to their full size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length ; have twenty-two legs ; the head and the tip of the tail are black ; the body, above, is light- green, paler before and behind, — the lower side of the body is yellowish. Aa a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and also upon the ground under the vines. Canker Worm. — This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees : but cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes ; these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size, and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last ring ; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the body ; there are two whitish bands across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small black spots on the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the C70 farmer's hand-book. wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty wide pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circular notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends. The crevices between the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow ; then smear the under side of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. Thg trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the tar, bv leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards wnicr. are aex' to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Anothei- mode of intercepting the insect's path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode — though these are only three out of nearly a hundred that are practised — is, to dig around the trees, and lay the earth smooth ; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots ; then tar the trees. Apple-tree Borer. — They are the larvae of a beetle called Saperda bivittala, — the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state, early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food. The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larvae are fleshy whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical ; the head is small, horny, and brown ; the first ring is much larger than the others ; the next two are very short, and, with the first, are covered with punctures and minute hairs ; the following rings, to the tenth inclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under side, with two fleshy warts, close together ; the eleventh and twelfth rings are very short ; no appearance of legs ; the grub cuts a cylindrical passage through the bark, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con- tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. Here its transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupae of beetles ; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on each of the rings of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. The final change occurs about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement NOXIOUS INSECTS. 671 in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes it has made, is one of the oldest, safest and most successful methods. V. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS. Earivig. — This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very dangerous to mankind, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to fruit and flowers. Its size varies according to its age and sex. When fully grown it measures almost an inch, including the forcep-like appendage at the end of the abdomen ; its breadth is one sixth of an inch. The body is Tight- brown, free from hair ; it has very short wing-cases, under which the wings lie concealed, folded both longitudinally and transversely. It is usually under the bark of trees, in the hollow stems of trees, in rolled-up leaves, and under Btones. In orchards, it particularly injures the fruit of trees which are trained as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, which are often entirely pierced through in warm weather. They also attack the other' sorts of fruits, par- ticularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens they destroy carnations, pinks, and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs IS by catching them, which is best effected by hollow tubes, laid here and there, in orchards and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this pur- pose, but the hollow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insecta are eager in the pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are aho easily caught between the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid on the ground. They creep into these traps in the morning after their noc- turnal rambles, and may easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the day. Some place the flower-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the earwigs from creeping, but not from flying, upon the plants. • Orange Scale Insect. -It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and 1.3 very plentiful on green-house plants, particularly on orange-trees, fasteu- mg Itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when the trees are kept rather warm. It is best destroyed by washing the branches and leaves If this be done in autumn, it is a great advantage, as the old ones cannot creep up again. Meahj £wo-. — This species is reddish, and strewed with white dust It the sides of the twelve segments of the body it is provided with small tuber- cles. The male is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad win